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2

CoL. JOSEPH H. BRIGHAM.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, 1897 TO 1904.

[Born Decemser 12, 1838; Diep June 29, 1904.]

FRONTISPIECE.

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YEARBOOK

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OF THE

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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

‘ 1gO5.

[CHAPTER 23, Stat. at L., 1895. ]

[AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents,]
* * 1 * * * *

Section 73, paragraph 2:

The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted
and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One, which shall contain purely business
and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the Presi-
dent and Congress; Part Two, which shall contain such reports from the different
Bureaus and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompa-
nied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially
suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general
report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be
printed of Part One, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the
House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of Part
Two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred
and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty
thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustrations for
the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance
with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject
to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said
parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself.

S
2 |

A35
|So04
cop. ¥

7

—

PREFACE.

The Yearbook is the leading publication of the Department of Agri-
culture, and the present volume, 1904, presents a large amount of
information valuable to the farmers of the country.

As Part II of the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture,
its general character is prescribed by the act providing for the
public printing and binding, and the distribution of public documents,
approved January 4, 1895, which provides that it ‘‘shall contain
such reports from the different bureaus and divisions and such papers
prepared by their special agents, accompanied by suitable illustra-
tions, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to
interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a gen-
eral report of the operations of the Department for their information.”

Compliance with the above law precludes the possibility of any
great variety in the general make-up of the Yearbook, and will explain
the Department’s inability to consider some of the suggestions occa-
sionally offered with a view to changing its character, even were it
deemed advisable to do so.

The present volume includes a general report of the operations of
the Department, which feature is supplied by the inclusion of the
Secretary’s Annual Report, and contains also thirty-one miscellaneous
articles, one of which is in three parts by separate authors. These
articles cover pretty much every phase of agricultural industry, and
include forestry, meteorology, foods, and education. In scope the
Yearbook is as broad as the organized work of the Department. It is
designed to be practical rather than technical, and to deal with prob-
lems of immediate rather than remote concern. It is distinctly a
departmental production, only two of the articles referred to being
contributed by persons not now in the Government service.

Food law enforcement has made considerable progress in the past
year, and a valuable summary of results appears in the Appendix. It
is expected that this will be a permanent feature of that portion of
the book, to become of increasing importance as time passes and
instructive comparisons become possible. The review of game protec-
tion this year contains an added feature in a summary statement of

the condition of game in the various parts of the country.
3

4 PREFAOR.

The statistics of the principal crops are again accompanied by a few
words of explanatory text, which it is believed will add materially to
the value of the tables by furnishing suggestions for use in studying |
them.

Some question seems to exist in the minds of many persons as to the
date of issue of the Yearbook, it being apparently assumed by them
that the Yearbook for 1904 should have been issued in 1904. It may
not be generally understood that the Yearbook is designed to cover
the work of the year for which it is issued, and that it deals with the
calendar, not the fiscal, year. Hence, it is obviously impossible that
it should be completed during the year which it covers. Much of the
information it contains, especially that of a statistical character, is
not available, as finally revised and verified, until sixty days or more
after the close of the calendar year; and while every effort is made to
hasten the appearance of the Yearbook, the matter can not be fully
prepared and placed in the hands of the Public Printer in its entirety
until at least three months after the completion of the calendar year
which it covers.

Gro. Wm. HI,
Editor Department of Agriculture.

Wasuineton, D. C., April 22, 1908.

CONTENTS.

EeUOED OF We WOCTOUREY . ola ccs cc onscusessapensie 9 A ee ae
The Relation of Plant Physiology to the Development of Agriculture. By
Pe Meee CCT tren ak cmmla se acen- coos ptlab ids oo Meds eewceson-e
Attitude of Lumbermen Toward Forest Fires. By E. A. Sterling..........--
Relation of Weather Conditions to Growth and Development of Cotton. By
eae I DER wal on ath aa ae oie’ os wim, asm nidw i a ww we eon ajee os oo
Inspection of Foreign Food Products. By H. W. Wiley.--................-
Opportunities in Agriculture:
I. Growing Crops Under Glass. By B. T. Galloway..................
iy peer te eV, The WO occ acct et. ee cen takes Sanverce
eas Ameen ermoe,. 199 VW... OOUIMAN | os) os. bc oe eas Lees
Present Status of the Cotton Boll Weevil in the United States. By W._D.
DIM fo nc Satie is tata ene Se oe ae ae es aE ees San see date
The Respiration Calorimeter. By W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict.....---
New Citrus Creations of the Department of Agriculture. By Herbert J.
EMIME WS Cer 2 SIMRO CLS 2k at Sele Saas oes ele Sop cee ace lees
_ The Relation of Birds to Fruit Growing in California. By F. E. L. Beal...
Forest Planting and Farm Management. By George L. Clothier ............
Agricultural Development in Argentina. By Frank W. Bicknell ............
The Castor Oil Industry. By Charles M. Daugherty........................
Peemb Weevil, Yby i. 2: Ohittenden so. 2255.22.02 lee eee le
Potato Culture near Greeley, Colorado. By J. Max Clark ...............---
Practical Road Building in Madison County, Tennessee. BySam C. Lancaster.
arenes Tape! by. Ne Wie Eteey sbi Sool Seo. cote ode
The Weather Bureau and the Homeseeker. By Edward L. Wells........--.
Detection of Cotton-Seed Oil in Lard. By L. M. Tolman .............. 2 ..-
Some Uses of the Grapevine and Its Fruit. By George C. Husmann.......--
Insect Injuries to Forest. Products. By A. D. Hopkins....-...........5...-.
Preninineg new Friits:, By William A; "Taylor... -.0/.-s.2.-0.6..--..-.----
Pomme otaticicn, By George K: Holmes): 222122 722 Lee el
The Improvement of Tobacco by Breeding and Selection. By Archibald D.
OS SRI agg eS aie yee a ASS ae 2 a a
The Determination of Timber Values. By Edward A. Braniff...............
The Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive Insects in the United States. By
LE 0 eA SCE Sata Sag ga 9) oy RE TL Fa) RN
Poumon. mugre i <suatemais: ' By ©. FW. Cook. ...2.. 22-252 -.i si... es.
more eetmemnure aston, by Dick J. Orosby-o.*. 22.72. 2. eee ae.
Work of the Bureau of Plant Industry in Meeting the Ravages of the Boll
Weevil and Some Diseases of Cotton. By B. T. Galloway ..............--
Some Benefits the Farmer May Derive from Game Protection. By T. S.
Mee tee Ce lnesn. Slo! 2... n Pe RM aria ol Ric 2 Sak he ce
State Publications on Agriculture. By Charles H. Greathouse ..............-
Animal Breeding and Feeding Investigations by the Bureau of Animal Indus-
og se Sh a ep Sh ae es a

6 CONTENTS.

Appendix:

Organization of the Department of Agriculture .................---.----
Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years 1903,

1004, and 1006. . «ccs ccckuctsucee eee es es a:
Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having

courses.in agriculture . s<.. casa cee ee ee Sec sce si eo edies
Agricultural experiment stations of the United States...............-...
Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. .
Officials in charge of farmers institgtes << oe cc ce nce wc cccccsenne
American Association of Farmers’ Institute Workers.................---
State officials in charge of agriculture. . so2eese. coves oa eee abeeeceoscene
National dairy associations. 2...) uswenetatee neta kaw cca
National Live Stock Association. (io ce oe gore eee eee eee cs see

Protection against contagion from foreign cattle ............-......-..--
Stock breeders’ associations... <5 .c05stauc we ewe ews bas mele hae see Be
Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests..........-.-...--.-----
Officials in charge of food inspection . is. J.s..6% <cld ss neu Gh einen eles eee
Forestry associationy 5:55 fais... cece sins eee decruee «kee oe oe ee
Schools of forestry...) ais waa ee wan onde caus weee oe pate e ae eee
National Good Roads Association...) . cc. soe canacs dnccees annus cee
National Bee Keepers’ Association .. <<<.) Siewswunncokccenceencee ccs eee
National Association of Economic Entomologists...........-..--..------
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists... .. 2... .. 2c. ceceunsenccuee
National horticultural and kindred societies..................---..-.---
Organizations for protection of birds and game ..............--.--------
Farmers’ National Coneregs 5... 04 os 5. pens nnh sah ennceSamanade Cae
Patroneot Husbangry <3 2. occ. pine 5s dak cu nodicests => eaandeee oe eee
Review of weather and crop conditions, season of 1904....:.......-.....
Legislation on diseases of domestic animals.............-.2.-.-+e---cee-
Plant dinogsed 0 1904~ - . v...2 see ws Whence s Slaw apie ae Di~oeee ee
Progress of fruit growing in 1904 ..- 0 Vacae~d-cas ss Shewonaae aence cae
Grasses and forage plants: oc 60 os. wnundatnsin dos suena cee ome «pa
Progress of iorcetry In 1004... 0 - : acael cx od bee owen cae eee
Food legislation and inspection........ nel vtetist saisth ocala cone ©.
Areas surveyed and mapped by the Bureau of Soils..................---
The principal injurious insects of 1004... ....-c.abewennicn une ace co as ee
Game protection im. 1904... 3... 5) eee Scot ois
State.road legislation and appropriations .. ...<c A caseue wea echoes ee
Irrigation and drainage investigations, 1904 ................-.-.-.....--
Publications of the Department of Agriculture...............----..---.-
Standards for dairy products,..1900%. . 228 eee eet ee ee
Farmers’ institutes ........... chee eee ee ee eee
Public lands open for settlement, sc60e.-e eon ee ee eee
Method of estimating the yield of cotton in the field.........2..-----.--
Statistica of the principal cropas ioc pee so ae Ce ee ee ee
Farm. animals and their produote..2s5. . <5 enc oe ee nepal” ®.
Tranaportation rates... .. .<cii.cweste ee ee. a
Imports and exports of agricultural products ..............-------------

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.
Page.

OEE Pe eT TORE Ste Ue ala S Mitac cn aks Ue vabie bad dadndsdcctawbes ewebas Frontispiece.

PLATE I, Fig. 1.—View after Redwood lumberman has finished work, California. Fig. 2.—
Cut-over land burned in 1898, California ................0.2eeeeeedenee AAS Fe ie! Be 134

Il. Fig. 1.—Burned-out base of large yellow pine, California. Fig. 2.—Sugar pine
DUCUET' OWAL PRES, CMON IA re eae eae kt kcblls cebien faces dowclle shecteweccnede 138
IIT. Close cut in open pine and fir forest, California ............ 00. cece cece cccccccccvecs 138

IV. Fig. 1.—Modern general greenhouse establishment. Fig. 2.—Interior of modern
PING LES TMITO UNG pentn See enter oe RCo cts Rca on SIO ER Gl Note Sick ob owe epideawabecetieues 166
V. Fig. 1.—Modern mushroom establishment. Fig. 2,—Tomato house.................- 166
VI. Fig. 1.—Carnation house. Fig. 2.—Rose house at Christmas.......................-. 168
Vil ene ene COLmOL IOLA t COW as.acccs ee nein me ciretinn Un cick ce UiaGhede Mee os c's sbibewelee oie tee 200
Mili Grice OL TAG NLOm Gat CO CPOMYDOLUUWERVLliwaiiste vulsca'el swiclliniagic nlahlajee timed ilwi'ccdebclcvt ave 200
Li ROS DELROU MeO MmMlOver: .i dul hatawc, huleeos condi Bamte> BE aioe ose eters stereos cevedae bens 208
ree RACN SUIT OULU Le OLAS Ouse hamiaista fee aibic aieia Ui Pie am b/aes mere ew nlaww'elatbinle. doin soicine ble'a.s 224
Jey brid seedlings Of common and’ tritoliate Orange. <2... 2. cet e ec c acc ccccecceownee 228
Als SOL EVA CLOCAM ES AMG tiLOlAte OTAM ECS. - ooo rnin genie one vem e Came seccuacw voces 228
Od Ee Ole RO” VV MALI CLIP ORe 2K. o.oo chase aie a bier adietnpiedisiclaloibsc A'S nico, Yuiw'edi ost einai oie 228
XIV. Seedling hybrids of trifoliate orange crossed with pollen of common orange........ 230
el CCE CCIE PY TUS. ee ca rial cc a nte'n ww clot cbrm\cmine n dele ueinies Se acipcn piebincdedc acct one 230
EMV NMU MUMS et ROLL COL uern etre sei ar ere Ries. 2.0 a= Sctaiwie Ridicrs athemara sie. dha'a,c o/ntevaigjo wie Waa a ave;seidie a cle'aa'c 230
Sg WN I REULIA ES Aa Er ern SS CORN teeta fame aioe Nei falas Clore ooincs Baars mn he ais me cttia v.2i5 a aig wie Wain is aim eitaia ow aie 236
XVIII. Sampson tangelo, showing easily removable rind ........2............2.0---2ee cece 236
See GL OM) BNC GLOmlary POMGIO.. . cccm nme acon cciancraenscencemcenecsacnawe sa 236
IE SON ARI le rs tale = Me mer olepcin 9 x nin aia Ba ayieiwin Wa se nnaiib ewan an DES Amide a 238
Rou. Group oL Weshart tangerines: with parent Varieties... oo ena cn te ncocepnccwecencansss 238
Remit PLOMARE CHILE). ectea see erin. Soc Sse eters one) Paine meen cee cin pb ae wwe st eicide bocce 238
XXIII. Windbreak of cottonwood trees and plum bushes near Larimore, N. Dak ............ 268
XXIV. Fig.1.—Shorthorn cattle, Argentina. Fig. 2.—Some big mules, Argentina........... 274
XXY. Fig.1.—Durham bull Oxford Baron. Fig.2.—Young Durham bulls ................. 274
Reviewed, —Tincolmrams, Hig 2,—Oxfordshire GOWUS: <1... 5. jcc sacc~cacecccc ceceseecce 282
XXVII. Fig.1.—Cattle sheds. Fig.2.—American thrasher at work, Argentina ............... 282
Posi hs WTP Cr CHesulib Weel) ON COINGUAPIN WUTIS. of son occu ceca secs comes et cassccscnkeccse 304
XXIX. Imported nuts showing different forms of injury by nut weevils..................... 304
XXX. Paragon chestnut orchards on hillsides and on plane surface...................----- 308
XXXI. Digging, sorting, and sacking potatoes in the field, Colorado......................--- 314
ei epee COLDer TOG, Wiis FUG, TOOL oe eae inn a mes Copeman tence cane eden 324
XXXII. The evolution of a country road, April and May, 1904.......................00----00- 330
mom. eeneeyOlUMON Ola COUNTY Toad, May, 1904-) 2 ol oienck oc wccp cnde cere ccccs doeccceceves 330
XXXY. Fig. 1.—Evolution of a road, December, 1904. Fig. 2.—Concrete-steel culvert ......- 336
XXXVI. Fig. 1.—Hauling material with traction engine. Fig. 2.—Campbells Levee road.... 336
XXXVII. Fig. 1.—Sugar-beet root. Fig. 2.—‘‘Mother”’ root in seed ...................-.0.-..- 346
XXXVIII. A well-equipped German sugar-beet testing laboratory ...............---..-22---.00- 350
XY XIX. Portion of a field of sugar beets grown for seed, Fairfield, Wash ....................- 350
XL. Fig. 1.—Crystals from cotton-seed oil. Fig. 2.—Crystals from lard ................... 360

XLI. Fig. 1.—Crystals resulting from mixture of cholesterol and phytosterol. Fig. 2.—
Crystals resulting from addition of cotton-seed oil to lard.......................... 360
XLII. Cholesterol crystals from lard of cotton-seed fed hogs.............. 2. eee eee e ween cee 360
XLIII. Crystals of lard to which cotton-seed oil was added...................-.-..-------0- 360
XLIV. Fig. 1.—Grapery, Department of Agriculture. Fig. 2.—Largest grapevinein world. 366
XLY. Fig. 1.—Scuppernong winery. Fig. 2.—Picking and drying raisins.................. 366
XLVI. Section of vineyard and hauling of grapes, California ........................-..--.- 370
ouVid. Wwaneries at-Mammondsport, N.Y. and Clayton Cals. oo s2 2.8 ee oc ce Cas clecnwcee 370
my se ee eranes. New. Lork and California. 2.225 5200 cna oe noc mera rec cnctscessacase 374
Ue, -uaene etapa New Lork and California’... 5-052 -t eee once een n es ccc endcswceenesnace 374
Wceilscaiieet sihe bic wv eye URES is eee apne ea a Sek ms OL A he et eae ne ee ee 400
aR RS Eo oa hs Wi pw Wo nie iin ele os I a et SUS Gane ap Oey ashe inane a a 400
SERCH HOLT fees ae as a's Sale cs wise Saree ete ee Moar e eam ae nab eter ae rees cae 402
Sie nM VOTH IEE SS. G2 CES ec. oUF naw se wire See ween ee mee ete tacete oneness ebes 402
ne en WOMEINETEG SC AOL oe) Sina os wah dca e haa ea ee ee mene aced same haa Gaansecene 404
ie ie a SP See eee aa SOR ao See ee oe 404
LVI. Pecan varieties: San Saba, Centennial, Jewett, Frotscher, Pabst..................--. 412
LVII. Pecan varieties: Post, Van Deman, Russell, Stuart, Rome.........................--- 412
LVIII. Variation in type of Connecticut Sumatra tobacco plants......................-.---- 436
LIX. Fig. 1.—Tobacco seedlings. Fig. 2.—Leaves of hybrid and parent types of tobacco.. 442

7

5 ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
PLatTe LX. Variation in shape and type of leaves of tobacco seedlings... -......----+-++0e0ee2re-5+ 442
LXI. Uniformity of Belgian type of Sumatra tobacco from seed saved under bag......-.-- 444
LXII. Variation ‘n leaves of Sumatra and in internodes of Connecticut Cuban tobaccos... 444
LXIII. Fig. 1.—Plants from diseased and resistant strains of Sumatra seed. Fig. 2.—Florida
Sumatra seed plant, with bag covering flowers..........-----------++eeeeeree rere 448
LXIV. Inflorescence of Sumatra tobacco plants. .......---ececcreccreccerceccccscccessceccnne 448
* LXV. Fig. 1.—Kekchi cotton plant. Fig. 2.—Kekchi town.........-...-200-2e2-+eeeeee sees 478
LXVI. Mature bolls of Kekchi cotton and lint of Kekchi and King cottoms..............---- 456
LXVIL Lesves and flowere' ot Rekcni GOtvGOR cede vac boe veeecysedbsreceseseueencevedsdecrseucase 486
LXVILI. Boys’ exhibit of corn at the St. Louis Exposition ..........-.-.-.-+---+-----++- 2222222 492
LXIX. Boys’ session of Winnebago County Farmers’ Institute, Illinois.......-.....--.-.---- 492
LXX. Fig. 1.—Winnebago County, Ill., boys in their field of sugar beets. Fig. 2.—Rich-
land Township school fair in Keokuk County, Iowa ..........-----.-.-+-----++e00 AY
LX XI. Carmon 32917: The first sire selected for use in experiments of Department of Agri-
culture to develop an American breed of carriage horses ..........-....--.--+-+++- 534
LXXII. Departures from normal temperature for crop season Of 1904... ......-..-.-----+++-+ 556
LXXIII. Total precipitation for crop season Of 1904..........-..----- + +2220 eee eee ee eee ee ee dees 556
LXXIV. Departures from normal precipitation for crop season of 1904.............-----.--+-- 556
LXXV. Characteristic scenes in economic forestry... .. 2... occ ass cecteec enn decSuewsnenscemseus 590
TEXT FIGURES.
Page. | Page.
Fic. 1. Precipitation during April and yield Frid. 31. Canvas Gat ....-3 6:-+na-+>~> shee 320
CCU oon etn coda cen anes 143 32. Plan of potato irrigation............. 321
2. Precipitation during May and yield 33. Road map of Madison County, Tenn. 329
On enh oss Soo ern ewes cn 148 34. Standard cross sections of road... ... 330
3. Precipitation during June and yicid 35. Profile of Christmasville road....... 334
pm SG ee eee > Se Sty 145 36. Profile of Lower Brownsville road . 334
4. Precipitation during July and yield 37. Alignment of Lower Brownsville
eb eoktine tc hu ot erate 145 FORE occ ek woe din ckese a= nee 340
5. Precipitation during August and 38. Grape arbor, Fresno, Cal............. 364
Wile OF Gotten... oc. hee seeeneee 146 39. Crusher and hydraulic press......... 369
6. Precipitation during September and 40. Crusher, stemmer, and must pump.. 370
Wieltl OF CORON. iis..oe a cece Se es 146 41. Fermenting room. ..3........<escuaee 371
7. Precipitation and yield of cotton, 42. Grape by-product plant.............. 377
BOOB cis anc nantan ees teen eeaanean 147 43. Work of ambrosia beetles in tulip ... 383
8. Precipitation and yield of cotton, 44. Work of ambrosia beetle in hickory. 384
TOO gia? bE eee ee eons 148 45. Work of ambrosia beetles in oak .... 384
9. Territory infested by boll weevil ... 194 46. Work of borers in pine .............. 385
10. Plan of calorimeter laboratory ...-.-. 208 47. Work of timber worms in oak ....... 386
ii; ‘Bievoele errometar ; .- =. -<-<<-n45e-55- 213 48. Galleries of powder post beetle in
12. Seedlings from single seed of hybrid. 226 hickory poles... :..cs---.ssseee oases 387
13. Comparative amounts of juice from 49. Work by larve of powder post bee-
Rusk citrange and lemon ......... 234 |. tle in hickory pole.............22a5 387
14. Arrangement of forest plantations on 50. Work of powder post beetle in hick-
OG PATI Sis he sd iso oe eee eee eee 259 ory handles and spokes...........- 388
15. Forest-planting plan suited to Kansas 51. Work of powder post beetle in old
‘and Oklahoma’ -i.3..<c seen ees 263 pine HOOTIRE..<. <<ss.a+is< lle 388
16. Plan for protection of prairie farm. 267 52. Work of white ant, or termite ....... 389
17. Chestnuts showing exit holes of wee- 58. Work.of carpenter bee. .......) 52. .-= 390
WERT ViS. . 25-5 0. oe gee 299 54. Work of borer in white pine......... 392
18. Larger chestnut weevil: female bee- 55. Work of tanbark destroyer .......... 397
tle, and head, rostrum, and anten- 56. Work of borer in oak tanbark .....-.. 398
ne OL male ....<3. 5s aea ee eee 301 57. Apparatus for separating tobacco
19. Larger chestnut weevil: larva, fe- SOCG ee ioe. oo a 441
male pupa, and eggs..............- 301 58. Leaves of Connecticut Sumatra to-
20. Balaninus proboscideus: head........ 301 NASCR aS ote oe eed ons Gees 444
21. Lesser chestnut weevil: female and 59... Map. of Guatemala... .-'<.+<<hie pede 475
head of male. = 2.25. ease 302 60. Pedigree of Carmon 32917 .........-. 535
22. Lesser chestnut weevil: pupa, side 61. Temperature and precipitation de-
and ventral -views ........-...:.... 303 partures, 1904, Atlantic and Gulf
23. Chinquapins, showing injury by Bigbes. Joost eee... 252 ae 557
lesser and larger weevils.-........- . 804 62. Temperature and precipitation de-
24. Pecan nuts showing exit hole of partures, 1904, upper Mississippi
pecan weevil larve ................ 308 Valley, Lake region, Ohio Valley,
FON ah GCG) fe ee 309 ATE DenB PAGE... ee 558
RS a) 310 63. Temperature and precipitation de-
27. Bench for cutting seed potatoes ..... 314 partures, 1904, Missouri Valley and
Be WRLC HROVE! DIOW onc fone faa au <n os 319 Paciie Conaiie aso.) :..'. 2a eee 559
29. Furrowing-out plow ..............-... 319 64. Area covered by the soil survey..... 598
ALES UE GS ee 320

YEARBOOK

OF THE

U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

To THE PRESIDENT: ,
I have the honor to submit herewith my Eighth Annual Report as
Secretary of Agriculture.

INTRODUCTORY.

Since my last report progress has been made in securing cooperation
with the experiment stations of the several States and Territories;
some of the Bureaus of the Department make research in conjunction
with all the stations. Preliminary steps have been taken to conduct
feeding and breeding experiments in several States looking to the
development of breeds of animals suitable to our conditions of climate
and soils, and capable of meeting the demands of commerce at home
and abroad.

Emergencies arising through the invasion of the cotton-growing
States by the boll weevil, a Central American insect that has done
much damage in Texas and threatens the entire cotton-growing section
of our country, have been met by vigorous work that promises to
enable the planters to grow crops in defiance of the pest. The spread
over several of the mountain States of a cattle mange required vigor-
ous intervention by the Department. It was necessary to detaila
large force of experts to supervise the dipping of the herds in order
to eradicate the parasite. Cooperation with most of the States has
been arranged, and the rest promise to secure State legislation to
compel all flock and herd masters to clean their stock.

The demand in the States for experts to supervise the building of
roads suggests the education of engineers in the road laboratory for
that work.

The efforts of the Department to create a hardy.orange tree that
would produce a sweet orange have at last been successful. A hybrid
of the Florida orange and Japanese trifoliata has fruited and given us

9

10 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the desired result. Another hybrid gives us an orange very similar
to the grape fruit, and a third gives us a fruit equal to the lemon for
all practical purposes. Other fruits of these hybrids will be valuable
for marmalades and cooking.

Valuable research has been made in fruit shipping to foreign coun-
tries; the value of promptly placing fruit in low temperatures as soon
as it is taken from the tree is demonstrated.

The value of nitrogen-fixing bacteria has been thoroughly proved,
greatly increasing yields of leguminous plants and the accompanying
production of nitrogen in the soil.

Progress is being made in introducing plants that succeed in light
rainfall localities.

Importers of foods and drinks are obeying the law with regard to
adulterations and false labeling. °

The elements of agricultural science are gradually finding their
place in the primary and sécondary schools, through the instruction
of teachers.

We buy over $200,000,000 worth of products from tropical countries
that can not be grown in continental United States. Through scien-
tists sent from the United States to the several island groups the
Department is instructing the people of our island possessions to
grow these things, such as coffee, rubber, fibers, drug plants, nuts,
fruits, spices, and the like.

Our farmers buy $100,000,000 worth of machinery every year. A
better knowledge of its use and care is necessary. Several agricul-
tural colleges are taking up this inquiry, and giving instruction in
regard to machinery and farm buildings.

AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF NATIONAL WEALTH.

Favored with continued prosperity in 1904, the farming element of
the people has laid broader, deeper, and more substantial the founda-
tions of a magnificent agriculture. These happy results have aug-
mented the similar ones of 1903, so that a period of some industrial
depression during the last two years has been saved by the farmers
from the severer conditions that must otherwise have befa!!sn in con-
sequence of the absorption of a large portion of the readily convertible
capital of the nonagricultural classes into great and prevalent specula-
tions. Thus it has happened the farms of the nation have been that
sustaining power upon which a basic dependence must be placed in all
stresses by a people endeavoring to maintain economic self-sufficiency.

WEALTH PRODUCED BY FARMERS.

~

_ As great as the financial successes of agriculture were in 1903,
hitherto without equal, those of 1904 advanced somewhat beyond them.
While some products have fallen behind in value others have more

REPORT OF THE SEORETARY. ll

than filled the deficit, and the general result is that the farmers have
produced in value much more wealth than they ever did before in one
year,

One conspicuous item that has contributed to this is the corn crop.
With a quantity closely approaching 24 billions of bushels, near the
record crop of 1902, the high price of this year gives this crop a farm
value much greater than it ever had before, far exceeding a billion
dollars. With this crop the farmers could pay the National debt and
the interest thereon for one year, and still have enough left to pay the
expenses of the National Government for a large fraction of ayear. The
cotton crop, including seed, became the second one in value in 1903, and
remains so in 1904. It is now too early to state even with approximate
accuracy what the farm value of this crop is, but indications are that
the farm value of lint and seed must reach $600,000,000. In this case,
as in the case of all other statements herein made concerning crop
values for 1904, it must be borne in mind that the amounts have not
been finally determined by the Department, that the figures may be
considerably changed whea the annual estimate is made in the usual
way, and that the values are at the farm, and are not commercial
values at the exchange or anywhere else.

Hay and wheat are contending for the third place in point of value,
although for many years one or the other has held second place or
been next to corn. It is expected that these crops, hay and wheat,
will together be worth on the farm this year nearly as much as the
corn crop, or appreciably more than one billion dollars. Although
the wheat crop has a considerably lower production than in any year
since 1900, the farm value per bushel is higher than at any time since
1881, so that this is undoubtedly, by a considerable margin, the most
valuable crop of wheat ever raised in this country.

It now seems probable that potatoes and barley reached their high-
est production in 1904; that the oat crop was never so large by
60,000,000 bushels, except in 1902; and that more rice was produced
than in any previous year by toward 300,000,000 pounds, so that the
present crop of rice has a commercial estimate of 900,000,000 pounds.

The principal crops that are valued annually by the Department or
by commercial houses have an aggregate farm value this year which
at the date of this writing apparently amounts to $3,583,339,609. © The
same crops in 1903, as finally estimated, had a farm value of $3,156,-
099,392 and had a census value for 1899 of $2,526,345,478. In these
principal crops, therefore, the farmers find an increase in value for
1904 of 14 per cent over 1903 and of 42 per cent over the census year
five years ago.

On account of the difficulty of estimating the present number and
value of farm live stock, it must be sufficient to compare the farm
equipment in this respect at the beginning of this calendar year as

12 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

determined by this Department with similar statements made for 1903.
Farm horses have increased slightly in numberand more in value, and
in the aggregate they never were so valuable as in 1904, with a total
of $1,136,940,298. The value of farm mules also reached its highest
point in 1904, $217,532,832. Cattle have declined a little in number
and more in value, and the same is true with regard to sheep and hogs;
but the steady advance of poultry in number and in the quantity and
value of products leads to some astonishing values for 1904 when
the census ratios of increase from 1890 to 1900 are extended to the
present year. The farmers’ hens are now producing 1% billions of
dozens of eggs yearly, and these hens during their busy season lay
enough eggs in two weeks, at the high prices of eggs that have pre-
vailed during the year, to pay the year’s interest on the National debt.

UNTHINKABLE AGGREGATES.

After a laborious and careful estimate of the value of the products
of the farm during 1904, made within the census scope, it is safe to
place this amount at $4,900,000,000, after excluding the value of farm
crops fed to live stock in order to avoid duplication of values. A
similar estimate made for 1903 gives $4,480,000,000, and the census
total for 1899 is $3,742,000,000. It is by no means to be admitted that
these figures represent fully the value of the wealth produced on
farms. Within the limits of ascertainable values, the farms of 1904
produced an aggregate wealth with a farm valuation that was 9.65
per cent above the product of 1903, and 31.28 per cent above the
figures for the census year 1899.

An occupation that has produced such an unthinkable value as one
ageregating nearly $5,000,000,000 within. a year may be better meas-
ured by some comparisons. All of the gold mines of the entire world
have not produced since Columbus discovered America a greater value
of gold than the farmers of this country have produced in wealth in
two years; this year’s product is over six times the amount of the
capital stock of all national banks; it comes within three-fourths of a
billion dollars of equaling the value of the manufactures of 1900,
less the cost of materials used; it is twice the sum of our exports and
imports fora year; it is two and a half times the gross earnings from
the operations of the railways; it is three and a half times the value of
all minerals produced in this country, including coal, iron ore, gold,
silver, and quarried stone.

FOREIGN TRADE.

In the exportation of their surplus during the year ending June 30,
1904, the farmers of the country kept well up to the high level of
recent years. The average annual value of the exports of farm prod-
ucts during the five years 1899-1903 was $864,930,137, and the value

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

for 1904 was but little below, or $859,170,582. The year 1904 was
exceeded by only two years, 1903 and 1901, in the value of exported
farm products.

On the other hand, the imports of farm products for the fiscal
year 1904 were higher in value than ever before, this value being
$462,384,570, leaving an apparent balance of trade in farm products
in favor of this country of $396,786,012, or the lowest balance in
these products since 1897. The balance declined $25,495,220 in 1904.
This is accounted for on the side of imports mostly by increases in
the imports of coffee, wool, tea, cocoa, and chocolate; and on the
side of exports it is accounted for principally by a decrease of over
$72,000,000 in the value of exported grain and grain products which
was not balanced by an increase of about $55,000,000 in the value of
exported cotton.

During the last fifteen years the apparent balance of trade in favor
of this country, all articles considered, was $4,384,574,143. This was
owing entirely to the balance of trade in farm products, which during
the same time amounted to $5,202,551,016, and was large enough to
leave the above-mentioned balance of trade after sustaining adverse
balances in products other than those of the farm, amounting to
$817,976,963.

INCREASE OF FARM CAPITAL.

The subject of the achievements and financial condition of the farm-
ing population may be pursued farther. While the farmers have been
increasing their annual product of wealth since 1899 from great pro-
portions to still greater ones, the value of their farm property has
gone on increasing. Ratios of increase from the last three censuses
indicate that since 1900 the farm land with improvements, including
buildings, have increased in value 1% billions of dollars; the imple-

ments and machinery, over $100,000,000; the principal classes of live
stock (corrected by the Department’s information), $240,000,000.
Hence the apparent total of the increase in the value of farms and
farm property within four years amounts to about $2,000,000,000, a
total that seems to be under the fact, since it does not recognize the
marked increase in cotton, corn, wheat, and other lands with high crop
values during the last two years. The cotton crop brought to planters
not merely an increased price per pound, but it at once made cotton
lands more valuable to the extent of several dollars per acre, according
to numerous reports received by the Department.

EVIDENCE OF THE BANKS.

The improved financial condition of the farmer is indicated express-
ively by deposits in banks in several States in which there is so little
manufacturing and mining that the conditions are chiefly created by

l4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

agriculture. The three agricultural States—lIowa, Kansas, and Mis-
sissippi—may be selected for a comparison with the United States as a
whole. Individual deposits in the National banks of Iowa increased
from June 30, 1896, to October 31, 1904, 1837 per cent; Kansas, 212
per cent; Mississippi, 286 per cent; the United States, 92 per cent, or
much below the increases of the States named. In the State and _ pri-
vate banks deposits during this time increased 128 per cent in lowa,
227 per cent in Kansas, 306 per cent in Mississippi, and 185 per cent
in the United States. In the savings banks of Iowa the increase in
deposits was 215 per cent, as compared with 53 per cent for the
United States. All kinds of banks being combined, the deposits
increased 164 per cent in Lowa, 219 per cent in Kansas, 301 per cent
in Mississippi, and 91 per cent in the United States.

A similar comparison favorable to the agricultural States may be
made with regard to the number of depositors. In the savings banks
of lowa the number of depositors increased 209 per cent from 1896 to
1904, and in the United States 36 per cent. For National banks, com-
parison may be made between highly industrial and agricultural States
as follows: The number of depositors increased from 1889 to 1903 by
145 per cent in Massachusetts, 117 per cent in New York, 258 per
cent in Kansas, and 263 per cent in Mississippi. The increase in lowa
was 184 per cent, the low figure being accounted for by the large
development of savings banking.

The Comptroller of the Currency has ascertained the average
amount of the daily deposits in National banks, and from his statement
it appears that the average daily deposits in Octoberin the National
banks of Kansas increased 625 per cent from 1889 to 1903, in lowa
105 per cent, in Mississippi 89 per cent, in Massachusetts 106 per
cent, and in New York 207 per cent.

The farmers’ rate of financial progress, as evidenced by the foregoing
statements, need fear no comparison with that of any other class of
producers. The farmer may not become a millionaire, but he is surer
than the millionaire to retain his wealth and to have independence in
living.

GENERAL DIFFUSION OF WELL-BEING.

The diffusion of well-being among farmers throughout all parts of
the country is one of the most conspicuous features of the recent agri-
cultural development. This attracted attention a year ago and is now
even more noticeable; because the great South is more especially
enjoying this growth of well-being, owing to the enhanced value
of the cotton crop in addition to the general progress in agri-
culture. The Eastern farmer, who was long on the verge of
bankruptcy in competition with the virgin soil and rapid expan-
sion of the northern half of the Mississippi River Valley, has sur-
vived that competition and now enjoys more normal conditions, owing

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

to the creation and maintenance of many large near-by markets by
many varied industries. The Pacific Coast has long been prosper-
ous with its world-famed specialties; the mountain States are glad
with the fruits and promises of irrigation; in the older prairie States
the farmer has seen his land go from $1.25 an acre, or from a home-
stead gift, to $100 and $150; and the ‘‘Great American Desert,” as
it was called when it was nothing but a buffalo range, is now peopled
by a progressive race of farmers, whose banks are filled to overflow-
ing with the proceeds of their products.

WEATHER BUREAU.
OBSERVATORY BUILDINGS.

Carrying out the policy of the Department, the Weather Bureau
has continued to cooperate with the leading universities throughout
the country, and at the present time the relations existing are more
intimate and the work done more important than at any time in the
history of the service. Several universities and colleges have donated
ground for the erection of buildings. Appreciation of the value of
the work being done by the Weather Bureau has also been demon-
strated by several universities in placing at the disposal of the Bureau,
without cost, office quarters in their buildings for recently established
stations. The erection of buildings by the Weather Bureau saves the
amount previously paid for rent of office quarters.

FORECASTS.

Weather forecasts for thirty-six and forty-eight hours in advance
have been made daily throughout the year for each State and Terri-
tory, and special warnings of gales on the seacoasts, Gulf, and Great
Lakes, and of cold waves, frost, heavy snows, floods, etc., have
been issued when the advices would benefit commercial, agricultural,
and business interests. The North Atlantic and West Indian storm-
warning service was continued, and forecasts for the first three days
out of steamers bound for European ports were issued daily at 8 a. m.
and 8 p.m. In a number of instances European shipping interests
were notified of the character and probable course of severe storms
that were passing eastward from the American coast. Daily warnings
and advices issued in connection with the injurious weather conditions
of the year resulted in saving much property.

RIVER AND FLOOD SERVICE.

The fioods of the year did not approach in character and impor-
tance the overflows of the spring of the year immediately preceding,
when over 100 human lives were lost, besides property valued at

16 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

over $40,000,000. There were, nevertheless, severe floods at various
times, and in the management of the work occasioned by them the
river and flood service continued to demonstrate its usefulness and
growing efficiency as a valuable branch of the Weather Bureau. That
there has been constant progress in the accuracy of its work is evi-
denced by the more specific and detailed character of the forecasts and
warnings in localities where such exact work had heretofore been
considered practically impossible. The service performed during the
prevalence of the great winter ice gorges in the Susquehanna, Alle-
gheny, and Ohio rivers, with their attendant floods, was especially
noteworthy. These gorges were the greatest in the history of the local-
ities, and that their great dangers were minimized is due in no small
degree to the timely advices and warnings of the Weather Bureau.
There were minor floods during nearly every month of the year,
but each was amply covered by timely warnings. These floods were
not in any sense alarming or dangerous, but they nevertheless attained
suflicient importance to endanger a large amount of property.

CLIMATE AND CROP SERVICE.

The National weather and crop monthly and weekly bulletins and
the annual summaries and monthly and weekly bulletins issued from
the 43 section centers, also snow and ice bulletins, daily bulletins
issued in connection with the corn, wheat, cotton, sugar, rice, and
fruit services during the growing season, and the special snow bulletins
issued during the winter by the sections in the Rocky Mountain and
Plateau regions have appeared regularly during the year and have
been of great value in affording timely information.

DISTRIBUTION OF FORECASTS AND SPECIAL WARNINGS.

The extensive distribution of daily forecasts by means of forecast
cards has continued, and the railway, telegraph, and train services
have supplied in the aggregate over 5,000 railroad stations with bulle-
tins generally posted in the waiting rooms for the benefit of employees
and the traveling public. The number of addresses on the rural free-
delivery list has been greatly decreased as compared with that of the
previous year, owing principally to the discontinuance of the after-
noon forecast at some of the centers and the transfer of a large por-
tion of this work to the free telephone service. The rural telephone
lines are now the best and most economical means of distributing
weather information. The forecasts are quickly disseminated, cover-
ing a large territory witha little or no expense to the Government. By
arrangements made with two of the great trunk telephone lines of
Ohio the daily morning forecasts are now available for the use of
more than 100,000 subscribers in that State, and the records indicate

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ts

that nearly one-half of that number have taken advantage of the
opportunity to get the forecasts in their homes within a few minutes
after their preparation at the district center.

MOUNT WEATHER METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH OBSERVATORY.

During the past year the main building of the Mount Weather
Observatory has been completed, while the power plant, the building
from which balloon ascensions and kite fiights are to be made, and
the magnetic building are being constructed. The physical laboratory
for electrical and radioactive effects is being planned, the erection of
which will take place in another year. Finally, a comprehensive
physical observatory fer photographing the sun directly and through
the spectrum, for measuring radiation energy by actinometry and
bolometry, with their allied equipment, will be required. This com-
plex institution must grow up slowly as plans can be matured along
the best modern lines. When the equinment is ready we shall make
and send out apparatus for the exploring of the atmosphere to alti-
tudes of from 8 to 10 miles. It is probable that many balloons will
be simultaneously liberated from different stations so as to get records
of storms and cold waves froin their four quadrants. With observa-
tions from the magnetic, the electric, and the solar physics observa-
tories, opportunity for study will be given to those who believe that
the cyclonic and anticyclonic whirls that constitute storms and cold
waves are mainly the result of changes in the amount or intensity of
some form of solar radiation. It is the purpose to make the research
at Mount Weather catholic in its broadness.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

The Department of Agriculture, through the Weather Bureau, was
one of the first of the Executive Departments to take up, systematic-
ally, experimentation in problems concerned with the development of
wireless telegraphy. By this action research into the physical prob-
lems concerned in transmitting messages through the medium of ether
waves was greatly stimulated in this country. Probably one of the
best, if not the best, instruments anywhere made for the receiving of
wireless messages had its inception in the experimental work of the
Weather Bureau. Recently a board was appointed by you to consider
the whole problem of wireless telegraphy and the relation of the
Government thereto. Its recommendations, which you approved, will
result in the discontinuance of experiments along this line by the
Weather Bureau, their transfer to the Navy Department, and the
transfer to the Weather Bureau of all the meteorological work now
being done by the Navy Department.

2 al1904——2

18 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
LONG-RANGE FORECASTS.

It is hoped the time will come when it will be possible to forecast
the weather for coming seasons, to specify in what respect the coming
month or season will conform to or depart from the weather that is
common to the month or season; but that time has not yet arrived,
and the officials of the Weather Bureau have been informed that they
will best serve the public interests when they teach the communities
they serve the true limitations of weather forecasting.

EDUCATION IN METEOROLOGY.

The Department is interested in the general introduction of meteor-
ology into the courses of study provided by the universities and higher
technical institutions of the country. The mode of teaching and the
results obtained were made an important part of the work of the
Convention of Weather Burean Officials which was held at Peoria,
Ill., in September, 1904. At an increasing number of ecucational
institutions Weather Bureau officials, in addition to their regular
duties and mainly outside of office hours, deliver courses of lectures
on meteorology.

TELEGRAPH SERVICE.

To meet as far as possible the pressing demands for a wider distri-
bution of the daily telegraphic reports of observations, arrangements
were perfected during the year for a very generous increase in the
number of such reports telegraphed over circuits and as special mes-
sages, and while for economical reasons it is impossible to satisfy all
demands in this respect, it is believed that the present distribution of
reports will result ina much more comprehensive display of weather
conditions on the maps and bulletins and will give general satisfaction
both to the public and to our officials charged with making district
and local forecasts. Submarine cables have been laid from Block
Island, Rhode Island, to the mainland; from South Manitou to North
Manitou Island, Michigan; from Flavel, Oreg., across the mouth of
the Columbia River to Fort Canby, Wash.; and preparations are being
made for laying one from North Nags Head to Manteo, Roanoke
Island, North Carolina.

The reorganization at the beginning of the year of the vessel and
wreck reporting service of the Weather Bureau, with additional stations
at Sand Key, Florida, and Southeast Farallone, California, has largely
added to the effectiveness of this popular feature of the Bureau, and
is much appreciated by maritime interests generally. Vessel and
wreck reports are now furnished free of charge, except for telegraph
tolls over commercial lines, to all corporations and individuals who

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

may apply for them. Besides reporting passing vessels, an important
service is rendered by these stations in connection with maritime
disasters.

INSTRUMENTAL EQUIPMENT.

The Bureau has now 158 stations completely equipped with instru-
ments by means of which an automatic record is made of the direction
and velocity of the wind, the duration of sunshine, the amount and
time of beginning and ending of rainfall, and the temperature and
pressure of the air. With one or two exceptions the stations that are
notat present so equipped are of slight importance, or in general have
all the instruments necessary for the satisfactory performance of their
work. One hundred and fifty-nine steel towers, with the improved
auxiliary equipment for the display of storm warnings, are now installed
at as many stations distributed over the shores of the Great Lakes and
the Atlantic and Pacific seacoasts. At 77 of these stations high-power
electric lanterns are used, and at the others improved oil lights.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

Our animal industry is shown only in small part by the figures
giving the exports, yet these exports are so large as to be worthy of
notice. The animals exported in the fiscal year 1904 were valued at
about $48,000,000, which was an increase over the previous year of
$13,000,000; the exports of meat and meat products, including oleo
oil, oleomargarin, and lard compounds, amounted to more than
$174,000,000, a decrease of $4,000,000 from the year before. We also
sent abroad nearly $6,000,000 worth of dairy products, and of other
animal products, such as hides and skins, glue, grease, and grease
serap, over $5,000,000 worth. The exact total of the above items of
export, as given in preliminary returns, was $223,023,060, which was
an increase over the previous year of more than $12,000,000. The
Department is fostering this foreign trade, as well as safeguarding
the live-stock industry within our own country.

INSPECTION OF ANIMALS FOR EXPORT.

The inspections of live stock for export included Canadian animals
that pass through territory of the United States; these numbered about
26,000 cattle and 60,000 sheep. The total inspections for export, inelud-
ing these Canadian animals, were 790,496 for cattle, 534,850 for sheep,
and 3,293 for horses. As compared with similar figures for the fiscal
year 1903, this statement shows an increase of 43.7 per cent in the
number of American cattle exported and an increase of 116.5 per cent
in the number of American sheep exported. The number of horses
exported, however, was reduced by one-third.

20 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The percentage of loss in transit for the 860,990 head of American
cattle landed at the ports of London, Liverpool, and Glasgow was but
0.17; the percentage of loss for the 212,209 American sheep landed at
the same ports was 0.94.

‘The number of clearances of vessels engaged in carrying live stock
was 774, and the certificates of inspection issued for American cattle
exported to Europe numbered 1,419.

INSPECTION OF IMPORT ANIMALS.

The work of the inspection of import animals calls for the utmost
vigilance in order to prevent the introduction of diseases which might
prove disastrous to the live stock of this country. Most of the ani-
mals that came through the seacoast ports of entry were imported for
breeding purposes, but a considerable number of cattle were admitted
from Mexico for feeding. The importations of pure-bred animals
subject to quarantine were very light during the year, the number at
New York, the chief port of entry, having been 266 cattle, 128 sheep,
and 123 hogs. The number of farm animals that came through sea-
coast ports and not subject to quarantine was 2,492; of this total 2,425
were horses. We brought from Great Britain 1,523 horses, from
Germany 204, from Belgium 651, and 47 from other countries.

The importations of animals from Mexico were 12,088 cattle, 701
sheep, 314 horses, and various other animals to the number of 203.

An unusually large number of ruminants for menageries, all of
which were subject to inspection and quarantine, were imported dur-
ing the year.

INSPECTION OF MEAT.

The inspection of animals and animal products was maintained at 51
establishments and cities. The total number of ante-mortem inspec-
tions was about 65,000,000, whereas in 1903 the number was about
59,000,000; this shows an increase of 6,000,000 animals. The post-
mortem inspections amounted to nearly 40,000,000, which was an
increase, except as to sheep, over the year 1903. The increase in 1904
in the number of hogs inspected post-mortem was over 2,000,000.

The meat-inspection tag or label was affixed to 22,943,067 quarters
and 120,404 pieces of beef, 8,230,528 carcasses of sheep, 765,301 car-
casses of calves, 1,122,193 carcasses of hogs, and 726,779 sacks of pork.
Besides, the meat-inspection stamp was affixed to 23,000,000 packages
of meat and meat products that had received the regular post-mortem
inspection.

Compared with the figures of 1903, the statement for 1904 shows an
increase in beef exports of 47,138,044 pounds, a decrease in mutton
exports of 2,016,924 pounds, and an increase of pork exports of
21,319,830 pounds—a net increase of 66,440,950 pounds for all.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

In the matter of the microscopic inspection of pork there was a
great decrease, from 19,000,000 pounds in 1893 to 9,000,000 in 1904.
This inspection is restricted to the pork that is destined for those
countries which require such safeguard. The number of carcasses
thus inspected in 1904 was 315,045. The number of carcasses found
to be trichinous was 2,643.

The cost of the ordinary inspection was $781,590.95, and the micro-
scopic inspection cost $53,934.01. Each hog carcass cost 17.1 cents
for its inspection and each pound of pork exported 0.6 cent.

CATTLE SCAB, OR MANGE.

The existence of scab, or mange, in cattle has for several years past
often been brought to the attention of the Department. As early as
the spring of 1901 inspectors in the field recognized that scab of
cattle was a contagious disease, and asked for instructions regarding
it. The disease continued to spread, and during that year numerous
inquiries were received as to how the disease could be cured and con-
trolled. It became generally known that the dipping of cattle was
the best method of treatment, and the Department received many
calls for information as to the construction of vats and the best dips
to use. In January, 1902, a bulletin describing scab of cattle and its
treatment was issued. There was a large individual demand for this
publication and it was supplied to many State authorities for general
distribution.

SPREAD OF THE DISEASE.

In spite of efforts to disseminate all the information possible on the
subject, the disease spread to an alarming extent, especially on the
Western ranges, where the cattle roamed over large areas, and where
a few infected animals introduced would communicate the disease to
others until the whole band was affected. So extensive was the dis-
tribution of the scab that in June, 1903, the Department issued regu-
lations for controlling it, stating that the disease existed among cattle
in that part of the United States lying west of the Mississippi River,
including the State of Minnesota. These regulations did not apply to
the Eastern part of the United States. At that time all of the avail-
able funds were used for the employment of inspectors in the Western
country in the eradication of scabies among sheep, and there were but
a few men who could be used for enforcing the regulations for pre-
venting the spread of scabies among cattle. Many of the Western
States, notably Colorado, began during this year to take measures for
suppressing the malady within their limits. These States, however,
were unable to prevent the disease from being introduced from other
States, consequently very urgent appeals were made from State
authorities asking that supervision by this Department be extended to
cattle scab. |

22 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
WORK OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT.

It was apparent that, unless the Federal authorities undertook
measures for its control, the States would suffer disaster, not only
from the loss of stock affected, but from the embargo which would be
placed upon cattle passing from an infected State to one where the
disease did not exist. The disease became so prevalent that it was
carried from the ranges to the feed lots in States of the Middle West,
and there was danger of injury to the trade in live cattle for export to
Great Britain. When the scab became so common on the ranges, it
was found that unless the cattle were dipped before shipment the cars
in which they were loaded became infected; also the stock pens, where
the cattle were unloaded for food and rest en route, as well as the stock
yards at the leading markets. It became imperative, therefore, that

‘ampaign should be entered upon, and accordingly in March, 1904,
regulations were issued applying to all of the United States and pro-
hibiting shipment of cattle affected with this disease from one State to
another.

Provision was made in these regulations for allowing shipment after
cattle were dipped, and, though affected with the disease, they could
be shipped for immediate slaughter after one dipping; but if cattle
were intended for feeding or stocking purposes, they must be held for
the second dipping, ten or twelve days after the first one. To secure
the enforcement of these regulations, it was necessary to station a large
number of inspectors in the Western States, particularly the range
States where shipments of cattle originated and where the disease was
most prevalent. So far as possible the force of inspectors already in
this region was used; but this was entirely inadequate to the demands
and required an extensive increase, so that at the present time more
than two hundred men are in the field engaged in the inspection of
sheep and cattle for scabies.

There was an urgent call for inspectors, mostly from persons who
had cattle to ship and those who owned affected cattle which required
dipping. This dipping in several States was done in cooperation with
the State authorities and under the supervision of Federal employees.
Shipments of cattle from ranges known to be infected could not be
made to market centers without a certificate showing freedom from
scabies, or to the effect that the cattle had been dipped and could be
transported without spreading the contagion.

During the first nine months of this year, in the 34 States and Ter-
ritories Te this inspection was maintained, 3,843,075 cattle were
inspected for scab; 168,203 were found affected with the disease, and
300,275 were found to have been exposed to it. The total number of
cattle dipped during this period, under official supervision, was

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

420,762; 116,362 affected cattle were given one dipping, and 76,974
affected cattle were dipped a second time, after an interval of ten or
twelve days. This work necessarily increases the expenses of the
Bureau, which, for the month of January, 1904, amounted to $404.65
for this inspection exclusively, and in September, 1904, to $11,770.70.

FOOT ROT AND GID OF SHEEP, AND RABIES.

Besides the several lines of work which have been carried on through
a series of years and which have been reported upon from time to
time, special work has been done with reference to foot rot of sheep
and the disease of sheep commonly known as ‘‘ gid.” In « recent
shipment of sheep which arrived at the Buffalo stock yards 75 per
cent were found to be affected with foot rot. This disease is not at all
uncommon in the sheep-raising parts of the country, and its eradication
is not a very difficult undertaking. <A bulletin is now in press which
deals with all of the phases of foot rot, and should enable the sheep
raiser to clean up his flock without much difficulty or great expense.

Although the conditions prevailing in this country are considered
unfavorable to the parasite causing gid, the disease, nevertheless, has
gained a foothold in the Rocky Mountain States, and it is therefore
well to understand the life history of the parasite causing the disease
and the methods of dealing with it. It is reported that a few years
ago the loss of sheep from gid in France was as great as 1,000,000
annually. This subject has received a thorough investigation, the
results of which will soon be published.

Investigations regarding the presence of rabies, or hydr ophobia, in
the vicinity of Washington, D. C., were a need during the year.
Of the 38 suspected cases examined Sa a results were obtained from
22, of which number 13 were from the District of Columbia.

TUBERCULOSIS.

The work on the subject of tuberculosis has been conducted through-
out the year along lines which have been planned for several years.
Some experiments which have been recently reported upon by this
Bureau go to show conelusively, it is believed, that it is an error
to conclude that eattle can not be infected with human tuberculosis.
These experiments not only justify but show the desirability of a rigid
enforcement of public regulations looking to the control and the erad-
ication of tuberculosis in cattle.

The demand for tuberculin greatly increased during the year. The
amount distributed in 1904 was 74,000 doses, while in 1903 the num-
ber of doses was 47,000.

24 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DISTRIBUTION OF BLACKLEG VACCINE AND MALLEIN,

The blacklege vaccine for cattle which is manufactured and distrib-
uted by the Bureau of Animal Industry continues te give satisfactory
results. During the year the number of doses that were sent out fell
off somewhat from the report of the previous year, but the number of
persons supplied was slightly increased. It is interesting to note that,
in 1904, 1,000,000 doses of the vaccine were used and reported upon
by over 10,000 persons with highly satisfactory results. After a
careful analysis of the figures which were compiled from the reports
from the users of blackleg vaccine, and eliminating the deaths which
could in no manner be properly charged against the action of the vac-
cine, the number of cases that died after vaccination is reduced to the
very low figure of 0.44 per cent.

The manufacture and distribution of mallein in 1904 for glanders in
horses was about the same as in the previous year, and the number
of doses sent out was 7,000.

INSPECTION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Under the act of Congress approved May 9, 1902, the Bureau of
Animal Industry is charged with the inspection of certain dairy
products which are designed for interstate commerce, especially the
article of renovated butter. This work is now fully organized and is
governed by joint agreement of the Treasury Department and the
Department of Agriculture. The reports for 1904 show that there
were 73 factories licensed and bonded, which was a reduction of 9
from the previous year. ‘These factories were located in 14 States
and the District of Columbia. The quantity of renovated butter made
at bonded factories during the fiscal year of 1904 was about 54,000,000
pounds. The average quality of renovated butter isimproving. ‘The
difference in general character, since the inspection was inaugurated,
is very marked. This is due, in part, to improved machinery and
processes, and largely to the better average quality and condition of
the ‘‘ packing stock” or raw material used.

Such stock is now closely collected in the producing districts, so
that accumulations of country butter at remote points and involving
deterioration are not frequent. More care is taken in sorting, pack-
ing, and storing the stock. Occasionally a lot of packing stock is
found in such a condition of filth or putrefaction as to necessitate con-
demnation. In still rarer cases the manufactured product is found to
be so bad, because of bad materials, ignorance, or negligence in reno-
vating, or as the effect of age, as to make it unfit for food. Ina few
such instances the sanitary inspection required by law and made by
this Department has caused the objectionable materials and products

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

to be removed from the food market and sold as grease. But, as
stated, such instances are not frequent. Although there is still oppor-
tunity for great improvement in materials, in the manner of handling
_ and transporting the same, in factory management, and in the finished
product, it is true that the manufacturers are endeavoring, as a rule,
to improve conditions at all points and are ambitious to win a reputa-
tion for producing an article of high quality.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

In no field of industrial work have there been greater advances dur-
ing the past decade than in the improvement of plants and the methods
of growing them. The Bureau of Plant Industry has done much to
bring about these advances. Diseases have been studied and remedies
found, new varieties of plants have been created and new industries
established, and the world has been searched for better things, all for
the purpose of helping the farmer and making his work less burden-
some and more profitable.

GROWTH OF THE WORK.

Since the Bureau of Plant Industry was organized, three years ago,
the demand for more work has been so great as to require an increase
of nearly 50 per cent in men and funds to conduct it. There are now
in the Bureau about 500 workers, 60 per cent of whom are engaged in
scientific investigation and its application to the farm, the orchard, and
the garden. The Bureau is endeavoring to train young men as rapidly
as possible for this work. The agricultural colleges furnish a part of
these men, but the demand for those with proper qualifications is still
greater than the supply.

ENCOURAGING INTEREST IN FARM LIFE.

The Department is not an educational institution in the strict sense
of the word, but it can do and is doing much to bring home to the
people in all walks of life the importance and value of the farm and
its productions. The Bureau of Plant Industry is making a special
effort to encourage the study of plants in the public schools. The
future welfare of this country depends upon its agricultural develop-
ment, and it is important and vital that a knowledge of the oppor-
tunities in this field should early be brought to the attention of the
child. Unfortunately, our system of elementary education is such as
to leave no impression on the child’s mind of the importance, value,
and usefulness of farm life. The child is, in many ways, brought
early into contact with facts which point to him the value of commer-
cial life. He is, therefore, early inoculated with the belief that to

26 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reach the highest possibilities he must, if he is on the farm, migrate
to the city. It is to be regretted that farm life in the past has not
always been conducive to the encouragement of young men to remain
on the farm.

Very little effort has been made to overcome the general belief that
there is always a great amount of drudgery connected with the farm,
and that the opportunities in this sort of oecupation are narrow and
limited. When we see the rapid advances that are being made in agri-
culture along all lines and note the need for bright young men in this
field, the opportunities offered by the cultivation of the soil seem as great
as in any other field. In order to bring these matters clearly home
to the children, efforts are being made by the Department to encour-
age the growing of plants in connection with the public school work.
The general distribution of seed is being handled in such a way that
the encouragement of plant growing will bea feature of it. Wherever
it has been practicable to influence school authorities, this has been
done. Various members of the staff of the Bureau are constantly
endeavoring by publication of papers, lecturing, etc., to point out the
advantages of rural life.

DEVELOPING NEW INDUSTRIES.
RICE PRODUCTION.

The Bureau of Plant Industry has continued its efforts to encourage
rice production in the Southern States, especially in Louisiana and
Texas. A special farm for the growing of rice has been placed at the
disposal of the Department, and upon this farm various questions
relating to the industry are being worked out. New varieties of rice
are being tested, questions pertaining to the best methods of improv-
‘ing the seed are being settled, and other impor tant problems are under
investigation. There has bade an enormous increase in the production
of rice in the States of Louisiana and Texas during the past three
years. As the industry has developed, the necessity has become more
and more evident for paying special attention to the improvement of
cultural methods.

In the early days of the industry the crop was so profitable that
little attempt was made to obtain information on important matters,
such as the necessity for rotation, the best methods of handling the
water, means of controlling diseases and weed pests, and other
important subjects. As competition has become greater and the pro-
duction larger, farmers are realizing the necessity for paying strict
attention to all details connected with the work. Preliminary esti-
mates show that during the year 1904 the area devoted to rice in
Louisiana and Texas was 600,000 acres, and the crop will approximate
650,000,000 pounds of rough rice.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27
DURUM WHEATS.

The success attending the introduction and growing of the durum
or macaroni wheats continues unabated. The past season has been a
particularly trying one for all wheats in the Northwest. Rust has
caused great damage in many localities, but the durum wheats have
been in most cases resistant. Probably no less than 14 million bushels
of these wheats will be grown the present season, and the evidence at
hand indicates that great quantities of the wheats are being saved for
seed for next year’s planting. Owing to the almost total loss of other
wheats east of the area where the durum wheats succeed best, efforts
will probably be made next year to plant the durum wheats farther
east than they should be planted. It must be remembered that these
wheats are specially adapted to semiarid regions, and moving them
into humid regions may result in disappointment.

It is gratifying to announce that the durum wheats are now being
handled without difficulty by many of the millers, and regular grades
corresponding with the grades of other wheats have been established
in the markets. From the outlook at present there will be not less
than 40 or 50 million bushels of these wheats produced next year.
The fact that these wheats are valuable for bread and that they can be
grown successfully where most other crops fail is an exceedingly
important thing for the agricultural development of the great semiarid
West.

THE MATTING INDUSTRY.

The United States imports large quantities of mattings from the
Orient. These mattings, for the most part, are made of a species of
rush which might easily be grown in this country; in fact, there are
already here several native forms which undoubtedly would prove
valuable for the manufacture of fine mattings. Special American
machinery has been devised and is now in use in the manufacture of
a very high grade of mattings. So far, the raw material used by
these machines has been imported. During the year the Bureau of
Plant Industry has introduced and disseminated considerable quantities
of the rush, with the object of securing a sufficient amount to supply
American manufacturers with the product. The results accomplished
have already proved encouraging, and the work will be continued.

GROWING OF SUGAR-BEET SEED.

The development of the sugar-beet industry continues satisfactory.
The Bureau of Plant Industry is making an effort to improve the con-
ditions affecting this crop in the matter of providing better seed,
encouraging the use of fertilizers where fertilizers are likely to do
good, studying the diseases with a view to discovering remedies for
them, securing improvement in the matter of seed by the production of

98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

beets which will give seed balls containing buta single germ. A little
more than two years ago the Department again took up the work of
establishing sugar-beet seed culture in the United States, and since
that time work has been going on in four representative sections of
this country. Strains of pedigreed seed are being established in New
York, Michigan, Utah, and Washington State, while in Utah and
Washington the industry is already assuming commercial importance.

In California also seed is being produced for local use. In Wash-
ington State 80,000 pounds of seed were produced in 1904, in Utah
about 32,000 pounds, and in California about 50,000 pounds—a total
of 162,000 pounds. As rapidly as the Department can bring home to
all the sugar-beet factories the conviction that American-grown seed
is as good and often better than the imported, these quantities will be
increased, and it is a question of but a few years when the entire
5,000,000 pounds used in the United States will be produced at home.

As to the quality, American-grown seed has produced beets testing
as high as 24 per cent of sugar, while the average percentage in all
beets tested from American-grown seed during 1903 was 15.8 per cent.
The average percentage of sugar in all beets grown in the United
States, as shown by the factory returns of their total extractions, is a
little over 11 per cent. It will be remembered, too, that the Ameri-
can seed has the benefit of only two years of careful selection. ‘The
work of establishing a pedigreed strain is slow, and years are required
for the completion of such an undertaking; but the work is so far
along that its success may be considered assured.

Two years ago the Department imported all the sugar-beet seed that
was distributed for experimental purposes, while during the 1904 sea-
son 14,000 pounds of American-grown seed were distributed by the
Department to selected farmers for testing in comparison with imported
seed furnished to them by the factories. The reports on the stand
secured, which is generally indicative of the yield, show that the Amer-
ican seed gave almost without exception a greater and a stronger
growth than the imported seed. In a number of instances those por-
tions of fields which were sown with factory seed gave such a poor
stand that they had either to be resown or abandoned, while the por-
tions sown with American-grown seed gave good stands and in no case
required replanting. The factories during 1904 bought 34,500 pounds
of American-grown seed, and a number of these factories are now
negotiating with the American growers for contracts to supply the
seed they need. |

SUGAR-BEET FERTILIZERS.

In the fertilizer work efforts have been made to determine the effect
of different fertilizers on tonnage and sugar content, and also their influ-
ence on various diseases.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

Investigations along this line were undertaken in six sugar-beet
States, seven brands of complete fertilizers being used, and in addi-
tion some separate experiments with the various ingredients used by
themselves were made. ‘The preliminary reports which have been
received indicate that in many cases the effect of the fertilizers could
be seen from the time of the germination of the beets. In afew cases
the lines separating the fertilized from the unfertilized plots could be
seen even at the beginning of the harvest. A recent report from one
of the experimenters states that in his work with nitrate of soda the
beets from the untreated plots were worth $5.20 per ton and yielded
$54.35 worth of beets peracre. On the adjacent plot, where 300 pounds
of nitrate of soda were applied at the time of planting, the beets were
worth $5.30 per ton and yielded $74.57, a difference of $20.23 per acre
in favor of the fertilization. The untreated beets tested 14.1 per cent
sugar, while those fer tilized tested 14.4 per cent.

REMEDY FOR SUGAR-BEET DISEASES.

The serious epidemics which have affected the sugar beet, like the
leaf-spot disease of the East and the curly top of the West, have been
investigated. Experiments on a large scale in different sections of the
Eastern beet area have shown that the leaf-spot may be readily con-
trolled by the application of Bordeaux mixture. This remedy has
now come into general use.

SINGLE-GERM BEET-SEED BALLS.

In my last report attention was called to the efforts being made in
the matter of developing sugar-beet seeds with single germs. The
single-germ seed would do much to diminish the labor of thinning.
The Bureau work in this field has been very satisfactory. Although
the work has been running for only two seasons, decided progress has
been made, and the single-germ seeds that have been selected have
been found much more vigorous than the multiple-germ balls. The
selected strains grown this year show a decided. tendency to the pro-
duction of a larger number of single-germ balls than the parent beet
from which the selection was started, the average gain being about 20
per cent. In one case, over 3,000 single-seed balls were found on one
beet. The work this year has been conducted in Utah and other sec-
tions where the sugar beet is at its best, and indicates that ultimately
we shall in all probability be successful in the production of a beet hav-
ing the desirable quality of producing only balls with single germs,
that will substantially save hand thinning and avoid much expense in
growing.

; NEW CITROUS FRUITS.

The efforts that have been made by the Bureau of Plant Industry

for a number of years in the matter of producing, by breeding, new

80 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

citrous fruits, so as to build up varied industries in the South, have
met with very gratifying results. The hardy sour oranges which have
been secured as a result of crossing the sweet orange with the hardy
Japanese orange are now ready to distribute, and the work of distri-
bution will be inaugurated in the coming winter. These new hardy
oranges will unquestionably make possible the development of several
important industries in the South. The oranges are valuable for mar-
malades, and from the fact that they may be grown in nearly all the
Southern States, great possibilities for their usefulness are opened up.
Even if they should not come into general use for manufacturing pur-
poses or for general orchard planting, they will undoubtedly eventu-
ally become a feature in every dooryard throughout the South. Aside
from their value for the manufacture of marmalades and preserves,
they will be exceedingly useful for pies and other purposes.

There has been fruited this year for the first time a sweet orange of
the hardy type. This is an accomplishment which the Department
hoped for when it first inaugurated the work. The other new citrous
fruits developed from the Bureau’s investigations, such as the new
tangelo, which is a cross between the pomelo and the tangerine, two
new kid glove, or loose-skinned oranges, and several other creations,
will all prove exceedingly valuable in sections where the climatic con-
ditions will permit the growing of these more tender sorts.

AMERICAN TEA.

The Department has continued its work in the production of Ameri-
can tea. The more advanced investigations have been condueted, as
heretofore, at Summerville, S. C., in cooperation with Dr. Charles U.
Shepard. Doctor Shepard’s tea gardens are now yielding from 8,000
to 10,000 pounds of tea annually. Owing to climatic conditions the
crop this year will be light. Doctor Shepard has been devoting special
attention to the improvement of factory processes. Several new
inventions have been made by him in the matter of tea rollers, appa-
ratus for the manufacture of green tea, and apparatus for a process of
attrition, giving to the tea the beautiful bluish cast, or finish, which
heretofore has been secured in foreign countries by the application of
various chemicals.

Doctor Shepard’s process puts this finish on the teas by simple
attrition or friction, and is a marked advance over the old processes.
The work of establishing a plantation in Texas has been continued.
Tea beds were started on two types of soil—a rich sandy loam and a
black, waxy soil. The plants on the black, waxy land have failed
utterly. Fortunately this discovery was made before any extensive
plantings had been undertaken, and it will lead to the extension of
the plantings on the sandy loam soil. There are now on hand at our
Texas station, which is located at Pierce, about 100,000 plants, which

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. B1

will be put into the field this winter, planting about 40 acres. Suf-
ficient additional seed will be put out to give another 50 acres next

year.
AMERICAN DATES.

Encouraging results have been secured in the establishment of this
industry in the southwestern portion of the United States. The date
orchard at Tempe, Ariz., is progressing in a highly satisfactory way.
The work here has been carried on in cooperation with the Arizona
experiment station and has been under the direct supervmion of Prof.
R. H. Forbes. In cooperation with the California experiment station,
work on the establishment of date culture in southern California is
also being conducted. Ten acres of land have been secured for an
experimental orchard and dates have been and are being planted there.
The industry has been further encouraged by the publication of
important reports on the subject, pointing out available localities
where the crop is likely to succeed. There is a considerable extent of
territory in southern California where practically all of the dates of a
certain class which are now imported could in all probability be grown.
These regions have been mapped and a special effort has been made to
encourage the production of the crop therein. Various importations
of the date have been made during the year and others will follow
from time to time as the industry advances.

BULB GROWING.

The very specialized conditions of soil and climate necessary for the
proper preduction of bulbs and the peculiar nature of the skilled labor
required have made the establishment of the bulb industry difficult.
However, investigations have shown that nearly all of the so-called
Dutch bulbs may be grown in the United States, and that one by one
the difficulties due to competition of cheap skilled labor, excessive cost
of transportation, and the natural hesitancy on the part of purchasers
to use an untried article will be overcome. A method has also been
discovered by the Department experts to produce the Bermuda lily
bulb free from disease. Of the millions of lily bulbs annually
imported, it is safe to say that 40 per cent are more or less affected by
disease. The eventual elimination of this trouble will be due to the
work of the Department.

AMERICAN-GROWN DRUG PLANTS.

In Vermont, the previous success in growing opium poppies has been
repeated with even more satisfactory results, both the white-seeded
and blue-seeded sorts giving good crops. The attempt to cultivate
this plant has been made with the object in view of testing the possi-
bility of developing in this country a means of supplying our demand

82 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for poppy alkaloids for medicinal uses. The present source of these—
morphine, codeine, ete.—is to be found in crude opium, of which
approximately a million dollars’ worth is imported annually. The cost
of these products is in large part due to the labor involved, and the
efforts of the Bureau have been directed toward devising some process
whereby the alkaloidal principles can be isolated directly from the
extracted juices of the plant. Up to the present time no one has suc-
ceeded in obtaining morphine from these extracts.

During the year an expert of the Bureau has, however, met with
success, and ‘we are now able to obtain morphine directly from the
expressed juices of the plant. This method does away with much of
the expense. Experiments are now being undertaken to ascertain the
practicability of obtaining morphine directly from the plants as a
commercial source. If the experiment indicates a favorable outcome
the plants produced in American fields will replace oriental opium as
a crude source for morphine.

SWEDISH SELECT OAT.

The experiments of the Department with this hardy Swedish oat
ceased some time ago, but highly interesting reports in regard to its
usefulness are still coming in. It was introduced about five years ago
by the Bureau of Plant Industry and distributed ina number of the
Northwestern States. It has high qualities as a yielder and is espe-
cially valuable for resisting drought.

It has now become the most popular variety in the States of Wis-
consin, North Dakota, Montana, portions of Idaho, South Dakota,
and Minnesota. In one instance in Wisconsin, from the planting of
33 grains in the spring of 1899, there resulted a production of about
20,000 bushels in the year 1903, and a half million bushels in the
present year, 1904. It is expected that the present year’s crop will
show that about 4 million bushels of this oat are being produced in
Wisconsin. Although the highest legal weight of oats is 36 pounds
to the bushel, this variety commonly weighs from 40 to 44 pounds in
the Northern States, and occasionally reaches from 48 to 50 pounds to

the bushel.
SPECIAL WORK ON COTTON.

The Bureau of Plant Industry has made a special effort to aid the
farmers of Texas, Louisiana, and other Southern States where the
Mexican cotton boll weevil has already appeared or is likely to appear.
In all sections the energies of the Bureau have been put forth to
encourage better methods of farming, with highly gratifying results.

COOPERATION WITH FARMERS.

With a view to bringing directly home to the farmers of Texas and
Liouisiana, especially those in the boll-weevil districts, the advantagse

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

of better methods of cultivation, the value of early maturing seed,
etc., the Bureau organized an extensive line of propaganda work.
The farmers in the various counties were organized and were brought
into cooperation in such a way that large plantings were made under
the direct supervision of the Department. Tracts of 5, 10, 15, and 20
acres were handled by individual farmers, under working plans fur-
nished by the Bureau, the object being in all cases to demonstrate the
practicability of growing cotton despite the presence of the weevil.

More than 5,000 farmers were engaged in this work, and the results
have been highly satisfactory. Ata recent meeting held in Houston,
where more than 200 representative farmers from all parts of the State
were present, records were presented showing the yields of cotton
under the plans of the Department compared with old methods. The
increased yields, ranging all the way from 25 per cent to 100 per cent
in districts badly infested by the weevil, show that by proper methods
of culture, the use of early maturing varieties of seed, and the applica-
tion of proper fertilizers excellent results may be obtained. A com-
plete record of the yields from the various farms conducted under the
direction of the Bureau has been kept, and a report embodying these
data will soon be published.

COOPERATION WITH THE TEXAS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

In the special work on cotton the Bureau of Plant Industry has been
in the closest cooperation with the Texas Agricultural College. The
president of the college has taken charge of the farmers’ institute
work, and with the aid of several men selected by him and men fur-
nished by the Department all parts of the State were visited early in
the spring, and the necessity for giving strict attention to better
methods of cultivation was set forth. This institute work will be con-
tinued during the present autumn and winter. In addition to the
institute work, the Bureau has been cooperating with the college in
the matter of the breeding of cotton, the testing of fertilizers, and
other important lines of investigation. Thorough harmony prevails,
and every effort is being made by both the Department and college
officials to make the work effective.

COOPERATION WITH LOUISIANA AUTHORITIES.

Cooperation has also been secured with the Louisiana authorities,
and a number of important lines of work have been carried on in the
State. The propaganda work, as described for Texas, has also been
conducted in portions of Louisiana. Demonstration work with fer-
tilizers has been carried on; also other investigations having for their
object the encouragement in every way of better methods of farming
in advance of the approach of the weevil.

2 Al904——3

34 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIVERSIFICATION FARMS,

As another feature of the work in the South, plans were made and
put into operation establishing diversification farms at various places.
The object of these farms was to show the value and importance of
diversified agriculture. It was asa unnecessary for the Bureau to
expend any funds in the development of these farms, except in minor
ways for the purchase of certain special seeds, and sometimes for
special fertilizers where such were to be used. In all cases the busi-
ness interests of the respective communities gladly cooperated with
the Bureau to the end not only of securing a desirable farm for the
purpose, but assuming all responsibility for its support. In every
instance efforts have been made in organizing these farms to make
them not only self-supporting but profitable. The main object of the
work is to show that by diversified agriculture the lands may not only
be improved, but more money can be made than in farming with a
Single crop.

Thirty-two of these farms have been or are about to be established,
of which 16 are in Texas, 5 in Louisiana, 3 in Georgia, 2 in Alabama,
3 in Mississippi, 2 in South Carolina, and 1 in Florida. The general
method employed in locating, organizing, and conducting these farms
is to first determine in what section of the State the various farms are
to be located. An effort is then made to find a progressive farmer
who is desirous of encouraging diversified farming in bis section, and
who is willing to permit the Department to aid him in doing it. When
a suitable arrangement has been made, a representative of the Depart-
ment and the State experiment station make a thorough study of local
conditions with reference to cropping possibilities, markets, advan-
tages, ete. A system of records is instituted, which enables the De-
partment to secure detailed information regarding every phase of the
management of the farm and the results secured. After the farms
are established, other farmers are encouraged to visit them, this being
done largely through the cooperation of the State experiment stations.

BREEDING NEW TYPES OF COTTON.

Extensive work has been inaugurated in Texas having for its object
the breeding of new types of cotton better adapted to meeting the con-
ditions brought about by the invasion of the weevil. More than 100
varieties of cotton have been grown and many selections have been
made. This is necessarily slow work, but already very encouraging
results have been secured in the matter of obtaining earlier and better
yielding types—ty pes that are better able to resist storms and Tee
for special purposes in several regions.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35
DISCOVERY OF THE GUATEMALAN ANT.

During the year an important discovery was made by an officer of
this Bureau, viz, the discovery in Guatemala of an ant that destroys
the weevil. Eighty-nine colonies of these ants were brought into
Texas and are now being thoroughly studied with a view to determin-
ing their value as a means of checking the serious inroads of the cotton
insect. After the introduction of the ant by this Bureau further
work on its distribution, habits, etc., was placed under the Bureau of
Entomology.

WEEVIL-RESISTANT COTTON,

Another and perhaps more efficient method of combating the boll
weevil than by means of the ant has been discovered very recently.
The hope of finding a variety of cotton not subject to injury by this
pest has been cherished for several years, but hitherto no method has
been ascertained by which the plant could offer effective resistance to
the insect. It has been found, however, that in some varieties of cot-
ton the presence of the larva, instead of blasting the buds and bolls,
often stimulates a special growth of internal tissue which kills the
young weevil. This is not merely accidental or abnormal, but is in
the nature of a protective adaptation developed as a final result of a
long struggle for existence between the cotton and the weevil in tropi-
cal America. The insect could not breed or perpetuate itself in the
presence of a variety of cotton in which the formation of the new pro-
tective tissue occurred regularly. It is accordingly within the range
of scientific possibilities that resistant varieties of cotton can be found
in tropical America or developed by selection, and work on this line
has been begun.

DISTRIBUTION OF EARLY-MATURING VARIETIES OF COTTON SEED.

With a view to encouraging the planting of early-maturing varieties
of cotton, such as King and Parker, a large distribution of these
varieties was made in the State of Texas and a portion of Louisiana
during the year. Small quantities were sent to farmers, the coopera-
tion of Senators and Members of Congress being secured for the pur-
pose of distribution. Records have been kept of all the farmers who
received this seed, and reports are now being returned to the Depart-
ment as to its value as compared with ordinary sorts. In most cases
very encouraging reports have been received as to the use of the early-
maturing seeds, and the chief value of the work will be in the fact
that from this distribution the farmers themselves may start the selec-
tion of stock seed for future planting.

36 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
INVESTIGATION OF THE COTTON ROOT-ROT,

As a feature of the work in Texas a special effort has been made to
obtain information as to the best methods of combating the cotton
root-rot. This disease has been very serious the past season, destroy-
ing large areas of cotton in many portions of the State. Efforts have
been made to secure resistant types, but so far the results obtained
have not been very encouraging, although some progress has been
made. Experiments have been made for the purpose of determining
the value of soil treatments, seed treatments, and other methods of
combating this disease, including crop rotation. This work has just
beep started, and it is too early yet to determine its value.

PROGRESS IN COMBATING PLANT DISEASES.
CRANBERRY DISEASES.

Important advances were made during the year in the matter of
treating cranberry diseases. ‘The cranberry crop is an important one
in this country, aggregating in value a million dollars or more annu-
ally. In recent years several destructive diseases have caused a great
deal of damage, and until the Department began its investigations
little progress had been made in the matter of treatment. Experi-
ments the past year in the treatment of one of the most serious
diseases, commonly known as ‘‘scald,” have been quite successful. It
has been demonstrated that this particular disease may be prevented
by the application of fungicides at very small expense.

ERADICATION OF LITTLE-PEACH DISEASE,

The efforts made by the Department in the matter of demonstrating
the feasibility of eradicating the little-peach disease from the orchards
of Michigan and other States have been continued on a large scale.
A section 3 miles square in Michigan was selected for this work and
the orchards were thoroughly gone over three times during the months
of July, August, and September and all of the affected trees were
destroyed. The object of this experiment is to demonstrate what is
believed to be a fact, viz, that the disease can be entirely eradicated
by the extirpation process.

WINTERKILLING OF FRUIT TREES,

The extreme cold of the past winter caused the extensive killing of
fruit trees in many portions of the Northern States. At the approach
of spring the trees had the appearance of being seriously injured, and.
undoubtedly a great many would have been destroyed but for the
timely aid rendered by the Department in the matter of suggesting
proper means of handling such injuries. <A brief report was issued
as a guide to the owners of the frozen trees, and this undoubtedly
saved many orchards from needless destruction.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37
A NEW DISEASE OF TOBACCO.

The most serious disease of tobacco in the United States during the
past season has been the new malady called ‘‘ wilt.” This has been
very destructive in certain portions of the South, and so rapid has
been the spread of the trouble that it threatens the complete destruc-
tion of the large tobacco industry in North Carolina. Evidence is at
hand that this disease is very similar to other wilt troubles, and that
it may eventually succumb to treatment through the selection and
development of resistant types. Work with a view to securing these
types is now being conducted.

WILT DISEASH OF COTTON AND COWPEAS.

The suecess of this Bureau’s wilt-resistant varieties of cotton was
more marked last season than ever before. An improved selection
from the Rivers cotton remained entirely free from the wilt on the
worst infected land on James Island, South Carolina, where the finer
types of Sea Island cotton are grown. These cottons, originating
through the efforts of the Department, are not only wilt resistant but
have a finer and better staple than the original nonresistant strains,
thus disproving the assertion that resistance to wilt had been obtained
at the sacrifice of quality. Considerable quantities of the seed of resist-
ant and desirable strains of cotton have been obtained and distrib-
uted. In connection with this work the wilt of the cowpea has also
been studied and resistant types secured and distributed. About 200
bushels of the resistant cowpea seed were sent out last spring. This
work is being developed as an auxiliary to the cotton investigations,
as it has been found that many thousands of acres of sandy soil in the
Gulf States are infected by both the wilt and root-knot, and the culti-
vation of the ordinary cowpea results in great injury to the cotton.

ADVANCES MADE IN FORAGE-CROP WORK.
ALFALFAS AND CLOVERS.

Alfalfa has attracted more attention on the part of farmers in the
eastern half of the United States during the past two years than any
other crop. The Department has demonstrated that it can be grown in
almost every State in the Union. Varieties have been found which
withstand the rigorous winters of the northwestern prairie States.
Other varieties have been found which are immune to the alfalfa leaf
rust. There is still much to be learned concerning the adaptability of
alfalfa to various types of soil in the Eastern States, and much time is
being devoted to the solution of this problem. The cultural methods
required for establishing and maintaining alfalfa meadows are also
receiving due attention. The subject of clover sickness, a matter of
very great importance to farmers throughout the clover region, is

88 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

being investigated. New varieties of clover which appear to possess
some advantages over the standard varieties grown in this country
have been secured and are being propagated with a view to introduc-
ing them generally in the clover region as soon as suflicient seed is
available. Some of our native clovers are being grown under farm
conditions in order to determine whether or not they are worthy of
domestication. One or two of them are promising, particularly for
sections of the country where red clover does not thrive.

SOIL AND SAND BINDERS.

Methods of holding drifting sand in place have been thoroughly
workedout. Anagentof the Department has madea careful study during
the past two years of the methods which have been developed in Europe
in work ot this character, and demonstrations of these methods are
now being made in portions of the country where drifting sand is most
troublesome. Attention is also being given to plants adapted to hold
banks and the sides of cuttings in place, and several plants which pos-
sess high value for this purpose have been found. This work is of
particular interest to civil engineers, and in prosecuting it the most
hearty cooperation from them has been received.

RANGE INVESTIGATIONS.

During the past year a large amount of information regarding the
carrying capacity of the ranges in various parts of the West has been
collected. The fact that intelligent management will bring the ranges
back to their primitive state of produetiveness has been established.
For two years past an area of fenced range in Arizona, in which all
types of range land are represented, from absolute desert to good
mountain range, has been under careful observation. ‘Two years’ pro-
tection from stock has sufliced to make this range nearly as productive
as it was in its virgin state. The methods of management used by
parties who own or control considerable areas of range land are being
studied. It is considered to be definitely demonstrated that there is
no chance of improving range conditions except where stockmen are
enabled to control the ranges upon which their stock feed, and data
are being collected which will furnish valuable information as a basis
for legislation concerning range lands. It has been demonstrated that
a number of species of plants may be introduced upon the ranges by
practicable means.

In nearly all cases the plants which have been of value for this pur-
pose are annuals producing large quantities of seed. The possibility
of introducing other plants upon the range is still being investigated.
In this connection a careful study of the large collection of annual
grasses from Europe in our extensive herbarium is being made, witha
view to finding species which appear to be adapted to conditions on

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

our Western ranges. Arrangements have been made whereby seed of
some of the most promising of the species may be secured for use in
the investigations of this subject. It has been demonstrated that in
the mountain ranges where there is considerable rainfall a number of
standard grasses and clovers may be established upon the range by
methods that are entirely practicable. In the mountain region in the
State of Washington, by protecting the range from the depredations
of nomadie herds of stock, the Bureau has been able to establish such
grasses as timothy, redtop, bluegrass, and white clover, thus adding
enormously to the productive capacity of these ranges. During the
year much assistance has been rendered to ranchers by outlining
methods of handling their ranches.

THE CACTUS AS A FORAGE PLANT.

Much of the range country is covered with a sparse growth of cac-
tus, which for the most part is looked upon by stockmen as a nuisance.
During the past year a number of methods have been found by which
the cactus plant may be utilized to advantage as stock feed. The value
of the more promising species for forage purposes, the length of time
required to mature a crop of cactus on land from which the old growth
has been harvested, and the feasibility of establishing cactus planta-
tions where they may be needed, are now being investigated.

ALKALI-LOVING PLANTS.

The increase of the area of alkali lands in the irrigated districts of the
West has given added importance to plants that may be grown upon
such lands. Several such plants are available, and the Bureau is inves-
tigating the forage value of these plants, as well as methods required
for their cultivation. A few years ago the Australian saltbush was
shown to be adapted to lands of this character, and a great deal of
interest in this plant was aroused among Western farmers. Recent
investigations by the Bureau indicate that the cultivation of the plant
has practically ceased. There is no question of the value of the Aus-
tralian saltbush as a forage plant or of its adaptability to strong alkali
lands. The principal difficulty with the plant seems to be that proper
methods of utilizing it have not been worked out. The Bureau has
undertaken to find what place it can be made to occupy in Western
agriculture and the methods by which farmers can take advantage of
its demonstrated value. Considerable areas of a number of other for-
age plants known to be adapted to alkaline conditions are being grown
with a view to determining their forage value.

INVESTIGATIONS OF GRASSES, FORAGE PLANTS, AND STOCK FEEDING.

The office of Grass and Forage Plant Investigations is now in posses-
sion of the varieties of timothy developed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins. Some
of these are greatly superior to timothy as ordinarily grown by farm-

40 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ers. They are being propagated with a view to making the seed
available, which it is hoped will be within two more years.

Mr. A. B. Leckenby, director of the Eastern Oregon experiment
station, has kindly turned over to this office 23 varieties of Bromus
énermis secured by him during the past two years. ‘These are being
erown with a view to rendering the best varieties available for distri-
bution.

The separation into varieties of such standard grasses as redtop, Ber-
muda, orchard grass, and meadow fescue has been undertaken. Work
of this character already done indicates that all of our standard grasses
are really mixtures of a large number of established varieties. Some
of these varieties are much superior to the et ordinarily grown.
It is hoped within a few years to be able to offer farmers small quan-
tities of seed of improved forms of all the standard grasses.

WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF HAY.

The office of Grass and Forage Plant Investigation has shown that
the ordinary rules in vogue for determining the volume of hay in the
stack are not reliable, and it has developed formule that give reliable
results. It is now investigating the number of cubic feet of hay per
ton for hay under various conditions as to kind of hay, size of stack,
and length of time it has been in stack.

DOMESTICATING NATIVE GRASSES.

A considerable number of native American grasses have shown them-
selves to be adapted to regions where at present hay grasses are want-
ing. Several of these are being grown under field conditions during
the present season with promise of success. The Bureau is gathering
a considerable quantity of seed of other grasses this year and will
give them a trial, particularly in the semiarid portions of the West,
at the earliest opportunity. It is believed that hay grasses can be
found for the Western plains where the average annual rainfall does

not exceed 15 inches.
WINTER PASTURES FOR THE SOUTH.

It is estimated that during the past winter one-third of the range
stock of some of the ranges in Florida perished for lack of proper
nourishment. The winter being severe, losses of range stock were
common in all parts of the South. It has been demonstrated that a
number of plants can be made to furnish satisfactory pasture through-
out the winter months in the South. During the past year a large
amount of information concerning these plants and their adaptability to
different soils, and the cultural methods required for their successful
growth, has been collected. During the present season it is planned
to cooperate with Southern experiment stations and Southern farmers
in testing a number of these plants for winter pasture purposes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4]

,

GULF COAST CROPS.

The agrostologists of the Bureau are studying the forage value of
the velvet bean, beggar weed, Mexican clover, and cassava for the
region adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico, to which our standard forage
crops are not adapted. They have shown that a well-nigh perfect stand
of cassava can be obtained by germinating the canes in a cold frame or
hotbed before planting them in the field. Heretofore the methods
used produced ordinarily not more than half a stand of this crop.
Methods of keeping cassava canes over winter are still being investi-
gated. These investigations indicate that the most important factor
in keeping the canes is maturity. It is extremely difficult to prevent
decay of partially matured canes during the winter months. Forty-
two varieties of cassava have been secured, one of which last year
produced seed in southern Mississippi, although planted nearly two
months later than the best planting season. This year one plant was
orown from this seed. It seems probable that some of these varieties
may be made to thrive considerably farther north than cassava has yet
been grown.

FORAGE CROPS FOR SOUTHERN FLORIDA.

The development of truck farming in southern Florida has rendered
urgent the need of forage crops for the work-stock used on the truck
farms and for the dairy cattle which supply milk to the numerous
hotels. Feed for this stock is now shipped long distances at great
expense. It appears that Guinea grass and Para grass are adapted to
climatic and soil conditions in that section and their possibilities for
this purpose are being investigated. (Guinea grass seems to possess
particular value for hay production, while Para grass appears to be
promising as a pasture grass, particularly for wet muck soils. The
Bureau is preparing to give them an extended trial.

PACIFIC COAST PROBLEMS.

The office of Grass and Forage Plant Investigations is searching for
forage crops to grow in alternation with wheat in order that farmers -
in the great wheat regions on the Pacific coast may be enabled to
secure more than one crop every other year on their fertile lands. A
number of grasses are also being studied with reference to their adapt-
ability to dry lands in that section, where there are many thousands
of acres of land too dry for any of the standard forage crops.

JOHNSON GRASS.

The agrostologists of the Bureau have demonstrated that the for-
midable pest known as Johnson grass may be completely destroyed
by practicable means and that it may easily be held in check. They
are now making demonstrations of the methods developed in their

42 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
investigations and are endeavoring to devise an implement for removing
Johnson grass rootstocks from the soil.

BOILING CROPS,

With the development of stock farming and more intensive methods,
particularly in the eastern half of the United States, the practice of
soiling is becoming more important. Farm practice with reference to
soiling crops is being studied with a view to formulating systems for
all sections of the country. In this, as in all investigations, the expe-
rience of successful farmers has been of great assistance.

CROPS FOR OVERFLOWED LANDS,

The problem of utilizing lands subject to annual overflow has con-
tinued to receive attention. Particular attention has been given to
short-season annual crops, such as millet, early varieties of corn and
sorghum, buckwheat, cowpeas, soy beans, and rape, for lands that are
free from water during midsummer and the fall season, and all these
crops have been grown successfully on land that was covered with
water until the latter part of June. The native grasses which are
extensively cut for hay on overflowed and swamp lands are also being
studied with a view to making seed of some of the best of them avail-
able on the markets, so that farmers who are in need of such grasses
may be able to obtain their seed,

FRUIT-MARKETING INVESTIGATIONS.

Next in importance to ability to produce choice fruits is the exist-
ence of a sufficient demand for them at prices that will yield a fair
profit to the grower. In fact, without reasonable assurance of market
demand for the product at fair prices, the planting or maintenance of
commercial orchards or vineyards is folly. From the nature of their
product, which is at the same time perishable and an article of luxury
rather than of absolute necessity to the average consumer, the pros-
perity of our fruit growers is more dependent upon the price of their
product at the time of harvest than that of almost any other agricul-
tural class. Glutted markets at such times are peculiarly disastrous
both to individual fruit growers and to the regions in which commer-
cial fruit culture has become an important feature of agriculture.

REMEDY FOR OVERSUPPLY.

The avoidance of gluts is, therefore, of very great importance to the
entire fruit industry. While many remedies have been suggested,
that which appears most practicable and reasonable is the wider dis-
tribution of the product. For this reason the chief line of investiga-
tion in fruit marketing has been the determination of methods best
adapted to the harvesting, packing, storing, and forwarding of fruits

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

to points relatively distant from their places of production, with a
view to developing wider demand for them, both in the United States
and foreign countries. Chief attention has been thus far given to
problems connected with the development of the trans-Atlantic export
trade, the most important work having been done with summer and
winter apples, peaches, and pears.

DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN MARKET FOR PEARS.

While some important points are yet unsettled in connection with
these fruits and require the continuation of experimental work upon
them, some gratifying evidence of the practical value of this line of
work appears worthy of notice. The determination of the methods
of handling and packing necessary to insure safe delivery of eastern-
grown Bartlett pears in European markets during the season of 1902-3
was followed in the fiscal year 1904 by large and profitable shipments
of this fruit from Eastern orchards to British markets. While official
statistics are not available, it is known through commercial channels
that more than 75,000 packages of this variety were thus exported,
while the total shipments of Eastern-grown summer and fall pears
amounted to at least 165 carloads. While this is but a small propor-
tion of the entire pear crop, its removal from the domestic market
was undoubtedly an important factor in maintaining the fair prices
that prevailed in our markets during that season, notwithstanding the
large crop of that fruit.

SHIPMENTS OF WINTER APPLES.

Largely through the efforts of the Department, which pointed out
the way through experimental shipments which demonstrated the prac-
ticability of direct shipments of winter apples to French markets, an
encouraging beginning in commercial shipments has resulted. Com-
mercial estimates indicate that during the fiscal year 1904 our direct
exportation of apples to France amounted to 200 carloads, which is
about twelve times as much as the annual average of the preceding five
years. With systematic and judicious continuation of such shipments
until consumers become accustomed to American varieties and methods
of packing, the French market. should rapidly become an important
factor in our export apple trade.

The most important experimental export work has been done upon
winter apples, as the magnitude of the apple industry warrants first
attention. A series of shipments to the principal European markets,
in an effort to determine the relative value of the barrel and the box
as export packages for this fruit, has disclosed on the whole very little
difference in the net results where ordinary ‘‘ No. 1” fruit was shipped,
either with or without paper wrapping. These results are not consid-
ered conclusive evidence of the relative merit of these packages, how-

44 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

ever, as it is known that in such matters repeated tests are required to
insure correct interpretation of results. Additional work along this
line will be done during the coming year.

EFFECT OF DEPARTMENT WORK ON EXPORT TRADE,

While exact determination of the effect of these investigations on
the development of export trade can not be ascertained, it is inter-
esting to note that a comparison of commercial estimates of the crops
of the successive seasons with the exports of the corresponding fiscal
years shows a steady increase in the proportion of the crop exported,
as well as a large increase in the quantity shipped, the proportion
exported having risen from less than 1 per cent of the estimated total
crop for 1899-1900 to nearly 43 per cent in 1903-4, when the total was
2,018,262 barrels, valued at $5,446,473, in the latter year.

PROGRESS IN FRUIT-STORAGE INVESTIGATIONS.

The cold storage of fruit has grown to large proportions in the
last decade, nearly 3 million barrels being cold-stored in the United
States last year. When the Bureau began investigations along this
line three years ago there was little exact information about the fac-
tors which influenced the keeping of fruit. It was popularly supposed
that a cold temperature was the most important consideration in suc-
cessful fruit storage, and that the frequent heavy losses were generally
due to unfavorable storage conditions. Asa result of the investiga-
tions, especially during the past year, it has been demonstrated that the
condition in which the fruit is grown and the manner of handling it
determine to a large extent the keeping quality as well as the ultimate
value of the fruit. Fruit grown to unusual size, like that from rapidly
growing young trees, from trees producing a light crop, or from trees
forced unduly by tillage or by other orchard treatment, has been shown
to deteriorate from one to three months earlier than the same variety
erown more slowly.

The investigations are showing that fruit intended for storage must
be handled with the utmost care in picking, packing, and shipping,
and stored quickly after picking in well-ventilated rooms in a temper-
ature of about 31° to 32° F., if the storage difficulties now most com-
mon are to be overcome.

CAUSES OF LOSS IN SHIPPING PERISHABLE FRUITS.

During the past season the Bureau has undertaken to determine what
factors cause the frequent losses that occur in shipping perishable
fruits, such as peaches, to distant markets. From 5 to 30 per cent of
decayed and soft peaches in the top layers of a refrigerator car on
arrival at cestination from the Southern peach areas is not uncommon,
especially in moist, warm weather. Several cars in which the fruit

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

was cooled quickly after picking ‘to about 40° F. were shipped from
Georgia to Northern markets. All of this fruit arrived in practically
perfect condition, demonstrating that the common practice of loading
perishable fruits in a heated condition is one of the important factors in
causing serious economic losses. Furthermore, it was demonstrated
that the cars could be loaded more heavily with little danger of the
fruit in the top of the car deteriorating, and the fruit was harvested
and reached the consumer ina riper and better condition on account
of the better carrying quality.

FARM HANDLING AND STORAGE,

In addition to the work outlined, the Bureau is endeavoring to
supply the demand for information from fruit growers by determin-
ing what cold-storage systems are best adapted to farm use.

There has been a demand for experimental work in fruit marketing
and storage from fruit growers on the Pacific coast. The funds avail-
able have limited the work to the East up to this time. During the
present winter the investigations will be extended to the citrus indus-
try of California, which in the season of 1903-4 amounted to 30,000
carloads of oranges and lemons. The losses in transit and in ware-
houses when the warm spring weather sets in are sometimes very
large. It is proposed to find out what relation the present methods
of picking, packing, handling, and shipping the fruit bear to these
losses, in a manner similar to the investigations with deciduous fruits.

INFLUENCE OF INVESTIGATIONS.

That these investigations in fruit storage are having an important
influence in improving the commercial methods of handling our fruit
products is seen in their growing application by fruit growers, han-
dlers, and warehousemen, all of whom are making demands on the
Department for information and for enlarged investigations.

NEW PLANT CREATIONS.

The plant-breeding work, heretofore described, has been continued
along a number of new lines. Great advances have been made in the
matter of securing new and desirable long-staple cottons. During the
last three years a number of long-staple Upland varieties of cotton have
been originated, and these have come to be cultivated to some extent
in certain parts of the cotton belt, and very generally in the rich
bottom lands of the Mississippi and Red rivers in Mississippi, Arkan-
sas, Louisiana, and Texas. A large number of hybrids have been
made for the purpose of securing Upland types of long-staple cottons,
which can be put into general cultivation, and which will be superior
to those now in use. Several of these hybrids are approaching fixity
of type. Among these are some having a staple from 14 to 12 inches
in length.

46 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BREEDING OF CEREALS.

In the breeding and improvement of corn important advances are
being made. ‘The main object of this work has been the selection of
strains of corn best adapted to the different sections of the United
States. The work is being conducted in cooperation with twenty or more
State experiment stations and many farmers. Each year the Depart-
ment obtains pure seed from the originators and breeders of the lead-
ing strains of corn in various sections of the country, and is sending
this seed to different localties for comparative tests. At the same time
extensive hybridization work is proceeding for the purpose of secur-
ing sweeter, more tender, and more productive strains of sweet corn
for table use. Connected with this work, also, there are being studied
problems relating to the handling of seed corn, seed selection, etc.

Extensive breeding investigations of oats have been carried on,
mainly for the purpose of producing a profitable variety for the rich
farm lands of the great corn-growing States, where oats are used in
rotation with corn. The production of a more desirable oat for meal
constitutes a part of this work. Some very promising hybrids have
been obtained from the naked oat of China—the so-called ‘* European
hull-less oat.”

BREEDING POTATOES AND TOBACCO.

In the improvement of potatoes important work has been conducted
along two lines—{1) type selections, and (2) the production of new
seedling varieties. This work was begun in 1902, and already very
promising results have been obtained, especially from some of the
hybrids.

Some of the most important investigations in the matter of breeding
and selection have been inaugurated in connection with the growing
of tobacco. This work is conducted along two principal lines—(1) the
selection of individual types in the varieties, and (2) crosses between
different varieties. Extensive work has been carried on in Connecticut,
where both shade and outside tobacco are grown. The work con-
ducted so far has shown unquestionably that the desirable character-
istics in the leaf can be fixed from the first year’s selection. In this
work nine different types have been used and more. than 300 selections
have been made of each type. One hundred and twenty-five plants
are used as a standard for each selection. Thus the work of selection
alone has involved the use of something over 40,000 plants.

The work has been conducted in such a way that all the plants have
been grown under tent shade, and the entire development of the leaf,
from the seed bed to the manufactured product, can be followed.
Allied with this work extensive investigations have been made as to
the effect of hybridization. Hybrids are easily secured, and from the
evidence already obtained by experience in the Connecticut Valley it

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

is believed that the improvement of tobacco by crossing is practica-
ble and can be successfully carried out according to plans now in
operation,

NEW FRUITS.

Other important lines of work, having for their object the securing
of new types of grains, fruits, and other crops, have been carried on.
Important work has been done in the matter of developing new varie-
ties of pineapples, new varieties of pears, and other fruits.

PROGRESS IN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION.

The work of introducing and establishing new plants from foreign
countries has resulted during the year in the introduction of 1,429
selected kinds of seeds and plants. These have been secured through
correspondence and by means of our agricultural explorers, one of °
whom was sent to the Russian Caucasus in search of new varieties of
fruits; one to the West Indies for tropical cassava; a third made an
extensive study of the European flax regions, and a fourth visited
Mexico in search of southern country apricots. Such a large number
of plants, introduced during previous years, remained to be adjusted
to American conditions that the efforts this year, more than last, were
concentrated on the domestic side of the problems, and no very exten-
sive exploring trips were undertaken. Notwithstanding this, how-
ever, a number of new important importations were made. A ship-
ment of over 350 date suckers, representing 42 varieties, mostly new
to America, was made from the oasis of Biskra in the Sahara. Two
hundred and seventy samples of different strains of European flax
were collected. <A collection of 19 selected varieties of grapes from
the Russian Caucasus was arranged for. Two hundred and fifty
pounds of seeds of the true pistache and smalier quantities of seeds of
related species for stocks were imported from Turkey and Central
Asia. Thirty-three varieties of mangoes of recognized superiority
were secured from Central India in Wardian cases for Florida
cultivators.

NEW PLANTS FROM EASTERN COUNTRIES.

A shipment of 157 bushels of berseem was made from the valley of
the Nile. Two thousand pounds of the famous pedigreed Hanna barley
were secured from its originator in Moravia. ‘Two hundred trees of the
hardy Vladimir cherry, for trial in the Northwest, were imported from
Russia. One hundred and five varieties of French phylloxera-resistant
grapevines were secured for trial in infested California vineyards. New
species of the lily, from the Philippines and the Neilgherry hills of India,
were introduced for breeding purposes. The yang-taw, from Central
China, an entirely new fruit-producing vine, was presented to the
Department by Consul Wilcox, of Hankow. A number of promising

48 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

resistant South African grapevines, a collection of Canary Island
plants, some East African sorghums, and an interesting clover from
Uganda were some of the gifts of Mr. Barbour Lathrop, whose expe-
ditions in search of plants for this Department have been mentioned
in previous reports.

DURUM WHEAT AND OTHER PREVIOUS INTRODUCTIONS.

Many of the important introductions from previous years still
occupy the attention of the office, and either require fresh material
from abroad or necessitate field experiments. The durum wheat area
has been greatly extended, as already noted. A new date garden in
the desert region of southern California has been established in coop-
eration with the State experiment station. The Egyptian cotton
introductions are leading to the production of new hybrid races of
promise. The Malin or Moravian horse-radish has proved a success.
Japanese bamboo and Mitsumata paper plantations are being arranged
for. ‘Tropical mangosteens, imported by post, are being successfully
propagated for distribution in Porto Rico and Hawaii. Egyptian clover
is being given an extensive trial in Texas, Louisiana, and California. A
new seedless pomelo from Siam has been grown for distribution. The
Turkestan alfalfa has seeded in several localities, and the securing of
American-grown seed of this variety is now a possibility.

CONGRESSIONAL SEED DISTRIBUTION.

As pointed out in my previous reports, constant efforts are being
made toward the improvement of methods of securing and handling
the general seeds for Congressional distribution. Improved appliances
have been perfected for the mechanical work, and improved methods
have been adopted for securing the seed. The work is now all under
the direct supervision of efficient officers of the Bureau of Plant
Industry. Every effort is being made to improve the quality of the
seed by securing pure stocks. Extensive work is being conducted in
the matter of a critical study of varieties under different conditions of
soil and climate. Testing gardens for this purpose have been estab-
lished in a number of localities, and the work is under the supervision
of athoroughly competent expert horticulturist. Every effort is being
made to encourage home seed growing. Practically all of the vege-
table seed now distributed by the Department is grown in the United
States.

A few years ago nearly all of the flower seed, except sweet peas, was
imported. Now fully 75 per cent is grown here, through the encour-
agement offered by the Department in this work. A special effort is
put forth in the matter of distributing promising varieties of cotton,
tobacco, forage crop, and other seeds. The cotton experts of the
Bureau have been constantly at work securing new and desirable sorts

<_<

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

wherever they have been found in connection with the other cotton
investigations. The results of this continuous distribution of improved
strains are already beginning to show in a number of sections of the
South.

In the handling of this enormous work which Congress puts upon
the Department, the necessity for strict business methods has been
fully observed. The work of handling one branch only of this prob-
lem involves the securing of more than 25 carloads of special seed,
and the testing, packeting, and mailing of this large quantity to all
parts of the United States. The systematizing of all the operations
has been so perfected that there is little or no friction at the present
time. ;

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA.

Extensive practical-tests were made the past season with nitrogen-
fixing bacteria for use in connection with leguminous crops. The
results have been even more successful than we had anticipated. Hun-
dreds of applications have been sent in from every State in the Union
for material with which to inoculate various crops. Practically all of
these requests have been complied with in such a way that a record of
the results could be obtained. The results show conclusively that
where the organisms are used in accordance with the directions issued
by the Bureau increased yields, ranging from 15 to 35 per cent, are
secured. Furthermore, many farmers have been successful in getting
stands of clovers and other crops on soils where failure has resulted
heretofore. The several strains of bacteria sent out from the Depart-
ment have proved valuable even on soils containing the uncultivated
organisms in abundance. It was discovered during the year that
tubercle formation is not necessary to successful inoculation.

The bacteria can be present in the roots of legumes in a very eflicient
state with no tubercle formation whatever. The material for inocu-
lating an acre of soil by the methods which have been developed costs
the Department about J cent per acre and the farmer scarcely any-
thing to apply it. So great has become the demand for this material
that private concerns have become convinced that there is profit in pre-
paring and distributing it, and several firms are now announcing their
preparedness for doing this. Widespread interest in the subject has
been manifested by the agricultural press and the magazines, and
as a result of this publicity the demand for the organisms is constantly
increasing.

INVESTIGATION OF PLANTS POISONOUS TO STOCK.

In parts of the Northwest where sheep grazing is an extensive
industry, very great losses have been experienced in many sections,
due to the so-called ‘‘loco disease.” This disease is commonly attrib-
uted to the eating of the loco weed, by which parts of the range are

2 «19944

50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

almost monopolized. In one county in one of the Northwestern States
in which sheep grazing has been the chief industry, the disease has
made such inroads that many stockmen have been obliged to give up
sheep grazing altogether, with the result that land values have depre-
ciated and the sheep from this region are viewed with suspicion by
buyers.

During the past two years investigations have been made to test
the relation between this devastating trouble and the so-called ‘‘ loco
weed” prevalent in this section of the country.

FIBER PLANTS.

eo, with
increased demand for twine, cordage, and woven goods, but, with the
exception of cotton, the enhaeann of plant fibers in this country has
not kept pace with the consumption. The raw fiber imported during
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904, was valued at more than $47,000,-
000. This amount included about $9,000,000 worth of cotton, chiefly
Egyptian and other grades, not produced here commercially. The
other fibers imported were mostly sisal, manila, jute, flax, istle, and
hemp. Investigations of all these fibers have been conducted by the
Bureau, special attention being given to those likely to succeed in our
own country.

The textile industries using plant fibers have been growing

DRY-LAND AGRICULTURE.

In my last annual report attention was called to the importance of
developing a system of agriculture adapted to the semiarid areas of
the United States where general irrigation for ordinary crops is not
practicable or possible owing to the small annual rainfall and the con-
sequent lack of sufficient water. This is true of nearly one-fourth of
the entire arable land surface of this country. It is believed, how-
ever, that a profitable system of agriculture can be developed for these
areas by securing crops which will grow with a very small amount of
water. Considerable progress has been made in this direction and
facts have been secured which show the necessity of an immediate and
thorough investigation of the conditions affecting the moisture
requirements of crop plants for growth in semiarid regions, such as
Kafir corn, alfalfa, drought-resistant wheats, and other crops at pres-
ent unknown to American agriculture.

WATER PURIFICATION INVESTIGATIONS.

Attention was called in my last report to the investigations being
carried on by the physiologists of the Bureau of Plant Industry with
a view to finding methods of destroying obnoxious alge in water sup-
plies. The method discovered consists in using extremely dilute
solutions of copper sulphate. After a chemical and microscopical

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

study of the water to be treated, and identification of the contam-
inating organisms, the amount of copper required to be effective is
determined and introduced in the form of sulphate. Numerous tests
have been made in cooperation with boards of health and water eng’-
neers in a number of large reservoirs, and the method has proved
remarkably efficient and successful. The fact that one part of copper
sulphate to one hundred thousand parts of water will at ordinary tem-
peratures completely destroy the bacteria causing typhoid fever and
Asiatic cholera suggests the great usefulness of copper in fighting
these diseases and other maladies caused by closely related organisms.
Physicians and public health officials have taken great interest in this
work, and will doubtless make prompt and thorougk tests of the use-
fulness of copper in such cases.

CONSTRUCTION OF NEW GREENHOUSES.

The new buildings planned for the Department made it necessary to
remove the glass houses now on the grounds. A special appropriation
of $25,000 was secured for this purpose, and the new houses have
been erected and are now complete. This new range consists of 8
modern houses, each 142 feet long, which were put up under contract.
Three additional houses have been put up by the Bureau’s force of
workers, and two of the smaller houses have been moved from their
old location to the new one. The new range is much more satisfactory
than the old one, and it will be devoted to various lines of work con-
nected with the Bureau. The contract for the new houses was let on
June 1, 1904, and they were completed on September 1 of the same
year.

ARLINGTON FARM.

During the year the important work of improving the soil condi-
tions at the Arlington Farm has been continued. New systems of
drainage have been put in, cottages for the superintendent and other
workers constructed, barns erected, and other improvements made;
and the farm has been put in shape for the advanced experimental
work it is proposed to conduct there. Extensive plantings have also
been made of economic fruits, ornamental trees, and other plants.
Test work with potatoes, celery, forage crops, and various fruits has
been carried on. Cooperative work with other Bureaus has also been
inaugurated.

COOPERATION WITH STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

The Bureau of Plant Industry is now cooperating with practically
all of the State experiment stations in the country. The work covers
investigations of diseases of plants, studies having for their object
plant improvement, investigation of forage crop conditions, encour-

52 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
agement in the production of new crops and new industries, and many
other lines of work. In some special cases, notably California, close
cooperation has been effected, having for its object the establishment
of important testing gardens and other allied work. With the assist-
ance of the officers of the California experiment station a testing gar-
den has been established at Chico, Cal. The Jand for this garden has
been donated to the experiment station, to be held in trust by the
station for the use of the Bureau.

It is planned to carry on extensive work here in the matter of test-
ing grains, fruits, and other crops specially adapted to the Pacific
Coast. It is the policy of the Department in all cooperative work with
the stations to fully recognize the relations of the stations to the oflicers
who control them. Furthermore, wherever the Department desires
to undertake work in a State, its policy is to endeavor to do this work
in cooperation with the station.

FARM MANAGEMENT.

In order to properly conduct the work on farm management, which
has already been set forth in previous reports, an office has been estab
lished for the purpose. The object of this office is to bring together
in systematic shape all of the available information in the Bureau in
such a way that it can be placed in the hands of the farmer for his
practical use. The office gathers together information concerning
farm practice in all sections of the country as a basis for further work.
It secures and publishes correct records of crops grown and the
manner of growing them, for the information of others who desire to
follow successful plans. It encourages farmers to visit and study
experiment station work, the experiment stations, and the successful
farmers in their own section. It encourages diversification in farming
where continuous, clean cultivation of a single crop has impoverished
the soil. It outlines systems of cropping for different kinds of farm-
ing in all sections of the country, and furnishes data in the matter of
properly laying out farms, fruit plantations, truck gardens, ete.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

PRESENT FOREST SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

The present outlook as regards forestry in the United States is
exceedingly hopeful. The lumber industry as a whole is now awak:
ening to the fact that lumbering with reference to future as well as
present profits may be good business and ought to be taken into
account on business grounds. A growing tendency to hold cut-over
lands for future crops is plainly marked among far-sighted owners of
large holdings. This means that conservative management on the part
of those who operate on a large scale is fairly launched. Except that

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 58

further agitation is essential to give the facts publicity, the general
adoption of forestry asan established policy now depends primarily on
business conditions pure and simple. ‘The question whether or not it
will pay is one to be settled in each individual case by study of condi-
tions on the ground. Forestry can not alter economic conditions; it
can only use them. Forestry is now in actual practice on large,
privately owned tracts in seyen different States. This is the direct
result of the past work of this Department in forestry.

FIELDS FOR FUTURE WORK OF THE BUREAD.
NEED OF INVESTIGATING GENERAL FOREST PROBLEMS.

Extensive investigations of forest conditions and of methods of
operation are still urgently needed before the road to practical success
can be said to be generally open. The employment of foresters by
large private owners to supervise operations on their own lands is
being taken up. In the public interest this needs to be brought about
wherever conditions are favorable, but more and more the promotion
of private forestry by the Bureau of Forestry can and should be made
incidental to its other functions of directing the management of public
forest lands and scientifically investigating general forest problems.

In the case of small owners much remains to be done. The farmers
of the country are learning how to get the most out of their land in
other ways through the scientific information which the Department
of Agriculture collects and diffuses. So, also, in the case of timber
yield, studies which individuals can not undertake but which must be
made if the wealth-producing power of the country as a whole is to
be brought to its highest point, need to be prosecuted in the public
interest. The average small timber-land owner is to-day in many
parts of the country at a decided disadvantage in comparison with the
large owner, because he lacks both working capital and equally broad
knowledge of general conditions. It is true that large lumbering
operations can often be made more profitable than small, but it is not
in the public interest that small owners should fail to make «a profit
which is within their reach because they do not know how best to
utilize what they have now, or do not realize what it is likely to be
worth in the future. Thus the furtherance of that part of this
Department’s work which is directed toward informing the small
owner how he can to advantage practice forestry on his own account,
is of the first importance for the best use of the 200 million acres of
woodlots which our country contains.

SCIENTIFIC STUDIES AND AID IN CARE OF STATE AND NATIONAL FORESTS.

By its scientific studies of American forests the Bureau of Forestry
has prepared a solid basis for practical forestry. Special studies of
our important timber trees have yielded information obtainable in no

54 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

other way and essential to the management of forests of which they
form an important part. There is now no considerable portion of the
United States for which the Bureau of Forestry has not at hand special
knowledge bearing directly on questions pertaining to the use of the
forests. Nevertheless, what has been done is hardly a beginning in
comparison with the vastness of the field.

In the work of building up a sound permanent policy for the forests
of the National domain the Department of Agriculture has continued
to render important services. Much of the work of the Bureau of
Forestry during the year has been the examination of lands already
reserved or likély to be reserved in order to recommend the exclusion
from them of such areas as are more valuable for agriculture than
under forest. The personnel of the Bureau of Forestry has become
practically familiar, by studies on the ground, with every phase of the
question of putting to the best use the public lands of the country.
Thus an efficient force has been prepared by actual experience, as well
as by technical, scientific training, for the demands which a fully
developed National forest policy must eventually impose.

In the light of these facts it is plain that the ultimate function of the
Bureau of Forestry as a part of the Government administrative equip-
ment is gradually defining itself. Its effort to introduce forest man-
agement among large private owners at the earliest possible moment
will cease to be necessary when it becomes generally successful. It
was undertaken because of an evident urgent public need. Destructive
lumbering had already greatly reduced the area of productive timber
lands in the United States, and its continuance was a menace to the
future prosperity of the country. Because of the work of this Bureau
forestry has now a recognized standing in the eyes of the American
lumber trade. The Bureau of Forestry is giving a smaller proportion
of its time to the preparation of working plans for large timber tracts
belonging to private owners than ever before, and bearing a smaller
proportion of the expense, and the progress of the past year has
brought visibly nearer the time when it can withdraw practically or
entirely from this field.

There will then chiefly remain work along the lines of (1) scientific
study of problems which have a practical bearing on forest utilization
for any purpose; (2) cooperation with States which ask advice con-
cerning forest legislation, administration, or the formulation of a State
forest policy, and (3) the discharge of whatever duties may be assigned
to it in connection with the administration of the public lands by the
National Government.

Along this latter line it is at present the official adviser in technical
matters of the Departments which have in charge forested lands under
Government control, both here and in the Philippines, and it is also

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55
chiefly responsible for recommending changes in present reserve
boundaries and for recommending the setting aside of new reserves.
The policy which lies at the base of the creation of the reserves is that
the public forests should not be withdrawn from use, but should be
managed under such restrictions as will insure their permanent use-
fulness. ‘This policy this Department is actively furthering, and no
part of its work is more important.

LINES OF WORK REQUIRING EXTENSION.

An increase in the funds available for the Bureau of Forestry is
essential to make it possible to push its work more rapidly. It is my
purpose to provide the fullest facilities for the prompt investigation
of actual or proposed forest reserves, as well as for further examina-
tions of forested parts of the public domain not now reserved which
give promise of permanent value as sources of water or wood supply.
The greatest need of the West is water. In many States future settle-
ment and prosperity depend absolutely upon its conservation. This
again largely, in many cases wholly, depends on the preservation of
the forests. To make possible the execution and extension of the
work, I have asked for an increased appropriation for the Bureau of
Forestry for the coming year.

PLANTING ON FOREST RESERVES.—The work of planting on forest
reserves opens another fruitful field. In the San Gabriel Reserve in
California, the Pikes Peak Reserve in Colorado, and the Dismal River
Reserve in Nebraska, the planting has been begun and should be
vigorously prosecuted. In the first two cases the object is to cover
denuded mountain slopes with forest growth, in the interest primarily
of water conservation and, in the case of the Nebraska reserve, to
provide a future valuable timber supply. ‘This planting is under-
taken only after a careful preliminary survey has proved that there
is an economic need for new growth which nature can not supply, and
after painstaking experiment has demonstrated what methods can be
depended on for success. Under these circumstances expenditure for
planting is as truly economical as is that of the farmer when he pur-
chases seed to sow that he may harvest the increase. I believe that an
addition to the sum available for this work will be amply justified by
the returns.

The development of economic mining will soon wait for the growth
of trees within reasonable distance. The miner is an important factor
in the growth of many of our States and of the country at large, and
should have all facilities given him to conduct his work on the most
economic basis. Where the miner ceases work the farm and factory
lose a market. For this reason the miner should have the first claim
on the forest for such timbers as he requires.

56 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

SruDIES IN FOREST PRODUCTS.—Auxiliary to studies of the forest
itself, but of the most importance in relation to the conservative use
of our forest resources, stand the studies in forest products. Among
them at the present time are (1) the studies in timber preservation,
especially of railroad ties, which promise such conspicuous and suc-
cessful results in timber economy; (2) the experiments in timber test-
ing, to ascertain, under such conditions as obtain in actual everyday
practice, new strength determinations for use by engineers, architects,
and others; and (3) the investigations of the tannin content of barks,
of pulp processes, etc. In the way of securing large economies by a
comparatively small outlay for investigation, no more promising field
for useful work by the Bureau of Forestry is open than this.

CoorERATION witH SraTe AuTHoRiTres.—The desire of State au-
thorities for the assistance of the Bureau of Forestry in cooperative
work and in framing forest legislation and their willingnéss to con-
tribute to its cost are facts worth noting. State cooperative studies
have now been made in Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Maryland,
Michigan, Wisconsin, California, and Hawaii. Were this Department
prepared to push the work along this line large results could be
rapidly secured. The whole cause of forest preservation hinges on
the interest of the State governments, because no matter how fully
persuaded the private owner may be that forest management promises
to yield him good returns, without fair assurance of safeguard against
fire and of equitable taxation during the period required for a second
crop to mature on cut-over lands, he can make no headway. The
exclusion of fire depends on local sentiment, State legislation, and
State or local police and patrol. Unless the States are awake to their
duty toward this form of property the Federal Government can do
little beyond caring for its own holdings. In California one result of
the cooperative work now going on is the drafting of what appears to
be the best forest-fire law yet drawn up in this country. ‘The way is
now open for a great advance through State cooperation if the requi-
site means of meeting its cost beyond the State contributions can be
made avuilable.

SUCCESS OF FORESTRY WORK.

The suecessive advances which have been made by Congress of
recent years in the appropriation for the Bureau of Forestry offer one
of the best evidences of the commendation which its work has received.
More and more money has been given to it to spend because it has
proved year by year its capacity to do more, and more practical, good
work. It prosecutes its researches solely that it may discover and
diffuse information which contributes to our National well-being.
Within six years its force has increased sixteenfold and its expendi-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 57

ture twelvefold; but neither of these facts is an adequate measure of
its advance in practical efficiency or of its success in changing former
conditions. By a single discovery—that the cup and gutter system,
devised by one of its agents, could be commercially applied to the pro-
duction of crude turpentine—it is now saving many times more annu-
ally to the naval-stores industry than the total expenditures of the
Bureau during the whole six years.

It has changed forestry for business returns in the United States
from an undemonstrated and doubtful theory into a well-established
business operation; it has converted the lumber industry of the coun-
try from an attitude of well-grounded suspicion to one of support; it
has converted the general public from indifference to what seemed an
impractical outery to an intelligent comprehension of what forestry
has to offer. By bringing home to the railroads the need of economic
utilization, preservative treatment, and provision for future supplies
it has set on foot a movement of incalculable importance. By teach-
ing Western farmers how to plant and grow trees for farm protection
and local timber supplies it has added materially to the comfort and
prosperity of vast regions and many States. More important still, by
demonstrating the capacity of the forest to store water, and by ener-
getic activity to guard from sale or destruction forests of important
protective power, it has contributed to the success of National irriga-
tion, one of the most vital developments of recent years.

NEED OF FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY.

But though this Bureau has accomplished and is accomplishing prac-
tical results out of all proportion to its money expenditure, this is not
exceptional in the Department of Agriculture, and forms in itself no
justification for a further increase. The question is simply in each
case whether the country will be better off by spending the money or
by not spending it. There are, however, certain special reasons why
the Bureau of Forestry should have made, and should for some time
continue to make, an exceptionally rapid growth. Its task is virtually
that of building up a new science in this country, combined with that
of getting its discoveries recognized and applied by a public once little
alive to their value. No other branch of agricultural science has
recently been in such need of development, and in the whole history
of agricultural progress I believe that no other similar development
was ever more timely. This development took place because of the
unparalleled National need created by the vastness of the interest
involved and the critical point which forest destruction had reached.
And there is still much to be done before this new science can over-
take the nation’s requirements.

58 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

WORK ACCOMPLISHED DURING THE YEAR,
COOPERATIVE STATE FOREST STUDIES.

Forest studies in cooperation with State or ‘Territorial governments
were carried on during the year in New Hampshire, Maryland, Wis-
consin, California, and Hawaii. A report on the work in New Hamp-
shire is now in the hands of the printer. It contains a thorough study
of the main forest resources of the State, and will afford a satisfactory
basis for the adoption of a broad and far-sighted State forest policy.

The study in Hawaii resulted in the publication of a bulletin on
**The Forests of the Hawaiian Islands,” in the adoption by the Terri-
torial government of its recommendations, and the appointment of a
member of the Bureau of Forestry as superintendent of forestry in the
islands.

A map and report embodying results of the work in Maryland will
appear in the annual report of the State geologist.

In California over 20,000,000 acres of forest were mapped and
described; the growth of planted eucalypts was studied; important
investigations of the effects of chaparral cover on water conservation
and on the forest, and of the forest replacement on denuded areas,
were prosecuted; and the study of forest fires was continued, with
the result that what is believed to be the best fire Jaw ever prepared
for State enactment has been drafted for presentation to the
legislature.

FOREST MEASUREMENTS.

Of forest measurements there were handled during the last fiscal
year the results of over 24,000 acres of valuation surveys, over 33,000
analyses of trees, 16,000 height measurements, and 2,300 taper
measurements. The volume of this work does not, however, measure
its importance. In computing, compiling, and digesting the mass of
information supplied by the field studies of the Bureau the accumula-
tion of details would count for little if the results were worked up by
purely routine or mechanical methods. The task imposed is to create
a body of scientific knowledge by developing to significant conclusions
the raw material turned in—a task calling first of all for intelligence
and insight. The result is real advance in accurate knowledge of
forest conditions and increasing ability to direct practical operations.
Both in the preparation of working plans and in the special studies
of commercial trees and forest problems which have been made during
the year the efficiency of the work included under forest measure-
ments has been demonstrated.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.
The-work of the Bureau under the act of Congress of June 27, 1902,
known as the Morris bill, has proved that conservative lumbering
under practical regulations pays in the white-pine region of northern

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

Minnesota. In point of fact a higher price was obtained for the timber
sold under that act, to be cut and removed under rules prescribed by
the Forester, than similar adjacent timber brought shortly before,
when sold without such restrictions. On about one-fourth of the
200,000 acres to be lumbered the 5 per cent of timber to be left standing
had been selected and marked at the end of the fiscal year.

During the year applications for assistance in introducing forest
management on private holdings were received from 47 owners of
large tracts, covering nearly 4,000,000 acres, and from 89 owners of
woodlots with a total area of about 6,600 acres. The field work for
eight working plans for large tracts, covering about 1,000,000 acres,
was completed, and for 68 woodlots of nearly 19,000 acres total area.

The eight working plans for large tracts were studies of typical
problems in five widely separated States. In Minnesota a tract of
land formerly covered mainly with white and Norway pine, a large
part of which has been lumbered and is now entirely unproductive, pre-
sented a characteristic example of much of the remaining forest land
of the lake region. The plan of management devised provides for
reproduction from seed trees and for fire protection. In Alabama a
working plan was prepared for two forests of virgin longleaf pine,
owned by one company, which wished to be assured of a continuous
mill supply. In Texas another longleaf-pine study completed during
the year furnished the material for estimating present and future
yields of longleaf and at the same time demonstrated the wastefulness
of some of the lumbering methods now commonly followed.

In West Virginia a tract covered with hardwood, hemlock, and
spruce forest, much of which is in poor condition, was studied to
ascertain the practicability of management. In New Hampshire three
working plans were prepared: one for a tract where the requirement
was primarily the improvement of a forest-park property; the second
for the tract of a manufacturing company wishing to secure a steady
supply of box boards and increase the productiveness of the forest;
and the third for a White Mountain tract, where the chief requirement
Was a system of fire protection.

Commercial tree studies of the year included balsam fir, paper
birch, poplar, loblolly pine, and red gum.

DENDROLOGY.

Reports which mark the conclusion of the field studies of Missouri
swamp forests and Ohio hardwood forests, and of the laboratory
studies of gums, resins, tan barks, and pulp-wood fibers conducted in
cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry, were completed during the
year. Field work was completed in the studies of California big trees
and bristlecone fir, and of turpentine orcharding and laboratory work
in a cooperative investigation of turpentine adulterants. A descrip-
tive study of the forests of Suffolk and Nassau counties, Long Island,

60 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was begun and finished; investigations of Pacific coast tan-bark trees
and of basket-willow culture were continued; and an investigation of
methods of turpentine distillation, with special reference to improving
commercial processes of production in this country, was begun.
Experiments bearing on the culture of the sugar maple were made to
supplement a study of the sugar-maple industry previously com-
pleted. The collection of forest photographs received notable addi-
tions by exchange with foreign countries, and by gifts as well as by
the normal increase from the new photographs obtained by the Bureau
of Forestry in connection with its field work.

FOREST EXTENSION, FOREST FIRES, AND SPECIAL STUDIES.

In the work of cooperation with private owners to promote forest
planting the Bureau of Forestry prepared during the year 42 planting
plans for an aggregate of over 2,800 acres. Altogether 334 planting
plans have been made for land in 52 States and Territories. This is
a work of high utility, particularly in those regions of the West
where timber and water are scarce and farm protection against hot or
cold winds is important. Cooperation is confined to the giving of
expert advice; all the expense of the planting is borne by the owner.
By the adoption of a system of regional studies rapid progress is
being made toward a point at which this expert advice can ordinarily
be given by correspondence. When this point is reached, the Bureau
of Forestry will be in a position to contribute materially to the well-
being of wide regions at almost no expense.

In forest-reserve planting extensive operations are now under way
in Nebraska, where previous experiments have pointed out how plant-
ing on a large scale can be made successful. In the spring of 1904
there were taken from the nursery and planted in the Dismal River
Reserve 300,000 seedlings, of which over 90 per cent survived.
Highly efficient and economical methods of doing this work were de-
vised. Preliminary preparations for planting were made in the Nio-
brara Reserve, Nebraska, the San Gabriel Reserve, California, and
the Pikes Peak Reserve, Colorado.

Studies of natural forest replacement were conducted in Colorado,
western Kansas, western Nebraska, northern New Mexico, and New
England.

The investigation of forest fires, with especial reference to methods
of preventing and controlling them, has been continued, and encour-
aging progress made. The study of the reclamation of shifting sand
through forest growth was continued.

TIMBER PRESERVATION, STRENGTH, AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

The studies in timber preservation conducted by the Bureau of
Forestry are yielding results of large economic importance. Exten-
sive experiments were conducted during the year in the West with

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly, lodgepole, and western yellow pine, spruce,
and white and red fir ties. ‘Ties were employed for these tests partly
because of the opportunities for experiments of general application
afforded by the selection of this form of timber, and partly because of
the intrinsic importance of the specific subject of tie preservation.
These experiments have already developed a number of important
facts connected with timber seasoning and preservation.

In the Central States similar experiments were made with a large
number of hardwood timbers, especially with those possibly capable of
filling the place for certain uses of white oak and hickory, the supply
of which is dwindling fast. It was found that chemical treatment
will permit their use for structural purposes; that conspicuous
improvement in present methods of seasoning is possible; and that the
effectiveness of preservative treatment of red oak is greatly increased
by thorough seasoning both before and after treatment.

In the East the seasoning of and application of preservatives to tele-
eraph and telephone poles and cross arms were investigated, and dis-
coveries which render possible considerable economies were made.
Further experiments to reduce the rate of decay of poles at the butt
are under way. Seasoning experiments are in progress with Adiron-
dack hardwoods.

The investigation of the strength of timbers directly meets the needs
of engineers, architects, and others who have to do with the use of con-
struction timber, and is likely to be followed by a revision of specifica-
tion requirements and grading rules. Large timbers in market forms
and sizes, of red fir, western hemlock, and loblolly and longleaf pine
were tested. Eastern investigations of many species are needed
in the interest of the most economical use of our timber supply; for it
is undoubtedly true that timber trees neglected hitherto will be found
to possess unsuspected value.

Other important lines of investigation pursued were a study of the
mechanical properties of red gum, which established, among other
things, its suitability for carriage manufacture; studies of the relative
strength of various forms of tie fastenings and of devices to prevent
the rapid wear of soft timbers protected against decay by preservative
treatment; and a study of the effect of moisture content on the strength
of timber.

LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION FOREST EXHIBIT.

The most extensive and complete forest exhibit ever made by this
Bureau was installed at the Exposition at St. Louis. It included the
execution out of doors of tree-planting plans and the setting of trees
adapted to every part of the country, and an exhibit of the best forest
nursery methods. A full exhibit by transparencies, pictures, and
apparatus illustrated every phase of our forestry work and forest con-

62 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

ditions in all parts of the country. Methods of testing commercial
timber were illustrated, and an experimental plant for wood preserva-
tion was established and operated during the Fair.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.

The Bureau of Chemistry, during the last few years, has expanded
the sphere of its activity in many directions.

AID TO OTHER DEPARTMENTS.

First to be noticed of this expansion is the work done under that
authorization by Congress which secures the services of this Bureau
for the other Departments of the Government. Under this authority
the amount of work which has been done for the other Departments
has rapidly increased. This is especially true of chemical determina-
tions in collaboration with the Treasury Department.

For the Department of Justice extensive investigations have been
undertaken to determine the injuries suffered by forest reserves from
the fumes of smelters. For this Department, also, numerous chem-
ical investigations have been made in connection with cases arising in
the administration of justice in the Indian reservations and in certain
cases of poisoning which have occurred within those reservations.

For the Post-Office Department extensive examinations have been
made of stamping pads and the inks used therewith; also of alleged
remedies offered by advertisements through the mails and regarded by
the postal authorities as fraudulent in their nature.

For the various Departments a large number of analyses have been
made of articles offered under contract to determine whether these
articles are of the quality and purity specified in the contracts.

FOOD INSPECTION.

The second important item in the expansion of the work of the
Bureau of Chemistry has been the establishment of inspection for
imported food products. Attention is invited to the fact that under
this law the character of food products imported to this country has
been greatly improved.

In former years the United States was regarded as the dumping
ground for the refuse teas of the commerce of the world. Many years
ago, in order to overcome this evil, a system of inspection of imported
teas was established and has since been maintained. Under the
beneficent working of this system Americans are now certain of being
able to purchase pure and wholesome tea, since it is almost impossible
for spurious and adulterated teas to find their way into this country.
Congress has now extended this system of inspection to all foods,
beverages, and condiments imported into the United States. There

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63

is every reason to believe that when this system is thoroughly estab-
lished an improved condition comparable to that which has taken place
in teas may be anticipated.

FOOD STANDARDS.

Another important advance which deserves special attention is that
relating to standards of purity for food products. The Secretary of
Agriculture has been authorized by Congress to fix standards, and in
order that they may be just and reasonable he has been authorized to
call to his assistance the experts of the Association of Official Agri-
cultural Chemists and other experts, as he may see fit, to advise him
in regard to such matters. The work of ascertaining these proper
standards, in collaboration with the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists, has been committed to the Bureau of Chemistry. Already
considerable progress has been made along this desirable line of inves-
tigation and a number of standards of food products have already been
fixed by proclamation. It is proposed to extend this useful work
until practically all the substances used by our citizens as foods, bey-
erages, and condiments shall have a fixed standard of purity to which
all manufacturers may attain by proper care in the preparation of
products of this kind.

EXPERIMENTS WITH BORAX IN FOOD.

The work of the Bureau of Chemistry in the study of the effect
upon digestion and health exerted by preservatives, coloring matter,
and other substances added to food has been continued in the same
painstaking and thorough manner as in the preceding year. The
great quantity of data secured in this work in relation to the effect of
borax has been compiled and is now being published. These studies
of the effect of borax have led to certain definite conclusions which
are of the utmost interest to manufacturers of food products into
which borax has often been introduced, and to the consuming public.

The effects of the preservatives upon the functions of the body
have been studied in detail. It is admitted that there is a necessity
for mineral substances in the blood, as they are essential to the func-
tional activity of the various organs of the body, irrespective of any
part they may take in direct nutrition. The necessity, for example,
of saline solutions in the blood is known to every physiologist, but it
is evident that these saline solutions can be derived from materials of
common occurrence and naturally found in food products, or usually
added thereto as condiments, such as common salt.

At the same time it must not be forgotten that this does not excuse
the introduction of other soluble bodies which have a detrimental
effect upon the functional activities, and the excretion of which imposes
an additional burden upon the excretory organs. For although such

64 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

substances might not impair the efficiency of these organs for a number
of years, they would finally produce a condition of exhaustion which
would be followed by serious consequences,

USE OF SMALL QUANTITIES AS PRESERVATIVE,

The argument that small quantities of deleterious substances may
be used without harm is not logical, nor can it be based upon the result
of the experiments which have been made. On the other hand, the log-
ical conclusion which seems to follow from the data at our disposal is that
the use of boric acid and equivalent amounts of borax should be
restricted to those cases where the necessity therefor is clearly mani-
fest, and where it is demonstrable that other methods of food pre-
servation are not applicable, and that without the use of such a
preservative the deleterious effects produced by the foods themselves
by reason of decomposition would be far greater than could possibly
come from the use of the preservative in minimum quantities. In
these cases it would also follow, apparently as a matter of public
information, and especially for the protection of the young, sick, and
debilitated, that each article of food should be plainly labeled and
branded, so as to show the character and quantity of the preservative
employed.

EFFECT UPON HEALTH OF VARYING AMOUNTS OF BORAX,

The most interesting of the observations which were made during
the progress of the experiments was in the study of the direct effect
upon health of boric acid and borax when administered in food. When
boric acid or its equivalent in borax is taken with the food in small
quantities, not exceeding half a gram (7} grains) a day, no notable
effects are immediately produced. The medical symptoms of the cases
in long-continued exhibitions of small doses, or in large doses extend-
ing over a shorter period, show in many instances a manifest tendency
to diminish the appetite and to produce a feeling of fullness and
uneasiness in the stomach, which in some cases results in nausea, with
a very general tendency to produce a sense of fullness in the head,
which is often manifested as a dull and persistent headache. In addi-
tion to the uneasiness produced in the region of the stomach, there
appear in some instances sharp and well-located pains which, however,
are not persistent. Although the depression in the weight of the body
and some of the other symptoms produced persist in the after periods,
there is a uniform tendency manifested after the withdrawal of the
preservative toward a recovery from the unpleasant sensations in the
stomach and head above mentioned.

The administration of boric acid to the amount of 4 or 5 grams per
day, or borax equivalent thereto, continued for some time, results in
most cases in loss of appetite and inability to perform work of any
kind. In many cases the person becomes ill and unfit for duty. The

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65

administration of 3 grams per day produced in many cases the same
symptoms, although it appeared that a majority of the men under obser-
vation were able to take 3 grams a day for a somewhat protracted
period and still perform their duties. They commonly felt injurious
effects from the dose, however, and it is certain that the normal man
could not long continue to receive 8 grams per day.

In many cases the same results, though less marked, follow the
administration of borax to the extent of 2 grams and even of 1 gram
per day, although in some of the cases studied the illness following the
administration of borax and boric acid in those proportions may be
explained by other causes, chiefly la grippe.

The administration of borax and boric acid to the extent of one-half
gram per day yielded results markedly different from those obtained
with larger quantities of the preservatives. ‘This experiment, con-
ducted as it was for a period of fifty days, was a rather severe test,
and it appeared that in some instances a somewhat unfavorable result
attended its use. On the whole the results show that one-half gram
per day is too much for the normal man to receive regularly. On
the other hand, it is evident that the normal man can receive one-
half gram per day of boric acid, or of borax expressed in terms of
boric acid, for a limited period of time without much danger of
impairment of health.

It is, of course, not to be denied that both borax and boric acid are
recognized as valuable remedies in medicine. There are certain diseases
in which these remedies are regularly prescribed, both for internal and
external use. The value which they possess in these cases does not
seem to have any relation to their use in the healthy organism except
when properly prescribed as prophylactics. The fact that any remedy
is useful in disease does not appear to logically warrant its use at any
other time.

It appears, therefore, that both boric acid and borax, when contin-
uously administered in small doses for a long period or when given in
large quantities for a short period, create disturbances of appetite, of
digestion, and of health.

TESTING OF ROAD MATERIALS.

The work of the Road Material Laboratory, now the Division of
Tests, has been much broadened and its value and importance increased
during the past fiscal year. The routine tests on road materials are
carried on as usual, and several of the tests have been improved and
standardized. The importance of testing rocks to be used in road
building is being recognized at the present time by the leading high-
way engineers of the country, and a number of laboratories modeled
after the Department Road Material Laboratory have been established
in different places.

2 A1904——5

66 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

STUDY OF CLAYS FOR ROAD MAKING,

Of the 228 samples of road materials reported for the past year, 35
were clays. ‘This is mentioned to show the high percentage which
clay bears to the whole number of samples received; for it is a fact
not generally recognized that in vast areas throughout the country
clay is the only material of which roads can be built. For this reason
much time has been spent in studying the physical properties of clays
in the endeavor to devise methods. by which they can be utilized in
road making. It may be mentioned here that up to the present time
but one method of using clay in road building has been known—that is,
to mix it in the proper proportion with sand. This method, however,
is not always practicable, for in many districts sand is difficult to
obtain. Many of the Western railroads running through areas of the
country where rock ballast was impossible to obtain have been in the
habit of burning or clinkering clay with open wood and coal-slack
fires along the line of their roads. This clinkered clay has been suc-
cessfully used for some time past as a railroad ballast.

Many inquiries had been received as to methods of treating roads in
some of the Western and Southwestern States, where, owing to
absolute lack of hard materials and to the extremely sticky nature of
the country clays, many of the farmers were absolutely cut off from
the towns during the wet portions of the year. It was apparent that
if the local clays could be cheaply burnt to a hard, dense clinker a
good road material could be provided. Preliminary to actual work
on a large scale and expensive experiments on the ground, it was
necessary to make laboratory tests of the clays to see whether they
would burn to a dense, hard clinker. Samples of the well-known
so-cailed gumbo clay were sent to the laboratory from the Yazoo
district of Mississippi. These samples were experimentally burned in
the laboratory of the Division, and it seemed quite possible to use the
clays in the manner as indicated above.

Foilowing upon this experiment, the Odice of Public Road Inquiries
built an experimental road in Yazoo City which has been reported
successful. It is needless to point out the great importance of the
suecess of such experiments in relation to road building in localities in
which no rock is to be had.

USES AND SUPPLIES OF CLAY.

Since it is shown by many letters of inquiry that information is
being sought by people all over the country on the subject of testing
of clays for the various purposes for which they are used, other than
road building, special tests are now carried on to that end. <A furnace
has been installed and actual burning tests on clays are now made. In
order to further stimulate interest in the development of native clay

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67

bodies, a special circular was issued on ‘*The useful properties of
clays.” The aim of this circular was to give information in the sim-
plest possible way to people who were not supposed to possess tech-
nical knowledge of clays. That the object has been attained is shown
by the increased correspondence of the Division on this subject. The
circular particularly points out that for the year 1902, the last year
for which the official figures are available, the total imports of foreign
clays to this country were valued at $1,154,805, while the domestic
clays produced were valued at $2,061,072. Since the country pos-
sesses unusually fine clay bodies, a great many of which up to the
present time await development, any stimulation of interest among
the people to develop our native clays must be of great value.

CEMENTING POWER OF ROAD MATERIAL.

The satisfactory investigation of the important property of bind-
ing or cementing of road materials when used upon roads has been
continued and much new evidence has been obtained.

Under the old rule-of-thimb methods of road building one sort of
rock was supposed to be as good asanother. Miles and miles of expen-
sive roads have been built in a haphazard way, of any sort of material
that was available, and many of such roads have ‘‘raveled” and gone to
pieces almost as rapidly as they could be built. Since the establish-
ment of the proper methods of testing and investigating these mate-
rials, there has been noticed a great improvement of roads. The most
intelligent and progressive of the State highway engineers are availing
themselves of the opportunities extended to them by the Department
of Agriculture for studying and familiarizing themselves with the
physical properties of the materials which they are about to use before
risking the public moneys in expensive work.

The hardness and toughness of a rock which is going to be used on
a road are, as everyone knows, important properties, but the property
which causes this rock under the influence of traffic to bind or cement
together so as to form a smooth, even, impervious shell on the sur-
face of a road is even more important. When the work of the Road
Material Laboratory first began the importance of this quality had
hardly been recognized, and absolutely nothing was known as to the
reason why one rock should possess this property to a very high
degree and another of perhaps identically the same name and species,
should be entirely lacking in it. The closest investigation has been
given to this subject and to the collection of all possible data and
information, not only from the theoretical and laboratory standpoint,
but also from a practical point of view. It is safe to say that its sat-
isfactory solution has been accomplished. A bulletin on ‘‘’ The Cement-
ing Value of Road Materials” has just been published, and the publi-
cation of more work in the same line will follow shortly.

GS YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

A new test for determining the toughness of rock and asphalt mix-
tures for road building was brought out during the past year, and
several new tests are at present being developed.

CONCRETE FOR FENCE POSTS, ROOFS, ETC.

On the Ist of last July the Road Material Laboratory was made a
Division, and its name changed to the Division of Tests. The object
of this change was to establish in the Department a laboratory where
all materials of construction relating to agriculture could be tested and
allied problems investigated. In pursuance of this change, several
lines of research have been taken up. ‘The first problem selected was
to determine whether or not a thoroughly practical concrete fence post
reenforced with steel could be made sufliciently cheap to be used by
farmers. The advantages of such fence posts would be many. ‘The
price of wood, particularly of the varieties used for fence posts, is
continually rising, and even now the price is almost prohibitory in
some sections of the country. Further, a properly constructed con-
crete fence post would be permanent, as it would neither rot nor
undergo disintegration. A yariety of methods of reenforcement have
already been tried, and the experiments are being pushed as rapidly
as possible. The results so far obtained have been most satisfactory.

Experiments of a similar nature to the above are about to be begun
on methods for making concrete drains, watering troughs, roofs, and
barns, with the hope that concrete construction, so rapidly developing
in the large cities, can be applied with benefit to the farm.

The question of the structure and constitution of hydraulic cements
is a2 matter of the very greatest importance. The Division of Tests
has in preparation a paper which I have good reason to believe will be
accepted as the solution of this much-discussed question.

USE OF OIL ON ROADS.

Much interest has been felt in different parts of the country in the
use of oil for treating the surfaces of highways, in order to lay the
dust and to offer a hard, impervious, waterproof surface. It is well
known that in California such treatment of roads has met with a high
degree of success. Similar experiments, however, when carried out
in the East, proved complete failures; the Eastern oil failed to bind on
‘the surface of the road, and did not lead to the desired result. When
it was found that the main difference between the California natural
oils and the Eastern and Texas oils lay in the fact that the California
oils contained an asphalt base, while the Eastern oils contained a petro-
leum or vaseline base, the Division of Tests immediately suggested
that the cause of the failure of previous Eastern experiments was
directly due to this fact, and road builders throughout the country

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

were urged to make experiments with mixtures of crude oils with
erude asphaltum. Last summer the Commissioners of the District of
Columbia consented to make such an experiment. A street in Wash-
ington was selected for the purpose and a number of mixtures of
Southern crude oil and asphaltum were spread in adjacent sections. At
first the experiment was looked upon as a failure, but the road has
been steadily improving, and at present there is every promise of the
experiment proving a success. If it proves true that mixtures of Kast-
ern crude oil and asphaltum make as good roads as the California oils
do, a very great advance will be made toward the betterment of our
rural highways.

SCHOOL FOR ROAD BUILDING.

One of the chief lines of work for this division during the present
year is the establishment of a school of road building. The object of
this school is to give a one-year course in highway engineering and
the testing of road materials to about four young men who have
received degrees from reputable engineering schools. These students
are to be selectea by a civil-service examination. They will devote
six months to the study of road-building problems and road materials
and six months to field work, which will consist of actual road con-
struction. Men with such training are sure to be of the greatest
service to the country, not only in constructing highways, but in dis-
seminating accurate knowledge on highway construction.

BUREAD OF SOILS.

The study of soils and their management with regard to their values
for producing crops has been continued. The composition of soils
varies greatly in different localities and in quite limited areas. Our
soils were nearly all fertile originally, but continued cultivation has
in many cases reduced their powers to grow crops as they did when
first brought under the plow. The best methods of restoring soils
that have been cultivated too long is a pressing question not only in
the older settled States, but is insistent in most of the newer lands of
the West where wheat has been grown until profitable crops of it are
no longer to be had.

Rotation of crops and laying down in pastures to be grazed until the
soil fills with roots is the well-known restorative, but soils vary greatly
in our several States and are adapted to the growth of special crops in
our several latitudes, so that a general knowledge of their composition
is of prime importance before the tiller can put them to their most
profitable uses. Droughts limit the yield on soils that have lost their
organic matter through continued cultivation without an adequate
return of fertilizers in the shape of decaying vegetation. Commercial

70 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

manures will not adequately remedy the evil, as they do not return to
the soil what enables it to retain moisture. Soils vary so much in
this regard, from coarse sand to retentive clay, that each requires care-
ful study to enable the farmer to manage it to the greatest advantage.

The Bureau of Soils is mapping our various areas to the end that
the residents on each may as soon as possible learn the peculiarities
with which they have to deal. ‘This work is comparatively new. Its
value has been overlooked by the educator. A force of soil experts is
being trained in the Department to help the cultivator to a better
knowledge of the possibilities of his acres throughout our broad land,
in order that run-down lands may be reclaimed and that the fertility
of our newer lands may be maintained to meet the requirements of a
rapidly increasing population.

We are bringing plants from all foreign countries to diversify our
industries and enable our husbandmen to grow what has been and
still iscosting us large amounts of money. A knowledge of the char-
acter of the soils from which they come and on which they have been
developed is imperative, and suggests to us the wisdom of becoming
familiar with the soils as well as the climates to which we introduce
them, if we are to maintain them here in their excellence or improve
them, giving them better conditions than they had in the countries
where we found them. Within the limits of our climates and soils we
hope to improve everything we import through a superior aggrega-
tion of scientists who are making research into all the conditions of
plant life, the soil being of greatest importance.

PROGRESS OF THE SOIL SURVEY.

The area surveyed and mapped during the fiscal year was 29,058
square miles, or 18,597,120 acres. The area surveyed during the pre-
ceding fiscal year was 23,293 square miles, which, together with the
work done prior to that time, makes a total area surveyed up to that
date of 74,795 square miles, or 47,868,800 acres.

The work was carried on during the past year in 68 areas in 33
States. On an average 20 parties have been working continuously
throughout the year, in the Southern States during the fall and win-
ter and in the Northern States during the spring and summer months,

The areas surveyed and the cost of the work in each area are shown
in the following table:

»

—— 9 Si
—_-

5

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. (al

Areas surveyed and mapped during fiscal year ended June 80, 1907, and the areas previ-
ously reported.

Work Work pre-
State or Territory. during viously Total area surveyed.
1904. reported.

|

Sq. miles. | Sq. miles. | Sq. miles. Acres.
OG Sar ee Sao A e e Seerre eoet er ete 2, 396 1, 223 3,619 2,316, 160
SNOT Ee tenn. craid Sen a ni edna s ty kaa dbiv'e 6 aa eis one) so aa Kos piven 611 611 391, 040
TIME Oe Ce Dh s ta ew cele arate Ges om ogi eN owe a hlw: lene 626 251 877 561, 280
TOON Celine ant tate wok Fu awe ow Wain womaeniehnata 1, 679 8, 921 5, 600 3, 584, 000
TOG SOL Met cca Ss kan cCaawecbdccaehwe uence ow 228 1, 345 1.878 1, 006, 720

meee Se hit an kia saovinretceaa rete nis owt alta bob 6 x oe) > 518 518 301, 520
SCD os hss chile cereecknis ate meee ead ae watas.c Dial estes ca bene 314 200, 960
UNSTIRERR D os bales de vay aks om wwe vwiodareber 485 548 1, 033 661, 120
SRST AE eS fae Sata eSorani c/s aides ntiue Visca wisieelei= pnt 853 757 1, 610 1, 030, 400
RRAMNT CO pete aE ca eS au cieialscc vile wale cimjsiacns mine ejades 58 1, 077 LS teo 726, 400
USI Be CRS eee te 2 ode’ reese Soe teed vecuk bach 2, 333 8, 592 5, 925 3, 792, 000
OS Se ie en nes See ee ae 889 387 1,256 816, 640
aS SRO ia id on ciel fatten dwn Senge « 1, 287 1, 016, 2, 303 1, 473, 920
Sele oT Cae ee oe nates tafe cides bicic wnaricccie Sect oi 999 464 1, 463 936, 320
PNR SE Se tees Feat Chas tihilek tons ada bwume sive odes woecue 837 837 535, 680
RN i let ial Es Sid weds arch oan bien 1, 446 942 2, 388 1,528, 320
De G co IIS ois ci cia chore. v vlcic ooicicinicid sieiniein, aie tmeveine 29 2, 634 2, 663 1, 704, 320
MRIS TUNES U MES Ser ec cers ac vice atctoree nice eee reece eme 386 410 796 509, 440
PAG lee Na og Sy |. Se Si Sone ee eo 517 858 1,375 880, 000
MMII peepee NG a erates corsa e cic aaie cee & Weitinesie sce fse vie co e'eis wwe 233 233 149, 120
I et eR ect 1, 352 1,317 2, 669 1, 708, 160
MUN EEIS PREP Soe oc a cas ace cswcececeease lets re but 919 2, 030 1, 299, 200
DR EMMECE o> Si tbet se owclo cca cheb sees imental a see ck bee 107 107 68, 480
BV eh) ss Oe ae oe eee eee a rec! Fein ae Seep eee 095 764, 800
Lor SiSia hve. . 55S ee eee eae eee eee 1, 303 1, 303 833, 920
Se CRS ee ocr eon sc hens er aes ce ccod an saa wen eels esihee soe a. 129 129 82, 560
og UES UE 5 yes RR ne Se ee eee er ae 986 1,558 2, 544 1, 628, 160
Ce REV CE TS GUE Oo a re ee a ee 687 4, 646 5, 333 3, 413, 120
SuReaPM RAMAN So oe 8 tS 2 okie tance eo cemacce 3886 856 1,242 794, 880
cn ee lean cn csse accuses 1, 400 1, 355 2, 755 1, 763, 200
epee EC oe ore Soa wiaiiaeiada dace eu cceces 60 386 446 285, 440
PANT 5 rs es Seen 2 Dus seueide bendd dwetm ceseee 1, 204 1, 204 770, 560
OE TONE ou og) Se ee ee Oe eee ae ee eee 330 830 211, 200
2 POR USC... a DOOM ee Commas ae 500 320, 000
SO AE a 1, 159 2, 032 3,191 2, 042, 240
0 TOS 8 ae a er oe Dee ee 485 485 310, 400
RCE Pe a Rn oe iuinekawwewoud aoe uae 1,596 547 2,148 1,371,520
J Sis tede te 2, 564 1,733 4,297 2,750, 080
RI EROEMINE IGS Cn bon Set cas ccc nwelevoccstieces 306 994 1, 300 832, 000
eee ee ee Poe The oe tae He 227 145, 280
UT OE Swag. 2 ee ee 656 2, 747 3, 403 2, 177, 920
Ee ar tone. cna etc dene ce censesteae oes asp ues 510 510 826, 400
yb 90) aS oe Ei id Peeratans oe 39 24, 960
MSR pou 2 SPOS SOR ERS 2 ee eae ee) eae eee ED 955 955 611, 200
EE Pe ee eee 12 ne ae eS 309 197, 760

ae ES oh 54S.) davis Dud dau es dewdac 29,058 | 45, 737 74, 795 47, 868, 800
RECAPITULATION.

Re ee oe lec uelewn ccc cab ubuncipacdadees eGanwndens eeoars wows $64, 238. 36
ee A re nS i) kadar uae aden wok pe beeneeEe ewea seins 1,464.18
ES ee a Se See ee Meme ayes ae 4,115. 55
es dg one om a Se anes S uemsc'nsuinsie aie ok eels were Meee bea 2, 783. 32

TE es ecw we ceca dec veunwnscind dep suse nie Siew ean en eEeeCEekes 72, 601. 41

72 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

co ee ee a ee ae Ei PE. SP OP ee eri a pee 5-2 out $2, 377. 57

Dead Be Tenartmen’ OF ASTICUINING. o-oo. ccaccchvackeuuses 60cuduswaedacdubdanehadectas 70, 223, 84
en) eR RE RPE ee ETS, Gas oe ne ee ere ne ee aS tere ee square miles.. 29, 058
Pree OF Were Th BO HAL BORTG WOO oo cvcsus neo e codensin dos cnausen ddnaodabe deed cdaeeae aaedte $2, 21
Transportation, supplies, and other expenses, per square mile ............-.-+22-ee0eeeeeees .29
Seer r6 total COs DET. HAUARG OIG .os ccccavceaunrieseudcascuccbédaceddbedsdeh ecebtintarcaseee 2.50
Average cost to Department of Agriculture per square mile. ..........-..--.-.------+-----s- 2.42

The cost of the work in the field has increased from $2.19 per square
mile, reported last year, to $2.21 per square mile during the year just
closed; while the average cost of the work to the Department of Agri-
culture, including all transportation, supplies, and office expenses, has
decreased from $2.63 per square mile, reported last year, to $2.42 per
square mile during the year just ended.

There has been a continued demand for this soil-survey work, and
there are on file demands for about two years’ work yet unfilled, while
requests continue to come in which can not be immediately considered.

There has been a steady demand from colleges, experiment stations,
and private enterprises for men trained in this soil-survey work, and
during the past year several men have left this Bureau to accept more
lucrative positions elsewhere.

PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND MAPS

At the last session of Congress provision was made to print in the
form of ‘advance sheets” the several reports as they are prepared—
500 copies for the use of each Senator from the State, 2,000 copies for
the use of each Representative of the Congressional district or districts
in which the survey is made, and 1,000 copies for the use of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Although this act was passed too late to mate-
rially influence the printing of the report of the work for the field sea-
son of 1903, it will very greatly facilitate the distribution of the report
and is proving a very advantageous way for the printing and distribu-
tion of the report of the work for the field season of 1904, the manu-
script of the first reports of which have already gone to the Public
Printer.

ALKALI-LAND RECLAMATION.

In my last report attention was directed to the important results
obtained in the reclamation of alkali soils by underdrainage and surface
flooding. This work was undertaken as an object lesson to farmers in
those irrigated districts of the West where any considerable trouble
had been experienced with the rise of alkali and the consequent depre-
ciation in the value of the land. The results of the past year have
again proved the wisdom of inaugurating these demonstration experi-
ments in alkali reclamation. Great interest in the work has been
aroused on every side, and frequent inquiries have been received from
farmers owning alkali land asking instructions as to the best methods
to prevent the further deterioration of their lands and advice as to the
reclamation @f tracts now partly or wholly unproductive.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

PROGRESS IN UTAH AND CALIFORNIA,

On the reclamation tracts established during 1902-3 much progress
has been made during the past year, and indications point to the com-
plete reclamation of the lands under experimentation at an early date.
On the 40-acre Swan tract, near Salt Lake.City, the results have been
especially gratifying. At the inception of the work there, in Septem-
ber, 1902, a detailed soil survey showed the first 4 feet of soil over the
4) acres to contain more than 6,650 tons of soluble salts (alkali). In
May, 1908, there had been removed in the drainage water, by actual
measurement, nearly 50 per cent of this immense total, and in the
October following the proportion removed had reached 82 per cent,
thus leaving only 1,221 tons of the original 6,650 tons still in the 4-foot
section of the entire tract. The greater part of the salt originally in
the surface foot had been removed, while even the fourth foot had lost
69 per cent of the alkali originally present.

In the spring of 1904 this tract was sowed to oats, barley, and wheat,
as it was believed to be sufficiently sweetened for shallow-rooted crops.
The land was not in the best condition for seeding. Nevertheless, on
many of the checks 90 per cent of a stand was secured, and on all
checks but little evidence of alkali was observed. The flooding proc-
ess was resumed on those checks having the poorest crop prospects,
and will be continued on all the tract after harvest, and by next spring
it is expected that reclamation will have progressed to such an extent
that the deep-rooted alfalfa can be grown, when the land will be returned
to the owner. The growing of the crops of the present year and the
seeding of the land to alfalfa are under the control of the Utah experi-
ment station in cooperation with the Department.

The progress of a similar work ona 20-acre tract at Fresno, Cal.,
has been no less gratifying than that at Salt Lake City. The problem
here as regards the drainage was more difficult, as the water had to
be removed by pumping, while the soil was fine and silty and clogged
the drain pipes. These difficulties have been surmounted, however,
and within a year it has been possible to grow crops of alfalfa and -
wheat on a considerable part of the 20 acres under experiment. The
Fresno work I deem particularly important, as it is situated in a
wealthy district, where large areas of once productive land have been
abandoned because of the rise of alkali and the swamping of areas by
seepage water from the excessive irrigation of higher lying lands and
from the canals.

EXPERIMENTS IN WASHINGTON, ARIZONA, AND MONTANA,

In the Gervais tract, situated 3 miles from North Yakima, Wash.,
it is estimated that flooding from July to November, 1903, washed
approximately 70 per cent of the total salts out of the soil to a depth
of 4 feet. Here, as in the Fresno area, much valuable land has been

74 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

ruined by seepage water and the rise of black alkali. Flooding of
this tract was resumed in 1904, and it is expected that reclamation
will have progressed to such an extent that crops can be grown in the
coming season.

A more recent experiment has been instituted at Tempe, Ariz.,
where the installation of the drains was completed in February, 1904,
An unprecedentedly dry season and a consequent lack of water have
prevented much progress in the work at this point.

Another tract has been taken up for reclamation work near Billings,
Mont. This tract is situated in the Yellowstone River Valley, where
great progress has been made in growing alfalfa as a winter feed for
the cattle and sheep that pasture on the adjoining mountain ranges
during the summer. Shortly after irrigation began in this district
alkali began to appear and the ground water rose rapidly, waterlog-
cing wide areas of the land to such an extent that its cultivation had to.
be discontinued. An examination of certain parts of the valley, made
by the Bureau of Soils in 1897 and 1898, showed the extent of the
damage, and when, in 1902, a detailed soil survey was made around
Billings it was found the trouble had greatly increased and intensified.
Even in the two years that have elapsed since the survey was made,
many fine alfalfa fields have been abandoned and now are heavily
incrusted alkali flats. The farmers here are fully alive to the serious-
ness of the situation, but seem unable to cope with the problem.

SUCCESS OF THE WORK.

Many tracts of land were offered the Department for the purpose
of experiment, anda number of farmers have indicated their intention
to undertake similar work themselves, showing the interest taken in
the work. This, however, has not preceeded far enough to permit a
full report at this time. I have, however, the fullest confidence in the
final success of the undertaking, as well as a firm belief that it will
lead to individual or concerted action 6n the part of those of our citi-
zens most interested, with the result that both the agricultural and
stock-raising interests of this part of the country will be greatly
benefited. |

It seems, then, that within three years, at most, practically worth-
less land, so heavily charged with injurious salts as to be unfit for any
form of agriculture, may be reclaimed to grow any ordinary field crop;
that the method of doing this is simple; and that the expense involved
is such that the work may in many instances be economically under-
taken by individual, corporate, or State initiative. Taking the Utah
tract for example, the land reclaimed has increased from a purely
nominal value to an actual value, judged by the value of surrounding
unatlected lands, of $250 to $300 an acre. The total expense of recla-
mation, taking everything into consideration, is but a small fractioa
of this enhanced value.

qn

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7

TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS,

In the line of tobacco investigations carried on by the Bureau of
Soils the most important work during the past fiscal year has been the
experimental growing of Cuban seed tobacco on certain soils in Texas,
Alabama, and South Carolina. This work was begun in July, 1903, in
cooperation with leading farmers in the several States. Thirteen acres
were planted in Texas, 3 in Alabama, and 3 in South Carolina. The
success of this first trial led to further plantings by the Department
in 1904, when trial tracts were established at Nacogdoches, Crockett,
and Giddings, in Texas, a total of 12 acres being planted. One
tract in Perry County, Ala., and one in Orange County, S. C., were
established, each with 3 acres in tobacco. Samples of the tobaccos
grown in 1903 were submitted to the trade, and the opinion is that the
Texas leaf has considerable merit, both in regard to flavor and aroma,
and some have pronounced it to be superior to any filler yet grown in
this country. The Alabama filler leaf is considered fair, but not
equal to the Texas leaf, while the filler grown in South Carolina does
not meet with as much favor as that grown in the two States alreauy
mentioned.

The commercial value placed upon this leaf by different tobacco
brokers varies considerably, ranging from 18 to 40 cents a pound.

Some bales of Texas leaf have been disposed of at the higher figure.
Final judgment of the success of this venture must be postponed until
further advices are received from the dealers and manufacturers to
whom working sampies have been submitted.

GROWING AND CURING CIGAR TOBACCOS IN OHIO.

Experiments in growing the Cuban type of filler have also been car-
ried on on a 10-acre tract in Ohio. Owing to the heavy nature of the
leaf it is impossible to judge of its aroma at present. The tobacco of
this type raised in the preceding year is only just ready for the man-
ufacturer. The aroma has been pronounced good, but it is believed
that the leaf is too heavy for the taste of the general public and the
aim this year is to try to produce a somewhat lighter leaf. The results
of these experiments in growing Cuban filler leaf seem to warrant a
continuation of the experiments in the Southern States and possibly
in Ohio for the succeeding year upon somewhat broader lines; and it
is hoped that through the efforts of the Bureau of Soils an extension
of the domestic filler leaf interests may be accomplished.

By far the most important work in Ohio, however, has been the
further introduction of the bulk method of fermenting cigar tobaccos.
This work was begun in 1902, when 655,200 pounds were fermented.
In 1903, 4,204,800 pounds were fermented, and in 1904 the quantity
was increased to 10,208,000 pounds, distributed among the several

76 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

types of tobacco as follows: Zimmer Spanish, 5,850,000 pounds; Lit-
tle Dutch, 582,000 pounds, and seed leaf, 3,776,000 pounds. As the
work of the Department there is simply supervisory, and entails the
cooperation of the warehousemen, this great increase evidences the
remarkable interest that this change in the methods of handling
tobacco has to the grower and the tobacco dealer. Its use not only
avoids great loss formerly suffered from fungous growth in the case-
fermented tobaccos, but also tends to improve the grades of tobacco
and therefore increase the profits both to the grower and the handler.

WRAPPER LEAF IN CONNECTICUT.

The experiments in the production of a wrapper leaf in the Connec-
ticut Valley have been continued during the last year. In the begin-
ning of these experiments in 1900, work was undertaken in cooperation
with the Connecticut experiment station at Poquonock, on one-third
of an acre of land. ‘The tobacco grown on this small plot was submit-
ted to leading leaf dealers and brokers in New York for their opinion.
On their judgment, which was very favorable, the Department felt
justified in conducting further work in Connecticut upon a considera-
bly larger scale. In 1901, therefore, 40 acres were planted, this time
in cooperation with leading tobacco growers in the valley. This
tobacco was of satisfactory quality and was sold at Hartford, and
although it had been grown under very unsatisfactory climatic condi-
tions a very good price was obtained at the sale. In 1902 a larger
acreage was planted by the Connecticut farmers; and leaf dealers of
New York—men who had spent their lives in the tobacco trade and
who were everywhere recognized as good judges of tobacco—invested
money in the production of shade-grown tobacco, not upon the reports
of the Bureau of Soils, but on their own judgment of the satisfactory
character of the leaf.

Owing to unfavorable climatic and adverse trade conditions, which
were entirely beyond the control of the grower, the tobacco pro-
duced during that season failed, to a certain extent, to meet the
demands of the manufacturers. The climatic conditions in 19038
were very similar to those in 1902—that is, they were unfavorable to
the production of a wrapper leaf of the very best grade, and there
was not so large a demand for this tobacco as was expected. In 19038
the Bureau had practically ceased its work in Connecticut; but in 1904,
still having confidence in the opinion of the trade, and believing that
the method of growing tobacco for wrappers under shade is correct, it
has conducted an experiment at Tariffville, Conn., where a crop has
been produced on a 4-acre plat. Owing to the recent tendency on the
part of the trade to wrap the better grades of cigars with the Cuban
rather than with the Sumatra style of leaf, 1 acre of this plat was
planted to Cuban seed tobacco.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 77

Tobacco of this type grown under shade in Connecticut was exhib-
ited by the Department at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St.
Louis, and to it was awarded the grand prize as being a leaf of the
highest standard of excellence for cigar wrappers.

THE PROBLEM OF MARKET FOR FINE LEAF TOBACCOS.

In connection with this matter of the producing of shade-grown
wrapper in Connecticut, the Bureau of Soils has been making an in-
vestigation as to the demands of the market for the Cuban type of leaf
and as to the practicability of building up a demand for Connecticut
shade-grown tobacco of this type. Recent sales of this tobacco have
been made, principally in New York and Philadelphia, and the follow-
ing table shows the distribution of nearly 3800 bales of such tobacco
and the average price per pound of the lots as sold:

Prices received for Connecticut shade-grown tobacco.

For domestic use, 134 bales: For domestic use, 134 bales —Ctd.
alesse. os. «2. per pound... $1.75 | Bales 16.2502. per pound... $0. 623
5 Ase a ee Ce lodge gee Dee | Ad fee PO GOeccce “aad
ees a Fok do.... 1.50 | For export, 144 bales:
<a eer de. 22.4 1346 ates Tae ceed te ae dodizay! S70
i Sete i yt alt doe 5 3) 140 A a COs tha Sone
Bee cess ot a ee ee ME 3) Ys a santana. 2 ee)
NC SSE Sigs do.... 1.25 | Tops, 104 bales:
“5 pla AI ie douse TO Baie. OU eo ee aoe, | Se
ROE Ne A GOS re FO i's, Cpe ae ok a dose” tS

This table shows that 134 bales have been sold for domestic use at an
average price of $1.26,5, per pound, the highest price being $1.75 per
pound for light wrappers, and the lowest price 35 cents per pound for
short-sized second-quality leaf. The 144 bales sold for export, at an
average price of $0.34,4;, consisted of tobacco of a quality not suited
to the home market, principally of sand leaves and short-sized, flimsy
tobacco. Nearly all of this tobacco was shipped to the German mar-
ket. The 104 bales, sold at an average price of $0.0975, consisted of
short top leaves, ie tobacco having no wrapper quality, and being
useful only as an inferior filler.

The tobacco experts of the Bureau of Soils see no reason to change
their belief that the method of growing tobacco under shade in the
Connecticut Valley will produce a wrapper leaf of great excellence,
which can be economically used by the trade, and it would seem that
the industry should be established upon a commercial scale.

IMPROVING EXPORT TOBACCOS.

Up to the beginning of last year the tobacco work of the Bureau of
Soils has been along the lines.of improving the methods of culture and
handling of the cigar tobaccos, but this year considerable demand. has

78 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

been made upon the Bureau to assist the growers of the heavy export
types of tobacco. The low percentage of tobacco suitable for plug
wrappers, and the poor price obtained by the majority of growers,
have led the Bureau to make investigations into the production of this
type of tobacco, the object being to see if both the yield per acre and
the percentage of the higher grades could be increased. A 5-acre
experimental plot in Appomattox County, Va., was selected for study-
ing the problem. In this section the finest plug wrappers are grown,
and the work would also be carried on close to the Richmond and
Lynchburg markets. It is the plan of these experiments to grow the
tobacco with different fertilizers and under different methods of cul-
ture, to see which will give the best financial results to the grower.
It is the intention of the Bureau to extend this work in the future to
other districts producing the shipping types of tobacco. It is yet too
early to give the results of the present season’s work.

BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Insect pests cause a loss to the staple crops of the United States.
estimated at some $500,000,000 annually. The main object of the Bureau
of Entomology is to make thorough studies of the insects responsible
for these losses and to apply the information gained to limiting or pre-
venting them. The Mexican cotton boll weevil represents the most
important field of work of this Bureau during the last few years, but
the insect enemies of the cereals, fruits, and other staple productions
have been the subject of careful study and experimental work. ‘The
results of this work have been notably successful, particularly in the
case of the boll weevil and the bollworm.

THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.

Congress originally provided $30,000 for the continuation of the
investigation of the boll weevil and the bollworm for the fiscal year.

DEMONSTRATION FARMS.

Under this appropriation seven experimental farms were organized
in Texas, located at Victoria, Wharton, Austin, San Antonio, Calvert,
Willspoint, and Hetty, all together aggregating 558 acres of cotton.
The seven localities represented typical variations in soil and climatie
conditions of Texas, and enabled the Department to test various meth-
ods of controlling the boll weevil under different conditions. They
included bottom lands, dry upland subject to irrigation, the black
prairie land of Austin, and the soils of river valleys where the pres-
ence of timber and moist climate and almost exclusive production of
cotton renders the weevil problem more serious than elsewhere. Other
farms were on the high, rolling prairie land and river bottoms of the
northern part of the State.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79

The minute investigation of the life history of the weevil, upon the
knowledge of which any system of control of the pest and any modifi-
cation of the present cultural system must naturally be based, was
continued at the laboratory at Victoria. In the experimental fields
attached to this laboratory also were tested poisons and machines.
An expert assistant carried on a study of the weevil in Cuba, one of
its native regions, with the hope of finding some effective parasite or
some variety of cotton especially resistant to its attacks

The exact spread of the boll weevil into new cotton regions was
determined, and a special investigation of the usefulness of birds in
controlling the weevil was instituted. The result of the work of the
season of 1903 is summarized in three important publications issued
by the Bureau.

Under the provisions of the special appropriation of $250,000 made
available January 15, 1904, it was possible to greatly enlarge the work.

The number of experimental or demonstration farms was increased
to thirteen for the season of 1904, aggregating 1,077 acres. During
the previous season in not one of the seven experimental farms then
under operation did the crop fall appreciably below the average pro-
duction in the United States before the weevil came into Texas,
namely, about half a bale tothe acre. The cultural system which these

farms were designed to illustrate has so far proved to be the only
practicable means of controlling the boll weevil, and the work of past
years has demonstrated its general success and feasibility. It is the
outgrowth of several years of field’ experiments conducted by the
Bureau of Entomology in Texas. The cotton on these farms is planted
under a contract which gives the Department complete control of the
culture of the crop.

SCIENTIFIC AND LABORATORY WORK.

In addition to the conduct of these demonstration farms, the more
purely scientific and laboratory work relating to the study of details
of the life history of the weevil and of the possibility of artificial
propagation of parasites has been increased. Special work has been
done in the attempt to eradicate isolated colonies, to control the dan-
ger of dissemination of the weevil by the gins and gin products, notably
cotton seed, and the perfecting of quarantine plans to check or prevent
the spread of the weevil from Texas to other cotton-growing States.

COOPERATION WITH THE LOUISIANA BOLL WEEVIL COMMISSION.

The weevil having already crossed the line into Louisiana, the Bureau
of Kntomology has been doing cooperative work with the Louisiana
boll weevil commission in eradicating colonies in Louisiana and pre-
venting its further spread into that State, with the idea of protecting
not only Louisiana but the more eastern cotton regions. The work of
this year has been most successful so far as the experimental farms

80 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and other work in Texas are concerned. It has proved impossible to
exterminate the weevil in Louisiana, its distribution in the western
counties of that State having become already too wide. Nevertheless
its spread has been very greatly checked, and by proper quarantine
and exterminative work its eastern progress can be very much delayed.

COLONIZATION OF THE GUATEMALAN ANT.

The Guatemalan ant, which was discovered by Mr. O. F. Cook,
botanist in charge of investigations in tropical agriculture of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, and which seems to be a very efficient
enemy of the cotton-boll weevil in Guatemala, has been the subject of
careful experimental work, begun under the Bureau of Plant Industry
and afterwards transferred to this office, but remaining under the
charge of Mr. Cook. This ant, determined by experts of the Bureau
of Entomology as etatomma tuberculatum, is a tropical species of
rather wide distribution throughout Central America and northern
South America. Its specific habits were unknown prior to its dis-
covery in Guatemala, but in this region, according to Mr. Cook, it
seems to be an important natural enemy of the boll weevil. Nearly a
hundred colonies of this ant, representing some 4,000 individuals,
were conveyed to Texas, and have during the summer been placed at
different points, and are being made the subject of careful study to
determine whether this ant offers any hope of control to any extent of
the boll weevil under the climatic conditions of Texas. The practical
results of this importation can not now be foretold. The ant has,
however, maintained itself during the summer, which is a feature of
distinct encouragement.

THE BOLL WEEVIL STILL A MENACE

The future work against the boll weevil in Texas and other Southern
States will depend upon the action of Congress. The National menace
still exists. The cotton planters of Texas have not all become con-
vinced of the benefit to be derived by following the advice which the
Bureau is enabled already to give, based upon its investigations of the
past ten years, and therefore further investigation and further demon-
stration work seem to be necessary. Moreover, the imminent danger
of the spread of the weevil to other cotton States indicates the neces-
sity that the General Government should keep a foree of men in the
field to prove to the entire satisfaction of the planters the value of its
advice, to continue the study of the insect in its rapidly changing envi-
ronment, and to assist in quarantine measures and such other means
as are necessary to restrict the spread of the pest.

THE COTTON BOLLWORM AND MINOR PESTS,

The work on this insect, which is the second worst pest of the
cotten and ranges throughout the cotton belt, has been continued
during the last two seasons. The work during the season of 1904 has

—

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. SF

been much increased as a result of the special appropriation made
available in January of this year. The principal lines of investigatiom
followed out are field experiments in methods of control, and labora--
tory and field investigations of life history, habits, and parasitic and:
predaceous enemies of the insect. The field experiments have demon-
strated that the cultural system of control recommended for the bolk
weevil furnishes the very best means also against the bollworm. The
value of spraying and dusting with arsenical poisons and of trap crops
was made the subject of careful experiments. This work was done
on six contract farms over which the Department had absolute con-

trol, as in the case of the boll weevil, representing different localities:

and climatic and soil conditions. Cooperative work was also done at.
a number of other points, giving a total of some 400 acres on which.
experimental and demonstration work was carried on. The work out-
lined above has been most successful, and the Department is now able
to recommend measures which will reduce damage from the bollworm
to an inconsiderable amount.

In addition to these two principal cotton pests, other insects depre—
dating on cotton, but of minor importance in comparison with these:
two, have been the subject of study.

IMPORTED BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

_ The possibility of keeping injurious insects in check by the intro—

duction and encouragement of natural insect enemies of such injurious
species is a very popular subject with fruit growers and farmers, and:
notable successes have been achieved in this direction. The work in
which the Department of Agriculture has been especially interested
in this direction during the year has been a continuation of the effort
to establish the Asiatic ladybird enemy of the San Jose scale in the
Eastern States and the South African black scale parasite in Califor-
nia, together with the kelep or Guatemalan ant enemy of the cotton
boll weevil, referred to elsewhere.

LADYBIRD ENEMY OF SAN JOSE SCALE.

The Asiatic ladybird enemy ( Chélocorus similis) of the San Jose scale
maintained itself in numerous colonies in the South during the
winter. An examination in Georgia in May last indicated the general
presence of the beetle in many of the orchards where it had been lib-
erated. Its rapid multiplication has been prevented, however, in
many instances, by the submission of the orchards in question to spray—
ing operations.with lime, sulphur, and salt, or other washes, extermi--
nating practically all of the scale food and hence leading to the star-
vation of many of the beetles. Nevertheless this imported insect has
gained foothold and will probably make progress wherever scale food:

2 al904 6

$2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

is abundant. Its spread by artificial distribution of colonies has been
continued as far as material has been available. The discovery of the
efficiency of the lime, sulphur, and salt wash, and the need in commer-
cial orchards of absolutely clean fruit, will operate against this
imported insect as against all other parasites of this scale. It is a
comparatively easy matter and not expensive to keep an orchard
clean by spraying, and while this is the case it will not be advisable
in commercial work to take the slower chance of clearing up by natu-
ral enemies, which can never be thorough from the very nature of
the case. The successful establishment, however, of this Asiatic
beetle in America can not work anything but good, as it is an impor-
tant agency in the control of scale pests, and will become more effi-
cient in America as it becomes more widespread and abundant.

PARASITE OF BLACK SCALE,

The black-seale parasite (Scutellista cyanea) in California has ex-
ceeded in usefulness the most sanguine expectations, and has demon-
strated that it can withstand the winter climate of California perfectly.
The black scale of which it is an enemy is the worst pest of the citrus
industry in southern California, and this imported parasite is the first
agency which has offered any real hope of control other than by direct.
spraying or gassing operations. As an illustration of the prolificacy
of this parasite, more than 40,000 specimens were distributed from the
office of the Los Angeles County horticultural commissioners, and vast
numbers were distributed from other centers.

OLDER IMPORTATIONS.

The older importations of beneficial insects, such as the enemy of
the white scale of citrous and other fruits in California and the /2hzzo-
bius ventralis, useful against the black scale in the moist regions of the
Pacific coast, have continued their réle of distinct usefulness, the first
named being the most striking case of benefit ever made by an
imported insect. The fig-fertilizing insect has enabled the raising of
another very large and fine crop of Smyrna figs in the vicinity of
Fresno, Cal., and the development of the fig industry seems perfectly
assured, and only awaits the necessary lapse of time for new orchards
to become established.

IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE INSECTS.

The work with scale insects in general has been actively prosecuted
during the year. This group of insects includes some of the most
important enemies of fruit trees and shrubbery, and in the South also
of various field and garden crops. The small size of most of these
seale insects, and the necessity of making careful microscopic prepara-
tions of them before determination can be made, render their identi-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83

fication by field observers difficult, if not impossible. The result is that
a great deal of the work of determination comes to this Department
from State entomologists and horticulturists, as well as from foreign
sources.

INSECTS DAMAGING FORESTS.

The work on tree pests is carried on in cooperation between the
Bureau of Entomology and the Bureau of Forestry. During the
present year it has related particularly to (1) insect damage in the
forests of the Black Hills region, a continuation of the work begun in
1902; (2) an investigation of important timber trees in the State of
Washington, particularly the western hemlock, highland spruce, red
fir, and other conifers; (3) at the southern station (Tryon, N. C.),
damage to the southern pine and cypress; (4) in the middle Appa-
lachian station, damage to imported mahogany and other timber and
lumber by introduced and native insects, and to hickory, oak, and
hemlock by bark-beetles and tan-bark insects; (5) at the southwestern
station (Flagstaff, Ariz.), damage to pine forests by bark-beetles.
In the course of this work there has been considerable cooperation
with lumbering companies and manufacturers of articles of wood,
importers of exotic woods, and forest rangers. The general informa-
tion gained from this study and from laboratory work at Washington
has greatly advanced the knowledge of forest insects and the means
of controlling them.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLE CROPS AND TO FRUITS.

_The work reported in previous years has been continued in these
two important fields of investigation. A subject of special study dur-
ing the year has been the insect enemies of sugar beets, covering work
done from Nebraska and Michigan to the Pacific Coast States and Ari-
zona, with the object of issuing a comprehensive report on the subject.
Work on the insect enemies of the orchard fruits, citrous and decidu-
ous, and small fruits has been continued. The cranberry insects have
been made the subject of a special publication.

MISCELLANEOUS WORK WITH INSECT PESTS.

A good deal of work has been done during the year in the study of
means of controlling damage by insect enemies of stored grains, such
as the flour beetles and meal worms, and particularly of the Mediter-
ranean flour moth, one of the worst of mill pests, which has been
reported during the year in many new localities, from New York to
California.

Insects affecting shade trees and ornamental plants have been studied,
as also the important insect enemies of hothouse plants and indoor
cultures.

S84 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The investigation of insects in relation to the health of man has been
continued. The geographical distribution of the yellow-fever mosquito
in the United States has been the subject of special investigation, as
having an important bearing upon quarantine measures.

A special study has been undertaken of rice insects in South Caro-
lina in cooperation with the South Carolina experiment station.

INSECT ENEMIES OF GRAINS AND FORAGE PLANTS.

An elaborate investigation of insects affecting grains, grasses, and
other field crops has been begun, and a special field agent of wide
experience and reputation has been put in charge, with assistants and
means for the best work. <A further investigation will be immediately
undertaken of the Hessian fly, the chinch bug, and the cutworms and
wireworms and other insects affecting wheat, corn, clover, alfalfa, and
similar crops. The damage by insects in this field is greater than in
any other on account of the enormous areas under cultivation and the
money value of the product.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK WITH INSECTICIDES.

The most important results confirmed by the experimentation of
the year with insecticides relate to the use of the lime, sulphur, and
salt wash against the San Jose scale. Experimentation with this
wash, long used in California against this scale pest, has been going
on in the East for several years, and the results now secured have
fully demonstrated its very great value in spite of the somewhat
adverse climatic conditions which obtain on the Atlantic seaboard and in
the Mississippi Valley. It is a winter application, and very inexpen-
sive as compared with the use of oils and soaps, means hitherto very
much employed in the East, and it has the additional very distinct
advantage of notable value as a fungicide; so much so in fact that
some fruit growers are spraying their peach orchards with this wash,
whether they have scale on them or not, simply for its value against
leaf curl and other fungi. The usefulness of this wash has very
largely decreased the terror which fruit growers have hitherto felt
for the San Jose scale.

The possible value of sulphate of copper as a means of controlling
mosquitoes, as indicated in a report issued by the office of Vegetable
Pathological and Physiological Investigations of the Bureau of Plant
Industry toward the close of the year, caused a series of experiments
to be instituted by the Entomologist to test the usefulness of this
chemical as a means of destroying such larve. ‘The results of these
tests have shown that it has comparatively small value against mos-
quito larvee under normal outdoor conditions of breeding, but it may

—-

Se eel

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85

prove to be quite effective against mosquitoes in regions where water
is kept in cisterns or small storage reservoirs, as, for example, in
Cuba and in Panama. The experimentation with this substance
is still in progress.

An expert has been put in particular charge of all investigations
with insecticides and machinery, and the opportunity for practical
work has been very much increased. Experiments are now under way
with the insecticides referred to above, and also with petroleum oils;
also fumigation experiments on fruit stock and buildings and grana-
ries, and work on the composition of insecticides in cooperation with
the Bureau of Chemistry are being carried on.

ENTOMOLOGICAL EXHIBIT AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION.

An elaborate exhibit of the work of the Bureau of Entomology was
made during the year for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition—undoubt-
edly the most extensive and interesting exhibit ever sent out by this
Bureau. It contains several entirely novel features of great educa-
tional value, and comprises very many cases indicating the life histo-
ries of injurious and other insects, together with large models of many
of- the principal injurious forms and vivaria in which injurious and
beneficial insects are shown alive and at work.

SILK CULTURE.

The work in silk culture has been prosecuted in all available lines.
Silk reeling has been practically established with imported French
reels and the temporary employment of French experts. Several
American women have acquired the art of reeling silk, and a beginning
has been made in the training of experts in this line of work. ‘The
importation of eggs and their distribution to all applicants has been
continued; also of mulberry cuttings and rooted plants.

As pointed out in my last report, the establishment of the silk indus-
try in the United States must be a matter of slow accomplishment.
The distribution of mulberry cuttings and of silkworm eggs to those

who already have mulberry trees at hand should be continued. Event-

ually enough mulberry trees will be planted to insure a supply of food
for a large crop of worms. Numbers of people will also have become
familiar with the methods of silk raising, and conditions will then be
ripe for the establishment of commercial filatures. In the meantime
and under the existing conditions the establishment of some sort of
market for cocoons is necessary; and it is for this reason that this
Bureau, out of its appropriations, is buying and reeling a crop of
cocoons which, though small at present, will increase as the work
progresses from year to year.

S6 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BEE CULTURE.

In bee culture comparative tests have been continued with the
Caucasian and other types of bees and various crosses between these
types themselves, in an effort to improve the domestic hive bee and
secure certain varieties of special merit for different regions. The
general conclusion reached is that the Caucasian race is by far the
gentlest that has ever been brought to this country, and lends itself
to manipulation and handling without the use of bee veil, and generally
without smoke. These bees also are excellent honey gatherers.

The frequent statements that comb honey can be artificially manu-
factured have been shown to be absolutely false, and the purchaser
who gets his honey in the comb may rest assured that he is getting an
article manipulated at least by bees.

A special investigation has been made of bee conditions over a con-
siderable area comprising the Middle West and Western States, with
the idea to familiarize the expert with the conditions in these regions
and to determine the feasibility and the desirability of the importation
and establishment of foreign honey-producing plants.

A model apiary of 50 or 60 colonies of bees has been secured, and it
is proposed to establish it on the Arlington Experimental Farm as a
basis for apiarian investigations and as a breeding station of races and
types of bees. The importation of foreign queens of different races
has been continued, and studies have been made of honey-producing
plants, methods of wintering bees, and bee diseases.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

As heretofore, the work of the Biological Survey has been conducted
along the three lines laid down by Congress: (1) Investigations relat-
ing to the geographic distribution of animals and plants, including
biological surveys and the determination of the life and crop belts;
(2) investigations of the economic relations of birds to agriculture;
(3) supervision of matters relating to game preservation and protec-
tion and the importation of foreign birds and animals.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The Biological Survey is engaged in mapping the natural life zones
and crop belts of the country for the primary purpose of aiding the
farmer to decide what crops are likely to prove a commercial success
in his locality. The work is done by studying the geographic distri-
bution of natiye animals and plants in all parts of the country, and
platting the results on maps showing the distribution of each species.
In order to obtain the necessary data the status of the various species
must be determined by office study and their ranges laboriously

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. - 87

worked out in the field. The progress already made is gratifying,
and a large number of maps are now approaching completion. The
individual-species maps serve as the basis of a composite map showing
the natural transcontinental belts and their more important subdi-
Visions.

During the current year field work has been carried on over wide
areas in California, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and Alaska. In
California the field operations, for the purpose of securing data for a
detailed map of the life and crop zones of the State, have been con-
tinued under the personal direction of the Chief. The field parties
have practically completed work in western Texas, and are now in
New Mexico. Explorations in Alaska have been continued among the
northern spurs of the Rocky Mountains, about the upper and middle
Yukon, and on some of the islands of southeastern Alaska.

ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY.

é

In the section of economic ornithology, as in previous years, both
laboratory work and field observations have been carried on. Orchards,
gardens, and grain fields have been visited for the purpose of deter-
mining whether the birds damage crops, attack injurious insects, or
devote their energies mainly to the wild fruits and weed seeds of the
neighborhood; and collections have been made of food materials,
including wild fruits, berries, seeds, and insects to assist in the work
of determination in the laboratory. During the current year exami-
nations have been made of 2,189 bird stomachs.

_In studying the food habits of California birds, with reference both
to the damage they inflict upon fruit and the good they do in destroy-
ing noxious weeds and insects, a scientist spent seven months (Febru-
ary to October) in the State, interviewing many of the fruit growers
and visiting the most important fruit-growing sections. Most of his
work was in the orchards, where the actual mischief done by the birds
was noted and specimens collected.

In cooperation with the University of California, a study was made
of the restrictive influences exercised by birds upon the increase of
the well-known and very destructive codling moth. As a result, it
was found that the pupe of the moth are searched out and fed upon
to a considerable extent by the black-headed grosbeak (Zamelodia
melanocephala) and the Bullock oriole (deterus bullocki)—two of the
handsomest and commonest song birds of California. Other investi-
gations were made in the same State regarding the supposed injury
done by birds to bee keepers. Examinations of many stomachs of
birds shot near bee-hives showed in nearly all cases that if bees are
eaten at all the ones selected are the males or drones. A careful study
of the food habits of the quail or bobwhite made during the year has

88 * YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

demonstrated beyond question that from an economic point of view it
is one of the most valuable of North American birds. Some of the
insect pests eaten by it are the cotton boll weevil, potato bug, chinch

bug, wire-worm, cut-worms of various kinds, and the cotton bollworm.

BIRD MIGRATION,

During the year the usual spring and fall migration schedules were
sent to and received from the regular observers and filed for future
use. Sixteen thousand notes relating to the migration of warblers
north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers were selected and arranged to
complete a bulletin on North American warblers. This bulletin is
now passing through the press. Work was also commenced on a
study of the relations of migration and the weather by comparing the
time of spring arrivals with the temperature at the place of arrival
and in the region to the southward.

GAME PROTECTION AND INTRODUCTION,
ENTRY OF FOREIGN BIRDS AND ANIMALS.

Constant vigilance is necessary to prevent the introduction into the
United States of birds or animals that are likely to become pests. No
species, therefore, except a few that are well known and harmless,
are allowed to enter this country without a special permit from the
Department. And, as an additional safeguard, careful inspection is”
made whenever through the large size of the consignment or other
cause there is any apparent danger that undesirable species may slip
in. The permits issued during the year numbered 318 and allowed
the entry of 1,470 mammals, 205,400 canaries, and 41,630 miscellaneous
birds. Most of the canaries and a large part of the miscellaneous
birds came in at New York and were examined by inspectors at that
port. Several importations were made of birds intended for libera-
tion, among them 65 capercailzie from Sweden, brought in at New
York and destined for the stocking of Algonquin Park, Ontario; 40
Mexican quail, liberated at various points in California by the board
of fish commissioners of that State; and 366 Kuropean song-birds—
goldfinches, bullfinches, larks, and robins—turned loose in British
Columbia. Permits were also issued for the entry of about 3,000 eggs
of partridges and pheasants.

INTERSTATE COMMERCE IN GAME.

Since the passage of the Lacey Act in 1900, 42 convictions for ille-
gal traffic in game have been secured in cases passing through this
Department. Of these, 26 were tried in Federal courts, 16 in State
courts. During the past year 10 cases, involving the shipment of 700
birds and 36 rabbits, were reported to the Department. Six convic-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ‘ 89

tions were secured, one of which involved the longest distance ship-
ment thus far taken up—from St. Paul, Minn., to Portland, Oree.
In order to expedite cases arising under the Lacey Act, State wardens
have been advised to present their evidence direct to the Federal courts
instead of referring it through this Department and the Department
of Justice. This advice has been followed in two or three instances
within the past few months, and indictments haye been much more
promptly secured in consequence.

Limited available resources have, as heretofore, made it necessary
to concentrate efforts in two or three areas, and in all cases preven-
tion of shipment has been given precedence over prosecution after
shipment has occurred. The passage of laws by Texas in 1903, pro-
hibiting sale and capture of waterfowl, made it possible for the first
time to restrict the enormous destruction of ducks in that State for
Northern markets. Through local authorities and express companies
general attention was called to the provisions of the State and Federal
laws and a close watch maintained on usual shipping routes. No vio-
lation of the law was noted, and it is probable few consignments of
ducks reached Northern markets from this State during the year.

An attempt was made to ascertain the effectiveness of recent legis-
_lation prohibiting shipment and sale of game by means of a special
investigation in cooperation with State wardens and others. The kinds
and prices of game in the markets of a dozen or more important cities
during Thanksgiving week were ascertained. That considerable prog-
ress has been made in enforcing shipping laws was conclusively shown;
few prairie chickens were on sale in any Eastern markets, and in some
instances prices three or four times as high as those of afew years ago
were charged; pheasants were absent from the markets of several cities
where they were formerly abundant; and at the opening of the season
quail were unusually scarce, though later, when the routes of shipment
still open were discovered by the trade, they became more abundant.

PROTECTION OF GAME IN ALASKA.

The Alaska game law has accomplished the two main objects for
which it was enacted: The shipment of deer hides has been stopped
and the export of heads of big game as trophies has been curtailed.
The protection of game has been as satisfactory as could be expected
in so large a region and without wardens. A mistaken belief, how-
ever, that the law does not permit natives to kill game for food, cou-
pled with objections to the presence of visiting sportsmen, particularly
on the Kenai Peninsula, gave rise to considerable criticism of the law.
This adverse feeling led to the introduction of a bill in the Senate to
replace the present law with one doing away with all restrictions
except a provision to limit the export of trophies and charge license
fees of $25 to residents and $250 to nonresidents for such export. As

90 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

the adjournment of Congress without definite action left this measure
still pending, the Department deemed it advisable to suspend the issue
of permits for the present except in very special cases. Karly in
June new regulations were issued extending some seasons, permit-
tine unrestricted shipment of bearskins, and making other desirable
changes.
P
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.

A preserve for the elk presented to the Government by Miller and
Lux was established in Tulare County, Cai., on the Middle Fork of
the Kaweah River, just within the boundary of the Sequoia National
Park.

On the Pelican Island reservation in Florida a warden has been
maintained through the cooperation of the American Ornithologists’
Union and the Department, and the pelicans on the island have been
practically undisturbed.

As heretofore, special attention has been given to the duty imposed
by the Lacey Act of collecting and disseminating information relating
to the propagation, uses, and preservation of birds. The demand for
such information is widespread, and much time is devoted to gathering
material and preparing it for publication.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

The three distinct lines of work assigned to this Division could be
conducted much more economically and effectively were the Division
reorganized as a bureau of three divisions, each to have charge of
one of these lines, and were a larger amount appropriated for the
performance of the work. I have accordingly recommended such
reorganization.

BUREAU OF STATISTICS.

On July 1, 1908, the Division of Statistics of this Department,
which is the oldest distinctively statistical agency of the Government,
antedating by a score of years the creation of this Department,
received the broader organization of a bureau.

As now organized the Bureau of Statistics includes a Division of
Domestic Crop Reports, a Division of Foreign Markets, and a Miscel-
laneous Division, which conducts special investigations and collects
statistics on rural economics. The work of the Division of Domestic
Crop Reports forms the most conspicuous feature of the statistical
work of the Department. It employs nearly two-thirds of the entire
clerical force of the Bureau, and calls to its aid the public-spirited
service of nearly 250,000 voluntary correspondents, whose painstaking
service deserves grateful appreciation. The results of its investiga-
tions are published monthly in the Crop Reporter, of which over
1,300,000 copies were distributed during the year.

— Ss

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91

The general appreciation by the business and farming public of the
value of the Department crop reports grows steadily. Criticism is
not lacking. On the contrary, it is one of the curious features of this
work that the more closely reports represent the actual facts and the
wider the appreciation of their accuracy the more subject they become
to criticism. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that as their general
accuracy is more and more widely recognized they necessarily exercise
a greater influence upon the markets, thus inevitably favoring or

antagonizing, as the case may be, some of those who are engaged in
the game of speculation in agricultural products.

This immediately attracts the adverse comments of the losers. = Such
aresult is unavoidable, and is apparently the inevitable penalty the
Department must pay for issuing reports so reliable and so generally
appreciated as to have instant effect on the markets. Were the reverse
true, and were these reports regarded as unreliable, they would not
influence prices, and criticisms would be reduced to a minimum.

The Bureau is earnestly engaged in studying the efforts of numer-
ous associations of cotton manufacturers organized in several European
countries for the purpose of promoting the production of cotton in
new lands, with a view to rendering them more or less independent of
the American cotton grower. These efforts are being especially directed
to the interior of Africa. Before long it is thought that the Depart-
ment will be able to publish some valuable matter on this interesting
subject.

The production and international movement of grain in the principal
European countries is another subject which is receiving the earnest
attention of the Division of Foreign Markets.

With the assistance of experts newly engaged, the rice and truck
crops will for the first time be made the subjects of systematic and
continuous statistical investigation. The grain belt has been redis-
tricted and an additional field agent assigned to it.

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES. |

Popular interest in road improvement appears to be deeper and
more widespread than ever before. This is evidenced by the work of
improvement actually going on in nearly all sections, by the State road
legislation, by the calls for the road literature issued by the Depart-
ment, and by requests for the advice and cooperation of the Depart-
ment in building object-lesson roads.

COOPERATIVE FIELD WORK.

Tor greater convenience and efficiency in carrying on the field work
of the Office of Public Road Inquiries the country has been somewhat
roughly laid off into four main divisions, with a special agent in each.
The work of these and other special agents in the field consists in col-

92 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

lecting and disseminating useful information regarding roads and road
building, conducting investigations and experiments, attending and
addressing meetings, and representing the Department in cooperative
object-lesson road work.

At several points in the South the Office of Public Road Inquiries has
cooperated in the construction of experimental roads of a mixture of
sand and clay, and the results have shown that, in the absence of stone
and gravel, this mixture may often be used to great advantage.
Other object-lesson roads were constructed, with the cooperation of
the Office, in Arkansas, Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.
These were in most cases first-class macadam roads. An especial effort
has been made to keep accurate accounts of the work done in each case,
and to report the operations and expenses in such detail as to make
the work a source of instruction to all who may read the reports.

Reports from all sections of the country in which experimental and
object-lesson roads have been built in previous years are unanimous
in commending the character of the work done and testifying to its
great influence for good.

It is intended that the work of the Office shall be continued along
the present lines of helpfulness and extended so fer as practicable, in
order that its benefits may be most widely distributed.

STATE ROAD LEGISLATION,

The most important feature in State road legislation of recent years
is to be found in the adoption of the State-aid plan. This plan involves
a recognition of the fact that road improvement is a matter of general
as well as local interest. ‘The inefficiency of the statute labor system
of repairing roads, the unwillingness of the rural taxpayers to assume
the heavy burdens necessary to the building of improved highways,
the popular aversion to the issuance of bonds, and the lack of any
central authority capable of coordinating the efforts of local communi-
ties, have to a great extent paralyzed efforts to secure general improve-
ment of rural highways. ‘The State-aid plan is intended to counteract
these depressing influences. It provides sufficient funds to give scope
and system to the efforts for road improvement; it distributes the
burden of expense so as to greatly relieve the rural taxpayers; and it
stimulates action on the part of local communities, coordinates local
-effort, assures competent supervision, and secures results of perma-

nence and value. |

The main features of the State-aid plan as now adopted in a number
of the States are (1) a State highway commission, and (2) annual appro-
priations from the State treasury to pay a fixed part of the expense
for building good roads, the balance of the cost to be met by the coun-
ties, the towns, and the owners of property lying along the improved

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93

roads. In nearly all cases the initiative is with the local communities,
and the work is done under local control, but according to plans
and specifications which must be approved by the State highway
commission.

In New Jersey, the pioneer State in the adoption of this plan, the
State pays one-third of the cost and the counties two-thirds, part of
the county’s share being assessed against the towns, the annual State
appropriation being $250,000. In New York the State provides for
one-half the expense, while the counties must pay 35 per cent and the
towns 15 per cent. In 1903 the legislature appropriated $600,000 as
State aid. No two States have adopted exactly the same provisions.
Since 1890, eleven States in all have provided for a greater or less
degree of State aid. ‘They are the six New England States, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. In a number of
other States the plan is receiving favorable consideration.

OFFICH OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

PROGRESS OF THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

The agricultural experiment stations throughout the country are
maintaining close relations with this Department and are seeking its
cooperation in increasing measure. The Department is endeavoring
to aid the stations so far as it can with a view to raising the general
level of their work in the directions of scientific accuracy and practical
usefulness and to bring the results of their experimental inquiries
promptly and effectively to the attention of farmers throughout the
United States. It is believed that the Federal funds given to the
several States for the maintenance of agricultural experiment stations
are now spent more fully for useful agricultural investigations than
ever before and that the results obtained by the expenditure of these
funds, combined with those contributed by a considerable number of
the States, will compare very favorably in scientific thoroughness and
practical effectiveness with the results obtained with equal expendi-
tures of public funds for similar work elsewhere.

Under the system of State control of the planning and execution of
the experimental operations of the State stations and under the liberal
terms of the Hatch Act, through which the States are granted Federal
funds for the partial maintenance of their stations, there is necessarily
considerable diversity of opinion as regards the proper and wise
expenditure of these funds. This fact is often overlooked in criticisms
of the work of our stations as related to their use of public funds.
With the growth of intelligent public opinion in the several States
regarding the most useful functions of the experiment stations, the
grade of their work has been raised, and when once the local constitu-
ency of a station has understood the real purpose and importance of

94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

good agricultural investigations, there has been little difficulty in
securing the adherence of the managers of that station to the spirit as
well as the letter of the laws under which the station is conducted.

ADVICE AND COOPERATION FROM THE DEPARTMENT,

It has been the effort of this Department to set before the stations
a high standard of efficiency and to exert steady pressure for the
improvement of their work. The cases of clear departure from the
law in the use of the public funds granted under the Hatch Act have
been comparatively few, and in such cases this Department has insisted
on such an adjustment of expenditures as would protect the Federal
funds. In most instances of this kind the stations have had funds
wholly subject to State authority which could be spent more freely
than the Federal funds and so have easily adjusted their accounts to
meet the requirements of the Hatch Act. In some cases this has not
been practicable and loss of a portion of the Federal fund of the ensu-
ing year has resulted. Not a year passes but that some stations are
persuaded by this Department to forego expenditures of the Federal
funds which under the terms of the Hatch Act they might technically
insist they had a legal right to make but which after discussion they
are convinced are not in the best interests of their work. Especially
has there been effected a more liberal interpretation of the duties and
responsibilities of the agricultural colleges toward the stations, which
are organized as departments of research in these institutions. There
are now only a few of these colleges where the narrow and short-sighted
policy of dealing illiberally with the experiment stations is maintained,
and this Department will not cease its efforts to bring about a change
of view and action by such college authorities on this important matter.

As the amount and yariety of the cooperation between the bureaus
of this Department and the State experiment stations increase there
arise from time to time questions of policy regarding the relations of
the Department and the stations in such enterprises. To provide a
regular agency for the discussion and adjustment of such matters, L
‘have created during the past year a standing committee on coopera-
tion, consisting of the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations
and the Chiefs of the Bureaus of Plant Industry and Soils. Several
conferences have already taken place between this committee and the
executive committee of the Association of American Agricultural Col-
leges and Experiment Stations.

Dari ing the past year a movement looking to the increase of the
funds granted by Congress for the use of the experiment stations has
been inaugurated and legislation for this purpose is now pending.
After a careful study of this matter in connection with the examina-
tion of the work and expenditures of the stations during the past two
years, 1am convinced that the demands on the stations for the exten-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95

sion of their work which have been aroused by their success in giving
direct practical benefits to agriculture in all parts of the country can
not be met without increased funds and that they are in a position to
make effective use of larger means than they now have at their com-
mand. Now that this matter is being publicly discussed and the
details of legislation have not been decided, it seems proper to state
that in the view of this Department it is highly important that in any
further act which Congress may pass for the benefit of the agricul-
tural experiment stations the Federal funds shall be explicitly granted
for purposes of agricultural research, and the powers and duties of
this Department as related to the supervision of those funds shall be
clearly defined.
STUDIES IN CHEESE MAKING.

As the work of the experiment stations advances from year to year
experimental data accumulate in many lines, and from time to time
results of great general importance come out of this extensive work.
A good example of this at the present time is found in the investiga-
tions of the stations relating to cheese making. The importance of
this in this country is shown by the fact that cheese production now
amounts to 300,000,000 pounds a year, valued at approximately
$30,000,000. Though cheese making is probably the oldest dairy
industry, very little has been known regarding the principles on which
it is based. For centuries it has been carried on largely by rule-of-
thimb methods, and the reasons for the various processes and the
exact nature of the changes brought about by them have been unknown
to the cheese maker. He has been guided mainly by the traditions of
his art and has depended upon the skill and judgment acquired through
long experience.

Within the past ten years several of the experiment stations of this
country have prosecuted systematic studies of cheese making with a
view of determining the principles upon which it rests and the means
of simplifying and improving its processes. Owing to the large num-
ber of factors involved the work has been difficult, and for a consider-
able time the progress was slow. Now, however, the accumulated
results are of great practical value, and it may be fairly claimed not
only that this great industry has been put on a rational basis, but also
that the art of cheese making has been simplified and its processes can
now be more easily controlled, so that good cheese can be more uni-
formly produced.

GAINS IN USE OF FEEDING STUFFS.

The Office of Experiment Stations has recently published a sum-
mary of a large amount of work which the stations have done on ques-
tions relating to feeding stuffs. Some of the practical results of this
work have been very important. The saving and use of corn fodder

96 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

(stover), which was formerly so largely wasted over a large part of
the country, isa striking illustration of this. Its value as a feeding
stuff has been demonstrated, and the best means of utilizing it have
been shown by the stations’ work, and their continual agitation has
brought about very great improvement in farm practice in this respect.
At the nominal value of $1 a ton the corn stover crop of the United
States would be worth at least $100,000,000. While it is not all util-
ized, much the larger share of it is, and the practice of doing this is
steadily increasing.

The inspection of commercial and condimental feeding stuffs, brought
about by the experiment stations, has already had the effect of largely
holding in check the adulteration of these products and fraud in their
sale. Ina number of the States where the laws have been vigorously
enforced by the stations inferior articles have been entirely driven
out of the market, because farmers would not buy them unless they
received the stations’ stamp of approval.

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES.

The activity of the colleges in providing special buildings and labora-
tories for instruction in the different divisions of the science of agri-
culture continues unabated. Among the buildings of this nature
recently completed are the $50,000 agricultural building in South
Carolina, the $150,000 agricultural building of the University of Wis-
consin, and the agronomy and animal husbandry judging pavilton and
the farm mechanics building of the Iowa State College of Agriculture
and the Mechanic Arts. The University of Nebraska is erecting a
$60,000 building for its school of agriculture.

The appropriations of the year for new buildings at the colleges and
for the maintenance of these institutions have also been very large.
The State legislature of Virginia appropriated $165,000 for buildings,
equipment, and improvementsat the agricultural college. The Iowa col-
lege has an addition of $50,000 to its maintenance fund, an appropria-
tion of $95,000 to complete the central building, $45,000 for a dairy
building, and $10,000 for equipping it, $22,000 for a new dairy farm,
and $7,000 for equipment, and $54,500 to begin the construction of a
heating plant, with several minor items, including $15,000 annually
for the experiment station. The College of Agriculture of Cornell
University is now definitely organized under State support, with an
appropriation of $250,000 for buildings and equipment. The Illinois
College of Agriculture has appropriations for a building for beef cat-
tle, $25,000; another for horticulture, $12,200, and for a storage build-
ing for agronomy, $12,500. Minnesota has appropriations aggregating
$300,000 for building purposes, including, among other items, $218,000
for a main agricultural building.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97

STUDY OF RURAL ENGINEERING AND FARM MACHINERY.

There is increasing interest in the formulation of courses in rural
engineering and the provision of special facilities for instruction im
this important subject. Special attention is being given to instruction
relating to the construction and use of farm machinery. The con-
tinued scarcity of farm labor in almost all of the agricultural regions
in this country makes necessary the employment of farm machinery
on even a more extensive scale than has hitherto prevailed. The total
value of implements and machinery on farms in this country, accord-
ing to the last census, was $761,261,500, an average of $133 per farm
and of 90 cents per acre of farm land. Much of this machinery is.
elaborate and complicated in construction and requires mechanical
skill and genius for its most efficient operation and care. In very
many cases it is also essential that the farmer shall understand how to
repair such machinery. It represents an important part of the farm-
er’s invested capitai upon which he must earn or pay interest. That
there is an enormous waste of money due to neglect and unskillful
handling of this part of the farm equipment must be obvious to any
one who has traveled through the regions where it is most used. The
colleges can therefore do a very important work in training their stu-
dents so that they will understand the construction, care, and most
economical use of farm machinery.

ATTENDANCE, AND EXPOSITION EXHIBIT.

The attendance at the land-grant colleges in 1903 aggregated 52,489
students, of whom 3,146 were in four-year courses in agriculture, and
7,550 in shorter courses in agriculture, dairying, horticulture, and
veterinary science. ‘The graduates of these institutions in 1903 were
4,524, and since their organization 53,252. The importance of the
colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts as a part of the American
system of higher education and research has been notably shown dur-
ing the past year at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, where ar
extensive exhibit of the work of these institutions was made in the
Palace of Education.

SECONDARY AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

Progress has been made during the year along the lines of secondary
instruction in agriculture not only in the schools maintained in con-
nection with the agricultural colleges, but also in separate secondary
schools, the number of which is steadily increasing. Considerable
attention is being given of late to the practical instruction of women
along agricultural and horticultural lines.

The introduction of agricultural instruction into the primary schools

2 al904——7

98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,»

is being more widely discussed than ever before at meetings of teach-
ers and farmers. The success of the nature study and school garden
movement in a considerable number of city and country schools has
Jed to a demand for the more formal teaching of elementary agricul.
ture in the higher grades of the rural schools. The National Educa-
tional Association, State superintendents of public instruction, officers
of agricultural colleges, as well as a number of other organizations and
numerous individuals in various official positions, have of late interested
themselves in the introduction of elementary agriculture and garden-
ing in these schools. The National Educational Association now has
a special committee of educators of national repute considering this

subject.
METHODS AND TEXT-BOOKS.

At the recent convention of the Association of American Agricul-
tural Colleges and Experiment Stations at Des Moines, Iowa, the
standing committee on methods of teaching agriculture made a report
in which it gave a brief history of the development of manual training
and agricultural instruction in the common schools, and outlined a
course of nature study and elementary agriculture for such schools.
Outline courses in elementary agriculture have already been prepared
by school officers in a nwnber of States. These are supplemented by
the formation of ctnbrot | farmers’ boys and girls, which are organized
for the purpose of conducting simple experiments at their homes.
Eight thousand Illinois boys belonging to these clubs exhibited corn
of their own raising at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. In a
number of States laws have been enacted requiring teachers to pass
examinations in agriculture, and the training of teachers along agri-
cultural lines is already receiving considerable attention at agricultural
colleges and schools, and normal schools, especially at sessions held
during the summer. A considerable impetus to the movement for the
introduction of agriculture in the public schools has been given by the
recent improvement of text-books and works of reference. Within
the last year or two a number of elementary text-books in agriculture
have been published, and some of these seem well suited to use in the ~
rural schools. In one way or another thousands of children in the
common schools are already receiving some instruction relating to
agriculture, and the movement in this direction is rapidly increasing.

AID FROM THE DEPARTMENT.

This Department is aiding this movement go far as it can without
having funds specifically for this purpose. Jt seems very desirable
that the Department should be in a positien to give more effective
aid to the movement which contemplates the application of the results
of practical and scientific investigations to our agriculture through

instruction to multitudes of farmers’ children in the public schools as
5. f

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99

well as in the agricultural colleges. The vast majority of teachers in
rural schools throughout the country are unacquainted with the work
and publications of this Department and do not understand how these
publications might be utilized for instruction in subjects related to
agriculture. Very much needs to be done to overcome the prejudice
of school officers and teachers against the introduction of agricultural
subjects into the schools. It is becoming increasingly clear that the
results of the work of this Department and the experiment stations
can not be most effectively and widely utilized by our farmers unless
in early life they are taught to think and act along the lines in which the
application of scientific principles and discoveries is made to appear
theoretically rational as wellas practically useful. Therefore, to secure
the greatest benefit to our agricultural people through the expenditure
of public funds in the maintenance of this Department and the experi-
ment stations, we should be able to bring the work of these institutions
directly to the attention of our educators and school managers in every
State and Territory. .
FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

Work in the interests of the farmers’ institutes throughout tae
country has been regularly organized in the Office of Experiment
Stations. Special efforts are being made to aid the large force of
lecturers who are in the employ of the State directors of institutes.
The attention of these lecturers has been definitely called to the
numerous publications which this Department and the experiment
stations are issuing, which will be useful to them in their institute
work, and they have been put in the way of receiving these publica-
tions regularly.

There is also a growing movement for the establishment of the
institutes in the several States on a more permanent basis. The form
of organization most approved is that of a strong local permanent
organization in each institute district, combined with a system of
oversight and limited control by the central State authority, whose
duties and powers are prescribed by law.

ALASKA EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

During the past year experiment stations were maintained at Sitka,
Kenai, Rampart, and Copper Center, and cooperative experiments were
conducted at Wood Island. Seeds of vegetables and flowers were dis-
tributed through the cooperation of the Bureau of Plant Industry to
about 1,500 addresses. Many of.the recipients report success and fur-
ther confirm the possibility of raising hardy vegetables and hardy
annual fiowers in nearly all parts of the Territory south of the Arctic
Circle. An investigation of the grasses and forage plants of Alaska is
being conducted in connection with the Bureau of Plant Industry. At

100 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sitka the headquarters building has been completed in accordance with
the plans furnished by this Department, except for some minor altera-
tions made in the interests of economy. More attention will hereafter
be given at this station to horticulture and the propagation of trees and
bushes for distribution to the other stations and over the Territory at
large. Some nursery stock consisting of hardy and early maturing
varieties of apples, plums, and cherries have been planted, and currants,
eooseberries, and raspberries are also being propagated.

SOME RESULTS OF THE WORK AT THE STATIONS.

At the Kenai station about 21 acres have been brought under culti-
vation. Experience during the past two seasons at this point has
shown that the maturing of grain is somewhat uncertain, though an
abundance of forage can be grown every year. Cattle do well here,
and the station is beginning in a small way to build up a herd.

At the Copper River Valley station, opened two years ago, a num-
ber of acres have been cleared and cultivated. During the season of
1903 barley and oats matured, and produced plump and heavy grain.
Cultivated grasses seeded in experimental plats did well, and a consid-
erable variety of hardy vegetables were grown. In 1904 an elaborate
system of plants has been laid out and extensive experiments are
under way with cereals. During August a severe frost destroyed
many varieties of the cereals, rendering them fit only for hay, but
some barley was matured and the grain saved for seed, and about 90
per cent of the Sixty Day and Finnish Black oats were matured,
making about an average crop. This station has the first equipment
of farm implements brought into the interior of Alaska. A number
of small tracts have been cleared by settlers and are under cultivation
at various points throughout the valley.

At the Rampart station grain matured in 1902 and 1903, and for this
reason more extensive experiments have been conducted during the
past year, and barley, oats, and rye have been successfully grown,

In general the experimental work in Alaska has shown that live
stock may be successfully maintained at many points in the Terri-
tory. The special agent in charge of the Alaska stations urges the
desirability of securing breeds of sheep and cattle better adapted
to the climate of Alaska than those which have hitherto been main-
tained there. It is, however, impracticable to carry on experiments
with animals in any large way with the funds now at the disposal
of the stations.

GRASS LANDS AND LIVE STOCK.

There are on the southern coast of Alaska, from Cook Inlet to
Unalaska, about 10,000 square miles of grass lands, over one-half of
which are capable of utilization. On much of this land there is a lux-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101

uriant growth of grasses often 6 feet high; on the remainder, lying at
higher elevations and in more exposed situations, the grasses are too
short for hay cutting, but furnish splendid pasturage. That these
grasses are nutritious the fat and sleek condition of the cattle furnishes
ocular demonstration.

At the present time this great resource is practically untouched,
though there are small herds of milch cows at most of the towns and
villages. Recently a live-stock company has begun operations with

rattle and sheep on Kadiak Island and another company is making
actual preparations to utilize Akutan Island.

It is possible for both sheep and cattle to live throughout the w Sites
without care, as has often been demonstrated. Indeed, where cows
belong to the natives they are forced to live through the winter with
little or no care, eking out an existence by feeding on browse and
seaweeds. Milch cows kept by, whites are as a rule fed from five to
six months, and this may fairly be considered the length of time when
animals require feed and shelter.

Sheep raising has thus far not proved successful. The principal
trouble seems to have been that the animals were of breeds not adapted
to the conditions that prevail on the Alaska coast. In both cases
where trials have been made grade animals were imported from the
semiarid regions of California and Oregon, where the climate is well-
nigh the antithesis of that in Alaska. With other breeds success is
not at all unlikely to follow.

For three reasons I am impelled to believe that the Alaska grass
lands as a whole can be most profitably utilized at present through
dairying. First, because the small population of the Alaska coast
limits the market for beef to a small fraction of the possible yield.
Second, because of the necessarily long feeding period, five or six
months, during which only dairy cattle will yield compensating returns.
Third, because the freight to distant markets on concentrated products
like butter and cheese is not a serious factor.

The Alaska coast furnishes many admirable sites for dairy colonies
or settlements, both on the islands and on the mainland. With such
a great wealth of grass as southwestern Alaska possesses it is difficult
to believe that it will not becomea great dairy country. It is doubt-
ful if equally good opportunities for colonies of dairymen can be
found in the United States to-day. Certainly there is no other place
left where 320-acre homesteads of magnificent grass lands can be had for
the taking. In view of the enormous area of these lands, it seems most
advisable that this undeveloped resource be converted into wealth.
Perhaps nothing will stimulate this as much as practical experiments
and demonstrations by the Department of Agriculture.

102 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HAWAII EXPERIMENT STATION,

A chemist and horticulturist have been added to the staff of the
Hawaii station, and in this way the field of operations has been consider-
ably widened. Soil investigations have been undertaken by the chem-
ist, which are of general importance to the agriculture of the islands.
The horticulturist has prepared a bulletin on bananas, which not only
treats of the cultivation and marketing of this fruit, but also brings
together descriptions of a large number of Hawaiian varieties, making
possible 4 systematic study of this important food plant. Experi-
ments are being continued on the cultivation and fertilization of
bananas, and a large collection of varieties is being brought together
on the station grounds. Experiments in the propagation of mangoes
and alligator pears have been begun.

The entomologist has prepared a bulletin on the leaf hopper of sugar
cane, which was investigated at the solicitation of many of the planters
of the islands. This insect made its appearance quite recently and has
proved in certain districts to be a very serious enemy to cane cultiva-
tion. The bulletin treats of the life history of the pest, describes the
injury produced, and offers suggestions for its control.

Under the immediate direction of the special agent in charge, investiga-
tions have been made of some of the fungous diseases of coffee, sugar
cane, and other economic plants, and a comparative test of grasses and
forage plants has been begun in connection with the Hawaii Live Stock
Breeders’ Association. Cooperative experiments with tobacco have
been conducted on the island of Hawaii with the object of producing
a type of tobacco that is especially adapted to Hawaiian conditions.
Cooperative experiments on cacao and banana cultivation are also being
carried on in connection with the insular board of agriculture and the
Hilo boarding school.

PORTO RICO EXPERIMENT STATION.

The work of the Porto Rico experiment station has been consider-
ably enlarged during the past year, partly with the aid of an appro-
priation of $2,700 made by the insular legislature and nearly $1,200
received from the sale of farm products.

Many permanent improvements have been made on the station
farm. <A small tile machine was purchased and drain pipes were
manufactured on the farm. Practically all the river bottom or alluvial
land on the station farm has been drained. This is the first under-
drainage ever undertaken in Porto Rico, and it is believed that it will
not only greatly enhance the producing power of the station property,
but will also serve as a valuable object lesson to the planters of the
island. An experimental irrigation system has also been installed on
this farm.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 108.

A preliminary survey of the principal tobacco districts of the island
has been made by a tobacco specialist in the employ of the station,
and a report on these investigations is being prepared.

The investigations on different methods of pruning, shading, and
fertilizing coffee plants bave been continued. An attempt to extermi-
nate the coffee-leaf miner by hand picking the leaves proved the
impracticability of this method of repressing this pest. The entomolo-
gist of the station has also been investigating the possibility of com-
bating this insect by means of parasites, and reports the discovery of
an effective parasite which, it is believed, by careful propagation and
distribution, will aid very materially in keeping in check this insect,
which is by far the most serious enemy to coffee cultivation now upon
the island.

A special study of the diseases of coffee and other plants was made
by the botanist of the Connecticut State experiment station, who was
temporarily in the employ of the Porto Rico station.

Much attention is being given to the propagation of citrous fruits,
especially with a view of obtaining better stock for growing in the
orchards of Porto Rico. A bulletin on the methods of production and
marketing of oranges, with special reference to Porto Rico conditions,
has recently been issued. A large number of tropical fruits, including
mango, alligator pear, soursop, nispero, guava, and many others, have’
been brought together in a tropical fruit orchard.

The tea, rubber, and cacao plantations mentioned in my last report
are flourishing and are being extended. Among the tropical vegeta-
bles which enter into the variety tests are the yautia, taro, edible
canna, arrowroot, cassava, yams, and sweet potatoes, all of which have
thus far done well.

Experiments are being carried on with a number of fiber plants.
Among these, maguey and sisal have thus far given very promising
results. The station has thus far conducted no careful experiments
with cotton, but the industry has been extended throughout the island
to a considerable extent during the past year, and the station officers
report that the results seem to indicate that it is possible to profitably,
produce a medium grade of Sea Island cotton in Porto Rico.

The report of the Bureau of Soils on the soil survey from Arecibo
to Ponce, made by that Bureau in cooperation with the Porto Rico
station, has been reprinted in both English and Spanish for distribu-
tion on the island. Several other bulletins and circulars in both
languages have been issued during the year.

PROPOSED EXPERIMENT STATION AT GUAM.

This Department has recently received a request from the governor
of Guam for the establishment of an agricultural experiment station
on that island. In making this request the governor states that the

104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF’ AGRIOULTURE,

population of the island, consisting of about 11,000 people, and
increasing at the rate of about 3 per cent a year since the American
occupation, is devoted entirely to agriculture. ‘The farms, which are
small, are located in the hills back of the surrounding towns, and the
people usually go to them in the early morning, returning to their
domiciles at night. As they are devoted to tilling the ground and the
raising of fruits, and to nothing else, this is an especially good field
for the introduction of such additional fruits and vegetables as only
the resources of the Government can command. ‘The revenues of the
island are insignificant, so that the people can not afford to pay any-
thing toward an experiment station, although its influence will be
very beneficial. There is a considerable tract in the public lands of
the island which could be set aside for an experimental farm.

Since it seems quite important that the people of Guam should
receive such aid in developing their agriculture as is now given by
the Government to our other island possessions, I have recommended
an appropriation of $5,000 for the maintenance of a station on this
island in cooperation with the Navy Department.

NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS.

. Inthe nutrition investigations steady progress has been made in the
elaborate and fundamental inquiries regarding the laws of human
nutrition with the respiration calorimeter, and in the more directly
practical studies of the nutritive value of cereals, fruits, and meat.
The great importance of these investigations is being recognized, not
only by scientific and educational institutions throughout this country,
but also in many foreign countries. The constantly increasing num-
ber of requests for nutrition publications and for information from
individuals, institutions, public schools, medical schools, and. similar
sources, is a proof that the resylts of the nutrition investigations excite
wide interest and are appreciated.

The cooperative method by which the work of investigation has been
distributed among various educational, scientific, and similar institu-
tions in the United States has been productive of as excellent results
the past year as hitherto, and a satisfactory amount of investigation
has been conducted. This has been made possible in part by the gen-
erous support accorded by the cooperating institutions, which have
contributed in some cases money, and in practically all cases the use of
laboratories, apparatus, libraries, the advice and counsel of skilled
experts, and similar assistance. Other institutions have expressed a
readiness to join in such researches, provided a comparatively small
amount can be allotted them, but with the funds at our command it has
not been found possible to extend the inquiry beyond the present
limits.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105

CALORIMETER EXPERIMENTS.

The experiments with the respiration calorimeter during the past
year have had to do principally with the comparative values of fat and
carbohydrates as sources of energy. ‘The apparatus has been so modi-
fied that a given quantity of air is circulated through the respiration
chamber, the oxygen withdrawn by the subject being made good by
the addition of a fresh supply, while the products of respiration are
removed for measurement and analysis. This method of experiment-
ing permits of direct measurements of the oxygen consumption in
addition to other factors concerned with the metabolism of matter and
energy, and represents a decided advance. In its present form the
apparatus is fully as accurate as the form previously described and
gives very satisfactory results. The form of apparatus which may be
most advantageously used depends upon the character of the problem
which is to be studied, since both the earlier type, in which a contin-
uous quantity of air was pumped through the apparatus, and the
present type, with the closed air circuit, furnish very accurate means
of studying a large variety of problems which have to do with the
fundamental laws of nutrition and practical questions connected with
the satisfactory feeding of man and domestic animals.

SPECIAL STUDIES OF THE YEAR.

During the year the experimental and editorial work connected with
the dietary studies at the Government Hospital for the Insane has
been completed and a bulletin describing the results in detail has just
been published. The data secured are of great interest in themselves
and will prove of material assistance in formulating dietary standards
and in other ways, while the experience gained in conducting investi-
gations will prove of great value in future work of a similar char-
acter. The studies showed that the diet at the Government hospital
was well managed and that the food was abundant, of good quality,
and well prepared. As the study progressed it became evident that
in many ways economy in the preparation, handling, and storing of
food might be introduced which would prevent waste and effect a con-
siderable saving without making any radical change in the character
of the menu. In other words, it was evident that, as in all business
enterprises, more careful and expert management would prove
valuable. ,

The studies concerned with the nutritive value and digestibility of
flours of different grades have furnished very interesting data and the
material now accumulated seems sufficient for answering the much-
discussed question as to the comparative value of different sorts of
flour ground from a given lot of wheat. It seems fair to say that the
erades of flour known as whole wheat and graham contain a somewhat

106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

larger proportion of protein and ash than the patent grades, but are
inferior as regards the thoroughness with which they are digested.
Judging, therefore, by the total material which the body receives, the
various sorts of flour are practically equal in value. The mechanical
effect which the coarser flours exercise on the digestive tract should
not be overlooked.

The dietary studies and digestion experiments with Maine lumber-
men have given some interesting and valuable results. In fixing upon
dietary standards it was desirable to have data regarding the kinds and
amounts of food consumed by persons performing severe work and
leading a very active outdoor life. Such conditions were met in the
Maine woods. The diet with which the lumbermen were provided
was comparatively simple in character though generous in amount.
Generally speaking, the quantities eaten were fairly large, furnishing
an abundance of both protein and energy. The food was quite thor-
oughly digested, no difference being observed between these men and
those living and working under more usual conditions.

At the University of California, the investigations concerning the
nutritive value, digestibility, and place in the diet of fruits and nuts
have been continued and important data are being accumulated. The
bulletins already published, which report the results of these investi-
cations, have been widely circulated, showing that there is a popular
demand for information along these lines. A popular bulletin has been
published showing how a surplus fruit supply may be used in the
household for the preparation of jams, jellies, and similar products, a
class of foods which may be made to supply carbohydrate material in
a palatable and attractive form, while at the same time the acids and
other bodies which the fruits contain are believed to exercise a bene-
ficial effect on the system.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
METHODS AND PROBLEMS.

During the past year the office of Irrigation and Drainage Investi-
gations made a comprehensive study of the methods and cost of pre-
paring land for irrigation. The results show the need of a_ better
understanding of this subject by farmers. Much has been done by
the Government and the States to aid engineers in the right planning
of dams and canals, but farmers have not been aided in like measure
in understanding how to get the best results out of the water when
furnished. A bulletin published by the Department gives descriptions
and illustrations of the tools used in grading land and building laterals
and of the leading systems in use in distributing water in fields,
orchards, and gardens. These studies show that the cost of preparing
land for irrigation is far greater than has been realized, varying under

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107

flooding from $2 to $5 an acre and under the check system from $8 to
$25 an acre. Here is a large opportunity for saving money to
farmers by aiding them in choosing the method best suited to their
conditions.

Last year a working agreement was entered into with the Western
experiment stations for the systematic collection of information on
important features of irrigation practice, which will enable this Depart-
ment promptly and at small cost to collect and disseminate information
of great practical value. This year the subjects studied were the
methods of measuring water, the rate of rise of soil water during the
irrigation period, and the use of cement and concrete instead of wood
in irrigation structures.

DUTY OF WATER AND APPLICATION TO SOIL.

The increasing value of water has given added importance to the
studies of its duty, which have been a leading feature of this investiga-
tion from the outset. Rights which originally were purchased for $5
an acre now sell for $35 an acre. Annual water rentals have risen in
certain districts from $1 to $7 an acre. Every extravagant appropria-
tion of water is a direct incentive to waste, and excess contracts and
decrees will continue to be made so long as the quantity actually used
has not been determined by accurate impartial measurements. This
fact is giving the work of the Department increasing importance. Its
reports are being used in fixing water-right decrees, and measurements
of the duty of water on streams where adjudications are proposed are
urgently requested.

Scarcity of water in the arid West makes it desirable that it shall be
used by irrigators in the most economical and skillful way. To aid in
making this possible the Department is carrying on a series of scien-
tific studies to determine the quantity of water which will give the
best results and the best method of applying it to crops. In one
important irrigated district these measurements show that the quan-
tity needed to irrigate 60 acres of land under the method in com-
mon use will irrigate 100 acres when applied by another equally
feasible method. They also show that the time of irrigation and the
quantity of water used have an important influence on the quality as
well as on the yield of crops.

PUMPING WATER FOR CROPS.

During the past season records of the performance of over 2,000
irrigating pumping plants, scattered from Texas to Washington, have
been obtained. These included many types of pumps operated by
gasoline, crude oil, distillate, by steam generated by means of oil,
coal, and wood, by electric motors, windmills, and water power. The
rapid extension of pumping as a means of extending irrigation gives
great practical importance to these studies.

108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Wind is one of. the neglected but promising sources of power for
providing water for irrigation and for doing other farm work. An
arrangement has been made with the department of farm mechanics
in the lowa State College to supplement the field studies made during
the year by more careful tests of the efticiency of different makes of
windmills. The makers of these machines Have manifested much
interest in these investigations and have not only offered to supply
the mills needed for testing free of cost but to manufacture others
according to any special design suggested by this Department.

Last season’s pumping studies lead to the conclusion that there is a
broad field for irrigation by pumping; that where the lift of water is
less than 50 feet the number of failures are comparatively few. The
failures noted have been due to two principal causes: Lack of mechan-
ical knowledge or skill on the part of farmers needed to keep
machinery in proper condition; and the selection of pumps of too
great or too small capacity for the work to be done.

IRRIGATION IN THE HUMID SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.

The studies of irrigation in Italy show that irrigation is highiy
profitable in a region having a larger rainfall than the Mississippi
Valley, and there seems no doubt that in a similar way it is to have a
large field of usefulness in the eastern and southern portions of the
United States. One of the special crops which require irrigation is
cranberries, and a cooperative arrangement has been made with the
experiment station of Wisconsin and the Wisconsin Cranberry Growers’
Association, under which the Department is attempting to formulate
the principles which should govern the irrigation and drainage of
cranberry beds. The studies made in Wisconsin are being supple-
mented by similar studies in New Jersey.

In the rice districts of Louisiana and Texas practically all the water
used in irrigation has to be pumped. The quantity used and the per-
formance of different types of pumps in providing it are controlling
factors in the success of this industry. Both these have been studied
during the past year.

There isa large territory in central Arkansas which is believed to
be well suited to rice growing. The Department is cooperating with
the State experiment station to ascertain whether it will pay in this
section to pump water to irrigate rice. The results this year, while
encouraging, show that it will require considerable experimental work
to place the industry on an assured basis.

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.

Crop production is being extended in this country in three ways—
(1) by reclaiming, through irrigation and drainage, lands hitherto
worthless or yielding only a nominal return; (2) by improving soil

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109

conditions in lands already under cultivation; (3) by scientific rotation
and intensive cultivation of crops.

Since soil drainage is an important factor in all of these, the promo.
tion of practical and efficient methods may do much for the general
improvement of agriculture. Original investigation, combined with
careful scrutiny of current practice in this and other countries, will
enable this Department to place before State and district authorities,
cultivators, and landowners the methods and practices suited to their
conditions.

The following work was carried on during the ye

(1) An examination of some of the irrigated bday és Utah for which
drainage is urgently needed, the giving of advice concerning plans,
and the beginning of some experiments in tile drainage to determine
the operation of underdrains in certain soils.

(2) The examination of several large drainage projects in the Middle
West, in company with engineers, county boards, and interested land-
owners, followed by reports and recommendations of plans. About
400,000 acres of land are affected by these projects, with an estimated
outlay for drainage of $1,000,000.

(3) Collecting and classifying field data upon the construction of
levees for protection of river bottom lands; their ditching and drain-
age by pumps; construction, duty, and operation of land dredges; the
construction and behavior of drainage ditches of various sizes.

(4) Collection of data regarding the operation of the older systems
of tile drainage in the Middle West, with respect to determining how
far conditions may be improved by reconstruction.

A preliminary examination of a portion of the Everglades in Dade
County, Fla., was made in conjunction with the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, and it is thought that the Everglade soil can be made profitable for
growing subtropical fruits if it can be sufficiently drained. In view
of the interest taken in growing fruit and vegetables in southern Flor-
ida for the Northern winter markets, the reclamation of the Everglades
merits further attention.

The lines of work carried on during the present year indicate the
widening importance of this branch of agricultural improvement.
The condition of much of the farming land in the older irrigated dis-
tricts, and especially in Utah, demands prompt and active relief
through drainage, or the loss already suffered by bogging of the land
will be rapidly augmented. The Department can render great assist-
ance to the people of these sections by enabling experts to direct and
assist in starting practical drainage operations in localities where
farmers are ready to begin.

An entirely different class of problems has been ahepinteredes in con-
nection with the drainage of the peat swamp lands of central Wiscon-
sin. Here the assistance of the experts of the Department has been

110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

requested in order to determine the manner in which drainage should
be accomplished and regulated during the subsequent treatment of
these marshes.

The reclamation of tidal marshes is a subject upon which numerous
inquiries have been received and which may be profitably studied.

The further development of the prairie lands of Arkansas and the
heavy cotton lands of Mississippi will depend upon the introduction
of more thorough methods of drainage. There is no public informa-
tion available bearing directly on the treatment of the drainage prob-
lems there encountered, although it is a fundamental matter in the
development of certain lands in these States.

The drainage experts of the Department have given considerable
time and thought in advising with and aiding agricultural colleges
and stations about courses of instruction in drainage engineering and
the carrying out of experiments in drainage. The establishment of
these courses of study and the special training of men to carry out
this branch of farm improvement promise much for the betterment of
soil conditions and soil production in future years. The success of
these classes is shown by the fact that Illinois has 42 and Iowa 65
students at present enrolled in drainage engineering.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.

The valuable results which have come from including irrigation and
drainage in the work of the Department leads me to believe that this
investigation should include two other branches of agricultural engi-
neering with which they have a close relation. These are farm build-
ings and farm machinery.

That this Department should give some attention to the convenience
and healthfulness of farmhouses and farm buildings would not seem to
requiré any argument. ‘These have such vital relation to the attract-
iveness and profits of farming and to the improvement of the social
and industrial conditions of farm life that they ought not to be ignored
by this Department.

There is urgent need of study of the important question of ventila-
tion and lighting in farm barns. <A recent investigation carried on by
the Agricultural College of Wisconsin has shown that scores of costly
barns, intended to house valuable blooded live stock, and on which
thousands of dollars have been expended to secure perfect sanitary con-
ditions, are a complete failure so far as ventilation is concerned; and
that this lack of proper ventilation is causing serious increase in the
spread of tuberculosis and seriously impairs the profits of feeding.
Hundreds of farmers are delaying the building of barns because, while
they realize the nature of the difficulty and the necessity for its remedy,
they do not know how to accomplish it. It is a striking but admitted
fact that we are so ignorant of the proper principles of barn ventila-

ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 111

tion that many of the costliest structures built in recent years have
been the most defective in this regard.

There is another reason for this Department giving some attention
to the subject of farm buildings. Weare entering a transition period
in which the cheap wood construction of former years is giving way
to permanent structures of stone, concrete, and iron. [arm houses,
through better water supplies, plumbing, and sanitation, are being
made as convenient as those of the city. The working out of these
changes involves so many new problems that the Department is being
called upon by experiment stations, improvement associations, and
communities for advice and information which if furnished could not
but result in a marked improvement in the conditions of farm life.

bs MACHINERY AND MOTIVE POWER.

Closely related to the healthfulness, convenience, and cheapness of
farm buildings is the right selection, care, and use of farm machinery.
The studies of pumping machinery have shown that the most impor-
tant factor in its successful use is the mechanical skill of the farmer,
and we are beginning to understand that the increased complexity and
cost of farm machinery make the education of the American farmer
along these lines more and more desirable.

No more significant change is taking place in American agriculture
than the extent to. which different kinds of motive power are taking
the place of men and animals. The use of the traction engine and
automobile in the place of the horse on the country roads, the employ-
ment of gasoline, steam, wind, and electric power to operate mowers,
threshers, plows, feed cutters, corn huskers, and dairy machinery are
illustrations of epoch-making changes that are now going on on every
modern American farm. On one ranch in California there is $60,000
worth of farm machinery operated by some other power than animals
orman. For want of proper information these changes are involving
farmers in serious mistakes and large losses. They buy motors not
suited to their requirements or which they do not know how to oper-
ate. They buy machinery not adapted to their condition and cause
its rapid destruction by not knowing how to care for it.

There is made and sold each year in this country about $100,000,000
worth of farm machinery. Fully one-half of this goes into the hands
of men who do not know how to select it wisely or to keep it in proper
condition. The waste which results runs into millions of dollars
annually. In addition, implement manufacturers lose large sums in
making and attempting to introduce machinery unsuited to the work
it is intended to perform, with a resultant loss to both farmers and
manufacturers.

Realizing the need of improvement in these matters, and partly to
meet the requests of implement manufacturers for young men having

112 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

agricultural and mechanical training which will enable them to design
and construct implements suited to the conditions of the American farm,
a number of agricultural colleges and experiment stations have inaugu-
rated courses of instruction and begun systematic experimentation for
the purpose of bringing about a general diffusion of intelligence about
this feature of farm work. They have appealed to this Department
for aid in this work similar to that already given them in other lines
of agricultural investigation.

TESTS OF CORN PLANTERS AND WINDMILIS,

As iliustrating the important results which are destined to come
from the inauguration of this work, one of the results of an investi-
gation carried out by the Iowa State College, a pioneer in this line of
education and experimentation, will be given. It began its study of
farm machinery with the operation of corn planters, because no single
factor contributes more to the yield than securing a uniform stand,
and this is impossible if the seed is not planted evenly. The machines
for planting corn in hills are intended to drop from three to four
erains, yet farmers have been buying, and implement makers manufac-
turing and selling, planters without any definite knowledge as to how
they behave in this respect. In making this test all of the leading
machines were included. It brought out the following significant
facts:

(1) That no planter now made will drop evenly unless the grains
have been graded. ‘The introduction of seed-grain graders followed,
and was an immediate, important, practical gain to agriculture and
to manufacturers of this kind of machinery.

(2) That with graded grain certain types of machines do accurate
work. ;

(3) That other types will not drop evenly under any conditions.

The important and encouraging feature of this investigation has been
the interest shown by manufacturers who have accepted the results as
impartial and conclusive. Makers of machines found defective were
as ready to accept the results as the makers of those which operated
properly, the defects being at once corrected.

The test of windmills by the Iowa State College to determine the
designs and sizes best suited to lifting water for irrigation promises to
lead to important results in extending the use of this motive power in
erinding grain, handling and storing produce, and doing some other
kinds of farm work practically without expense, which formerly
required a considerable expenditure for man or animal power.

NEED OF AN EXPERT IN FARM BUILDINGS-AND MACHINERY.

The requests of the colleges and stations for aid in carrying out
these investigations and in planning courses of instruction have been
supplemented by numerous similar requests from farmers for advice

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 118

and assistance about the selection and operation of different kinds of
farm motors and other farm machinery. In the absence of any speciah
arrangement for dealing with these problems, they have been referred
to the Office of Experiment Stations and dealt with by the Irrigation
and Drainage division of that Office; but there are at present no funds
which can be utilized for systematic work along these lines. I am of
the opinion that results of great value, alike to the farmers and the
manufacturers of agricultural machinery, will come from the extension
of the Department’s work in agricultural engineering to include
studies of this character, in cooperation with the agricultural colleges
and experiment stations. I have, therefore, asked Congress for an
appropriation which will enable us to employ an expert in farm build-
ings and farm machinery, in connection with the irrigation and drain-
age investigations.

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.

The publication work of the Department is a faithful reflex of its
activity and growth. The diffusion of the valuable information.
acquired by the Department is effected almost entirely through this
medium. The time was, indeed, when in spite of the comparatively
few publications issued, the cost of printing them amounted to far
more than half the entire expenses of the Department. At present
the entire cost of this work is not even one-sixth of the total expendi-
tures of the Department, and yet the number of publications issued
during the past fiscal year aggregated 972. Of these, 379 were new,
comprising about 23,000 pages of matter. The number of copies of
all publications issued during the year aggregated 12,421,386. The
600 reprints attest forcibly the extent of the demand for the Depart-
ment publications.

Of the whole number printed 415 were Farmers’ Bulletins, of which
25 were new and 390 reprints. The total number of copies of these
issued during the year was abovt 64 million, very nearly 5 million
being distributed upon the orders of Senators, Representatives, and
Delegates in Congress.

A very gr atifying feature reported by the Department Editor is the
constantly increasing demand for the Department publications by
educational institutions, mainly for class work. This has added, how-
ever, very much to the demands made upon us, and, unfortunately,
has greatly increased the instances where it has been found impossible
to comply with applicants’ requests owing to the exhaustion of the
supply.

This suggests the possibility, with the cooperation of Congress, of
utilizing, after sufficient time has elapsed, a portion of the unused
Congressional quotas of many of our documents. If some plan could

2 «l1904——8

114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be devised, with the approval of Congress, whereby such unused quotas
could be made available to the Department, a great deal of valuable
matter would go into circulation which at present is not used in any
way.

REPRINTING AND SALE OF DEPARTMENT BOOKS,

It is gratifying to be able to report that Congress at its last session
adopted a resolution authorizing the Superintendent of Documents to
utilize the funds received by him from the sale of public documents to
reprint such as are in continuous demand, subject to the approval of
the head of the Department from which the document to be reprinted
had emanated. This official courteously supplies the information that
out of a total of 47,800 Government documents disposed of by him
during the fiscal year, for which he received the sum of $12,606.17,
31,860 were publications of this Department, and the amount received
therefor was $4,309.60. This again testifies in a marked manner to
the increasing appreciation of the work of the Department, especially
in view of the very large gratuitous distribution, not only directly
through the Department, but also through members of Congress.

REDUCTION OF COST OF PRINTING.

Every effort has been made to reduce the cost of printing. The
editions have been restricted to actual and urgent requirements, and
every means to reduce expenses, short of interfering with efficient
service, has been resorted to. In the matter of illustrations especially,
originally a very natural source of extravagance, rigid restrictions
have been imposed. As a result, notwithstanding the considerable
increase in the number of publications and in the total number of
pages of new matter, the number of illustrations in the new publica-
tions issued during the year has been reduced by over 500, or more
than 20 per cent of the previous year.

THE LIBRARY.

The Department’s collection of agricultural and technical scientific
literature has been enriched the past year by the addition, by purchase
and gifts, of more than 4,000 volumes. Asa working library for the
practical agriculturist and scientific investigator this collection of
books now stands unsurpassed by any single collection. Some of the
special collections of technical scientific works rank among the first
in the country. More than ever before have the resources of the
Library been made available to scientists in various parts of the coun-
try. Loans of this nature, which do not interfere with the progress
of work in the Department, are greatly appreciated by experiment
station workers in particular. Among the many valuable additions
to the Library the past year have been a number of rare entomological

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115

works, which have long been needed to make the collection of books
on this special subject more nearly complete. A printed catalogue of
the books on entomology in the Library will be issued in a few months,
thus adding another contribution to the printed subject-catalogue of
the Library.

In return for the large number of Department publications trans-
mitted to foreign countries through the Library, the number of
exchanges from governments, institutions, and societies has greatly
increased, These publications cover largely the results of current
scientific work abroad and are of signal importance in the work of the
Department.

The cataloguing of current accessions has practically been kept up
to date. Printed index cards for the Department publications have
been issued in larger numbers than before to meet the increasing
demand from libraries in all parts of the country which receive the
publications indexed. In addition to these cards similar cards have
been prepared for three important agricultural periodicals, the print-
ing, distribution, and sale of the latter cards having been carried on
in cooperation with the Library of Congress. The quarterly Library
bulletin of accessions has been regularly issued. |

The number of volumes bound the past year has exceeded that of
any previous year, yet the desired number of 3,000 volumes a year,
until there are no unbound volumes on the shelves, has not been
reached from lack of sufficient funds to provide for this work.

With the growth of the Department the work of the Library has
increased proportionately, both in the direction of the purchase of
books and periodicals and in respect to reference work in connection
with current investigations. Each year its steadily increasing
resources make the Library a working collection more and more
depended upon for necessary data in the furtherance of Department
work in its numerous branches.

ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS.

The total amount appropriated by Congress for the expenses of the
Department for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904, was $5,258,160, an
increase of $244,200 over the appropriations for the preceding year.
Of this amount about four and one-half millions had been expended
at the close of the year, and the unsettled accounts were nearly sufli-
cient to consume the unexpended balance of $768,839.43. The appro-
priations for the current year aggregate $5,942,040, an increase of
$683,880 over those for the year ended June 30, 1904.

There was received from various sources and deposited in the Treas-
ury the sum of $11,322.58. Among the larger items of these receipts
were $4,392.46, resulting from sales of condemned property, $2,960.69

116 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

from sales of American products in Europe, and $2,337.33 for tele-
graph service by the Weather Bureau.

The amount appropriated for rental of buildings for the use of the
Department in the District of Columbia for the current fiscal year is
$39,820, an increase of $11,920 over the appropriation for thé past year.

During the year buildings for the Weather Bureau have been com-
pleted at seven different points at a total cost for sites and construc-
tion of $70,900. Buildings are in course of construction at four points,
the total cost of which will approximate $43,642. The total value of
buildings and sites now owned by the Weather Bureau in the District
of Columbia and at other points is $382,662.67. The erection of build-
ings for the use of the Weather Bureau saves a large annual expense
for rentals.

PERSONNEL OF THE DEPARTMENT FORCE.

The annual report of the Appointment Clerk shows that the total
number of persons constituting the body of the Department of Agri-
culture on July 1, 1904, was 4,504, an increase of 2,160 since July 1,
1897. In addition, there are nearly a quarter of a million special
correspondents and reporters who, although receiving no financial
remuneration from the Department, cooperate with it and render it
much valuable service. ‘These deserve the utmost credit for the public
spirit which animates them.

PROGRESS ON NEW DEPARTMENT BUILDINGS.

The work connected with the new buildings for the Department of
Agriculture, authority for which was announced in my last report,
has progressed satisfactorily during the year. As already announced,
Congress has authorized an expenditure of $1,500,000 for these build-
ings. For the greater part of the past year the architects have heen
engaged, under the direction of a committee consisting of three bureau
chiefs in the Department, in preparing the detailed plans and specifica-
tions for the buildings. The plans were completed in full August 25,
1904, and steps were at once taken for the securing of proposals. In
asking for proposals it was planned to have the matter considered
under two general propositions: (1) The buildings to be erected entirely
of granite, and (2) the buildings to be erected with granite base and
marble superstructure. Twenty bids forthe entire work were received,
opened, and scheduled on November 10. The bids on the complete
structure ranged from $1,153,000 to $1,612,000. After careful con-
sideration by the building committee and the architects, it has been
decided to erect the buildings with granite base and marble superstruc-
ture. The two lowest bids for this work were submitted by Mr.
Ambrose B. Stannard, of New York—one for $1,206,000, the other for
$1,199,000, the difference of $7,000 in price being caused by the dif-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 117

ference in style of granite used for the base. The committee has
unanimously recommended that Mr. Stannard’s bid for $1,206,000 be
accepted, and this has been done. It is gratifying to announce, there-
fore, that the actual work on construction will begin within the next
few days.

THE LATE COL. J. H. BRIGHAM.

In concluding my report, it becomes my sad duty to record the death
of Col: Joseph Henry Brigham, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture,
which occurred suddenly at Delta, Ohio, on June 29, 1904.

Colonel Brigham enlisted in 1861 and served throughout the war
with great credit, being mustered out with the rank of colonel. From
the date of his enlistment, Colonel Brigham may be said to have
devoted his life to the service of the public, and especially to the cause
of agriculture. He was for six years a member of the Ohio State
board of agriculture, and served one year as its president. He had
also served in the Ohio State senate, and had been appointed by the
late President McKinley, then governor of Ohio, president of the
State board of managers of the penitentiary of that State. Prior to
his appointment by President McKinley to be Assistant Secretary of
Agriculture, however, he was perhaps best known as master of the
National Grange, a position which he held for nine years.

While he was serving as Assistant Secretary I had the honor to
recommend him for appointment on the Government board of mana-
gers of the Pan-American Exposition as the representative of the
Department of Agriculture, and he was subsequently appointed chair-
man of the board by President McKinley. By your appointment he
held the same position on the Government board of managers of the
Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark expositions, and he was
filling these positions when he died.

Colonel Brigham was frequently designated to represent the Depart-
ment at important gatherings throughout the country, and on all such
occasions he not only succeeded in interesting and impressing his audi-
ence, but by his unassuming deportment, genial yet dignified, he added
greatly to his own and the Department’s popularity. At his funeral
at Delta, Ohio, on the 3d day of July last, which served to demonstrate
in a marked manner the high esteem in which he was held by his
fellow-citizens, his friends and neighbors, the Department was repre-
sented by a committee of its officers appointed by me for this purpose.

Born and bred a farmer, Colonel Brigham was a notable example of
a man who attained eminence without ever abandoning the occupation
of his youth. His experience and judgment, his public spirit and
fidelity to duty, made him valuable in every position which he filled,
and it is with a deep sense of personal and public loss that I pen this
record of his death.

118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the foregoing report I have endeavored to show the relation of
the farmers to their coworkers throughout the country, and also the
leading position which agriculture occupies among our industries. I
have endeavored to give an outline of some of the directions in which
the Department seeks to help the farmers of the United States. Its
existence is justified only by the extent to which it serves the tiller
of the soil through research and the practical application of science.

Respectfully submitted.

JAMES WILSON,
Secretary.
Wasuineton, D. C., Vovember 26, 1904.

THE RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

By Apert F. Woops,

Pathologist and Physiologist, Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.

In a brief consideration of the relation borne by plant physiology
to agricultural development it will be possible merely to call attention
to some of the more important improvements in the art of agriculture
that have resulted from the development of plant physiology, and to
indicate some of the more important directions in which this science
may affect the agriculture of the twentieth century. It will be neces-
sary to call attention briefly to the origin of our cultivated plants, the
diseovery of the sexuality of plants, the discovery of the nature and
sources of plant food, and the nature and causes of plant diseases. It
will be desirable also to consider briefly the training in plant physiology
required for the investigator, the teacher, and the farmer.

ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.

In its strictest sense, the word ‘‘ agriculture” refers. to the cultiva-
tion of the soil for the purpose of increasing the growth and yield of
valuable plants. In its broadest sense, agriculture is the oldest and
most fundamental of all the arts of civilization. The first steps in
agriculture must certainly have been the simple stirring of the soil in
search of edible roots, followed by the observation that plants grew
better and yielded more abundantly in such stirred soil. The stimu-
lating effect of excrement and decayed organic matter must also have
been very early observed and practiced. In the early stages of agri-
culture the cultivation of special food plants in patches or fields on
soils most conveniently located and easily cultivated and giving the
best results was a simple and natural step even for the most primitive
man. Inaccordance with the practice of all plant-eating animals, man
selected for his use the individual plants which he liked the best and
which produced valuable returns for him with the least labor on his
part. Thus, there gradually came into existence selected and culti-
vated strains of plants better adapted than their wild progenitors to
the uses of man. The changes or variations were slight at first, but

119

120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

we know from experience how greatly wild plants may be modified
and improved by cultivation and selection.¢ Within a few years such
treatment is often sufficient to make them almost unrecognizable. It
is thus easy to realize how great the changes must be that are produced
by centuries and centuries of such treatment under a great variety of
conditions,

The process has thus been essentially a natural selection, man’s like
or dislike being the critical factor. Darwin was the first naturalist
to fully comprehend this fact, and it was the study of variation under
domestication and the history of domesticated plants and animals that
enabled him to comprehend the great influence of continued selec-
tion in the modification and origin of species. Up to the time of
Darwin, about the middle of the nineteenth century, the dogma of
the constancy of species was almost universally believed. Species
were held to be special creations, a theory which effectually answered
all questions as to origin and stifled investigation. But regardless of
any theoretical notions held by philosophers of that time, agricultur-
ists realized the great importance of selection and crossing in the
improvement and modification of animal species. Darwin quotes from
Youatt, who, he says, was probably better acquainted with the works
of agriculturists than almost any other individual. Youatt speaks
of selection as ‘‘ that which enables the agriculturist not only to modify
the character of his flock, but to change it altogether. It is the
magician’s wand, by means of which he may summon into life what-
ever form and mold he pleases.” He, of course, refers to the art of
animal breeding, which is of very ancient origin and practice and
differed from the practice of the early plant breeders in that hybridi-
zation and crossing, as well as careful selection, were followed by the
animal breeders.

The sexuality of plants, however, was not known until compara-
tively recent times, and crossing and hybridization were not, there-
fore, consciously used in the early development of our agricultural
plants. The first scientific proof of the sexuality of plants was
furnished by Camerarius in 1691. It was not until twenty years
later, however, that the first recognized plant hybrid was made.

’ PLANT BREEDING.

The knowledge gained in the early part of the eighteenth century
was enlarged and somewhat improved in its scientific aspects, but was
not put to much practical use until near the end of the eighteenth and
the early part of the nineteenth century, when Thomas Andrew
Knight, an energetic plant physiologist and horticulturist, gave the

@See Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1896, pp. 89-106.

RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 131

first great impulse to breeding as a method of improving plants. He
recognized hybridization and crossing as the most potent means of
inducing variations in definite directions, thus purposely producing
changes which before were the result of chance development or which
did not occur at all, and he was thus able to bring about desired modi-
fications in a very short period of time. He recognized the slower
method of inducing variation by cultivation and increased food sup-
ply, but realized that the changes that can be produced by selecting
such induced variations are narrow and slow compared with what can
be secured through hybridization and crossing, followed, of course,
by careful selection to fix the desired types.

While there has been much advance in the scientific and practical
knowledge of plant improvement in the last fifty years, we are still
in the beginning of the work. In the earlier years of the nineteenth
century most of the work that was done was in the nature of a refine-
ment of the older methods of selection. The important bearing of
the work of Knight was not fully appreciated, but recently there has
been a rapidly growing recognition of the importance of hybridization
and crossing. If it were possible to get at the facts, we should doubt-
less find that much of the progress in the past has been due to charice
hybridization and crossing. The best that is in a variety can be
brought out by selection, but when the plant does not possess desired
characters they must be introduced by combining the good points of
several varieties or species, either cultivated or wild.

A good start has been made in thus combining the European and
native American grapes. The production of grapes for general pur-
poses, which has been the aim of practically all the work on grape
breeding thus far, has been accomplished and even carried too far, as
is so clearly pointed out in Bailey’s excellent work on the evolution of
our native fruits. The great need now, as there suggested, is for
varieties suited to special purposes, special soils and climatic condi-
tions, and resistant to diseases and insect pests. These may be pro-
duced by combining the desirable qualities of our wild and cultivated
varieties with the good qualities of the European types.

The combination of our native American plums with the older culti-
vated sorts has been in progress for little more than twenty years, but
many new and valuable varieties have already been produced. Hardy
varieties of apples are being produced by combining the qualities of
our wild crab and of the hardy Russian sorts with the good fruit quali-
ties of the cultivated varieties grown farther South.

Similar work is being done with the orange by combining the fine
fruit qualities of the Florida sweet orange with the cold-resistant
qualities of the hardy trifoliate or hedge orange, which is commonly
grown in the North asa hedge plant. Hardy oranges of good quality

122 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

have already thus been produced, as described in another paper in this
Yearbook, and their further improvement is assured.

Very valuable varieties of the pomelo have been produced by cross-
ing this fruit with the tangerine. These are nearly seedless and have
a loose rind like the tangerine, but retain the pulp characters of the
pomelo. This new fruit is called the tangelo. The small, rather dry
tangerine, by crossing it with the orange, has been made larger and
more juicy without losing its other qualities.

Scarcely an important fruit, flower, or vegetable can be mentioned
that has not in the past fifty years been greatly improved for certain
purposes through the production of special varieties by hybridization.”
More has been accomplished with fruits and with flower and vegetable
crops than with any other classes of plants, but important advances
have also been made with the cereals and forage crops by increasing
yield and hardiness; and the work of the Department of Agriculture
indicates that we shall be able to obtain by hybridization and selection
drought resistance, alkali resistance, and resistance to rust and other
diseases. :

In nearly all our important crops greater improvements have been
made within the last fifty years as the result of our knowledge of the
causes of variation and the principles of selection and hybridization
than have taken place before in historic times. This progress is the
direct outgrowth of the discovery of the sexuality of plants and the
laws of variation and heredity as applied to them. The physiologist
is seeking to work out still more accurately the laws of variation, cor-
relation, and heredity. When these are better understood, breeding
will become a still greater power for the betterment of agriculture.

THE FOOD OF PLANTS.

Next to the development of physiological knowledge which fur-
nishes the basis of plant breeding, the growth of knowledge relating
to plant nutrition has had the most important bearing on the art of
agriculture. The germ of our modern theory first became evident
about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Previous to that
time it was believed that plants obtained all their food from the soil,
although the elements and compounds constituting even soil foods
were not known.

The first step in advance was the demonstration of the fact that
the leaves take part in the elaboration of food and that the larger part
of the substance of plants is derived from the atmosphere. The lack

« New Citrus Creations of the Department of Agriculture, p. 221, of this volume.

See Progress in Plant Breeding, Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for
1899, p. 465, and Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1901, p. 217; also,
Hybrids and their Utilization in Plant Breeding, Yearbook of the Department of
Agriculture for 1897, p. 383.

RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 123

of chemical and physiological knowledge at that period, however,
made it impossible to proceed far in explaining these observations. It
was not until nearly the end of the eighteenth century that definite proof
vas furnished that plants absorb and fix the carbon dioxid of the air
and give off oxygen in the process, at the same time assimilating the
elements of water and increasing in weight in a corresponding degree.
This process was found:-to take place only in the light and only in the
green parts of plants, and normally and copiously only when small
quantities of certain mineral matters were absorbed by the plant
through the roots. It was also observed, about this time, that all
parts of a living plant absorb oxygen and give off carbon dioxid, just
as animals do in respiration. The conclusion was reached, though
founded on imperfect experiments, that plants can not make direct use
of the nitrogen of the atmosphere. The great importance to agricul-
ture of these observations was soon lost sight of, however, in a mass
of unimportant matters and misinterpretations, and it was not until
the appearance of Liebig’s work in 1840, and especially until the inves-
tigations of Boussingault, between 1840 and 1850, were made, that
the error was cleared away and the important facts clearly set forth.
‘It has thus been scarcely more than fifty years that we have had
information on the subject of plant nutrition that could profitably be
applied to agriculture. During this period very rapid progress has
been made in working out the more complex chemical and physiological
problems involved in the absorption, modification, and assimilation of
the several food elements under various conditions and from various
compounds or sources. |
The essentials for the growth of most of our cultivated plants are that
they shall have favorable light, air, temperature, and moisture con-
ditions for the growth of the leaves, stems, and fruits, and a favorable
quantity of air and moisture in the soil, with such soluble compounds
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron as
are best adapted to the particular crop.* The demonstration of these
requirements has placed in the hands of the farmer the means of main-
taining and increasing the fertility of the soil, and has enabled him in
many cases to make soils productive that before were barren. The
knowledge that plants need light and air and that the larger portion
of their food comes from the air has brought about a modification of
cultural conditions by giving plants more room in which to grow, with
a consequently greatly increased yield. Based ona scientific knowl-
edge of nutrition, the art of feeding plants has developed within the
last fifty years in a most remarkable degree. The well-informed

See Relation of Nutrition to the Health of Plants, Yearbook of the Department
of Agriculture for 1901, and Fertilizers for Special Crops, Yearbook of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1902. Reference to other literature on this subject is given
in the articles cited.

124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

farmer now knows that the varying combinations of essential conditions
and elements that occur naturally in different soils and climates are an
index to the adaptability of these climates and soils for special crops.
He knows also that these conditions can be modified favorably or
unfavorably by cultivation and fertilization. He understands the
importance of a physical and chemical examination of soils as indicating
the presence or absence and the relative proportions of the essential
elements of plant food.

The final test, however, is the physiological one of determining by
actual trial whether certain crops are adapted to particular conditions
and how the cenditions may be made more favorable. The physio-
logical examination should also determine what beneficial or injurious
micro-organisms are present in the soil and the changes which these
produce. There are some bacteria and fungi that cause the decay of
the organic remains of animals and plants, leaving the nitrogen and
other elements of plant food in the form of compounds available to
crops. On the other hand, there may be present organisms which
produce substances in the soil directly or indirectly unfavorable to
crops. The life history and habits of all these forms must be carefully
determined and the useful kinds put to work and the injurious ones
eliminated.

Very little has yet been accomplished in this particular field except
in connection with the problem of nitrogen fixation. Many investi-
gators have worked upon the latter problem, and step by step the
important facts have been discovered. The Department of Agriculture
has had a hand in the later developments of this work. The physi-
ologists of the Department have succeeded in working out the com-
plete life history and habits of the root tubercle bacteria which, living
in the roots of legumes, secure nitrogen from the atmosphere, thus
enabling these crops to grow luxuriantly in soils devoid of this scarcest
and most expensive of all food elements. Soils poor in nitrogen may,
by the use of these bacteria and proper legumes, be enriched fromthe
inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere. The nitrogen-
fixing power of these bacteria has been increased more than fivefold
by cultivation and selection on nitrogen-free media in the laboratory.

A cheap and thoroughly effective way of distributing and applying
these organisms in general agricultural practice has been devised
and put into use on a large scale. Ata cost of a few cents a bushel,
the seeds of clover, alfalfa, peas, beans, or any other legumes maybe
inoculated with these bacteria, thus making it possible to secure good
crops on soils devoid of nitrogen, and at the same time leave a large
quantity of this element fixed in the soil in a form available to wheat,
corn, potatoes, or any other crop that may follow the legumes. The
bacteria are helped to live and multiply by their host plant, the host
in turn is supplied with nitrogenous food by these bacteria, and the host

RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 125

upon dying leaves its decaying roots, leaves, etc., to supply stored-up
nitrogen to succeeding crops, or to neighboring plants which may
outlive the legume and feed upon its disorganized parts. The value
of legumes as restorers of fertility, apart from their value as food, has
thus been greatly increased. These crops without the nodule-forming
bacteria exhaust the nitrogen of the soil, like any other crop.@

This investigation, however, does not stop with the nodule-forming
organisms. There are other bacteria known which have the power of
fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere independently of any particular
crop. It may be possible when the life history and habits of these
species are fully ascertained to improve, cultivate, and distribute them
as we do the tubercle forms. If this can be accomplished they will
supplement the work of the tubercle bacteria and will add greatly to
the world’s supply of stored nitrogen, which is one of its greatest
sources of wealth.

NATURE AND CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES.

A third phase of plant physiological investigation which has resulted
in immense benefit to agriculture has been the study of the causes, pre-
vention, and cure of plant diseases. In the past, as now, very great loss
in crop production has resulted from attacks by insect and fungus pests.
It has been scarcely a century since the scientific investigation of plant
diseases began and hardly more than half a century since enough has
been known of plant physiology and of the life history, structure,
and physiology of bacteria and fungi and their causal relation to
diseases to be of any practical value to agriculture.

The rusts of cereals in damp seasons often destroy these crops or
greatly reduce the yield and quality of the grain over immense areas,
thus causing serious loss and suffering, and often famine. Many
species of rusts have been discovered, some more destructive than
others. The parasites causing the disease have been in some cases
carefully studied, but much of their life history and habits remains
yet to be learned. One of the most important facts discovered is
that some of the most destructive forms, like the black rust of wheat
(Puccinia graminis), have several distinct stages, formerly believed to
be entirely separate fungi and to have no connection with each other.
When De Bary found, however, that the cluster-cup rust of the bar-
berry was a stage of the wheat rust and that the wheat was infected
from the spores of the barberry rust a common observation of
farmers was explained, namely, that wheat rust is most severe near
barberry hedges. Laws were passed requiring the destruction of
barberry hedges, and this particuliar form of wheat rust was then

aSee Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem, Yearbook of the Department of Agricul-

ture for 1902; also, Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 71, and Farmers’ Bulletin
No. 214.

126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

greatly reduced. ‘The investigation also demonstrated that the black-
rust stage on wheat could not infect the plant directly, but could infect
the barberry, producing the cluster-cup rust of that plant. The spores
of the barberry rust were found not to infect the barberry but the
wheat plant, producing first the form known as the red rust on the
leaves and developing later on the same plant into the black rust.

The red-rust stage of the wheat rust can not infect the barberry, but
spreads the disease rapidly over wheat fields, producing a new gener-
ation about every two weeks. The great epidemics of wheat rust are
due to this red-rust form of the fungus. If the season is moist and
the spores from each generation are able at once to germinate, the mul-
tiplication is so rapid and continuous that before the grain is ripe the
host plants are so overwhelmed by the quantity of the rust that their
vitality is sapped and their supply of plant food to the developing
seeds is so reduced in quantity that only a few and imperfectly devel-
oped seeds are produced. In some localities where this form can not
live over winter it is simply necessary to get rid of the barberries, as
above suggested, and the disease is eliminated; but in many places,
especially in the great wheat regions of our own country, the red-rust
stage of the fungus lives over winter on winter wheats, volunteer
wheat, and perennial grasses, and possibly on other plants, and directly
infects the wheat crop of the next season, as demonstrated by the
investigations of this Department. Infected regions thus have more
or less rust every year, but the prevalence of the disease depends more
upon the conditions favoring or preventing the germination of the
spores than upon the number of spores living over winter and present
in the spring.

Tungicidal treatment for rusts has so far proved valueless, but much
more investigation is needed along this line. The most helpful develop-
ments will doubtless be in the production of rust-resistant varieties
through selection and hybridizing followed by further selection, thus,
for example, breeding into the tenderer wheats the rust-resistant qual-
ities of the durum and emmer varieties.

The smuts of wheat, oats, rye, barley, etc., form another class of
diseases which have in past ages caused and still continue to cause
immense loss. Pathologists have been more successful in overcoming
this class of diseases. Where formerly from 20 to 40 per cent of the
cereal crops were annually destroyed, now, by a simple and cheap
treatment of-the seed before planting, using formaldehyde, hot water,
or copper sulphate, the loss may be reduced to less than 1 per cent.

The discovery by Millardet about twenty years ago of the remark-
able fungicidal value of Bordeaux mixture was the starting point
of the scientific and practical development of the use of fungicides,
and has resulted in a very wide use of the compounds of copper

RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 127

for the purpose of preventing plant diseases. Several destructive
diseases of potatoes, such as early blight and late blight, or potato rot,
which often cause great loss to the growers of this crop, are now
easily prevented by spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture; and
by adding a little Paris green to the mixture protection is afforded by
the same treatment against the ravages of the potato beetle. The
black rot and brown rot of the grape, which at one time practically
destroyed the grape industry of the Central and Eastern States, have
been carefully investigated and an effective remedy found in Bordeaux
mixture. In fact, this mixture, which is a combination of copper
sulphate and lime, has been found an effective protection against the
larger number of parasites which attack plants through the leaves,
stems, or fruit.

In the case of root diseases caused by parasites in the soil or other
unfavorable soil conditions, the development of resistant strains or
varieties is often the only method practicable. Much has been accom-
plished in this direction. For example, varieties of grapes have been
bred resistant to the California vine disease, which has annually
destroyed the industry in several sections of southern California. The
phylloxera-resistant quality of our native grapes has been made use
of in breeding resistance into the tenderer European varieties, and our
native varieties have also been used directly as stocks on which to graft
the tender European sorts. This procedure has saved the grape indus-
try of Europe, and is being used to a large extent now in California
to guard against phylloxera. |

Strains of cotton resistant to wilt, a very destructive disease caused
by a fungus living in the soil, have been developed by selection.
Cowpeas resistant to root-knot and wilt have been produced, and a
valuable new variety of watermelon, which will grow successfully in
wilt-infected soils where other melons fail, has been developed. This
was accomplished by combining the wilt-resistant qualities of the
citron with the fruit quality of the melon by hybridization and selec-
tion. Ilax varieties resistant to flax wilt have been produced. Con-
siderable progress has also been made in securing by breeding and
selection strains of important crops resistant to alkali.

While much has been accomplished in this phase of physiological
investigation to enable the farmer and the fruit grower to guard against
loss, to save great industries from destruction, and to establish new
industries, there is stilla much greater work to beaccomplished. The
life history of organisms causing disease has been thoroughly worked out
only ina very few cases. The causes of susceptibility or resistance to
disease in the host plant and the whole question of immunity have
hardly been touched upon for most diseases. Diseases caused by un-
favorable atmospheric and soil conditions and the relation of nutrition

128 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to the health of plants constitute a very imperfectly explored field.@
Fungicidal and bactericidal treatment of diseases may yet be greatly
improved. One possible direction of improvement in this connection
is the finding of substances toxic to the pathogenic organism, but harm-
less to the host plant even when absorbed by the plant in quantity
large enough to inhibit the growth or prevent the action of the invad-
ing organism. This has been accomplished in animal pathology in a
number of instances. Recently the Department physiologists have
found that water solutions of metallic copper or of copper sulphate, so
dilute as to be absolutely harmless to man and the higher animals, are
very destructive to the bacteria causing typhoid fever and Asiatic
cholera, and to noxious algz contaminating water supplies.’ Copper
sulphate has been used very successfully in destroying these contami-
nations of water and in connection with the arsenite of copper in treat-
ing typhoid fever. There is good reason to believe also that metallic
copper in so-called colloidal solution will be found effective in treating
certain other diseases caused by bacterial infection, and possibly also
for cancer, as the writer suggested several years ago.

Briefly recapitulating, we see that our power to modify plants
according to our needs has been very greatly increased and perfected
by the development of plant physiology; that the working out of
the nutritive requirements of plants has enabled us to maintain and
increase the fertility of soils, to increase the yield and quality of crops,
to prevent waste of valuable food elements, and to set to work and
to improve nature’s machinery for the accumulation of nitrogen from
the atmosphere in combinations available tocrops. Ithas also. abled
us to discover the causes and find remedies for many of the most
destructive diseases of crops. The result of all this in the last ten or
fifteen years has been to enable the progressive farmer to protect and
control his crops to a degree never before believed possible, and scien-
tific farming is now fast becoming one of the safest forms of invest-
ment of capital and labor.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY FROM THE EDUCATIONAL STANDPOINT.

It is evident from what has already been said that the science of
plant physiology began with the farmer. The farmer made the first
observations on the effects of cultivation and manuring. His success
in the improvement of plants by selection and in the development of
fine breeds of stock by crossing and selection was the key to the solu-
tion of the problem of the origin of species. The power to observe
carefully and to draw correct conclusions has not been limited to

aSee article on this subject in the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for
1901, p. 155.

bSee The Contamination of Public Water Supplies by Algze, Yearbook of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1902, and Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 64.

RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 129

scholars and scientists. In nearly every industrial field the first great
steps were taken by practical men, often with no special training other
than that obtained by hard work, experience, and earnest thought in
their chosen vocation. The explanation of this is that the practical
workers were doing in the field and workshops the real experimenting
and observing with a definite aim in view, and this is the foundation of
the so-called modern laboratory method.

The remarkable developments in every branch of science and indus-
try that have taken place in the past century have also been due in
large part to the introduction of more accurate methods of study,
observation, and interpretation, and the attempt by such methods,
instead of those of scholastic philosophy, to get at the truth of things.
For the development of these methods as applied to scientific investi-
gation we are indebted very largely to chemistry and physics. It is
not practicable nor profitable for the farmer or the mechanic to go
deeply into experimental work. Their business is to produce, by the
best-known methods or processes, with a net profit to themselves. In
the field where plant physiological knowledge or investigation can
aid the farmer it is the business of the physiologist first to consider
the problems from the industrial standpoint and then to solve then»
according to the most accurate and expeditious methods. It is the
aim of plant physiology to determine the nature and causes of alk
vital phenomena in plants, to determine their relation and importance
to the life of the organism, and to discover the methods of controlling
these activities. Our ability to control them is the proof that we
understand their cause and nature. It is the application of this
method of proof that has made applied science so much more produc-
tive of great discoveries and generalizations than so-called pure
science. But in spite of the great advance that has been made in the
art of agriculture during the last century as the result of the discov-
eries in plant physiology, chemistry, and physics, we have only
begun to realize what the future has in store for us. The relation of ©
plant physiology to the principles and future development of agricul-
ture must finally be considered from the educational standpoint.
What must be the training of the investigator in applied plant physi-
ology, and what must be the training of the teacher, the farmer, and
the horticulturist ?

THE INVESTIGATOR AND THE TEACHER.

The training of the investigator in plant physiology, as in all other
sciences, should logically begin in the primary schools. He should be
taught how to observe and study the particular objects and phenomena
of nature with which he comes in contact. It is the old method again
of studying things themselves instead of studying books—applied, as
it should be, in the very beginning as well as in the later stages of

2 A1904——9

130 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

education. This fundamental training in the general principles of
natural history can be accomplished, along with drawing, manual
training, reading, writing, mathematics, history, geography, ete., by
a process of natural development and growth instead of the cramming
and forcing process so common even now in our schools. It is true
that the lack of competent teachers makes it difficult to apply this
method, but when we realize the need we will strive to meet it. In
the end, the plant physiologist, besides a good general training in other
subjects, must have an accurate and thorough knowledge of the gen-
eral principles and methods of investigation in physics, chemistry,
eeology, meteorology, and general biology. The vital activities of
plants are in accord with chemical and physical as well as biological
laws, and can not be understood apart from environment.

Too much stress can not be laid upon the thoroughness and accuracy
of this general training. In the haste to specialize, now so rampant,
general training is too often neglected, this part of the education
being discontinued too early; both general and technical education
should proceed together. General biology must, of course, include
both the animal and vegetable groups of living organisms. There
must be a general survey of evolutionary development, a study of
types from the simplest to the most complex, a study of comparative
general morphology, anatomy, and physiology in the broadest sense,
and finally a special knowledge from these standpoints of the vege-
table kingdom in particular. This survey must lay special stress upon
domesticated plants and animals as compared with wild species. It is
such comparative study, as Darwin first forcibly demonstrated, that
reveals Nature’s secrets.

To gain this knowledge of cultivated plants it will be necessary for
the plant physiologist to take a practical course also in agronomy and
horticulture. The field, the orchard, and the garden are the best lab-
oratories for this purpose. Throughout this training exact and accu-
rate methods of physiological investigation must be acquired and the
mind must be trained to sift evidence and draw accurate conclusions,
to develop hypotheses and test them. Initiative must be encouraged
and developed, and the economic relations of all questions must be
appreciated.

Besides the training already described, the investigator in physiology
must have a good reading knowledge of the more important modern
languages, especially German and French. He must keep in touch
with what other workers are doing in his own and related lines.

This very brief and imperfect sketch is presented not as an ideal,
but as an absolute necessity for anyone who wishes to go into the real
business of physiological investigation as it relates to agriculture.
Experience has proved that men with such training can solve the dif_i-
cult problems and can see and understand phenomena of the greatest

RELATION OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 131

importance that others have overlooked or have misinterpreted, and
can greatly aid in plant production.

The teacher must have this same training and knowledge, and besides
have the ability to encourage and help others to obtain it.

THE FARMER AND THE HORTICULTURIST.

The fine art of modern agriculture is as much beyond the unedu-
cated and untrained manas the art of sculpture is beyond the ordinary
quarryman. ‘The poor of the cities can not be sent to the country and
there made into farmers as easily as some superficial observers may
think. The young man who would be a farmer or horticulturist must
either be trained by some experienced member of the profession who
has kept abreast of the times and has made a success of farming or
horticulture, or he must go to an agricultural school, where agricul-
tural training is made a business. A combination of both is still better.
If a correct educational system has been followed in the common
schools under competent teachers, the young agriculturist will have
when he comes to the agricultural college a practical knowledge of
farm operations anda good general elementary education, including
a training in the elements of natural history, before described as
desirable for the young physiologist.

It may be possible to obtain this training from the primary graded
schools of our towns and cities. It is, however, much more likely to
be secured through the newer system of consolidated rural schools
now being adopted in our most progressive agricultural States. This
rural-school system starts with a primary school and leads up to the
agricultural high school and college of agriculture, and has as its aim,
from bottom to top, the training of agriculturists. The system meets
a recognized economicand educational need and is sure to take a place
coordinate with the older systems. @

As a result of his study in the college, the young agriculturist must
understand and be able to make use of the general principles of physics,
chemistry, and geology, with special reference to soils, meteorology,
and general biology. He must learn the reasons for the technical
agricultural processes and be able intelligently to modify and vary
these processes to meet varying conditions; he must be able to under-
stand and make use of improved methods in agricultural technology;
in short, he has to learn how to produce by the best and most econom-
ical methods.

The botanical training should consist of a general survey of the
vegetable kingdom, with special reference to the origin, relationship,
and physiology of cultivated plants and those of economic importance.

“See article by Hays, Our Farmer Youth and the Public Schools, in American
Monthly Review of Reviews, October, 1903.

182 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The economic relations of bacteria and fungi must be studied with
special reference to controlling and protecting the valuable species
and guarding against the injurious species. The farmer should be able
to recognize the more important and destructive plant diseases and
know how to guard against them. He must understand the principles
of reproduction and propagation and methods of plant improvement
by seed selection, cultivation, and hybridization. He must know how
to maintain and increase the fertility of soils and must recognize the
adaptability of soils to special crops. This involves a knowledge of
food requirements of special crops and the most economical means of
furnishing the required food. Ina host of other ways also, a knowl-
edge of the physiology of plants will enter into the technical processes
of farming or fruit growing. ‘The paramount idea should be not to
make botanists, chemists, or zoologists, but to furnish the foundation
training for the development of experts in farming, or fruit growing,
or animal husbandry. There must be the closest sympathy and touch
between the investigator, the teacher, and the practical worker. They
are a trinity with a unity of purpose—the development of a perfect art
of agriculture. ing

ATTITUDE OF LUMBERMEN TOWABD FOREST FIRES.

By E. A. STERLING,

Forest Assistant, Bureau of Forestry.
FIRE THE GREATEST ENEMY OF FORESTS.

Of the many destructive agencies at work in the forests of the United
States, fire holds first place, and the loss which it inflicts equals, if it
does not surpass, that from all other causes combined. Insect hordes
occasionally destroy large areas of valuable forest growth; wasteful
and short-sighted lumbering methods, resulting from involved eco-
nomic conditions, have brought about the rapid conversion of much
of the finest timberland into unproductive barrens; and in the far
West excessive and unrestricted grazing has seriously reduced the
regenerative power of the forest and exposed vast areas to injury by
floodand erosion. But great as is the damage from these causes, com-
pared with fire they are of secondary importance. Further, it is to
the fires which usually precede, accompany, or follow these other
agencies that their most serious consequences are often due. Insect
attacks often follow when fire has killed or reduced the vitality of tim-
ber; the cut-over timberlands of the Great Lakes and other regions
would not present such a discouraging aspect had not fire killed the
seed trees and young growth, which otherwise would have survived
even the most pernicious logging; and in the forests of the West fire
again is a potent source of difficulty in adjusting the conflicting claims
of the grazing, timber, and water interests.

SOME ESTIMATES OF LOSSES FROM FIRE.

Certain as it is that fire is the greatest of forest evils, there exists
comparatively little accurate knowledge on which to base an estimate
of the total loss from this source. This is due not to lack of inter-
est so much as to the immensity of the field and the complex character
of the problem which the attempt to make such an estimate presents.
Losses of mill and logging machinery, lumber, cordwood, merchant-
able standing timber, and other property of stable market value can
be closely determined by individual losers, but when attempts are
made to combine even these definite losses for a State, or for the
United States, the result becomes a rough estimate, if not a matter of
mere conjecture. Nevertheless, it is indisputable that these losses are

133

184 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

enormous, and that, for the country as a whole, they run high into
the millions. The most conservative estimates put the average annual
loss from forest fires at above $25,000,000. More exact estimates
are available for limited regions. For example, a careful estimate
made on the ground after the terrific Washington and Oregon fires of
1902 showed a loss in nine days of $12,000,000 worth of forest prep-
erty. New York State in the spring of 1903 suffered from unusually
severe fires in the Adirondacks, involving a direct loss estimated at
$3,500,000, in addition toa ae expense for fire fighting of $175,000.

LOSSES FROM FIRE WHICH ARE NOT USUALLY CONSIDERED.

But the severest consequences do not result from these great con-
flagrations, which partake of the nature of national calamities. Beyond
question it is the smaller, unnoted fires which, in the aggregate, inflict
the most serious damage upon the forests of the United States. id
this damage is for the most part of a kind, from the very nature of
the case, incapable of exact calculation. In the first place, much fine
timber in this country has at present no money value, because it is
not now accessible. In the second place, the injury which the forest
suffers is far greater than that covered by the stumpage value s the
standing merchantable timber. Generally the lumberman is imme-
diately concerned only with that part of the fire loss which includes
the destruction of timber and lumber that he can sell, and of milling or
logging property in the woods. The annihilation of young growth
and the lowering of the forest’s water conserving and regenerative
powers do not appear in the profit and loss column of his books.
From the point of view of the public interest the effect of fires on
forest reproduction and water conservation is far more important tl
the destruction of mature timber, yet the impossibility of even approx-
imately determining the former losses makes them appear less real.
Save in limited regions, young forest growth has no recognized value;
consequently its destruction by fire is not an appreciated financial loss.
In view of the growing scarcity of timber and of the almost inevitable
changes in the general field of forestry, it is safe to prophesy that in
the near future the value of young growth will be definitely recog-
nized. Nevertheless, lumbermen have not as yet generally recognized
it, nor taken steps to encourage or protect such growth. (PI. 1.)

CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT FIRE LOSSES.

The extent to which lumbering interests suffer from fire depends
largely on the region in which they conduct their operations. Broad
statements concerning this are subject to exceptions, yet in general it
is true that Pacific Coast lumbermen suffer most, and those in the south-
ern hardwoods least; while the losses of operators in the Lake States

Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE |.

Fia. 1.—GENERAL VIEW A FEW YEARS AFTER THE REDWOOD LUMBERMAN HAS FINISHED
+ ‘8 His WorRK. HUMBOLDT COUNTY, CAL.

[It is noticeable that few of the stumps are sprouting. ]

Fia. 2.—CUT-OVER LAND BURNED SIX YEARS AGO (1898), SHOWING DEAD TREES AND
HOW CEANOTHUS CORDULATUS IS TAKING POSSESSION. ELDORADO COUNTY, CAL.

ATTITUDE OF LUMBERMEN TOWARD FOREST FIRES. 135

and the Northeast fall between the two. The Pacific Coast lumber
manufacturer is the heaviest loser, not only because the fires are more
severe, but also because his mills and yards are located in the heart of
the forest, since he can not ‘‘ drive” the streams. In California and
eastward surface fires prevail in the virgin forests, but rarely destroy
extensive stands of timber, although individual trees are severely
injured and often killed. In the Northeast and Great Lakes States fires
commonly do not reach their maximum of injury until the lumberman
has left; hence he is not so greata sufferer. In the Southern pineries
the frequently-occurring grass fires are rarely severe, and are seldom
troublesome tolumbermen. Old turpentine orchards, where the boxes
and excoriated surfaces expose the trees to fire injury, are the excep-
tion. Such timber, however, is usually purchased at a low figure and
cut before fire does it material damage.

ERRONEOUS IDEAS CONCERNING EFFECTS OF FIRES.

The effect of surface and brush fires in large timber is more serious
than is generally supposed. The prevailing opinion is that mature
timber is not injured by such fires, and this has created among lum-
bermen a feeling of indifference to their occurrence. Few fires in a
forest are so slight as to produce no ill effects. Though most of the
trees may escape with onlya slight blackening or charring of the bark,
there are invariably others which are killed or injured at the base by
the burning of brush and débris accumulated about the trunk, or by
the fire catching in a break in the bark. Each successive fire adds its
percentage of injury, while all damaged trees are rendered less wind-
firm. Even in the southern pines, where the fire injury is near the
minimum, the cumulative damage is surprisingly great. The Bureau
of Forestry has obtained figures which show that in a turpentine
orchard of Florida longleaf pine, abandoned for five years, 33 per cent
of the trees above a diameter of 1 inch were found dead or down,
mainly as a result of fire, while only one-half of 1 per cent of the
remaining boxed trees were unburned. The damagein unboxed long-
leaf pine of the same region was much less serious, 82 per cent of the
stand being sound. Throughout California the opinion so Jargely pre-
vails that fires in virgin timber are comparatively harmless that lum-
bermen allow them to run unless they threaten their mills or are likely
to spread to ‘‘slashings” in dangerous proximity to valuable timber.
This, too, is in the face of the fact that nothing is more noticeable in
the Sierra forests than the burned-out bases of many of the finest sugar
and yellow pines. (PI. IL.) Figures obtained in the logging camps of a
lumber company in Tehama County show that the ‘‘ long butting” neces-
sitated by the burns in the base logs amounts to about 44. per cent of the
total cut, which is a direct loss of this amount. This does not include

136 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

the loss in high stumps, where the cut is made above the burn, nor allow
for the deduction from the actual scale reading in partially burned-out
logs, nor for the inferior lumber near the burns, where the heat has
hardened the pitch. In addition to this, many trees have burned
down or have been thrown by wind as a consequence of the fire.

VIEWS OF LUMBERMEN CONCERNING FOREST FIRES.

The general attitude of lumbermen toward forest fires is one of
hopelessness, coupled in a measure with indifference. Fires were not
unknown prior to the days of settlement, but since the commercial
exploitation of the forests began they have increased in number and
severity, until now they are regarded as inevitable. Considering the
many causes from which forest fires spring, the difficulty of quickly
locating and suppressing them in the incipient stages, and the tre-
mendous and often impossible task of stopping a fire when it has
attained full headway, it is not to be wondered at that the lumber-
man has taken rather a hopeless view of the matter. Further-
more, fire fighting and even crude measures of protection require
an outlay which could not have been borne during the earlier lumper-
ing period. There has been, too, an unfulfilled State duty which has
added to the lumberman’s burden. Large sums raised by taxes on
forest land have been going into the State treasuries, yet until very
recent years no intelligent effort has been made to assist timber own-
ers to protect their holdings. While lumbermen should have done
more for themselves, the laws which should have given them encour-
agement and assistance have been wanting or totally inadequate.

The attitude of indifference which has been shown by lumbermen
in many instances is far less excusable than their belief in the impossi-
bility of fire protection. Realizing the fire danger, they have deliber-
ately ignored all sides of the question save that of the most temporary
protection, and have taken the best from the land and abandoned the
rest to destruction by fires which often threatened or destroyed the
adjoining property of others. The only justification for this has been
the economic conditions which have made the suppression of fire incom-
patible with profitable lumbering.

CHANGED CONDITIONS.

Before the awakening to the needs and possibilities of forestry and
when the forests were considered inexhaustible, indifference and inaction
when forest fires occurred was not unnatural. These conditions, how-
ever, are now of the past. The end of the virgin timber supply is in
sight, and the improved tone of the lumber market is enabling lumber-
men to dispose of inferior material and to realize better prices for all

ATTITUDE OF LUMBERMEN TOWARD FOREST FIRES. 137

grades. These changes are making it profitable for timber owners to
cut more conservatively and to hold their land for future timber pro-
duction.

In pursuing such a policy, fire protection and the systematic dis-
posal of ‘‘ slash” by methods which will result in the minimum of
injury to young growth and seed trees must follow. It is most en-
couraging that many large lumber concerns, especially in the West,
are favoring the adoption of such a policy, and in a few cases are
putting it into practice. In short, lumbermen are beginning seriously
to consider the advantages of long-continued management of timber-
lands, in place of the policy of temporary speculative holdings upon
which their operations have hitherto been based. With this change
in general management must come an entirely altered sentiment toward
forest fires. They can no longer be ignored, but must be intelligently
and systematically guarded against.

FIRE PROTECTION ON PRIVATE LANDS.

Without adequate fire protection the practice of forestry on private
timber lands will not give the desired results. The leaving of seed
trees and application of modified lumbering methods for the purpose
of securing natural reproduction, which is liable to ultimate destruc-
tion by fire, appeals neither to the lumberman nor to the forester.
Even assuming a recognized market value for young growth, there
can be little incentive for encouraging or holding it as long as a con-
stant fire menace remains; hence it follows that fire protection is a
fundamental necessity in all plans for forest management on private
holdings. Definite plans for fire protection should precede or accom-
pany all working plans’ for forest lands, and in most cases fire plans
alone will give results which will fully justify their application.

It is surprising that individual timber owners have done so little for
themselves in matters of fire protection, especially in view of the fact
that it is largely a local problem, and can be most satisfactorily dealt
withassuch. Adequate protection is undeniably a complex and difficult
task. It is, however, no greater than many of the logging, milling,
and transportation difficulties which have been successfully surmounted.
It has been neglected merely because financial success has not beea
dependent upon it. The enterprise and ingenuity of American lumber-
men is world renowned. For the cheap and rapid manufacture of
lumber they have developed marvelous mechanical devices. But in
matters of fire protection they are still little farther advanced than were
the pioneers of the industry. Indeed, by opening up the forests and
leaving large quantities of inflammable débris they have rather increased
the fire danger. As it was fifty years ago, so itis to-day. No atten-
tion is paid to fires until they reach dangerous proportions; then they
are fought with characteristic American energy; the mills are often

138 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

shut down, all available men are employed to fight the flames, and the
fire is odaall? controlled, but at great expense. ‘The more rational and
businesslike and in the ae the more economical method, systematic
preventive measures and preparation for promptly extinguishing small
fires, has seldom been employed.

NEW DEPARTURES IN DEALING WITH THE FIRE PROBLEM.

In keeping with the changed conditions already mentioned, the
result of which must be to compel a departure from the old niethiod
made possible by an abundance of timber, there has of late been
evinced a growing disposition to introduce fire protection on forest
lands. ‘This has taken the form, in some cases, of actual attempts to
prevent fire from running through mature timber or young growth
and to reduce the fire danger by carefully burning slash. The
greatest difficulty at present is lack of knowledge of how: to attain these

ends.
BURNING SLASH.

Several lumber companies in various regions have attempted to burn
the slash on cut-over land, but have not developed a wholly suc-
cessful system. The owner of an enormous tract of virgin timber
in northern California, Mr. T. B. Walker, has employed men to rake
away the débris from the larger sugar and yellow pines and to throw
fresh dirt into the cavities previously burned in the bases .of the
trunks. (PI. LI, fig. 2.) The same plan has been tried on a small area
of longleaf pine near Ocilla, Ga. Such a procedure will give tempo-
rary protection from surface fires, but it leaves all young growth open
to destruction and does not get at the root of the evil.

During the past year the Bureau of Forestry has made a special
study of slash burning, and of forest-fire protection in general, on
private land in California. The idea has hitherto prevailed that in
order to burn slash successfully the tops must be lopped and the limbs
and other débris piled. ‘This has made the process too expensive for
general adoption. Experiments are now being made to prove the —
feasibility of burning the slash as it lies. It is thought that by select-
ing favorable weather conditions and burning in small blocks or broad
lines the fire can be easily controlled. Promising clumps of young
growth and seed trees will be protected by clearing around them
before the fires are started. Under no condition should there be indis-
criminate firing of slash, regardless of method, and without competent
supervision. (See Pl. III.)

PLAN FOR PROTECTING MATURE TIMBER.

On the California timberlands of amatch company a plan of fire pro-
tection prepared by the Bureau was in operation during the past year.
The results at the close of the first season were very satisfactory. No

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PLATE III.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904

CLOSE CUT IN OPEN PINE AND FIR FOREST, SHOWING SLASH IN FOREGROUND. MADERA COUNTY,

ATTITUDE OF LUMBERMEN TOWARD FOREST FIRES. 139

serious fires occurred, a marked contrast to the record of recent years
prior to the application of the plan. In addition to an annual system-
atized burning of the slash on the land logged during the year, the
plan provides for a system of trails and telephone lines, whereby all
fires may be reported and reached promptly, a lookout station at a
commanding point of view, a regular patrol during the dry season,
the posting of warning notices, the storing of fire-fighting tools at
convenient points, and the working up of an antifire sentiment among
employees and local inhabitants. With the growing desire for fire
protection, the general practices here found successful should, with
modifications to suit local requirements, find application elsewhere.

THE QUESTION OF SECOND GROWTH.

Assuming that the lamberman finds it advisable to protect his mature
timber and burn his slash, the question arises: Can he afford to pro-
tect the young growth on his cut-over land, or to hold the land for
the second crop? It is an undeniable fact that young forest growth
in general has no sale value, although in the eyes of the forester its
prospective value is considerable. It thus follows that under the
present system of taxing forest lands, and in the face of a constant fire
danger, there is little encouragement for lumbermen to hold second
growth or to invest money in its protection. Despite these discour-
aging facts, many lumbermen are retaining their cut-over land and
manifest a desire to preserve the second growth. But no active meas-
ures to protect it have been taken, except in a few cases, such as those
just mentioned. It is not so much the uncertainty of returns as the
danger that all will be lost by fire that prevents the general retention
of lands more suitable for timber production than for agriculture.

SUMMARY.

In conclusion, it may be said that economic conditions produced by
an overestimated abundance of timber have been mainly responsible
for the hopeless, inactive attitude of lumbermen toward forest fires.
They have been tolerant of, rather than aggressive toward, this
greatest of forest evils. In keeping with the more recent changes in
the lumber market, and as one of the ameliorating influences of the
application of forestry to the lumber industry, there has come a
greater desire for the protection of private timberland from fire.
That this need has not been met more promptly has been due largely
to a lack of knowledge of how to proceed. Adequate forest-fire pro-
tection is a big and difficult undertaking at best, but if approached as
such, and if serious, systematic action is taken by individual lumber-
men, the solution will be found. The desired end, if attained, will

140 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ultimately justify the expense. The State and Federal governments
can contribute to the attainment of satisfactory results by new and
revised forest-fire legislation and by giving expert advice to those
desirous of it.

With the general application by State and private owners of suc-
cessful systems of forest protection will come a new era in American
forestry. As the fire risk is reduced timber-producing land will
become more desirable property, the potential value of young growth
will be recognized, and a long step will be made toward putting the
lumber industry on a more enduring business basis.

. -—

RELATION OF WEATHER CONDITIONS TO GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT OF COTTON.
By J. B. Marsury,
Section Director, U. S. Weather Bureau, Atlanta, Ga.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The peculiar adaptability of the climate of the South to the produc-
tion of cotton, the great clothing staple of the world, has made this
the ‘‘money crop” of those States lying within what is known as the
Cotton Belt of the United States. This belt includes the States of
North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Arkansas, and Texas, and portions of Tennessee, Florida, Virginia,
and Oklahoma. In the present study of the subject the last four
States have been left out of consideration, since the output from each
is relatively small and data from the sections of those States devoted
to the cultivation. of cotton are difficult to obtain.

Cotton, though a sensitive plant, is of all summer-growing crops of
the South about the least affected by ordinary changes in the weather.
Its long period of growth, fruiting, and maturity affords it ample
opportunity to recover from a number of temporary setbacks. Dur-
ing the protracted season from planting in April to the completion of
its harvest in November it is exposed to many varieties of weather,
and it seems to endure the bad as well as enjoy the good. Sucha
thing as ‘‘half a crop” is unknown. Statistics show that the crop is
seldom curtailed by more than one-fourth or one-third.

It being a well-established fact that the temperature and the
amount and distribution of rainfall are vital factors in the growth and
maturity of all crops, a careful study of these elements in conjunction
with the average yield of cotton per acre for each year since 1893 has
been made, and the following results deduced as to the weather
conditions most favorable for the growth and development of this
important crop. |

INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE IN DEVELOPMENT OF COTTON.

During April, the month of planting, there should be frequent but
comparatively light showers to keep the soil in good moist condition,
favorable for germination. Should the soil become heavily charged

141

142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

with moisture while the seeds are in the stage of transformation just
prior to germination, decay will result; on the other hand, should the
ground become dry and baked, the seeds will not obtain the required
nourishment to start growth and but few plants will come up. If the
nights are cold, even though the moisture element is just right, germi-
nation and growth are seriously retarded. Long experience has taught
the planter not to put the seed in until the soil has become warmed by
the spring sun, when the warm days far outnumber the cool ones.
While temperature and precipitation are each prominent factors in the
erowth of all plant life, the latter seems to be the stronger influence
in the development of the cotton plant. .Well-distributed showers
during the spring months serve to keep the soil in a condition well
suited for the best development of the young plant and to cause the
roots to sink deep into the earth, thus enabling the plant to maintain
itself against the dry periods of the following summer. A very wet
spring causes the development of a large number of surface roots to
the sacrifice of those roots which naturally tend downward, and the
droughty conditions which prevail frequently during the summer
soon cause the plant to wilt and shed its foliage and fruit, since the
dry surface soil does not furnish sufficient nourishment for its growth.
The following extract on the importance of moisture in the life of the
plant is taken from Johnson’s ‘‘ How crops feed:”

Let us suppose dew or rain to have saturated the ground with moisture for some
depth. On the recurrence of a dry atmosphere with sunshine and wind, the surface
of the soil rapidly dries; but as each particle of water escapes (by evaporation) into
the atmosphere, its place is supplied (by capillarity) from the stores below. The
ascending water brings along with it the soluble matters of the soil, and thus the
roots of the plants are situated in a stream of their appropriate food. The movement
proceeds in this way so long as the surface is drier than the deeper soil. When, by
rain or otherwise, the surface is saturated there is no longer any ascent of water; on
the contrary, the water, by its own weight, penetrates the soil, and if the underlying
ground be not saturated with moisture (as can happen where the subterranean foun-
tains yield a meager supply) then capillarity will aid gravity in its downward dis-
tribution. * * * It is easy to see how, in good soil, capillarity thus acts in keep-
ing the roots of plants constantly immersed in a stream of water or moisture that is
now ascending, now descending, but never at rest, and how the food of the plant is
thus made to circulate around the organs fitted for absorbing it. The same causes
that maintain this perpetual supply of water and food for the plant are also effica-
cious in constantly preparing new supplies of food. * * * The more extensive
and rapid the circulation of water in the soil, the more matters will be rendered
soluble in a given time; and, other things being equal, the less will the soil be
dependent upon manures to keep up its fertility.

——T -— OOO eee

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WEATHER CONDITIONS AND GROWTH OF COTTON. 1438

INFLUENCE OF SUNSHINE ON YIELD OF CROP.

The charts for Apriland May (figs. 1 and 2) reveal the fact that both
months are comparatively dry, the normal precipitation of neither being

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aeecesna HEE EEE HE eee ESEeeReees EEE EEE HH HEH H HH

PRECIPITATION —--—-—-—-—-—-—-—
YIELD OF COTTON —— — — — — —— —
NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND YIELD

Fig. 1.—Comparison of precipitation during April and yield of cotton for the years 1893-1903, and
normal precipitation and yieid,

3)

PRECIPITATION FOR MAY, AND YIELD OF COTTON.

RAINFALL
INCHES

=

ane

+L
Er

YELL OF Corn ————— ee ae
NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND YIELD

Fie. 2.—Comparison of precipitation during May and yields of cotton for the years 1893-1903, and
normal precipitation and yield.

as much as 4 inches—just sufficient moisture to nourish the plant to
healthy growth without an abnormal development. A small amount

144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

of rain during May enables the farmer to clean out the weeds, and at
the same time promotes a healthy, but not too rapid, growth of the
cotton plant. This plant is a great lover of warm sunshine, needing
during its entire life plenty of warm, sunny days and warm nights.
It is said to thrive best in a climate where the rays of the sun strike
the earth almost vertically.

The time required for the full development of cotton is about seven
months from the time the seed is placed in the ground to the time the
staple is ready for the gin. This period should have a large percent-
age of Sunshine and be free from damaging frosts. The growing period
of cotton is from about the Ist of June to the middle of August. The
blooms, as a rule, begin to appear early in June and the first bolls form
about the first decade in August. During June and part of July
there should be plenty of sunshine, interspersed with only sufficient
rain to furnish nourishment to the plant without causing a rapid multi-
plication of surface roots or a too rapid development of the stalk and
limbs to the detriment of the bloom and fruit. The air should be
‘ather dry, since a large percentage of the moisture needed is sup-
plied by the heavy deposits of dew at this season.

If the first three months have been favorable, the plant can stand
considerable rain during the latter part of July and the first half of
August; and, if there is plenty of warm sunshine during the last half
of August and much of September, the staple will mature rapidly and
a large yield will result. This is shown very plainly on the chart
(fig. 7), where the rainfall for both July and August is much in excess
of normal, but the records show that the rains were followed by pro-
tracted warm periods of sunshine. It was under the conditions pre-
‘ailing during the year 1898 that the largest yield of cotton in the
history of the South was produced, up to the close of the period
covered by this article.

During the blooming period it is best that there should be no more
than the normal amount of rain—about ten rainy days per month—
since too much rain is likely to cause decay of the fruit and shedding.
The bloom of the cotton plant opens during the early morning and
remains open to the sun until late in the afternoon; the petals then
close until the next morning, when they openagain. The color of this
flower undergoes a change from a delicate ecru to light red, and when
the petals fall off a small boll is left. It is at this stage that very lit-
tle rain and plenty of sunshine are required. Continuous cloudiness
at this stage is very nearly as disastrous as constant rains.

The normal conditions of temperature and rainfall throughout the
cotton belt are, as a rule, most favorable for the proper development
of this delicate plant. April and May, with less than 4 inches of rain
each, cause the tap root to sink deep into the soil, so that sufficient
moisture is brought up from below to satisfy the demands of the plant

WEATHER CONDITIONS AND GROWTH OF OOTTON. (145

later in the season, when the weather is dry and sunshine prevails.
The temperature during June and July (figs. 3 and 4) is also a very

fa

IG885 828 taaae S558 a2!

PRECIPITATION —-——-——--——-——--—— - —- —
YIELD OF COTTON —— — — — — — — —
NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND YIELD

Fic. 38.—Comparison of precipitation during June and yield of cotton for the years 1893-1903, and
normal precipitation and yield.

PRECIPITATION —--—--—--—--—-—-— - —
YIELD OF COTTON —— — — — —— — — —
NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND YIELD

Fic. 4.—Comparison of precipitation during July and yield of cotton for the years 1893-1903, and
normal precipitation and yield.

important factor, averaging about 78° for the former month and 80° for
the latter. There is a marked uniformity in the average temperature
among all the States in the cotton belt.

2 <A1904——10

146 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

August (fig. 5) may be considered a most important period in the life
of the cotton plant. About the first week in this month the bolls begin
opening. From the first bloom to the first boll is a period of about

PRECIPITATION FOR AUGUSTAND YIELD OF COTTON.

BALES PER
ACRE.
RAINFALL,
INCHES.

7
6
5
4
3
2

YIELD OF COTTON: == ==
NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND YIELD

Fic. 5..—Comparison of precipitation during August and yield of cotton for the years 1893-1903, and
normal precipitation and yield

BALES PER
ACRE.
RAINFALL.
INCHES.

PRECIPITATION =< een ee
VIELD OF COTTON = <= ee eee tee ee
NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND YIELD :

Fra. 6.—Comparison of precipitation during September and yield of cotton for the years 1893-1903,
and normal precipitation and yield.

seven weeks. The plant continues growing and blooming until the new
growth is killed by frost, but it does not bloom so luxuriantly as earlier
in the season, since much of its vitality is needed to carry the bolls

WEATHER CONDITIONS AND GROWTH OF COTTON. 147

already formed to maturity. During this period of its life an abun-
dance of light, well-distributed showers and warm sunshine is needed.
If too much rain falls, the results are peculiarly disastrous; the weed
will begin to grow rapidly, to the detriment of the fruit; the plant will
cease to make new blooms and the squares already formed will drop;
the bolls will decay on account of the accumulated moisture which
they absorb; the fiber in the open bolls will be either beaten out or
discolored.

September and October are the months for picking, and, of course,
dry weather is needed. Only sufficient moisture is then required to
nourish the growing bolls and opening flowers, and much of this can
be secured through the roots, provided the weather early in the season
has been such as to cause the roots to penetrate deep into the soil.
Under normal conditions the rainfall is very light during the months
of September (fig. 6) and October throughout the major portion of the
cotton belt, affording fine opportunity for securing the matured crop.

WEATHER CONDITIONS THROUGHOUT THE COTTON BELT.

YEAR OF GREATEST YIELD.

Figure 7 shows the yield of cotton for 1898—the year of greatest
yield—together with the rainfall for each month during the season.

3 @|__ PRECIPITATION AND YIELD OF COTTON FOR 1898
ae YEAR OF GREATEST YIELD PER ACRE.
re AUG.

APR. MAY JUNE JULY

oO
(oe)
NWP OO N

PRECIPITATION, 1898 —--—--—--——--—-—--—
NORMAL PRECIPITATION — — — — — — — — —
WIELD “OF ‘COTTON

Fic. 7.—Comparison of precipitation for the growing season, and yield of cotton for 1898, the year of
greatest yield in the period covered.

From this chart it will be seen that April had just about the normal

amount of rain, while May was a dry month, its rainfall being 1.1

inches less than the normal. June had just about the normal amount,

and it was well distributed throughout the month. July had more

148 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

than the average amount, as had also both August and September; but,
coming after the plant had gotten a good start and was well worked,
and being accompanied by a goodly number of sunshiny days, this
proved rather a benefit to the crop. A summary of the conditions is
as follows: During the first decade of April it was rather cool, freez-
ing temperatures occurring in the northern portions of the belt and
damaging frosts down to central Florida. Cotton made very little
growth during the month, but the roots seemed to penetrate deep into
the soil. May was particularly favorable for a rapid development of
the plant. Rains were just sufficient to furnish the required amount of
moisture and not to interfere with the thorough cultivation and clean-
ing of the fields. During June cotton made steady growth under the
most favorable conditions. There was about the normal amount of
rain, With just normal temperature. Considerable rain fell early in
July, causing a rapid growth of the stalk, but these conditions changed
before the 10th, and the dry weather following afforded ample oppor-
tunity to kill out the grass and weeds. Abundant sunshine gave
renewed energy to the plant. Excessive rains early in August caused
considerable apprehension among the planters, but more favorable
conditions prevailed during the latter part of the month and most of
September, and the result was the largest yield ever recorded.

YEAR OF SMALLEST YIELD.

Figure 8 shows the relation between the precipitation and the yield

PRECIPITATION AND YIELD OF COTTON FOR 1901.

YEAR OF SMALLEST YIELD PER ACRE.
MAY JUNE AUG. SEPT,

ACRE.
RAINFALL,

BALES PER

PRECIPITATION, 1901
NORMAL PRECIPITATION —— —
YIELD OF COTTON

Fic. 8.—Comparison of precipitation for the growing season and yield of cotton for 1901, the year of
smallest yield in the period covered.

per acre in 1901, the year of smallest output. The rainfall curve for
April shows that it was a very wet month, nearly 1 inch more than

WEATHER CONDITIONS AND GROWTH OF COTTON. 149

the average. In addition to this the temperature was abnormally low,
averaging 5° below normal. Preparation for planting was delayed
on account of the chilled condition of the soil. May was somewhat
cooler than normal, with the rainfall over an inch above the aver-
age. Cotton that was planted made very slow growth; the fields
could not be worked and became overrun with grass and weeds.
The early part of June was wet, interrupting work and growth; the
last half of the month was more favorable, with plenty of warm sun-
shine, but it was not until late in the month that the work of cleaning
the fields was completed. July had about the normal amount of rain,
but it came in the form of heavy downpours, followed by excessive
heat, causing rapid shedding, rust, and bloom at the top. August had
about normal temperature, but more than 2 inches above the normal
rainfall. The accumulated excess of rainfall caused cotton to grow too
much to weed, and the stalk was watery and unhealthy and the bolls
failed to mature. Contrary to the rule, September was a cool, wet
month, interrupting the ripening and gathering of the staple. On
the whole there was a decided excess in rainfall and a deficiency of sun-
shine. From April to September there was a total excess of 7 inches
in precipitation and a deficiency in temperature of 5°.

SUMMARIES FOR COTTON SEASONS.

’ The year 1893 gave a normal yield of 0.39 bale per acre. The
weather during April was most favorable; its temperature averaged
only 3° above normal, while the precipitation was just about the
seasonal average. May was favorable as to temperature, but there
was rather too much rain, about 2.5 inches in excess of the average;
this rendered the soil too wet for cultivation and the fields became
foul. The same was true as to most of June, while July had over
an inch less than its normal amount of rain. The plant grew rapidly
during May and June. Work was rushed and the fields were freed
from grass early in July, and the abundant sunshine caused a rapid
development of the bolls. August had more than the average amount
of precipitation, but it was so distributed and interspersed with warm
sunshine as to prove rather beneficial. Picking was interrupted many
times by rain during September, but killing frosts did not occur until
late and an average crop was harvested.

The year 1894 yielded more than the normal per acre, and, as is
revealed by the charts, was a comparatively favorable season. April
was warm, with about the usual amount of rain. May and June fol-
lowed with !ess than the average. During these three months cotton
developed rapidly and was in a condition to be benefited by the gen-
erous rains which came during July and August. September gave
about the usual amount of sunshine and rain.

With the exception of 1901, 1895 gave the smallest yield per acre;

150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

April was favorable, with about normal weather conditions, but from
May to August, inclusive, the rainfall was far in excess of the normal,
while the number of sunshiny days was small; as a consequence it was
impossible to keep the fields free from weeds and grass, and the plant
made too rank growth. '

Another poor year was 1896, the yield being 0.02 bale less than the
average. This shortage was evidently due to the accumulated defi-
ciency in rainfall throughout the entire season, April being the only
month with precipitation equaling the normal. The damage from lack
of moisture was supplemented by excessive sunshine and abnormally
high temperature. The growth of the plant was stunted early in its
life and never recovered.

The yield for 1897 was practically the same as that for 1898, and
the weather conditions during these two years were very similar,
except that the amount of rain during the latter was somewhat greater.

A normal crop was produced in 1899. The temperature averaged
slightly above normal, and the rainfall somewhat below each month.
The dry weather during April and May gave the plant such a start
that it was enabled to withstand the drought later in the season. Its
roots were forced down into the soil, from which moisture was secured
during July and August.

The crop of 1900 was slightly below that of the preceding year.
The heavy rainfall and low temperatures during much of April retarded
planting until late. May hadabout the usual amount of rain, followed
by what may be termed a wet June and July. August was drier than
usual, with an average temperature and plenty of sunshine.

In 1902 the yield was 0.03 bale per acre more than normal. April
and May were about normal both as regards temperature and rainfall.
June, July, and August followed with deficiencies in precipitation,
but the rains were fairly well distributed.

The year 1903 was only fairly favorable. Too much rain during
May interrupted work at a critical period. There was about an aver-
age during each of the remaining months, but unevenly distributed.
The crop became very grassy in many sections early in the season,
and could not be properly worked and cleaned in time to make a full
crop.

INSPECTION OF FOREIGN FOOD PRODUCTS.

By..H.,.W... WILby,
Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry.

BEGINNING OF FOOD INSPECTION.

The act of Congress authorizing the inspection of foreign food
products before entry, which went into effect on July 1, 1903, marked
a new era in the progress of food control in the United States.
Although authority had been given the Secretary of Agriculture in
previous years, beginning with 1899, to inspect food products and
refuse admission to those which were found to be injurious to health,
a lack of funds prevented the inception of such inspection.

Up to that time only one article of food manufactured in foreign
countries and consumed in the United States was subjected to inspec-
tion for the purpose of ascertaining its fitness for human consumption.
That article was tea. Under an act of Congress of March 2, 1883,
and under another act of March 2, 1897, the Secretary of the Treasury
was authorized, with the assistance of certain experts appointed by
himself, to inspect all teas offered for import into the United States.
The language of the latter act is, in part, as follows:

An Act to prevent the importation of impure and unwholesome tea.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America
in Congress assembled, That from and after May first, eighteen hundred and ninety-
seven, it shall be unlawful for any person or persons or corporation to import or
bring into the United States any merchandise as tea which is inferior in purity,
quality, and fitness for consumption to the standards provided in section three of
this act, and the importation of all such merchandise is hereby prohibited. * * *

Src. 9. That no imported teas which have been rejected by a customs examiner or
by a board of United States general appraisers and exported under the provisions
of this act shall be reimported into the United States, under the penalty of forfeiture
for a violation of this prohibition.

Sec. 10. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall have the power to enforce the
provisions of this act by appropriate regulations.

Sec. 11. That teas actually on shipboard for shipment to the United States at the
time of the passage of this act shall not be subject to the prohibition hereof, but the
provisions of the act entitled ‘‘An act to prevent the importation of adulterated and
spurious teas,’’ approved March second, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, shall be
applicable thereto.

Sec. 12. That the act entitled ‘‘An act to prevent the importation of adulterated
and spurious teas,’? approved March second, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, is
hereby repealed, such repeal to take effect on the date on which this act goes into
effect.

Approved, March 2, 1897.

151

_
on
bo

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

THE RIGHT OF INSPECTION JUDICIALLY AFFIRMED,

Before this time it was a notorious fact that the United States was
the dumping ground for unmerchantable, impure, and adulterated
teas. Since the establishment, however, of the inspection of tea
it has become quite impracticable to introduce into this country
teas which do not conform to the standards required and authorized
to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury. Objection was made by
importers to these standards that they were unreasonable and uncon-
stitutional, basing the claim upon the fact that Congress could not
authorize any other body or person to make regulations of this kind.
This question was passed upon by the different courts of the United
States, and finally by the Supreme Court, which, in its decision ren-
dered on February 23, 1904, affirmed, unconditionally, the right of
Congress to delegate its authority in such matters. The language of
the court in rendering its decision is, in part, as follows:

The claim that the statute commits to the arbitrary discretion of the Secretary of |
the Treasury the determination of what teas may be imported, and therefore in effect
vests that official with legislative power, is without merit. We are of opinion that
the statute, when properly construed, as said by the circuit court of appeals, but
expresses the nurpose to exclude the lowest grades of tea, whether demonstrably of
inferior puricy, or unfit for consumption, or presumably so because of their inferior
quality. This, in effect, was the fixing of a primary standard, and devolved upon
the Secretary of the Treasury the mere executive duty to effectuate the legislative
policy declared in the statute. The case is within the principle of Field v. Clark
(143 U. S., 649), where it was decided that the third section of the tariff act of Octo-
ber 1, 1890, was not repugnant to the Constitution as conferring legislative and treaty-
making power on the President, because it authorized him to suspend the provisions
of the act relating to the free introduction of sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, and hides.
We may say of the legislation in this case, as was said of the legislation considered
in Field v. Clark, that it does not, in any real sense, invest administrative officials
with the power of legislation. Congress legislated on the subject as far as was rea-
sonably practicable, and from the necessities of the case was compelled to leave to
executive officials the duty of bringing about the result pointed out by the statute.
To deny the power of Congress to delegate such a duty would, in effect, amount but
to declaring that the plenary power vested in Congress to regulate foreign commerce
could not be efficaciously exerted.

SCOPE OF PRESENT FOOD LAW.

It is evident that in the inspection of food products the right to fix
standards is necessary to any efficient action. If, for instance, there
is no standard of purity, it is impossible for the inspector to determine
in any case whether or not the article in question is suitable for
importation. This point has also been covered by Congress, which
has granted to the Secretary of Agriculture the right and authority to
fix and proclaim standards of purity for food products in the United
States. Many of these standards have already been fixed and were
first proclaimed on November 21, 1903. All of the standards adopted

INSPECTION OF FOREIGN FOOD PRODUOTS. 158

up to the present time are to be found in Circular 13 of the Secretary’s
Office, this supplemental proclamation having been made on December
20, 1904. The standards for other food products are under considera-
tion and will be finally determined and fixed in the future. Mean-
while provisional standards have been constructed which may guide
inspectors pending the final decisions in regard to these matters.

The language of the act is made to include food, drugs, beverages,
condiments, and ingredients of such articles, thus covering practically
all materials entering into consumption as additions to food or as con-
diments in food. Under the term ‘‘ beverages” also it is evident are
included mineral and other waters which may be offered for importa-
tion into the United States. It is thus seen that the authority for
the inspection of such imported articles is of the most fundamental
character, originating, as it must, in Congress, and sustained in all its
fundamental principies by the Supreme Court of the United States.
It is doubtless true that the efficiency of this act will only be fully
manifest after many years of experience, because the complicated
problems arising in connection with food inspection are of such a
character that it is unreasonable to suppose they can be decided in
advance, or even after one or two years of experience.

EXECUTION OF THE FOOD-INSPECTION LAW.

In the beginning of the execution of the food-inspection law an attempt
was made to fully inform exporters of food products from foreign coun-
tries to the United States of the character of the inspection which it was
proposed to exercise. Like information was conveyed tothe importers
of foods in this country. For the proper information of the exporters
in foreign countries the collaboration of the State Department was
secured. Through the courtesy of that Department the consuls of the
United States were called upon to visé the invoices of articles exported
to this country. To this end they were supplied with certain declara-
tions which were to be attached toa duplicate of the regular invoice, in
which opportunity was given to the exporter to declare the exact char-
acter of the articles which he proposed to send.

NATURE OF THE INSPECTION.

The language of the act approved April 23, 1904, under which the
present inspection is conducted, requires that the Secretary of Agri-
culture, whenever he has reason to believe that food products are being
imported from foreign countries ‘‘ which are dangerous to the health
of the people of the United States, or which shall be falsely labeled or
branded either as to their contents or as to the place of their manufac-
ture or production, shall make a request upon the Secretary of the
Treasury for samples from original packages of such articles for

154 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

inspection and analysis, and the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby
authorized to open such original packages and deliver specimens to the
Secretary of Agriculture for the purpose mentioned, giving notice to
the owner or consignee of such articles who may be present and have
the right to introduce testimony; and the Secretary of the Treasury
shall refuse delivery to the consignee of any such goods which the
Secretary of Agriculture reports to him have been inspected and
analyzed and found to be dangerous to health, or falsely labeled or
branded, either as to their contents or as to the place of their manu-
facture or production, or which are forbidden entry or to be sold, or
are restricted in sale in the countries in which they are made or from
which they are exported.”

From the above language it is seen that the character of the inspec-
tion is threefold—first, it must be determined whether the articles
which are imported contain substances which are deleterious to health
and which are not natural constituents of the articles imported; second,
whether they are misbranded or mislabeled in any manner so as to
deceive the purchaser either as to the character of the contents of the
package or as to the country in which they are manufactured or from
which exported; and, third, whether they are of such a character as
to be forbidden entry to, or be restricted in sale in, the country where
made or from which exported.

WHAT IS DONE FOR EXPORTERS.

The last clause of the law perhaps needs a word of further explana-
tion. This country sympathizes with other countries in the efforts
which they are making to improve the quality of food products and to
restrict and control the adulteration thereof. Naturally, in countries
where laws have been established relating to the control of foods
there may be large quantities of food manufactured or on hand which
can not be sold or offered for sale in the country where they are made.
It is only a natural incident of trade that the owners of such foods
should seek an outlet for them; in other words, send them to countries
where rigid inspection is not practiced. This country, moreover,
believes that the efforts of foreign countries in improving the quality
of their foods should be supported by our own action. If, therefore,
we should continue to accept from such countries food products that
are contrary to their own laws, we should be aiding and abetting the
disobedience of law in foreign countries. We discourage the ship-
ment from the United States of food products which are of a character
contrary to existing regulations in foreign countries to which they
are consigned. We go further than this; we offer to examine before
shipment cargoes of American food products intended for such coun-
tries, to determine whether or not they are suitable for export. We

INSPECTION OF FOREIGN FOOD PRODUOTS. 155

refuse to give a clean bill of health to such food products if they are
found on examination to be of a character forbidden by the laws of
the countries to which they are consigned. This is done under direct
authority of Congress, which says that the Secretary of Agriculture is
authorized ‘* to investigate the character of the chemical and physical
tests which are applied to American food products in foreign coun-
tries, and to inspect before shipment, when desired by the shippers or
owners of these food products, American food products intended for
countries where chemical and physical tests are required before said
food products are allowed to be sold in the countries mentioned * * *”

We thus propose to discourage in every possible way the shipment
of such contraband articles of food to foreign countries. If in disre-
gard of the provisions of our law American citizens export to foreign
countries food products which are forbidden therein, they can not
with any justice claim any protection from the United States, because
they have neglected the very simple precaution, which it is their right
to secure, namely, such an inspection before shipment as has been men-
tioned above.

PROCEDURE IN INSPECTING IMPORTS.

It may be of interest to give a brief outline of the manner in which
the inspection of food products offered for import into the United
States is effected. The law authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture
to ask the Secretary of the Treasury to secure samples from any
invoice of food products which he may think demands inspection. In
harmony with this request the Secretary of the Treasury, through the
proper officials at the ports, issues a notice of detention to the con-
signee of the invoice and at the same time secures the samples requested.
These samples are sent to one of the three official laboratories—which
are at present established at Washington, New York, and San Fran-
cisco—where the examination takes place. If the samples in ques-
tion are found to be of a nature contrary to the provisions of the
law, the consignee is at once informed of this fact and an opportunity
is given him to submit evidence of such nature as he may desire
to prove the fitness of the article for import. The evidence may be
submitted either in person by the consignee or by his attorney, or in
writing. This evidence is carefully considered, and every opportunity
is afforded the consignee to prove the fitness of his wares for entry.
If after the investigation is completed we are satisfied that the articles
are of a nature which is not forbidden by the law, the detention is sus-
pended and the articles are released, and take their usual course. If,
however, the investigation shows that the articles, as had been sus-
* pected, are unsuitable for importation, the Secretary of the Treasury
is requested to secure a reshipment of these articles beyond the jurisdic-
tion of the United States. If this is not done within ninety days from

156 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the time the notice is received, the Secretary of the Treasary, under
authority of law, is entitled to take possession of the articles and destroy
them.

It so happens that even with every effort which may be made to fully
inform importers and exporters of the character of the law, many
invoices are sent, innocently on the part of both importer and exporter,
which are found to be unfit for importation. In these cases as great
facilities as possible are given the importer to comply with the pro-
visions of the law so as to minimize the extent of the delay and the
loss which he must suffer. It is evident that as the experience in the
execution of the law is increased and as importers and exporters are
better informed in regard to its provisions they will be the better able
to comply therewith. In fact, much of the friction and delay which
were at first experienced in the execution of the law have been already
removed, and it must be said, to the credit of the importers, that the
great majority of them express themselves as heartily in sympathy
with the purposes and processes of the law. It is largely by the help
of the sympathetic collaboration of the importers that the execution
of the law has been made as effective as it is.

THE WORKING OF THE INSPECTION LAW.

Some detailed information in regard to the character of the inspec-
tion will give a better idea of the working of the law.

OLIVE OILS.

In the matter of olive oils it was found by inspection that many of
the so-called olive oils offered for import were mixed with large or
small quantities of other edible oils. There are a great many vege-
table oils which are excellent for edible purposes; for instance, as is
well known, the purified cotton-seed oil, which is produced in large

quantities in this country, is an excellent edible oil. In like manner,
“peanut oil possesses properties which commend it very highly as an
edible product. Sesame oil, which is not produced to any great extent
in the United States but is a large commercial product in southern
Europe, is also an edible oil of fine quality. Perhaps the best of all
of the vegetable oils other than olive is that of the sunflower seed,
which, however, is not manufactured commercially in the United
States, and which, in so far as is known to the Bureau of Chemistry,
is not used to any large extent as an adulterant of olive oil. It is
claimed by some manufacturers that the introduction in small quanti-
ties of these edible oils improves the character of olive oils. This may
or may not be so, but at any rate the fact has no bearing on our own:
law relating to imports. It is evident that an olive oil which contains

INSPECTION OF FOREIGN FOOD PRODUOTS. 157

any added portion of another oil and yet bears on its label the term
‘**pure olive oil” or ‘‘olive oil” is misbranded, since the contents of
the package are not pure olive oil or olive oil. Fortunately, chemical
processes have been so refined as to enable the inspector to determine
even the addition of small quantities of such edible oils to an olive oil.
A great many of such invoices have been inspected and found, by rea-
son of the false label, unfitted for importation. In order to avoid
unnecessary inconvenience, in the first instance of this kind, where it
was apparent that the importer was perfectly innocent of any inten-
tion to defraud, he has been allowed to relabel the packages in such
a way as to plainly show that they contained a compound. This,
however, was only a temporary expedient for the convenience of the
importer. It will be necessary in future, in order to strictly comply
with the provisions of the law, that the original label be so printed as
to indicate the character of the mixture.

PRESERVATIVES IN FOOD PRODUCTS.

The attitude of the executers of the law in regard to preservatives
in food products is a conservative one. Where actual demonstration
or the weight of expert authority has shown that a preservative is
injurious to health its occurrence in a food product is deemed repre-
hensible. In all cases the importers are notified of the existence
of a preservative in these products, and when it is deemed injurious
to health such products are excluded. in the execution of the Jaw
the tendency is to reach a point where all preservatives in food
products will be eliminated. It is not regarded as necessary, in order
to preserve food products, that chemical preservatives be employed,
save those of a condimentary nature which have been used from
immemorial times, namely, sugar, salt, spices, vinegar, and wood
smoke. These are not only condimentary, but also to a certain
extent preservative bodies whose presence is indicated by flavor and
color, and which in moderate quantities are regarded not only as
uninjurious but useful. The utility of condimentary bodies in pro-
moting digestion is unquestioned, and hence there can be no logical
basis for regarding such bodies as deleterious. On the other hand,
noncondimentary bodies which do not reveal! themselves by taste or
odor are looked upon with the greatest su: >icion. Such bodies as
salicylic and benzoic acids, formaldehyde, boric acid and borax, and
sulphites and sulphurous acid, are regarded as unnecessary and as
positively deleterious. Such noncondimentary substances propaoiy will
be entirely excluded from food products, and their admission for the
time being will be only under certain restrictions, which will preserve
the public health from any appreciable injury.

158 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

PRESERVED MEATS AND FRUITS,

PRESERVED MEATS. —Lhe question of the importation of preserved
meats, other than those cured in the ordinary manner by salting,
smoking, or pickling, is a matter of considerable importance. KEspe-
cially is this true of comminuted meats, which by reason of their fine-
ness of subdivision are not capable of being identified in respect of the
animal from which they are derived. Practically all civilized countries
now have a system of inspection of animals intended for slaughter,
which to a certain extent insures the wholesomeness of the product.
The character of the meats, for instance, which enter into a sausage
does not appear from an examination of the package itself, and hence
such bodies are open to the greatest suspicion. It is deemed advisable
in these cases that the exporter should be required to furnish a cer-
tificate of inspection by official authority as to the animals from which
the meats are derived. ‘This is only reasonable, and it is not believed
that such meats should be allowed to enter unaccompanied by a cer-
tificate. of purity of this kind. The many cases of poisoning from
trichine and ptomaines, due to the consumption of meats, and, espe-
cially in the case of ptomaines, of preserved meats, should render
inspectors extremely careful to be certain that articles of this kind are
not deleterious to health. The inspection of sausages and other com-
minuted meats has given greater cause for concern to the officials in
charge of the execution of the law than almost any other kind of food
products.

PRESERVED FRUITS.—In the case of preserved fruits it is held to be
only just that they should be true to name; that they should be manu-
factured only from the fruit itself or the pure expressed juice thereof;
that the products should contain no artificial coloring matter and no
added substance save sugar; and that the sugar used should be sucrose,
and not the article commonly known as glucose or some other substi-
tute. The presence of preservatives in such food products is not
regarded as necessary, since properly prepared marmalades, jams, and
jellies do not require any chemical preservative to keep them in good

condition.
BEVERAGES.

The question of beverages is one to which careful attention is given,
in view of the fact that their labels are often misleading. For instance,
in the case of imported wines which bear a name authoritatively given
to wines in the countries where they are made, it is important that
such wines should be true to name, and, if accredited by label to a
certain vineyard, that they should be the pure, unmixed product of
that vineyard. Such, unfortunately, is not always the case, and
inspectors are often unable to decide simply by the appearance, flavor,
and chemical composition of the wines whether or not the label is

INSPECTION OF FOREIGN FOOD PRODUCTS. 159

true. To reach a just decision in this case recourse must be had to
certificates of purity, obtained from the growers or makers of wines
and from those through whose hands they must pass before they
arrive in this country. It is not believed that it is a hardship to
require such certificates. For instance, in the importation of high-
grade cattle into the United States the pedigree of such cattle is
required, and it seems only right that in the importation of high-
grade wines a similar pedigree should accompany the invoice. What
is true of wines is true to even a greater extent of brandies, whiskies,
liqueurs, and other beverages cf a similar character imported from
foreign countries. The object in all cases is to secure honesty of
labeling and purity of product in order that the people of the United
States may not be defrauded in the one case financially nor injured in
the other case hygienically.

EXTENT OF THE INSPECTION.

The extent of the inspection during the first year of the existence of
the law is shown from the following table:

Imported food samples received by the Bureau of Chemistry and results of inspection
reported, from July 1, 1903, to June 30, 1904.

; : . Olive | Miscel-
Results of inspection. Wine. | Meat. oil. Maneous, Total.

Found contrary to law:
Admitted with a caution, on the ground of being first

PGIEINSD SS SSD ERS REE SOE Seales lee eee eae 50 9 11 38 108
Admitted after the labels were changed to harmo-
TU RVI LEW. St a. cic bo cn's abe sia citimiodu cecluie Gece i 9 10 17 37
Required to be reshipped beyond the jurisdiction of
ile UO MMEMESERLOS Ho: 4652 hs Se ees occ nase cst ccs ens 37 2 14 3 56
Condemned] but. not disposed.of .. 5... tes cece bee ke 4 11 2 5 22
FCoE rea pany, Rear e eines ae So act iic cleek cowie Stem ae 92 31 37 63 223
Hout COntplyey ith Gne LAME. ...kc.nc.ac cjs.ce cee cies ccceeme 776 150 476 255 1, 657
Total number of samples examined from inyoices
ETE Big eg Be Ee ee a 868 181 513 318 1, 880
Samples taken from invoices not detained............ .... 300° 2 3 61 366

GENERAL RESULTS.

Although the inspection of food products has not yet extended over
two years, it is already seen that most beneficiai results have been
obtained. Fortunately, during all this time no recourse has been had
to the courts, either to secure the enforcement of the act or to prevent
it. In nearly all cases importers have been satisfied with the evidence
furnished, and have collaborated cordially with the officials of the
Treasury Department and those of the Department of Agriculture in
securing compliance with the provisions of the act. It is true there
has been some misunderstanding in regard to what the act means, and

160 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this misunderstanding has been shared, to some extent, by foreign
governments; but this has not interfered in any way with the proper
execution of the law.

No attempt has been made to execute the law in any except the broad-
est spirit, and every courtesy possible within the proper construction
of the law has been extended to those importers who innocently were
violators of its provisions.

It is gratifying, also, to know that the exporters in foreign countries,
ausarule, have been eager to learn of the exact character of the require-
ments of the law, and in many cases have made an earnest effort to
comply with them. Nevertheless, as in all cases, there are some in-
stances where it is evident that compliance with the law will only be
secured by its rigid execution and not by voluntary action.

One unfortunate circumstance connected with the enforcement of
the law is that up to the present time it has not been possible to inspect
more than a very small percentage of imported products. It thus
may happen that an article may be excluded at one time or at one port
and the same article admitted at another time or at another port. This,
of course, has the appearance of discrimination when in reality it is
only a necessity that arises from impossibility of complete inspection.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE.

I. GROWING CROPS UNDER GLASS.

By B. T. GauLoway,
Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

With the rapid growth of population and the shifting of industrial
centers there have been constant changes in agricultural practices. <A
study of the world’s history shows that while agriculture has been,
and will continue to be, the primary basis of wealth, it has reached its
highest development where most closely allied with the factory. No
country can continue to be prosperous where agriculture is the sole
dependence, nor can any country hope to be independent and enjoy
the best fruits of its industry where manufacturing constitutes the chief
source of wealth. The farm and the factory must go side by side in
order to bring about the greatest progressive, intellectual, and indus-
trial development.

Within the last decade there has been an enormous increase in our
manufacturing interests, so that it is not surprising to find that the
output from the factory now constitutes 65 per cent of our annual
production of wealth. <A study of the figures presented to us in the
annual reports of the Department of Agriculture and other branches
of the Government dealing with statistical matters shows that coinci-
dent with the development of factories in a community there has been
a corresponding increase in the value of farms and farm Jands, as well
as of the products of the farm. The great era of manufacturing upon
which this country is now entering is bound to have a beneficial effect
upon agriculture, for aside from the great possibilities of agricultural
development alone, without reference to other industries, it is clear
* that as factories continue to increase in number and enlarge their out-
put, agriculture must necessarily grow to meet these conditions.

PROBLEMS FOR THE AMERICAN FARMER.

Nearly all of the best arable land of the country has now been taken
up, and those who are most vitally concerned with soil production
realize that henceforward the main problem for the man who intends
to make cultivation of the soil his occupation will be not so much a
question of greater acreage as of greater production from a given
acre. If America hopes to continue her phenomenal development,

2 al904——11 161

162 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

she must be able to produce not only the enormous quantities of food
required for her own increasing industrial population, but a large
share of the food for other nations as well.

The average production of wheat in this country is little more than
12 bushels per acre; for corn, the average production is 254 bushels
per acre; for oats and barley, the average production is 28 and 26
bushels per acre, respectively. During the past thirty years there
has been a constant variation of these averages for different parts of
the country. In the great grain-producing areas of the West the
average has been decreasing. In certain sections of the: Kast, on the
other hand, the average has been growing higher. ‘The important
work carried on by this Department, as well as by the State experi-
ment stations, is doing much to bring about larger yields from a
given acreage. A study of agricultural statistics, especially for the
past twenty years, will show that where States and State authorities
have been active in agricultural propaganda work, and where the
experiment stations and colleges have paid marked attention to the
farms and farmers’ interests, there has been a material benefit, mani-
fested directly by new methods of crop production, new industries
and diversification, and marked improvement in the value of the crop
for a given area.

Recognizing, therefore, the necessity for greater diversification and
greater production per acre, the question arises, in what manner can
this result best be brought about? With the increasing growth of our
cities and the accumulation of great numbers of people in compara-
tively small areas, with the extension of railroads, telephone and tele-
graph systems, rural free-delivery, and trolley lines, there will be an
increasing demand for many agricultural products which must of
necessity be grown by intensive methods; that is, such products will be
of a more or less perishable nature, and for this reason they will have
to be grown comparatively close to where they are to be consumed.

This necessarily gives rise to another proposition, namely, that to
erow crops close to the point of consumption requires their production
on land in the immediate vicinity of cities and towns, the value of
which is greatly above that of the average farm lands. The more.
valuable the land the greater the need for economizing every foot of
it and the greater the need for thorough knowledge of all the factors
governing plant growth.

The population of twenty of our largest eastern cities and their con-
tributory territory will aggregate 15,000,000 people. Both population
and wealth are constantly increasing, and in consequence there is a
growing demand for something more than the mere necessities of life.
Fruits, flowers, and vegetables are needed to meet the requirements of
life, and these, to be furnished at their best, must be grown for the
most part close at hand and produced in such a way that the largest
return can be secured from a given area of land with a minimum risk.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 163

To accomplish this result it must be practicable to control to a large
extent climate, soil, moisture, temperature, and, in a measure, light.
The only way this can be done successfully and practically is through
the medium of glass houses.

A few years ago structures of this kind were looked upon more or
less generally as a means for supplying the tables of a comparatively
few wealthy private individuals or to serve for the growing of orna-
mental plants which had no strictly economic value. At the present
time this view of the subject is rapidly changing and the time has come
when the construction of glass houses and the production of plants
under glass are regarded much in the same light as the development of
manufacturing interests in a large factory; in other words, a modern
greenhouse establishment is so handled at the present time that in many
respects it isa factory, utilizing nature’s forces in a way to reverse the
seasons for the purpose of converting into wealth the products of the soil.

What are the possibilities in this field, and what are the steps in be-
ginning a work which, of necessity, must be of the most intensive kind?

THE MAN FIRST.

There is a great deal being said and written at this time about farm-
ing as a vocation. Many inducements are being held out to city
' people and others, and many erroneous statements are being made as
to the opportunities in this field. Unquestionably, there is need for
pointing out the advantages of rural life, but, like all good things, the
tendency sometimes is to carry the argument too far, and this results
in inducing many people to go into the country or to undertake farm
life who are wholly unfitted for the work. The city man is often misled
by statements written by those who are not thoroughly conversant with
the facts, and, again, by those who have interests at stake and who
would directly benefit by inducing the prospective farmer to invest in
land. It would seem well, therefore, to caution the reader on this
one point and to lay before him plainly the fects in reference to some
of the more important requirements in the matter of undertaking the
lines of work to which we shall refer farther on.

In such intensive work as must necessarily be carried on in connec-
tion with the growing of plants under glass it is essential that the man
who is proposing to undertake it should be in the prime of life. It is
not work for men beyond middle age, nor is it work for men with weak
constitutions. While the work is not necessarily heavy, it is of such
a nature as to require strict attention, and while it is for the most part
in the open air and therefore not as likely to bring on certain diseases as
in the case of other more confining occupations, it frequently happens
that exposure is required, and such exposure can only be borne by men
of comparatively strong constitutions.

In addition to the foregoing, those who are contemplating work of
this nature must or should have a thorough business training. More

164 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

failures result from lack of good business capacity in this field than
from all other reasons combined. It frequently happens that a man
may be successful in growing crops and in getting them into good condi-
tion for marketing, but through lack of knowledge or lack of ability
to appreciate the main facts with reference to the commercial handling
of his products he fails.

As a further necessity in this work, it should be pointed out that
some experience is required—the more experience, of course, the
better. It is not always practicable for a man contemplating entering
a field of this nature to have had experience in intensive lines of hor-
ticultural work. If he can not get it by direct practice, he should
spare no effort to find out all he can as to what others are doing; visit
those who are engaged in the business; secure the various works that
have been published on the subject; consult the experiment station
reports; and familiarize himself in every way with what the world is
doing in this field. If he will do this, and if he is a man of keen per-
ception and observation, he will soon be able in a measure to manage
his own affairs. ey

So much, therefore, for the man. ‘The fields that are open may be
considered under several heads: General plant growing; special fields,
as vegetable growing and flower growing; and then the ultraspecial
fields, as specialization with certain crops, such as roses, carnations, or
violets.

GENERAL PLANT GROWING.

The field of general plant growing probably offers more oppor-
tunities than any of the others; that is, opportunities for a greater
number of people. In the vicinity of every town or city having a
population of from 38,000 to 10,000 there may be found in most cases
good openings for the ambitious and progressive young man who
desires to supply a home market with general crops which may be
grown partly under glass and partly in a very intensive way out of
doors. The demand in towns and cities of this size, of course, is not
for any great quantity of any one thing; hence, the necessity for pro-
ducing a variety, as ornamental plants for use in home yards, plants
for cut flowers, vegetables, etc. —a general miscellaneous stock.

In work of this nature it is essential that the location selected be
within easy reach of the business limits of the city, for the grower
will have to depend largely for his trade on those who may visit his.
establishment. Such being the case, land must be secured, if practi-
cable, within easy access of those who may wish to visit the place as
prospective buyers.

For an ordinary establishment of this nature half an acre of ground
‘is sufficient for a small start. An acre would be better. Due atten-
tion must be given to the location with respect to soil, water facilities,
and opportunities for securing fuel and other essential things required

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 165

in general work. In most cases half an acre of ground under such
circumstances can be bought for $500. To equip properly a small
greenhouse would require another $500. For miscellaneous equip-
ment, including tools, outbuildings, and stock, $200 would be neces-
sary fora start. Thus, there would be invested in the neighborhood
of $1,200. If the man himself wished to live at the place, as he should
do, it would probably require from $800 to $1,000 for a home. In
producing a variety of crops, as indicated above, the gross income
from such a place should be at least $1,200 per annum. Practically,
all the work on sucha place could be done by the owner, with some little
assistance from time to time in spring and fall.

The crops handled should be a general assortment of bedding plants,
a small collection of ornamentals—such as palms, ferns, etc., which
could be sold as pot plants—and carnations, roses, chrysanthemums,
etc., for cut flowers during the winter. A considerable portion of
this work can be done out of doors, the plan being to have the out-
‘door crops grown in such a way as to harmonize with the plans for
inside work. Of course, a definite system must be followed, and this
system will in a measure depend on local conditions. A few hotbeds
and cold frames will add materially to the possibilities of such an
establishment and will allow the owner to increase his stock consider-
ably, especially of spring-bedding plants, which may be started earlier
in the greenhouse and then moved to the frames outside as the season
advances.

VEGETABLE GROWING.

Vegetable growing as a specialty is more profitable near the larger
cities. Cities ranging in size from 25,000 in population upward are
the ones which should be considered in this connection. The reasons
for this have already been briefly alluded to, but may again be referred
to here. ‘They are, chiefly, that vegetable growing must necessarily
be specialized and that there can be a demand for special crops in large
communities only. Since the rapid extension of vegetable growing
in the South and the better facilities afforded for the shipment of such
crops as lettuce, cucumbers, etc., the field for the growth of vegeta-
bles under glass has been considerably restricted. There are still good
opportunities here, however, and the larger the city the more chances
there are for success. The grower in this case can self his own crops,
or he can sell them through a commission merchant or wholesale
dealer in the city or cities to which his locality is tributary.

In this work larger areas of landare required. From 1 to 5 acres will
answer the purpose, but fora larger business 10 acres or even as many
as 20 acres may be necessary. The nature and character of the soil
play an important part, and the grower should be in a situation to
control the soil so far as possible; that is, he should not be so placed
as to have to purchase his soil, which is an expensive item in itself, as

166 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this takes out of his hands to a certain extent the possibility of control-
ling conditions. In the growth of such crops a quick, early-maturing
soil is absolutely essential. By this is meant a soil readily adaptable to
cultivation, that contains comparatively little clay, and that holds mois-
ture readily and yet dries out quickly; in other words, a good, rich gar-
denloam. The soil under glass must be changed every year and some-
times more than once a year. It is essential, therefore, to have oppor-
tunities for replenishing the soil without too much expense.

The chief crops that may be grown are lettuce, cucumbers, and
tomatoes. As incidental crops, mushrooms, beets, dandelions, cauli-
flowers, etc., may be used. Lettuce and cucumbers, however, consti-
tute nine-tenths of the crops that are grown in this way, and, all things
considered, are more profitable than anything else in this field. (See
Pls. LV and V.)

In beginning a work of this nature it is essential to consider the fact
that when a start is made it will have to be on such a scale as to enable
the grower to produce crops not only of good quality, but in sufficient
quantity to pay adealer to handle them. ‘This is especially true if the
grower depends on commission merchants or wholesale dealers to mar-
ket his products. The first essential is to grow good crops; the second
is to produce them in such quantities that the demand when once
created will not fail for lack of supply. Many beginners make the fatal
mistake of starting in such a way that they can not develop a good busi-
ness for the reason that the supply of their product is not constant.
The commission merchant or the wholesale dealer depends ona constant
supply to build up his trade, and if he can not depend on the grower he,
of course, can not afford to give as high prices as where the quantity
to be had is constant. Lettuce, for example, is grown under glass
usually from October until March, three crops being produced in this
time. The first crop should be on the market by Thanksgiving Day or
earlier, and there should be a steady supply through the rest of the sea-
son until the middle of March. If the grower, having produced a good
product, has found a ready market for it, he will lose it if for any rea-
son his supply stops for a week or ten days or two weeks during the
actual season of demand. This will hold true for all other crops.

To start in work of this kind on the basis of 5 acres would require
something like the following as an outlay:

Five acres of land, at $250 per acre... .- ee Vases Cen eelnas ¢7 <>< 0 ~ 3 eee $1, 250
One greenhouse, 20’ by L0G feat. o>. oP SoC eee oes. Se 1, 200
Hotbed, sash, and miscellaneous equipment ..-.....-------- Pee li ae 550

Total.) ee OU Ree en ae ee ey oe ~ 8,000

The intelligent grower, conducting his work in a proper manner,
planning well and using good business methods, should be able to
secure from this amount of land and glass a gross income of from $2,000
to $3,000 annually, or a net income of from $1,500 to $2,000.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE IV.

FiG. 1.—MODERN GENERAL ESTABLISHMENT, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSES,
HEATING DEVICES, ETC.

FiG. 2.—INTERIOR OF MODERN CUCUMBER HOUSE, SHOWING METHODS OF PLANTING
AND TRAINING.

Yearbook U, S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—MODERN MUSHROOM ESTABLISHMENT, SHOWING SPECIALLY CONSTRUCTED HOUSES.

FiG. 2.—TOMATO HOUSE, ILLUSTRATING METHODS OF FORCING WINTER TOMATOES.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 167

CUT-FLOWER GROWING.

Cut-flower growing is the most profitable field in the growing of
plants under glass. It is most profitable for the reason that there is a
greater demand for cut flowers than for vegetables, and while the risks
in some cases are greater the profits are correspondingly large. The
work in this field may be of two kinds—the growing of mixed crops,
or specialization with one crop alone.

By mixed crops is meant the growing of three or more crops of
flowers, such as roses, carnations, violets, and chrysanthemums. In
this field the best openings are to be found near cities with a popula-
tion of from 10,000 to 50,000. There is always a demand in cities of
this size for cut flowers, and this demand is frequently increased if
there are any special institutions in or near such cities, such as col-
leges, universities, etc.

The grower here may either handle his own products or sell direct
to dealers in the cities. It is more profitable, if capital can be secured,
to handle one’s own products. A store in the town or city eliminates
the middleman and enables the grower to take not only the profits
from the growing of his crops, but the commissions which must be
paid for selling the flowers as well. These usually represent about
100 per cent. In other words, the crops which the grower sells to the
retailer in the city are sold by the latter at about 100 per cent advance
over the prices paid to the grower. Considering the extra expense of
store rent, clerk hire, etc., a considerable portion of this profit may
just as well be secured by the grower, if he has the business capacity
and can manage the details connected with both the city department
and the producing department.

Moreover, this field offers opportunities for those who for various
reasons can not obtain sufficient ground very near to a city. In other
words, flowers such as have been mentioned grown under glass may be
shipped with perfect safety from 50 to 300 miles, thus broadening the
field of the prospective grower. This makes it practicable to secure
land at very reasonable prices; but in addition to this must be con-
sidered the extra expense of express and freight rates both in the
transportation of the crops produced and in the transportation of the
material actually required for the work, such as fuel, manure, ete.
Ordinarily, however, many choice locations can be found in the vicinity
of a city where half an acre or an acre of ground can be secured at a
price of from $250 to $500 per acre. It is not always practicable,
however, to secure land as reasonably as this; more often, half an acre
of such land will cost $500.

Starting with such an area of land, three houses may be constructed,
each at a cost of $1,000. In these may be grown roses, éarnations,
and violets. In this connection it is necessary to emphasize the fact

165 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

that these crops can not be successfully grown all in the same house.
Kach requires a special temperature and special treatment, and hence
the necessity for division of labor. With the land costing $500, three
houses, $3,000, general equipment, $500, and a home for the grower
costing at least $1,000, we have an investment of $5,000. The gross
income from such a place should be at least from $3,000 to $3,500
annually and the net income from $1,800 to $2,000.

If such an establishment is rightly planned in the beginning, it may
be extended until the entire half acre is covered with glass. In such an
event, of course, the grower will have to depend entirely on the out-
side for his soil and manure, but this is not a difficult problem in the
vicinity of a city. The gross income from such an establishment should
be from $10,000 to $12,000 and the net income from $3,500 to $4,000.

Specialization in this field will be conducted in about the same man-
ner as already described, except that the grower will limit himself to
one crop, such as roses, carnations, or violets. (See Pl. VI.) There
are some advantages in this and some disadvantages. The advantages
arise chiefly from the fact that it seldom happens that all three crops
fail in one season, while it sometimes occurs that one crop, for reasons
which can not well be controlled, either falls off materially or else fails
completely. A complete failure, however, is or should be very infre-
quent unless through bad management or lack of knowledge on the part
of the grower. Specialization offers opportunities for growing crops
of the highest quality and for competing in the market for the very
best prices. The cost of such work is practically aboutthe same as for
general flower growing, already described. The opportunities, how-
ever, are more restricted, for the reason that to compete in this field
one must grow the very best material. In other words, to be a spe-
cialist means the growing of the very best of crops. ‘To be a specialist,
furthermore, means certain knowledge and a certain temperament
which are difficult to find. The general gardener, or one who has been
trained in the growing of a number of crops, very frequently fails
when he attempts to specialize, because he knows too much about
too many things to make a good specialist. Some of the best special-
ists in violet growing are men who have known little or nothing about
growing any other crops, and have gone into the business from the
workshop or from the farm. Going into business in this way, the
prospective grower has no preconceived ideas or notions about how
the crops ought to be handled; his whole mind is centered on one
thing, and he is not carried away by suggestions coming to him as the
result of former experience in producing other crops. What is stated
here in regard to the owner is applicable, of course, to the men whom
the owner must secure for his help. Given a bright, quick-witted
young man, with no prejudiced views as to the growing of crops, he
will in most cases make a better specialist than one who has had con-
siderable training in general gardening work.

PLATE’ VI.

1904

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

Fi@. 1.—CARNATION HOUSE—PLANTS JUST SET OUT

FiGg. 2.—ROSE HOUSE AT CHRISTMAS—ROSES GROWN FOR CUT FLOWERS

Paw *"y

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 169
PLANT GROWING AS A SPECIALTY.

The growing of bedding and ornamental plants as a specialty is a
field which is comparatively limited. The great improvement in trans-
portation facilities has made it practicable to ship plants lone distances;
hence these plants are now turned out very cheaply and by the million
in large establishments remote from the points where they are to be
sold. Such being the case, the opportunities for the small specialist
are fewand are growing fewer. If the field is entered at all, it should
be considered mainly from the standpoint of getting into touch with
some already existing large establishment with a view to obtaining
experience and with the ultimate view of pushing the business to such
a point that large shipping facilities may be developed.

Il. FRUIT GROWING.

By M. B. Waite,

Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits, Bureau of Plant
Industry. .

INTRODUCTION.

Fruit growing in early days in this country was largely incidental
to general farming. Orchards were planted by farmers whose main
business was the growing of grains and cereals, live stock, poultry,
etc. In recent years the business of fruit growing has gradually
become a specialty. The work has been taken up by fruit men who
are specialists in this line and who devote their entire energy to the
growing of fruits. Among fruit growers are specialists who grow
only one sort or one type of fruit, as, for instance, peaches, pears,
apples, grapes, small fruits, etc. The reason for this is largely the
demands of intensive methods. Intensive fruit growing requires that
everything shall be done for the tree or vine that it will pay to do.
The object of the intensive fruit grower is to grow the greatest amount
of salable commercial fruit per acre, of the best quality which can be
grown with profit. To accomplish this result pruning, spraying, and
cultivating must be carefully studied and practiced, and the fruit after
it is grown must be properly picked and packed and marketed to the
best advantage. The successful fruit grower must be ready to utilize
at all times the results of scientific investigation in agriculture. One
of the most hopeful things in the recent progress of agriculture and
horticulture is the utilization of scientific discoveries in practical work.
The investigations of the Department of Agriculture and of the experi-
ment stations and agricultural colleges have in no small degree con-
tributed to this progress and to this differentiation into specialties.

170 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

REQUIREMENTS OF THE SUCCESSFUL FRUIT GROWEK.

The successful fruit grower, in the first place, must be a good
general farmer; he must understand all about teams, the use of tools,
plows, and harrows, and the methods of preparing land, seeding, and
cultivating. He should have some knowledge of chemistry, so as to
know how to buy and mix his fertilizers and study the chemical needs
of his crops. Knowledge of plant pathology and physiology is essen-
tial, and he must keep fully abreast with the latest methods of defend-
ing his plants against disease. He must also be enough of an ento-
mologist to know every bug or insect which commonly attacks his
crops. He should know fruits and fruit trees thoroughly, at least all
the species which he grows; he must be familiar with the merits and
defects of old varieties and be quick to discover the value of new ones.
He must read everything published about his favorite fruit, and be
prepared to sift the useful information from that which is not appli-
‘able to his local conditions. He must also be a good business man in
order to buy his supplies to the best advantage and market his crops
with profit. Many fruit growers have failed on account of weakness
in this latter point, being unable to successfully market their fruits
after they have grown them.

INTENSIVE FRUIT GROWING ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO SMALL FARMS.

The fruit grower on a small place has certain advantages over the
man who attempts to work a large area. There are several reasons for
this. Most men are not able to give to more than a limited area the
personal attention which is one of the great factors in success with
trees and plants. Where large areas are planted much of the work
must be delegated to subordinates, who usually are not equal to the
owner in their attainments. With a small place under the immediate
eye of the owner the various operations of pruning, cultivating,
spraying, etc., may be done well and done in time. In the matter of
spraying, for instance, the delay of a week may make all the difference
between success and failure in preventing injuries by codling moth,
apple scab, pear-leaf blight, and various other fungous diseases and
insect pests of fruit trees. In the matter: of cultivation, not infre-
quently a difference of three days, especially if an inopportune rain
should come, may result in such a growth of weeds that the tools will
not destroy them, and they may gain such a start as to make it unprofit-
able to pull them by hand, while if they are not destroyed the crop
will be a failure.

The tendency of modern fruit growing, especially modern fruit
marketing, is to produce sufficient quantities for carload shipments.
From many localities the carload is the unit of shipment. This almost
necessarily has driven men into planting on a large scale. In Georgia,
Texas, and other Southern States the refrigerator carload of peaches

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 71

is the main factor of commercial success of the industry. There is no
doubt a great advantage in marketing fruit, especially peaches and
apples, in carload lots, and certainly the manager of a large place
deserves credit for the organization and planning necessary to grow and
market fruit on this scale with even a fair degree of success. He can,
however, hardly hope to compete in yield per acre and refinement of
methods with the fruit grower on a farm of, say, 100 acres or less.
Moreover, it is not rare to find these small farmers doing a big business.
There are fruit farms of less than 100 acres in several of our fruit
growing sections where a business of $12,000 to $15,000 annually is
carried on. These ‘‘ big little farms” are really the most interesting
studies in horticulture. Intensive methods are the secret of their
success.

Fruit growing has always been more or less high-class farming. It
has been largely undertaken by bright and observing men, who as a
rule are more interested in their profession than the ordinary farmer.
This does not mean that there are not capable and even brilliant men
engaged in plain farming and stock raising; still, as a rule, the men
who take up fruit growing as their specialty are above the average in
energy and intelligence. There were some very bright and scholarly
minds in the old school of horticulturists. Such men as Hovey, Man-
ning, Wilder, the two Downings, Elwanger and Barry, and P. J.
Berckmans are a credit to any profession. Few of these men grew
large quantities of fruit as we estimate to-day, but they laid the foun-
dations for modern American horticulture and gave a great impetus
to fruit growing in its early days.

INTENSIVE FARMING CONTRASTED WITH EXTENSIVE FARMING.

The usual aim of the fruit grower as well as the farmer is to
produce large quantities of salable produce with the least amount of
laborand invested capital. In many cases, especially in opening up new
countries, extensive methods were probably the most profitable at the
outset. In extensive farming nature is depended on to do the greater
part; man does comparatively little. In intensive methods the oppo-
site is attempted; nature is assisted in every possible way and encour-
aged to do her utmost, the aim being the production of the largest
quantities and of the finest quality per acre. As year after year the
country becomes more thickly settled, land becomes scarcer and more
valuable, and intensive methods must gain prominence. Even now we
hear certain individuals criticized for attempting to farm too much
land—-more than they can handle profitably.

There is a good lesson in the story of the Pennsylvania farmer with
a 400-acre farm who, after selling off 100 acres, found, by giving a
little better attention to the remaining 300 acres, that his sales were

\

172 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

in no wise diminished; later, after selling off 200 acres more, and con-
centrating all his energies on his remaining 100-acre farm, he made it
produce as much as did the original 400 acres. The writer knows of
a number of instances where 100-acre farms devoted to fruit culture
far exceed in production other fruit farms of 400 acres advantageously
located.

POOR LAND NOT AN OBSTACLE TO INTENSIVE FARMING.

While poor soil is a great obstacle to profitable farming on extensive
methods, where the land is plowed, harrowed, and planted and depended
upon to produce the crop without high culture and without manures,
yet with intensive farming, especially intensive fruit growing, so many
things are done for the soil and for the plants that the original fertility
of the soil is not soimportant a factor. Good soil is, of course, a great
advantage for any one engaged in farming or horticulture, but con-
venient markets, adaptability to special crops, and other favorable
conditions may often overbalance soil fertility with the high manuring
and fertilizing possible in intensive farming. This should be especially
encouraging to the eastern farmer whose soils are as a rule far Jess fer-
tile than those of the Mississippi Valley or the far West.

INTENSIVE METHODS IN FRUIT GROWING.

Some of the details of the methods used in intensive fruit growing
will now be considered. %

WHAT TO PLANT.

Assuming that a fairly good location, all things considered, is avail-
able, one of the most important matters is the selection of suitable kinds
or varieties of fruits. Where there are growers in the same section
already engaged in the business, one should by all means study closely
their mistakes and successes and endeavor to select varieties and species
that succeed, for no amount of care can ever fully counteract the lack
of adaptability to soil and climate so prominent with many varieties of
fruits. Mistakes in planting the wrong kinds should be corrected as
quickly as discovered. One of the earmarks of intensive methods in
horticulture is the prompt pulling out of orchards which are a failure.
Careless growers will continue blocks of trees year after year, even
though they acknowledge that their planting was a mistake. The
small crops obtained annually keep leading them on to spare the trees,
although no protit is derived. Unprofitable trees should be either top
worked to some profitable kind, if this is feasible, as with pears and
apples, and even sometimes with peaches and plums; or else they should
be promptly pulled out and something found to take their places.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. Bie

THOROUGH PREPARATION OF THE LAND.

The thorough preparation of the land is a very important process in
planting out orchards and small fruits. Frequently fruit growers are
in such a hurry to plant that they are obliged against their better
judgment to set out trees on ground unfitted by tillage for their
reception. ‘Trees to do their best need to have the land ina high state
of culture when they are planted. It is wise, where practicable, to
anticipate planting by two. or three years and practice a rotation of
crops which will bring the soil into perfect condition. Deep plow-
ing can not be done in the orchard, but is by all means to be advised
in the years preceding planting. The turning under of green manures
and the growing of hoed crops is advisable. On rich land or new
land which needs subduing, corn is a very good crop to plant. It is
the best index crop known for bringing out the inequalities of the land.
It will show the poor spots that need extra manure and frequently
will develop the wet areas which need drainage. Cotton also answers
fairly well for this purpose in the South. The best thing, however,
to immediately precede the planting is some crop like Irish potatoes,
sweet potatoes, or garden vegetables of some kind. Such crops bring
the soil-into practically a garden condition, for with them deep plow-
ing, high manuring and fertilizing, and thorough cultivation are com-
monly practiced.

Subsoiling is to be highly recommended on all Jands which are under-
laid by a more or less stiff clay subsoil. This should be done when
necessary in the fall, immediately preceding the planting of the trees.
Perhaps the best way is to subsoil the strip 6 to 8 feet: wide on which
the trees are to be planted. Then the following fall subsoil a strip 3 or
4 feet wide on each side of this strip, and continue this annually until
the center is reached. Subsoiling is particularly important, for the
reason that it opens up stiff clay subsoils to the passage of the roots
and deeply stirs the land in 2 manner which can never be done after
the roots occupy the soil. However, cowpeas and clover in the orchard
can produce a somewhat similar effect. One of the features of inten-
sive horticulture is to give the trees or plants good care at the start
and then to keep it up continuously.

A perennial plant, such as a tree, takes several years to recover
from neglect or shock, but, if a young tree is vigorous when set out,
carefully planted so as to make a fair growth the first year, and then
pushed right along, it will attain a vigor and perfection not otherwise
obtainable. Right here, however, a caution is necessary. The matter
can be overdone. Young peach orchards especially can be pushed into
such vigorous growth that they will not only ‘*throw” their fruit,
but are made tender and are easily winterkilled. In other words,
vegetative vigor is so pronounced that their fruiting tendency is not

174 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

properly encouraged. The writer has seen apple orchards 15 years
old, vigorous, handsome trees, and yet not in full bearing. Such trees
need a moderate setback, such as may be produced by putting the
land in clover for a year or two, to check them up and bring them
into bearing. Once in bearing the high culture may be renewed.

THOROUGH CULTIVATION,

Tillage is the basis of all success in horticulture as well as in general
agriculture—good plowing, turning over the land when it is in a sat-
isfactory crumbly condition, not so wet as to become pasty and harden
into clods, nor so dry that it will not pulverize before the plow. ‘The
skillful use of the proper type of harrow is one of the most important
operations on the farm. Harrows are now made in such a great
variety of styles and types that it is almost bewildering to the farmer.
Nearly every one of these types has its special uses, for which it is
superior to all others. The skillful farmer must keep on hand the
more important types adapted to his soil, and use good judgment in
sending them out to the field.

There is a great variation in the amount of culture which is deemed
sufficient in the orchards of different sections of the country. .One man
expressed surprise that an orchard should ever have to be harrowed
more than three or four times, thinking that this was the limit of
necessary or desirable cultivation, and yet there are orchards which
have been harrowed thirty, and even (counting the use of the weeder)
fifty times ina year. However, as a general rule, if the harrowings
are done at the right time, as soon as the land comes into condition
after each rain, a dozen to fifteen harrowings or cultivations are about
all that is necessary for complete success in growing fruit trees.
Usually, however, to secure maximum results, peach orchards need to
be harrowed or cultivated about once a week from blossoming time
until midsummer.

GROWING OTHER CROPS IN THE ORCHARD.

Cover crops or green manures should be sown at the close of culti-
ration, utilizing nature thereby to grow organic manure or fertilizer
in place in the soil. Some horticulturists of distinction tell us never
to grow other crops in the orchard, even during the first years. The
writer’s opinion is that it is advisable to grow crops in the orchard
during its early life, say from two to three years ijn the peach orchard,
and four to five years, perhaps, in an apple and pear orchard. How-
ever, these crops should be in the nature of nurse crops, that is, crops
which can be grown with profit and yet, on account of the culture

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 175

and fertilizing or manuring, will result in an improvement of the
soil and a benefit to the orchard. Where moisture is sufficient, if
large quantities of manure and fertilizer are used on crops like potatoes,
sweet potatoes, sugar beets, tobacco, cabbages, beans, etc., the orchard
soil may be built up and a large residual effect of manure and fertilizer
obtained, which will sustain the orchard for years afterwards. ‘The
experiments at Rothamsted showed the beneficial effects of stable
manure to extend over a period of twenty years. This may be fol-
lowed in the later years by cover crops which keep up the supply of
humus in the soil. The only difficulty with the nurse crops, and per-
haps sometimes with the cover crops, is in semiarid regions, where
orchards are grown without irrigation, or during a dry summer in the
Eastern States, where there is not enough moisture for both the trees

and the crops.
j FERTILIZING.

There is an enormous difference between the quantity of fertilizer
used by different orchardists in the same region. <A bearing peach
orchard in sections where fertilizers are used with profit on truck
crops can often be maintained satisfactorily on 400 or 500 pounds per
acre, costing, say, from $20 to $30 per ton. Some orchardists consider
this quantity abundant; and yet it is not rare to find a thousand pounds
or even more applied to some of the thriftiest orchards. As far as
the writer’s experience goes, the men who are making the most money
are the ones who are using the greatest amount of fertilizers. Stable
manure, where it is readily obtainable, is perhaps the most universally
effective material for making plants grow; yet, in the orchard, this
has to be used with caution. Young pear trees pushed too vigorously
with stable manure are particularly subject to blight. This is true of
apples and quinces to a less extent. Young peach orchards pushed too
vigorously with stable manure are more subject to the peach-rot
fungus, and in the far North they may be forced into a tender, late
growth, which will not withstand the severe cold of winter. On the
other hand, trees on light soils, especially if suffering with root aphis
or other similar root troubles, can be benefited more by stable manure
than by any other fertilizer. Manure is a specific for the black
peach-root aphis.

FIGHTING DISEASES.

The skillful fruit grower watches his trees and plants almost daily.
In fact he treasures up his experience of year after year and knows
exactly when to anticipate attacks of many of the worst diseases and
insect pests, and regularly prepares for them in advance. Spraying
with the lime-sulphur-salt remedy in winter or early spring is now
becoming very common with successful fruit growers. This is the
best-known all-round fungicide and insecticide for dormant trees,

176 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

disinfecting the twigs, branches, and buds from the curl-leaf fungus
of the peach, killing many Monilia spores on peaches and plums,
doubtless rendering the branches impervious to the attacks of surface-
crowing and canker fungi, besides killing the San Jose scale, Phytoptus
mites, aphis eggs, and other insect pests. The use of Bordeaux mixture,
especially when combined with an arsenical poison, like the arsenate of
lead or Paris green, is one of the important operations of pomaceous
fruit growing. The details of this spraying can not be attempted here,
but suflice it to say that the fruit grower must have a knowledge of
all his suspected enemies and know how to meet them. Borers may
be fought by digging away the soil from the collar of the tree and
taking them out with a knife or a piece of wire. Pear blight must be
fought by thoroughly cutting out the disease, first during the summer
or the growing season, but mainly during late fall, winter, or early
spring, when the trees are dormant. In this work a disinfecting solu-
tion should be used to keep the knife or saw free from contamination
and to wash over the wounds to prevent the disease from reentering
the cut surfaces.

PRUNING AND THINNING.

No one operation stands out more prominently as the work of inten-
sive horticulture than pruning. To secure maximum results in fruit
growing the trees should be pruned skillfully. The young tree must
be trained into the form desired. The older tree must be kept in
control by pruning. Our own preference as to the style of tree with
peaches, plums, apples, and pears is the vase form, because of its
numerous advantages in fighting disease, especially pear blight. Each
species and variety requires more or less special study to lead it into
the form most desired. Asa general rule, the annual growth of the
trees should’ be headed back to some definite length, say 14, 16, to
20 inches, regardless of the length of the top growth beyond this.
However, the general vigor and future possibilities have to be kept
in mind. This heading-back process will result in the pushing out
of a great many twigs, making the top too thick in future years.
This objection is to be met by annually thinning out first the one-
year twigs, and then later, perhaps with the saw, those of the larger
branches, which have not roomto develop. A tree so laden with fruit
that its branches are drooping to the ground may be an attractive
sight; but this is not good horticulture. Partly through pruning,
and more especially by thinning the fruit, the tree should never be al-
lowed to overload itself so that it breaks down under the weight of the
fruit, or even permanently bends its main branches very far from their
normal position. Thinning is one of the necessary operations of any
high-class fruit culture. It has been demonstrated both by careful
experimenting and by practical experience to be a profitable process.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 177
PICKING AND MARKETING.

Having grown the fruit, the next and most important part is the
picking and marketing. When fine fruit has been grown up to the
picking season the battle has been half won, but it has been only half
won. The business side of fruit growing then begins. Markets have
to be looked up, perhaps in several different parts of the country, and
the telegraph and the telephone must frequently be used as the fruit
attains maturity. The packages—crates, baskets, or barrels—have
to be purchased and made ready for the reception of the fruit. Every-
thing which can be done should be done to lighten the task on the
picking days and to distribute the labor. This is especially true in
handling perishable fruits, such as peaches, plums, and early pears.
Many sorts of fruit require picking on a certain day. With peaches,
they may be green one day, matured, full colored, and ready to ship
on the next, and possibly too ripe and soft on the third day to be
profitably handled for long-distance shipments. All this means that
the grower must be ready and waiting for the fruit to mature. A
well-ordered packing house that has facilities for handling, grading,
and packing the fruit is a very important adjunct to every fruit farm.
In fact, aside from the business office, it may be regarded as the
central point of the industry on that place.

No one thing, perhaps, has more effect on the output of a fruit farm
than the manner in which the fruit is graded and packed. It has been
remarked that it requires an artist to select fancy exhibition fruit for
the World’s Fair, but this statement may be extended. It requires an
artist to grade and pack fancy fruit. There are few people who really
can do it, orat least few who do it. Of course, all the fruit can not be
grown as fancy, and two, or sometimes three or more, grades are fre-
quently shipped—all good marketable fruit. Near-by points can some-
times be utilized in shipping off that which is too ripe to carry long
distances. Culls, bruised specimens, and wormy fruit should always
be kept out of the standard grade, but they can often be utilized for
canning, evaporating, making into cider, jellies, ete. At any rate,
nearly all the fruit has a place somewhere, and it is the duty of the
marketer to sort his fruit and put every grade in its place.

OPPORTUNITIES IN INTENSIVE ERUIT GROWING.

Naturally, in discussing the subject of intensive fruit growing the
splendid opportunities on the Pacific coast—in California, Washington,
and Oregon—come to one’s mind. The possibilities of success have
been so great, however, that many of the best locations have already
been utilized and the business is highly developed. Unfortunately,
the great distance from market furnishes an obstacle to profitable
orcharding which at least partly offsets the natural advantages. In

2 al904——12

178 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Colorado, on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, as well as in
adjacent parts of Utah and New Mexico, fine opportunities await the
energetic and skillful orchardist. Young orchards are being planted
out at a rapid rate, and the product is, as a rule, of the highest com-
mercial quality. The wax-like apples produced in this region, neatly
packed in bushel boxes, attract buyers from nearly all the Eastern
States, who paid last season prices ranging from 50 cents to over $1 a
bushel for this fruit delivered at the railway stations. The future
development of the apple industry in this region seems almost unlim-
ited. Peach growing in the western Rocky Mountains is especially
successful, and the output is increasing rapidly. Some of the very
best sections are just now being extensively opened, and a good deal of
fruit land just being brought under irrigation can be purchased at
moderate prices. However, the success of this industry has caused
the value of the orchard lands in convenient locations to rise to a point
that astonishes the eastern visitor. Some of the finest apple orchards
are valued at over $1,000 per acre.

‘Around most cities from the Mississippi Valley eastward there are
localities naturally fairly well adapted to the growth of tree fruits.
Every city of 5,000 inhabitants or more constitutes a fair market
for at least one moderate-sized fruit farm. The larger cities of 25,000
people and upward, of course, offer the most attractive localities.
A well-planned orchard, better still if accompanied by a plantation of
small fruits and berries, can be made extremely profitable by catering
to the local demand. Asa rule, if the fruit is grown in large quanti-
ties it is better to sell it to greengrocers and dealers, but where
the grower is prepared greater returns can, of course, be secured by
marketing in a retail way.

Particularly fine opportunities for growing fruit for the local mar-
kets occur in New England. In the rush to make money out of manu-
facturing and trade, a large proportion of the capable young men in
New England desert the farms. There are at the present time as
good opportunities for brains, energy, and capacity for work to reap
their reward in peach growing on some of the Connecticut hills as
anywhere in the country. Frequently beautiful unused orchard sites
overlook manufacturing towns having a population of from 20,000
to 40,000 people. Since the scourge of pear blight has now spread
across our country to the Gulf on the south and to the Pacific
Ocean on the west, we are prepared to look around and decide which
region has the least trouble from this serious pest. New England and
the Lake Region suffer less from pear blight than any other sections
of the country in which pears can be successfully grown. A well-
managed pear orchard in the vicinity of Boston, or at some other
convenient point in southern New England or certain sections of New
York State, and perhaps Ohio and Michigan, would be more likely to
succeed than in any other part of the Union.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 179

The largest area of undeveloped fruit country in the United States
is the Allegheny Mountain region. In Maryland, Virginia, West Vir-
ginia, and North Carolina—in other words, the central Allegheny sec-
tion—there is one of the finest horticultural regions in the country.
By far the larger part of this is totally undeveloped. Mile after
mile of beautiful mountain slopes in West Virginia are totally unoc-
cupied by fruit plantations. This region not only has a fertile soil
suitable to tree growth of all kinds, but it grows bright-colored, highly
flavored fruits, especially peaches and apples, of excellent shipping
qualities. They nearly always sell, when well grown, for the very
highest market prices. Choice dessert apples like Grimes Golden,
Rome Beauty, Winesap, Northern Spy, and, in the higher altitudes,
Spitzenberg, grow readily in this region. It extends northward well
into Pennsylvania and southward, as far as peaches are concerned, into
north Georgia and Alabama. The mountains of North Carolina are
the southern limit of good apple culture in the East. A certain sec-
tion of Virginia, within this region, grows to perfection the famous
Newtown Pippin, which is marketed under the name of Albemarle
Pippin, the most exacting in its requirements of soil and climate of
all commercial apples. Much of this land is very rough and rocky,
although the soil is fertile and highly adapted to tree fruits. The stone
fruits (peaches, Japanese plums, and cherries), as well as apples, pears,
and quinces, thrive in this section.

In the lowlands along the coast tree fruits do not do so well south
of Maryland. From Maryland northward fine peach orchards have
been developed in the tidewater region. However, the growing of
strawberries, cantaloupes, and early garden truck can be made very
profitable from Florida all the way up to New Jersey if the right man
takes hold of the work. The location of these early truck farms
should be determined by nearness to market or to transportation lines,
earliness of location, and protection from spring frosts. There isa
succession of these products marketed through the spring and summer,
beginning in Florida and following successively up the coast to New
York or even farther north. A similar condition of affairs exists in
the Mississippi Valley, beginning at the Gulf coast and extending
through Mississippi and Louisiana to southern Illinois, and ending in
northern Wisconsin and Michigan. 7

COST OF ESTABLISHING AN ORCHARD.

On the average, it costs about $100 per acre to plant an orchard and
care for it up to five years of age. This estimate does not include the
cost of the land nor the residence and main buildings of the farm.
It is based on an average of 100 trees per acre, the trees to cost 10 to
15 cents each, labor at $1 per day, foreman at $2 per day, man and
team estimated at $3 per day. It would include a reasonable amount

180 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of farm equipment and, with a large acreage, certain accessory build-
ings necessary for the business. A 100-acre orchard, therefore, would
have cost, when five years of age, $10,000, and the trees would have cost
$leach. With peaches, plums, and, to some extent, with early-bearing
pears this would bring the orchard into fruiting. On the other hand,
apples and the later-fruiting varieties of pears would not be in profit-
able bearing, and probably would not be producing fruit at all. The
prospective planter should: keep these figures in mind, and should not
undertake extensive plantings which are to be cared for properly
without planning to have this amount of money available, unless he
has studied the local conditions and knows pretty thoroughly that this
cost can be reduced. In Georgia, with peach trees costing from 2 to
3 cents, 50-cent labor, and other things in proportion, the cost of
bringing peach-orchards into bearing is commonly about one-half the
above estimate, namely, $50 per acre. Frequently a man with a small
farm can plant out an orchard of 10 to 20 acres, care for it himself,
purchase the trees at a moderate price, and, not counting his own
labor, bring the orchard into fruiting for apparently no cost at all
aside from the initial cost of the trees. In this case, however, the
farmer’s labor has been the capital invested.

On the other hand, in the Northern States, such as New York and
Michigan, and in many districts of the West, this estimate of $100 an
acre would be insufficient, on account of the high price of labor, cost
of the trees, and amount of work required to fit the land and plant
the orchard. The planting of nurse crops brings in a factor which
makes it difficult to estimate the cost of an orchard, for two separate
lines of business are thus carried on. The nurse crop may be, when
fully successful, so profitable as to pay the entire expense of the care
of the orchard’and not infrequently leave a margin of profit besides.

The Georgia cotton growers have perhaps been able to grow the
cheapest orchards in the country. Peach trees are planted out in the
cotton land, and the ground is cultivated in cotton for two or three
years, the trees being given scarcely any care aside from the cultiva-
tion of the cotton. Perhaps a little fertilizer and a dollar or two per
acre in pruning would be the entire expense for care of the orchard
up to 3 years of age. Of course certain orchards more carefully
pruned and thoroughly sprayed involve greater expense. In Illinois,
Missouri, and other Mississippi Valley States practically the same
thing has been done with corn. The profits of the corn growing have
made the care of the orchard practically cost nothing to the grower.
These nurse crops and other crops grown in the orchard, therefore,
complicate the question of cost and make it extremely difficult to esti-
mate accurately the absolute cost of the orchard.

The above figures will be criticized by some orchardists, and it is
not intended to say that orchards can not be grown at much less cost.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 181

By purchasii 1@ inferior trees, cultivating, spraying, and otherwise
caring for the orchard in a halfway manner, the expenses may be cut
in two, but the profits will probably be reduced to one-fourth. The
figures which have been given are based on high-class orcharding.

Ill GENERAL FARMING.

By W. J. SPILLMAN,
Agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

The phenomenal success which has attended the application of science
and business methods to farming in recent years, particularly since the
establishment of the State experiment stations and the recent marked
development of the work of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, has led to increased interest in farming on the part of many
people who have had no experience in that industry. During the past
year many inquiries have come to the Department of Agriculture from
teachers, bookkeepers, and clerks in the large cities, asking for infor-
mation concerning the different types of farming and the possibilities of
each. For the first time in modern times there is a distinct movement
of population from congested centers to rural districts. This move-
ment is as yet not sufficient to counteract the influence of the long-
established movement from the country to cities; nevertheless, it has a
very important bearing on the future of agriculture in this country.

Many of those who undertake farming for the first time will neces-
sarily fail for lack of experience and knowledge. A few will succeed.
These will be men or women of unusual ability, who are willing to
devote a great deal of time to a careful study of the business. Even
those who have had many years’ experience in farming are not always
successful. The requisites for successful farming are: (1) The ability
to lay plans and to execute them, and (2) an intimate knowledge both
of the principles involved in growing crops and handling stock and of
the business methods necessary for converting farm products into
money. A good deal of the knowledge requisite for successful farm-
ing can be secured only through experience. Those without it must
have a good deal of tenacity of purpose in order to live through the
trying times that come while they are gaining this experience. But
the rate at which men gain experience varies greatly. A great deal
can be learned by reading the agricultural papers, by studying the
bulletins issued by the experiment stations and the Department of
Agriculture, and by studying the methods used by successful farmers
everywhere. It is always unwise to enter upon a new line of business
on a large scale without abundant knowledge. The inexperienced
must begin on a small scale and let the business build itself. The

182 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

greatest successes will, in general, be achieved by intelligent men
who begin on a small scale and let their business grow as their knowl-
edge increases. ‘They will in every case be students. A good many
instances could be cited of men without previous experience in farm-
ing who, after one or two years’ effort, combined with careful study,
have made unusual success in different lines of farming. Perhaps the
most important single element in the man is the ability to distinguish
between a good suggestion and a poor one.

THE MILK TRADE,
PRODUCING AND RETAILING.

Of the opportunities open in the line of general agriculture, one of
the most important is to be found in the retail milk trade in our towns
and cities. Particularly is this the case in the South, but there are
few cities even in the North that are well served with a good quality of
milk. ‘The material put on the markets, particularly in the poorer
sections of the large cities and in many small towns, is of such a char-
acter as to give the general city dweller a very poor idea of the value
of milk as a food. The housewife who refused to buy milk from a
dairyman because she had found a thick, greasy scum on the sample
he had left the day before is not a rarity. Much of the milk offered
for sale is watered and is handled in such an uncleanly manner that it
sometimes sours before it can be delivered to the customers. This
class of milk frequently has antiseptics, such as formalin, boracic acid,
etc., added to it to keep it from souring. Where milk of this kind is
sold it is always easy for an honest man who understands dairying
to establish a good business in a short while. At first there may be
objection to his milk because of its unfamiliar flavor, but abundant
experience shows that honesty in the sale of dairy products is rewarded
as quickly as it is in any other line of business. The right kind
of man to develop a milk trade, in the smaller towns as well as in
the cities, is one who will put upon the market clean, pure milk,
testing not less than 4 per cent fat, and who knows how to handle
both his cattle and their products to advantage. It is safe to say
that half of the towns in the United States offer good opportunities
in this line at the present time. In the larger towns and in the
cities there is often opportunity for building up a good trade in
pasteurized milk and cream. Pasteurized milk guaranteed to contain
4 per cent of butter fat, when handled in a businesslike manner, can,
in general, be retailed in the cities at 10 cents a quart. In the
smaller towns it is usually difficult to sell milk for more than 6 to 8
cents a quart, which will hardly justify the expense of pasteurizing.

The income from a dairy business such as that suggested above
depends so much upon the man that no definite figures can be given.

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 1838

It is impossible for anyone who is not a good judge of cows to succeed
in a business of this kind. A good cow may be expected to yield an
average of 2 gallons of milk a day for nine months in the year, testing
at least 4 per cent. The writer does not believe it is wise, from a
business standpoint, for a dairyman to place on the market milk testing
lower than this, and he bases this conclusion on his observation of the
experience of many men who have been engaged in the dairy business.
At the above rate, acow will give 540 gallons of milk per year. If this
could be sold for 5 cents a quart above the expense of delivering, it would
bring an income of $108 per annum percow. In some localities, where
milk can be sold at higher figures, a larger income can be secured.
When the dairyman depends on his farm to produce most of the
feed for his stock, the number of cows which may be kept is limited
only by his executive ability and the area of land available. No other
type of farming builds up the fertility of land so rapidly as dairying,
and after such a farm has been run for eight or ten years it is usually
possible, on good land, to keep approximately one cow per acre of
land in cultivation. This assumes that the dairyman raises his hay
and silage, and the green feed for the summer, and buys his more con-
centrated foodstuffs. One man with a helper can manage a 20-acre
farm, carrying 15 cows and the necessary complement of young stock
to keep up the herd, with a little extra labor in haying time and during
the storing of silage; and one wagon and driver will easily suflice to
deliver the milk from a dairy of this size. In undertaking work on
the basis outlined, particularly on land that is too high-priced to be used
for pasture, one should undertake to provide silage and hay or fodder
for winter and either silage or green feed and some hay for the summer.
In this connection the reader is referred to the article on ‘‘ A model
farm” in the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1903.
In the retail milk trade the cost of delivering milk is very consid-
erable, particularly in the larger cities, where customers may be
widely scattered. There is also more or less loss from patrons who do
not pay. When the ticket system is used, patrons sometimes forget to
put out the milk ticket for the early morning delivery. To get this
ticket then requires a special trip some time during the day, which
usually costs more than the ticket is worth. In conducting business
of this kind, where small quantities of material are sold to a large
number of people, promptness in collecting bills is necessary to success.
On account of the competition between dealers and the consequent
effort to serve the convenience of patrons, it has become customary in
most cities to deliver milk in the early morning. There are several
objections to this practice, not the least of which is that it requires
the dairyman to convert night into day. When deliveries are made in
the morning, it is the custom on many dairy farms to begin milking about
2 o’clock in the morning. It has been demonstrated to be entirely

184 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

practicable, at least in the winter time, to deliver milk during the day
instead of before breakfast, and when a dairyman takes good care of
his milk and furnishes a quality of milk that his competitors do not
furnish, he will usually be able to accustom his patrons to day delivery.
This is particularly true for the winter season. In summer, on account
of the rapidity with which milk sours in warm weather, it may be
necessary to make the early morning delivery. In winter there is
really no necessity for it except under very special conditions. It
usually pays a dairyman to be perfectiy frank with his patrons and
to instruct them that pure milk free from antiseptics will sour unless
it is kept very clean and in a cool place, and that even under the best
conditions it will sour usually within a day or two after it is drawn.
The patron should be instructed that this is perfectly natural and that
milk that does not sour is to be looked upon with suspicion. Some of
the most successful dairymen furnish their patrons with printed litera-
ture giving facts regarding the composition of milk and the care of it
to prevent souring. Incidentally, this gives the opportunity of adver-
tising one’s own careful methods and the purity and wholesomeness of
the product of his dairy.

MILK PRODUCTION FOR THE WHOLESALE MARKET.

Many farmers are situated too far from market to conduct a retail
business in milk, who might, however, advantageously produce milk
for shipment to cities. When shipping facilities are satisfactory, it
is possible to ship milk 50 to 100 miles, and in some cases it is regu-
Jarly shipped much farther. There is always a demand among retail-
ers in cities for high-class milk, and they will pay a premium for rich
milk that is properly cared for. Practically, every large city in the
country offers opportunities of this kind to farmers who are so situated
as to enjoy satisfactory shipping facilities, and the limit to the quantity
of high-class milk that can be marketed at fair prices in this manner
in the vicin‘ty of large cities has not yet been reached.

FANCY BUTTER TRADE.

In the smaller towns the milk trade is limited and can easily be sup-
plied by a single dairy. It is only in the larger cities that there is any
difficulty in securing sufficient milk for the trade. Many farmers are
also situated so that they can not conveniently retail their milk to
patrons. Many who are thus situated will find it advantageous to
engage in the manufacture of butter, particularly in those sections of
the country in which creameries are wanting. The demand for high-
grade butter is steady and reliable. Butter is a product which varies
so much in flavor, when made under different conditions, that it is easy
when a trade has once been established to holdit. A very large propor-
tion of the inhabitants of towns and cities always call for a brand of

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 185

butter which they have found to be uniformly of good quality, and
the number who would do this could be greatly increased. Ordinarily,
in towns of less than 2,000 population there is not a great opportunity
for building up a trade in butter at paying prices, but in towns larger
than this such opportunities invariably exist. In the smaller towns it is
usually possible for a dairyman, with a good reputation, to engage butter
by the year at 25 cents a pound, in practically all parts of the country,
and in many places at prices considerably higher than this. In cities,
where there are many wealthy people willing to pay a good price for
an article of established reputation, it is possible to build up a perma-
nent trade in butter at prices ranging from 40 to 50 cents per pound.

In a butter dairy there is usually opportunity to add considerably
to the income by the sale of buttermilk, though the necessity of
delivering it at frequent intervals usually makes it impracticable for
the butter producer to dispose of all of his buttermilk in this manner.
Skimmed milk properly treated can be made into good buttermilk
and usually sells at about 10 cents per gallon. Many who have
undertaken to convert skimmed milk into buttermilk have failed
because of a lack of knowledge of the physical character of the change
that occurs in souring milk. It should be remembered that butter-
milk has been churned and thus has had its curd very thoroughly
broken up, usually at about the stage of sourness required to curdle
the milk. If skimmed milk is put in the churn when it is just begin-
ning to curdle and agitated ten or fifteen minutes, the curd breaks up
into extremely small flakes and there is much less tendency for the
curd and whey to separate than is usually the case with skimmed milk
which has been allowed to sour without agitation in the churn. It
might be added that buttermilk made in this manner is very little, if
at all, inferior to the ordinary kind. It is possible to produce about
2 gallons of buttermilk for each pound of butter by utilizing the
skimmed milk. If the dairyman is so situated as to sell all of his
buttermilk at the price mentioned, the income from this source will
almost equal that from the butter itself. One advantage in butter
production over that of retailing the milk lies in the smaller expense
of delivering the product, as butter may be delivered once a week,
while milk must be delivered once or twice daily. The butter business
enables the farmer to establish more convenient working hours on
his farm. One very successful dairy farm known to the writer has
for many years been conducted on rules which require work to begin
at 7 o’clock in the morning and all work is finished by 6 o’clock in the
evening, all the milking, farm work, feeding, etc., being done within

these hours.
POULTRY.

Poultry raising combines very well with dairying, particularly with
the production of butter, and when intelligently managed can be made
highly profitable. Perhaps a larger percentage of those who have

186 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

embarked in the poultry business have failed than in almost any other
line of farming. It is so easy to figure oneself rich in the poultry
business that men without suflicient knowledge and experience have
embarked in it on too large a scale, and failure has been practically
the inevitable result. When the business is started right, so that the
farmer has an opportunity to study and acquire the intimate knowl-
edge necessary for success, it has been very profitable. Except fora
few months in the spring there is a steady demand at yood prices for
fresh eggs, and it is possible, by close study of the business, to secure
a regular supply of eggs practically throughout the year. There will
usually be a slight excess in the early spring months, at which time a
considerable proportion of the eggs may be used for hatching pur-
poses, thus combining the production of broilers with that of fresh
eges. It is possible to market guaranteed eggs at from 2 to 5 cents a
dozen above the market price for ordinary eggs, even in villages, and
the demand for guaranteed egys in cities is practically never met.

The profit from this business is so variable that it is almost useless
to give figures. On the farm already mentioned, where the working
hours are from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m., the cost per hen of conducting the
poultry business for the year 1899 was $1.01. The net profit of the
business was $1.81 per hen. The cost included market price for all
food used, whether raised on the farm or purchased. It also included
the cost of improvements in the poultry buildings and of a number of
high-priced eggs for improving the breeding stock. Opportunities
for carrying on the poultry business at a profit exist practically in
every community in the United States.

VEGETABLE GARDENING.

The production of garden vegetables has developed greatly in
recent years. This is particularly true of the region lying imme-
diately adjacent to the Atlantic coast, extending from southern Florida
to New England, and the cities of that section are now fairly well
supplied with vegetables the year round. A large portion of the
winter supplies are grown in Florida, and the supplies later in the sea-
son are grown farther up the coast. Just at present there is going
forward an enormous development of the trucking industry along the
Gulf coast, and particularly in southern Texas. So rapid has been
this development that conservative men anticipate an overproduction
in the near future. Whether this will be the case remains to be seen.
The cities of the Middle West have heretofore been poorly supplied
with vegetables in winter, and there is room for an extensive develop-
ment of this industry to supply those markets.

One of the most important pieces of work to be done in connection
with the development of the trucking industry at the present time is
that of systematizing the production and marketing of crops of this

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 187

character. It is difficult to estimate the quantity of vegetables that
would be consumed if the people throughout the country could be
supplied with what they “vould consume every day in the year.
Truck growers should organize for the purpose of studying the needs
of the market and making proper arrangements to meet these needs
without producing congestion in any market at any time of the year.
A seminational organization for this purpose ought to be practicable.
Such an organization might keep in touch with the growers and
ascertain the acreage and the probable production of every crop. It
should seek to control the distribution of this crop in the markets in
such manner as to prevent, as far as possible, an oversupply at any
point. Another great advantage that might be gained by such an
organization would be the elimination of those middlemen who have
frequently taken advantage of the lack of knowledge on the part of
the farmer concerning methods of marketing his products, thus
causing him great financial loss. Some such organization as this will
certainly become necessary if the production of garden vegetables
continues to increase in the near future as it has in the recent past.

In addition to the production of vegetables on a large scale for the
markets of the larger towns and cities, there is room for more crops
of this kind in the vicinity of the smaller towns. It is possible to
meet the demands of the small towns by local production, and there
are openings for truck farmers in the vicinity of many small towns
throughout the country. To succeed with a business of this kind one
must not only understand the production of the crops themselves, but
must become familiar with the demands of local markets and arrange
the cropping system so as to meet these demands. In many cases it
is possible to create good markets where none now exist. Take, for
instance, those districts in which there has recently been a rapid exten-
sion of the factory system, as in the Southern States, where cotton
mills have been built in large numbers during recent years. These
mills are operated for the most part by those who formerly conducted
small farms in the poorer sections of the States in which the mills are
located. They have been accustomed to plain fare and are satisfied
with it. However, it is possible to create in such settlements a mar-
ket for a large quantity of garden vegetables. Such a market would
give a steady demand, and, while it would not pay fancy prices, it
should be remembered that fancy prices are not necessary to profit in
the production of vegetables by those who are thoroughly familiar
with the business.

CHEESE MAKING IN THE SOUTH.

What to the writer seems one of the most important opportunities
for the extension of an agricultural industry existing in this country
to-day is found in the possibilities for the production of cheese in the
Southern States. The investigations of several of the experiment °

13838 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

station workers, particularly those of Babcock and Russell at the Wis-
consin station, have brought about a revolption in the cheese industry,
or, perhaps it would be more accurate to say, have resulted in discoy-
eries that are gradually revolutionizing this industry. According to
present knowledge of the manufacture of cheese, ice and even cold water
are not actual necessities in a cheese factory. When the milk is deliy-
ered at the factory it is immediately heated, the rennet is added, and
the temperature is further raised to cook the curd. When the whey
is removed the curd is kept warm and is not allowed to cool until it is
ready to go to press, and even then the temperature is usually not less
than 75° F. After remaining in press overnight it may be removed
and shipped immediately to the cities and placed in cold storage.

From this it will be seen that climatic conditions prevailing in the
South are in no way unfavorable to the production of cheese. It may
further be stated that the ordinary feeding stuffs of the South, particu-
larly green sorghum and cotton-seed meal, exert a most favorable influ-
ence on the flavor of milk, and presumably upon that of cheese, though
this has not been demonstrated. Since feeding stuffs can, in general, be
produced more cheaply in the South than elsewhere, it would seem that
there is room for the development of the cheese industry in that section.

Such an industry should of course be developed very gradually,
because everyone connected with it, from the farmer who grows the
crops that produce the milk to the operator of the cold-storage plant,
who might very properly attend to the marketing of the product, will
have much to learn. The situation is also somewhat complicated by
the fact that the American people are not very fond of cheese. The
history of agricultural industries in Europe, however, leads us to infer
that the use of cheese in this country will increase in future much more
rapidly than the population. The high price of meats in recent years
should have an important influence on the consumption of cheese.
Unfortunately, a great deal of the cheese made in this country has been
of low quality, and has been put upon the market in an unripe condi-
tion; and Americans generally have a wrong idea concerning the place
of cheese in the dietary. If our people could be taught to consume as
much cheese as is consumed by corresponding populations in Europe
it would, with our present population, require 17,000,000 good dairy
cows giving milk nine months in the year to supply the demand for
cheese alone. This is equal to the total number of dairy cows in the
country at the present time. The improved methods recently intro-
duced in the manufacture of cheese should have an important influence
on the increase in the consumption of cheese in this country.

Of course, there will be many failures in attempting to establish cheese
factories in localities in which dairying is a new industry. Unprin-
cipled men will sell factory outfits at enormous profits to communities
not ready to embark in the business. The labor of the South will
have to be trained in dairy work; the stock of cows must be increased;

OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE. 189

but it should be stated that the quality of dairy cows in the South is
already quite satisfactory, compared with other sections of the country.
After the home markets have been supplied, an outlet must be found
for the surplus. But when all this has been done, as the writer
believes it may be, the industry will do much toward increasing the
prosperity of the southern farmer.

If anyone, as the result of reading this article, should contemplate
embarking in the cheese industry in the South, he should do so with a
full knowledge of the difficulties in the way. Yet, the experiment
seems to be worth trying.

LIVE STOCK IN THE SOUTH.

There is at the present time room for a large development in the
production of live stock in the Southern States. The production of
feed for stock in the South is a simple matter. It is possible to pro-
duce at least two crops of forage a year on practically every acre of
land now devoted to cotton. An increase in the production of live
stock in the cotton districts would be of distinct advantage to the cot-
ton interests on account of the favorable effect on the fertility of the
land. Instances are not wanting where farmers who combine stock
growing with cotton culture produce 2 bales of cotton per acre, while
their neighbors who devote their land exclusively to cotton secure less
than half a bale. The diversification of farming brought about by the
increase in live-stock production would also bring better living to the
farmer, and one of the most important advantages would be found in
the distribution of the income of the farm throughout the year, thus
enabling the farmer to live on a cash basis.

Hog raising is one of the types of live-stock farming most easily
introduced, and the cotton-growing States are well adapted to this
industry. There are some difficulties to overcome, and cotton growers
would have much to learn before such an industry could be put upon
a profitable basis, but it is certainly advisable for southern farmers to
grow at least enough hog meat to meet local demands for this class of
food. The general method which has been found most practicable
for raising hogs in the South is to provide abundant green pasture,
with shade and water adjacent, and to feed about one-third of a full
grain ration to hogs on these pastures. Crops suitable for the produc-
tion of hog pasture are alfalfa, rape, sorghum, peanuts, vetches, and
the various cereals, such as oats, barley, rye, and wheat.

There is also opportunity for many farmers in the South to add
materially to their income by raising a good quality of horses and
mules for the market. There has never been a time in recent years
when a good mule would not bring a good price in the South, and there
is practically no part of that section in which there is not room for
more or less development in business of this character.

That branch of live-stock farming which has superior attractions for
most farmers seems to be the production of beef cattle. This calls

190 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for less labor than most other types of live-stock farming, but it is
also one which requires the most intelligent business methods for suc-
cess. Very few men, even in the great live-stock region of the Middle
West, are able to make large profits from the production of beef.
While the industry has had comparatively little development in the
South, the cheapness with which stock feed can be produced in that
section would seem to indicate that there are possibilities in this direc-
tion... Two phases of beef production should be carefully distinguished,
viz, that of growing the cattle and that of fattening them for the
market. The South seems to be particularly adapted to the growing
of beef cattle. That the highest quality of beef can be produced
wholly in the South has been demonstrated, particularly by the work of
the State experiment stations of Louisiana and Mississippi; but in fat-
tening beef cattle it is improbable that the South will be able in the near
future to compete with the States to the north with their cheap corn.
Perhaps the chief difficulty to be overcome in the development of
the cattle industry in the South is that presented by the presence
of the cattle tick, which transmits the disease commonly known as
‘*Texas fever.” Several of the southern experiment stations have
worked out methods of eliminating the tick that are entirely practica-
ble, and it is hoped that the recent movement for the diversification of
agriculture in the South will give an impetus to the work already started
in this line. The Mississippi experiment station has shown that under
favorable conditions beef cattle can be grown in the South and sold to
northern farmers for fattening purposes at a handsome profit.

SEED PRODUCTION.

One of the finest opportunities existing in the country to-day for
the development of a paying business is that for the production of
pedigreed seeds of ordinary farm crops. Much has already been done
in this direction, particularly with the corn plant, and the Minnesota
experiment station has demonstrated what can be done in the way of
improved seed of wheat. There is a fine opportunity for intelligent
farmers in the South in breeding varieties of cotton and corn. A
variety of corn developed in one section of country may not be adapted
to all sections of the region in which corn is grown; hence, there is an
opportunity for breeding up improved varieties of corn in many dif-
ferent localities. Varieties adapted to southern conditions are particu-
larly needed. To do this work successfully requires one who is famil-
iar with modern methods of plant breeding. The opportunities in this
line should be particularly inviting to graduates of the agricultural
colleges who have had training in such work. Satisfactory methods
of improving crops have been worked out in the Plant Breeding
Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture and by the various State
experiment stations. The demand for high-bred seed of all classes
of farm crops is practically limitless.

PRESENT STATUS OF THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN
THE UNITED STATES.

By W. D. Hunter,
In Charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.

MENACE OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.

The continued menace of the boll weevil to the cotton interests of the
country was reflected forcibly at the National Cotton Convention, called
to consider the problem at Shreveport, La., December 12 to 15, 1904.
Two large State conventions to consider the same subject had pre-
viously been held in Texas, as well as a like number in Louisiana, but
the full national bearing of the problem had never received such
special attention up to that time. There is a possibility that the gen-
eral feeling expressed by the many cotton experts present was some-
what more discouraging than the experience of Texas planters seems
to justify. The work of the Department of Agriculture has demon-
strated fully the practicability of producing a profitable crop in the
present weevil-infested region, provided the-planters receive what
they consider a normal price for the staple. The prime difficulty is in
inducing all planters to adopt the proper method, and there is another
important obstacle in the fact that the present system does not apply
equally well to all conditions. In view of these facts the recent state-
ment (January 8) of the president of the New York Cotton Exchange,
that ‘‘ the fact that the boll weevil was responsible for a loss of perhaps
500,000 bales is fully admitted; the annual loss caused by the pest is
too enormous to be overlooked,” seems to be abundantly justified.

The ravages of the boll weevil have affected the cotton producers not
only of Texas but also of the other cotton-producing States. They have
disturbed the general economic conditions of the South, and likewise
caused disturbances in every quarter of the globe where American
cotton is used in the factories. The people in Lancashire, England,
are almost as familiar with the work of the pest as are the people of
the United States. Foreign governments have become alarmed. The
Egyptian Government, for instance, on June 21, 1904, issued a formal
proclamation prohibiting the importation of American cotton seed on

4 Previous articles dealing with this topic have appeared in the Yearbooks of the
Department of Agriculture for 1901 (pp. 369-380) and 1903 (pp. 205-214).

191

192 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

account of the danger of introducing the boll weevil. As a matter of
fact, there is considerable danger that in time other cotton-producing
countries may become infested by the weevil, and probably in many
cases, owing to climatic and other conditions, suffer worse than this
country has up to the present time.

“urthermore, the increased difficulty of producing the staple in the
United States is having the effect of increasing the efforts of foreign
governments to encourage the cultivation of cotton in their depend-
encies. ‘The supremacy of the United States as a cotton-producing
country is, in a large measure, due to the fact that climatic and soil
conditions favor the production of a fiber of considerable length and
strength, and consequently more in demand by the spinners than that
produced in other quarters of the globe where there are large tracts
of land suitable for cotton production. Owing to the necessity of
procuring a very early crop in order to avoid damage by the boll
weevil and to the present shortness of fiber of the varieties that have
been found most useful, other countries might be able to produce an
abundance of cotton, not necessarily of as good length as that nor-
mally produced in the United States, but nevertheless near enough to
the quality of the staple which at present must be produced in weevil-
infested regions to interfere decidedly with the supremacy of: the
United States in this industry. It is believed, however, that this is
no more than a-temporary difficulty. It seems well within the range
of probabilities that the present efforts of the Department will result
in improving the fibers of the useful varieties to a very considerable
extent.

TERRITORY AFFECTED.

One of the most interesting features of the situation during the
past season has been the fact that the infested region has extended
eastward much more rapidly than northward. Careful examinations
of Indian Territory, with special attention to the portions which the
boll weevil is likely to reach first, have failed to reveal any traces of
infestation. In fact, on the north the limitation of the infested terri-
tory remains practically the same as last year. ‘This applies only to
the total infested area in which even isolated colonies of the pest have
been found to exist. There has been a gradual northward advance of
the limits of what may be termed the region of ‘‘ gross infestation;”
that is, where the weevils are to be found in considerable numbers in
all cotton fields. This advance has extended from the latitude of the
northern portion of Ellis County to the latitude of the southern por-
tions of Denton and Collin counties, a distance of about 36 miles.

This situation leads to speculation as to whether the pest has not
reached a northern limit beyond which its spread will be prevented,

THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 193

or at least checked, by climatic conditions. During the past year it
has been found that there is at least one full generation less at Ter-
rell, Tex., than at Victoria, Tex., 275 miles south of that place. In
view of the very rapid multiplication of the pest this means a greatly
lessened degree of actual damage. At least, the time when the number
of weevils per acre reaches its maximum is considerably deferred,
with a consequent manifest advantage to the crop. The lessened
number of generations is due to three principal factors: (1) Later
emergence from hibernating quarters; (2) greater time required for
the development of the several stages; and, (3) the earlier date of the
first killing frost. These would, theoretically at least, cause the
weevil problem to be a much Jess serious one in the extreme northern
part of Texas than has been the case in regions that have hitherto been
infested, and the observations of the last season bear out this supposi-
tion. However, it is expected that there will be some adaptation on
the part of the weevil to the climatic conditions in newly invaded
regions, and this makes uncertain any prediction regarding future
damage. Nevertheless, it may be said that in all probability the
greatest damage done by the pest will always be in the region south
of the latitude of Dallas, Tex.

To the east there has been a general extension of the infested terri-
tory of about 50 miles. The pest has been found east of the Red
River at three points in Louisiana, namely, Lockwood, Grand Ecore,
and Shreveport. In that State the greater portions of six parishes
are known to be generally infested, while in three others the weevils
are known to occur in certain restricted parts (fig. 9). Special opportu-
nities for studying this extension were given by the cooperation of the
Bureau of Entomology with the State of Louisiana in an investigation
of the possibility of checking the pest. It was found that there was
an advance early in the fall, due to the fact that the weevils were car-
ried from place to place with seed for planting purposes; this was fol-
lowed by a considerable extension of the territory infested, due to
conveying the seed cotton to the gins; but, last and most important,
there was an advance due to an actual migration, which reached in
many cases far beyond the limits of the territory covered in the first
two ways. ‘The causes of this migration have received special atten-
tion. Asa result of this work, complete information concerning the
means whereby the pest reaches new regions—a part of the life history
of the pest previously little understood—has been secured.

Altogether the additional territory infested during 1904 aggregates
about 15,000 square miles, representing approximately an area devoted
to the cultivation of cotton of 900,000 acres, the normal production
from which would be in the neighborhood of 350,000 bales.

2 al904——13

194 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

The total territory at present infested comprises about 32 per cent
of the cotton acreage of the United States.

At frequent intervals during the past season (1904) the southern
newspapers have contained accounts of the reported occurrence of
the boll weevil at various points far beyond the limits of the infested
territory shown upon the map (fig. 9). It seems likely that at any
time the pest may be earried to points far outside of the present

Ken cron] cou
peso aur]

2 mel al
es

NAVARRO

—
Specs yar

CaS am
3 et sez

ZAVALLA
DIMMIT Baa a
es

S ARC f
alo je LOWER LINE SHOWS LIMITS OF AREA
ke / / INFESTED IN 1901.

UPPER LINE SHOWS LIMITS OF AREA
INFESTED IN 1904.
REGION BETWEEN DOTTED AND UPPER LINES
AREA THAT BECAME INFESTED DURING 1904

Fie. 9.—Territory infested by the cotton boll weevil (original).

infested territory through ordinary commercial shipments of cotton
products. There is also some possibility that persons who have
received live specimens from Texas for experimentation with supposed
remedies may inadvertently introduce them into uninfested regions.
These considerations have led the Bureau of Entomology to devote
special attention to the reported occurrence of the weevil outside of

THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 195

the region indicated. Entomologists connected with the Bureau have
investigated a large number of reports coming from parts of Louisiana,
Arkansas, and Indian Territory. Through cooperation with State and
station entomologists, the Bureau has received specific information
about reports originating in Georgia, South Carolina, and elsewhere.
Fortunately it has been determined that all these reports have been
based upon a misidentification of some of the rather numerous species
of weevils which are sometimes found in cotton fields. Indeed, many
other insects besides weevils have also been mistaken for the boll
weevil, and some of the most persistent reports came from the con-
fusion of the effects of the anthracnose disease of cotton with the sup-
posed work of the boll weevil.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE BOLL WEEVIL.

As has peen stated in a previous article on this subject,” it is natu-
rally a difficult matter to express in figures the damage done by the
boll weevil. In the paper referred to it was shown that, for a few
years after the advent of the pest in a given locality, the production is
reduced by about 50 per cent; but that, after such a period of great
loss, many progressive farmers learn by proper methods to approxi-
mate their former yields. In some cases even, on smaller acreages,
by practicing more intense farming the production is maintained. It
is the unprogressive farmer, adhering to the old methods, who suffers
the severest loss. On the whale: it seems within conservative bounds
to estimate that, during the season of 1904, the weevil caused a short-
age of at least 450,000 bales, representing a value (including that of
seed) of about $22, 000, 000.

In view of the present very large crop,’ the eee has been asked
why the weevil should be considered a great menace when such a large
yield can be secured in spite of the fact that the weevils now infest
about 32 per cent of the cotton acreage in the United States. The
following appear to the writer to be the principal reasons for the
present large production in Texas:

(1) It must be noted that in parts of the infested territory the insect
has not yet become sufficiently numerous to appreciably reduce the
crop. This observation applies to probably at least 10 per cent of the
territory considered infested on account of the present isolated colo-
nies. In many of the northern counties of Texas, for instance, the
production could not have been reduced by the weevil, although the

“Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1903, p. 207.
>Estimated by the Bureau of Statistics of this Department on December 3, 1904,
as 12,162,000 bales.

196 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

statistics show considerable variation from year to year, doubtless on
account of changes in acreage and the ravages of sthies insects, like
the bollworm. This is shown in the case of several counties in north-
ern Texas in the table following. This table incidentally illustrates
well the uncertainty involved in a comparison of the production in any
list of counties in order to show the damage caused by the boll weevil.
It is on such comparisons that many excessive estimates of damage
have been based.

Cotton production in certain counties in northern Texas, in equivalents
of 500-pound bales.

[From U. 8. Census Bulletin No. 10.]

County. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. Average.

Montague....| 15, 064 34, 488 28, 454 16, 981 30,172 | 25,031
BOGTG is ~aen0 16, 826 21, 347 16, 756 17,829 20,307 | 18,613
Red River ...| 28,584 47, 870 35, 911 31, 284 33,815 | 35, 452
COTE. caanints 49, 077 70, 963 60, 049 47, 344 62,979 | 58, 082
Cooke... 5%. 11, 905 18, 751 19, 561 11,012 | ~ 20,813 | 16,408

(2) Throughout the portion of Texas where the bulk of the crop is
produced, various conditions had conspired to cause an unusually small
number of weevils to hibernate successfully. The principal factor in
this situation was the very early date of the first killing frost in the
fall of 1903, about thirty days prior to the average date. This
destroyed a great many immature weevils in the squares and bolls that
would otherwise have passed through the winter to damage the crop
in the spring.

(3) A very important factor has also been a lessened damage done
by the bollworm in the counties in Texas where the bulk of the crop
is produced. Mr. A. L. Quaintance, of the Bureau of Entomology,
who has conducted a special investigation of the bollworm during the
past season, states that the damage done in 1904 can be estimated at a
loss of about $2,500,000, as against an estimated loss for 1903 of fully
$5,000,000.

(4) The high price at which cotton was selling just prior to the time
of planting the crop of 1904 had the inevitable effect of increasing the
acreage very materially.

(5) The eal season was very davai. The average of the
‘*condition” of the growing crop in Texas from May to September,
inclusive, as published by the Bureau of Statistics of the Department,
was 82 in 1904 as against 72.5 in 1908. The average condition for 1904,
the season of the largest crop ever produced, was, in fact, much higher
than that for 1900, when the average condition reported for the same
months was 77.6

THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 197

(6) The picking season was abnormally favorable, resulting in an
unusually small loss of the lint from rains.

(7) The large amount of work done by the Department and com-
mercial bodies, which imported many carloads of improved seed, doubt-
less contributed to the increase of the crop.

A general idea of the effect of the ravages of the boll weevil in
reducing the crop in Texas may be obtained from the following table:

Comparison of cotton production and acreage in Texas and Louisiana
for 1899-1904.4

Texas. Louisiana.
Year.
Acreage. Crop.0 Acreage. Crop.)
Acres. Bales. Acres. Bales.

seo see toast ook es 6, 642,309 | 2,609,018 | 1,179,156 | 700,352
AQ S2 Teer es: Ss) Ge 2 7,041,000 | 3,438,886 | 1,285,000 | 705,767
MOQ Mee eelet ca Ss 7,745,100 | 2,502,166 | 1,400,650 | 840,476
OG2 4 Sone oc kes Ue e 8,006,546 | 2,498,013 | 1,662,567 | 882,073
TG OE gs ST aes aaa 8,129,300 | 2,471,081 | 1,709,200 | 824,965
HOO Stet sot Snes ct hhh 8,704,000 | 3,030,433 | 1,940,000 | 893,193

aThe figures for acreage have been taken from the reports of the
Bureau of Statistics of this Department, also figures for production
for 1904. The figures for production of previous years are from U. 8S,
Census reports.

b The crop yield is given in bales of 500 pounds.

It will be seen that, while the acreage in Texas and Louisiana has
been increasing at about the same rate, the crop in Texas has decreased
annually for the past six years (with two exceptions, 1900 and 1904),
while the crop in Louisiana has increased annually (with one incon-
siderable exception, 1903). That the boll weevil is the cause which
has prevented Texas from keeping pace with Louisiana will be admitted
by all. The exceptional years, 1900 and 1904, in which the production
in Texas did not decrease, were undoubtedly those in which the con-
ditions for the cotton plant were unusually favorable. Moreover, it
is to be noted that in the first of these two years the pest had not
reached far into the most productive counties of Texas.

SCOPE OF THE DEPARTMENT’S INVESTIGATIONS.

The liberal appropriation made by Congress to enable the Secretary
of Agriculture to meet the emergency caused by the ravages of the
cotton boll weevil allowed a very considerable enlargement of the
scope of the work during the season of 1904. The following lines of
work were undertaken:

(1) DirEcT WORK ON THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.—-This portion of the
work was carried on under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau
of Entomology, Dr. L. O. Howard, by the writer, as special agent in

LOS YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

charge in Texas. The headquarters for this portion of the work were
located at Victoria, Tex., where a laboratory was maintained for two
years. Thirteen experimental farms, aggregating about 1,500 acres,
were located in the different parts of the State, where modifications of
the present cultural system have been studied. The investigations of
the life history of the insect, upon which any rational system of con-
trolling it must be based, were continued. Parasites and the use of
poisons were investigated fully. A special study in the field was made
of the means whereby the weevil reaches new regions, and the direct
bearing the matter had upon any attempt to check its further advance.
The possibility of controlling the pest at the gins was investigated, an
expert in cotton ginning being employed for the purpose. A sys-
tem of certifying shipments of Texas farm products, which would
otherwise have been excluded from shipment to various parts of the
South on account of quarantine laws, was inaugurated. Nearly 1,000
car loads of various farm commodities were shipped under certificates
issued by the Bureau of Entomology. The reports of the occurrence in
Mexico of varieties of cotton which are immune to the boll weevil were
investigated by an agent who twice visited that country. The extent
to which birds may be relied upon as controllers of the boll weevil.
received particular attention. A large number of birds was shot in
cotton fields, and their stomachs have been preserved and are now
being examined.

Some of the results of this work have been incorporated in three
Farmers’ Bulletins (Nos. 189, 191, and 211) and one circular (No. 56,
Bureau of Entomology) issued during the season.

(2) DEMONSTRATION WORK.—Under the direction of Dr. B. T. Gallo-
way, Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Dr. S. A. Knapp has
organized demonstration work throughout the State of Texas, and to
some extent in Louisiana. Doctor Knapp has started with the system of ©
controlling the pest previously demonstrated on a smaller scale by the
Bureau of Entomology, and has added to it numerous steps in the
proper tillage of the soil and cultivation of the crop, which are of
special importance in the present emergency.

(3) DIVERSIFICATION wWorK.—Under the direction of the Chief of
the Bureau of Plant Industry, and under the immediate control of Mr.
W. J. Spillman, a number of farms were established to demonstrate
the value of the diversification of crops.

(4) WorkK ON THE COTTON BOLLWORM.—This insect is, with the
exception of the boll weevil, the most serious pest of the cotton plant
in this country. Where both of the insects are present the problem
is especially serious. Accordingly, an investigation of this insect

THE OOTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 199

was undertaken, under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of
Entomology, by Mr. A. L. Quaintance. A laboratory was established
at Paris, Tex., in the heart of the region where the bollworm does its
greatest damage. A number of experimental farms were conducted
in Texas, as well as in portions of Louisiana which are in immediate
danger of invasion.

(5) OTHER COTTON INSECTS.—In cooperation with the Bureau of
Entomology, Prof. E. D. Sanderson, of the Texas Agricultural and
Mechanical College, made special. studies of the numerous minor
insects which affect the cotton plant.

(6) Corron prsEASES.—Under the direction of the Chief of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, Mr. C. L. Shear conducted experiments and
demonstration work in different portions of the South, but with par-
ticular reference to Texas. This work in Texas dealt especially with
the Ozonian disease known as ‘* root rot.”

(7) PLANT BREEDING worKk.—Under the direction of the Chief of
the Bureau of Plant Industry, Mr. H. J. Webber carried on important
work in the breeding of early-maturing varieties of cotton, and in
improving the qualities of fiber of some of the present known varie-
ties which are rather poor in this respect.

PROBLEMS NOT YET SOLVED.

Although very satisfactory success has attended the efforts of the
Department in combating the boll weevil, it must be stated that much
yet remains to be learned. Persons who have observed the operations
of the cultural system during a series of years in Texas have become
convinced that it does not work equally well under all conditions.
Moreover, at least with the usual facilities on the plantations of Texas,
- it must be confessed that the proper application of the cultural sys-
tem increases the cost of production. The present low price of the
staple is one of the most serious drawbacks with which this system
has ever had to contend.

In some respects the term ‘‘cultural system” is misleading. It is
frequently used simply in the sense of careful and persistent cultiva-
tion of the crop. However, the term as here employed applies to the
various modifications in the cropping system which have been sug-
gested by a study of the life history of the pest as useful in avoiding
damage. Consequently the cultural system as here used is not merely
a system of the proper cultivation of cotton, but a system of the cul-
tivation best suited to mitigating the damage by the pest. Neces-
sarily, it implies a thorough preparation of the soil and strict attention
to all details of cultivation.

200 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The most unfavorable aspect of the situation is that there may be
many difticulties in the way of the application of the cultural system in
regions that are about to be invaded, and which have climatic conditions
quite different from those in Texas, where success has been obtained by
that means. The destruction of the cotton plants in the fall is undoubt-
edly the most important factor in controlling the weevil. It attacks the
insect at a time when the most good may be accomplished. It reduces
by many millions the number of weevils that might go into hibernat-
ing quarters to emerge and damage the crop the succeeding year. Fall
destruction may, of course, be practiced in Louisiana and other parts
of the South. In addition to the obstacles in the way of this practice,
namely, the hope for a top crop, the changing tenant system, and the
scarcity of labor, there will, in other regions, be the additional difficulty
that the cotton plant grows to a great size, and on alluvial lands matures
late. The excessive size of the plants alone will interfere more or less
with their destruction. More important, however, the general late-
ness of the crop produced on such plants will naturally throw the time

for fall destruction so late that the practice may not be nearly as effec- —

tive as in Texas. Moreover, the early-maturing varieties have the
decided tendency, on rich alluvial lands with abundance of moisture,
to lose their very essential character—that of earliness. King cotton,
for instance, planted in the river valleys of Louisiana grows to a great
height. Naturally such growth is at the expense of the very essential
quality, as far as the boll weevil is concerned, of maturing the crop
rapidly. There will be a similar difficulty in the proper spacing of the
plants in order to bring about the destruction of many immature
weevils in the squares on the ground. (See Pls. VII and VIII.)

To offset these expected difficulties it must be stated that the cotton
growers in the portions of the South not yet invaded will have the very
decided advantage of learning from the experience of planters in Texas.
Nevertheless, as already pointed out, the experience of Texas planters
largely concerns itself with the cultural system, in the application of
which to other regions there may be considerable difficulties. These
difficulties may be summarized as follows:

(1) Increased difficulty in applying the cultural system, due to rank
growth, despite the use of phosphatic fertilizers and of early-maturing
varieties of seed.

(2) The greater rainfall from the Sabine River eastward. Rank
erowth of cotton with an abundance of moisture are the two factors
which contribute most to the rapid multiplication of the boll weevil.
In Louisiana,.during the growing months of May, June, July, and
August, the average monthly precipitation for the past five years has
been 4.47 inches. In Texas for the same term the average monthly

Yearbook U, S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE VII.

MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.

Fic. 1.—Weevil, back view. Fic. 2.—Weevil, side view. Fic. 3.—Fully grown larva. Fie.
1.—Pupa ready to transform. FIG. 5.—Adult weevil with Wing covers raised and wings
extended, ready to take flight.

[Four times natural size. Original.]

PLATE VIII.

WORK OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.

Fic. 1.—Half-grown square destroyed by many feeding punctures by young weevils. FIa.

2.—Square ready to form bloom, very largely fed upon. Fic. 3.—Egg deposited at base
of petal inside square. Fie. 4.—Large weevil larva being destroyed by smaller larva of
3racon mellitor. FIG. 5.—Weevil in act of escaping from fallen square. FIG. 6.— Large
boll severely injured by many weevil punctures.

[Two-thirds natural size. Original.]

THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 201

precipitation has been only 3.26 inches. The general scarcity of labor
throughout the South, a difficulty which already presents a serious
problem in Texas, will likewise prove a drawback in regions which
will become invaded. ‘To produce cotton profitably in weevil-infested
regions requires additional labor at several times during and after the
growing season. The present situation seems to indicate that the
further advance of the insect must involve a decrease in acreage.

RELATION BETWEEN THE LEAFWORM OF COTTON AND THE
BOLL WEEVIL.

Thirty-five years ago the ravages of the cotton leafworm (Alabama
argillacea) attracted almost. as much attention in some portions of the
South as does the damage by the boll weevil now. Various changes
in the system of cultivation of cotton in the South have combined to
reduce the damage done by this pest, and, moreover, a very effec-
tive method of controlling it, by the use of Paris green, was dis-
covered. It is one of the striking occurrences in the history of
economic entomology that this formerly dreaded pest is now looked
upon by the farmers in weevil-infested regions as decidedly beneficial.
When the plants become defoliated by the worms the growth is checked,
and consequently the opportunities for the breeding of the weevils in
additional squares are reduced. This results in a marked decrease in
the number of weevils at the end of the season. This decrease has not
so much effect upon the crop of the current year as upon the follow-
ing one, by reason of the lessened number of weevils going through
hibernation. Moreover, when the plants have been deprived of most
of their leaves the worms very frequently devour the squares and
sometimes small bolls in which the immature stages of the boll weevil
are located. In this way the worm acts directly as a remedial agency
against the boll weevil. This work to some extent accomplishes the
same object as the fall destruction of the plants, which, as is well
known, is the greatest single factor in the successful production of
cotton in weevil-infested regions. There is still another consideration
in this connection, namely, that the defoliation of the plants allows
the sun to strike the squares upon the ground, thus destroying many
of the larve and pupe of the weevil contained therein. At the present
time, as the result of the conditions mentioned, the planters in Texas
are rapidly giving up the practice of poisoning the formerly much-
dreaded cotton caterpillar. If, as may occasionally happen, the plants
become defoliated before the weevils reach the maximum numbers in
the fields, the damage of the one insect will simply be added to the
damage of the other. In that event the use of poison will be necessary.

202 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ATTEMPTS TO PREVENT THE ADVANCE OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.

The crop pest commission of Louisiana, in cooperation with the
Bureau of Entomology of this Department, has investigated fully the
possibility of checking the pest by an attempt toward the eradication
of the isolated colonies in connection with a rigid quarantine directed
against farm products which might be considered as likely to convey
the pest. During the season of 1903,a small colony of weevils was
found in Audubon Park, in the vicinity of New Orleans. Energetic
means taken at that time resulted in the complete extermination of
the colony. Upon the basis of the successful outcome of this experi-
ment and upon the further basis of what was then known concerning
the means whereby the weevil reaches new regions, the crop pest
commission started out early during the past season in an energetic
attempt to prevent the further advance of the weevil in the State.
The first step was to quarantine general farm commodities produced in
infested portions of Texas in addition to the baggage and household
goods of laborers in which there seemed some possibility that weevils
might be transported. The next step in the campaign was an attempt
to stamp out the few known isolated colonies in the western parishes
of the State by causing the temporary abandonment of cotton culture.
Accordingly, in Sabine Parish the commission perfected arrangements
with the planters whereby for a certain consideration the latter agreed
not to plant cotton during the season of 1904. The Bureau of
Entomology was not connected with this matter in any other way
than by assisting in it as a very important experiment. Four ento-
mologists were detailed to assist the Louisiana commission in deter-
mining the presence of isolated colonies, and in studying generally
the means whereby the pest is spread. The situation seemed very
encouraging until about the first day of August. The weevil had
not been found in the localities previously known to be infested, where
the further cultivation of cotton was prevented. However, about the
date mentioned there was a general and unexpected migration of
weevils from west of the advance guard, where the experiment was
being performed. ‘This migration carried the weevils far over the
localities where cotton growing had been stopped, and the failure of
the attempt to check the weevil at once became evident.

It is considered that the knowledge of the weevil gained in this
experiment is of very great importance. Certainly if it were possible
to check the pest anywhere in the United States it would have been
most feasible in the western portion of Louisiana, where the cotton
fields are small and situated in isolated locations in the pine forests.
Although the results have been negative, the complete demonstration

THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 203

of the impossibility of checking the advance of the pest will doubt-
less prevent a great number of similar attempts that might otherwise
be made from time to time in other States in possibly less favorable
localities. |

The present efforts to prevent the further spread of the boll weevil
in the South are all in the form of laws, prohibiting the having in
possession live weevils, and quarantining rigidly farm products that
are supposed to be, or are likely to become, infested. Louisiana, Ala-
bama, Mississippi, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina all
have laws along these lines. In general they are of such a nature as
was recommended in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 189 of this Department.
In some cases, however, there is no doubt that the provisions are more
drastic than is necessary. In several of the States shipments from
infested territory of articles which can not be considered dangerous are
prohibited. Nevertheless, the general salutary effect of the present laws
is undoubtedly evident. Asa matter of fact, it is certainly advisable
for the States to be overcareful rather than to allow the shipment of
articles that might possibly be the means of bringing in the weevil.

THE OUTLOOK.

For some time there has been no doubt that the boll weevil will
eventually spread over all of the cotton-producing States, and careful
observers agree in anticipating increased difficulties in combating it as
new regions are invaded. A consideration of the problem, some of
the more important features of which have been noted, shows clearly
that the matter is still most serious. In fact, in Texas this is evidenced
by the frequent very great interest in proposed remedies of all kinds,
which, as in the case of Paris green during the past season, often
results in the useless expenditure of largeamounts of money. It must
be confessed that such a general and persistent search for the specific,
which large numbers of planters have believed successively to be
mineral paint, poisoned cotton-seed meal, and Paris green, is an indi-
cation in some quarters of the lack of full confidence in the known
means of mitigating the damage of the pest. It is gratifying to note
that the extensive work of the past season has had the effect of reducing
greatly any undue misapprehension regarding the cultural system, the
result of the Department’s work for several years.

There is now a strong tendency toward the passage and enforcement
of State laws which will bring about concerted action in the most
important steps in controlling the pest. The changes in farm practices
made necessary by the weevil are so decided and the conservatism in
some quarters so marked that legislation is undoubtedly needed. The
proper steps are known and have been abundantly demonstrated. To
obtain the best results there should be concerted action. In Louisiana

204 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the law creating the crop pest commission now gives sufficient power
to that body. In Texas, however, there is as yet no law on the subject.

The next great step to be accomplished in the boll-weevil fight is the
passage in Texas of a law similar to that now in force in Louisiana
delegating full authority to a board, the executive officer of which shall
be an entomologist. Likewise, it seems that the best thing to be done
by States that are in danger of invasion is to enact similar legislation
which will provide machinery for the enforcement of such control as
present knowledge of the subject permits, and that at the earliest
opportunity.

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER.

By W. O. Arwater, Chief, and F. G. Benepicr, Physiological Chemist,
Nutrition Investigations, Office of Experiment Stations.

STUDIES OF THE DEMANDS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

In considering the demands of the body for nourishment and the
purposes which foods serve in the body, it was natural that experi-
menters should direct their attention for a time largely to those ques-
tions which were most readily studied, such as the amounts of food
eaten and their relation to growth, health, and other physical condi-
tions. The chemical composition of different foods and the purpose
served by different food constituents are closely related to such
studies. The amount and character of the visible excretory products
and the relation of the body outgo to the food eaten were questions
whose importance was early recognized. Knowing the amount and
composition of the food and the amount and composition of the solid
outgo, it is possible to ascertain how thoroughly food is digested, and
experiments to determine this point have been numerous and have
given very valuable results. In tests of the adequacy of a diet and
other problems equally important it is desirable to study also the
amount and composition of the liquid outgo.

Besides the visible excreta, however, the body is constantly giving
off invisible material in the breath. A knowledge of the kind and
amount of these invisible products and their relation to food, to work
performed, and to other factors, is a matter whose importance was
early recognized and studied in various more or less satisfactory
ways. Moreover, in addition to all the material products—visible
and invisible—the body is all the time losing an immaterial invisible
quantity, namely, the heat which is constantly radiated from its
surface. We know that in order for heat to be given off from a stove
or furnace a supply of fuel must be kept up, and it is obvious that
something of the same nature must be true in the case of the human
body. In the one case the fuel is coal, wood, or some similar sub-
stance; and in the other it is meat, vegetables, cereals, and other
foods which make up the daily diet.

205

206 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

THE FURNACE AND THE HUMAN BODY,

Combustion ina furnace and combustion in the body are apparently
very dissimilar; but, generally speaking, they are the same from a
chemical standpoint. The former takes place rapidly, with the evolu-
tion of heat and usually of light; the latter more slowly and incon-
spicuously. If the food is likened to fuel and the body to a furnace,
the respiratory products given off by the lungs correspond to the
smoke and other combustion products which pass out through the
flue. The solid and liquid excretory products of the body correspond
in a way to the ashes of a furnace, which, of course, are made up of
materials which could not burn completely and partly burned frag-
ments that for some reason escaped combustion. One important
difference between the human body ahd the furnace or steam engine
is that the former is self-building, self-repairing, and self-regulating.
Another is that the material of which the engine is built is very differ-
ent from that which it uses for fuel; but in the case of the body part
of the material which serves it for fuel also builds up and maintains
the body tissue. Furthermore, if food is withheld the body can for
some time use its own substance for fuel. This the engine can not do.

Obviously the body is more than a machine. It has not simply
organs to ouild and keep in repair and supply with energy; it has a
nervous organization, and it has sensibilities and higher intellectual
faculties. It is, perhaps, not too much to say that the right exercise
of all our faculties must ultimately depend upon the nourishment of
the body which renders their existence possible.

In the case of an engine everyone recognizes the fact that one sort
of coal may be more satisfactory and economical than another because
it burns better and gives more heat per tor. It is equally true that
one food may be more satisfactory than another because it is more
thoroughly digested, more wholesome, or is a better source of energy.
To determine the efliciency of an engine we need information regard-
ing such factors as the energy or heat value of the fuel, the amount of
ash and of waste products carried off through the flue, the quantity of fuel
required for different kinds of work, the quantity of energy in the fuel
which can be converted into useful work, and related questions. It is
equally true that in the case of the body we need to know the most
wholesome kinds of food, the relative amounts of waste material in
different sorts, the amount and composition of the waste products and
their relation to food and work performed, the amount of work pos-
sible on a given ration, and, in short, the best and most economical
food for maintaining the body machine in perfect condition and
enabling it to perform the necessary amount of physical and mentai
work.

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. 207

APPARATUS FOR STUDYING PROBLEMS IN NUTRITION SECURED.

Bearing these various facts in mind, the need of some satisfactory
laboratory apparatus for studying problems connected with the income
-and outgo of the body, the use which it makes of its food supply, the
work which it performs, the value of different food combinations, and
similar questions will be readily recognized. To meet such needs an
apparatus has been devised in connection with the nutrition investiga-
tions of the Department of Agriculture. Since it permits of the meas-
urement of the gases of respiration as well as the heat liberated from
the body, it is called a .espiration calorimeter. In the planning and
carrying out of this work, which was begun in 1892 by Wesleyan Uni-
versity and the Storrs Experiment Station, the Department of Agri-
culture has cooperated since 1894.

In its general design the respiration calorimeter was inspired by the
Pettenkofer apparatus, built about fifty years ago at Munich. Petten-
kofer directed his attention chiefly to the measurement and analysis of
the respiratory products, but in planning the respiration calorimeter
used in the Department of Agriculture experiments the income and
outgo of energy was taken into account as well, these factors being
most conveniently measured as heat. After a considerable amount of
experimenting the Atwater-Rosa respiration calorimeter was completed
and has been used for a large number of experiments with satisfactory
results.

In this instrument a current of air was pumped through the respira-
tion chamber, and by ascertaining its composition and volume it was
possible to learn the amount and character of the respiratory products
given off by the subject in the apparatus, though it was not possible
to measure directly the amount of oxygen used. This was felt to be
necessary and the apparatus was accordingly modified by the introduc-
tion of new features, including devices for the direct measurement of
oxygen, the expenses for these improvements being defrayed by the
Carnegie Institution of Washington. This new form of respiration
calorimeter is here briefly described. |

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER.

GENERAL PLAN.

The apparatus consists of an air-tight copper box, surrounded by
zinc and wooden walls with air spaces between, and is large enough for
a man to remain in it in comfort for a number of days. A ventilating
current of air is pumped through the chamber or box at such a rate
that the subject can always be supplied with a sufficiency of pure air.
The chamber contains a folding bed, chair, table, etc., and is provided
with means for the introduction of food and drink and the removal of
excreta. Theventilating current of air as it leaves the apparatus passes

205 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
through purifying vessels that remove the carbon dioxid and water

vapor which make up the respiratory products given off by the lungs
and skin, Fresh oxygen is then added to the air current to make up

= _ =a
Sea |

BALANCE

AIR PUMPS

GOING AIR
IT TL
<2 .
GOING AIR inte Tey
——=__ ae,

JT OUTCOMING AIR

ia

Y

ni

= Ohr

ACID DA LIME
( fae
¥ R CO, ABSOR 3
=

Wy a

S
Fig 10.—General plan of respiration calorimeter laboratory.

for that withdrawn by the subject for the internal process of combus-
tion in the body. When purified and laden with oxygen so that it is
fit to be breathed the air current is again passed through the respira-
tion chamber, this circulation of air being kept up as long as the

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 Bare,

Fic. 2.—-RESPIRATION CALORIMETER, SIDE VIEW.

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. 209

experiment continues. The arrangement of the whole apparatus with
its accessories is shown in figure 10. This gives a plan of the calo-
rimeter laboratory, which is located in one of the rooms of the chemical
department of Wesleyan University at Middletown, Conn.

On the north side is the respiration apparatus. Just south of this
is the absorption system, through which the ventilating air current
passes as it leaves the chamber charged with the respiratory products
given off by the subject. The direction of the current is indicated by
arrows. The air current as it leaves the chamber is first drawn through
sulphuric acid, which absorbs the moisture in the air, and then through
soda lime, which absorbs the carbon dioxid—that is, these two sys-
tems of absorbers free it from the products of respiration. After
the oxygen is added the air passes back to the chamber pure and
wholesome and ready to be breathed again. The circulation of the
current is maintained by air pumps operated by electric power. On
the east side is the observer’s table, at which the assistant sits who
attends to regulating the temperature within the apparatus and records
the observations which are made during the progress of an experiment.
A general view of the apparatus taken almost opposite the observer’s
table is given in Plate LX, figure 1. <A side view, showing the puri-
fying arrangements through which the ventilating current of air is
passed, is shown in Plate IX, figure 2.

HEAT REGULATION AND MEASUREMENT.

A study of the heat given off by the human body on different diets,
different conditions of work and rest, during sleeping and waking, and
_ $o on, 1s a very important matter in considering the functions and uses
of food and the efficiency of the body as a machine. The energy value
of food, coal, or other material can be readily learned by burning
samples and measuring the amount of heat given off. The way in
which the body uses the energy supplied by the food can be very con-
veniently studied with the respiration calorimeter. One of the most
interesting features of this apparatus is found in the devices for meas-
uring the heat given off from the body and regulating the temperature
of the chamber so that the subject may be always comfortable.

Houses are very commonly warmed by a current of hot water which
passes through radiators and gives off its heat into the rooms. If a
current of cold liquid were circulated through the pipes it would
absorb the heat and the room would be cooled, as is obvious when we
remember that a similar plan is followed in cooling cold-storage cham-
bers. In the respiration chamber a current of cold water passes
through pipes which have a large surface, so that they may the more
readily absorb the heat. As the water enters and again as it leaves, its
temperature is noted. The amount of water passing through the pipes
in a given time is also ascertained. Knowing the weight of water, the

1 A1904——14

210 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rise in temperature, and the specific heat of the water, the amount of
heat absorbed and carried out of the chamber by the water current
may be readily calculated. The colder the water on entering the more
readily will it absorb heat in its passage through the pipes, and, con-
versely, the warmer the water on entering the more slowly will it carry
away the heat. Therefore, when the subject is working hard and giy-
ing off heat from his body rapidly the water current is cooled nearly
to zero by passing it through cooling tanks before it enters the cham-
ber; at the same time the rate of flow is increased. On the other
hand, when the subject is at rest, especially during the hours of sleep,
when muscular activity is reduced to a minimum, and the heat produc-
tion of the body is at a low ebb, the water current is allowed to enter
at a higher temperature and a slower rate. During the period of deep
sleep the subject ordinarily gives off heat from the body at the rate of
60 to 75 calories’ per hour, or enough to raise the temperature of 1.3
to 1.7 pounds of water from freezing to boiling. When he rises and
sits quietly the hourly rate increases to 100 or 115 calories. When he
works on a stationary bicycle, which is part of the equipment of the
respiration chamber and used in work experiments, it reaches 300, 450,
or even 600 calories per hour. Special devices are provided for tak-
ing account of these sudden changes in the rate of heat production.
The rapidity with which the heat given off by the subject is absorbed
by the water current and brought out of the chamber is controlled by
the observer, who sits at the observer’s table outside of the apparatus.
In practice the heat is brought away from the chamber just as rap-
idly as it is given off by the body, and consequently the temperature
of the chamber is kept very constant. Delicate electrical thermome-
ters indicate the temperature to one one-hundredth of a degree, and
any slight temporary rise in the temperature of the chamber like that
which would result from an increase in heat production because of
movement of the subject, such as rising from his chair, stretching
out the arms, or moving in bed, can be at once detected by the

observer.
MEASUREMENT OF RESPIRATORY GASES.

In a study of the relative value of different foods for the body it is
very important to know the amount and composition of the excretory
products, including those given off through the lungs, in order that
we may strike a balance between the income and outgo of the body
and learn how much of the food material is retained and utilized. The
visible excretory products may be readily weighed or measured and
analyzed. In the case of the equally important invisible products the
necessary Measurements may be made with the aid of the respiration

« A calorie, as the heat-measuring unit is called, is an amount of heat which would
raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4° F.

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. Aa A |

calorimeter. The determinations include, among others, the collecting
and weighing of all the water vapor and carbon dioxid given off by
the body and the exact measurement of the oxygen used by it, oxygen
being, it is hardly necessary to say, one of the principal constituents
of the air and that portion of it which is essential for the oxidation
of food materials in the body.

The ventilating air current pumped through the chamber brings out
the water vapor and carbon dioxid. The outgoing air necessarily con-
tains less oxygen than the incoming air, since some has been withdrawn
for the uses of the body. The air current first passes through a vessel
containing concentrated sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, which com-
pletely deprives it of moisture. The dry air, containing the carbon
dioxid and still deficient in oxygen, is then passed through a mixture
of caustic soda and quicklime (so-called soda lime), which rapidly
absorbs all the carbon dioxid. The arrangement of the water and
carbon dioxid absorbers is shown diagrammatically in figure 10, and
in their actual position in Plate LX, figure 2.

At the left side of the frame in which they stand are two sulphuric-
acid cylinders, which take up the water; then follow three soda-lime
cylinders for the absorption of carbon dioxid, and then another
sulphuric-acid cylinder to retain any moisture which the air current
may have taken up from the soda lime, which always contains a little
water. Freed from both carbon dioxid and water, the air then passes
on to the air pump at the right and is returned through the pipe along
the top of the shelf, which may be seen in Plate LX, figure 2, above
the absorbers. As it passes through this pipe measured amounts of
oxygen are added to the air current from a cylinder of compressed
oxygen, such as is used for many commercial purposes.

TESTS OF THE ACCURACY OF THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER.

The purpose of the apparatus, as has been stated, is to measure
accurately the oxygen used and the carbon dioxid, water, and heat
given off by the subject during an experiment. It was necessary to
subject the apparatus to rigid tests as to its adaptability for this pur-
pose. The factors involved in the combustion or oxidation of food
material in the body and the products evolved are the same as in the
burning or oxidation of alcohol in a lamp, and the quantities of heat
and combustion products, corresponding to a given weight of alcohol,
are accurately known. It follows, therefore, that if known quantities
of alcohol are so burned in the respiration chamber as to insure com-
plete combustion, a comparison of the measured amounts of oxygen,
water, carbon dioxid, and heat with the theoretical amounts will serve
as a critical test of the accuracy of the apparatus and method.

212 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Many such tests have been made with the respiration calorimeter,
and on the whole the results obtained are very satisfactory, indicating
that the measurements made with it are very accurate, and that the
apparatus is suited for the physiological experiments referred to.

KIND OF EXPERIMENTS WHICH HAVE BEEN MADE,

The purpose of the experiments with the respiration calorimeter is
to study the fundamental laws of normal nutrition, and so far all the
experiments have been made with active men in good health—that is,
with normal subjects. The majority of them have been laboratory
assistants or students of mature years. The experiments have covered
varying conditions of diet, work, rest, ete. The food which has been
selected for the experimental diet has been carefully chosen, so that it
might be suited in quantity and composition to the subject’s needs and
the purpose of the experiment, and the diet has been made palatable
in order to insure normal results. In some of the experiments the
subject, for purposes of comparison, has had a limited food supply or
has fasted.

In the rest experiments a minimum amount of muscular exercise has
been performed, the subject reading or writing a little to pass the time
agreeably. In other experiments he has engaged in more or less active
muscular or mental work. In connection with many studies of the
body changes during muscular work a bicycle ergometer (shown in
fig. 11) has been used, which permits of very accurate measurements
of the external muscular work applied to the pedals. This instrument
is placed inside the respiration chamber and is there ridden by the
subject.

In appearance the ergometer resembles a bicycle with the front
wheel removed, and the subject sits upon it and operates the pedals
exactly as ona bicycle. In place of the rear wheel, however, there is
a copper disk of about the same diameter as the wheel, the frame of
the apparatus being raised enough to keep the disk from the floor.
This disk revolves between the two poles of an electro-magnet. When
there is no current passing through the magnet the disk may be turned
very easily, and though turning it involves some muscular movement
the quantity of work actually done is small. When an electric current
is passed through the magnet it acts as a brake, and more effort is
required to turn the disk, consequently more work is involved. The
advantage of such a brake is that the amount of resistance actually
applied can be measured. By varying the current passed through the
magnet and the speed with which the disk is revolved, it is possible to
control the amount of work performed, which may be measured.
Experiments have shown that the apparatus gives very accurate results.

Some of the experiments with the respiration calorimeter have occu-
pied only a few hours, but the majority have lasted from two to four

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. 213

days and nights. Frequently several experiments follow one another,
so that the subject passes ten or more consecutive days without leaving
the respiration chamber.

The labor involved in conducting a complete experiment can be
judged approximately when it is stated that the entire time of sixteen
men is required to carry on an experiment properly. The food for
the subject must be prepared and each portion weighed, the liquid
and solid excreta must be measured or weighed, and suitable samples
of both food and excreta prepared for analysis. The ventilating air
current must be regulated, the oxygen supply controlled, and the
amounts of carbon dioxid and water withdrawn by the absorbers deter-

~

Fic. 11.—Bicycle ergometer.

mined by weighing from time to time. The temperature of the air
inside the chamber must be kept constant, which necessitates hundreds
of readings of the thermometers. The water current which removes
the heat from the chamber must be controlled, and the amount of
water passing through in a given time and its temperature on entering
and leaving the chamber recorded at short intervals. The power
which drives the air pumps and other machinery must be watched, and
the whole complicated apparatus must be kept in perfect working
order. All this necessitates thousands of weighings and measure-
ments and the recording of a large mass of experimental data, as may
be readily seen when it is remembered that some of the records are
taken at intervals of two or three minutes, night and day.

214 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

After the experiment is completed numerous detailed analyses of
food and excretory products must be made and the results of the experi-
ment calculated, compiled, and tabulated. The experiment continues
night and day, the day force being relieved by a corps of night assist-
ants. The subject sleeps quietly within the chamber, and so regular is
his life that a definite programme, which is drawn up in advance, is
followed day by day. f

At the time of writing 72 experiments with 9 different subjects, cov-
ering a period of 209 days, have been completed. In these experi-
ments the total income and outgo of both matter and energy have
been measured and studied. These experiments and the deductions
from them are reported in detail from time to time in bulletins of the
Oflice of Experiment Stations.¢ Some of the more important results
may be spoken of here.

SOME RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.
AMOUNTS OF CARBON DIOXID AND HEAT GIVEN OFF BY THE BODY.

When coal is burned in a stove heat is generated and a gas known
as carbon dioxid is given off, together with water vapor. In exactly
the same way, but less rapidly, when food is burned in the body heat
is generated and water vapor and carbon dioxid produced, the heat
being constantly radiated from the body and the water vapor and car-
bon dioxid given off by the lungs and skin. The amount of heat given
off by the body depends to a very large extent upon the amount of
muscular activity, while the amount of water vapor and carbon dioxid
eliminated depends upon both muscular activity and the kind of ma-
terial which is burned in the body, whether it be protein, as the lean
of meat; fat, like butter fat; or carbohydrates, such as starch or sugar;
or a combination of these.

In the experiments which have been made with the respiration
calorimeter all grades of muscular activity have been tested from deep
sleep with a fasting subject to the excessive muscular work of a pro-
fessional bicycle rider. When muscular work was performed other
than that involved in the body motions essential to eating, drinking,
and moving about in the respiration chamber, the muscular exercise
consisted in operating the bicycle-like apparatus shown in figure 11.
Light muscular exercise consists in running the wheel with no resist-
ance. For moderately active muscular work a fair amount of resist-
ance is applied by means of the electrical brake, and the rider turns
the wheel at a definite number of revolutions per minute for a stated
period. In severe work the resistance is kept the same and the num-
ber of revolutions increased or the resistance is increased and the

«Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletins Nos. 44, 63,69,
109, 136.

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. 215

' revolutions kept the same. For very severe work either the resistance
or the number of revolutions, or both, are still further increased. The
results of the experiments, showing the output per hour of carbon
dioxid and heat from the body under the different conditions indicated,
are here summarized.

Average normal output of carbon dioxid and heat from the body.

Average quantities
per hour,

Conditions of muscular activity. oT ep te
dioxid. | Heat

Grams. | Calories.
Man at rest, sleeping. ...- Ag aM. | salle Conciente BIN. ath a POE 25 | 65
MemerTest,. awale-Bibtine tp: ): 6.5 vied eeete ecb es 35 | 100
Mar ae amt muUscilar CRCTCISG. oo. oK oie sien hc cen s caw ewes 55 | 170
Man at moderately active muscular exercise...............| 100 | 290
Man at severe muscular exercise’.............-.------------- 150 | 450
Man at very severe muscular exercise...................--- 210 | 600

From the above table it may be seen that the output not only of
heat but of carbon dioxid is very nearly proportional to the amount
of muscular work. The average results quoted furnish data for esti-
mating the amountof carbon dioxidand heat given off daily by men with
varying degrees of muscular activity. For example, if a man sleeps
8 hours per day, we may say that the carbon dioxid output during this
period is approximately eight times the hourly amount eliminated dur-
ing sleep by the average subject, or 8 by 25 = 200. If he is at very
severe muscular labor for 8 hours the carbon dioxid output would cor-
respond to eight times the hourly amount for very severe work, that
is, 8 by 210 = 1,680, and if the remaining 8 hours of the day were
devoted to going to and from work, eating, sitting, etc., corresponding,
say, to 6 hours of rest and two hours at light muscular exercise, the
carbon dioxid output will be six times the average amount eliminated
per hour at rest, that is, 6 by 35 = 210 grams, and two times the amount
given off at ight work, 2 by 55=110 grams. The total for the 24
hours would obviously be the sum of the quantities mentioned above, or
2,200grams. The heat eliminated in the 24 hours by men at very severe
work may be likewise calculated by multiplying the time devoted to
sleep, work, etc., by the average hourly output. In 8 hours at sleep
he would eliminate 520 calories (8 by 65=520); in 8 hours at work,
4,800 calories (8 by 600=4,800); in 6 hours of rest, 600 calories (6 by
100= 600), and in 2 hours at light exercise, 340 calories (2 by 170=340),
making a total for the 24 hours of 6,260 calories.

For individuals at different occupations the chief variations in a cal-
culation like the above would be concerned with the 8 hours devoted
to work, as the conditions for the remainder of the 24 hours, that is,
the time devoted to sleep, rest, and the light exercise involved in

216 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

going to and from work, etc., would be much the same in the majority
of cases. Knowing the kind of work performed and the number of
hours devoted to work and sleep, it will be seen that the calculation
with reasonable accuracy of the total energy and carbon dioxid given
off by the body is a very simple matter.

Thus, we see that, as a result of a large number of measurements
made in the respiration calorimeter on a number of men, it is possible
to obtain an important series of factors which, it may be stated, were
not available until these experiments were carried out. These factors
are of great value in estimating the needs of the body for food under
varying conditions of exercise and muscular work, since, as has been
previously stated, the energy output of the body is dependent upon
the energy supplied in food.

VENTILATION.

In experiments with the respiration calorimeter the air which the
subject breathes is analyzed with the greatest care, and it is obvious
that since his physical condition is studied in relation to the character
and amount of the air supplied the experiments may be made to fur-
nish much data regarding problems of ventilation. In some of the
experiments the rate of ventilation was much lower than has hitherto
been considered possible.

Normal air contains about 3 parts of carbon dioxid per 10,000, and
writers on ventilation have emphasized the importance of having the
air in rooms changed so frequently that the amount of carbon dioxid
will not become much greater than this. It was found that, in order
to keep the air in the respiration chamber at so low a carbon-dioxid
content, the rate of passage of the ventilating current must be so great
that the pumps and analytical apparatus would be strained to their
utmost capacity. Ina long series of experiments it was found that
the subject could get along apparently as well with a much lower rate
of ventilation, that is, with much more carbon dioxid in the air, so
that at present the ventilation is less than one-tenth of that usually
advocated, and the carbon dioxid content is never less than 8 to 10
times the normal amount, and frequently for short periods it is as
high as 50, 60, or even 80 times the normal proportion. It should be
borne in mind, however, that the air is kept dry and otherwise pure,
since the passage through the sulphuric acid of the absorber system
would remove water and any unpleasant products which might be
excreted, as in the breath.

The extent to which this high vitiation of air has been carried
with no appreciable effect may be seen from an experiment made in
the winter of 1904. If the atmosphere breathed by the subject con-
tains abnormally high amounts of carbon dioxid, it is easy to conceive
that the normal respiration might be interfered with. To test this

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. S17

point the subject was made to wear over his face for 24 hours a
light mask, connected with air pipes through which he was com-
pelled to breathe. These pipes passed out through the chamber and
carried away the products of respiration, so that the air in the cham-
ber did not become vitiated. Under these conditions the subject
breathed normal air for 24 hours, the amount of carbon dioxid pro-
duced and oxygen consumed being accurately recorded. During
the next 24 hours the mask was removed and the subject breathed
the air in the respiration chamber. The rate of ventilation was very
much reduced and the amount of carbon dioxid in the atmosphere
allowed to accumulate to such a degree that the subject was living in
an atmosphere containing 226 parts of carbon dioxid per 10,000, or
2.3 per cent. This degree of vitiation is perhaps greater than men
have ever lived in save in exceptional conditions when they have lost
consciousness in closed chambers, as in caissons, submarine boats, etc.
It would have been impossible to light a match or burn a candle in the
respiration chamber during the experiment, yet the subject, who was
purposely not told anything regarding the degree of vitiation, was
indifferent to the atmospheric conditions. He read, slept, communi-
cated with the observers through the telephone, ate his meals with
the usual regularity, and, indeed, was so pleased to be relieved from
the necessity of wearing the mask, as on the day before, that he was
in excellent spirits.

It would be natural to suppose that with so great vitiation of the
air the subject would feel languid, mentally inefficient, and would pos-
sibly lack appetite, yet none of these effects was noticeable. It
appears that on the day in which the subject wore the mask and breathed
pure air, and on that in which he breathed the air with a high carbon-
dioxid content but without knowing that this was the case, the amounts
of heat evolved, carbon dioxid produced, and oxygen consumed were
practically the same. In other words, as shown by experimental
measurements and his physical and mental condition, it was immaterial
to this subject whether he lived in an atmosphere containing a normal
amount of carbon dioxid or whether he was breathing air containing
almost eighty times the normal quantity.

It should not for a moment be inferred, however, that such an
experiment is a logical argument for poorer rather than better venti-
lation, for of the several factors concerned in insufficient ventilation
only one, the carbon-dioxid content, was here studied. Ventilation
_problems must also take into account the diminished oxygen content,
excessive moisture, excessive heat, and related conditions.

It must be borne in mind that during the experiments recorded the
water content of the air and the temperature of the chamber were
both regulated with great accuracy and were approximately normal.
That we need as large an amount as possible of pure fresh air of even

218 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

temperature is no longer questioned by anyone, but that the amount
of carbon dioxid is in itself as important a factor in the vitiation of
air as has been commonly supposed can hardly be believed in view of
these experiments. The whole subject is one which should receive
further attention, and it seems only fair to say that the respiration
‘alorimeter offers a method of experimenting which promises more
in the way of useful results than those which have been hitherto
followed.

BODY TEMPERATURE.

One of the interesting problems which have been studied in connec-
tion with the respiration calorimeter experiments is that of body tem-
perature, its normal fluctuations, the extent to which it is influenced
by external conditions, and related questions. Our bodies are con-
tinually generating heat by the internal oxidation of food and simul-
taneously giving off heat by radiation, etc. Obviously, if the heat
elimination is so regulated that the amount lost in a given time is the
same as that generated there will be no change in body temperature,
and that such a regulation exists is shown in the fact that as long as
the body remains in health it has a temperature not far from 98° F.;
indeed, this temperature is commonly marked on thermometers as
blood heat. If, however, there is a disturbance in the body mechan-
ism a rise in temperature is commonly noted. When this is at all
marked we designate it fever. Doubtless few persons realize that
normally the body temperature undergoes a daily variation of not
far from 2° F. Between 2 and 4 a. m. the body temperature is at its
lowest point, and generally about 4 to 6 p. m. it is at its highest point.
With the ordinary clinical or fever thermometer of the physician one
would not be apt to recognize clearly this variation in normal body
temperature, but with the delicate electrical thermometers used in
connection with the respiration calorimeter experiments it is possible
to demonstrate it and, indeed, to study very minute variations in body
temperature with great accuracy.

A physician usually takes the temperature of a patient by having
the thermometer held in the mouth under the tongue until it has
assumed body temperature. Inthe experiments referred to it has been
found much more advantageous to take it in the intestine, inserting
the thermometer in the rectum. The thermometer used is very flex-
ible. It is constructed of copper wire coiled in a silver tube, the
wires leading to the instrument where the temperature is measured
being covered with soft rubber tubing. The thermometer can be
worn day and night without discomfort. When worn by a subject
inside the respiration chamber the changes in temperature are indi-
cated by means of a galvanometer, and are recorded by the observer
outside, together with the other experimental] data. The subject is

THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER. 919

undisturbed by the experiments which are being made, goes about his.
usual daily routine, and at night sleeps undisturbed, although his body
temperature is being measured to the hundredth of a degree every four
minutes. As the result of a large number of experiments, it has been
found that the body temperature falls off rapidly on going to bed and
continues to fall slowly until a minimum is reached early in the morn-
ing. There is a rapid rise in temperature between 6 and 8 a. m., fol-
lowed by a slower rise during the day, the maximum being reached
between 4and 6 p.m. In the evening the temperature again falls
gradually until the time of retiring, when, as stated above, it drops
rapidly. This is, of course, the average temperature fluctuation. It
is surprising to note that in the majority of cases studied individual
variations from the normal are very slight.

Many of the results regarding body temperature which have thus far
been obtained serve only to verify the work of earlier investigators.
Nevertheless, as a whole, it is believed that they contribute a by no
means unimportant chapter to our knowledge of temperature fluctua-
tions, especially during sleep, a period which at. best could be but
poorly studied by the ordinary methods of thermometry.

A knowledge of normal variations in body temperature and the effect
of various factors on it can not fail to be of use to physicians, especially
in cases where treatment is based to a considerable degree on the
indications given by temperature charts. The experimental methods
indicated above furnish a convenient way of studying the whole ques-
tion of body temperature, its cause and determining factors, its rela-
tion to external temperature, work and rest, and other factors. The
subject is one which is closely related to that of the effect of hot and
cold climates on the body and its food requirements and power to pro-
duce useful work. In the respiration chamber it is possible to main-
tain at will high or low temperature and humid or dry air, and by its
aid many problems like those indicated can be studied. |

All know that there are marked differences in our feelings of physi-
cal comfort dependent upon the materials of which our clothing is
made, that is, the amount and kind of protection from heat or cold
which it affords the body. This is in part due to the character of the
articles worn, that is, whether they are linen, wool, cotton, or silk,
and is in part due to the fineness of weaving, the closeness with which
the clothing fits the body, and the general character of the textiles
selected. Certain fabrics hinder the radiation of heat from the body,
and so keep it warmer than others. In the same way we associate
coolness with certain materials and colors. The completeness with
which water vapor, that is, perspiration, is absorbed by clothing or
allowed to pass away from the body surface is also a factor of great
importance in judging of the relative merits of different fabrics. The
relative value of various textiles for hindering radiation—keeping

220 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

the body warm—and of others for helping radiation—keeping the
body cool—may be readily studied with the respiration calorimeter, as
may numerous other problems connected with the hygiene and com-
fort of dress.

CONCLUSION.

In the preceding pages the respiration calorimeter has been briefly
described, the methods of operating it have been discussed, and some
of the results which have been obtained with it briefly spoken of.
Many other important problems have been investigated, and a large
amount of experimental data has accumulated. All the questions
studied have to do with the fundamental laws of nutrition, and, in
brief, it may be said that it is in seeking knowledge regarding these
laws that the respiration calorimeter finds its greatest use. With this
and the accessory apparatus, combined with the chemical and physical
methods of analysis common to all well-equipped laboratories, the
complete intake of food, drink, and air, expressed in terms of chem-
ical elements and energy, and the complete output of energy and
gases, solid and liquid excreta, and heat may be ascertained. By
comparing one with the other we can determine whether the body has
gained or lost material or produced more energy than it has received.
Continuing experiments through comparatively long periods and
under a very great variety of conditions, we are enabled to measure
the effects of food and fasting, rest, sleep, muscular and mental activ-
ity, and other conditions upon the food requirements, the amount and
character of the excretory products, the changes which the matter
and energy supplied by the food undergo in the body, and the effect
of external conditions and body changes upon the comfort and well-
being of the subject.

When we remember that numerous problems relating to hygiene,
ventilation, climate, and related questions can also be studied, it is
obvious that the investigator has a wide field for his efforts.

NEW CITRUS CREATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE.

By Hersert J. Wesser, in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding, and WALTER
T. Swinae, in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History,
Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Bureau Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

For a period of five years, from November, 1892, to October, 1897,
the writers were associated in the study of diseases of citrus fruits in
Florida, being located at Eustis, in the central part of the State. <A
careful study was made of the varieties cultivated and of the industry
in general, primarily as a basis for an intelligent investigation of the
diseases and methods of their control. In the course of these studies
the attention of the writers was early drawn to the desirability of
breeding more varied and improved sorts.

An examination of the manner of origin of the various native sorts
shows that in almost all cases they originated as accidental seedlings.
Some growers made hybrids and used systematic methods of breeding,
but the number of fruits which have originated in this way are very
few indeed. The long time required to bring seedlings to bearing,
the cost of cultivation and manuring, and the uncertainty of results
have deterred growers from experimenting very extensively in this
field. Owing to these difficulties, it seemed from the nature of the
case that the investigations should be undertaken by the National
Department of Agriculture, in order that the necessary funds could
be provided and that the work could be carried on continuously for a
series of years. This course was approved, and, under instructions
from the Secretary of Agriculture, the writers, under assignment of
Dr. B. T. Galloway, now Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, in
the winter of 1892-93 made a careful study of the various citrus
varieties and began the work of hybridization as rapidly as the time
at their disposal would permit. These first attempts were largely pre-
liminary, and most of the seedlings obtained were lost in the great
freeze of 1894-95, which killed to the ground all orange trees in the
northern and central parts of Florida. This seriously interrupted
the work and compelled its temporary abandonment, owing to the fact
that no groves could be found in the State furnishing the conditions
necessary for carrying on hybridization. The experiments were taken

221

222 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

up again in the winter of 1896-97, when the writers made an extensive
series of crosses at Eustis and Braidentown, being assisted in the work
by Mr. Otis H. Gates. Again, in the springs of 1898 and 1899, one of
the writers made further crosses which resulted in greatly increasing
the number of hybrids. There have now been produced a total of
1,780 hybrids, and these are being grown and tested under general
instructions from Mr. A. F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist of
the Bureau of Plant Industry.

In all of the operations of hybridization the greatest care was
taken to avoid contamination with pollen from other sources. In all
cases buds were selected for hybridizing before they had opened and
given opportunity for cross-pollination. These were opened and emas-
culated, after which they were covered with paper bags to prevent the
access of insects bringing in pollen. When the emasculated bud had
matured sufficiently to be receptive, the bag was removed and pollen
of the variety selected as the male parent was dusted over the pistil.
The bag was then replaced over the flower and left until fecundation
had taken place, after which it was removed and the flower labeled.
The flowers which were used for supplying pollen were also covered
with paper bags previous to their opening, to prevent insects from
leaving other pollen on them, which might be transferred in the oper-
ation of hybridization.

In much of the hybridization and breeding work which has been
carried on by different investigators little attention has been given to
the choice of the varieties used as parents and to the objects sought in
the experiments. The time of this haphazard work, however, is past,
as experience has demonstrated that it is far better for the experi-
menter to have a definite object in view and to select, as parents for
hybridization, varieties which possess the characters that it is desired to
combine in the hybrid. In the present experiments the following were
the primary objects sought: (1) Hardier varieties which would endure
the occasional severe freezes which visit the orange sections, and, if
possible, varieties sufficiently hardy to be grown farther north than
the present citrus belt; (2) new fruits having the loose, easily remoy-
able rind of the mandarin and tangerine combined with the quality,
flavor, and size of the ordinary sweet orange; (3) new fruits having
the sprightly acid flavor of the pomelo with the bitterness reduced,
and the loose, easily separable rind of the mandarin and tangerine;
and, (4) new fruits intermediate between the pomelo and the orange
which would possess desirable market qualities.

In all of the writers’ experiments these primary objects have been
kept clearly in view, and varieties have been selected for hybridization
which by their combination would be likely to give hybrids having
the characters desired. As the hybrid fruits matured they were sent
to Washington, where the seeds were extracted and germinated in a

-

NEW CITRUS CREATIONS.: 223

greenhouse. When the young seedlings had reached a size of from 12
to 18 inches in height they were sent to the Department’s Subtropical
Garden at Miami, Fla., where they have since been grown under the
supervision of Pref. P. H. Rolfs. When the seedlings were sent south
the tops were cut back and the twigs used to furnish budwood for
budding proper stocks to obtain trees for trial. These trees were
tested in cooperation with different growers, arrangements being
made with a number of intelligent, trustworthy growers to bud from
one to two stocks with each of these hybrids and grow them until
sufficient fruits had been produced to show their character and value.
In the case of the hybrids made with the idea of securing hardiness, trees
were budded and grown under the direct supervision of the Depart-
ment by Mr. G. L. Taber, at Glen St. Mary, in northern Florida.
Owing to the conditions under which the various trees have been grown
very few of them have yet fruited. Several freezes have visited Florida
in the Jast five years, and in many instances all of the hybrid buds sent
to growers have been killed. In but few instances have large stocks
been used which would force the buds into early bearing; nevertheless,
several very promising new types have been produced, and without
doubt many more fruits of value will be obtained when all of the
hybrids have been brought into bearing. It should be noted that in
fruit trees of this sort all of the varieties are c/ons, that is, varieties
which are propagated by buds, grafts, or cuttings. A hybrid of value,
when once secured, can thus be propagated indefinitely by budding or
grafting, without awaiting fixation, as is necessary in the case of plants
propagated by seed, where a desirable hybrid must be selected through
a number of generations and bred to a fixed type that will come true
through the seed before it can be utilized.

PropuctTiIon oF Harpy Cirrus Fruits.

The citrus industry in Florida has frequently suffered from severe
freezes. The most disastrous of these probably were the freezes of
1835, 1886, and 1894-95, which killed or seriously injured almost every
tree in the State. Other minor freezes have occurred from time to
time, which, while not so severe, have seriously damaged many orange
groves. In California and Arizona, also, citrus trees are frequently
injured by severe cold. Itis thus clear that the most desirable improve-
ment in the orange and other citrus fruits is the securing of varieties
which can endure lower degrees of temperature and which may be grown
throughout the present orange-producing sections without danger of
injury by cold.

In attempting to improve citrus fruits in hardiness, two methods
_ present themselves. One method would be to grow a large number
of seedlings and select from them the individuals which possess the

224 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

vreatest degree of hardiness, and continue this selection throughout
numerous generations in the hope of augmenting any greater degree
of hardiness that might be discovered. ‘To pursue this policy with
citrus fruits would require so long a period to secure any marked
results that the method is impracticable. This is shown by the
fact that for many years citrus growers have been making’ selec-
tions based on the hardiness of seedlings, and as yet no appreciable
advance has been made in this direction.

A second method would be to select some hardy wild or cultivated
type and cross this with the sweet orange or lemon in the hope of
obtaining good varieties, combining tbe hardiness of one with the good
fruit quality of the other. If such a hardy type exists, this method
would certainly seem to be the quickest and most practicable way of
securing hardy varieties. A species of citrus known as the trifoliate
orange (Citrus trifoliata) is such a hardy type, which can be grown
without protection as far north as Philadelphia. The common variety
of the trifoliate orange (Pl. X) was introduced into this country by the
late William Saunders, of the Department of Agriculture, in 1869. The
tree is small and bushy and very spiny, and the leaves are trifoliolate
and deciduous. It is quite commonly grown as a lawn tree in the
North and as a hedge plant in the South, while in the colder sections
of Florida it is used as a hardy stock on which to bud the common
orange and other citrus fruits. The fruit (Pl. XII, fig. 4, and Pl. XII,
fie. 2) is round and small, ranging from 1} to 2 inches in diameter, and
is orange-colored. Thesurface is covered with minute fuzzy hairs and
isin most cases smooth, being rough only in the larger and more vigor-
ous specimens. The rind, which adheres tightly, is about one-sixteenth
inch in thickness. The pulp is acrid, bitter, and gummy, and the
enormous number of seeds leave little room for pulp. The fruit is
thus worthless as far as edible qualities are concerned. It is highly
aromatic and attractive in appearance, making the plant desirable
for ornamental purposes. Unfortunately, however, for its use in the
South, the tree is deciduous, losing its leaves in the fall, and in gen-
eral throughout this section an evergreen hedge is most desired. Not-
withstanding this, it is generally cultivated as a hedge plant because
of other qualities which make it desirable for this purpose. Its hardy
character, however, is the factor of importance in connection with the
experiments in the production of a hardy orange.

A secona variety of the trifoliate orange, having rather larger
leaves and very large flowers, has been found growing in several
places in Washington, D. C., but has not been used in the present
experiments.

The first variety described, the ordinary trifoliate orange, was the
one used in the work of the writers, though the second might be more
promising to use with the lemon, and some of these crosses have been

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

PLATE X,

BRANCH OF TRIFOLIATE ORANGE.

[About one-half natural size. ]

NEW OITRUS OREATIONS. 225

made. However, no fruits have thus far been obtained. All varieties
of the trifoliate group are deciduous, and ripen their fruit early in
the fall before frost. They are also late in blooming in the spring, the
flowers, which appear before the foliage, not even showing until the
common sweet orange is nearly through blooming. ‘The trifoliate is
thus about two to three weeks later to start growth in the spring, and
is never caught by late frosts. The early ripening of the fruit in the
fall, moreover, allows the tree to become dormant at a time much
earlier than the common sweet orange, which is evergreen and inclined
to grow more or less through the winter during warm periods.

It is a well-known principle in plant breeding that in hybridization
the characters of races and species break up and become combined in
different ways in the hybrids. It would thus seem entirely probable
that by crossing and recrossing the common orange with the hardy
trifoliate orange a hybrid could ultimately be obtained combining the
desirable fruit characters of the former with the hardiness of the latter.
Many instances are recorded where hybrids have been obtained com-
bining certain characters of the parents, and a few cases are known of
hybrids which are intermediate in character of hardiness between the
parents, being more tender than one parent and much hardier than the
other. The improbability of obtaining the hardy quality in an orange
variety is thus not so great as one might be inclined to think. If, by
infusing the blood of the trifoliate orange into the sweet orange, we can
modify the season of growth of the latter and cause it to remain more
dormant during the winter and later into the spring, our object would be
accomplished. If, on the other hand, a hybrid can be secured having an
entire segregation of the characters and combining the hardiness of the
trifoliate with the superior fruit qualities of the sweet orange, a far
greater success would be achieved.

The sweet orange and the trifoliate orange are very distinct in char-
acter, and it has been found in the course of the experiments that they
are very difficult to hybridize. Even by using the utmost care in the
process of hybridization only about 2 per cent of the flowers operated
upon set fruit. The process of crossing flowers of the trifoliate orange
with pollen of the ordinary orange is much more difficult than the
opposite cross where the orange is used as the female, as the flowers of
the trifoliate orange are quite small at the time of emasculation, are
attached very lightly, and are easily broken off or injured. It would
thus seem that the lack of success in getting fruits to set was caused
partially by the injury to the flower in the process of emasculation.
This, however, is certainly not the only reason for the small percentage
of fruits that set, as there is also a great loss when the reciprocal cross
is made; that is, when the common orange is used as the mother parent.
The seeds resulting from these crosses were also poor in germinative

2 Al1904——15

226 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

power, not more than half of the seeds obtained finally producing seed-
lings. Inthe course of the experiments, however, a number of hybrids
were secured where both the common orange and the trifoliate were
used as the seed-bearing parent. Some of these hybrids plainly show
the characteristics of both parents and are doubtless true hybrids. Out
of 40 hybrids of the trifoliate orange crossed with the pollen of the sweet
orange, 29 resembled the former in habit and foliage characters, so
far as could be observed, while 11 were clearly intermediate in these
characters. These 11 intermediate plants are very similar to each other,
deriving certain characters from each parent.
The leaves are trifoliolate in form and are much
larger in general than those of the normal tri-
foliate orange. The central leaflet has a ten-
dency to be much larger, but the lateral leaflets
remain about the size of those in the trifoliate
orange, and in some of the seedlings these lat-
eral leaflets tend to become abortive, thus
approximating the unifoliolate sweet orange.
During these experiments it has been found
that some complexity is liable to arise, owing
to the polyembryonic nature of citrus fruits.
It is well known that seeds of various citrus
fruits frequently produce more than one seed-
ling. Instances have been noted where a single
seed has produced as many as 13 seedlings. In
cases where strikingly distinct types of citrus
fruits were crossed, the interesting observation
was made that where two or three seedlings
were developed from a single seed they not
infrequently showed marked foliage differences
ee pe) (fig. 12). Strasburger, in his critical study of
Fie. 12.—Three seedlings grown 7.
from a single seed of ahybria the polyembryony of this group, found that the
te eer iline wich tifeliolate CMbryos, other than those developed from the
leaves (on the right) isatrue fecundated egg cell, are derived from certain
Mees eh tangeiaclike Cells of the nucellus, lying near the embryo
leaves are false hybrids. sac wall, which become specialized, grow, and
develop rapidly, and form a tissue mass, which pushes out into the
embryo sac and forms an embryo similar to that formed in the normal
way from the egg cell. The embryos formed in this way Strasburger
called ‘‘adventive.” If We correctly understand the action of fecun-
dation, it is clear that in this group only those embryos that develop from
the egg cell proper as a result of the fecundation would show an indi-
cation of hybridization. Since the adventive embryos develop directly
from the mother tissue, in these we should not expect to see any of
the characters of the male parent. This conclusion was reached by

NEW OITRUS OREATIONS. 297

the writers early in the experiments, before the growing of the seed-
lings had shown definitely what would take place, and the development
of the hybrids has proved this conclusion to be well founded. In sey-
eral hybrids of the sweet orange, which is unifoliolate, with the trifoli-
ate orange, which has trifoliolate leaves, where the former was used
as the female parent, two and three seedlings have been produced from
the same seed, one of which had trifoliolate leaves, showing clearly the
influence of the male parent, while the other or others had strictly
unifoliolate leaves exactly like the mother parent. It is certain in such
cases that the trifoliolate seedling inherits this character from the male
parent, and that the embryo from which it grew was developed from
the egg cell proper. The other seedlings in such cases which have
unifoliolate leaves were doubtless developed from the so-called adven-
tive embryos. The same phenomenon has also been observed where
the trifoliate orange was crossed with pollen of the common orange
and also in hybrids of the tangerine orange crossed with the common
orange (fig. 12). The observations have been sufficient to establish its
common occurrence in citrus hybridization. Attention was called to
this phenomenon by one of the writers* in February, 1900.

In hybridizing citrus fruits to secure improved sorts this effect
unfortunately causes serious complications. In many cases citrus
hybrids resemble the female parent in foliage characters, or the parents
differ so little in their foliage characters that the hybrid can not be
clearly distinguished, and it may thus be seen that until the seedlings
fruit it is impossible to determine whether they are true hybrids or
simply false hybrids developed from adventive embryos. It will
thus be unavoidable in such work to grow many seedlings which come
from adventive embryos and which are not true hybrids. Such false
hybrids ordinarily would not be expected to give valuable varieties,
and growing them greatly adds to the trouble and expense.

The increase in vigor which is commonly exhibited by hybrids
between distinct parents is clearly shown by hybrids between the trifoli-
ate and the common orange. Those which have intermediate charac-
ters, showing that they are true hybrids, are almost invariably much
more vigorous than the seedlings of either parent. The hybrids which
exhibit no intermediate characters and are probably developed from
adventive embryos, do not exhibit this increased vigor. Illustrations
of this increase in vigor will be given later.

THE Crrrancr, A New Group or Cirrus Fruits.

In the course of these experiments two fruits have been produced
which are hybrids between the common sweet orange and the trifoliate
orange, and which promise to be of considerable value. They lie

«Webber, H. J., Complications in Citrus Hybridization Caused by Polyembryony.
Science, n.s., 11:308, February 23, 1900.

928 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

about midway between the two parents, but are not sweet oranges,
trifoliate oranges, nor lemons, and are totally different from any
other group of citrus fruits. It therefore becomes necessary to refer
these hybrids to a new group of citrus fruits, and it is proposed to
call them ‘‘ citranges,” a term made up of the first syllable of the word
citrus and the last syllable of the word orange. The two varieties
which are to be referred to this group are described in detail below.

RUSK CITRANGE.
[PLATES XI AND XII, AND PLATE XIII, FIGURE 1.]

NAME AND orrIGIN.—The Rusk citrange originated as a hybrid
between the common orange (used as the female parent) and trifoliate
orange (used as the male parent). The trees are far more hardy than
the common orange, and produce a fruit intermediate in qualities
between the two parents. This being the first hardy orange or
citrange produced, and belonging to an entirely new group of citrus
fruits which will doubtless become of very great importance in
many parts of the world and be improved ina marked degree, has been
named the Rusk, in honor of the first Secretary of Agriculture, Hon.
J. M. Rusk, under whose administration the first work on citrus fruits
in Florida was undertaken by the Department of Agriculture.¢

The Rusk citrange was one of three seedlings grown from a single
hybrid fruit which developed in the grove of Col. G. H. Norton, at
Eustis, Fla.,in 1897. Two of the seedlings, from which several budded
trees have been grown, resemble the ordinary sweet orange in foliage
and general character, and are apparently false hybrids from seeds of
adventive, polyembryonic embryos, which, as explained above, are
developed from certain cells of the mother tissue without the inter-
vention of the male element. These two seedlings have unifoliolate
leaves, and are evergreen like the common orange, and while they
have not yet fruited, owing to the fact that they have been sey-
eral times frozen back, it is not expected that they will produce
anything of value, nor, judging from a test already made, will they
produce hardier types. The other seedling, No. 716, was a strictly
intermediate type, having trifoliolate leaves similar to the male
parent, though rather larger (Pl. XI). Even the first leaves of the
young seedling exhibited this character, and a photograph of a seed-
ling but slightly over 1 inch high published by the writers at that
time plainly shows this trifoliolate character.? No. 716 was further-
more much larger and more vigorous than the other two seedlings,

«In the Cosmopolitan Magazine for July, 1904, Mr. H. Gilson Gardner referred
to this citrange as the Webber, but the writers suggest, with the approval of the
Secretary of Agriculture, that it be known as the Rusk.

6 Swingle and Webber, Hybrids and their Utilization in Plant Breeding, Yearbook
of the Department of Agriculture for 1897, p. 400, fig. 13.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. So are Xi)

HYBRID SEEDLINGS OF COMMON ORANGE (FEMALE PARENT) AND TRIFOLIATE ORANGE
(MALE PARENT).

[No. 716 (on right), Rusk citrange; Nos. 714 and 715, seedlings from the same fruit as No. 716,
but resembling the mother parent. }

PLATE XIl.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

A, HOEN & CO, BALTIMORE

Fruits OF RUSK CITRANGE AND TI RIFOLIATE ORANGE. NATURAL SIZE.

— 5E, FU! ATURE.
FIG. 1—RUSK CITRANGE, IN AN EARLY STAGE OF MATURITY. FIG. 2—~RUSK CITRANGE, FULLY MATU

FIG. 83—RUSK CITRANGE, CROSS-SECTION OF MATURE FRUIT. FIG, 4—TRIFOLIATE ORANGE,

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Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

PLATE XIll.

NEW CITRUS CREATIONS. 229

aowing an increase in vigor, which is such a marked character of
hybrids in general. Trees were budded with these hybrids in the
spring of 1899, in the nursery of Mr. G. L. Taber, at Glen St. Mary,
Fla. The first fruits were received in September, 1902, one tree that
season bearing about a dozen fruits. In the fall of 1903 the same
tree produced about a bushel of fruits, and several other trees, budded
on trifoliate-orange stock, gave about a half-dozen fruits each. A
similar number was also produced in 1904. There have thus been pro-
duced sufficient fruits to afford a fairly thorough test of this hybrid.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit compressed-spherical or nearly round;
small, 14 to 2 inches in diameter, 1} to 1% inches high; color, when fully mature,
deep orange, with reddish flush of cadmium orange at apex; surface smooth and
glossy, with a few scanty hairs visible under magnification; very heavy, frequently
sinking in water; calyx persistent, green, rather larger than that of the ordinary
orange; skin adhering very close to the fruit, thin, 4; to $ inch thick, tender; oil
glands small and round; pulp tender, melting, exceptionally juicy (fig. 13); color
orange yellow; pulp cells small, similar in shape to those of ordinary orange; seg-
ments, 10; membranes thin and tender, thus making very little rag; axis small,
4 to 8; inch in diameter; flavor sprightly acid and slightly bitter; nearly seedless,
averaging one seed to two fruits; aroma strong and pleasant, a combination of that
of the sweet orange and the trifoliate orange. Tree similar in shape to trifoliate
orange, vigorous and hardy, evergreen or semi-evergreen, tall and shapely; foliage
dense, leaves trifoliolate and larger than those of ordinary trifoliate orange. Season
of maturity very early, from September 1 to November 1.

The fruit of the Rusk isa beautiful little orange of excellent texture
and exceedingly juicy. It is rather too sour to ve eaten out of hand, but
with sugar is very palatable. The bitterness is no more pronounced
than in the grape fruit, and the aroma, which is derived largely from
the trifoliate orange, is very strong and pleasant. The fruit of the
Rusk may be utilized for making citrangeade, similar to lemonade or
limeade, or may be eaten with sugar as a breakfast fruit. It also
makes excellent pies, preserves, and marmalade, and may be used for
general culinary purposes.

WILLITS CITRANGE.
[PLATE XIII, FIGURE 3, PLATE XIV (777), AND PLATE XVI.]

NAME AND ORIGIN.—The second citrange which has given evidence
of value has resulted from a hybrid of trifoliate orange with pollen
of the common orange, being thus what is known as a reciprocal
hybrid of the Rusk citrange. In general it possesses characters inter-
mediate between the two parental varieties, and is similar to the Rusk
in tree and fruit characters, yet differing considerably in detail, so that
there is no trouble in clearly distinguishing it from the Rusk citrange.@

“This citrange the writers propose, with the approval of the Secretary of Agricul-
ture, to call the Willits. In the Cosmopolitan Magazine for July, 1904, Mr. Gardner
called this citrange the Swingle, but the writers would prefer that it be known as the
Willits, in honor of the First Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, Hon. Edwin Willits.

230 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

The Willits citrange was one of 40 seedlings from a single hybrid
fruit grown and developed in the grove of the late Col. G. H. Norton,
at Eustis, Fla. Of the 40 hybrids of this series 11 exhibited char-
acters clearly intermediate between the two parents, being evergreen
and having trifoliolate leaves much larger than those of the trifoliate
orange (Pl. XIV). The remaining 29 seedlings are all deciduous and
have leaves apparently like the typical trifoliate orange. Eighteen of
these have fruited and all produced fruits indistinguishable from the
trifoliate orange. It would thus seem clear that the 29 which resem-
ble the trifoliate parent are false hybrids, having developed from
adventive embryos, as already explained. Four of the apparently
intermediate seedlings have fruited, and all have given fruits clearly
partaking of the nature of both parents. These are, therefore, cer-
tainly true hybrids. 7

All of the hybrids of this series which show intermediate characters
are exceptionally vigorous, showing in this regard also their true
hybrid nature. The smallest of them was as large as the largest of
the seedlings which exhibited no intermediate characters. ‘The vigor
of the young hybrid seedlings in comparison with both parents and
the comparative size of leaves is shown in Plate XV. Here No. 845,
a cross of two typical oranges and one of the largest of 500 seedling
oranges of similar kind, is yet far smaller than the medium-sized true
hybrid No. 772. No. 780, one of the largest of the 29 false hybrids,
affords a comparison of the size of the true hybrids with the type of
the mother parent. The true hybrid No. 772, used here for com.
parison, is not the largest of the hybrids secured, but is of medium
size. The hybrids between distinct species and races are ordinarily
intermediate between the two parents and mainly very uniform, so
that the hybrids of the first generation usually resemble each other
very closely. In the case of the hybrids between the trifoliate orange
and the common orange, however, the seedlings have been found to
differ from each other very markedly. The fruits of all of those
which have thus far come into bearing are essentially distinct in
flavor, size, and appearance. The seedlings also differ in tree and
foliage characters. They are all similar, however, in having fruits
nearly intermediate in size, with some of the bitter flavor of the tri-
foliate fruit, and in having trifoliolate leaves and semi-evergreen
foliage. The difference in foliage characters of some of these hybrids
and their parents is shown in Plates XIV and XY.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit compressed-spherical, or nearly round;
small, from 1$ to 23 inches in diameter (Pl. XIII, fig. 3, and Pl. XVI), and from 13
to 2 inches in height; color from cadmium yellow to orange; surface rough with deep |
depressions over the largest oil glands, and with more or less pronounced furrows or

ridges running from base to apex; weight medium, about the same as water or
comewhat lighter; calyx persistent, with large and fleshy lobes; rind thin, $ inch in

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XIV.

SEEDLING HYBRIDS OF TRIFOLIATE ORANGE CROSSED WITH POLLEN OF THE COMMON
ORANGE.

(No. 776, a false hybrid, showing no intermediate characters and having small deciduous leaves;
No. 777, seedling of Willits citrange, showing the evergreen foliage and other intermediate
characters; Nos. 778 and 779, two seedlings grown from the same seed, No. 779 (on the right),
showing intermediate characters, No. 778 (on the left), showing only the normal characters of
the trifoliate orange. ]

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i

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XV.

SEEDLINGS OF CITRUS HYBRIDS, SHOWING RELATIVE VIGOR OF TRUE AND FALSE
HYBRIDS.

iri)

[No. 780, a false hybrid (trifoliate x sweet orange); No. 772, a true intermediate hybrid (trifoliate x
sweet orange), with large trifoliolate leaves; No. 845, a cross of two ordinary orange varieties.
All seedlings of same age.]

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

2 Py : ee

WILLITS

CITRANGE.

NATURAL SIZE.

A.

PLATE AVI,

HOEN & CO,

BALTIMORE

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NEW OITRUS CREATIONS. 231

thickness, and tender, not adhering so close to fruit as in the Rusk citrange; pulp
translucent, light lemon yellow, resembling the ordinary lemon; segments 6 to 10,
separated by thin tender membranes; texture of fruit very tender, being equal to
that of the best lemon; axis small, about 4 inch in diameter; flavor sprightly acid,
similar to lemon, with very slight bitter taste of trifoliate orange; nearly seedless,
averaging about one seed to four fruits; aroma mild and pleasant, combining the
aromatic resinous odor of the trifoliate orange with the very delicate odor of the
common orange. Trees similar to trifoliate orange, vigorous and hardy, evergreen
or semi-evergreen, medium height and shapely; foliage dense, leaves trifoliolate and
larger than those of the ordinary trifoliate orangé (Pl. XIV); season of maturity very
early, from September to the last of November.

The Willits citrange makes a beautiful, vigorous-growing tree and
gives evidence of being of value as a decorative or lawn tree. The fruit
makes a fine drink similar to lemonade or limeade and will be found
pleasant as an acid fruit to eat with sugar. Itis an excellent substitute
for the lemon to serve with fish or oysters and is valuable also for culi-
nary purposes, for which its seedlessness renders it specially desirable.
The products made from the Willits citrange are very different in
flavor from those made from the Rusk citrange. They possess more
nearly the character and flavor of those made from the lemon.

HOW HARDY IS THE CITRANGE?

All of the different citrange seedlings were budded on trifoliate
orange stocks at Glen St. Mary, in northern Florida, in the spring of
1899. In January of 1900, when the buds were about 8 months old,
a severe freeze occurred in which the temperature went down to about
15° or 18° F.. Mr. Taber recorded a temperature of 18° above zero at
Glen St. Mary. At Macclenny, Fla., 3 miles east of Glen St. Mary,
a minimum temperature of 15° was recorded, while at Lake City,
about 20 miles west, the minimum temperature recorded was 17° F.,
the record at Macclenny and Lake City being made by voluntary
observers of the United States Weather Bureau with specially corrected
instruments. After this freeze a report from Mr. Taber stated that
the foliage on the buds of Rusk (No. 716) and Willits (No. 777)
citranges still remained green on the tree, and that the tops were
apparently entirely uninjured. All of the hybrids between the tri-
foliate orange and the common orange which show intermediate char-
acters also remained uninjured and retained their foliage fresh and
green, with the exception of an occasional twig which at the time of
the freeze was soft and immature. :

In this freeze ordinary oranges suffered severely, large buds in
many parts of the State being frozen to the ground, and this was the
case with ordinary orange buds growing immediately beside the
citranges at Glen St. Mary. Although no freeze which has occurred
since has been so severe, temperatures of from 20° to 23° have been

232 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.,

several times recorded. In none of these freezes have the citranges
been injured, although buds of ordinary oranges have frequently been
severely damaged.

Aside from the tests made at Glen St. Mary, Fla., sets of the hybrids
which had been made with the idea of producing hardy varieties were
sent to the Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, and Louisiana
experiment stations to be grown and tested in cooperation with the
Department of Agriculture. , These were planted in March, 1900. At
the experiment station at Lake City, Fla., which is in about the same
latitude as Glen St. Mary, the trees have passed through the winters
since March of 1900 without serious injury. Here the trees have
been grown under the direction of Prof. H. Harold Hume, who
reports that the temperature has several times fallen to a point where
all ordinary orange trees were severely injured or killed without
resulting in injury to the Rusk or Willits citranges or to the other
hybrids of intermediate nature. Professor Hume reports that the
minimum temperature recorded during this period was 21° in Decem-
ber of 1901.

At the Georgia experiment station a set of the trees has been tested
under the supervision of Director R. J. Redding and Prof. H. N.
Starnes. Atthis place the temperature fell in February, 1901, to 17° F.
above zero, and in December, 1901, to 8°. The majority of the inter-
mediate hybrids passed through these freezes without serious injury.
The Rusk citrange was killed back to some extent, but lived through,
and is now reported to be in good condition. The trees of the Willits
citrange planted at this station have died, but whether directly from
the effects of the cold is not certain.

At the Alabama experiment station, Auburn, Ala., a set of the
trees has been grown under the supervision of Professors Earle and
Mackintosh. At Opelika, Ala., about 10 miles distant, the lowest
temperature recorded, since the trees were planted, was 9° F. above
zero in December, 1901. Trees of the Willits have remained uninjured,
while trees of the Rusk citrange are all reported as dead. Here again,
however, it is not clear from the records whether they died as a result
of injury from freezing, although this might be assumed. However,
almost all of the-strictly intermediate hybrids have survived the winters
at this place without serious injury.

At the South Carolina experiment station, Clemson College, S. C.,
a number of the hybrid trees have been grown and tested under the
supervision of Prof. C. C. Newman. Unfortunately a complete set
of the hybrids was not sent to all of the cooperating stations, owing
to a lack of trees of certain numbers. It happened that neither the
Rusk nor the Willits citrange was among the number sent to the
South Carolina station. However, a number of the intermediate

NEW OITRUS CREATIONS. 238

hybrids similar to the Rusk and Willits citranges have been grown
and tested at this station, and have passed through the winters
since March, 1900, without serious injury. At this station they have
endured a minimum temperature of 6° F. above zero, which occurred
in December, 1901.

At the Louisiana experiment station a set of the hybrids, among
them the Rusk and Willits citranges, have been tested under the immedi-
ate supervision of Dr. W. C. Stubbs. At this station the temperature
in December, 1901, fell to 21° F. above zero, and remained below 26°
above zero for nearly a week. All of the hybrids survived the freez-
ing without serious injury, although trees of the ordinary orange in the
vicinity were in many cases killed.

It will be noticed from the above tests that both the Rusk and the Wil-
lits citranges are much hardier than ordinary oranges. While the
Rusk citrange endured the freeze of December, 1901, at Experiment,
Ga., it was killed, or at least died, at Auburn, Ala. On the other
hand, the Willits citrange died at the Georgia experiment station
and survived at the Alabama experiment station. It is well known
that the condition of a tree at the time a freeze occurs has a great
deal to do with its hardiness. Trees which endure the most severe
winters.-at the latitude of Washington, D. C., have been killed in some
of the freezes in Florida, owing to the fact that they were in a sappy,
growing condition at the time the freeze occurred. That some of these
citrange trees were killed, therefore, at certain stations does not indi-
cate that they are tender. The fact that they have survived the same
degree of cold at other stations indicates that they would have sur-
vived in all cases had they been in a properly dormant condition. It
is believed from the evidence now accumulated that these two cit-
ranges may be grown without protection throughout South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and parts of Ten-
nessee and Texas. Itis also probable that they can be grown in parts
of Washington and Oregon, and in northern California, which are only
slightly too cold for the orange, and in certain irrigated regions of low
altitude in Arizona and possibly New Mexico. It will be remembered
that the peach tree, which is considered to be fairly hardy, suffered very
severely in Georgia in the freeze of December, 1901, to which these
citranges were exposed. Large peach trees were frozen to the ground,
and the damage to the peach industry was very great. The range of
latitude at which the citrange may be safely grown has not been fully
determined, but it is believed that they will succeed in any of the
above-named places where the altitude is not too high.

234 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
OF WHAT VALUE IS THE CITRANGE?

The fruits of the citranges thus far produced are small, acid, and
bitter, and from the standpoint of the ordinary orange grower would
be considered practically worthless. This opinion, however, would be
based entirely on a comparison of the citranges with oranges of fine
quality such as are produced in Florida and California. When it is
considered that these fruits can be grown through the Gulf and South
Atlantic States without protection, where there is now a dearth of
acid fruits, their great value can be understood. Both the Rusk
and the Willits citranges make a refreshing ‘‘ citrangeade,” similar
to lemonade and limeade. It is also very similar to the orangeade

1

BET ir,

Fic. 13.—Rusk citrange (on left) and lemon (on right), showing comparative amount of juice from
fruits of same volume. (Five-eighths natural size.)

made from the native sour oranges of Florida. The citrangeade has
been tested by a large number of people, and all who have made a
comparison pronounce it fully equal to lemonade or limeade, while
some think it superior. The fruits are exceptionally juicy, the Rusk
citrange in particular giving a much larger proportion of juice than
the best lemons on the market (fig. 13). The fruits make excellent
pies and marmalade, and for this purpose they are probably equal
to the orange or lemon. Fortunately, the pies and marmalade
made from the two fruits are of distinctly different quality, and both
differ again from the lemon in this respect. The Rusk citrange

NEW OITRUS CREATIONS. 235

has also been found to make an excellent preserve. The fruits will
probably prove valuable for general culinary purposes in the making
and flavoring of cakes, for use in making jellies where lemons are
now employed, and probably in many other ways. While they are
too acid to eat out of the hand they will be found very palatable to any-
one enjoying an acid fruit, especially when eaten with sugar. The
citrange will probably prove of value mainly as a home fruit for culti-
vation throughout the Southern States mentioned above, where the
sweet orange, the lemon, and the lime can not be grown. A few trees
should be cultivated in every yard in this section. The trees are
attractive in shape and semi-evergreen, so that they will make desirable
lawn trees. Wherever a home can be supplied with them, it will be
possible on the warm days between the 1st of September and the Ist
of November to pick a few fruits and make a desirable, refreshing
beverage. It is believed that they will prove a decided boon to a very
large section of the country. While the fruits already obtained present
results far-reaching and important, even more striking and valuable
results will doubtless be obtained when seed from these fruits can be
grown and selections of the best citranges made from among their
progeny. These two citranges, it is confidently believed, will be the
progenitors of a large and numerous group of hardy, edible fruits.

THE TANGELO, A New Group oF LOosE-SKINNED Citrus FRUITS.

During the course of these experiments a hybrid has been produced
between the pomelo and tangerine which occupies a position interme-
diate between these two well-known fruits. It is neither a pomelo
nor a tangerine, but is different and unique and bids fair to take a
place by itself. The fruit is intermediate in size between the two
parental varieties, has the easily removable rind of the tangerine, and
in flavor is somewhat sweeter than the pomelo, with less bitterness.
It is distinct from any of the various groups of citrus fruits and
should, therefore, be referred to a new group. The term ‘‘tangelo”
is suggested by the writers as a name for this group of loose-skinned
fruits, which lie midway between the pomelo and tangerine, the word
being a combination of the first syllable of the word tangerine, with
the ending of the word pomelo. A variety of citrus fruits known as
the ‘‘nocatee,” which has already been described and introduced, is
apparently somewhat similar to this fruit and is evidently a hybrid
between the tangerine and pomelo. This and the new Sampson tan-
gelo, which is described below, are at present the only two varieties
that can be referred to the tangelo group.

2936 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE SAMPSON TANGELO.
ee [PLATES XVII, XVIII, AND XIX.]

NAME AND ORIGIN.—The Sampson tangelo is a hybrid between the
ordinary pomelo (female parent) and the Dancey tangerine (male
parent). The fruit from which the seedlings came was from a cross
made in the grove of Mr. Frank Savage, at Eustis, Fla. The hybrid
fruit contained a very large number of seeds, 76 in all, which gave a
total of 106 seedlings, several of the seeds having produced more than
one seedling. <A large majority of these seedlings have not yet fruited,
but of those that have borne fruit all have the appearance of pure
pomelo, except No. 1316, which exhibits characters plainly interme-
diate between the pomelo and the tangerine, being about midway
between the two in size and other characteristics. The color of the
fruit is darker orange than the pomelo, though not so red as the tan-
gerine, and the color of the pulp is more nearly like the tangerine
than any of the varieties of the pomelo. In flavor it is sprightly acid,
but rather sweeter than the pomelo, and it has a slightly bitter taste
derived from that parent. Its most pronounced characters, however,
are the looseness of the rind and the ease with which the segments can
be separated; in these qualities it partakes of the nature of the tan-
gerine. The fruit may be described as a small *‘ kid-glove” pomelo.

The hybrid seedling from which this variety developed was grown
and fruited by Mr. F. G. Sampson, of Boardman, Fla., who since the _
beginning of the citrus experiments of the Department has given
material aid in many ways. The writers therefore take pleasure in
suggesting for this new tangelo the name of Sampson, in recognition
of his aid in connection with the experiments.

Of the 106 seedlings of the series from which the Sampson origi-
nated, 5 have leaves with narrow, winged petioles, the foliage resem-
bling more closely the tangerine than the pomelo. The only one of
these that has thus far fruited is No. 1316, the Sampson, which, as
indicated above, in fruit characters clearly exhibits its true hybrid
nature. The other 101 seedlings have foliage which would be classed
as purely pomelo in character. Only 6 of these have thus far borne
fruit, and all of the fruits produced resembled pure pomelo. From
these observations it would seem that only the 5 seedlings having
tangerine-like foliage are in reality true hybrids. The others are
probably false hybrids, developed from adventive embryos.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit compressed-spherical, slightly drawn
out at stem end like tangerine; of medium size, averaging 2} inches im diameter
and about 2? inches in height; weight from 163 to 248 grams; calyx persistent as in
common orange; color chrome yellow, considerably darker than the pomelo, though

not so red as the tangerine; specific gravity about the same as water; skin thin, about ©
one-eighth of an inch in thickness, loose and easily removable, like the skin of the |

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE XVII.

A. HOEN & CO, BALTIMORE

SAMPSON TANGELO, NATURAL SIZE.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture, 1904 PLATE XVIII.

SAMPSON TANGELO

, SHOWING EAasILy REMOVABLE RIND
(Natural size.]

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XIX.

SAMPSON TANGELO ABOVE; ORDINARY POMELO BELOW.

[Natural size. ]

NEW OITRUS OREATIONS. 937

tangerine; surface smooth and glossy; oil glands large and conspicuous, rendering the
rind translucent; larger glands oblate spherical, smaller ones nearly spherical; seg-
ments 9 to 11, separating easily like tangerine; membranes thin and tender; axes small
and compact, about one-half inch in diameter; rag very slight; quality excellent; tex-
ture very tender and juicy; flavor sprightly subacid, somewhat sweeter than pomelo,
but with more acid than the tangerine and with a slight bitter taste derived from the
pomelo; color of pulp, ochraceous-buff to orange buff, differing in this respect from
both parents; seeds 10 to 15, medium in size; aroma slight, giving suggestion of
both parents; in general appearance very attractive, resembling small pomelo, but of
rather darker orange color; tree evergreen, tender, vigorous, and productive, having
general character of ordinary tangerine; leaves unifoliolate, with comparatively
narrow petioles like tangerine.

USES OF THE TANGELO.

The Nocatee tangelo, which has been previously described, is not
familiar to the writers, and they are unable to pronounce on its value.
The Sampson tangelo, however, is very likely to become an -.nportant
commercial fruit. Those who have tasted it pronounce its flavor
excellent. Its very attractive appearance and color of flesh, together
with the ease with which it can be peeled and the segments separated,
favor its growth in popularity. The bitter taste which is so pro-
nounced in the pomelo is in the Sampson tangelo reduced to a sug-
gestion which only adds to its sprightliness. Altogether it is asprightly
acid, highly flavored fruit, being not so acid as the pomelo and not so
- sweet as the tangerine, and it is believed that many people will prefer
it to either of thesefruits. It isa vigorous grower and probably produc-
tive. It is of course no hardier than either parent and can be grown
only in the orange belts of Florida and California. It is believed that
the Sampson tangelo will become a popular breakfast fruit, to be used
by peeling and separating the segments, as in the case of the tangerine,
and eaten by dipping the segments in sugar. The popularity of the
pomelo, or grape fruit, is due largely to its use as a breakfast appe-
tizer, and it is recognized as especially beneficial for invalids. It is
also thought that the bitter element, probably due to some alkaloid,
furnishes a slight healthful stimulation. The pomelo, however, is too
bitter and acid to suit the taste of many. The Sampson tangelo,
being somewhat sweeter and lacking much of the bitter taste, would
seem to furnish a happy medium between the tangerine and pomelo,
which would recommend it to many who find the pomelo too harsh.
In some ways the flavor of the tangelo resembles the most improved
bitter-sweet orange, but is certainly superior to it. Altogether, it is
believed that the fruit will occupy a place not now filled by any other
citrus fruit and that it will become valuable for commercial cultivation.
Its superior quality and the ‘‘kid-glove” character of the rind mark
it as a distinct and most valuable creation.

238 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

New TANGERINE ORANGES.
[PLATES XX, XXI, AND XXII]

One of the primary objects in the citrus breeding experiments was
to produce hybrids between the common sweet orange and tangerine
in order to secure a new fruit having the size, quality, and flavor of
the ordinary orange combined with the loose, easily removable rind of
the tangerine. A few of these hybrids have now fruited, and two of
them, crosses of the Dancey tangerine with pollen of the Parson Brown
orange, have produced fruits which are of considerable value. Both
of these seedlings were grown from one fruit which was the result of
a cross made in the grove of Mr. W. K. Trimble, of Braidentown, Fla.
While the fruits were supposed to be hybrids, they nevertheless
resemble the tangerine orange in all important characters, differing
from the Dancey tangerine, which was used as the mother parent,
mainly in being larger and considerably earlier in time of maturity and
in being of rather better quality.

THE WESHART TANGERINE.

Namg.—One of these new tangerines, the Weshart (Pls. XX and
X XI), is named in honor of Mr. W. S. Hart, of Hawks Park, Fla., in
recognition of his valuable assistance in these experiments. Both of the
new tangerine oranges were grown and fruited under his supervision.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit compressed-spherical, slightly protruded at
stem end and somewhat depressed at the apex, having the same general form as the tan-
gerine. Size from 23 to 3; inches in diameter, averaging about 3 inches. Height from
2} to 2 inches. Color deep orange red, like tangerine. Surface smooth, glossy, and
very attractive, much smoother than the Trimble tangerine, to be described later.
Rind loose, as in other varieties of this group; thin, from ;%; to $ inch thick. Oil
glands medium size, surface of rind slightly sunken over the largest. Segments
mainly 10, easily separable. Membranes tender. Axis hollow, from $ to 1 inch in
diameter, star-shaped. Rag tender and in moderate quantity. Quality and texture
excellent. Flavor sweet, subacid, very juicy. Bouquet characteristic and very
pleasant. Color of pulp buff orange; cells small like ordinary tangerine. Seeds few,
from 9 to 15. Tree vigorous and prolific. Foliage branching, and shape of tree like
the tangerine. Season very early for tangerine.

The Weshart tangerine is a delicious fruit of exceptionally fine
appearance and flavor. Its large size, superior quality, and earliness —
indicate that it will prove of great value for general cultivation in
orange regions. Ingeneralit is smoother in surface and rather smaller
than the Trimble tangerine, but is apparently superior in flavor.

THE TRIMBLE TANGERINE.

NameE.—The Trimble tangerine (Pl. X XI]J) is named after Mr. W. K.
Trimble, of Braidentown, Fla., in whose grove the original hybrid was
produced. The resulting seedling was grown and tested in the grove
of Mr. W. 8S. Hart, of Hawks Park, Fla., as was also the Weshart
tangerine.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XX,

A ee A. HOEN & CO, BALTIMORE

WESHART TANGERINE. NATURAL SIZE.

any ee _

ga -

—
Up So ee ee oe
~ Ai ™

a ¥)

PLATE XXI.

Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1904,

GROUP OF WESHART TANGERINES (CENTER) WITH

PARENT VARIETIES, TANGERINE (ON LEFT) AND PARSON BROWN (ON RIGHT).

PLATE XxXIl.

Yearbook U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1904,

BALTIMORE

& co,

A. HOEN

NATURAL SIZE.

TRIMBLE TANGERINE

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as

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NEW OITRUS OREATIONS. 239

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit compressed-spherical, of same shape as
the Weshart tangerine, and with slightly protruded stem end and depression at
apex. Size large, from 3 to 3§ inches in diameter and from 2 to 2§ inches in height.
Heavy, averaging about 5.6 ounces. Color deep orange red, like Dancey tangerine, or
slightly darker. Surface somewhat rough and bumpy, in larger specimens similar
to King orange; frequently with slight grooves running from base to apex. Oil glands
small, with the surface of the rind slightly sunken over the larger ones. Rind loose,
thin, y‘; to} inch in thickness. Segments9to1l. Membranes thin and tender. Axis
# inch in diameter and hollow. Rag comparatively little for fruit of this class. Flesh
deep orange yellow and very attractive, tender, and juicy. Pulp cells medium size.
Flavor sprightly acid and excellent, with pronounced bouquet. Seeds few, averaging
about 10. Tree vigorous and prolific. Foliage branching, and shape of tree like
Dancey tangerine. Season of maturity very early for tangerine.

The Trimble tangerine is a fine large tangerine, the rough, bumpy
appearance serving to distinguish it from other tangerines, and at the
same time not detracting from its appearance. In general the fruits
are somewhat larger than those of the Weshart tangerine, but are
slightly inferior to them in flavor.

GENERAL QUALITIES OF NEW TANGERINES.

The Weshart and Trimble tangerines, it will be seen from the above
descriptions, differ from other varieties of tangerines primarily in
being larger and earlier and more highly flavored. Fruits of these
two varieties have been received in some quantity for the past two
seasons, and have been compared with those of the Dancey tanger-
ine, grown by Mr. W.S. Hart in the same grove, and with the best
tangerines that could be procured on the market. In every case
they have been superior in color, size, and flavor. In Mr. Hart’s
groye they have uniformly colored up and ripened about two weeks
earlier than the Dancey tangerine, and it would thus seem that they
may be highly recommended for general culture. They have not been
tested in any other parts of Florida nor in California, and it can not
be definitely stated what they will do under different conditions. The
Dancey tangerine, however, is generally cultivated, and it is believed
that the new fruits will prove superior to this variety in almost every
respect. While these two tangerines developed from a fruit of Dancey
tangerine crossed with pollen of Parson Brown, they show no clear
indication of intermediate characters (Pl. X XI). They are in every
respect, so far as can be judged, true tangerines. The Parson Brown
orange, which was used as the male parent, is a typical orange and one
of the earliest varieties cultivated. The new fruits are larger than those
of the tangerine, and it may be that the large size, and their earliness,
are qualities derived from the Parson Brown. If it were not for the
possibility of their having developed from adventive embryos, this
would be the normal conclusion. It is, however, impossible to deter-
mine this matter from the characters exhibited by the trees up to the

2940 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

present time. As the trees mature other characters may become
visible which may throw some light upon this point. Practically
speaking, however, it does not matter whether the new fruits have
any orange blood in them, so long as they possess valuable qualities.
The Weshart and Trimble, it should be remembered, are tangerine
varieties, and, like the ordinary tangerine or common orange, can be
cultivated only in Florida and California, where citrus fruits are
ordinarily grown. They are unhesitatingly recommended for further
testing and cultivation in these sections.

THE RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING IN
CALIFORNIA.

By F. E. L. Brat,
Economic Ornithologist, Biological Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

When settlements are made in a new country, much of the forest is
usually cut away and large areas of open land are plowed and brought
under cultivation. This results in the destruction of great numbers
of native shrubs, weeds, and grasses and the substitution of various
new and exotic plants and trees. Coincident with this change in the
vegetable life, and as a necessary consequence of it, come great changes
in the conditions and distribution of animal life. Some species may
be greatly reduced in numbers, restricted in distribution, or perhaps
exterminated, while others become more abundant and more widely
distributed. The reduction in numbers may occur from actual killing,
from a loss of natural breeding sites through clearing and cultiva-
tion, or from a lack of sufficient food supply owing to the same cause.
These factors, however, may act in an exactly opposite way, as when
cultivation and planting offer to other species greater facilities for
breeding or afford a more abundant supply of food. These considera-
tions probably furnish an adequate explanation for the great devasta-
tions of crops by birds that were observed soon after the first
settlements on the Atlantic seaboard, and then successively in each
tier of States to the westward, as they were gradually settled, until
the Pacific coast was reached.

In the early days of agriculture in California, when the native grasses
and weeds of the fertile valleys were destroyed to make room for
fields of grain which soon grew to vast proportions, many species of
birds, notably blackbirds and quail, found themselves suddenly con-
fronted with a supply of new and delicious food, surpassing in abun-
dance anything they had known before and far more easily obtained.
Naturally they preferred the cultivated grains (wheat, barley, and
oats) to the wild oats (Avena fatua) upon which they had so largely
depended. Still later, when many of the grain fields gave way to
extensive orchards, which gradually crept up the hillsides and into
the canyons, other species of birds began to utilize the new kinds of

2 .41904——16 241

242 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

food and also the nesting sites afforded by the orchard trees. Species
that had previously attracted little attention became suddenly of great
interest from their destructive habits, and no doubt in a few years
increased in numbers because of the increased food supply, the facili-
ties for nesting offered by the fruit-bearing trees, and the protection
unintentionally afforded by man, who had either killed or driven off
their natural enemies. This last factor probably is more potent in
furthering the increase of small bird life than is ordinarily appreciated.
One of the first acts of the pioneer settler and his successors, after the
destruction of the forest, is the extermination of the native species of
mammals, such as coyotes, foxes, wild cats, skunks, minks, and weasels,
all of which subsist to some extent upon birds or their eggs. At the
same time the birds of prey, such as hawks and owls, are also much
reduced in numbers, both intentionally, through a misapprehension of
their true value, and incidentally, through the destruction of their
favorite haunts. Since birds of prey seldom nest near the abodes of
man, the small birds that resort to these places for breeding are as a
result protected.

MIGRATION OF BIRDS.

Owing to its extent and varied topography, California is rich in
birds, both in species and individuals, and their movements are more
complex than in the eastern part of the United States. The regular
migration north in the spring and south in fall, which is the law over
the greater part of the country, is here supplemented, in the case of
many species, by a partial east and west migration from the moun-
tains where they breed to the valleys where they spend the winter.
Here altitude, rather than latitude, governs climate, which fact leads
to many peculiarities in distribution and complicates the study of birds
in their economic and other relations. Besides the somewhat irregular
migrations, there have been at times remarkable flights of a single
species, for whose sudden appearance it was difficult to account. Such
was the flight of mountain tanagers (Piranga ludoviciana) that appeared
in the valleys in May, 1896. In several parts of the State they were
seen in immense numbers, and often in localities where previously
they had been but rarely observed. Their appearance was about
coincident with the ripening of the cherry crop, to which in some
places, in spite of the fact that they were shot in great numbers, they
did much damage.

REASONS FOR DEPREDATIONS BY BIRDS.

The failure of some usual source of food supply may sometimes lead |
birds to injure crops upon which they do not commonly feed and
inflict serious losses, while under ordinary circumstances the injuries
would be too slight to be noticed. Such failure of customary food

RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING. 243

supply may explain the depredations of robins upon olives in the fall
and winter of 1900-1901, when thousands of the birds visited the
orchards in the Santa Clara Valley, the region about Santa Barbara,
and other parts of California, and did an immense amount of harm.
In that year it was as much as the olive growers could do to save part
of their crop. Since then no case of excessive loss of olives has
been reported, though some damage has been done.

The amount of injury inflicted by birds often depends upon the geo-
graphic position of the particular crop upon which they feed. Orch-
ards situated in the midst of a treeless plain will be infested by such
birds as can live in them during the breeding season, and may be
visited and damaged by others during the migration. On the other
hand, fruit that is grown near or in bushy canyons or on wooded hills
will be taken by birds that live in such places and that retire to their
usual haunts after eating their fill. It is also observed that a stream
flowing through an area of orchards may harbor in the shrubbery on
its banks many birds that do not live in the orchard itself.

From these considerations it may be concluded that bird depreda-
tions may arise: (1) From the settlement of a new region and conse-
quent introduction of new products, accompanied by a decrease in the
native sources of food supply, destruction of enemies, and a general
overturning of other natural conditions; (2) from failure of the normal
food supply, causing in some cases a migration in search of food, in
others simply an attack upon some product that the species does not
usually eat; and, (3) from proximity of the bird to the food, in which
case the bird naturally feeds upon that which is supplied in greatest
abundance and in the most available form.

INVESTIGATION BY BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

In response to many complaints from fruit growers of the Pacific
Coast region in regard to the depredations of birds in orchards and
vineyards, an investigation, the results of which will be detailed in a
bulletin in course of preparation, was undertaken by the United States
Biological Survey. The writer, having been assigned to this work,
spent about eleven months, including the fruit seasons of 1901 and
1903, in California. He visited the most important fruit-growing
regions of the State, inspected hundreds of orchards, and interviewed
an even greater number of fruit growers.

The most uniform kindness and courtesy were everywhere extended
him, and every facility for acquiring information was placed at his dis-
posal by the owners of orchards, even to a suspension of the custom-
_ary rules with regard to trespass and shooting on private grounds. In

addition to the knowledge gained by field work, stomachs of all the
important species of Pacific Coast birds have been collected and exam-
ined, and their contents are being tabulated

244 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE EASTERN
STATES.

Before proceeding to a consideration of particular species of birds,
one point should be especially noted in connection with the subiect of
the relation of birds to fruit in California: Those parts of the State that
are utilized for fruit growing are not so well supplied by nature with
wild fruits on which birds may feed as are the fruit-growing areas of
the Eastern States or even of those farther north on the Pacific coast.
While California has an abundance of wild berries that serve as food
for birds, they are not usually found near the orchards and vine-
yards. In the Eastern States a plentiful supply of fruit of a quality
that often compares favorably with the best products of the orchard
or garden is usually present, so that it is only where the wild species
are exterminated by the clearing up of the country that the birds are
forced by necessity to attack cultivated kinds. It is safe to say that
in the States east of the Allegheny Mountains thousands of bushels of
Rubus fruits (blackberries and raspberries), which grow wild every-
where, annually fall to the ground and rot in spite of the fact that
quantities are gathered and eaten by man as well as by birds. The
same is true of blueberries ( Vaccindéwm) and huckleberries ( Gaylus-
sacia), which are so abundant in a wild state that, though none are cul-
tivated, they occur in their season in the markets of many of the cities
and towns and are eaten in every country home in the region where
they grow. In addition to these there are several species of dogwood
(Cornus), holly (Zlex), cherry (Prunus), Viburnum, and dozens of
others, all of which are freely eaten by birds.

Although many of these genera are represented in California, they
usually grow in the mountains remote from the fruit-growing districts.
In fact, the elderberry (Sambucus) and the pepperberry (Schinus molle)
are the only two uncultivated fruits that have appeared at all promi-
nently in the stomachs of California birds—and the pepper tree is not
wild. On the other hand, over forty species of wild fruits have been
found in the stomachs of the eastern robins. Thus, it is not surprising
that when domestic fruits were first produced on the Pacific coast the
birds welcomed them as a desirable addition to their diet. Their pre-
vious experience had given them a taste for fruit without fully grati-
fying their appetite. They now found a supply in abundance and of a
quality far superior to anything they had previously known, and the
orchardist’s crops suffered accordingly.

Another reason why birds attack fruit in California more than in
the regions farther east is the dryness of the summers. Scarcity of
water probably leads to the substitution of fruit juice for it as a bev-.
erage. The securing of water enough to supply the wants of a Cali-
fornia bird may sometimes involve a flight of from one to a dozen

RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING. 945

miles, while in an eastern State, as Pennsylvania, places are rare
in which water can not be obtained within a few rods. In the East, in
addition to perennial springs and streams, the frequent rains collect in
puddles and in crevices in the rocks and furnish an abundant supply
of drinking places for birds, which, though not permanent, are often
renewed. However, there is every probability that the California birds
find the juice of fruits more agreeable than water, and that when it is
at hand they take it in preference. Much of the injury done to such
small juicy fruits as grapes and cherries consists of simple punctures
in the skin, through which apparently nothing but some fruit juice
has been drawn. This certainly renders it probable that the fruit is
used as drink as well as food.

NATURAL READJUSTMENT OF CONDITIONS.

In the matter of the destruction of crops by birds, the experience
of the whole country shows that, after a certain length of time,
nature effects a partial readjustment of the disturbed conditions, so
that much of the evil disappears. On the Atlantic side of the conti-
nent, with the exception of the ravages of bobolinks in the rice
fields of the southeastern coast States, few if any cases are known of
the continued annual destruction of crops by birds at the present time;
while during the first half of the nineteenth century the various species
of blackbirds were a constant menace to grain. The increased density
of population has reduced the number of birds, and the increased
area of cultivation has destroyed the nesting sites of certain species
until something near a balance has been reached. This is likely to
occur sooner or later in most cases of disturbed equilibrium, but in the
meantime it is well to study the conditions to see if the process may
not be hastened.

DAMAGES BY BIRDS GENERALLY.

The study of a number of cases of serious damage done by birds
leads to the conclusion that as a rule such injuries are due to the accu-
mulation of a great number of birds of a single species, or of several
closely allied species, within a limited area. This is especially true
when the birds associate in large flocks demanding a large amount of
the same kind of food. Should the birds be seed eaters, they visit
the grain fields and leave ruin and destruction in their path; if fruit
lovers, they seek the orchard and make havoc with the crop. Instances
of this kind are seen in the case of the bobolinks in the rice fields of
the southeastern Atlantic coast, the blackbirds in the grain fields of
the Mississippi Valley, and the linnets in the fruit orchards of Calli-
fornia. It is seldom that a complaint is made of birds in general; one
or a few species are usually accused of doing the particular mischief,

246 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the reason for which is plain—too many birds demanding the same
things to eat are present. But when several species are present and
approximately equal in the number of individuals, such a variety of
tastes is to be gratified that no one kind of food is likely to be drawn
upon to an undue extent.

BIRDS THAT INJURE FRUIT IN CALIFORNIA.

In northern California, when a fruit grower is asked what birds are
most injurious to his crops, he almost invariably mentions first the
red-head, or linnet, then successively the blackbird, the oriole, the
grosbeak, and the thrush; or, if his ranch is in some narrow valley or
canyon, or near wooded hills, he may place the California jay or the
quail after the linnet as the next worst enemy to fruit.

THE LINNET.

The house-finch or linnet (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis) is shown
by universal testimony and by close observation in the orchards to be
easily the leader in the destruction of fruits. The first point to be
noted is the bird’s wonderful abundance, one of the primary condi-
tions necessary for any species to become injurious. It is a vigorous,
hardy bird, a prolific breeder, and a bold marauder upon the orchards.
In its general character and its ability to provide for its wants and pro-
tect itself it reminds one of the too-well-known English sparrow.
Like most of its race, it is provided with a strong biting beak with
which it can cut through the skin of the toughest fruit. Its depreda-
tions begin with the early cherries and continue as long as fruit of any
sort is to be found.

Examinations of the stomachs of linnets show that, as is the case
with the majority of the fringilline family, the bird’s natural food con-
sists of seeds, with a very small admixture of animal matter. This
last aggregates only a little more than 3 per cent of the yearly food and
consists principally of injurious plant lice (ApAzdes). The same per-
centage holds true with the nestlings, which in most other species of the
sparrow family are fed largely on insects until they are nearly ready
to fly. With the linnet, however, the young are fed practically no
more animal food than is eaten by the adults—a fact so much at vari-
ance with the usual habit of seed-eating birds as to be remarkable and
surprising. The change from seed to fruit on the part of the linnet has
undoubtedly been brought about by the introduction of the different
varieties of cultivated fruits, which during a part of the year have
presented an abundant and easily accessible supply of food. But even
now fruit forms only 9 per cent of the annual food; consequently if
the birds of this species were not so superabundant, the harm done by
them would scarcely attract attention. Their immense numbers cause
the comparatively small percentage of fruit destroyed to swell into an

RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING. 247

enormous aggregate. In large orchards, however, less complaint
against the linnet is made now than formerly, probably owing to the
fact that the area devoted to fruit culture has increased more rapidly
than the birds, so that their pilferings, being spread over a larger area,
are less noticeable. Could any device be hit upon to reduce the species
to half its present numbers, there is little doubt that its depredations
would be so lessened that, except in the case of the small collections of
fruit trees in village lots, they would attract little or no attention. At
present it is the owners of these small lots who make the most com-
plaint; for while in large orchards the birds visit many trees, in small
gardens they are confined to a few, which they sometimes completely
strip.

From the point of view of the fruit grower it may be difficult, in
this utilitarian age, to see what useful purpose the linnet subserves; at
the same time it must be admitted that it is a persistent destroyer of
the seeds of noxious weeds, and from the esthetic side of the question
many reasons for its preservation may be adduced, suchas its brilliant
plumage, sweet song, and pleasing, lively demeanor, which renders
the bird a desirable adjunct to rural life. Many people, therefore,
even in California, believe that, in spite of its sins, the linnet should
be protected. That its extermination is not desirable will be readily
granted, but that some reduction in its numbers would be a benefit to the
fruit-growing interest can not be reasonably denied. On the other hand,
it must be borne in mind that the principal item in the food of the linnet
is seeds of noxious weeds; the aggregate of these consumed in a year
is something beyond calculation and in a measure offsets the value of
the fruit destroyed. A comparison of the percentages of fruit and
weed seed in its yearly food shows that although the individual fruit
growers may suffer, the horticultural interests of the State on the
whole must be largely benefited by the linnet. In the humid coast
belt, where weeds flourish throughout the summer, there can be no
doubt that the bird does far more good than harm.

During the winter and early spring the linnet often turns its atten-
tion to buds of fruit trees, and is accused of doing much injury in this
way. On this score, however, less complaint is made against the lin-
net than against the Nuttall sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys nuttalli)
and the intermediate sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelz), both of
which, in the spring migration, have been accused of doing serious
injury by feeding on blossom buds. It is doubtful, however, if the
loss from this cause is great. Blossom buds are nearly always so
abundant that the destruction of a considerable portion of them does
not really reduce the crop of fruit. The contents of stomachs of these
two sparrows collected in orchards show that, while buds are eaten to
some extent, they do not form a large percentage of the food. The
birds, however, are so abundant during their journey northward that

248 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

even a little damage from each individual might make an important
aggregate. Further observation on this point is necessary.

While as a destroyer of fruit in California the linnet unquestionably
stands first, it is not so easy to say what species occupies second
place, and it is not probable that this place would be assigned to the
same bird in every locality; for the economic status of a species varies
with its environment, with the result that a bird harmful in one locality
may be less so or not at all in another, or vice versa. Furthermore,
a bird’s economic status in a particular place often varies with the
change of season and from other causes.

THE BLACKBIRD.

The Brewer blackbird (Huphagus cyanocephalus) is a species of
which much complaint is made. It eats an appreciable amount of
fruit, especially cherries, but, on the other hand, it eats insects to a
considerable extent. During the cherry season the writer observed
these birds in the orchards and collected a number of them. They
were seen to eat freely of cherries, and the stomachs of those taken
showed that a goodly percentage of the food consisted of cherry pulp.
While these observations were being made, a neighboring fruit raiser
began to plow his orchard. Almost immediately every blackbird in
the vicinity was upon the newly opened ground, and many followed
within a few feet of the plowman’s heels in their eagerness to get
every grub or other insect turned out by the plow. It is probable
that a thorough investigation of the food habits of the Brewer black-
bird will show that by its destruction of injurious insects the species,
on the whole, pays well for what fruit it takes.

THE BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK.

The black-headed grosbeak (Zamelodia melanocephala) is another fre-
quenter of orchards, and often nestsinthem. Itis furnished by nature
with a beak with which it can bite the toughest fruit; and undoubt-
edly it takes its share, though no more than may be reasonably
allowed, in view of the fact that it feeds largely on the black olive-
scale. But scales are not the only pests the grosbeak destroys, for
caterpillars of various kinds and the pupz of the notorious codling
moth are freely eaten; and any bird that helps to destroy this last
insect, the curse of California apple culture, will be hailed as a blessing
in spite of any shortcomings it may have.

THE CALIFORNIA JAY.

After the increasing orchards had been extended from the open
level lands to the canyons and hillsides, the fruit trees were brought
close to the timber and chaparral, the natural haunts of several species
of birds eager to take advantage of the new food. Prominent among

RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING. 249

these was the California jay (Aphelocoma californica). It is possible
that the jays first visited the orchards for the purpose of ravaging the
nests of the smaller birds that breed there, and that on these visits
they got their first taste of cultivated fruit and acquired an appetite
which later, through the further development of the orchard industry,
they were fully able to gratify.

While the linnets are the cause of most complaint, being more
universally distributed than the jays, they probably are no more
destructive than the larger birds, which undoubtedly carry off much
fruit that they never eat. On one occasion the writer watched for
some time an orchard of prune trees situated where a ravine or small
canyon opened into a larger one. The fruit on these trees was just
beginning to ripen. Two continuous lines of jays were seen passing,
the one up, the other down the ravine to the orchard. Each bird of
the line going up carried a prune in its beak, while the other line
returned empty-mouthed. Although this work was watched for only
a short time, there is no reason to doubt that it was carried on for
some hours each day. In view of the fact that the stealing began
several days before the prunes were ripe enough to pick, the result
may be easily calculated. A similar observation was made in a cherry
orchard in a canyon near the woods. The jays were making havoc
with the fruit, and every bird that left the orchard of its own accord
carried off a cherry.

On another occasion seven jays were successively shot from one
prune tree within a period of fifteen minutes, the birds continuing to
come unwarned by the dead bodies of their predecessors, which lay
ungathered on the ground. The habit of carrying off the fruit they
steal renders the jays much more destructive than if they ate their
booty upon the spot. They are believed to eat but little of the
hoarded fruit, which in the case of soft fruits must soon rot. It is
likely that the birds hoard fruits through a misdirected instinct, hav-
ing been in the habit of storing acorns and other nuts that keep per-
fectly. In addition to what they eat and carry off, the jays, like the
linnets, peck a great deal of fruit which they injure no further, but
which is spoiled as effectually as if it were entirely eaten. After the
prune crop has been harvested, the almonds begin to ripen, and the jays
again gather in the orchards.. They strip off the outer husk of the
almond, and then placing the nut between their feet, hammer it witb
the beak until they penetrate the shell and make the kernel accessible.
The almonds also are stored in cracks and crannies where, unlike the
prunes, they will keep for future use. The jays work at this storing
with an energy and perseverence that is in itself commendable. A
man who owned a large ranch situated in a canyon had planted near
his house a dozen or two almond trees. Although the trees were now
well grown and generally bore profusely, he never got any of the

250 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

crop; the jays always began on the nuts as soon as they were well
grown, but before they were ripe, and did not desist until the last one
had been gathered. These instances of observed destruction of fruit
by the California jay are local and may be exceptional. Yet, it appears
that in places the jays, like the linnets, are superabundant, and that a
reduction in their numbers is desirable. The jays do not take kindly
to civilization, for as the oak-dotted and brush-covered hills and
canyons are cleared and brought under cultivation their favorite nest-
ing areas are destroyed.

THE CALIFORNIA VALLEY QUAIL.

The California Valley quail (Lophortyxz californicus) sometimes does
considerable damage to grapes in vineyards that are situated near
wooded ravines or chaparral hills, in which the birds find a secure
retreat. Under such circumstances the loss is often very great. Ina
large vineyard in southern California it is said that they destroyed
annually as much as 20 tons of the fruit. One observer states that he
once saw a flock of about a thousand quail eating Zinfandel grapes in
a vineyard in the central part of the State, and another says that in
southern California he has seen as many as 5,000 feeding upon Muscat
grapes. In the writer’s interviews with California fruit growers only
one mentioned the quail asa harmful bird. His ranch was situated
along the hills at one side of a narrow valley, and his vineyard was
near the top of the hills adjacent to wild grazing land with much chap-
arral and trees, among which the quail lived. In this case the annual
loss was estimated at 2 or 3 tons of grapes.

Six hundred and one stomachs of the California quail have been
examined by the Biological Survey. Of the food of the year, 7.60 per
cent was found to consist of fruit, but only one one-hundredth of one
per cent was identified as grapes. This, however, does not show that
the bird does no harm by destroying grapes, for the damage is done
during a short portion of the year, mainly in September and October;
and, moreover, it is scarcely possible to identify grapes in a bird’s
stomach unless the seeds have been swallowed, which is not usually
the case. If the amount of fruit eaten during this time, though very
considerable in itself, be distributed over the whole year, it becomes
insignificant. The maximum quantity was taken in the month of De-
cember and amounted to 32.40 per cent of the month’s food. This must
have been mostly waste fruit, as at that season the harvest is over for
everything except olives. Itis not probable that a bird so large as the
quail, and one so easily destroyed, willever become a serious menace to
grape culture, except under unfavorable local conditions. The excel-
lence of the bird’s flesh and the popularity of quail shooting as a sport
are likely to act as potent factors in reducing its numbers whenever
they become too great for the best economic interests.

RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING. 251

. THE BULLOCK ORIOLE,

The Bullock oriole (/cterus bullockt) is a bird of the orchards, but
for nesting sites it prefers taller trees. It has been accused of attack-
ing fruit to an injurious extent. Close observation in the orchards
and an examination of many stomachs show that it is guilty to a certain
degree. It was observed to peck at cherries which had first been
broken into by the linnet, and was often seen to come to the ground to
get fruit that had been partly eaten and thrown down by the other
bird. This implies, perhaps, that the oriole finds difficulty in eating
the uninjured fruit as it hangs on the tree. The Baltimore oriole of
the East (/cterus galbula) has been accused of pecking and injuring
grapes, although rarely eating enough to cause serious loss. No special
complaint of this kind has been made against the Bullock oriole. It
is possible that the western species has not yet acquired the habit. It
is one of the most valuable birds of the orchard, for the reason that it
eats insects at all times, especially caterpillars, the pests of fruit trees.
Like the black-headed grosbeak, the Bullock oriole feeds to a very
appreciable extent on the black scale; hence it should not be molested
unless it becomes much more abundant and destructive than at present,
for even what fruit it does eat appears to be mostly second hand.

THE RUSSET-BACK THRUSH.

In the narrow fruit belt bordering San Francisco Bay the russet-back
thrush (/ylocichla ustulata) visits the orchards every day while the
earlier fruits are ripe, provided the spot is not too far from its favor-
ite nesting place in the bushes or trees on the banks of a stream. The
thrush seems to eat most fruit when it has young to feed; but an
examination of the stomachs of both young and adult taken at this
season shows that the fruit is eaten almost exclusively by the old birds,
while, as is usually the case, the young are fed on insects. Just why
the adult birds should subsist so largely on fruit during the period of
reproduction is not apparent. When the nesting season is past they
return to their normal diet of insects. As in the case of the oriole,
the fruit eaten by the thrush consists mainly of that first pecked by
the linnets. The bird may be observed on the ground eating fallen
cherries much oftener than it is seen in the trees, implying that it finds
difficulty in breaking the skin of cherries that have not already been
broken by some other bird. The liking of the thrush for a nesting
site in the vicinity of water keeps it from preying upon orchards situ-
ated at a distance from streams. It is probable, however, that this
bird, like the grosbeak and oriole, fully pays for all the fruit it takes.

252 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE ROBIN,

The most striking example of exceptional and intermittent damage to
fruit caused by birds is the case of the destruction of olives by robins,
to which reference has already been made. Inthe winter of 1900-1901
the olive orchards in various parts of California were invaded by
immense numbers of robins that fed upon the fruits and in some
instances destroyed the whole crop. In orchards where some pains
were taken to drive the birds away, they still were able to destroy from
one-fourth to one-half of the yield. Olive orchards in Santa Clara
Valley were especially afflicted. Mr. Paul Masson, who owns two
orchards near Saratoga, as quoted by the San Jose Mercury of January
17, 1901, says:

In my largest orchard of about 500 trees, adjoining a larger orchard of about 50
acres on the El Quito farm, which is owned by E. E. Goodrich, are thousands of
robins which are destroying all the fruit on the trees. About two months ago I esti-
mated that my trees would yield about 4 tons of olives, but Sunday when I visited
my orchard I found the fruit would not be worth picking.

I killed some of the robins, and upon examination found as many as five and six
whole olives in the crop of each bird. Besides those which the bird swallowed
whole, many olives are pecked so that they are spoiled for market. Sunday there
were not less than 50,000 robins on my place, and they were equally as plentiful in
the orchard on El Quito farm.

Mr. Edward E. Goodrich, the owner of El Quito farm and olive
orchard, as quoted by the same authority, says:

The so-called robin is a destructive pest to an olive orchard. A crop can not be
saved when the migration of the robin corresponds exactly with the maturity of the
olive, as it does this year, except by immediate picking, which is practically impossi-
ble, or by shooting so constantly as to prevent steady consumption. * * * In 1898
my crop was about 130 tons, and should have made about 4,000 gallons of oil. Owing
to the lack of rain the result was about 2,750 gallons, of the value of $11,000. Now,
that crop could have been wiped out in ten days by robins if they had been here as
they were this season and no shooting had been done. So far as my foreman could
estimate before the birds descended upon the place, he placed the crop at a probable
3,000 gallons, which means when sold from $12,000 to $16,500, according to prices,
and that would have been utterly destroyed but for the constant shooting the last
ten days.

As it was, Mr. Goodrich placed his loss on this crop through the
devastations of the robins at 25 per cent of the whole, or about $5,000,
while his foreman, in an interview with the writer, estimated the loss
at 50 per cent. He also said that the birds were so abundant that he
killed seven in a tree at a single shot.

The San Jose Mercury also says:

A representative of the Mercury visited the El Quito olive orchard to see what the
facts were in this matter. He found a force of men picking the fruit as rapidly as
possible, and he also saw thousands upon thousands of robins doing the same thing.

On his way out he occasionally saw a single bird on the fence or in a prune tree, but
when he reached El Quito the sky was streaked with robins flitting about and having

RELATION OF BIRDS TO FRUIT GROWING. 253

a gala time of it. Men were scattered about through the orchard with guns, and
every few minutes the report of one of the guns would set the robins to flying, but
in an instant they would settle down again and resume their feast.

Hon. Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Barbara, one of the largest olive
growers on the Pacific coast, in a letter dated January 25, 1901, says:

The robin is a terrible pest to olives. The birds do not always appear to come to
the coast. My first experience was some fifteen years ago. The olives were late in
rip ning. I was as late as March making oil. The robins appeared to come in by
the thousands. My last orchard that year was about one-half mile in length. The
pickers were at one end. I had a man with a gun at the other, but they would
attack the middle, and when the gunner would reach them they would fly to the
end he left. This year they have been particularly bad. My boys reported that
the birds, mostly robins, picked more olives than they could. The foreman of the
pickers told me that he had knocked from a tree one-quarter of a sack and went to
dinner; when he returned not an olive was on the ground. I know that on the
ground in one orchard where the rain had caused to fall as many olives as would fill
a bushel basket, in a week not one could be seen. The robins do not seem to be
able to pick the olives so rapidly from the trees, but peck at those that are com-
mencing to dry, knock them on the ground, then get them. The birds are at this .
writing in all my orchards by the thousands. They do not appear every year. It
has been my theory that the native berries in the Sierra some years are not in suffi-
cient quantities for food.

In his last sentence Mr. Cooper has probably touched upon the true
cause of the trouble. The olives are present every year and so are the
robins, but it is only occasionally that such attacks take place. The
inference is that some normal element of the robin’s food sometimes
fails, in consequence of which the birds shift their quarters until they
find the necessary sustenance. In some respects the case is comparable
to that of the bobolinks in the rice fields of the South Atlantic coast,
but the injury occurs less frequently. Both cases furnish problems
that are difficult of solution.

BIRDS THAT EAT NOXIOUS INSECTS.

After treating of birds that do more or less damage to fruit, it is
only fair to briefly notice a few that do not harm fruit, but render
efficient service to the fruit grower by the destruction of noxious
insects. The family of titmice (Paride) contains many species, all of
which are useful, but among them the bush-tits (Psaltriparus minimus
and P. m. californicus) are preeminent as eaters of insects injurious
to fruit trees. Plant lice (ApAzdes) and scales (Coccidx) form two
constant and abundant elements of their food. Among these the
black olive scale is prominent; while small beetles, bugs, and cater-
pillars, all injurious species, make up the remainder of the animal food.
The plain tit (Parus tnornatus) is another species whose food is almost
entirely composed of injurious insects, and also includes the olive scale.
A strong point in favor of the titmice is that they remain upon their
range throughout the year, and their good work is continuous. ~

254 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

The kinglets (Regulus) are two species of small birds which spend
their lives, like the titmice, in searching the bark and foliage of trees
for those minute insects that are so difficult for man to destroy and
yet are so harmful. ‘The food of these birds is made up of almost the
same elements as that of the titmice. Snout-beetles, or weevils, and
many other injurious beetles, many harmful bugs (//emzptera), includ-
ing plant lice and scales, with small caterpillars, and insects’ eg’s,
make up the diet of these birds. ‘To illustrate the efficient work of
these little creatures in the way of insect destruction, it may be stated
that one stomach contained more than a hundred small, tree-infesting
beetles. As nearly all, if not all, of the food of these birds is obtained
from trees, especially those in orchards, they are of much value to
fruit growers.

The family of birds commonly known as wood warblers (J/ndotel-
tide) comprises many small and bright-colored species, of which the
greater number live in trees, in some cases getting their food there
even though they nest upon the ground. As they are of small size,
the morsels of their food also are necessarily small and include many
insect pests, which because of their minute size are neglected by
larger birds and are difficult for man to deal with. In its food habits
the Audubon warbler (Dendroica auduboni) may be taken as a repre-
sentative of the family. During fall and winter it is an abundant spe-
cies throughout the fruit-growing region of central California. Its
food consists in part of small beetles, many caterpillars, plant lice, and
ants. Of the last it devours an immense number. They are a con-
stant element of the food and many stomachs contained nothing else.
In view of the relation of ants to plant lice, it is evident that any
agency that will reduce the numbers of these creatures is to be wel-
comed as a blessing to fruit culture. Many other members of the
family are equally useful and as allies of the California fruit grower
can not be too highly commended.

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT.

By GrorGce L. CLOTHIER,
Assistant Forest Inspector, Bureau of Forestry.

FORESTRY AND FARM DESIGNING.

Although agriculture stands first among American industries and
our production of farm products is greater than that of any other
country, the possibilities of the art of agriculture have hardly begun
to be understood. That scientific farming will vastly increase the
productive power of the land in the United States is beyond doubt.
With the advance of knowledge through the discovery of new truths
and the advance in practice through the better application of what
science has already found out, improved utilization of the country’s
resources will make room for a future rapid growth in population and
wealth, as expansion in territory has made room in the past. Making
the same land twice as productive as before is as good as doubling the
amount of land, if not better, and we have as yet scarcely scratched
the surface of the agricultural resources of the country as a whole.
One of the ways in which present methods of farm management may
be greatly improved is by better recognition of what may be called
farm engineering, or farm designing; and this in turn must give an
important place to the consideration of farm forestry.

The farm designer, or farm architect as he might be called, can do
much to improve the efficiency of farm operation. Economical man-
agement may be attained by a scientific adjustment of the parts of a
farm, just as the utility of a great building may be increased by the
careful planning of a qualified architect. Several agricultural colleges
and experiment stations have recognized this fact, and have given a
distinct place to this as a part of the great problem of how to get the
most out of the soil. The best opportunities to apply these principles
are found in those parts of the West where new farms are being taken
up. Generally it is also in these regions that forestry can do most for
the farmer, for in the treeless regions, especially, the full development
of the country depends in no small degree on the establishment of
forest plantations.

From the fact that trees take so much time to grow, the forester
who seeks to advise a farmer how he can make trees contribute most
largely to his prosperity is compelled to take a long look ahead, and

255

256 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to consider the whole problem of farm arrangement. In well-settled
regions the possibilities of farm designing are apt to be severely limited
by what has been done in the past. The location of the buildings, the
division into fields, and in many cases the situation of the timber, are
now fixed facts. Nevertheless, even here a decided improvement may
often be made, as will be illustrated later. What needs to be empha-
sized now is that even in the older parts of the country a farm should
be run according to a definite and carefully considered plan, designed
to secure economy of operation and the best use of every part; that
tree planting for farm purposes ought always to take into account
this plan; and that even where standing timber is already present it
may be in the interest of the best use of all parts of the farm to cut
this down and plant elsewhere.

THE NEED OF FOREST PLANTING.

Forests are indispensable to the highest material development of any
country. Weare learning that, besides furnishing the useful timber
products resulting from the growth of trees, they conserve moisture,
ameliorate climatic extremes, and purify the atmosphere. Where
they are not found naturally, or where they have been thoughtlessly
removed from wide stretches of country, it becomes desirable in
behalf of the public welfare to plant trees in great number. Obviously
the benefits of such plantations will be most widely felt if the planting
is well distributed over the region. Further, it is a work the benefits
of which are shared by all, and which all should join in performing.

The plantations in a definite region should be made after one gen-
eral plan, in order to allot to each farm its proportionate amount of
forest. The method of planting and the position of the planting sites
should evidently be made with reference to a system of farm manage-
ment, since a forest is the most permanent thing that can be planted
on a farm. An example of such a plan and such a system is shown
later in the present article.

MISTAKES OF THE PAST.

It is unfortunate that a large percentage of the plantations made by
farmers have been disappointing. Yet some commercial plantations,
such as that of Mr. L. W. Yaggy, at Hutchinson, Kans., have been
financially successful.

Farm forest planting has been practiced in some of our prairie—
States for more than half a century, and great good has resulted from
many of the plantations, but the measurable increase in the wealth
of the country attributable to forest planting has been small, owing
to the choice of poor sites and the use of unsuitable species. The

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 257

artificial forests of Illinois would have been worth many times what
they are at present if longer-lived and more valuable species had been
used in the plantations instead of silver maple or trees of as little worth.
Species of the greatest value have often been ignored because of their
apparent slow growth, and others, deserving to be classed as ‘‘ weed
trees,” have been used in their place. Successful plantations of black
walnut, hickory, elm, oak, and other valuable trees are common
enough to prove that the slower-growing woods ordinarily pay best.
Silver maple, boxelder, and the like are valuable chiefly for firewood,
and it is easily possible to overstock the market for cordwood in any
locality. Lumber woods, on the other hand, can always be disposed
of in any quantity.

A good opportunity for comparison of the relative values of the two
classes is afforded by the returns from a 64-year-old stand of black
walnut in Morgan County, Ill., and a 35-year-old stand of silver maple
in Sangamon County. These were the best groves of each species
found in the State during an extended survey made in the summer
of 1904. The figures relating to the two tracts are presented in the
following table:

Value of planted forests of black walnut and silver maple on the prairies of Illinois.

Average diameter breasthigh.

Number
Species. Location. Age. Area. of trees
on area.

Sup-
mediate | pressed
trees. trees.

Inches.
19.0 9.4
OG arocte ys sone lc oe a ten

Years. | Acres.
Black walnut..} Morgan County, Ill....... 64 0.6 119
Silver maple ..| Sangamon County, Ill.... 85 5.6 1, 478

Total Annual
value per | value per
acre.b

Species. Location. of trees
per acre. |Lumber.a

Fence Fire-
posts. | wood.

Board ft. Cords.
Black walnut..| Morgan County, Ill....... 198 42,000 | 1,800 15 $1, 050
Silver maple ..; Sangamon County, I11.... OEE ce acig cae alacie aoe 65 130

a¥rom trees 11 inches and over in diameter breasthigh.
6 Lumber at $20 per 1,000 board feet, fence posts at 10 cents each, and firewood at $2 per cord.
¢e Interest compounded annually at 3 per cent.

It would be quite as easy to show that the returns from hickory,
elm, or some other wood which can be used when no older than the
maple would amount to more than those from the latter, but the com-
parison of walnut with maple serves also to emphasize the greater
value of a wood which must be kept until the trees attain a good size.
The figures in the last column represent the annual returns from the
two plantations irrespective of their age, and are therefore directly
comparable.

2 Aal1904——17

258 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.,

It is a well-known fact that the great majority of the forest planta-
tions made in accordance with the timber-culture act were failures.
Here again the unfavorable results were due to poor sites and ill-
adapted species, combined with a lack of care on the part of planters
and the dishonesty of entrymen, who regarded this law merely as a
means of obtaining title to public land without paying for it.

Plantations made by specialists and designed for a special purpose
do not usually require very elaborate planting plans. It is the small
woodlot plantation that is to serve many purposes in the economy of
the farm which calls for the most careful planning.

WHAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN PREPARATION OF A PLANTING PLAN,

Asa machine of production, a farm should have a plan which pro-
vides for the best use of its every part. The woodlot or forest plan-
tation should be in a position to contribute to the successful operation
of this plan, for the trees may affect the atmospheric drainage, the
wind currents, and the humidity of the air about the home. At the
same time a planting plan must provide for sites which will produce
the best possible growth. The arrangement of the fields and the loca-
tion of the fences, private lanes, drainage systems, buildings, and
farmstead should all be considered before any forest planting is
undertaken.

Very rarely indeed have farmers deliberately planned the location
and make-up of their forest plantations with reference to the needs,
convenience, and economy of their farms, and the relative value and
adaptability of the trees to be planted. Woodlots have sometimes
been so poorly located as to do actual damage to farms. Cases have
been observed in the northern half of the Middle West where wind-
breaks planted too close to the buildings caused the drifting snow
of severe winters to bury the houses 15 or 20 feet deep. In the win-
ter of 1899 a farm house in the Red River Valley, North Dakota, was
buried in a snowdrift for three months because a cottonwood grove.
had been planted too near it. In other cases trees have been planted
near tile drains, which the roots clog.

It is probable that not one-tenth of- American farms are being
operated under any permanent system of management. Before forest
planting is undertaken some such system must be adopted, however,
in order to make the future existence of the forest plantations possi-
ble, for more than half the 355 planting plans made since July 1, 1899,
by the Bureau of Forestry, fundamentally affect the future manage-
ment of the farms. As very few farmers are accustomed to formu-
lating farm plans, the agent of the Buzeau of Forestry, besides being
called upon to give advice in matters pertaining to technical forestry,

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 259

is usually drafted into this service as well. After consultation with
the landholder and consideration of all the matters affected by the
policy of management, he is able to bring out an orderly arrange-
ment which will permit on the same farm the practice of both scientific
agriculture and scientific forestry.

A CONCRETE EXAMPLE.

The planting plan shown in figure 14 was made for a farm in central
Ohio, and illustrates graphically the bearing that forest planting may
have on the management of a farm. This farm in Ohio contains 375

PUBL/C ROAD

g

a—2—P~— >] 9 oo?

Saas

ARRANGEMENT OF TREES
4FT.KX6EFT.

Bw BW BY Bw BW BW Bw Bw

HCO HO HOC HO HOC HCO HC HE

UMMM

He “(Ne Hel “Ne He Ho HC HEC

Ny
S)

6w BW BW 6w BW BY bw Bw

A AAAS
I PRIVATE LANE

AYN REAM A GNSS OR ENN NG NO SN /3 2

HO WO HOC HOC HO HC HE Hc

BW= BLACK WALNUT

HC = HARDY CATALPA
REQUIRED NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE:

BLACK WALNUT 907

HARDY CATALPA 907
TOTAL 1814

PRIVATE LANE

NY

O-~2-0---O-- P--O-G----G

SNAP 01-009

PRIVATE LANE

VS MAMENEAMIAS 55

ANNO
X

z.

Fic. 14.—Arrangement of forest plantations on a farm in central Ohio to facilitate scientific farm
management.

acres, and that part of it which is devoted to agriculture is capable of
earning interest on a capitalization of $100 per acre; not a foot of it
is unsuited to tillage. That part which was originally heavily tim-
bered has all been cleared, except a bluegrass pasture of 30 or 40
acres which is occupied by the remains of the original forest, consist-
ing of a scattered stand of declining sugar maple and beech trees.
This timberland embraces the most fertile part of the farm, and inter-
feres most seriously with the convenient and economical division of

260 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

the farm into fields. If the Bureau of Forestry had advised the owner
to attempt to rejuvenate the dying trees and to underplant them with
expensive nursery stock, the instructions would have been implicitly
followed, but such advice would have wrought a positive injury to the
‘landholder. Instead, the planting plan advises that the forest area of
the farm be reduced by clearing the only natural timber left standing,
and that, instead of retaining the scattered growth now cumbering the
pasture, trees suflicient to occupy about half the present forest acre-
age be planted in such positions as to protect the farm from the severe
westerly winds prevailing in the region.

The owner was therefore advised as follows:

(1) The major part of this farm is too valuable for agricultural pur-
poses to be devoted to forestry. The native timber now scattered over
the pasture is rapidly declining, and is reduced by every hard storm.
No natural reproduction is taking place, and while the land is grazed
none can be secured. The location of the scattered trees in the mid-
dle of the farm would require expensive fencing in order to protect
them from live stock. Thus, it is believed that the rejuvenation of
the old forest on this farm is impracticable. Instead, this land, as
soon as the old trees have all disappeared or been removed, should be
laid out into permanent fields. As every well-regulated farm, how-
ever, should possess some timberland to supply it with fence posts and
to furnish shade and shelter for live stock, the plantations described
on page 261 are recommended. The trees will take up as little room
as possible and will not interfere with the tillage of the land, while the
arrangement of the fields in rectangular blocks will greatly facilitate
the use of modern machinery.

(2) The chief plantations should occupy strips 5 rods wide, running
from north to south. One of these strips should be planted on the
western border of the farm and another crossing its center, due south
of the residence. A third should cut off the block extending east
from the southeast corner of the main rectangular tract. In addition
to these strips, it is advised that single rows of trees be planted on the
division lines between the fields, so that they may be used as live posts
upon which to fasten wire to form fences. (See fig. 14, p. 259.)

(3) Black walnut and hardy catalpa should be used in equal propor-
tions for the belts, and should be planted every 4 feet in alternating
rows, which should be 6 feet apart. The walnut seed should be planted
two years prior to the introduction of the catalpa seedlings, in order to
allow the slow-growing walnut to get a start before being crowded by
the catalpa. The nuts of the walnut should be collected as soon as ripe
in the fall, and should either be stratified* in moist sand or planted

@Stratification isa method of storing forest seeds to prevent drying out. The seeds
are stored in alternating layers between layers of moist sand.

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 261

immediately in their permanent site. These nuts should never be
allowed to dry out after ripening. They are most easily planted while
plowing, by dropping them in a furrow and covering them with the
next furrow slice. If walnuts are thus planted, the squirrels are not
likely to find them. The ground between the rows during the follow-
ing two years should be planted with corn, and should receive good
tillage. This can best be done by use of the lister. After the catalpa
seedlings are introduced no more corn should be planted, but the ground
should be cultivated as long as a single-horse cultivator can be run
between the rows. Catalpa seedlings 12 to 16 inches tall and one year
old should be used. They can be obtained from dealers for $1.50 to
$5 per thousand. The labor of planting these seedlings may be per-
formed chiefly by horsepower. Both walnut and catalpa should be
planted in accordance with the following diagram:

Mixture of black walnut and hardy catalpa.
[4 feet by 6 feet.]
BW BW BW BW BW BW

HC HC HC HO HC HO
BW BW BW BW BW BW
HC HC HC HC HC HO

Required number of trees per acre.

Black walnut: i: << 2.o0cc - 907
HIME CBIR oS. ca. a 907
Otte by Ago 3 2g coe hs 1,814

By consulting figure 14 the reader will see that the planting plan
subdivides this farm into eleven fields—eight rectangular ones of
equal area and similar dimensions, and three of nearly equal area but
of unlike dimensions. This division will permit the application of
scientific crop rotations, the eight rectangular fields being suited to
two systems of four-year rotations and the three irregular fields to
one three-year rotation. The convenient shape, ease of cultivation,
and wonderful fertility of this farm present an excellent opportunity,
under the instruction and supervision of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
for the arrangement of such rotations of suitable crops.

Trees planted on the lines which separate the fields will serve as
windbreaks as well as living fence posts. A good method is to plant
Osage orange hedges between the fields, and every 20 feet to allow one
of the trees to grow its natural height. The remaining trees should
be pruned to a height of 5 feet and kept within proper limits fora
hedge. Then, if this growth proves inefficient as a fence, it can be

962 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reenforced by woven wire stapled to the large trees. If the Osage
orange is undesirable or a hedge not wanted, chestnut should prove a
desirable tree for the fence lines. ‘The young trees should be planted
about 20 feet apart, and when they begin to crowd each other every
alternate tree should be cut out. Round headed and with sturdy trunks,
these trees will form very effective windbreaks for the intervening
fields. ‘Their nuts will bring a satisfactory return for the land they
occupy, and the trees which are cut out will furnish excellent fence
posts. The substitution of straight woven-wire fences for the old
zigzag ones of rails transforms the fence lines from breeding places for
noxious weeds into productive land upon which the living fence posts
grow into a merchantable product.

Such a plan as this fixes the boundaries of the fields, plans the loca-
tion of the private lanes, and, in fact, forms the skeleton of any future
system of farm management that may be applied to this farm.

A MODEL PRAIRIE FARM PLAN.

In order to illustrate a model prairie farm plan made in accordance
with sound principles of forestry, figure 15 has been prepared. This
farm plan is applicable to a large region in the prairies of the Middle
West, where windbreaks are necessary to the full development of the
country. It assumes that the land is of uniform condition of soil, and
has been surveyed by the rectangular system adopted by the Gov-
ernment. The public roads are supposed to be located on the section
lines. The application of this model to a country with its surface
broken by creeks or lakes would, of course, necessitate a modifica-
tion to fit local conditions. The plan is intended merely to illustrate
principles.

Four farms of 160 acres each are shown, illustrating an arrangement
suitable to each of the four quarters of a section. The farmstead, or
that portion of a farm which is occupied by the residence, barn,
orchards, gardens, lawn, and feedlots, is here shown as placed at the
section corner of each farm. While in a large proportion of cases
the location of the farmstead will be determined by the particular con-
ditions, as water supply, topography, etc., an arrangement, where
practicable, by which» the houses stand on the section corners will be
worth considering.

The fields on each quarter section have been laid out to permit the
planting of windbreaks to protect the crops from the hot southwest-
erly winds of summer and the cold northwesterly winds of winter.
The farmsteads are also provided with protection from winds. East —
winds have not been considered, because of their infrequent occur-
rence, but a general adoption of this plan on all the farms of a region
would afford protection from all points of the compass.

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 263

The fields, with one exception, are all of the same shape and size,
each quarter section being divided into six fields, each 22.1 acres in
area. This method of dividing the farm into fields will afford an oppor-
tunity for the application of a scientific system of crop rotation, and
the fields, being six in number, will permit the application of a com-
pound rotation embracing the use of a perennial crop like alfalfa in
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Fic. 15.—Ideal plan of the four quarters of a section, showing location of forest and windbreak plan-
tations, with reference to the farmstead and the fields, A, B, C, D, E, and F, suited to the prairies
of Kansas and Oklahoma.

combination with five annual crops, where this is desired. If the use

of a perennial is not desirable, the six fields will permit the running of

two parallel three-crop rotations.

TREES AND METHODS RECOMMENDED.

The plan provides that the forest trees shall be planted in belts vary-
ing from 2 to 8 rods in width, except along fence lines, where they
are in single rows. The best results, purely from the standpoint of
forestry, will be obtained in the widest belts, since trees are social in
their habits. Still better tree growth would be secured by planting

264 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

in compact blocks. But as agriculture is the fundamental industry in
the region to which this plan applies, the tree planting is designed
only to supplement the production of field crops. Eleven er 12 per
cent of each quarter section is to be devoted to forest. This is exclusive
of the space occupied by the single lines of trees in the fence rows.

The species that may be recommended for this purpose vary for
each particular locality with conditions of climate, rainfall, and soil.
Circulars 29 and 30 of the Bureau of Forestry, explanatory of exhibit
plantations at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, enumerate sixty
different combinations suited for woodlots and windbreaks in different
parts of the United States, but do not begin to exhaust the combina-
tions possible. Considering the Middle Western States together, how-
ever, the following trees, when placed on hospitable soil fulfilling the
requirements of each individual species, may, in the northern half of
the region, be successfully grown as windbreaks:

Common name. Scientific name.
Arhorvitee s.). 4. oF wens’ Gas a aha em ioeteateiwrard te Thuja occidentalis.
Groen eeh! ac. betel) ee Rie see Fraxinus lanceolata.
Roxelder? ..2 <4 san ith been ata noel cian dees Acer negundo.
Cottonwood’... o:si3co cadence en eee Populus deltoides.
Cork Qin. x oon Secs cus Shae te apa nee Cun eeeeet ue Ulmus racemosa.
WHS GU co. 5 oa pone c ose cee ee eee oa Ulmus americana.

, wourOpean laroh. 5c 7. eho eee ee Larix europea,
Ruesian wild olive .ii0s seek Fs ss ate. ee ieee Eleagnus angustifolia.
Western. yollaw mite .i5wct-wc cucteeacioas Ses cee Pinus ponderosa.
Black Fille Ortega Picea canadensis.
Laurel-leaied WiNGW: .. as~ o2<> aces tocanionue nse Salix laurifolia.
Russian polden willow ...- .o->~ sbecewes=eec near Salix vitellina aurea.
White willow oss cb. ieee cee et oie Salix alba.

In the southern half of the Middle West also, the green ash, cotton-
wood, white elm, Russian wild olive, and western yellow pine may be
successfully grown, and in addition the following species:

Common name. Scientific name.
Chinese arborvite......-- rs tae ae BE se cps Biota orientalis.
Wild Obina 32 an tes iceas aera cies sees Sapindus marginatus.
Black locust: ous 2s 2S oe ee ee eee Robinia pseudacacia.
Homey lOeost ose 8 oo ee ee we eres Gleditsia triacanthos.
Mebowite 6 i265 a5) Uso see eS ee ee eee? Prosopis juliflora.
pesmen soniherry . : <0 os sses samen we eee aaa Morus alba tatarica.
EO AEN, OS LORE es, Chalet SPP MET REF Toxylon pomiferum.
PON ON |... o's «acai ts tebe a a See eee Diospyros virginiana.
Shittimwood (locally Chittimwood) -....-...-.--- Bumelia lanuginosa.

These lists do not include all of the best timber trees that might be
grown in the Middle West, for many valuable timber trees will not
endure such severe exposure as a windbreak is subject to.

In the establishment of a windbreak, wisdom is required in the plac-
ing of the different species. A windbreak composed of more than one

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 265

species is usually the most effective. An excellent method of arrange-
ment is to place the shortest trees in the outside row (toward the pre-
vailing wind), to plant a somewhat taller species next to them, and to
place the tallest trees ina third row on the side adjacent to the buildings
or the area which is to be protected. This causes the wind to strike
the trees as it would strike the face of a steep hill, deflecting its course
upward. If the tallest trees of the third row consist of a flexible
species, such as cottonwood, European larch, white willow, or honey
locust, they will bend before the wind, and act as a cushion to deflect
it upward and over the object to be protected. A satisfactory wind-
break 5 rods in width, for the protection of the north and west sides
of a farmstead (see fig. 15) and adapted to Minnesota and the Dakotas,
is as follows: Plant 13 rows of trees, parallel to one another and 6
feet 10 inches apart. The first two rows on the north and west edges
of the belts should consist of Russian wild olive, the third and fourth
rows of arborvite, the fifth and sixth rows of boxelder, the seventh
and eighth rows of white elm, the ninth and tenth rows of white wil-
low, and the remaining three rows of common cottonwood. Such a
plantation, when mature, will appear like a wall with a sloping top, the
highest side being where the cottonwoods are planted.

Carrying out this same principle for Oklahoma and Texas, with a
change in the position of the plantations to afford protection from
southwest winds (see fig. 15), the following method is advised: The
first two rows on the south and west edges of the belts should consist
of Russian mulberry or Osage orange, the third and fourth rows
of Chinese arborvite, the fifth and sixth rows of black locust, the
seventh and eighth rows of green ash, the ninth and tenth rows of
white elm, and the remaining three rows of honey locust or common
cottonwood.

In southern California, where the damaging winds come from oppo-
site points of the compass (from both the southwest and northeast),
a good plan for a windbreak is one in which the tallest, most flexible
trees will be in the center rows, so that the species on either side will
slope downward toward the outside edges of the belt. For such a
windbreak 24 rods wide and consisting of 7 rows of trees, the following
arrangement may be suggested: The three rows in the middle of the
belt should be of blue gum ( Aucalyptus globulus), the next row toward
the outside on each side should be of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata),
and the two rows occupying the two edges of the. belt should be of
Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa). This same arrangement
may be used on a belt 5 rods wide by doubling the number of rows of
pine and cypress and increasing the gum to five rows. In order to
construct a windbreak in California that will be perfectly effective,
the belts should be placed on all four sides of the area which is to

266 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be protected. This is illustrated by the farmstead on the northwest
quarter of the section shown in figure 15.

The belts advised in the model plan are of sufficient width to pro- .
duce all the timber that will be needed on a farm of 160 acres, while
the fields are sufliciently narrow to be protected from winds by the
single lines of trees occupying the fence rows. Experiments have
demonstrated that a windbreak, on level land, will be effective for a
distance of at least ten times its height. For perfect protection on
the model farms herein described, the trees in the windbreak must
reach a height of at least 50 feet.

An objection to growing trees along fence lines has been made by
farmers on the ground that such trees steal the soil nourishment from
the crops which are on the edges of the fields. It is true that healthy,
vigorous trees make great demands on the soil moisture in their imme-
diate vicinity, but wherever their influence is felt as windbreaks they
conserve enough moisture, by preventing rapid evaporation, to more
than pay for all that they use. By planting a deep-rooted crop like
alfalfa under the shade of the fence-line trees, good returns from the
land may be secured in spite of the fact that the trees absorb a part of
its moisture. It is a great mistake to begrudge a useful tree the space
it occupies, and particularly so in the naturally treeless prairies of the
Middle West.

SPECIAL ADVANTAGES OF FOREST PLANTING ABOUT THE FARMSTEAD.

On rare oceasions it is found to be impracticable to concentrate the
different elements of the farmstead in one place. (See fig. 16.) In
the great majority of cases, however, it is both practicable and econom-
ical to have a farmstead, and the choice of its site is of the first impor-
tance to the landowner.

If the farmsteads of several adjoining sections were laid out in’
accordance with the plan herein suggested, four farmhouses would be
grouped at each crossroads corner, bringing neighbors together in a
little settlement. The position at the crossroads is also likely to facili-
tate the reaching of church, school, and town. An argument against
such an arrangement is the possibility of its leading to neighborhood
quarrels.

In many cases, however, uniformity of soil does not exist. The
farmstead must then be located with reference to the adaptability of
the soil to the forest growth, since a farmstead without trees for shade
and shelter is not worthy of the name. The forest planter, therefore,
is often the one to determine the location of a permanent site for the
farmhouse, and he may also lay out at least the plan of the farmstead
itself.

FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 267

Figure 16, representing the farmstead located on the southeast quarter
of the section sketched in figure 15, has been prepared to show how
forest planting may be made to help every one of the different parts
that go to make up the farmstead. Windbreak belts, 5 rods wide, are
located on the north, west, and south sides of the farmstead. Open
spaces varying from 72 to 96 feet in width have been provided to the
north and west of the buildings and orchards, to act as snow traps to

SNOWTRAP AND SPACE FOR ROOT CROPS
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Fic. 16.—Plan of a farmstead, situated at the southeast corner of a prairie farm, arranged to afford
windbreak protection to all the elements of the rural home.

catch the drifts during winter storms. Every farmer is familiar with
the fact that a hedge or belt of trees on the north side of an east-and-
west road will cause the road to be filled with snow during winter,
when the wind comes from the north. The open space on the farm-
stead will in the same way trap the snow, and will consequently

268 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

prevent any drifts from forming near the barn or residence, or in the
orchards. ‘These open spaces may be utilized for garden vegetables,
sugar beets, and other annual feed crops, the accumulation of winter
snows serving as an annual irrigation to store up large quantities of
soil moisture for the garden, and making the land particularly well
adapted to this purpose. The trees on the edges of these spaces will,
for the same reason, grow very vigorously.

In this plan the convenience, health, and comfort of the tenants of
the farmhouse have all been considered in the location of both barn
and residence. The grouping of the trees in the background of the
lawn has been made with reference to adornment, but without an
attempt to enter into the details of landscape gardening. The plan
leaves the lawn in such a shape, however, that the landscape gardener
may have full scope for the display of his talents. A plan including,
as this one does, complete protection from the hot winds of summer
and the cold storms of winter will add greatly to the intrinsic worth of
any farm located in the prairie States. If the farmer is engaged in
the production of beef and pork, the protection of the barnyard and
feedlots will economize the feed consumed by the fattening animals,
for it takes more grain to produce a pound of flesh upon animals
exposed to the cold north winds of winter than upon stock protected
from blizzards. Thus a windbreak takes the place of grain in main-
taining the heat of the animal during cold weather. On the other
hand, it will add to the farmer’s bank account during the summer,
for it will afford shade and protection to fattening animals, which
lose flesh in very hot weather.

Windbreak belts in connection with a farmstead form an asset that
is none the less real because the actual money value may not easily be
determined. The protection to an orchard afforded by forest trees is
valuable, since late frosts are not likely to blight the fruit blossoms of
a protected orchard. Forest belts on the south and west sides of the
farmstead give ample protection against the parching blasts from the
southwest—the hot winds of summer, which are destructive to fruit in
many parts of the country. It is to be understood, however, that the
forest plantations herein recommended are also to be utilized for the
production of the needed timber supplies on the farm. By judiciously
thinning the plantations, 20 acres of planted forest will furnish all the
fuel needed on a farm of 160 acres, besides producing lumber for the
renewal of the farm buildings. Many Kansas and Nebraska farmers
have in twenty years grown cottonwood trees large enough for saw-
logs. Mr. W. D. Rippey, of Severance, Kans., cut 200,000 feet of cot-
tonwood lumber a few years ago from trees of hisown planting. Mr.
Rippey’s plantations were on uplands where the soil is not particularly
well adapted to the growth of cottonwood, and, when lumbered, were
but little more than a quarter of a century old. /

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FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. 269

Plate XXIII represents a scene on the farm of Mr. T. F. Eastgate,
near Larimore, N. Dak., in the Red River Valley. <A belt of planted
cottonwood trees supplemented by a dense undergrowth of wild plum
bushes acts as a windbreak and snow catcher, causing a snowdrift to
form in winter over the open field shown in the foreground, which is
devoted to alfalfa. In the summer of 1904 Mr. Eastgate harvested
alfalfa hay from this field at the rate of more than 5 tons per acre.

Besides serving as a windbreak and snow catcher, thus making the
growth of alfalfa possible on this farm, the forest plantation has pro-
duced cordwood during its twenty-one years of life at the rate of 4.74
cords per acre per annum.

The successful growth of alfalfa on 10 per cent of the area of this
region would double the earning power of every acre of land in the
Red River Valley; and, since the thermometer here sometimes falls as
low as 50° below zero, it is possible to grow this extremely valuable
forage only by utilizing some contrivance like Mr. EKastgate’s wind-
break, to catch the snowdrifts and form during the winter a protect-
ing blanket over the plants.

CONCLUSION.

Forestry is but a branch of the great industry of agriculture, but it
can give important aid to the farmer in getting sustenance for the
human race from the soil. It has been shown that where forest plant-
ing is desirable, the planting plan is of fundamental importance to the
management of the farm which is concerned. The location and culti-
vation of these forests may either make them peculiarly advantageous
or cause them to become a detriment.to the economical management
of the farm.

The planting plans which have been set forth in the preceding pages
are not regarded as perfect, but are given as suggestions of what may
be done to make farm forest planting serviceable. They are based on
considerable practical experience, and it is believed that they demon-
strate beyond a doubt how far superior is a well-considered, systematic
method of handling the problems of farm forestry to the haphazard,
careless methods so often practiced in the past.

Farmers are now receiving instructions from the Department of
Agriculture both for the establishment of forest plantations and for
the inauguration of cropping systems, but it seldom happens that the
same farmer receives instruction in both matters at the same time.
The intimate relations existing between farm management and forest
planting are so patent and their importance is so great that the two
should go hand in hand. It is to be hoped that as the practice of sci-
entific agriculture spreads, model farms may be laid out in all parts
of the United States, on which practicable plans for forest planting

270 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

may be demonstrated and the best methods of planning the various
parts of a farm so as to make provision for an economical and prac-
ticable system of crop rotation may be illustrated. Farmers, in order
to get the services of Government experts in planning both forest
plantations and systems of farm management, should make application
for instructions both to the Bureau of Plant Industry and to the
Bureau of Forestry.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA.

By Frank W. BICKNELL,
Special Agent and Agricultural Explorer.

ARGENTINA AS AN AGRICULTURAL COUNTRY.

The Argentine Republic is one of our strongest competitors in the
food markets of the world. In many respects it resembles the United
States, being in nearly the same zone, on the other side of the equator,
and having a large, fertile, level country, admirably adapted to agri-
culture and stock raising. Almost everything that can be raised in
the United States can be raised more cheaply and equally well in
Argentina. The country has a total area of 1,135,840 English square
miles, equal to all the United States east of the Mississippi, with both
the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Iowa added. About 25,000,000 acres are
under cultivation, nearly half of which is in wheat. With the wheat
she raises, Argentina can supply bread for her own 5,000,000 people
and for 16,000,000 to 22,000,000 persons in other countries, calculated
on the United States basis of 43 bushels per capita. The mild climate
of the country gives farmers and stock raisers many advantages, for
in the farming country the temperature rarely falls much below the
freezing point, and grass grows the yearround. The country extends
through 34 degrees of latitude, or about 2,300 miles, from north to
south, while the limits of the United States cover only about 24
degrees, or 700 miles less. The northern boundary of Argentina is
200 miles nearer the equator than the most southerly point of Florida,
and the southern boundary of continental Argentina is 400 miles
uearer the south pole than the United States (excepting Alaska) is to
the north pole. The country is 800 miles wide at the widest point and
tapers at the south to the narrow point of Patagonia, as it used to be
called.

It is worth while for the farmers of North America to know some-
thing of the farmers of South America; what they produce and how
they do it; what their natural advantages and disadvantages are; how
their produce is marketed; how it is received and what the returns are
to the producers; what the possibilities and probabilities of these new
food producers are, and what, if any, are the opportunities to be found
there by outsiders. In a residence of about eighteen months in

271

272 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Argentina, while engaged in making investigations for the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the writer had an opportunity to see how agri-
culture and stock raising are carried on in nearly every part of that
country.¢

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IMPROVING,

Nearly everything that has been done in Argentina thus far has
been experimental. The tendency of the average Argentine farmer
has not been favorable to progress. Years ago most of the valuable
land of the country was parceled out in enormous tracts and either
given away or sold for a trifle, without any obligation on the part of
the owners to improve the land or open it for settlement. The small
farmer was not encouraged, and large owners of land, as a rule, did
not want it settled; they preferred to hold it, and were satisfied with
a small revenue per acre, because they had so much. Immigration
came chiefly from southern Europe—much the larger part of it from
Italy. These immigrants were almost wholly ignorant of agriculture,
and lacked the capacity or ambition to learn. Most of them did not
want to own land, but were merely renters, getting all they could
from one piece and going on to another, living for the most part
wretched lives, getting small profits, and suffering many losses, owing
to their ignorance and unwillingness to adopt improved methods.
The influence of English and North American ideas has nevertheless
been felt in the country,and most of the leading estancieros, or ranch-
men, interested in cattle breeding especially, are now very ambitious
to make the best use of their great opportunities. (Pl. XXIV, fig.
1.) They are not only improving the grade of their stock, but they
are studying, with a view to making better use of their land, and we
may expect them very soon to be practicing diversified farming more
or less as it is done in the United States. One of their greatest mis-
takes has been that each man has gone in for but one thing—either
the raising of sheep, cattle, or grain.

The climatic advantages of Argentina are so great that farmers
there will probably always be able to produce live stock and grain
cheaper than these can be produced in the United States. The farm-
ing land is rich and widely extended. There is no winter to contend
with. Stock never requires shelter, and seldom dry feed for winter,

«Those desiring more detailed information about agriculture and stock raising in
Argentina should consult the bulletins prepared by the writer of this article, and
published by the Department of Agriculture, as follows:

The Animal Industry of Argentina, Bulletin No. 48, Bureau of Animal Industry;
Indian Corn in Argentina, Production and Export, Report No. 75; Alfalfa and Beef
Production in Argentina, Report No. 77; Wheat Production and Farm Life in
Argentina, Bulletin No. 27, Bureau of Statistics.

AGRIOULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. 273

except for fattening steers, and sometimes in dry seasons a little hay
is used. Some advantage lies in the fact that the seasons are just the
opposite of those in the United States.

While primitive, wasteful, and vicious methods (or lack of iealicdle)
prevail in all parts of the country to some extent, and scientific prog-
ress seems to have missed some sections altogether, the signs of prog-
ress, ambition, and improvement are everywhere to be seen in the
better parts of the country. Argentina naturally began to improve
first in the direction of her greatest interest—cattle and sheep raising.
More than fifty years ago Leonardo Pereyra began to import Short-
horns from England for his ranch, near the city of Buenos Aires, and
now it is estimated that three-fourths of the 25,000,000 to 28,000,000
of cattle in the country have more or less Shorthorn blood, which is
the predominating breed there. The demand for the best breeding
stock is one of the plainest indications of the desire to excel and of
the realization that a well-bred animal pays a larger percentage of
profit on the investment than a ‘‘ scrub.”

THE LIVE-STOCK BUSINESS.

There is no probability that Argentine cattle or sheep will be admitted
to the English ports alive for a good many years, because of the exist-
ence of foot-and-mouth disease in Argentina. A fine business had
been established in sending both sheep and cattle from the port of
Buenos Aires when the disease made its appearance in the country in
its severest form, causing the death of many thousand cattle. The
English ports were closed to Argentine live animals and remained so
until February, 1903, when the Argentine Government succeeded in
persuading the British Board of Agriculture that the disease had
entirely disappeared. On the promise of the enforcement of the most
rigid sanitary laws to prevent the importation of the disease, and espe-
cially to prevent the sending of it to England if it should appear, the
shipment of live animals to English ports was resumed. The require-
ments upon arrival in England were about the same as those imposed
upon cattle from the United States. The business took on a great
boom. Thecountry was drained of cattle and sheep, and buyers do not
seem to have made judicious selections, for some of them realized very
poor prices. The facilities for shipping were wholly inadequate, and
losses on the voyage were as high as 10, 15, and even 20 per cent, the
latter in a few cases. Coming in competition with the corn-fed steers
of the United States, the Argentine steers, bought at prices very high
for that country, brought the shippers very disappointing returns,
more often losses than profits. In this period of extreme stimulation
steers sold in Argentina for $37 to $54, the latter and a few dollars less

2 a1904——18

274 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

being the price for the best three to three-and-a-half year old animals
suitable for export. Many were bought at lower prices and sent to
England, but these turned out worse than the higher priced animals;
all of them, without exception, were either grass or alfalfa fed ex-
clusively. None had been taught to eat grain, and so they lost weight
on shipboard. The oceanfreights varied from $17 to $22, and the sales
were from $58 to $111, the latter a very exceptional figure.

But the business did not last long. In May, 19038, when the Argen-
tines were just learning what they must do to succeed in the English
live-stock market, the foot-and-mouth disease broke out again in a
milder form, and in a few months it spread generally over the country.
The Argentine Government closed its own ports to the exportation of
live stock and set about trying to control the disease. The best
information obtainable is that it went pretty generally over the coun-
try, especially in the central and northern parts, but did not cause the
damage that the previous outbreak did. Recently the Argentine
Government has been trying again to secure the reopening of the
English ports to Argentine live stock, but without success. It is even
said that if England continues to refuse admittance to the steers and
wethers of Argentina, the latter will admit the breeding stock of
France, Belgium, Germany, and other countries of Continental Europe,
which has been excluded for several years because of the existence of
disease in those countries and to satisfy English demands. As long
as Argentina admitted cattle or sheep from Europe, England would
not listen to her request for admission of live stock. There does not
seem to be, however, any probability that England will reopen her
ports to Argentine live stock, on account of the fear of bringing foot-
and-mouth disease into England.

HIGH PRICES FOR BREEDING STOCK.

Argentina is the best market English breeders have for the sale
of their pure-bred stock, and they will make every effort to hold it.
Argentine breeders and beef producers have learned one lesson thor-
oughly, and are now learning another. The first is that it pays to
produce a well-bred steer (Pl. XXIV, fig. 1) rather than a scrub; the
other is that corn-finished beef is better than grass or alfalfa fed beef,
and that such animals will travel better and bring a better price in any
market. The first lesson has been accepted by all the leading cattlemen
in the country, and is only disputed by the old-timers in the remote dis-
tricts, who continue, from lack of ambition or knowledge, to breed the
old, thin, small ‘‘ criolla” or native cattle. The number and importance
of cattlemen who are content with this kind of animals is very rapidly
decreasing. The extraordinary demand for pure-bred stock is shown
by the enormous prices paid in the sales. In spite of the fact that —

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE XXIV.

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Fia. 1.—SHORTHORNS AT THE ESTANCIA SAN JUAN, ARGENTINA.

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Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE XXV.

Fic. 1.—DURHAM BULL OXFORD BARON.

[No. 0150 (H. B. A. 6443); age, 1 year 11 months and 25 days, weight, 1,991 pounds, sold for $21,000
Argentine. |

FiG. 2.—YOUNG DURHAM BULLS.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. 275

Argentine beef producers must sell their product to the freezing or
chilling plants almost exclusively, the prices paid for breeding stock in
the annual national exposition auction sales in September, 1904, were
higher than ever before, and more animals were sold. Two Shorthorn
bulls bred in the country were sold for $9,240 each, and one imported
from England brought $13,640, the highest price yet paid in Argentina
fora bull. During the past year many bulls, both imported and of
domestic breeding, have been sold in Buenos Aires at prices ranging
from $2,000 to $13,000, and probably at least 50 for prices above
$5,000. Hundreds have brought more than $2,000. In the annual
sales referred to 160 grade bulls were sold at prices averaging better
than $500 each. All of these were Shorthorns. (Pl. XXV.) These
high prices indicate fairly the intense desire of Argentine stockmen to
improve their cattle. The Herefords and Polled Angus are not yet so
popular in Argentina, as was evidenced by the lower prices. The top
price paid for a Hereford was only $1,200.

The total value of live stock imported into Argentina in 1903 was
$693,120, an increase of about one-third over the previous year. The
increase the first six months of 1904 has been much greater.

LEARNING THE VALUE OF CORN FEEDING.

The Argentine cattlemen, as already stated, have begun to learn that
it pays to feed cattle corn before sending them to market. For a -
long time they have been reluctant to admit that their grass and
alfalfa fed cattle did not make beef as good in every way as the corn-
fed steers of the United States. All those who shipped cattle from
Buenos Aires to the English market during the few months of 1903
when it was permitted found unmistakable proof that the corn finish
of three to six months was an absolute requisite for the production of.
the best beef. More attention is now being paid to the raising of
Indian corn in Argentina. Conditions are very favorable for the crop,
and it is sure to be used more for feeding. One of the leading English
ranchmen of the Province of Buenos Aires, Mr. Glynne Williams,
spent some time in the United States during the summer and fall of
1904, studying the best methods of corn production, with the intention
of raising corn for his cattle and sending them to market in condition
to produce chilled beef equal to any that is offered in the English mar-
ket. Others are also planning to feed corn as a finishing touch to
their best steers, believing that, with the low cost of producing the
corn, it will bring enough more for the steers to make it pay. This
will come about slowly, however.

During the first eight months of 1904, 3,333 cattle and 12,073 sheep
were shipped alive from Argentina. The cattle nearly all went to
Brazil, with a few to South Africa and Spain. The sheep all went to

276 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Belgium, except a few to Brazil and Spain. Sanitary objections have
been made against Argentine meat products in Austria, where a good
trade was being developed. The South African trade has fallen off
so that it amounts to very little, except in horses and mules—3,867
horses, 5,335 mules, and 2,003 donkeys being exported in eight
months, most of them going to South Africa. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2.)

THE FROZEN-MEAT TRADE,

Argentine ranchmen have settled down to the conclusion that they
must rely upon the frozen and chilled meat concerns, selling almost
exclusively in the English market, as the outlet for their beef and
mutton. Exporting chilled meat and even frozen meat at the good
prices of 1903-4 is more profitable than shipping the live animals.
The price of Argentine frozen beef of the best quality in the Smithfield
‘market the past year has been 8+ pence (6$ cents) per pound, and
frozen mutton 3% pence (74+ cents) for frozen mutton carcasses under
50 pounds; heavier carcasses brought 2 cents a pound less. Chilled
beef brought still better prices. So it is unlikely that Argentine
steers would be exported in large quantities even in the improbable
event of the reopening of the English ports.

During the year 19038, 3,381,600 frozen wethers were exported, all
to England except 250, 860, which went to South Africa. In the same
* year the exports of oun aid chilled beef, mostly frozen, were 996,023
quarters, all to England except 224,999 to South Africa. For the
nine months January to September, 1904, the exports were 2,894,369
mutton carcasses and 862,938 quarters of beef, a considerable increase
over the same period in 1903. For four years previous to 1903 the
exports of mutton and beef were as follows:

Exports of beef and mutton from Argentina, 1899-1902.

Quarters Carcasses

Year. of beef. | of mutton.
BROO et Sore a Cea 118, 431 2, 485, 949
1900). oc weedeat oer ees be eee eee 265, 965 2, 385, 214
TOOT. Co oes a oe oes ae eae 498, 375 2, toaster
1008) oe hte eo ae eee 830, 218 8, 429, 222

At present five freezing plants are at work near the city of Buenos
Aires, making the shipments referred to in these statistics. These
properties are given a valuation of $5,600,000 by the Government
statistics, and their capitalization is over $53,000,000. There is one
other, at Bahia Blanca, the principal seaport in the southern part of
the Province of Buenos Aires, not included in the statistics of 1904. It

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. O77

is less than a year old. Several other freezing and chilling plants are
in the course of construction, though the business has not paid the
past two years as it did at first, when there were only two plants and
dividends of 40 per cent were declared. In October, 1904, the best
prices paid by these ‘‘ frigorificos,” as the freezing plants are called,
were $35 to $40 for the best young steers on the ranch. Lincoln
wethers brought $4 to $5.50, Rambouillets $4.20 to $4.90, and lambs
$2.60 to $3.50. These were for the best fat animals, fit for freezing.
The ordinary ones sold for much less. These prices are above the
average for the year, because the time for shearing was approaching.

Only one establishment is sending chilled beef to England, and very
good success is reported. We may expect that more chilled beef will
be sent in the future in the place of so much frozen meat. ‘The latter
has not always met with the demand that was anticipated when the
additional ‘‘frigorificos” were built. Frozen meat appeals only to a
cheaper class of trade, and the English market, it is said, has often
been oversupplied with it. The Argentines, therefore, intend to send
to England chilled corn-fed beef. It will be several years before the
volume of such shipments will be great enough to be seriously felt,
but the time is surely coming when Argentine chilled beef will be an
important factor in the English market, and there is no reason to
doubt its being first-class. The disadvantage of the longer voyage
will be more than overcome by the saving in cost of production in
Argentina. Labor, land, and feed are all cheaper than in those parts
of the United States where cattle are fattened for export.

NUMBER OF ANIMALS IN ARGENTINA.

No census of the live stock of Argentina has been attempted since
1895, and it is admitted that the census then taken is wholly unreliable.
The best estimates claim from 25,000,000 to 28,000,000 head of cattle
in the country. The first figure is probably more nearly correct.
The number of sheep is estimated at from 85,000,000 to 120,000,000.
It is still more difficult to arrive at a definite idea in regard to the num-
ber of sheep, because they are more scattered and less care is taken in
enumerating them. Probably the number is between 90,000,000 and
100,000,000. The wool shipments of Argentina have not varied much
in the past nine years, but last year (1903-4) was the lowest of any in
that period. The exports were about 181,000 tons. In 1895-96 the
exports were 231,000 tons. The tendency in sheep raising is now to
raise more of the Merino type, instead of the long-wooled, big-car-
cassed Lincolns, which have been the dominating breed ‘for twenty
years. (Pl. XXVI.) Rambouillets are bringing a much higher price

278 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

now, as the English market calls for the small, fine-grained carcass,
not over 50 pounds, and the finer wool is in much better demand.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

The dairy industry is developing into one of the chief interests of
Argentina. A few years ago little or no attention was paid to it. Dur-
ing the year 1903, 6,875 tons of butter were exported from Argentina,
at an average price of 17} cents per pound. ‘The exportation of 1904
will show a very large increase over this amount. In 1898 only 1,021
tons were exported. Argentine butter is of an excellent quality and
is successfully competing in English markets with the best butter of
other countries, bringing almost as good a price as Danish butter. It
is shipped in 1 and 2 pound packages, packed in boxes holding 56
pounds. The system now in vogue is the shipment of cream from
small gathering stations all over the country toa few large creameries,
chiefly the one in Buenos Aires. This is a cooperative concern on a
very large scale, and it has been successful and profitable.

BENEFITS FROM ALFALFA.

Following the improvement in breeding came the betterment of the
pastures. The introduction of alfalfa has redeemed hundreds of
thousands of acres of land hitherto of no use; the carrying capacity of
thinly grassed rough land has been increased five, ten, and even fifteen
fold by seeding the land to alfalfa. The foundation of the Argentine
animal industry is built upon the wonderful capacity of this plant to
reach deep down into the semi-arid land and bring the moisture to the
surface. It has caused the development of a vast area of waste land in
the western and northern parts of the country without irrigation. Cat-
tle are sent from the breeding ranches to these outlying alfalfa pastures
to be fattened. The carrying capacity of Argentine alfalfa is, in
round numbers, from three-fifths to one animal per acre, while the
usual average carrying capacity of the native grasses is one animal to
84 acres. Some of the rich native pastures of the Province of Buenos
Aires will carry one animal for every 2 acres; and, as there are both
winter and summer grasses, this makes very good feed, except in dry
seasons. Nothing resists the drought so well as alfalfa. The favorite
method for securing alfalfa pasture is to plant the land with wheat.
The ranchman rents his land to farmers, who raise two crops of wheat,
paying hima good rental, and the third year sow alfalfa with the
wheat, the owner paying only for the seed. In this way he gets his
land into alfalfa at very small cost, and the results, while perhaps not
quite so good as may be secured by sowing alfalfa alone, are generally
satisfactory, because the ranchman of limited capital is thus enabled to
secure a large amount of alfalfa pasture in a short time.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. 279

The life of Argentine alfalfa varies according to the use that is
made of it and the location. The best success has been had in the
western part of the Province of Buenos Aires, in San Luis, Cordoba,
and Sante Fe, where the soil is light. The strong native grasses over-
come alfalfa in the rich land of the Province of Buenos Aires. In the
more favorable localities alfalfa, with ordinary care, lasts about fifteen
years, although if it is fed short and not cut it may be run out in five
years. In less favorable localities five to ten years is its average life,
and it must be carefully treated, alternately fed and cut.

Alfalfa hay is very extensively used and is exported in increasing
quantity, amounting now to over 100,000 tons per year. Four to
eight cuttings per year are made, varying from four in the least pro-
ductive regions to eight in the richest alfalfa fields of the north and
northwest used exclusively for hay. Five to six cuttings is the aver-
age in good seasons in the best localities; about a ton per acre is the
average for each cutting. The producers get from $8 to $10 per ton,
and in the city of Buenos Aires the price is often much higher. The
export price during the past twelve years has averaged from $8 to
$12 per ton. The principal foreign consumers of Argentine alfalfa
are Brazil, England, and South Africa.

The chief value of alfalfa in Argentina is that it brings steers to
market a year sooner than could be done with the native grasses.
This fact, with its drought-resisting strength, makes alfalfa absolutely
necessary to Argentine ranchmen, and they are putting in as much of
it as they can.

WHEAT PRODUCTION.

Aside from the production of cattle, by which Argentina first
attracted the attention of the world, the country is known as a wheat
grower, and will continue to increase in importance in this direction.
The extraordinary gain made during the year 1903-4 in crop raising
as against animal production was not due to any unnatural or phe-
nomenal causes. Exports of farm products during the first six months
of 1904 increased more than a third over the same period in 1903,
which was considered a very good year. At the same time the exports
of animal products fell off about 8 per cent. The total wheat export
of Argentina up to the 1st of October, 1904, was 100,000,000 bushels,
while the total for the year 1903 was only 75,000,000, and for the pre-
ceding year only 23,690,070 bushels. The wheat area is rapidly extend-
ing to the west and southwest. The acreage estimated by the Argen-
tine Department of Agriculture for the past season was 9,275,178, and
the estimated production 124,160,636 bushels. This is chiefly in the
Provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, and Cordoba, with smaller
amounts in Entre Rios and in the Territory of the Pampa.

280 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The extension of wheat growing in Argentina depends largely upon
immigration. Men to till the soil is the greatest need the country
has. The wheat area at present includes the southern third of the
Provinces of Entre Rios, Santa Fe, and Cordoba; all the Province of
Buenos Aires, except the eastern part, which is subject to overflow; the
northwestern part of the Neuquen and the Pampa Territories, and the
river valleys in the southern and colder regions of Chubut and Rio
Negro. Suflicient experimenting has been done to make it reasonably
well known where wheat will succeed and where it will not pay. It
has been driven from the northern and warmer part of the country to
the central and southerly part, where the temperature is lower. Only
a small part of the available wheat area is used for that cereal. As
fast as farmers can be found to do the work it will be extended.

Nothing but winter wheat is grown, and that largely of an Italian
variety called Barletta. This variety is a semi-hard wheat, resembling .
our hard red, but not so hard. It has shown greater adaptability than
any other variety, resisting drought and rust, giving better yields, and
standing more abuse. It does not readily shell out, but stays in the
head until the farmer gets ready to cut it. Itis very heavy, weighing
from 60 to 64 pounds per Winchester bushel, and often more. It con-
tains a very high percentage of gluten; analysis has shown 17 per
cent of gluten in Barletta wheat.

INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF FARMING.

Farming is making great gains in Argentina. It used to be rather
looked down upon, and little was done to encourage it. The rich men
who controlled the Government were nearly all engaged in the stock
business. Their animals lived on grass and roamed over vast areas.
The small farmer was not wanted. Now the land is more valuable
and is being cut up more. Farming has become more profitable to
land owners. The gain in crop raising is shown by the Argentine
export statistics of the first six months of 1904, compared with the
same period of 1903:

Exports of Argentine animal and plant products compared.

EXPORTS FOR THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1903 AND 1904.

First six months of 1903: First six months of 1904:
Animal products -..-- $65, 584, 432 Animal products --..-. $60, 188, 501
Plant products ...--. - 59,933, 020 Plant products .......- 80, 644, 366

EXPORTS FOR 1903.

Animal products: Plant products:
Per cent of whole..... 49.4 Per cent of whole ...- 47.6
(LS eee al ates seal teh S $109, 181, 342 imme tec 87)! eo) eed $105, 251, 309
Increase over 1902.... 4, 642, 203 Increase over 1902.... 37,059,977.

The total increase in exports of farm products in 1904 was much
greater than in 1903.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. 281

FARMERS MOSTLY RENTERS.

The latest statistics show that only about one-third of the farmers
are owners of lands they farm in Argentina, while in the United
States the proportion is almost two-thirds. Especially in wheat. rais-
ing the farmers are renters, raising wheat continuously as long as it
will hold out, or as long as they are permitted to stay, when they
move on to other land. They are mostly poor, living without com-
forts and working without intelligence. Having no interest in the
country, they seek only to get all they can from the land, regardless
of the effect of their ruinous operations. They are being employed:
profitably by many large ranchmen to convert their pastures into
alfalfa, by raising wheat for two or three years prior to sowing the
alfalfa. They generally do very poor work and their losses at harvest
time are frequently heavy, because the grain is improperly stacked or
is not sheltered after it is thrashed.

The roads are very poor and the expense of getting to market—
both the hauling to the railway station and the freight from there to
the seaboard—is very high. Freight rates in Argentina are more
than twice as high as in the United States. Wheat is raised as far as
35 to 60 miles from the railway station. Thirty miles is considered
about the limit for profitable production. The cost of hauling is from
4 to 12 cents per bushel, depending on the distance. The grain is all
put in bags, holding not more than 70 kilos (154 pounds); the bags
add further to the cost about 3.87 cents per bushel. The freight to
the seaboard varies from 5 to 6 cents for distances less than 100 miles
up to 10 and 13 cents for distances ranging from 200 to 350 miles.
The average Argentine freight rate in 1901, according to Government
statistics; was 1.6 cents per ton per mile, or more than double the
freight rate in the United States, according to the report of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission. On most of the products in which the
farmer is interested the rates in Argentina are much higher. The
railways, of which there are about 11,000 miles, are nearly all owned
by English capitalists, with Englishmen holding the important posi-
tions in the management and operation.

COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT.

It is impossible to state exactly the average cost of producing a
bushel of wheat in Argentina, because so much of it is produced by
family labor, and it is claimed that this is the only way the Argentine
small farmer can make a profit. Producers on a large scale who have
kept careful records have estimated the cost of production at from 40
to 56 cents per bushel. Estimates on producing an acre of wheat,
furnished by three good authorities, ranged from $4.93 to $8.29,
the latter being the estimate for producing by hired help on a large
scale.

282 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Prices of wheat in Argentina vary according to the distance from
the market, and are of course subject to the influence of the supply
from other quarters. In the past thirteen years the prices have varied
from 47 to 91 cents per bushel. The price in Buenos Aires the past
year has been from 75 to 88 cents.

YIELD OF WHEAT.

The wheat yield of Argentina varies greatly, because of the differ-
ent climatic conditions and methods of cultivation. The southern
part of the Province of Buenos Aires gives the best results, except a
small area in the far south, in the valleys of the Chubut and Negro
rivers. The statistics of the Argentine Department of Agriculture
give this region an average yield of 38.84 bushels per acre for ten
years ending 1901. In these statistics southern Buenos Aires is given
20.26 bushels per acre, the yield decreasing to the northward, until in
the north and center of the Province of Santa Fe it is 10.63 bushels
per acre, and often much less. The past two or three years have
given better returns than this in the south, a yield of 18 to 20 bushels
per acre having been secured by most of the farmers in the Province
of Buenos Aires.

Facilities for marketing grain are poor, but are improving. Rail-
way companies have been required to provide shelter in the stations
for grain offered for shipment, because they are unable to handle
it as fast as it is offered during the busy season. Some immense ele-
vators have been constructed in the ports of Buenos Aires, Rosario,
and Bahia Blanca. Most of these are owned by railway companies
and operated in their interest at high charges.

MILLING.

Milling is not in the most prosperous condition in Argentina, but it
is improving. It has been a failure in the interior, except for local
trade. In the export cities of Buenos Aires and Rosario, reached by
ocean-going ships via the Plate and Parana rivers, it is quite prosper-
ous, and in the former city are some large modern mills. In 1908,
849,918 barrels of flour were exported, chiefly to Brazil, where Ar-
gentina is the chief competitor of the United States. The capacity of
the mills has been increased, and the exportation of 1904 was larger
than for preceding years. The flour produced by these mills is of
excellent quality and the bread of Buenos Aires is very superior.

Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE XXVI.

Fic. 2.—OXFORDSHIRE DOWNS.

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. DATE DOV:

Fia. 1.—CATTLE SHEDS.

Fia. 2.—AN AMERICAN THRASHER AT WORK NEAR TRES ARROYAS, PROVINCE OF
BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA.

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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. 283
INCREASING PRODUCTION OF CORN FOR FEED.

The next important forward step of the Argentine farmer will be
that he will raise more corn in connection with his live stock and will
finish his steers somewhat as they are finished in the United States—
with a few months of corn feeding. (Plate XXVII, fig. 1.) The
country is admirably suited to the production of Indian corn, which
is now grown in enormous quantities in a large territory, but is chiefly
exported. In 1903 Argentina exported 81,000,000 bushels. More
than half the corn produced in the country is exported, while in the
best corn States of the United States all but about 12 to 15 per cent
remains in the county of its production. In years favorable to the
production of corn two-thirds or more of the Argentine crop is ex-
ported. Farmers there are now beginning to learn that the most
profitable way to sell their corn is to send it to market in the con-
densed form of beef or pork. They have done little or nothing in the
direction of raising hogs, but interest in this profitable animal, which
may be raised without trouble in Argentina, is awakened, and it will
be only a matter of a few years until the country will produce a con-
siderable amount of pork.

Argentine farmers never fear frosts for their corn. It may be
planted any time from August to January, but is usually planted in
October or November. Early planted corn is better, because it ripens
and dries sooner. Harvest begins at the end of February. The
greatest disadvantage suffered by the Argentine corn raiser is the fact
that: the gathering season is likely to be wet. There is no cold, dry
weather to ripen and cure the corn. This adds greatly to the difficulties
of marketing, and is one reason for the choice of variety. The most
successful kind is the hard, slender-eared flint corn, known as ‘‘cua-
renton” and ‘‘cincuentino,” which takes its name from the fact that it
takes from forty to fifty days to form ears. Ninety to 95 per cent of
the corn in the country is of this yellow variety. It is too hard for
animals to masticate without its being partly crushed, but it yields a
high percentage of alcohol and brings a good price in the European
market, besides resisting the dampness of the ocean voyage better than
soft corn, because it does not so readily absorb moisture.

Notwithstanding the inferior methods of agriculture followed by the
corn-raising farmers of Argentina, they have secured astonishing
yields. These vary greatly in different localities and are the result of
better or worse cultivation. The average crop in the corn district is
better than 40 bushels per acre, but this is not considered a satisfactory
crop by a good farmer. In the rich alluvial lands of Buenos Aires
and southern Santa Fe the yields run from 60 to 110 bushels per acre,
and good farmers expect 70 to 80 bushels. Very little corn in the

284 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

country is properly planted or cultivated; the rows are too close—
generally not more than 22 to 24 inches—and the seed is drilled in,
hardly ever planted on ‘*‘ the checker-board plan of North America,”
as they call it there. Better farmers, however, are learning that the
method of the United States is the right one, and several hundred
North American corn planters and cultivators ‘ages been sold and are
in profitable use. It is hard to convince the Argentine farmers that by
planting half as much seed they will get twice.as much crop, but those
who have tried it know that such will be the result.

Experiments have been made with the North American dent corn,
and while they have not always been satisfactory the most intelligent
experimenters believe that some of our varieties more suitable for
feeding will be adaptable to their use.

Many of the progressive ranchmen are already planning to combine
the raising of cattle, corn, and hogs, as in the United States. With
cheap land, cheap labor, and favorable climate they expect to be able
to duplicate the food products of the United States at a much lower
cost, except for transportation.

At present the corn area of Argentina extends from the city of
Buenos Aires about 250 miles to the south, 300 to 400 miles to the
southwest, 300 miles west, 350 to 400 miles northwest, and 350 to 400 ©
miles north. Less than 5,000,000 acres were cultivated last season.
This area is sure to be extended in every direction except to the west.
Corn is now grown outside these districts, but not to any great extent.
The warmer regions do not give good results and the cooler regions
at the south have not been exploited. Corn raising in Argentina is
mostly done in a much warmer climate than in the United States.
Most of the crop is raised north of latitude 36° south, chiefly from 35°
to 33° south, while the corn belt of the United States is in latitudes
88° to 42° north. Inshort, the Argentine corn district ends at a point
100 miles nearer the equator than that at which the United States corn
region begins.

The price of corn in the Buenos Aires and Rosario markets has been
from 35 to 40 cents a bushel the past year. This means that the
farmer does not get over 20 to 30 cents. Yet, the crop has been
profitable, especially near the seaboard, where the yield is best and
the cost of getting to market lowest.

FLAX, FRUIT, COTTON, AND TOBACCO.

Other important Argentine products of which we are sure to hear
more in the future are flax, fruit, cotton, and tobacco. The exports
of flaxseed in 1903 were 23,118,773 bushels. Delicious fruits are

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARGENTINA. 285

produced, including peaches, pears, grapes, figs, oranges, strawberries,
cherries, apricots, etc., and, in the southwestern and colder regions,
apples.

USE OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS FROM THE UNITED STATES.

Agricultural implements from the United States are getting to be
generally used in Argentina. Binders, headers, mowers, rakes, plows,
harrows, thrashers, and engines (Pl. XX VII, fig. 2) are the principal
items. In the year ending June 30, 1904, the United States sold to
Argentina implements to the value of $3,996,476, an increase of more
than $1,000,000 over the previous year. |

DIFFICULTIES OF THE SMALL FARMER.

Land for agriculture has rapidly risen in value during the past
three or four years, but may still be had for from $5 to $15 per acre,
depending largely upon the distance from the railway station and
from the seaboard. Good land within 4 to 8 miles of a railway
station and 100 to 300 miles from the seaboard may be had for $10 to
$15 per acre. It will be disappointing, however, to any North Ameri-
can small farmer who goes there alone. The country is no place for
a poor man. The writer has had many inquiries from young men in
the United States who thought Argentina was a good place to go to
get a start. The conditions of labor are such that the start should be
made under more democratic conditions. The line is drawn very
_ Sharply between the rich and the poor and the gap is very wide.
The opportunities of the Western United States do not exist there.
A North American farm hand would not submit to the treatment or the
associations he would find in Argentina. Agriculture and stock raising,
especially the latter, are conducted on a very large scale. The man of
small capital has comparatively little chance. If an organization of
farmers from the United States should go to Argentina and introduce
improved methods, success wouid doubtless follow, if local conditions
were studied and understood before investments were made. Great
opportunities exist for profitable investment in the development of
the resources of the country, but the greatest prudence must be exer-
cised and care taken to know in advance how to avoid the difficulties
that beset the stranger in a strange land.

Lands for agriculture rent for from 70 cents to $4 an acre, depend-
ing more upon accessibility to market than any other one item.
Fertility is the next consideration, and improvements cut ne figure,
except that new land is preferred. The poor Italian or other immi-
grant from Europe comes to the country with nothing. He worksa
year or two as a laborer for small pay and very poor shelter and board,

2986 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

until he has paid his debt to the man who advanced him money to
come. He spends almost nothing. In two or three years after his
arrival some landowner will give him land, seed, implements, and
animals, even guaranteeing his little grocery account, to get him to
work land for half the profits. His condition now improves, and in
another two years he will be found paying cash rent. All members of
the family, young and old, of both sexes, work very hard during the
busy seasons; and they have no comforts, only bare necessities, and
these far below the standard of the poorest North American farmer.
An increasing number of them are buying land, and very slowly they
are learning diversified farming, so that they may have something to
do all the year round.

THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY.

By Cuarues M. Dauauertry,
Of the Bureau of Statistics.

THE USES OF CASTOR OIL.

Castor oil is now extensively used in countries which manufacture
large quantities of calicoes and colored cotton goods. The United
Kingdom is the greatest European consumer, and of the other princi-
pal consuming countries the United States ranks easily among the
first. As compared with the enormously increased consumption of
other fixed or expressed oils, the use of castor oil in the United States
is on a small scale; the annual consumption is measured by hundreds
of thousands of gallons, where that of either cotton-seed oil or linseed
oil amounts to tens of millions. However, the functions that castor
oil performs in industry and in the arts are of great economic impor-
tance, as becomes apparent from a consideration of the varied uses to
which its peculiar properties adapt it.

USE IN DYEING AND PRINTING COTTON GOODS.

Within comparatively recent years, that is, since aniline dyes have
almost completely supplanted the mineral and vegetable dyes formerly
used in coloring cotton textiles, an extensive demand for castor oil has
sprung up in the industry of dyeing and printing cotton goods. With-
out presuming to invade the intricacies of the dyer’s art wherein secret
recipes for the composition of colors and their application to cloth are
the property of each individual dyer, it may be said that the general
principle underlying the utility of this oil in coloring processes is that
the aniline and alizarine dyes are soluble in sulphurated castor oil; in
other neutral fats and oils these dyes, with few exceptions, are in gen-
eralinsoluble. Incertain processes of dyeing and printing, therefore,
castor oil enjoys a practical monopoly over all other oils.

The popular red, formerly known as Adrianople red, but now com-
monly as Turkey red, famous for the permanency, intensity, and
beauty of its color, owes its quality of exceptional fastness to castor
oil. The coloring matter itself, alizarine, which was originally derived
from the root of the madder plant, but is now almost wholly supplanted
by an artificial dyestuff of the same name obtained from anthracene,
a product of the distillation of coal tar, has, like many dyes, little
affinity for cotton fiber. Applied directly to the cloth by ordinary
methods it gives a color of little permanency. To fix this color there

287

28S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

is necessary the treatment of the cloth with some substance or agent
which, having an affinity for both the cotton tissue and the coloring
matter, alizarine, assists in effecting a chemical combination between
them. The substance now almost exclusively used for this purpose is
castor oil. Mixed with a small quantity of concentrated acid, which
is then washed away by a solution of common salt, and soda or
ammonia being added to saponify the fatty acids, there is produced
from castor oil another oil which is perfectly soluble in water, a prop-
erty especially desirable for the saturation of cotton cloth. The
resultant oil is known by many names—sulphurated castor oil, soluble
oil, sulforicinate, etc. —but from the use to which it is largely devoted,
that of fixing alizarine dye upon cotton goods, it is generally known
as alizarine-assistant, or Turkey-red oil. The economic value of this
oil depends largely upon the fact that the specific red thus fixed by it
upon cotton cloth is one of the most permanent colors known to the
dyer’s art. Soluble oil is also used as a substitute for the more
expensive glycerine in the treatment of cotton cloth. It has an admir-
able effect upon starch mixtures, and imparts to the fabric a quality
of softness, suppleness, and pliancy. Although no definite figures are
extant as to the the quantity of castor oil annually consumed by the
textile industry, the consensus of opinion among those best qualified to
know is that a greater portion of the castor-oil output of the United
States is utilized in the treatment of cotton goods than for any other
single purpose.
USE FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES.

Probably the next most important channel of consumption is the
drug trade. In earlier days castor oil was best known as a medicine.
The once universal disposition to regard it as a ‘‘ sovereign remedy ”
is still among the early remembrances of living men. Not only was
the customary maternal diagnosis of each childish ailment prone to
result in a repulsive dose of castor oil, but even among hearty adults
occasional self-prescribed doses of this so-called panacea were deemed
necessary to the continuance of perfect health. Thus, two factors con-
tributed to its consumption—its positive value as a medicine and its
apparently harmless effect upon good health. In addition to its common
use as a purgative, rheumatism, lumbago, skin affections, cramps, colds,
and a host of other ills were popularly believed to yield to its curative
properties; in fact, medicinal use was a highly important element in
the castor-oil trade. Naturally, the marvelous advance that has been
made in medical science in recent years has resulted in the widespread
substitution for this once popular cure-all of less nauseating, if not more
efficacious, drugs. Asa general rule, physicians less frequently pre-
scribe it. Modern preparation in capsules and compounds has, it is
true, had a decided tendency everywhere to perpetuate its traditional
uses as a self-prescribed remedy. In some rural communities, too,

THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY. 289

especially among the colored population of the South, its medicinal
virtues still retain much of their old-time popularity, and in some
pharmaceutical compounds it is still a staple. In short, considerable
quantities of the high grade of castor oil are still absorbed by the drug
trade, although its value as a medicine has, on the whole, somewhat
declined in public esteem, and there no longer exists for it so universal
a demand as a ‘‘ home remedy.”

MISCELLANEOUS USES.

Castor oil has many other and varied uses, some of which are not
common to the United States. Was the trite saying, ‘‘ Every man to
his taste,” ever better exemplified than by the almost incredible cus-
tom, said to prevail in parts of China, of using castor oil as a cooking
grease, as lard is used in America? A less surprising but, as judged
by American standards, almost equally uncommon custom is the use of
this oil in British India and in some other Oriental countries as an
illuminant. In British India it is reputed, among other uses, to be
extensively used as a lamp oil, and reports of no ancient date even refer
to it as the illuminating agent in railway cars. Castor oil also has in
some countries extensive uses as a lubricant. In Australia, which
imported 769,392 gallons in 1898, the chief use is officially stated to be
for this purpose, and the decline in imports in 1902 to less than 500,000
gallons is attributed to the substitution for this vegetable product of
the mineral product, petroleum. It may also be noted that in the Cape
of Good Hope, where the oil is probably largely used for the same
purpose, 307,728 gallons were imported in 1902. To a limited extent
this oil is used for lubricating purposes in the United States. As is
well known, the mechanical function of lubricating oils is to form a
coating or cushion between rotary surfaces, thus keeping them free
from contact and preventing loss of power through friction. To this
purpose castor oil, being heavy bodied, viscous, and nondrying, is in
most cases well adapted. It is the heaviest of fatty oils, having a den-
sity of 0.96, and is particularly adapted to the oiling of fast-moving
machinery because the heat generated keeps it in a liquid state. In
the oiling of special kinds of machinery, carriage wheels, etc., it is still
used to a small extent in the United States; but for general lubricating
purposes the cheaper but lighter-bodied mineral oils, to which the
required viscosity is frequently given by the admixture of resin, have
almost completely supplanted this as well as other oils. The esteem
in which castor oil was popularly held as a lubricant, however, is sug-
gested by the fact that petroleum products adulterated with resin are
in some instances now sold upon the markets under the designation of
**machine castor oil.” Castor oil also has properties that adapt it to
use in the dressing of leather, and a demand for limited quantities
exists in the United States, especially in country districts, for domestic

2 # «alg904——19

290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

use in oiling and softening boots, shoes, and harness. Among minor
uses may be mentioned its use in the manufacture of ‘‘ sticky fly paper”
and of the so-called ‘‘ glycerine soap.” For some of its varied uses it
is apparent that the demand for castor oil in the United States has
declined; for others, especially in recent years, it has increased. ‘The |
resultant of these opposing forces, however, is that consumption as a
whole ison the upward trend. Quantitatively, the consumptive demand
for this product in the United States is now probably at its maximum
up to this date, and absorbs in round numbers about 1,000,000 gallons

annually.
THE MANUFACTURE OF CASTOR OIL.

The manufacture of castor oil in the United States is an economic-
ally important, but, as measured by the capital invested and labor
employed, a small industry. As is true of most of the industries
engaged in this country in the expression of oil from oleaginous seeds,
however, the productive capacity is far in excess of the total demand
for oil. Of the dozen castor-oil mills located in different sections of
the United States, several have been practically idle for some years.
The remaining mills, though constituting the so-called active branch
of the industry, are operated with irregularity, or as the exigencies of
the supply of castor beans and the demand for castor oil require. The
present principal active centers of the industry are Jersey City, N. J.,
St. Louis, Mo., Kansas City, Mo., and Memphis, Tenn. A single
mill is located in each of these centers, excepting that in St. Louis
(including one mill in east St. Louis) there are three. The mill in
Jersey City, containing six presses, the largest number in any mill in
the United States, is advantageously situated for handling imported
beans. ‘The western mills, operating three or four presses each, were
originally established for pressing the crop of the castor-bean belt of
the United States. There are also two mills in Boston, Mass., one of
which is operated in connection with an alizarine-assistant manufac-
tory, one in Brooklyn, N. Y., and a mill in Grand Rapids, Mich.,
adjunct to the manufacture of sticky fly paper. Doubtless the produc-
tive capacity of the castor-oil mills of the United States is sufficient to
supply double the country’s requirements of castor oil.

PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE.

The equipment of a castor-oil mill is identical in its main feature
with that of a linseed-oil mill or of a cotton-seed-oil mill, that is, the
mechanical unit of production is the hydraulic press. Oil is obtained
from castor beans, as it now is most commonly from all oleaginous
seeds, by hydraulic pressure. In the preparation of the beans for
pressure and in the clarifying and refining of the oil after expression it
is possible that slightly different processes are used in different mills;
consequently, as is natural in a small industry like this, considerable

THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY. 291

reserve is maintained by owners concerning even the mechanical opera-
tions of their plants. The principal features of the process of extract-
ing oil from castor beans, however, are evident. The beans, first
cleansed of fragments of capsules, stones, dust, etc., an operation that
in the case of imported beans entails a loss of from 2 to 5 per cent,
are not decorticated, as cotton seed is, nor crushed between rolls as
most oleaginous seeds are, but are pressed whole. Decortication is
not necessary, and the operation of crushing is impracticable, because
the beans would cake too much upon the rolls. They are heated or
not before pressure, according to the purposes for which the oil is
destined. Heat renders the oil in the beans sufficiently liquid for easy
expression, but, if carried to a degree higher than the hand can easily
bear, has a tendency to discolor the oil and render it unfit for medicinal
and undesirable for some other uses. The more common custom,
therefore, is to press the beans cold by submitting them, inclosed in
bags, to gradual pressure for the requisite length of time in a powerful
hydraulic press. In most mills the practice seems to be to submit the
beans toa single pressing. This custom differs from that prevailing
in some other countries, where after the first pressing the pulp or
pomace is removed from the press, broken into pieces, heated, and
submitted to pressure a second or even a third time, each subsequent
pressing, however, producing a lower grade of oil. The oil as it flows
from the press is a whitish liquid, from which the starch, albumen, and
mucilage are afterwards removed by careful processes of clarifying and
refining; the resultant product is the castor oil of commerce.

Two grades are placed upon the market, known commercially as
No. 1 and No. 3. The former grade commands the higher price and
enters largely into medicinal uses; the latter is usually quoted at
from one-half cent to 1 cent less per pound, and supplies various
industrial needs. Both grades are sold by the pound, or unit of
weight, and have lately been commanding from 9 to 11 cents per
pound as compared with 10 to 12 cents per pound a few years ago.

CASTOR POMACE.

Two products are obtained from castor beans by the process of
manufacture. The most valuable one, the primary object of the
industry, is obviously oil; the other is a residual product, which is in
reality an oil cake, but is commercially known as castor pomace. This
latter product belongs to that class of oil cakes, including mustard-
oil cakes, etc., which have no value as a cattle food, but are used only
as fertilizers. In fact, castor pomace, retaining as it does the whole of
the poisonous properties of the castor beans from which it is derived,
is fatal to live stock. But, containing both potash and phosphoric
acid, and being especially rich in nitrogen, it is well adapted to manu-
rial uses. The high percentage of oil it contains prevents its rapid

292 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

decomposition in the soil, and thus prolongs its fertilizing effects. In
some sections of the United States castor pomace is highly regarded
as a fertilizer for tobacco and hops. In British India, where more of
this by-product is made and used than in any other country, it is much
esteemed as a manure for potatoes, wheat, oats, and corn. In the
United States, however, the bulk of the output is sold direct to ferti-
lizer factories, and thus enters into general fertilizing uses. The trade
in this product is almost entirely domestic, little being exported and
none imported.
YIELD OF OIL AND POMACE.

The yield of oil and pomace that may be obtained from a given
quantity or weight of castor beans varies acording to the quality and
condition of the beans and the climatic conditions under which they
were produced. Beans of good quality contain about 45 per cent of
oil, but 32 per cent is, on a general average, about the proportion of oil
extracted by the process of manufacture used in the United States.
The rather high proportion of about 13 per cent rema‘as unexpressed
in the pomace. The weight of imported castor beans as fixed by the
Unied States tariff regulations is 50 pounds to the bushel, and conse-
quently in the eastern mills it is customary to estimate the yield of oil
and pomace, respectively, at 16 pounds (2 gallons) and 34 pounds to
the bushel. In the West the weight per bushel of domestic castor
beans is fixed at 46 pounds, and on this basis the yield of oil per
bushel of beans would be 14.72 pounds (1.84 beast and of pomace
31.28 pounds. ¢

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF CASTOR BEANS.

The castor-bean supply of the United States is derived almost
entirely from two widely separate sources: The first, . few counties
in Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, western Missouri, and southwestern
Illinois, where for many years has been produced practically the entire
domestic crop; the second, British India, a country which has long
had almost a monopoly of the commercial castor-bean production of
the world. The domestic crop, once sufficient to supply the entire
demand—that is, of the eastern as well as the western mills—has of
late years greatly declined. And at present a striking feature of
this industry is that, although the castor oil used in the United States
is manufactured almost wholly in domestic mills, the bulk of the beans
from which it is expressed is imported from the opposite side of the
earth. Although statistics upon domestic production are deficient,
enough is known to warrant the statement that probably three-fourths,
possibly four-fifths, of the castor oil manufactured in the United States
is now made from imported beans.

@In ‘accordance with commercial usage, the imported beans referred to in this
article are expressed in bushels of 50 pounds and the domestic product in bushels of
46 pounds.

THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY. 293

THE UNITED STATES AS A SOURCE OF SUPPLY.

Of the production of castor beans in the United States historic rec-
ords are meager. The plant is not indigenous to the Western Hemi-
sphere; but philological research has led to the belief that it was
introduced into the West Indies soon after their discovery. Itis known
to have been extensively cultivated in Jamaica in the eighteenth cen-
tury, and to that fact can probably be credited the curious application
of the word ‘‘ castor” to this plant and oil. Resident Spaniards and
Portugiese, having confused it witha totally different plant, the Vitex
agnus castus, called it ‘‘agno casto.” From this designation the
English who traded in this oil coined the word castor, and thus gave
rise to the name since applied to it throughout the English-speaking
world.* This certainly seems amore reasonable origin of the word
than that attributed to its fancied resemblance to castoreum, a product
obtained from the beaver. The man who first brought castor beans
into the United States has left no record of his achievement, and suc-
ceeding generations who fostered his enterprise have been scarcely
less mute. A small crop, limited, at even the highest stage of its
development, to groups of counties rather than to States, its early
history is naturally lost in oblivion. The salient fact is that the crop
has always been largely localized in parts of the States of Illinois,
Missouri, and Kansas, and the Territory of Oklahoma. Incidental
‘mention is found of its cultivation in Illinois before that State was
admitted into the Union in 1818. Within the next quarter century
there are occasional references to experimental culture in Georgia and
other Southern States. But not until 1850 were there comprehensive
data indicating the geographical distribution and extent of the crop.

ESTABLISHMENT OF CASTOR-OIL MILLS.

At the taking of the census in 1850 twenty-three castor-oil mills
were reported for the entire United States; of these, ten were in the
State of Illinois; three in each of the States of Missouri and Virginia;
two each in Ohio and Tennessee; and one each in Pennsylvania, Ala-
bama, and Arkansas. All were small establishments, doubtless of
crude equipment, and evidently designed only for manufacturing the
small crops of near-by farms, excepting that in Missouri St. Louis
had already become, as it has since remained, the principal commercial
center of castor-oil production in the West. As measured by the value
of the oil produced, upward of 70 per cent of the total production of
castor oil in the United States at that date was made in the Missouri
mills. Though no statistics were taken of the actual production of
castor beans, it is evident that the bulk of the entire crop was raised
in territory tributary to St. Louis; in other words, as early as 1850

@ De Candolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants.

9394 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the cultivation of castor beans was already largely specialized in that
section, beyond which it has never extended on an important and endur-
ing scale.

In the Eastern States the castor plant, on account of its ready suscep-
tibility to injury from frost, and other causes, has never been cultivated
for industrial purposes. But, on account of the important consump-
tive market there for castor oil and the facilities for importing castor
beans, attention was early attracted to the industry on the Atlantic
coast. In 1857 a mill was erected in Jersey City, N. J. This was the
largest mill, equipped with the latest improvements in machinery and
constructed exclusively for the manufacture of castor oil, that had
been erected in the United States. The industry thus became largely
centralized in Jersey City and St. Louis, cities which have since
remained the leading markets for castor beans. ‘The respective advan-
tages of each location with reference to the two sources of supply,
domestic and foreign, are obvious. Many small mills, about this
time, went out of business, and at the taking of the census in 1860
only eight castor-oil mills were reported for the entire country against
23 in 1850. Of the capital invested in these, half was represented by
the two mills in Jersey City and St. Louis.

OVERPRODUCTION OF CASTOR BEANS.

Soon after the civil war great local interest was revived in the pro-
ducing sections in the culture of castor beans. In some years the crop
exceeded the consumptive demand; even the supplies required in the
East were drawn from the Western States, and the import trade from
British India was threatened with extinction. Statistics of production
as a whole were not collected, and comprehensive knowledge of the
crop is not obtainable. The few figures that are extant, however, are
valuable, in that they constitute the only statistical record upon this
subject. As to Missouri and Oklahoma, beyond the fact that the crop
was raised on a commercial scale, little is known. But in Kansas,
which was then the chief producer, the State board of agriculture
reported an increase in the crop from 59,435 bushels in 1873 to
766,148 bushels in 1879, the latter being the highest annual yield that
has ever been reported for the State. There is reason for believing
that this bumper crop in Kansas constituted practically the entire crop
of the country. The Illinois State reports show the crop of that State
in 1879 to have been only 24,314 bushels; and that the crops of Mis-
souri and Oklahoma were not of great importance is indicated by the
receipts of castor beans in St. Louis, which in that year were only
516,507 bushels, the bulk of which was undoubtedly from Kansas.
The effect of this increase in domestic production upon imports was
that the latter, which as early as 1867 had amounted to 60,588 bushels,
declined to 1,655 bushels in 1879. Although castor beans are not a
perishable product and can be carried over from year to year, the

THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY. 295

effects of the heavy overproduction soon became apparent. Prices
fell, and production rapidly declined until in 1884 it amounted in
Kansas to only 89,183 bushels and to 19,295 bushels in Illinois. The
import trade again became an important factor in the industry, the
takings from British India attaining in that year the then unprece-
dented proportions of 262,505 bushels.

Up to this date few important changes had occurred in the industry
of manufacturing castor oil. At the taking of the census in 1870 six
mills were reported. All the old mills, excepting one each in St.
Louis and Jersey City, had passed out of existence; but, as a result
of tentative efforts to introduce the cultivation of castor beans into
Texas and Tennessee, three new mills had been erected in the former
and one in the latter State. These four mills were of small capacity
and short-lived; at the taking of the next census they had disappeared.
The annual output of oil for the whole country, as reported by the
census, was 341,850 gallons, of which 270,000 gallons was the product
of the two principal mills. Eight mills were reported by the census
of 1880, but the only noteworthy addition to the old-established
branch of the industry was a new mill in St. Louis and one in East St.
Louis. The other four were small affairs, located in Ohio, Illinois,
and Kansas. A notable increase in the output of oil over that of 1870
was reported, the total quantity being 893,802 gallons, the increase
being partly due to the enormous overproduction of castor beans in
Kansas in 1879 and to the introduction of improved machinery into
the principal mills. The next important addition to the industry was
the Kansas City, Mo., mill, which began operations in 1885.

DECLINE IN PRODUCTION OF CASTOR BEANS.

The subsequent history of castor-bean production in the United
States is, as a whole, one of continuous, though irregular, decline.
From the scant statistics upon the subject this is plainly apparent.
In 1887 the crop of the single State of Kansas was reported by the
State board of agriculture to be 405,488 bushels; in 1899 the entire
crop of the United States, as returned by the census, was only 143,388
bushels. This heavy decline in production, though of late years
common to all the producing States, was principally due to the
abandonment of the crop in Kansas, the crop of 1887 never since hav-
ing been equaled. That State, from being the leading producer, has
become probably the smallest. Evidently, if the rate of decrease in
Kansas—from a maximum of 766,148 bushels in 1879 to a minimum
of 2,925 bushels in 1904—had been maintained in all the States, their
crops would have long ago been practically extinct. But for many
years as the crop of Kansas decreased, that of Oklahoma increased,
though not in equal proportion, and that Territory has long been the
chief source of supply for domestic castor beans crushed in the
western mills. There are no means of determining the maximum

296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

annual crop of Oklahoma, but in 1899, when the first and up to the
present day the only Federal inquiry was made into the castor-bean
production of the United States, it was found that the crop of that
Territory amounted to 77,185 bushels, as compared with a production
in Kansas of only 18,108 bushels, the latter figures, however, admit-
tedly representing only about two-thirds of the crop. The relative
importance of Oklahoma as a source of supply was further in evidence
by the fact that the production in Missouri in the same year was given
at 31,966 bushels, that of Illinois at 15,965 bushels, and the combined
product of all other States at 484 bushels. The impulsion of this
heavy fall in production has not been stayed up to the present day;
though no figures are extant to show the exact limit reached, it is
known that in general terms the annual castor-bean crop of the United
States is now below 100,000 bushels. The quantity raised is insufhi-
cient for the demands even of the western mills. Lively competition
arises each year in the principal producing sections for the possession
of the crop, and the deficiency in western supplies is now made good,
when the conditions of the trade warrant, by purchases of imported
seed.
SUPPLY AND DEMAND.

Of the manufacturing industry to which castor beans give rise in
the United States, little additional can be said. The activities of this
industry have for almost a half century been limited to supplying the
varying domestic demand for castor oil, for no noteworthy export
trade exists and imports are of negligible quantities. The domestic
uses of this oil, moreover, important as they are from an economic
point of view, are peculiar, in that they absorb only moderate quan-
tities. This is true even in the textile industry. However, there has
been an increase, especially in recent years, in the demand in this
country for castor oil. Notwithstanding the continuous decline for
two decades past in the domestic crop of castor beans, additional
capital has occasionally been attracted to the manufacture of this oil,
and there has been some expansion in the total productive capacity,
especially on the Atlantic coast. In the eighties a mill was erected in
Brooklyn, in the nineties another was started in Boston, and within
the last few years the manufacture of this oil has been taken up in
Memphis, Tenn. But, beyond the meve fact of noting their existence,
little significance attaches in this industry toa mere enumeration of
mills. The irregularity of operation in some establishments, the long
periods of inactivity in others, and a natural reticence among oper-
ators to reveal the workings of their plants render it impossible to
form any exact idea from productive capacity of the country’s actual
output of oil. Moreover, except in 1899, no statistics as to the total
castor-bean crop have ever been collected. The only factor in the
annual supply that is known with exactness is the quantities imported.

THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY. 297

In recent years that factor has become very important. Instead of
Kansas and Oklahoma, the chief source of supply is now the port of
New York. In the fiscal year 1902-3 imports of castor beans into the
United States amounted to 380,270 bushels, or potentially 760,540
gallons of oil; in 1903-4 the quantity imported amounted to 498,039
bushels, representing in oil 996,078 gallons. The domestic crop of
eastor beans, though statistically an unknown quantity, is known to
have fallen greatly below the 150,000 bushels reported for 1899 by
the United States census. Assuming the crop to have been a round
100,000 bushels in 1903, the quantity of castor beans available for
manufacture in the year 1903-4 would therefore have been 598,039
bushels, or potentially about 1,200,000 gallons of oil, with a resuitant
by-product of upward of 10,000 tons of castor pomace. The present
most striking characteristic of this industry is its heavy dependence
for supplies upon British India.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CASTOR BEAN.

The castor plant is one of the most interesting in the world’s flora.
Tropical in its origin, the antiquity of its culture is attested, first, by
seeds found in the sarcophagi of the ancient Egyptians, and, later, by
records of the utility of the plant in the earliest writings of the Hindus.
Indigenous either to Africa or India, it has been carried by the many
migrations of men in the course of ages to all parts of the tropical and
subtropical world. The remarkable beauty of its foliage has also led
to its culture as an ornamental plant far north of where it can be raised
for industrial uses. A perennial in tropical climes, it grows to a height
of 30 or 40 feet, but acclimated in cooler zones it becomes an annual,
and attains a height of only from 8 to 12 feet. From the botanical, as
distinguished from the cultural, point of view it is now widely dis-
tributed over all the warmer regions of earth. In our own possessions
it grows wild in Porto Rico, is cultivated for oil to a small extent in
Hawaii, and is also found in the Philippines. Cultivated in Mexico,
there is official record of an increase of the crop from 57,000 bushels
in 1900 to 327,000 bushels in 1902. The plant grows wild in many
parts of South America, notably in Paraguay and Argentina, and a
small export trade in castor beans is carried on from Brazil. It is
cultivated in a small way in southern Europe, in northern and central
Africa, and eastward, in about the same latitudes, grows sometimes
wild, sometimes under cultivation, in Arabia, Persia, and, in fact, in
most of the warmer countries and islands of the Oriental world. The
botanical distribution of the plant, however, has little economic signifi-
cance. In few countries does its cultivation give rise to even a small
international trade in its products, and in none, except Mexico, are
there statistical records of yield.

298 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BRITISH INDIA AS A SOURCE OF SUPPLY.

The one great castor-bean producing country of the world is British
India. Although not produced there, as crops are reckoned in these
days, in mammoth proportions, that country probably has a greater
monopoly of the world’s production of castor beans than has the United
States of the world’s crop of cotton or of corn. From British India
is derived almost the entire supply of castor beans that enters into the
international trade of the civilized world. A manufacturer of castor
oil, too, on a large scale, her exports of the manufactured product far
exceed those of any other nation. From British Indiathe United States,
England, France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy, all manufacturers of
castor oil, derive practically their entire imports of castor beans.
From the same source Australia, Natal, Cape Colony, the Straits
Settlements, and Ceylon, all heavy consumers of the manufactured
product, derive the bulk of their supplies of castor oil. No records
exist of the production of British India, but the following statement of
the total exports of castor beans and castor oil from that dependency
to all countries since 1890 will illustrate the magnitude of her export
trade; to the statement is added for comparative purposes a record
of the imports of castor beans and castor oil into the United States.

Exports of castor beans and castor oil from British India, and imports into the United
States, 1890-1904.

rts : . Imports into the United
Exports from British India.
Year ending P Year ending States.

March 31— ec AGT AR) Wee TEES a June 30— SS a ee
Castor beans.} Castor oil. Castor beans.} Castor oil.

Bushels of Bushels of
50 lbs. Gallons. 50 lbs. Gallons.
MOO crosses 3, 509, 717 2, 300, 015 Oe ees ie os oc 498, 039 11, 283
TOOS one et 3, 509, 781 2, 488, 910 nh? SR ee ae 380, 270 6, 643
1 Le 7. ti i Pap 2, 965, 527 2, 424, 270 WQS) esas 6st save 312, 323 3, 705
NOOL; ee eee 1, 962, 121 1, 843, 207 ODS eee snk Gian 191, 288 3, 206
LO ee err ak stent 1, 978, 731 1, 833, 842 TOO ne oe tecture 135, 591 38, 334
TOG. oe ou cerns 2,710, 709 2, 669, 725 115)' Eee PR es 8 25, 003 7,615
ROSS Soe coe e ne 2, 372, 516 2, 344, 797 PQS =e cea oe 19, 651 38, 626
TSO7 ce. LS. Nas 2, 235, 778 2, 397, 653 18975. 7...e> soe 2 hes 84, 128 4, 368
TBOG.. cect. ese 2, 348, 201 2, 420, 358 TEOG. 2. Poe Ba? oe 145, 735 22, 888
DOOR 2 ec ite ce ae 2, 631, 765 3, 215, 887 SOD sora oo ak’ ysis 277, 231 26, 846
i Lat! See para teapot Se 2,481, 3cd 2, 754, 261 1694 JAX Si eose case 47, 448 1, 702
TRO. os eerc.Fee 2, 216, 556 3, 095, 564 TIBOR. rege een t 147, 061 286
RROD Son ae oe 1, 872, 472 3, 929, 758 1G 7.18 163, 089 382
WU) Ieee eee ate 1, 925, 889 3, 789, 628 i (3 ea er 105, 374 2,073

Loy Jee Serer Raed 2, 003, 973 3, 198, 787 Lh. ee aot A ae Bae 94, 226 6, 901

Two varieties of castor beans are produced in British India—a large-
seeded variety and a small-seeded variety, the latter of which yields the
better quality of oil. Both varieties are imported into the United States.
Madras, Coromandel, and Bombay are the chief sources of supply, the
small variety exclusively being imported from Bombay and both varie-
ties from Madras. Small quantities of castor beans are also imported
from Brazil. The exclusive port of entry is the port of New York.

THE NUT WEEVILS.

By F. H. Cuirrenpen, Sc. D.,
In Charge of Breeding Experiments, Bureau of Entomology.

INTRODUCTION.

Nut-growing in the United States would be a much more profitable
industry were it not for the insects which inhabit the kernels, render-
ing them unfit for food. This is especially true of the chestnut and
chinquapin and to a lesser extent of pecan, hickory, and hazel nuts;
while others, which include butternuts, walnuts, and almonds, suffer
little or noinjury from thissource. Considerable diminution in the yield
of many forms of nuts is also caused by the inroads of insect larvee in the
growing husks. Examples of the first class are the chestnut ‘‘ worms”
or weevils; of the second, the husk-worms and walnut curculio. The
present paper will be restricted to a consideration of the weevils.

The chestnut crop suffers the greatest loss, and the chief depredators
are the grub-like ‘‘ worms” or larve with which everyone is too dis-
tressingly familiar. These larve develop with the nuts, so that those
which first attain maturity are ready to leave and enter the ground
nearly as soon as the nuts
are gathered; others re-
main in the nuts some
weeks later; so it fre-
quently happens that
when nuts are packed for
shipment in bags or bar-
rels, some nuts which
were apparently sound fie. 17.—Chestnuts showing exit holes of chestnut weevil
when shipped are found, larve—enlarged one-fourth (author’s illustration).
on reaching their destination, with one or more holes in their shells
(fig. 17), while the repulsive grubs crawl about at the bottom of the
receptacle. How to cope with these weevils has long been a most vex-
atious problem.

THE CHESTNUT WEEVILS.

In comparatively recent years chestnut culture has assumed consid-
erable proportions, and has taken a new impetus since the extensive
introduction and development of Japanese and European varieties.
These are grafted on American seedlings or native stocks, and thus
many valueless trees on equally unpromising soil are converted into

299

800 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

sources of profit. Were it not forthe ‘‘ worms,” borers, and ‘* blights,”
chestnut growing might develop into a most lucrative industry in
regions adapted to it.

EsrimaTes oF Losses.—A fair estimate of the damage done annually
by weevils to chestnuts grown in the United States would probably
fall little short of 25 per cent, while in some years the percentage
exceeds that figure, running as high as 40 or 50 per cent. Growers
in some localities report no damage, others place losses as low as 5
or 10 per cent, while instances are cited of whole crops being de-
stroyed. The amount of loss is dependent on locality, season, and
to a more limited extent on the variety of nuts grown. The greatest
damage is usually incurred in regions where chestnuts have grown
wild for many years, and the least where there are no wild chestnuts
or chinquapins and the nuts are grown only for market and are care
fully gathered. The most extensive losses, judging from available
sources of information, appear to be in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, New York (in the vicinity of New York City), Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina.

In Georgia, Spanish and Japanese varieties have been cultivated for
years without attack by weevils being noticed. In New Jersey, 50 per
cent of the same varieties have been ruined. A grower in Missouri
has reported no damage to 50 trees of an American variety; another
at South Haven, Mich., has reported no injury for a period of three
or four years to Japanese and Spanish chestnuts grown there, while
from 5 to 20 per cent of the crop of native nuts was annually destroyed.
The nearly complete destruction of the chestnut crop of New Jersey
for 1893 was reported. |

THE SPECIES OF CHESTNUT WEEVILS.—The species of weevils which
infest chestnuts are two in number—the larger chestnut weevil, Bala-
ninus proboscideus Fab., and the lesser chestnut weevil, 2. rectus Say.
They have extremely long, slender beaks or snouts, nearly as fine as a
horsehair, and considerably longer than the body in the female. By
means of this long beak the female is able to penetrate the thickest burr of
the chestnut with its long spines and to cut out, with the minute and
sharp mandibles at the tip of her beak, a little hole for the deposition of
her eggs. These are inserted through the husk into the growing nut.

The two species resemble each other greatly in color and in mark-
ings, the general color of both being golden yellow, ochraceous or clay
yellow, frequently tinged with olive, and a little paler on the lower
surface. The disk of the thorax is a little darker, with a wide bright
band on each side, and the elytra, or wing-covers, are mottled with rich
light brown or dark brown markings of variable size and extent.@

@ Occasional individuals lack the darker markings, some being paler, others darker,
even reddish. The ground color, as may be seen in abraded specimens, is really
black, and the apparent color is due to scales very similar to those of butterflies and
moths.

THE NUT WEEVILS. 801

THE LARGER CHESTNUT WEEVIL,

( Balaninus proboscideus Fab. )

The larger chestnut weevil (fig. 18) is considerably the larger and
more robust species. ‘The female rostrum or beak, although propor-
tionately of about the same
length as in the lesser weevil,
is perceptibly more prominent
because less curved, the curva-
ture being toward the tip. It
is also more widened at the
base. The body measures
from one-third to nearly one-
half of an inch in length, and
the beak of the female is often
five-eighths of an inch long.
That of the male (fig. 18, ¢) is
nearly as long as the elytra.
The ego is small, about one- Fig. 18.—The larger chestnut weevil (Balaninus pro-
sixteenth of an inch long, and jit female tees same i eulne om
of the outline shown in figure times natural size (original).
19,d. It is nearly white, partially translucent, and without sculpture.

The larva (fig. 19, a) is
milk-white, robust, fully
r three times as long as wide,
with the dorsal or upper
portion rounded and convex.
The entire surface is very
strongly wrinkled trans-
versely, and there are a few

—._

a d b ee
Fic. 19.—Larger chestnut weevil (Balaninus proboscideus): very short alls: scattered
a, larva: b,c, female pupa; d, eggs—all enlarged (original). sparsel y over the different

segments. The head (fig. 20) is about one-fourth as wide as the widest

portion ot the body. it is provided with short but
strong mandibles, by means of which it gnaws the ker-
nel constituting its food. The fully developed larva in
ordinary resting position measures nearly half an inch.
Although the larva has no true legs, it is able to crawl, “&
slowly and clumsily, it is true, by means of the flattened pe

lower surface, locomotion being aided by transverse Fie. 20.—Balaninus

wrinkles ab Sele opel

; ead—much en-

The pupa is of a clearer whitish color than the larva, larged (author's
and shows the principal external organs of the body of *™™"%°™):

the future beetle, all, except the beak, folded tightly to the body.

The female pupa is illustrated in figure 19, 4, ¢.

3802 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This species, like the other weevils under consideration, is native to
America and is known from Rhode Island to Virginia, the District of
Columbia, southern Ohio, and Tennessee, and westward to Kansas.
The geographical distribution of this and the other nut weevils has as
yet not been carefully studied, but in all probability it is considerably
more extensive than above stated.

In some regions this species is quite generally known as the chin-
quapin weevil, but the investigations conducted during 1904 indicate
that, although it breeds in chinquapins and more commonly in chest-
nuts, it occurs in greater abundance in the larger imported nuts.

THE LESSER CHESTNUT WEEVIL.

(Balaninus rectus Say. )

The lesser chestnut weevil (fig. 21) has the scape of the antenna
longer than in the preceding species and the first joint longer than
the second.* The average
length of the body is about one-
fourth of an inch, but the size
varies, as in all of these insects.

The distribution of this
species extends from Canada and
Massachusetts to North Caro-
lina, Tennessee, and Ohio, and
probably farther westward.
The writer has seen sets of speci-
mens labeled ‘‘ Arizona.” A\l-

though in some localities the
Fia. 21.—Lesser chestnut weevil (Balaninus rectus), f . .
adult: a, female, dorsal view; b, female, lateral larger species 1S much more in
view; ¢, head of male—much enlarged (author’s evidence, taken all In all, the
illustration). eyes
lesser weevil is the more com-
mon and is probably even more widely disseminated.

The egg has not come under observation, but is undoubtedly very
similar to that of the preceding, being proportionately smaller, which
is true of the remaining stages.

The larva is only a third of an inch long and its length is about three
times its width. The body is milk-white and the head light brownish
yellow, while the A-mark has a short lateral branch each side.

The pupa differs from that of the larger species by size and by
characters shown in figure 22, which illustrates the male.

“In the larger species the first joint (omitting the scape) is shorter than the second.
In the female rectus the rostrum is strongly curved, the thorax is longer than wide,
and the elytra are strongly acuminate apically. The tooth with which the thighs
are armed is small, with the entering angle rounded.

“THE NUT WEEVILS. 303

LIFE HISTORY OF BOTH SPECIES.

The life history of our two chestnut weevils is so similar as to be
practically the same for both species. There are, however, minor
differences. These, as well as related nut and acorn weevils, hibernate
exclusively in the larval condition and in the soil. Both make their
first appearance at about the same time—with the first blooming of
chestnuts—but this period may vary from late in June to July,
according to locality and season, or, more properly speaking, the
mean temperature. At this time the beetles are found rarely and
scatteringly, and as oviposition has not been observed then it is
doubtful whether it begins until considerably later. What function
these early arrivals fulfill is problematical. The beetles increase in
number as the nuts approach maturity, or until about the middle of
September or a little time before the nuts are first marketed. Then
they may be seen in greater abundance, several pairs, frequently of both
species, often occurring on a single bunch of
burrs (Pl. XXVIII). As it requires about
two weeks for the egg to develop, it is not
probable that they are laid much earlier than
when the nut begins to form. From exam-
ination of many burrs gathered in the fall of
1904 by Mr. F. C. Pratt, of the Bureau of
Entomology, who visited some of the princi- |
pal chestnut groves of Pennsylvania and Vir- rie. 22.—Lesser chestnut weevil
ginia at the urgent request of growers in DRA er at
those States, it is deduced that the first eggs _rignt—enlarged (original).
deposited are laid (seldom and very sparingly)
in the soft, woolly material surrounding the forming nut; but later
they are inserted in the kernel just under the inner skin, and occasion-
ally they are deposited somewhat more deeply. In no case has the
egg been found in the outer husk.

Eggs are laid singly, but many are placed in a single nut, as high as
40 or more (of the smaller weevil) in imported nuts, and as many as 9
in native nuts. The larve when hatched feed on the tissue of the
growing kernels, enlarging with their own growth the cells thus made.
When, as is usual, several larve inhabit the same nut, the interior is
more or less completely hollowed out, and large masses of excrement
are left behind (Pl. X XIX).

By the end of September or the first week of October the beetles
disappear. At about the same time, when the nuts first fall, the larvee
begin to mature and issue from round orifices which they gnaw through
the shell and which vary in diameter from one-sixteenth of an inch, in
the case of the smaller species, to one-eighth of an inch in the larger
(see fig. 23). By the size of these holes alone it can be readily deter-
mined which species is the dominant one 1n any given locality. Rarely

804 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

larve bore through the burr. On leaving the nuts they burrow into
the earth to depths varying from 2 to about 8 inches, according to the
hardness of the soil. If confined in soft earth or sand they penetrate
stilldeeper. The larval period probably lasts from three to five weeks
in the nuts, and about ten months in the earth, pupation taking place
within three weeks of the issuance
of the beetle, the latter remaining
several days in the earth before
appearing above ground.

The beetles do not fly readily, but
cling tightly to their resting place
or drop when disturbed; yet, as
their bodies are not heavy and their
wings strong, they are obviously
Fig. 23.—Chinquapins, showing injury by les) &ble to cover considerable distances,

ser chestnut weevil at left; of larger weevil especially with the wind. Ordina-
at right—enlarged (original). i. 5
rily, however, they are sluggish,
like most other weevils, and probably do not go far from the vicinity
of the trees which have sheltered them as larve, although they
undoubtedly migrate when food is scarce.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

A natural enemy of the nut weevils is known, a small four-winged
wasplike fly, the Braconid parasite Urosigalphus armatus Ashm., which
develops in the body of the larva.¢

METHODS OF CONTROL.

The most practical remedy for nut weevils that can be suggested is
the early destruction of the ‘‘ worms” in the nuts by means of bisul-
phid of carbon and the observance of clean orchard management and
other cultural methods. It may be well to preface the discussion of
these methods with a statement of the uselessness against nut weevils
of ordinary measures employed in the control of similar insects.

UNSATISFACTORY MErHops.

STOMACH POIsONS.—The peculiar structure, in the nut weevils, of
the mouth-parts (minute mandibles placed at the end of a beak nearly
as fine as horsehair and as long or longer than the body) is almost
sufficient proof in itself that these insects do not feed on leaves, but
depend for sustenance on the substance of the growing nuts. The
beetles first appearing feed on the undeveloped, very young nuts and
the juices within the husk. There is, therefore, no seeming possibility
of reaching them with a spray of Paris green or other stomach poison,

“Two other insects are associated with the weevils and are probably also their
enemies, a Proctotrypid parasite, Trichasis rufipes Ashm., and a predatory Reduviid
bug, Acholla multispinosa DeG.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XXVIII.

LARGER CHESTNUT WEEVIL ON CHINQUAPIN BuRRS.

[Twice natural size. Original.]

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE XXIX.

IMPORTED NuTS SHOWING DIFFERENT FORMS OF INJURY BY Nut WEEVILS.

Fic. 1.—Parry’s Giant nut, showing exit hole of Balaninus proboscideus. Fic. 2.—Same of
B. rectus. F1G.3.—Interior Paragon nut, showing larve of B. rectus in situ. FIG. 4.—
Same, showing work of one individual of B. proboscideus. Fic. 5.—Reverse side of figure
2, showing scars made by puncture of female B. rectus in ovipositing. Fic. 6.—Reverse of
figure 1, with puncture of B. proboscideus.—All natural size (original).

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THE NUT WEEVILS. 305

particularly as we are unable to. place the insecticide where they would
eat enough to kill them.

Trap crops.—The cultivation of special varieties of nuts with a view
to securing immunity from attack or as a means of luring the insects
from the main crop does not offer any degree of promise. The
Paragon, Cooper, and RKidgeley varieties, according to Mr. G. H.
Powell, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, suffer greater loss from
weevil attack than Japanese varieties. Chinquapins are favored by
the smaller weevil and suffer far more damage, as a rule, than wild
chestnuts. Itis possible that the planting of the varieties specified,
or, better, of chinquapins, at intervals around, as also through, orchards
of the least affected varieties might lessen the loss to the main crop.
If a variety could be produced which would mature fruit before the
advent of the beetles in greatest numbers, this would partially solve
the problem, particularly as the earliest nuts bring the highest prices.
The nuts gathered toward the end of the season are comparatively
uninjured, but by this time the market value is considerably lower.

CoNnTACT POISONS.—Scarcely more can be expected from the use of
contact poisons, such as kerosene emulsion, since in view of the long
period spent by these weevils in the adult stage (from June and July
to September or October) such frequent application would be neces-
sary that the expense would destroy the profit.

JARRING THE TREES, as practiced against the plum curculio, is for
the same and other reasons equally impracticable, save, perhaps, on
young trees grown in a small way.

THE WATER TEST OF INFESTATION.—Having doubts of the efficacy of
this old-fashioned test of the difference between ‘* wormy” and healthy
nuts, an experiment was made by the writer with native chestnuts
obtained from astreet vender. To begin, 40 per cent were obviously
‘‘wormy,” and only 60 per cent apparently sound.

Results of water test with native chestnuts.

Nuts which rose to surface. Nuts which remained on bottom.
Per cent. ~ «| Per cent.
MURAD og ad te aE eins tr im perfect Condition. © -¢s02-... 0-22. 40
Showing minute marks only; good Shemtly auyULGC: =. --.- oo aa «Sk ccc e ces 80
Gaver; eetaines.t. 222.02 Ao stk POU BROLY IMTCRTCOUS2a5 whee ce es eee doo. ce. 20
Containing full-grown grubs....... 10 | Completely filled with grubs......... 10
Containing immature grubs........ 60

As will be seen from this experiment, noticeably wormy nuts, as
evidenced by loss of weight and the exit holes of the ‘‘ worms,” natu-
rally rise when placed in water, but the remaining nuts may or may
not be infested, and hence require further test than whether they will
sink or float.

2 A1904——20

806 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Dirrecr REMEDIES.

BISULPHID OF CARBON.—The value of bisulphid of carbon as a fumi-
gant for chestnuts infested by weevils is now fully established.
Although at first thought it would seem difficult for the gas to pene-
trate through shells so firm and compact and kill the larvee, neverthe-
less a prominent grower in Pennsylvania successfully uses the bisul-
phid, applying it when the nuts are first harvested. The dead weevil
larve are at this time so small that the average person would never
detect their presence, while if they were permitted to develop they
would soon destroy the nut for food. Bisulphid of carbon has been
used on the largest chestnuts grown in this country, and, since a score
or two of larve find shelter ina single nut, one can appreciate the desira-
bility of prompt fumigation. The grower mentioned uses bisulphid of
carbon at the rate of 1 ounce to a bushel of Paragon nuts placed ina ker-
osene barrel of about 50 gallons capacity and covered by sacking. After
an exposure of about sixteen hours the nuts are removed, the larvee being
then practically all destroyed. Several hundred pounds were treated
in 1904 in this manner with perfectly satisfactory results. To verify
reported results, Mr. Pratt was detailed to visit the infested orchard
and witness the process. This method could be employed at less
expense by using tightly fitting covers, the effectiveness of the fumi-
gation being in exact proportion to the tightness of the receptacle and
the length of exposure to the fumes. Therefore, a longer exposure
of one or two days, with perhaps one-half ounce of bisulphid, should
accomplish the same purpose.

SCALDING AND DRYING.—Some growers make a practice of plunging
the nuts as gathered into boiling water just long enough to kill the
contained insects and yet not injure the nuts for sale, after which
they are dried before being marketed. This may be profitably accom-
plished by using a large sieve, which is filled with nuts, dipped in the
water, and removed in about five minutes. The late W. P. Corsa
used a washtub, in which was placed a bushel or so of nuts, pouring
in enough boiling water to come an inch or two above the nuts. Then,
by stirring vigorously with a stick, the bulk of the weevi..; nuts would
come to the surface in the same manner as do peas and beans affected
by weevils.“ The infested nuts are skimmed off and destroyed, or
they may with profit and safety be fed to hogs, provided the animals
do not have a too exclusive diet of this form of food. Salt water, it
is claimed, is preferable for scalding, the brine serving to keep the
shell soft and pliable and rendering the kernels more palatable than
when not thus treated.

Different methods are employed in drying. A good way is to place
the nuts in the sun and agitate them occasionally by stirring or

« Note the writer’s observations on this head on p. 305.

THE NUT WEEVILS. 307

shaking in a bag until thoroughly dry, because if moisture remains
unevaporated it is apt to form mildew when the nuts are prematurely
packed for shipment.

Nuts for planting should not be scalded, and care should be taken not
to cook the kernels of nuts intended for sale. Some growers claim that
the hot-water treatment is objectionable because the nutshells lose a
certain degree of polish, rendering them less desirable for market.

Herar.—lInfested nuts can be subjected to a temperature of between
125° F. and 150° F. without injuring them for food or for seed, and
this will effect the destruction of the larve within. Some growers of
chestnuts destroy the weevils by kiln-drying.

CoLp sTorAGE.—Cold storage has been employed and is successful
in arresting the development of the larve. The appearance of the nuts
is scarcely different from that of those not so stored, but nuts thus
treated and submitted to the writer after becoming dry were deficient
in flavor, having an acrid and moldy taste.

A crude form of cold storage has been successfully followed by a
Virginia grower. It consists in placing nuts in the earth under the
shade afforded by his house, where the soil temperature, after the
nuts are gathered, does not exceed 50°. Since most insects are inac-
tive below 51° this has the effect of restraining their development,
causing the eggs or minute larvee to die.

PREVENTIVES.

_ CHOICE OF LOCATION FOR THE ORCHARD.—The selection for the

planting or grafting of chestnuts of a locality with reference to the
chances of immunity from injury by nut weevils is a matter of great
importance. For this reason it is most undesirable to plant in the
immediate vicinity of woodland abounding in wild chestnut and chin
quapin, since these trees furnish natural breeding places for the insects,
and are, therefore, a constant menace to successful chestnut culture.
Too frequently growers suffer losses from weevils because they neg-
lect to gather the wild chestnuts or chinquapins in the immediate
vicinity of their cultivated groves. Another phase of bad management
which is frequently practiced is the grafting of cultivated varieties
on native chestnuts growing in rocky and uneven soil, often on hill-
sides, as shown in Plate XXX, figure 1. In such places it is impos-
sible to harvest a complete crop, and, what is of equal importance,
to gather the remnants. Hence, to secure these results, it is impera-
tive to plant or graft trees on smooth ground (Pl. XXX, fig. 2),
first for the sake of economy, and second to permit the collection of
all of the nuts, leaving none for the propagation of weevils. It is also
necessary to keep the soil clean of herbage, as shown at the left of fig-
ure 2, Plate XXX, not overgrown with brush, as illustrated at the
right.

308 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

CAREFUL HARVESTING.—lIt is always advisable to gather the entir
crop, leaving none on the ground, and either place the nuts in tight
receptacles or fumigate with bisulphid of carbon before marketing.
The grubs crawl out soon after the nuts have been gathered, and as
they require considerable moisture they will die if confined in closed
barrels or boxes. The trouble is that enough nuts are usually left in
orchards or in adjoining wood or forest land to serve for the propaga-
tion of the insects the following year. In order to make the method
of treatment here described thorough, it will be necessary to secure the
cooperation of neighboring landowners who grow chestnuts for mar-
ket and of all who own woodland containing chestnut and chinquapin.

The collection of remnants can be made by children or the unem-
ployed. It is also profitable to allow hogs the run of the orchards to
destroy what nuts remain after the crop has been harvested. In the
mountainous sections of Virginia and Pennsylvania it is a common
practice to fatten swine on the unpicked fallen nuts. Hogs fatten on
nuts and acorns as well as on corn, and without expense to the grower.

CoorEraTtion.—The results of the observance of clean farming on
the lines that have been indicated may not at once be apparent, but in
course of time, if this work is systematically carried out by all grow-
ers over a considerable territory, infestation will be very materially
decreased. An important point is to ascertain how far the insects fly.
Their structure indicates that they are strong fliers and capable, with
favoring winds, of migrating considerable distances; but under ordi-
nary circumstances they probably do not fly many miles at a time or
in @ given year.

THe Pecan WEEVIL.

(Balaninus carye Horn.) :

With the increase of pecan culture in our southern States frequent
inquiry is made in regard to the cause of the holes in the nuts
(fig. 24), and during
1903 and 1904 there
were reports of great
injury of this nature,
more particularly to
pecans grown in Texas,
where considerable loss
was reported, and in
Georgia, where in one
locality 75 per cent of

=— the crop was a failure.

Fig, 24.—Pecan nuts showing exit hole of pecan weevil larve— <A shortage has also
one-third enlarged (author's illustration).

been reported in Mis-
sissippi. The insect involved in these cases is the pecan or hickory-
nut weevil, a pest which is evidently destined to become one of the

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PeaTe ee

a ca, SO
ON Mar ty
ei he)
ie ie f
we Seth

&
te,

be
Ts

Fig. 2.—PARAGON CHESTNUT GROWING ON PLANE SURFACE, WHERE CLEAN METHODS
OF CULTIVATION CAN BE PRACTICED.

[From photograph by E. G. Reist.]

Fic. 1.—PARAGON CHESTNUT ORCHARD, GROWING ON HILLSIDES, SHOWING IMPOSSIBILITY
OF CLEAN ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

[From photograph by E. G. Reist.]

™ vi
D ue
- >

“ir

THE NUT WEEVILS. 309

principal drawbacks to the cultivation of the pecan. Indeed, in many
parts of the South it already divides that distinction with the husk-
worm, so that it has been truthfully said that what the husk-worm
leaves the weevil destroys.

The beetle (fig. 25) is about the same size as the larger chestnut
weevil, from which it may be distinguished by its much duller color 4
and by the relative lengths of the first and second antennal joints, the
first joint being longer than the second in the pecan-infesting species.

The larva differs from that of proboscideus in being decidedly yellow,
having the head bright red and
wider than long. Its cervical
plate also is darker. The pupa
is similar to that of the larger
chestnut weevil.

The distribution extends
from New York to the Gulf,
and westward at least to Iowa.

The life history of this wee-
vil, as it occurs in the pecan in
the South, is, so far as can be
gathered from reports from
Georgia and Texas and from .

2 : Fig. 25.—Pecan weevil (Balaninus caryx): a, female,
laboratory experiments, very dorsal view; b, same, lateral view, in outline; c, head
similar to that of the chestnut with rostrum and antenna of male—about two and

: 5 one-half times natural size (author’s illustration).

weevils. According to the ob-

servations of Mr. H. A. Halbert, at Coleman, Tex., the female begins
to deposit her eggs in August while the pecan is still immature, and
the larva usually escapes from the nuts in the latter part of Septem-
ber and in October; but most of them do not issue until the husks
open, allowing the nuts to fall. In Georgia they have been found in
the nuts as late as the middle of January.

REMEDIES.

The same care in the selection of the site for a pecan orchard is
advised as in the case of chestnut culture, with this difference, that the
grower should avoid planting in the vicinity of wild pecan and hickory
of whatever kind. The entire crop, also, should be harvested or hogs
should be turned in to devour what nuts are left. At Thomasville,
Ga., Mr. Wilmon Newell observed in 1904 that where swine and
chickens had had access to a pecan grove, the ground was well rooted
and scratched up and there was less loss from weevils than in the pre-

@The ground color is uniform dark brown, nearly black, and the scaly covering
(which characterizes the chestnut weevils) in this species is hair-like on the thorax,
fine and somewhat sparse on the wing-covers, and much duller, with little or no
mottling. Moreover, the beak of the female is, comparatively, a little shorter,
although of about the same curvature, and is less widened at the base.

310 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

vious year. Evidently both hogs and poultry devour the larvee in the
ground,

At the time that bisulphid of carbon was first suggested as a remedy
for chestnut ‘‘ worms” it was feared that the firm and compact shell
would hardly permit the gas to penetrate and kill the contained larve.
Experience, however, has shown that this remedy is successful in the
case of chestnuts, and it is not impossible that it might be adapted to
pecans, using a larger amount of the chemical and a longer exposure
in a perfectly tight receptacle. We can as yet scarcely advise this
method on a large scale, but it should certainly be tried experimentally.

THe HazELNut WEEVIL.
( Balaninus obtusus Blanch. )

Hazelnuts or filberts are injured in much the same manner as are
chestnuts and pecans and by a similar weevil. Injury was recognized
as early as 1841, but was attributed to
other species than that under considera-
tion. Owing to the comparatively slight
importance of the hazel as a nut tree in
this country, few notices of losses from
weevil attack have been recorded. The
weevil which affects the nut was not
differentiated from others of its kind
until 1884. In 1891 it was reported as
badly damaging hazelnuts in lowa.

Fic. 26.—Hazelnut weevil (Balaninus which attack edible nuts, exclusive of
obiusus), adult: a, female, dorsal view; acorns, by its shorter, more robust form
b, head from side; c, head of male ;:
focus nilosceniareed (alone: and shorter beak.? It is about one-

fourth of an inch in length, and the

beak does not exceed half the length of the body. The vestiture

varies from gray to ochreous, and the elytra are moderately mottled.

This species occurs from Massachusetts and New Hampshire, west-

ward to Minnesota and Texas. Injury has been noted in Massachu-
setts, New York, Indiana, Iowa, and Minnesota.

Of the life history little has been recorded beyond the fact that the

‘*worm” issues from the side of the nut, and that paired adults have

been found on hazelnuts in July.

REMEDIES.

Since hazels are not cultivated in this country to any extent, no rem-
edy need be employed other than gathering entire crops and destroy-
ing isolated bushes where it is unprofitable to gather the nuts. It
would be quite possible, owing to the small size of the hazel plant, to
control this species by jarring, as for the plum curculio.

«The appendices of the claws are broadly rectangular, and the femora or thighs
are armed with large teeth. The scape of the antenna in the female is long.

The beetle (fig. 26) differs from others »

CQ

POTATO CULTURE NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO.

By J. Max Cuarg,
Special Agent, Irrigation and Drainage Investigations, Office of Experiment Stations.

INTRODUCTION.

For more than twenty years Greeley has been famous in all the
Western States for both the quantity and the quality of its potato
crops. From very small beginnings in the gardens of the town in the
spring of 1870, when the Union Colony settled at this point in the
Poudre Valley, through larger experiments, first in 5-acre tracts ~
planted in the outskirts of the place in 1871, then in 10 and 20 acre
fields, planted under colony canal No. 2 in 1872, and still larger areas
with each recurring year since those times, the business has grown to
its present important proportions. The district devoted to this lead-
ing product, if we compare it with the unirrigated areas in the arable
States to the east of us planted in corn or other crops, is of course of
very limited extent; but it is probable that no other section of equal
extent, East or West, in any State in the Union, where there is sys-
tematic cultivation of general farm crops, can compare with it, either
in the annual aggregate of gross products or in the amount of money
realized from them.

EXTENT OF THE GREELEY POTATO AREA AND MARKETS.

Greeley is the principal shipping point of this potato area, which
extends to New Windsor on the west, to Eaton and Ault on the north,
and to Lasalle and Kersey on the south and east, none of which points
is more than 12 miles distant from Greeley. The region described in
these general terms includes perhaps 300,000 acres, but much of this
is unirrigated land. It probably includes not more than 125,000 acres
of tillable irrigated land. Not more than half of this is ever planted to
potatoes, and of the portion which from experience has been found
especially adapted to this crop not more than 25,000 or 30,000 acres
are planted to potatoes in any one year. Within this small compass,
all in Weld County, are grown more than half the potatoes produced
in the State of Colorado. For more than a decade shipments have
ranged from 4,000 to 7,000 carloads each year, and the gross receipts
of the farmers have been from $500,000 to $1,250,000.

Aside from Denver and the mountain towns, the main markets are
in Texas and Oklahoma. Many potatoes are shipped to Kansas and
Nebraska, some to Memphis and other river points, and in case of

dll

312 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

partial failure from rot or other causes in other States, as notably in
19038, considerable quantities to Chicago, and even to Boston and New
York.

There are other localities in the State, notably in the ‘‘ divide region”
south of Denver, and in the mountain valleys and parks, where pota-
toes are grown without irrigation in considerable quantities. But in
the Greeley district this is impossible to any extent even in years of
greatest rainfall. It is a curious fact that, while most growers at
Greeley incline to the theory that growing potatoes on sandy ridges,
and with no more water than is absolutely necessary, gives the best
quality in the tuber; yet, on the other hand, it is hardly to be ques-
tioned that the potatoes grown in any of the other localities named
will not compare, either in yield or quality, with the potatoes grown
at Greeley.

IRRIGATION AND ALFALFA AS FACTORS OF SUCCESS.

During the first or experimental years in the business a number of
conditions prevailed which do not now exist on the older cultivated
farms. There was in Colorado from 1870 to 1875 no forage plant
adapted to upland cultivation. Red clover had been tried, but had
not succeeded; timothy also, but its bulbous roots had proved too
toothsome to the grasshopper. Alfalfa arrived in 1873, but had not
yet come into general use, and its potentialities for lightening up and
fertilizing arid soil were unknown and hardly suspected until a much
later date. One of the first things discovered when the settlers began
to break up, irrigate, and cultivate the upland soil in Colorado was
that they could neither successfully irrigate a planting of potatoes or
corn to bring it up in case of an insuflicient rainfall to germinate tuber
or seed, nor apply water during the earlier stages of growth without
endangering the aftergrowth and ultimate yield of these crops. If,
after planting, the usual rains failed and water was applied, there
almost invariably resulted a poor stand, and sickly, spindling, unhealthy
vegetation even where the seed germinated at all. It was, in fact, for
many years the belief of the best farmers, based on experience, that
it also injured potatoes to irrigate them before they were in blossom,
or at least until the vines were of sufficient size to shade the earth
about the crowns of the hills. When, however, these farmers began
to turn under alfalfa stubble, or growing fields of this wonderful plant,
from 1 foot to 18 inches high, preparatory to the planting of a crop of
potatoes, a change in conditions was quickly observed. Now, if the
winter has been an unusually dry one, and virtually all moisture
resulting from the irrigations of the previous season has been lapped
up by the winds, the field to be devoted to potatoes can be irrigated
before plowing it; or, having been barely able to plow the ground
without irrigation, if the expected rains do not follow, the grower

POTATO CULTURE NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO. 313

proceeds with planting, and, if necessary, immediately furrows out the
rows between the easily distinguishable lines left by the planter, and
turns in the water. And this operation is almost invariably attended
by success. Furthermore, if the late May rains, which can be
depended on five years out of every six, prove in any instance only
sufficient to sprout the seed and bring the young plants above the
surface, there is no longer any hesitation to irrigate then or at any
later period of growth when, in the judgment of the experienced
farmer, conditions require it.

ROTATION OF CROPS AND SHEEP FEEDING.

Systematic rotation of potatoes with other crops, as well as the
cleanest and most thorough cultivation, is practiced. The intensive
farming or cultivation found in other parts of the United States,
whether in the tobacco fields of Connecticut, the hop fields of New
York, the celery trenches of Michigan, or the onion gardens and the
cabbage patches around any of the great eastern cities, is not superior
in any respect to that which is practiced on the potato farms around
Greeley. In general, one or at most two crops of potatoes succeed
the turning under of a three-year or four-year old alfalfa field. In .
some instances a second crop following the one on fresh alfalfa sod is
found to yield even better returns than the first. A third, very rarely
planted in succession, almost invariably results in a poor crop. After
one or two crops of potatoes, therefore, following alfalfa, there usually
follows a crop of wheat, and after wheat, perhaps barley or oats, and
then with the second grain crop, and sometimes even with the first, a
fresh seeding to alfalfa is made, and there follows another two or
three years in hay crops. Corn is not cultivated to any extent in the
potato area for two reasons: (1) Potatoes are a better crop to rotate
with grain than is corn, and (2) we are so near the mountains that the
nights are too cool for profitable returns in corn.

Sheep feeding has recently become quite an industry within the
potato belt. The sheep utilize the alfalfa hay crop, which has been
found by experience to be better adapted to fattening lambs for the
market than any other forage plant, and the great quantities of manure
from the feeding pens, being hauled back onto the fields, are found to
enormously increase the yields. Heavy coatings of sheep manure in
a measure postpone for a time the necessity of rotating with alfalfa.
_ It has also been found that a light coating of manure turned under
with the alfalfa sod will produce still heavier returns in potatoes than
can be obtained by a heavier coating on wheat or other grain stubble
to be plowed for potatoes.

814 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

USE OF MACHINERY AND METHOD OF CUTTING SEED POTATOES,

Every operation in potato cultivation, from planting to harvesting, is
performed by machinery (Pl. XX XJ). The planters in use are more
perfect in their automatic action in dropping the seed than are any of
the various machines for sowing or drilling grain, and the diggers,
after years devoted to the experimental stage in their construction and
application, do their work to perfection. Machines have even been
used for cutting up the tubers into sections for planting, but for
various reasons, some of them obvious, they have not been successful.
The nearest successful approach to the use of a machine for this pur-
pose is a method of cutting now quite generally employed. A wide
bench is boxed in on the ends and one side and divided into two or three
compartments, all open in front. To each of these compartments is
attached a sack on hooks, and along the open side of the bench in the
middle of each compartment is fixed in an upright position a shoe

a ay — Sr le a
a7) i

KY a AY

V

- —
—_

Fie. 27.—Bench for cutting seed potatoes.

maker’s knife or common steel table knife (fig. 27). Onto this bench
are then shoveled the potatoes to be cut for planting, and in front of
each compartment a man takes his position on a box or stool. He
seizes the tubers in rapid succession and by pulling them against the
blade quickly cuts each one into two, or four, or eight pieces, accord-
ing to its size, the pieces being then dropped into the open sack. By
this indirect method of using the knife two fairly good cutters will
prepare each day all that is ordinarily required for one planter.

SEED POTATOES.

Great care is exercised in the selection of seed potatoes, and many
experiments have been tried by farmers to determine the best size to
be planted. But it has never been satisfactorily demonstrated that a
large potato is better for seed than a small one, or that a whole potato is

‘Q13I4 3HL NI S3OLVLOd ONINOVS ANV ‘ONILYOS ‘ONIDDIG

Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

PLATE

XXXI.

ea

.
sd 7
»
~~
sf .
® uy :
(ae ae

er i Oiw - i
: ‘ &
See aaa

F 7 ra q 7 7

POTATO OULTURE NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO. 315

better than a piece containing one or more eyes. A whole potato will
maintain its vitality for a longer period in dry, improperly prepared
soil, and under these adverse conditions such seed will result in a bet-
ter stand, but otherwise we have never been able to discern any
advantage resulting from the use of whole rather than cut tubers, or
of large pieces rather than smaller ones. Consequently, after many
years of experience and close observation in the business of growing
potatoes in this region, our farmers almost invariably use small pota-
toes for planting purposes. In fact, they care very little how small
the tuber may be if it is perfect in form and true to type. <A very
small potato is sometimes planted whole, but is more often cut into
halves; the next size above it is cut into quarters, while the potato
that is just below the shipping size is usually cut into eight pieces.

The words ‘‘true to type” may require explanation. For some
reason that the growers are unable to explain, the best varieties
obtained from other regions and constantly brought here to replenish
or entirely replace our own, manifest from the very first year’s plant-
ing a tendency to ‘‘run out,” as we term the process of degeneration,
and to revert to the forms of the original tuber from which we pre-
sume all our modern improved varieties were derived. A round or
slightly flat and oval variety with smooth surface and very few eyes
in proportion to its bulk will, under this degenerating process, soon
produce a large percentage of long, rough potatoes covered with knobs
or irregular protuberances and thickly studded with deep-set eyes.

The smaller-sized potatoes so generally used for seed are from that
_ portion of the crop which drops through our coarser-meshed screen
in sorting and sacking for the market. That is the first process of
elimination, and the next is very carefully performed by hand. Every
one of the malformed, deformed, degenerate tubers is thrown into the
waste basket always sitting near at hand. In connection with this
very important subject of seed potatoes another singular fact may be
mentioned. It would most naturally be inferred by a novice in the
business that in a locality and under a system of cultivation which
produces such large yields of potatoes of such superior quality excel-
lent varieties might be originated. This was the general belief at
Greeley until the experiment was tried thoroughly and repeatedly,
not only by private parties, but in the most careful and painstaking
manner by the agricultural experiment station at Fort Collins. Never-
theless, out of hundreds of new varieties so originated, and out of
dozens that, even after a second or third experimental planting, seemed
to promise extraordinary results, not one has been found worthy of
general cultivation for the market.

316 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

METHOD OF GROWING.
PREPARATION OF SOIL,

At Greeley the soil is plowed deep for the potato crop. As a rule,
three to four large draft horses are used with a 14-inch or 16-inch
walking plow and from four to six with a sulky plow. Little fall
plowing is done in the potato region, for the reason that, as a rule,
the soil is too dry at that season, and there is seldom water in the fall
with which to irrigate.

PLANTING.

The ground having been plowed and thoroughly harrowed, and the
season for planting having arrived, while two or more men are
engaged in the potato ‘‘dugout” cutting up seed, the planter is at
work in the field. With two horses attached, perhaps 5 acres per day is
the average for each machine. Occasionally, on the larger farms four
horses are attached to the planter, and by this means the area planted
may be increased to 7, 8, or 9 acres per day. The planters are so
constructed that they may be regulated to drop single pieces very
accurately at distances of 9, 12, 15, or 18 inches in the row, according
to the choice of the farmer, this depending in some measure on the
variety planted, but more on the condition of the soil. Of course, a
heavily manured or otherwise very rich field will stand closer planting
than a poorer soil perhaps on another part of the same farm and still
push a majority of the tubers to a marketable size. The distance
between rows varies from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet. The closer plant-
ing sometimes seen in other States is not practicable here for three
reasons: (1) We use the standard cultivators of the corn region; (2)
the heavy growth of vines usual with a good crop impedes the flow of
water in irrigation; and, (8) a good, clean-cut furrow being essential
in all but sidehill irrigation, it is impracticable to plant within nar-
rower limits than those indicated.

The season for planting begins about May 20 and ends with the first
week in June. Few potatoes are planted later than June 1 and not
many before May 20. A comparatively small acreage is annually
planted in early potatoes, but the yield nine times out of ten is very
light in proportion to that of later plantings. This difference proba-
bly results from the fact that the main growth of the tuber in the ear-
lier plantings necessarily takes place in June, the driest month of the
growing season. ‘This view is supported by the fact that the seasons
of greatest success with early potatoes are those in which there is an
unusual quantity of rainin June. Atall events, yields of potatoes from
April and early May plantings as a rule average only from 30 to 50
sacks of marketable potatoes to the acre, while the yield from later
plantings ranges on good farms from 75 to 200 sacks. <A sack holds
from 110 to 120 pounds, according to the skill shown in stuffing the
sack.

ee ee eee a)

am adgs s

ores ieee

POTATO OULTURE NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO. 817
CULTIVATION,

Cultivation follows planting very closely. In fact, on large farms
and where plowing has preceded planting any length of time or when
heavy rains have intervened between plowing and planting, it is
quite common to see the cultivator at work on one side of a field before
the planter has retired from the other. The planter opens a narrow
furrow before the dropper, and the two indrawing shares cover the
seed, leaving a plainly discernible ridge. It is, therefore, even more
feasible to cultivate a field immediately after planting and before the
crop is up than a little later, when the plants are all in sight and care is
necessary to prevent covering them or breaking off the young plants.
The potatoes are cultivated from three to five times, according to the
season and rainfall, or the application of water, and until the vines so
cover the ground between the rows that it is no longer practicable to
get through them with cultivator and team. After each irrigation, or
after any heavy rainfall that may occur, the scientific irrigator and
potato grower sets his cultivators at work just as soon as the condition
of the soil will permit, no matter how recently he has gone over the
field.

IRRIGATION.

If rains occur after planting sufficient to bring up the crop and carry
it well forward in the season, it is preferable not to use water until
the vines shade the ground and are in blossom and the tubers are
beginning to set. But, as before stated, rainfall is not relied upon to
bring the crop up to this stage, and whenever conditions seem to
require it, whether to sprout the seed or to supply moisture necessary
for steadily continued growth, water is turned on. And whenever it
has been necessary to begin using water, if it can be prevented, the
soil is never allowed to become thoroughly parched and dry from that
time on to the end of the growing season. Experience has shown that
a field of potatoes, having once been stimulated by the artificial appli-
cation of water, must be watered at frequent intervals to preveut a
setback in growth, and that a check in the growth of either plant or
tuber after one or more irrigations is more injurious by far than if
the plant had in the first place been considerably pinched for the want
of moisture.

The conditions under which irrigation should take place have been
stated in general terms, but it would be difficult, if not impossible, to
indicate to a novice through written directions just when the conditions
actually exist; for instance, the absence of moisture after planting
to such an extent that the sprouts will never get up through the dry
earth is a matter that only actual experience can determine; and there
is the early period of growth when the vines for lack of moisture get,
to use a common expression, ‘‘ black in the face,” come almost to

318 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

a standstill, and irrigation is required to insure steady and continued
development of vine and tuber. Here again knowledge can be obtained
only after long observation and experience. Irrigation is applied early
and late, as the conditions require, as before stated, and, except with
the comparatively small area devoted to early potatoes, the season ends
in all ordinary seasons only with the first week in September, and
sometimes even later.

Formerly, and before the construction of reservoirs to furnish an
additional supply of water for late irrigation, potatoes were irrigated
three or four times in the season, according to the supply of water,
which was usually insufficient and precarious. Now the crop is irri-
gated from four to ten times, depending on the character of the soil
and the rainfall, the latter always in the Greeley section an uncertain
quantity. By this more liberal use of water than was for a long time
deemed necessary the average yield of potatoes has been more than
doubled within the past ten or twelve years.

An ideal application of water toa growing potato crop would require
that the water should never rise above or stand around the base of the
plants at the crown of the ridge or hill. This is, however, imprac-
ticable in general cultivation. With very short rows and a very even
slope, such as seldom exists on average farms, it would be possible to
approach this ideal, but*’as a matter of fact very little attention is
generally paid to the matter. There is always but a given quantity
of water, and the question with the farmer is usually how to apply it
to the best advantage in getting over his field in the shortest time
compatible with the best results. To that end he divides his water
into just as many furrows as it will fill sufficiently to make it flow off
rapidly down the slope. He is careful by means of cross laterals not to
run the water too great a distance without change, because that would
waste both time and water. ‘Then he depends on prompt and thorough
cultivation to prevent the ground from baking about the vines when
they are small, where the water will inevitably in places back up and
break over the ridges.

MECHANICAL DEVICES AND METHODS OF APPLYING WATER.

Various devices to facilitate distribution and several methods of appli-
cation are in useat Greeley aselsewhereinallirrigated regions. Winged
shovel plows (fig. 28), corn listers, and double-moldboard plows (fig. 29)
of various designs and makes are used to open the furrows for carry-
ing water between the rows. The common plow is often used to turn a
right and left double furrow for larger sublaterals for the conveyance
of water along the margins of fields, the plow being sometimes followed
by what is known as a wooden V scraper, with a tongue attached
to displace the loose earth and clean out the ditch. Sometimes

:
*
|
r
\
i
}

POTATO OULTURE NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO. 319

the shovel only is used to clear the ditch bottom after this double
plowing with a common plow. <A better implement, and one quite
generally used in all the section about Greeley, consists of a double-
moldboard plow some 2 feet or more across its bottom from tip to tip
of its shares (fig. 30). This, drawn by 2 to 6 horses, makes an excel-

Fra. 28.—Winged shovel plow for furrowing out.

lent lateral for conveying water through or across fields of any crop,
whether grain, alfalfa, sugar beets, or potatoes.

Not the least useful of all the devices used in aid of irrigation is the
canvas dam (fig. 31). This consists of a piece of heavy canvas from 3
to 5 feet long and from 4 to 8 feet wide, according to the size of the

Fig. 29.—Furrowing-out plow.

different laterals in which it is to be used. This may be nailed toa stout
pole for the larger sizes or an old hoe handle or other stick for the
smaller dams, or a wide hem may be sewed on one edge lengthwise of
the canvas and the pole or stick inserted. Such a device placed in the
smaller interior laterals or even in the larger supply laterals across

820 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

margins of fields, with a little dirt placed upon the lower edge of the
apron formed on the bottom by the canvas, the top edge being sus-
tained by the pole or stick placed across the lateral from bank to bank,

Fie. 30.—Lateral plow.

constitutes a most effective dam, which will remain temporarily in posi-
tion while in use even more securely than a dam made of loose earth.

In the irrigation of potatoes the ground is furrowed out with one
of the plows described above, the supply lateral is constructed across
the upper edge of the field
to be irrigated, and, if the
field is very large, along the
margin also, parallel to the
rows down one side and
across the middle at a lower
point (fig. 32). The irri-
gator, with a shovel and
several canvas dams, per-
haps of different sizes, be-
gins at the upper end and
at the highest corner of the
field, and placing a dam in the sublateral at a distance of from 3 to 12
rows from the corner, carefully places two or three shovels of dirt upon
the flap to hold it in position when the water strikes it. Then, having
raised the gate in his main lateral not far distant, he lets in his supply
of water, which, passing at once down the sublateral to the canvas dam,
strikes it and comes to a stop, and after settling its sides and bottom

Fig. 31.—Canvas dam.

POTATO OULTURE NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO. 321

firmly against the ditch surface all around, rises, backs up, and begins
to flow down the furrows, the ends of which the irrigator has mean-
while opened with his shovel. In a small field of from 10 to 20 acres,
oreven in a much larger field, where the fall is great, the water turned
in at the top of the rows, as here described, will flow through the entire
length without a change; but in larger fields of from 40 to 160 acres,
very common at Greeley, that would be impracticable. It would be a
waste of both water and time, besides being likely to result at times in
injury to the crop. It is therefore usual to have one or more cross

Nain Lateral

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Fic. 32.—Plan of potato irrigation.

laterals plowed at intervals down the field. Having carefully noted the
progress of the water down his first set of rows until it reaches their
ends below, or the first cross lateral, perhaps midway of the field, the
irrigator now places a second dam farther along in his first lateral, so
as to take in from 3.to 12 more rows, according to his supply of water;
he then opens their ends, and taking out the first canvas dam lets the
water down with a rush to the second, after which he immediately
closes the mouths of the first set of furrows with dirt. Thus, he con-
tinues across the first or upper section of his field until in turn all the

2 alg04——21

822 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

rows have been thoroughly irrigated. If the size of the field has
made it necessary to open one or more cross laterals, he then diverts
his entire supply of water down the lateral at the side of his field, and,
having previously placed a canvas dam in this side lateral at its point
of intersection with its first cross lateral, he repeats his first operation
by placing another dam in position to take the water into from 3 to
12 rows at the new point of intake, and so proceeds until the irrigation
of the whole field is complete. Various modifications of the plan here
described are practiced on rough sidehill farms, or where for other
reasons it is not entirely applicable. But the method outlined will in
general fairly illustrate the system in use in the potato, corn, and beet
fields.

Although potato cultivation is practiced in different localities in the ©
older States on even a larger scale than in the vicinity of Greeley, yet
there are comparatively few farmers in this country who have ever
seen 160 acres, or even 80 acres, of potatoes in a single field. Such
areas are by no means the rule at Greeley, but a block of 20 acres is
regarded as a ‘‘small patch,” 40 acres is but a usual field, 80 acres is
not uncommon, and a quarter section in one solid square not unknown.
And in a country where the lines of demarcation are so distinct
between aridity and irrigation that on one side of a ditch all is the
greenest of verdure, while just across it and only a few feet away all
is as brown as the Sahara, there are few more pleasing, inspiring
sights than one of these large potato fields when in full blossom.

PRACTICAL ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY,
TENNESSEE.

By Sam C. LANCASTER,
Chief Engineer Madison County Good Roads Commission.

The purpose of this article is to give the plain facts relating to the
construction, cost, and maintenance of first-class stone roads in a
county of west Tennessee, where it was necessary to transport all
material by rail; and in order that the reader may be able*to compre-
hend these facts more fully, a few statistics are here given regarding
area, population, taxable values, etc.

FACTS ABOUT MADISON COUNTY.

Madison County is situated in the central part of west Tennessee, on
the plateau slope above the Mississippi Valley. Jackson, the county
seat, is located approximately in the center of the county.

The census of 1900 gave the population of the county as 36,333, and
of the city of Jackson as 14,511, although from a recent school census
the population in the county is now estimated at 41,135, and con-
servative estimates place the population of Jackson at from 19,000 to
20,000.

The county has an area of 512 square miles, or 328,091 acres, with
an assessed valuation of $1,942,925, an average of $5.92 per acre. In
the city of Jackson there are 3,111 blocks, with an assessed value of
$2,543,553; besides an assessed value of personal property amounting
to $705,955. The assessed valuation of railway, telegraph, and tele-
phone companies in county and city amounts to $954,368.64, upon
which there was collected in 1904 an ad valorem tax of $3,331.66.
Thus, it will be seen that the total assessed taxable values in the
county amount to more than $6,000,000.

The tax rate paid by residents of Madison County for State and
county purposes is $1.12 per $100 of assessed valuation, which assessed
valuation, however, is very low.

Of this tax, 12 cents is for the payment of interest on the good-
roads bonds, of which $300,000 has been authorized and $150,000
issued.

It will be seen that, when the remaining $150,000 is issued, a slight
increase in the rate may be necessary to meet the interest, but this will

323

324 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

not exceed 5 or 6 cents on each $100 of assessed valuation. Moreover,
with the rapidly increasing values, the rate of taxation will be reduced |
in a few years to the present rate or even below it.

THE INCEPTION OF THE WORK.

The spring of 1888 found Jackson, Tenn., a country town with a |
population of less than 10,000, and only mud streets.

The Illinois Central Railway Company placed two coaches at the
disposal of the city council and some dozen or more representative
citizens, and invited them to become the guests of the company for a
visit of ten days to the cities along its northern and western lines.
The citizens returned from the trip with the determination to at once
improve the conditions of their own city, and began by constructing a
system of sewers and other public improvements. Subsequently,
they proceeded to macadamize all the principal streets.

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS.

The improvement of the streets of Jackson led to a desire to better
the condition of the country roads, although nothing was accomplished
for several years. Three of the main roads crossed a river valley
near the city limits, and these are popularly known as ‘‘ levee” roads.
It had been the custom to plank these levees in order to render them
passable during the winter months. Through the Young Men’s Com-
mercial Club of Jackson, the writer was requested in the fall of 1893
to submit some facts to the county court. Asa result, it was shown
that the first cost of such planking was greater than that of macad-
amizing, while, in durability, the wood could not be compared to
stone. It was urged that, if stone were used, it would serve to edu-
cate the people who traveled these roads, and subsequent facts have
proven this to be true. The first stone was laid on these levee roads
in 1894, and the cost of repairs on the first road improved has been less
than $500, or less than $33 per annum per mile.

GOOD ROADS CONVENTION OF 1901.

Although the macadamizing of these levee roads proved highly sat-
isfactory, and those interested in better roads sought by every means
to extend the system, nothing was accomplished until June, 1901,
when a good roads convention was held in Jackson, extending through
one week. Governors from adjoining States were invited to be
present, much interest was aroused, and many prominent men
addressed the meetings. The Office of Public Road Inquiries of the
Department of Agriculture sent representatives to direct the building
of a piece of exhibition road; Mr. M. O. Eldridge, of that Office,
gave an instructive lecture, with stereopticon views. Ten carloads of
stone were contributed, and 1,000 feet of exhibition road was built.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XXXI\.

FiG. 1.—POPLAR CORNER ROAD, BUILT JUNE, 1901.

[This portion of the road was built of rounded water-worn material and is in bad repair.]

FiG. 2.—POPLAR CORNER ROAD, BUILT JUNE, 1901.

{This portion of the road, built of novaculite, has received no repairs and is in perfect condition. ]

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. 3825

The Mobile and Ohio Railway gave five carloads of gravel, which
came from Tishomingo County, Miss., and also donated the freight
on five carloads of Novaculite rock from quarries located on its line,
some 380 miles north of Cairo, in Alexandria County, Ill. The Illinois
Central Railway and the National Good Roads Association supplied a
train-load of modern machinery and tools, which were used in addition
to the steam roller and road tools owned by the city of Jackson. The
Illinois rock was extremely sharp and angular, and was delivered
screened into three sizes; and it was laid in the usual manner, which
will be fully described later. The Tishomingo County gravel was
water-worn and somewhat rounded in form, and while it bonded well it
did not produce such good results, as may be plainly seen by comparing
the two figures of Plate XXXII, showing the road after it had been
in use three and a half years. The material was put down at the same
time, on the same road, with equal care, and in the same manner. One
material was angular, sharp, and properly screened for use, making an
ideal road, while the other, water-worn, rounded, and not screened,
soon went to pieces.

Although this object-lesson road was built in June, 1901, it has had
no repair whatever; the side ditches have not even been cleaned, and
it has been subjected to heavy travel. All the stone used in extending
this road a distance of 2 miles during the past summer was hauled over
the road, some of it by traction engine during extremely dry weather,
yet, on that part built of novaculite, the surface is practically perfect.

MASS MEETING OF 1903.

The enthusiasm created by the good roads convention and the con-
struction of the object-lesson road served a most valuable purpose,
but time was required for the facts to be digested, and the process
was greatly hastened by the ‘‘ winter of great mud,” 1902-3. When
it came, the burden could no longer be borne—the roads were impass-
able; it required two strong mules to draw a milk wagon with two
milk cans, and all day was consumed in going a few miles. For more
than six weeks this condition prevailed. No one attempted to pass
over these mud roads except in case of dire necessity. The farmer
was locked in and all trade was stopped. The opportune moment had
arrived; a mass meeting of all the citizens of the county was called,
and those who could get to it came. All wanted good roads, the only
difference of opinion being as to the best means for procuring them,
and after a long discussion which seemed likely to prove disastrous,
some contending for a direct tax and a few roads each year, and others
wanting to issue bonds, a farmer arose and addressed the meeting as
follows:

Mr. Chairman, I am just a plain farmer and have no business trying to talk in this
meeting. Iam all covered with mud; there is mud on my boots, and all over my

826 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

clothes, and my hat is all spattered up, too, I walked to this meeting because my
horse couldn’t travel the roads. I’ve got a little farm and sawmill out on the Poplar
Corner road, just a little over 2 miles from town, and if I could climb up on a hard
road with my truck and what lumber I’ ve sawed, I could clear enough in one day to
pay my tax on that road; but I haven’t got it.

| bought some groceries from you [turning to a merchant] this month; yes, $5
worth, for I carried them out on my back; but if I had a good road, it would have
been $25, I am sure.

This plain statement brought the question home, a hearty laugh
went round, and a motion prevailed, without opposition, to instruct
our representative in the State legislature to draft a bill authorizing
our county court to issue bonds in the sum of $300,000, bearing 4 per
cent interest, and extending over a period of thirty years.

LEGISLATION SECURED.

The bill immediately became a law. It provides that the first
$150,000 shall be used in the construction of roads within a radius of
5 miles from the corporate limits of the city of Jackson, and the sec-
ond $150,000 in the construction of roads within a radius of 10 miles
from the corporate limits. The first issue was sold at par. The writer
was chosen as chief engineer to direct the construction of the roads,
and work was begun in June, 1908.

ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF OPERATIONS.

The county court is composed of forty-four magistrates, each dis-
trict having two representatives, except the district in which Jackson
is situated, which has eight. This being rather a large body, the
court, in order to facilitate matters, created a commission known as
the Madison County good roads commission, in whose hands it placed
all authority possessed by it for the construction of a system of
improved roads.

This commission is composed of five representative men, members
of the county court, residing in different parts of the county; the
chairman of the county court is also by reason of his office a member
of this commission.

The funds are held in trust by the good roads bonds trustees, under
whose direction the bonds are sold, and to whom all moneys are
intrusted. The funds are deposited equally in the five banks of the
city, and the board of trustees is composed of one representative from
each bank, together with the chairman of the county court.

The execution of all work and the purchase of all tools, materials,
etc., are under the direction of the chief engineer and the good roads
commission. Proper vouchers are issued by the chief engineer in pay-
ment for all bills when properly countersigned by the secretary of the

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. 327

good roads commission and two of the bonds trustees, who constitute
the finance committee, and then by the secretary, who is the chairman
of the county court, and who issues the checks. The funds are thus
safeguarded and kept in a businesslike way.

MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR ROAD BUILDING.

The situation of the county and its geological formation are such
that no material suitable for road building has been found in the
county or its immediate vicinity. Beginning in northern Alabama
and extending through the northeastern part of Mississippi, thence
through Tennessee, following closely the Tennessee River through
western Kentucky, crossing southern Illinois and Missouri, then down
through the State of Arkansas and out into Indian Territory there is
found a rock commonly called ‘‘ chert,” and known in Illinois as
novaculite.

This material seems to have been prepared in nature’s laboratory
especially for road building. As it stands in the quarry, it has
innumerable cracks and seams which are filled with a fine material of
high binding power. The use of dynamite or powder is required to
throw it down, whereupon it breaks into irregular forms with very
sharp edges.

The material first used by the city of Jackson came from the Ten-
nessee deposit, about 48 miles east of Jackson. A large quantity of it
was used on the city streets, and the three levee roads spoken of were
paved with it. The material was not screened, and the large pieces of
stone had to be broken with hand hammers, requiring considerable
care and expense to insure its being well done in order to prevent large
pieces from working to the surface, as they will always do in time, to
the great detriment of the road.

In the spring of 1898 the city wished to improve certain streets, and
on inquiry found that no material could be procured from the Tennessee
quarries, because the railway companies were baJlasting their tracks;
hence it became necessary to look elsewhere. Bids were received for
material from Tishomingo County, Miss., as well as from the Illinois
quarries. There being but little difference in the bids, and the Illinois
material being screened and furnished in three sizes, the latter proposal
was accepted. Since that time the city has secured practically all the
material for paving its streets from this source, but the county uses
some material from the Tennessee deposit also.

The city streets are kept in good repair, at comparatively small cost,
and this is done under the direction of the writer, as city engineer.
Some of these streets have been in use for five years without any
repairs whatever, and are still in excellent condition.

328 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COOPERATION OF THE RAILWAY COMPANIES,

Without the hearty cooperation of the railway companies, the con-
struction of stone roads in this county would have been so expensive
that it could never have been accomplished.

The Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway Company deliv-
ered this material on board cars at Jackson for 1,°5 cents per 100 pounds,
with a haul of from 48 to 50 miles, while the Mobile and Ohio Railway
Company, with a haul from Alexandria County, Ill., of 1380 miles, pays
the Illinois Central Railway Company’s bridge toll over the Ohio River
bridge at Cairo and delivers this materia! on board cars at Jackson for
2% cents per 100 pounds. It should perhaps be explained that in
securing this last-named rate the attention of the company was called
to the fact that large shipments of lumber from the pine forests of
Mississippi and Alabama were made daily to northern points during
the summer months (which is the season for road building). These
cars were returning empty, and, as the officers of this company had
for a long time advocated the building of good roads, they consented
to name a rate which would allow these empty cars to return to us
loaded with stone.

LOCATING THE ROADS.

Before starting any construction work a complete survey of all the
roads within a radius of 5 miles was made, maps and profiles were pre-
pared, and, where changes in location seemed advisable, these were
projected. After a careful consideration of cost, grades, and align-
ments the best routes were selected; and so far as possible the plans
thus formed have been executed. It is a sad fact, however, that engi-
neers and commissions may propose, but county courts dispose.

Straight lines and easy grades may be laid out on paper so as to
avoid many a winding way or an awkward turn; you may seek ‘‘to
remove mountains” by curving around their bases, but, if Bill Jones
or Tom Smith is left on the old road, trouble ensues, sympathies and
jealousies are aroused, and every man who ever traveled that winding
road becomes an ardent admirer of its steep hillsides and devious
course; and, cost what it will, the engineer receives peremptory orders
to ‘‘stay in the old road.” There have been exceptions, and some
important changes have been made in order to shorten distances and
avoid steep hills, but in almost every case we have had to pay exces-
sive rates for rights of way, and sometimes to resort to condemnation
procedure.

Two changes were projected, but never made, which would have
greatly improved the alignment and removed four long grades having
a vertical ascent of 14 feet in each 100; in one case the new road would
have traversed a valley route, fulfilling all the requirements of two hill

Se

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. 329

roads for a distance of more than 2 miles (fig. 33), and, although the
saving effected would have been more than $12,000, the opposition

MAP OF
/ MADISON CO. TENN.

SCALE OF MILES
ii 2k a ae

Fic. 33.—Road map of Madison County, Tenn.: The heavy black lines show roads that have been
macadamized; the double lines show the more important roads not yet improved; the broken lines

show where new alignments were proposed, which would have effected a saving of more than
$12,000, had they been accepted.

was such that we ‘‘staid in the old road,” and made the best of a bad
proposition.

LABOR EMPLOYED.

All work is done under the immediate direction of the chief engi-
neer, assisted by a competent corps of men in the field, who properly
execute the work in its several branches. Hired labor has been used
throughout, with the exception of a small prison force under the con-
trol of the county workhouse commission. Many other localities
have used their prison labor in the construction of permanent roads to
very great advantage; and it is possible to have this force do the
greater part of the work of grading roads and unloading the stone,
and in some cases the work of quarrying, crushing, and screening the

830 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rock. No contracts have been let, except for tools, machinery, stone,
and such other materials as are necessary. The laborers are almost
exclusively negroes.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE ROADS.

A road, like every other piece of human work, is good or bad just
in proportion to the amount of skill and ingenuity that has been used
in its construction and maintenance.

Many inquiries are received regarding the method of constructing
the roads in Madison County, and,.in order to impart a more adequate
idea of the system used, iinstewtioks showing different stages of the
work from start to fant are given. Figure 34 shows standard cross

AN \In Cuts
wn ll 8 6’0” - ONG Or nly oot

In Fills ; ;
aE O4--- 6°02 —— — 6'0+—+— -4'02t

Aas DA ati sick

Fre. 34.—Standard cross sections of finished road.

sections of finished road. Plate XX XIII, figure 1, shows an old road
as it appeared April 15, 1904. The clearing in the distant woods
indicates the location of the new road. At this point the road was —
straightened and put on better ground.

The grading of the road having been completed and rolled with a
steam roller, Plate XX XIII, figure 2, shows the force at work prepar-
ing the road for the reception of the first course of stone. It will be
noted that the road machine in the distance, which is first used, and
which rounds the dirt to the center, is being followed by a small force
of laborers, who dress the surface accurately to lines.

The road is again thoroughly rolled with a steam roller, as shown in
Plate XXXIV, figure 1, until the surface no longer yields; all the
depressions are filled with earth as they appear, so that when the road

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XXXIII.

FiG. 1.—THE EVOLUTION OF A COUNTRY ROAD—1. APRIL 15, 1904.

[At this point the road was straightened and placed on better ground. ]

Fig. 2.—THE EVOLUTION OF A COUNTRY ROAD—2. May 18, 1904.

[Finishing up the grade of the newly opened road. }

*
’
.
4 a :
2.
i=
*
bn.
=o as

”

+
+
‘
'
~ &
+ ene ek
4
- 2

ie

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE XXXIV.

FiG. 1.—THE EVOLUTION OF A COUNTRY ROAD—3. May 18, 1904.

[Rolling the grade with the 10-ton steam roller.]

Fi@. 2.—THE EVOLUTION OF A CounTRY ROAD—4. May 19, 1904.

[First course of stone, 4 inches thick, applied; now being rolled.]

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. d3b1

is ready for the stone the foundation on which it must rest is as solid —
as it is possible to make it. In all constructions men have learned the
importance of solid foundations. If a road is to resist the wear to
which it is subjected, the greatest care must be used in securing the
best possible foundation.

The first course of stone, about 4 inches in thickness, is then applied
(see Pl. XXXIV, fig. 2). It is of a size that will pass through a 3-inch
ring. The stone is wet before rolling, the general practice being to
sprinkle it thoroughly by means of a portable tank or wagon sprinkler
of the type commonly used on city streets. This, however, has been
found expensive, especially during extremely hot weather, as the water
evaporates rapidly when sprinkled on the hot stone, and it is difficult
to haul a heavy tank of water over this coarse, loose material. There-
fore, it was arranged to wet each wagon-load of stone as it passed out
to the road. If hauled from the city, a convenient hydrant is used.
In other cases a running stream is utilized. Where no other source
of supply is available, a 3-inch well is bored, sometimes having a
depth of as much as 150 feet, and, with the aid of a portable gasoline
or hot-air engine of, say, 2-horsepower, all the water necessary is sup-
plied to properly wet 400 cubic yards of stone per day, and also fur-
nish water for steam roller, teams, etc., at a cost not exceeding $2
per day.

In rolling the stone it should be remembered that it is best to first
roll the edges and gradually approach the center of the road, as by
this means the material is more thoroughly compressed and the crown
is retained.

Having completed the rolling of the first course of stone, a second
layer 2 inches thick, of a size which will pass a 14-inch ring, is spread
on as evenly as possible, being thoroughly wet and rolled as before.
All depressions are then filled with the same material, and after rolling
smooth, still another course is added, the material used being fine
screenings, varying in size from that of a pea to the smallest particles.
This last course is then wet and is rolled until the whole is thoroughly
compacted and bonded into one concrete mass, having a thickness of
6 inches at the center and 4 inches at the sides. (Pl. XXXV, fig. 1.)
Only a sufficient quantity of this fine material should be used to
insure the filling of all voids and to properly bond the top course, a
common error being to apply it unevenly or to an excess, which causes
it to ‘* pick out” in holes and wear badly.

Care must be taken to see that the road is properly ditched and
drained, as no road can stand, however well it may be built, where
the all-important question of drainage is neglected. An eminent
authority has described a good road as ‘‘one with a tight roof and a
dry cellar.”

332 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Some of the old Roman roads, built of heavy stone and mortar, have
a thickness of 3 feet; but the best modern road builders haye demon-
strated that it is no longer a question of how much is put on, but how
well it is put on.

Telford and Macadam dug suflicient stone from the old Roman
roads throughout England and Scotland to entirely reconstruct them
by the new methods of road building which have been accepted by the
civilized world. ‘They appreciated the importance of breaking the
stone and placing it so as to cause the particles to wedge together.
These eminent men lived before the introduction of our modern road
machinery, which has done so much to facilitate the construction of
roads as well as to increase their durability.

PHYSICAL TESTS AND BINDING QUALITY OF MATERIAL.

The material which has been used in constructing the roads of
Madison County possesses most exce'lent binding qualities, which are
so necessary to the life and quality of any road. While binding power
is possessed by many materials, there are many instances where fail-
ures have occurred solely on account of the selection of material which,
while possessing great hardness, would never bond. Extensive
research has been made to determine, if possible, what really consti-
tutes this ‘natural binding quality, and many theories have been
advanced. The Department of Agriculture has organized a Division
of Tests, which is endeavoring to determine the exact nature of this
important factor. Comparatively recent tests have developed the faot
that with many rocks continued grinding while wet produces a higher
cementing power. Microscopic examination reveals a substance very
much resembling glue. The Division of Tests referred to has been
created for the purpose of testing and reporting on the fitness of mate-
rials for road building, and will doubtless prove of incalculable service
to road builders. By methods now well established this Division is
able to say just what materials are best suited to road building in each
particular locality, and in what degree they possess a ‘*‘ natural bond.”
The results of actual construction have proven the correctness of these
methods. The use of a certain amount of water, and then pressing
and grinding the particles together with heavy rollers, keeping con-
tinually at it until the road is solid and begins to dry, are essentials to
success in making a good road which will have a ‘‘ tight roof” and, if
properly drained, will always have a ‘‘ dry cellar.”

BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.

As far as possible all waterways crossing the roads are made per-
manent. The small openings, up to 24 inches in diameter, are made
of standard double-strength culvert pipe. From 24 inches up to and
including openings 5 feet square, ‘‘ reenforced” concrete constructions

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. 333

are used; but as yet nothing larger than this has been built. Wooden
bridges are used for the larger openings, and all are built to carry
safely a load of 15 tons.

As reenforced concrete is rapidly coming into general use, a descrip-
tion of this construction should prove of interest. The spacing of the
corrugated steel bars used and the thickness of the concrete are varied
to suit the span and load, the concrete bearing the compression and
the steel bars taking the tension strains. The corrugations of these
bars prevent any slip or movement occurring between the concrete
and the steel, thus insuring perfect union of the two. The steam
roller shown in Plate XX XV, figure 2, weighs 10 tons. The opening
shown is 5 feet square, having bars 6 inches apart, and the thickness
of the concrete is also 6 inches. The culvert shown occurs on a curve
where a stream crosses at a decided angle, so that the difference in
cost between a long wooden bridge and this concrete structure was not
very great. The cost of a 5-foot culvert of this type, under average
conditions, including head and wing walls, is $9 per linear foot; with-
out wing walls, $6.20.

COST OF MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION.

Madison County now has 29.15 miles of improved roads, of which
4.88 miles are the three levee roads built in 1894, or more than ten
years ago; 244 miles represent the work which has been done since
June 1, 1903, at a cost of $115,681.71, which includes every item of
expense, as will be seen by reference to the following itemized state-
ment: :

Cost of road construction in Madison County since June 1, 1908.

ois SS ee ee oe ee ee a $7, 044. 95
Ee ie a Re ee oe en a a 402. 34
Rock (delivered on board cars at Madison County sidings)..--.-.------ 48, 885. 64
ince. Pauline and iavyine..complete. — 2. 5.52... ..-----2+--.-+---0- 43, 660. 46
ESS SP ig 8 7 SMe ADEE 0S Ue i Ie aa ep ee eae ee ee 6, 518. 43
0 sere coe a is UES Tap ele ge Ae a £177. tl
Engineering, surveys, and superintendence -........------.--.:------- 7, 016. 35
puree Bn ee Se es i oie baaw one 975. 83

De OL RIIGHED FO GAG = cee SS os ees lee occa cowed ee 115, 681. 71

COST OF STONE.

The average cost of the stone from the two sources is 99 cents per
cubic yard free on board the cars at the quarries, and there is a shrink-
age of approximately 10 per cent, due to settlement in transit, as shown
by difference in measurements at the point of loading and on arrival
at destination.

In calculating the quantity of material necessary to construct a road,
it should be remembered that the difference between the measurement

3384 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

of the material on cars or wagons at the quarry and after being thor-
oughly rolled in place on the road is close to 25 per cent.

It will be seen that the cost of the stone, on account of transporta-
tion from distant points, represents the largest item of expense in the
construction of the roads.

The Madison County roads vary in width from 12 to 16 feet, the
wider roads being near the city of Jackson.

COST OF GRADING PER CUBIC YARD,

Next to the cost of stone comes the cost of grading, which varies
widely according to topography and reduction of grades. Profiles of
two roads (figs. 85 and 36) will illustrate this clearly.

ht is / CUE

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Fig, 35.—Profile of Christmasville road: Figures at left denote elevation; stations numbered at the
top are 500 feet apart.

On account of the nature of Madison County soil, which washes
badly, the condition of the old roads makes it necessary in many places
to fill deep ditches and to widen cuts where the old roads are narrow
and worn down by long use. In some cases it was necessary to incur

STA TIONS —~ir 10 M5 420
J

mee nhaas
a00ae
bE

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a6 Goauacaoueces
feted ieee gagogun ont!
Oe Be!
ane PELE ee

Fia@. 36.—Profile of Lower Brownsville road: Figures at left. denote elevation; stations numbered at
che top are 500 feet apart.

R
N
x
§
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8
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the expense of picking down the side walls by hand before it was pos-
sible to use teams and scrapers to advantage. Those who are familiar
with the cost of grading know that this is expensive. In other cases
the grading is light, but the old surface, which is flat and irregular
and often filled with brush which has served during the winter to
keep the traveler from sinking out of sight, must be shaped and
rounded to meet the new conditions. The old brush must be removed;

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. 335

and, while the number of cubic yards of earth which must be handled
is small, the cost per cubic yard is thus greatly increased.

The average cost of grading per cubic yard has been approximately
25 cents, some of it being done as low as 8 and 10 cents, while under
other conditions it has cost as much as 40 cents.

COST OF GRADING PER MILE.

The average cost of the work, not including the price of the stone,
but including the cost of grading, preparing foundation, rolling,
unloading the stone, hauling it to the road, and laying it, complete, has
been $1,800.43 per mile. The cost of unloading and hauling alone has
been $584.56 per mile. As Jackson is near a river valley, most of the
roads constructed thus far have climbed out of this valley and over
divides. These roads have been made wider, and grades have been
reduced from a maximum of 14 per cent, or a vertical rise of 14 feet
in each 100, to a maximum not exceeding 6 per cent, or a vertical rise
of 6 feet in each 100; and in many cases the reduction has been even
greater than this. Farther out these steep grades are not so common,
nor is it necessary in sparsely settled districts, where travel is light,
to reduce them so greatly, nor will the roads have to be so wide; hence
the cost of grading will be much less.

COST OF HAULING WITH TEAMS.

The cost of hauling the material to the road comes next in impor-
tance, and, where the distance is great, constitutes one of the largest
items.

With the ordinary farm wagon provided with the slats and side-
boards commonly used, and holding 1 cubic yard, it was found that
the average team would travel, in a day of ten hours, an average dis-
tance of 24 miles, and it required continual urging to accomplish this.
The price paid being $2.50 per day for wagon, team, and driver, and
the haul being only one way, the cost per cubic yard per mile for
hauling is, therefore, 20.83 cents.

During the fall months, the weather being cool, a different plan was
tried, a 10-hour day being based on 28 miles of travel for each team
at the above-named rate. Signboards, placed at regular intervals
along the road, marked the time in hours and minutes allowed the
owner of each team for material delivered between these points, a
record being kept by the foreman in charge. Some drivers pushed
their teams extremely hard, and forced them to travel as much as 40
miles, so that, at the close of the second day’s work, the team was laid
up on account of overwork; on the other hand, a few fell below the
former earnings, but solely on account of inferior teams and incompe-
tent drivers. The distance of 28 miles with favorable weather condi-
tions was found to be all that a good team could cover in ten hours, and

336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be able to keep at it continually. The cost at this rate is, therefore,
17.86 cents per cubic yard per mile of actual haul.

COST OF HAULING WITH TRACTION ENGINES.

As the length of haul increases, the number of teams required to
handle the material multiplies rapidly. Where the stone is shipped
by rail a considerable distance, and is delivered in certain fixed quan-
tities each day, teams must be found, or their substitutes. This regu-
larity of shipment is necessary in order to provide steady employment
for the men at the quarries, as also for the regular movement of cars.

It is a difficult matter to find always enough teams to meet the con-
stantly increasing demand of long-distance hauls, and with teams the
cost soon mounts up. ‘The spilling of the new stone along the surface
of the completed road, coupled with the continual grinding under
narrow-tired wagon wheels, is calculated to break the surface and
injure the roads. On this account it seemed desirable to undertake
hauling by means of traction engines.

Through the editor of a well-known publication devoted to this
interest the name of every builder of traction machinery in the United
States was secured. Bids were obtained on two traction engines
and ten steel cars especially designed for this particular purpose. <A
contract was awarded under the guaranty that the outfit would prove
a practical success for use in hauling stone to be used in the construc-
tion of a system of country roads and be able to show a saving of 25
per cent over team hauling, the tests to extend over a certain period
of time. The engines were to be capable of drawing 30 tons up a 6
per cent grade at the rate of 2 miles per hour, weight of engine not
to exceed 11 tons, and to carry coal and 300 gallons of water. While
returning with the empty cars the engine was to develop a speed of 6
miles per hour by shifting into a high-speed gear. Plate XXXVI,
figure 1, shows one of these engines taking water 3} miles from the
starting point and drawing four cars of stone each containing 5 cubic
yards.

The cars or wagons dump and spread the material automatically,
and can be run in either direction without the necessity of turning
around, it being only necessary to turn the engine, which can be aecom-
plished easily in a very short space. The wagons follow one another,
and in turning short angles track perfectly. The wheels are broad
and serve as rollers to compact the roads more thoroughly. On
a haul of 334 miles they were able to travel 35 miles in a day and to
draw each time 20 cubic yards. On account of winter weather, con-
struction work on the roads was suspended and the tests have not
been completed. |

While traction engines have been used extensively throughout
Europe and played an important part in the Boer war, they have not —

Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XXXV,

Fic. 1.—THE EVOLUTION OF A COUNTRY ROAD—5. DECEMBER 5, 1904.

[Team drawing 12 bales of cotton over finished road where only 2 were drawn before. ]

Fig. 2.—CONCRETE-STEEL CULVERT, 5 FEET SQUARE; 10-TON ROLLER.

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XXXVI.

FiG. 1.—HAULING ROAD MATERIAL WITH TRACTION ENGINE.

[Four cars, each nolding 5 cubic yards; engine taking water. ]

=~

———

>
¥ QW Eee”
PIP eQU

—~ The,

~~

A PZ
1, rn ais
=,

Tim

ede | ABW

Ropes ~

LY QO SERe
‘2 WAM

“4

ee i eee

>

7

eK
>
mus

Fig. 2.—CAMPBELLS LEVEE ROAD IN JANUARY, 1905.

[Road was improved in 1894; repairs have cost only $33 per mile per annum since.]

>

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEF. 334

been extensively used in this country for hauling on public roads, and
a great deal must be learned by experience. The writer feels safe
in predicting that, with the growth of the movement for better roads,
and the increased haul as these roads are built away from the source
of supply, hauling with traction engines will come into general use
and will reduce the cost of delivering the stone on the roads to less
than 10 cents per cubic yard per mile after taking into account all
proper charges, such as operating expenses, fuel, oil, depreciation,
interest, etc.

COST OF ENGINEERING, SURVEYS, SUPERINTENDENCE, AND OFFICE SERVICE.

These important parts of the work have been executed with the
smallest possible force. Each man has been deeply interested in his
particular line, and his work has been well and thoroughly done.
Each was impressed with the fact that the future of improved roads,
in this section at least, depended on the practical success of our roads.

The cost of engineering, superintendence, and surveys will compare
favorably with similar work done in any other State, it being $7,016.35,
or only about 6 per cent of the total amount expended. ‘The office
expense is also small, when it is considered that the engineer issues all
vouchers after having carefully checked every bill, makes all pay
rolls, and pays each individual laborer by check.

SAND FOUNDATIONS.

The general character of the Madison County soil varies from allu-
vial to sticky red clay, and there are some strata of sand. There are
numerous instances where the roads traverse valleys and sand has
washed in, making the roads heavy and extremely difficult to travel.
In the outset of our work the question most often asked was, What
are you going to do when you come to the sandy places?

As a matter of fact, nothing makes a better foundation for a stone
road, provided, of course, that it is properly ditched, so that when
rain and floods come the sand is not washed from under—for, after all,
sand is made up of minute particles of stone.

We have built some heavy embankments entirely with sand taken
from the bed of a neighboring stream, it being the most available
material, and after completion only a few inches of soil has been
spread over the whole before adding the stone. The sides of the
embankments are then planted with a jointed grass known in this sec-
tion as ‘* Bermuda,” which grows rapidly, spreading by means of
underground rootstocks, holding the soil and preventing it from
washing. In the Northern States, where this grass does not grow,
wild honeysuckle is a good substitute. The Pennsylvania Railroad
uses it extensively to prevent its roadbea from washing. No finer
roads are to be found than those which we have built on sand, since

2 Aal904——22

338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it provides an excellent underdrain, which adds greatly to the life of
the road.

Nine out of every ten men who passed over these sand roads during
construction had something to say about the foolishness of using sand
for this purpose, all predicting failure. When the same citizens now
travel these roads, their teams pull with ease many times the former
loads and cover the distance in less than half the time.

MAINTENANCE OF THE ROADS.

As previously shown, the cost of maintenance on the levee roads first
built has been small. The labor has been performed by the workhouse
force. The first roads built by the good roads commission in June,
1903, are now in excellent repair, and no work whatever has been done
on them. ‘They will naturally require some repairs, which should be
made systematically. In the care of roads, as in everything else, the
proverbial ‘‘stitch in time” prevents great waste. The legislature of
1905 has been asked to enact a law abolishing the ineffective system in
vogue of ‘‘ working out” the road tax and, instead, require a reason-
able cash tax, the maintenance and care of the roads to be in the hands
of the good roads commission.

Cast-iron mileboards, having raised letters, and mounted on iron
T-posts, have been planted in concrete and serve as permanent mark-
ers. A quantity of suitable stone for repairing the road is piled
around them. Still other piles of such material are placed at the end
of each quarter mile, and thus the material is always at hand when
needed. Repairs can be made in the spring season, when the frost
comes out and the rains have washed the surface clean. The new
material then added to fiJ] the holes will more readily bond—for it
should be remembered that, if new material is thrown into a dirty dry
rut or hole in the road it will not adhere, or it is easily loosened
again by heavy travel, as the loose dirt prevents the new material from
uniting with the old.

It is the purpose of the commission to place one man with a mule
and cart in charge of certain sections of road, he being responsible to
the commission for its condition. A daily report to be filed in the
office of the chief engineer on printed blanks will indicate the exact
work done by this man each day.

Prompt attention insures a small exvense for repairs, and the cost
will be less to the taxpayer than under the present antiquated system,
where the road is seldom repaired until it can no longer with safety
be traveled.

The cost of repairs on the first of the levee roads improved in 1894
has been less than $33 per mile per annum, while the cost of repairs
and maintenance of the old plank road amounted to $684 per mile per

ROAD BUILDING IN MADISON COUNTY, TENNESSEE. 339

annum. Plate XXXVI, figure 2, shows one of these levee roads as it
appeared January 18, 1905, and illustrates their condition.

RESULTS OF GOOD ROADS IN MADISON COUNTY.

It has often been said that ‘*‘ good roads mark the line between bar-
barism and civilization in any country.” A few of our people, appre-
ciating this fact, began many years ago planning to better the condi-
tion of the roads and to meet successfully the resistance offered by
objectors. Possibly the best has not always been made of the advan-
tages offered, but the fight is being won; and the problem is being
solved, locally at least, with a fair degree of success. The ability of a
community to improve at least a portion of its more important roads
has been demonstrated. A well-built piece of road in every com-
munity is the best possible advocate for an extension of the system.

We have in this county approximately 200 miles of important roads,
roads possessing more than a neighborhood value, which ought to be
improved; we have started at the center, the hub of the wheel, and
will push the roads out as far as possible. With lighter grades, and
profiting by the experience gained, we expect to have 80 miles of
well-improved roads, or, better still, if the prison force is turned to
good account, we may hope to have even 90 miles of these good roads
when the authorized $300,000 has been expended.

LAND VALUES INCREASED.

Since the construction of these roads began in June, 1903, the land
values throughout the county have increased, in many instances from
20 to 100 per cent, and the city property has greatly advanced in value.
Tbere are no houses ‘*‘to rent” in Jackson; builders are busy, numbers
of new real-estate offices have been opened, large tracts of farm land
are being subdivided, and prices are being paid which astonish the
most far-seeing champion of this now popular movement.

New families from adjoining counties and States are constantly com-
ing in, some to make their homes in the city and others wanting farms
on the *‘good roads.” Still others, looking ahead and anticipating
protits, have made purchases 5 and 6 miles back from these roads, pay-
ing largely increased prices.

To illustrate this, as well as to show a typical change made in the
location of aroad, a map (fig. 37) and a profile (fig. 36) are given showing
the old road, which climbed to the top of a hill 71 feet in height, turned
a right angle, and descended again to a point lower than the starting
place. A hard fight was required to secure a change, and right of
way had to be bought, but the road, built as indicated across the hypoth-
enuse of the triangle, avoided the hill and made‘a magnificent road,

340 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

with no more grade than is necessary for proper drainage, so that a
team now pulls all that the wagon will sustain.

The farm on the top of the hill had been owned for several years by
a bank, it having been taken to satisfy a debt, and had fallen into neg-
lect, being badly washed. The tenant, an indifferent one, who lived in
the single poor cabin on the 152-acre tract, paid $100 per year rent.

ALIGNMENT OF

LOWER BROWNSVILLE ROAD
MADISON CO. TENN.
SHOWING
NEW AND OLD ROADS.
SCALE FOR 1000 FT

Fig. 87.—Alignment of Lower Brownsville Road; also the line of the old road. For profile, sce
figure 36.

A progressive real-estate dealer purchased the tract at a price consid-
erably above that which the bank had asked only one year before, divided
it into three tracts, and sold it again to three representative farmers.
Good homes are now being made for the reception of families on each
of these three tracts, fruit trees are planted, and thrift and industry
prevail where indolence and improvidence existed but a short time
before.

SUGAR-BEET SEED BREEDING.

By J. E. W. Tracy,
Seed Expert, Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

Although the manufacture of sugar from beets in the United States
dates back three-quarters of a century, the enterprise has not been
successful from a commercial standpoint until within the last fifteen
years. Before 1890 only a few factories had been established in the
United States, but since that date many have been built, until to-day
we have fifty-four completed factories, besides several in process of
construction. They have cost approximately $40,000,000, and have
a daily capacity to manufacture approximately 4,800 tons of refined
sugar from 42,300 tons of roots. The area required to produce these
roots would be over 400,000 acres. The gross return to the farmer
from the area cultivated last year was nearly $42 per acre.

EFFECT OF INCREASE IN SUGAR CONTENT OF BEETS.

The reported extraction for all beets worked in the United States in
1904 was 114 per cent, or 230 pounds of commercial sugar manufactured
from each ton of roots. In Germany, where the raising of sugar-beet
seed and the manufacture of sugar have probably reached their highest
development, the percentage of extraction is considered to be so largely
dependent upon the quality of the seed used that the most carefully
managed factories insist upon having all the seed used by them grown
under their own supervision and on such soils and under such climatic
conditions as experience has shown to be best adapted to their particular
localities. Here in America comparatively little attention is paid to
this matter, and consequently certain factories have been financial fail-
ures, largely because of negligence as to the actual character of the seed
they distributed to their growers. It is conservative to say that the
average percentage of extraction in this country could be increased at
least 2 per cent by the use of as high a grade of seed as is used in
Europe. This increase of 2 per cent in the available sugar in the beet
would make a difference of 40 pounds of refined sugar to each ton of
roots worked, which, to a factory working 50,000 tons of beets a year,
would mean an increase of 2,000,000 pounds of sugar. At this rate
the total product of all the factories in the United States in 1903 would

341

342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

have been increased by more than 40,000 tons. Such an increase would
mean the difference between profit and loss to many factories, with no
increase of capital tied up in their plants and with but a slight increase
in the actual cost of production. Wherea ‘‘ flat rate,” that is, a uniform
rate paid for all roots regardless of their sugar content, is in vogue,
there would be no additional expense for the roots; but where a ‘*slid-
ing scale” is used, the price paid depending upon the sugar content,
an increase of 50 cents per ton for roots would be incurred. The cost
of hauling and slicing the roots and the extraction of the sugar would
not be increased, while the chief additional expense would be in the
purifying and handling of the finished product, both of which are com-
paratively inexpensive items in sugar manufacture.

It can readily be seen that our factory men must be more careful to
secure seed of the best quality, as it is essential to the profitable work-
ing of their factories. It seems positively astonishing, to one who has
observed with what care and thought the factory men in Europe attend
to the selection, breeding, and culture of their seed, that sugar men in
America give so little attention to the seed they plant. Sometimes a
brand of seed is bought because a favorite clerk acts as the paid agent
of its producers or of those who furnish it; sometimes because the
grower and the factory manager were school friends; many times
solely because it is cheapest—cheaper by a few cents a pound, but dearer
by many thousand dollars in the value of the sugar output. The dif-
ference in the cost of the best and the cheapest grades of seed is rarely
more than 4 cents a pound, so that, allowing 18 pounds to an acre for
planting, the additional expense would amount to but 72 cents per
acre. The average yield of roots for the entire United States last
year was 8.4 tons to the acre, which, with an increase of 2 per cent in
the available sugar, would give an increase of 336 pounds of sugar per
acre ut an additional cost of but 72 cents per acre for the seed. The
total extra expense for seed for a 500-ton factory would be $3,600,
while the sugar output would be increased 2,000,000 pounds, valued
at some $90,000.

DISADVANTAGE OF RELYING UPON FOREIGN-GROWN SEED.

While there are careful and painstaking growers in France and
Germany, where the great bulk of the sugar-beet seed used in this
country is produced, there are many who are not only careless in their
methods but dishonest in their practice in handling sugar-beet seed.
They pose as growers and claim to make extensive analyses every year
of individual roots, whereas in reality they simply buy seed where they
can do so most advantageously, regardless of its quality. A large
proportion of the seed used in the United States is furnished by such
dealers, while the better class of German growers who, through fifteen

SUGAR-BEET SEED BREEDING. 343

or twenty generations of plants, have conducted most careful field and
experimental trials and annually spend thousands of dollars im testing
individual roots and making records and photographs of them, sell but
very little seed here. This is largely due to the lack of interest and
failure on the part of the American seed-buyers in investigating the
methods and establishments of those from whom they secure seed.

The information one generally secures from sugar-beet seed growers,
not only as to their own business, but as to that of their associates as
well, is frequently unreliable. Exaggeration is very common, and it
is frequently impossible for an outsider to reconcile the results of his
own observations with the statements made, both in conversation and
in print. Seed which is sold as having been grown in the most care-
ful and scientific manner is often actually the cheapest and poorest
gerade of seed procurable. It consists of both new and old seed,
which has been grown under widely different conditions of soil and
climate, and is mixed together by specially constructed machinery.
It is explained that the different lots of seed are mixed to insure an
evenness both in the germination of the seed and in the quality of the
crop. The absurdity of mixing all kinds and grades of seed to pro-
duce uniformity in the crop is evident.

It is generally admitted that the sugar beet, being one of our most
highly bred plants, is very susceptible to the influences of both cli-
matic and soil conditions; hence seed should be used which was pro-
duced under the most favorable conditions for the production of beets
best suited to each particular locality. The best seed imported is
raised for the most part under very similar climatic and other condi-
tions, but it is sown here in America under all conditions and in all
soils, in New York and Michigan, Nebraska and Washington, and in
the arid and semiarid regions of Utah and California. No single
strain can be the best for all of these varied localities. We can never
expect to secure the best results in our sugar-beet industry when
we have such conditions in the seed branch of the business.

IMPORTANCE OF GROWING SUGAR-BEET SEED AT HOME.

It is absolutely essential to success that we secure the best quality of
seed, and past experience has conclusively shown that we can not
depend upon doing so from abroad. We must raise it ourselves, and
in such a careful, scientific manner that it will not only be of the best
quality, but will have such characteristics as will make it adapted to
the particular needs and requirements of the locality where it is to be
sown. Seed raised on a particular soil and under certain climatic con-
ditions may not be best suited for planting in like soils and under
similar climatic conditions; in fact, very often it is not. Seed from
comparatively poor soil may do best on rich soil, or that raised in the

344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

East may do best when sown in the West. Only study and personal
experience on the part of each factory manager can determine what
seed is best suited for the conditions in his region.

For several years efforts have been made to raise seed on a commer-
cial scale in various sections of the United States, particularly in the
States of Michigan, Nebraska, Utah, Colorado, and Washington, but
not until recently has any serious attempt been made to raise it from
pedigreed roots, or in accordance with the scientific methods found to
cive the best results.

EXCELLENCE OF AMERICAN-GROWN SEED.

During the last three years the Department of Agriculture has been
conducting extensive experiments in testing American-grown seed in
comparison with the best grade of imported seed procurable. These
experiments have shown a marked difference in sugar content, purity,
and yield, and in these qualities the American-grown seed compared
most favorably with the imported. This is remarkable, as the
American-grown seed was grown by seedsmen who had little knowl-
edge and made little use of the scientific methods practiced in Ger-
many. If it is said that the superiority of American-grown seed
in these trials was due to the fact that the imported European seed
was of inferior grades, then it is high time we gave up depending
upon Europe for our supply, as every effort was made to secure for
these comparative tests the best grades of seed procurable in Europe,
.and the prices paid were as high as those paid by the most critical
factories there. If it be said that the soil and natural conditions were
responsible for the superiority of the American-grown seed, it makes
more evident the desirability of growing our own seed and emphasizes
the importance of our doing it according to strictly scientific methods.

OUTLINE OF METHODS FOR PRODUCING SUGAR-BEET SEED.

It is well to consider carefully the methods in breeding sugar-beet
seed which are followed by the best European growers, and which are
the result of long experience and most careful scientific investigation.

There are three methods of producing sugar-beet seed:

(1) Raising seed directly from roots selected according to physical
characters, without analyzing them chemically.

(2) Raising seed directly from individually selected and analyzed
roots and testing the product of each root separately.

(83) Raising seed indirectly from individually selected and analyzed
roots.

The first method is by far the cheapest and quickest, and as such is
largely practiced, but by it we can not secure seed of the highest quality.
It consists in eliminating all prongy and ill-shaped roots, those sending

SUGAR BEET SEED BREEDING. 345

up seed stalks the first year, and all sickly and abnormal roots. — Prac-
tically all the remaining roots, regardless of their sugar content and
purity, are planted for the production of seed, which in turn is sown
and produces small roots, the product of which is placed on the market
as commercial seed Unfortunately, much of the seed which comes to
America is grown by this method, and the best results can never be
obtained where it is used.

The second and most scientific method consists in line breeding from
roots excellent in form, texture, weight, sugar content, and purity,
and which have been proved to possess the power to transmit their
good qualities. The seed of each root is harvested separately, actu-
ally tested in field trials, and if its product is found not up to the
standard of excellence required it is discarded, no matter how supe-
rior the root itself may have been. About one-half of 1 per cent of
the roots tested are found suitable for breeding stock or for ‘‘ breed-.
ers,” and these exceptional specimens *.ce used as foundation stock for
new families. This method of producing seed directly from analyzed
roots has decided disadvantages, as it is impracticable to produce
large quantities of seed in this way, though it is by far the best-known
method for the production of stock seed from which roots for use in
the third method may be grown. Its great advantage lies in the fact
that it makes possible the breeding from individual roots which have
been most carefully tested and recorded and whose progeny are so
isolated that it is possible to determine by actual test how closely they
approach the mother plant, what qualities are hereditary in each
mother root, and what influences are acting upon the plant.

As the third method is the best and most practicable one used in the
production of commercial seed, it will be described more in detail, as it
is practiced by some of the most thorough, careful, and painstaking
growers of Europe.

THE BEST METHOD OF PRODUCING COMMERCIAL SEED IN QUANTITY.

The securing of good breeding roots is not only the most difficult and
most expensive work connected with the culture of sugar-beet seed,
but requires more earnest effort, together with more scientific and
agricultural knowledge, than any other branch of seed raising. The
character of the results is largely dependent upon the ability of the
grower not only to grasp and understand the general principles of
plant breeding, but also to recognize atavistic tendencies and other
qualities of the individual plants. Success also depends largely upon
a proper understanding of the laws governing the correlation of
qualities, and a misunderstanding or neglect of these laws may be the
cause of failure to produce seed of the highest quality, even when the
greatest care and skill in other respects have been exercised.

346 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

In the proper selection of roots, many qualities and characteristics
must be taken into consideration and their relative importance thor-
oughly understood. Among these are the following: (1) The form
and shape of the root and the influence that its surrounding conditions
have had upon it while growing; (2) the colorand texture of both skin
and flesh; (3) the color, shape, texture, and habit of the leaves; (4) the
number of individual leaves and leaf circles; (5) the tendency to pro-
duce seed stalks the first year and the influence that climatic and
other conditions have had in developing this tendency; (6) the health
and vigor of the roots, and what influence, if any, inbreeding and
climatic conditions have had upon them. It is in regard to such
matters as these that we must inform ourselves if we would raise as
good sugar-beet seed as the most careful growers of Europe. There
are practically no secrets regarding the planting of the seed, caring
for the crop, curing, siloing, and analyzing the roots, and harvesting
and curing the seed, which can not be learned by a careful observer,
but there is much to be learned regarding the influence of correlated
qualities, heredity, soil, and climate. (Pl. XX XVII.)

While the weight, high sugar content, and high purity are of course
the points to be considered in breeding sugar beets, still they in
themselves do not include all the qualities to be considered in select-
ing roots for breeding purposes, but are in fact the ends to be attained
and not the means by which we attain them. One must never lose
sight of the qualities sought and obtained, and an exact type must be
adhered to in the selection, which can only be done when the type is
clearly defined and described. The qualities desired should be defi-
nitely, clearly, and fully stated, and the statement supplemented with
photographs or drawings, so that it is possible at all times not only to
accurately describe the ideal sought, but to determine how closely the
ideal has been approached. The qualities of the root were inherent in
the seed from which the roots were grown, and their development is
the result of the characters of the mother roots, including their pre-
potency or ability to produce seed which will develop into plants like
themselves. This prepotency is largely the result of hereditary influ-
ences which can be surmised with a good deal of certainty from the
record and photographs of its ancestors. Even though one may select
roots of good weight-and high sugar content and purity, if, through
want of prepotency or other causes, these roots lack the power to trans-
mit those good qualities to their progeny, they are practically worth-
less as mother beets. While occasionally individual roots may show
remarkable powers as transmitters, yet, in the great majority of
cases, it is only by breeding for the same qualities for a number of
years that we may hope to secure constant results in the progeny.
lf for thirty or forty years all roots not conforming to a most strictly

PLATE XXXVII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

FiG. 1.—ONE OF 15 ROOTS IN SILO AT FAIRFIELD,
WASH.. PRODUCED FROM WASHINGTON-GROWN
SEED WHICH TESTED 24 PER CENT SUGAR.

rc

(An acre of such roots, calculated from the average ton-
nage of the entire area planted in the United States last
year, would produce 42,000 pounds of refined sugar, or
100 pounds of sugar to every 4 square rods. ]

Fia. 2.—‘ MOTHER” ROOT IN SEED, WHICH TESTED 23 PER CENT SUGAR

[A strain of such seed would increase the

present factories

ew ny en OL mee
ih, att be Fak Tae

BEET.

in the United States by more than 300

e Py

,000,000 pounds. |

IN THE

yearly production of refined sugar of the

SUGAR-BEET SEED BREEDING. 347

defined type are discarded, as has been done in some places in Germany,
it is reasonable to assume that the progeny of the roots retained will
more nearly conform to that type than that of roots whose immediate
parents were of the desired type, while their ancestors were of varied
form and character. While individual variations occurring in a stock
are to be avoided, and in fact when too many varying roots occur,
the entire line must be discarded, still such variations may be used as
foundation stocks for new families. The progeny of these varying
roots, however, must not be considered either as of particular merit or
as constituting a new family until, after several generations, they have
shown their characters to be constant or fixed. While improvements,
as with all sorts and varieties of vegetables, must be from individual
plants, in practice the plants are not isolated and bred separately,
but rather by families. Individual roots are analyzed, recorded, and
photographed, and pedigrees of line breedings are made; these records
are not, as relating to the progeny, wholly correct, for a number of
roots closely approaching each other in shape, actual weight, leaves,
habit, sugar content, and purity are grouped together and planted in
one plot to constitute a family and become of necessity more or less
cross-fertilized with one another. Even though these records do not
include that of the influence of cross-fertilization, they are very essen-
tial as records of the family as a unit, and upon them is based the
entire system of the introduction of new blood and the breeding for
definite qualities. The seed of each of the 50 or more roots which
have been grouped into a family is separately harvested and tested by
planting separately in the field, and any which show inferiority are
rejected.

EFFECTS OF SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT.

While many seed growers and sugar men here in America do not
generally concede that the soil, the nature and quality of fertilizer
used, and the climatic conditions have a marked influence on the per-
manent qualities imparted to seed, it is generally so believed among
European growers, and these factors are considered of such essential
importance by them that, generally speaking, they insist upon having
seed grown in certain localities and upon particular soils, which either
conform most nearly to those in their several localities or which expe-
rience has shown them give the most satisfactory results. Such growers
consider it positively necessary to resort toan invigorating, regenerating
power where seed is grown continually in one section. This may be
done by the introduction of new blood into a family, or, if preferred,
stock from the same family that has been grown under different cir-
cumstances and conditions. The practice of persistently growing an
entire family on one farm under uniform conditions is recognized as a

348 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

mistake by European growers, who consider it absolutely necessary to
have plantings of their seed in widely different sections and under
different conditions. It is not meant by this that one lot of seed
will show distinct signs of difference in a year or two; it may be but
very slight or even indiscernible after a number of years; but it
is considered a positive fact that, if seed is grown under exactly
the same conditions and in the same kind of soil year after year, it
will certainly show distinct signs of deterioration or ‘‘ running out.”
Even when a soil and locality are found excellently adapted to the rais-
ing of good seed it is vital to the continuance of the high quality of
the seed either that it be regenerated by the use of new seed or that
the same effect be produced by a change of soil and climatic condi-
tions. These different conditions may be found in comparatively close
proximity, possibly within a mile or two. By the introduction of new
seed is not meant seed of distinctly or even widely different type,
but rather seed produced under somewhat different circumstances and
containing some foreign blood. ‘The proportion of this may be very
small, as, in line breeding of animals, new blood having three-fourths,
seven-eighths, or even fifteen-sixteenths of the original line answers the
purpose. .
TESTING THE CHARACTER OF THE SEED.

No matter how skillfully the work of selecting and breeding has been
done, its results can be positively determined only by the most careful
tests of the character and value for sugar making of the seed produced;
and in this the German growers exercise a marvelous amount of care
and skill. First, great care is taken to secure fields as uniform as
possible in soil and other conditions, and no fields are used which
have not been manured and cropped in the same manner for a number
of years. It is, however, generally impossible to secure fields all
parts of which are absolutely uniform in character; therefore, soil
maps, including both physical and chemical analyses, are made which
show the exact condition of all parts of the field. Where there is the
slightest difference as to soil, drainage, or physical properties, the
rows are made to run so that no sample will occupy unfavorable ground.
Oblong, triangular, and irregularly shaped spaces of undesirable soil are
discarded, and the rows are made to run around them, so that the field
has the appearance of having been planted in a most haphazard man-
ner. As experience has shown that the yield of isolated roots is
greatly increased by the fact of their being so isolated, the individual
seed balls are planted one foot apart each way and covered by hand to
the uniform depth of three-fifths of an inch. Should any ball not
germinate, then two or three rutabaga roots are planted in its place.
At harvest time, if it is found that any vacant places still occur, the

roots surrounding these spaces are weighed and 50 per cent of their.

SUGAR-BEET SEED BREEDING. 349

weight is deducted, as careful records covering many years have
shown that such roots increase to that extent by being so isolated.
These tests should be, and with the best growers generally are, made
in duplicate, so that each sample is tested in at least two fields in the
same locality; and, where possible, a second complete series of tests Is
made in different sections and upon areas having different climatic con-
ditions, the size of the plots in each case depending upon the relative
importance of the sample or the amount of seed available. Careful
and complete notes are kept regarding the growth and general charac-
teristics, and the effect of climatic and soil conditions from the time of
planting the seed, of every sample tested, so that comparisons may be
made of the behavior of each in the various soils and sections where
they are sown. Should the roots grown from any sample, on being
tested in the laboratory, prove to be not as uniformly high in sugar
content and purity as the original beets from which they were raised,
the entire product of both roots and seed is discarded. The remain-
ing samples of seed of the group are then put together and treated as
one family.

In the laboratory two different sets of tests are made. The first is
a composite test to determine the value of any one sample as a whole,
the second is an individual test to determine the value of each root.
The first test is made of 25 or 50 roots, and is used to eliminate all
poor samples or such as have deteriorated from their mother roots.
This is a comparatively rapid and inexpensive process, for but one test.
is required of each sample. The second is expensive and requires much
time and a well-equipped laboratory. (Pl. XX XVIII.) It is used for
the selection of the best roots from such samples as show well in the com-
posite test for use as breeders in carrying on line breeding. In making
this test a core one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter is
removed by a boring machine and tested for sugar content and purity.
This final test is the severest and most complete that can be made, for it
not only includes the actual performance of the seed, but its constancy
as related to the qualities of its ancestors. Less than one-half of 1
per cent of the roots tested in this manner are found suitable for
breeding work. These ‘‘mothers,” as they are called, are planted,
and the seed grown from them is termed ‘‘elite” seed. While it is
difficult to determine the actual cost of this seed, most growers esti-
mate it at from $5 to $10a pound. Still, there are growers who adver-
tise to sell true ‘‘elite” seed for a slight advance over the price of
ordinary seed. The fact is that it is quite impracticable to furnish
this seed for factory purposes, and claims that it is placed on the
market are not only absurd but proof of intention to deceive. The
true ‘‘elite” seed is used only for the production of small roots termed
‘*stecklinger,” which in turn are planted and produce commercial seed.

B50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SUMMARY OF STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC GROWING OF SUGAR-BEET SEED,

The breeding and establishing of pedigreed sugar-beet seed families
is a much more complicated process than with most other plants.
‘ake, for example, the raising or establishing of a new family or
strain of carrots or turnips, both of which are biennials similar in
character to sugar beets. The best strain of seed procurable, planted
in the late summer, will produce roots by late fall, when such as may
be desired can be selected, planted in hot-beds, and, being transplanted
under glass, will produce seed by spring. ‘This seed can be immedi-
ately sown, and from the resulting roots seed can be produced on a
commercial scale before the following winter. Thus, in a year anda
half, it is possible to produce seed on a commercial scale from a very
limited number of plants.

With sugar-beet seed it isa much longer process. If, for example,
the best strain of sugar-beet seed procurable is sown in the spring of
1904, it will produce roots by the fall of 1904, from which the best 10
roots may be selected according to their physical properties and chem-
ical analysis. These may be planted in the spring of 1905 and will
produce on an average 1 pound of seed from each root in the fall of
1905. The larger portion, say 9 pounds, of this seed is sown to pro-
duce roots for seed production, the remaining 1 pound being used for
erowing large roots to be used in testing the prepotent qualities of
the seed. These tests will probably show that not more than 5 of the
separate lots of seed are satisfactory for breeding purposes, and the
roots from the unsatisfactory lots will be discarded. This leaves but
the roots grown from 5 pounds of seed for breeding purposes, which
would probably be sufficient for planting not more than 2 acres for
seed purposes in the spring of 1906. The yield from these 2 acres
will produce from 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of seed in the fall of 1906.
This seed is sown in the spring of 1907 to produce ‘‘ stecklinger,”
which, when planted in the spring of 1908, will produce seed on a com-
mercial scale in the fall of 1908. Thus, five years will have elapsed
before the seed can be raised from selected zoots on a commercial
scale.

GROWING AND SILOING OF SEED ROOTS.

The care and production of the roots from which *‘mothers” are
selected is the same as the care and production of roots grown for
factory purposes, which have been fully discussed in the various reports
of the Department on the ‘‘ Progress of the beet-sugar industry in the
United States.” The production of ‘‘stecklinger,” or the small roots
used for the production of seed, differs from this only in the quantity
and quality of fertilizers used, in the planting of the seed, and in the
thinning of young plants.

PLATE XXXVIII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

[

A

A WELL-EQUIPPED GERMAN SUGAR-BEET TESTING LABORATORY.

similar laboratory is being established by the Department of Agriculture at Fairfield

’

W

ash

J

Yearbook U S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE XXXIX.

Fic. 1.—FIieLp IN BLossom.

Fic. 2.—Fi—ELD READY FOR HARVEST.

VIEWS OF A PORTION OF A 40-ACRE FIELD OF SUGAR-BEETS GROWN FOR SEED AT
FAIRFIELD, WASH., IN 1904.

[This is one of the few large fields grown in the United States. }

SUGAR-BEET SEED BREEDING. O51

The seed for the production of ‘‘stecklinger” should be thickly
sown in broad rows 12 to 18 inches apart, 20 to 25 pounds per acre
being used. Great advantage is secured by sowing the seed in broad
rows rather than in narrow drills, as is customary when growing roots
for factory purposes, for thereby two or three roots may be grown
side by side and the number of roots secured to the acre greatly
increased. While this crowds the roots, it is considered advantageous,
as the crowding dwarfs the roots somewhat and hastens the time of
ripening, thus giving them a longer time in which to harden off
thoroughly before frost, and as a result they keep very much better
through the winter. The young plants should be thinned to about 1
inch apart in the rows. The roots vary in size from one-half inch to
14 inches in diameter and weigh from 2 to 10 ounces. An acre sown
to ‘‘stecklinger” will produce a sufficient number of roots for plant-
ing 10 acres, which in turn produce from 14,000 to 20,000 pounds of
seed. Before pulling, all roots showing any tendency to send up seed
stalks, as well as those whose leaves do not conform to the type of the
family, should be removed and destroyed, and, after pulling, all such
roots as show any tendency to divert in any way from the original
type selected should be likewise rejected.

The greatest care must be taken in pulling and sorting the roots
preparatory to siloing them for the winter, to see that none are bruised
or injured, as such roots rapidly decay and are likely to so spread the
infection that the entire silo may be destroyed before spring. There
are a number of different kinds of silos, which, however, differ in
detail of construction rather than in principle. A popular one is made
by digging pits 15 inches deep, 3 feet wide, and about 9 feet long.
The *‘stecklinger,” with all the leaves on, are placed in these pits in
long, hollow, tapering piles or ‘‘ ricks” running the entire length of the
silo. The interior open space is about 12 inches wide at the bottom
and is formed by piling the roots with the tops of the roots about 1
foot apart on the fioor of the pit and gradually drawing them together
as other roots are placed in position, so that in the completed silo an
air chamber runs the entire length of the rick. While silos of any
length may be constructed, they are seldom made longer than 9 or 10
feet, for in case decay should start in any one portion, it might destroy
the entire contents of the silo before spring. (Pl. XX XIX.)

WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT WITH SUGAR-BEET SEED.

The Department of Agriculture, realizing the importance of the
foregoing facts to the beet-sugar industry of the United States, has
undertaken to assist in the establishment of a pedigreed strain of
sugar-beet seed and to determine the environmental influences of the
different sections upon this strain. This work has been established in

352 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

connection with the New York experiment station at Geneva, N. Y.;
the Michigan experiment station at Agricultural College, Mich.; the
Utah experiment station at Logan, Utah; with private parties under
Departmental supervision at Holland, Mich., and in cooperation with
a large sugar-beet seed grower at Fairfield, Wash.

Experiments to determine the effect, if any, of various amounts of
water applied at different times for irrigation purposes upon the
permanent qualities imparted to seed are also being carried on at
Logan, Utah, in cooperation with the experiment station there.

As the work on these lines has just commenced, no detailed or def-
inite report can be given at this time. At each of these places a large
number of roots have been most carefully selected according to phys-
ical properties and sugar content, and siloed. These roots, together
with the seed raised this year from some selected and tested roots, will
be planted the coming spring and seed will be raised in accordance
with the methods practiced by the best growers in Europe.

The work at Fairfield, Wash., has been very encouraging, and dur-
ing the last year a representative from the Department has spent his
entire time there carrying on the work according to the most scientific
and approved methods. He has analyzed several thousand individual
roots, and these are now in silo at that place. These roots include 15
roots testing 24 per cent sugar in the beet, 50 roots testing 23 per cent,
and 100 roots testing 22 per cent. In all, some 300 roots tested 21 per
cent or more of sugar in the beet, and composite tests showed from 86
per cent to 91.9 per cent of purity.

From the best of these roots as well as from the best of those from
the other stations, families will be bred from which the Department
will furnish seed for breeding purposes to such seed growers or factory
men as may desire it. This will require a number of years.

THE WEATHER BUREAU AND THE HOMESEEKER.

By Epwarp L. WELLs,

, _ Observer, Weather Bureau.
MOVEMENT OF POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

In 1790 the center of population of the United States was in eastern
Maryland; one hundred years later, in 1890, it was in southeastern
Indiana, about 20 miles east of the town of Columbus; during the ten
years from 1890 to 1900 it moved still farther westward, though,
owing to the marvelously rapid growth of the large cities of the Kast,
the great industrial awakening in the South, and the fact that most of
the public domain available for immediate cultivation had been taken
up prior to 1890, the distance covered was less than in any previous
decade since 1810; and, notwithstanding these conditions, there is no
doubt that the census of 1910 will show a continued westward move-
ment of the median point of population. From 1890 to 1900 the popu-
lation of Oklahoma increased from 61,834 to 398,331, or more than
500 per cent; Arizona’s population increased from 32,052 to 68,598, or
more than 98 per cent; while that of Idaho increased from 84,385 to
161,772, or almost 92 per cent. In Oklahoma, with a net gain in popu-
lation of more than 300,000, there was a gain of less than 13,000 resi-
dents of foreign birth; Arizona’s gain of more than 31,000 includes
less than 5,500 of foreign birth; while the increase in foreign-born
population in Idaho compared to the total increase isas1to25. Thus,
it is seen that by far the greater number of those who have gone to
make their homes in the rapidly developing States and Territories of
the West are from other portions of our own country.

The American people are a restless people; in the older countries
the farmer is content to till the same soil from which his grandfather
coaxed a living, haggling a little with landlord or steward, perhaps,
about rent and improvements, yet with little thought of moving; but
in our own country it is a rare thing to find a community where there
have not been many changes in ownership and occupation within a
generation. -From the census of 1890 it appears that one in every
five of the native-born inhabitants of the United States was at that
time living in a different State from that in which he was born.
The business of our cities is largely in the hands of farmers’ sons,
while men whose early lives have been spent in the city or town are

393
2 a1904——23

354 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

getting away and devoting their attention to agriculture; Northern
men are developing the resources of the South, and Southern men are
achieving distinction in the Northern States; Western men are making
themselves felt in the business life of the Kast, while in the West the
question, ‘* From what part of the East do you come?” is taken as a
matter of course.

WHY AMERICANS MOVE.

It is not within the province of this paper to discuss in detail the
causes which lead up to the constant shifting of the population. Much
of it is doubtless due to pure restlessness, a desire for new surround-
ings and new experiences; yet conditions often exist which make it
advisable or even necessary for an individual or a family to leave
familiar scenes behind and strike out to make a new home. A young
man is often prompted by a desire to achieve prominence, and, beliey-
ing in that peculiar perversity of human nature which led to the saying,
‘‘A prophet is not without honor save in his own country,” becomes
convinced that a way to the front is more easily won among strangers
than among friends. Another may desire to devote his life to a
certain business, trade, or profession which offers no opening in his
own community. A class which probably includes a greater number
of homeseekers than all the others just mentioned is made up of those
who, on account of failing health, seek a location where climatic con-
ditions are unfavorable for the development of the peculiar ailment to
which they are subject. Still another class, and perhaps the greatest
of all, comprises those who in old established communities have failed
to acquire a competence; these, tired of paying rent for the privilege
of tilling the soil of others are drawn westward and northward and
southward (in recent years sometimes eastward), by the prospect of
more readily securing holdings of their own. Current periodicals
are filled with advertising matter addressed particularly to the classes
just mentioned; transportation companies vie with one another in the
issue of matter calling the attention of homeseekers to the advantages,
climatic and otherwise, of the regions through which their lines pass
or toward which they lead. Great land agencies and colonization sys-
tems have been built up, having representatives scattered throughout
the more thickly settled portions of the United States whose business
it is to turn the attention of homeseekers toward the districts which
are being settled by these organizations, and fortunes of no mean
proportion are being made out of the profits of this line of business.

~

MISTAKES OF HOMESEEKERS.

In many cases the homeseeker is benefited by the change, for some
of the most desirable sections of the United States are still undevel-
oped, and the Western States and Territories, toward which the tide

THE WEATHER BUREAU AND THE HOMESEEKER. B55

of homeseekers is still so strong, are able still to care for all who come;
yet there have been many instances in which the locating agent and
the transportation company have been the only ones who have profited
by the removal, and in which the homeseeker would have fared far
better had he remained in his original location. Often, too, the set-
tlers in an undeveloped or partially developed section are handicapped
by a lack of knowledge of the climatic conditions peculiar to that sec-
tion and of the crops most likely to prove profitable, so that years
must be spent in experimenting. The writer well remembers some
experiences of this character when in the eighties he removed with his
father to a ‘‘claim” on the Great Plains, near the western limit of
rainfall sufficient for successful farming without irrigation. From
lack of knowledge of the conditions and how to meet them many of
the pioneers of that section were reduced to want, while most of the
original settlers gave up the attempt to wrest a living from the soil,
and moved away to other sections of the country; hundreds of farms
passed into the hands of the loan companies and thousands of acres of
land went back to sod, leaving business almost paralyzed. However,
a few of the pioneers remained; after a time other families came in
to take the places of those who had gone; these profited by the mis-
takes of the others and by their own, and to-day the State which now
includes that section takes, high rank in the per capita production
of wealth.

WEATHER BUREAU WORK OF BENEFIT TO HOMESEEKERS.

It becomes, therefore, a matter of the greatest importance to one
who contemplates settlement in a new locality to have information
relative to the climatic conditions existing in that locality, so that he
may determine whether or not the change will be advantageous, and
may make his plans to meet the new conditions and turn them to
his profit. A source of such information is to be found in the rec-
ords kept by the United States Weather Bureau and the reports which
it issues.

CLIMATE AND CROP SERVICE.

When the Weather Bureau is mentioned, one naturally thinks of
that part of the work of the Bureau which relates to the preparation
of forecasts and their dissemination for the benefit of the public; and
because forecasts sometimes fail of verification there are those, even
now, who are of the opinion that the work of the Bureau has come to
naught. It is true that the most important of the duties assigned to
the Chief of the Weather Bureau and his corps of assistants is that
of issuing forecasts and warnings, and the energy of the Bureau’s
best men is being turned in the direction of increased efficiency in this
branch of the service. If no work were attempted other than that
incident to the issue of forecasts, its existence would still be more

856 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

than justified. There is, however, another line of work carried on—
the climate and crop service—which was taken up as an afterthought
when the work of forecasting had been going on for some time; it is
not yet so well known as that work, but is scarcely less important,
and is likely to be of increasing value as time shall pass. Of the 190
regular stations of the Weather Bureau, 45 are designated as climate
and crop service centers. Under the supervision of the official in
charge of each of these centers is a climate and crop service section,
consti comprising a single State or Territory, but in a few instances
including two or more. In addition to the regular stations of the
Bureau, at each of which is kept an accurate and comprehensive
record of meteorological conditions, there are now in operation more
than 3,000 voluntary observation stations, where records of tempera-
ture, precipitation, wind direction, cloudiness, etc., are kept by public-
spirited persons, who make use of Government instruments loaned
for the purpose, but who receive no pecuniary compensation for their
services.

PUBLICATION OF INFORMATION CONCERNING CLIMATE AND CROP CONDITIONS.

At the close of each month each of the voluntary observers forwards
to the section center a copy of his record for the month. These
records are carefully revised at the section center to avoid the
possibility of error; they are then summarized and published in neat
pamphlet form, : ange in this form find circulation throughout the entire
English-speaking world. These publications not only treat of the
weather of the month, but also show how the various meteorological
features of the month compare e with the same features of the corre-
sponding month in previous years; any weather event of unusual
occurrence receives special notice, and the progress of the principal
crops of the section during the month is noted. At the close of each
year an annual summary is issued at each of the section centers, giving
a history of the weather of the section during the year, and also the
average values for the principal weather elements for all the years
during which records have been kept.

During the season of growing crops the information fae available
by the work of the regular staff of the Weather Bureau and the 3,000
voluntary observers already referred to is augmented by weekly
reports of crop conditions and progress as influenced by weather, for-
warded by about 14,000 crop correspondents, most of whom are
farmers, while all are in close touch with the agricultural interests
of their respective communities, and are thus in a position to write
authoritatively in regard to crops. From the information received
from these crop correspondents weekly crop bulletins are prepared
and published, both at the section centers and at the central office of
the Bureau in Washington, D. C. These bulletins are issued free of
cost to all who desire them, and the information which. they contain

THE WEATHER BUREAU AND THE HOMESEEKER. B57

forms an excellent basis upon which to calculate which agricultural
products can be successfully grown in any locality. A discussion of
the climate and crop publications of the Bureau would be incomplete
without mention of the Monthly Weather Review, the official organ of
the Bureau, edited by Prof. Cleveland Abbe. In the preparation of
the tables and charts appearing in the Review the reports from all
regular and voluntary stations are used, and in the preparation of the
special reports from the various section directors, which form a feature
of every issue, consideration is given to the reports of the crop corre-
spondents as well. This publication is on file in every Weather Bureau
oflice in the service, and has a large and growing circulation elsewhere
in this country as well as abroad. Numerous other publications are
issued from time to time, treating of certain climatic features of the
country or of the climate of a certain portion of the country. Among
these may be mentioned Professor McAdie’s work on the Climatology
of California, a book of 270 quarto pages of printed matter, together
with many excellent charts and illustrations. Under the direction of
the Chief of the Bureau, Prof. A. J. Henry is now preparing a work
on the Climatology of the United States, which is to contain, in a form
convenient for ready reference, sufficient data to fairly represent the
climatic conditions in all parts of the country.

While the data contained in the publications named cover the field
so thoroughly that there would seem to be little need to seek further
for climatic information, yet if more is desired the officials in charge
of the various offices of the Bureau stand ready to furnish further
details to the homeseeker, either by correspondence or by personal
interview; indeed a very large percentage of the correspondence
of many of the Weather Bureau offices, especially of those in the
Western States, is with those who are contemplating a change of
location. Prof. A. G. McAdie, in charge of the San Francisco office,
states that probably over 30 per cent of his correspondence is with
homeseekers. Mr. George N. Salisbury, section director for the State
of Washington, says that, aside from the correspondence with the cen-
tral office, about 50 per cent of his correspondence is made up of
requests for climatic information, about 30 per cent of it being from
those who contemplate settlement. What is true of these offices in
this respect is also true of many of the southern and western section
centers, and with each year the importance of this work is increasing.

In the offices located in the more thickly settled and better known
portions of the country there is less correspondence touching on the
subject of climate, but probably a great deal more information is given
out by personal interview and by means of the published reports
from other sections, as well as files of the Monthly Weather Review,
all of which are to be found in the more important offices, suitably
bound, for the use of the public.

358 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

These publications are constantly consulted by homeseekers. Out
of a multitude of instances which have come within the experience of
the writer a single one may be cited: A man who had become some-
what discouraged in the attempt to earn a livelihood as a carpenter, in
the face of very unsettled industrial conditions determined to try his
hand at farming. A circular had come under his notice calling atten-

o>
tion in glowing terms to the advantages of a certain section in a
Western State, where land was to be obtained at a low price; and so
convincing was the argument that he seriously contemplated removing
with his family to that locality and investing his savings in a farm.
However, before doing so he visited the nearest office of the Weather
Bureau and consulted the records and reports there on file; and, learn-
ing that in the locality toward which his attention had been turned
certain weather conditions disadvantageous to his purposes were likely
to occur, he abandoned the plan, which, if carried out, would probably
haye resulted in the loss of all he had accumulated.

INDIRECT BENEFITS OF WEATHER BUREAU INFORMATION.

Enough has been said of the direct relation of the Weather Bureau
to the homeseeker to show something of the important place which
this branch of the public service is filling, but mention of the indirect
relation must not be omitted. Reference has been made to the great
volume of advertising matter distributed by various real estate, colo-
nization, and transportation companies. While it must be confessed
that such matter may often contain statements which do not stand the
test of investigation, there is yet one feature of many of the circulars
and booklets issued which can be depended upon, and that is the por-
tion devoted to quotations from the records of the United States
Weather Bureau, such data being furnished by the Bureau; indeed,
many of the articles appearing in these advertising publications have
been prepared in their entirety by officials of the Bureau. Individuals
and corporations interested in colonization schemes are learning that
an article of this kind inspires confidence in publications of the char-
acter mentioned, and the number of such articles which Weather
Bureau officials are called upon to furnish is constantly increasing.
Not only in publications intended primarily for homeseekers do such
articles appear, but large use of them is made by the press, many
newspapers giving prominence to articles treating of the climatic con-
ditions prevalent in the sections where they find circulation, and of
the agricultural products of those sections as well.

The work of the climate and crop service of the Weather Bureau is
thus essential to the homeseeker, aiding him to select that portion of
the country in which are to be found the climatic conditions best
suited to his needs.

DETECTION OF COTTON-SEED OIL IN LARD.

By L. M. Totman,

Division of Foods, Bureau of Chemistry.
DIFFICULTY OF DETECTING LARD ADULTERANTS.

The determination of the presence of small quantities of foreign fat
in lard is exceedingly difficult, and taxes the skill of the chemist to the
utmost. Most fats which are suitable or available for mixing are so
similar to lard in their physical and chemical properties that the
determinations which suffice to detect their presence when they occur
in large amounts or to identify them in their pure state are of little or
no value in detecting the small amounts usually employed in adulter-
ated lard. Asa result, the chemist must depend to a large extent on
certain qualitative or approximatively quantitive tests. Many of these
tests are not based on any inherent property of the fat, but depend on
some impurity, due perhaps to the method of manufacture, or, with
animal fats, to the kind of food upon which the animal has been fed.

FAILURE OF ORDINARY TESTS FOR COTTON-SEED OIL.

In this country cotton-seed oil is the cheapest fat available and is
used to a great extent. A large amount of it is employed in making
compound lard, which is generally a mixture of lard, tallow, and cot-
ton-seed oil, and is usually sold as such under various trade names, but
sometimes, perhaps by mistake, it comes on the market as pure lard.
Hence, it is the detection of cotton-seed oil that is most often required
of the chemist.

The need of evidence that lard is adulterated usually arises in prose-
cutions under a pure-food law, or in some other legal proceedings.
The chemist must be able to say that the lard submitted to his inspec-
tion certainly has been adulterated—usually with cotton-seed oil—or
his testimony leavesa doubt. A great number of tests for cotton-seed
oil mixed with lard have been submitted, but practically without excep-
tion they have proved valueless. The two tests on which the chemist
has chiefly based his decision as to the appearance of cotton-seed oil in
lard are the Bechi reaction due to the reduction of silver nitrate
and the Halphen test, a crimson color formed when the cotton-seed oil
is heated with a little sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphid. But the

309

860 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reactions in these tests appear precisely the same in the pure lard made
from hogs fed on cotton-seed meal and in lard adulterated with a small
amount of cotton-seed oil: and in so far the tests are failures.

Now, as a matter of fact there is little lard made from hogs fed on
cotton-seed meal; for extensive investigations at the agricultural experi-
ment stations have shown that while the meal is a rich, cheap food, it
proves in many cases in an unexplained way a poison to the hogs, and
so many of them die of eating it that few growers care to risk its use.
But it is indisputable that some cotton-seed meal is fed to hogs and
some of the lard may get on the market; and Mr. Elton Fulmer, of
the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, who has conducted
extensive experiments in feeding hogs on the meal, has shown that pure
lard from hogs so fed will give as strong tests for cotton-seed oil as
lard mixed with 15 per cent of the oil itself.

So although there is little likelihood that lard from hogs fed on
cotton-seed meal would be involved in any litigation, nevertheless a
doubt is cast upon the ordinary tests which makes them of very little
value in legal proceedings. In every authentic case on record in which
they have been applied to the products of the large packing houses
and the reaction for cotton-seed oil has been obtained, the manufac-
turers have taken advantage of the difficulty of proving whether this
result was due to the actual presence of cotton-seed oil or to the feeding
of the meal to the animals from which the lard was made.

A NEW TEST SUCCESSFUL.

Recently a study of the nonfatty substances which occur in the lard
and cotton-seed oil was made by Bémer, with the hope of finding a
method of detecting such adulterations with certainty, and he has
developed a very satisfactory and exceedingly delicate process for
determining the presence of any vegetable fat in lard.

BASIS OF METHOD WITH DETAILS OF DETERMINATION.

This method depends on the fact long known that there is present
in all vegetable fats, but not in pure animal fats, a small amount of a

certain alcohol, phytosterol, which has a definite crystalline form, as

shown in Plate XL, figure 1, and a definite melting point. These
crystals are in general described as ‘‘ needle shaped,” and at the end
form an angle of 108°. On the other hand, in animal fats there occurs
another alcohol, cholesterol, which has a different melting point and
an entirely distinct crystalline form, having the appearance of thin
rhombic plates, as shown in Plate XL, figure 2. Mixtures of phy-
tosterol and cholesterol produce crystals entirely different from either
one of these, being telescopic in shape and easily recognized under the
microscope. In Plate XLI, figure 1, are shown the crystals formed
by mixing 75 per cent of cholesterol and 25 per cent of phytosterol.

Yearbook US. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE XL.

Fic. 1.—PHYTOSTEROL CRYSTALS FROM COTTON-SEED OIL. 70.

FiG. 2.—CHOLESTEROL CRYSTALS FROM LARD. x 100.

[Photomicrographs made by B. J. Howard.}

Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PraTe Xie.

FiG. 1.—CRYSTALS RESULTING FROM A MIXTURE OF 75 PER CENT
CHOLESTEROL AND 25 PER CENT PHYTOSTEROL. 100.

FiG. 2.—CRYSTALS RESULTING FROM AN ADDITION OF 5 PER CENT
OF COTTON-SEED OIL TO LARD. x 65.

[Photomicrographs made by B. J. Howard.]

|
a
:

7

-

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE XLII.

Fic. 1.—CHOLESTEROL CRYSTALS FROM PURE LARD OF
COTTON-SEED FED Hocs. x 90.

Fic. 2.—A SECOND PLATE OF CRYSTALS SHOWN IN
Fiea.1. x 90.

[Photomicrographs made by B. J. Howard.]

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE XLIII.

FiG. 1.—CRYSTALS OF LARD TO WHICH 10 PER CENT OF COTTON-
SEED OIL WAS ADDED. x 100.

Fic. 2.—CRYSTALS OF LARD TO WHICH 10 PER CENT OF HEATED
COTTON-SEED OIL WAS ADDED. x 200.

[Photomicrographs made by B. J. Howard.]

DETECTION OF COTTON-SEED OIL IN LARD. 361

These telescope-shaped crystals have not been found in animal fats.
As cotton-seed oil contains 0.6 per cent of phytosterol and lard about
0.8 per cent of cholesterol, a mixture of 14 per cent of cotton-seed
oil and 86 per cent of lard would give about the percentages of choles-
terol and phytosterol shown in Plate XLI, figure 1. These peculiar
telescopic forms of crystals are obtained with as little as 12 per cent
of phytosterol and 88 per cent of cholesterol, or about 6 per cent of
cotton-seed oil and 94 per cent of lard.

Smaller amounts of cotton-seed oil can be recognized under the
microscope by the forms of the crystals, as shown in Plate XLI, figure
2, where 5 per cent of cotton-seed oil had been added to a lard; but it
is not safe to depend on the microscope where so little of the oil is
used. The melting point of the acetates must be used for the detec-
tion of from 2 to 4 per cent of cotton-seed oil. These are prepared by
heating the alcohols with acetic anhydride and crystallizing. Choles-
terol acetate from pure lard has a melting point of 113° to 114° C.,
while the alcohol from lard containing 2 per cent of cotton-seed oil
gives an acetate with a melting point of 116° C., and 4 per cent raises
it from 118° C. to 119° C.

Thus a method is formulated by which small amounts of cotton-seed
oil may be detected, and which possesses the great advantage over
other tests that it has a scientific basis and is not affected by methods
of manufacture nor accidental impurities.

AN IMPORTANT QUESTION FBINALLY SETTLED.

The question is at once raised, however, on account of the peculiar
results in all other tests when lard from hogs fed on cotton-seed meal
is tried, whether phytosterol might not pass into the animal fat and
thus the method be vitiated. Now, it is a well-established fact that no
phytosterol, but only cholesterol, occurs in animal fats; therefore none
of the phytosterol which is in plants enters into the fat of the animal
which feeds upon them. For example, the hog fed on corn or other
cereals takes considerable quantities of phytosterol into its digestive
tract, but there is no record of phytosterol being found in the lard.
As most plants contain phytosterol and most animals eat plants, the
failure to find phytosterol in numerous tests for it produces a high
probability that phytosterol of plants does not pass into the fat of ani-
mals: So we should not expect the phytosterol of cotton-seed meal to
act differently.

But in order to settle so important a matter experimentally, a num-
ber of samples of lard from hogs fed on cotton-seed meal at the Wash-
ington experiment station were obtained by the writer from Mr. Ful-
mer. ‘These lards all gave the usual color tests that would be given
by products containing added cotton-seed oil, varying only in degree,
as though from 1 to 15 per cent of cotton-seed oil were present.

862 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Accordingly, as far as these ordinary tests showed, these lards were
to be considered adulterated with cotton-seed oil. But the examina-
tion of the alcohols present gave a very different result. The process
of crystallization was like that of other pure lard, and the microscopic
examination showed the crystals to be cholesterol.

In Plate XLII are shown the crystals from a lard known to be pure,
which gave as strong a color test with the Halphen reagent as would
be given if 10 per cent of cotton-seed oil had been present, and Plate
XLII, figure 1, shows the crystals from a lard to which 10 per cent of
cotton-seed oil had been added. Inthe former case are seen the peculiar
plate-like crystals which give every indication of being pure choles-
terol, and can not be distinguished in any way from the cholesterol of
other pure lards, or from pure tallow, or from cholesterol prepared
from gall stones. On the other hand, in Plate XLIII, figure 1, are seen
the peculiar telescopic crystals found in a mixture of cholesterol and
phytosterol, as was shown in Plate XLI, figure 1.

The more delicate test for the presence of the phytosterol, that of
the melting point of the acetate, was also applied to all the samples of
pure lard from cotton-seed fed hogs, and the melting point was found
to be from 113° to 114° C. The cholesterol from tallow gave an acetate
melting at 114° C., and the cholesterol from gall stones an acetate
melting at 114° C. This shows that the alcohol of these lards is pure
cholesterol, and that this method enables us to distinguish between
adulterated lards and pure lards which give the cotton-seed reactions
because of feeding cotton-seed meal.

DETECTION OF COTTON-SEED OIL AFTER CHANGE BY HEATING.

Another, and perhaps more important, feature of the value of this
test is that it may be used in detecting cotton-seed oil in lard not
affected by feeding on cotton-seed meal, but in which other tests for
the oil fail for another reason. This reason is that cotton-seed oil
after being heated to about 250° C. for twenty minutes does not give
any of its characteristic reactions, so that if such an oil were used
in adulterating lard it would not be detected by the ordinary tests.
But heating does not affect the phytosterol in the oil. In Plate XLIII,
figure 2, are shown the crystals from a lard mixed with 10 per cent of
a heated cotton-seed oil, which did not respond to either the Bechi or
the Halphen tests, but there is no difficulty in detecting the adultera-
tion by the new method, as the same peculiar telescopic crystals shown
in figure 1 of Plates XLI and XLIII are present. The melting point
of the acetate was also 120° C., showing conclusively the presence of
considerable quantities of phytosterol.

Thus, it is seen that this method enables the chemist to detect cotton-
seed oil in whatever form it may be present, and that it is not affected
by any method of feeding or any process of manufacture.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT.

By GrorGE C. HusmMann,

Viticulturist, in Charge ef Viticultural Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.

Perhaps no plant and its products are used in so many ways and for
sO many purposes as the grapevine and its fruit. Many of these uses
are of ancient origin, owing no doubt to the fact that few plants grow
and thrive under climatic and soil conditions so varied or respond to
care and attention more generously than does the grapevine. Thus,
we find certain forms of it in the natural state aspiring to overtop the
mightiest monarchs of the forest and single plants overspreading areas
hundreds of feet in circumference, while other forms are grown under
cultivation as mere bushes, 2 or 3 feet in height, yet yielding crops
ranging from 1¥ tons to as much as 22 tons of the finest fruit to the
acre.

By nature the ‘‘vine” is evidently a great rambler. Pliny states
that because the vines in Italy climbed to the tops of the highest pop-
lars the grape gatherers in vintage time stipulated with the master
that in case their feet should slip and their necks be broken he was to
order and pay for the funeral pyre and tomb.

The cultivation of the vine was the highest Easement of ancient
husbandry, the vine and olive being, in antiquity, the marks, and almost
the symbols, of settled and cultured life. Profane waren does not
reach back to the first plantings or the first wine made from the grape.
It is interesting to note that grape seeds have been found with the
remains of Swiss and Italian lake dwellers, in Kuropean graves of the
Bronze Age, and in the tombs of the Egyptian mummies. The vine
is frequently the subject of metaphor in the Scriptures—to dwell
under the vine and fig tree is emblematic of happiness and peace. We
enjoy the grape in the fresh state, or, when dried, in the form of rai-
sins or *‘currants;” the unfermented juice and wine are important items
in household economy and medicine, while from the grape many other
products and by-products are made. ‘The vine itself gives pleasure
to the senses by its fragrant blossom, beautiful foliage, and luscious
fruit; it affords shade and shelter; various parts of it are employed
for divers medicinal purposes; and the wood is used for fuel and in the
manufacture of furniture and other useful articles. In fact, there is
no part of the vine or its fruit that has not proven of value for one or
more purposes.

363

364 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

In Switzerland the leaves are applied to medicinal or surgical uses.
For cuts and fresh wounds they are esteemed a sovereign remedy.
Decoctions of the juice of the leaves are used in poultices. An agreea-
ble tea is also made from the leaves which is said to greatly strengthen
the nerves. In its use more sugar is necessary than for tea from the
tea plant. The leaves are also excellent food for cows, sheep, and
hogs. The ‘‘tears” of the vine, used medicinally, are a limpid exuda-
tion of the sap at the time the plant begins budding, and are found on

ode
ef

7
2 or
D

=

Fia, 88.—Grape arbor, Fresno, Cal.

the vine where the slightest wound occurs to the plant. The liquid is
collected by cutting off the ends of the canes, bending them down and
sticking the ends into the neck of a bottle, which will be filled in a few
days. The wood and branches are used in the manufacture of baskets,
furniture, rustic work, bark for tying material, etc., and when burned
furnish potash and salts.

The wood of the grape is said to be of the most lasting nature, very
beautiful in its texture. The columns of Juno’s temple at Metapont
and also the statue of Jupiter at the city of Appolonium were made

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 365

from the wood of the vine. The great doors of the cathedral at
Ravenna are made of vine planks, some of which are 12 feet long and
15 inches broad.

Aside from their economic value, vines are often cultivated for
purely ornamental purposes, owing to their beautiful foliage and the
rich coloration they assume, the shade they afford, and their hardihood
and longevity. The vine is one of the few plants that can be conven-
iently grown in cities or towns either as bushes or for making delight-
ful arbors (fig. 38) that not only beautify the home, but furnish cooling
shade and luscious fruit. The more tender sorts can be grown in
eraperies (Pl. XLIV, fig. 1) in many regions with good profit, and when
grown in pots not only serve as handsome decorations in the dwelling
and on the table, but add one of the choicest of morsels to the menu as
well. To quote the language of an enthusiast:

The grape is the poor man’s fruit, especially one who has only a house lot of the
smallest possible dimensions. He can plant vines beside his cottage and their roots
will extend and profitably occupy every inch of ground underneath it, and from
that small space produce all the fruit his family can consume, while the vines afford
shade and protection and add beauty to his little home, occupying no space, either

above or below the ground, to interfere with other interests, and producing more fruit
in less time ard with less labor and attention than anything that was ever planted.

AGE OF GRAPEVINES.

It is difficult to accurately estimate the age of vines by the usual
method of counting the rings, because the yearly growth is not dis-
tinctly marked. Some authors state that the vine equals, and even
surpasses, the oak in point of age. In America we have been unable
to ascertain the age that planted vines will attain, and the time that
has elapsed since its discovery would not be sufficient had the experi-
ment been begun when Columbus landed in 1492.

Pliny mentions a vine 600 years old. Miller tells us some of the
vineyards of Italy held good 300 years and that vines 100 years old
were accounted as young. Professor Bose states that some of the
vines of Burgundy were 400 years old and more. It is more than
likely that the advent of the phylloxera will have a tendency to
shorten these age records in the case of the Kuropean and other non-
resistant species. Doubtless there are native vines of much greater
age. The writer has never seen a vine among the endless number of
natives that abound in our forests that died from the effects of age.

SOME LARGE VINES.
Stephen Schultz says:

At Beitdjin, a village near Ptolemais, we took our supper under a vine, the stem
of which was nearly a foot and a half in diameter, the height about 30 feet, and it
covered with its branches a hut more than 50 feet long and broad.

366 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

The celebrated vine in the conservatory at Hampton Court, England,
planted in 1769, had in 1830 a stem 13 inches in girth and a principal
branch 114 feet in length, the whole vine occupying more than 160
square yards; and in one year it produced 2,200 bunches of fruit
weighing on an average a pound—in all, about a ton of fruit.

A wild grapevine upon the shores of Mobile Bay about 1 mile north
of Daphne, Ala., is commonly known as the ‘* General Jackson vine,”
from the fact that Gen. Andrew Jackson twice pitched his tent under
it during his campaigns against the Seminole Indians. This vine in
June, 1897,“ was reported to have a circumference of 6 feet 1 inch at
its base. Its age was estimated at that time to exceed 100 years.

A vine now standing in California, which is considered the largest in
the world (Pl. XLIYV, fig. 2), was planted in 1842 by a Spanish woman.
Beneath its spreading branches, which cover nearly half an acre, 800
persons could find protection from the sun’s heat. The first election
in Santa Barbara County under American rule was held beneath its
ripening fruit. The vine is of the Mission variety. In 1893 it bore
8 tons of grapes, and in 1895 over 10 tons. The trunk of the vine is
7 feet 8 inches in circumference. It is now owned by Jacob Wilson,
of Carpinteria, Cal.

GRAPE GROWING IN ITS INFANCY.

The early attempts at grape growing on the Atlantic coast were
generally unsuccessful, having been confined almost exclusively to the
introduction and growing of European varieties. It has only been
since attention has been given to improving and cultivating our native
erapes and to counteracting the injury of insects and vine diseases that
erape culture in that region has gradually developed into an important
industry.

It will be of interest here to note that not only has America, in
improving and cultivating her native grapes, given to the world a new
fruit, but it has been the direct means of reestablishing the European
vineyards upon stocks resistant to the attacks of the phylloxera or
root-louse, which has already destroyed a large portion of the vine-
yards of the Old World. All the successfully reestablished vineyards —
are either American varieties or those of American parentage, or
hybrids of these and Viniferas, or Vinifera varieties grafted on such
sorts. In California, where the Viniferas have found a congenial
home, and which bids fair to surpass any like area of the world in
grape production (for, while in Europe they produce 150 to 400 gal-
lons of wine to the acre, in California it is quite common for the pro-
duction to reach five times that amount and even more), there has been
asimilar experience. Thousands of acres have already been destroyed,

«Letter from A. M. Valerio, Daphne, Ala., June, 1897.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XLIV.

*
;
t
$
7

Fic. 2.—LARGEST GRAPEVINE IN THE WORLD.

Yearbook U.S; Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE XLV.

Gi, pyr?
Wiis

Fic. 1.—SCUPPERNONG WINERY, WELDON, N. C.

FiG. 2.—PICKING AND DRYING RAISINS IN CALIFORNIA.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 367

and these, in order to be reestablished and become permanent and last-
ing vineyards, will have to be grafted on resistant stock.

It should also be stated that the industry in this country is in its
infancy. Our successful experience has nearly all been during the
last half century, and we have every reason to feel elated over what
has already been accomplished. Many phases of the development
have, however, scarcely been commenced. The Scuppernong ( V7¢/s
rotundifolia), for instance, a native species, perhaps more immune to
disease and insect injury than any other, needs very little care and
cultivation to produce enormous crops on suitable lands, of which
there are thousands of acres now idle along the Atlantic coast and
in the Gulf States. From this, a large and profitable industry can be
developed. (PI. XLV, fig. 1.)

GROWING OF GRAPES IN GRAPERIES AND IN POTS.

The growing of grapes in graperies (see Pl. XLIV, fig. 1) furnishes
quite a source of revenue in some countries, notably Belgium and the
Channel Islands, where large quantities are annually grown and
exported, the United States being a good customer for them, as high
as 35 cents to 75 cents per pound wholesale, and $2 to $3 and even more
per pound retail, being paid for the fruit. Grape growing in pots is
much practiced in parts of Europe, and especially in France, where
these are largely used for decorative purposes on festive occasions.

The keeping of grapes in cool storage is deserving of more exten-
sive practice and development. Shipping and keeping grapes in cork
dust is quite an industry in some of the European grape districts, and
a considerable quantity of such grapes, shipped from Spain, are
annually consumed in this country.

THE GRAPE INDUSTRY.

The last decade of the first half of the nineteenth century witnessed
the establishment of commercial grape culture in the United States on
a firm foundation. A beginning was made in the manufacture of
choice wine from American grapes on the Atlantic coast, the choicest
Vinifera varieties were introduced on the Pacific coast, and wine made
therefrom showed the pioneers of California that they could at no dis-
tant date enter into direct competition with Europe in the production
of the choicest wines on the globe. It is to be regretted that so many
of the choice wines produced have been sold under foreign labels of
late years, there being but few of the better firms that have striven to
make a reputation on their choicest wines, and the catering of the
heaviest distributers to the cheaper trade has resulted in eliminating,
to a very great extent, the growing of the choicer, less productive

368 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

varieties of grapes; hence, a tendency toward producing quantity at
the expense of quality. In 1850 the country produced 250,000 gal-
lons of wine. In 1860 the product had reached over 1,500,000 gallons,
and all the States and Territories, except four, were growing grapes.
The census of 1860 showed California, New York, and Ohio as the
three leading wine-producing States. From 1860 to 1875 rapid prog-
ress was made. In 1870 Missouri produced more than any other
State except California. With this exception, California, New York,
and Ohio have been in the lead. According to the last United States
census (1900), twelve States reported having over 2,000,000 vines each
in bearing, and the following table (though the figures are only
approximations) is sufficient to give a clear idea of the relative import-
ance of these States as grape producers:

Number of grapevines in the leading producing States.

State. Vines. State. Vines.
Californian, +... sae 90, 686, 458 ||} Missouri.............. 38, 546, 319
New York as. .425 29, 636, 216 || Oklahoma............ 8, 542, 034
Onlows 2s ese eee 181862; 900) SEPM OTN sc dea wate eae 8, 008, 888
KeeMsesy oo ewes §,)762; 700 |) Indiana --- en neces 2, 570, 579
Michivan <2... 2. cee. 5,'2527450. | (Georgia... <-c.¢ wcncee s 2, 376, 904
Pennsylvania ......-. 4s 71S, 089 ii Tonpe. Ske. pe eoens 2, 072, 101

Upward of 250,000 acres are devoted to grape culture in California
(see Pl. XLVI), which State produces more than two-thirds of the
entire grape output of the country, the annual production of wine being
over 30,000,000 gallons.

At a conservative estimate the raisin and wine industries of Cali-
fornia, in vineyards, cellars, cooperage, distilleries, machinery, and
capital to carry on the business, represent an investment of at least
$85,000,000.

The dry and sweet wines produced in the last ten years amount to
255,000,000 gallons, an annual average of 25,500,000 gallons, and the
brandy produced during the same time amounted to about 26,850,000
gallons.

The raisin production of California for the last decade has been
about 895,000,000 pounds, an annual average of 89,500,000 pounds.
The shipments of California-grown grapes to States farther east for the
last ten years have amounted to 10,482 cars, or about 251,568,000 pounds,
an annual average of 25,156,000 pounds. In 1903, on account of the
short crop in the Eastern States, the shipments were greatly increased,
there having been over 1,800 cars shipped. In 1904 more than 1,450
cars were shipped. About 50 per cent of the grape crop in California
is converted into wine and 35 per cent into raisins, while 15 per cent
is shipped as fresh grapes.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 369

The foregoing figures give some idea of the grape industry in Cali-
fornia, not yet fifty years old. While California has from the first
proved a congenial home for Vinifera, or HKuropean grapes, New York
leads by far in the production of grapes from American varieties, not
only for shipping purposes, but also for wine, both dry and sparkling,
and for unfermented grape juice. Of unfermented grape juice (see
fig. 39) the Chautauqua district produces not only more than any other
district, but more than all the rest of the country, 325,000 gallons
having been made there in 1903 and 605,000 gallons in 1904.

Of the 169,055 gallons of sparkling wine produced in this country,
according tothe United States census in 1900, Missouri reported 2,940,

Fie. 39.—Crusher and hydraulic press, Hammondsport, N. Y.

California 8,880, Ohio 15,600, and New York 113,435 gallons. This
shows New York to have produced more than twice as much sparkling
wine as all the other States together. The wine yield of New York
this year (1904) is estimated at 3,500,000 gallons.

The paramount object in the culture of the grape in most parts of
the world has been the obtaining of wine. The extent of this will be
surprising and hardly believed by those not acquainted with the statis-
tics. Thus, for instance, there are annually produced on the globe over
4,000,000,000 gallons of wine. Of this amount, the United States pro-
duces only about 50,000,000 gallons.

2 «1904——24

3870 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
WINES,

Dry wines in common parlance are understood to be those in which
the sugar of the grape has through fermentation been converted into
alcohol. These naturally divide into two groups, namely, red wines,
such as Clarets, Burgundies, etc., and white wines, such as Rieslings,
Hocks, ete.

Red wines are made from colored grapes; a few varieties have
colored juice, but in most varieties the coloring matter is in the skins
and is extracted from them during fermentation. The grapes are
crushed (and in nearly all modern establishments stemmed) and put in
fermenting vats, or casks (see figs 40 and 41), where, in order to develop

Fic. 40.—Crusher, stemmer, and must pump, Cucamonga, Cal.

the color as well as to extract certain ingredients that give red wines
their value, the crushed grapes are fermented—skins, pulp, and juice
together. The use of selected yeast cultures to start and correct fer-
mentation, as well as to improve the quality of the wine made, is
destined to become an important factor in dry-wine making. The
juice is not drawn off until the first fermentation is completed. In
order that fermentation may be uniform the entire quantity in a tank
should be crushed the same day. The vats should not be more than
three-fourths full, else they are apt to run over during fermentation.
The fermenting tanks are generally made of wood, although masonry
is sometimes employed. Tanks made of either of these materials,
before being used, should be carefully cleaned and before being used
for the first time should be steamed for several hours. The size and

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XLVI.

te AS
Hie te aiege
a

aN Se

Fic. 1.—SECTION OF 3,000-ACRE CALIFORNIA VINEYARD.

FiG. 2.—HAULING GRAPES AT WOODLAND, CAL.

PLATE XLVII.

1904,

ture

icu

Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agr

y

N.

’

—WINERY AT HAMMONDSPORT

Fia. 1

Fig. 2.—WINERY AT CLAYTON, CAL.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 371

number of the vats used will depend upon the quantity of grapes
crushed per day. The vats vary in size from 100 to 10,000 gallons or
more each. Knough of them should be provided so that, when wine
making has commenced, it can be carried on without interruption until
the grapes are all crushed. The tanks are set on skids, raising them
about 20 inches above the floor of the room, and are set slightly higher
in the rear so as to permit them to be easily drained from the front
through a faucet inserted in a hole bored 2 or 3 inches above the bottom
of the tank. A coarse strainer of some kind should be put over this
hole on the inside of the vat, before it is filled, so as to keep back the
pomace while the juice is being drained. Quite a diversity of opinion

hr
uf AE i lif
Ae

Se
Xi Pines

Fic. 41.—Fermenting room, Fresno, Cal.

exists among makers of excellent wine as to whether it is best to
ferment in an open vat, a vat loosely covered, or a vat hermetically
sealed, having a safety valve or pipe discharging the carbonic-acid gas
into a vessel of water, thus completely preventing contact with the
air; also as to whether it is better to have false heads resting directly
upon and fastened over the pomace or to stir the pomace. Good wines
are made by either method.

As soon as the active fermentation is completed, the new wine should
be drawn from the pomace and be put into closed or storage cooper-
age and stored in a suitable building, having as even a temperature as
possible, the best temperature for this purpose being about 60° F.
(Pl. XLVII.) The pomace remaining after the juice is drawn off is

372 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

pressed, and the wine obtained from it is often mixed with that
previously drawn off. In well-conducted and larger establishments,
however, the press wine, on account of its being coarser and of
inferior quality, is not mixed with the other wine, but is usually dis-
tilled. After the wine has been filled into storage cooperage (such as
puncheons, casks, or tanks) a slow fermentation, called the secondary
or insensible fermentation, goes on, bubbles of gas are given off, and
the sediment settles to the bottom. While this is taking place the
casks should not be tightly bunged or they will burst. The bung
holes should be loosely covered by an inverted bung, a small bag of
sand, a vine leaf, or something of the kind, so that the gas may escape.
Bungs have also been invented for this purpose. During this time,
while the wine cools and settles, it is necessary that the cooperage
be kept entirely full or the wine will spoil. During the first week
they should be filled up every day, the next week every two days,
aie on once a week, and finally, when fermentation is over, once or
twice a month. As soon as the wines have settled they should be
racked in clean cooperage in order to rid them of the sediment. After
this they are usually racked again about December, then again ir
early spring, and before the vintage in the fall.

White wines are made from white grapes and such varieties of col-
ored grapes as have practically colorless juice, the color being in the
skin of the berry. The making and handling of white wine is very
similar to that of red wine. The chief difference consists in the. fact
that, instead of allowing the crushed grapes to go through fermenta-
tion in the fermenting vats, when made from white grapes they are
either allowed to remain there only a limited time (usually not more
than twenty-four or thirty-six hours), or (as is most common) they are
pressed at once and the juice is filled into storage cooperage and fer-
mented by itself, the receptacles being only about three-fourths full.
When white wine is made from colored grapes, in order to prevent
the juice taking color from the skins, the grapes, after being crushed,
must be pressed immediately. White wines, therefore, are usually
not only free from the coloring matter contained in the skins, but
also from the ingredients found in red wines, which are extracted from
the pomace during fermentation.

The sweet wines generally produced in this country are those in
which none, or only a part, of the sugar in the grape has through
fermentation been converted into alcohol, the fermentation being pre-
vented or checked at any desired stage by the addition of grape brandy.
This adding of alcohol to stop fermentation is called ‘‘fortifying.” Of
the sweet wines, ports and angelicas are the two kinds most largely
produced and consumed in this country, and to describe briefly how
these are made will practically iesieate how to make the other sweet
wines as well.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 3738

Wines of the port type are made by taking colored grapes and crush-
ing and putting them in fermenting vats to ferment the same as for
making red wines. As soon as fermentation has reduced the sugar in
the must to the desired point (during which fermentation color and
other matters have also been extracted from the pulp and skins), the
juice is drawn off, put in storage cooperage, and fortified.

For angelicas the grapes are crushed and pressed at once and the
juice put in packages and fortified at once, or in such cases where the
grapes are sweeter than is desired to make the wine, the juice is allowed
to ferment down to the required point, and is then fortified. In forti-
fying any kind of sweet wine, care must be taken to put the alcohol
in the cooperage first and the juice afterwards, as the alcohol rises
through the must to the top as it fortifies. Were the alcohol to be
put on. top it would stay there and not fortify the must at all. Where
hose and force pump are at hand the alcohol can be forced to the
bottom of the must and the same object accomplished.

Sweet wines usually clear quickly, and in from two to four weeks
should be ready to rack the first time. These are the kinds of wines
most largely produced and consumed in this country.

Limited space prevents description of methods of making wines of
the types of champagne, sherry, etc.

It should here be stated that as wine making is an art, little more than
the general underlying principles can be stated. Skill in the making
and care of wine must be acquired by actual experience. There are so
many factors to be dealt with, many of which can not be foreseen, some
of which are unpreventable, that not only are there no two vats alike,
but it often occurs that the wine drawn from the same vat into different
packages will develop quite differently. Unless the right course is
pursued in the making and a correct fermentation is had, no really first-
class wines can be made. ‘These two factors are just as important toa
really good wine as a proper foundation is to a good building, and it is
equally true that good new wines as well as good new buildings can be
soon made worthless by poor treatment and care. Then again, different
types (and variations in these) of red and white, dry, sweet, and spark-
ling wines result from different varieties of grapes, differences of soil
and climatic conditions, and variations in methods of manufacture.
The grapes and wines of different years vary greatly. Long warm
seasons with favorable ripening weather produce fine quality, whilst
cool summers with an abundance of rain produce inferior quality.

It should also be noted that, while some varieties have all the
requisites to produce an ideal wine, there are also varieties that contain
too much of some elements and are deficient in others. Such, for
instance, is the case with many of the American varieties, most notably
the labruscas, which have too much of the foxy flavor and aroma and
are often high in acid and deficient in sugar.

374 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

These are a few of the problems confronting the wine maker. It is
therefore not surprising that poor wines are often made. A skilled
wine maker might perhaps be compared to a fine cook in this, that
the good cook, by doing this or that just so and just at the right time,
prepares a meal which proves excellent, but which, prepared by a poor
cook, would be unpalatable; similarly a good wine maker will make
excellent wine from material out of which a poor wine maker will at the
best make distilling material.

BRANDY.

It was not until the eighteenth century that brandy making became
generally practiced in Europe. The brandies from white wines are
better in quality than those from red wines, and, in some of the lead-
ing brandy districts, particular white-wine varieties are grown for
brandy purposes, one of the favorite varieties being the Folle Blanche.
One thousand gallons of wine yield from 100 to 180 gallons of proof
brandy, depending, of course, on the sugar in the grapes or the alco-
holic strength of the wine.

Practically all the grape brandy made in the United States for com-
mercial purposes comes from California, where brandy making has for
some years been quite a large and profitable industry. Large quanti-
ties are used in the manufacture of sweet wines, and the annual average
output of commercial brandy in the State is in the neighborhood of
750,000 gallons.

VINEGAR.

The French word ‘‘ vinaigre,” from which the English word ‘* vine-
gar” is derived, means sour wine. Two kinds of vinegar, white and
red, made respectively from white and red wines, are produced. On
account of the red color being undesirable for many purposes the white
is usually preferred. ‘‘Sweet as sugar” and ‘‘sour as vinegar” are
comparisons we often make. As opposite as those two qualities are,
it is nevertheless true that the sourest substance is made from the
sweetest.

The uses of vinegar in domestic economy, for medicinal purposes
(in case of poisoning, sprains, etc.), and a number of other purposes,
are familiar to all.

GRAPE SIRUP.

It is not very generally known that a very superior sirup is made
from the grape, and that at one time quite a quantity was annually
produced in this country. There is no reason why the manufacture of
erape sirup could not be made a large and profitable industry. It has
always been popular from the earliest ages down to the present day.
Its manufacture demands close care and attention, but is otherwise
exceedingly simple, and the machinery necessary is not at all expensive.
In California it is now proposed to evaporate the juice of the grape
to as near a solid substance as possible and to ship it thus, thereby

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE XLVIII.

Fic. 1.—SHIPPING TABLE GRAPES IN NEW YORK STATE.

FiG. 2.—SHIPPING WINE GRAPES, CUCAMONGA, CAL.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE XLIX.

FiG. 1.—PACKING TABLE GRAPES IN NEW YORK STATE.

FiG. 2.—PACKING TABLE GRAPES IN CALIFORNIA.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 375

reducing to a minimum the heavy cost of transporting it as a liquid
in costly cooperage across the continent. After arriving at its des-
tination it is to be brought back to the desired thinness by the addition
of pure water, and made into grape juice, wine, or other products.

UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE.

The manufacture of unfermented grape juice has, especially in some
of the States east of the Rocky Mountains, developed into an extensive
and lucrative industry. Theunfermented grape juice manufacturing
plants of the country turn out a product amounting to nearly 1,000,000
gallons annually; aside from this many housewives put up annual sup-
plies of it. Through the medium of unfermented grape juice we can
derive whatever benefit there may be in the grape cure everywhere
and at all times of the year.

THE SHIPPING OF FRESH GRAPES.

The shipping of fresh grapes to market for table use is becoming
more extensive every year, both as regards American varieties grown
most largely in New York State and Vinifera or California-grown
grapes. (Pl. XLVIII.) Many instances are on record in California
where table grapes have given the producer a return of from $200 to
as high as $350 an acre, and, as the packing is nearly all done by
women, the work is so distributed (see Pl. XLIX) that entire families
find lucrative, healthy, and pleasant employment. The statement has
frequently been made to the writer by parties owning such vineyards
that they are ‘‘about as good as a mint.”

RAISINS.

Almost all the raisins grown in the United States are produced in
California, where the production is practically confined to ten counties,
with Fresno as the center of the industry. The history of the raisin
industry furnishes one of the most interesting bits of fruit history
in this country and was discussed by the writer in a former article.’
(Pl. XLV, fig. 2.)

) A FEW HOUSEHOLD RECIPES.

The products described in the foregoing paragraphs are the most
important ones made from the grape for commercial purposes. The
following are a few recipes for the use of the grape in household
economy:

CANNED GRAPES.—Select fresh, firm, ripe berries, remove the stems,
and can the same as other fruit. The fruit of seedless varieties, such

“ For detailed information regarding its manufacture and preservation, and recipes
for its use, see Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 24, or Farmers’ Bulletin No. 175.

Grape, Raisin, and Wine Production in the United States, Yearbook of the
Department of Agriculture for 1902, pp. 407-420.

876 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

as the ‘‘ Thompson seedless,” is almost as good canned as when picked
from the vine.

GRAPE PICKLES.—Take 7 pounds of ripe grapes and remove the
stems; take 8 pounds of white sugar, 1 quart of cider vinegar, 1 ounce
of cinnamon, and 4 ounce of cloves. Boil this and pour over the fruit
for two mornings, and the third morning put fruit and all in presery-
ing kettle; heat so as to simmer for a few minutes; then put it in glass
or earthen jars, tie up securely, and keep in cool place.

GRAPE JELLY.—Select firm grapes not quite ripe, wash the berries
well, pour into preserving kettle, and stew slowly for some minutes to
free the juice. Strain through colander and then through jelly bag.
Keep the juice as hot as possible. Measure the juice and add one
pound of loaf sugar to each pint of juice. Boil fast (for at least thirty
minutes) until done, and put in glasses.

SPICED GRAPES.—Take the pulp of the grapes, boil, and rub through
a sieve so as to get rid of the seeds. Add the skins to the strained
pulp and boil with sugar, vinegar, and spices, using for 7 pounds of
grapes 4$ pounds of sugar and 1 pint of good vinegar. Spice quite
highly with ground cloves, allspice, and a little cinnamon.

GRAPE MARMALADE.—Take 1 pound of grapes and 1 pound of sugar.
Stew until well dissolved, put through strainer bowl and then through
sieve. Cook until it becomes stiff as jam. Put away in small pre-
serve jars.

GRAPE LEATHER.—Use same ingredients as for marmalade. Boil
until quite stiff. Spread on marble slabs or china platters to dry.

GRAPE TRIFLE.—Pulp 2 pounds of ripe grapes through a sieve fine
enough to extract the seeds. Add sugar to suit the taste. Put into
a trifle dish, and cover with whipped cream nicely flavored. Serve
cold.

GRAPE BUTTER.—This may be made of green or ripe grapes. If
intended as a relish to serve with meats, the green grapes are to be
preferred; or, if ripe grapes are used, a little sharp cider is added.
Pick the grapes from the stems, wash well, and put into a granite
kettle with just enough water to keep from burning. When soft
enough, press them through a sieve to remove the seeds. To 7 pounds
of grapes weighed before seeds are removed add a pint of sharp cider,
and, if grapes are ripe, 2 ounces of cinnamon and one of cloves. Tie
the spices up in muslin bags and remove when the butter is made.
Allow 3} pounds of sugar to 7 pounds of fruit, but do not add it until
the butter is quite thick. Boil it until it is of the desired consistency.
Some prefer adding lemon juice instead of cider or vinegar; from half
to two-thirds of a cupful would make the given quantity of grapes
quite sharp. A pint of clear grape juice added to the strained pulp
makes the best butter of all.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. O17

GRAPE JuNKET.—Take 2 quarts new milk; warm it on the stove to
about blood heat; pour into a glass bowl; stir into it 2 tablespoonfuls
of prepared rennet, 2 tablespoonfuls of powdered loaf sugar, } small
wineglass of grape juice, and 4 wineglass of grape brandy. Let it
stand until entirely cold, and serve with sugar and cream.

GRAPE pre.—Take the pulp from the grapes and heat a little to
soften it; then rub through a sieve to get out the seeds. Add the
skins. Sugar to taste, and bake.

BY-PRODUCTS.

The utilization of the wastes of the grape and the manufacture of
by-products (fig. 42) from them has long been a profitable industry in

Europe. In this country only a start in this direction has been made.
A few of the most important of these products will be mentioned.

PRODUCTS MADE FROM POMACE.

PoMAcE BRANDY.—After wine has been made from the grapes the
pomace is often distilled and a product called pomace brandy made
from it. In some cases water and sugar are added to the pomace,
which is then refermented, and the resulting product is sold to the
unknowing consumer as wine. The word wine as applied to this
product is a misnomer.

878 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Wasu, oR prQguETTE.—This is also made from pomace, and is dis-
tilled and sold as brandy. To make wash, the pomace is put into fer-
menting vats, where it is sprinkled with water, which, after a certain
length of time, is drawn off. This washes out part of the wine con-
tained in the pomace. The same water is re-used on other pomace
until it is high enough in alcoholic strength, when it is distilled.

The pomace, after wash has been made from it, contains the seeds,
hulls, stems, ete., from which other valuable by-products may be made.

FEED AND FERTILIZER.—Pomace from stemmed grapes makes excel-
lent sheep and cattle feed when salted slightly and stored in silos.
After the acids are neutralized in them, the pomaces are excellent
manure, being rich in potash and nitrogen. Pomaces from unstemmed
grapes are not so good.

Acetic actp.—The pomace may also be dried in vapor-tight rooms.
In the process of drying, 50 to 60 per cent of the weight of the pomace
becomes vapor, and this, condensed, yields acetic acid, of which it
contains from 5 to 10 per cent.

PRODUCTS MADE FROM SKINS AND SEEDS.

After the pomace is dried, it is separated into stems, shells, and
seeds. From the stems paper is made, and from the shells, or hulls,
tartaric acid is extracted. A few of the uses to which the seeds are
put are mentioned below.

Many vineyardists in Europe separate the seeds from the hulls on a
sieve. This is easily accomplished if the pomace or marc is dry. The
seeds are fed to horses, cattle, and poultry, the same as grain, and are
said to be even better than oats. Ground up, they are used as a sub-
stitute for coffee. The seeds are crushed, and from them is obtained
a high-grade oil, ranking next to olive oil and used for the same pur-
poses. It is clear, yellow, and burns well without smoke or smell. A
ton of grapes will yield from 40 to 100 pounds of seed, and about 3
quarts, or 16 pounds, of oil may be obtained from 100 pounds of seed.
The product has the properties of a drying oil and can be used as a
substitute for linseed oil. It also makes a superior soap, 100 pounds
of oil making 166 pounds of soap.

Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin, which is used for tanning and
other purposes. After these products have been taken out there
remains a meal, which is an excellent general stock feed and a good
fertilizer.

The manufacture of oil from grape seed is said to be an Italian
invention, and has been practiced for about a century. In Italy the
single Province of Verona manufactures yearly about 600,000 pounds
of oil. It is claimed that the seeds in California-grown grapes are
larger in size and number than those of grapes grown in Europe.

SOME USES OF THE GRAPEVINE AND ITS FRUIT. 379

In California the seeds coming from the raisin seeding and packing
establishments are washed in order to rid them of the pulp adhering
to them. This pulp is fermented and distilled, the product being
marketed as brandy. The seeds, besides being used for purposes before
mentioned, are useful in treating wines for sliminess. ‘There is one
by-product establishment in California which receives several thousand
tons of waste of this nature annually.

THE LEES OF WINE.

Lees are the sediment that settles in the casks in which the new wine
is stored. These are especially valuable on account of the cream of
tartar and calcium tartrate they contain, from which tartaric acid can
be extracted. These elements vary from 20 to 70 per cent of the lees,
according to the way in which the wine has been handled. — In the lees
some alcohol is also retained mechanically. The lees can be distilled
or pressed to extract the wine they contain, and they are then dried
and sold to cream of tartar works.

Grape juice owes its sourness almost entirely to acid tartrates of
potash. While the juice ferments, the greater part of the acid tartrate
separates out along with tartrate of lime, coloring matters, and other
impurities as a hard crust adhering to the sides of the cask. Such
impure acid tartrate of potash is known commercially as argol. Red
wines are usually richer in argol than white wines, and give a red color
to the crude article. A ton of grapes yields, according to the compo-
sition and treatment of the fruit, quantities varying between 1 and 2
pounds of argol. ‘The tartaric acid of commerce is prepared from
tartar or argol, and was first separated from it by Scheele in 1769. It
is used in baking powders, effervescing drinks, as medicine, in calico
printing, etc. The United States at present imports from France,
Italy, and Germany about $3,000,000 worth annually. The American
Grape Acid Association, of San Francisco, about one and one-half
years ago offered a reward of $25,000 for the best and most practical
formula and process for making cream of tartar from grapes. About
375 formulas have been submitted. These have been sent in from all
over the world. The jury are now going over the proposals presented
to them. It is expected that their conclusions will be announced in
the near future.

VALUE OF THE WASTES OF THE GRAPE CROP.

It is safe to assume that if all the wastes of the grape crop were
utilized the extra returns would increase the value of the crop fully 10
per cent. California has a wine producing area equal to almost the
whole of France. AsCalifornia’s present production is to that of France
about as 1 is to 35, the very great economic importance of proper utili-
zation of these by-products becomes apparent.

880 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is estimated that the by-products of the present grape production
of Fresno County, Cal., if utilized would be worth $500,000 annually.
For this country, with its present production of grapes, wines, raisins,
ete., to the value of about $15,000,000, this would mean an additional
earning of about $1,500,000, and this with the viticultural industry —
as vet in its infancy.

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS.

By A. D. Hopxins,

In Charge of Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.
CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF INJURY.

The detrimental and destructive work of insects which cause serious
losses in commercial woods, barks, nuts, etc., consists of burrows or
galleries excavated by the young and matured forms of beetles and a
few other kinds of insects.

Round timber, rough lumber, and other crude products are seriously
injured by pinhole and wormhole defects caused by a class of wood-
boring beetles and grubs.

Seasoned rough and dressed lumber and finished wood material is
damaged or completely destroyed by a class of so-called powder post
borers, which convert the woody tissue into a mass of fine dust or
powder.

Construction timbers and other wood material utilized in buildings,
bridges, railroad construction, mining, etc., are often infested by
wood-boring grubs, powder post borers, white ants, and other insects,
to their serious detriment or destruction. |

Stored oak and hemlock bark for tanning purposes is, under certain
conditions, seriously damaged or destroyed by insects which infest
the inner or ‘‘ flesh” parts and convert them into a fine powder.

Medicinal barks, roots, and leaves are also bored or eaten by drug
beetles, causing injuries which, while not necessarily destroying the
medicinal qualities, are detrimental to the commercial value of such
material.

From the writer’s personal investigations of this subject in different
sections of the country, the damage to forest products of various kinds
from this cause seems to be far more extensive than is generally recog-
nized. Allowing a loss of 5 per cent on the total value of the forest
products of the country, which the writer believes to be a conservative
- estimate, it would amount to something over $30,000,000 annually.
This loss differs from that resulting from insect damage to natural
forest resources in that it represents more directly a loss of money
invested in material and labor.

381

382 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY TO PREVENTION OF LOSSES.

In dealing with the insects mentioned, as with forest insects in gen-
eral, the methods which yield the best results are those which relate
directly to preventing attack. In order to meet with the best success,
however, it is necessary to have a complete knowledge of the insects
which cause the injuries and the conditions which are attractive to
them or otherwise favor their attack, as well as those which are
unattractive or unfavorable.

The insects have two objects in their attack; one is to obtain food,
the other is to prepare for the development of their broods. Different
species of insects have special periods during the season of activity
(March to November) when the adults are on the wing in search of
suitable material in which to deposit their eggs. Some species which
fly in April will be attracted to the trunks of recently felled pine trees
or to piles of pine sawlogs from trees felled the previous winter.
They are not attracted to any other kind of timber, because they can
live only in the bark or wood of pine, and only in that which is in the
proper condition to favor the hatching of their eggs and the normal
development of their young. As they fly only in April, they can not
injure the logs of trees felled during the remainder of the year. There
are also oak insects, which attack nothing but oak; hickory insects,
- cypress insects, spruce insects, and so on, which have different habits
and different periods of flight and require special conditions of the
bark and wood for depositing their eggs or for the subsequent develop-
ment of their broods. Some of these insects have but one generation
in a year, others have two or more, while some require more than
one year for their complete development and transformation. Some
species deposit their eggs in the bark or wood of trees soon after they
are felled or before any perceptible change from the normal living
tissue has taken place; other species are attracted only to dead bark
and dead wood of trees which have been felled or girdled for several
months; others are attracted to dry and seasoned wood; while another
class will attack nothing but very old dry bark or wood of special kinds
and under special conditions. Thus, it will be seen how important it
is for the practical man to have a knowledge of such of the foregoing
facts as apply to his immediate interest in the manufacture or utiliza-
tion of a given forest product, in order that he may, with the least
trouble and expense, adjust his business methods to meet the require- .
ments for preventing losses.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF INSECT INJURIES.

The work of different kinds of insects, as represented by special
injuries to forest products, is the first thing to attract attention, and
the distinctive character of this work is easily observed, while the insect

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 883

responsible for it is seldom seen, or it is so difficult to determine by
the general observer, from descriptions or illustrations, that the
species is rarely recognized. Fortunately, the character of the work
is often suflicient in itself to identify the cause and suggest a remedy,
and, in this paper, primary consideration is given to this phase of the
subject.

AMBROSIA OR TIMBER BEETLES.

The characteristic work of this class of wood-boring beetles is shown
in figures 43, 44, and 45. The injury consists of pinhole and stained-
wood defects in the sapwood and heartwood of recently felled or gir-
dled trees, sawlogs, pulpwood, stave and shingle bolts, green or

Fie. 48.—Work of ambrosia beetles in tulip or yellow poplar wood: a, work of Xyleborus affinis and
, Ayleborus inermis; b, Xyleborus obesus and work; c, bark; d, sapwood; e, heartwood. (Original.)

unseasoned lumber, and staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic
liquids. The holes and galleries are made by the adult parent beetles
to serve as entrances and temporary homes or nurseries for the devel-
opment of their broods of young, which feed on a kind of fungus
growing on the walls of the galleries. The growth of this ambrosia-
like fungus is induced and controlled by the parent beetles, and the
young are dependent upon it for food. The wood must be in exactly
the proper condition for the growth of the fungus in order to attract
the beetles and induce them to excavate their galleries; it must have
a certain degree of moisture and other favorable qualities which usually
prevail during the period involved in the change from living, or
normal, to dead or dry wood; such a condition is found in recently
felled trees, sawlogs, or like crude products.

There are two general types or classes of these galleries—one in

384 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which the broods develop together in the main burrows (figs. 48 and
44), the other in which the individuals develop in short separate side

CPi

Fic. 44.—Work of ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus celsus, in hickory wood: a, larva, b, pupa; ¢, adult
beetle, natural size; d, character of work in lumber cut from injured log; e, bark; /, sapwood;
g, heartwood. (Original.)

chambers extending at right angles from the primary gallery (fig. 45).
The galleries of the latter type are usually accompanied by a distinct
staining of the wood, while those of the former are not.

Fic. 45.—Work of ambrosia beetles in oak: a, Monarthrum mali and work; b, Platypus compositus
and work; c, bark; d. sapwood; e, heartwood; jf, character of work in lumber from injured log.
(Original.)

The beetles responsible for this work are cylindrical in form, appar-
ently with a head (the prothorax) half as long as the remainder of the

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 385

body (figs. 43, a, and 45, a). North American species vary in size from
less than one-tenth to slightly more than two-tenths of an inch, while
some of the subtropical and tropical species attain a much larger size.
The diameter of the holes made by each species corresponds closely to
that of the body, and varies from about one-twentieth to one-sixteenth
of an inch for North American, and to one-eighth of an inch for the
tropical species.

ROUND-HEADED BORERS.

The character of the work of this class of wood and bark-boring
grubs is shown in figure 46. The injuries consist of irregular flat-
tened or nearly round wormhole defects in the wood which sometimes
result in the destruction of the valuable parts of wood or bark material.

\NS We Wy S S

| : ae

Fic. 46.—Work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine: a, work of round-headed borer,
‘‘sawyer,’’ Monohammus sp., natural size; b, Ergates spiculatus; c, work of flat-headed borer,
Buprestis, larya and adult; d, bark; e, sapwood; f, heartwood. (Original.)

The sapwood and heartwood of recently felled trees, sawlogs, poles,
posts, mine props, pulpwood, and cordwood, also lumber or square
timber with bark on the edges, and construction timber in new and old
buildings, are injured by wormhole defects, while the valuable parts
of stored oak and hemlock tanbark and certain kinds of wood are con-
verted into worm dust. These injuries are caused by the young or
larvee of long-horned beetles. Those which infest the wood hatch
from eggs deposited in the outer bark of logs and like material, and
the minute grubs hatching therefrom bore into the inner bark, through
which they extend their irregular burrows for the purpose of obtain-
ing food from the sap and other nutritive material found in the plant
tissue. They continue to extend and enlarge their burrows as they
increase in size, until they are nearly or quite full grown. They then
enter the wood and continue their excavations deep into the sapwood

2 a1904——25

336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

or heartwood until they attain their normal size. They then excavate
pupa cells in which to transform into adults, which emerge from the
wood through exit holes in the surface.

This class of borers is represented by a large number of species.
The adults, however, are seldom seen by the general observer unless
cut out of the wood before they have emerged. Many of them fly at
night, while others are so nearly the color of the bark on which they
rest that they are difficult to find. The holes made by these borers
vary in size from very minute to more than an inch in diameter, but
the intermediate sizes are most common.

FLAT-HEADED BORERS.

The work of flat-headed borers is only distinguished from that of
the preceding by the broad, shallow burrows and the much more oblong
form of the exit holes. In general, the injuries are similar and affect
the same class of products, but they are of much less importance.
The adult forms are flattened, metallic-colored beetles, and represent
many species, of various sizes.

TIMBER WORMS.

The character of the work done by the borers of this class is shown
in figure 47. The injury consists of pinhole defects in the sapwood
and heartwood of felled trees, sawlogs, and like material which have

Fie. 47.—Work of timber worms in oak: a, work of oak timber worm, Eupsalis minuta; b, barked

surface; c, bark; d, sapwood timber worm, Hylocetus lugubris, and work; e, sapwood. (Original. )
been left in the woods or in piles in the open for several months during
the warmer seasons. Stave and shingle bolts and closely piled oak
lumber and square timbers also suffer from injury of this kind. These

INSEOT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 387

injuries are made by elongate, slender worms or larvee which hatch
from eggs deposited by the adult beetles in the outer bark, or, where
there is no bark, just beneath the surface of the wood. At first the
young larvee bore almost invisible holes for a long distance through the
sapwood and heartwood, but as they increase in size the same holes are
enlarged and extended until the larve have attained their full growth.
They then transform to adults and emerge through the enlarged
entrance burrows. ‘The work of these timber worms is distinguished
from that of the timber beetles by the greater variation in the size of
holes in the same piece of wood; also by the fact that they are not
branched from a single entrance or gallery, as are those made by
the beetles.

POWDER POST BORERS.

The character of work of this class of insects is shown in figures 48,
49, 50, and 51. The injury consists of closely placed burrows packed
with the borings or a completely destroyed or powdered condition of

Les
iiR

Fie. 48.—Work of powder post beetle, Sinoxylon basilare, in hickory poles, showing transverse egg
galleries excavated by the adult: a, entrance; b, gallery; c, adult. Natural size (original).

the wood of seasoned products, such as lumber, crude and finished
handle, cooperage, and wagon stock, furniture, and inside finish wood-

Fia. 49.—Work of powder post beetle, Sinoxylon basilare, in hickory pole: a, character of work by
larve; b, exit holes made by emerging broods. (Original.)

work in old buildings, as well as in many other crude or finished and
utilized woods. This is the work of both the adults and young stages

388 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of some species, or of the larval stage alone of others. In the former,
the adult beetles deposit their eggs in burrows or galleries excavated
for the purpose, as in figures 48
and 49, while in the latter (figs.
50 and 51) the eggs are depos-

of the wood. The grubs com-
plete the destruction by boring
through the solid wood in all
directions and packing their
burrows with the powdered
wood. When they are full
grown they transform to the
adult and emerge from the in-
jured material through round
holes in the surface. Some of
the species continue to work in

see Aye ey os Se
‘ SEES SNS

y"" " Ty

——— oe
. . - E meee =
7 ; : —~ Zp” 4
a 4

Fie. 50.—Work of powder post beetle, Lyctus
striatus, in hickory handles and spokes: a,

larva; b, pupa; ¢c, adult, natural size; d, exit Fie. 51.—Work of powder post beetle,
holes; e, entrance of larve (vents for borings Xyletinus paltatus, in old pine flooring:
are exits of parasites); f, work of larve; g, a, work of larvee; b, exit holes made by
wood, completely destroyed; h, sapwood; %, emerging broods; c, adult, natural size.
heartwood. (Original.) (Original. )

the same wood until many generations have developed and emerged,
or until every particle of wood tissue has been destroyed and the ayail-
able nutritive substance extracted.

ited on or beneath the surface ~

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 389

WHITE ANTS, OR TERMITES.

The character of the work of white ants, or termites, in wood is shown
in figure 52. It consists of burrows, galleries, and tunnels of greatly
varying sizes, and of every conceivable shape, extended in all direc-
tions through the wood. A peculiar character is the complete destruc-
tion of the inner portion of the wood, while slight or no evidence is
shown on the exposed surface. In this work these insects employ a
kind of earthy matter
mixed with macerated
wood to cover or roof
in such parts of the gal-
leries as would other-
wise be exposed to the
light; also to cover
their paths over the

surface of stone, iron, | i

or uninjured wood, a | Ki

_
T

i" ame”,
Reger

a 3
ie

where inside tunnels :
are not made, to pro- |i @ : ‘
tect them from light
and from their ene-
mies as they travel
from place to place to
visit or extend their
burrows and nests.
Theinjuries to forest
products, both crude
and finished, consist of
a partial or complete
destruction of the in- 5
fested material. Un- LY | |
der certain conditions ey | |
ereater damage and Lg@ieney =a |
loss is caused than by ack ee Se ae

the work of any other ek See ee a

t ° : 1G. 52.—Work of white ant, or termite, Termes flavipes, in sound
class of Ansects. A ana dry red oak molding from door casing: a, inner portion; 0,
great variety of prod- longitudinal section; c, outer surface; d, male; e, female; /, sol-

cick - ta-aiteeks d, see dier; g, worker, natural size. (Original.)

as round and square timbers left for some time next to the ground,
posts and poles set in the ground, railroad ties, bridge timbers, and
lumber in the bottom of stacks; and these insects are especially
destructive to the underpinning, flooring, and all other wooden parts
of buildings which are readily accessible to the little destroyers. The
excavations are made by the insects for the purpose of obtaining food
and to serve as habitations and nurseries for the great number of
individuals which occupy them.

———

590 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

These insects are not true ants, but resemble them somewhat in size
and general appearance. ‘They correspond in their social habits to
ants and bees in that each colony includes workers, soldiers, males and
females (winged or wingless), and a single royal pair.@

BLACK ANTS.

‘The work of the true ants in wood somewhat resembles that of white
ants, and is done for the same or similar purposes and under similar
: conditions, but is much less common
or injurious. It usually consists in
the extension of the work or damage
started by other wood-boring insects,
through the galleries of which the
black ant gains entrance to the inner
wood, which is sometimes honey-
combed.

CARPENTER BEES.

The work of this class of wood-
boring bees is shown in figure 53.
The injury consists of large augerhole-
like tunnels in exposed solid dry wood
of buildings and other structures. It
is most common in soft woods, such
as pine, poplar, redwood, and the like,
the latter being especially liable to
attack in California and the Southwest.

NUT WEEVILS AND THEIR ALLIES.

The characteristic work of this class
of insects is a mined or mealy condi-
tion of the kernel or inner parts, the
surface being pierced by round holes
and otherwise injured or destroyed.
The loss results from the worthless
condition of the infested material as
ty an article of commerce, as food, and

Fic. 53.—Work of carpenter bee, Xylocopa for planting, whether naturally or

orpifex, in redwood lumber from San artificially.

Jose, Cal.: a, entrance; b, galleries; c, . :
cells; d, larva; e, adult—slightly re- Many kinds of Insects are respon-

gueed. | (Onginel,) sible for injuries of this kind, such as
weevils and other beetles, caterpillars of moths, and gall flies. In most
cases where the inner portion of nuts or seeds is injured by weevils, the -

@ For further information on these insects, see article by C. L. Marlatt, in Bulletin
No. 4, new series, of the Bureau of Entomology.

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 391

eges are deposited in the young pods, so that the entrance burrows
made by the minute young larve are completely hidden before the
nuts are matured. After the larve in nuts complete their growth
they bore their way out and enter the ground to pass the winter, and
transform to the adult the next season. In certain kinds of seeds the
transformation to the adult takes place within.¢

DRUG BEETLES,

Injury by this class of enemies to certain medicinal products of the
forest consists of the honeycombed, sieve-like, or powdered condition
of certain kinds of barks, roots, stems, leaves, and seeds. The insects
responsible for the work belong to the class of true powder post borers,
and-have similar habits.

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR INSECT INJURY.
CRUDE PRODUCTS.

RoUND TIMBER WITH BARK ON.—Newly felled trees, sawlogs, tele-
graph poles, posts, and like material, cut in the fall and winter and
left on the ground or in close piles during a few weeks or months in
the spring and summer, are especially liable to injury by ambrosia
beetles (figs. 48, 44, and 45), round and flat-headed borers (fig. 46),
and timber worms (fig. 47), as are also trees felled in the warm
season and left for a time before working upintolumber. The proper
degree of moisture found in freshly cut living or dying wood, and the
period when the insects are flying, are the conditions most favorable
for attack. This period of danger varies with the time of the year the
timber is felled and with different kinds of trees. Those felled in late
fall and winter will generally remain attractive to ambrosia beetles
and the adults of round and flat-headed borers during March, April,
and May. ‘Those felled in April to September may be attacked in a
_ few days after they are felled, and the period of danger may not
extend over more than a few weeks. Certain kinds of trees felled
during certain months and seasons are never attacked, because the
danger period prevails only when the insects are flying; on the other
hand, if the same kinds of trees are felled at a different time, the con-
ditions may be most attractive when the insects are active, and they
will be thickly infested and ruined.

The presence of bark is absolutely necessary for infestation by most
of the wood-boring grubs, since the eggs and young stages must
occupy the outer and inner portions before they can enter the wood.
Some ambrosia beetles and timber worms will, however, attack barked
logs, especially those in close piles and otherwise shaded and pro-
tected from rapid drying. The sapwood of pine, spruce, fir, cedar,

“ For further information on these insects, see article by F. H. Chittenden, Bulle-
tin No. 44, Bureau of Entomology, pp. 24-48.

392 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cypress, and like soft wood is especially liable to injury by ambrosia
beetles, while the heart:vood is sometimes ruined by a class of round-
headed borers known as sawyers. Yellow poplar, oak, chestnut, gum,

\
hie
1 \\ OP

Fic. 54.—Work of round-headed borer, Callidium antennatum, in white pine bucket staves from New
Hampshire: a, where egg was deposited in park; b, larval mine; ¢, pupal cell; 4, exit in bark;
e, adult, slightly reduced. (Original.)

hickory, and most other hardwoods, are, as a rule, attacked by species

of ambrosia beetles, sawyers, and timber worms different from those

infesting the pines, there being but very few species which attack both.
Mahogany and other rare and valuable woods imported from the

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 393

Tropics to this country in the form of round logs, with or without the
bark on, are commonly damaged, more or less seriously, by ambrosia
beetles and timber worms. It would appear, from the writer’s investi-
gations of logs as received at the mills in this country, that the prin-
cipal damage is done during a limited period from the time the trees
are felled until they are placed in the fresh or salt water for trans-.
portation to the shipping points. If, however, the logs are loaded on
the vessel direct from the shore, or if not left in the water long enough
to kill the insects, the latter will continue their destructive work during
transportation to this country and after they arrive until cold weather
ensues or the logs are converted into lumber. It was also found that
a thorough soaking in sea water, while it usually killed the insects at
the time, did not prevent subsequent attack by both foreign and native
ambrosia beetles; also, that the removal of the bark from such logs
previous to their immersion did not render them entirely immune.
Indeed, it was found that those with the bark off were attacked more
than those with it on, owing, doubtless, to the greater amount of
saline moisture absorbed and retained by the bark.

From the foregoing it will be seen that some requisites for pre-
venting insect injuries to round timber are: _

(1) To provide for as little delay as possible between the felling
of the tree and its manufacture into rough products. This is especially
necessary with trees felled from April to September in the region
~ north of the Gulf States, and from March to November in the latter,
while the late fall and winter cutting should all be worked up by
March or April.

(2) If the round timber must be left in the woods or on the skid-
ways during the danger period, every precaution should be taken to
facilitate rapid drying of the inner bark, by keeping the logs off the
ground, in the sun, or in loose piles; or else the opposite extreme
should be adopted, and the logs kept in water.

(3) The immediate removal of all of the bark from poles, posts, and
other material which will not be seriously damaged by checking or
season cracks. |

(4) To determine and utilize the proper months or seasons to girdle
or fell different kinds of trees. Bald cypress in the swamps of the
South are girdled in order that they may die and in a few weeks or
months dry out and become light enough to float. This method has
been extensively adopted in sections where it is the only practicable one
by which the timber can be transported to the sawmills. It is found,
however, that some of these girdled trees are especially attractive to
several species of ambrosia beetles (figs. 48, 44, and 45), round-headed
borers (fig. 46), and timber worms (fig. 47), which cause serious injury
to the sapwood or heartwood, while other trees girdled at a different

8394 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

time or season are not injured. ‘This suggested to the writer the
importance of experiments to determine the proper time to girdle trees
to avoid losses, and they are now being conducted on an extensive
scale, in cooperation with prominent cypress operators in different
sections of the cypress-growing region.

SapLinas.—Saplings, including hickory and other round hoop poles
and similar products, are subject to serious injuries and destruction by
round and flat-headed borers (fig. 46) and certain species of powder
post borers (figs. 48 and 49) before the bark and wood are dead or dry,
and also by other powder post borers (fig. 50), after they are dried and
seasoned. The conditions favoring attack by the former class are
those resulting from leaving the poles in piles or bundles in or near
the forest for a few weeks during the season of insect activity, and
by the latter, from leaving them stored in one place for several months.

STAVE AND SHINGLE BOLTS.—These are attacked by ambrosia beetles
(tigs. 48-45) and the oak timber worm (fig.47, a), which, as has been fre-
quently reported, cause serious losses. The conditions favoring attack
by these insects are similar to those mentioned under ‘* Round timber.”
The insects may enter the wood before the bolts are cut from the log,
or afterwards, especially if the bolts are left in moist, shady places in
the woods in close piles during the danger period. If cut during the
warm season, the bark should be removed and the bolts converted into
the smallest practicable size and piled in such a manner as to facilitate
rapid drying.

HANDLE AND WAGON STOCK IN THE ROUGH.—The crude material
from which this class of products is manufactured is especially liable
to injury by ambrosia beetles and round-headed borers, and, during the
warmer seasons, special precaution is required to prevent damage.
The conditions favoring attack of the round logs and bolts are the
same as with other round timber. Hickory and ash in the round with
the bark on are almost certain to be greatly damaged if the winter and
spring cuttings are held over a few weeks after the middle of March
or first of April.

PULPWOOD AND cOoRDWOOD.—Pulpwood is injured by ambrosia
beetles and round-headed borers, and cordwood by the latter. The
conditions favoring attack are those resulting from close piling, and
leaving in the woods, or in shady damp places, from a few weeks after
the first of April to the first of August. Material of this kind is
sometimes riddled with holes, or converted into ‘‘sawdust,” if left in
close piles for a few months during the summer. This damage can be
avoided, to a great extent, by placing the sticks of wood in triangular,
or crib, piles immediately after they are cut from the tree—a common
practice in the South. This facilitates rapid drying and renders the

INSEOT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 395

wood immune. Peeling and splitting of the wood before it is piled is
also desirable for the same purpose.

UNSEASONED PRODUCTS IN THE ROUGH.

Freshly sawed hardwood lumber placed in close piles during warm,
damp weather in July and September presents especially favorable
conditions for injury by ambrosia beetles (figs. 43, a, and 45,4.) ‘This
is due to the continued moist condition of such material. Heavy
2-inch or 38-inch stuff is also liable to attack even in loose piles with
lumber sticks. An example of the latter was found in a valuable lot
of mahogany lumber of first grade, the value of which was reduced
two-thirds by injury from a native ambrosia beetle. Numerous com-
plaints have been received from different sections of the country of
this class of injury to oak, poplar, gum, and other hardwoods. In all
cases it is the moist condition and retarded drying of the lumber which
induces attack; therefore any method which will provide for the
rapid drying of the lumber, before or after piling, will tend to pre-
vent losses. It is important that heavy lumber should, as far as
possible, be cut in the winter and piled so that it will be well dried
out before the middle of March.

Lumber and square timber with the bark on the edges or sides
often suffer from injuries by flat and round-headed borers hatching
from eggs deposited in the bark of the logs before they are sawed or
after the lumber has been sawed and piled. One example of serious
damage and loss was reported in which white pine staves for paint
buckets and other small wooden vessels, which had been sawed from
small logs and the bark left on the edges, were attacked by a round-
headed borer, the adults having deposited their eggs in the bark after
the stock was sawed and piled. The character of the injury is shown
in figure 54, page 392.

Another example was reported from a manufacturer in the South,
where the pieces of lumber which had a strip of bark on one side
were seriously damaged by the same kind of borer, the eggs having
been deposited in the logs before sawing or in the bark after the lum-
ber was piled. If the eggs are deposited in the logs and the borers
have entered the inner bark, or the wood, before sawing, they may
continue their work regardless of methods of piling; but if such lumber
is cut from new logs and placed in the pile while green, with the bark
surface up, it will be much less liable to attack than if piled with the
bark down. This liability of lumber, with bark edges or sides, to be
attacked by insects suggests the importance of the removal of the bark
to prevent damage, or, if this is not practicable, the lumber with the
bark on the sides should be piled in open, loose piles with the bark up,
while that with the bark on the edges should be placed on the outer
edges of the pile, exposed to the light and air.

396 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A moist condition of lumber and square timber, such as results from
close or solid piles with the bottom layers on the ground, or on a
foundation of old decaying logs, or near decaying stumps and logs,
offers especially favorable conditions for the attack of white ants.

SEASONED PRODUCTS IN THE ROUGH.

Dry LUMBER.—Dry lumber in stacks or storage is liable to injury
by powder post borers (fig. 50). The conditions favoring attack are:
(1) The presence of a large proportion of sapwood, as in hickory,
ash, and similar woods; (2) material which is two or more years old or
that which has been kept in one place for a long time; (3) access to
old infested material. Therefore such lumber should be frequently
examined for evidence of the presence of these insects. This is always
indicated by fine flour-like powder on or beneath the piles, or otherwise
associated with such material. All infested material should be at once
removed and the infested parts destroyed by burning.

DryY COOPERAGE, WAGON, AND HANDLE stocK.—These are especially
liable to attack and serious injury by powder post borers (fig. 50),
under the same or similar conditions as in the case of dry lumber.

FINISHED OR UTILIZED PRODUCTS.

TIMBERS AND OTHER WOODWORK IN NEW AND OLD BUILDINGS.—
‘These are often injured by powder post borers (fig. 50), or white ants
(fig. 52). If by the former in new structures, it indicates that infested
material was used in the structure and that after being thus intro-
duced the insects continued to breed and extend the injuries, regard-
less of paint and varnish or other external treatment which would
otherwise prevent attack. If the trouble occurs in old buildings it is
usually due to a large proportion of sapwood in the frame timbers,
flooring, and other parts, which, owing to the age of such material,
is rendered especially attractive to certain classes of powder post
borers. After such wood is once infested, the insects continue to
breed and extend their work for many years, or until all the sapwood
is converted into powder. Figure 51 illustrates an example of pine
flooring in an old barn which was damaged by one species of this class
of insects.

The conditions in new or old buildings favorable for attack by white
ants (fig. 52) are decayed or moist wood in the underpinning and foun-
dation timbers which are near the ground, or the location of buildings
in the vicinity of decaying wood of any kind in which the insects are
breeding. After a building is once infested, however, the destructive
work is extended into sound and dry wood. Old logs and stumps are
favorite breeding places for these insects, from which they may travel
or fly to a considerable distance to reach suitable places to extend

INSECT INJURIES TO FOREST PRODUCTS. 397

their work; therefore, it is important that all such material should be
removed previous to the construction of buildings to prevent danger.
The creosote treatment of frame timbers would doubtless prevent the
attack of powder post borers.

WoopwWoRK IN WAGONS, FURNITURE, ETC.—This is often seriously
damaged or destroyed by powder post borers (fig. 50), which are intro-
duced by the use of infested wood, in which they continue to work
regardless of paint and subsequent external treatment.

STAVES AND HEADINGS OF BARRELS CONTAINING ALCOHOLIC LIQ-
urps.—These are liable to attack by ambrosia beetles (figs. 43, a, and

Dar ae

wie
ghd
vie

Fia. 55.—Work of the hemlock tanbark destroyer, Dinoderus substriatus: a, bark less than three years
old, uninjured; b, bark over three years old; c, surface of inner bark eaten by adults; d, inner por-
tion destroyed by larve and adults; e, adult; natural size. (Original.)

45, a), which are attracted by the moist condition, and possibly by
the peculiar odor of the wood, resembling that of dying sapwood of
trees and logs, which is their normal breeding place. There are many
examples on record of serious losses of liquors from leakage caused by
the beetles boring through the staves and headings of barrels and pis
in cellars and storerooms.

The condition, in addition to the moisture of the wood, which is
favorable for the presence of the beetles is proximity to their breeding

3BY8 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

places, such as the trunks and stumps of recently felled or dying oak,
maple, apple, and other hardwood or deciduous trees; lumber yards,
sawmills, freshly cut cordwood from
living or dead trees, and forests of
hardwood timber. Under such con-
ditions the beetles occur in great
numbers, and, if the storerooms and
cellars in which the barrels are kept
are damp, poorly ventilated, and
readily accessible to them, serious
injury is almost certain to follow.

TANBARK.— Favorable conditions
for insect attack and injury to tan-
bark (figs. 55 and 56) are found in
that which is over three years old
from the time it is taken from the
tree. This suggests at once a simple
and practical method of preventing
losses—that of labeling the different
lots, or piles, with the year the bark
was peeled, and then utilizing it be-
fore it is old enough to be in danger
of attack. While it is a common
practice for tanners and dealers to
keep a record of the age for other
reasons, the utilization of the bark
within three years is by no means
universal, as was demonstrated by
FIa. 56.—Work of round-headed borer, Phy- the writer's investigation at one tan-

matodes variabilis, in oak tanbark: a, nery, where $50,000 to $75,000 worth

seo of old hemlock bark was found to
have been rendered almost worthless, while the remainder of the bark
in the yards, which was less than three years old, showed no damage
whatever.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS.

By WiuiiamM A. TAyLor,
Pomologist in Charge of Field Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

So long as improvement of fruits continues, whether through chance
variation or through systematic selection and breeding, it will be neces-
sary for the progressive fruit grower to keep in touch with the advances
that are being made along the particular lines in which he is interested.
The largest profits in commercial fruit growing not infrequently result
from judicious planting of comparatively new varieties which have
shown strong indications of adaptability to particular regions or to
special uses before either of these points has been fully established by
actual experience. It is the purpose of the series of Yearbook papers
to which the present article belongs% to direct the attention of fruit
growers to some of those new or little-known varieties of important
fruits which appear worthy of testing in different parts of the country.

BLOOMFIELD APPLE.
(Synonyms: Bentley’s Seedling, Bloomfield Bentley. )

[PLATE L.]

This very promising autumn variety for the home orchard and
near-by market originated as a chance seedling which came into
bearing about 1880 at Bloomfield, the farm of the late Richard T.
Bentley, of Sandy Spring, Montgomery County, Md. Its fruit was
found to be so excellent in quality, as well as so handsome in appear-
ance, that it was quite widely disseminated throughout Montgomery
and Prince George counties, Md., by top grafting trees in established
orchards. Soon thereafter it was commercially propagated by the late
Chalkley Gillingham, of Accotink, Fairfax County, Va., and other
local nurserymen of Maryland and Virginia, so that it is now quite
widely disseminated through the family orchards of the Potomiac River
counties of both States. Prior to 1894 it was known as ‘‘ Bentley’s
Seedling,” but the attention of Mr. John C. Bentley, the present owner
of the farm on which the variety originated, having been called to the

«See Yearbooks of the Department of Agriculture for 1901 (p. 381), 1902 (p. 469),
and 1903 (p. 267).
399

400 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

close similarity of this namé to ‘‘ Bentley Sweet,” an old established
variety with which it was in danger of being confused by the publie,
he consented to the adoption of the name ‘‘ Bloomfield (entley),”
under which it was described in the Report of the Pomologist of the
Department of Agriculture for that year (p. 17).

The variety bears a group resemblance to the ‘‘ English Red Streak ”
of the Middle Atlantic States, and is probably a seedling of that sort.

DESCRIPTION,

Form roundish or broadly cylindrical, truncate; size large; surface
smooth; color yellowish, washed with crimson, striped with darker red
and overspread with gray; dots conspicuous, sometimes triangular,
protruding, russet, some having dark centers; cavity angular, large,
deep, abrupt; stem short, rather stout, often knobbed; basin wide,
deep, abrupt, furrowed and slightly leather-cracked; calyx segments
short to medium, sometimes reflexed; eye large, open; skin thin,
tough; core of medium size, conical, clasping; seeds few, plump,
brown; flesh yellow, with a darker core line, moderately fine, tender,
juicy; flavor subacid, rich; quality good to very good for both dessert
and culinary use. Season, September to November in Montgomery
County, Md.

Tree a rather stocky and vigorous grower, requiring strong soil,
and an abundant annual bearer. This variety has for a number of
years proved to be one of the best apples of its season in the Wash-
ington markets, and is worthy of wider dissemination both for home
use and market.

The specimen illustrated was grown by Mr. Thomas O. Duvall,
Spencerville, Montgomery County, Md.

DOCTOR APPLE.

(Synonyms: American Nonpareil of Mease and Thacher, but not of Coxe or Downing;
Dewitt, Doctor Dewitt, Red Doctor, Newby. )

[PLATE LI.]

Though included in Mease’s list of ‘* Apples most commonly culti- |
vated” in the United States a century ago, the real merit of this
variety appears to entitle it to a place among the promising sorts |
throughout a wide range of climate. The fact that Mease, in the first
published description of the variety, above cited, appears to have con-
fused it with American Nonpareil, a summer apple, possibly accounts
in part for the long period of obscurity from which it now appears to
be emerging. Most of the early American writers mention it, but in
several instances it is doubtful whether they were familiar with the

« Willich’s Domestic Encyclopedia, first American edition; with additions, by
James Mease, M. D., Philadelphia, 1804. Vol. III, p. 111.

1904. PLATE L.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

GACRETY Gteestines Litno 8 Pra. cone BLOOMFIELD APPLE.

\ In a

’ Cee we ‘S

..
* of ¥ te
: 14
Ui + ..
* wa
. ~ s
.
. -
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7 mare
7 -
il * al
« ‘ " )
re é
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. . ae |)
é 4 pA
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¢ " ~)*
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7 ‘ +1
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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE LI

DocTor APPLE. 2. ZY Ridavner Ce

ONT

SACKETT eOwiyerms UTHO & PTG.C

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 401

true sort, which evidently possesses high merit in several important
points, and gives evidence of becoming a popular variety.

Its rediscovery, after remaining practically an unknown sort except
in a few widely scattered localities, is due to Mr. Thomas T. Newby,
of Carthage, Ind. Mr. Newby’s father grafted a tree with scions. from
a tree of unknown identity in an orchard in that vicinity in 1854, and
some twenty years later Mr. Newby himself grafted a small seedling
tree of the same variety. Being impressed with the beauty, symmetry,
and uniform size of the fruit, which he found to be of fair dessert
quality, Mr. Newby, who had supposed it a well-known old variety,
became convinced of its value when he found that the severe winter of
1880-81, which nearly ruined the orchards in his section, did not injure
it. He then undertook to ascertain its identity, submitting specimens
to exper sand exhibiting the variety at State and other fairs repeatedly
with this end in view. These efforts having failed,a committee of the
Indiana Horticultural Society in 1894, in commending its excellence,
published it in the report of the society for that year under the name
‘*Newby,” and it was described under that name in the Report of the
Pomologist of the Department of Agriculture for that year.

During the summer of 1900, among the old varieties which reached
the Department were some specimens of Doctor from Mr. D. C.
Bor? ig, of Thornville, Ohio, and it was through these that the identity
of “Ir. Newby’s apple was established. Meanwhile Mr. Newby had
in che autumn of 1899 forwarded for exhibition in the American fruit
exhibit at the Paris Exposition during the summer of 1900, a quantity
of specimens of the variety, which attracted much attention by their
symmetrical form and beautiful color. Scions were distributed by the
Department in 1895 to a number of State experiment stations and indi-
vidual growers throughout the more important northern apple districts,
and from its behavior during the past four years it is considered well
worthy of experimental planting for special markets from Maryland
northward to Maine and westward to Lake Michigan. While not of
the highest dessert quality, it is superior in this respect to a number of
the standard commercial sorts and in beauty is surpassed by none.

DESCRIPTION.

Form oblate or roundish oblate, sometimes slightly oblique; size
uniformly large; surface very smooth, glossy at ripening time, becom-
ing very oily when stored under ordinary cellar or warehouse condi-
tions; color a rich yellow, lightly washed with mixed red and
indistinctly striped and splashed with crimson; dots scattering, russet,
occasionally aureole; cavity regular, large, deep, with gradual slope,
somewhat russeted; stem short, rather stout; basin regular, large,
deep, furrowed and downy; calyx segments medium, converging,

2 al904——26

402 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sometimes reflexed; eye large, usually open; skin thick, tenacious;
core medium, oblate conical, open, clasping; seeds numerous, plump,
brown; flesh yellowish, moderately fine, breaking, juicy; flavor sub-
acid, pleasant; quality good to very good. Season, October to Janu-
ary in Ohio and Indiana, keeping well in cold storage.

The tree is a stocky grower, making a rather upright head, and.isa
regular bearer of good crops.

The specimen illustrated was grown by Mr. D.C. Boring, of Thorn-
ville, Ohio.

ROSSNEY PEAR.

[PLATE LII.]

It is a noticeable fact that a much larger proportion of pear than of
apple varieties that have attained important commercial rank in
America are of European origin. In fact, outside of American
varieties of the Oriental class, such as Le Conte, Kieffer, and Garber,
very few American pears have become important in a commercial
way. One of the most promising recent candidates for favor in this
respect is the Rossney. According to the introducers, this variety
originated in Salt Lake City, Utah, from a mixed lot of Winter Nelis
and Bartlett seed planted for stocks by William Woodberry in 1881
or 1882. The peculiarly strong and vigorous growth of one of the
trees and the distinctness of its foliage and wood caused the owner to
save it when the rest of the seedlings were budded. It bore its first
fruit at the age of 5 years and was propagated from in a small way
by the owner shortly thereafter for his own planting under the name
‘** Woodberry Seedling.” The original tree was sold by Mr. Wood-
berry in 1891 to the Pioneer Nurseries Company of Salt Lake City,
Utah, who named the variety ‘‘ Rossney” in honor of Mr. William E.
Rossney, of Bloomington, Ill., and introduced it in 1898. From
observation of its behavior in several States since that time it is con-
sidered a promising variety for the commercial planter throughout the
Northern and Middle States where Bartlett and similar varieties succeed.

DESCRIPTION.

Form oval pyriform, somewhat angular and ribbed toward the apex;
size large, surface undulating and somewhat un ven; color golden yel-
low, blushed with scarlet and thinly overspread with a bluish white
bloom; dots numerous, minute, russet, indented; cavity regular, of
medium slope and depth; stem rather long, moderately stout; basin
regular, small, abrupt, shallow; eye small, closed; skin thin, tenacious;
core oval, medium in size, meeting the eye; seeds few, : mall, brown;
flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy; flavor mild subacid; quality good to
very good. Season about ten days later than Bartlett.

The original tree is a strong and vigorous grower, erect in habit,
and thus far free from blight, and the young trees now in orchards

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE LI.

QEBRssri0rre ;

ROSSNEY PEAR.

SACKCTT SWILHELMS LITHO & FTO CONY

a - , 7

ir nae

»

a. Bed yah

ay

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE LIN,

OP
Dierss bmapeieen Lirnc 0 Pre coals MILLENNIAL GRAPE. 2. %, Jadd 1137 C-~

5 i

of re ee
Pa 2 Se.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 403

through the Eastern States are also reported free from blight injury
up to this date, although in localities where the disease is present.
‘The specimen illustrated on Plate LII was grown at Salt Lake City,
Utah.
MILLENNIAL GRAPE.

(Synonyms: Hungarian Millennium, Ezeréves Magyarorszdg Emléke of Hungarian nurs-
eries. )

[PLATE LIII.]

New varieties of the Vinifera class of grapes which differ sufficiently
from existing sorts to warrant introduction and naming are now of rare
occurrence. In fact, the limit of variation along desirable lines except
through hybridization with other species of grapes appears to have been
nearly reached. Itis, therefore, worthy of note that a variety recently
originated in Hungary, which was introduced into this country in 1897,
in the form of cuttings received from Mr. Sigmund Katona, of Kecske-
met, Hungary, possesses characteristics which mark it as an apparent
exception to the general rule. This variety, which, according to its
originator, is the result of a cross between Chasselas Doré (synonym
Queen Victoria White) and Calabre, was grown by Mr. Johann Mathiasz,
of Kecskemet, from seed planted in 1887. It was named in 1896 in
honor of the millennial of the establishment of the Hungarian Govern-
ment, which was then being celebrated. The points of special excellence
claimed by the originator are the strength, vigor, and productiveness

of the vine and the exceptional beauty, fine flavor, and excellent keep-
ing and shipping quality of the fruit.

Its record in Napa County, Cal., where it has been fruited on grafted
vines since 1899, bears out these claims in large degree, and indicates
that it is especially promising as a table grape of high quality, as well
as adapted to the making of high grade white wine.

The following field characterization of the variety is based upon
specimens grown by the late Prof. George Husmann, of Napa, Cal.,
who was the first to fruit and report upon the variety in America, so

far as known.
DESCRIPTION.

Bunch medium to large, compact, shouldered; berries large, round,
resembling Malaga in shape and size; color yellowish white with a
brownish blush on sunny side; skin transparent, thin, but tough; flesh
quite tender and juicy, having a very sweet, pure flavor; seeds few;
quality very good, keeping and enduring shipment well. Season,
September, in Napa County, Cal.

Vine a strong grower, with close joints; apparently well adapted to
close or stool pruning; very productive, showing after the first crop
an abundant second crop of good-sized bunches and berries; leaf large
and heavy, heartshaped, not lobed.

404 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.,

As it is a pure Vinifera it is, of course, unlikely to succeed outside
of the recognized districts where that species can be profitably grown.

The cluster illustrated on Plate LIT was grown by Mr. Fred. L.
Husmann, Rutherford, Cal.

PERFECTION CURRANT.

[PLATE LIV.]

This variety was originated by Mr. C. G. Hooker, of Rochester,
N. Y., from seed of the Fay, the blossoms of which were crossed with
White Grape in the spring of 1887. It was the best of a lot of 25
seedlings of same parentage, and after being held under observation
by the originator for several years, was first propagated for experi-
mental distribution about 1895. Its value having been satisfactorily
established through several years of comparative tests beside other
varieties, and after critical examination for three years by a committee
of the Western New York Horticultural Society, it was awarded the
Barry gold medal of that society in 1901 for a new fruit of superior
merit. It was commercially introduced by Messrs. C. M. Hooker &
Sons, of Rochester, N. Y., in 1902, and has been favorably reported
upon by experiment stations and growers in several of the Northern
and Eastern States.

DESCRIPTION.

Cluster long, cylindrical, tapering but slightly, with a long stem;
berries spherical, uniformly large, adhering tenaciously to the short,
stout pedicels; color bright crimson; skin thin, moderately tough;
flesh tender, translucent, juicy; seeds medium in size and number;
flavor sprightly subacid; quality good to very good, both for dessert
use in the fresh state and for cooking.

Bush a moderately strong grower with good foliage; bears its fruit
chiefly on the old wood like its staminate parent, the White Grape.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LIV were grown by Mr. C. G.
Hooker at Rochester, N. Y.

DELMAS PERSIMMON.
[PLATE LV.]

The native persimmon of the Southern and Eastern States, Diospy-
ros virginiana, has but recently begun to receive the attention of cul-
tivators, although wild trees yielding fruit of exceptionally fine quality
or possessing other important characteristics have long been known to
individuals in many portions of its range. In fact, until its larger
fruited relative the kaki, or Japanese persimmon, was introduced and
fruited in many parts of the South the intrinsic merit of the native
species, and its inherent value as a fruit possessing large capabilities of

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904

PLATE LIV.

siemcre lanceliieLindd Ui acelin cot PERFECTION CURRANT.

3)

W

SS)
:
\

cs
PS

Lies

+
?

al ls
ek
rae

-
= ~¢

ay

bd aed
ben B

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

PLATE

wy

SACKCTT BWILHELMS LITHO & PTO coO.NyY De LMAS PERSIM MON.

9.5. Piston re,

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 405

improvement through selection of wild varieties already existing, seems
to have been overlooked. Attention has been called to several choice
varieties, in the reports of the Pomologist of the Department of Agri-
culture from time to time, especially to Karly Golden, Golden Gem,
and Marion. At the present time not fewer than 35 varieties have
received names and are being grown in an experimental way.

One of the best of these varieties that have reached the office of the
Pomologist is the Delmas, a native seedling on the grounds of Mr.
A. G. Delmas, of Scranton, Miss., who, after observing its superior
quality for some twenty years, planted 26 suckers from it in orchard
form in a suitable location on his place in 1899. These trees, which
were in bearing in 1902, attracted the attention of the writer in
November of that year by their good size, handsome appearance, and
fine quality. Later Mr. Delmas furnished the Department scions for
experimental distribution, so that the variety is now under test in sev-

eral localities.
DESCRIPTION.

Form roundish oblate; size medium to large; surface smooth; color
reddish yellow, covered with a thin whitish bloom, remaining bright
when full ripe; cavity regular, of medium size and depth; calyx, con-
sisting of four medium-sized bluish green sepals, somewhat reflexed
when fruit is ripe; apex slightly protruding; skin thin, tenacious;
flesh yellowish, translucent, meaty; flavor sweet and rich; quality very
good; seeds 7 or 8, rather large, dark brown. Season, October and
early November, in southern Mississippi.

The tree isa strong grower, of upright habit, with large leaves. It is
very precocious and productive. The variety is considered especially
promising for experimental commercial planting in the Gulf States,
because of its productiveness and the large size, bright and durable
color, and fine quality of the fruit.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LV were grown by Mr. A. G.
Delmas, of Scranton, Miss.

PECANS.
[PLATES LVI AND LVII.]

Of our native nut-bearing trees none promises to become of such
pomological importance as the pecan. Within the region to which it
is well adapted for cultivation, which may be roughly stated as the
Mississippi Valley below St.- Louis, the South Atlantic, and the Gulf
States, including Texas, no other nut tree, either foreign or introduced,
can be considered as fairly in competition with it. Though long neg-
lected as a possible profitable orchard tree, it has, during the past
fifteen years, assumed considerable importance, and extensive orchards
have been planted in most of the Southern States. Previous to about

406 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1900 most such orchards were planted with seedling trees or with
nuts of particular varieties, which were placed at desired orchard dis-
tances and allowed to germinate and grow where the future trees were
to stand, thus avoiding the transplanting process. As the earlier
seedling orchards have come into bearing it has become increasingly
apparent that the seedlings from trees of those exceptionally fine
varieties which the orchardist desires to perpetuate vary too greatly
from their parent types to be of much commercial value. Such seed-
lings rarely bear nuts closely similar to the parent in size, form, color,
thinness of shell, plumpness of kernel, or dessert quality, and still
more rarely do they reproduce the desired productiveness, ripening
time, or other important characteristics that determine the commercial
value of the tree. The necessity of relying upon budded and grafted
pecan trees for commercial orchards is now very generally recognized
by intelligent planters, so that at the present time few seedlings are
being planted.

Unfortunately, much confusion exists among growers as to the
exact identity and proper nomenclature of several of the leading sorts.
This is partially due to the fact that for many years the locations of
the original trees were not known to the general public, and partially
to the fact that in certain instances deliberate renaming of varieties
previously introduced was practiced by certain nurserymen and dealers
in seeds and trees. The situation has been further complicated by a
somewhat general practice of selling seedling trees under the names of
the varieties from which they were grown. The result of these prac-
tices is that many and diverse forms of the pecan are now found in
orchards throughout the South under the names of some of the best-
known sorts. These practices are now discouraged by the leading
nurserymen and orchardists, and it is hoped that, through the edu-
cational campaign which has been inaugurated by the National Nut
Growers’ Association through the adoption of the code of nomenclature
of the American Pomological Society and its application to the names
of nut varieties in catalogues and other publications relating to the
subject, these productive causes of confusion in the names and identity
of varieties will soon cease to operate.

With a view to determining the exact identity of the varieties that
have been longest introduced to cultivation, the ten sorts that have
been advertised and propagated for a sufficient time to attain a wide
distribution among planters are illustrated on Plates LVI and LVIL.
The writer has visited the localities where these varieties originated,
and in the case of all except the Centennial (the original tree of
which was destroyed in 1890) has inspected and photographed the
original trees. The effort has been to illustrate nuts that fairly repre-
sent characteristic specimens of the varieties, including thickness of

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 4()7

shell and form, color, and plumpness of kernel, as well as the external
characteristics. In all cases the nuts illustrated are from trees grown
in the climatic regions where the varieties originated.

CENTENNIAL PECAN.
[PLATE LVI.]

The original tree of this variety stood on the Anita’ plantation of
Mr. Amant Bourgeois, on the east bank of the Mississippi River, in
St. James Parish, La., from some date early in the nineteenth century
until March 14, 1890, when it was destroyed by the disastrous Anita
crevasse, which swept away, to the depth of 15 feet, the earth in which
it stood. Whether it was a chance seedling or was grown from a
planted nut is not known. So far as known, the first effort to perpetu-
ate the variety by grafting was made by the late Dr. A. E. Colomb
early in the ‘‘ forties.” Not succeeding in this effort, Doctor Colomb
later cut scions from the original tree and took them to the late
Telesphore J. Roman, owner of Oak Alley plantation, on the east
bank of the river, whose slave gardener, Antoine by name, succeeded
in grafting 16 trees near the mansion and quarters with this variety in
the winter of 1846 or 1847. Somewhat later than this Mr. Roman
had 110 trees grafted ‘‘in the large pasture which was forty arpents
from the river” with the same variety, so that by the close of the civil
war (1865) there were 126 grafted Centennial trees in bearing on this
plantation. The plantation having changed bands shortly after the
war, the later plantings of grafted trees were cut down to make way
for sugar cane, although they were just reaching their most productive
age and the nuts from them were then selling at from $50 to $75 per
barrel.?

In 1876, Hubert Bonzano, who then owned Oak Alley, exhibited nuts
from these grafted trees at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.
He was awarded a diploma based upon an examination by Prof.
William H. Brewer, in which the variety was commended for its
‘‘remarkably large size, tenderness of shell, and very special
excellence.”

It is not clear as to who first applied the name Centennial to the
variety, but so far as ascertained it was first catalogued under that
name by the late Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, in 1885, the
propagation of budded and grafted trees of it for sale having been
begun about 1882 by William Nelson, who was associated with Mr.
Frotscher in the pecan nursery business.

@ Personal statement of Emil Bourgeois, Central, La., October, 1902.

> Letters of Henry J. Roman and Prof. Aleée Fortier, of New Orleans, son and
nephew, respectively, of Telesphore J. Roman, May to August, 1903.

¢U. 8. International Exhibition 1876, Reports and Awards. Group VI, Award
222, p. 46. Philadelphia, 1877.

408 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

So far as ascertained, the Centennial is the first variety of pecan
that was successfully propagated by budding or grafting. It was
also the first variety planted in commercial orchard form, with a
detinite view to producing nuts for sale, and one of the first three to
be catalogued and offered for sale.

Two of the earliest grafted Centennial trees, above referred to, are
still standing at Oak Alley. They were thrifty, productive, and in
fine condition when inspected by the writer in the autumn of 1902.
The date of their grafting by the slave Antoine (1846 or 1847),
under Doctor Colomb’s direction, marks the beginning of modern
pecan culture.

DESCRIPTION.

Size large, average nuts running about 45 to 50 to the pound; form
long, compressed cylindrical, gradually tapering to the wedge-shaped
apex; base conical; color bright grayish brown with rather scanty
purplish splashes toward apex; shell rather thick, partitions thin;
cracking quality medium; kernel clear, reddish yellow, deeply and
narrowly grooved, but quite smooth and separating easily from the
shell; plump, solid; of delicate texture and flavor, quality very good.

The Centennial tree is a rather slender grower with grayish green
young wood sprinkled with small light dots. It becomes pendulous
as it attains age, and is on this account one of the handsomest varieties
for parks or large lawns. It is slow to come into bearing, but appears
to be a fairly regular cropper after attaining an age of about 15 years
from bud or graft.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVI were from one of the two
surviving trees that were grafted in 1846-47 on Oak Alley plantation,
Feitel, St. James Parish, La. They were furnished by the present
owner of the plantation, Mr. A. M. Sobral.

FROTSCHER PECAN.
(Synonyms: Eggshell, Frotscher’s Eggshell, Olivier, Majestic.)
[PLATE LVI.]

This variety was originated by the late Oscar Olivier in his garden
beside the Bayou Teche at Olivier, Iberia Parish, La. The original
tree, now owned by H. J. Pharr, is still healthy, vigorous, and pro-
ductive. Its exact age is not known, but the indications are that it
was planted subsequent to 1860. It appears to have been first propa
gated about 1882 by William Nelson, and first catalogued by the late
Richard Frotscher as ‘‘ Frotscher’s Eggshell,” in 1885. Locally it is
still known as the ‘‘ Olivier” pecan, in honor of its originator.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 409

DESCRIPTION, «

Size large, averaging about 45 to 50 nuts per pound; form cylindri-
cal oval with broad, rounded base and blunt quadrangular apex; suture
rather indistinct; color bright yellowish brown, with scattered pur-
plish black splashes toward apex; shell thin to very thin, with thin
partitions; cracking quality excellent; kernel brownish yellow, often
shrunken, showing dark veins even in the fresh nuts; texture rather
dry and coarse; flavor pleasant; quality medium.

The tree of Frotscher is a strong grower, of broadly spreading and
sprawling habit, the young wood bright brownish green in color and
conspicuously dotted. The variety is precocious and productive, but
the faulty character of many of its kernels and their stale appearance,
even when perfectly fresh from the tree, materially lessen its value
as a commercial variety.

The tree characters of Frotscher are quite clearly reproduced in its
seedlings, and, as many of these have been planted throughout the
South, there is much confusion regarding the variety.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVI were grown by Mr. B. M.
Young, Morgan City, La.

JEWETT PECAN.
[PLATE LVI.]

The original Jewett pecan tree was grown from a nut planted on what
is now known as the Wilcox place, 1} miles north of Scranton, Miss.,
by the little son of Charles M. Cruzat, about 1881, it being the only one
obtained from a half dozen nuts purchased in New Orleans at a cost of
50 cents. Mr. Cruzat has no information regarding the source of the
nuts which he purchased, but remembers that they were large, fine-
looking pecans. The tree commenced bearing at the age of 7 years,
and attracted the attention of the late Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean
Springs, Miss., who purchased the crops for several years and cut
scions for grafting in nursery. He introduced the variety in the form
of grafted trees in 1893, naming it Jewett, in honor of Col. Stephen
Jewett, of Crosby, N. C. The original tree ‘is still standing, and is
about 4 feet 7 inches in circumference, but is affected by a bark dis-
ease to which the variety appears specially susceptible, and is now
bearing but light crops of nuts.

DESCRIPTION.

Size large to very large, varying from 45 to 55 nuts per pound;
form long, angular, obovate, often constricted at middle, with a blunt
quadrangular apex, which is often curved and beaklike; suture quite
distinct; color dull reddish brown, with many purplish splashes, some-
times extending the full length of the nut; shell rather thick, with thin

410 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

partitions, cracking easily but adhering to the kernel; kernel long,
wedge shaped, rather broadly grooved, bright in color, rather coarse
in texture, and only fairly good in quality.

The Jewett tree is an erect, strong grower when young, and is at
least fairly productive. It is apparently very susceptible to a bark
disease which has attacked the original tree and many of those propa-
vated from it. Aside from the large size and striking appearance of a
portion of its crop there appears to be little to commend it to planters.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVI were grown by the Stuart
Pecan Company, Ocean Springs, Miss.

Passt PECAN.

[PLATE LVI.]

The original tree of the Pabst pecan is one of a number of seedlings
on the grounds of the late William B. Schmidt, of New Orleans, at his
country place at Ocean Springs, Miss. These trees were grown from
nuts from unknown sources obtained in New Orleans about 1875. The
Pabst tree proved to be an especially strong grower, yielding nuts of
large size and plump kernel, and was first propagated by Mr. Charles
E. Pabst, of Ocean Springs, in 1890. It was named in 1893 in honor
of Mr. Pabst by Mr. B. M. Young, of Morgan City, La., who has
done much to clear up the uncertainties regarding names and to
determine the relative merits of pecan varieties.

The Pabst tree was over 5 feet in circumference when badly damaged
by a severe wind and rain storm October 9, 1893, which destroyed
most of its top. It has been replaced by two thrifty sprouts from the
root of the original tree, which in 1903 were good-sized trees, 27 and
21 inches in circumference, respectively, and bearing nuts.

DESCRIPTION.

Size large, averaging about 45 to 55 nuts per pound; form short, |
cylindrical, with a very blunt, broadly grooved apex; color dull gray,
heavily splashed with purplish black; shell thick, hard; partitions
rather thick; cracking quality medium; kernel plump, smooth, with
broad grooves, bright straw color; texture fine; flavor delicate; quality
very good.

The Pabst is a very sturdy, upright tree with stocky gray-green
young wood, sparsely sprinkled with large dots. It appears to be
fairly productive where it has been under test for a sufficient time to
test its bearing habit.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVI were grown by Mr. Charles
E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 411

Post PECAN.
(Synonym: Post's Select, in part. )

[PLATE LVII.]

The original tree of the Post pecan is a wild seedling on the farm
of Mr. H. B. Freeman, on the Colorado River bottom, in San Saba
County, Tex., near Milburn, McCulloch County. The farm was for-
merly owned by a Mr. Post, by whose name the variety was locally
known prior to 1891, when Mr. Herbert Post, of Fort Worth, Tex.,
began purchasing the crop and advertising it and other pecans widely
under the trade name ‘‘ Post’s Select.” Little effort appears to have
been made to perpetuate the variety by grafting until a comparatively
recent date.

When examined by the writer in November, 1903, the original tree
was in fairly thrifty condition, and had a circumference of 9 feet 8
inches at 18 inches from the ground. Its crop has varied from 14 to
11 bushels per annum in recent years.

DESCRIPTION.

Size medium, averaging about 65 to 75 nuts per pound; form com-
pressed, short, obovate, with a rather blunt, conical apex; color bright
reddish yellow, showing very few purple splashes; shell thick, par-
titions thick, cracking quality medium; kernel clear, bright straw
color, but deeply grooved and wrinkled; texture firm, compact, fine
grained; flavor delicate; quality good.

The original Post tree is a moderately strong, upright grower, with
rather slender, bright young wood with numerous small dots, and
is quite regularly productive. The variety has been fruited on buds
or grafts in but few places, and its behavior outside of the locality of
its origin can not yet be determined.

The variety described is the true Post. In recent years an entirely
distinct sort, the Hollis, which originated at Bend, San Saba County,
Tex., and is a larger and apparently superior nut, has been distributed
by the introducer under the name ‘‘ Post’s Select.”

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVII were furnished by Mr.
E. W. Kirkpatrick, of McKinney, Tex. They were from the original
tree.

Rome PEcan.

(Synonyms: Century, Columbia, Columbian, Mammoth, Pride of the Coast, Southern
Giant, Twentieth Century.)

[PLATE LVII.]

The original tree of the Rome pecan was grown from a nut planted
by the late Sebastian Rome in his garden at Convent, St. James
Parish, La., about 1840. The source from which the nut which he

412 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

planted was secured is not known. ‘The variety appears to have been
first propagated by Mr. William Nelson, who took scions from the tree
about 1882, and it was first catalogued by Richard Frotscher in 1885
under the name ‘‘ Rome.” About 1883, the late Emil Bourgeois, of
Central, La., secured scions from the original tree and top-grafted some
seedling trees at his home on Rapidan plantation in the same parish.
There it was christened ‘‘ Pride of the Coast,” and soon thereafter
Mr. Bourgeois began its propagation in nursery under that name.
This variety yields the largest nuts of any yet brought to notice, and
has therefore been the subject of deliberate renaming by nurserymen
and seedsmen more frequently than any other. This accounts for the
diversity and number of its synonyms.

The original tree of the Rome is still standing in the Rome garden
at Convent, La. It has been in a state of decrepitude for several
years, and now yields but light crops of nuts, many of which have
imperfect kernels.

DESCRIPTION.

Size variable, large to very large, 40 to 55 nuts per pound, selected
samples running as large as 25 per pound; form oblong or cylindrical
oval, tapering gradually to the wedge-shaped apex; color grayish,
often heavily splashed and spattered with purplish black over most of
the surface; shell thick, hard; partitions thick; cracking quality poor;
kernel often shrunken or entirely ‘‘false;” color bright, texture
rather coarse and dry; flavor fair, quality good when plump and well
filled, but usualiy quite indifferent.

The Rome tree is an erect, fairly strong grower, with rather stout
bluish-green young wood. It occasionally bears large crops, but is
erratic in this respect, and at most points where it has been tested a
large proportion of the kernels are defective. Aside from the fact
that a portion of the crop is of extraordinary size, there is little to
commend it to the planter.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVII were grown by Paul E.
Bourgeois, Central, La.

Russet PECAN. —
[PLATE LVIL.]

The Russell pecan tree, like all others at Ocean Springs, Miss., was
grown from planted nuts, that locality being below the native range
of the species in that section. This tree was one of a lot of seedlings
grown by the late Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs, Miss., about
1875, from nuts secured by him from James Moore, a blacksmith of
that village. The exact source from which Moore secured the nuts
is not known. Colonel Stuart sold five of these seedling trees to
Peter Madsen, who planted them in his garden, now the property of

earbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904

CENTENNIAL

JEWETT

FROTSCHER

PABST >

A a ee ee PECAN VARIETIES.

PLATE LVI.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904

PLATE LVII.

ROME

PECAN VARIETIES.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 413

Mrs. H. F. Russell. Of the five trees, four produced nuts of good size
-and thin shell, the largest and thinnest shelled one receiving the name
Russell from Mr. Charles E. Pabst, who first propagated it in 1894.
The tree is a fairly regular bearer, averaging about 150 pounds of
nuts per annum, and, though receiving little care or attention, is a
healthy, vigorous tree at present writing. It has attained a high local
reputation on account of its exceptionally thin shell and regularity of
bearing.

DESCRIPTION.

Size medium to large, 55 to 60 nuts per pound; form compressed,
oval, tapering to a long, sharp apex and a rather pointed base; color
grayish brown, with narrow splashes and spatters of purplish black;
shell very thin, partitions very thin and fragile, cracking quality excel-
lent; kernel broadly grooved, rather dark straw color, often lacking
in plumpness and defective at tip, texture rather dry, flavor pleasant,
quality good.

The tree is rather pendulous in habit, with slender, dark, conspic-
uously dotted young wood, bearing regularly and well, so far as tested.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVII were grown by Mr. Charles
EK. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss.

SAN SABA PECAN.

(Synonyms: Paper Shell, Risien’s Paper Shell, Royal. )

[PLATE LVI.]

The original San Saba tree is a native seedling on the San Saba River
bottom, near the intersection of that stream with the Colorado of Texas.
It came to the notice of Mr. E. E. Risien, its present owner, as the result
of the offer of a $5 premium by him for the best pecan that should be
brought to him with the privilege of purchasing its crop. He was so
impressed with the superiority of this one that he purchased the farm
upon which it stands in order to secure the tree, although he found
that it had been so ruthlessly stripped of its top with ax and saw in
harvesting the crop that only a single branch remained. After repeated
failures in his attempts at grafting, Mr. Risien developed a method of
annular budding, which is very successful with him, and which has
enabled him to transform the tops of many large wild pecan trees into
this choice sort, as well as to bud young seedlings in nursery for trans-
planting to orchard.

Mr. Risien formally introduced the variety under the name San Saba
about 1893. The original tree is at present a fine, healthy specimen,
with a girth of 9 feet 6 inches, bearing an average crop of about 180
pounds of nuts.

414 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DESCRIPTION,

Size small to medium, averaging about 85 to 90 nuts per pound;
form varying from long oval to oblong, with blunt apex; color bright,
reddish yellow, strongly splashed toward apex with purplish black; shell
very thin and brittle, though quite dense in texture; partitions thin;
cracking quality very good; kernel plump, bright straw color, smooth
and broadly grooved, almost invariably well filled; texture delicate,
solid, fine grained; flavor very delicate; quality best.

The tree is a short-jointed, rather slender grower, enormously pro-
ductive in the vicinity of its place of origin. It has not yet been fruited
elsewhere to any extent, but is considered one of the best high-grade
dessert varieties. On account of the thinness of shell, the nuts should
be packed in relatively small boxes when shipped to avoid cracking in
transit. Its small size is its only conspicuous fault.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVI were grown by Mr. E. E.
Risien, San Saba, Tex.

Sruart PECAN.

(Synonym: Castanera. )
[PLATE LVIL.]

The original tree of this, which is generally considered the most
widely successful pecan variety yet introduced and tested, stood in a
garden at Pascagoula, Miss., now owned by Capt. EK. Castanera.

It is supposed to have grown from a nut brought from Mobile,
Ala., by John R. Lassabe and planted about 1874.¢ It early acquired
local celebrity on account of its productiveness and the beauty and fine
quality of its product, its average yield from 1889 to 1892 being about
140 pounds per annum. In 1892 it yielded about 350 pounds of nuts,
most of which were sold by Charles M. Cruzat, who then held the place
under lease, at $1 per pound. It was first propagated by Mr. A. G.
Delmas, of Scranton, Miss., who cut scions in 1886. Out of some sixty
grafts inserted he secured one tree, which still survives in his garden.
John Keller, then associated with Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs,
Miss., in the pecan-nursery business, secured scions from the tree
about 1890, from which trees were propagated in nursery by them.
The trees of the variety were offered for sale by Colonel Stuart about
1892, under the name Stuart, which had been suggested for it by Prof.
H. E. Van Deman, then Pomologist of the Department of Agriculture,
who was unaware of the name previously applied to it in the locality
where it originated. Under the name Stuart it received wide adver-
tising and distribution, so that it is one of the most widely disseminated
varieties throughout the South. The original tree in Captain Casta-
nera’s garden was blown down in October, 1893, by the same storm

a Letters from Charles M. Cruzat, 1903.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 415

which destroyed the top of the original Pabst tree at Ocean Springs.
Some two years later a sprout from one of the roots appeared, which
has developed into a symmetrical young tree, which bore its first nuts
in 1902.

DESCRIPTION.

Size large to very large, averaging about 40 to 50 nuts per pound;
form cylindrical, slightly compressed, with rather blunt apex and
rounded base; color brownish gray, moderately splashed and dotted
with purplish black; shell moderately thin; partitions thin and fragile;
cracking quality very good; kernel bright, moderately smooth, plump,
rather narrowly grooved; texture firm, fine grained, solid; flavor
delicate, rich; quality very good. 7

The tree of Stuart is a strong, upright, spreading grower, with
moderately stout young wood, grayish green in color, rather sparsely
dotted with oval dots. It is proving regularly and abundantly pro-
ductive in most localities where it has been fruited, and is apparently
succeeding over a wider climatic range than any other sort thus far
tested.

The specimens illustrated on Plate LVII were grown by the Stuart
Pecan Company, Ocean Springs, Miss.

VAN DEMAN PECAN.

(Synonyms: Bourgeois, Duminie Mire, Mire; Mere, and Meyer erroneously; Paragon
in part, Southern Beauty. )

[PLATE LVII.]

The original tree of this variety was grown from a nut planted by
the late Duminie Mire, of Union, St. James Parish, La., in 1836.
Mr. Mire, then 25 years of age, secured nuts from a highly esteemed
tree on the adjoining place of Mr. Gravois, which he planted in the
garden surrounding his dwelling. Of the several trees that resulted
from this planting only the one described here is considered worthy
of perpetuation. Mr. Mire informed the writer, in October, 1902,
that the product of this one closely resembles the nuts planted. This
tree, which is locally known as the ‘‘ Duminie,” or ‘‘ Duminie Mire,”
attracted the attention of the late Emil Bourgeois, who, about 1877,
cut scions from it for propagation. Although this was his first effort
at grafting, he succeeded in getting 11 scions to grow out of 22 that
he set as top grafts on seedling trees near his residence on Rapidan
plantation. When these grafts began bearing he commenced prop-
agating young trees for planting in orchard form and for sale to the
near-by planters, among whom it is known as the ‘‘Duminie Mire”
pecan to this date.

A considerable quantity of nuts and some scions from these grafted
trees having passed into the hands of Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean

416 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Springs, Miss., about 1890, he renamed the variety Van Deman, in
honor of Prof. H. E. Van Deman, then Pomologist of the Department
of Agriculture. Since 1892 it has been widely advertised and dis-
tributed under that name, which has now become so firmly fixed in
the literature of the subject as to make a return to the earlier local
name inadvisable at this time.

‘About 1900, nuts and grafted trees of the variety were placed on the
market by Herbert Post, Fort Worth, Tex., under the name Paragon.

The original tree still stands in the Mire garden, close to the Missis-
sippi River levee, at Union Post-Oflice, La., and when inspected by
the writer in October, 1902, was a beautiful, thrifty tree, measuring 7
feet 6 inches in circumference, and bearing from 200 to 300 pounds of
nuts per annum.

DESCRIPTION.

Size large to very large, averaging 45 to 55 nuts per pound; form
long, compressed, with a rather sharp base and a long, sharp apex, often
slightly curved; color rather dark, reddish brown; slightly splashed
with purplish black, especially toward apex; shell moderately thin,
partitions rather thick but brittle; cracking quality fair; kernel long,
narrowly grooved, generally plump, except at tip; color bright, clean, |
attractive: texture firm, fine grained; flavor delicate, rich; quality very
good.

The Van Deman tree is of strong, moderately erect habit, with
erayish-green young wood showing inconspicuous dots, and is a reg-
ular and abundant bearer in the locality of its origin. It does not thus
far appear to be as productive elsewhere nor to fill out its kernels
as well.

The specimens illustrated on Plate VII were grown by Mr. Paul
E. Bourgeois, Central, La.

CONSUMERS’ FANCIES.

By Grorart K. HoumeEs,
Chief of Division of Foreign Markets, Bureau of Statistics.

QUESTIONS OF ART AND PSYCHOLOGY.

So precise have many farmers and dealers become in their estima-
tion of the nature and value of consumers’ fancies, that they analyze
them and translate them into sense impressions, and give numerical
weights to these impressions more accurately than they could guess
the weight of a hog or the number of bushels in a corn crib.

The growing, the preparing, and the marketing of many of the
products of the farm are becoming questions of art and psychology.
Less do people eat to live than they live to eat, and yet when they buy
food, they buy it often not primarily for the gratification of taste, but
upon the testimony of the eye, which is pleased with form and color,
and upon the perception of odor, while, if the consumer was reared
in the country, perhaps his choice is determined by the farm-bred fan-
cies of a happy youth.

What set of nerves shall have the preference in determining the
purchase of a farm product, the optic or the gustatory? Shall a thing
be pretty, or delicious; and, since the sense of smell must also be con-
sulted in some cases, is it of much consequence whether it is pretty or
delicious? The seller has much more definite information with regard
to these questions than the consumer; although it is the consumer who
makes the choice, he is induced to do so by the seller’s subtle knowl-
edge of his fancies, which need not be and often are not either sensible
or reasonable, but, on the other hand, often verge upon the notional,
and seem superfluous to an unsophisticated farmer.

BUTTER JUDGED BY EYE, NOSE, AND TOUCH.

Butter is an article o. food, and, as all but its makers and sellers
believe, it is bought mainly for food reasons; yet, upon mental analy-
sis, it appears that butter is not bought alone for its nutritive value.
But, surely, then, it must be bought for its taste? Hardly so, if the
commercial men know their business. As a matter of trade experi-
ence they know that the consumer gives almost as much weight to the
combined testimony of the senses of sight and touch, and sometimes

417
2 a1904——27

418 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

smell, as he does to the sense of taste. This will appear upon examin-
ing the butter score of excellence in use by the New York Mercantile
Exchange and generally in use by dairymen.

WEIGHT GIVEN TO FLAVOR IN BUTTER SCORES,

Flavor, appealing to the gustatory nerves, has a weight of 45 points;
the grain, body, or texture, which is perceived by the nerves of touch
in the mouth, particularly those of the tongue, has a weight of 25
points; the salting, 10 points; the color of the butter, 15 points; and
the style of the canta. 5 points—altogether making 100 points,
indicating perfect butter upon full scoring.

The nerves of taste influence the choice of the purchaser to the
extent of only 55 per cent; to the nerves of touch in the mouth is
granted an importance of 25 per cent; so that butter appeals to the
mouth to the extent of 80 per cent of its attractions, the remaining 20
being offers to the favor of the eye.

Although these allowances are in common use, there are some nota-
ble deviations from them. The butter score of the Louisiana Purchase
Exposition gave 30 points to flavor, 15 to aroma (which is not gen-
erally a part of the score), 25 points to texture, 15 to color, 10 to salt-
ing, and 5 to package. In this case the common allowance of 55 per
cent of points to the gustatory nerves was cut down to 40, leaving the
sum of 60 per cent for the allowance to touch, eye, and nose. The
Michigan Dairymen’s Association raises the weight for texture to 30 as
compared with the ordinary weight of 25, and the Iowa State Dairy
Association has 60 for the weight of taste in place of the common 55.

A considerably different scoring is in use by the Dairy Division of
the Bureau of Animal Industry of this Department in judging butter
for export, the allowance for flavor being reduced from the customary
45 to 40, the color and salt from 25 to 10, without separation, while
that for texture is raised from the customary 25 to 40, and the style
of the package from 5 to 10.

Under the Dairy Industry Act of New Zealand, the Department of
Agriculture has established a butter score in which flavor has 50 points;
body, moisture, texture, 25 points; color, 10; salt, 10; and finish, 5.
Thus, the nerves of taste perceive 60 per cent of the excellence, and
those of taste and touch combined 85 per cent.

TASTE OF MINOR ACCOUNT IN JUDGING CHEESE.

In the estimation of the cheese expert the consumer buys cheese with
less regard for flavor than in the case of butter, more for touch with the
tongue, and more for eye pleasure, while at the same time entirely
ignoring every qualification of this food for aiding bodily repair and
growth.

OONSUMERS’ FANOIES. 419

CHEESE SCORES.

The usual cheese score is the one adopted by the dairymen’s asso-
ciations of Wisconsin, Vermont, and Ontario, and by the government
of New Zealand, and assigns 45 points to flavor, 30 to texture or body,
15 to color, and 10 to finish. Hence, it appears that for commercial
purposes—that is, for the purposes of attracting and pleasing con-
sumers—only 45 per cent of the perfection of cheese is regarded as
appealing to the taste. Almost one-third of the total of excellence, or
30 per cent, is perceived by touch in the mouth, and 25 per cent, or
one-fourth, is purely an appeal to the eye.

These allowances of excellence have variations here and there, but
generally for special purposes. The Michigan Dairymen’s Associa-
tion reduces the percentage for texture from 30 to 25, and for color
from 15 to 10, but raises the finish from 10 to 12, and adds the per-
centage of 8 for salt. This gives to taste 53 per cent of the points
and to the various nerves of the mouth, gustatory and touch, 78 per
cent, in consequence of which the points assigned to the eye are 22 per
cent.

The score for export cheese varies somewhat from the customary
one, and is as follows: Flavor, 40 per cent; texture, 30; color and salt,
without separation, 10; finish, 10; package, 10 per cent. In experi-
ments conducted by the Dairy Division in keeping cheese in cold
storage at different temperatures for different lengths of time, in test-
ing the cheese at the termination of the experiments a score was used
in which flavor was rated at only 25 per cent and texture was raised to
50 per cent, the customary allowance of 15 points being made to color
and 10 points to finish. Here the allowance to taste was but slightly
more than half the customary amount.

FRUIT PREFERENCES MOSTLY FANCIFUL.
QUALITY NOT RELATED TO OTHER FRUIT CHARACTERISTICS.

Horticulturists have been saying for years that in the so-called
improvement of fruits we have generally failed to improve the quality.
The most productive of cultivated blackberries are large and beautiful,
but, as found in the market, are inferior in flavor when compared with
the wild ones found along the roadside. As Professor Bailey has said,
‘the best market fruits are cultivated for a variety of features, as
size and color of fruit, vigor, hardiness, and productiveness of the tree;
quality is usually not considered. * * * Quality and other char-
acters of cultivated fruits appear independently of each other, and
there is no true correlation between these characters.”

420 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
VAGARIES OF APPLE BUYERS.

Place a farmer anda city-bred man in the presence of a large variety
of apples, and the farmer, very likely, will select for his eating such
apples as a Rhode Island Greening, a Northern Spy, a Grimes’ Golden,
or a Jonathan, and the city man, governed in his choice by different
sets of nerves, may select a Ben Davis, Baldwin, Stark, or Missouri
Pippin. Taste is the fruit grower’s principal test of an apple, if he
has to eat it himself, but very different attributes are of chief impor-
tance when he considers consumers in general, most of whom are
townspeople.

APPLES DESIRED FOR ORNAMENTAL PURPOSES.—In the city, a large city
especially, the appearance of an apple is everything and taste nothing,
unless the purchaser was once a country boy and enjoyed the freedom
of an orchard. For some reason red is a leading favorite as an apple
color in this country; indeed, there are some red apples that are
miserably poor for eating purposes which sell for good, if not high,
prices—the principal attraction to the consumer apparently being the
red color, with subordinate attractions in smoothness and shapeliness.

At the annual meetings of Eastern horticultural societies it is not
uncommon to witness the indignation of the various members directed
against the commercial preference for apples with attributes that appeal
to the eye rather than to the taste. For some subtle reason this deli-
cious fruit, this ‘‘king of fruits,” is taking a place in the cities along-
side the wax apple, and has an increasing use for decorative purposes.
There seems to be no reason why red should be preferred unless be-
cause the red ray of light sends many millions less of light waves per
second to the retina of the eye than does the green or yellow ray.

AppLE scorEs.—In illustration of this subject it is instructive to
turn to the fruit score of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. In a
total of 100 points of excellence, 20 were given to the extent of the
exhibit, which of course is excluded from this discussion. In the case
of apples, to size were given 15 points, color 15, form 15, quality 15,
and freedom from blemishes 20. Every item but quality is designed
for the eye, and consequently 81 per cent of the maximum excellence
appeals to the sight and only 19 per cent to the taste.

A somewhat different score of points for apples is in use by the
Ontario Fruit Growers’ Association. It gives 5 points to form, 15 to
size, 20 to color, 15 to quality, 20 to uniformity, and 25 to freedom
from blemishes. Thus, the extremely high percentage of 85 is given
to features that please the eye.

NOTIONS CONCERNING PEACHES, PEARS, PLUMS, CHERRIES, AND GRAPES.

ScoRES ADOPTED AT THE Lovurs1aANA PurcHAsSE Exposrtion.—In
the case of peaches at St. Louis, larger weights were given to size,
color, and quality than in the case of apples, or 20 points each, and

CONSUMERS’ FANCIES. 421

only 10, respectively, to form and freedom from blemishes. These
weights give to peaches eye-pleasing qualities which are 75 per cent
of the total, and to taste 25 per cent.

A similar result is found in the case of pears, but by a different
process, because pears have the weights of apples in size, color, and
freedom from blemishes, a smaller weight in form, and a larger one
in quality.

Again, in the case of plums we find 25 per cent given to taste and
75 per cent to the eye, with a slight rearrangement of weights as com-
pared with apples.

In cherries, too, the result is the same, although 20 is the weight for
size as against 15 for apples, 10 for color as against 15 for apples, 20
for quality as against 15 for apples, 15 for freedom from blemishes as
against 20 for apples; while form, which is included for apples, is
excluded for cherries, and a new item, for ‘‘stems,” is added with a
weight of 15.

For items of excellence in grapes, form of bunch has 10 points, size
of bunch 15, size of berry 10, color 15, quality 20, and freedom from
blemishes 10. A computation shows that only one-fourth of the excel-
lence of grapes is assigned to taste in the competitive exhibits at the
Exposition.

WHY NUTS ARE BOUGHT.

Nut scorEs.—The same subordination of taste found in the judging
of fruit is discovered also in the judging of nuts. The size of the nut
has 15, the shape 10, thickness of shell 20, size of meat 15, quality 20
points. Although it may seem that it is positively not worth while,
to say nothing of money, to buy a nut except to enjoy its delicious
flavor, yet to taste is assigned only 25 per cent, while 50 per cent is
given to the eye, the remaining 25 per cent going to the convenience
of cracking the shells.

Somewhat different allowances are given to pecans in the scale
adopted by the National Nut Growers’ Association. For external
character, size has 20 points, form 5, and color 5; for shell character,
thinness has 10 and cracking quality 20; and for kernel character,
plumpness has 20, color 5, and quality 15 points.

Upon translating these qualities, it appears that taste gets only 15
per cent of the total, while the principal attractions of the nuts go to
the eye and are rated at 55 per cent, the remaining 30 per cent being
assigned to qualities of convenience.

VARIED WHIMS OF THE CUSTOMER.

The common notion that, apart from the necessity of consuming
food to maintain life, taste gratifications constitute the principal attrac-
tions that food offers, proves upon analysis and introspection to be

422 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

poorly founded. A wide range of fancies enter into the problem, and
the farmer, or the dealer who handles his products, if he would get
the best prices, must acquire some acquaintance with these fancies
and not insist upon making the consumers take what he likes himself,
because taste is his principal test of excellence.

From numerous illustrations of this principle in marketing, collected
from many sources, the more striking ones have been selected for pre-
sentation.

DISCRIMINATIONS CONCERNING MEATS.

CERTAIN COLORS DESIRED.—The sale of corned beef, cured hams,
sausage, and some salt meats of other descriptions is largely influenced
by color, the popular prejudice favoring meat that has been cured and
colored with the addition of saltpeter. Sausages and other forms of
minced meat are also frequently colored by aniline dyes, as are the
wrappers of smoked sausage and of ham. It is probable that com-
mercial sausages of some varieties not so colored would find little sale
in competition with the colored goods.

PoRTERHOUSE STEAK AND NECK BEEF.—Porterhouse steak is the
most expensive cut of beef, and is justly in high favor, whereas beef
coming from the neck is equally nutritious and very palatable if
suitably prepared, but sells for a much lower price than the former.
It would be interesting to discover the reasons for this difference of
demand and of price. A butchers’ trade journal some time ago gave
the prices for which the different parts of the beef carcass were sold, as
follows: Porterhouse, 20 cents; prime rib, 15; sirloin, 124; round, 8;
rump, 7; neck piece, about 3 cents. Although epicureans admit and
chemists demonstrate that the neck piece is toothsome and nutritious,
it bears the lowest price. In fact, it would hardly be considered
respectable to ask the butcher for a piece of the neck. Perhaps a low.
order of proficiency in the housewife’s cooking at some time in the
past, without making insinuations against the present, gave to the
neck piece its low place. The story might have been different had
the housewife of former times possessed the French housewife’s ability
to utilize meats in the making of attractive and delicious dishes.

FRESH AND ‘‘ HIGH” GAME.—The epicure goes to certain high-priced
hotels and restaurants, where he pays well for the birds which he says
have at once that peculiar gamey flavor and tenderness which he can
get nowhere else, but he rarely knows that such game has, by order of
the steward, been retained in storage until it has become partially
decomposed and has an odor before cooking which would prevent
many people from eating it if seen and smelled in this condition.

THE INFLUENCE OF SUGGESTION, even to almost any extent of decep-
tion, is one of the most vulnerable places in the fancies of consumers.
The whole fabric of the adulteration of foods rests upon this. ‘‘ Sweet-
breads” are eaten with a relish by people who have no idea that they

CONSUMERS’ FANOIES. 423

are eating the pancreas of older cattle or of the hog instead of the
thymus of the calf. It is a notorious fact that consumers have boasted
about the fine ‘‘ lamb” they were getting, whereas the butcher knew
that he had not sold them anything but kid meat; and the flavor of the
“lamb” has been known to diminish in proportion to the amount of
information received on this point by the consumer.

A name that has acquired a meaning in popular estimation has a
stimulating effect upon the imagination of the consumer and forcibly
illustrates the power of suggestion. The amount of ‘‘Canada” lamb
sold in the United States is enormous. The word ‘‘ Canada” has the
same magical effect upon lamb prices that the word ‘* Philadelphia ”
has upon spring poultry, or that of ‘‘ Long Island” upon fresh eggs.
These fictions seem to sell the product, and the eating public appears
to feel satisfied. By tacking this word ‘‘ Canada” on to his product the
butcher is enabled to get 2 cents more per pound for it, or by selling
at normal prices is better enabled to acquire customers who act under
the delusion that they are getting something unusual for their money.
In certainly 95 per cent of the cases they are getting plain domestic
‘‘lamb,” and about 50 times out of 100 are not getting lamb at all,
but mere mutton.

There is a strong aversion in England to ‘‘frozen” meat. Never-
theless, some of the best meat from this country is sold there as Eng-
lish meat, and poor grades of English meat are put on the market as
American meat. In line with this is the fact that whereas, in certain
places in England, American bacon would find no sale, yet, shipped
as it is from this country and run into these districts as Irish bacon,
it finds a ready market. Similarly, the hams sold in New England
under a foreign label are usually prepared by some Western pork
packer, and are considered by the consumer to be superior to the pork
bearing a Western brand. The idiosyncrasies of the purchasing pub-
lic are likewise appreciated by the wholesale manufacturer of sausage,
who labels his product ‘‘ country sausage.”

Hams are imported into France from the United States through the
United Kingdom and are sold to French consumers as goods of British
origin, the deception being adopted to promote sale, if not to raise prices,
on account of the superior fancy for English over American hams.

Yellow-skinned chickens have the preference in parts of this coun-
try as against those whose skin is more nearly white. This preference
may be on account of the suggestiveness of fat beneath the skin,
although, as a matter of fact, chickens store very little fat next to the
skin, and then only in certain places, and certainly not on the legs; fur-
thermore, the yellowness of the chicken’s skin is inherent, and not
derived from the fat beneath the skin. On the contrary, in some
European countries the preference is for chickens with the lighter-
colored skin.

424 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COLOR OF EGGS, BUTTER, AND CHEESE,

BROWN V. WHITE EGGS.—A curious preference, entirely unassociated
with taste, is the color of eggs. Brown eggs sell for a cent or two
per dozen more than white eggs in Boston, and the contrary is true in
New York. Let white and brown eggs be mixed, and a dozen of them
will sell for less than a dozen of either assorted, and let one or two
‘*dirties” be visible and the price goes still lower, although, as a mat-
ter of fact, in any case the contents of the eggs are of perfect quality
and can not be distinguished by taste, appearance, or nutritive value,
one egg from another. Chicago is said to be undiscriminating with
regard to color of egg shells, but San Francisco prefers white ones.
In some markets where the brown egg is favored, as in those of
England, it is said to be not uncommon to color shells of white eggs
with coffee decoction or some dyestuff.

Butter and cheese are almost universally colored to meet the popu-
lar demand, and this demand varies so in different sections of this
country that it is necessary for manufacturers and shippers to prepare
their shipments especially for the section of country in which they are
to be consumed; for instance, Washington demands a darker butter
than Chicago, and New Orleans demands a color still darker than
Washington.

PECULIARITIES OF HONEY BUYERS.

Honey is supposed to be a light yellow fluid, although genuine honey
is often darker, and then it has a less ready sale. In some portions of
the West the natural honey found is of a much heavier consistency
than is ordinarily found in the East, and this condition considerably
prejudices the sale of the product. Glucose with certain treatment
has long been sold for honey, and when such glucose, suitably colored
and made of the appropriate consistency, contains pieces of genuine
honeycomb, it has been bought by many consumers with crude taste
in preference to comb honey in sections.

Although prettiness goes a long way in influencing buyers, it is
a singular fact that the California comb honey has been looked upon
with suspicion in the East on account of its almost colorless appear-
ance, whiteness of the wax, and the perfect filling of all cells, and
honey-consuming purchasers have been known to reject this honey on
the supposition that it was machine made, comb and all, so commonly
accepted has been the widely circulated fiction that honeycomb is made,
filled with glucose, and capped, all by machinery.

CIDER. AND WINE.

VINEGAR MUST BE DARK COLORED.— When cider was made exclusively
in the old-fashioned way the apple pomace lay in the press so long
that the juice received a dark red color, and vinegar made from the

CONSUMERS’ FANCIES. 495

cider retained this color; but in the large cider mills of the present
time the expressing of the juice takes place so quickly after the mak-
ing of the pomace that the cider is more nearly colorless, as also is the
vinegar made from it. Apparently in recollection of the olden time,
‘cider vinegar,” with some people, must now have a dark red color,
no matter whether it is made from nearly colorless apple cider or from
malt or by the chemist; and it is often the case that vinegar made
from apples or apple pomace is treated with a small amount of caramel
to impart the desired color, and the same is often true of distilled
vinegars.

RED AND WHITE EFFECTS.—High wine is a distilled liquor that is
colorless, but after it has remained for a goodly number of years in a
barrel, the inside of which has been charred, it acquires the yellowish
brown, or eventually reddish, appearance of common whisky. So the
fancy of the tippler has been established for red liquor, and this fancy
is met by the coloring of white or undercolored whisky by means of
burnt sugar. Furthermore, the tippler’s fancy for a beady liquor, a
character honestly acquired only by age, is satisfied by dissolving
glycerin in the liquor.

DECORATIVE ORANGES.

Yearly, when the ripe orange season is six weeks away in California,
criticism is heard because fine yellow oranges, as good to look upon as »
fruit can be, as sour as lemons, and about as fit to eat as green walnuts,
are shipped East. The objection is that such unpalatable fruit injures
the market. The market would, indeed, be injured were the fruit
sent East to be eaten, but it is not. The East buys it for table decora-
tion, and it is well known that the oranges that can be used for table
decorations are those that command fancy prices.

ADVERTISING.

Advertising, when skillfully done, is made to appeal to the fancies
of consumers sometimes with astonishing success. Instances of this
are found among the numerous breakfast and health foods that have
become so prominent in recent years. In earlier years oatmeal was
sold in this country only by druggists and was kept by them merely
for the sick. Indeed, there was long a prejudice in England against
oatmeal as food for human beings, though it was always a staple food
in Scotland.

POLISH AND GLOSS.

WAX-LIKE APPLES.

One of the weaknesses of consumers is an admiration for foods that
are polished or have a gloss, and this nickel-plate fancy plays some
queer pranks with foods. The life-long resident of the large city, for
instance, who has no first-handed knowledge of an apple orchard, may

426 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

buy from an apple woman at the street corner a pretty red apple with
a wax-like polish on its surface secured by an application of saliva and
a dirty rag. On the contrary, the apple-loving countryman, espe-
cially one who has come to be known as a “‘ horticulturist,” delights
in the natural bloom of the apple.

The polishing of nuts, if they are of a kind that can be polished, is
becoming more common. This may not always be solely for the gloss,
but because of the beautiful color that may be developed or applied
artificially, as in the case of pecans. Commercial roasted coffee is
frequently glazed.

SUPERFICIAL QUALITIES OF RICE.

It is in rice, however, that is found the most conspicuous illustra-
tion of the principle under consideration. In connection with this it
is pertinent to mention other elements of fancy, together constituting
rice one of the more prominent products dependent upon consumers’
fancies for its sale and prices. The differences in the prices of rice are
determined largely by fancy, especially since, except in the South, rice
is not a standard food, but more or less a luxury.

AVERSION TO SHORT GRAINS.—Two long-grained varieties of rice
are produced in the United States, the Carolina and the Honduras,
and one short and thick-grained variety, the Japan. The Japan vari-
ety is really the better one in nutritive value and flavor, but it sells on
the market for about 1$ cents per pound less than the long-grained
variety, simply because people think the long grains are the more
‘‘proper” when displayed on the table. For the same reason rice
that is broken in milling Sells for nearly 2 cents per pound less than
the whole grains. Broken rice, unless it is so finely broken as to go
through a No. 12 sieve, in which case it is known as brewers’ rice, is
polished the same as whole rice, and is known in Louisiana, at least,
as screenings, because the whole grains (or head rice) are screened out;
hence, in quality there is no difference between this broken rice and
the whole grains, although broken grains do not make quite as good
an appearance after cooking as the whole grains.

A widely known expert in all matters pertaining to rice, living in
Louisiana, writes that ‘‘ broken rice cooks just as well as the whole
grains, and for family use here in the South most of the people use the
broken.” On the contrary, in the North broken rice so violates the
fancy of the consumer for eating that it never appears on the table.

In the process of polishing, rice loses an outer coating that is
nutritious and well flavored, and yet unpolished rice, with more varied
nutriment and by some considered of better flavor than the polished
rice, would not find ready sale to a northern housekeeper, at any rate
for table purposes.

CONSUMERS’ FANCIES. 427

IDIOSYNCRASIES OF CONSUMERS.

With regard to vegetables, as with other foods, fancy varies from
generation to generation and from one region to another. Some
selections are made from numerous illustrations at hand.

A MEDLEY OF FANCIFUL NOTIONS.

The deep-yellow fleshed varieties of pumpkins are preferred and
are most largely grown in the North, while in the South the lighter-
colored kinds are more popular. The oval-shaped and very dark-
colored eggplant is so generally preferred that the light-colored and
long varieties are seldom seen. A deep red color is positively essen-
tial in rhubarb if the producer is to get profitable prices; consequently
the green-stemmed sorts are rarely grown. In Berlin rhubarb is a
foliage plant in the parks.

Lettuce is one of the most fickle of plants in popular fancy. Differ-
ent types are popular in different parts of the country. Sometimes
the markets of cities only 100 miles apart will each call for types
which would be unsalable in the other. In general, the clustering
and crinkled-leaved varieties are more largely preferred than the
smooth-leaved and heading sorts, and green sorts are preferred to
those shaded with brown, but some markets prefer the brown.

The firm-fleshed European sorts of cantaloupe are rarely seen.
Americans prefer the softer although coarser-fleshed sorts. Brussels
sprouts have become quite popular in the vicinity of New York, but
are not largely grown elsewhere. Carrots are not so largely See in
this country as in Europe for table purposes, but when so used a deep
orange color is wanted.

The small rough varieties of tomatoes used in Europe for soups are
not grown in this country, so it can not be entirely a fancy here that
demands smoothness, solidity, flavor, deep coloring, and uniform color
and size, because tomatoes are largely used as a vegetable, and yet
the preference for pronounced coloring of ripe tomatoes must be
ascribed largely to a fancy without corresponding taste equivalent.
At any rate, the catchup manufacturers know that the sale of their
goods depends upon the artificial coloring. Canned tomatoes are
divided into two classes, according to their color, and it is not unusual
to use aniline dye to raise the goods from the lower to the higher
place.

Parsley is used quite largely for garnishing, and, as might be
expected, it sells upon its appearance; the darker the color and the
more curled the better.

Among the string beans those with the wax-colored pods are the
most popular with many persons, because most attractive in the
market and on the table. The white limas, both dwarf and tall sorts,

428 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

are the chief dependence for green-shelled beans, since most people
object to colored ones. ‘There is little choice in varieties of asparagus,
the principal evidence of fancy being in the demand for blanched tips,
which are more generally found in the larger markets, as in France.
Asparagus before canning is usually bleached, since a white product is
demanded.

Celery is popular in England in the red and giant sorts, which are
rarely seen in this country, the preference here being for the dwarf
and easily blanched white varieties. The ever-recurring preference
for red appears again in the choice of beets for table purposes, and
the varieties that are most wanted must be deep red with turnip shape.

The size, shape, and color of watermelons influence their sale to a
considerable degree in some markets. Many people prefer a round,
dark, solid-colored melon, while others desire one with quite different
characteristics, as, for instance, the large, oblong melon with light
mottled coloring.

Canned corn is frequently bleached with sulphur for the purpose of
producing a light color. Cherries must be highly colored if they
would sell best, except that size may counterbalance a want of color,
as in the case of white oxhearts.

After prunes are classified according to size, their sale depends
largely on the gloss given to them by dipping them into some sub-
stance—for instance, glycerin. They are also frequently colored by
extract of logwood to please the fancy for dark-colored goods. In the
sale of peaches very much depends upon color as well as upon size;
and so with strawberries. Walnuts and some other varieties of nuts
are bleached with sulphite to remove the yellow color and produce as
light-colored an article as possible.

Different colors of glucose are demanded for different products.
For some articles a perfectly colorless product is required, which is
bleached for that purpose. In other cases, such as sirups, a high-
colored glucose is demanded.

The color of tea is such an important matter that the practice of
facing the leaves with coloring matter is not uncommon.

Cigars are made in several colors to suit the fancy of the different
smokers, although frequently the only difference is in the color of the
wrapper. It is a common fallacy on the part of smokers that the color
of a cigar wrapper indicates its strength. Oscuro, or maduro, is popu-
larly regarded as being very strong, and claro as mild or weak. The
New England Tobacco Grower asserts that ‘‘ nothing is further from
the truth. Occasionally a maduro is so mild as to be insipid, and a
claro so strong as to make the head swim.” The practice of treating
wrappers with chemicals for the purpose of imitating the spots on
Sumatra wrappers has been quite common, without any change in the
odor or flavor of the tobacco.

CONSUMERS’ FANCIES. 429

DEMAND FOR WHITENESS.

Whiteness of foods is so frequently the aim of the food producer and
of the cook that some underlying cause would seem to be back of this.
Perhaps it is because whiteness is so often an indication of cleanliness;
at any rate, the eye is immediately to be pleased, let the source of the
fancy be what it will.

LOSS OF QUALITY IN THE POTATO.

In parts of England a white potato is preferred to one with a colored
skin, and concerning this Rider Haggard, in Rural England, adds that
the Jersey potato, with which the English market is so liberally sup-
plied, ‘‘is a very tasteless esculent. On the point of flavor, however,
the market is careless. Among the great public of consumers the sole
requisites seem to be that the potato shall be good to look at and obtain-
able in advance of its natural season; whether or not it is good to eat
matters very little.” A preference for the external whiteness of the
potato does not seem to have arisen in this country, but its inside
whiteness is admired at the dining table when exceptionally pure.

WHITENESS OF SUGAR.

Perfectly white beet or cane sugar is desired and, since it has been
found impossible to produce this by bleaching, a small amount of
some blue substance, such as ultramarine, is added to neutralize the
slightly yellow tint of the crystals.

DETERIORATION OF THE OYSTER’S FLAVOR.

The demand for whiteness, to which should be added plumpness,
has pursued the delicious oyster until in some markets it has lost much
of its flavor. Says Forest and Stream:

For years past there has been complaint among people who imagine that they
know what oysters should be that the highly esteemed old-fashioned bivalve of
good flavor has disappeared from the land and its place has been taken by a white,
plump simulacrum, fair and lovely to the eye, but flat and tasteless to the palate.
From this has arisen the present-day practice of drenching the oyster with vinegar,
horse-radish, and tabasco sauce in the endeavor to give it some flavor.

In England the dark mantle or margin of the oyster is cut off and
rejected, leaving the whiter part to be eaten.

THE CRY OF THE BREAD MAKER.

Flour made from cereals is perhaps the most conspicuous illustration
of the consumers’ insistence upon whiteness, and that the origin of
this preference was in efforts to secure cleanliness in bread making is
a suspicion, although it may have been due to the telltale dark color of
bread made by the inexpert maker who allowed the dough to take too
long a time in rising.

430 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Perhaps for one or both of these reasons grew the bread maker’s
pride in the whiteness of her bread. Thus was enforced the house-
wife’s demand for wheat flour that should make white bread. In
arriving at this conclusion, the testimony of the chemist is not over-
looked, to the effect that the whiter wheat flours make as fine and
nutritious bread as any. The point is that the housewife never was a
chemist, and whiteness of bread told her a tale of proper and cleanly
treatment of the dough.

The Japanese like a wheat flour rich in starch, with its dextrin-
forming attribute, and are not particular about the whiteness.

THREATENED EXTINCTION OF RYE BREAD.

Present memories can go back to the time when rye bread was less
respectable than wheat bread in the East; indeed, there are communi-
ties now where this may be true. Perhaps price has contributed to
this result. In the day when the farmer obtained his rye flour by
taking his grist to a mill he rarely had wheat flour, because he did not
raise wheat; he could hardly afford to buy it, as the more well-to-do
people did; so respectability as well as notions of cleanliness, as asso-
ciated with whiteness, began a silent warfare against the rye crop, and
this, perhaps, would almost have stopped the growing of rye had it
not been for whisky and the large immigration of rye-bread eaters
from Europe. The delicious flavor of properly prepared home-made
rye bread has not been able to withstand fully the onslaught of insub-
stantial fancies.

PASSING OF THE BUCKWHEAT CAKE.

In the estimation of the old lovers of buckwheat cakes buckwheat
flour has suffered because of the growing demand for whiteness.
Formerly buckwheat flour was slightly brown and the buckwheat
flavor was unmistakable and easily detected, but more recent milling
processes have made this flour much whiter, and besides this the adul-
terator has not neglected the opportunity to promote the whiteness by
combining with the buckwheat flour some cheaper and whiter wheat
or corn flour.

GINSENG.

There is a recognized fancy in China in the matter of ginseng. ‘The
southern provinces, such as Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Fukien, take
white only; whereas the central provinces, such as Kiangsu, Anhui,
Hunan, and Hupeh, prefer the red; and, to satisfy the latter taste,
brown instead of white sugar is used for coating the roots while they
are being steamed, thereby imparting a pale, reddish tint to the
product.

CONSUMERS’ FANCIES. 431

NEW-FASHIONED MAPLE SIRUP.

Expert tasters of maple sirup do not agree as to whether the present
‘‘improved” process of making this sirup has damaged its flavor. In
the old open-kettle process of evaporating sap that had been kept long
enough to ferment a little, maple sirup and sugar were of rather dark
color, but the maple flavor was so pronounced that not even glucose,
brown sugar, and hickory bark extract could imitate it beyond detec-
tion. With the introduction of the evaporator in present use, and in
consequence of the efforts to boil the sap before fermentation, both
sirup and sugar have acquired a much lighter color, and the consum-
ing public, inexpert in the taste of maple sirup and sugar, is corre-
spondingly pleased, so that these products, if of the old familiar color,
could hardly be sold, or if so only at a much reduced price.

CORN MEAL FROM THE OLD WATER MILL.

In the older regions of the South a distinction is made between corn
meal ground in a slow-going water mill and the more rapid mill oper-
ated by steam. The case is described by a Tennesseean who writes to
the Scientific American: ,

In grinding corn it is generally admitted that the old-fashioned water mills make
better meal than the modern steam mills. These water mills, as a rule, were of
small power and used a large rock or ‘‘ burr’’ at a slow speed and ground from 3 to
10 bushels per hour. The modern steam mill, using a small burr at a high speed—

even a cast burr at almost the speed of a buzz saw—puts through it about 20 bushels
per hour, and the burr, mill, and all around get hot and the meal is ruined.

HALO OF OLD-TIME MEMORIES.

On the other hand, there are plenty of millers who assert that this
isa mere fancy. The editor of the American Miller queries whether
this distinction is not ‘‘ simply an instance of that psychological process
that invests the old-time memories, especially those of boyhood, with
a halo that is purely subjective. The idea that the kind of power
affects the quality of the meal would seem a superstition, pure and
simple. The same is true as to the kind of reduction burrs. There
would seem no plausible reason why a French burr or a steel roller
should not make just as good meal as a native stone. No doubt just
as good meal can be turned out of a steam roller mill as an old-fash-
ioned water-power rock mill if the corn is good and fresh.”

THE COLOR OF THE CORN MEAL, too, is a matter of local fancy.
To a Northerner the southern fancy for white meal is misplaced, and
by the Southerner the northern preference for yellow meal is similarly
regarded.

432 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LOCAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OF FANCY.

Local variations of fancy are very common, and some illustrative
instances are given in the foregoing part of this article. Among
numerous other geographical preferences may be mentioned the local
fondness for rice along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts and for
beans cooked in a certain way in New England. Bacon has long been
a familiar food in the South, but not in New England, where pickled
pork took its place; but lamb and mutton, on the other hand, are not
liked in the South as they are in the East. Southern markets want
yellow onions, but the Northern will take red ones as well. The peo-
ple of southeastern Pennsylvania, mostly those of German descent,
have developed and maintained various foods rarely, if ever, found
elsewhere, unless among those who have migrated from that State.
Indeed, it is possible to follow the channels of migration of these peo-
ple westward and southwestward by the foods that are in evidence by
the way.

In Germany the preference is not for the big red apple, but for one
that is green and of fine flavor and texture. The British markets want
large, bright apples, preferably red; quality, flavor, and keeping char-
acter are of secondary importance.

FASHIONS IN FLOWERS.

Flowers have their fashions, and for various reasons. This is not
the place for familiar stories of flower crazes, but rather to call atten-
tion to variability and peculiarity of local demands. The Easter lily
had long been the favorite flower of that season in New York until
1904, when, on account of the plentifulness of these lilies and their
corresponding cheapness, they came to be looked upon as too cheap
for those who could buy more costly flowers, and consequently the
Japanese azalea took its place.

Camellias were the choicest of all flowers in New York a quarter of
a century ago, and the most expensive bouquets contained only as many
of these waxy flowers as the florist charged dollars for the bouquets.
These formal, artificial-looking flowers are now quite out of the trade,
and gardenias, still plentifully grown in England, have only a very
limited call and that from travelers from this country who have culti-
vated a liking for them there. A few chrysanthemums were years |
ago sold in autumn, but they were the hardy varieties which are grown
out of doors, and no one would have dreamed that these flowers would
be seen in such size and variety as now when cultivated under glass.

The violets preferred in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Washington
are the Lady Hume Campbell, with its light color, and the darker
Farquhar; in New York, the Marie Louise is preferred. This is dark,
like the Farquhar. Singles sell well in Philadelphia, though not in
New York, Baltimore, or Washington.

CONSUMERS’ FANOIES. 4338

LESSONS FOR THE FARMER.

Further pursuit of this subject is unnecessary to enforce the lesson
that runs through the foregoing pages. Farmers should learn the
whims and fancies of the markets that they reach, or can reach, and
endeavor to meet those fancies. By so doing the highest prices and
the largest profits may be obtained. If a farmer’s products are such
as go to customers who are whimsical or fanciful in their choice, and
fall short of meeting such requirements, there is likely to be no profit
in his operations. The farmer should not produce primarily to please
himself and his own ideas of excellence; when he does so he may find
a wide chasm between himself and the people whom he would like to
have for customers.

City-bred people, who have little knowledge of the origin and real
character of food and food products, such as the countryman has, and
who have no childhood’s acquaintance with the good things of the
farm, are especially susceptible to suggestion; they are governed
largely by appearances in their selection of farm products and are easily
deceived by the trick of a false name or a false ingredient in a pre-
pared food. Of course, the farmer is not to resort to adulteration, but
from the successes of producers of adulterated goods he may learn the
lesson that goes with providing honest goods that please the notions
of the consumer. When a person will eat ‘‘raspberry jam” made of
sweet potatoes, aniline dye, glucose or cane sugar, citric acid, and
turnip seed, with some preservative, and not detect the fraud, the
farmer may learn how easily responsive to appearances, and appear-
ances alone, in food and food products a person may be who has not
had a country rearing.

As was stated at the beginning of this article, farm products and
their marketing are governed largely by considerations of art and
psychology. It may be worth more to a vegetable leaf in the market
to be frilled, or fluted, or shirred, and yet be all but destitute of power
to please the nerves of taste, than to be delicious and painfully plain.

Since the farmer supplies townspeople and city people—toa growing
extent people who were not reared in the country and who are lone-
some if they cease to hear the clatter and roar of the city and to play
a part in unnecessary bustle and crush—he must not govern himself in
his business operations by standards based upon country life and country
living. He must be prepared to raise pretty redapples stuffed with
cotton if his customers want them; blackberries that are large and
pleasing to the eye, although disagreeably sour to the taste; large
strawberries, even though they may have a white tip, full of seed, and
without flavor; and any other products that his own family would not
care to consume because having better ones.

2 al1904—28

434 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

HONESTY THE BEST SALESMAN, AND THE HUMAN EYE A GREAT BUYER,

Some general principles appear, although more or less crude, vague,
and incomprehensive. ‘The consumer has a fondness for red, white,
and the colorless, and sometimes for yellow when reenforced with
large size. Gloss, polish, and luster are wanted. Things should be
large and, when applicable, of plump appearance; they should be
uniform in size, shapely, and with ornamental lines. A convenient
and showy package is appreciated, and a product, trade, or producer’s
name, once established favorably, catches the fancy of customers often
more easily and securely than anything else. .

The gratification of the sense of taste is of minor consideration; the
farmer’s market customers are largely without keen discrimination in
the taste of his products, in this respect being in contrast with country-
bred and especially farm-bred customers, whose gustatory nerves were
educated and trained in youth to be critical in the taste of the materials
of foods produced on the farm.

It remains to be asserted, after all due weight and importance have
-been given to the fancies of consumers, that honesty is the best sales-
man that the farmer and dealer can have—honesty in grading, in
packing, in quality, in condition.

The ‘‘ honest farmer” who establishes a reputation of this sort for
himself and has feasible markets within reach does not need to seek
customers, because they will seek him, and he can not produce to equal
the demand. 3

The farmer must not hang back in supplying things that are
pretty to look upon, although they may not be delicious to eat; he
must learn the scores of whims and notions in his available markets,
even though they may be ‘‘ without rhyme or reason,” and remember
that one of the great buyers of the products of the farm is the human eye.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO BY BREEDING AND
SELECTION.

By ArcnrpaLp D. SHAMEL,

Scientific Assistant, Plant-Breeding Laboratory, Vegetable Pathological and Physiological
Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

The production of different types of tobacco adapted to the many
demands of the manufacturers is one of the most important problems
confronting the growers of this crop. The market grades are clearly
defined and classified according to the character and quality of the
manufactured product. The value of the crop depends upon the ability
of the grower to produce a type conforming most nearly to the mar-
ket standard for each particular grade. Of particular importance is
the production of a superior grade of cigar-leaf tobacco. We are
dependent to-day upon tobacco from foreign countries for most of the
wrappers and fillers used in the manufacture of the better class of
cigars. It has been demonstrated that there are certain well-defined
areas in this country where the soil and climatic conditions are favor-
able to the production of types of tobacco suitable for the manufacture
of the best grade of cigars. These areas will produce more profitable
crops than are at present grown of this sort of tobacco, when uniform
types have been developed and established by careful breeding and
selection. The value of this addition to the tobacco industry lies in
the fact that the money now expended for the imported article will be
distributed among the American growers.

The inferiority of a large proportion of the tobacco produced in the
long-established tobacco regions from native varieties may be attrib
uted in part to deterioration of yield and quality due to lack of sys-
tematic and careful seed selection. It is a well-known fact that the
proportion of the poor-grade tobacco in some of these districts is
increasing, resulting in a corresponding loss to the growers.

Pennsylvania and Ohio fillers sell for 10 cents to 25 cents per pound,
while imported Cuban fillers bring from 50 cents to $1.25 per pound.
We can certainly produce a filler that will take the place of the ordi-
nary to medium Cuban. An increase in yield in the native varieties
due to improved methods of cultivation and fertilization involves
greatly increased cost of production. Some other means of increasing
the value of the crop is necessary and new types more nearly approach-
ing the Cuban standard should be developed in order to supply the

435

436 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

demand of the trade fora better grade of filler tobacco. The develop-
ment of such types depends upon seed selection as well as upon
improved methods of cultivation and fermentation. Wrapper tobacco
grown in Massachusetts and Connecticut brings from 40 cents to 80
cents per pound, while the imported Cuban and Sumatra varieties
bring from $1.50 to $3 per pound, to which must be added a duty of
$1.85 per pound for Sumatra, and $1.48 per pound for Cuban tobacco,
To produce a wrapper leaf in the Connecticut Valley which will com-
pare with the Cuban and Sumatra standards, new types must be devel-
oped which will more nearly approach the standard of the imported
varieties and possess their desirable qualities. This can doubtless be
done by careful breeding and selection. In the varieties grown for plug
wrappers and fillers, the export trade and the manufacture of pipe
tobacco, the development of new types is less important. In these
types, however, there is need of a general improvement of the crop,
more especially in yield and quality.

The many varieties of tobacco now in existence are supposed to have
had a common origin, and the different types are the result of seed selec-
tion or hybridization, either accidental or intentional. The value of
selection in tobacco is shown by the origin of some of the most
important varieties now under cultivation. These varieties for the
most part have been Geveloped by the selection of seed from sports or
striking variations, which have accidentally appeared in the established
varieties. The differences which now exist among these varieties, and
their marked and continuous variability, is sufficient evidence of the
possibility of the production of new and improved types superior to
those now under cultivation. The purpose of the selection of a variety
depends on the use of the crop by the manufacturer; as, for instance,
the qualities of aroma and flavor are important in filler varieties, but
not so important in wrapper types. The general methods of seed selec-
tion, however, apply to all types and varieties.

Tobacco is more highly specialized and grown under a more intensive
system of cultivation than any other general farm crop. It is a well-
known fact that the tobacco plant is exceedingly sensitive and responds
readily to soil and climatic conditions. Varieties grown in the Con-
necticut Valley are recognized as cigar-wrapper types, while varieties
produced in Pennsylvania and Ohio are used for the most part as cigar
fillers. Owing to the great influence of soil and climatic conditions
and methods of culture on the yield and quality of the crop in areas
adapted to tobacco growing, highly improved machinery and methods
of cultivation have been developed by the growers in order to increase
the profits from the crop. Instances of this tendency to adopt the
most advanced methods of culture are shown by such practices as the
application of $100 worth of commercial fertilizer per acre, cover-
ing the fields with slat or cheese-cloth shade, and the installation of

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE LVIII.

Fic. 1.—BELGIAN AND CRUMPLED TYPES.

Fic. 2.—ABNORMAL, SMOOTHLEAF, AND FREAK TYPES.

VARIATION IN TYPE OF CONNECTICUT SUMATRA TOBACCO PLANTS.

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO. 437

extensive systems of irrigation, in some cigar-wrapper districts. This
attention to certain phases of tobacco production has resulted in the
partial neglect of the equally important factor of seed selection.
Methods of selection have not kept pace with the improvements along
other lines, and to-day are essentially the same as those used by the
pioneer tobacco growers.

The suggestions which are made here for the improvement of tobacco
by breeding and selection are based on the result of a careful study of
cigar-wrapper varieties conducted by the writer. The experiments of
the Bureau of Soils and the experience of planters in Connecticut in
the growing of Sumatra wrapper tobacco demonstrated conclusively
that the industry would not prove successful in that section unless new
and improved types of the Connecticut Sumatra could be developed
which would give a much larger proportion of leaves of uniform size,
shape, and quality than the original imported seed. Experiments
were accordingly undertaken by the writer in the production of such
uniform types, and the results already obtained show conclusively that
new types of the kind desired can be produced, and the application of
the methods of seed selection and breeding developed in the course of
these experiments is recommended to the growers of all classes of
tobacco as a means of increasing the yield and value of their crops.

THE ADAPTATION OF TOBACCO TO SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

The general principle of the necessity for the adaptation of seed to
soil and climatic conditions, which is recommended by the best authori-
ties in plant breeding, is forcibly emphasized by the experience of the
writer with tobacco. In the case of cotton and corn Dr. H. J. Webber
has made the observation that evidence is accumulating which shows
that these crops must be bred and adapted to soil and climatic condi-
tions, and that in order to obtain the best results growers must select
their seed in the locality where the crop is regularly grown. From
the fact that the tobacco plant is influenced in such a marked degree
by soil and climatic conditions, this crop is a particularly striking
example of the benefits to be derived from the selection of seed in dis-
tricts where it is to be grown.

During the seasons of 1901 and 1902 Florida-grown Sumatra seed
was introduced into the Connecticut Valley by the Bureau of Soils
and grown extensively on the tobacco plantations of that region.
This tobacco seed was imported into Florida from the island of
Sumatra several years previous to its introduction into the Con-
necticut Valley and had become adapted to Florida conditions. The
crops grown in the Connecticut Valley from this seed showed a lack
of uniformity, which resulted in the breaking up of the variety into a
number of distinct types. Illustrations of these types are shown in
Plate LVIII. A small proportion of the plants in these fields held

438 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

true to the Sumatra type and produced a satisfactory yield of
desirable wrapper leaves, but not more than 5 per cent of the first
generation were typical Sumatra plants, and the remainder were
divided into a large number of distinct, clearly defined types, most of
which were radically different from the parent variety. Some of
these types were apparent reversions to varieties not adapted for
wrapper purposes, the leaves lacking the proper shape, body, elastic-
ity, gloss, and other characteristics of the Sumatra tobacco. The
individual plants in these types also showed great variability, and the
cultivation of such a mixed and variable crop entailed a great loss to
the growers on account of the small proportion of high-priced tobacco
obtained and the increased cost of sorting this irregular product.
The crop of 1903, grown from seed saved from that of 1902, according —
to the ordinary custom of tobacco planters, showed continued variabil- _
ity and a reproduction of the undesirable types. In 1903 typical
plants of all of the different types were selected for seed purposes and
the seed protected from cross-fertilization by covering the flowers
with paper bags. In 1904 the plants grown from seed saved in this
manner were strikingly uniform in type and closely resembled the
parent plants in all characters.

One of the best illustrations of the effect of the change of soil and
climatic conditions upon tobacco is the experience of the growers who
used imported Cuban seed for the production of wrappers in the
northern districts of the United States. The crops grown from such
seed produced a large proportion of the so-called freak type of plants,
which are very undesirable and bear a large sucker or branch at the
axil of every leaf. The leaves of such freak plants are very small,
sharply pointed, thick and heavy, and practically worthless for wrap-
per purposes. According to avery careful estimate this type of plant
constituted at least one-third of the crop grown from freshly imported
seed from Cuba. Among the types constituting the remainder of the
crop were typical Cuban plants producing a desirable tobacco which
was used as a substitute for Cuban-grown wrappers. This varia-
tion in type was commonly attributed by the growers to the Cuban
practice of saving the seed from sucker plants. However, seed
selected in the season of 1904 from the most desirable plants that
could be found in Cuba, and taken from the main stalks, produced
crops in the Connecticut Valley which showed only a slight improve-
ment in uniformity of type over previous crops grown from the ordi-
nary Cuban seed taken from suckers in the usual way. The crop in
Cuba from which this especially selected seed was harvested was par-
ticularly uniform in shape and size of leaf and general type; there-
fore, the variation in type observed in the northern-grown Cuban
plants must be attributed to the effect of the change of soil and climatic
conditions. In 1903 plants grown in the Connecticut Valley from

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO. 439

Florida-grown Sumatra seed were grown in South Carolina with a
view to producing cigar wrappers. The leaves harvested from these
plants were very thick and heavy, resembling the South Carolina plug-
filler type of tobacco. They possessed none of the characteristics of
cigar wrappers except the shape of leaves. This change of type was
doubtless due to the influence of the soil and climatic conditions in
this section of the South.

It has been frequently observed that when a variety of tobacco has
been grown in a particular region for a number of years it undergoes
a gradual change, and produces a type peculiar to that region or local-
ity. This condition explains the adaptability of certain sections for
the production of types of tobacco supplying special market demands.
In most of these crops a small proportion of plants are found which
produce leaves most nearly conforming to the market standard for this
class of tobacco. By saving the seed from these plants according to
the methods of selection to be described later, a uniform crop of the
desirable type may be secured which will be adapted to the local soil
and climatic conditions.

IMPORTANCE OF GROWER SELECTING HIS OWN SEED.

The character of the soil in any region varies to such an extent that
every farm presents a different set of conditions peculiar to its loca-
tion. In view of the effect of a change of conditions upon the charac-
ter of the plants, it is important that the grower select his tobacco
seed on his own farm. After a variety has become adapted to the
grower’s conditions of soil and climate the yield and quality of the
crop can be improved by the selection of the most desirable plants
in the field for seed production. In buying seed the grower has no
evidence from the seed itself as to the nature or quality of the plants
which it will produce, and he is likely to lose a crop owing to the use
of undesirable seed. The type of tobacco grown on the individual
farm establishes a reputation in the market and determines to a con-
siderable degree the value of the crop produced. The careful selection
and improvement of the type by the grower not only increases the
yield and quality of his crop, but the reputation thereby acquired
insures a high price and a ready market for such tobacco.

Many tobacco growers follow the plan of saving a large amount of
seed from a desirable crop, and using this seed for several years,
instead of depending on the selection of seed from every crop. They
entertain the idea that vitality of tobacco seed does not deteriorate
with age, and that the continued growing of the same tobacco on one
-farm causes a deterioration in the yield and quality of the crop. Such
a practice may be advisable where the farmers give’ no attention to
seed selection or follow the ordinary method of saving seed without a
careful study of the seed plants and the quality and yield of leaves

440 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

they produce. Tobacco seed is known to retain its vitality for several
years if kept under the proper conditions, but it has been demonstrated
that the vigor of germination is reduced and the value of the seed
impaired by age, even though the circumstances of storage are very
favorable. Owing to the possibility of the failure of a crop, due to
unfavorable seasons or the destruction of the plants by storm or other
accident, enough seed should be selected from every successful crop to
produce plants for two or three seasons. The surplus seed need not
be used for planting, unless the resulting crops are injured or destroyed
by unfavorable circumstances, in which case this plan will prevent the
loss of the type grown and selected by the farmer. The yield and
quality of the crop will certainly deteriorate where the best plants are
topped, where proper attention is not given to the principles of seed
selection, and where the injurious effects that may follow from cross-
pollination in the tobacco plant are not recognized.

VALUE OF LARGE AND HEAVY SEED.

In all samples of tobacco seed there is great variation in the size and
weight of the individual seeds. Owing to their small size, making it
extremely difficult to distinguish the large and heavy from the light
seed except by close examination, there has been little attempt by
growers to separate the different grades before sowing the seed beds,
and many of the weak and undesirable plants always found in the
beds may be attributed to this cause. Careful comparative tests of
light and heavy seed have proved that the best developed and most
vigorous plants are always produced from the large, heavy seed, while
the light seed produce small, irregular, and undesirable plants. In an
experiment with Cuban seed the writer separated the sample with a
current of air into light, medium, and heavy grades. The germina-
tion of the heavy seed was almost perfect, while less than 5 per cent
of the light seed sprouted. The plants from the heavy seed grew more
rapidly than those from the light seed, and reached the proper size for
transplanting from seven to nine days earlier than the plants from the
light seed. Representative plants produced by each grade of seed are
shown in Plate LIX, figure 1. This advantage of earliness is of
special importance to tobacco growers in northern districts, where the
short growing season makes it necessary for the grower to secure
very early plants in order to transplant as soon as the weather avill
permit. The heavy seed also produced more uniform plants than the
light seed, thus reducing the amount of seed-bed space needed for
growing sufficient plants for the field. The growers commonly sow
three or four times the area of seed bed needed in order to secure
enough plants of sufficient size to set out their fields at the proper
time for transplanting. If heavy seeds are used, this extra expense for
seed beds can be considerably reduced, and more hardy and desirable
plants secured.

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACOO. 441

The most satisfactory means of separating the light from the heavy
seeds is by using a current of air. A simple and effective device for
the purpose is shown in figure 57. The material necessary for con-
structing this machine can be obtained by tobacco growers from almost
any chemical supply house. The foot bellows (@) is connected by
means of a rubber tube ()) to the valve tube (c). The glass tube (d) is
fitted with a rubber cork (e), in which the valve tube is inserted. The
top of the cork is covered with a piece of finely woven gauze, in order
to prevent the seeds from entering the valve tube.
About an ounce of seed for separation is placed in the
glass tube and acurrent of air is injected by means of the
foot bellows. The strength of this current must be reg-
ulated by the valve (c), so that only the dirt, chaff, and light
seed will be blown out of the top of the tube. It is ad-
visable to screen out all of the large particles of hulls and
trash before putting the seed in the tube.

An imperfect separation of the heavy from the light
seed can be made by throwing the seed into a vessel of
water, and allowing the heavy seed to settle to the bottom
and skimming off and rejecting the light seed. This
method does not make a thorough or complete separa-
tion for several reasons, one of them being the fact that
the heavy seeds do not always sink, owing to the bubbles
of air which adhere tothem. If this plan is followed the
heavy seed should be dried promptly or used for plant-
ing immediately after separation. This method of sepa-
ration is recommended by Dr. L. Trabut. The conclu-
sions on the results of his
valuable experiments are as
follows: ¢

I observed that tobacco seed were
often badly formed and had only a
light density. By throwing tobacco
= seed into ordinary water it was ob-

served that only half of the seed
Fic. 57.—Apparatus for separating light and heavy seed reached the bottom of the vessel
of tobacco. rk

The seed which floated germinated,
but gave less vigorous plants during their whole development. Seed beds were made
in earthen bowls divided into two parts. In one part was sown the seed that floated,
and in the other part the seed that went to the bottom. The young plants from the
heavy seed were greener, more vigorous, and of larger size. All of the plants were
transplanted in the same field, alternating one plant from the heavy and one plant from
the light seed. All of the plants conserved their characters, but the plants from the
heavy seed produced greener and wider leaves and were more vigorous. The plants
from the light seed developed slowly and had a tendency to flower before sufficient
development. The yield from the plants from the heavy seed was 12.5 kilograms,
and the yield from the light seed was 6.4 kilograms.

~ @Bulletin No. 17. Dr. L. Trabut, Directeur du Service Botanique, Gouvernement
General de |’ Algerie.

~

442 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

If neither of the above plans is used, a less effective method of select-
ing the heavy seed is to use sieves with a size of mesh which will remove
as large a proportion of the small and light seeds as possible.

SELECTION OF PLANTS IN THE SEED BED.

The tobacco grower has opportunity for the selection of a desirable
type of plants in the seed bed at the time the young plants are trans-
planted to the field. From the time the young plants first appear in
the seed bed until they are ready for transplanting they show great
variability in type and vigor of growth. When the plants have
reached the proper size for setting out in the field, the characteristic
shape and comparative size of leaf may be determined by a careful
study of the plants in the seed bed. At this time a definite selection
of the most vigorous plants possessing the desired shape and type of
leaves will improve the uniformity and increase the yield and value of
the crop. The time for transplanting is a busy season for the grower,
and, in order to secure enough plants to set out as great an area as
possible, all the plants of the necessary size are usually pulled with-
out much attention to the variation among the young plants. The
work of pulling the plants is frequently delegated to someone without
experience and incapable of making a selection of desirable plants at
this early stage. The differences which distinguish the poor from the
good plants are very small, and a familiarity with the variety and type
of tobacco grown, combined with a close observation of the plants
during their period of growth in the seed bed, is necessary in order to
make a successful selection of the desirable type. In the cigar-
wrapper varieties the characteristic shape of leaves of these types is
clearly shown by the young plants while still in the seed bed, and as
this character is of primary importance for these varieties, the value
of such selection is obvious. Two types of plants selected from the
same seed bed are shown in Plate LX. This selection of plants in
the seed bed is supplementary to the final selection of seed plants in
the field, and gives an opportunity to eliminate most of the undesirable
types of plants. It may be compared in part to the roguing process
in other crops, where the undesirable plants in the field are destroyed
in order not to interfere with the development of the remainder of the
crop. ‘The transplanting process in tobacco makes it possible to rogue
the plants before they are set out, thus saving the expense of culti-
vating undesirable plants.

SOME POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS.

The possibility of improvement in the yield and quality of the
tobacco crop has been demonstrated by the results of a series of
experiments in the breeding of cigar-wrapper varieties conducted by
the Department of Agriculture in the Connecticut Valley. The
Sumatra variety grown in this valley showed a greater amount of

Yearbook U.S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE LIX.

FIG. 1.—TOBACCO SEEDLINGS FROM LIGHT (31-3), MEDIUM (31-2), AND HEAvy (31-1)
GRADES OF SEED.

FiG. 2.—TYPICAL LEAVES OF HYBRID AND PARENT TYPES OF TOBACCO.

[1, Havana seed, female parent; 2, hybrid; 3, Sumatra, male parent. ]

Yearbook U, S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, VAT Ey oc,

Fic. 1.—ROUNDED TYPE OF LEAVES.

Fic. 2.—PoinTED TYPE OF LEAVES.

VARIATION IN SHAPE AND TYPE OF LEAVES OF TOBACCO SEEDLINGS.

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACOO. 443

variation in type and individual plants than any of the other varieties
grown for the purpose. The improvement made in the yield and
value of this type is given as an illustration of the possibilities
for the improvement of other varieties of tobacco. In the Sumatra
variety selections were made from a representative field in which
the plants showed a variation in type similar to the variation observed
in all other fields of this tobacco. In this field ten separate and dis-
tinct types were observed and described, and selections of seed were
made from typical plants of each. The seed was saved under bags
and sowed the following season in separate sections in the seed bed,
each section containing the seed from a single parent plant, and later
the young plants from each section were set out in separate rows in
the field. During the early stages of growth in the seed bed the dis-
tinctive characteristics of each type, particularly the shape of leaf,
could be readily observed and the different types distinguished without
difficulty. As the plants in the field reached maturity the particular
characteristics of each parent became more clearly and strikingly
apparent. In every selection in each of the ten types, the type char-
acteristics were uniformly reproduced. In the different selections in
each type slight differences were observed, representing the differences
in the individual parent plants. Of the progeny from each parent
every plant was uniformly of the type of the parent plant. So clearly
and strikingly was this uniformity of type impressed upon the pro-
geny of all plants selected that the most casual observer could easily
note and distinguish the difference between the various types and, in
most cases, pick out the progeny of the individual parents in the
group of selections constituting each type. The uniformity of type
in the progeny of selected seed plants is shown in Plate LXI. The
grower can therefore select in the field a plant of the type he desires
to grow, and by saving the seed under bag, in most cases at least,
reproduce this type uniformly in the succeeding crop.

The number of leaves borne by the parent plants selected from the
Connecticut Sumatra variety was found to vary from 4 to 40. This
variation is illustrated in Plate LXII, figure 1. When plants witha
small number of leaves were selected it was found that their progeny
produced on the average about the same number of leaves as the
parent; and the progeny of parents having a large number of leaves
was found to produce on the average about the same large number
of leaves. The increase in number of leaves was not accompanied by
a corresponding increase in the height of the plants. In the case of
the plants bearing few leaves the internodes were from 6 to 8 inches
in length, but where a large number of leaves were produced the length
of the internodes was from 2 to 3 inches. The variation in length
of internodes among plants in the same type is shown in Plate LXII,
figure 2. The difference in the time of ripening of the lower and upper

444 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

leaves on the plants producing a large number of leaves was no greater
than where few leaves were produced. Therefore the time of ripening
of the top leaves is not delayed by the increase in the number of leaves
on the plant. The leaves were found to be the most uniform in size,
shape, and other characteristics where a large number were borne ona
single plant. It is possible, therefore, for a grower to select plants
with a large number of desirable leaves and, by saving the seed from
these plants under bag, to secure that increase in number of leaves
in his crop. ‘The average number of leaves in the tobacco crops of the

Fig. 58.—Variation in shape and size of leaves of Connecticut Sumatra tobacco.

country can doubtless be greatly increased, so that the yield will be
correspondingly increased if this method of selection is carefully
pursued.

In the case of selected plants having leaves with rounded tips the
crop grown from the different parents invariably showed the charac-
teristic rounded tip of leaf in all of the plants. Where the selections
were made of parent plants having pointed leaves the progeny uni-
formly showed pointed tips. The pointed tips were almost invariably
found to be associated with narrow leaves. The variation in shape of
the different types of Connecticut-grown Sumatra tobacco is shown in
figure 58. Pointed leaves are undesirable for wrapper purposes on
~ account of the small number of wrappers that can be cut from them,
seldom more than two wrappers from each leaf. The wide leaves with
rounded tips and bases yield from four to six wrappers. ‘The tip is
usually the most desirable portion of the leaf for wrapper purposes,
having the best grain and appearance, and for this additional reason
a rounded tip is specially desirable. In fact, it has been conclusively
proven that any shape of leaf desired, which is produced in a given.
locality, may be fixed and transmitted uninterruptedly to the succeed-
ing crops by selection of the parents having the desired shape of leaf
and saving the seed of such plants under bag.

PLATE LXI.

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904

mA

Ai el

o>

‘

~
“e

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. Bi Ar euiescil

FIG. 1.—VARIATION IN NUMBER AND SIZE OF LEAVES PRODUCED ON SUMATRA TOBACCO
PLANTS.

Fia. 2.—VARIATION IN LENGTH OF INTERNODES OF CONNECTICUT CUBAN TOBACCO
PLANTS.

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO. 445

The number of suckers produced on the different plants was found to
vary in the same way as the number of leaves and other characteristics.
In selecting individuals free from suckers and saving the seed under
bags, it was found that the crop produced from these suckerless plants
produced proportionately few suckers, while the plants selected with a
large number of suckers transmitted this suckering habit uniformly to
all of their progeny. The grower can thus select plants free from
suckers, or showing a tendency to produce fewer suckers, and by saving
the seed from individual plants of this type produce strains that develop
but few suckers. Seed from suckerless plants produced also the best
progeny as regards the number, size, quality, and shape of leaves and
other characteristics which go to make up desirable types of tobacco.

The size of leaf, it has also been found, can be controlled by the
selection of seed plants having the desired size. In the selections of
Connecticut Sumatra tobacco, parent seed plants were saved having
leaves 35 inches long by 22 inches wide, and in the same type other
selections were made of plants having leaves 15 inches long and 7 inches
wide. It was found that the crop produced from these selections pos-
sessed uniformly about the same size of leaf as that selected in the
parent plants. In the first case a crop was secured having an average
leaf about 35 inches long by 22 inches wide, and in the second case the
leaves were on an average about 15 inches long by 7 inches in width.
An illustration of the difference in the size of leaves produced by two
Sumatra plants is shown in Plate LXIJ, figure 1. In all of the selec-
tions the size of leaf of parent plants was reproduced in marked degree
in the crop grown from the seed of the individual plants.

The size of leaf has an important bearing on the value of the crop in
all varieties of tobacco, but more particularly in the cigar-wrapper
types. Other things being equal, the greater the number of wrappers
that can be cut from each leaf without waste, the greater the value of
the crop to the manufacturer and the higher the price obtained by the
grower. In some varieties, as the Havana seed and Broadleaf wrap-
per sorts, the leaf is very large and only a small portion is adapted
for wrapper purposes, the remaining portion of the leaves being used
for binders and fillers in low-priced cigars. In the crops of these
varieties a small number of plants are found producing leaves of the
proper size to better adapt them to the purposes for which this kind
of tobacco is grown. ‘The selection of seed from plants of this char-
acter is a means of controlling the size of leaves in the crop. It
has been commonly supposed that the size of leaf is influenced pri-
marily by the soil and climatic conditions. In the experiments bearing
on this point the results clearly showed that the character or size of
leaf was transmitted from the parent plants to their progeny with
unfailing regularity, and by seed selection large and small leaved types
were produced uniformly in the crop under similar soil and climatic

446 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

conditions and methods of cultivation. It is possible for the grower,
then, to develop types producing leaves of the most desirable and
profitable size by selecting seed from plants bearing leaves uniformly
of the desired size.

In all varieties of tobacco there is considerable variation in the time
of ripening of the individual plants in the field. In a tobacco crop
which is harvested all at one time, the early plants remain in the field
until they deteriorate in quality, while the later ones do not mature,
and when harvested do not cure properly. Ina similar manner the
leaves on many of the plants mature irregularly, those at the top
requiring from ten days to two weeks longer than the bottom leaves
to reach the stage of maturity necessary before the crop can be har-
vested. In all of these crops some plants are found in which the
leaves ripen more uniformly than in others, and by the selection of
seed from such plants uniform types can be secured in which all of the
leaves are ripe and ready for harvesting at one time. In 1903 a Suma-
tra plant was observed which ripened several days before the general
crop was ready to be primed. The seed of this plant was saved under
bag and the progeny set out in a separate plat the following season.
The plants in this plat were ready to be harvested about two weeks
earlier than the remainder of the field of the same variety. In a num-
ber of selections of plants made to secure uniformity in the time of
ripening of leaves on the same individual, the progeny exhibited the
characteristic uniformity of the parent plants. The crop from these
plants was harvested in two primings, while the ordinary crop required
three or four primings in order to secure the leaves at the desirable
stage of maturity. In the varieties of tobacco in which all the crop is
harvested at the same time, the uniformity in ripening reduces the
expense of sorting and the loss from overripe and immature leaves,
while the uniformity of ripeness in varieties which are primed mate-
rially lessens the expense of harvesting.

In improving the quality of tobacco one must be guided by the
requirements of the manufacturers. In wrapper varieties the leaves
must have good burning quality, texture, grain, elasticity, and strength,
so as to cover well and without breaking on the cigar, present an attract-
ive appearance, and have no disagreeable taste. The color of the
leaves should be uniform in order that the grower may obtain a large
percentage of high-grade wrappers and the manufacturer secure the
quality of tobacco necessary for his brands of cigars without waste.

The plants bearing the largest number of leaves of uniform size
and shape produce the largest proportion of leaves of uniform color.
In order to determine the grade of color produced by the plants, it is
necessary to compare the leaves after curing and fermentation have
been completed. The shade of color of leaves on the plant in the field
is correlated with the color after fermentation, light green types pro-
ducing light grades and dark green shades developing the dark grades

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO. 447

of wrappers. The proportion of the standard grades of the best qual-
ity may be increased by taking seed from plants which develop leaves
of desirable color and other characteristics. The improvement of all
other varieties in the qualities for which they are produced can be car-
ried out by the application of the general methods of seed selection.

THE METHODS OF SELECTION.

The first step in the selection of tobacco is a careful study of the
individual plants in the fields from which the selections are to be
made, before any plants have been topped. It is necessary for the
erower to make a preliminary selection of a large number of plants at
this time in order to give an opportunity for a final selection after the
cured product of these plants has been carefully compared in the ware-
house. The differences in quality of the product of the individual
selections can be determined only by a careful study of the cured
leaves. The type or general form of the plants, the number, uni-
formity, and shape and size of the leaves, the number of suckers, the
height, and the time of ripening of the plants should be kept in mind
and the plants carefully examined with regard to these points. It is
of the greatest possible importance that the grower have a clear and
well-defined ideal of a perfect plant best adapted to the purposes for
which his crop is grown, and that the individuals selected as seed plants
conform as nearly as possible to this ideal type. In a given variety of
tobacco the increase in number and the improvement in shape and size
of the leaves are usually correlated with a corresponding improvement
in other important characteristics peculiar to the type. A large num-
ber of leaves is associated in most cases with few suckers, leaves of
fine venation, elasticity, strength, and other desirable qualities.

The tobacco plant is naturally self-fertile, but is frequently cross-
pollinated by insects or other agencies carrying the pollen from one
plant to another. The writer has observed that under natural condi-
tions most of the flowers on tobacco seed plants are cross-fertilized.
Darwin found that self-fertilized tobacco seed produced plants supe-
rior to seed cross-fertilized within the variety, and accounted for this
condition by supposing that this species is similar to the common pea
and a few other exotic plants which have been self-fertilized for many
generations. The variation in types and individual plants within the
variety may for the most part be attributed to cross-fertilization, and
uniform types and plants can only be secured by preventing this cross-
ing. Immediately preceding the complete development of the tobacco
flower, the funnel-like corolla and the stamens increase in length with
great rapidity. At this time a considerable quantity of a sweetish,
honey-like liquid is secreted in the base of the flower, and a number of
species of insects, including the common honey bee, visit the flowers
to obtain this nectar.

The anthers, which contain a large quantity of the dust-like pollen,

445 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

open below the receptive portion of the stigma. A few hours after
the flowers open the stamens increase in length so that the anthers are
in a position to allow a part of the pollen to fall on the stigma, and at
this time fertilization takes place. The period between the time of
the opening of the flower and the contact of the anthers with the
stigma gives an opportunity for cross-pollination by insects or other
means. The insects entering the flower at this time, after having
visited other flowers in like condition, naturally brush some of the
pollen from their bodies over the receptive portion of the stigma,
which is in condition for pollination. Furthermore, on entering the
corolla the insects are again covered by pollen from the freshly opened
anthers, so that this pollen is carried from flower to flower and from
plant to plant. In this way most of the flowers on the seed plants are
cross-fertilized. In view of the superior value of self-fertilized seed,
it is highly important that the growers use some means of protecting
the seed plants from cross-fertilization. This peculiar characteristic
of the tobacco plant renders the selection of seed and improvement of
the variety a simple process as compared with that in the case of other
crops. ‘The grower in making the selection of seed plants need only
take into account the characteristics of one parent, while in most other
crops the influence of both the mother and father plants has an effect
upon the character of the progeny.

SAVING SEED UNDER BAG.

_ A simple and effective means of protecting the tobacco flowers from
the injurious effects of cross-fertilization is by covering the flower
cluster with a paper bag before the flowers are ready for fertilization.
This bag should be made of light but strong and durable paper, which
will not injure the plant or flowers by bending the plant out of its
natural position, and will not be easily torn or destroyed by rain or
wind storms. The common manila bag, which can be secured at most
hardware or grocery stores, is admirably adapted for this purpose.
In the seed selections made by the writer in the Connecticut Valley a
parchment-paper bag was used, which has the advantage of lightness
and durability, and is impervious to water. The most convenient:
size of bag will depend upon the variety of tobacco and the size of the
seed head, but in general it should be about 9 inches wide and 15 inches
long. The shape of the bottom of the bag is important, from the fact
that the square-bottom style does not shed water as readily as a roof-
shaped bottom. A properly bagged Florida-grown Sumatra seed
plant is shown in Plate LXIU, figure 2.

The center cluster of flowers in the seed head should be used for seed
production, and all suckers or other seed-bearing branches should be
removed before the bag is applied. The preparation of the stalk for
the bag is shown by Plate LXIV, figure 2. The cluster of flowers on

PLATE LXIIl.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

FiG. 1.—PLANTS FROM DISEASED AND RESISTANT STRAINS OF SUMATRA
SEED.

Fic. 2.—FLORIDA SUMATRA SEED PLANT, WITH
BAG COVERING FLOWERS.

PLATE LXIV.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

Fic. 1.—FLowers AT PROPER STAGE OF MATURITY FOR BAGGING. Fic. 2.—INFLORESCENCE WITH SUCKER BRANCHES AND TOP LEAVES REMOVED,
READY FOR BAGGING,

INFLORESCENCE OF SUMATRA TOBACCO PLANTS.

7?

‘>

Saar

bh 4

6754
PS Tile

‘ = *
» Ss

1

pe

2

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO. 449

a single plant will usually produce from 300,000 to 500,000 seeds; there-
fore it is unnecessary to save the inferior capsules produced by the
suckers or lateral branches in order to secure sufficient seed for plant-
ing. The plants should be bagged before the earliest flowers begin to
open and the bags moved up the stem every two or three days, as the
plants increase in height, in order to allow sufficient space for the
development of the seed head without crowding. The proper condi-
tion of flowers is shown in Plate LXIV, figure 1. When most of the
capsules have begun development, indicating that fertilization has been
completed, the bags may be removed temporarily and all late flowers
cut off, so as not to interfere with the further development of the seed
in the early and most desirable capsules; after which the bags should
be replaced and allowed to remain on the plants until the seed heads
are harvested. The seed saved under bag in this manner is larger,
heavier, lighter in color, more free from mold, and has stronger
vitality or germinating power than seed saved without bagging.
After the capsules have turned brown, indicating maturity, the seed
stalks should be cut and hung in a dry place where there is a free
circulation of air, and allowed to remain until the seed has become
thoroughly dry. ‘The vitality of the seed can best be preserved by
storing in glass jars, thoroughly dried out.

TEST OF INDIVIDUAL SEED PLANTS.

The individual tobacco plants vary in transmitting power to such an
extent that it is advisable for the grower to test the selected seed
plants in this respect. The object of the test is to determine the
plants which most uniformly transmit the desirable characters to their
progeny. In order to ascertain the prepotency of the seed plants the
seed from individual plants should be saved separately and sowed in
separate plots in the seed bed the following season. A careful record
of the important characteristics upon which the selection of parent
plants is based is a valuable aid in the study of the progeny of these
plants. This record should be made in the field, as soon as the plants
have reached maturity, on tags attached to the individual seed plants.
The form of record varies with the type of tobacco and the purpose
of selection. The outline on page 450 is a convenient form of record
which has been used for cigar-wrapper varieties.

The tags bearing this recerd should remain attached to the seed
heads until the seed is harvested. The seed from each plant should be
shelled separately and kept in glass vials. Each vial should be num-
bered to correspond with the number of the plant from which the
seed was saved. The tags should be carefully preserved as a part of
the pedigree record of the plant and its progeny.

About 100 plants from each selection should be set out in a sepa-
rate row in the field and each row labeled with the number of the
parent plant. In the careful improvement of a variety of tobacco, it is

2 al1904——29

450 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

desirable to keep a record of the progeny of each parent plant in order
to measure the advance made by breeding and selection. This record
consists of notes on the development of each progeny row in the field
and the yield and value of each grade of cured tobacco. The plan

Variety Connecticut Sumatra

Plant Number 7

Date» CA gst 7, 1904

Type Green-leaf

LEAVES:
Number___-28 ss Length__ + 295m
Width 248m Phickness__Thin____
Shape Oval Going Deep
Uniformity__@o0d___ Rust None
Spots None Gum Normal
Maturity Early Position Erect
Venation Very fine

STEM:
Height__# feee___ Circumference__23 ”_
Length of internodes 4 inches

SucKERS:
Number 3 Size Small
Position Top of plant

SEED:
Number of pods 95

Date of harvesting September 19, 1904

shown on page 451 may be taken as an illustration of such a form of
record. The seed plants for the general crop should be selected from
the progeny rows which produce the largest number of plants possess-
ing the characteristics for which the parent plants were selected.

DISEASE-RESISTANT STRAINS. ;

The development of disease-resistant strains of tobacco will prob-
ably become one of the most important features of tobacco breeding.
In the case of a root disease attacking the Sumatra variety of tobacco,

IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO. 451

individual plants were found by the writer in 1903 which were appar-
ently resistant to this disease. In the affected fields most of the plants
succumbed and only a few produced marketable leaves. The seed
from the resistant plants was saved under bag, with the object of
securing a resistant type of this variety. The progeny from these
plants were resistant to the disease and produced a protitable crop of
tobacco, while the plants grown from other selected seed were as

Progeny notes.

Connecticut Sumatra

Variety

Number of selection tes
Date 1905

Type Green-leaf

SEED. PLANTS.

Uniformity Date
of young trans-
; plants. planted.

Per cent of |Date sowed
germina- in seed Date of
tio bed.

No. in
row.

Date
sprouted.

Date of ger-
mination.

Late. Very good. | May 25. 100

AY. Uni- ,
AV. AY. F : Posi-
No. |length. Se pong Venation.| Shape. ine Dt: Rust. | Spots.

28 Thin. | Veryfine.| Oval. | Good. | Erect. | None. | None. | Normal.

LEAVES. STEMS. SUCKERS.

Color.
Deep.

DATE.

Elasticity. | Height. beeps ae a Number. Size.

Maturity.

Good. 2 Very small.

8 ft. 2 in.

YIELD.

Wrappers:
1. Light, 2 Ibs.
Medium, 3 lbs.

Harvest. | Cured. | Bulked. Ba ge Pha

1. Aug. 18.} Sept.30.} Oct. 7. | Nov. 23. ‘

2. Aug. 23. ;

3. Sept. 1. . Seconds, 3 lb.

oe WwW

Dark, 2lbs. »
Fillers, 3 i lb.

seriously injured as in eS) a previous year. Plants from the resistant
and semiresistant strains of seed are shown in Plate LXIII, figure 1.
Similar cases of resistance have been observed in Porto Rico and
other tobacco regions. This evidence, considered in connection with
the production of disease-resistant strains in other crops, suggests the
possibility of breeding types of tobacco resistant to many of the com-
mon tobacco diseases.

452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

IMPROVEMENTS BY CROSSING VARIETIES,

The production of uniform types of established varieties of tobacco
can only be secured by using the seed from self-fertilized plants, but
new strains of varieties adapted for special purposes can be produced
most readily by crossing different varieties. The production of new
types of the hardy native varieties by crossing with the standard
imported varieties may result in the development of new races, com-
bining the hardiness and yield of the native with the desirable qualities
of the imported tobacco. In Algeria, Dr. Louis Trabut crossed the
best races of the acclimated varieties with foreign tobaccos and secured
a number of types which were a great improvement over the native
varieties. These new varieties, in which were united the desirable
qualities of the native and foreign tobaccos, were distributed to plant-
ers and gave very satisfactory results.

The experiments of Darwin show that while crossing within a vari-
ety is detrimental, the crossing of different varieties produced seed of
stronger vitality, more rapid growth of the young plants, earlier
flowering of the mature plants, and a greater yield than the self-
fertilized seed. He says:

When the flowers of one variety were crossed with pollen from a somewhat differ-
ent variety, which had grown under somewhat different conditions, that is, by a fresh
stock, the seedlings derived from this cross exceeded in height and weight those
from the self-fertilized flowers in an extraordinary degree.

Similar results have been obtained by Dr. Leonard Angeloni in a
series of experiments with the crossing of a large number of Italian
and foreign varieties of tobacco.

Inthe season of 1903 crosses were made with the native and imported
varieties of cigar tobaccos. The progeny from these crosses showed a
great improvement in quality, vigor of growth, and yield over the
native types. The shape of leaf was materially modified, particularly
in the case of the hybrids of Havana seed and Cuban, and Havana seed
and Sumatra. This modification in shape and type of leaf by hybrid-
ization is illustrated in Plate LIX, figure 2. These hybrids produced
very round leaves with regular and uniformly fine veins from the tip
to the base. These leaves were of finer and more elastic texture than
the Havana seed and better adapted for cigar-wrapper purposes. In
the case of the crosses in which the Broadleaf variety was used as the
mother parent, results were even more striking. The selection of
seed from the desirable individual plants will, doubtless, result in
the general improvement of quality and increase in yield. All other
crosses showed similar results, and led to the belief that by the judi-
cious blending of the foreign and native varieties it will be possible to
produce strains possessing the desirable qualities of imported tobacco,
together with the hardiness and yield of the native varieties.

THE DETERMINATION OF TIMBER VALUES.

By Epwarp A. BRraAnirr,
Forest Assistant, Bureau of Forestry.

INTRODUCTION.

In the past it has been customary to base estimates of probable
profits from the management of lands for the future production of
timber in the United States upon the increase of the timber in quan-
tity. Everyone familiar with the lumber business knows, however,
that the lumber which comes out of large trees is worth more per
thousand feet than that which comes from small trees, because the
large trees turn out a higher proportion of the choice grades. It is
apparent that estimates of profits through careful forest management
should take into account this factor of quality increase; but, in the
absence of an accurate determination of what this quality increase is,
it has hitherto been impossible to do more than state in general terms
the fact that such an increase would take place and that its effect would
be to make the profit from deferred operations greater than that actu-
ally shown by the figures indicating the future yield to be expected.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

During the winter of 1903-4, and the following spring and summer,
experiments in sawmills in different parts of the country were con-
ducted by the Bureau of Forestry. This article will be confined to
a statement of how the experiments were performed, to extracts from
some of the tables and the printing in full of others, and toa brief
discussion of their application.

The experiments completed so far have to do with longleaf pine in
Alabama and in Louisiana, and with yellow birch, sugar maple, and
beech in the Adirondacks of New York. The results here reported
were obtained mainly from Adirondack hardwoods. Further experi-
ments are now progressing in the Appalachians of West Virginia with
yellow poplar, white oak, chestnut, ash, and other hardwoods typical
of that region.

The main question which the experiments were to answer was:
Exactly how much more valuable is a particular kind of tree of a cer-
tain size than another tree of the same kind and of smaller size?
- Clearly, the matter could be got at only by following the logs from
trees of all diameters through the sawmill and finding out what each
sawed out in amounts and grades of timber. And since the experi-
ment was concerned not with individual logs, but with whole trees, all

453

454 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the logs from each tree had to be traced in such a way that the aggre-
gate product might be known. So men were placed in the woods who
followed the saw crews, scaled each log, and marked it on the ends.
Each tree was given a number and each log in that tree an additional
figure, as 1, 2, ete., to indicate the first log, second log, ete. For
example, 576” indicated the second log from tree 576. The logs were
scaled according to the log rule locally used, as a check for their
identification and in order to compare their contents according to the
log rule with what they actually sawed out in the mill.

In the mill a man was stationed next to the slab carrier, and as each
piece of siding from a marked log dropped on the live rollers this man
chalked on it while it went by the number of the log from which it
came. When a marked siding had passed through the edger and trim-
mer and had come out at the end of the mill a piece of manufactured
lumber, it was graded by a competent inspector, and its log number,
dimensions, and grade were tallied. By these means the contents of
each log, both in grades and in quantities of lumber, were absolutely
determined.

This, in brief, was the method used for all species except longleaf
pine. In the case of longleaf pine the number of men available for the
work was not suflicient to trace each piece of siding through the mill
to see what it actually made in lumber. Instead, it was graded as it
dropped from the saw and its contents were estimated.

In working up the results, the logs that had passed through the mill
were first combined to form complete trees. If a log were missing,
the results for all the rest of the logs from that tree had to be thrown
out. An exception was made in the case of Adirondack hardwoods,
when the missing log was an 8-foot top cut of just sufficient diameter
to make a railroad tie and one or two boards of the inferior grades.
In such cases the missing log was graded like a top log of similar
dimensions and species from another tree. In no instance was this
substitution used for any but small, knotty, 8-foot top logs, and then
only when it could safely be done.

The trees were next divided into diameter classes varying by 1 inch,
and all the lumber from each class was tallied by separate grades. The
total number of feet of each grade was then divided by the number of
trees tallied for that class, and the result was the average amount of
lumber of that grade. Finally, the figures for each grade were rounded
off by curves to reduce irregularities.

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

The results of these measurements were two tables for each species, -
one showing the number of feet of each grade of lumber sawed from
a tree of given diameter, the second showing the money value of the
lumber yielded by a single tree of each size, and the average value per

DETERMINATION OF TIMBER VALUES. 455

thousand feet of the lumber. The tables showing money values were
made by applying to the tables of grades the average selling price of
the lumber at the mill.

-

YELLOW BIRCH,
The following table gives the grades for yellow birch:
Graded volume of yellow birch.

Diam- Firsts Shipping | Mill culls

eter and Firsts culls (No. Number
breast- | seconds and 2 com- of trees
high. red. seconds. mon). tallied.
Inches. Ba. ft.
De ae dein ets Pe .
aise (aciasaieairas 16
MG yates hoem3 23
16 | [noms <2 :* 32
maattl Caatarnbe ee 32
18 2 57
19 4 50
20 8 39
21 23 40
22 26 46
23 36> 25
24 48 37
25 62 30
26 81 24
27 101 28
28 e 116 110 16
29 128 120 4
30 139 132 12
31 150 144 4

aTo obtain number of ties divide board feet in this column by 42.

This table shows the yield of choice grades of birch advancing rap-
idly with the growth of the tree. The choice grades are firsts and
seconds red and firsts and seconds. The amount of red birch in a tree
under 18 inches in diameter is too small to consider. An 18-inch tree
contained 2 board feet of this high-priced lumber, a 19-inch tree only
4 feet of it, a 20-inch tree 8 feet, but in a 21-inch tree the amount rose
to 23 board feet, showing a gain of almost 200 per cent over the product
of the previous diameter. The explanation for the exceptional increase
is that the rules of the National Hardwood Lumber Association, under
which the lumber was inspected, require red birch 4 or 5 inches wide
to show one face all red; over 5 inches, one face must be not less than
75 per cent red. Red birch is heartwood, and it happens that the
heartwood is not wide enough to pass the severe inspection in consid-
erable quantities in trees under 21 inches in diameter. The increase
of red birch goes on steadily from the 21-inch to the highest diameters.
The next best grade, firsts and seconds, not graded by color, is con-
tained in practically all sizes of merchantable trees. The increase of

456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this grade goes on steadily, but is greatest between 18-inch and 23-inch
trees, because the inspection rules, which favor wide boards, show
their greatest effect here. Narrow boards from small trees grade
lower than wide boards from large trees.

When we compare the choice grades (firsts and seconds red, and
firsts and seconds) with the common ones (No. 1 common, shipping
culls, and mill culls) we find that the choice grades increase, on the
whole, much more rapidly with the growth of the tree than do the
latter. In the case of firsts and seconds red there was a rise between
a 13-inch and a 81-inch tree from 0 to 150 feet; and in the case of
firsts and seconds from 38 to 144 feet. Contrast this with No. 1
common, which rises from 5 to 68 feet; with shipping culls, which
rise from 6 to 25 feet; and with mill culls, which rise from 20 to 180
feet, and the tendency of the better grades to outstrip the poor ones
becomes apparent. The fact must not be overlooked, however, that
a considerable amount of what would have made inferior grades went,
in this instance, into railroad ties.

The following price list for hardwoods was made up after inquiry
among hardwood jobbing houses in New York and Boston:

Prices of different grades of lumber from birch, maple, and beech trees.

Price per thousand board feet.
Grade. OEE PR ii Sn Et
Birch. | Maple.

Firsts and seconds red ..<<csccanchacccsennucesoncl’ & OO ebaces Soeles caeeenae

First and seeenegs.-<.w i255 owawctnonseyssaneeewans $20
NO. T. COMMON 2... oacacec nv ee a ceustesnes daanmae nae 14
No. 2 common (shipping culls) 8
No. 8 comynon (wil) OTS) cs nnccunctsnnasccreauas 6

In most instances the lowest price quoted was used. The value of
the railroad ties was assumed to be 40 cents for a 7 by 9 inch tie 8 feet
long, equivalent to $9.52 per thousand feet—a reasonably low price.

The figures given afford a basis for calculating the value of yellow
birch trees. For example, take a birch 21 inches in diameter. Turn-
ing to the table of grades we find that such a tree contains 23 feet of
firsts and seconds red, worth, according to the price list, $33 per
thousand; 54 feet of firsts and seconds at $23; 28 feet of No. 1 common
at $14; 13 feet of shipping culls at $8; 65 feet of mill culls at $6; 114
feet of railroad ties at 40 cents per tie of 42 feet—in all, 297 feet,
worth $3.97, or $13.37 per thousand feet, at the mill.

It must not be supposed, however, that as a matter of fact the exact
value of a tree of a given diameter can be calculated with absolute
accuracy on the basis of the figures herewith presented. The pur-
pose of the present article is to give an indication of the rate at which
the timber value of a tree increases with its diameter growth, in

DETERMINATION OF TIMBER VALUES. 457

consequence of the higher quality of lumber which it will yield. The
number of yellow birch trees tallied for the various diameters in the
above table of grades ranged from 4 to 57, and, as has already been
stated, the figures of yield of the several grades given in the table do
not represent the actual product sawed out, but were obtained by con-
structing curves to round off the inequalities shown by the actual
individual averages in order to secure a nearer approximation to the
general average. ‘That the inequalities thus rounded off were in some
cases considerable goes to prove that it would be unsafe to rely too
closely on calculations from this table of the exact yield to be expected.

Further, the judgment of both the sawyer and the grader enters
into the determination of the amount of lumber of each grade which
a particular log will yield. Had the logs tallied been sawed at another
mill, or even at the same mill at another time, the figures would have
varied slightly. Under no circumstances is it possible to construct a
table which will enable one to tell infallibly how much lumber of dif-
ferent grades a single tree will saw out. It is, however, possible
for an owner to calculate pretty closely from the above table what he
may expect to saw from a considerable body of timber of known size.
From this again it is possible to construct a table of values like the
following: |

Value of yellow birch.

ce: aarti Graded | Value Liles gee Graded | Value Pilcw

high. volume. | per tree. | *}@ ‘ft. high. volume. | per tree. | *}@_ ft.

Inches. | Bad. ft. Inches. | Bd. ft.
13 59 $0. 55 $9. 32 23 363 $5. 19 $14. 30
14 95 . 89 9. 37 24 388 5. 80 14. 95
15 125 £22 9.76 25 408 6.39 15. 66
16 146 1.52 10. 41 26 434 7.15 16. 48
17 163 1.78 10. 92 27 470 8. 03 17.09
182. 12.4948 2.13 11. 45 28 505 8. 80 17. 43
19 217 2. 56 11. 80 29 545 9. 57 17. 56
20 250 38. 06 12. 24 30 588 10. 34 17. 59

Zi 297 3. 98 13. 40 31 619 10. 99 17.75
| 831 4,51 13. 63 1

SUGAR MAPLE AND BEECH COMPARED WITH YELLOW BIRCH.

Similar tables were constructed for sugar maple and for beech in
the Adirondacks, and for longleaf pine in Alabama and in Louisiana.
The following extract from the hardwood tables gives a comparison
of the value of the lumber sawed from birch, maple, and beech of dif-
ferent diameters.

458 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Value per thousand feet board measure of lumber from Adirondack hardwoods,

_ — - — = —

2 " fact
Diameter Diameter!

Yellow Sugar

stn : birch. maple, Beech, 6 lone La inl Beech,

Inches. Inches.
13 $9, 32 $9. 75 $8, 29 23
14 9. 37 9. 83 8.70 24
15 9. 76 9, 93 8.94 25
16 10. 41 10. 37 8. 98 26
17 10, 92 10. 71 9.10 27
18 11. 45 1.1 9, 24 28
19 11. 80 11. 47 9. 33 29
20 12. 24 11. 84 9. 45 30
21 13. 40 12. 30 9. 52 31
22 13. 63 12. 57 9. 61

According to this table lumber from a 24-inch birch tree is worth
$5.63 a thousand feet more than from a 13-inch tree; from a sugar
maple, $3.13; and from a beech, $1.39.¢ The difference is more marked
in the case of birch largely because of the presence in the high diam-
eters of the high-priced grade, firsts and seconds red. The table for
birch.gives values up to 31 inches. A lumberman in cutting all sizes
of birch would get, according to these figures, $8.43 per thousand feet
more from his 31-inch trees than from his 13-inch trees.

The increase in value of the lumber with the growth of the tree was
found to be much more rapid in the case of Adirondack birch and
maple than in that of longleaf pine. The difference in value per thou-
sand feet of the lumber from 14-inch and from 24-inch pine was $1.72,
while the difference between the same diameters of birch was $5.58,
and of maple $3.05. This is accounted for partly by the fact that
the inspection of narrow boards is more severe with hardwoods than
with pine, partly because the difference in value between poor and
choice lumber is more marked in the case of birch and maple than in
that of pine. The comparison is, however, not strictly a fair one, for
the reason that in the experiments with longleaf pine very defective.
trees were rejected, while in the hardwood experiment the run of the
forest at McKeever, N. Y., was taken.

PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE RESULTS.

The practical uses to which such tables might be put are apparent.
With due allowance for slight changes in the character of his timber,
any Adirondack lumberman could use them as a basis for figuring out,
with his own price list, the values of his hardwoods. If he knows
what the expenses of stumpage, logging, and manufacture amount to,
he would be able to determine within close limits what trees he could
cut at a profit and what trees he had better leave in the woods. In

@ Beech over 23 inches shows a falling off in quality due to decay.

DETERMINATION OF TIMBER VALUES. 459

brief, he would have at hand an excellent guide to assist him in lum-
bering and in fixing a value on his timberlands.

Wherever surveys have been made which show the number of trees
of various diameters of each species on the average acre, the tables of
value could be used with peculiar effectiveness. Such surveys have
been made on a number of tracts in the Adirondacks by the Bureau
of Forestry. In a working plan for a tract at McKeever, N. Y.,
the lands were divided into six types, and the number of trees of each
diameter for each species on the average acre was determined for each
type. In a working plan made for a tract at St. Regis, N. Y., the
number of trees of each diameter of each species on the average acre
was determined for all types combined. On virgin hardwood land on
the McKeever tract there were, on the average acre, of 17-inch trees,
0.80 yellow birch, 0.70 sugar maple, and 1.34 beech; of 18-inch trees
there were 0.66 birch, 0.68 maple, and 0.96 beech, and so on. [If all
expenses of stumpage, logging, and manufacture should be as low as
$10.50 on 17-inch trees there would be a profit of 42 cents per thousand
feet on birch and 21 cents per thousand feet on maple. And the larger
the tree cut the higher the profit. Should all birch and maple be cut
down to and including 17-inch trees, there would be, with expenses
at $10.50, a profit of $11.32 per acre, of which $9.82 would be from
birch and $1.50 from maple. The average profit per thousand feet on
all trees cut would be $4.15 from birch and $1.49 from maple.

But the profits from small trees are so slight as to make it hardly
worth while removing them; certainly inadvisable if a future timber
crop is to be considered. Calculating again, we find that the profits
from birch and maple, if cut down to and including 18 inches, would
be $11.26; cutting to 19 inches, they would be $11.06; cutting to 20
inches, they would be $10.72 per acre, etc. It will be noted that,
while the smaller the cutting limit the higher the profit per acre (unless
trees are taken so small as to cause an actual loss), the lower is the
profit per thousand feet on the timber removed; on the other hand,
the higher the cutting limit the lower is the profit per acre, but the
higher the profit per thousand feet on the timber removed. Cutting
birch and maple trees 17 inches and over, the profit per thousand
would be $5.64; trees 18 inches and over, $6.04; trees 19 inches and
over, $6.46; 20 inches and over, $6.91. ‘‘ Profit per acre” and ‘‘ profit
per thousand feet” work in opposite directions.

Expenses vary according to distance of the timber from the means
of transportation, conditions in the woods, topography, cost and
quality of labor, ete. An expense of $10.50 for logging and manu-
facture, including stumpage, is generally considered low for hardwood
lumbering in the Adirondacks, and when the expense is more than
$12.75 operations are, in many cases, scarcely practicable. The profits
per acre and per thousand feet in lumbering birch and maple when

460 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

expenses are $10.50, $10.75, $11, $11.25, $11.50, $11.75, $12, $12.25,
$12.50, and $12.75 per thousand feet were calculated for the tracts
mentioned above, and the results do not encourage indiscriminate cut-
ting of hardwoods in the Adirondacks; on the contrary, they furnish
the strongest possible argument against careless lumbering. Hard-
wood lumbering in the Adirondacks is so expensive that asa rule it
does not pay to cut any but the larger trees for lumber. It is highly
to the advantage of the lumberman to know just at what diameter
limit his profits are turned into losses, and it is equally to the advan-
tage of the future productive capacity of the forest that he should know
this. These figures prove that the lumberman who would make the
highest profits out of the Adirondack hardwoods must cut within
certain diameter limits and leave, in most cases, a considerable stand of
timber uncut. The argument is based not at all on what is best for
the forest, but entirely on present expediency for the lumberman.
It happens, however, that what is best for the lumberman turns out,
in this case, to be excellent for the forest. Hardwood lumbering in
the Adirondacks is not yet on a large scale, but with the growing
scarcity of timber and the advancing prices of lumber there is little
doubt that it soon will be. Every effort should be made to induce
Adirondack lumbermen to regulate their cutting and to show them
that in taking small trees they are working directly against their own
interests.

THE ANNUAL LOSS OCCASIONED BY DESTRUCTIVE
INSECTS IN THE UNITED STATES.

By C. L. Marwatr,
Assistant Entomologist, in Charge of Experimental Field Work, Bureau of Entomology.

INTRODUCTION.

In no country in the world do insects impose a heavier tax on farm
products than in the United States. The losses resulting from the
depredations of insects on all the plant products of the soil, both in
their growing and in their stored state, together with those on live
stock, exceed the entire expenditures of the National Government,
including the pension roll and the maintenance of the Army and the
Navy. Enormous as is the total value of all farm products in this
country, it would be very much greater were it not for the work of
these injurious insects. The statistics of agricultural products for the
year 1889, of the Twelfth Census, and for subsequent years, gathered
by the Bureau of Statistics of this Department, indicate an annual
value of all the products of the farm of about $5,000,000,000. To one
familiar with the work of the important insect pests of the different
agricultural products entering into this total it is comparatively easy
to approximate the probable shrinkage due to insects. The detailed
consideration of such shrinkages which follows indicates that they will
rarely fall below 10 per cent, and in years of excessive insect damage
may amount to 50 per cent or even more of the important staple
products of the farm. An annual shrinkage of 10 per cent is a low
estimate, which is more often exceeded than fallen below, and indicates,
at current farm prices, a money loss of $500,000,000—the minimum
yearly tax which insects lay on the products of the farm. This total
comprises, however, only losses suffered by the growing and maturing
crops and annually by live stock, and does not include two very con-
siderable and legitimate items, namely, the loss occasioned by insect
pests to farm products, chiefly cereals and forage crops, in storage,
and to natural forests and forest products. As shown in the consider-
ation of these two sources of loss presented below, at least $100,000,000
must be assigned to each, making a total annual tax chargeable to
insects of $700,000,000.

BASIS OF ESTIMATES.

Throughout this paper the estimate of losses in dollars is based on
the farm price of the crop actually harvested, and does not, therefore,
take into account the possible reduction in value which would follow
the marketing of the larger crop. While it is true that prices are

461

462 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

regulated by production, the factor of distribution may often pre-
dominate, so that large crops in certain countries may sometimes
bring good prices and small crops low prices. During the last ten
years, for example, the price of wheat in this country has exhibited
little if any relation to our own production. ‘The bumper wheat crop
of 1901 of nearly 750,000,000 bushels brought to the farmer 23 cents a
bushel more than the crop of 1894, which was 300,000,000 bushels
less, or but little more than half the production of 1901; and this year
(1904) the farmer is getting nearly $1 a bushel for his wheat on a crop
larger than the average.

Some definite means of estimating losses must be assumed, and any
effort to scale down these losses by reckoning possible enhancement of
the market price in view of the conditions just cited would come more
in the category of pure guesswork and be open to quite as great
objection as the plan adopted. As an offset to possibly enhanced
values due to shrinkages occasioned by insects, moreover, are certain
very legitimate items of cost. A very considerable item of loss
properly chargeable to insects is the annual expenditure devoted to
their control, which, except in the case of certain fruit ‘and truck
crops, has not been considered in the estimates. This amounts to a
very considerable percentage of the value of the crop in the case of
orchard fruits, truck crops, and such field crops as cotton and tobacco.
In the case of the cereals, protection is chiefly secured by farm
practices, such as rotation of crops, variations in the time of planting,
etc., and this also applies, to some extent, to cotton, tobaceo, and
truck crops. In estimating the losses due to the codling moth, for
illustration, it is shown that over $8,000,000 a year is expended in
spraying apple trees, allowing a cost of only 5 cents per tree. In the
case of citrus fruits the cost of gassing and spraying ranges from 5
cents to $1.50 per tree.

Another legitimate class of losses not included in the estimate is the
secondary losses which necessarily result from diminished products.
For example, the excessive reduction in winter wheat through the
Hessian fly ravages in 1900 put a serious check upon milling opera-
tions throughout the region worst affected and caused very heavy loss in
this field of industry. Similarly a shortage of cotton may so increase the
values as to lead to the shutting down of cotton mills, as has been illus-
trated recently. A shortage of grains means a corresponding loss to
the railroads and other transportation companies and to shippers. In
other words, any material shrinkage in an important product starts a
train of losses to the end of the chapter, the total amount of which is
quite beyond calculation or estimate.

The writer believes that these omitted items of loss will make good
any difference of price which might result from the larger crops if
insect damage were entirely eliminated. Outside of the cash value of

ANNUAL LOSS OCCASIONED BY INSECTS. 463

-

the crop, furthermore, is the actual material loss in products, which is
absolute so far as the consumer is concerned. The importance of this
loss will vary with the nature of the crop. With perishable products,
such as fresh fruits and vegetables, the losses due to insects may be of
minor importance. For example, if the apple crop were increased by
25 or 50 per cent of marketable fruit, values would probably shrink a
corresponding amount, and the demands of consumption and the pos-
sibilities of storage be very greatly exceeded, so that there would
actually be very little benefit, if any, to the producer. On the other
hand, in the case of staple products of long keeping quality, as grains,
cotton, sugar, lumber products, etc., the loss may be reckoned as more
nearly complete, and the chief loss due to insects falls in this latter
class.
RESULTS OF CONTROL OF INSECTS.

Enormous as is the annual loss which may now be fairly charged to
insects, it would undoubtedly be vastly greater if such pests were left
absolutely unchecked and no efforts were made to limit their opera-
tions. Were it not for the methods of controlling insect pests, result-
ing from the studies of the Bureau of Entomology and of the official
entomologists of the various States, and the practice of these measures
by progressive farmers and fruit-growers, the losses from insects would
be greatly increased. Familiar illustrations of savings from insect
losses will occur to anyone familiar with the work in economic. or
applied entomology in this country. The cotton worm, before it
was studied and the method of controlling it by the use of arsenicals
was made common knowledge, levied in bad years a tax of $30,000,000.
on the cotton crop. The prevention of loss from the Hessian fly, due
to the knowledge of proper seasons for planting wheat, and other
direct and cultural methods, results in the saving of wheat to the
farm value of from $100,000,000 to $200,000,000 annually. Careful
statistics show that the damage from the codling moth to the apple
is limited two-thirds by the adoption of the arsenical sprays, band-
ing, and other methods of control, representing a saving of from
$15,000,000 to $20,000,000 in the value of this fruit product alone.
The existence and progress of the citrus industry of California were
made possible by the introduction from Australia of a natural enemy
-of the white scale, an insect pest which was rapidly destroying the
orange and lemon orchards, this introduction representing a saving
to the people of that State of many million dollars every year. The
rotation of corn with oats or other crops saves the corn crop from
the attacks of the root worm to the extent of perhaps $100,000,000
annually in the chief corn-producing regions of the Mississippi Valley.
The cultural system of controlling the boll weevil is already saving
the farmers of Texas many millions of dollars, and, in fact, making the
continuance of cotton growing possible; and scores of similar illustra-
tions could be cited.

464 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The losses occasioned by insects to farm products exhibit a wide
range in different years, due, as a rule, to favorable or unfavorable
climatic conditions, and also to the abundance, from time to time, of
The result is more or less periodicity in the occur-
rence of bad insect years. In other words, periods of unusual abun-
dance of particular insect pests are, as a rule, followed by a number
of years of comparative scarcity. Furthermore, seasons which may
be favorable to one insect may prove unfavorable to others, hence
there may be not only periodicity in the occurrence of the same insect,
but more or less of a rotation of the different insect pests of particular
crops.

natural enemies.

THE VALUES OF FARM PRODUCTS AND LOSSES CHARGEABLE TO INSECT
PESTS. ?

In the table following, the value of certain farm products, namely,
the cereals, hay, cotton, and tobacco, is based on the reports of the
Bureau of Statistics of this Department for 1904. The other values
are taken from the census figures of 1900. The values assigned to
farm productsare given in round numbers for convenience in citation,
and allied products are thrown together to get a more compact and
readily understood statement. The last two columns, indicating the
shrinkage due to insect work, are based on the crop actually harvested—
that is to say, except for such damage the crop would have been 10 or
20 per cent greater. It will be noted also that the total value of farm
products is greater than that given in the opening paragraphs of this
article. This is accounted for by the fact that for the purposes of
this table, indicating insect damage, no subtractions are necessary to
represent the farm products consumed by live stock, inasmuch ‘as the
damage due to insects is to the growing and maturing crop, and the
losses indicated for the crops and for animal products are independent.

Annual values of farm products and losses chargeable to insect pests.

Percent-
age of
oss.

Product. Amount of loss.

10 | $200, 000, 000

$2, 000, 000, 000

gS on ne tate St ON eA erie eg 530, 000, 000 10 53, 000, 000

Peer beads alka’ a seated 600, 000, 000 10 60, 000, 000

ios bee Soe he te tee oe 53, 000, 000 10 5, 300, 000
MrockiGropsjces; 2207. waeeenneteasss 265, 000, 000 20 538, 000, 000
BURST oto eee ens 2 caine 50, 000, 000 10 5, 000, 000
Mag |: pees Es 2 - Si e s 135, 000, 000 20 27, 000, 000
Farm. TOresis ss. ss csc esse denee aaa 110, 000, 000 i 11, 000, 000
Miscellaneous crops .........------- 58, 000, 000 10 5, 800, 000
Animal products:s cn i cc<a-eaesaennar 1, 750, 000, 000 10 175, 000, 000
J. ddobabidaldbntestenbele ¢ ainias 5,551, 000, 000 |..........| 595, 100, 000

Natural forests and forest products.|.........---------|---.- scenes 100, 000, 000
Products in ptovenG s 2.50.4... nnn ebieliiee as aenetten le than cen ae 100, 000, 000
Grand hotel fis. so ash ea dee tend on suet eave sees 795, 100, 000

ANNUAL LOSS OCOCASIONED BY INSECTS. 465

INSECT DAMAGE TO CEREAL CROPS.

Only the losses to the two more important cereals, corn and wheat,
will be discussed in this paper, as the injury to oats, barley, rye, etc.,
will average about the same percentage and need not be specifically
analyzed.

INSECT DAMAGE TO CORN.

In point of quantity and value corn is the leading cereal crop of
the United States. Its annual farm value in later years has nearly
equaled and sometimes exceeded $1,000,000,000. While less subject
to insect damage than wheat, the next most important cereal, the corn
product would be considerably greater were it not for important insect
pests. The work of several of these is obscure, and many farmers are
entirely ignorant of the existence even of some of the worst enemies
of this crop. In this last category falls the work of the corn root
worm (Diabrotica longicornis), which ordinarily passes unnoticed, or at
least is often misunderstood. The larva of this insect feeds on the
roots of young corn, and in regions of bad attack may cause an almost
entire loss of the stand. The corn root worm, together with one or
two allied species working in substantially the same way, causes an
annual loss of at least 2 per cent of the crop, or some $20,000,000.

Perhaps the next most important insect pest of this cereal is the boll
worm or ear worm. ‘This insect, as shown by Mr. A. L. Quaintance,
special field agent of this Bureau, probably attacks from 90 to 100
per cent of the ears of sweet corn throughout the country, and in the
South practically an equal percentage of the ears of field corn, as
shown by actual counts in the field made during the years 1902 and
1903. ‘The average loss in the number of kernels to an attacked ear is
15 per cent, or, if allowance be made for the smaller size of the termi-
nal kernels, at least a loss of 74 per cent. The percentage of loss is
less in the great corn areas of the Northern and Middle States, but a
2 per cent loss for the United States chargeable to this insect is cer-
tainly wel! within the limits of actual damage, and would, for the corn
crop of 1904, indicate a loss of over $20,000,000. |

Of perhaps equal importance to this crop are the depredations of
the chinch bug. Chinch bug injury is, as a rule, more marked where
corn is grown in the neighborhood of wheat or other small grains, and
in such cases the migration of the chinch bug from wheat to corn may
often result in the total destruction of considerable areas of corn.
The chinch bug is a strong fiier also, and at the period of migration in
midsummer corn is often attacked, the loss in the case of this cereal
being, however, very much less than in the case of wheat. For the
country as a whole, however, the loss from the chinch bug, taking one

2 a1904—30

466 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

year with another, will probably be 2 per cent of the crop, or, esti-
mating from the crop of 1904, $20,000,000.

Kivery year in different sections of the country there is notable
injury to corn by such insects as bill-bugs, the various wireworms,
cutworms, and army worms, stalk-borers, various species of locusts
or grasshoppers, corn plant-lice, and other insects, to a total of fifty
fairly important species. These minor pests undoubtedly cause a loss
of an additional 2 per cent, making a total annual injury of 8 per cent,
and indicating a loss of $80,000,000.

INSECT DAMAGE TO WHEAT.

Of the cereal crops of this country wheat suffers most from insect
depredations. Of the large number of insects which depredate on
this cereal, the three important species are the Hessian fly, the chinch
bug, and the grain plant-louse, using the latter term to include several
allied species which work in much the same manner. The chinch bug
is notably a wheat pest, although its damage to other cereals and forage
crops is very considerable. The losses from the depredations of this
insect on wheat in single States have ranged between $10,000,000 and
$20,000,000 in one year. A very reasonable average annual estimate
of loss, taking the country as a whole, would be 5 per cent of the value
of the wheat crop, which would indicate about $20,000,000 a year
chargeable to this insect. :

The Hessian fly is distinctly a wheat pest, although doing some dam-
age also to rye and barley. The losses due to this insect will be
considered more in detail to indicate their nature specifically and to
illustrate the exactness and reliability which may sometimes charac-
terize records of this kind relating to particular pests of a single crop.

The season of 1900 is notable in Hessian-fly annals as exhibiting the
most destructive work of this pest in recent years. The fly was very
generally present throughout the main wheat-growing districts of the
Ohio and Mississippi valleys, but its ravages were this year con-
centrated particularly in Ohio and Indiana. ‘The statistics of the acre-
age and yield of wheat and value of the crop for this year for the
States mentioned reflect very plainly the loss occasioned by this pest.
The wheat area in these two States in 1900 and the years immediately
preceding was about 5,000,000 acres. Chiefly on account of the rav-
ages of the Hessian fly more than half of this acreage (2,577,000 acres)
had been abandoned and planted to other crops prior to May 1, 1900,
as shown by the records collected by the Bureau of Statistics of this
Department. The abandonment was about 40 per cent for Ohio and 60
percent for Indiana. The cost of the preparation of soil, planting, and
seed wheat for this abandoned acreage is all that need be reckoned, inas-
much as it was possible to use the land for other crops, such as corn
or oats. The loss in labor and material indicated will approximate

ANNUAL LOSS OCOASIONED BY INSEOTS. 467

$3.50 per acre, giving a total of over $9,000,000. Of the remaining
wheat acreage, the average yield per acre for this year in Ohio was 6
bushels as against 15.3 bushels for the year following, 14.2 bushels
for the year previous, and nearly 17 bushels for the years 1897 and
1898. For Indiana, the yield per acre in 1900 was only 5.3 bushels as
contrasted with 15.8 bushels for 1901, and 15.6 and 9.8 bushels,
respectively, for 1898 and 1899. In other words, a decrease in the
yield per acre is shown of nearly two-thirds, for these two States, for
the area in wheat which was left for harvesting. The Hessian fly does
more or less damage every year, which reduces the average yield per
acre, and, therefore, if such damage be eliminated, the average yield
per acre should be in the neighborhood of 15 bushels, indicating a loss
for this year from the Hessian fly of nearly 10 bushels per acre for
the area harvested, or, for the two States, of 24,230,000 bushels of
wheat, of approximately a farm value (at the low price for that year)
of $15,000,000. This loss, combined with the $9,000,000 indicated for
the abandoned acreage, gives a total direct loss for these two States of
over $24,000,000. ‘These figures, enormous as they are, are based on
the careful statistical records of the acreage, yield, and prices of
1900 collected by the Statistician of the Department, working entirely
independently of the Bureau of Entomology.

During this year the damage in other wheat-producing States was
notable. For example, more than 20 per cent of the planted area of
Michigan was abandoned, and lesser amounts in other States, with
great shrinkages in the yield of acreage which was actually harvested.
The loss, therefore, for this single season, due to the Hessian fly,
undoubtedly approached $100,000,000.

The losses occasioned by this insect, while showing great fluctua-
tion, as indicated above, are an annual tax on the wheat crop. Except
in cases of exceptional severity they pass, however, comparatively
unnoticed. For example, the Hessian fly is not being especially
complained of this year (1904), yet the agent investigating the insect
enemies of cereal crops in the Ohio valley reports that many fields
show injury to the extent of from 50 to 75 per cent. In compara-
tively few years does this insect cause a loss less than 10 per cent of
the crop, or the equivalent of a shrinkage of over 50,000,000 bushels
in the yield, or, on the valuation of the crop for 1904, of over
$40,000,000. |

The losses due to wheat plant-lice are often very considerable,
resulting in a heavy shrinkage of wheat at the moment of maturity,
when the wheat heads may be covered with these lice, sucking away
at the soft, forming kernels. The yield of badly infested fields may be
reduced at this time from 25 to 50 per cent, and when weather condi-
tions are favorable this pest is often abundant over enormous areas.

468 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘The annual loss occasioned by wheat plant-lice probably does not fall
short of 2 or 3 per cent of the crop.

The many other insects depredating on wheat, including grasshop-
pers, the wheat midge, several species of sawflies, and the cutworms
and army worms, will swell the total of loss to at least 20 per cent of
the crop. In other words, were it not for the attack of these pests
the wheat crop would be one-fifth greater than it now is, or have an
additional value of approximately $100,000,000.

The insect damage to other cereal crops probably falls short of 10
per cent. A 10 per cent average, however, for all the cereals, is cer-
tainly a reasonable one and is the basis of the loss indicated in the
general table.

INSECT DAMAGE TO HAY AND FORAGE CROPS.

The damage by destructive insects to hay and forage crops is more
obscure and less generally understood than in the case of any other
farm products. Certain of the larger insects depr dating on hay and
forage crops are commonly known. ‘These include the various species
of locusts or grasshoppers, army worms, and cutworms. Very little
understood and generally overlooked, however, are the webworms and
small grass worms ( Crambus spp.) which work about the base or roots
of the plants, and which are so abundant that at the proper season
the moths flit up in front of one at every step. Swarming also in grass
lands are many species of minute leaf-hoppers which reduce the yield
enormously, their small size being more than offset by their preva-
lence and numbers. Obscure, but very important also, are the white
grubs, which work on the roots and often kill the grass outright over
large areas, and everywhere tax production considerably. In the
same class in habit are the meadow worms or leather jackets, the grass-
root feeding larve of the crane flies. A 10 per cent shrinkage from
these and other pests in grasses and forage plants is a minimum
estimate.

INSECT DAMAGE TO COTTON.

The principal insect depredators on cotton are the cotton boll weevil,
the bollworm, and the leaf worm. Many other insects, however,
inflict minor damage. The loss chargeable to the boll weevil, from
the very conservative estimate of Mr. W. D. Hunter, the agent charged
with the study of this insect in Texas, represents, for the year 1904,
some $20,000,000.

The Dalerii is chiefly destructive in the southwestern cotton-
producing ‘5tates of Mississippi, Indian Territory, Oklahoma, Arlcan-
sas, Louisiana, and Texas, and causes a damage in these States of
from 2 to 60 per cent of the crop. East of these States comparatively
little damage is done by this insect. The damage for the States first

ANNUAL LOSS OOCASIONED BY INSECTS. 469

mentioned, where this insect is most injurious, has been very conser-
vatively estimated by Mr. A. L. Quaintance at 4 per cent of the crop
of these States, and indicates an annual loss of some $12,000,000.

The cotton leaf worm in years of excessive damage, before the use of
arsenical poisoning was a common practice, caused a loss of $20,000,000
to $30,000,000. The present damage resulting from this pest & very
much reduced, but with the increased acreage of cotton an annual loss
of from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000 may be conservatively estimated.
Without counting the losses due to many minor insect depredators, we
have already a total loss of more than $40,000,000 chargeable to three
important insect pests of this staple.

INSECT DAMAGE TO TOBACCO, TRUCK CROPS, SUGAR CANE, ETC.

Detailed statements relative to the insect losses to the crops enume-
rated above will not be attempted in the space at command. All of
these crops are subject to the attacks of important insect pests, and a
_ reasonable estimate of the annual damage is 10 per cent of the value
of the first and last named crops, and fully 20 per cent in the case of
truck crops. Vegetables and other truck crops are especially subject
to insect injury, and, furthermore, in the case of these crops there is
always a large expenditure in the control of insects, the items of actual
damage and cost of control together probably making the tax due to
insects double the normal 10 per cent rate.

INSECT DAMAGE TO FRUITS.

The orchard and small fruits suffer heavily from insect pests, both
directly and because of the expensive methods of treatment necessary
to prevent still greater losses. The examination of this subject will
be limited to the insect injuries to the apple. There are several hun-
dred insects which depredate on the roots, trunk, foliage, and fruit of
the apple. The important pests are the woolly aphis, injuring the roots;
the trunk and limb borers; the leaf worms, canker worms, and tent
caterpillars; and the various scale insect pests, including the San Jose
scale. Injuring the fruit are the codling moth, the curculio, and the
apple maggot. It is a very difficult matter to estimate the amount of
loss chargeable to these various insects. Those affecting the health
and vigor of the tree itself lessen the productiveness at least 17 per
cent, estimating 5 per cent for the woolly aphis, 2 per cent for borers,
and 10 per cent for the plant-lice, scale insects, and caterpillars and
other leaf depredators.

Very notabie injury to the fruit also results from the work of the
curculio and the apple maggot, but space will be taken merely to dis-
cuss somewhat in detail the injury chargeable to the codling moth.
This species probably causes a greater monetary loss than any of the
other enemies to fruits. Various estimates of the loss due to its attacks

470 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

have been made, and in general it is believed that roughly it causes a
loss of from one-fourth to one-half of the apple crop of the United
States every year. Mr. C. B. Simpson, while special field agent of
this Bureau, gave some of the recent estimates of losses in various
States:

In 1889 Professor Forbes reached the conclusion that the annual loss in the State
of Iilinois was $2,375,000. It is estimated that in 1892 the insect caused $2,000,000
loss to Nebraska apple growers. Professor Slingerland estimates that in 1897 the
insect taxed the apple growers of New York $2,500,000. In 1900 one-half of the crop
of Idaho was damaged, while in 1901 the loss was much greater. Mr. McPherson
estimates that in Idaho the loss in 1902 was $250,000. * * * In many sections of
the Paaific Northwest the loss was from 50 to 75 per cent.

An estimate made by Mr. Simpson and the writer” is perhaps as
nearly accurate as may be in indicating the quantity lost in barrels of
merchantable apples. The best available estimates of the apple crop
of the United States are those compiled by the American Agricultur-
ist, and from these it is found that the average crop for the five years
from 1898 to 1902 was 47,000,000 barrels. ‘This includes only apples
of first and second quality.

It has been shown by careful observations in various apple-growing
States that the codling moth, as already indicated, may cause a loss of
from 20 to 40 per cent of fruit which would otherwise be sound and
merchantable. For reasons to be given later on, in computing the
actual monetary loss to the apple growers of this country by the cod-
ling moth, we prefer to take the lower of these two estimates. This
20 per cent decrease in merchantable apples would. represent some
12,000,000 barrels, and at an average profit of $1 per barrel indicates
a loss of $12,000,000, less the value of this fruit for cider purposes,
supposing that it is all so used. The average price for cider apples
will not exceed 30 cents per barrel, which would représent a reduction
of $38,600,000, leaving a net loss of $8,400,000. The loss throughout
the country in small orchards supplying local needs undoubtedly
averages much higher than in the large commercial orchards, which
supply the bulk of the fruit to the markets. The estimate made by
Mr. Simpson of the loss in such home orchards is $3,000,000, which,
added to our former figures, gives a total direct loss to the apple crop
annually from the codling moth of $11,400,000.

One would be perfectly justified in estimating the actual loss in
merchantable apples at a much higher figure than 25 per cent, and an
average might be assigned of 35 or 40 per cent at least, which would
have very greatly increased the apparent monetary loss. There are,
however, considerations which offset the monetary loss occasioned by
the codling moth and undoubtedly reduce it very considerably. The
apple is a perishable fruit and must be consumed within a limited

@ Bulletin No. 41, Division of Entomology, The Codling Moth.

ANNUAL LOSS OCCASIONED BY INSEOTS. 471

period. It is not like wheat and other cereals, the standard grades
of which have fairly fixed values and which may be kept indefinitely.
The cold-storage system has very much extended the marketing period
of apples, but this affects only a limited amount, measured by the
actual cold-storage capacity, and the bulk of the crop must find an
immediate market. Therefore, if the additional fruit which is now
rendered unsalable by the codling moth should be thrown on the market,
the actual price of apples would probably be affected even more than
the increased supply would indicate. ‘The increase in our export apple
trade, which is being actively encouraged by the Department of Agri-
culture, and the development of cold-storage facilities for fruit will
undoubtedly increase the market for apples from year to year. Never-
theless, one is warranted in taking the lower estimates considered
above, in view of the probable decrease in prices which would result
if the codling moth damage did not materially reduce the crop every
year.

An additional and important item of loss is the annual charge for
spraying or otherwise treating apple trees, without which, as indicated
above, the losses from the codling moth and curculio would be doubled
if not trebled. Practically all commercial apple orchards are sprayed
annually with arsenicals, and banding of trees and other means of pro-
tection are also practiced. Of the 200,000,000 apple trees enumerated
in the last census, on the authority of Mr. Taylor, at least 165,000,000
are in bearing condition, and the cost of spraying and other treat-
ments for these will range between 5 and 10 cents per tree. As an
offset to untreated orchards, the lower estimate of cost may be taken,
namely, 5 cents per tree, which gives a charge for treatment of
$8,250,000. Combining the direct shrinkage or loss and the cost of
protection from still greater loss gives a total tax chargeable to the
codling moth of nearly $20,000,000.

The insect losses to other deciduous fruits are quite as heavy as in
the case of the apple, and especially when the treatments for the San
Jose scale and other scale pests are considered; and in the case of cit-
rus fruits the cost of treatment is much greater and the actual losses
again heavy. We are warranted, therefore, in placing the loss to
fruits from insect pests as high as 20 per cent annually.

INSECT DAMAGE TO FORESTS.

The valuation of farm forests, namely, planted forests of artificially
wooded areas on farms, is given in the last census at $110,000,000.
A brief consideration of the numerous insect pests of such plantings,
including the borers—which often almost utterly destroy the trees, as
in the case of the black locust—the leaf defoliators, and many other
varieties of depredating insects, indicates that a 10 per cent annual
loss of such plantings is not an unreasonable estimate.

472 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

Of very much greater significance and economic importance, how-
ever, is the insect loss to natural forests and to wood, lumber, and
manufactures. The annual losses occasioned by insect pests to such
forests and forest products have been estimated by Dr. A. D. Hopkins,
special agent in charge of forest insect investigations, at not less than
$100,000,000. This is based on late stumpage values and on the whole-
sale prices of the commercial products; in other words, it covers both
the losses from insect damage to standing timber and to the crude and
manufactured forest products. The annual loss te growing timber
is conservatively placed at $70,000,000. This represents a loss of
$20,000,000 annually to hardwood timber, as indicated by Doctor Hop-
kins in his article in the Yearbook of this Department for 1903, and
$50,000,000 annual loss to coniferous forests. As a single illustration
of the loss in the last category may be mentioned the destruction in
the year 1902 of 600,000,000 feet of valuable timber in the Black Hills
district, representing a cash loss of upward of $25,000,000 in one lim- —
ited area. The damage by insects working in lumber and manufactures
of wood is very considerable, and has recently been estimated by
Doctor Hopkins to represent a minimum annual loss of 5 per cent of
the valuation of such products, amounting to some $30,000,000 and
completing the total of $100,000,000 already indicated. ‘This loss is in
addition to the loss to farm forests referred to.

INSECT DAMAGE TO MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.

A great many minor crops enumerated in the census of 1900 can not
be discussed separately, and the valuation of these crops is lumped
together and a 10 per cent loss chargeable to insects estimated on the
whole, which seems reasonable in view of the examinations already
made of the more important farm products.

INSECT DAMAGE TO CATTLE.

The losses due to biting and parasitic insects of cattle are consider-
able. The principal culprits are the ox warble and various biting flies
and ticks. The damage chargeable to the ox warble was very care-
fully investigated several yearsago bya western farm paper, and from
the averages reported from the chief cattle States of the Mississippi
Valley it was shown that 50 per cent of the cattle received in the Union
stock yards at Chicago during the grubby season (from January to
June) were infested and more or less injured by the presence of the
larve of this insect. The depreciation in the value of hides and the
lessened quantity and poorer quality of the beef indicated a total loss
during the season in question of over $3,000,000. This loss applies
only to the cattle coming to the Chicago market during the period
mentioned, and is merely an indication of the much gyeater loss to
range and farm stock throughout the country from this one pest. ‘The

ANNUAL LOSS OCOASIONED BY INSEOTS. 473

loss for Great Britain from the warble has been estimated to vary from
$10,000,000 to $35,000,000 per annum, and the total for the United
States certainly can not fall below that for Great Britain.

The shrinkage or check to fattening due to the annoyance from
biting flies and other insect pests of cattle represents a very consider-
able total every year, probably, in view of the greater prevalence of
these pests, much more than is chargeable to the ox warble.

Horses, sheep, and other farm animals are subject to the attacks of
similar parasites and other insect enemies, and if all these be consid-
ered, including, for example, the buffalo gnats, often very destructive
in the South, the many gadflies, botflies, the screw-worm fly, and such
parasites as the ticks and lice, a heavy percentage of loss must be reck-
oned. A’ 10 per cent annual loss has been assigned, certainly a con-
servative estimate, which represents a shrinkage in stock values due
to insect pests of $175,000,000.

INSECT DAMAGE TO STORED PRODUCTS.

The estimates given in the foregoing relating to vegetable products
give the shrinkage due to the attacks of insects to the growing and
maturing crops. After these crops have run the gauntlet of insect
enemies during their entire period of growth—and this applies notably
to the cereal and forage crops and to tobacco and certain truck crops—
they are still subject to the inroads of another class of insect depre-
dators while in storage on the farm, or, in greater accumulations, in
elevators and mills, or, again, while in transit, especially in the case
of long shipments by sea. The cereals are all kept in storage until
consumed, which means a considerable period for the bulk of the crop.
The various grain weevils and beetles, flour moths, and other insect
pests which depredate on stored grains frequently cause great losses,
and an estimated injury of 5 per cent is a reasonable and probably
minimum figure. Computing this percentage, therefore, on the valua-
tion of the cereal products for 1904, we have indicated an annual loss
of $100,000,000. |

The location of food products for human consumption is in the
house storeroom and kitchen, and often this last opportunity for insect
damage is improved by various species of the stored-grain pests
already referred to. Animal products are attacked by larder beetles,
ham beetles, etc., fruits by various fruit and vinegar flies, and the
woolens or the household furnishings by carpet beetles, clothes moths,
silver fish, etc.

Cured tobacco is especially subject to insect attacks and damage, the
most important source of injury being a minute insect known as the
cigarette beetle, which not only eats into cigarettes, but all other forms
of cured tobacco. It is now widespread in America, occurring in

474 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

practically all factories, warehouses, and retail establishments, and is
frequently the cause of very heavy losses.

In the general table a total loss of $100,000,000 is indicated for
insects attacking stored products. ‘This is covered by the loss indi-
cated for cereal products alone, and if the other items of loss just enu-
merated were included a considerable increase in the estimate could
legitimately be made.

CONCLUSION.

A general analysis of the insect losses for this country has been given
in the introductory paragraphs. In concluding it is only necessary to
emphasize again the fact that these losses, enormous as they are esti-
mated to be, could be legitimately swelled by adding the secondary
losses which, in the case of the great staple productions of the farm,
follow any considerable shortage and ultimately add to the cost of
living for every individual, in addition to creating large commercial
disturbances. Furthermore, the cost of protection from insect damage
has been considered only in the case of one or two products of the farm.
Another considerable insect tax not estimated for is the direct loss and
the cost of protection from domestic or household insect pests. Screen-
ing of houses against mosquitoes or flies, protection from roaches,
clothes moths, and the ravages of the white ant and of various parasitic
insects, are a charge on every household. The white ant in Washing-
ton, D. C., alone causes losses of thousands of dollars yearly, and it is
much more destructive in southern districts. If the smaller or larger
sums expended for protection from such pests were tabulated for the
whole country, the total would probably exceed $50,000,000, and might
be double that amount. An omission perhaps more important than any
of these is the indirect loss to the producing and earning capacity of
communities by diseases conveyed by insects. For example, malaria
and yellow fever are dependent solely on certain species of mosquitoes,
and typhoid fever is commonly carried, as shown by Dr. Howard, by
house flies. The losses from all three of these diseases are enormous,
and in the case of yellow fever outbreaks, often almost beyond compu-
tation. With domestic animals the tick, responsible for Texas fever
in the South, has been estimated to cause an annual loss of 100,000,000,
and other diseases of man and domestic animals will undoubtedly
be shown to depend exclusively or largely on biting or other insects.
In view of these omissions, the writer is convinced that the total of
over $700,000,000 annual loss assigned to insect pests in America is
below rather than above the actual damage. The lessening or preven-
tion of this loss is the problem for the economic entomologist to solve.

COTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA.
By O. F. Cook,
Botanist, in Charge of Investigations in Tropical Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.

During a visit to the famous Coban coffee district of eastern Guate-
mala in 1902 it was learned that a field culture of cotton was regularly

O

= a em
Xi i i

ME ph Mc I |

% GUATEMALA,

“" SALVADOR

Fic. 59.—Map of Guatemala, showing localities mentioned in the text. The Kekchi cotton and the
keleps were found at Secanquim.

maintained by the Kekchi Indians, a primitive tribe inhabiting the
region between Coban and Cajabon (fig. 59). The Indian variety
475

476 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

of cotton attracted attention from the first by reason of the very small
size of the plants and because they seemed not to be injured by the boll
weevil. Numerous specimens of this destructive weevil were found,
however, on a perennial ‘‘ tree” cotton growing only a few rods away.
In the early part of 1904 another visit was made to Guatemala for the
express purpose of studying cotton culture as practiced in that coun-
try, to learn whether the Indian variety was indeed immune to the
boll weevil, and for what reason.

It was then found that the Kekchi cotton is protected by the kelep,
an ant-like insect which feeds upon the boll weevils. It was also
learned that this and other Guatemalan varieties of cotton have special
characters which assist in protecting them from the weevils. Some of
these weevil-resisting adaptations may be of use in the United States,
since the cotton varieties cultivated by the Guatemalan Indians belong
to the Upland type so extensively planted in this country. The nature
of the protective characters and cultural methods observed in Guate-
mala can best be understood, however, with certain local conditions
and historical facts in mind.

THE AMERICAN ORIGIN OF UPLAND COTTON.

So large a majority of our cultivated plants were brought from
Europe or from other parts of the Old World that there has always
been a tendency to disregard the exceptions and make the generaliza-
tion complete. The American potato has been ascribed to Ireland, the
American artichoke to Jerusalem. Our maize or Indian corn is com-
monly known in Europe as ‘‘Turkey corn” or ‘* Turkey wheat.”
‘*Turkey” is also our English word for the familiar fowl domesticated
by the aborigines of America. Medieval Europe evidently took it for
granted that everything new in the line of domesticated plants and
animals should come from the East, whence the crusaders had brought
so many novelties.

Many books of reference give the dates at which cotton was intro-
duced into the English colonies of North America, leaving the impli-
cation that the seed was brought from Europe, and that it served as
the basis of the agricultural industry of the present day.* . More

« Works of high botanical authority make definite statements to this effect. Even
in Engler and Prantl’s Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien we are informed that Gossypium
herbaceum, the species of cotton described by Linnzus from the Levant, is exten-
sively cultivated in the United States. A few years ago seeds of what is apparently
the same variety of cotton as that described by Linnzeus were brought home from
Asia Minor by Mr. Walter T. Swingle of this Department. The identification of this
cotton as the true Gossypium herbaceum of Linnzeus was made by Mr. Lyster H. Dewey,
Botanist in Charge of Fiber Plants. Mr. Dewey’s results were announced at a meet-
ing of the Botanical Society of Washington, January 7, 1904. (See Dewey, L. H.,
The Identity of American Upland Cotton. Szience, N. 8., 19: 337.) Comparison of
growing plants shows that this Levant or herbacewm cottoa is a type very different
throughout from any cotton now cultivated in the United States.

COTTON OULTURE IN GUATEMALA. 477

detailed evidence will be submitted elsewhere; for present purposes
it may suffice to state the conclusion that the .Upland cotton which
Linneus correctly recognized as distinct from the Old World herba-
ceum, and to which he gave the Latin name Gossypium hirsutum, is a
native of tropical America. Both the Upland and the Sea Island cottons
were originally described from the West Indies.

ANTIQUITY OF COTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA.

The fact that cotton culture exists in Guatemala in the presence of
the boll weevil, and the probability that it has so continued to exist
for unnumbered centuries, lend interest to the agricultural history of
the Central American region. There need be no fear, apparently, of
overestimating the time factor in connection with the development of
weevil-resisting adaptations of the Central American varieties of cot-
ton. ‘The indications are all in the direction of the great stability and
antiquity of the native populations of Central America. The people
are peaceable and sedentary, with highly developed agricultural
instincts, which attach them closely to the land which their fathers
cultivated, and there is no reason to suppose that any very different
condition existed in earlier times.@

Many biological. facts support the views of the ethnologists who
have ascribed a very great antiquity to the primitive civilizations of
the Central American region. Districts now covered with tropical
forests which it would take many centuries to establish have evidently
been occupied, not once, but at least two or three times, by agricul-
tural populations. This fact means that the land was cleared, denuded
(Pl. LXV, fig. 2), abandoned, and reforested. The antiquity of cot-
ton culture in America is also indicated by its very wide distribution
throughout the tropical and semitropical regions of North and South
‘America. Before the arrival of Europeans, cotton was spun and
woven into cloth by extremely primitive tribes who have, even to this
day, no other arts of any similar degree of complexity. The inven-
tion of the loom did not, however, mark the beginning of the use and
domestication of cotton in ancient America. The early explorers
found cotton in cultivation among many tribes who wore no clothes.
They used it for making hammocks, for wrapping the darts of blow-
guns, weapons which preceded the bow and arrow in America, and
finally, or earliest of all, cotton was used as tinder in the making of
fire by friction, which stimaloginie consider the most ancient of “dis-
tinctively human arts.

“It has been noted by Maudsley that the more ancient sculptures of the Maya
peoples give no indication of warlike tendencies, and even those of Yucatan show no
bows and arrows, though the Indians of Mexico fought with these weapons when
the Spaniards arrive.

478 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FAILURE OF COMMERCIAL COTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA,

Help in the solution of the boll-weevil problem has not been expected
from Central America, probably because that region contributes
nothing to the world’s commercial supply of cotton. The fact that
the Indians grow cotton has served, however, as a suggestion of the
practicability of establishing a remunerative industry of this kind.
Such experiments have been tried repeatedly on both sides of that
country, in some instances on a large scale and under competent man-
agement. Uniform failure has been the result, sometimes in the
first year and sometimes after one or two promising crops had been
secured.

The presence of the boll weevil affords, of course, a ready explana-
tion of the impracticability of cotton culture in Guatemala, conducted
under the methods employed in the United States and other centers of
production. It has been demonstrated in Texas that in favorable sea-
sons paying crops of cotton can be produced in spite of the presence
of the boll weevil, but this is possible because only a small portion of
the insects survive the winter. In Guatemala there is no winter to
reduce the number of the boll weevils, and the standard varieties of
cotton of which seed is imported as the basis of the commercial experi-
ments become, in tropical countries, perennial plants, on which the
weevils can continue to propagate throughout the year.

All the cotton used by the civilized population of Guatemala is
imported, but the Indians have continued to produce small quantities
for their own use by taking advantage of facts which they could not
explain to others, because they did not understand them themselves.
Though probably a native of the country, the boll weevil seems to be
unknown to the Indians, or at least is not recognized as an enemy of
the cotton. Nevertheless, the Indians have learned, through long and
unconscious experience, to use cultural expedients which protect them
against the ravages of the weevil, and have developed through selec-
tion varieties of cotton with characteristics which render their systems
of planting the more effective. Whether these Indian methods and
cotton varieties can be utilized in the United States or not, they have
suggestive interest, at least, for those engaged in the warfare against
the boll weevil.

COTTON CULTURE AMONG THE INDIANS OF CENTRAL GUATEMALA.

The Indian cotton culture with which the more civilized part of the
population, and some of the foreign residents, have come into contact
is that of the central plateau region, in which are located the towns of
Salama and Rabinal, early and important centers of Spanish coloniza-
tion. The continued failure of experiments in cotton culture by the

\

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE LXV.

FIG. 1.—KEKCHI COTTON PLANT.

Fia. 2.—KEKCHI TOWN (CAJABON), SHOWING DENUDED LAND.

COTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA. 479

civilized inhabitants, including one which was being made at Salamé
under Government auspices at the time of our visit in 1904, is
explained locally by the theory that the cotton requires the extremely
rich soil only to be found immediately behind the houses of the
Indians, since it is only in such places that the plant reaches productive
maturity. It was not difficult, however, to ascertain that the weevil,
rather than the soil, was causing the failure of the recent experiment,
as it had, presumably, those of earlier date. An examination of the
Indian method of culture also gave definite indications of the means by
which the weevil is avoided.

The cotton cultivated by the Indians at Salama and Rabinal belongs to
the Upland series, but is a perennial variety. The stalks, however,
are not permitted to stand from year to year, but are all cut back to
the ground annually, about the Ist of May. By this simple and yet
very effective expedient they render this perennial cotton earlier than
annual varieties. At the time of our visit, in the latter part of May,
the new shoots, though less than a foot high, were already showing
numerous buds, and it is by this quality of prompt flowering that the
plants are able to mature a crop. The cutting down of the old stocks
permits the weevils to be caught by the flocks of turkeys and chickens
which spend their time about the back doors of the Indian houses, and
the young plants are doubtless protected in the same way as long as
they are within reach from the ground. All stocks of the previous
year which had not been cut back were heavily infested with weevils;
so much so, in fact, that we were unable to secure uninjured bolls to
preserve as specimens of this variety.

The central plateau region of Guatemala has a long and very severe
dry season, which might be a means of protection against the weevil
under the proper methods of culture, but the Indian system takes no
advantage of the dry climate, or, rather, it completely neutralizes the
possible advantages by planting the cotton very close together. The
Indians sow literally a handful of seed in a place, and have ten or a
dozen plants in a space a foot square. These clusters are themselves
so close together that the ground is completely covered and shaded
before the plants are half grown.

The dryness of the climate and, perhaps, a special instinct developed
through selection by the turkeys, may cause the weevils to remain hid-
den away among the cotton plants after the new growth has begun,
instead of migrating freely from one thicket to another. At least we
found small patches of cotton only a few rods apart, some with few or
no weevils and others so thickly infested that growth was impeded.
The weevils were gnawing the young leaf buds and causing them
to blast, which compelled the starting of new lateral shoots. The

480 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

leaves were also notably distorted, so that it was easy to recognize the
weevil-infested patches from a distance.

A further evidence that the very prompt flowering of the new shoots
is the character which enables the cotton to avoid more serious injury
by the weevils is to be drawn from the fact that the Indians expect a
very small yield, or none at all, from their cotton in the year in which
it is planted. This is not because the new seedlings remain smaller
than the other plants, even during their first season, but they are
slower in starting, so that by the time they begin to flower the weevils
may have become sufliciently numerous to prevent the setting of a
crop.

Nevertheless, it is likely that this cotton is, even in the first season,
an early maturing variety, and it may not be without value in the
higher and drier districts of western Texas, where cotton culture is
likely to become of increasing importance in the future, unless the
more humid eastern counties can secure more adequate protection
against the weevil. A considerable amount of cotton is still produced
by the Indians in these very small dooryard patches, often only a
square rod or two in extent, but not nearly enough for the local con-
sumption. Much imported thread is now woven in the native looms,
to say nothing of the use of foreign fabrics.

The decline of cotton production in this region is very possibly con-
nected with the gradual substitution, in the last hundred years, of
chickens for the turkeys, which the early explorers tell us were
extremely abundant in the Indian villages. Turkeys are well known
as extremely active and sharp-sighted hunters for insects, and they
are also able to reach much farther up on the plants than chickens.

The involucre of this variety of cotton is relatively small and open,
and the weevils are the less able to conceal themselves effectively.
The turkeys which protect the cotton of these Guatemalan Indians are
not the so-called Guatemala turkey (A/eleagris ocellata), a brilliantly
colored wild species valued as a game bird, but area nearly black
variety of the familiar domesticated fowl, though of somewhat smaller
size than those known in the United States. They have the virtue of
extreme tameness and stay close about the houses, having lost the
wandering instincts of our less perfectly domesticated varieties.
Long and intimate contact with the cotton had given the Indian tur-
keys special training as weevil destroyers.

TWO TYPES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE.

The tact noted above, that in central Guatemala the cotton is all
grown, as it were, in the dooryards of the Indians, is significant of the
whole social and agricultural organization of the community, whica
is entirely different from that of the Indians of Alta Vera Paz, where

OOTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA. 481

the annual variety of cotton is cultivated with the assistance of the
weevil-eating keleps. The central plateau region of Guatemala has
long contained a large population. All the fertile soil is cultivated,
and there are no longer any forests except the open growth of pines
and oaks which takes possession of denuded and abandoned areas.
Agriculture is now confined entirely to the nearly level bottoms of the
broader valleys, the slopes having become too dry for cultivation.
The proportion of fertile land is very small, comprising mere pockets
of deep rich soil, which still yield crops after centuries of continuous
cultivation. Such land is considered valuable, of course, and family
holdings are usually small, mere yards or sztdos, as they are called, an
acre, more or less, in extent.

A very different system prevails in the lower and more humid east-
ern districts of Alta Vera Paz, where the country is much broken and
the valleys narrow and deeply eroded. Crops are grown, of necessity,
on the slopes, and often on those of great steepness. The agriculture
of the Kekchis might be described as nomadic, since it is the regular
custom to cut and burn every year a new clearing or mlpa for plant-
ing corn, beans, and other crops.“ Under the sitio system of the
central plateau the Indians live continuously in large, widely scattered,
but permanent village communities, each habitation being surrounded
by a small tract of land, from which the family has had an annual
crop of corn for many generations back. The mzlpa Indians, the
makers of the annual clearings, also have a few towns, but they grow
little or nothing about their houses, and spend most of their time
away from home planting, watching, and harvesting their crops. To
reach good mz/pa land they will travel considerable distances, some-
times 50 miles or more, and carry home on their backs the corn neces-
sary to support them during their stay in town.

Both the stéo and the mz/pa Indians cultivate corn as the principal
field crop, but cotton has a very different status in the two systems of
agriculture. In the country of the mzlpa Indians the cleared land in
and about the towns is continuously eroded, so that only trees can be

«For crops other than cotton a new clearing is made every year. The land is
cleared by burning, and the heavy rainfall rapidly washes away the fertile surface
soil, so that agriculture is not permanent. If the Indians are few and scattered, the
forest will renew itself between successive clearings, but when the population becomes
too large the land is burnt over too frequently, and reaches, finally, a state of almost
complete denudation. For many years only grass and séattered pines will grow.
Whole districts have become useless for agricultural purposes, and have been aban-
doned for long periods. About towns, in particular, there is little land which has
not suffered severely (Pl. LXV, fig. 2), and the people are compelled to go longer and
longer distances to reach land suitable for planting, or even to secure fuel for cooking.
Firewood and building materials are commonly carried into such towns as Cajabon,
Carcha, and Coban from distances of 2 leagues or more, on the backs of men.

2 «al904—31

482 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

planted around the houses, and cotton has to be grown in the melpas
as a field crop, a fact which at once lends to this culture a practical
interest greater than that of the s¢¢o Indians.

This Indian field culture of cotton is located in the Cajabon district,
a very inaccessible part of Guatemala, seldom visited by travelers,
and its very existence seems to be quite unknown outside the imme-
diate vicinity. The climate of the neighboring coffee belt is too cool
and wet for cotton. The first finding of the cotton, in 1902, was quite
accidental. It resulted from the kindly insistence of Mrs. William
Owen, hostess at the Sepacuite coffee estate, that we visited the
Cajabon people, whom she appreciated as a most interesting remnant
of aboriginal life and agriculture.

AGRICULTURAL HABITS OF THE KEKCHI INDIANS.

The Indians of eastern Guatemala are what Prof. Otis T. Mason
felicitously terms ‘‘ poor relations of the Mayas.” They are similar
in language and customs to the people who, previous to the coming
of the Spaniards, had attained an advanced state of culture in Yuca-
tan, and who are supposed to have built the massive stone structures
which are still the wonder of archeologists. To the southward near
the border between Guatemala and Honduras are the famous ruins of
Copan and Quirigua. Eastern Guatemala, though lying between these
two centers of ancient civilization, seems never to have had a period of
equal advancement, at least as far as indicated by architectural remains,
though traces of ancient occupation are very frequent over the whole
region.

The Spanish invaders found no cities to capture and no precious
metals. The very lack of organization among the Indians rendered it
unusually difficult to make a definite conquest by force of arms. This
part of the country was finally turned over to the missionaries, who,
under the leadership of the humane Las Casas, were able to achieve a
peaceful occupation, a fact commemorated in the name Vera Paz, mean-
ing True Peace. The missionaries made many efforts to collect the
people into villages in order to teach them European habits of life, but
their agricultural system does not conduce to the formation of central-
ized communities. Since the withdrawal of the Spanish influence the
towns have continued to decline, though the Indian population as a
whole is said not to be decreasing.

The Indians of Alta Vera Paz are a contented people, completely sat-
isfied with their present state, except for the necessity of working one
week in four on the coffee plantations in accordance with the contracts
on which they lease their present holdings of land. They want noth-
ing in the way of foreign goods, and would much prefer to be left

COTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA. 483

completely alone by the white men. Unlike the natives of Africa, they
seem not to be attracted by civilization, and have no desire to become
white men or even to imitate them. They have refused to adopt Euro-
pean clothes, or to learn the Spanish language. They cultivate no
crops and use no food not known to them before the coming of the
Spaniards. This persistent conservatism has enabled them to preserve
their aboriginal methods of agriculture and their native varieties of
cultivated plants, including the cottons, which form the subject of the
present report.
THE WEEVIL-EATING KELEP.

The growing of cotton among the Kekchis was found to be assisted
by a large, reddish brown, ant-like insect, which feeds upon the
weevils. The kelep, as the Indians call it, is strikingly adapted by
structure and instinct for the work of protecting the cotton against
the weevils. Its large jaws or mandibles are so shaped as to fit neatly
about the middle of the weevil and hold it firmly, while the long,
flexible body is bent around underneath to insert the sting. The
weevil has a hard shell which protects it from other insect enemies, but
the kelep has a highly specialized instinct which enables it to find and
penetrate one of the two vulnerable points on the median line below.?
The effect of the sting is to paralyze the weevil, after the manner of
the wasps, which store their nests with spiders or caterpillars for their
young to feed upon. The kelep, however, does not sting the weevils
to preserve them. As soon as the poison has taken effect and the
weevil has ceased to struggle, it is carried down into the subterranean
nest and pulled to pieces to feed the growing larve.

The kelep is thoroughly predaceous and makes no use of vegetable
food other than the nectar by which it is attracted to the cotton plant.
It does not confine itself to the boll weevil, but attacks and kills many
other insects found upon cotton, including the larve of bollworms
and leaf worms, as abundantly shown by the colonies imported into
Texas. Nevertheless, the nectar appears to be an important considera-
tion, and the kelep manifests a decided preference for cotton over
other vegetation.

It was not merely a theory that the presence of the kelep explained
the scarcity of the weevils in the Indian cotton fields. The obliging
insects would generally take captured weevils from our forceps, or
even from our fingers, and give them the regular treatment before
our eyes. Remains of the hard parts of the boll weevils were found
in the nests of the colonies which were dug out and brought to the

“In a great majority of cases the sting enters between the thorax and the abdo-
men, but a few instances were observed by Mr. C. B. Doyle’in which the mortal
wound was inflicted between the head and the thorax.

484 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

United States. The keleps have the curious habit of storing in special
chambers the dismembered skeletons of the captured insects.

Inquiry among the Indians developed the fact that one’ old man
had been planting cotton for about forty years on the same hillside
and in closely adjacent places. When asked whether there were not
some years when he got no crop of cotton the reply was, ‘‘ Yes; some
years ago when I was sick and did not plant.” A regular and uniform
yield would show that a balance between the keleps and the weevils
has been established; otherwise there would be, as in Texas, great
fluctuations in the amount of damage done by the weevils and in the
resulting crop of cotton. If the weevil lives, as now supposed, only
on cotton there are chances, of course, that fields planted in new and
remote situations might not be reached by the pests until the cotton
had had time to set a crop, but this immunity would probably be very
brief anywhere in Guatemala.“

INTRODUCTION OF THE KELEP INTO THE UNITED STATES.

As soon as the discovery of an insect enemy of the boll weevil was
reported to the authorities of the Department,’ cabled instructions
were sent back to spare no effort toward introducing the insects into
the United States. This seemed at firsta very difficult task, since our
outfit included none of the laboratory appliances which have usually
been employed in handling such insects in captivity. It was found
possible, however, to construct for the keleps artificial nests of stones
and earth in glass jars, and in such cages about ninety colonies were
brought safely to Texas, where experiments have been conducted to
determine whether they can survive the change of climate and other
natural conditions and be made of practical use in the cotton fields of
that State.

The keleps are well adapted for domestication, and have shown no
injurious or objectionable habits. It has proven entirely feasible to
capture them in numbers, bring them to Texas, and colonize them in

@ In the valley of the Polochic River, below Tucuru, there was found a small piece
of cotton, about 3 rods square, planted on flat land in the river bottom, where there
were no keleps. Our Indian guide insisted that there was no other cotton nearer
than the town, about 4 miles away. A crop had been harvested, but flowers and
young bolls were still forming. At first it seemed that this might be the long-sought
example of a field of cotton successfully hidden from the weevils. Finally, however,
two or three badly infested plants were found with all the buds punctured and sey-
eral of the beetles still at work. They represented, probably, a comparatively recent
arrival, otherwise it is difficult to understand why they should not have spread more
uniformly over so small a field.

’Cook, O. F., 1904. An Enemy of the Cotton Boll Weevil, Report 78, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.

COTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA. 485

the cotton fields. A cold-storage experiment indicates that freezing
alone is not fatal, but this is far from proving that they can survive the
winter season of Texas, with its severe alternations of temperature
and floods of cold water.

The insects behaved normally during the growing season, and some
of the colonies have shown their ability to breed, both in captivity and
in the cotton fields of Texas. The colonies brought home from Guate-
mala were, however, nearly all too small to make the experiment a
fair one, the extent to which the habits of the kelep differ from those
of the true ants not being realized at first. The keleps have a more
highly developed social system than the ants. New colonies are
founded by the subdivision of older communities, as among the honey
bees, not by solitary females, as among the ants.

The popular press has often discussed the ‘* Guatemalan ant” as
having been introduced to ‘* exterminate the boll weevil,” but this has
not been expected by anybody conversant with the facts. In Guate-
mala, where both insects are apparently native, the weevils have not
been exterminated. They are still present in numbers which forbid
continued field cultures except where the cotton is protected by the
keleps. The most that can be said is that they keep the weevils in
check, and thus permit cotton to be regularly harvested under cultural
_and climatic conditions which in Texas would result in the total destruc-
tion of the crop.

If the keleps survive in the United States they are likely to supple-
ment rather than to supersede the protective adaptations of the cotton
plant itself. In fact, their true value can not be fully determined
until the extent of these adaptations has become thoroughly known.

COTTON CULTURE OF THE KEKCHI INDIANS.

The methods of planting and cultivating cotton among the mdlpa-
making Kekchis differ as much from those of the Rabinal people as
do their agricultural systems as a whole. Instead of having their
cotton in dense clusters, the Kekchis have an open culture not unlike
that of the Southern States, though there are no straight rows.
The rule is to plant about six seeds in a place, at distances of 3 or 4
feet. Two or three plants usually reach maturity, and these together
may produce as muchas a large plant in Texas, from ten to twenty-
five bolls being the usual number under favorable conditions.

Where the soil is too poor or too dry to permit the cotton to grow
more than 6 or 8 inches high it will still mature one or two bolls,
which shows the promptness with which bearing begins. Nearly
all the bolls are formed near the ground, on long lateral branches

@Cook, O. F., 1904. Report on the Habits of the Kelep, or Guatemalan Cotton-Boll-
Weevil Ant, Bulletin 49, Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(Pl. LXV, fig. 1), which may be looked upon, perhaps, as still another
means of protection against the weevils, whose instincts lead them to
seek the buds and bolls at the top of the plants.

When the Kekchi cotton was first discovered in 1902 its small size
was looked upon as likely to exclude it from use in the United States,
but in the development of the policy of avoiding the injuries of the
weevil by shortening the growing season the dwarf habit may prove a
most desirable character. By depending upon many small plants
instead of fewer large ones it may be possible to produce the same
number of bolls in less time. Close planting of large free-growing
varieties might postpone the setting of the crop, but with a naturally
dwarf, early-bearing variety this difficulty is avoided.

CHARACTERS OF THE KEKCHI COTTON.

The weevils and the Indians together have carried on a selection for
quick growth and early bearing. In fields where there are not enough
keleps to maintain an efficient patrol, only the earlier buds would
receive attention, and even in favorable situations the protection is
probably not as effective after the plants have become full grown.

The Kekchi Indians are accustomed to planting peppers with their
cotton, to ripen somewhat later. ‘To make room for the development
of the pepper plants, the cotton is generally removed as soon as the
principal portion of the bolls has opened. The result of these uncon-
scious selections for earliness is that the Kekchi cotton, though grow-
ing in a tropical region not visited by drought, ripens its crops in six
months after planting.

It is well known that most of the cotton varieties are annual only by
reason of the limitations of our temperate climate. If carried into
humid tropical countries they revert at once to the perennial habit of
growth. The experiment of planting the Kekchi cotton in the United
States is to be tried in the coming season, and it is not impossible that
after two or three years of acclimatization it may prove to be a very
early sort, which will mature cotton even more promptly than the
King and other quick-growing varieties recently recommended as a
means of avoiding complete destruction by the boll weevil. Dr. Herbert
J. Webber, to whom samples of the Kekchi cotton have been sub-
mitted, states that the fiber is of good quality and length—an inch and
a quarter—and that it could enter the regular markets with the lint of
other Upland varieties. Plate LXVI, figure 2, shows samples of the
Kekchi cotton in comparison with King. The bolls also are of good
size (Pl. LXVI, fig. 1).

The devotion of the keleps to the cotton is not, as we have seen,
mere disinterested philanthropy, and it is a significant fact that the

Yearbook | ot. of A 104 od a a OV

FiG. 1.—MATURE BOLLS OF KEKCHI COTTON.

[Natural size. ]

Fic. 2 —LINT OF KEKCHI COTTON (LEFT) AND KING COTTON (RIGHT).

Wa tiuimal civna

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE LXVII.

LEAVES AND FLoweErs oF KEKCHI COTTON.

[Natural size.]

OOTTON CULTURE IN GUATEMALA. 487 3

Kekchi cotton has larger and more active extrafloral nectaries than any
other variety known. The nectaries of the leaves are not more de-
veloped, perhaps, than those of some other varieties, but those at
the base of the involucre, where the presence of the kelep would afford
most protection, are very large and active (PI. LXVII) and secrete
nectar for a longer period than those of other kinds of cotton. As
reported by Professor Trelease, several years ago, most of the varie-
ties now planted in the United States secrete nectar only at the time
of flowering, but the Kekchi cotton begins earlier and continues the
process until the bolls are nearly full grown.

HOW THE COTTON PLANT CAN RESIST THE WEEVIL.

It was also noticed in Guatemala that the buds do not always drop
off after being punctured, and that the young bolls sometimes continue
to develop in spite of the attacks of the weevil. This fact was pre-
viously known in Texas, but the death of the weevil larve inside the
buds had been ascribed to the disorganization or so-called ‘‘ gelatiniza-
tion” of the tissues of the plant. It was found, however, by an exam-
ination of the earlier stages of the process, that there is an actual
growth of nearly normal tissue into the cavity eaten out by the weevil
larva, and with a uniformly fatal result. The larva,in its younger
stages, subsists entirely on the highly organized food material to be
found in the pollen grains. The new tissue formed by mere swelling
or proliferation from the central column of the flower (Pl. LX VII) is
poor and watery and may starve the larva to death, if it does not act
as a poison.

There is, in short, a means by which cotton is able to offer an effect-
ive resistance to the weevil, and if a variety could be obtained in
which the new growth or proliferation of the internal tissue took place
regularly, the weevil might even be exterminated.” Such a variety
may possibly exist already in some part of tropical America, but if
this:should prove not to be the case, it is probable that the tendency
to proliferation can be increased and rendered constant by selection.

CONCLUSION.

Among the Indians of eastern Guatemala there are two systems of
agriculture in which cotton is regularly cultivated in spite of the
presence of the boll weevil, but neither the cultural methods followed
by the Indians nor the assistance rendered by the weevil-eating keleps
would be effective in the absence of the protective characters and
habits of growth of the Indian varieties of cotton, which have been
attained, we may believe, as a result of thousands of years of uncon-
scious selection.

© Cook, O. F., 1904. Rvolution of Weevil Resistance i in F'Oution: ae, N.S,
20 : 666-670.

488 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The proliferation of the internal tissues of the bolls, which kills the
weevil larvee, affords at least a suggestion of complete relief from the
pest, and other protective agencies doubtless remain to be discovered
in other parts of tropical America. ‘The kelep may or may not be able
to thrive and multiply in the United States, but the fact that the boll-
weevil problem has been solved independently in two Indian cotton
cultures of eastern Guatemala, less than a hundred miles apart, would
seem to show that the case is by no means as desperate as at first feared,
and permits a lively hope that similar results may be attained in the
cotton-growing districts of the Southern States.

BOYS’? AGRICULTURAL CLUBS.

By Dick J. Crossy,
Of the Office of Experiment Stations.

THE CORN EXHIBIT AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION.
‘*Grown by the farmer boys of Illinois!’ ‘‘ Kight thousand farmer boys in contest!’

All summer long these two legends surmounted two large pyramids
of pure-bred corn at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition—pyramids
made up of 1,000 little pyramids, each containing 10 beautiful ears of
white or yellow corn, straight-rowed, symmetrical, uniform. The
exhibit was a monument alike to the industry and intelligence of 8,000
Illinois farmer boys and to the energy and resourcefulness of Mr. Will
B. Otwell, who had charge of the Illinois agricultural exhibit at St.
Louis, and whose helpful work among these boys during the past four
or five years made such an exhibit possible. A series of intensely
interesting events leads up to this corn-growing contest, but only a
brief sketch of them can be given here.

About five years ago the secretary of the Macoupin County (IIl.)
Farmers’ Institute, who had had some experience in advertising, under-
took to get out a large attendance of farmers for the annual institute.
He advertised the meeting in 13 county papers and instructed the
janitor of the court-house to open the doors early to accommodate the
crowd. On the day of the institute the attendance was limited strictly
to the president, the secretary, and the chaplain. ‘‘ And,” says the
secretary, ‘‘the chaplain offered a fervent prayer for the officers of |
the organization. I tapped him on the shoulder afterwards and told
him he would oblige me by praying for the delinquent farmers who
were absent; the officers were doing everything in their power.”

The next year the secretary changed his tactics. After engaging
the services of many noted speakers on subjects of interest to all good
farmers, he had a lot of gilt-edged programmes printed. These were
mailed, like wedding invitations, in nice square envelopes, to 500 farm-
ers of the county. The day of the institute arrived, the janitor had
the doors open early, and about two dozen farmers attended. The
officers were disgusted, the president resigned, and the secretary was
elected president. The latter, fortunately, was as resourceful as he
was persistent, and his next experiment was both original and successful.

He first wrote to leading corn growers in Iowa, Indiana, and

489

490 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Illinois and procured 12 samples of first-class seed corn. He then
called 12 farmers into the parlors of a local bank and asked them to
select the variety best adapted to the soil of Macoupin County. This
done, several bushels of the seed corn were secured at $2 per bushel.
The president next solicited $40 in cash and divided it into $1 premi-
ums. A plow company gave a two-horse plow to be offered as a
sweepstake premium. Notices were then inserted in the county papers
to the effect that every boy under 18 who would send in his name and
address would receive a package of this seed corn—all that could be
mailed for 1 cent postage. The president says:

Five hundred boys sent for the corn and began contesting for the premiums. All
summer long these boys were talking farmers’ institutes (where the corn was to be
exhibited). They were comparing notes and exchanging ideas until our institute
was a topic of general conversation. I decided not to advertise the institute in the
papers any more than just to give the dates. The farmers were politely told they
could stay away from the institute if they preferred. When I reached the court-
house on the morning of the institute there were scores of boys waiting for the doors
to be opened. They had their prize corn with them, some of it in boxes, some of it
in coffee sacks, tied up with binder twine, shoe strings, bedcord—any way, just so
they got it to the institute. When I called that meeting to order at the appointed
time I was confronted by 500 farmers. And Professor Stevenson, of Champaign, who
scored the corn, said he had never seen a nicer display of yellow corn. I knew I
had solved the problem, and so did the farmers. The boys were in evidence every-
where, and their presence was an inspiration to the institute.

The next year there were 1,500 farmer boys in the contest, and it
took $300 to provide the prizes, which consisted of a high-grade bicycle,
a three-wheel riding plow, a walking cultivator, a 10-foot windmill, a
fanning mill, a double harrow, a 16-inch walking plow, a washing
machine, a one-hole corn sheller, a hand plow, 2 rolling colters, a box
ot 100 bars of soap, and 140 one-dollar premiums.

The summer that followed was a dry one, and the president of the
institute was fearful that the contest would not amount tomuch. But
one of the objects for which he was striving had already been accom-
plished—the farmers of the county were interested. The fathers of
the 1,500 boys donated the best spots on their farms for the growing
of this corn—the hog lots, calf pastures, clover fields—and all the time
the boys were studying deep and shallow cultivation and fertilizers of
all kinds, and were becoming more interested in farming, ‘‘ so that
to-day there is a prevailing belief in this county that boys may choose
farming as a profession and still be as good as anybody.”

When the time for the farmers’ institute came there were 1,500
farmers in constant attendance and a display of corn which, according
to the judge who distributed the prizes, was finer than any he had ever
seen at State fairs in Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, or lowa. Mr. Otwell
says of this meeting:

Farmers who two years before would not attend, and who boldly asserted that
‘they had forgotten more than those speakers would ever find out,’’ were on the

BOYS’ AGRIOULTURAL OLUBS. 491

front seat and helping in every possible way. Besides the fathers and mothers and
sisters and sweethearts, there were more than 300 farmer boys in attendance at this
institute, and with no friction and the utmost enthusiasm and good will, we closed
the largest and best farmers’ institute I have ever attended. The corn was simply
immense. And so were the boys. And when I mentioned the name of the poor.
little fellow in blue overalls, who lived on a thin, worn-out piece of white land, and
who had cartied water all through the long summér to water his corn, and had
thereby been awarded the first prize (bicycle), no governor of the State of Illinois
ever received a heartier ovation than he.

The problem of arousing an interest in farmers’ institutes and in
the questions discussed at them had been solved. The farmers were
reached through their children, and the interest thus aroused will be
handed down to their children’s children.

When the president of the Macoupin County Farmers’ Institute was
asked to take charge of the Illinois agricultural exhibit at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition he determined that the farmer boys should take
an active part in preparing the display. He got up a list of premiums
costing $3,500, printed the premium list and the rules governing the
contest, and mailed them to 120,000 farmer boys in Illinois. Eight
thousand of these boys sent for the sample packages of corn and went
to work.

The exhibit, as it was finally prepared and installed in the Palace of
Agriculture (Pl. LX VIII), consisted of over 1,000 entries of ten ears
each. ‘The corn was of excellent quality and quite uniform in appear-
ance and measurement. The prizes ranged from 50 cents to $500, and
1,250 exhibits received awards.

Eight thousand boys in a single State thoroughly aroused on the
subject of improving corn! Think what power has been set in motion!
And what possibilities for the accomplishment of good, especially
when the interest thus aroused is extended to other matters, to the
improvement of rural conditions generally!

DEVELOPMENT OF BOYS’ CLUBS IN ILLINOIS.

And yet, the series of corn-growing contests just described is but
one of a number in Illinois, all developed more or less directly under
the auspices of the State College of Agriculture, the Illinois Farmers’
Institute, and the county institute secretaries and county superin-
tendents of schools. Seed has been furnished by the college and the
farmers’ institute, and contests have been arranged by the local author-
ities. Packages containing 500 grains of pure-bred corn were sent by
the State Farmers’ Institute to over 5,400 boys in 1904. The need of
local associations through which the county superintendents and secre:
taries could work more effectually has led to the organization of clubs
among the boys, usually by townships, with a county association of
clubs. Probably a dozen different counties have started the club

492 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

movement, and several of these have strong and very active organiza-
tions. In Winnebago County the club membership was 425 in 1904,
and in Johnson County it was 535. The State superintendent of farm-
ers’ institutes estimates that the total membership for the State is not
less than 2,000.

The work of the boys’ clubs is not confined to growing pure-bred
corn, but also includes the testing of varieties of sugar beets, institute
work, the judging of corn, visits to leading farms, and excursions to the
State College of Agriculture. In thirty counties of Illinois last year
one session of the farmers’ institute was given over to the boys. In
Winnebago County the Boys’ Experiment Club has a regular place on
the county institute programme (Pl. LXIX). Its members also meet
at some of the best farms in the county to study the different crops,
examine the buildings and live stock, and see the improved machinery
in operation. Their experiments are something more than the grow-
ing of a small plat of corn, sugar beets (Pl. LXX, fig. 1), or soy
beans; they include also the study of farm management, fertility,
prevalence of barren stalks and smut—all of the conditions likely to
affect materially the yield and quality of the crops grown. Note the
points brought out by one of the boys in the corn-growing experi-
ments in the following report to County Superintendent of Schools
O. J. Kern, who has developed this work in Winnebago County:

REPORT OF HARRY M’FARLAND.

My experimental corn was the Leaming corn. I planted my prize-growing corn
on the 7th of May ina plat that contained 3 square rods. The soil was a black,
sandy loam. The ground had garden truck on it last year, which left it in good
condition for corn this year. The ground was plowed with a 16-inch plow at a depth
of 6inches. I planted my corn in rows 3 feet wide, the hills being 2 feet apart.
The corn was up within 3 days and averaged 2 stalks to the hill. My corn had a
good many suckers on, but very little smut. The corn averaged 12 feet tall, many
stalks having 2 ears on. The work I put on my corn is as follows:

March 30, plowing one-half hour at 30 cents an hour..-...-...-- $0. 15
May 6, harrowing one-half hour: ......<...2...ceseseeee eee .15
May 7, planting one-half hotir.....0/3...:..s0se'ss ae eee .15
May 20, cultivating 16 minutes ...2. 2.2.5. Sean eee ee . 05
June 3, hoeing corn one-half ‘hour:.<-.. <u. cbc aces baeesaaen eee .10
June 23, cultivating. 22.0 25 320 ie wk eee chee ee eee eee . 08
Jane 30; hooting 00s ole eS Se pi eee . 05
September.25, ‘husking corm. 35). 05.55. 256 Seka eee ee .10

Oost of raise cern: 2.222005 fee ee . 83

The total yield of corn was 24 bushels. ‘he value of the corn was $3. The gain
was $2.17.

These Winnebago boys also have their lecture courses where, among
other things, they learn about corn judging, from Professor Holden,
of Iowa; stock feeding, from Professor Henry, of Wisconsin; birds and
their benefit to the farmer, from Professor Dearborn, of the Field

PLATE LXVIII.

1904

ure,

,
\

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agricul

“

Waris.

¢ 78 fe
6 698 CRD 594
with An ae

hee

.

7 eryegitice

ro

Boys’ EXHIBIT

OF CORN AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION.

‘W7| ‘GHOIMOOY ‘ALNLILSN[ SYAWYV4 ALNNOD OOVEANNIM JO NOISSAS «SAOG

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

PLATE LXIX.

BOYS’ AGRICULTURAL CLUBS. . 493

Columbian Museum; and the kind of country schools for country
people, from Professor Davenport, of Illinois. They have access to
excellent traveling school libraries, containing a liberal sprinkling of
standard agricultural books, and the bulletins and other publications
of the State experiment station and of the United States Department
of Agriculture, and at commencement time receive diplomas or other
certificates for the reading done during the year. They have been on
several long excursions, including two to the Illinois College of Agri-
culture at Urbana, and one to the Iowa Agricultural College at Ames.
This year they go to the Wisconsin College of Agriculture at Madison.
At these agricultural institutions great pains is taken to show the boys
the magnificent equipment in buildings, apparatus, and live stock and
to take them over the field experiments. They come home talking
intelligently of high-protein corn, draft horses, and market grades of
beef cattle. Gradually but surely it grows upon them that it is not
all of farming to drudge; that there is abundant opportunity to plan,
study, investigate; that intelligence and culture are needed on the
farm, and that the proper exercise of these qualities will yield as
abundant returns in the country as in the city.

BOYS’ CLUBS IN OTHER STATES.

Illinois is not alone in this forward movement. Jowa, Ohio, and
Texas are keeping step with her in the boys’ club work, and Indiana
and New York have taken up the boys’ institute work—the former
with 15 meetings last year and the latter with 72. Indeed, it may be
said that New York, with its 20,000 or more members of ‘‘ Junior
Naturalist clubs,” leads all other States in the children’s club move-
ment. but these are nature-study clubs, quite different from agricul-
tural clubs, and they are for girls as well as boys. There are also
girls’ clubs in these other States—Lllinois, Iowa, Ohio, and Texas—
but the limits of this article will not permit a discussion of girls’ clubs
or nature-study clubs.

In Ohio the boys’ agricultural club movement was started about two
years ago by the organization of a club in Springfield township, Clarke
County, under the direction of Superintendent of Schools A. B. Gra-
ham. The work at this place does not differ materially from that in
Illinois. It includes the testing of varieties of corn, garden vegetables,
and flowers, and some work with insects, wild flowers, weeds, and
soils. There are now 16 boys’ agricultural clubs in 10 counties of
Ohio, with a total membership of nearly 700. These have been organ-
ized under the auspices of the Ohio State University, which has sent
out during the past year 1,012 packages of vegetable seeds, 565 pack-
ages of corn, and 1,261 packages of flower seeds, besides a large
amount of litmus paper for use in testing the acidity of soils.

494 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Texas club movement was organized only a little over a year
ago in connection with the Texas Farmers’ Congress, but the member-
ship of the Farmer Boys and Girls’ League is now over 1,200. In
lowa the first club was organized by County Superintendent of Schools
Cap E. Miller, at Sigourney, Keokuk County, in March, 1904. This
club now has a membership of 335 boys, and its first year has been
one of remarkable activity and progress. It has held several meetings,
has made several excursions, including one to Ames and another to one
of the largest ranches in the State, and it has conducted a series of
school fairs that are worthy of brief description.

SCHOOL FAIRS.

Early last fall each of the 147 school districts in Keokuk County
held a school fair, where the boys exhibited all sorts of fruits, vege-
tables, and farm crops which they had grown. ‘The best and second
best articles of each class were later entered at township fairs—one in
each of the 16 townships in the county (Pl. LXX, fig. 2). In connec-
tion with each fair a programme was rendered consisting of talks
and papers on corn, potatoes, peanuts, apples, and other fruits and
crops, together with recitations and musical selections. All of the
township fairs were attended by the county superintendent of schools
and the president and the secretary of the boys’ club of the county,
the latter acting as judge of the agricultural exhibits. The first, sec-
ond, and third prize articles from each township fair were then exhib-
ited at a county school fair. This was held in the high school building
at Sigourney, December 24, and was attended by over 1,000 people.
The exhibit contained more than 3,000 articles and was probably the
largest collection of varied agricultural products grown by boys ever
brought together in this country. Professor Holden and Mr. Christie,
of the lowa Agricultural College, assisted in judging the agricultural
products, and the former conducted a corn-judging school in which all.
of the boys took part. The programme rendered in connection with
the fair included music, recitations, a debate on the subject ‘* Resolved,
That Corn is more Useful than Cotton,” and a composition contest in
which each graded school in the county was allowed one representative.
The general theme of the compositions was ‘‘An Interesting Plant,”
each contestant presenting a paper on some particular plant. There
were 10 compositions on corn, 3 on wheat, 3 on the tomato, and 1 or
2 on each of a dozen other common farm crops or flowers. Superin-
tendent Cap E. Miller, who was the organizer and moving spirit in
all this work, says of the fair:

It was the greatest educational meeting ever held in the county. The interest

which it created has spread in its influence to all the work of our rural schools and
has caused the farmers of our county to organize a farmers’ institute. * * *

Yearbook U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1904 PLATE LXX.

Fia. 1.—WINNEBAGO COUNTY, ILL., BOYS IN THEIR FIELD OF SUGAR BEETS.

Fia. 2.—RICHLAND TOWNSHIP SCHOOL FAIR IN KEOKUK COUNTY, IOWA.

BOYS’ AGRIOULTURAL OLUBS. 495

The school-fair movement has been self-supporting. By means of
a small admission fee all expenses of the fairs and of securing music,
judges, and speakers were paid and a balance of about $50 was left in
the club treasury. This is a matter of no little importance. A self-
supporting enterprise, if worthy, commands greater respect than one
which depends upon charity or private subscription for its support.
And without doubt this is a worthy enterprise. Aside from the good
which has come to its members through their activity in organizing
and directing a remarkable series of educational meetings, much has
been accomplished toward arousing enthusiasm for better, more whole-
some country life, and toward laying the foundation for a broader
educational movement along agricultural lines.

Laying the foundation is about all that can be hoped for in this direc-
tion during the next few years. It was forty years after the corner-
stone of collegiate agricultural education in the United States was laid
at the Michigan Agricultural College before the agricultural courses
had been carried much above the basement line. But in the past four
or five years the structure has gone up by leaps and bounds. ‘The col-
lege courses have been developed and strengthened, the work of the
experiment stations has been better systematized, and now greater
attention is being given to extending the influence of these institutions
beyond the bounds of the college campus. One of the direct results
of this great forward movement in agricultural education, the aim of
which is to extend agricultural education of some sort—formal or
informal, advanced, intermediate, or elementary—to every grade of
school attended by rural pupils, has been the organization of the boys’
agricultural clubs. These clubs, though at present somewhat crude in
their organization, are accomplishing much good, and are worthy of
encouragement.

SUMMARY.

(1) Through their agricultural clubs the boys have been affected in
many ways. Individually they have been led to observe more closely,
to recognize good and bad qualities in the crops they have raised, and
in the insects, fungi, and other things affecting these crops; they have
met and learned to solve some of the problems in the improvement
of crops; they have learned that improvement in one direction is not
always, oreven usually, accompanied by improvement in all directions;
they have learned the value of labor, the cost of producing crops, and
how to keep simple accounts with different crops; they have been
encouraged to read good literature, and have learned some of the
sources of agricultural literature; their views have been broadened by
contact with others and by visiting institutions of learning, highly
developed farms, and other points of interest, and, finally, the power

496 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of taking the initiative has in many cases been strongly developed in
them. As one of the direct results of the sugar-beet experiments, a
few of the Illinois boys will raise sugar beets this year as a commer-
cial venture. One sugar factory has already contracted with boys in
Winnebago County to raise 20 acres of beets.

(2) Collectively the boys have learned the value of organized effort,
of cooperation, and of compromise, and the social instinct has been
developed in them—a matter of great importance in rural districts,
where the isolated condition of the people has always been a great
drawback to progress.

(3) The influence upon the communities at large, the parents as well
as the children, has been wholesome. Beginning with an awakening
of interest in one thing—better seed corn—the communities have
rapidly extended their interest to other features of rural improvement,
with the result that in the regions affected by the boys’ agricultural
club movement there has come about a general upward trend to the
thoughts and activities of the people.

WORK OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY IN MEET-
ING THE RAVAGES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL AND SOME
DISEASES OF COTTON.

By B. T. Gattoway,
Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

In January, 1904, a special appropriation of $250,000 was made for
the purpose of meeting the ravages of the cotton boll weevil, studying
diseases of cotton, and encouraging diversification of crops in the cotton-
growing States. The Chief of the Bureau of Entomology and the Chief
of the Bureau of Plant Industry prepared plans of work which were
approved by the Secretary of Agriculture. The principal lines of
work conducted by the Bureau of Entomology are set forth in another
part of this Yearbook. In this paper is given a brief outline of the
work accomplished by the Bureau of Plant Industry.

PLAN OF WORK.

The work of the Bureau of Plant Industry was planned and carried
out according to the following outline:
(1) Plant breeding and selection work.

The development of improved early varieties of cotton by selection and hybrid-
ization.

(2) Investigations of tropical cottons.

Exploration and investigation in tropical America, the original home of both
cotton and the weevil, with a view to discovering resistant varieties of cotton,
or other means of overcoming or withstanding the attacks of the weevil.

(3) Diseases of cotton. ,

The investigation of diseases of cotton with the special view of obtaining healthier
and stronger varieties and the elimination of causes of failure.

(4) Diversification farms.

Diversified farming, with the view of checking the weevil and growing other
valuable crops in lieu of cotton.

(5) Cooperative demonstration farms.

Demonstration farms, in connection with which the more intelligent and pro-
gressive farmers in the weevil-infested districts were organized to cooperate with
the Bureau in a systematic and concerted effort to demonstrate that cotton may
be successfully and profitably grown in spite of the weevil.

2 al904——32 497

498 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(6) Distribution of early-maturing varieties of cotton.

The distribution to growers in the boll-weevil section of the seed of three early-
maturing varieties of cotton in order to determine the value of such varieties
in meeting boll-weevil conditions in comparison with the types ordinarily grown.

(7) Farmers’ institute work.

The holding of farmers’ institutes in cooperation with the Texas Agricu:tural and
Mechanical College in order to bring about the adoption by farmers of more
up-to-date cultural methods and the planting of diversified crops.

(1) PLANT-BREEDING AND SELECTION WORK.

The work of obtaining, by systematic and intelligent selection and
breeding, varieties of cotton which will mature early enough to escape
serious damage from the depredations of the weevil and varieties
partially or wholly immune or resistant to its attacks, was conducted
by Dr. Herbert J. Webber, physiologist in charge of the Laboratory of
Plant Breeding of this Burean. Valuable assistance was rendered by
Prof. R. L. Bennett, of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Most of the work was carried on in the weevil-infested districts of
Texas, particularly at Terrell, where 170 acres were devoted exclu-
sively to these experiments.

VARIETY TESTS.

One of the most important lines of work in starting investigations
of this nature is the careful testing of all obtainable varieties to deter-
mine what sorts possess the most desirable characteristics, so that the
plant breeder may choose the best foundation stocks for further
improvement. In 1903 a number of different varieties were tested in
special experimental plats. In 1904 over 100 different varieties,
including 15 of foreign origin, were grown at Terrell, Hillsboro, and
Calvert, Tex., mainly in half-acre plats, with some of the more prom-
ising ones in 5-acre fields, in order to furnish better facilities for
making selections. The Texas Agricultural Experiment Station also
tested a number of varieties in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant
Industry. |

The results of these experiments during the season of 1904 demon-
strate the superior value of certain local strains of big-boll cottons,
some of which proved to be fully equal to or bettcr than such early
varieties as the King and the Shine. In fact, all these tests have
emphasized the good qualities of the group of Texas cottons generally
known as the Stormproof type, represented by such sorts as the old
Texas Stormproof and the newer and less known sorts, Triumph,
Rowden, and Boykin. The fine staple, stormproof qualities, and big
bolls of this group recommend them to growers. ‘They all mature
somewhat later than the King cotton, but the Triumph and Rowden
varieties have given excellent results this year, and sufficient seed of the

BOLL WEEVIL AND SOME DISEASES OF OCOTTON,. 499

Triumph has been secured for limited distribution. The Parker cotton,
which, owing to its earliness and good lint qualities, has given good
results and is now generally cultivated in boll-weevil districts, was
first introduced into Texas by the Bureau of Plant Industry in 1902.

DEFECTS OF EXISTING EARLY VARIETIES.

The qualty of early maturity in cotton for weevil-infested districts
is a factor of the utmost importance, inasmuch as experience has shown
that the early maturing bolls of the so-called first and second crops are
the least likely to be seriously damaged by the weevil, whereas the
later crop is almost sure to fail. But unfortunately such early vari-
eties as have thus far been recommended for this purpose are inferior
in quality and length of staple, have small bolls, and drop their lint
readily, thereby rendering them especially liable to damage by storms.

BREEDING EARLY VARIETIES.

Earliness being the primary characteristic of importance in success-
ful cultivation under boll-weevil conditions, and the existing varieties
being inferior and unsatisfactory in many respects, it becomes desirable
to discover or originate, if possible, new and better varieties possess-
ing not only unusual earliness, but a fine, long staple, large bolls, pro-
ductiveness, and ability to hold their lint. An examination of any
variety of cotton in the field will demonstrate that plants differ greatly
in the quality of earliness, some plants maturing much sooner than
others, and usually it is possible to find certain individual plants which
will transmit this quality.

NEW EARLY TYPES OF THE KING VARIETY.

Last year a considerable number of plants of the King cotton, which
opened a week or more ahead of the main crop, were selected, and
this year the progeny of these selected plants showed in many instances
a net gain in earliness over the parent plant of as much as two weeks.
All of these early plants were also selected for productiveness and for
quality and length of staple, and this year the yield per plant was
much better than on the parent plants last year. In 1903 scarcely a
plant could be found with a 14-inch staple, while the general average
was only about seven-eighths inch. From the selected plants of last
year a large number of plants were grown this year having a staple of
14 inches and some of the plants had a staple of 14 inches. These exper-
iments demonstrate clearly the possibility of combining with earliness
the qualities of long staple and productiveness.

EARLY BIG-BOLL SELECTIONS.

Owing to the serious objections raised to the early varieties, such as
the King, Parker, and Shine, on account of their small bolls, search
was made through many fields of big-boll varieties for early types,

500 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and as a result of tests of selections thus made three clearly distinct
types representing certain characters thought to be desirable have
been secured: (1) A large, vigorous, productive plant, with light-green
foliage and very large bolls, earlier than other varieties with bolls
“equally large, and showing a tendency to continue setting fruit late in
the season. (2) A rather small, slender plant, which fruits early but
does not continue fruiting through the latter part of the season; easily
picked, but likely to be beaten out during storms. (3) A plant similar
to the second selection, but holding the cotton tightly in the boll, mak-
ing it a little difficult to pick. This is an exceedingly promising type,
as it is very early, has a large boll, and gives every evidence of being
a cotton of great value for cultivation under Texas conditions.

MISCELLANEOUS SELECTIONS.

Fields of different varieties in various parts of Texas and adjoining
States have been carefully examined and a large number of selections
made of plants which give evidence of producing desirable characters.
In 1908 selections of this kind were made from such varieties as Hern-
don, Jackson, Shine, Dixon, Jones, Hutchinson, and Texas Burr.
The progeny of the Jones selections this year gave some exceedingly
large and productive plants, with very fine large bolls, although rather
late for Texas conditions. The selections from the other varieties
mentioned proved to be disappointing and were for the most part
discarded.

IMPROVING THE LINT OF EARLY VARIETIES BY HYBRIDIZATION,

A large number of experiments were made in crossing different
varieties that give evidence of producing desirable combinations. <A
few of these hybrids were made in 1902 and 1903, some of which are
sufficiently meritorious to deserve special mention. A hybrid of King,
crossed with Allen Improved, gave plants fully as early as the first-
mentioned variety grown in the same field and planted on the same
date, and had a fine silky staple 12 inches long. A second hybrid of
King, crossed with the Russell, gave a progeny nearly as early as King
and very productive, but with larger bolls. Crosses of Allen Improved
with Mattis have produced types of Upland cotton that are exceedingly
productive and have a fine long staple. In addition to the foregoing a
large number of hybrids were made of different varieties of Egyptian,
Sea Island, and Upland cotton, but so far these have given little evi-
dence of value.

PROLIFERATION, OR ‘‘ GELATINIZATION.”’

It has been observed by Messrs. Hunter and Hinds, of the Bureau
of Entomology, that in certain varieties of cotton, notably the King,
as high as 41 per cent of the larve of the weevil fail to develop, being
killed as the result of what they term the gelatinization of the tissue

BOLL WEEVIL AND SOME DISEASES OF OOTTON. 5O1

in the young forms and squares. Further studies of this phenomenon,
conducted by Mr. O. F. Cook, of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
showed that this so-called ‘‘ gelatinization,” or proliferation, is the
result of a very active growth of the soft tissues or column which in
cotton surrounds the pistil and bears the stamens. The young forms,
when punctured by the weevil, instead of falling, as occurs in many
cases, continue to develop, and the tissue of the staminal tube, stimu-
lated by the irritation of the puncture and the developing larva,
forms a gall-like mass which surrounds the larva, and either smothers
it or starves it to death. This tendency seems to be more marked in
the early varieties, such as King, which would suggest the possibility
of increasing this character by selection and also of developing strains
which will destroy a much larger percentage or all of the larvee in the
forms or young squares.

BREEDING FOR SPARSE FOLIAGE AND HAIRINESS.

It has been found that varieties with sparse, open foliage which
admits the direct rays of the sun, and varieties with hairy or woolly
stems and leaves, which make it difficult for weevils to climb or move
over them, escape damage in a greater degree than ordinary sorts,
and special selections of this kind have been made with a view to
breeding new sorts with these characters more strongly developed
than in the varieties usually grown.

BREEDING EXPERIMENTS IN SECTIONS ADJACENT TO THE WEEVIL-INFESTED TERRITORY.

In addition to the work in Texas, experiments were conducted in
Louisiana, Indian Territory, Mississippi, and western Tennessee with
a view to establishing desirable varieties in those sections by the time
the weevil reaches them. Experience has shown that varieties adapted
to one section are likely to prove less desirable in other sections.

The alluvial region, bordering the Mississippi River, lying in
Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee, is distinct from all
other cotton-growing regions of the United States, and is famous for
its rich, productive soils and the quantity and quality of cotton pro-
duced. Practically all the varieties grown in this region, including
the Peeler, Southern Hope, Allen Long-Staple, Sunflower, etc., are
distinct from the varieties generally grown in other regions, and pro-
duce a longer and better staple, although late in season as compared
with the King. If earlier varieties of these longer and finer stapled
cottons are not secured before the arrival of the weevil in that region,
their production will be almost entirely prevented. A careful study
of these varieties has been made; several of the more promising types,
such as the Black Rattler, Southern Hope, and Sunflower, were
grown from seed selected in 1903, and further selections were made
this year for continuing the improvement in 1905, with a view to secur-
ing greater earliness, productiveness, and length and fineness of staple.

502 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

The rank and vigorous growth of cotton in this important section
renders it peculiarly liable to attack by the weevil, and only by
developing the proper varieties in advance can this great industry be
preserved.

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING EARLINESS AND VALUE OF SEED.

Preliminary studies were made to determine whether cotton grown
from seed obtained farther north matures earlier than that from seed
of the same variety grown in the same section or farther south;
whether the oil content of the seed is any indication of the vigor,
earliness, productiveness, and quality of the lint of the cotton; also
from what picking the best seed can be obtained. On all these mat-
ters definite information is lacking, but a series of experiments has
been planned for next year which it is hoped will throw new light on
them.

(2) INVESTIGATIONS OF TROPICAL COTTONS.

Early in 1902 Mr. O. F. Cook, while making investigations in east-
ern Guatemala, discovered that certain cottons grown there were free
from the attacks of the boll weevil. For the purpose of discovering
the cause of this apparent immunity, and, if practicable, securing seed
of the cottons, Mr. Cook returned to Guatemala early in the spring of
1904. This visit resulted in the discovery of a weevil-eating ant.
Considerable numbers of this ant, called by the Indians ‘‘ kelep,” were
found collecting nectar on almost every plant. A careful study was
made of the ant and its habits and a.large number of colonies were
introduced into Texas. Having gone thus far with the investiga-
tions, the continuation of the work was turned over to the Bureau of
Entomology.

PROLIFERATION, OR ‘‘GELATINIZATION.”’

While engaged in securing the weevil-eating ant in Guatemala and
establishing it in Texas Mr. Cook made a special study of the weevil-
resistant qualities of Guatemalan and Texan varieties of cotton, par-
ticularly the so-called ‘*‘ gelatinization” mentioned in connection with
the plant-breeding work of Doctor Webber, and the information thus
obtained may prove of value in subsequent experiments along this line.

(3) DISEASES OF COTTON.

A careful study of diseases of cotton was undertaken, particularly
of root-rot, which causes an annual loss to the cotton growers of Texas
of from $2,000,000 to $3,000,000. The work in Texas was assigned
to Mr. C. L. Shear, a pathologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
who, besides making laboratory studies of the parasite which causes
the disease, has thoroughly investigated the effect on root-rot and
other cotton diseases of methods of cultivation, rotation of crops, and

_ BOLL WEEVIL AND SOME DISEASES OF COTTON. 503

different soils, fertilizers, and fungicides. No means of entirely con-
trolling root-rot has as yet been found, but observation and experience
indicate that crops which cover the ground, such as sorghum sown
broadcast, wheat, oats, and millet, followed by deep plowing, are
most effective in eradicating the disease. A large number of plants
were selected from standard varieties in infected districts with a view
to securing strains resistant to disease. Considerable work was also
done by Mr. Shear in cooperation with the Texas Agricultural Col-
lege and Experiment Station on the so-called ‘‘ cotton rust,” and it is
hoped that good results will be obtained along this line next year.

The work of studying diseases of cotton in the eastern portion of
the cotton belt was assigned to Mr. W. A. Orton, a pathologist of the
Bureau of Plant Industry. Special attention was given to diseases of
the celebrated Sea Island cotton in southern Georgia and northern
Florida, such as the wilt, root-knot, black-arm, rust, and anthracnose.
Similar studies were also made of diseases of Upland cottons of this
region, including the causes of the shedding of bolls. Numerous
selections were made of immune plants with a view to breeding resist-
ant strains, and much valuable information was obtained with respect
to the diseases studied and promising methods of dealing with them,
which will be tested and the results published later.

(4) DIVERSIFICATION FARMS.

Realizing the importance of introducing other crops and demon-
strating the feasibility of growing them with profit in the region
where heretofore cotton has been the sole money crop, the Bureau of
Plant Industry planned to establish a series of diversification farms in
the districts already infested with the weevil or in danger of infesta-
tion in the near future. This work was placed under the immediate
direction of Prof. W. J. Spillman, the Agrostologist of the Bureau,
and 24 farms, organized in cooperation with the various State experi-
ment stations, were located as follows: Columbia and Moore, 8S. C.;
Hogansville and Commerce, Ga.; Talladega, Uniontown, and Hunts-
ville, Ala.; Wiggins, Ridgeland, and Courtland, Miss.; Natchitoches,
La.; Atlanta, Marshall, Groesbeck, Crockett, Bellville, Columbus,
Lockhart, Arlington, Chillicothe, Boerne, Corpus Christi, Eastland,
and Dallas, Tex.

The general method of procedure in establishing these farms was to
seek progressive farmers who were willing to cooperate and whose
farms were advantageously located for the purpose. Then, after a care-
ful study of the conditions of the locality, a cropping system for each
farm was laid out and advice given concerning the crops to grow, the
area to be devoted to each, and the methods of preparing the soil, seed-
ing, cultivating, harvesting, utilizing, and marketing each crop. In
general, the work of these farms has been so planned as to encourage

504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

truck farming and various types of stock farming, such as hog raising,
dairying, and beef production. ‘The cropping systems adopted in each
case were devised with a view to increasing soil fertility, while at the
same time rendering the farm more profitable than would be possible
under a single-crop cotton-growing system. Arrangements were made
for keeping careful records of the work on each farm, with a view to
publishing for the benefit of others the details of the methods pursued
and the results achieved.

It was also a part of the plan to hold farmers’ institutes in connec-
tion with the farms, in cooperation with the State authorities, for the
purpose of explaining to as many farmers as possible the methods
adopted, and then showing them over the farms so that they might see
the results. Unfortunately, it was possible to hold but one meeting
of this character during the season, this being in connection with the
farm at Uniontown, Ala., where at least a thousand farmers were in
attendance.

Owing to the lateness of the season when funds became available for
this work and the time required for the organization of the farms, only
4 were ready to plant crops in the spring of 1904. The remaining 20
farms were organized in time for the planting of crops in the autumn
of 1904.

On the 4 farms mentioned the results have been most satisfactory
and encouraging. On Diversification Farm No. 1, at Columbia, S. C.,
was grown a variety of crops, such as corn, peas, potatoes, oats,
alfalfa, peanuts, cabbages, and tomatoes, besides cotton, cattle, and
goats, and about 40 head of hogs for the market. The cropping sys-
tem on the diversification farm at Uniontown, Ala., was planned with
special reference to the production of pork. In addition to 14 acres
_ of old Bermuda pasture, there were planted 15 acres of alfalfa, about 4
acres of sorghum, 10 acres of cotton, and 35 acres of corn. Peas were
sown in a portion of the corn in midsummer. As the result of the
first season’s operations on this farm 20 pigs were sold in December,
and 56 fat hogs, averaging over 200 pounds each, were ready for the
butcher. Nine brood sows and 81 pigs were left, besides the product
of 10 acres of cotton. The owner of this farm states that, considering
the acreage utilized, it has been the most profitable farming he has
ever done. The owner of the farm at Wiggins, Miss., in the sandy
lands of the Piney Woods region, states that all the crops grown, includ-
ing corn, sugar cane, potatoes, cassava, and chufas, did well; that the
methods employed have demonstrated the profitableness of diversified
farming in that region; that a truck growers’ association has been
formed, and that the shipments from that locality this season will be —
large. The work on the diversification farm at Arlington, Tex., was
also very satisfactory, notwithstanding the late date at which it was
organized.

BOLL WEEVIL AND SOME DISEASES OF COTTON. 505

ALFALFA.

Much has been done to encourage the culture of alfalfa as a hay and
pasture plant and as a soil renovator. Its culture is rapidly spreading
on the alluvial soils of Louisiana and Mississippi and on the black
prairie and alluvial soils of Texas, Alabama, and northeastern Missis-
sippi. In these sections the yield frequently reaches 5 or 6 tons per
acre, and is generally over 3 tons. There is a good market for this
hay, and the income from the crop is greater than that from cotton,
with much less labor. When used for hog pasture in conjunction
with one-fourth of a full grain ration, it easily produces 1,000 pounds
live weight of hogs per acre ina season. An instance is reported from
the Red River Valley in Louisiana in which $385 was received from
dressed pork produced from 24 acres of alfalfa and 1 acre of sorghum,
with no other feed—an income of $110 per acre, with far less labor
than would have been required for the production of a crop of cotton
on the same land.

FORAGE CROPS AND TRUCK FARMING.

Considerable attention has also been given to the production of other
forage crops in the cotton-growing region, such as sorghum, cowpeas,
cassava, velvet beans, Mexican clover, dwarf milo maize, and winter
barley; but perhaps the most promising industry for the South is truck
farming. Conditions there are peculiarly suited to this industry, and
a ready market exists in the cities of both the North and the South.
Marked success has been attained in many regions, particularly with
potatoes, onions, and tomatoes. One onion grower received this season
over $80) per acre for his crop. In another instance a farmer in north-
east Texas received $118 per acre for his potato crop, and then produced
a bale of cotton per acre on the same ground later in the season.

It is safe to say that no single branch of agriculture in the South
to-day presents so many opportunities for money making as are to be
found in diversified farming, and particularly in truck growing.

(5) COOPERATIVE DEMONSTRATION FARMS.

In order to demonstrate in the widest and clearest possible manner
that cotton can be successfully and profitably grown despite the pres-
ence of the weevil, by means of better cultural methods, the use of
early-maturing varieties of cotton, and suitable fertilizers, the Bureau
of Plant Industry organized, in cooperation with the intelligent and
progressive farmers of Texas and Louisiana, something over 7,000
cooperative demonstration farms, their owners pledging themselves
to cultivate a plat of 10 acres, more or less, of cotton in accordance
with instructions from the Bureau and to report results. The cooper-
ation of these farmers was secured and the work was organized and
conducted under the supervision of Dr. S. A. Knapp, special agent,

506 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

with headquarters at Houston, Tex. The territory actually worked
under the cooperative plan extends from Spofford, Tex., to Monroe,
La., a distance of 600 miles east and west, and from Galveston to
Channing, ‘Tex., nearly 600 miles north and south. During the season
more than a thousand farmers’ meetings were held at which addresses
were made by Doctor Knapp or his assistants.

The plan followed on the cooperative farms was designed to accom-
plish two things: (1) To keep the weevil in check by the fall burning
of stalks, as set forth by the Bureau of Entomology; and (2) to force
the crop to early maturity before the weevils have a chance to multiply
and cover the field in sufficient numbers to cause serious damage, this
result being attained by systematic and intelligent selection of seed of
early varieties, by early planting, thorough preparation of the soil,
the use of proper fertilizers, wide spacing, frequent cultivation con-
tinued late into the season, and the control of plant growth by barring
off and topping when necessary.

RESULTS.

That this method of growing cotton in weevil-infested districts was
highly successful is amply attested by the reports of Doctor Knapp
and his assistants in the field, as well as by hundreds of the cooperat-
ing farmers themselves. With few exceptions the average yield per
acre on the demonstration farms was from 50 to 100 per cent greater
than on neighboring farms this year, or on the same farms in former
years when cultivated under the old system.

As an illustration of actual results obtained, the following cases are
cited:

Maj. J. S. Grinnan, Terrell, Tex., planted 100 acres of Rowden cot- .
ton, using 100 pounds each of mixed cotton-seed meal and phosphate
per acre, and averaged over a bale to the acre on land which for the
past ten years did not exceed one-fifth bale per acre.

G. W. Alexander, Langston, La., planted 20 acres of Russell Big-
Boll cotton on sandy land, fertilized with 250 pounds (one-third cotton-
seed meal and two-thirds acid phosphate) per acre, the plants spaced 4
feet between rows and 18 to 24 inches in the row, and averaged 700
pounds of lint per acre.

Wilson Bell, Luling, Tex., planted 7 acres of Mebane cotton on black
sandy land, and averaged 412 pounds of lint per acre.

J. T. Park, Madisonvilie, Tex., planted 4 acres of King’s Improved
cotton on post-oak upland, using 24 loads of stable and cow-pen manure,
spacing 4 feet between rows and 2 feet in the row, and averaged 435
pounds of lint per acre, where last year he made but 30 pounds of lint
per acre.

K. Courtney, Mount Lebanon, La., planted 1 acre of Bass cotton,
using 300 pounds of acid phosphate and 100 pounds of cotton-seed
meal per acre, spacing 4 feet between rows and 3 feet in the row,

BOLL WEEVIL AND SOME DISEASES OF COTTON. 507

and gathered 2,450 pounds of seed cotton, as compared with 1,000
pounds of seed cotton per acre on similar adjacent lands under the usual
cultivation.

W. A. Castleberry, Minden, La., planted 6 acres of King’s Improved
cotton, spacing 6 feet between the rows and about 15 inches in the row,
and made 665 pounds of lint per acre.

W. M. White, Douglas, La., planted 2 acres of King’s Improved
cotton, spacing 5 feet between the rows and 18 to 20 inches in the row,
and made 711 pounds of lint per acre.

W. C. Porter, Terrell, Tex., planted 400 acres of King, Rowden,
and Gibson cotton on land mostly sandy loam, spacing 5 feet between
rows and 20 inches in the row, and made 265 bales. He realized from
the sale of 245 bales and seed (20 bales and seed yet unsold) $13,475.
His total expenses, including fertilizer, hired help, feed of work stock,
estimated wear of tools, picking, etc., were $6,475, leaving a net profit
for the year from cotton alone of over $7,000.

The foregoing will serve as illustrations of what hundreds of other
farmers have accomplished the past season.

(6) DISTRIBUTION OF EARLY-MATURING VARIETIES OF COTTON.

Under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture 10,000 bushels
of seed of three early-maturing varieties of cotton were distributed
through the boll-weevil section. The varieties distributed were the
King, Parker, and Shine. These varieties have all been very fully
described in publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The seed
was distributed through Members of Congress in each district, not
less than 5 bushels being sent to any one individual. At the close.of
the season a circular was sent to each grower who had received seed,
requesting a statement of the results obtained.

The primary object of the work was to determine the value of these
early-maturing sorts as compared with the common types grown. The
reports on the different varieties distributed are divided into two
classes, according to the character of the soil on which the results were
obtained. Class 1 includes reports from the dark, heavy soils, while
class 2 includes those from light grades of soils. There were 657
reports on the King cotton, and these show that this variety matured
nine days earlier than the common cotton compared with it. It yielded
an average of 85 pounds more seed cotton per acre than the common
cotton. The yield was greater on the dark than on the light soils, both
in the case of the King andthe common seed. The percentage of King
cotton damaged by the boll weevil was less than that of common cotton,
and the percentage of damage from the boll weevil was reported a little
less on dark than on light soils.

There were 552 reports on Parker cotton which show that this variety
was a little earlier than the common cotton. It produced an average
of 24 pounds more seed cotton per acre than common seed.

508 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

One hundred and eighty-one farmers reported on the Shine cotton,
and an average of their reports showed that it required seven days
less to mature than common cotton. It produced 84 pounds more seed
cotton per acre than common seed.

Of the three varieties distributed, the King gave the greatest aver-
age yield. Each of the three varieties gave a better yield than com-
mon varieties grown in comparison with it, and of these the King
cotton gave the greatest increase, while the Parker gave the least.

(7) FARMERS’ INSTITUTE WORK.

As a part of the work conducted by this Bureau, cooperation was
effected with President Houston, of the Texas Agricultural and
Mechanical College, with a view to aiding in the farmers’ institutes
conducted by that institution. The main object of the work was to
acquaint the farmers with the most approved methods of cotton culture
in order to aid them in making a crop in spite of the weevil; in short,
to induce them, if practicable, to adopt more up-to-date methods and to
diversify their crops as far as possible.

The localities which seemed to be most in need of the services of
the institutes were carefully selected throughout the State with a view
to reaching the greatest number of people. Every device for giving
out notices of the meetings and for securing a large attendance was
employed. Where institutes had already been organized, the services
of their members were enlisted, personal letters were written to
county officials, editors of county papers, and prominent and wide-
awake farmers, and programmes announcing dates and places of
meetings and lists of speakers and subjects were issued. The rail-
roads and the press cooperated fully in this work and thereby made
it much more effective. The lecturers comprised the director of the
institute, Prof. J. W. Carson; practically all the members of the agri-
cultural department of the college; and a number of special agents
and other officers of the Department of Agriculture. In addition,
there were volunteer speakers, including industrial agents of rail-
ways and various practical farmers, where such could be obtained.
Approximately 70 institutes were organized between September 1,
1908, and September 1, 1904. Some of the more important subjects
discussed at these institutes were: The advantage of organization;
Cotton—varieties, culture, selection of seed; Corn—varieties, culture,
selection of seed; Forage crops—alfalfa, oats; Irish potatoes—grow-
ing, handling, marketing; Hog raising in the South; Foods and feed-
ing; Cotton insect pests; The care and management of soils; How to
maintain soil fertility; Commercial orcharding; Small fruits; Fruit
and truck growing; Commercial fertilizers—their nature and use;
Small canning factories for home use; Our agricultural college—what
it is doing for the farmer; What the experiment stations are doing;
Farming without rain; Creameries for Texas.

SOME BENEFITS THE FARMER MAY DERIVE FROM
GAME PROTECTION.

By T. 8. Paumer,
Assistant in Charge of Game Preservation, Biological Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

Game protection in the United States has been developed along
somewhat broader lines than in other countries. Its object is not
solely to preserve a few animals and birds to furnish sport for a limited
class, but to protect and increase useful species for the benefit of
the people in general. It preserves not only game animals and game
birds, but also birds of song and plumage and those which are bene-
ficial as scavengers or as destroyers of injurious insects and noxious
weeds. Toa certain extent, also, it restricts the increase of injurious
species and prevents the introduction of animals and birds which are
likely to become pests. While receiving the support of the sportsman,
it benefits the farmer by increasing the species which are useful to him
in protecting him from the inroads of those which may injure his crops,
and it furthermore commands the interest of that ever-increasing class
of persons who find health and recreation in observing or studying
nature.

RELATION OF THE FARMER TO THE GAME LAWS.

The earliest game laws of the Colonies, among which may be men-
tioned the acts passed by Connecticut in 1677, by Virginia in 1699,
and by New York in 1705, were limited to deer. In the beginning of
the eighteenth century protection was extended to birds, although at
first to only a few species and for short periods of the year. Thus, a
statute enacted in New York in 1709, one of the first measures of the
kind, provided close seasons only for deer, turkeys, heath hens, par-
tridges or ruffed grouse, and quail, and one passed in 1791 close seasons
for heath hens, partridges or ruffed grouse, quail, and woodcock.

Special laws for the protection of insectivorous birds, the birds of
most interest to the farmer, were apparently not considered necessary
until the middle of the nineteenth century. Such laws were first
enacted by Connecticut and New Jersey in 1850, Vermont in 1851,
Pennsylvania in 1853-1858, Massachusetts in 1855, and Ohio in 1857.
West Virginia in 1869 seems to have been the first State to extend

509

510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

protection to all birds except a few injurious species.* Subsequently
more attention was paid to the question of enforcement and the work
was placed in charge of special State officers known as game wardens
or commissioners. In 1878 New Hampshire established a board of
fish and game commissioners and in the following year Delaware
granted a charter to its State Game Protective Ass< sietion, which was
placed in charge of warden work. In 1880 Maine extended the juris-
diction of its commission of inland fisheries to include protection of
game, and in 1886 Massachusetts and Ohio followed Maine’s example.
In 1887 Michigan and Minnesota each authorized the appointment of
a State warden, and in 1888 New York established the office of chief
game and fish protector. Other States followed in quick succession
until at the present time thirty-five have State game commissions or
wardens.

Simultaneously with the development of legislation for the protec-
tion of game occurred another development intended to afford greater
protection to landowners and tenants. This legislation took the form
of penalties incorporated in the game laws for certain forms of trespass
and enforced by game wardens as well as local peace officers. As
early as the latter part of the eighteenth century the game laws of
North Carolina contained provisions prohibiting hunting on another
person’s land without permission, and similar laws were subsequently
enacted in Virginia, Maryland, Tennessee, and other States. In some
of these States hunters are now required to secure written permission
from the owners of the lands on which they wish to hunt, and in the
West during the last ten years trespass provisions have been still
further extended to cover hunting along highways. The addition of
these features to the game laws has made it easier to prevent and to
punish trespass and has given landowners protection which they never
enjoyed under ordinary trespass statutes. .

Recent years have witnessed a change in sentiment in regard to game
laws. The idea formerly prevalent that game belonged absolutely to
the person who captured it is fast giving way to the principle that it
belongs to the State and may be captured and held in possession only
under such conditions as the State permits. Recognition of this prin-
ciple, which has been incorporated in the laws of a number of States,
and has been aflirmed by several of the highest courts, including the

«It is interesting to note that the same steps may be traced in the development of
the English game laws, but that progress was much slower. Deer were protected by
the Charter of Forests granted by King John in 1215; pheasants and partridges by an
act prohibiting netting or snaring without permission of the landowner passed in 1494,
in the reign of Henry VII; and wild fowl by a statute passed in 1533, in the reign of
Henry VIII. Nongame birds were not protected until 1880, and even now have
only a close season, usually five months or less (varying according to the county),
between March 1 and August 1. In the United States nongame birds are protected
throughout the year.

as

SOME BENEFITS OF GAME PROTECTION. 511

Supreme Court of the United States, is now becoming general and is
necessary for a clear understanding of the complexities of modern
game legislation.

It should not be assumed, however, that because the State owns the
game and fixes the seasons and methods of its capture that the farmers’
rights have been ignored. On the contrary he still retains practically
complete control over the game on his premises, since he can to a cer-
tain extent fix the conditions under which it shall be taken and has
absolute right to say whether or not it shall be hunted at all. To pre-
vent the losses which might be caused by undue increase of certain
species through protection, landowners are often allowed the privilege
of killing birds or other small game whenever found destroying crops,
and in Maine, Vermont, and Massachusetts persons who have sustained
losses through depredations of deer may be reimbursed by the commis-
sioners of fisheries and game if their claims are found to be reasonable
and based on actual damages.

GAME PROTECTION AS A CHECK ON HUNTING.

Rapid increase in population, accompanied by great improvements in
firearms and a greatly decreased cost of rifles, guns, and ammunition,
has resulted in an enormous increase in the number of persons who
hunt. In the absence of complete statistics it is difficult to ascertain
how great this increase has been during recent years, but a few figures
will emphasize the present number. Several States now require both
residents and nonresidents to secure licenses before hunting. The
returns for 1903 show that in ten of the States which have such a sys-
tem, namely, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska,
North Dakota, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming, the total num-
ber of licensed hunters was 261,241. The largest numbers in any of
these States were 78,823 in Wisconsin and 95,250 in Illinois, and the
average in all was 26,124. These figures are still below the actual
number, as it is not likely that every hunter obtained the required
license; and even if such were the case, licenses are not needed by
residents in Minnesota, or by anyone in Michigan or Wyoming hunting
birds and other small game, or in Nebraska or Wyoming: by any per-
son hunting in the county in which he resides.

The destruction which an army of 26,000 hunters roaming at will
over any State might bring about is beyond computation. In the
absence of game laws these persons would be free to hunt in every
month of the year, to shoot game throughout the breeding season, to
kill song and insectivorous birds for food or sport, to break up nests
and destroy eggs, and to net or trap desirable species to the point of
extermination. The tendency of the game laws has been constantly
to restrict hunting, to shorten open seasons (in the case of quail to two
or three months, except in the South), to prohibit all shooting during
the spring and early summer, to protect nongame birds throughout

512 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

the year, and to abolish netting and trapping entirely. Thus, the
farmer is saved the annoyance of hunters tramping through his grow-
ing crops and killing the birds which protect his orchards and gardens,
or trapping the more valuable species which nest about his premises.

PROTECTION OF PROPERTY.

Still further protection to his property is afforded the farmer by
modern game laws. Under the common law and under the statutes
of many of the States the landowner has the right to eject trespassers
from his premises and to collect damages for any injury which they
may have done to his property. In the case of hunting, however,
certain conditions exist which render it difficult for the rural land-
owner to obtain the full benefit of the trespass law. If his property
embraces several hundred acres, or if much of it is wooded or rolling
land, it is by no means easy to patrol the place or to apprehend per-
sons in the act of trespassing. Moreover, unless the land is under
cultivation, inclosed, or properly posted, it may be difficult to collect
any damages for shooting on the premises. Even if these obstacles
do not exist the landowner often prefers to put up with more or less
annoyance or loss rather than incur the ill-will of his neighbors by
enforcing the trespass laws against them; not only because such action
on his part would disturb friendly and pleasant relations, but because
in some sections retaliation would probably follow in the form of loss
of poultry, hogs, or sheep, a hamstrung horse, or even a burned barn.
Recently a still more aggravated form of trespass has developed in
some States which have received a large influx of immigrants from
southern Kurope. These newcomers, ignorant both of the language
and of the law, frequently mistake liberty for license, and, free from the
restraints to which they were accustomed in their own country,
imagine that they can hunt birds of all kinds without restriction as to
place or season. When thus engaged they throw down rail fences,
trample grain, steal fruit, or commit similar depredations, and meet
remonstrance or interference on the part of the owner with stolid
indifference or a resentment which occasionally leads to personal ,
encounter. Conditions like these would be intolerable were remedies
not provided outside of the trespass law.

Recognizing the importance of affording protection to the land-
owner as well as to the game, the legislatures of many States have
incorporated in the game laws special provisions for the protection of
farms. Ina dozen or more States it is made a criminal offense, pun-
ishable by a fine of from $5 to $25 or more, to hunt on inclosed or
posted lands. It is also an offense in Indiana, Ohio, and Tennessee,
and in some of the counties of North Carolina and Virginia, to hunt
without written permission of the landowner; in Minnesota, North
Dakota, Oregon, and Wisconsin to enter standing grain; in Texas to ©

SOME BENEFITS OF GAME PROTECTION. 513

enter or hunt on any inclosed land comprising less than 2,000 acres in
one inclosure, and in West Virginia to discharge firearms on another
person's sland within gunshot of an occupied dwelling even after secur-
ing permission to hunt on the premises.

Shooting from the highway is a form of trespass which is often as
annoying as it is difficult to control. A landowner who has no means
of redress against irresponsible hunters killing game along the road
adjoining his place or shooting over his fences and perhaps injuring
his stock or poultry is not in a position to secure complete protection
for his premises. So troublesome has this form of trespass become,
particularly in some of the Western States, that special penalties have
been provided for shooting along the road. When the nature of the
highway is considered such legislation is not unreasonable. Sports-
men sometimes assume that a highway is public property, and if
shooting is done in the open season there is no trespass. But unless
legal provisions declare otherwise, public interest in the highway is
limited to a specific purpose, that of travel, and all other rights in it
belong to the landowners upon whose property it lies. The wisdom
of special legislation to prevent this form of trespass has been recog.
nized by several States, and provisions for the purpose, incorporated
in the game laws, were adopted by Kansas in 1886, by Iowa in 1897, by
Colorado in 1899, by is eaare and West ie inia in 1901, peak by
Oklahoma in 1903.

The enforcement of these and other provisions of the game laws i,
delegated to game wardens and their deputies, to whom complaints
may be made or who may be called upon to apprehend and prosecute
oficnders. In Wisconsin, in the open season of 1904, 90 salaried
wardens and deputies were on duty, and in Illinois 114. It can readily
be seen that with the extension of the telephone system into rural
districts a constabulary of this kind properly organized and supervised,
and devoting its entire time to the work, may afford protection far
beyond the power of regular peace officers. In some parts of the
States mentioned it is only necessary to notify the nearest warden by
telephone of the fact of hunting on the premises, or of the name of the
trespasser, and the officer will apprehend and prosecute the offender
without annoyance or loss of time on the part of the landowner.

PROTECTION OF USEFUL BIRDS.

Weeds and injurious insects cost the farmers of the United States
millions of dollars annually, both in direct losses and in expenditures
for labor and materials necessary to protect their crops. Anything
which tends to reduce the number of weeds or to check the ravages of
injurious insects is therefore a direct benefit. Among the most potent
natural agents in checking such losses are insectivorous and seed-eating

2 al904——33

514 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

birds, and the importance of their preservation, while difficult to meas-.
ure in dollars and cents, is self-evident, since it may mean the differ-
ence between large profits and heavy losses. The food habits of the
more important common birds are discussed at length in the publica-
tions of the Biological Survey, and it will be sufficient here to recall
merely a few examples mentioned by Prof. F. EK. L. Beal” to show
the vast quantities of insects and weeds destroyed by certain species
under favorable circumstances. ‘The common meadowlark is perhaps
one of the most valuable of all birds, for more than half of its food
consists of harmful insects and the vegetable portion of its fare is
largely made up of seeds of injurious weeds. The nighthawk, which
is almost exclusively insectivorous and usually supposed to feed on
insects which fly some distance above the ground, has been shown to
feed on grasshoppers, as many as 60 being found in a single stomach.
A single stomach of the yellow-billed cuckoo has been found to con-
tain 217 fall webworms and another 250 American tent caterpillars.
Two flickers were each found to have eaten 3,000 ants and a third 5,000.

Dr. S. D. Judd? has called attention to the quantities of insects
captured by birds to feed their young. In the case of the kingbird
one-half the stomach contents of 14 nestlings consisted of crickets and
grasshoppers. In feeding a brood of three young wrens about three-
fourths grown the mother was observed to make 110 visits to the nest
in a period of less than eight hours, and in this time she fed the nest-
lings 178 insects and spiders, among them being 14 grasshoppers, 32
May flies, 54 caterpillars, and 13 spiders.

Even more striking examples may be found in the case of some of
the seed-eating birds. From a study of the tree sparrow made some
years ago in lowa, Professor Beal estimated that the quantity of weed
seed destroyed by these birds in the State in a single season amounted
to 875 tons. In examining stomachs of doves he found one con-
taining 7,500 seeds of the yellow wood sorrel (Owalis stricta) and
another 9,200 miscellaneous seeds, chiefly weeds. The total quantity
of weed seeds destroyed by such birds as these in the course of a
season is almost beyond computation. Under modern game laws com-
plete protection throughout the year is extended to nongame birds.
In the case of the dove, however, which is often considered a game
bird, an open season for hunting is provided in a few States, although
the tendency is to remove it from the game list on account of its
importance as a weed destroyer.

‘PROTECTION AGAINST INTRODUCTION OF INJURIOUS SPECIES.

The benefits of protection already mentioned are evident, but the
advantages of preventing the losses which may result from thought-
less or ill-advised introduction of injurious species are less obvious.

«¥Farmers’ Bulletin 54, Common Birds in Relation to Agriculture, revised ed. 1904.
b Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1900, pp. 415-426.

SOME BENEFITS OF GAME PROTECTION. 515

It is impossible to estimate in advance what the damage will be, but
the history of the rabbit in Australia, the mongoose in Jamaica and
Hawaii, the English sparrow in the United States, and a number of
other species in Australia and New Zealand shows the dangers which
exist in permitting experiments in acclimatization of animals and birds
to be made without restriction. In all such cases it is the farmer who
suffers directly by the destruction of his crops or indirectly by insect
pests which increase as a result of the diminution of their natural
enemies.

In recognition of this fact Congress, in giving the Department of
Agriculture jurisdiction over matters pertaining to game protection,
also prohibited the importation of injurious mammals and birds, and
intrusted to the Secretary of Agriculture the duty of determining
what species were likely to become injurious and how-they could be
prevented from gaining a foothold in this country. Under authority
of this act the Secretary of Agriculture, with the cooperation of the
Secretary of the Treasury, has carried into effect a system of permits
for the entry of nearly all wild animals and birds brought into the
United States, with special inspection when necessary. Every person
who wishes to import wild birds alive must first obtain authorization
from the Departmentof Agriculture. While the Cape Colony and some
of the States of Australia have similar restrictions on acclimatization,
no other government in the world has gone so far or extended protec-
tion over such an area of country in the effort to protect itself from —
the evils attendant upon ill-advised acclimatization.

Several of the States cooperate in and supplement this work. The
State board of horticulture of California, by its organic act passed in
1883, was authorized among other things to make regulations to pre-
vent the spread of fruit pests. In 1894 the board adopted a regulation
prohibiting the importation into the State of animals or birds detri-
mental to fruit or fruit trees, and requiring the destruction of any
inadvertently brought in. Maine, in 1899, enacted a law prohibiting
the introduction of wild birds or animals of any kind into the State,
except upon written permission of the commissioners of inland fisheries
and game. Colorado in the same year established a requirement that
importers should obtain certificates from the State game and fish com-
missioner before bringing game or fish into the State for propagation.

FINANCIAL BENEFITS.
DIRECT BENEFITS.

That the game on the farm has a money value is not always recog-
nized, or, if so, seldom receives due consideration. Rabbits, quail,
grouse, and other game taken during the open season afford not only
an important addition to the table, but may save considerable expendi-
ture for other meat. The value of this game is, therefore, not merely

516 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the small amount it would bring in cash or in provisions at the coun-
try store, but rather what it saves in the cost of other meats; and it
is greatly to the advantage of the landowner to utilize the game upon
his own table instead of disposing of it at the store. It is true
that without game laws a small number of rabbits, quail, or other
resident game might be retained on a farm of sufficient extent. But
on many farms the stock would soon be depleted, and in the case of
migratory game adequate protection both northward and southward
is necessary to enable anyone to secure birds in abundance, and this
protection can be had only through the medium of State laws.

Under some circumstances the game on the farm may be made to
yield a higher cash return by utilizing it in other ways than for market
or for the table. In the case of quail, dead birds are worth from $1
to $3 a dozen, but live birds for propagating purposes may easily be
sold at $5 a dozen. In fact, in 1904 the demand for live quail was so
great that some sales were effected at $10 a dozen, and eve at this rate
the supply was entirely inadequate. With the increasing scarcity of
game it is more than proba le that the demand for birds for restock-
ing covers will show a steady increase. At present a supply of from
100,000 to 200,000 a year would probably be requir d to meet needs
for this purpose, and there is no apparent reason why this demand
should not greatly increase in the future. Still better prices may be
obtained by the farmer if instead of selling the dead game for market
or disposing of the live birds for propagating purposes ‘he will lease
hunting privileges on his farm. These privileges may be rented by
the day or by the season, and may be accompanied with charges for
board and lodging, the use of a team, or the time of a boy to act as
guide, and will thus net a very profitable return. If the number of
birds killed be limited, to prevent the stock from being permanently
reduced, such leases may be continued almost indefinitely.

INDIRECT BENEFITS.

Reference has just been made to the demand for game for propaga-
tion. With the increase in private preserves and game protective
associations it is probable that such demands will be greatly extended
in the future, not only in the case of quail, but of other birds as well.
The raising of game birds in captivity has not yet been reduced toa
practical basis in this country, except in the case of pheasants, but that
such will be the result of experiments now being made is scarcely open
to question. In a few cases quail, prairie chickens, mallards, wood
ducks, and wild geese have been satisfactorily propagated, and during
the past season, in at least one instance, ruffed grouse were success-
fully raised in captivity. It is claimed by those who have « xperi-
mented along this line that prairie chickens and pheasants can be
raised with no more trouble or loss than turkeys. When methods

SOME BENEFITS OF GAME PROTEOTION. 517

have been perfected so that some certainty will attend such efforts
the members of the farmer’s family may find in this branch of game
protection a new and profitable source of income. With pheasants
ranging in price from $3 to $15 or $20 per pair and wood ducks from
S15 to $25 per pair it would seem that even with the special care
required better returns might be received than from ordinary invest-
ments in poultry raising.

Indirectly the systematic protection of game and fish may be the
means of developing resources which will greatly benefit the farmer.
Visitors who come to hunt, fish, or spend their vacations not only
bring considerable sums of money into the State, but furnish employ-
ment of various kinds. They require board and lodging which can
often be had in country homes to the advantage of the boarder as well
as the owner. ‘Their presence may also provide increased home
markets for poultry, eggs, butter, milk, and other farm products and
may render possible the maintenance of improved railroad and tele-
phone service in outlying districts. A striking illustration of these
conditions may be found in the case of Maine. In 1004 the license
fees collected from nonresidents who visited the State to hunt big
game amounted to $25,365. The reports show that 1,942 guides were
registered, who were employed altogether 87,785 days, and earned at
a fair estimate $3.50 per day, or a total of $307,247.50. Two years
ago the commission of inland fisheries and game made a careful inves-
tigation of the number of nonresidents who visited Maine outside of the
seaside resorts and the amount of money which they spent in the State.
These figures showed that in the summer of 1902 the number of non-
resident visitors was 133,885, that their presence gave employment
to 1,401 men and boys, and to 2,564 women and girls, whose wages
amounted to $267,934. The amount spent for railroad fares and inci-
dental expenses was not reported, but the expenditures for board alone
amounted to $1,371,201. The permanent financial benefit thus derived
by the State from nonresident travel has been summarized by Senator
W. P. Frye“ as follows:

In all times of business depressions and distress, financial panics and consequent
unemployment of labor, so seriously affecting the country, the State of Maine has
suffered much less than any other State in the American Union, mostly, if not

entirely, due to the large amount of money left with us by the fisherman, the sum-
mer tourist, and the fall hunter—the seeker after change, rest, and recreation.

SOME PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS.

Several plans have been devised for bringing farmers into closer
touch with sportsmen and increasing the practical benefits which the
former may derive from impartial enforcement of the game laws. Of
these plans three may be mentioned to illustrate the different methods
of reaping the benefits of game protection.

4 Rept. Comm. Inland Fisheries and Game of Maine, for 1902, p. 21.

5138 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CONNECTICUT,

The Connecticut Association of Farmers and Sportsmen for the Pro-
tection of Game and Fish was organized on August 10, 1888, at Hart-
ford, Conn.* Its general purposes were expressed in its title, but
more specifically it undertook not only to protect game and fish
but ‘* to protect the farmers against those persons who mutilate stock,
tear down fences or walls, and do shooting on Sunday,” and ‘* to make
and prefer information against violators of such laws, and to detect,
prosecute, and bring to justice all offenders against such laws, and
punish them according to law, and supervise such prosecution.” For
fifteen years this association devoted its attention with much success
to its special field of work. One of the duties undertaken was to break
up the practice of snaring grouse for shipment and sale contrary to
law. In this it was so successful that during the first year it secured
a number of convictions and did much to restrict the killing of game

in close season.
ILLINOIS.

Under the name of the Rockford Township Farmers’ Association an
organization was effected in 1901 in northern Illinois for the purpose
of mutual protection against indiscriminate hunting on farms owned
or rented by the members. ‘The constitution and by-laws are very
simple. By one of the by-laws each member is required to post
notices in five or more conspicuous places on his land prohibiting
hunting or trespassing, and by another to interview any person found
hunting on the premises whenever it is possible, and in case such per-
son persists in hunting after being warned, to go before the nearest
justice of the peace and cause a warrant for trespass to be issued
against the offender. Kach member retains the right to grant to any
person the privilege of hunting on his farm in his company, and under-
takes to promote the strict enforcement of the game laws of the State.

The association has now been in existence for four years and num-
bers about 75 members. It has had under its care from 12,000 to
15,000 acres of rich farming land lying north of the town of Rockford,
Ill. This land is rolling prairie planted in wheat, corn, oats, and
orchards. ‘The association has been remarkably successful in carry-
ing out its objects. Unauthorized hunting has been stopped, not
only on the farms, but also along the highways. Prairie chickens
and quail are increasing in numbers and nongame birds are abundant.
The members are personally interested in the increase of game birds
on their premises, and guard their bevies of quail with jealous care.
As an instance of this feeling it may be stated that one of the mem-
bers, on being asked whether game was increasing on his place,
replied that he now had a large bevy of quail, and added that he

@ Forest and Stream, XX XI, pp. 65, 125, 1888.

SOME BENEFITS OF GAME PROTECTION. 519

valued them so highly as insect destroyers that he could better afford
to have his chickens killed than his quail.

At the outset some trouble was experienced in having the lands
properly posted. Difficulty was also encountered in apprehending and
convicting trespassers on account of the time the complainant had to
take from his work in case of an arrest, and the additional discourage-
ment caused by frequent failure to convict or small fines. In 1899
a provision was incorporated in the Illinois game law imposing a
fine of from $3 to $15 for hunting with dog or gun on the lands
of another without permission. It also became the duty of the game
wardens to enforce this law. Each county in the State has a game
warden, and with the telepbone system now extended in all directions
from Rockford the members can communicate at a moment’s notice
with the local warden. Convictions have been secured with more
certainty, and these have had a beneficial influence in deterring illegal
hunting. The change in the law has required less active work on the
part of the members in posting their lands and following up offenders,
but it has enabled the association to carry out its objects so much more
effectively that the members feel that they have a personal interest in
the game law and are heartily in sympathy with a strict enforcement
of its provisions.

NORTH CAROLINA.

The North Carolina laws prohibiting shooting on another person’s
land without permission of the owner, to which reference has already
been made, were first enacted in the latter part of the eighteenth cen-
tury. Not until recently, however, have the full benefits of these laws
been realized. Within the past fifteen years a system of leasing has
been inaugurated, which seems to meet with considerable favor, as it
secures to the owner a substantial financial benefit. These leases
have been most numerous in the north central part of the State, in the
counties of Davidson, Forsyth, Guilford, Moore, and Randolph. It
will be sufficient, by way of illustration, to describe the system as
applied in Guilford County. This county comprises 680 square miles,
a little more than one-half the area of Rhode Island. It contains two
important towns, Greensboro and Highpoint, and its total popula-
tion in 1900 was about 40,000. The farms average about 100 to 200
acres in extent. The principal crops raised are wheat, corn, cotton,
fruit, and vegetables. Quail and rabbits abound nearly everywhere;
in fact, quail are probably more abundant in this part of the State
than in any other section of the country east of the Mississippi River.
This condition is due in part to.the present state of agriculture and
the acreage in woodland or thicket, which furnishes excellent covér
for the birds. At present about 150,000 acres, or more than one-third
the area of the county, are under lease for private game preserves.
These preserves do not interfere in any way with the cultivation of

520 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

the land or the rights of individuals. In most cases they have not
resulted in the restriction of the ownership of the land to a few per-
sons, nor has there been any attempt to restore the land to its original
wild condition; but, on the contrary, every encouragement is given for
its cultivation, while in some cases cowpeas are freely distributed by
the lessees for the purpose of improving the soil and at the same time
affording better food for the birds. These preserves vary in size from
a few hundred to 12,000 or 15,000 acres each. ‘They are sometimes con-
trolled by one or two individuals, though more frequently by several
persons associated together for the purpose. Comparatively little
land is bought, but nearly all is held under lease. An arrangement is
entered into whereby the owners of adjoining farms agree to permit
no hunting on their land, except by the lessee or his friends during
the open season, and the lessee either makes a cash return for the hunt-
ing privilege or agrees to pay all taxes on the property. The ordi-
nary tax rate outside of the towns averages about 7 cents per acre,
and the amount paid for rentals varies from 5 to 10 cents. Some
leases are good for only cne year, others for five or ten years, with
the privilege of renewal.

In the case of one of the earliest of these preserves, near Highpoint,
the lessee owns no land, but leases nearly 12,000 acres on a cash basis,
and his annual disbursements for rental alone reach $1,200. More
than one-third of the total real-estate tax of the county outside of the
towns is now paid by hunting leases, and, in some cases, in which a
special township school tax has been imposed, this is also paid by the
lessees. In other words, the farmers, by merely keeping trespassers off
their lands and joining their neighbors in leasing the hunting privileges
to certain individuals or associations, are relieved entirely from their
real-estate taxes or receive an equally large or even a larger amount in
cash each year. Sometimes the lessees hunt very little or perhaps not
at all during the season, in which cases the owners may for a year or
more enjoy immunity from hunting as well as from taxation.

The satisfactory working of the North Carolina plan will doubtless
cause it to be adopted in other States. Asa simple and comprehensive
method of meeting the conditions resulting from the ever-increasing
number of hunters and the growing scarcity of game it has much in
its favor. It has the advantage of permitting the sportsman to enjoy
his favorite pursuit, at the same time protecting the game from
excessive slaughter, and it relieves the farmer from the annoyances to
which he is often subjected by unprincipled or inconsiderate hunters.
Finally, it brings a substantial return to the owner for the use of the
hunting privileges of his land, and thus equalizes the obligation betweer
the farmer and the sportsman.

STATE PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURE.

By Crar.tes H. GREATHOUSE,
Of the Division of Publications.

GENERAL VIEW OF PRESENT CONDITIONS.

Books on agricultural subjects are published by nearly all the States
and Territories of the Union and distributed free to farmers and others
interested in farming. Some States only report the transactions of
the principal agricultural organizations; others gather data on crops
with care and make extended investigations ulong the line of agricul-
tural improvement and for defense against dangers to agricultural
interests; and they publish the results of their work quite fully, some
of them elaborately. It is to be observed that experiment station
publications are not being considered in this discussion.

Each State conducts its publishing independently of all the other
States and of the General Government, and the books are distributed
without consultation or cooperation between the distributing officers.
As a consequence there is no orderly division of the field in which all
are working toward the same end, viz, the discovery, elucidation,
and dissemination of truth helpful to farmers. Duplication of effort
occurs to a considerable extent, and the more progressive farmers are
often burdened with studying, or at least looking over, several books
where one would be sufficient. It is such duplication of work as this
among experiment stations that is avoided by cooperation with the
Office of Experiment Stations of the Department of Agriculture.

Nevertheless, the State governments publish and spread among
farmers and students of agriculture much valuable information that
would otherwise be lost, and a generous emulation, which makes for
progress, is aroused among the States.

DEVELOPMENT OF STUDY AND PUBLICATION.

The first work in agricultural investigation within the borders of
this country was done in the colonies. New York, Pennsylvania, and
Massachusetts perhaps took the lead in the study of farm problems,
as they did in publication of methods and results of inquiries in per-
manent form; but much good work, including considerable publica-
tion, was done also in Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina.

The long struggle for independence weakened the colonists in every
line of industry and not least in agriculture; it was some time after
the organization of the present government before investigations of

521

522 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

farm processes and problems resumed their course. A beginning of
renewed activity was manifested in the formation in New York,
Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania of societies for the promotion of
agriculture. These were followed by similar societies in other States.
In general in this country the formation of such State agricultural
societies has preceded and led the way to the establishment of State
eovernment oflices for the promotion of agricultural interests. The
publication of the transactions of these societies usually has given an
important series of volumes antedating the State reports on agriculture.
Frequently these society transactions are embodied in and form a large
part of the State reports. In some cases the work of the society has
been completely replaced by that of the State government and the
semipublic organization has practically ceased to exist. The direction
of progress seems to be from an agricultural society to a State board
of agriculture whose secretary prepares a report including the trans-
actions of the agricultural society, and tinally to a State department of
agriculture with a commissioner who is responsible for the substance
as well as the form of the report, in which he deals mainly with the
work done under his direct supervision. Under all these conditions
the printing has commonly been done at public expense.

SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT SERIES.

NEW YORK.

The New York reports run back at least to 1791, when ‘‘ a respecta-

ble number of citizens,” with Hon. Ezra L’Hommedieu in the chair,
met to form a society for the promotion of agriculture and manu-
facture. On February 26 in that year, with Hon. John Sloss Hobart
presiding, the society adopted rules and regulations and elected Hon.
Robert R. Livingston president. A bulky volume of 462 pages pre-
serves the transactions and important papers of this organization from
1791 to 1798, inclusive. One of the secretaries was Dr. Samuel L.
Mitchell, whose historical work was at times the object of Irving’s
satire. Under a new incorporation the name of the organization
became ‘*The Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts,” and other
reports were printed.

The New York board of agriculture reports, well edited and
printed, in three volumes, cover the period from 1821 to 1826. The
last volume has 558 pages, with an index, and contains several plates.
In 1832 an effort was made to establish the New York State Agri-
cultural Society, but it was not until 1841 that work was actually
begun. From that date runs an unbroken series of substantial, useful
volumes, one for each year, until 1895, when the New York depart-
ment of agriculture was established. Its reports have since been
issued in several volumes each year, and form an important source of
agricultural information.

STATE PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURE. 538

MASSACHUSETTS.

The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture was estab-
lished. in 1792 and published numerous papers, but the State series
may be said to begin with four volumes prepared by Rev. Henry
Colman for the years 1837-1840 and printed by the State. Abstracts
of county society returns were authorized in 1845 and were published
till 1852. The first contained 198 pages, without illustration. In 1847
the title ‘‘Agriculture of Massachusetts” began to be used, but not
until 1853 do the State board reports appear. In 1865 Charles L.
Flint, whose labors as secretary are memorable, changed the form of
the report so that each annual covers part of two calendar years, and
these volumes, called ‘‘ second series,” run from 1865-66 to 1879-80.
In 1880 another report was printed, and from that time each report
covers one calendar year. In 1893 an index of the reports from 1837
to 1892, by Frederick H. Fowler, was published.

PENNSYLVANIA.

The Pennsylvania reports as they appear in the libraries begin with
eleven volumes of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society issued from
1854 to 1876; but it is known that many publications giving the trans-
actions of the earlier societies were printed before that time. Among
these are memoirs of the Penn* Agricultural Society, 1824, and of the
Philadelphia Agricultural Society, 1808-1826. The volumes of State
board reports date from 1877, one for each year, and close with 1894.
In 1895 the Pennsylvania department of agriculture was established,
and the reports from that year till 1903 were issued in two parts for
each year. They furnish a large amount of information. In 1902
part 1 contained 1,029 pages, with numerous plates, and part 2, 323
pages. The one volume report of 1903 contains 957 pages.

WESTERN AND SOUTHERN.

The Ohio board of agriculture was established in 1846, and reports
were published annually till 1857, when a second series was begun
which continued till 1877. In 1878 the name ‘‘second series” was
dropped, and the reports continue till the present. The volume for
1902, distributed in 1904, contains 966 pages. Farmers’ institutes
occupy 226 pages; crop and other statistics, 169 pages; horticulture,
including orchard inspection, 194 pages; the live-stock commission, 29
pages. ‘The transactions of the board for both 1902 and 1903 are pub-
lished in this volume.

The Indiana reports begin with 1851-52 and run to the outbreak of
the war. Then the great excitement due to raising and equipping
troops caused a discontinuance till 1867, when a report was issued cov-
ering the transactions of the State Agricultural Society for the years
1862-1867. ‘The editor of that volume says the society’s room in the
statehouse was taken in 1861 for military purposes, the geological
specimens were ‘‘jumbled into boxes in the cellar,” and the books,

524 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

papers, etc., scattered. ‘The series then continues in unbroken line to
1903. ‘The volume of 1899 contains 1,091 pages, illustrated.

Similar reports covering very nearly the same period were issued
by Illinois. Since 1871 these have come from a State department of
agriculture; and while the later reports have contained little more than
details of awards, ete., at the State fair, the reports of farmers’ insti-
tutes started in 1896 are full of information and suggestion; also, the
Illinois Horticultural Society prints valuable reports.

Iowa reports begin with 1854. The second issue, in 1855, is a pamphlet
of 44 pages. From 1856-57, when a volume of 458 pages was published,
there is a good series, including the 1903 report, issued in 1904, which
contains 736 pages, with illustrations and index. The horticultural
society reports form an interesting series beginning with 1867.

North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, and Tennessee have publica-
tions antedating the civil war, which give valuable information on farm
resources and farming in the South Atlantic section and the southern
Ohio Valley. ‘The Missouri reports became of special value after 1865,
when the State board of agriculture was established. The Michigan
and Wisconsin series have been steadily maintained in a high degree
of usefulness since 1849 and 1851, respectively. An index for the
Michigan reports, 1849-1888, was published in 1889. Kansas has
twenty volumes, biennial since 1876, and many smaller publications,
including quarterlies. The Nebraska reports have been usefully kept
up since 1868, mainly by the efforts of ex-Governor Robert W. Fvxr-
nas, who was president of the board then and is secretary now.

NOTES FROM THE REPORTS.

Even a running examination of these books brings to light informa-
tion at times mainly curious, but also very often valuable.

The Indiana report for 1859-60 contains a letter from Alexander
von Humboldt, written in 1858, the year before his death. He says,
after mentioning the aid of the American minister:

I have received the important reports of the Indiana board of agriculture; and if
I have deferred so long to offer the homage of my respectful acknowledgments to the
president of that noble institution, the delay was caused only by indisposition.

The volumes of the transactions which I have been able to peruse prove that at
Indianapolis they know how to manage the interests of agriculture with intelligent
sagacity and understand the improvement of natural resources.

The report by William S. Wait, of Greenville, Lll., secretary of the
Bond County Society, dated January 2, 1855, shows that a practice
which has of late years received much attention and found a place at
the St. Louis World’s Fair was begun in that region long ago. Mr.
~ Wait says: ‘‘In order to encourage the boys to work, premiums are
offered for the best acre of corn grown and cultivated by any person
under 21 years.”

Between the covers of a single New Hampshire report, 1850-1852,
are four short addresses by Franklin Pierce an@ Daniel Webster, both

STATE PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURE. 525

natives of the State. In 1851 Mr. Webster, in one of his last public
speeches, raised his voice against ‘‘a spirit of disunion” which would
surely ‘*‘ lead to destruction.”

The fiftieth anniversary (1902) meeting of the Massachusetts board was
addressed by the late ex-Governor George S$. Boutwell, among others.
He told how in the fifties he brought a mowing machine to his farm.
His foreman said he could not run it, and anyway two good men could
do as much as the machine. But Mr. Boutwell told the foreman’s
15-year-old boy he would add 50 cents a day to his wages if he would
run the machine, and after two days the father changed his opinion.

A new way of keeping dirt roads in good order is presented in the
Missouri report for 1902 by its originator, Mr. Ward King, of Mait-
land, Mo. It is very simple. Mr. King states that by dragging with
‘San old post and a frost-bitten pump stock” pinned together, he kept
the clay road near his place in good condition, except just after a rain or
a big thaw. He improved his method by splitting logs in half to make
the drag, and by the use of nine such drags he and his neighbors in less
than a year made the 4 miles to Maitland the best dirt road he ever saw.
The special points of his method are to hitch to the drag so as to draw
the earth toward the center of the road, and promptly at the begin-
ning of every thaw and after every rain to drag the surface of the road
smooth, so as to leave no holes, ruts, nor hoof prints to hold water.

The late Col. J. H. Brigham, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture,
read a paper on irrigation of arid lands, at the State Farmers’ Institute
at Columbus, Ohio, in January, 1903, which appears, with an interest-
ing discussion of it, in the Ohio report for 1902. Colonel Brigham, in
closing his remarks, said millions of acres would be sold under the
stimulus of the new movement ‘‘that never can be irrigated or farmed

successfully.”
PRESENT CONDITIONS.

The officials in charge of agricultural interests in the several States
and Territories of the Union so far as they could be reached, have
stated, for use here, the conditions and methods of their work at the
close of the calendar year 1904.

PUBLICATION,

Annual reports are issued by California, Connecticut, Colorado,
Delaware, Hawaii, Lllinois, Indiana, lowa, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, the Philippine
Islands, Porto Rico, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, and
Wisconsin. The Colorado report is bound in the same cover with the
Experiment Station Report.

Biennial reports are published by Arkansas, Florida, Idaho, Kansas,
Montana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, West
Virginia, and Wyoming. From Arizona, Maryland, New Mexico,

526 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

‘Tennessee, and Washington are issued handbooks showing resources and
products, which furnish information for intending settlers. Georgia
has an annual report on chemical fertilizers and publishes a handbook
of resources. Oregon and South Dakota do not now publish reports,
and from Alabama, Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina, and Utah no
satisfactory data were obtained. California, Maryland, Nevada, South
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Utah publish farmers’ institute pro-
ceedings; so, also, do 22 other States in addition to their regular series
of annual or biennial volumes. Many States also publish reports of
horticultural societies and other agricultural organizations. Massa-
chusetts, Missouri, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin pub-
lish monthly bulletins, while West Virginia publishes a monthly
agricultural paper. Other States publish bulletins at irregular inter-
vals, some in series, some not. Pennsylvania has such a series which
numbers over 130 very useful pamphlets. Maine and Kansas publish
quarterly bulletins.

DISTRIBUTION.

The distribution of these publications is effected mainly through the
mails. When issued regularly as often as quarterly they go through
the mails at the second-class rate, 1 cent a pound. ‘This privilege is
given by an act of Congress of June 6, 1900, passed largely through
the efforts of the North Carolina department of agriculture. In some
States an appropriation for postage is provided, but occasionally the
postage on an important book is charged upon the applicant.

The State reports are sent to the members of the legislature, public
libraries, farmers, and citizens interested in farming. ‘The quarter-
lies, monthlies, and irregular bulletins are sent to nearly the same
classes as the reports, but more attention is paid to getting them into
the hands of persons actually engaged in farming. Any farmer who can
give satisfactory evidence that he intends to use the book in connection
with his work can usually obtain any State agricultural publication
without cost. In West Virginia the monthly farm paper is sent at
the nominal subscription price of 5 cents a year.

Distributing officers have regular mailing lists, some of them num-
bering several thousand, and the remainder of the books after lists are
supplied are sent on application. The editions of annual reports
range from 2,500 copies in Delaware to 31,500 in Pennsylvania. Of
the farmers’ institute reports, the numbers range from 1,000 in Indiana
to 6,000 in Wisconsin.

The printing is usually done by the State printer, sometimes under
a general law accompanied by an appropriation for the purpose. In
Minnesota and Wisconsin farmers’ institute handbooks are made to
bring in revenue from advertisers.

The estimate of the value of these publications is steadily rising.
Practical men find them useful in their work. Students also are com-
ing to recognize them as sources of information of high authority, and
they find a place in very many libraries.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING INVESTIGATIONS BY
THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

By D. I. Saumon, D. V. M.,
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

PLAN OF OPERATION.

One of the most noteworthy undertakings of the Bureau of Animal
Industry during recent years is the inauguration of investigations in
animal breeding and feeding in cooperation with the State agricultural
experiment stations. At the second session of the Fifty-eighth Con-
eress a fund of $25,000 was appropriated for this purpose, and plans
were at once begun to carry out the purposes of the act. Four
general sections were considered in locating the work—the West, the
Central States, the East, and the South—and problems are now being
worked out in all but the Central West, where investigations will
probably be commenced during the coming year.

In planning the work it has been decided to give special attention
to problems in animal breeding, for several reasons. Animal breed-
ing as a field for systematic research is not greatly affected by local
conditions, and very few investigations have been undertaken by the
experiment stations or the Department. The feeding of animals, on the —
other hand, is influenced by a very great variety of such conditions, and
experiment stations, which have covered this field quite thoroughly,
are constantly adding to our knowledge of the subject. Furthermore,
investigations in animal breeding require resources that are at the
command of few stations. In carrying out the provisions of the act
in question regarding experiments in animal feeding, some work will
be done in practical feeding under local conditions, but the principal
lines of research of this nature may be confined, it is hoped, to scien-
tific investigation of the principles of nutrition.

The stations with which the Department is cooperating are the Penn-
sylvania experiment station in animal nutrition, the lowa experiment
station in sheep breeding, the Maine experiment station in poultry
breeding, the Colorado experiment station in horse breeding, the Ala-
bama experiment station in beef and pork production, and the Texas
experiment station in feeding beef cattle. These problems were selected
as being urgent ones, and the locations give the work a representative
character.

In carrying out the provisions of this act and making agreements
with the different experiment stations, the Department has arranged
in a general way for a division of expense, which will make the station

527

528 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

financially interested in the success of the work, and will give a rea-
sonable return for the assistance it receives. It has sometimes been
necessary, however, for the Department to contribute a larger sum of
money than the station was able to provide, for the reason that most
of these institutions had made arrangements for the expenditure of
all available funds for several years ahead, and to ask them to con-
tribute a sum of money equal to that which the Government could
provide would cripple them financially or entirely preclude their enter-
ing into cooperation for this purpose. However, it must be recog-
nized as a great advantage that stations have connected with the»
trained men familiar with the conditions of their States, whose ability
to conduct the work on the ground is an invaluable asset which could
be obtained only by liberal arrangements on the part of the Department.

ANIMAL NUTRITION.

Cooperation was established several years ago with the Pennsylvania
experiment station to start systematic investigations in animal nutri-
tion. A respiration calorimeter, modeled on that erected by Professors
Atwater and Rosa for the study of human nutrition and adapted for use
with animals, has been installed. A large amount of material has been
gathered, and the results of the first series of investigations on the
available energy of timothy hay have been published as Bulletin No.
51 of the Bureau of Animal Industry. These investigations have been
_ supplemented by an allowance from the cooperative breeding and
feeding fund for investigations on the influence of age and individu-
ality on the nutrition of animals. Two young steers have been pur-
chased—one a purebred Aberdeen Angus, the other a purebred Jersey.
It is intended to study their metabolism until maturity.

SHEEP BREEDING.

The Iowa experiment station has been selected as a point to begin
the development of sheep more suitable to range conditions than those
used at present. Under the conditions of the market the ideal range
sheep should have three prominent characteristics; it should yield a
profitable carcass, a good clip of wool, and should stand flocking in
large numbers. Many of our breeds of sheep are valuable in two of
these particulars, but none possesses all. If a breed can be developed
which will fill all the requirements mentioned, it is believed that it will
be of much value to sheepmen on the range. The Iowa station now
has a small flock which it has built up by crossing and selection, and
hopes in a few years to have fixed the type so that the sheep may be
tested under range conditions.

POULTRY BREEDING.

The Maine experiment station has been making a special study of
poultry breeding for several years, and the Department is now assist-
ing in this work. The object of the investigation is twofold—the

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING. 529

development of strains which will lay 200 eggs annually per hen and
the study of the amount of floor space required per fowl. The pro-
duction of a hen which will lay 200 eggs in one year is an accomplished
fact, but when this is done it usually happens that in the succeeding
year the egg yield is very greatly diminished, and in some cases the
hens have died, apparently from exhaustion. The point has not yet
been reached where a family can be depended upon to produce hens
which will lay 200 eggs year after year, though this may be accom-
plished in time; nevertheless, the development of a family which may
be depended upon to produce 200 eggs per bird during the first laying
year is a distinct advance and of much value. The study of floor-space
requirements in connection with this work is an allied field of investi-
gation made possible by the erection of a new poultry house, the fowls
being kept in pens of different sizes.

HORSE BREEDING.

Horse breeding is the most important line of work in animal breed-
ing which the Bureau has undertaken, and it will be discussed in
considerable detail.

INCREASE OF PRICES AND SCARCITY OF HORSES.

The situation in the horse market during recent years has had a great
deal to do with determining the lines of work to be undertaken in this
respect. From the years 1899 to 1904, inclusive, there has been an
increase, ranging from $10 to $35, in the average prices for all classes
of horses on the Chicago market, as shown by the following table:

Increase in prices of horses on the Chicago market, 1899-1904.

Range of prices.

Class. ———______ | MCreare.
1899. 1904.
DTETets are toc eee o $155 $177 $22
Carriage pairs ........ Bee Bet 410 475 a65
DrineiseP ass ateest co es 140 150 10
Horses for general use....... 105 140 35
Bussers and trammers.....-. 115 140 25
Baddlers (sc. ones 150 160 10
Southern chunks ............ 50 64 14

aIncrease per pair.

This table shows what always happens during a period of scarcity,
namely, a large increase in the prices of the best grades, the average
price of carriage horses increasing $32.50 per head; but there is one
very remarkable feature in the large increase in the prices of the
cheaper grades. Horses for general use show the largest increase of
any, $35 per head; bussers and trammers have increased $25 per head;
and Southern chunks $14 per head. The relative increase in these
cheap classes has been greater than that of the better ones, and the
fact shows clearly that the demand for horses has rapidly increased.

2 al904——34

530 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This situation causes a tone approaching that of alarm to pervade the
horse market, and, while they are always inclined to bear the market,
dealers seem to have good reason for concern in this instance. The
conditions on the Chicago market are a good indication of those for
the entire country.

RELATION OF THE EXPORT TRADE TO THE HORSE MARKET.

The relation of the export trade to the horse market is peculiar.
The Columbian Exposition at Chicago marked the beginning of a very
strong demand from Europe for American horses, and export buyers
were soon prominent on the market, with the result that prices
advanced rapidly. The condition of this trade during the past decade
is shown by the following table:

Domestic exports of horses of the United States, 1895-1904.

Year ended June 30— Number. Value.

pag ede ec RRA ao 13,984 | $2, 209, 298
SOB co eas te es ates 25, 126 3, 580, 703
1 dealt Re eee RD Lee ae and AA be 39, 582 4,769, 265
Ta mee CE barge Bere) 61, 150 6,176, 569
a ge ek ee 45,778 5, 444, 342
11 il dion Ale MSs Wo ngage 64, 722 7, 612, 616
COST Ae eee ee ee 82, 250 8, 873, 845
Lo eem PEER SAORI ES ote aed 103,020 | 10, 048, 046
aE Meet PERS OPS f wer eg 34, 007 3, 152, 159
Tg ed en ee 42, 001 3, 189, 100

The great increase from 1900 to 1902 is due to the exportations to
South Africa, which have now almost entirely stopped.

It will be observed that the number of horses exported is still nor-
mal. This, however, is due to the increase in the exports to British
North America and the West Indies. There is also a strong demand
from Mexico. The trade with the United Kingdom (our heaviest
European purchaser) fell during 1904 to a lower point than in any
year in the last decade, and the exports to British North America may
be accounted for by the large agricultural emigration to Canada during —
recent years.

The following table shows the exports to the United Kingdom and
British North America. The European demand for our horses was
soon followed by rapid improyement in business conditions in this
country, and this resulted in a very greatly increased domestic demand
for horses, with the rise in prices already mentioned. This advance
has caused the falling off in exports to Europe; where we were send-
ing several thousand each month we are now sending hundreds, and
export buyers have either returned home or engaged in the domestic ©
trade in the United States.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING. 531

Domestic exports of horses of the United States to the United Kingdom and British North
America, 1895-1904.

United Kingdom, | British North ‘axie rica.

Year ended June 80— — = a aa Pe et

Number. Value. | Numbe r, Vatue, |

aoe coe oe ae é
IOs See ris b «oud Ree eos Bees 5, 834 $952, 632 | 4,493 $710, 727

MOP ihe Es Ss 12, 022 1, 776, 600 5, 683 693, 689

WOOT it 3'> sca bree Cee kes 19, 850 2, 579, 736 8, 902 8, 574
LOUD: pada tans die da pes watale 22, 129 8, 072, 498 9,415 9 674
oo SPS ps eee ap ead Benes 2 20, 934 8, 024, 952 10, 088 667,165
LVOO ods Ca wawaae aoe ee ee ahem 80, 232 4, 205, 376 8, 830 857, 206
Milas est osttsewed oie 22, 698 8, 481, 467 9, 305 863, 631
Te Res Sa | 10, 015 1, 593, 340 23,183} 1,808,298
DOO: cece inl oa hate waa ome aains 3, 755 688, 940 24, 965 2,121, 864

OURS sn sow ee eis a wr so we | 2,325 412, 760 24, 686 2, 099, 985

For the horse breeder the continuation of this trade is a favorable
state of affairs, for the reason that if the home market is threatened
with over production an outlet by means of exportation can readily be
obtained. The reputation of American horses abroad is thoroughly
established, and if prices fall again foreign buyers will no doubt soon
appear and the surplus will be absorbed.

MEANS OF RELIEF.

The present shortage may be relieved by two means: First, by the
direct importation of breeding animals from foreign countries in
larger numbers than before; second, by developing new breeds from
our own stock or by improving those which already exist. To a great
many unprejudiced observers it has seemed that the most advisable
method would be the former, and they would urge breeders to take
the established types on the other side of the Atlantic and transplant
them in large numbers to this country, using the argument that we
have a present crisis to meet and that we should not consider seriously
a long-time proposition which would benefit only the grandchildren of
the present generation.

While the Department recognizes the strength of these arguments, it
believes that the second plan is the more practical one and will result in
greater permanence and more lasting benefit to the horse industry than
the former; and that the expense and the length of time required will
not be so great as some have anticipated if the enterprise is properly
managed. Further, it may be seriously questioned whether the supply
of good breeding animals in foreign countries will permit the drafts
upon it necessary to bring our horses to the required standard and
meet the present emergency.

THE TROTTER AS A FOUNDATION FOR AN AMERICAN BREED OF HORSES.

In the countries of the world where horse breeding has been encour-
aged by government assistance, the foundation has been native stock,
and the key to successful work has been selection according to a cer-
tain type. Furthermore, with all due respect to Godolphin Arabian,

582 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the Darley Arabian, and their contemporaries, the great factor in
developing the Thoroughbred horse was the method of the English
breeder, and more credit is due to native English stock and to environ-
ment than has generally been acknowledged.

What the Thoroughbred horse is to the Englishman, the trotting
horse is to the American; the breeds are the national horses of their
respective countries, and, as the Thoroughbred has been the great
leavening power in developing English breeds of light horses, the
trotter may bear the same relation to the horse stock of America.

The trotter is found throughout the country wherever horses are
raised, and any improvement in this breed affects in time the entire
horse industry. The light market classes can be supplied from this
source, and there is no more effective way to provide a supply of suit-
able cavalry horses for the United States Army than by showing how
the native horse may be improved.

That the trotter has faults no one will deny, and that the speed idea
bas been responsible for many of these faults, and has caused many a
man to become bankrupt, is equally certain. If a horse can trot in
2:10 or better, it is reasonably certain that he will make his owner
money, and it matters not how homely or unsound he may be; but if
the horse has bad looks and unsoundness, and also lacks speed, he
will be unprofitable on the track and can not be sold at a profitable
price on the market; while, if used in the stud, his undesirable quali-
ties are perpetuated. On the other hand, if the horse has moderate
speed, but is sound, handsome, and stylish, with a shapely head and
neck, a straight, strong back, straight croup, muscular quarters and
stifles, well-set legs, possesses good all-round true action, and has
abundant endurance, he is almost certainly a profitable investment.
This is the kind of light horse which the market wants and will pay
for. If of the roadster type, he sells well as a driver; if more on the
heavy harness order, as a carriage horse.

The occurrence of trotting-bred horses of the finest conformation is
by no means uncommon; it is so frequent indeed that these animals
supply not only the demand for roadsters, but the principal part of
the fine city trade in carriage horses, and are conspicuous winners
at the horse shows. The demand for such horses has been so keen
that dealers have resorted to the pernicious practice of buying
mature stallions, many of them valuable breeders, and castrating them
to be sold later as carriage horses. The famous Lord Brilliant, three-
times winner of the Waldorf-Astoria gig cup at Madison Square Gar-
den, is a notable instance of this practice; Lonzie, a noted Chicago
show horse, is another; and the horse purchased for the Department
experiments narrowly escaped the same fate. This practice can not
be too strongly condemned. There is reason to believe that if these
stallions were used as the nucleus of a breed, the type would in time
become fixed and their blood be saved to the country. On the other

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING. 5338

hand, if steps are not taken to mold the blood of these horses into one
breed and preserve the blood lines which produce them, an irrepara-
ble loss to the industry will result. The first step should be to select
foundation stock strictly according to type; the next to study the lines
of breeding which produce these horses. ‘To a certain extent they
are accidents of breeding, but there is little doubt that certain families
show a greater tendency in this direction than others. For example,
the descendants of Alexander’s Abdallah, Harrison Chief, the Morgans,
and the Clay family have been more or less notable in this respect.
Further, certain sires are known to produce handsome and marketable
horses with regularity.

EFFORTS OF DEPARTMENT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A BREED OF CARRIAGE HORSES.

In view of these facts, the Department decided to undertake the
development of a breed of carriage horses on an American foundation
as an interesting and important problem for solution. If successful,
it will show that we can develop our own breeding stock of horses in
this country; it will make light horse breeding less of a lottery than
it is at present, and will at the same time provide breeding animals
which can be used profitably on the lighter horses of the country.

After a thorough search the Department has purchased as founda-
tion stock eighteen mares and one stallion. In addition it can com-
mand the services of additional stallions if desired. The instructions
of the purchasing board allowed considerable latitude, but it was
required to select strictly according to type. Hereditary unsoundness
was regarded as a disqualification. Pedigree was not considered so
far as registration was concerned, but the board required evidence to
be submitted showing that the animals purchased were from parents
and ancestors of like type, thus insuring blood lines that would breed
reasonably true. Speed, while not ignored, was not made an essential.
Life, spirit, and energy, with moderate speed, were considered, and,
while conformation was not sacrificed to speed, speed with conforma-
tion and good action was regarded as an advantage.

The type for mares was one standing about 15.3 hands, weighing
1,100 to 1,150 pounds, bay, brown, or chestnut in color, with stylish
head and neck, full-made body, deep ribs, straight back, strong loin,
straight, full croup, muscular forearms, quarters, and lower thighs;
good all-round action was insisted upon. Any tendency to pace or
mix gaits was regarded as ground for disqualification. In some
cases, mares of more than 15.3 hands were purchased, and in others
they were less than this. All, however, conformed closely to the
type. Some of the maresare in foal; the rest will be bred during the
spring of 1905.

The ancestors of six mares purchased in Wyoming have been bred
for five or six generations in that State, the band having been started
by means of an importation of horses from the Central West which

534 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was largely of Morgan stock. On this stock Thoroughbred and stand-
ard sires have been used and the herd has been developed more to pro-
duce a horse suitable for carriage purposes than one which had speed
characteristics. Some of the six have been exhibited at the New York
horse show, and the owner of the ranch maintains a stable near New
York City where he sends his surplus from year to year to be finished
for the fine city trade.

The search for a stallion to head the stud was the most difficult of
all. An almost unlimited number of trotting horses suitable to get
good carriage horses were recommended to the Department, but on
investigation it would be found that they were deficient in some
respect and could not be considered. A horse was finally selected
which was among the first suggested: Carmon 32917 American
Trotting Register, 16 hands, weighing 1,200 pounds in fair condition,
bay, with black points and no white markings, bred by Hon. Norman
J. Colman, of St. Louis, Mo. This horse was exhibited by Mr. Thomas
W. Lawson, of Boston, Mass., as one of his famous four-in-hand,
under the name of ‘* Glorious Thundercloud.”

The points of Carmon’s conformation which deserve special mention
are his head and neck and hind quarters. His forehead is broad and
full, with a straight nose and face; full, expressive eyes, and well
carried ears. The neck is clean, muscular, and well arched. The
illustration (Pl. LX XI) does not do him justice in these respects. In
the hind quarters, special attention should be directed to the straight,
broad croup and the muscular quarters and lower thighs. The horse
has an abundance of bone and substance, but ample quality at the same
time. His action is excellent.

A study of Carmon’s pedigree (fig. 60) will show that it is not a particu-
larly fashionable one from the standpoint of the man who is breeding
solely for speed. This is a pedigree from which one might expect a
horse of excellent conformation. Robert M’Gregor, for example, was
a horse with especially well developed hind quarters, and this charac-
teristic is seen in his sons and grandsons, as shown by Cresceus and
Carmon. Abdallah 15 was a horse with a particularly attractive head
and neck. The frequency with which the Abdallah cross appears in -
Carmon’s pedigree, and the presence of Morgan, Mambrino Chief,
and Clay blood readily explains where this horse gets his handsome
head and neck and his full quarters and stifles. These families have
produced some of our handsomest horses. Their blood makes up
nineteen sixty-fourths of Carmon’s pedigree.

The small percentage of pacing blood is worthy of particular notice.
Further, the prominent trotting sires in it have produced more trotters
than pacers, and Robert M’Gregor, Abdallah 15, and Ethan Allen are
noteworthy for the very small number of pacers sired by them or pro-
duced by their sons and daughters. This is so small that they may be
regarded strictly as sires of trotters. Abdallah 15 and Ethan Allen

Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agnculture, 1904. PLATE LXXlI.

THE First SIRE SELECTED FOR USE IN THE EXPERIMENTS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE TO DEVELOP AN AMERICAN BREED OF CARRIAGE HORSES.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING. 535

sired no pacers, and of the immediate get of Robert M’Gregor less
than 10 per cent are pacers,

The horses purchased are on the farm of the Colorado Agricultural

ABDALLAH HO./
UMBLETONIAN [Runt cee o = ino wn
wad A CHAS KENT MARE _
ABDALLAH ehiea see OY IMP BELLFOUNDER
WO1S :

TY DARLING
"* lyittRACEDY

STOCKHOLM S AM STAR
ERIOAN STAR
phy fh - NCE?
NO./4 SALLY SLOUCH _ . eiaee VO R_ -
YOUNG MESIENGER DUROD
SUN.

CARNAGIE
"Ng aeas ~*~"

BELMONT id TY DARLING (Un7Raced)
i Wa 68 eee MAMBRINO CHIEF WOW

nS A. a ee yee
a ae

PILOT IP. PHONG PHOT ______.
MISS RUSSELL \ Wale re MN OY POPE

7ON
SALLY RUSSELL, OE —-----————

“(rH OROUGHERED) "~\---------=~ ---- ==
Sten VERMONT BOY
ANNIE WATSON
PEDIGREE OF
CARMON ABDALLAH HAMBLETOMAN 10.19 _
NO 3297 ATR. “BELMONT Te VATS, cee KATY DARLING (UNTRACED)
BRELD AMERICAN TROTTER ey mami PT MAMBRINO CHIEF O11
SEX, MALE Ae res Tere -------| py BROWNS BEUAHNDER
DATE OF BIRTH, 1895 Ce get hele a MBRINO PAYMASTER
NO. SS: Pe a a
NAME OF BREEDER, =! bide sean MAMBRING CHUET. A ers Eis Oe Ses
ees 2 aS NY aban! Pt A fee oe os SR
MONM/TOR __....... BLACK HAWK NOS.
wed Se FLYING COOP 5 By ANOREN AGISON v0
TROJANA cite che ade)
HERCULES. _____.-
AN OWO MARE __
AMOITOR MAD (ONTRACED)
7 77
MONITOR WA.. BLAOK HAWK , SHERMAN MORGAN
“f a peaet pmi hN Fit
ETHAN ALLEN ___ —_— Sie oe
nt: 2.6, A MESSINGER MARE
SETH WARNER :
ce cccee aes sgeen cose esse BISHOP. Whi
W2A28/ PAROS AMRLETONLN WSHOPS. HAL (BLETOMAN
SONTAG | et st VO.2 eos emer eee
c c pel ar aa eins Ea, Sie Rao
CLARA © proee HAMBLETOM/AN NO/0
VOL¥ ip. ABDALLAH a a ah
oi eae ie ---=-- {MAT DARLING(onreceD)
Lute “WO S980 7S » CHORISTER. 8Y (ME CONTRACT
aslee TE PEATE Fes
GRACE BECLE LESS eae-n——\ BY BERTRAND ___ at
SOE omen vannn nnn PAGING PILOT.
(OLD BULL ___ —{ ANE PUT.
GLENCOE BELL Sic ge Ek GRE

Fic. 60.—Pedigree of Carmon 32917.

College. In the management of the stud the most rigid selection will
be practiced, and no animals will be retained for breeding purposes
that do not conform to a high standard.

5386 YEARBOOK OF TEE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BEEF AND PORK PRODUCTION UNDER SOUTHERN CONDITIONS,

In cooperation with the Alabama experiment station, experiments
are being inaugurated to study the economy of beef and pork produe-
tion under southern conditions. The work will be directed along
three general lines: (1) A feeding experiment with southern steers on
southern feed; (2) the establishment of a herd of beef cattle; (3) pork
production.

Fifty steers have been on feed during the past winter. They were
selected from a herd of Alabama steers, in which there was consider-
able improved blood, and were fed to study the value of southern feeds
in beef production. ‘This experiment is intended to be a preparation
for more extended work, which is contemplated in the future.

In the establishment of a herd of beef cattle about twenty cows will
be purchased, and one purebred beef bull. ‘The cows will have been
bred in the South and will be immune from Texas fever; they will be
grades of one of the beef breeds, if such animals are obtainable, in which
case the bull will, of course, be of the same breed. These cattle will
be placed on a farm leased for the purpose under the care of a compe-
tent man. The object of this work will be a demonstration of the
advantages of grading up a herd for commercial purposes, and a study
of the economy of such methods in the South. As in the horse-
breeding work, the most rigid culling will be done, and the offspring
will be fattened and sold from time to time.

The work in pork production has not yet been definitely decided
upon, but will probably include among other things the study of the
value of cassava in hog feeding. A crop of cassava and séed canes of
cassava will be procured for this purpose.

It is worthy of note that the Alabama experiment station has turned
its entire available fund for animal industry into this cooperation.

Plans have been perfected to cooperate with the Texas experiment
station in feeding low-grade rice to cattle. In the rice-growing dis-
tricts of the South there is a considerable loss each year from the fact
that a certain percentage of the crop is unmarketable, owing to dam-
age in harvesting or while in storage, which renders it undesirable for
human food. The by-products of rice mills, such as rice polish and
rice meal, have been found to have considerable value for feeding pur-
poses, and it is thought that the rice grain itself may be even more
valuable than the by-products. Further, if rice can be profitably fed
to live stock it will provide for the consumption of any surplus which
may exist, and thus the danger of overproduction may be avoided.
This investigation will have an added interest to southern feeders, for
the reason that one of the feeding problems in that section is to obtain
an economical carbohydrate concentrate which can be used to supple-
ment cotton-seed meal and nitrogenous roughage.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING. 587

PROPOSED INVESTIGATIONS,

In addition to the foregoing work, negotiations are pending with
otber stations to conduct experiments during the present year, and to
formulate plans for work to be started as soon as funds are available.

Plans are being discussed with the Iowa experiment station for
experiments in the production of dual-purpose cattle. One of the
problems of farmers in the Central West is to obtain cows which will
produce milk and butter profitably for home consumption, and drop
calves which, if desired, will make marketable beef. Under the
diversified agriculture of that section, the farmer owns but a few
cows. Special purpose dairy cows are regarded as unprofitable,
because when their life in the dairy is completed their value for beef
is not great; moreover, the veal industry is not extensive, and cattle
feeders will not buy calves of the dairy breeds. Such calves must,
therefore, be disposed of at a loss or killed at birth. It has been
quite clearly demonstrated that a dairy-bred steer is not profitable for
beef production, but it is by no means proved that a cow of beef type
will not yield the farmer a satisfactory profit at the pail. Indeed, the
evidence seems to indicate the reverse. During their history, various
families of Shorthorns have been famous as milk and beef producers,
and many cows possess these characteristics to-day. The tendency of
breeders in the United States, however, is to abandon entirely the
deep-milking characteristic, and to develop these animals solely as
beef producers. Systematic efforts can prevent this loss of one of the
valuable characteristics of the breed. The dual-purpose character is
common to the Red Polled, the Polled Durham, and other breeds; the
problem thus promises considerable success and has many interesting
features. These investigations will not in the least endanger the status
of the strictly dairy breeds. For the dairymen there is little doubt
that the single-purpose breeds are most desirable, but for the general
farmer, with a lack of adequate labor, who can not engage extensively
in dairying, an entirely different animal appears to be needed.

OBJECT OF THE WORK.

Speaking broadly, the object of these experiments is the develop-
ment of American breeding stock and the encouragement of a tendency
to ultimate independence of foreign breeders. The Department believes
that our tariff laws should always be liberal regarding the importation
of the very highest types of breeding animals, whose use on our stock
would result in unquestioned benefit, but it is of the opinion that the
importing system is carried to an extreme at times and that in many
cases animals are imported solely for speculation. As the system now
stands it is an anomaly, especially in the case of horses. Attention is
concentrated on the importation of stallions; mares are rarely bought.
Now, these stallions have been bred up in Europe from the native

538 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stock and the registration of animals bred in this way is still possible
abroad; but when such horses are brought to this country their offspring
are not eligible to registry unless out of registered dams, and registered
dams are scarce, because so few mares are imported. In the case of
the Percheron breed, for example, the studbooks are now closed to
horses bred by crossing registered stallions on native mares. A system
which leads to the importation of such horses is unfair to the American
breeder and creates a monopoly in the hands of a few men who also
have a certain amount of control over the studbooks.

A much more reasonable system has developed among cattle breeders.
Large numbers of females have been imported and breeds were rapidly
established. It is now claimed that as good Jerseys and Holsteins are
bred in the United States as can be imported, and Hereford breeders
have so adapted their breed to the peculiar conditions under which
‘rattle are handled and have catered so successfully to the demands of
the market that breeders no longer think of importing unless to get a
particular line of breeding.

If the Department experiments in carriage-horse breeding are suc-
cessful, it will be proof positive that we can develop breeds of light
horses. If this can be done, we can also fix the types of draft horses
now in the country.

As a broader problem, the study of animal breeding should be taken
up to increase the efficiency of the breeds that are now established.
Extensive investigations have been carried out.in the feeding of ani-
mals, and the knowledge of the country is quite accurate and exten-
sive on this subject. As regards practical breeding, however, our
knowledge has advanced very little during the past thirty years. If
America would be a breeding ground, and not a country of feeding
and trading operations, dependent on others, these problems must be
taken up. Increasing the fertility of hogs, breeding disease-resistant
strains, breeding for increased yields of milk, butter, wool, meat, and
work, are among the subjects which may be studied to the increase of
the wealth of the nation.

The Department has no desire to injure any honest breeder or
importer; it does not seek to promote the interest of any particular
breed above others, nor have its plans been drawn up with the idea of
displacing any breed already established. Those problems are being
attacked which seem most urgent and whose solution will have the
most far-reaching effect on breeding interests.

APPENDIX.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4

SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, James Wilson.

The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the supervision of all public business
relating to the agricultural industry. He makes such regulations for interstate
traflic in live stock as may be necessary to prevent transmission of contagious dis-
eases, and has charge of all interstate quarantine. He directs the admission or
exclusion of live animals from foreign countries, and has charge of quarantine sta-
tions for importing cattle. He conducts the inspection and regulates the conditions
of shipment of live stock and of meat products exported from American ports. He
exercises advisory supervision over the agricultural experiment stations deriving
support from the National Treasury.

AssIsTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, Willet M. Hays.

The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be required by law or pre-
scribed by the Secretary. He also becomes Acting Secretary of Agriculture in the
absence of the Secretary.

Curer CLERK, S. R. Burch.

The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; he is
charged with the enforcement of the internal regulations of the Department; and is,
by law, superintendent of the buildings occupied by the Department of Agriculture.
He represents the Department on the Government board of the Lewis and Clark
Centennial Exposition, Portland, Oreg.

APPOINTMENT CLERK, Joseph B. Bennett.

The Appointment Clerk prepares all papers involved in the making of appoint-
ments, transfers, promotions, reductions, details, furloughs, and removals for the
entire Department, and decides all questions relating to the civil-service regulations
affecting the same. He has charge of all correspondence of the Department with the
Civil Service Commission, and of all certifications and communications issued by the
Commission to the Department. He keeps the personal records of all employees of
the Department, and is custodian of their oaths of office and efficiency reports. He
is also custodian of the Department seal.

Cuter or Suppty Division, Cyrus B. Lower.

The Supply Division has charge of purchases of supplies and materials paid for
from the general funds of the Department.

BUREAUS, DIVISIONS, AND OFFICES.

WeaTHER Bureau (corner Twenty-fourth and M streets NW.).—Chief, Willis L.
Moore; Assistant Chief, Henry E. Williams; Chief Clerk, Daniel J. Carroll; Private
Secretary to Chief, Edgar B. Calvert; Editor Weather Review, Cleveland Abbe; In
charge Special Researches, F. H. Bigelow; In charge Instrument Division, Charles F.
Marvin; Jn charge Forecast Division, Edward B. Garriott; Assigned as Official Fore-
casters, Alfred J. Henry and Harry C. Frankenfield; Chief of Climate and Crop
Division, James Berry; Chief of Division of Meteorological Records, William B.
Stockman; Chief of Publications Division, John P. Church; Chief of Telegraph Divis-
ion, Jesse H. Robinson; Chief of Division of Supplies, Frank M. Cleaver; Librarian
and Climatologist, Herbert H. Kimball.

«The organization of the Department here given is in accordance with the act
approved March 3, 1905, making appropriations for the fiscal year beginning July 1,
1905, and shows changes in personnel to April 1, 1905.

539

540 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue of storm
warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture,
commerce, and navigation; the gaging and reporting of river stages; the maintenance
and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of
marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation; the reporting of tem-
perature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests; the
display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological information
in the interests of agriculture and commerce; and the taking of such meteorological
observations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic conditions of
the United States, or as are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties.

Bureau or ANIMAL InNpustry.—Chief, D. E. Salmon; Asststant Chief, A. D. Melvin;
Chief Clerk, E..B. Jones; Chief of Inspection Division, A. M. Farrington; Chief of
Quarantine Division, Richard W. Hickman; Chief of Pathological Division, John R.
Mohler; Chief of Biochemic Division, M. Dorset; Chief of Dairy Division, Ed. H.
Webster; Acting Zoologist, B. H. Ransom; In charge of Experiment Station, FE. C.
Schroeder; Editor, George F. Thompson; Animal Husbandman, George M. Rommel.

The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of dan-
gerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their extir-
pation, makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases,
and reports on the condition and the means of improving the animal industries of
the country. It also has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, of
the inspection of vessels for the transportation of export cattle, and of the quarantine
stations for imported neat cattle; supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and
inspects live stock and their products when offered for food consumption; has super-
vision of manufacture, interstate commerce, and export of renovated butter.

Bureau or Pianr Inpustry.—Chief, Beverly T. Galloway; Pathologist and Physiolo-
gist, and Acting Chief in absence of Chief, A. F. Woods; Chief Clerk, James E.
Jones; Editor, J. E. Rockwell; Botanist, F. V. Coville; Agrostologist, W. J. Spill-
man; Pomologist, G. B. Brackett; Bolanist in charge of Seed and Plant Introduction
and Distribution, A. J. Pieters; Horticulturist, L. C. Corbett; Superintendent of Experi-
mental Gardens and Grounds, E. M. Byrnes.

The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture.
It includes Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations; Botanical Inves-
tigations and Experiments; Grass and Forage Plant Investigations; Pomological
Investigations; Experimental Gardens and Grounds; the Arlington Experimental
Farm; Congressional Seed Distribution; Seed and Plant Introduction; Tea Culture
Experiments; and Investigation of Production of Domestic Sugar.

Bureau or Forestry (Atlantic Building, 928-930 F street NW.).— Forester and Chief,
Gifford Pinchot; Associate Forester and in charge of Forest Measurements, Overton W.
Price; In charge of Forest Management, Thomas H. Sherrard; In charge of Forest
Reserves, Frederick E. Olmsted; Jn charge of Dendrology, George B. Sudworth; Jn
charge of Forest Extension, Ernest A. Sterling; In charge of Forest Products, William L.
Hall; In charge of Records, James B. Adams.

The Bureau of Forestry has charge of the administration of the national forest
reserves, and conducts examinations on the public lands to determine the propriety
of making changes in the boundaries of existing national forest reserves and of
withdrawing other areas suitable for new reserves; gives practical assistance in the
conservative handling of State and private forest lands; investigates methods of plant-
ing and kinds of trees for planting, and gives practical assistance to tree planters;
studies commercially valuable trees to determine the best means of using and repro-
ducing them; tests the strength and durability of construction timbers, railroad ties,
and poles, and determines the best methods of extending their life through pre-
servative treatment; and studies forest fires, the effects of grazing on forest land,
turpentine orcharding, and other forest problems.

Bureau or CHemistry (corner Fourteenth and B streets SW.).—Chemist and Chief,
Harvey W. Wiley; Chief, Division of Foods, W. D. Bigelow; Sugar Laboratory
under direction of Chief of Bureau; Chief, Division of Tests, L. W. Page; Chief,
Insecticide and Agricultural Water Laboratory, J. K. Haywood; Chief, Dairy Labora-
tory, G. E. Patrick; Chief, Plant Analysis Laboratory, C. C. Moore; Chief, Drug
Laboratory, L. F. Kebler; Chief, Contracts Laboratory, L. 8. Munson; Chief, Micro-
chemical Laboratory, B. J. Howard; Chief, Leather and Paper Laboratory, F, P.
Veitch; Chief Clerk, M.S. Tidd.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 541

The Bureau of Chemistry investigates methods or agent for the analysis of plants,
fertilizers, and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as pertain in general
to the interests of agriculture. ‘The work on foods includes the analysis of adulterated
products, experiments to determine the effect of adulterants on the human organism,
and the investigation of food products imported into the United States. The Bureau
does chemical work for some of the other Bureaus and Divisions of the Department,
and for other departments of the Government which apply to the Secretary of
Agriculture for such assistance.

Bureau or Sorts (212-214 Thirteenth street SW.).—Chief/, Milton Whitney; Chief
Clerk, A. G. Rice; Soil Physicist, Lyman J. Briggs; Soil Chemist, Frank K. Cameron;
In charge of Soil Survey, George N. Coffey; In charge of Alkala Reclamation Investi-
gations, Clarence W. Dorsey; Tobacco Expert, George T. McNess.

The Bureau of Soils is intrusted with the investigation, survey, and mapping of
soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the rise of alkali in the soil,
and the drainage of soils; and the investigation of the methods of growing, curing,
and fermentation of tobacco in the different tobacco districts.

Bureau or EntomoLocy.—Entomologist and Chief, L. O. Howard; In charge of Experi-
mental Field Work, C. L. Marlatt; In charge of Breeding Experiments, F. H.
Chittenden; Jn charge of Forest Insect Investigations, A. D. Hopkins; Jn charge of
Apiculture, Frank Benton; Jn charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, W. D.
Hunter; In charge of Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations, A. L. Quaintance; Chief
Clerk, R. 8. Clifton.

The Bureau of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding inju-
rious insects affecting field crops, fruits, small fruits, and truck crops, forest and
forest products, and stored products; studies insects in relation to diseases of man
and other animals and as animal parasites; experiments with the introduction of
beneficial insects and with the fungous and other diseases of insects; and conducts
experiments and tests with insecticides and insecticide machinery. It is further
charged with investigations in apiculture and sericulture. The information gained
is disseminated in the form of general reports, bulletins, and circulars. A good deal
of museum work is done in connection with the Division of Insects of the National
Museum, and insects are identified for experiment stations and other public institu-
tions and private individuals.

Bureau or Brotoaicat Survey.—Biologist and Chief, C. Hart Merriam; Assistant
Chief, A. K. Fisher; Assistant in charge of Game Preservation, T. S. Palmer; Assistant
in charge of Economic Ornithology, F. E. L. Beal.

The Division of Biological EriNey studies the geographic distribution of animals
and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also investigates the
economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the preser-
vation of beneficial and the destruction of injurious species. It is charged with carry-
ing into effect the provisions of the Federal law for the importation and protection
of birds and certain provisions of the law for the protection of game in Alaska.

Division or Accounts AND DisBURSEMENTS.—Chief and Disbursing Clerk, Frank L.
Evans; Assistant Chief (in charge of Weather Bureau disbursements), A. Zappone;
Cashier, M. E. Fagan.

The Division of Accounts and Disbursements audits, adjusts, and pays all accounts
and claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of
public funds; prepares advertisements, schedules, contracts for annual supplies, leases,
agreements, bonds, and letters of authority; writes, for the signature of the Secretary,
all letters to the Treasury Department pertaining to fiscal matters and all letters to
the Department of Justice; attends to litigation in which the Department is inter-
ested; issues requisitions for the purchase of seeps and requests for passenger and
for freight transportation; prepares the annual estimates of appropriations; and
transacts all other business relating to the financial interests of the Department.

Division or Pusiications.—LEditor and Chief, Geo. Wm. Hill; Associate Editor, Joseph
A. Arnold; Assistant Editor, B. D. Stallings; Assistant in charge of Document Section,
R. B. Handy; Assistant in charge of Illustrations, Louis 8. Williams.

The Division of Publications exercises general supervision of the Department print-
ing and illustrations, edits all publications of the Department (with the cen
of those of the Weather Bureau), has charge of the printing and Farmers’ Bulletin

o42 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

funds, and distributes all Department publications with the exception of those turned
over by law to the Superintendent of Documents for sale at the price affixed by him;
it issues, in the form of press notices, official information of interest to agriculturists,
and distributes to agricultural publications and writers notices and synopses of Depart-
ment publications; and has charge of all correspondence with the Government Printing
Oftice.

Bureau or Srartistics.—Statistician and Chief, John Hyde; Associate Statistician,
Edwin 8S. Holmes, jr.; Assistant Statistician and Assistant Chief, Stephen D. Fessenden;
Chief Clerk, C. C. Clark; Chief, Division of Foreign Markets, George K. Holmes;
Chief, Division of Domestic Crop Reports, Victor H. Olmsted.

The Statistician collects information as to the condition, production, etc., of the
principal crops and the status of farm animals through State agents, each of whom
is assisted by a corps of local reporters, through separate corps of county, township,
and cotton correspondents, through traveling agents, and through a special foreign
correspondent, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. He
records, tabulates, and coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution,
and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards
of trade, and individual experts; prepares special’ statistical bulletins upon agricul-
tural subjects, and issues a monthly crop report for the information of producers and
consumers. Through the division of foreign markets, which has for its object the
extension of the agricultural export trade of the United States, the Statistician inves-
tigates the requirements of foreign markets, studies the conditions of demand and
supply as disclosed by the records of production, importation, and exportation;
inquires into the obstacles confronting trade extension, and disseminates, through
printed reports and otherwise, the information collected.

Lisrary.—Librarian, Josephine A. Clark; Assistant Librarian, Claribel R. Barnett.

The Librarian has charge of the Library and supervises the arrangement and cata-
loguing of books, the preparation of bibliographies and similar publications, and the
purchase of new books. The mailing lists for the distribution of Department publi-
cations to foreign countries are under the supervision of the Librarian.

Orrice OF Experiment Srations.—Director, A. C. True; Assistant Director and Editor
of Experiment Station Record, E. W. Allen; Chief of Editorial Division, W. H. Beal;
Chief of Division of Insular Stations, W. H. Evans; Special Agent, Alaska, C. C.
Georgeson; Special Agent, Hawaii, Jared G. Smith; Special Agent, Porto Rico, D. W.
May; Chief of Nutrition Investigations, W. O. Atwater; Chief of Irrigation and
Drainage Investigations, Elwood Mead; Farmers’ Institute Specialist, John Hamilton;
Chief Clerk, Mrs. C. E. Johnston.

The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relation to the
experiment stations, which are now in operation in all the States and Territories,
and directly manages the experiment stations in Alaska, Porto Rico, and Hawaii.
It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation through-
out the United States. It collects and disseminates general information regarding
the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at
home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, aids in the con-
duct of cooperative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and work, and in
general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote the pur-
poses for which they were established. In a similar way it aids in the development
of the farmers’ institutes throughout the United States. It is charged with investi-
gations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods. It conducts investiga-
tions of the laws and institutions relating to irrigation in different regions, the use of
irrigation waters, the removal of seepage and surplus waters by drainage, and the
use of different kinds of power and machinery for irrigation and other agricultural
purposes. ,

vous or Pusitic Roaps.—Director, Martin Dodge; Assistant Director, Logan Wal-
er Page.

_ The Office of Public Road Inquiries collects and disseminates information concern-
ing the systems of road management throughout the United States, conducts investi-
gations and experiments regarding the best method of road making, the best kinds

of road-making materials, and prepares publications on these subjects. It alsomakes

tests of all kinds of road-building materials in the laboratory at Washington for any
citizen of the United States, free of expense, and cooperates with loca, communities
in building object-lesson roads.

APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE

DEPARTMENT.

5438

APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR
THE FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1908, 1904, AND 1905.

Object of appropriation.

$465, 500. 00

1904.

$471, 080. 00

=

1905,

$482, 300. 00

Library, Department of Agriculture .................-..+-- 8, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00
Contingent Expenses, Department of Agriculture.........- a 43, 000. 00 87, 000. 00 37, 000. 00
Collecting Agricultural Statistics ................2-..se0ee ee | 94,200.00 | 109, 200.00 139, 500. 00
Botanical Investigations and Experiments .........--...... 55, 000. 00 65, 000. 00 67, 500. 00
er COMOLO@ICR) LEY CSUR WON. vi dburccWaswacd he dwsoueiaws cee 45, 500. 00 65, 500. 00 70, 000. 00
Vegetable Pathological Investigations. ...............-....- | 110, 000. 00 130, 000. 00 150, 000. 00
Rent of Quarters, Plant Bureau (Geficiency Act)... 22. nw cccfecc enn cwencnclecsdececuscees 2, 500. 00
SIIGLOM ICEL FI2V CHUIBRULIONSS cohen ak = ccosan Cesar cWiew ade avitnsicus 28, 000. 00 34, 000. 00 84, 000. 00
Pomological Inyvestivawons ie. .c cows. carsales Vecewcawew end as 30, 000. 00 37, 000. 00 43, 500. 00
Laboratory, Department of PSTIGULUULS onc arsine apie'e mmo 60, 500. 00 70, 500. 00 135, 000. 00
OVER LNY 10) VOSCIOR LOUIS) «52. cures cy eeteeen< akEr vias ou sew shee | 254, 000. 00 812, 860. 00 388, 000. 00
Testing Timbers, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St.

Cee EO: (CORCIAROT GOR) 27, ddcut wat FP eae NSW sins elon a eee Ke nena deldaeswowesecone 10, 000. 00
Experimental Gardens and Grounds, Department of Agri-

RUIN aceasta ck Wil recta ahs Sm SEE Sore ch mle ieee ra rele ia mids ws ale 25, 000. 00 25, 000. 00 25, 000. 00
ROTI PORTING LIOIE Sood. ooh cranlat ales ede tine oracle baeliew re owes 130, 000. 00 170, 000. 00 170, 000. 00
Grass and Forage Plant Investigations...................-.- 80, 000. 00 35, 000. 00 42, 500. 00

. Greenhouses, Department of Agriculture, 1904-1905. ....... |. -.--- eee e lene eee eee e eens 25, 000. 00
Agricultural Experiment Stations [forstations under Hatch

Act, $796,000, 1903; $810,000, 1904; $810,000, 1905] ........-.. b 76, 000. 00 b 90, 000. 00 b 90, 000. 00
DIEROn TO CSU LIONS ee <. 2c on eens «ooo pte a 20, 000. 00 20, 000. 00 20, 000. 00
PUG sO INOUITIOS 5 occa sore wa ckwnisin teen em aa mina edema 30, 000. 00 35, 000. 00 35, 000. 00
TANTS ENAL DIR VRUUIOMRIDIIM oh once sync k ten Sones am acssnndestlleaes cene~dsce 170, 000. 00 250, 000. 00
Publications, Department of Agriculture ........--......-.- ¢ 204, 000. 00 200, 000. 00 210, 000. 00
BUCA A VOStIPRUOLIN eyelet mai ite Ace Baan anes Sans «wis ate 5, 000. 00 5, 000. 00 7,500. 00
Purchase and Distribution of Valuable Seeds............... | 270, 000. 00 290, 000. 00 290, 000. 00
Salaries and Expenses, Bureau of AnimalIndustry ........- a1, 660, 000.00 | 1,450,000.00 | 1,525, 000. 00
PTD ir MOVER M LOUIS. ce. 2s iene ao eR EN Ge on eee ade 65, 000. 00 65, 000. 00 67, 500. 00
Téa Guluirte sUVvesMesulOUs. oS ooec ea: se tose 4 2s 5 Sees 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00
AviinetonsEs perimental Warm . 3 25.5. ka bie ol ee wees 15, 000. 00 15, 000. 00 20, 000. 00
Moreen Market Investigations... 222-4. o.ee-s<22scccoe ete 6, 500. 00 POOL Ole lets crcicia cia cts ae
eR WRUION U2 tet otc yh GR ee os bemcae ne ee ae LO ODO OOS oats oe aos See See oes
uses, DEDATUMIENL OF APTICULEING 9165-4. 2-0 6. pine saa os lee vee spaces 250, 000. 00

OUR oe. Pe aoe Cage hota a MSE Ie So aie cated cae ein ace kek 4, 606, 800. 00

WEATHER BUREAU.

Salaries VeRL ner MsNrenll ssi inc ks. aa nce eNwcs sos cn cche saas 165, 260. 00 175, 440. 00 180, 440. 00
Fuel, Lights, and Repairs, Weather Bureau.............--.- 10, 000. 00 6, 000. 00 8, 000. 00
Contingent Expenses, Weather Bureau...............-....- 8, 000. 00 8, 000. 00 10, 000. 00
General Expenses, Weather Bureau...........-....--------- 915, 500. 00 969,080.00 | 1,064, 300.00
Meteorological Observation Stations........-...-...--.-.--- OF O00 OOulins oki ecee ~ set eectte ess 3%
Buildings: Wy CMLBet BUCA Sc. can eb tice en. ese ae ean 50, 000. 00 50, 000. 00 48, 000. 00
Cables and Land Lines, Weather Bureau .................-- 40, 000. 00 40, 000. 00 27, 000. 00

Storm-warning Stations, Glenhaven and South Manitou

Island, Mich., Weather Bureau 15, 000. 00

1, 263, 760. 00

5, 0138, 960. 00

1, 248, 520. 00
5, 428, 160, 00

1, 337, 740. 00

Total, Weather Bureau aus to.) 1 access asa eeee ee

| 5, 944, 540. 00

Grand total

wee ee ee eee

a Includes $6,000 deficiency.

b Expenses of Office of Experiment Stations.

c Includes $4,000 deficiency, but does not include $300,000 for Yearbook and $185,000 in general fund.
da Includes $500,000 deficiency, emergency fund for foot-and-mouth disease.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.“

College instruction in agriculture is given in the colleges and universities receiving
the benefits of the acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and August 30, 1890, which are
now in operation in all the States and Territories, except Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto
Rico. The total number of these institutions is 65, of which 63 maintain courses of
instruction in agriculture. In 21 States the agricultural colleges are departments of
the State universities. In 15 States and Territories separate institutions having
courses in agriculture are maintained for the colored race. All of the agricultural
colleges for white persons and several of those for negroes offer four-year courses in
agriculture and its related sciences leading to bachelors’ degrees, and many provide
for graduate study. About 45 of these institutions also provide special, short, and

@ Including only institutions established under the land-grant act of July 2, 1862.

544 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

correspondence courses in the different branches of agriculture, including agronomy,
horticulture, animal husbandry, poultry culture, cheese making, dairying, sugar
making, rural engineering, farm mechanics, and other technical subjects. The officers
of the agricultural colleges engage quite largely in conducting farmers’ institutes and
various other forms of college extension. ‘The agricultural experiment stations with
very few exceptions are departments of the agricultural colleges. The total number of
persons engaged in the work of education and research in the land-grant colleges and
the experiment stations in 1904 was 4,666; the number of students in these colleges,
56,226; the number of students in the four-year college courses in agriculture, 4,640;
in short and special courses, 5,281. With a few exceptions each of these colleges
offers free tuition to residents of the States in which it is located. In the excepted
cases scholarships are open to promising and energetic students; and in all opportu-
nities are found for some to earn part of their expenses by their own labor. The
expenses are from $125 to $300 for the school year.

Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having courses in

agriculture.
S sagen Terri- | Name of institution. Location. President.
Alabama .......... _ Alabama Polytechnic Institute.| Auburn........... C. C. Thach, M. A.
Agricultural and Meehanical | Normal..........- W. H. Councill, Ph. D.
College for Negroes. ‘
AVIROVIR 200 asc ccos University of Arizona.......... "TUOBON Ss on 3s fees 3 K. C. Babcock, Ph. D.
ATIEGVISOR S.-i tame s University of Arkansas......... Fayetteville ...... H. S. Hartzog, LL. D.
California ’..2. 2.52% University of California......-- Berkeley) 25s 30. B. I. Wheeler, LL. D.
CoOlorago ~..c-ssces The State Agricultural College | Fort Collins ...... B. O. Aylesworth, LL. D.
of Colorado.
Connecticut ....... Conn. Agricultural College..... Stores. 3.8 ween cs R. W. Stimson, M, A.
Delaware........-. Delaware College .............. Newarlt .-..0 ces G. A. Harter, Ph. D.
—— College for Colored Stu- | Dover ............ W. C. Jason, M. A.
ents.
Rinvitie: 5. 522.252 University of Florida........... Lake City, . 2. .5... Andrew Sledd, Ph. D.
Florida State Normal and In- | Tallahassee.....-. N. B. Young, M.A.
dustrial College.
Clenrete os. foe. ee Georgia State College of Agri- | Athens ........... H. C. White, Ph. D.
‘culture and Mechanic Arts.
paises kis State Industrial Col- | College........... R. R. Wright, LL. D.
ege.
LG UCR EER te) aetoen University of Idaho ............ MoscoW 42.5048. J. A. MacLean, Ph. D.
TINO. ccna oe nee | University of Ilinois........... Urbanai>. 2280 E. J. James, LL. D.
Indiana’... 5.222. Purdue-University. 3... 02.521. -~- Lafayettex.. 2.2. W. E. Stone, Ph. D.
FOWSiteccccan cence Iowa State College of Agricul- | Ames............. A. B. Storms, D. D.
ture and the Mechanic Arts.
Mansas - fccgonte: kane State Agricultural Col- | Manhattan ......- E. R. Nichols, M. A.
ege.
Kentueky::.:2 532 3 pits pele tear and Mechanical |} Lexington........ J.K. Patterson, LL. D.
College of Kentucky.
The Kentucky Normal and In- | Frankfort ........ J.S. Hathaway, M. A., M.D.
dustrial Institute for Colored
Persons.
LOUIMGIIA se cexs Louisiana State University and | Baton Rouge ..... T. D. Boyd, LL. D.
Agricultural and Mechanical
College.
Southern University and Ag- | New Orleans ..... H. A. Hill.
ricultural and Mechanical :
College.
Maire i 2. sees The University of Maine........ Oroneeer: oe 2 G.E. Fellows, LL. D.
Marviand... 625... Maryland Agricultural College.| College Park ..... R. W. Silvester.
Princess Anne Academy, East- | Princess Anne....| F. Trigg, M. A.
ern Branch, Md. Agr. Coll.
Massachusetts . .... is Pg enthias Agricultural Col- | Amherst.........- H. H. Goodell, LL. D.
ege
Michigan 5.22.22. Michigan State Agricultural | Agricultural Col- | J. L. Snyder, Ph. D.
College. ege.
Minnesota......-.- The University of Minnesota...) St. Anthony Park.| C. Northrop, LL. D.
Mississippi......... Mississippi Agricultural and | Agricultural Col- | J.C. Hardy, LL. D.
Mechanical College. ege.
Aleorn Agricultural and Me- | Westside........-. W. H. Lanier, B. A.
chanical College.
MISSOUPES 2242 rss The University of Missouri..... Columbia ......-... R. H. Jesse, LL. D.
Lincoln Institute. -:.22552s..22< Jefferson City..... B. F. Allen, LL: D.
Montana ie... Ss; The Montana College of Agri- | Bozeman ......... J. M. Hamilton.
culture and Mechanie Arts. | *
Nebraska. io. 542 The University of Nebraska....| Lincoln........... E. B. Andrews, Lh. D.
WEUAGOr We J. 26.5 Nevada State University ....... Reno: oF 55.22. J. E. Stubbs, M. A., D. D.
New Hampshire...| The New Hampshire College of | Durham .......... W.D.Gibbs, M.S.

Agriculture and the Me-
chanic Arts,

INSTITUTIONS FOR

STUDY OF AGRIOULTURE.

Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having cowrses in
agricullure—Continued.

States and Terri-
tories,

New Jersey........

New Mexico.......

NOW LOPE cc cutiass
North Carolina ....

Souk aS Bee Uae ee =

Texas

Vermont

Virinia scien «deed

Washington .......
West Virginia

Wisconsin
Wyoming

Name of institution.

Rutgers Scientific School (The
New Jersey State College for
the Benefitof Agriculture and
the Mechanic sie

The New Mexico College of Ag-
riculture and Mechanic Arts.

Cornell Universit

The North Carolina College of
Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts,

The Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College for the Colored
Race.

North Dakota Agricultural Col-
lege.

Ohio State University

Oklahoma Agricultural and
Mechanical College.

Agricultural and Normal Uni-
versity.

Oregon State Agricultural Col-

ege.
The Pennsylvania State Col-

ege.
Rhode Island College of Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts.

.--| Clemson Agricultural College

of South Carolina.

The Colored Normal, Indus-
trial, Agricultural, and Me-
chanical College of South
Carolina.

South Dakota Agricultural Col-

lege.

University of Tennessee........

Agricultural and Mechanical
College of Texas.

Prairie View State Normal and
Industrial College.

The Agricultural College of
Utah

University of Vermont and
State Agricultural College.
The Virginia Agricultural and
Mechanical Collegeand Poly-

technic Institute.
The Hampton Normal and Ag-
ricultural Institute.
Washington Agricultural Col-
lege and School of Science.
West Virginia University.......
The West Virginia Colored In-
stitute.
University of Wisconsin........
University of Wyoming ........

2 al904——35

Location. President.

New Brunswick..} Austin Scott, LL. D.
Mesilla Park......

ELIEMOEU dy Waka iw wclsle wit ¢ J. G. Schurman, LL. D.
West Raleigh..... G. T. Winston, LL. D.

Luther Foster, M.S. A.
Greensboro....... J. B. Dudley, M. A.

Agricultural Col- | J. H. Worst, LL. D.
ege.
Columbus---<...... W. O. Thompson, D.D.

Stillwater ........ A.C. Scott, LL. M.

TSU RU andes wees I. E. Page, M.A.
WOLVALAS 5c eus o T. M. Gatch, Ph. D.
State College ..... G. W. Atherton, LL. D.
KSINSBUOM-. se eee K. L. Butterfield, A. M.

Clemson College..} P.H. Mell, Ph. D.

Orangeburg ...... T. E. Miller, LL. D.
Brookings 24.46.2055 James Chalmers, Ph. D.
Knoxville ........ Brown Ayres, LL. D.
College Station...| D. F. Houston, LL. D.
Prairie View ..... E. L. Blackshear.
NSO AN 2h cee as W. J. kerr, Do Se.
Burlington ....... M.H. Buckham, LL. D.
Blacksburg....... J.M. McBryde, LL. D.
Hampton: =: 22.2: H. B. Frissell, LL. D.
PUMmMaehs s5<.5---5 E. A. Bryan, LL. D.
feenios 2cc../|\ac Me Jones A.M.
MaGgison...-.:<-5 - C. R. Van Hise, Ph. D.
F. M. Tisdel, Ph. D.

arama Acs.

545

-- ——--- -— —_——_ +.

546 YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES,
THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF

WORK.

Stations, locations, and directors.

Principal lines of work,

Alabama (College), Auburn:

J. Pi DUSRRE ovens os wees Gonwdae

Alabama (Canebrake), Uniontown:
cE RIO OO Ge ee ee cree

Alabama (Tuskegee), Tuskegee Insti-

Botany; soils; analyses of fertilizers and food materials;
agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of plants
and animals; animal husbandry; dairying.

Agronomy; horticulture; floriculture; diseases of plants and
animals.

tute:
OW Oenvrer an. ck. eh. tac ess chon Agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants; animal industry;
dairying.
Arizona, Tucson:
Rt Paorheeiecst yobs. ease ates Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; animal hus-

Arkansas, Fayetteville:

W.G. Vincenheller «..%~..<..e-s=

California, Berkeley:

PW HEPA eco he ec bea Sees

Colorado, Fort Collins:

LG. Caypernter < is ciiios «one ounces

Connecticut (State), New Haven:
BF. JORRINS occcn acuccowee cess

Connecticut (Storrs), Storrs:

L ASGHD ODEs 2-4de2se it oes

Delaware, Newark:

AT, NOGI@? s.d2c eth woes see ea

Florida, Lake City:

Andrew. Sledess2.2422 7024%s-useF

Georgia, Experiment:

RK: J. RO@oiny ino. vsosh ea: eee

Idaho, Moscow:

Ht. Preneh: 0363. sences eines

Illinois, Urbana:

E. Davernontsunchad-< ss 553s s5e

Indiana, Lafayette:

APEHUE GOSS. ete ete. sios eee a

Iowa, Ames:

C. CUurtinas oh and tes eee eee

Kansas, Manhattan:

1 le hg Lu: ER Se eee

Kentucky, Lexington:

M.. JA SCOveOL. os ilew ae. See

Louisiana (Sugar), New Orleans:
WR. Dotean ingot ee ee Cee

Se (State), Baton Rouge:

JR OOSON 325-6 Sie hea See

(ots a (North), Calhoun:

SIOGOSOR . one antes eee Sa ae

b

andry; dairying; irrigation:

Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases
of plants and animals; animal husbandry; entomology.

Chemistr

h

n

Chemistry;

soils; bacteriology; fertilizer control; agronomy;

panel Boao including viticulture and zymology; botany;
meteorology; animal husbandry; entomology; dairying;
poultry experiments; drainage and irrigation; sylviculture;
reclamation of alkali lands; animal and plant pathology;

utrition investigations.

meteorology;

agronomy;

horticulture; plant

breeding; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; entomol-
ogy; irrigation.

Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers, foods, feeding stuffs, Bab-
cock test apparatus, and nurseries; diseases of plants; hor-
ticulture; forestry; agronomy; entomology.

Food and nutrition of man and animals; dairy bacteriology;
agronomy; horticulture; poultry culture; dairying.

Chemistry;

b

bacteriology;
reeding; diseases 0

bandry; entomology; dairying.

agronomy;
plants and animals; animal hus-

horticulture; plant

Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; feeding experiments;
veterinary science; entomology.

Agronomy; horticulture; entomology; animal husbandry;

d

airying. ,

Chemistry; physics; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; entomology; animal husbandry.

Chemistry; bacteriology; agronomy; horticulture; forestry;
lant breeding; diseases of plants and animals; animal

h

usbandry; entomology; dairying.

Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry; dis-

eases of plants and animals;

d

airying.

entomology;

Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
forestry; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; entomology;
dairying; rural engineering; good roads investigations.

Soils; horticulture; plant breeding; agronomy; animal hus-
bandry; diseases of animals; entomology; dairying; exter-
mination of prairie dogs and gophers.

Chemistry; soils; inspection of fertilizers, foods, feeding stuffs,
orchards, and nurseries; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; animal husbandry; diseases of plants; entomol-
ogy; Gairying.

Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; agronomy; horticulture; sugar
making; drainage; irrigation.

Geology; botany; bacteriology; soils; inspection of fertilizers

and Paris green; agronomy;
bandry; diseases of animals; entomology.

Chemistry: soils; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; animal —

horticulture;

animal hus-

husbandry; stock raising; dairying.
a Assistant director.

irrigation; —

jj

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 547

Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors, and
principal lines of work—Continued.

Stations, locations, and directors.

Maine, Orono:
CD. WOG8 20. A dean es eerie Chemistry; botany; inspection of fertilizers, commercial feed-
ing stuffs, and creamery glassware; horticulture; plant
breeding; diseases of plants and animals; food and nutri-
tion of man and animals; poultry raising; entomology;
dairying.
Maryland, College Park:
Ea HE AULCLMOLL so xenn ven skcausepars Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants and
animals; breeding of plants; animal husbandry; entomol-
ogy; dairying.
Massachusetts, Amherst:
Pic: A. ROGUGM Js ans tani urcerenenade Chemistry; meteorolgy; inspection of fertilizers, commercial
feeding stuffs, creamery glassware, and nurseries; agron-
omy; horticulture; diseases of plants and animals; anima!
husbandry; entomology; dairying; effect of electricity on
plant growth.

Michigan, Agricultural College:
Ca). SINt tt ccih dechan ae alektame aaa Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; diseases of plants and animals; animal hus-
bandry; entomology; stable hygiene.
Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, St. Paul:
Wie. Lae POUG cos. cay so wet e mee Chemistry; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; forestry; dis-
eases of plants and animals; food and nutrition investiga-
tions; plant and animal breeding; animal husbandry; ento-
mology; dairying; farm management; farm statistics.
Mississippi, Agricultural College:
Ws) dae SA ULCRINSON cesses. se aeS Soils; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry;
diseases of animals; poultry culture; entomology; dairying.
Missouri (College), Columbia:
Rody. DOOR Cs eee Coes face Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; diseases of
plants and animals; animal husbandry; plant breeding;
entomology; dairying; drainage and irrigation.
Missouri (Fruit), Mountain Grove:
PEMD SMV EIIG ots. 2 msinl ramets sa epee nies Horticulture; entomology; inspection of orchards and nur-
series.
Montana, Bozeman:
Me tEATIMONG ois 258 oclec chee Seeieee Chemistry; meteorology; botany; agronomy; horticulture;
animal husbandry; poultry experiments; entomology;
dairying; irrigation.
Nebraska, Lincoln:
OS SEE 2 rite oY 2) 2 Ga eee ee I oe Chemistry; botany; meteorology; soils; agronomy; horticul-
ture; diseases of plants and animals; forestry; animal hus-
bandry; entomology; dairying; irrigation; extermination of
prairie dogs.
Nevada, Reno:
REST lc) OR ae PEP ORS Se ir ese Chemistry; botany; soils; agronomy; horticulture; forestry;
animal diseases; entomology; irrigation.
New Hampshire, Durham: :
WD. GibDS.: .-.zestetne ae ame wales .| Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; forestry; animal hus-
bandry; entomology; dairying.
New Jersey (State), New Brunswick:
BBs OOLD CEB! sia -5 ode eee a
New Jersey (College), New Brunswick:
i, 35~ V OOLDGGS=.. .<. sew nce seen

Chemistry; oyster culture; botany; analysis of fertilizers,
foods, and commercial feeding stuffs; agronomy; horticul-
ture; plant breeding; diseases of plants and animals; ento-
mology; dairy husbandry; soil bacteriology; irrigation.

New Mexico, Mesilla Park:

WipGaey, ROBUCT. .\...5 2 <. tas sawes oe Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; animal hus-
bandry; entomology; irrigation.

New York (State), Geneva:
We Bs SOLES vs vacinccs esa eeu Chemistry; bacteriology; meteorology; inspection of cream-
ery glassware, feeding stuffs, fertilizers, and Paris green;
agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of plants;
animal husbandry; poultry experiments; entomology;
dairying; irrigation.

New York (Cornell), Ithaca:
iH Bailey... .¢-4an roe Chemistry; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; diseases of
plants and animals; animal husbandry; poultry experi-
ments; entomology; dairying.
North Carolina, Raleigh:
BW, Bilwoe .t ese e oe eee Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry;
diseases of animals and plants; poultry experiments; dairy-
ing; tests of farm machinery.

op OE fee ee ee ea Chemistry; botany; agronomy; plant breeding; horticulture;
diseases of plants and animals; food analysis; animal hus-
bandry; dairying; farm mechanics.
Ohio, Wooster:
C. E. THORNC 2.2.2 ccsscccenensawes= Agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of plants
and animals; animal husbandry; entomology.

a Acting director.

548 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors, and
principal lines of work—Continued.

Stations, locations, and directors. Principal ‘ines of work.

Oklahoma, Stillwater:

John Fields .s oo 5004 2 ....| Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; forestry;
botany; diseases of plants and animals; animal husbandry;
entomology.

Oregon, Corvallis:

ds WIL VOOIN DG. todas raveeccascos Chemistry; bacteriology; agronomy; horticulture; plant selec-
tion; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; entomology;
dairying; irrigation.

Pennsylvania, State College:

HOP RONG choco a ee eases Chemistry; meteorology; analysis of fertilizers, foods, and
feeding stuffs; horticulture; agronomy; animal husbandry;
dairying.

Rhode Island, Kingston:

BJ: Whedler 020562 2 Bee Chemistry; meteorology; soils; inspection of fertilizers ands
feeding stuffs; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
poultry experiments.

South Carolina, Clemson College:

Py Malle ein ore ee ee eek Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers; botany; agronomy; hor-
ticulture; plant breeding; diseases of plants; animal hus-
bandry; veterinary science; entomology; dairying.

South Dakota, Brookings:
Joi We Ulsan 20a. ears: Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
‘ diseases of plants and animals; animal husbandry; ento-
mology; irrigation.
Tennessee, Knoxville:
1h ROYER TE ere. 2 Sheek Pleat Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture;
arp breeding; seeds; weeds; diseases of plants; animal
usbandry; entomology; dairying.
Texas, College Station:
A Grae or ee he Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry;
diseases of animals; irrigation.
Utah, Logan:

ec. WIGNER. = ciao ste ee oe .| Chemistry; alkali soil investigations; agronomy; horticulture;
diseases of plants; animal husbandry; dairying; poultry
experiments; entomology; irrigation.

| [UNE i Saw CUM 2 Sree Chemistry; botany; inspection of fertilizers, aii stuffs,
and creamery glassware; agronomy; horticulture; diseases
of plants; animal husbandry; dairying.
Virginia, Blacksburg:

OM SBoulec. 22 2k. fee Chemistry; geology; biology; agronomy; horticulture; bac-
teriology; analysis of foods and soils; feeding experiments;
veterinary science; entomology; cider and vinegar making;
ferments.

Washington, Pullman:

EAs DEVON os fort ae ee Chemistry; botany; bacteriology; agronomy; horticulture;

pene breeding; diseases of plantsand animals; animal hus-
andry; entomology; dairying; irrigation.
West Virginia, Morgantown:

J.B. Stewart... 5.6.52. eee Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers, orchards, and nurseries;
agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants; animal husban-
dry; poultry experiments; entomology.

Wisconsin, Madison:

AW AS Ee ry eee of Do. Berne S Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; agronomy; horticulture; ani-
mal husbandry; dairying; drainage and irrigation; farm
engineering.

Wyoming, Laramie:
B.C), Dts e535 eth eee ee Botany; meteorology; soils; range improvement; fertilizers;
agronomy; food analysis; animal husbandry; irrigation.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTE OFFICIALS. 549

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

President, I. B. Voorhees, director New Jersey Experiment Stations, New Bruns-

wick, N. J.; secretary-treasurer, J. L. Hills, director Vermont Experiment Station,
Burlington, Vt.

OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.
Farmers’ Institute Specialist, Department of Agriculture.

John Hamilton, Washington, District of Columbia.

State superintendents.

States and Terri-

tories: Name of official. | Post-office.

ATA DOIG. oie sisine ous C. A. Cary, Alabama Polytechnic Institute................ Auburn.

G. W. Carver, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Tuskegee Institute.
RIBBED. -tccwekanms C. C. Georgeson, Agricultural Experiment Station ........ Sitka.
TIBOR owa5 oceans R. H. Forbes, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Tucson,
ASERNSBSN coun pe nme H.S. Hartzog, President University of Arkansas.......... Fayetteville.
Gallforni@.. . sc. ..< KE. J..Wiekson, University’ of California... cc. cs..cceceecen Berkeley.
WOIGTEGO so ea-4 5 ae A.M. Hawley, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ..-... Fort Collins.
Connecticut ....:.. J.F. Brown, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ........ N. Stonington.

J.O. Noble, Secretary Connecticut Dairymen’s Association} Hartford.

H.C. C. Miles, Secretary Connecticut Pomological Society.| Milford.
Delaware.......... Wesley Webb, Director of Farmers’ Institutes ............ Dover.
MOT ee cc kee ain C. M. Conner, University ig KU eb VRIES Ee oe eee ae Lake City.
RPOOLEIR: does execs H.C. White, President State College of Agriculture......-. Athens.

Harvie Jordan, Director of Farmers’ Institutes ........... Monticello,
ON Ch a J.G.Smith, Agricultural Experiment Station............. Honolulu.
MURA cot aee cane ee H. T. French, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Moscow.
MUONS oo <meta srsicrs A.B. Hostetter, Secretary Farmers’ Institutes............. Springfield.
ih cLob tN ot: is eee WC, atta (Purdie Wil VersIty: ..iccec. ste ces Saws clase oe Lafayette.
WOW 5 aes oasis aoa» J.C.Simpson, Secretary State Board of Agriculture.....-. Des Moines.
SCUBA 5 cs cc cise J. T. Willard, Director Agricultural Experiment Station .| Manhattan.
Rentucky 3c... Hubert Vreeland, Commissioner of Agriculture .......... Frankfort.
Louisiana. ...<..... J.G. Lee, Commissioner of Agriculture.................... Baton Rouge.
PM RETIO bs Stas eo perote A. W. Gilman, Commissioner of Agriculture .............. Augusta.
MaryViEDG co sackiac W.L. Amoss, Director Farmers’ Institutes ................ Benson.
Massachusetts..... J. L. Ellsworth, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ..... Boston.
Michivan oo2...5< Lok, Patt, Director Karmers’ Institutes ooo. 3. 2... ..e Agricultural College.
Minnesota......... Q.C. Gregg, Director Farmers’ Institutes.................. Lynd.
Mississippi ........ J.C. Hardy, President Ag’l and Mechanical College ....-- Agricultural College.
NIFSOOFL 2 sateus. 3 Geo. B. Ellis, Secretary State Board of Agriculture........ Columbia.
Montane: <cuciecs ss F.B. Linfield, Director Agr. Experiment Station ......... Bozeman.
NWebrasia 05 sc scons E. A. Burnett, Director Agricultural Experiment Station .| Lincoln.
st Fe ee Se J. E. Stubbs, President Nevada State University........... Reno.
New Hampshire...| N.J. Bachelder, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ....| Concord.
New Jersey.......- Franklin Dye, Secretary State Board of Agriculture...... Trenton.
New Mexico ....-. Luther Foster, President Ag’] and Mechanical College ...} Mesilla Park.
OWI OLK oo. Ja csicc F. E. Dawley, Director of Farmers’ Institutes ............. Fayetteville.
North Carolina....| S. L. Patterson, Commissioner of Agriculture ............. Raleigh.
North Dakota ..... E. E. Kaufman, Director Farmers’ Institutes.............. Bismarck.
MRIO% . ho ceaveesce W. W. Miller, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ....... Columbus.
OkIhome « sa2 ss. J.B. Thoburn, Secretary Board of Agriculture ............ Guthrie.
PIPCC OM ee Se cabs ates J.Withycombe, Director Agricultural Experiment Station | Corvallis.
Pennsylvania ..... A.L. Martin, Deputy Secretary of Agriculture ............ Harrisburg.
DEG) HACO < wsicnaxs W.H. Elliott, Director of Farmers’ Institutes.............. San Juan,
Rhode Island.....- John G. Clarke, Secretary State Board of Agriculture..... Providence.
South Carolina ....| J.S. Newman, Director Farmers’ Institutes ............... Clemson College.

Thos. E. Miller, President A. and M. College.............. Orangeburg.
South Dakota ..... James W. Wilson, Director Agr. Experiment Station..... Brookings.
Tennessee ......... W. W. Ogilvie, Commissioner of Agriculture .............. Nashville.
phy «tr aS J. W. Carson, Director Farmers’ Institutes................. College Station.
Wiaia 2... 02a ceucee John A. Widtsoe, Director Agr. Experiment Station....... Logan.
Wermone 72..52224- Geo. Aitken, Secretary State Board of Agriculture........ Woodstock.
WMispinig.<. o.. oo ee G. W. Koiner, Commissioner of Agriculture............... Richmond.
Washington ....... FE. A. Bryan, resident Agricultural College .............. Pullman.
West Virginia ..... J. 5. Garvill, Director OL Institutes so. oe eae eee eee Charleston.
Wisconsin ........- G. McKerrow, Director Farmers’ Institutes ..............- Madison.
Wyoming -........ B.C. Buffum, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Laramie.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTE WORKERS.

President, J. C. Hardy, president Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College,
Agricultural College, Miss.; vice-president, E. A. Burnett, director Agricultural
Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebr.; secretary-treasurer, G. C. Creelman, president
Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario.

550 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE. 4

Commissioners of agriculture,

States and Territories. Name of official, Post-office.
AlabOIOS oes vevicwaretaxccis RRs Poole ces ck kisah eee Montgomery.
TY OV ee ee Be Sea re HT, Bredlord oud; decekicc sve scccavkeeee enue Little Ruck.
1 a CES a 2 RD 1 FS See ES a SS SEs See eS Tallahassee,
COORMIR, olden nas awe eee 0.3 BiGveOne recast nccnc vordnaspapee ce kaeeey Atlanta.
FERNO a. ok OE eee Robert Bell 2-41 2378.24332), eee Boise.
Kentusky ... <2... ee Hubert Vreeland. yiesss eee oat eae ee Frankfort.
LOvUIMSS 3 25 ccceooc cake eee dG TRO os steep os ona ee oh ie oa eee ee Baton Rouge,
Meine 22s. acne eaten ee AW Gg oo ois ee a ee eee ee Augusta.
Mantama evan kc wees Caachi ). A. Pereunon oo. ovecs wane then aah bateseen eee Helena.
Baw. York... sscnce cee ct ee Chas. A. Wisitne o.oo esos c ee co eeea oe eee Albany.
Nerth Caroling... ;.....c.ss-<- Si Z,. PateersOin ss toon ides vxarlddocesiseece reat geese Raleigh,
Nerth Dakota <.2.%hs8e hee Wis ©: GU Dreath.< 3 wa.us en uaee eka eee Bismarck. .
New Merle «2 esccksc svi sees J. W. Raynolds, Secretary of State............... Santa Fe.
POR TIRG VOI oie ono Soe N.B. Critchfield, Secretary of Agriculture ...... Harrisburg. «
Philippine Islands ........-.- W.C. Welborn, Chief, Bur. of Agriculture ....... Manila.
Perto' Bice. 22. Sbe so teete Wm. H. Elliott, Commissioner of the Interior...| San Juan,
POOMOSEOG vows eet ceo cen cue W. WiOatlvie . 222s) oe eae eee Nashville.
TOMAS o ae oe oe eer. WT CIAY ois Nodes cae tbcs maeeee eee Reet eee Austin.
Vireinis <<. ce seg ere ast ee Geo. W.-K OMOr. 7270. cee eee Oe ee ee Richmond.
Washinetone ee ee: A. W. Frater, Deputy Secretary of State ......... Olympia.

Secretaries of State boards of agriculture.

States and Territories. Name of official. Post-office.
ee |
Caltiomia*- 2.50. c see Harry Lowden, Acting Secretary ............... Sacramento.
Coloradg’ 25 e254. ~~, se a ASM Tmwiey: ooo oe ec ae aaeaeeeras Fort Collins.
Connectiont ln, ce<k cceeee tds FS BRO WT eel hae he ae Se ee eee North Stonington.
Delnwhresli oc teces tects ce | ‘Weasley Webtr oo. soo ce es wee eae eee eer es Dover.
FIR WOlih hee ee en he C.SSHOMOwEY.2 ec co ace eon ence eee eee Honolulu,
ERNONG Seen eee ce cee ee W..C. Garrart 2 S82 soon. he ee ee Springfield.
EMR anak <= het Ee ee eae Chas: Downing. 29 2ese eee eee eee Indianapolis.
ROW soe eee eee J; C, Simm Deon reat an tee telaeree oe eee Des Moines.
I ORRGS 5 ego anes Pe 2) GOD ED ee ie ere te ae yen <a gee mee eae Topeka,
MGTVIANE Val kde ve teere Wm. T. P. Turpin, Supt. of Immigration......... Centerville.
Massachusetis 0.2.2)... J <i, ERS worth = she ee an tae ae en nel cee ae Boston.
feline « , eeeeateieeag ats hac Ele ke 2 Addison Mi Brtiwnioe <b te ee ese eee Agricultural College.
Minnesotac. sc 1, eee E. W. Randall, Sec. State Ag’] Society ........... Hamline.
Minsourien cetera rae George’ RB. Bilis. se sto oo ee een ce Oey eae
Nebraskan: teen eee bene ROD. Wis WOMMGGs. ce ee es ween on ote Brownville.
INOVSOS< 650s gsc eee ee ee Lois Re viel son cnn ee) ack ae re cree Carson City
New Hampshire............. Nd, Bachbaldlere ee soso ee eee oe ce OOM en ren
INOW. JOO... ccc age sete Rian Elva senate. See nee Coens Trenton.
North Carolina occ... os pl i (ig 3 gly bY - 1 beae ay ee gE cy UieS ae Se Raleigh.
O10. oe fete a ete te We We erie ee ee ae See See Columbus.
Oklshome: oF 2 DL ODYINIE Ee tee ee eee ee ere eee Guthrie.
Oregon ..... PL eyecare Ne oak Med) Wisdom. 9 ce eee eens’ Rena Been Son Portland.
Rhode Island: oe. eet John Gi Glarkateee’’ fx heat eee Sy le eee Providence. y
South Dakota ............... Walter's), Fgh Se voverce es .20 ta seceen ee eee Yankton. |
Vermont 221 oe 2 ee oree ©: FT Bel Sr eer Pe a a Le chad yon East Hardwick. ,
Wreeat: Virgcimiat ofc o) =e TiO THOM DSO oe ee ces cee one een Charleston.
NEIBGOMSI Sheets Soo haat JOD We Erie a Foe Be nes eee ee Madison.
WY Om ee es oe pos oa C. T. Johnston, State Engineer .................. | Cheyenne.

a Officials of Territories and island dependenciesare included. So far as learned, Arizona, Missis-
sippi, New Mexico, South Carolina, and Utah have no State official charged with agricultural inter-
ests, but letters addressed to the Secretary of State would probably receive attention.

NATIONAL DAIRY ASSOCIATIONS.

Name of organization. Secretary. Post-office.
National Association of State Dairy and Food De- | R.M.Allen........... Lexington, Ky.
partments. :
Rie hone) Petry, UO sos oe ek Lees ee ea Charles Y. Knight....| 154 Lake st., Chicago.
National Creamery Buttermakers’ Association ........ E. Sudendorf .....:... Clinton, Il.
Boston Cooperative Milk Producers’ Association ...... W; Ay Elin ter: of «ves 10 vloreues st., Wor-
cester, Mass.

Five States Milk Producers’ Association.........-. SBE SS GR Br 70S he ra oe Homer, N. Y.

LIVE STOCK ASSOOTATIONS. 551

NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION.

President, F. J. Hagenbarth, Salt Lake City; secretary, Fred. B. Johnson, Denver.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF LIVE STOCK HERD BOOK
SECRETARIES.

President, C. R. Thomas, Independence, Mo.; secretary, Charles I’. Mills, Spring-
field, Ill.

NATIONAL WOOL GROWERS’ ASSOCIATION.

President, Francis EK. Warren, Cheyenne; secretary, Mortimer Levering, Chi-
cago, Ill.

PROTECTION AGAINST CONTAGION FROM FOREIGN CATTLE.

An act of Congress of August 28, 1894, prohibits the importation of cattle and
cattle hides, but by the act of March 2, 1895, making appropriations for the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, it is provided that the prohibition may be suspended by the
President whenever the Secretary of Agriculture shall certify to the President what
countries or parts of countries are free from contagious or infectious diseases of
domestic animals. The President, by proclamation of November 8, 1895, lifted the
embargo with reference to Norway, Sweden, Holland, Great Britain, Ireland, the
Channel Islands, and the countries of North, Central, and South America so as to
admit cattle under sanitary regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture;
also from all countries so as to admit hides under regulations prescribed by the
Secretary of the Treasury.

STOCK BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS. 4

Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
live stock in United States, December 31, 1904.

CATTLE.

Number registered.| Number living.

Breed. Secretary. Post-office. ?
.| Male. | Female.

Aberdeen Angus ..| Thos. McFarlane.-.| Union Stock Yards,

24, 200 30, 800
Chicago, Ill.

AyTSNITe socio ks C. M. Winslow. ;... Brandon: Vter oi <-: 3, 000 9, 000
MEVOR 29. 022....-5 Digi SISSON We ho Newark, Ohio ...... 4, 000 8, 500
Dutch Belted...... HB. Richards -.<.|) EastonsPaccos 3 b (b)
Galloway .2!... 2... | CUW Gia y ofa: Union Stock Yards, 7, 160 5, 690
Chicago, Ill.
Guernsey ...-......- Wm. H.Caldwell..| Peterboro, N.H..... 6, 000 12, 000
22 Ol CUR Phomase-2-- 2 225 W.12th st., Kan- ¢ 100,
sas City, Mo.
Holstein Friesian..| Frederick lL. | Brattleboro, Vt..... 88, 180 42, 682 (d) (d)
Houghton.
SEIHOY 252045 -o-~-5 3 J.J. Hemingway ..; 8 W.17th st., New 69, 267 | 186, 297 (6) - (b)
York, NY:
Polled Durham....| FJetcherS. Hines..| Indianapolis, Ind... 4, 878 5, 885 2, 926 3, 528
Red Polled:. 2:2... .. J.McLain Smith ..| Dayton, Ohio....... 13, 650 26, 716 (6) (d)
Shorthorn. .:25-2.: | John W. Groves... Mein Sia tees 231,405 | 366, 425 77, 100 165, 000
hicago, I].
GUBGER: 32 eo etree eee Overton Lea ...... Nashville, Tenn .... 70 172 40 85

Swiss, Brown ...... ) IN, SPR asce. ies ce Groton, Conn....... 2, 007 2,879 1, 338 1, 919

a Under the provisions of paragraph 473 of the act of July 24, 1897, amended March 8, 1903, any
animal imported specially for breeding purposes shall be admitted free, provided that no such ani-
mal shall be admitted free unless pure bred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered in the book
of record established for that breed. The Secretary of the Treasury, upon the advice of the Secretary
of Agriculture, issued April 24, 1903, regulations for the importation of animals under this law, and
———— the recognized breeds and the books of record established for these breeds.

6 No data.

¢ Total of males and females,

552

YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE.

Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
live stock in United States, Décember 31, 1904—Continued. ,

Breed,

Cleveland Bay ....
Clydesdale ........

Coach, German ....
Coach, German
(Oldenburg).
Draft, Belgian .....
Draft, French......
Hackney .s.c-.0 03%

Moreen) +554 .e-,
Percheron .......-.

Pereheron .< ..<-s.

Saddle Horse,
American.

Shetland Pony ....

Secretary.

———ESSSrm

R. P. Stericker ....
R. B. Ogilvie ......

J CONCH oc. seuss.
C: BE. Stubbs .......

J.D. Connor, jr. yr
C. E. Stubbs .......

| A. H. Godfrey .....

Joseph Battell @...

Geo. W. Stubble-
field.

Charles C. Glenn..

I. B. Nall

M ortimer Lever-

ing.

Charles Burgess...
Alex. Galbraith ...
James E.Wheelerd

Trotter, American .| Wm. H. Knight ...

HORSES.

Post-office.

80 Chestnut ave.,
W. Orange, N. J.
Union Stock Yards,
Chicago, lll.
Lafayette, Ind......
Fairfield, lowa .....

Wabash, Ind........
Fairfield, lowa .....
Box 111, Madison
Square, New
York City.
Middlebury, Vt.....
Union Stock Yards,
Chicago, I].
Columbus, Ohio ....
Louisville, Ky.....-.

Lafayette, Ind......

Wenona, [ln enssae<-
Janesville, Wis .....
173 Fifth ave., New
York, N.Y.
Ellsworth Bldg.,
855 Dearborn st.,

Number registered.

Male. Female.
1, 205 470

b 11, 000
1,126 141
¢217 ¢ 27
1, 787 227
8, 393 4, 557
726 1, 542
e5, 021 2, 800
540 460
295 17
e 2,359 8, 247
Be (ey 8, 555
5, 663 2,007
147 66

b 42, 000

e 40, 200 | ¢ 104, 800

Number living.
Male. | Female.
1, 000 400
(4) 9)
b 1,000
(4) (4)
1, 786 227
b5,
684 1,416
38, 765 2,100
18, 540 11, 460
290 13
1, 200 1, 500
1, 600 2, 500
a a
( ds, (2) *
b 25, 000

26, 800 69, 533

Chicago, Ill.
Jacks and Jennies.| J. W.Jones........ Columbia, Tenn .... 800 600 (4) (a)
SHEEP.
: : ] |
Cheviot: 2... 565: F. E. Dawley .....- Fayetteville,N. Y .. 6 10, 332 63,000
Cofewold « .icvs amas F. W. Harding ....| Waukesha, Wis..... b 32,705 b 12,000
Dorset. Horn....... Je Bo Wie seins pie nicsburg, 1,134 8, 100 850 | 2,325
io.
Dorset Horn....... M.A. Cooper .....- Washington, Pa .... 610, 550 b5,
Hampshire Down .| Comfort A. Tyler..; Nottawa, Mich ..... 4, 900 11, 501 (a) a
Leicester .......+<- A.J.Temple ...... Cameron, Ill........ 8, 185 4,944 2, 633 , 153
LINCOM: ss. cacses Bert Smith... -. <2... Charlotte, Mich .... 5, 500 7,140 4, 000 5, 000
Merino (Delaine) .| H.G. McDowell...| Canton, Ohio ......- b9, 67,
Merino (Delaine) .} George A. Henry.. ve Dz aa ep ana’ 8, 000 12, 000 3, 000 7, 000
aine, Ohio.
Merino (Delaine) .| J. BiJohnson.<-..- 248 W. Pike st., Can- 6, 674 11, 324 1, 500 5, 000
onsburg, Pa.
Merino (Delaine) .! S.M.Cleaver...... W. Brownsville, Pa. (a) (4) ¢ 9,000 ¢ 13, 000
Merino (French) ..| Dwight Lincoln .. sr Center, b 27, 834 © 8,000 ¢ 12,000
io.
Merino (German) .| E.M. Moore......- oO ta rd Lake, 112 140 50 130
ich.
Merino eerie J) Neal ste Hamburg, Mich ....| 18,750 41, 250 1, 000 9, 000
Merino (Spanish) .| R.O. Logan ....... R. F. D. 8, Mont- b 28, 374 ¢ 1,000 ¢ 2,000
gomery, Mich. | i
Merino (Spanien) at oval. AMEN Soto Skaneateles, N.Y... 619, 625 62,100
Merino (Spanish) .| J. P. Ray .......... Allenshill, N. Y..... (ays 2} xe) 50 150
Merino (Spanish) .| C.A.Chapman ....| Middlebury, Vt..... b 219, 066 a a
Oxford Down...... W, A. Shator..--. Hamilton, Ohio .... 6 32, 798 a (a
Shropshire.....»..- Mortimer Lever- | Lafayette, Ind es.32 50,000 ; 158, 000 15, 000 45, 000
ing.
Southdown........ Frank §8.Springer.| Springfield, Ill ..... 618, 690 b9, 345
BUROME ot. koe sees Sees W. Frank- | Des Moines, Iowa... b ry b ti
in.
ne EE ET ES 8 aE ee
aNo data. ad Registrar.
b Total of males and females. e Includes geldings.

ec Estimate for 1903.

LIVE STOCK SANITARY OFFICERS. 553

Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
live stock in United States, December 81, 1904—Continued.

HOGS.
Number registered.| Number living.
Breed. Secretary. Post-oflice. he Seg —————— —
Male. | Female.| Male. | Female.
HOLRANITO Scccccass Frank S. Springer.} 510 Monroe st., a 80, 920 a 30, 000
Springfield, 111.
GHEADING) vtec cuin Niko Gy cet = OG eae Se ea Freeville, N. Y..... 1, 200 | 2, 088 300 600
Chester White..... Ernest Freigau....| Dayton, Ohio....... a11,911 b 489 61,307
Chester White..... Wels WOPminn sce... 939 §. Illinois St., c 6, 002 | ¢ 13, 629 (d) (a)
Indianapolis, Ind.
Chester Ohio Im- | GC. M. Hiles........ 40 Sherriff St.,Cleve- a9, 688 a5, 800
proved. land, Ohio.
Duroc Jersey ...... Ly toe © CRTEOLMS os Thorntown, Ind.... 7,074 16, 310 (a) (d)
Duroe Jersey ...... Robert J. Evans.../ Elpaso, Ill.......... 16, 750 41, 000 4,187 10, 250
Seen s acc wala eke Rhy SYOUt sc... ee MeLean, fl. .:. 220: 1, 216 1, 800 500 800
a Sr CaN (Thin | E. C. Stone........ Armstrong, Ill...... 218 454 95 310
ind).
Poland China ..... W. M. McFadden. eo eR hee 46,407 | 116,484 20, 000 50, 000
icago ;
Poland China ..... We dlcMWONDIS seve... 939 S. Illinois st., | €12,025 | ¢ 26,659 (a) (a)
Indianapolis, Ind.
Poland China ..... A. MO Brown... .,- Dayton, Ohio....... 31, 250 70, 000 9, 000 21, 000
Poland China ..... Geo. F.Woodworth| Maryville, Mo...... 35, 838 85, 052 5, 364 12, 677
Poland China ..... OP Wilsoue. +: oe Gadsden, Tenn..... 609 904 500 650
PMUNV OTOL. wine boca fC fal 0321) URS ee eee Hamburg, Mich .... a1,949 a1, 200
RAGLONEy cto cidc whw nt Bl rDavid focos cee ee Dyer; Ind :2.22. 2. b 437 61,326 ab1, 200
Yorkshire Large | Harry G. Krum ...| Whitebear Lake, 2, 457 3,079 2, 000 | 2, 600
Improved. Minn.
a Total.of males and females. e Vol. IX, 1902. eVol. XXIV, 1303.
b Estimate for 1903. adNo data.

SANITARY OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF LIVE STOCK INTERESTS.

States and Territo-

bins Name and post-office. Official position.
Alabama. oslo. 5 GUA. Cary AUDUINS 5. ceo ee ne ee Professor of veterinary science.
ATIZOTNY ee SS J. DoGarter, Prescott .. oicse2 2322. Secretary live stock sanitary commission.
Je Can NOrtoneehoenix. (F200 estes Veterinarian.
ATROTIBAS coo. R. R. Dinwiddie, Fayetteville........ State veterinarian.
Cp MTOMNIA 6.2.2 oe Chas. Keane, Sacramento............ Oo.
COlOTaO oa. scene L. B. Sylvester, Denver... .........<... President State board of stock inspection.
Charles D. Lamb, Denver............. State veterinary surgeon.
Connecticut ....... Heman O. Averill, Hartford.......... Commissioner of domestic animals.
Del&ware.2.. 22.25. Alex. Lowber, Wilmington........... Secretary State board of health.
BSE ivies NOwWatks 2.2.2. =e ee Instructor in veterinary science, Dela-
ware College.
LU ets Fe ae Chas. F. Dawson, Lake City.......... State veterinarian.
Georgia |. 05. 2... O. B. Stevens, aia OO eth a ae Commissioner of agriculture.
TAA oe nee Ve George E. Noble, Boise ..............- State veterinarian.
Phimoisiuy: soil ele H. E. Wadsworth, Springfield ........ Secretary board of live stock commis
sioners.
C. P. Lovejoy, Princeton ............. State veterinarian.
Shitoht iit ae A. W. Bitting, Lafayette-.......2.2..- Do.
Ue cy as | Paul ©. Koto, Forest. City 2. /s.- 5. 5222 - Do.
io John D. Baker, Peabody ............. Secretary live stock sanitary commission.
Kentueky <.5..\.<.. J.N. McCormack, Bowling Green....} Secretary State board of health.
F. T. Eisenman, Louisville........... State veterinarian.
Lotusiana:sse7e 2 W. H. Dalrymple, Baton Rouge....-. Veterinarian State experiment station,
Maine 25: 2. sehen HY) Beal) BEnPr or. 2-2 cs... ot eee State cattle commissioner.
Maryland ......... G. Allen Jarman, Chestertown ....... Chief veterinary inspector.
Wade H. D. Warfield, Baltimore...... Secretary live stock sanitary board.
Massachusetts ..... Austin Peters, Boston ...........-<..- Chief of the cattle bureau of State board
of agriculture.
MMictiran), 4. ..tpo TC Wellin’ PRTG: ok 8 eC a State veterinarian.
0 Hee RM TOM occ ety ca aoe ee President State live stock sanitary com:
mission.
Minnesota......... M. H. Reynolds, St. Anthony Park...| Veterinarian live stock sanitary board.
; HM. Bracken: St. Parles. co: oe te Secretary State board of health.
Mississippi......... J. C. Robert, Agricultural College....| Professor of veterinary science.
Missouri ........... D. F. Luckey, Columbia.............. State veterinarian.
Geo. B. Ellis, Columbia............... Secretary State board of agriculture.
Montana .......... W. G. Preuitt, Helena................ Secretary live stock commission.
M. E. Knowles, Helena............... State veterinarian.
Nebraska ice een W. A. Thomas) Eineolne. : lies -2o2: 2

Oo.
Neyadass. svussnene S. L, Lee, Carson City seus .ce st sevccewd Secretary State board of health.

554 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests—Continued.,

States s and Territo-

—_—— er?

~ sey | Name and post-office, Official position.
New Hampshire...| Irving A. Watson, Concord........... _ Secretary State board of health.
N. J. Bachelder, Concord............. | Secretary board of cattle commissioners.
New Jersey.......- Henry Mitchell, Trenton............. | Secretary State board of health.
Franklin Dye, Trenton... ....-««sessces Secretary tuberculosis commission.
New Mexico....... W.C, Barnes, Las Vegas.............. Secretary cattle sanitary board.
| Harry F. Lee, Albuquerque Searcotioee Secretary sheep sanitary board,
New. York .....« 200: A. Wieting, Cobleskill, ?iiiesns2.: Commissioner department of agriculture,
W. BH. Kelly, Albany <3... cee Chief veterinarian,
North Carolina ....| Tait Butler, Raleigh.................. State veterinarian.
S. L. Patterson, Raleigh.............. Commissioner of agriculture,
North Dakota...... L. Van Bs Pareo ... 3250-5550 Chief State veterinarian.
Obie eens W. Willer, Colum biiss-3. wosca.55- Secretary State board of agriculture.
Paul Fischer, Columbus.............- State veterinarian.
Oklahoma ......... Thomas Morris, Guthrie............--. Secretary live stock sanitary commission.
Ee Dv Brown, Guthrie:.: ..k.28sceun: Territorial veterinarian.
OTEFON', <.secee ss ac Wm. McLean, Portland .............. State bea nsinas
Pennsylvania...... Leonard Pearson, Philadelphia ......
Rhode Island...... John G, Clarke, Providence.......... neon’ State board of agriculture.
John §. Pollard, Providence.......... Veterinarian, State board of agriculture.
South Carolina....; Louis A. Klein, Clemson College... .. State veterinarian,
Seuth Dakota...... JvP: Poster: FOron:.s i006 vise cke cases
Tennessee .......... BR: H. Kittrell, Murfreesboro~........ State live stock commissioner.
Texas’ soe. Jace at ees Hankins, Quanah.. -sscu. ess Live stock sanitary commissioner,
taht she eet. T. B. Beatty, Salt Lake Othy, sete wage Secretary State board of health.
Vermont). 23.<~.=- Victor I. Spear, Randolph............ | Secretary cattle commission -
Vireto la ts J. G. Ferneyhough, Blacksburg......) State hae iencw scat
Washington ....... 8: Be Nelson? Pullman: oc. 5.35.24 <3
West Virginia ..... J. O. Thompson, Charleston.......... AGE ote board of agriculture.
Wisconsid .......+- Evan D. Roberts, Janesville.......... | State veterinarian.
George Wylie, Morrisonyille.......... Secretary State sanitary board.
Wyominr. <3 S53.2-, Geo. T. Seabury, Cheyenne........-.. | State veterinarian.
George S. Walker, Cheyenne......... Secretary State board of sheep commis-
| sioners.
OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FOOD INSPECTION.
Name of office. Official, Post-office.
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Treasury Department.| John W. Yerkes...... Washington, D. C,
Chit, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agri- | D. E. Salmon......... Do.
culture.
Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture..| H. W. Wiley.......... Do.
FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS. -

American Forestry Association.—President, Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of
Agriculture; vice-president, James W. Pinchot; secretary (corresponding), H. M.
Suter, Washington, D. C. ;

International Society of Arboriculture.—President, Gen. William J. Palmer, Col-
orado Springs, Colo.; vice-president, Henry John Elwes, F. R. 8., Colesborne, Chel-
tenham, England; secretary, J. P. Brown, Connersville, Ind.

Society of American Foresters.—President, Gifford Pinchot, Washington, D. C.;
secretary, George B. Sudworth, Washington, D. C.

SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. —

Yale Forest School, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.—A two-year graduate
course, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. The j junior year begins in July,
the first term being conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pa. Under the direction of
the officers of the Yale Forest School a two-month popular course, July and August, —
also is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pa. Prof. Henry 8. Graves, Director.

Biltmore Forést School, Biltmore, N. C.—An undergraduate course, covering one —
year, without vacation. Dr. C. A. Schenck, Director.

University of Michigan Forest School, part of the general Department of Litera- _
ture, Science, and the ‘Arts, Ann Arbor, Mich.—A two-year graduate course, leading —
to the degree of Master of Science in Forestry. Filibert Roth, Professor of Forestry.

Harvard University Forest School, Cambridge, Mass.—A four-year undergraduate
course, in connection with the Lawrence Scientific School. R. T . Fisher, in charge >
of curriculum.

AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 555

Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, lowa.--A four-year
course in forestry and horticulture, in which particular attention is paid to farm for-
estry, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. A course is also given adapted
to students in the civil engineering department. H. P. Baker, Assistant Professor,
in charge of forestry.

University of Maine, Department of Forestry, Orono, Me.—A four-year undergrad-
uate course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. Prof. $
Spring, in charge of department.

Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Forestry, Agricultural College,
Mich.—A four- -year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of
Science. EK. EK. Bogue, Professor of Forestry.

University of Minnesota, Forest School, St. Anthony Park, Minn.—A four-year
undergraduate course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestr y.
Prof. Samuel B. Green, in charge of school.

University of N ebraska, Forest Department, connected with the Industrial College,
Lincoln, Nebr.—A four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of Bachelor
of Science i in Forestry. Frank G. Miller, Professor of Forestry.

NATIONAL GOOD ROADS ASSOCIATION.

President, W. H. Moore; secretary, R. W. Richardson; treasurer, C. H. Huttig.
General office, Laclede Building, St. Louis, Mo.

NATIONAL BEE KEEPERS’ ASSOCIATION.

President, J. U. Harris, Grand Junction, Colo.; secretary, W. Z. Hutchinson,
Flint, Mich.; general manager and treasurer, N. E. France, Platteville, Wis.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS.

President, H. Garman, Lexington, Ky.; secretary, H. EK. Summers, Ames, lowa.

ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS.

President, C. L. Penny, Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Del.; secretary,
H. W. Wiley, Chemist, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL AND KINDRED SOCIETIES.

Name of organization. Secretary. Post-office.

American Apple Growers’ Congress.......------- ENVIS 2. ote eS oc Hannibal, Mo.
American Association of Nurserymen........... George C. Seager ..... Rochester, N. Y.
American Carnation Societys22 2. oon. ae 2 Albert M. Herr....... Lancaster, Pa.
American Cranberry Growers’ Association ...... SE ae ee Hammonton, N. J.
American Institute Farmers’ Club............... W SHasleson 2222.52. oo Le ne street, New
or
American Institute Horticultural Society ....... Leonard Barron...... Do.
American Nurserymen’s Protective Association.| Thomas B. Meehan...| Dreshertown, Pa.
American Pomological Society ..............---. JOU: Craig S1h 722 245 - 2 Ithaea; N.Y:
American Retail Nurserymen’s Protective As- | Guy A. Bryant........ Princeton, Ill.
sociation.
American Rose SOCIety i 2-2... = meee tee eee We sostewart. 2+ - SM corso ge place, Boston,
Lass.
Cider and Cider-Vinegar Makers’ Association of | George Miltenberger .| 213 N. 2d street, St. Louis,
the Northwest. Mo.
Chrysanthemum Society of Am@ned + 525-. 2.2 Fred H. Lemon....... Richmond, Ind.
Eastern Nurserymen’s Association..............- Vins Pater eo 2. | Rochester, N. Y.
International Apple Shippers’ Association...-.... A. Warren Patch ..... 17 N. Market street, Boston,
Mass.
Mississippi Valley Apple Growers’ Association ..| James Handly........ ' Quincy, Il.
Missouri Valley Horticultural Society........... Mrs. H. E. Chandler..| R. F. D., No. 2, Argentine,
Kans.
National Federation of Horticultural Societies...) C. E. Bassett........-. | Fennville, Mich.
National League of Commission Merchants of | A. Warren Patch.....| | 17 N. Market street, Boston,
the United States. ) Mass.
National Nut Growers’ Association .............. James F. Wilson...... | Poulan, Ga.
Northwestern Fruit Growers’ Association .....-.. Me, PLOUINEN coo. 2 = | Lagrande, Oreg.
Nurserymen’s Mutual Protection Association....| Geo. C. Seager........ | Rochester, N. Y.
Peninsula Horticultural Societyv................. Wesley Webb......... | Dover, Del.
Society of American Florists. ..................-. Weill.d, DLOWaIL......- | 11 Hamilton place, Boston,
| Mass.
Southwestern Nurserymen’s Association......... Se) | Wynnewood, Ind. T.

Western Association of Wholesale Nurserymen..| E. J. Holman......... | Leavenworth, Kans.

556 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

ORGANIZATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND GAME.

Name of organization. Secretary. Post-oflice.

American Ornithologists’ Union, Committee on | William Dutcher, | 525 Manhattan avenue, New

Protection of North American Birds. chairman. York, N. Y.
Bird Protective Society of America..........--.. Edward C. Pease ..... 28 eo Building, Buf-
falo, N. Y.
Boone and Crockett Club ..22. ~c. csecassccvnsnse- Madison Grant .....-.- ey street, New York,
ce ¢
League of American Sportsmen .............-.-- Arthur F. Rice ...:.-- 155 Pennington avenue,
Passaic, N. J.
National Association of Audubon Societies. ..... William Dutcher, | 525Manhattan avenue, New
president. York, N. Y.
National Association of Game and Fish War- | Charles E. Brewster ..| Grand Rapids, Mich.
dens.
National Game, Bird, and Fish Protective Asso- |..... OO. cvecnnaeaaneas Do.
ciation.
New York Zoological Society ................---- Madison Grant ....... ee street, New York,
Pop 4-
North American Fish and Game Protective Asso- | E. T. D. Chambers....} Quebec, Canada.

ciation.

FARMERS’ NATIONAL CONGRESS.

President, Harvie Jordan, Monticello, Ga.; first vice-president, B. Cameron, Stag-
ville, N. C.; second vice-president, Joshua Strange, Marion, Ind.; treasurer, A. H.
Judy, Greenville, Ohio; secretary, John M. Stahl, 4328 Langley avenue, Chicago,
Ill.; first assistant secretary, George M. Whittaker, Boston, Mass.; second assist-
ant secretary, A. C. Fuller, Dows, Iowa; third assistant secretary, Luther H. Tucker,
Albany, N. Y.; executive committee, W. M. Ames, Oregon, Wis.; E. W. Wickey,
Ocean Springs, Miss.; Levi Morrison, Greenville, Pa. .

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.
OFFICERS OF NATIONAL GRANGE.

Master, Aaron Jones, South Bend, Ind.; overseer, T. C. Atkeson, Morgantown,
W. Va.; lecturer, N. J. Bachelder, Concord, N. H.; treasurer, Mrs. E. 8. McDowell,
Rome, N. Y.; secretary, C. M. Freeman, Tippecanoe City, Ohio; executive commit-
tee, E. B. Norris, Sodus, N. Y.; C. J. Bell, East Hardwick, Vt.; F. A. Derthick,
Mantua, Ohio; Aaron Jones, ex-officio, South Bend, Ind. 7

REVIEW OF WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS, SEASON OF 1904.
By James Berry, Chief, Climate and Crop Division, Weather Bureau.

The accompanying illustrations (see figures 61-63 and plates LX XII-LXXIV
and tables (pages 577 to 580) show how the temperature and rainfall over the Unite
States during the crop season of 1904, from week to week, compare with normal con-
ditions of corresponding periods of former years. The diagrams exhibit the depar-
tures from normal, by districts, and the maps show, respectively, the departures
from normal temperature, the total precipitation, and the departures from normal
precipitation during the crop season.

J ANUARY.

January, 1904, was colder than usual in the districts east of the Mississippi River, the
deficiency in temperature haying been very marked in the Lake region, New England,
and Middle Atlantic States, where it ranged from 6° to 9° per day. West of the
Mississippi River the month was generally milder than usual. In portions of Cali-
fornia and western Nevada the temperature excess amounted to more than 3° per
day, and from eastern Washington to the western portions of the Dakotas and
Nebraska it ranged from 6° to more than 12°, being greatest in Montana. Along
the central and northern California coasts and in the west Gulf States the average
temperature differed but slightly from the normal.

SHORTAGE OF PRECIPITATION.

Asa whole the precipitation was below the normal. Over a comparatively narrow
area extending from Oklahoma northeastward to southern New England, and in

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Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

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PLATE LXXIlI

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. PLATE LXXiIII.

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904.

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; ee R$ SHADED PORTIONS SHOW Ex— 3
P CESS(#), AND UNSHAQED PORTIONS
DEFICIENCY (—) /N RAINFALL.
FIGURES SHOW, /N/INCHES ,

DEPARTURES FROM NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR THE CROP SEASON OF 1904, FROM MARCH I TO OCTOBER 3.

wie ae

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557

1904,

IN

WEATHER AND OROP OCONDITIONS

Slo TUT Stet TTT TTT ETT ST] A SUAEERUERA DADS SER0RROESICONUERRCSOUIREADDEROD E00
Sst pelt eT sist Tre eT ST Pe TT eee TTT sft TTT TT
SRBC Sst TAT Stet NPP set tT ese ATT
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FOP IGULLY YEPL

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frecipitattore, tre tereths of trches,--------

artures for the season of
tes, and Gulf States

pitation (inches) de
d south Atlantic Sta

Fate an

many years for the Middl

Fic. 61.—Temperature pe na Fahrenheit) and
1904 from the normul o

OF AGRICULTURE,

THE DEPARTMENT

OF

YEARBOOK

558

SIePNU TTT LE TT Sot TT he Ts ATO eT Se

FECT PRATT
s HTT T TTP EPO TT erst TTT ET

TES Tot Re
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SER is et eset Ter PY ) e
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eens

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SUTIN TTT sth ee Sis os Cs PS

| ETNUHNEAED 0 SUHURERIATS TTT APPA TTT se TTT 8 (ee Pe
| NANUG7 0002 2000EN y (CURERAATORU AEDT OPSEREERED RISE TTT ge TT RIS TT Ter TT L
PSO Ar ete TT eset TSE ST TT eet TTT aS g
| IRE Se Re TR Ee TT 8
SISTA ist TT eset Wi se BE STREET I TTL
TTS TTT SQ TST Se) SSPE TTT 's
SHUTS eC Spel TTT) ST eT x
SUT STATIS ATES See SST
PUTT TTT ee Tt eee es
SSL TLE SHS Tee eS TTT TY St pee S
SST TAT TT & ITT TTT INT SST eT SISTENT
HTT TTT Ne tel eet TT Le ro UT PU ST ee 8
SUTTON SET eT SUT St eT 8
SISLUUTT INIT sist TTT NIE SS et Sst TTT T's
SIS PTET STR PPT ST Se ee 8
ST TE eT TSR

8
.

‘BASIPUUD J PLD op tema oY poesrcasaseonesesss anor aC & 27 eee

Temperature, iz degrees,

season of ©
the

Ohio

(inches) departures for the
the Upper Mississippi Valley,

ecipitation
e Region

perature (degrees Fahrenheit) and pr
he normal of many years for the La

Valley, and Tennessee.

Fig. 62.—Tem
1904 from t

559

1904,

IN

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS

7”

2LNOSSYYT

ot eet | I
ESSSONMRRRE RD BEEREI

PCCP ETH
BERRRRAOOGD \ERRERRRIRN

Bn fd SSCTTTIN ETT

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TTT TPT et

CoH Ts

oes tae
D2f29D] YJLONT

anes ae
D2 fLOR] PPP

Precipitation,tin tenths of trches, ----------

O2f29R] YpOy

Temperature, in degrees,

erature (degrees Fahrenheit) and precipitation (inches) departures for the season of
from the normal of many years for the Missouri Valley and the Pacific coast

.—Temp
1904

Fie. 63

560 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

central and northern Florida, southeastern Georgia, and a few other limited areas,
it exceeded the average, quite a decided excess occurring in portions of southern New
England, the lower Lake region, Ohio Valley, northwestern Arkansas and adjacent
portions of Indian Territory, and in northern Florida; but over much the greater
part of the country the precipitation was below the average, a marked deficiency
occurring over the greater part of the Gulf and Atlantic coast districts, and also in the
upper Lake region and on the Pacific coast.

SNOW AND WINTER WHEAT.

At the close of the month the northern Rocky Mountain districts and all northern
and central districts eastward of the Missouri Valley were covered with snow, the
southern limit extending to the northern portions of the central and east Gulf States,
while depths ranging from 1 to 3 feet existed in the northern portion of the Lake
region and northern New England.

Over the southern portions of the winter-wheat belt winter wheat was largely
without snow protection until near the close of the month, when the northern, cen-
tral, and eastern portions were well covered. In the Middle Atlantic States and
portions of the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys the crop suffered as a result of
the protracted cold and absence of snow covering during a large part of the month.

FEBRUARY.

February was very mild from central Texas northwestward to Idaho and the
eastern portions of Oregon and Washington, and the temperature averaged above
normal throughout the Plateau region, the greater part of California, and the west
Gulf States. The average daily excess over most of the districts named was more
than 8°, and from central Texas northwestward to southern Idaho and eastern Oregon
it generally ranged from 6° to 10°. Along the immediate Pacific coast a number of
stations showed slight deficiencies, but in the interior portions of the Pacific coast
States the month averaged milder than usual. In the South Atlantic and east Gulf
States, and from the New England and middle Atlantic coasts westward to the Mis-
souri Valley, including northeastern Montana, the month averaged colder than usual,
being decidedly cold in the central valleys, Lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and
New England, where the temperature deficiency ranged from 6° to 12°, being most
marked in the Lake region and northern New England.

SNOW AND RAINFALL.

The precipitation was unusually heavy in the middle and north Pacific coast dis-
tricts, where the total for the month generally ranged from 5 to 16 inches, or from
2 to 9 inches more than the February average. In the southern Plateau region and
over much of the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains the pre-
cipitation was lighter than usual; only comparatively small areas, confined princi-
pally to the South Atlantic and east ‘Gulf States, received more than the monthly
average. Throughout the central valleys and over the greater part of the Lake
region, the Middle Atlantic States, and New England the deficiency ranged from 1
to more than 4 inches. With the exception of areas of limited extent, there was
also a marked deficiency in the central and west Gulf States and in Florida.

At the close of the month the extreme northern districts were covered with snow
from the New England coast almost to the north Pacific coast, but the southern limit
did not extend below the southern portions of the Lake region. From the northern
Rocky Mountain region to the New England coast the depths generally ranged from
3 inches to more than 2 feet, being greatest over the upper Lake region and northern
New England.

FARM WORK IN SOUTH—CONDITION OF WHEAT.

In the ceatral and west Gulf States the general conditions were favorable for such
farm work as is usually carried on at this season. In these districts work was unu-
sually well advanced; corn planting had begun generally throughout Texas, while
extensive preparations for corn and cotton planting had been made throughout the
Gulf States, but more especially in the central and western portions. Some spring
seeding had been done in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Colorado.

As a whole the reports regarding winter wheat indicated that the condition of the
crop was unpromising over much the greater part of the winter-wheat belt, the most
unfavorable reports having been received from the middle and eastern districts. At

WEATHER AND CROP OONDITIONS IN 1904. 561

the beginning of the month the greater part of the winter-wheat area was well
covered with snow, but only the more northerly portions were protected during
the greater part of the month.

Marcu.

The month was colder than usual in the extreme northern districts from Lake
Superior westward to the north Pacific coast, including the western portion of the
central Plateau region and the middle Pacific coast districts. .The average daily tem-
perature deficiency ranged from 3° to 4° per day from northern California northward
to the Puget Sound region, and was much more decided over the northern portions
of Montana and northwestern North Dakota, where it ranged from 8° to 14°. The
weather was slightly cooler than usual on the north Atlantic coast northward of the
Delaware Bay, the deficiencies ranging from 1° to 2° per day. Elsewhere, and over
much the greater part of the country, it was milder than usual. Throughout the
Middle Atlantic States, Lake region, Ohio and upper Mississippi valleys, and the
northern portion of the east Gulf States, the temperature excess was very slight,
ranging from 1° to 2° per day; but over the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope, the
west Gulf States, and portions of Virginia, North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and
the upper Ohio Valley, it was more marked, and ranged from 3° to 8°, the greatest
departure occurring in Texas, Oklahoma, and western Kansas.

MUCH SNOW AND RAIN EXCEPT ON THE ATLANTIC AND THE GULF COASTS.

Excessively heavy precipitation occurred in the Pacific coast and northern Rocky
Mountain districts and in the central valleys and over the greater part of the Lake
region. On the Pacific coast northward of San Francisco the total monthly precipi-
tation ranged from 6 to 19 inches, being greatest on the northern California coast,
and in the central valleys from 6 to 11 inches, the Ohio and central Mississippi val-
leys receiving the greatest amount. In the Atlantic.coast and Gulf districts, and over
the middle and southern Rocky Mountain slope and the southern Plateau region, the
month was drier than usual. <A considerable area, embracing western Texas and por-
tions of Kansas and New Mexico, received no appreciable amount, while the deficiency
over a large part of the Gulf and Atlantic coast districts ranged from 1 to 4 inches.

At the close of the month the country east of the Rocky Mountains was practicall
free from snow, excepting portions of the Adirondack region and the upper Michi-
gan peninsula.

SEASON BACKWARD IN NORTHERN DISTRICTS—FLOODS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.

_ From the upper Mississippi Valley to the middle Atlantic coast the season was
generally reported backward, although the average temperature for the month in
these districts was generally in excess of the normal. In the Southern States the
month was mild and favorable for farming operations. The northern portion of the
central Gulf States, however, as well as the central valleys and the greater part of
the Lake region, suffered from excessive rains, and western Texas and the southern
Plateau region from drought. From northern Wisconsin westward to the Rocky
Mountains the ground was still frozen deeply and no farm work had been done. On
the Pacific coast the month was cold and wet, wholly preventing farm work in
Washington and Oregon. The highest water known in many years, flooding thou-
sands of acres of valuable grain lands, occurred in northern California during the
first and second decades of the month.

Over the western portion of the principal winter-wheat area the reports indicated
an improvement in the condition of winter wheat, and in some of the more easterly
sections a slight improvement was also indicated. As at the close of the previous
month, the least favorable reports were received from the central and eastern dis-
tricts. In Indiana the crop was badly washed on high lands and much injured by
floods on low lands, but where not thus damaged it was healthy and growing. In
the western portions of the wheat area in Nebraska and Kansas the crop had suffered
from drought.

In the Gulf States much corn had been planted and good stands were reported.
Some planting had been done in the southern portions of Kansas and Missouri.
Preparations for corn planting in the central Mississippi and Ohio valleys and Middle
Atlantic States progressed slowly.

In the central and western portions of the cotton belt cotton planting was pro-
gressing rapidly at the close of the month, and some planting had been done in all
the eastern districts. In southern Texas about half the crop had been planted, and
the early planted was coming up nicely.

2 al904——36

562 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THe Crop Season, APRIL-SEPTEMBER, SUMMARY BY WEEKS.

By weeks, ending with Monday, from April 11 to October 3, the crop conditions
may be summarized as follows:

April 11.—As a whole, the weather conditions were not favorable for farming oper-
ations in the principal agricultural districts east of the Rocky Mountains, having been
unseasonably cold in the central valleys and Southern States, with too much moisture
over the Middle Gulf States and a large part of the central valleys. More favorable
conditions prevailed in the Middle and South Atlantic States and Rocky Mountain
region. Temperatures below freezing occurred as far south as the interior of the
South Atlantic States on the 4th and 5th, with more or less damaging effects. In the
northern and central districts east of the Rocky Mountains the season was from one
to two weeks later than usual, and was also backward on the North Pacific coast.

OUTLOOK FOR CORN, WHEAT, AND COTTON.

East of the Mississippi River no corn had been planted northward of Tennessee and
North Carolina, but a large part of the crop had been planted in the last-named
State, and the work was well advanced throughout the Gulf States. Some corn had
been planted in Missouri and as far north as central Kansas, and a large acreage of
fall-plowed ground was ready for seeding in Iowa. In Texas the crop was in good
condition and receiving its first cultivation.

The least favorable reports respecting winter wheat were received from the States
of the Ohio Valley, the crop having sustained much damage from overflows in Indiana
and Illinois and portions of Ohio, and also in Michigan. A considerable acreage in
Indiana and Ohio was so damaged that it was thought necessary to plow it up for
other crops. An improvement, however, was noted in portions of Ohio and Illinois,
and the general outlook in Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska was encouraging, although
rain was needed in the western, portion of the wheat region in Nebraska. Over the
southern portion of the Middle Atlantic States there was a general improvement; on
the North Pacific coast conditions were very favorable, and a fair crop was promised
in California, except in the flooded sections and in portions of the southern counties.

Spring-wheat seeding was in full progress and well advanced over the southern
portion of the spring-wheat region until interrupted by the severe rain and snow
storm of the 7th and 8th.

Cotton planting was interrupted by cold, wet weather in the central portion of
the cotton belt, but progressed favorably in the southern portions of the eastern and
western sections. Early planted cotton was up to satisfactory stands in the southern
portions of Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana, and in Texas. About three-fourths of
a crop had been planted in the southwestern and central counties of the last-named

tate.

ADVANCE IN SPRING SEEDING AND PLANTING.

April 18.—Generally east or the Rocky Mountains the week was unseasonably
cold and very unfavorable for germination and growth. Farm work in the Missouri
Valley and Southern and Middle Atlantic States made very favorable progress, but
in the northern districts practically nothing was done. The States of the upper
Lake region were covered with snow to a considerable depth during the latter part
of the week, and frosts more or less injurious occurred as far south as the northern
portion of the Gulf States. The Pacific Coast States and Rocky Mountain districts
experienced a week of highly favorable temperature conditions, but severe drought
continued from central and western Texas to the South Pacific coast.

Preparations for planting corn were active in the Missouri Valley and- Middle ©
Atlantic States, but made slow progress in the Ohio Valley. In the Southern States
low temperature proved unfavorable by checking germination and growth.

In Missouri and over most of Kansas and Nebraska winter wheat made good
growth, but needed warmer weather. Reports from the Ohio Valley continued very
unfavorable, although a slight improvement in southern Indiana was indicated. In
Illinois wheat made little growth. Winter wheat made splendid growth on the
Pacific coast, especially in Washington and Oregon.

Over the southern portion of the spring-wheat region seeding was actively carried
on and was nearly finished in Iowa, Nebraska, and southeastern South Dakota, but
in North Dakota and Minnesota very little had been done. Seeding was also in
active progress on the North Pacific coast.

Cotton pianting had progressed rapidly throughout the central and southern
portions of the belt and had begun in the more northerly districts. In portions of
Georgia and Texas planting was nearly finished and chopping had begun in Florida
and southern Georgia, Throughout the belt the weather was too cold for germina-

WEATHER AND OROP CONDITIONS IN 1904. 568

tion and growth, the reports indicating that considerable replanting would be neces-
sary in portions of the central and western districts.

Fruit experienced a week of trying conditions throughout the central valleys and
Middle Atlantic and Southern States, but while the reports indicated that. much
injury had been done by frosts and freezing temperature, good prospects, due prin-
cipally to the lateness of the season, continued in many sections.

GOOD PROGRESS IN PLANTING IN FACE OF LOW TEMPERATURES.

April 2o0.—From the west Gulf coast northwestward to the Middle Rocky Moun-
tain slope the temperature was generally favorable, but elsewhere the week was too
cool for germination and growth. Heavy rains in the lower Missouri Valley and
portions of the spring-wheat region interrupted work, while droughty conditions in
the Middle, South Atlantic, and Gulf States generally increased. Freezing tempera-
tures and frosts generally throughout the central valleys, Lake region, New England,
and the Middle Atlantic States were injurious to a greater or less extent.

While preparations for corn planting were active, but little was done, owing to low
temperature. East of the Mississippi River no corn had been planted north of the
Ohio River, nor had paowe begun in Iowa and Nebraska, except in the southwest
part of the last-named State. In the Southern States corn suffered from cold weather.

Very favorable reports respecting winter wheat were received generally from
Nebraska and Kansas. In the States east of the Mississippi River the outlook was
less favorable, although warmer weather the latter part of the week caused some
improvement in Ohio. A large acreage in Indiana was being devoted to other crops.
On the Pacific coast winter wheat experienced a general improvement.

Over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region practically no seeding had
been done, and in North Dakota, where about one-half the crop was sown at this
time last year, most of the lowlands were flooded. Seeding was generally well
* advanced over the southern portion.

Cotton planting was general over the northern portion of the belt, and was
nearly finished in the central and southern portions, where chopping was in general
progress, the early planted in Texas and Florida receiving its first cultivation. Over
most of the central and eastern districts the stands were unsatisfactory and much
replanting was necessary.

UNSEASONABLY COOL, WITH DAMAGING FROSTS.

Tobacco plants were injured by frost in Virginia and Kentucky, and were reported
as small in Tennessee and North Carolina. Some transplanting had been done in
South Carolina.

Generally throughout the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States the outlook
for most fruits was further impaired, early peaches apparently suffering most.

May 2.—The northern Rocky Mountain districts and the States of the upper Mis-
souri Valley experienced a week of favorable temperature, but throughout the
Southern States, Ohio Valley, and the greater part of the Middle Atlantic States and
New England it was too cool for germination and growth. Rains prevented farm
work in the Ohio Valley and Tennessee and in portions of the lower Lake region,
Middle Atlantic States, and New England, while drought in the south Atlantic and
east Gulf districts and over the southern Rocky Mountain region and western Texas
continued with increased severity. In California and Oregon, as in the previous
week, it was unseasonably cool, with damaging frosts in Oregon, but in Washington
the conditions were generally favorable. 4

With the exception of Kansas, southern Missouri, and Arkansas, corn planting
progressed slowly, but preparations were extensive. In the east Gulf States and
Tennessee corn suffered from drought and low temperatures. In the central and
west Gulf States some received final cultivation.

In Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri winter wheat advanced favorably, except
where damaged by floods in the last-named State. In Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky,
Tennessee, the Virginias, Maryland, and North Carolina an improvement was indi-
cated, but in Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Michigan the outlook was poor.
The crop had advanced favorably on the Pacific coast.

Unseasonably cool weather generally throughout the cotton belt was unfavorable
for germination and growth of cotton, and poor stands were extensively reported,
especially in the central and eastern districts, where drought was also proving inju-
rious. Planting was nearly finished, except in the northern portion of the belt and
in the extreme western cotton counties of Texas, in which State the stands were gen-
erally good. Chopping was in general progress over the southern portion, and cul-
tivation had begun in Louisiana and Texas.

564 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BENEFICIAL RAINS--IMPROVEMENT IN WHEAT.

May 9.—The temperature conditions were favorable in all districts with the excep-
tion of the north Pacific coast and middle Rocky Mountain region, where frosts and
freezing temperatures were injurious. Heavy rains in portions of the lower Missouri
and Red River of the North valleys and in Texas retarded work and caused damage
by washing land, but were of great benefit in relieving the droughty conditions in
western Texas. Drought was also relieved in portions of the south Atlantic and east
Gulf States, but continued over a large part of these districts, and rain was generally
needed in the Middle Atlantic States. The States of the Ohio Valley and Lake region
experienced a week of highly favorable conditions.

Corn planting proceeded under very favorable conditions throughout the northern
portion of the corn belt. In Nebraska, Kansas, and northern Missouri, however,
planting was interrupted by rains. In lowa the work made good progress. Over
the southern portion of the Middle Atlantic States planting was well advanced and
had begun in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

A general improvement in the condition of winter wheat was indicated, especially
over the western portions of the winter-wheat belt and in the Middle Atlantic States,
but the outlook for this crop in the States of the Ohio Valley continued very poor.

Spring-wheat seeding was largely finished, except on wet lands in the northern
portions of North Dakota and Minnesota. The early sown over the southern portion
of the spring-wheat region was making good growth. On the north Pacific coast
the week was too cool for rapid advancement.

The cotton belt experienced favorable temperatures and abundant rainfall, except
in the eastern districts. Reports of poor stands of early planted cotton continued
from the central and eastern portions, but better stands of the late planted were indi-
cated. Recent rains improved the situation in western Texas, but interfered with
cultivation in the eastern portions of that State. Planting was nearly finished in
northern districts. ;

DAMAGE BY COOL WEATHER, FROST, DROUGHT, AND BOLL WEEVIL.

May 16.—The week was much too cool in all districts east of the Rocky Mountains.
Light to heavy frosts occurred over the northern portion of the central valleys and
Middle Atlantic States and in the Lake region, with more or lessinjury. Light local
rains afforded relief over limited areas in the South Atlantic and east Gulf States,
but the greater part of these districts continued to need rain, and in some sections
drought was severe. The week was also too cool on the north Pacific coast, but there
was ample heat in California.

While corn planting was delayed in portions of Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri, it
made favorable progress in the States of the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys,
and proceeded uninterruptedly in the Ohio Valley. Planting was in progress in the
Dakotas, Minnesota, Michigan, and New England, but had not begun in Wisconsin
and New York. In Texas the crop was in fine condition and well cultivated, and
was tasseling in the southern part. In the South Atlantic and central and east Gulf
States corn was generally backward.

In Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri the advancement of winter wheat was favor-
able and an improvement was generally reported elsewhere east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, but the condition of the crop in the States of the Ohio Valley continued very
poor. Wheat was now heading as far north as the southern portions of Kansas and
Missouri, and harvest had begun in southern Texas. On the north Pacific coast the
bulk of the crop was in promising condition, and, while a fair crop was indicated in
California, the outlook in that State was not as good as earlier in the season.

Heavy rains prevented the completion of spring-wheat seeding in portions of North
Dakota and northern Minnesota, but seeding was practically completed elsewhere.
The early sown was coming up and growing nicely in the Dakotas and southern
Minnesota, but variable conditions were reported from Iowa. In Washington the
crop suffered from cold, but the outlook in Oregon was more favorable.

Cool weather was unfavorable for cotton throughout the cotton belt, and drought
in portions of the eastern districts proved detrimental. Complaints of poor stands
- continued from nearly all sections in the central and eastern districts, but good stands
were the rule in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. In the last-named State the fields
were generally clean, and the plants were beginning to fruit in the coast districts.
Chopping was well advanced, and cultivation in the southern districts was general.
Boll weevils appeared and were increasing in a number of southwest and south-
central cotton counties of Texas.

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1904, 565

TEMPERATURES MORE FAVORABLE, WITH CORN PLANTING PROGRESSING WELL.

May 28.—While the fore part of the week was much too cool in the districts east
of the Mississippi River, as a whole the temperature conditions were much more
favorable than in the preceding week, the States of the Missouri Valley and the
Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast districts having experienced highly satisfactory
temperatures. Generally light rainfall in the central valleys and over most of the
Southern States permitted the favorable progress of farm work, complaints of inter-.
ruption being confined mainly to the upper Ohio Valley. Complaints of wet soil,
however, continued from portions of the central Mississippi and lower Missouri val-
leys. Drought continued in the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and over the
southern Plateau region, and the need of rain was beginning to be felt in central and
eastern Texas and on the north Pacific coast. Frosts, more or less damaging, occurred
on the 16th and 17th in the Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, and Middle Atlantic
States.

Corn planting advanced very favorably, except in portions of the central Missis-
sippi and Ohio valleys, where it was prevented by wet soil. In Iowa, Nebraska, and
Kansas planting was nearly completed, but in Missouri it was only about one-half
finished, and much remained to be planted in the Ohio Valley. In the central and
east Gulf States corn was generally small and backward, but it made good growth in
Texas. Cutworms were very destructive in Kentucky, Tennessee, and portions of
the Middle Atlantic States.

Winter wheat advanced favorably in Nebraska and Kansas and generally in Missouri.
Improvement was reported from Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio, where however, the
condition of the crop wasvery poor. In the Middle Atlantic States a general improve-
ment in the crop was also noted. On the Pacific coast winter wheat sustained slight
damage from drying windsin California, but the crop continued to do well in Oregon
and Washington.

Spring-wheat seeding was practically finished, except in North Dakota, where it
was well advanced.

Cotton continued backward and made slow growth during the week throughout
the cotton belt, low night temperatures being generally reported as detrimental.
Improved stands were reported in portions of the central and eastern districts, but
irregular stands were the rule. Chopping continued and the fields were mostly well
cultivated. Lice were very extensively reported from the central and eastern districts
and boll weevils continued to increase in the southwestern and central cotton counties
of Texas.

Nearly all reports respecting the grass crop were favorable.

. CORN AND WHEAT IN GOOD CONDITION—COTTON SMALL, BUT PROMISING.

May 30.—With the exception of the northern Rocky Mountain region and upper
Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys, where the early part of the week was too
cool, the temperature was favorable in all districts. Oklahoma and portions of Iowa,
Missouri, Wisconsin, Ohio, and Pennsylvania suffered to some extent from excessive
moisture, while drought continued over a large part of the South Atlantic and East
Gulf States. Well-distributed and beneficial rains fell over the greater part of Texas
and the central Rocky Mountain slope. Light frosts occurred in Wisconsin and heavy
and damaging frosts in Montana, Idaho, and the eastern portions of Oregon and
Washington. Continued northerly winds caused considerable damage to fruit and
possibly injured grainin California. Rain was generally needed on the north Pacific
coast.

Except in the more northerly sections, where corn planting was much delayed,
this work progressed under favorable conditions. A general improvement in the
condition of corn was indicated in the Southern States.

A general improvement in winter wheat was indicated in the principal wheat States,
but the crop continued very poor in the Ohio Valley. Harvest was in progress in the
Southern States. On the north Pacific coast winter wheat did well, except in por-
tions of eastern Washington, where it was injured somewhat by frost. In California
the crop was maturing rapidly, but probably sustained injury by desiccating winds.

Early sown spring wheat was growing nicely, and the general outlook for this crop
in the spring-wheat region was promising.

Nearly all reports respecting oats indicated that this crop had made very favorable
progress. Early oats were heading as far north as the central Mississippi Valley and
and the gery portion of the Middle Atlantic States. Harvesting continued in
the South.

566 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Although cotton continued small, a general improvement was indicated, especially —
in the central and western districts, where rains were well distributed and generally
ample. The least favorable reports were received from Georgia, Florida, and portions
of South Carolina, where drought continued. Lice were not so generally reported
in the central and eastern districts as in the previous week, except in Georgia, but
boll weevils continued to increase in the southwest and central cotton counties of
Texas.

In the principal hay producing States the condition of this crop was uniformly
good. Haying had commenced in Texas.

WEATHER UNFAVORABLE TO CORN, BUT MAINLY GOOD FOR WHEAT AND COTTON,

June 6.—While too cool for best results in portions of the Lake region and in the
Missouri Valley and northern Rocky Mountain districts, with excessive moisture
and lack of sunshine in the central Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys, the week,
as a whole, was very favorable in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains.
Drought in the South Atlantic and east Gulf States was very generally relieved,
although more rain was needed in portions of Florida and in the central and west
Gulf coast districts. The north Pacific coast experienced a favorable week, but in
California nearly all crops were injured by continued drying north winds.

Over the western portions of the corn belt corn was checked in growth by lack of
warmth and sunshine, and was much in need of cultivation, while in the central and
eastern districts planting and replanting were delayed by rains. Poor stands were
reported from the Lake region, Ohio Valley, and Middle Atlantic States.

Winter wheat suffered somewhat from heavy rains in portions of Oklahoma and
Missouri; elsewhere the crop advanced favorably, but the outlook over the eastern
portion of the winter-wheat belt continued unpromising, although more or less im-
proved in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States. Wheat was heading as far
north as the central Mississippi Valley, harvesting being general in the Southern
States. On the north Pacific coast the crop had advanced favorably, and was head-
ing; in California it was maturing rapidly, the late sown having been seriously dam-
aged by hot winds.

With the exception of some weedy fields in South Dakota, spring wheat was in
very promising condition.

Oats made vigorous growth throughout the central valleys and Middle Atlantic
States, and a general improvement in condition was indicated in nearly all districts.

There was quite a decided improvement in the condition of cotton over nearly the
whole of the cotton belt, although the crop suffered some damage in Oklahoma and
Indian Territories from overflows, and from insufficient moisture in scattered local-
ities in Louisiana. Rapid growth and a good state of cultivation were generally indi-
cated. Boll weevils were increasing rapidly and doing considerable damage in a
number of southwestern and south-central counties in Texas.

TEMPERATURES UNFAVORABLE, WITH TOO MUCH RAIN.

June 13.—In the central and western Guli States favorable temperatures prevailed
during the week, but elsewhere east of the Rocky Mewntains and on the north
Pacific coast complaints of insufficient heat were quite gencral, while hot, northerly
winds caused further injury to nearly all crops in California. There was too much
rain in portions of Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and North Dakota, and also
over the northern portions of the Middle Atlantic States and New England, while
lack of moisture was beginning to be felt in the Ohio Valley and portions of the
upper Mississippi Valley and upper Lakeregion. In these last-named districts, how-
ever, the conditions were very favorable for farm work. Frosts on the 11th in the
middle and northern plateau districts and in the eastern portions of Oregon and
Washington proved injurious.

Throughout the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States corn made slow growth,
and in Kansas and Nebraska much of the crop was still weedy, although it was in
an improved state of cultivation. In Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana fields
were generally clean, but in the Middle Atlantic States rains interfered with culti-
vation. In Texas a good yield of corn was now assured, and the crop was promising
elsewhere in the Southern States.

As a whole, winter wheat continued to advance favorably, a general improvement
being indicated in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States. Harvest began in
southeastern Missouri and southern Texas, and some wheat was ready for harvest in
southern Kansas, where wet soil prevented commencement of this work.

WEATHER AND CROP OONDITIONS IN 1904. 567

Spring wheat continued to make satisfactory progress, and was in very promising
condition.

The outlook for oats was very promising. They were heading as far north as
Kansas, Missouri, and Tennessee.

A further improvement in cotton was generally indicated. In portions of Louisi-
ana, Texas, and Oklahoma, however, fields were becoming foul, while the crop
was in need of rain in portions of Alabama. In the central and eastern districts the
plant continued small, but was growing rapidly, Boll weevils were still numerous in
southwestern and central cotton counties of Texas, and in some sections were doing
considerable damage.

A fine crop of hay was generally promised in nearly all sections.

CROP GROWTH SLOW—PROGRESS OF WHEAT HARVEST.

June 20.—Continued cool weather in the districts east of the Mississippi River was
unfavorable, but to the westward of the Mississippi the temperature was very favor-
able, the week averaging the best of the season in the northern Rocky Mountain
districts. While high maximum temperatures occurred in California, the conditions
there had improved since the previous week. A large part of the Gulf States and
most of New England received little or no rain, and moisture was needed in those
districts. Portions of the Lake region, Ohio Valley, and Tennessee were also begin-
ning to need rain, while too much fell in eastern Kansas and southeastern Nebraska.
Unseasonably low minimum temperatures occurred in the Atlantic coast districts on
the 14th and 15th, with light frosts in central New Jersey.

As a whole, corn made slow growth in the principal corn States and was generally
reported as small. Good growth, however, was reported from Oklahoma and Kansas,
and the crop continued to do well in the Southern States, though it needed rain.

A general improvement in winter wheat was indicated in nearly all districts.

Spring wheat made rapid growth and was in promising condition, although weedy
in North Dakota.

Less favorable reports concerning oats were received from Missouri, where the
crop was heading short, and from Illinois and Michigan, where it was in need of
rain and warmth; elsewhere the general outlook continued promising.

The favorable progress of cotton during the two preceding weeks was checked in
the central and eastern portions of the belt, where rain was generally needed and lice
were extensively reported. In Tennessee and portions of the Carolinas and southern
Mississippi, however, the crop continued to do well, and throughout the cotton belt
it was well cultivated, except in northeastern Texas, where a few fields were still
foul. In the last-named State cotton made rapid growth and was generally in fine
condition, but boll weevils caused damage in a greater number of counties than in
the preceding week. Good growth was also reported from Oklahoma, Indian Terri-
tory, and Arkansas.

In portions of the Lake region and Ohio Valley grass suffered materially from lack
of moisture, but elsewhere the outlook for the hay crop continued very promising.

CORN GOOD—COTTON SMALL, BUT WELL CULTIVATED.

June 27.—The temperature conditions in the districts east of the Mississippi River
were more favorable than in the preceding week, but were less so in the upper Mis-
souri Valley and in the Rocky Mountain and north Pacific coast districts, where it
was abnormally cool, with heavy frosts, more or less damaging, in the eastern por-
tions of Washington and Oregon and in Utah, Idaho, and northern Arizona. Rain
was 5 acres needed in the Lake region, Ohio Valley, and the Atlantic coast and
east Gulf States, although portions of these districts received generous rains, while
the States of the lower Missouri Valley and portions of Minnesota and North Dakota
suffered from excessive moisture. On the Pacific coast the weather conditions were
more favorable in California, but Oregon and Washington suffered considerably from
drought and low temperatures.

In Iowa and in the principal corn States eastward of the Mississippi River corn made
good progress and was well cultivated, rapid growth being generally reported.
Rapid growth was also reported from Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, but in these
States cultivation was hindered, particularly in Missouri and Nebraska, where many
fields were grassy. A large crop was practically assured in Texas, but drought
impaired the outlook in the central and east Gulf and South Atlantic States.

The progress of wheat harvest in Kansas and Missouri was interrupted by rains,
but the work proceeded without interference eastward of the Mississippi River, and
was in progress as far north as the southern portions of Illinois and Indiana, and in

568 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Virginia and Maryland. Some lodging and rust were reported from Nebraska and
Missouri, and dry weather hastened maturity in Michigan; but elsewhere the crop
advanced favorably, well-filled heads being generally reported.

Spring wheat was somewhat less promising than previously indicated, but the out-
look continued encouraging in the spring-wheat region east of the Rocky Mountains.
In portions of the Dakotas the crop was weedy, but in these States and in Minnesota
it made good growth and the early sown was beginning to head.

In most of the districts east of the Mississippi River cotton made slow growth and
was generally small, though healthy and well cultivated. Good growth, however,
was reported from Mississippi and portions of Alabama, and while lice were increas-
ing in the last-named State they were less numerous in Mississippi and South Caro-
lina. West of the Mississippi River the advance of the crop was more rapid, good
growth being generally reported; and while some fields were foul in portions of
Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana, the crop was generally well cultivated. In Texas
boll wevils were more numerous in the southwestern, central, eastern, and coast
sections.

HARVESTING OF WINTER WHEAT, OATS, AND HAY.

July 4.—In the Lake region and central valleys the week was unseasonably cool
and unfavorable for rapid growth, but highly favorable temperatures prevailed in the
Southern States and in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast districts. East of the
Rocky Mountains the rainfall, as a whole, was well distributed and ample, too much
occurring in the lower Missouri Valley and the valley of the Red River of the North.
Portions of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States continued to need rain, although
droughty conditions in these districts were largely relieved. Rain was much needed
on the immediate north Pacific coast.

In Nebraska and Kansas corn grew well, but in the central and eastern portions of
the corn belt growth was slow, as a result of cool weather. Except in portions of
Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri, where fields were weedy, the crop was in a good
state of cultivation.

Winter-wheat harvest made slow progress in Missouri and Kansas, and damage to
wheat in shock was reported from the first-named State. Complaints of rust were
also received from portions of Missouri and from Nebraska and Kansas. East of the
Mississippi River better harvesting weather prevailed.

In the northern portion of the spring-wheat region cool, wet weather checked
rapid advancement of spring wheat, which, however, was generally doing well.
Over the southern portion of the spring-wheat region the reports indicated an
improvement over the previous week.

The general outlook for oats was promising, but the crop suffered from excessive
Hemera on lowlands in Minnesota and in portions of Missouri, Nebraska, and Okla-

1ioma.

An improvement in cotton was generally indicated, and, while the plant continued
small in the central and eastern districts, it was making rapid growth throughout
the belt, especially in the central and western districts. The crop was generally
well cultivated, although some fields in Oklahoma and northeastern Texas were foul.
Cotton was beginning to open in the extreme southwestern coast counties of Texas.

While rains injured hay in portions of the lower Missouri and Ohio yalleys and
New England, a good crop was generally promised.

DAMAGING RAINS—INJURIES BY RUST AND BOLL WEEVIL.

July 11.—Unseasonably cool weather continued in the States of the Missouri Valley
and over the western part of the upper Lake region, but elsewhere the temperature
was very favorable. Heavy rains prevented cultivation of crops and greatly inter-
fered with harvesting in the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys
and in portions of the Middle Atlantic States and Lake region, and much grain in
shock was damaged in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri. Portions oi the South
Atlantic States and north-central Texas needed rain, and in the southern plateau
districts severe drought continued. Drought also prevailed in the coast districts of
Washington and Oregon, where crop prospects were materially lessened.

Over the greater part of the corn belt corn made vigorous growth, but continuous
rains prevented cultivation, and much of the crop was weedy. In the more north-
erly districts corn was generally backward, but had advanced decidedly.

Winter wheat sustained great damage from continuous heavy rains in Nebraska,
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri, where the unharvested grain was seriously dam-
aged by rust and lodging and that in shock by molding and sprouting. Harvesting

WEATHER AND OROP CONDITIONS IN 1904. 569

was also greatly hindered in the districts east of the Mississippi River, where, how-
war the conditions were much less serious than in the States of the lower Missouri
alley.

While spring wheat suffered slightly from rust over the southern portions of the
spring-wheat region and was thin and weedy on lowlands in northern Minnesota,
the crop, as a whole, advanced satisfactorily. It was now heading in North Dakota
and northern Minnesota. On the north Pacific coast spring wheat, especially the
late sown, suffered seriously from dry weather.

Jotton grew rapidly throughout the cotton belt, complaints of too rapid growth
being received from portions of the central districts. Over the greater part of 'Texas
and in the eastern districts the crop was in a good state of cultivation, and compara-
tively little damage from insects was reported, except in Texas, where boll weevils
were increasing and becoming more destructive in the southwestern counties.

Haying was greatly retarded by rains throughout the central valleys and Middle
Atlantic States, and much hay was spoiled. Better conditions prevailed in Minne-
sota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Montana, where a fine crop was being gathered.

CONTINUED DROUGHT IN SOUTHERN PLATEAU REGION—RAPID GROWTH OF CORN.

July 18.—FEast of the Rocky Mountains the temperature was highly favorable, but
in the Pacific coast States an over the western portions of the middle and northern
plateau districts it was unseasonably cool, with light to heavy frosts on the 13th in
Washington and Oregon. Too much rain hindered farm work in the central Gulf
districts and in portions of the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States, while need
of rain was beginning to be felt in northern New England, portions of the Carolinas,
over the greater part of Texas, and in southern Colorado. Drought was relieved in
the North Pacific coast districts, but continued with increased severity in the southern
plateau region.

Corn experienced a week of exceptionally favorable weather conditions and made
rapid growth generally. Very few unfavorable reports respecting this crop were
received. In the Missouri Valley and in portions of the upper Ohio Valley and
Middle Atlantic States, however, the crop suffered somewhat from lack of cultivation,
and in Texas the late planted was being injured by drought.

Better weather for harvesting winter wheat prevailed than in the preceding week,
and the work made satisfactory progress, although delayed by moisture in portions
of Kansas and the Ohio Valley. Harvesting was practically completed in Missouri
and Nebraska, and was well advanced in the Ohio Valley and the northern portion
of the Middle Atlantic States. Comparatively few reports of sprouting in shock and
of damage by mold were received this week. Harvesting continued under favorable
conditions on the Pacific coast.

Reports of injury to oats by rust continued from the lower Missouri Valley, but
elsewhere this crop advanced favorably, harvest being in general progress in the
central valleys and Middle Atlantic States, with satisfactory yields.

Cotton continued to make rapid growth throughout the cotton belt, with the
exception of Texas, where its advancement was checked by dry weather. From
portions of the Carolinas, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana complaints
of grassy fields were received, and in some sections of these States too rapid growth
of stock was reported. In Georgia the crop was in very promising condition, little
complaint of damage from any source being received from that State. Dry weather
and abundant sunshine checked the ravages of the boll weevil in Texas.

WEATHER GENERALLY FAVORABLE—COTTON PICKING BEGUN IN TEXAS.

July 25.—While rather cool for best results in the Lake region and portions of the
central valleys, with lack of sunshine and too much rain in the Middle Atlantic and
central Gulf States, the weather conditions of the week, as a whole, were favorable.
With the exception of portions of the central Missouri Valley excellent weather for
harvesting and thrashing prevailed in the central valleys, where harvesting was
nearly finished and thrashing made rapid progress. Quite generous and much-
needed rains occurred in the middle and southern Rocky Mountain districts, par-
tially relieving the severe and protracted drought.

While higher temperature in the extreme northern portion of the corn belt would
have been more favorable, corn made excellent growth and was generally in most
promising condition. The crop was now largely laid by in a satisfactory state of
spite ae the early planted being in silk and tassel as far north as Nebraska, Iowa,
an inois.

570 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Oat harvest continued under favorable conditions and was nearing completion in
the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi val'eys. In the more northerly sections
the maturing crop was very promising,

Cotton suffered to some extent from lack of cultivation and too rapid growth in
portions of the central districts, and while shedding and rust were reported in places
elsewhere, the crop generally did well. Bolls were now opening in the more south-
erly portions and picking had begun in Texas, where ample rains relieved the
droughty conditions prevailing at the close of the previous week. Boll weevils ap-
peared in two border parishes of Louisiana adjacent to the area affected in Texas,
but as yet were causing no material injury.

Tobacco continued to do well in nearly all tobacco States, the least favorable reports
being received from North Carolina and Kentucky. The crop had sustained some
damage from local storms in North Carolina; and in Kentucky, though doing fairly
well, was rather uneven. Topping of early planted tobacco was in general progress
in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States.

RUST IN SPRING WHEAT—GOOD HAY YIELDS.

August 1.—Very favorable temperatures prevailed during the week in nearly all
districts, and, while droughty conditions were beginning to be felt over limited areas
in the central valleys and Southern States, the rainfall was generally ample for crop
needs.

Corn experienced a week of favorable temperature, and while needing rain in por-
tions of the Ohio, central Mississippi, and Missouri valleys, the crop, as a whole,
made good progress and continued in promising condition.

Thrashing winter wheat advanced under favorable weather conditions in the cen-
tral valleys, but frequent rains interrupted the work in the Middle Atlantic States.
The quality and yield of grain proved disappointing in the lower Missouri Valley,
where the crop suffered much from excessive rains during the period of harvest.

Unfavorable reports respecting spring wheat were more pronounced as well as more
general than in the previous week, rust being more or less prevalent in all of the
principal spring-wheat States east of the Rocky Mountains. In portions of Minne-
sota and North Dakota, however, a good crop was promised. Harvesting was in
progress in lowa, Nebraska, and South Dakota,

Cotton made good growth in the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt,
too rapid growth being reported from portions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisi-
ana. Complaints of rust and shedding were more general than in the previous week
in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. Shedding was also generally reported from
Texas, where most of the crop needed rain, drought being most serious in the north-
central counties. Much of the crop in Mississippi and Louisiana was grassy. Pick-
ing continued in southern Texas and began in Alabama and Florida.

The condition of tobacco was less favorable in the Ohio Valley, where much of the
crop was in need of rain, but from Virginia northward tobacco made good growth
and topping was in progress.

Rains interrupted haying and damaged hay in the Middle Atlantic States, but else-
where a large crop of generally fine quality was mostly secured.

Plowing for fall seeding commenced in the Middle Atlantic States, southern Illinois,
and Oklahoma.

EXTREMES OF WEATHER CONDITIONS—CORN IRREGULAR IN GROWTH—FALL PLOWING.

August 8.—The weather conditions during the week were less favorable than in the
previous week. The central and east Gulf and Atlantic coast districts, except north-
ern New England, suffered from excessive rains, while droughty conditions in the
central valleys and portions of the upper Lake region became more serious. Gener-
ally sufficient rainfall afforded relief in Texas. In Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the
Dakotas the week was too cool, while Idaho, Washington, and Oregon suffered from
excessive heat and dryness. Killing frost occurred on the morning of the 8th in the
cranberry region of Wisconsin.

In the Ohio Valley corn, the late planted especially, was suffering more or less
seriously from drought, and rain was needed for this crop in portions of the central
Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys. Over the central and western portions of
the corn belt, however, corn advanced favorably and continued promising. In the
upper Lake districts lack of warmth and absence of rain checked growth, the a
being generally backward. In the Atlantic coast districts corn made vigorous gro
and generally was in excellent condition.

Oe ee SS

“
'

WEATHER AND OROP CONDITIONS IN 1904. 571

Fine weather for thrashing prevailed over most of the winter-wheat belt, harvest-
ing of winter wheat having been completed in the more northerly districts, except
on the north Pacific coast, where it was nearly completed.

Reports of rust in spring wheat continued general in the Dakotas and in portions
of lowa and Minnesota, and indicated that the crop had been greatly damaged, except
in Minnesota, where only a portion of the spring-wheat area had been seriously
affected, a good crop being promised in other portions of that State.

Generally well-distributed rains benefited cotton in Texas, but in the central and
eastern portions of the cotton belt the crop suffered from excessive moisture, many
fields being grassy, and too rapid growth, rust, and shedding were reported from
nearly all States east of the Mississippi River. West of the Mississippi, with the
exception of Louisiana, the crop was in a good state of cultivation, Aw complaints
of rust and shedding were less numerous than in other districts.

In the Atlantic coast districts and in Tennessee tobacco continued promising, but
in the Ohio Valley it was suffering from drought.

Plowing for fall seeding became more general, but the soil was not in favorable
condition for the work in the Ohio Valley and much of the Lake region.

DROUGHT IN CORN REGION, RUST IN SPRING WHEAT, BOLL WEEVIL IN COTTON.

August 15.—The Atlantic coast and east Gulf districts suffered from excessive
moisture and lack of sunshine, a iarge part of the central valleys from drought, the
Lake region from low temperatures, and the northern Rocky Mountain and north
Pacific coast districts from heat and drought. The temperature was favorable over
the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the central valleys and Middle and South
Atlantic States.

Rain was needed generally throughout the corn belt, over a large part of which,
more particularly the southern and eastern portions, corn was suffering more or less
seriously from drought. In the central Missouri Valley, while needing rain, corn
made good growth and was in promising condition, but in the Ohio Valley and Ten-
nessee there was a marked deterioration in the condition of the crop, some in Indiana
having been injured beyond recovery. In lowa corn made satisfactory progress and
a normal yield was promised. In the Southern States early corn was being gathered,
cutting being in progress as far north as southern Kansas. An excellent crop was
now practically assured in the Middle Atlantic States. In the Lake region and the
Dakotas corn was backward and growing slowly.

The weather was favorable for spring-wheat harvest, which was far advanced in
the southern portion of the spring-wheat region, and the crop was ripening rapidly
in the extreme northern portion.

A more or less decided deterioration in cotton was indicated over much the greater
part of the cotton belt. With the exception of Oklahoma, complaints of shedding
were received from every State, and rotting of the lower bolls was reported from
portions of the central and western districts. Reports of too rank growth, however,
were much less numerous than in the preceding week, but continued from portions
of the central and eastern districts. Boll weevils were causing much damage in
southwestern, central, eastern, and coast districts of Texas, and were proving destruc-
tive up to the northern tier of counties. In that State, however, the plant and fields
were in good condition. In Oklahoma and Indian Territories, Missouri, and portions
of Arkansas, cotton was doing well. Picking was general only in southern Texas,
but had begun in the southern portion of the eastern districts, where, as a rule, very
little was open.

‘Tobacco suffered much from drought in the Ohio Valley, but made satisfactory
progress in the Middle Atlantic States and New England. Cutting was in progress
in Ohio and Virginia.

MUCH NEEDED RAINS IN CENTRAL VALLEYS—IMPROVEMENT IN GROWING CROPS.

August 22.—The drought prevailing in portions of the central valleys was relieved
by abundant rains, but drought continued in central and western Tennessee and was
beginning to be felt in the middle Gulf States and over a considerable part of Texas.
The central and northern Rocky Mountain districts and the north Pacific coast region
were also suffering from drought, and forest fires were reported as being prevalent in
Idaho and Montana. The latter part of the week was too cool in the Lake region
and unseasonably low temperatures occurred in the northern Rocky Mountain dis-
tricts and upper Missouri Valley on the 2lst and 22d, but elsewhere east of the
Rocky Mountains the temperature was favorable.

572 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The principal corn States experienced a week of favorable conditions, abundant
rains having fallen throughout the corn belt, except in portions of Ohio and Nebraska.
Corn made satisfactory progress in the States of the Missouri Valley and was gener-
ally improved in the central Mississippi and Ohio valleys, although a considerable
part of the crop in the Ohio Valley was injured beyond recovery. In the Middle
Atlantic States and lower Missouri Valley early corn was now practically matured.

Spring-wheat harvest was now generally finished, except in North Dakota and
northern Minnesota, where rust continued to cause great injury.

The general outlook for cotton was somewhat improved, as compared with the
conditions reported the previous week, although shedding continued in every State
and rust was prevalent in the central and eastern districts. The unfavorable effects
of shedding and rust, however, were less pronounced than were previously reported.
In Texas the weather conditions were favorable, but the crop continued to Geterio-
rate as a result of rust and shedding and damage by insects. In this State injury by
bollworms was decreasing, but the boll weevils continued very destructive in south-
western, central, eastern, and coast divisions, having caused entire absence of bloom
in many localities. Picking was quite general in Texas, except in the north portion,
and was in progress in the southern portions of the central and eastern districts of
the cotton belt.

The reports respecting potatoes indicated that a good crop was generally promised
in the more important potato-producing States. Drought impaired the outlook in
portions of the Ohio Valley, however, and rot and blight were increasing in Penn-
sylvania.

Throughout the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States the soil was in fine con-
dition for fall plowing, which work was in general progress and was well advanced
in some places.

APPROACH OF FROST—POOR YIELDS OF SPRING WHEAT—CONDITION OF COTTON.

August 29.—While the latter part of the week was abnormally cool in the Ohio
Valley, lower Lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and New England, the tempera-
ture, as a whole, was favorable for maturing crops. Portions of the south Atlantic
and east Gulf States suffered from excessive rains, while drought prevailed over a
large part of the central and west Gulf States. Occasional showers, very unusual for
the season, occurred in central California, and there was more than the usual rain-
fall in the western plateau districts. Freezing temperature was reported from cen-
tral Wyoming and light frosts from Colorado, Montana, and portions of Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and New York.

Although cool weather prevented rapid development of corn in the Ohio Valley
and Lake region, the crop, as a whole, experienced decided improvement. Much of
that prostrated by winds in the previous week in Indiana and Hlinois was straight-
ening. In the Missouri Valley the temperature was more favorable and the advance-
ment of the crop toward maturity was much more rapid than in the central Missis-
sippi and Ohio valleys. Early corn was already matured in southern Missouri and
was ripening rapidly in Nebraska and South Dakota, cutting being in progress in the
first-named State and in Kansas. The reports indicated that from three to four
weeks of favorable weather would be required to mature the late crop.

The week was practically rainless in the spring-wheat region of Minnesota and the
Dakotas, affording favorable weather for harvesting and thrashing. Some earl
wheat in the northern portion of North Dakota was yet unripe, and rust was still
damaging late wheat in that State. Disappointing yields were generally reported
from Idaho, Washington, and Oregon.

In northern Alabama and in the southern portions of Mississippi and Louisiana
cotton improved and the crop was in good condition in Oklahoma and Indian Terri-
tories, but elsewhere the reports generally indicated unfavorable progress. Deterio-
ration from rust and shedding was reported from nearly all districts. Heavy rains
proved injurious in portions of Florida and Georgia, while over a large part of Texas
the crop suffered decidedly from drought. In the last-mentioned State bollworms
continued destructive, and boll weevils were puncturing nearly all squares in south-
western, central, eastern, and coast divisions, and were causing much damage as far
north as Dallas, Kaufman, and Hunt counties. Picking was in full progress in
Texas and was general in the southern portions of the central and eastern districts.

Except in portions of New England and the Middle Atlantic States, where blight
— rot aes reported to a greater or less extent, an excellent crop of potatoes was
indicated.

Good progress was made with fall plowing throughout the central valleys and
Middle Atlantic States,

WEATHER AND OROP CONDITIONS IN 1904. 573

INCREASE OF RUST AND SHEDDING IN COTTON-—-MUCH TOBACCO HOUSED—LARGE CROP
OF POTATOES,

September 5.—In the northern districts, from the upper Missouri Valley to the
lower Lake region, the temperature was too low for best results, but favorable tem-
yerature prevailed in other districts. Heavy rains proved detrimental in the

akotas, Minnesota, and lowa, and in portions of the Carolinas, Florida, and Ala-
bama, while the northern portion of the central Gulf States, Tennessee, the Ohio
Valley, and much of the Middle Atlantic States and New England needed moisture.
Rain was also needed on the north Pacific coast, but the southern piatea. ~ecv!on
and the eastern Rocky Mountain slope were favored by good rains.

As a whole the corn crop advanced satisfactorily, especially over the southwestern

ortion of the corn belt, where early corn was fully matured and considerable had
coe cut. In Arkansas, Tennessee, and portions of the Ohio Valley and Middle
Atlantic States late corn needed rain.

About half the spring-wheat crop remained to be harvested in North Dakota,
where rust was increasing and smut was appearing. In Minnesota harvest was
completed, except on lowlands in the northern portion. Harvesting was nearly
finished on the north Pacific coast, where the yield was lighter than the average.

A quite general deterioration in the condition of cotton was indicated, although
improvement was reported from limited areas, principally in the, central districts.
Rust and shedding continued very generally prevalent. Drought proved detrimental
in Tennessee, and drought and heat in Oklahoma and Texas, although rains, too
late to be beneficial, fell over a large part of the last-named State, where boll weevils
were destroying practically all new fruit, except in the north-central counties. Dam-
age by boll weevils in Louisiana was restricted to a few small areas. Cotton was
opening rapidly throughout the cotton belt and picking was general, except in the
extreme northern portion.

The weather was very favorable for cutting and housing tobacco, a good crop of
which was being secured in Ohio, the Middle Atlantic States, and New England.
Further improvement was reported from Kentucky, where cutting was now general.

A large crop of potatoes was indicated in all districts, although prospects were
somewhat impaired by drought in southwestern Ohio, and blight and rot were
reported from New York, southern New Engiand, and New Jersey.

PROGRESS IN CORN CUTTING, COTTON PICKING, AND FALL SEEDING.

September 12.—Nearly normal temperature, with no rain or very light showers,
prevailed over the greater part of the central valleys and interior of the Southern
States, while New England and the northern portions of the Middle Atlantic States
and Lake region experienced temperature considerably below normal, light frosts
occurring in the upper Lake region and upper Mississippi and upper Missouri valleys
on the 11th and 12th. Portions of the South Atlantic and Gulf coast districts and
Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, and portions of Iowa and Minnesota received considera-
ble rain, excessive amounts being reported from southern Georgia and eastern Flor-
ida. Abnormal temperature extremes occurred in California.

The damage resulting from light frosts was mainly confined to Minnesota, Wiscon-
sin, and upper Michigan, nearly the whole of the most productive part of the corn
belt having experienced very favorable conditions for maturing the crop. Much
corn was already safe, cutting being general in the central and southern portions of
the corn belt, and being in progress as far north as South Dakota and southern Min-
nesota. Late corn suffered from drought in portions of the Ohio Valley and Middle
Atlantic States.

The weather favored thrashing in the spring-wheat region. Harvesting, which
had been much delayed in North Dakota, was finished, except some late grain.

While rust and shedding continued over a large part of the cotton belt, reports of
injury from these causes were less numerous than in the previous week in the cen-
tral districts. The weather was favorable for picking, except in portions of Georgia
and Florida, where this work was hindered by heavy rains, ak picking was now
begun in the northern districts. In Texas cotton improved slightly in a few northern
counties, but on the whole very little new fruit was forming and boll weevils were
puncturing nearly all new squares in the southwestern, coast, central, and eastern
counties, as well as in a number of northern counties.

In the Lake region, over the northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States, and
in New England a fine crop of apples was promised, but over the southern portion
of the Middle Atlantic States and the greater part of the central valleys apples were
scarce and of indifferent quality.

574 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

Except in portions of New England and the Middle Atlantic States, where blight
and rot in potatoes were extensive, a fine yield of this crop was generally indicated.

Dry soil retarded plowing and seeding in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic
States and over a large part of the Southern States, but good progress with this work
was made in the Lake region and over the greater part of the upper Mississippi and
Missouri valleys.

WEATHER AND INSECTS DAMAGING TO COTTON AND CORN-—-WINDS INJURE APPLES.

September 19.—W hile the weather conditions were generally favorable for gatherin
crops, low night temperatures in the more northerly portions delayed maturity o
late crops, and some suffering from drought was reported from the Ohio Valley and
lower Missouri valleys and portions of the Southern States. Frosts occurred as far
south as Oklahoma and Tennessee, but little or no damage resulted, except to tender
vegetation in the central valleys and to unmatured crops in Wisconsin, Minnesota,
the Dakotas, and Montana. An unusually severe rain and wind storm caused con-
siderable damage on the 14th and 15th in portions of New England and the Middle
Atlantic States. The conditions were generally favorable in California, but drought
was injurious in Oregon and no rain fell in Washington.

Late corn was maturing rapidly in the western portion of the belt, but the corn
was ripening slowly in the eastern and central sections and needed ten to twenty
days of favorable conditions to be safé from frost. While damaging frosts occurred
in portions of the upper Mississippi Valley, and a considerable portion of the crop
was damaged in Wisconsin and some on lowlands in parts of Minnesota and Iowa,
the aggregate frost damage in the last-named State was not serious. Cutting was now
general in all sections.

Spring-wheat harvest was practically completed, except in the northern portion
of North Dakota, and thrashing was well advanced in Minnesota and South Dakota,
half done in Washington, and nearing completion in Nebraska, but delayed by rain.
in eastern North Dakota.

Complaints of cotton shedding were still received from the eastern section and the
northern portion of the western section of the cotton belt, but reports of rust were
not so general. Except in North Carolina, the staple was opening rapidly in all
districts, in some localities prematurely, and picking was general, although delayed
by rain in portions of Texas, from which State, as well as from Georgia, scarcity of
pickers was reported. Dry weather was causing injury to late cotton generally in the
central and eastern sections, and a light or no top crop was indicated in the central
and western districts, while worms and caterpillars were causing injury in Oklahoma,
Louisiana, Alabama, and South Carolina. In Texas the boll weevils continued as
damaging in southwestern, coast, central, eastern, and a number of northern counties
as the advancement of the season permitted.

A light and inferior crop of apples was indicated in a majority of the States of the
central valleys, but in Michigan and Ohio and the northern portion of the Middle
Atlantic States, as well as in New England, this fruit was plentiful, especially in the
last-named section, where a large crop of fine quality was promised. High winds of
the 14th and 15th caused much damage to apples in portions of the Middle Atlantic
States and New England.

Plowing for fall seeding was delayed by dry soil in the Chio and lower Mississippi
valleys, Nebraska, Indian Territory, and Georgia, and rain was needed in Michigan
for germination. Elsewhere plowing was well under way, and seeding was general
in most sections, some of the early sown wheat beginning to show green in IIlinois.

KILLING FROST, BUT CORN AND TOBACCO SAFE—COTTON OPENING RAPIDLY.

September 26.—Unusually low temperature for the season was the marked feature
of the week in the northern section of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, heavy
to killing frosts having occurred on the 21st to 23d in New England, portions of the
Middle Atlantic States and Lake region, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. In the central
valleys and southern districts more favorable temperature prevailed. The rainfall
was unequally distributed, being excessive in portions of the Gulf States and Okla-
homa and abnormally heavy on the southern Pacific coast, where much damage
resulted. Beneficial rains fell in Illinois, Indiana, Jower Michigan, and portions of
Towa and Missouri, and showers delayed work in Minnesota and North Dakota, but
elsewhere only light showers or no rain fell, the conditions being favorable for gather-
ing late crops.

In the principal corn-producing States west of the Mississippi River late corn
experienced favorable weather conditions; the crop was generally maturing rapidly,
except in northern Missouri, with no material damage from frost. In Iowa a week

WEATHER AND OROP OONDITIONS IN 1904. | 575

of warm and dry weather was required to mature the greater part of the late planted;
needed ten days in Missouri; mostly safe from frost in Kansas, and the bulk of the
crop was beyond injury by frostin Nebraska. East of the Mississippi River late corn
ripened slowly on account of cool weather. In Illinois a part of the crop was safe in
the southern portion; in Indiana much was in danger from frost, and in Ohio, while
it was practically safe in the south, the staple required one to two weeks more in the
north. Frosts caused some injury to corn in the northeastern part of the last-named
State and considerable damage in New England, the northern portion of the Middle
Atlantic States, the upper Lake region, and upper Mississippi Valley.

Cotton opened rapidly in all sections, prematurely in Georgia and Mississippi, and
picking was being pushed, but was delayed somewhat by rains in Florida, Mississippi,
Oklahoma, and Texas, and scarcity of pickers was reported from localities in central
and eastern districts. Reports indicated that a very light top crop might be expected.
The salient features of statements from the principal cotton-producing States, sum-
marized, were as follows: Georgia, bulk of crop gathered and marketed in central and
southern sections; Alabama, continued to rust and shed, but these adverse conditions
were not so general as previously reported; Mississippi, open cotton injured in east
by heavy rains, and bollworms causing damage in southwest; Louisiana, worms and
caterpillars damaging, boll weevils locally numerous in one parish and spreading in
another, crop deteriorated; Arkansas, very little shedding, but crop made only slight
improvement; Texas, little injury to staple by showers, and the crop too far advanced
for further damage by boll weevils. ‘

Although damaged by high winds in New York, a good crop of apples was prom-
ised in that State; little injury was caused to apples by the recent freeze in New
England, and a large crop of good quality was being picked in Michigan. Elsewhere
a generally inferior crop was indicated.

Frosts caused damage to potatoes in New England, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and
the crop Was affected by rot in portions of the Middle Atlantic States and lower
Lake region. Elsewhere potatoes promised fair to excellent yields of good quality.

Fall seeding was advancing under generally favorable conditions in northern dis-
tricts, being practically completed in some sections, with early-sown wheat up to
good stands in Oklahoma and showing green in Missouri and Illinois. Very little
plowing was done in the Southern States on account of baked soil, and rain was
aegis in Minnesota, Nebraska, and South Dakota to put the soil in condition for
the work.

COTTON PICKING AND FALL SEEDING WELL ADVANCED.

October 3.—The temperature conditions during the week were generally favorable
for maturing and harvesting late crops, although excessively warm in portions of
Kansas and the Southern States. Heavy to killing frosts, causing some damage, were
reported from Wisconsin. There was practically no precipitation over the lower Mis-
souri Valley and Southern States, but copious rains fell in New England, New York,
Michigan, the Red River of the North Valley, portions of the lower Missouri Valley,
and southern Plateau region, delaying work and injuring crops in some of these dis-
tricts. Drought continued in the upper Ohio Valley, and moisture was needed gen-
erally in the Middle and South Atlantic States and portions of Oklahoma and South
Dakota. The weather conditions were favorable in the Pacific coast States, but more
rain would have been beneficial in Oregon.

Corn experienced another week of favorable conditions, but frost was injurious in
Wisconsin, much was blown down and damaged in Illinois, and dry weather was
needed in Iowa to prepare the crop for cribbing. Corn was practically safe in Nebraska;
less than 5 per cent was in danger from frost in Michigan and eastern Kansas; 10 per
cent in Ohio, central Indiana, Iowa, and South Dakota, and 20 per cent in northern
and central Illinois and Missouri. Cutting was progressing rapidly in all sections,
tae practically completed in portions of southern Missouri, and nearing completion
in Kansas.

With high temperature and practically no rain during the week in the cotton
region, the staple continued to open rapidly in all sections, prematurely in Georgia
and Mississippi, and picking progressed under favorable conditions. Complaints of
scarcity of labor were still received from portions of central and eastern districts.
Reports indicated that nearly all of the cotton crop had been harvested in southern
Georgia and Louisiana and southwestern Texas; 75 per cent in Florida and the central
portions of Georgia and Texas, and 50 per cent and over in other States, except Arkan-
sas and Oklahoma, where about one-fourth was picked, and North Carolina, where
only a small portion had been gathered. Late cotton was still shedding in Georgia,
and much was shortened by drought in Tennessee, and continued depredations of
insect pests injured prospects for any top crop in Texas.

576 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

High winds caused considerable damage to apples in New England, the northern
portion of the Middle Atlantic States, Ohio, and Michigan, and a poor crop was gen-
erally indicated in the States of the central valleys. A good crop, however, was
being picked in New England, and apples were better than anticipated in Pennsyl-
vania and unusually good in lowa.

While the soil was too dry for fall plowing in portions of Virginia and the upper
Ohio Valley, the South Atlantic and east Gulf States, and Arkansas, this work, as
well as seeding, was favorably advanced in other sections, and the early sown grain
was germinating nicely and coming up to good stands in the central valleys and
Lake region.

OCTOBER.

The month of October was somewhat colder than usual on the Atlantic coast north-
ward of the Carolinas and in the lower Lake region, but elsewhere the temperature
was mild and the rainfall generally below the average, although excessive rains
occurred in portions of Florida, Texas, the central Missouri and upper Mississippi
valleys, and upper Lake region. Dry weather in the Ohio and lower Mississippi
valleys and central Gulf, Middle, and South Atlantic districts was unfavorable for
fall pasturage and hindered the progress of plowing and seeding. On the Pacific
coast the weather conditions were favorable. Rains caused injury to fruit interests
in central and northern California, but were otherwise very beneficial.

The reports generally indicated that the corn crop matured with a comparatively
small percentage injured by cold. Over nearly the whole of the corn belt the
weather during October was favorable for maturing, and by the close of the month
husking and cribbing were well advanced.

Over most of the winter-wheat belt wheat seeding was nearly finished at the close
of the month, and the early sown was up to good stands and in fine condition. Dry
weather, however, over the southeastern portion of the belt prevented the comple-
tion of seeding and was unfavorable for germination.

As a whole, the month was exceptionally favorable for picking cotton, and the
work was nearly finished, except in the northern portion of the central districts.
Recent rains in Texas caused injury to a small part of the crop.

The reports indicated a good apple crop, except in the Ohio and central Mississippi
valleys and portions of the Middle Atlantic States.

While considerable rotting of potatoes was reported from portions of New England
and the Middle Atlantic States, a fine crop was generally indicated, the least favor-
able reports being received from the Ohio Valley, where the crop was only fair.

NOVEMBER.

As a whole, November was a very mild and exceptionally dry month. Through-
out the central valleys and New England and in the Middle Atlantic and central and
west Gulf States, the absence of rain was so marked as to prove injurious to fall-sown
grain and to hinder plowing. The drought was especially severe in the Ohio Valley,
where there was a great scarcity of water for stock and domestic purposes. Com-
plaints of drought were also received from southern California and the southern
Plateau districts.

In the principal corn States the weather was favorable for husking and cribbing
corn, the reports indicating that this crop was of exceptionally fine quality.

Winter wheat was unfavorably affected by drought over the greater part of the
winter-wheat belt, the condition of the crop being least favorable in the Ohio, cen-
tral Mississippi, and lower Missouri valleys. Considerable damage to the early
sown by the Hessian fly was also reported from Nebraska and Missouri. Notwith-
standing the drought, the general condition of the crop in Kansas, Iowa, and Illinois
was good. Favorable reports were also received from parts of the Atlantic coast dis-
tricts, where, however, lack of moisture retarded growth.

In the Southern States the weather conditions were favorable for the completion
of cotton picking.

= ———E=E EC

a OO ee

577

1904,

IN

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS

O1— | o1t | 9st | Poe ees 1 OE eer or Bm Pee fe ee a Ap ibaa ante aah eat PS: "Tt TTT WOLSAI 4SBOO OYTOB_ YINOS
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os— |F0— |LZc— |T0- |s0—- |F0t+ | L:0+ |se— |60o—- |st— |16+ | est dit ge i dagen t poner TTTTTTTITT TTT WOLsaT 48809 OYTO’ GION
ees (ee fer fen. | oar fe. ;ee— (oo Pee ee”) ee G2 [ear cr ee rer ty a Te Bae ea need We y}ION
wee ter £en) ee iti Pear | eee Lee ee PO eT Oe Gide ge eer Or eee oe eee ee nvoye[d eTPPHL
oe bets (eee OO tka fees, | 7 ok C0> Se 1 rem eer Peer 8: a agean pate? oh Nagea t= ec eeneees nvoye(d UoNOg
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eee tee fee ee Pee ERE Vee eT ee Pe CP er oer ph pa RE eninge dete I gk Oy 777777" adoys OIPPHAL
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oa 1 or See 1 90T Teer. pee bit (eer [ese |e =) oor free PR Me ne ee ek ae meee ae UOLSaL YB] IOMO'T
ites tel Vr) )Or tear | Fee ee eae ee ie ere || EL SAA Sabtiaipiebsieiocssipiaae sale tics oa chen he sassouuaT, puv S2T18A OLYO
Pee ee PO Pee et ee ee ON eae ore eee «| od yc aA depen adel real aiptelndshic A par a3 3 SOPVIS JIN U194S9 AA
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ee | Se | Se ea eat |S ee | ec ee ea | ea eae Viet gree ee Mati en ot Mia 897818 OWUBLV OTPPIN
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Y

A1904 37

2

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

578

sey Get [SSt | eet | OFF | O'S | OT feet fort | aot | ott | og— fez— soy f<s-=- ert ake ecane eae WOLsaI 1SBOO OYTO YINOS
cee [oS Oa | eet 1 Sit | O1- |07t! en lee loo | eet lage ees ge abnen-=s Does tae ee eee eee WOrSer 4sBOo OYTO’, O[PPIW
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si {S35 [oO [eet (00. [ao sar foe Pia ose | omar ae le tat ee fennsawsnnsecdenaees ee ee neeys{d wreqnog
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pet [eae SES. OEE [9 fOr | OS SRE a Pe Oe re: | peg | pope ada eaeecenen et eee ory adoys u19q}10N
oe + Leet [tte [ESE LEE [eer |e leet Peer ere ate re PS) gg [avn encore nance carte ee AOTIBA Tinos ti
Fey [ear [ee [IRE | ee Oe (20 [ee bee ler bee got a4 bege fink -nertsnisentacee ee AOTTBA TddyssisstwW reddy
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ae 4 | pect eee Pea ETE. Lb O LOTR hee hed | | Ome eH ane | Paints) [eaaseear<fonarss once So1B1S ONUBILY qINOg
oe [ee ee 1 OS Rit | 9t— [POE La [eor fer | ea fers | cut: tates pee oreeenete een pee: Tes 807813 OUBITV O[DPIN
9°0 —_ 9‘F— 9°0+ 2'e— Z'0O+ Z'I- Z0- 9°E— 0°0 O‘I+ 8'0— Z'O+ Z'0- 2'e— tt temo Core ewww ewes es tO ewer ee meee ewww pus[suq MON
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P,4a0H , q 4 q pasng 7 VAYUdLY OT P P ;

579

WEATHER AND OROP CONDITIONS IN 1904,

00°0 00°0 F0‘0— | G0°0— | 0°0— | L0°0— | 80‘°0— | IT’0— | Th‘0+ | 6F'0+ 8z ‘0— 8s ‘0—
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68°0— | c0°0+ | 22°0— | 60°0— | 96'0— | 9T°0—'| 99°0— | 92°0— | LF¥‘0— | $0°0— SP 0O— 0g ‘O—
cZ'0— | 9c°0— | 62°0— | FE°0+ | SE'0— | FI‘0— | 82‘°0— | 08 '0— | GI‘0— | 890+ ¢0 ‘0— 92 0 -
10o°0— | IL’o— | 60°0— | 60°0— | 88°0+ | 22°0— | Z‘0— | 640+ | ST‘O— | 92'0t §% ‘0-- oC 0S
61°0+ | F0°0— | 00°0 L0°0— | 20°0— | 20°0— | 40°0— | 40°0— | 80°0— | 40°0— 0 ‘0— 90 ‘"0—
co°Zt+ | $9°0— | Z2°0— | 22°0+ | 90°0+ | L0°0— | 82°0— | 88°0— | 89°0— | 99°0— 0g ‘0— oS ‘O—
#LI+ | 90°0— | ZT‘O+ | CT'z+ | 080+ | Z9°0— | 08 '0— | ZO'I+ | 9F'0— | S8°0+ 6P ‘0O— Oe
$2'0— | 68°0— | 80°0+ | FI‘I+ | 9T°0+ | T8’0+ | Th‘O— | 64°0+ | 60°0— | 20°0— LE 0—- 82 ‘0—
og 0+ | ST‘0— | cL°0— | S8°0+ | 89°0+ | 6G'°0— | 900+ | 680+ | SL°0— | 6L°TT L9°0— 620+
1z‘0— | cr’0— | 00°I— | ch°O+ | ST°0+ | SF‘O— | 99°0— | ST‘O+ | OF'0— | 960+ 09 ‘0— FZ ‘OT
€8°0— | I8‘0— | ST°O+ | OT'I+ | Zh°0— | FH'°0— | OL‘O— | 200+ | FF'0— | ST‘OT FP 0— 90°I+
c‘O— | $L°0— | 69°0— | 60°0— | IT‘0+ | 60°0+ | 0Z°0— | 99'0+ | TS‘0— | 10°0— 90 ‘0— 62 ‘0+
ze‘o— | sF’O— | S¢’0— | ST°0+ | 1Z°0— | 8T‘0— | 40°0+ | S9°0— | FT‘O— | 100+ co 0+ G0 ‘0—
€'0— | 68'°0— | S2°0— | SF'0+ | 02°0+ | 68°0— | S9°0— | LE°0-- | 20'0— | Lz'0— 69 °0— SF ‘O—
1O'I+ | €2°0— | 2e°0— | 0L°0+ | T0°0— | S8°0— | 69°0— | 9G°I+ | 020+ | ZII+ c3 ‘0— 61 ‘0+
€L°0— | IzI— | $8°0— | 82'°0— | 2¢°0— | 88°0— | Z8°0— | 02‘0— | 09°0— | F6°0— jal el ae 61 ‘0+
6g°0— | I¢’0— | 48°0+ | Sz‘0— | 86°0— | Z8‘S+ | B‘0— | Z8'Ot | 680+ | ET‘O— SF ‘0— oL ‘OF
I8‘0— | 60°I— | 0€°0+ | 08°0— | 84°0— | Zh 0— | 89°0— | 2'0— | Tr'0— | 69°0— LS °0— 9¢°0—
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cose eres cerns ebesk~cnsvsssasngy se ae ENE eS 897819 JINH U19ISaM
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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

580

FO'O+ | FZ'I+ | 2O'O— | 00°0
cZ'0— | IS'st+ | 91°0— | OL O— |
#'0— | 19‘0— | GZ‘0— | 09 '0—
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zo"O— | St°O+ | 620+ | GI 0—
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fF'O+ | 99°0+ | 8F'0— | 09 :0—
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10 ‘0—- 900+ | 00°0 €$ ‘O—
g9¢‘0O— | st‘O+ | 2 0— | 0S 0—-
zg‘O— | 290+ | L2°0— | LE°0—
o¢'0— | 90°0— | 82°0— | £9°0—
19°0— | 6L‘O— | 60°T+ | 90°0—
4°0 10'0— | 88°0— | 04°0—
68 °I— LEO | ‘I— | 16 0-
1L6°0— | 99°0— | 89°0— | ST 0—-
gc"O— | TL'O— | 96°I+ | LL°0—-
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LEGISLATION ON DISEASES OF ANIMALS. 581

LEGISLATION ON DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
By D. E. Saumon, D. V. M., Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry.

Few of the State legislatures meet during the even-numbered years, and in 1904
only five enacted laws upon contagious diseases of domestic animals. These were
for the most part of minor importance, the only amendment of any extent being to
that part of the Rhode Island Jaw of 1892 which deals more particularly with
tuberculosis and glanders and farcy.

Iowa.—An act approved April 12, 1904, amends the law previously in force relat-
ing to the appropriation for carrying on the work of the State veterinary surgeon in
eradicating contagious diseases of domestic animals. The amount appropriated for
this purpose is increased from $5,000 to $7,600.

MaryLANp.—An act approved April 7, 1904, authorizes the commission appointed
in 1902 to investigate cerebro-spinal meningitis of horses to continue its labor until
January, 1906. The usual funds under the law of 1902 are to be available for use.
The commission is to report the results of its investigations to the governor not later
than January 1, 1906.

New Yorx.—An act approved April 8, 1904, amends the existing law relative to
the State appraisers of condemned animals. The new law authorizes the commis-
sioner of agriculture to appoint one appraiser, in lieu of three as formerly. The
former appraisers received $5 per diem, with expenses for time actually employed.
The new appraiser is to receive $1,500 per annum and necessary expenses. Authority
is also given to the commissioner to appoint such additional appraisers from time to
time (at $5 per diem and expenses) as the necessities of the work may demand.

RuoveE Istanp.—An act passed April 8, 1904, to amend section 10 of chapter 99 of
the General Laws (passed May 19, 1892), provides that animals suspected of being
tuberculous shall be officially examined, and if found to be diseased shall, after
appraisal, be killed and the carcasses properly disposed of. The State is to pay one-
half of the appraised value of the animals if diseased; but if they are found not to be
affected with tuberculosis the State shall pay the full value, provided the animals
have been owned in the State for at least three months. Animals suffering or sus-
pected to be suffering from glanders, farcy, or any other contagious disease shall like-
wise be killed and their carcasses disposed of. All appraisals shall be made by the
veterinarian and one cattle commissioner of the county where the animal is located.
The maximum allowance for any single animal shall be; For a native animal, $50;
for a grade, $75; for a registered animal, $100. Right of appeal from the award of
the appraisers is given within five days.

The board of appraisers is empowered to quarantine any animals supposed to be
suffering from any contagious disease, one-third of the expense of which is to be paid
by the State, except as provided in section 30 of the law.

The inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry, in cooperation with the State
authorities, are empowered to enter premises for the purpose of inspection, and are
= authorized to call upon peace officers to assist them in the discharge of their

uties.

VircrntA.—The original law of 1887, amended in 1890 and 1896, relating to the dis-
posal of hogs and fowls that have died of contagious diseases is amended so as to
include all animals and grown fowls. The new law, which was approved March 15,
1904, provides that all such animals and fowls which have died from any contagious
or infectious disease shall be cremated or buried. If this is not done by the owner
any justice may, after giving notice thereof, order the work done, and be entitled to
recover from the owner $5 for every animal and $1 for every fowl so disposed of.

PLANT DISEASES IN 1904.
By W. A. Orton, Plant Pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry.

This résumé of plant diseases in 1904 is compiled from reports of field observations
by agents of this Department and officers of the several State experiment stations,
whose cooperation is gratefully acknowledged. It indicates briefly the prevalence of
such diseases in the United States in 1904, as compared with conditions in previous
years, which are recorded in the six preceding Yearbooks.

The influence of weather conditions upon epidemics of diseases caused by plant
parasites has been as usual quite marked, especially in the case of the destructive out-
break of rust in cereals, and the relative absence of downy mildews on account of
drought in the Southern and Eastern States.

582 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The injury due to winter-killing has been of extraordinary proportions in New
England, New York, Michigan, and adjacent States. Native species like white pine,
white ash, red and sugar maples, birches, and poplars showed the effects. Fruit trees
were greatly injured; in unfavorable situations and where enfeebled by age or disease,
orchards were practically destroyed. Large numbers of peaches were killed outright,
and others had the branches killed back, while the fruit buds were mostly destroyed.
Apples, pears, and other fruits and many ornamental plants were also killed or injured
in many cases. The aggregate loss from this cause was of great proportions.

POME FRUITS.

Apple.—Bitter rot ( Glomerella rufomaculans) caused relatively slight losses, because
of the short apple crop and favorable weather conditions in the sections usually
affected. The range reported extended from Polk and Haralson counties in north-
west Georgia through western North Carolina and Virginia into portions of West
Virginia, southeast Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Arkansas.
The first authentic report of rot in Connecticut was received. Black rot or canker
(Sphxropsis malorum) was reported injurious only in Ohio and West Virginia. It
occurs throughout the Allegheny and eastern apple sections. Illinois canker (Num-
mularia discreta) was common in the Central and Western States. Diseases of this
character do not vary greatly in severity from year to year. Blackspot canker
( Gloeosporium malicorticis) prevailed in the Pacific coast section. W. H. Lawrence,
of the Washington station, has published an account of the disease, reporting the
successful use of Bordeaux mixture in combating it.

Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) was injurious to apples in many sections. It seems
not to have been especially bad in the South, but received mention from West Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, North Dakota, and
Nebraska as more than usually abundant. In Colorado and Pacific Coast States it
continues to be the most destructive disease. Apple orchardists there are adjusting
themselves to the conditions by planting resistant varieties and removing pear trees.

Crown gall continues to be a great pest in nurseries, especially in the central por-
tion of the country, but there are indications of an improved condition over previ-
ous years.

Fruit spot (Phoma pomorum) has been common in the South, particularly in the
apple districts of North Carolina, South Carolina, and north Georgia.

A new fruit rot caused by an Alternaria is reported from Colorado by W. W. Paddock.

Powdery mildew was reported frequent on nursery trees in Arkansas, but less
abundant than last year. In the moister regions of California the young spring
growth suffered severely.

Rosette, a disease due to uncongenial soil, poor water supply, and winter injury,
appears in certain localities in Colorado each year.

Rust (Gymnosporangium spp.) appears to have been more abundant than usual in
the Eastern States and as far west as Nebraska. In Iowa it was the most destruc-
tive enemy to certain varieties, especially Wealthy.

Scab ( Venturia inequalis) was more abundant than usual in the eastern United
States and was destructive on unsprayed trees. Jowa reports damage to susceptible
varieties only, while in Nebraska the loss amounted in some cases to 90 per cent.
There was much less scab in California this year.

Pear.—Black rot (Sphxropsis malorum) affected seriously both fruit and foliage in
Ohio. No other reports.

Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) was unusually prevalent. In Georgia, Florida, and
other Southern States moist, warm weather following the blooming period led to a
development of blight that reduced the crop one-half. The loss in Maryland was
estimated at 15 per cent, and at points in Indiana from 10 to 75 per cent. New Jer-
sey, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska report much damage. In Colorado great loss
continues to be caused by it. On the eastern slope of the mountains it has destroyed
practically all the pear trees, while on the western slope it is of more recent introduc-
tion, but threatens the industry. In California the disease has practically wiped out
the pear industry of the San Joaquin Valley and this year brought a remarkable
extension of it into the Sacramento Valley 200 miles north of previous records.
The situation there is very serious.

Leaf blight (Entomosporium maculatum) was reported injurious on European seed-
ling pears in Kentucky, and did much damage in orchards in Georgia and other South-
ern States, where early defoliation from leaf blight led to much fall blooming, and
es favored the spread of the bacterial blight. The estimated loss in Maryland was

per cent.

Seab (Venturia pyrina) was common in California, where it is increasing in the
northern and eastern part of the Sacramento Valley. R. E. Smith, of the California

PLANT DISEASES IN 1904. 588

Station, has demonstrated that in that State, just as in the Eastern States, to control
this disease it is essential to spray once or twice while the fruit buds are opening in
spring.

Sooty mold ( /umago vagans), following psylla and aphis, was not noticed in New
England, where it was so common last year.

@uince.—Black rot (Sphxropsis malorwm) was injurious in Ohio. Blight (Bacillus
amylovorus) was unusually abundant on this host also.

STONE FRUITS.

This group, including almonds, apricots, cherries, peaches, plums, and prunes, is
subject to several general diseases.

Crown gall is very prevalent in nurseries throughout the country, causing losses as
high as 25 per cent, especially in the Southern and Central States. In California loss
is greatest on almonds, peaches, and prunes.

Brown rot (Sclerotinia fructigena) varied in severity according to the weather in
different sections. The main peach crop of middle Georgia was nearly free from
rot. There was much greater loss in north Georgia, amounting to 15 per cent of the
crop. In Maryland plums suffered most, the loss on varieties like Wickson and
Abundance being 30 to 100 per cent, while early peaches were a complete loss and
midseason varieties rotted badly. In the Northern States the disease occurred about
as usual where the crop had not been destroyed by winter injury. There was little
in Michigan. In the Central States and Kentucky plums suffered severely. In
California early apricots and plums were injured more than usual.

Root rot, or ‘‘ toadstool disease,’’ due to different species of fleshy fungi, is reported
KS be inereasing in California, especially on prunes and apples, also affecting other

ruits.

Cherry.—Leaf spot (Cylindrosporium padi) caused an estimated loss of 8 per cent
in Maryland, being worst on sweet cherries. West Virginia, Missouri, Kentucky,
Ohio, and Nebraska also report loss. Scab (Fusicladium cerasi), a new spot disease,
was discovered in Ohio.

Peach.—Leaf curl (Exoascus deformans)-occurred about as usual, but spraying is
every year practiced more generally, with uniform success. Little peach has extended
over a wider area in Michigan and New York, but the percentage of injury has been
greatly reduced by the cutting-out method practiced under the directions of this
Department. Scab (Cladosporium carpophilum) was unusually abundant in New
York, but less soin Ohio. Split pit in California was very common and caused seri-
ous loss. It was also reported on almonds. Yellows has increased in Maryland,
ed York, and Michigan, but more active measures are now taken to combat the

isease. .

SMALL FRUITS, CITRUS FRUITS, ETC.

Blackberry.—Crown gall on both canes and underground portions was very abun-
dant in Colorado and Washington. Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis) was reported to
be common and destructive in New York and abundant in Colorado and California.

Citrus fruits.—Wither tip (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) prevailed in Florida to a
decidedly increased extent, owing to the peculiar climatic conditions when the fruit
was maturing. The aggregate loss probably amounted to $150,000.

Cranberry.—Anthracnose, blast, rot, and scald occurred about as heretofore. The
loss was greatest in New Jersey, about 20 per cent less in the Cape Cod region, and
very small in Wisconsin. Noteworthy success was attained in the spraying experi-
ments conducted by the Department. .

Grape.—Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum) was prevalent and serious in the
Lake Erie grape region and reported bad in Oklahoma. Black rot ( Guignardia Bid-
wellii) was apparently much less serious than last year, except possibly in New York.
The lossin Rhode Island and Maryland is estimated at 20 per cent. Downy mildew
(Plasmopara viticola) was more abundant in New York and Pennsylvania, but less
injurious in Iowa and other States. Powdery mildew (Uncinula necator) was common
at the end of the season in Connecticut and injurious to fruit of thin-skinned varie-
ties. Damage was also reported from Nebraska.

Olive.—Dry rot was much worse in California than ever before, causing serious loss
in many instances.

Orange.—‘‘Puffy orange’’ was the most serious trouble in California, though various
other diseases were of general occurrence.

, eee le.—Wilt is becoming more severe among the smooth Cayenne plantations
in Florida.

584 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Raspberry.—Anthracnose ( Glueosporium venetum) is the cause of complaint in Ken-
tucky, lowa,and Nebraska, where it is increasingly destructive. The extent of
injury in Saunders County, Nebr., was 33 per cent. Crown gall was reported from
Arkansas, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, lowa, and California, where considerable injury
seems to have been done by it. Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis) is especially men-
tioned only in Indiana, where it did much damage in the southern counties.

Strawberry.—Leaft spot (Sphaerella fragariae) was less common in Kentucky. In
Maryland, the only other State reporting, the injury was 21 per cent.

FIELD AND GARDEN VEGETABLES AND TOBACCO,

Asparagus.—Rust (Puccinia asparagi) was somewhat more pronounced in the
Eastern States than in 1903; estimated loss in Maryland, 21 per cent. It continues
to be very destructive in North Dakota, eastern Nebraska, and other Western States.
Successful treatment is reported by the California station.

Bean. —Anthracnose ( Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) was destructive in New York,
but probably not so much so as in 1903. Bacteriosis ( Bacillus phaseoli) was also
general in New York. This and anthracnose have led many growers to adopt spray-
ing, and have discouraged others from planting beans. Downy mildew ( Phytophthora
phaseoli) was reported from New Jersey. Rust (Uromyces appendiculatus) was
reported from Nebraska, North Carolina, and West Virginia.

Beet.—Curly-top of sugar beets was reported from California and Utah as of slight
occurrence in comparison with previous years. Leaf blight ( Cercospora beticola) was
as usual more or less noticeable in the Eastern States, though not as injurious as in
previous years. Rust ( Uromyces betae) occurred in a scattering manner in California,
particularly in the winter.

Cabbage.—Black rot (Pseudomonas campestris) has been of general occurrence in
the Eastern, Central, and Southern States, but has aroused much less complaint than
in previous years. H. A. Harding and F. C. Stewart at the New York State Station
have shown that the germs of this disease are carried on the seed, where their vitality
may be retained for several months.

Cantaloupe.—Anthracnose and downy mildew did but little harm this season.
Leaf blight (Allernaria brassicae nigrescens) was present in the Eastern and Southern
States, but caused less damage than usual. It was, however, unusually destructive
in the Rocky Ford district in Colorado. Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus) was very inju-
rious in New York and also caused much complaint in the Central States.

Celery.—Leat blight ( Cercospora apii and Septoria petroselini apii), both occurred in
Ohio and other States. Serious injury was not reported.

Cucumber.—Anthracnose ( Colletotrichum lagenarium) was of relatively minor impor-
tance this year. Downy mildew (Plasmopara cubensis) occurred to a limited extent
in Florida. Owing to the unusually dry spring it did not reach South Carolina until
the cucumber crop was nearly harvested, about July 1, so no great loss was caused.
Sprayed fields remained healthy after others had been killed. This and other dis-
eases of vine crops were rarer in New England than for several years. In Kentuck
and Ohio also the disease appeared late and did little harm. Wilt ( Bacillus tracher-
philus) was general and destructive in New York.

Ginseng.—Leaf blight (Alternaria) was very general and destructive in many places
in New York. Root knot, due to nematodes, occurred in Rhinebeck, N. Y. Soft
rot was very destructive in Fulton County, N. Y. J. M. Van Hook has published
studies of these and other ginseng diseases from the Cornell Station.

Lettuce.—Drop (Sclerotinia libertiana) was destructive in Florida and the Atlantic
coast trucking regions.

Melon.—See Cantaloupe and Watermelon.

Onion.—Downy mildew (Peronospora schleideniana) again occurred quite generally
in New York, and to some extent in the seed-growing fields in California. Smut
( Urocyst®8 cepulas) was as common as usual in Connecticut, but aroused less com-
plaint in Ohio than in previous years. Stem rot (Botrytis vulgaris?) was notably
absent in Connecticut, but the severity of its attacks in 1902 Ph a 1903 cut down the
acreage of the susceptible variety—Southport White Globe.

Pea.—Leaf spot ( Ascochyta pisi) occurred on field peas in the Chillicothe, Ohio, dis-
trict as reported last year. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) was reported from
New York, from Nebraska, where it caused 33 per cent loss to late crops in Lancaster
County, and from southern California. Root rot (Rhizoctonia) attacked sweet hes
in New York. In Colorado it is abundant every year, but only occasionally does
serious damage. The injury this year was slight and mainly in causing too early
maturity.

PLANT DISEASES IN 1904. 585

Potato.—Brown rot (Bacillus en occurred in scattered localities from
Maryland south without causing great loss. ry rot (Fusarium oxysporum) contrib-
uted to the general loss. It seems to be most prevalent in the Central and Southern
States and west to California, where it is common but not of much importance.

Karly blight (Alternaria solani) was reported abundant in Massachusetts, but not
especially harmful in New York and other States. Late blight (Phytophthora infestans)
appeared unusually late in New England and occasioned less blighting of the foliage
than usual, but the resulting rot of the tubers caused very great losses. In New York
late blight was very destructive. F. C. Stewart, at the Geneva Station, increased the
yield of marketable tubers 233 bushels per acre by spraying, and demonstrated that
the average loss throughout the State was over 60 bushels per acre. In Ohio the dis-
ease prevailed to a greater extent than for ten years, especially in the northeastern
portion. Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota also suffered, but Iowa was free from
the trouble this year. Scattered outbreaks occurred in Florida on the early crop.

Rhizoctonia ( Corticitum vagans solani) occurred quite generally in the Kast from
Connecticut south, causing some injury in South Carolina. In Ohio much complaint
was heard, and in Colorado it was more abundant than usual in all sections, and
appears to be indigenous to the soil. Scab (Oospora scabies) appears to have been
unusually abundant throughout the country.

Squash.—Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus) was more or less abundant in Colorado.

Sweet potato.—Rot (Fusarium) was common and destructive in Merced County,
Cal.

Tobacco.—Bed rot (Rhizoctonia) was reported from Ohio. Broom-rape ( Orobanche
ramosa) occurred in Claremont County, Ohio. Mosaic disease seems to have been
less prevalent this year.

Tomato.—Blight (Bacillus solanacearum) has occurred as usual in scattered cases
throughout the Southern States and as far north as Maryland. A similar trouble is
reported from eastern Colorado. Leaf mold (Alternaria solani) did marked injury
for the first time to fruit and leaves of tomatoes in Ohio. Leaf spot (Septoria lycoper-
sici) caused some loss in the Eastern States and west to Nebraska. The lossin Mary-
land is estimated at 19 per cent. Point rot was mentioned from North Carolina and
South Carolina, and another rot, probably Colletotrichum, caused much injury in
Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, and Nebraska, the loss in some cases approaching 90
per cent. Western blight, a disease mentioned in several previous Yearbook reports,
was abundant in western Colorado, Idaho, and neighboring States. The cause is
unknown. Wilt (Fusarium) did very little damage in Florida this year. .

Watermelon.—Anthracnose ( Colletotrichum lagenarium) was injurious in South Caro-
lina, West Virginia, and elsewhere. Leaf blight ( Cercospora citrullina) was reported
from West Virginia. Leaf mold (Alternaria brassicae nigrescens) was found on water-
melons in Colorado. Wilt (Neocosmospora vasinfecta nivea) continues to spread in the
South and has also been found in Oklahoma, California, and Oregon.

CEREALS AND FORAGE CROPS.

Barley.—Rust was reported from some localities, but the crop suffered no consid-
erable loss. Smut ( Ustilago hordei) was prevalent in California.

Corn.—Leaf blight (Helminthosporium inconspicuum) was again prevalent in New
Jersey and adjacent States, and was reported from Ohio. Smut ( Ustilago zeae) was
common throughout the corn-growing region, as usual. In Connecticut and Ohio
and possibly other States it appeared to be more plentiful, while in Kentucky and
Indiana it was less common.

Oats.—Rust (Puccinia graminis, etc.) was destructive in Ohio, Iowa, Nebraska, and
especially so in the Northwestern States. Indiana, northeastern Iowa, and Montana
report less injury. Smut ( Ustilago avenae) was less destructive than usual.

Rice.—Blast, a new fungus disease, caused much loss in South Carolina again this
year. Various diseases have begun to appear in the Texas and Louisiana rice belt.

Sorghum.—Burrill’s bacterial disease occurred around Washington, D. C.

Wheat.—Rust ( Puccinia ‘Meee vtecs this year, 1904, caused very general damage over
the whole country, due to the humidity of the atmosphere in the latter partof the grow-
ing season, and to lateness of the grainin maturing. In the spring-wheat States of the
Northwest the loss from rust was 25,000,000 to 40,000,000 bushels, worth at least
$25,000,000. In many instances the rusted fields were never touched by the harvester,
and over wide areas the yield was only 4 to 5 bushels per acre. The western winter-
wheat States also suffered severely, and rust was bad as far east as Indiana and Ohio,
though not severein Maryland. The durum varieties introduced by the Department
proved notably resistant, though the season brought out great variations in rust

586 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

resistance even in this group. M. A. Carleton, of this Department, has published
further results of investigations into the life history of this and several other species
of rust. Scab ( Musarium culmorum) was much worse than usual in Maryland. The
loss is estimated at 15 per cent. Unusual injury was reported from Ohio, lowa,
Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri. The smuts were not more prevalent than usual.

Alfalfa.—Leat-spot ( Pseudopeziza medicaginis) was general in New York and Ohio.
Root rot in Texas and the Southwest has done much damage. Rust ( Uromyces stri-
atus) was reported from eastern Nebraska and southern California.

Cowpea.—Root knot ( Heterodera radicicola) was common in sandy soils in the South
Atlantic and Gulf States. Wilt (Neocosmosporu vasinfecta tracheiphila) is becoming
more extended where cowpeas are grown several years on the same land.

FIBER PLANTS.

Cotton.—Anthracnose ( Colletotrichum gossypii) was general throughout the South,
but injurious only in scattered cases, where it caused mach rotting of the bolls.
Root knot (/HHeterodera radicicola) was common in sandy soils, particularly in the
Gulf States. Root rot in Texas was worse than usual this year. Wilt ( Neocosmospora
vasinfecta) continues to spread, but was not as active last season as usual.

Flax.—Rust (Melampsora lini) was generally destructive to early flax in North
Dakota. Wilt (Fusarium lini) is becoming more generally distributed in North
Dakota, but the destruction was less this year, owing to seed treatment and avoidance
of old fields.

NUTS, FOREST TREES, AND SHADE TREES.

Catalpa.—Heart rot was reported to be destructive in southeastern Nebraska.
Leaf spot (Phyllosticta catalpae) caused serious injury in Ohio. 7

Cedar.—Rust (Gymnosporangiuimn macropus) was reported to be causing much injury
to red cedars in Iowa and Nebraska.

Cottonwood.—Blight, due to soil troubles or frost, was reported quite generally in
North Dakota. Rust (Melampsora populina) was less destructive this year.

Pecan.—Rosette is common and injurious in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and
Alabama. Scab ( /usicladium ejfusum) was less injurious than last year, but injured
the crop in some places in Georgia and other States.

Walnut.—Blight (Psewdomonas juglandis) was much less abundant in southern Cali-

fornia than in 1903, although more prevalent than ever before in the northern part —

of the State.
GREENHOUSE AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS.

Aster.—Yellows appears to be as prevalent in California as in the Eastern States.

Calla Lily.—Sott rot, a disease that has been injurious for several years, has been
thoroughly investigated by Dr. C. O. Townsend, of this Department, who bas shown
that the cause is Bacillus aroideae, n. sp.

Tris. —Leaf blight ( /Teterosporiwm gracile) was very bad and quite general; reported

from Connecticut and California. }

PROGRESS OF FRUIT GROWING IN 1904.

By W. H. Raaan, Expert in Pomological Nomenclature, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The best pears imported into England were formerly grown mostly in France. In
1904 the United States sent a large supply to that market. This is doubtless due to
improved methods of handling, refrigeration, and transportation. Also, the largest
exportation of apples from the United States and Canada to the United Kingdom in
any one year was during the fiscal year 1904. The total exports for that year from
these sources aggregated 3,127,000 barrels.

The Consolidated Grape Growers’ Association of New York, representing the prod-
uct of 50,000 or 60,000 acres of the State’s choicest soils now devoted to that industry,
made a most interesting and successful exhibit at the Louisiana Purchase Exposi-
tion, at St. Louis. On October 4, 1,229 plates, including 71 varieties, were displayed.
This and other displays at the exposition furnished an object lesson of far-reac ing
value as an illustration of the rapid strides now being made in the development o
fruit growing. No intelligent visitor, not blinded by prejudice, could fail to recog-
nize the reward, already clearly manifested, that the fruit grower of the present
day is receiving as the result of modern methods in the production of varieties, in
culture, in handling, and in the artistic arrangement of exhibits, etc.

FRUIT GROWING AND FORAGE PLANTS. 587

Perhaps no more important work is now being done in the interest of commercial
fruit growing by the office of Pomological Investigations than through its investiga-
tions in the line of cold storage and refrigeration of fruits. These investigations have
been going forward for several years, and references to them have appeared from
year to year. A number of valuable facts have already been given out, and additional
tests are made and reported as rapidly as is consistent with careful experimentation.
During the past year one of the tests made has developed the fact that fruit from
pone and rapidly growing trees on rich soil breaks down earlier in storage ware-

ouses than does the fruit of the same varieties when grown on older and more
mature trees. This is especially true of certain leading commercial varieties, as York
Imperial, Hubbardston, Winesap, Ben Davis, Rhode Island, ete. It has also been
proved that varieties of this class scald in the barrel less when allowed to remain on
the trees until well matured and highly colored. And again, fruit that is roughly
handled and bruised will not keep in cold storage, no matter what the other conditions
may be, equal to that which is handled carefully. It is safe to estimate that three-
fourths of the trouble in keeping fruit in cold storage arises from careless and bad
handling.

A writer on fruits in referring to the immensity of the Georgia peach crop, inci-
dentally mentions the manner of its handling and the facilities afforded for that pur-
pose. During the past season one railroad furnished more than 4,000 cars with which
to move the Georgia crop to northern markets. ‘‘The peaches are taken from the
trees during the hot months of the summer and are very warm when they reach the
hands of the packers. They are put in boxes while still warm and are placed in
refrigerator cars, which have been stationed on sidings near the orchards. These
cars are all kept at as near the right temperature required by the peaches as possible,
and as soon as they are loaded they are started on their journey north. They are
not sent in the manner of ordinary freight trains, but are run in trains of ten and
fifteen cars, and at a very high rate of speed. Even the regular passenger trains are
sidetracked to allow fruit trains to pass. Regular passenger engines are used. The
trains leave Atlanta after midnight and reach Alexandria in twenty-four hours.
There they are iced again, taken in hand by the Pennsylvania road, and run into
Jersey City. Regular passenger-train speed is maintained during all the long run.
The run from Georgia to New York City is made in the best time that roads are
capable of, and the peaches are on the market in New York at midnight of the third
day from that on which they were gathered from the trees.”’

There is perhaps no other interest for which the railroads could be induced to
subordinate their passenger traffic. The method of handling, as above described,
will doubtless be somewhat changed in the near future. Careful experiments con-
ducted under the auspices of the Pomologist, during the last season, clearly proved
the desirability of cooling the fruit before packing in the refrigerator cars for trans-
portation. This was accomplished by placing it in stationary cold-storage warehouses
for some hours before loading.

GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS.

° By W. J. Spitiman, Agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry.
ALFALFA IN THE EASTERN STATES.

Interest in the alfalfa crop in the eastern half of the United States has been grow-
ing rapidly for the past five years, and is more marked at present than at any time
in the past. The demand for seed continues to exceed the supply, and the 50 per
cent increase in price of seed which occurred some years ago has been maintained.
It has been demonstrated that on dairy farms alfalfa may largely replace grain feed.
Several instances are reported in which dairy cows have been fed on alfalfa, either
in the green state or cured into hay, without other feed, with fairly satisfactory
results. It seems therefore that this hay crop, which is essentially new to the eastern
half of the United States, will greatly decrease the cost of production of dairy prod-
ucts. The recognition of thi’ fact is at the basis of the present successful effort to
grow this crop in the Eastern States. The value of alfalfa as a pasture for hogs is
gaining recognition, and the crop is much used for this purpose.

CASSAVA, PARA GRASS, AND GUINEA GRASS.

Interest in the cassava crop continues. Extensive investigations are in progress
with a view to working out the main difficulties in the cultivation and utilization of
cassava, and throughout the Gulf coast country farmers are experimenting with the
crop.

5388 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Para grass and Guinea grass are gaining ground in southern Texas and in Florida,
where suitable forage crops have hitherto been wanting, with the exception of alfalfa
in southern Texas. For wet soils Para grass has shown itself to be an excellent
forage plant both for pasture and for hay production, while Guinea grass has proved
to be a good pasture plant for moderately dry soils. These are both tropical grasses,
having been introduced from the West India Islands, but they have shown them-
selves capable of withstanding the climate of northern Florida, and farmers even
farther north than this are experimenting with these grasses.

MILO MAIZE,

During the past year it has become known that the plant grown in Oklahoma and
northwestern Texas under the name of milo maize is a variety of nonsaccharine sor-
ghum eminently adapted to semiarid regions. It has shown itself to be the most
reliable crop in the Panhandle country, and its cultivation as a grain crop, and also
as a fodder crop, in that section is rapidly increasing. This crop has frequently
made 80 bushels of grain per acre without rain after the crop was planted, provided
the soil was fairly well supplied with moisture at planting time. Farmers all over
the arid and semiarid sections of the United States are experimenting with it. It
seems to be a variety of brown durra, and the name dwarf milo has been suggested
for it.

CLOVER SICKNESS.

For the past six or eight years there has been increasing difficulty in securing a
satisfactory stand of clover throughout the clover region. This is an old trouble in
England, where the difficulty is ascribed to some mysterious malady which has been
given the name of clover sickness. The cause of the trouble is unknown. It has
recently been suggested by an English investigator that it is due to a fungus disease
which attacks the clover plant, and there is considerable circumstantial evidence
favoring this hypothesis. The common method of sowing clover is to sow it on
slightly frozen ground in early spring where wheat and timothy were sown the pre-
vious fall. When sown in this manner the clover does not make a crop the first
year, and is largely killed out during the succeeding winter, presumably by the fun-
gus growth. The destruction of the crop is practically completed during the second
winter. A number of the best farmers in the northeastern section of the United
States have learned that by sowing clover and timothy together the latter part of
August, without a nurse crop, a good stand is practically assured and a full crop is
harvested the next summer. A fair crop is secured the second year. It has been
suggested that sowing clover in August prevents infection from the fungus the first
season and thus enables the clover to make a full crop the next year. The method
of sowing clover in August is gaining favor among progressive farmers, at least from
Ohio eastward.

FORAGE PLANTS IN DIVERSIFIED FARMING.

One of the most important movements of recent years is the progress toward
diversified farming in the cotton-producing States. The spread of the cotton-boll
weevil has emphasized the importance of crops other than cotton, and the area
devoted to grasses and forage plants is rapidly increasing throughout the cotton belt.

The principal forage crops of which the area is increasing to a marked degree are
alfalfa, corn, cowpeas, and sorghum. For the past two or three years the demand
for cowpea seed has been greater than the supply. Bermuda is also growing in |
favor as a pasture plant throughout the South in spite of its weedy tendencies.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1904.
By_ Quincy R. Crarr, Editorial Clerk, Byreau of Forestry.

The year 1904 saw a large gain in the popular acceptance and application of the
principles which govern the proper care and use of woodlands. Many landowners
and great lumber concerns now realize that conservative forest management means
actual gains to them in dollars and cents; and western stockmen and miners no lon-
ger doubt that regulation of grazing and cutting timber on the reserves is necessary
for the perpetuation of their industries. Forest work carried on by the Federal Gov-
ernment in conjunction with the States was rich in results. State forest departments

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 589

were created, better forest laws enacted, and many object lessons given of the oppor-
tunities to maintain and extend the forests within the various Commonwealths. The
Bureau of Forestry surpassed any previous year in the variety and extent of its inves-
tigations and experiments, in the knowledge gained of actual conditions and needs
in the reserve regions of the West, and in the preparation and installation of working
plans upon forest lands.

The remarkable advance of forestry during recent years was fittingly marked by a
forest congress extending through four days of the first week in January, 1905. This
meeting far exceeded in size ani? importance any similar gathering that has been held
in America. The lumbering, mining, grazing, and woodworking industries, the rail-
roads, and the interests of irrigation in the West were represented by men of the
highest professional and business standing and of national reputation. In conference
with these men were the official representatives of many States and of the Canadian
and Philippine forest services.

FOREST RESERVE POLICY MORE CLEARLY UNDERSTOOD.

Careful consideration of the needs of the industries which use the products of the
forest reserves, and of the requirements necessary to preserve the public forests per-
manently, is leading to a national policy concerning the Federal forest reserves. The
prime purpose in establishing these reserves is to prevent fires, wasteful lumbering,
and overgrazing, and at the same time to secure the fullest possible use of their pro-
ductive capacity. Often their most important service is to guard the forested moun-
tains and hillsides from which the streams flow, for water is the first need of the
arid States; but the interests of the miners, who can not operate without heavy sup-
plies of timber, and of the stockmen dependent upon the public range, must also be
recognized.

In 1904 seven new forest reserves were created—Baker City, in Oregon; Cave
Hills and Slim Buttes, in South Dakota; Grantsville and Salt Lake, in Utah; and
Warner Mountains and Modoc, in California. Additions were made to the Fish
Lake (Utah), the South Platte (Colorado), and the Big Horn (Wyoming) reserves.
Several areas, having a total of 1,054,342 acres, which examination had shown to be
better suited for agriculture than for forestry, were restored to the public domain,
so that the net increase in the area of the reserves was but 149,035 acres.

Changes in boundaries during 1904 and present area of Federal forest reserves.

Area of Lands un-
Number Area : : Area of re-
States and Territories. of forest esate a added in races oat serves, Dec.
reserves. cer 1904. Pees l= he LOO
n 1904. 1904. ,
Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres.
ee CA er nee Pee ee ee ho Ee ee ae 4, 909, 880
EC a I ee emmys ae bee ey eS De Seer 6, 740, 410
NORE III io eps Som milan darn ceerns change en ae OE UU | AS ay gl Ee ee 320 9, 427, 154
Oo aes a ley oe Bos APE Pe 2 ba ae ee pe 2 SORE Gul aes seas Se 3, 681 237, 182 2, 874, 439
WBNA eee ls. oc pare cde den ubeSon nie elec wade eee ae Gar sees Sai ot Cain 3 57, 600 3, 989, 480
PGR Sos ais ond Sneeladasedewoee Java eee Oats soe ee 45, 440 127, 360 7, 964, 640
ME, ic <2 dpe Seas simone bape PAN eee te ll | ee (eee ee 208, 902
New Mexico Sol Gee Sere] ER ESP ed Spree eee nee 3, 257, 920
Oklahoma 1A RS soe ee eae es eee 57, 120
ROP OI Se oon ae ctnin S winie one tinge oes ooae oe 4 ASO Ue ee tere Ser Was cote 4, 6387, 560
Porto Rico Ueto e Sore ee ee (ae ae 65, 950
South Dakota c3 RSL COME re a oe oe al sino 1, 244, 840
WR ate tay te bwin cue ccese eon eee seas Sep eeAS Sree 400.) sols DOO" (ss. 5. von 5. 2, 756, 280
Washington CAL te S| SS See | (eee 7,024, 760
W9HOUINO Coccccciwels tes eee etme aicen ee in ae eee Aiea ere a4. 129, 920 631, 880 8,199, 624
Dota’ 2s. 5. to cet eee ee een e62 893, 186 310, 241 1, 054, 342 63, 358, 959

aThe Priest River Reserve is situated jointly in Idaho (541,160 acres) and Washington (103,960 acres).

» The Bitter Root Reserve is situated jointly in Montana (621,200 acres) and Idaho (3,398,400 acres).

mer Black Hills Reserve is situated jointly in South Dakota (1,163,320 acres) and Wyoming (46,440
acres).

adThe Yellowstone Reserve is situated jointly in Wyoming (6,580,920 acres) and Montana (1,229,680
acres).

e Four of the reserves are enumerated twice (see a, b, c, and d), so that the total number is 62.

590 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A GAIN OF SIGNIFICANT IMPORTANCE,

lt is an achievement of no small moment that the public generally has been led to
regard forestry as something tangible and helpful. The adoption of forest manage-
ment is now regarded as vitally necessary for the continuance of the manifold indus-
tries for which forest products are essential, and for the supply of many needs of
everyday life. The desire of many landowners to secure for their forest hold-
ings the best care is indicated by the numerous inquiries and requests for assistance
received by the Bureau of Forestry. Applications for assistance are now on file coy-
ering an area of no less than 8,000,000 acres, for three-fourths of which preliminary
examinations have been made. Detailed working plans have been completed for
over 1,000,000 acres of these lands. Twenty thousand acres in woodlots and 500,000
acres in timber tracts are under management. That working plans are now in prepa-
ration for an area aggregating 3,500,000 acres shows how fast this work is growing.
Private enterprises are beginning to take advantage of the examples furnished by the
Government, and are employing trained foresters to carry out their own plans of
management.

LARGE OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SOUTH.

The possibilities of forest management on the forest lands in the South have been
clearly shown in several large working plans recently finished and put into practice
by the owners. There the cheapness of labor and favorable natural conditions per-
mit more careful logging methods and more complete utilization of material than are
possible in certain other sections, and the longer growing season and the relative
nearness to markets offer peculiar advantages for conservative lumbering with a view
to future crops. The interest of northern and eastern lumbermen is turning more
and more to the hardwoods found in that region. The diversity of species that com-
pose those hardwood forests, and the increasing utility of many of them, together
with the rapid increase in their value, are leading their owners to inquire about the
means of removing material that is now marketable, without destroying that which
may be valuable in the future. Nowhere is the opportunity for conservative forest
management more promising than in some parts of that great region.

AN EXAMPLE IN THE LUMBERING OF WHITE AND RED PINE.

The success that has attended the sale and remoyal! of timber from the Chippewa
Indian lands in northern Minnesota, selected to constitute toe Minnesota National
Forest Reserve, has done much to establish the practicability of conservative lum-
bering of white and red pine in that region. Although the timber is to be removed
under regulations prescribed by the Forester of the Department of Agriculture, and
although 5 per cent of the timber on the area to be lumbered is reserved to provide
for reproduction (Pl. LX. XV, fig. 1), the stumpage price obtained at public sale was
the largest that had ever been realized for similar timber in the same region. When
the present utterly waste condition of vast areas in the Lake States formerly covered
with valuable pine forests is considered, the demonstrated possibility that such tim-
ber can be cut and removed profitably, under restrictions intended to secure forest
renewal and reduce the danger from fire to the minimum, is one of large hopefulness.

SOME PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

The new system of turpentining, by the use of cups and gutters, which gives a
greatly increased product of turpentine and uniformly higher grades of rosin, with
far less damage to the trees, fulfills its early promise of increased profits and extended
life for the naval stores industry (Pl. LX XV, fig.5). In consequence, the destructive
method of boxing trees for turpentine has been abandoned by the larger and more
progressive operators, while the improved method of turpentining has extended
rapidly during the year. Asa further service the Bureau now has in progress an
entirely new line of field experiments which look to a very considerable lessening of
the tapping wound now made in the trees.

The condition of the basket willow industry has been studied, and several exceed-
ingly important plans for itsimprovement are outlined ina bulletin. These improve-
ments will secure the highest grades of home-grown willow through more scientific
methods of culture. A study of the maple-sugar industry has resulted in the publica-
tion of a bulletin containing suggestions which are important to the farmers of the
Northeastern United States. An exhaustive investigation has been conducted to
determine the present available supply of Pacific coast tanbarks, and the best method
of collecting the bark, while encouraging the reproduction of the trees on cut-over
areas and providing for a more economical utilization of the timber.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1904, PLATE LXXV.

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CHARACTERISTIC SCENES IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY.

Fic. 1.—Seed trees left uninjured by logging and the burning of slash, Minnesota National Forest
Reserve. Fic. 2.—Forest planting in the sandhills, Nebraska. Fie. 3.—The woodlot under
forest management, South Dakota. F1G. 4.—A mountain trail which has stopped the progress
of a fire, California. Fic. 5.—Application of the new system of cups and gutters in turpentin-
ing, Georgia.

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PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 591

A series of regional studies is furnishing a fuller knowledge of forest conditions and

ossibilities over large areas. This knowledge will enable the Bureau to answer an
increased number of requests for assistance by sending the required information in
printed form or by correspondence, instead of making a special examination on the
ground in each case. Studies of the rate of growth, market conditions, and general
characteristics of eight principal commercial trees of the Southern Appalachians, and
of the available quantity and quality of timber which they furnish, have just been
completed. Examinations of platted groves have been made in northern Illinois, in
eastern Nebraska, and in the eastern part of the Dakotas and western Minnesota, and
the data collected made available for future recommendations for forest planting in
those regions. Investigations have also been conducted in California to determine
the relation of chaparral to water supply and forest reproduction.

Tests of the mechanical and physical properties of various timbers were carried on
at Berkeley, Cal., Lafayette, Ind., New Haven, Conn., St. Louis, Mo.,and Washington,
D. C. At these stations the strength of red fir, western hemlock, red gum, longleaf
pine, and loblolly pine have been under investigation, sticks of the ordinary market
grades being selected for the tests. Defects, such as knots, crooked grain, and
checks, and the important facts with reference to the growth of the timber, are care-
fully noted. After the tests on the large pieces have been made, a small number of
pieces are cut from the uninjured portions of the log and tested in the same man-
ner. This enables a comparison to be made between the strength of the small clear
pieces and the large sticks, and shows the weakening effect of unavoidable defects
in the larger pieces. <A series of tests is also being conducted to determine the
mechanical properties of the various hardwoods which are now used or are probably
available for use in the manufacture of vehicles. A study of the strength of second-

rowth red oak, for instance, has shown its high value as a substitute for white oak.
Studies of various products, such as telephone cross-arms and pins, boxboards, etc.,
are in progress, and are expected to show how to economize material and to correct
defects of practice.

FORESTRY PROVES HELPFUL TO THE RAILROADS.

Transportation companies are showing keen interest in the search for methods to
prolong the life of ties and other timbers, which, if successful, will contribute to the
conservation of forest resources. Several railroads are making extensive experi-
ments with wooden tie-plates to lessen the wear of the tie under the rail. Two rail-
roads of the Northwest have found it economical to carefully season their lodgepole
pine ties, and are experimenting with seasoned western hemlock and red fir ties.
Several western roads are using chemically preserved ties.

During the year 1904 the Bureau of Forestry established several new seasoning sta-
tions in different parts of the country, and investigations are now being conducted on
twenty different kinds of wood. New methods of handling and treating timber have
also been studied, and in several instances the large economies have led to the com-
mercial use of the methods employed. Particular attention has been paid to deter-
mining the effect of treatment with various preservatives upon the strength of timber.
One of the results is that the preliminary steaming usually practiced is found to reduce
the strength of timber materially, and that water solutions, such as zine chlorid and
mercuric chlorid or corrosive sublimate, reduce the strength of timber to about the
same extent as would an equal amount of water. Timber treated with such preserva-
tives regains strength, however, upon drying out, whereas timber treated with creo-
sote does not, because creosote remains in the wood in liquid form.

FOREST METHODS OF DISTINCT ADVANTAGE TO FARMERS.

Fence posts of cottonwood, ash, maple, and other perishable woods may be made
to last 15, 20, and even 25 years by treating their butts with tar oil. This method of
preservation has been investigated during the past year at St. Louis, and in coopera-
tion with the Bureau of Forestry the farmers in the vicinity of Las Vegas, N. Mex., will
treat a large number of posts for pasture fences in this way. Since fence posts area
necessity on every farm and ranch, this means of using timbers quickly grown but
naturally subject to early decay will effect a great economy in regions where wood is
scarce. The equipment has been simplified until the installation of a plantis a prac-
ticable undertaking for individuals or for a small community. The cost of materials
does not exceed 5 to 7 cents for each post treated.

In the Eastern States particularly the farmers have shown interest in a more care-
ful management of their woodlots. That this interest is rapidly spreading is evi-
denced by the fact that 80 applications for assistance were received from Ohio and
53 from Michigan. Over 40 woodlots were examined in Ohio during the past field
season, and 25 in Michigan. (See Pl. LX XV, fig. 3.)

5QY YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SYSTEMATIC METHODS IN FOREST PLANTING,

The assistance of the Bureau of Forestry has been extended as heretofore to many
people desiring to establish permanent forest plantations. The service rendered
becomes more and more effective as knowledge is acquired of the adaptability of
various trees to the conditions of soil and climate in various localities, and of the
most successful methods of propagating, transplanting, and cultivating trees.

Several States also have been encouraging forest extension by planting on their
reservations. New York has established a plantation of deciduous trees at Canoe
Point, on the St. Lawrence River, and has prepares to set out several hundred
thousand spruce seedlings the coming spring. During the past two years Pennsylva-
nia has been planting white pine in open places on its reservations. Inthe Michigan
forest reserve 40 acres of cut-over land were planted with 50,000 pines and spruces.
Minnesota has raised a large number of young spruce trees with a view to planting
1,000 acres of reserve land if a State appropriation for this purpose can be secured.

On the Federal forest reserves tree planting is rapidly passing the experimental
stage. On the Dismal River Forest Reserve, in Nebraska, the total cost of foresting
sandhill country with pines (Pl. LX XV, fig. 2) has been reduced to $3.68 peracre. In
southern California the work of reserve planting has been continued, and preliminary
operations have been begun on the Pikes Peak Reserve in Colorado. }

Various private interests likewise are turning to forest planting as a means of
insuring a supply of wood to meet their necessities. A notable instance of this is
offered by the Pennsylvania Railroad, which continues the planting of locust trees
in Pennsylvania, 223,000 having been set out during the year. The chief engineer
of maintenance of way estimates that it would require the planting of 1,300,000 trees
each year to supply the annual needs of the road for ties, anticipating that the first
crop will be harvested after thirty years. This example will stimulate the cultiva-
tion of tie timber by other landowners convenient to the railroads.

“tS a! ee eee

FOREST FIRES.

The number and destructiveness of forest fires during the past year were not so
great as in 1903. Well-distributed rainfall accounts largely for this difference, but it
is nevertheless conspicuous that nearly all the States which employ forest officers or
maintain fire wardens escaped severe fires. Numerous fires started in those States,
but they were extinguished before they gained great headway. It is to be noted
that even throughout the regions of Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington,
where the greatest loss was suffered, the forest reserves and the few private holdings
upon which fire patrol is attempted escaped with less injury than the totally unpro-
tected forests adjoining. To establish a system of protection against or prevention
of forest fires at a reasonable cost, it is necessary to know the causes of fires. Based
upon the principle of closely watching the exposed points, effective work with econ-
omy of effort has been done the past summer in northern Maine, in the town of
Plymouth in Massachusetts, in the region about South Mountain in Pennsylvania,
and in the Sierras of California. The success attained by the Mount Pocono (Penn-
sylvania) Fire Protective Association emphasizes the advantage of thorough organi-
zation, and the importance of retaining patrolmen at a small salary to look out for
fires throughout the year and of paying them promptly. In several States the pros-
pects of effective control of the fires, upon which the future of American forestry so
largely depends, is more promising than at any time in the past. (Pl. LK XV, fig. 4.)

FORESTRY AND FOREST LEGISLATION IN THE STATES.

New State forestry associations were formedin Iowa, Ohio, and Vermont. The actiy-
ity in forest legislation shown by the States was apparently less in 1904 than in 1903,
because only a few States held legislative sessions. Of these, Massachusetts passed a
law providing for a technically trained State forester to care for the forest interests of
the State. New York, heeding her disastrous lesson through forest fires in 1903, —
provided for a patrol to prevent future fire devastation. This law is a notable
advance in two respects: It is a definite attempt to substitute preventive for remedial
measures, and it requires railroads, the principal source of forest fire danger in the
State reserves, to pay one-half the cost of a patrol along their lines. Louisiana passed —
a forest law providing for the care of wooded land in that State. There are now —
11 States which have some form of forest administration, and the Bureau of Forestry —
has been called upon frequently to furnish advice with regard to proposed forest laws. —
This demand has been met by the publication of a bulletin containing a complete |
compilation of Federal and State forest laws, and by the preparation, in cooperation
with State officials, of no less than 15 State forest bills to be submitted to the legis-
latures at their next sessions.

FOOD LEGISLATION AND INSPECTION. 593

FOREST SCHOOLS.

The courses at the Yale Forest School, the Biltmore Forest School, the University
of Michigan Forest School, and the Harvard University Forest School have been
strengthened by the inclusion of new studies and the employment of additional
instructors. Increased attendance gives evidence of prosperity at each institution.

EXHIBIT AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION.

As a part of its educational work the Bureau of Forestry made an extensive exhibit
at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., of the forest conditions and
problems found in all parts of the country and of the methods of Government work.
Type forests and forest conditions of the East and the West, and scenes also of the
treeless Middle West, were vividly portrayed by numerous large photographic trans-
parencies and colored prints, uniquely arranged for comparison. The practical
applications of forestry were features of this display. A wood-preserving plant and
a timber-testing station were in practical operation. The new system of turpentining
by cups and gutters, promoted by the Bureau, was contrasted with the old destruc-
tive method of boxing the trees, by means of a group of longleaf pine trunks. Out
of doors a 3-acre tract of land was devoted to showing approved methods of raising
forest trees from seed, and how forest plantations should be established in different
parts of the country. The keenest interest was manifested in all these exhibits by
the many visitors at the Exposition, and there is little doubt that the Bureau accom-
plished a good work by thus bringing forestry to the attention of so many people.

FOOD LEGISLATION AND INSPECTION.
By W. D. Biaritow, Chief, Division of Foods, Bureau of Chemistry.

Relatively little was accomplished in the way of food legislation by the last meet-
ing of the legislatures of the various States. No general food laws were enacted and
but lew new laws of even limited scope. The amendments to the existing laws were
- not sufficiently numerous or important to call for extended notice.

In meetings of those interested in pure-food legislation from a manufacturing stand-
point and of those engaged in the administration of food laws, the necessity of uni-
formity in the legislation of the various States has been emphasized even more
strongly than during previous years. A Federal bill, which it was thought might
lead to such uniformity and which is regarded by some as a necessary step in that
direction, passed the House of Representatives, but did not come to a vote in the
Senate at the session of Congress which closed March 4, 1905.

EVIDENCES OF PROGRESS.

In general the food laws enacted during 1904 showed progress in several directions.
In Kentucky a more liberal appropriation was made, thus making it possible to
extend the work. The amount given the experiment station was increased one-half
and the annual expenditures permitted were increased from $7,500 to $10,500. In
Ohio the salary of the dairy and food commissioner was increased from $2,000 to
$3,500. One of the great obstacles in the way of the proper enforcement of the food
laws has been the limited compensation of those engaged in such enforcement. A
step in the direction of correcting this evil can therefore result only in good.

The same State also provided for the appointment of an additional assistant com-
missioner, thus further broadening the work of the commission. A slight advance
was also made in Iowa, where an additional assistant commissioner was appointed,
and the salaries of the deputy commissioner and assistant commissioner were ad-
vanced from $1,000 to $1,200. In New Jersey the municipal boards of health are
empowered to designate as inspectors of food and drugs one or more of their local
sanitary inspectors.

Considering the limited amount of food legislation during the year just passed, the
laws enacted for the purpose of improving sanitary and hygienic conditions are of
some importance. For instance, in New Jersey a law has been enacted, similar to
those enforced in a number of other States, forbidding the keeping of milk cows in
unwholesome places and requiring their proper feeding. Thesame State has required
that cans used for the transportation of milk shall be properly cleansed.

2 al904——38

504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Serious poisoning cases resulting from the use of methyl alcohol in place of ethyl
alcohol have also led to the enactment of laws forbidding this practice. It is pro
able that the majority of States in which eflicient food laws are now in force will not
find it necessary to enact such laws, as such a substitution is found to be in violation
of practically all the food laws that are now in force.

CHANGES IN EXISTING LAWS.

Some of the changes in legislation during the year, as is usually the case, had for
their purpose the improvement of the character of the goods on the market. This
is true of the enactment in Ohio which requires all cheese containing less than 30
per cent of fat to be labeled as skimmed cheese. In this State the standard was —
formerly 20 per cent. In this connection may be mentioned the amendment to the
maple-sugar law in the same State, and the law in Maryland making the require-
ments for standard vinegar similar to those of a number of other States.

In several cases the legislation enacted during the year extended to some extent
the provisions of the law to articles which had not before been included. For
instance, in New York the law prohibiting the sale of adulterated milk was so
amended as to include the adulteration of cream, and the law regulating the sale of
certified milk was amended in such a manner as to make it more effective without
in any way changing its purpose.

There has been for some time a feeling that the standards for milk enforced in
several States requiring a different amount of solids for different seasons of the year
were based on incorrect information. Recent studies of the subject have led to the |
belief that the same milk standards might be enforced for the entire year, and it has _
been suggested that existing laws might be changed in that manner. Legislation of _
this nature was enacted in Ohio, which will probably be followed later in several
other States.

STATISTICS OF INSPECTION.

The information in the following table was gathered from State and municipal food
law officials, so far as they could be reached. The inspectors whose work is reported
are usually men of good judgment and considerable experience in selecting food
samples and only foods suspected were sampled; also only such samples were ana- .«
lyzed as seemed likely to show violations of law. Accordingly the table does not show
the ratio of adulterated foods to pure foods on the American market. The whole
great mass of high-grade foods is excluded from any calculation that may be made
upon the figures here given.

The Denver, Colo., data are for six months in 1904; District of Columbia and Mich-
igan, for year ended June 30, 1904; Boston, year ended February 1, 1905; Worcester,
Mass., eight months ended November 30, 1904; New Hampshire State, complete to
October 1, 1904; Rhode Island, for year ended July 30, 1904, and Virginia, year
ended March 1, 1905.

In Connecticut the law requires notification of retail dealers as to the character of
goods before prosecution. Upon notification the dealers withdraw the goods, so —
prosecutions are few. In Kansas information regarding examinations was published
in the newspapers, but there were no prosecutions. In New Hampshire desired
results have been obtained without resort to the courts. At Altoona, Pa., city health
officers merely assist the State food department.

In the District of Columbia, 237 samples examined were water, of which 55 proved
unsanitary; in Denver, Colo., 3,407 of the samples examined were cream, of which
10 were below standard; at Cambridge, Mass., 10 milk samples were colored and 2_
contained preservatives; at Detroit, of the samples below standard, 8, all from one
source, contained formaldehyde. Since the convictions noted no formaldehyde has
been found.

In Indiana the Fort Wayne milk samples were low in butter fats and watered.
The Indianapolis prosecutions brought $360 in fines, with costs. At Cleveland, Ohio,
samples below standard are exclusive of water samples.

In Massachusetts, the food samples at Cambridge were butter and vinegar; at Fitch-
burg and Holyoke, vinegar; at Lynn, decayed fruits.

In New Jersey, 8,827 examinations of meat, with 4 prosecutions, 3 convictions, and
1 case pending, are not included, and the Rochester, N. Y., milk samples do not
include 557 bacterial counts.

The Alabama conviction was for unsanitary conditions at dairy.

595

AND INSPECTION.

FOOD LEGISLATION

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———————— se CC

OF AGRIOULTURE,

THE DEPARTMENT

YEARBOOK OF

596

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597

AND INSPECTION.

FOOD LEGISLATION

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598 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED BY THE BUREAU OF SOILS.
By A. G. Rice, Chief Clerk, Bureau of Soils,

The following statement shows the location and extent of soil surveys made up to
December 31, 1904. Lithograph maps drawn on ascale of | mile to the inch, covering

Fic. 64.—Areas covered by the soil survey.

each area surveyed, indicate in colors the distribution of the various soil types. The
accompanying sketch map (fig. 64) gives the location of these areas.

The statement gives first the area surveyed for each minor division and then the
total for the State or Territory. The total for the United States is 88,858 square
miles, or 56,869,120 acres.

Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 81, 1904.

Alabama: Square miles. | California—Continued. Square miles,
Blount:County-.2acss.sseaeess 338 San Joseiaves 252% oven vass oede 313
Fort Payne area ..... oce.s.ace 509 ; Sante-Ana sree. 2.5 «cece eee 275
Huntsville area. o..5.0 ses ens 506 Soledad’ sheet... sscacsat ewes 155
Lauderdale County........... 315 Stockton area. cy ...k <-issen een 87
Macon County. +... sas seamence 621 Ventura sheet: -.2-> csene ees 240
Mobile areas. ice. oe conus seer 461 ——— 6,124
Montgomery County ......... 338 Colorado:
PGrey. COUNRTU. 2. wecatee scan oes 762 Arkansas Valley area ........ 945
Sumter COUR «oss esses caaes 893 Greeley GTS; 2. .cas nieces 687
——-__ 4, 748 San Us area: oi o.sniteueses 628
Arizona: ———__ 2, 260
Buekeve sheet. .< .'..d250hscass 43 Connecticut:
PHOGHER 5 oc; sis nso ainns Seas 243 Connecticut Valley... .....-.ssseneen
Solomonsville area ........... 108 Delaware:
TEMPS MLOCE.... 0. ssa wenedecns 163 Dover area
MIUIA GER 2 co casas ae 343 pie eee a
990 | Florida:
Pe ‘ Gadsden County..........-.0s 548
TXADEAS: ; Gainesville area.............. 485
Miller County i224 ..c0sce. 5 626 "ie
Stuttgart Pgs 2 MER i acne ge SP ce 261 Georgia: x
= fe ons 877 Bate nridee TCR . esis cia seisa'aae 364
California: Goob County... <..+ stances 346
Bakersfield area ...ce.....---- 195 . Covington area... co. ..+,dancace 225
WLCSNO ATES. 253.5 Sasae ccemee ss 628 Hada County 22s. sseecen was 489
Hanford area 216 Fort Valley'area... .. 3. de <e ons 186
Imperial area 1, 084 ——_ 1,610
Preriovares o.oo 525 WS Ag Be 234 Idaho:
Los Angeles area ............. 570 BOSC SNOCE wx < s Yenc ace eh teas 155
Sacramento area ............- 924 Blackfoot area.s......5...5-0% 428
Salinas sheet vi... cs dacssts. 5 189 Caldwell sheet ............... 244
San Bernardinoarea.......... 755 LOWIStOD Area... .cesceeacsad 308

San Gabriel area...........--- 259 ———— | ae

SS aa

SOIL AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED.

Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 81, 1904—Continued.

Illinois:
CREP RIOUNL LY «acgeddecuss cwhicus 460
RON COUNTY ...cscdb aes udeks 491
JORNSON COUNTY sos escvccsccs 839
BRS ZOUILUY < oe wins yews balena che 717
MOHAN COUNTY ....ccccccccsn 1,159
SPUMINOU ALOR oo. dec wcc cen te 68
Sangamon County............ 866
RAE OOUTIGY onic nce saws ma & 650
PREG WELL GOUNUY cc ones couces 645
Winnebago County........... 526
Indiana:
BOGM VIG GLOW. cas owsdacecewee 264
Madison County <.2.c2s..8256. 435
Marshall County ............. 445
OBEY GOUMUS ca. 20 kway anon 387
BSOGURUUUILUY Sacavccatuwatmane 197
Towa:
Cerro Gordo County .......... 567
SUPA UG ALCO «oad cic cnn since mn.s 440
SIGE COUDUY. cp ccelewad en eks 576
PL OUIGNUOULUYichuide we cate aivec ws 720
Kansas:
AMON GOUNUY «00s ects ub cee. 504
POG ia! COUNUY <<< duclec sas ahs 378
Garden City area ............. 335
PAULUS LOO cine 2 vis aicie tie wie bias 398
ROMANGI- LCR. We ots Ste wee st ccee 270
WiC ATOR S28. scmis ce Saldemies 465
Kentucky:
Maxson’ COUntY fo: s..0262 ees 225 ¢
BeOeMCOUMoy ces Secs hin alee 280
ATO (OUTED Y, 2 ss 6 ce ialommle mae 361
PVaTTem GOUNCY' 2. casewsiccs cess 533
Louisiana:
CMY BATISN & ciacneralee.s eecess 636
Ie SOLO EBLISU 2 o.cte de seuees 825
Lake Charles area,..........-. 202
New Orleans area .........-.. 410
Oimenite Parish 22. 5.2.cu-.- 605
TanpipaAnoe Parish! .....5..2.s 228
Maryland;
Gelert COUIMCY. 55s 0.06.0 e:nsicjo.es 217
OGMGOMMUY sence Soca Sale scan 3 376
Hartora County... = 22.0. 418
BRepumGOURL ase tos ees woes 293
Prince George County........ 480
St. Meaty OCOUNLY ss. -< o> ew cen'eo mp 363
Worcester County ............ 463
Massachusetts:
Connechcut Valley.....-...ctes<< cone
Michigan;
AMEN COUNL va s'sina «atm n'<0 828
PLT VALOR inc Co oic.s methine mis he 282
Munising Arend. ...0.)02%2 <2 S221 407
IWSHO ATOR ¢ 06s Joel eiins waste 270
BOMMISCiATCR W652 6 occ on Saws 307
SC UTIAWHEECE om wccmenae sss sae 984
Minnesota:
WEE ULC R i lin ecu toto mates ecmpeieeie
Mississippi:
Biloxi area ...... akeheemee aoe 615
SRORAOINOTORTS. . ooacnuaecauece 737
Mayersville sheet ............ 193
MENON) BLCR cones cs cawet ses 198
BIn@Ges ATOR et. ot vs eh ch ce nee 463
COTO LT) Se ee ae 463
Missouri:
Howell County. ss... ssc. vee 919
UH AMON ATCO. vn cosmo view ee 552
BGS NGOULLY <tc. concen spas ae 748
BCI Y. COUDLY < 5.5 .incscceuns 511
Webster County <<. ssewse sche 605
Montana:

Billings area .........cccccccccccccccs

Square miles,

5, 921

1, 728

2, 308

2, 350

1, 399

2, 906

2, 610
809

3, 078

2, 669

3, 335

Nebraska:
Grand Island area............
RECRTTICY. ATCH 5 svc vteccnsnecct 792
BIR OUOULALCA ose oviccviwesy cower $23
New Jersey:
UATE OR sc cab écees Cereeatt 493
MUPGIRUGUUCTCR soc ssccccbeverce 810
New Mexico:
CATISDAG SRECL. ....eccacecccss 80
TOR WRNUBNORE oduckdbedtsasvee 49
New York:
FANIDUIU OTC: Sas cud os eb bc de rea 461
PMR TCH ee. ae sss oe ota 223
OT VCs AMOR ord oe be vc ata awe’ oid 815
LOPS ISIANC AICR =. sc oes vei 845
RIV AGA AOE ais awl «itn So x me vig ws 515
PVUACUSE ATOR yc. cas ec eccee 416
Vergennes area. 2 os. .os08522 160
Westfield areaa<- . ..wnccceus 260
North Carolina:
Alamance County............ 365
NDE VIIOANeCR G..52 is =. boos 497
eRe Sin own ve ce te si 63
Glavionisheet ... 2.505 ..05.56n00 214
Cra VEN Gl Chic. yobs. ee estdase es 897
WUD ATEN es. Ses ess cscs so 340
Jahiel a0; At ist parry eee eee era 958
Kinston sheet is .26 i438. 25252 257
Mount Mitchell sheet ........ 497
NEW Dern ShECE ooo. oc il. 2 46
Parmele anred. o220 op cee ose 236
Perquimans and Pasquotank
COUNTIES ovens eee te 215
PriIMGeton SHEE. a= on. 0-- 0 22 248
Bale AnCALE 33 oot tenet See 190
Statesville area............... 784
North Dakota:
CANGO ATH . 2 4c. oe es ome 283
WATE OTOH =. 722 acemeee tecece 406
Grand: Forks, area ...6c.2-c\gsce< 314
JAMESTOWN ATER... sc ccscvecce 496
Ohio:
ACAD Ul avaTCH csc base voce 340
OMIM DUS: ATCA Ios. csccmcs es oe 472
Coshocton County. .2°.....<< - 551
Montgomery County ......... 480
RGU OLA CA i aks ecw mcs m 403
VON UCT VETO tf. kc atutcis.o'a, a <7 S<,3 469
Oregon:
alkcen Cipy OTCA) <5 .csied.<s'c- 158
Ae ARCH oes ca s:0- 5 curse sc 284
Pennsylvania:
ACEI COUNT, scicteicleieas cs ee 534
IGS NCASheMaArTea ...<40..65.06.<. 269
HeEpAROM ATeH:...2 6.5 55k. 0. 8 Se 669
hoekhaven*area! suis... 6s 278
Porto Rico:
ATEGIDO LO POUNCE... < coca ce sca cscs a
Rhode Island: -
SS Cey 2 oe SESS ee ee oe ee
South Carolina:
POPE VIE STCS oo oie socciedwiceone 1, 006
Geampovcllo eres =. .2..2-.... 515
CMO TICRbOT ATER -ooccdsc odes 352
Darlington ares <........05...- 599
Lancaster County ............ 486
Orangeburg area ............. 709
South Dakota:
LEV O}S oie Se i
Tennessee:
GIBTERVINIC TCR... 2 <.sc css 547
Wawason County. ...........-. 501
Greeneville area.............. 664
Lawrence County ............ 618
PIROVEUC SLCR .. -.....c0<csee, 440

599

Square miles.
446

1, 561

1, 303

129

3, 195

5, 837

1, 499

2,715

442

1, 750
330
1, 085

3, 667
484

2,770

600 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1904—Continued.,

Texas: Square miles. {| Virginia: Square miles,
Anderson County ............ 1, 069 Albemarle area ........-..--- 1,410
Austin area .......- ~ OP 705 Appomattox County .......-.. 340
BIABOTIA AYOR. os606esesdaet cas 845 BeagiorG QTOR os vcsecssecceducs 632
Houston County... scsseccess 430 Gloucester County ..........- 250
Jacksonville GrOR .s.veuctasce 100 LOGADOIG ATOR .icccdecucevccas 419
Boutin @YOG vsce one saee ee 99 NOPIOLE QYOO ce4 5 ccadscuedaea 303
Nacogdoches area.........-..- 97 Prince Edward County ...... 430
Pare AVOR: oso Cabeackieeeens 548 York Neck @FOG\siiscscecevene 405
San Antonio area ............ 484 —— 4,189
VORmOn QVGA. Sonos eedenes cones 277 :
illis are ‘ Washington:
eee Rotated ins tics = Sunnyside sheet..........---- 224
se bathatines as gt sot Ro aie Walla Walla area .........-.-. 201
Utah: ' Yakima sheet... .cec cswesenre 85
Bear River Valley..s.2c. ene 334 510
PIOVO: ALOR so usecwdvassicewonaes 373 Wisconsin:
Salt Lake sheet. i... pecs decee 249 JaNesville YOO. naw. ccsweces on 451
Bovie’ Valley wie w<sechcuceess 235 Superior ATQN. os 5205=ss cues 482
Weher County... <.ccseeaackes 310 ViITOUUG ALOR Re vols dee aaudtaen 504
——-— 1,501 ——-_ 1,487
Vermont: Wyoming:
Wervonnes AFGG. <.oc.c-eavcteasaseeere 227 Laramie aren s..iscstcaeds oes ee ee 309

THE PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1904.
By F. H. Currrenpen, Se. D., In Charge of Breeding Experiments, Bureau of Entomology.

The year 1904 has been the most remarkable in the memory of present-day ento-
mologists as regards the falling off in numbers of our most important insect pests.
This year has witnessed a very general continuation of conditions begun in 1901,
brought about chiefly by atmospheric changes, abnormally cold winters and cool
summers, and damp weather, which have caused a constant decrease of noxious
species in the country at large. Extreme losses from insects have been the exception,
and comparatively few forms have been more than locally troublesome. Nevertheless,
nearly as many complaints of insect injury have been received as in previous years.

The most important insect of the present is the Mexican cotton boll weevil, which
has extended its range in Texas and in Louisiana until it has now invaded fully a
third of the cotton-growing district of the United States. Also the bollworm has not
abated in the cotton region, and the leaf worm has been more abundant than for
many years past.

A single new pest has been introduced from abroad, the pepper weevil, which has
been destructive in Texas, having been brought or spread from Mexico. The
imported willow curculio, spreading by artificial means, has extended its distribution
westward perhaps more rapidly than hee been recorded of any other species, and is
now established in North Dakota. The strawberry thrips menaces the growing of
tobacco under shade as a means of producing ‘‘Sumatra’’ wrapper. The brown-tail
moth is steadily increasing its range, and unless stringent measures are adopted to
suppress the gypsy moth it seems probable that the latter species will also spread
beyond its present limit. The stalk borer has been more injurious than in many
previous years combined. The same is true of the onion and cabbage maggots, and
to a less extent of the seed-corn maggot and black onion fly. Some other root- —
infesting insects, notably wireworms and the beet aphis, have been prominent as
pests. Leaf-beetles and flea-beetles have been only locally troublesome in the Eastern
States, but west of the Mississippi Valley much injury to the sugar beet has been
accomplished by several species. Local outbreaks of cankerworms have been noted, —
and the cottony maple scale has been exceedingly troublesome over a very consid-
erable area. j

Such important orchard pests as the codling moth, plum curculio, peach-tree borer,
and fruit-tree bark-beetle, have been less injurious than usual. The commoner
garden insects have also been less abundant. Moderate losses have been incurred
from cabbage worms, and still less from the squash bug and squash-vine borer. —
General crop pests, such as cutworms, grasshoppers or locusts, white grubs, army
worms, and plant-lice, have been less troublesome than they ordinarily are. Fewer
complaints are received each year of the San Jose scale, partly owing to the fact that
remedial work which is being carried on against this pest generally throughout the
country has done much to lessen its ravages. The pea and bean weevils, Hessian fly,
chinch bug, blister beetles, and billbugs have scarcely been heard from. Some shade-
tree defoliators, particularly the fall webworm and elm leaf-beetle, were only locally
numerous and did no serious harm. Various insects of southern origin, which in

INJURIOUS INSEOTS IN 1904. 601

many years in the past have been destructive in the North, have practically disappeared
as pests. This is most true of the harlequin cabbage bug, the corn stalk-borers, and
cabbage looper. The last occurred so late and in such limited numbers as to be
easily controlled before material injury had been accomplished. Remarkably few
complaints were received of injury to stored cereal and other products.

As there has been no change in atmospheric conditions, the insect outlook for 1905
is very promising, there being no reason to believe that the same conditions which
have prevailed for several years past will not continue. As methods of controlling
insect pests are being carried out more extensively than ever before, even less injury
than hitherto is to be anticipated.

APPLE LEAF-HOPPER (//mpoasca mali LeB.).—Very destructive in nurseries in
Minnesota and Missouri, where it was given special study. It was very abundant
in the District of Columbia. Kerosene emulsion applied as a spray, using a specially
prepared apparatus with a wide-geared cart, promises success as a remedy.

AppLre MAGGor (Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh).—Apparently more abundant than
for several years past, particularly in Ohio.

ARMY worM, FALL (Laphygma frugiperda 8. & A.).—This species was reported
injuring rice plantations on the Cape Fear River, North Carolina, in July, and fields
of sorghum and grasses at Oswego, Kans., in early September. It also injured corn
in Barbados, West Indies.

ASPARAGUS BEETLE, COMMON (Crioceris asparagi Linn.).—Injurious in Maryland
and along the Hudson River in New York. A report has also been received of its
appearance in California, but this has not been verified.

BEAN LEAF-BEETLE (Cerotoma trifurcata Forst.).—Considerable injury to beans
- about Norfolk, Va. :

BEAN LADYBIRD ( Epilachna corrupta Muls.).—Very destructive in New Mexico.

Bepsue (Klinophilos [ Acanthia] lectularia Linn.).—Experiments with hydrocyanic
acid gas as a means of eradicating this species in dwellings, conducted in Virginia .
and the District of Columbia, were successful.

Beet ApHIs (Pemphigus bete Doane).—Serious injury to sugar beet. Observed
during the year in Utah, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Colorado.

BEET LEAF-MINER (Pegomya vicina Lint.).—Attracted attention in sugar-beet fields
in northern Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, California, Michigan, and Wis-
consin.

Bert sAwF ty ( Taxonus nigrisoma Nort.).—Reared from larve attacking sugar beet
and dock in northern Michigan.

BiLit-Bucs.—Not specially troublesome during the season, with one exception,
Sphenophorus callosus Ol., which was injurious to corn in Grant County, N. Mex.

Buack FLY (Simulium venustum Say ).—Given economic study in Texas.

BLIsTER BEETLES.—Much less numerous than in 1903. The black blister beetle
(Epicauta pennsylvanica DeG.) was injurious to onions in southern Texas by eating
the tops off near the ground. The striped and three-striped blister beetles ( Kpicauta
vittata Fab. and E. lemniscata Fab.) were reported completely stripping leaves and
_ squares of cotton, leaving only bolls, in South Carolina. The ash-gray blister beetle
( Macrobasis unicolor Kby.) was injurious to alfalfa at Knoxville, Tenn., and to alfalfa
and sugar beet in western Colorado.

BoLu WEEVIL, COTTON ( Anthonomus grandis Boh. ).—During the year 1904 this species
has extended its range in Texas and Louisiana, according to estimate by Mr. W. D.
- Hunter, to about one-third of the cotton area of the United States. The loss for the
season is estimated at $22,000,000. (See p. 191.)

Botiworm (Teliothis obsoleta Fab.).—According to estimates by Mr. A. L. Quain-
tance the injury occasioned by this pest, one year with another, to the principal
crops attacked results in losses about as follows: To sweet corn, $1,909,790; field
corn, $16,565,165; cotton, $11,650,820; tomatoes, $160,456, a total of $30,326,231.
Investigations by the Bureau of Entomology show that injury to cotton may be best
avoided by the production of the earliest crop possible.

Brown-taiL Mora (Huproctis chrysorrhea Linn. ).—This recently imported European
pest was the subject of special investigation by Mr. C. L. Marlatt, Bureau of Ento-
mology, in New England. It has spread in anortherly direction to new localities in
Maine and New Hampshire and has become established at St. Johns, New Brunswick.

CABBAGE MAGGOT, IMPORTED (Pegomya brassice Bouché).—Unprecedented damage
by this insect to cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, radish, and other crucifers in New
York, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Michigan, and Indiana.

CABBAGE worms.—Somewhat less than normally destructive. Toward the end of
August the imported cabbage worm (Pontia [Pieris] rape Linn.) appeared in great
numbers in the District of Columbia, but was completely checked by parasites. The
southern cabbage worm ( Pontia [ Pieris] protodice Boisd.-Lec. ) was injurious at Macon,
Ga.; the cross-striped cabbage worm (Lvergestis rimosalis Guen.) in the District

602 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. )

of Columbia. The cabbage looper (Autographa brassice Riley) was moderately
abundant near the District of Columbia, but was checked by arsenicals. The black-
headed horse-radish worm (Kvergestis straminalis Hbn.) was injurious to cabbage
near Ottawa, Canada, and in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The imported
cabbage webworm ( //ellula undalis Fab.) was very destructive in Georgia.

CALIFORNIA RED SCALE ( Aspidiotus aurantii Mask.).—Seriously infested citrus trees __
in California.

CANKERWORM, SPRING (Paleacrita vernata Peck ).—Increased in destructiveness in
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and eastern Kansas.

CANNA LEAF-ROLLER (Calpodes ethlius Cram.).—This caterpillar continued its ray-
ages on canna, doing particularly serious damage in canna fields in Alabama and at
New Orleans, La.

Carror BEETLE (Ligyrus gibbosus DeG.).—Observed injuring young sugar beet at
Sugar City and Rocky Ford, Colo. It was generally abundant and moderately inju-
rious in the corn-growing region of the South.

CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE ( Gralerucella cavicollis Lec.).—Very injurious to cherry and
peach foliage about Morgantown, W. Va.

CHESTNUT WEEVILS ( Balaninus rectus Say and SB. proboscideus Boh. ).—Attracted
similar attention to the previous year by their injury to chestnuts in Virginia and
Pennsylvania. Considerable study was devoted to the life economy of these species,
which has led to the discovery that bisulphid of carbon, cold storage, and certain
other remedies are effectual.

Cuincu BuG (Blissus leucopterus Say).—Less of a pest than for some time. A
report of injury to grasses in Florida was received.

CHINCH BUGS, FALSE (Nysius angustatus Uhl. and N. parallelus Uhl.).—Occasion of
considerable trouble by sucking the juices of various plants, including potato, mustard,
and strawberry in Texas, as well as similar injury in North Carolina and New Mexico.

CHRYSANTHEMUM LACE-BuUG (Corythuca marmorata Uhl. ).—Severe damage to chrys-
anthemum at Booneville, Miss., and Montgomery, Ala.

CIGARETTE BEETLE (Lasioderma serricorne Fab.).—Less destructive than in many
preceding years. It was quite troublesome in residences in Washington, doing dam-
age to rugs, carpets, and tapestry, and it was feared that it might spread to a valu-
able library. It was partially eradicated in one house by means of hydrocyanic acid
gas. Injury to cigars was reported from Indian Territory.

CoDLING MoTH ( Carpocapsa pomonella Linn. ).—Judging from reports, less destruc-
tive than usual during the year. A spray of arsenate of lead was extensively used
in Colorado with splendid results.

CoLAsPIS ROOTWORM (Colaspis brunnea Fab.).—The adult was reported damaging
cotton squares, bolls, and blossoms in Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee. Colaspis
favosa Say defoliated peach trees in north Georgia.

‘“CONCHUELA’’ ( Pentatoma ligata Say).—Much damage to cotton in northern Mex-
ico and the subject of special] investigation by A. W. Morrill, Bureau of Enioneaa

CoRN STALK-BORER ( Diatrea saccharalis Fab. ).—After having remained in the back-
ground for several years, this insect did considerable damage to corn near Hawkins-
ville,Ga. It was remarkably scarce in the South and not observed at all in the more ~
northern limits of its range.

Corron LEAF-wormM (Alabama [Aletia] argillacea Hbn.).—General infestation was
noted over Texas, Indian Territory, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, and in portions of
Mississippi. Extensive defoliation took place in September and October, and young |
bolls were gnawed. In Texas this unusual defoliation accomplished more good than
harm, since the loss of the shade afforded by the leaves created conditions unfavor-
able to the operations of the boll weevil in that State.

CoTTONY MAPLE SCALE (Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathv.).—More generally abun- ~
dant than in any year hitherto, causing considerable alarm in many regions, from —
New York, New Jersey, and West Virginia westward to Kansas, Colorado, and Sou
Dakota. Boxelder and elm, in addition to maple, were reported attacked. ;
Croton BuG ( Ectobia germanica Linn. ).—Successfully destroyed in dwellings in Vir- —
ginia by hydrocyanic acid gas fumigation, the effect being to stupefy the insects —
until they could be swept up and destroyed. 1

CowPEA-POD WEEVIL (Chalcodermus xneus Boh.).—Reported quite destructive to —
young cotton plants in Randolph and Terrell counties, Ga., during May. Simila
reports were received of injury in Alabama and Louisiana.

Cutworms.—Not the subject of very serious complaint during the year, although
injuries were noted in Michigan, Colorado, Georgia, and Texas. The red-backed —
cutworm (Paragrotis ochrogaster Guen.) was most injurious in Canada east of the
Rocky Mountains. The variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hbn.) did much
damage to cotton and peas in Georgia; also to cotton in Texas, and to carnations
in Michigan. Ww

‘

_INJURIOUS INSECTS IN 1904. 603

ELM LEAF-BEETLE, LARGER ( Monocesta coryli Say).—Destructive to elm foliage in
Virginia and West Virginia.

KLM LEAF-BEETLE, IMPORTED ( Galerucella luteola Mull. ).—On the whole, much less
troublesome than in earlier years. It made its first appearance at Dayton, Ohio,
and was recorded as far north as Glens Falls, N. Y.

FickLe mipGe (Seiara inconstans Fitch).—Normally abundant, and reported trou-
blesome on various greenhouse plants in the District of Columbia, Pennsylvania,
Illinois, and Nevada.

FLEA-BEETLES.—Not so destructive as usual. The eggplant flea-beetle (Jpitrix
fuscula Crotch) was concerned in injury to sugar beet in Colorado, Idaho, and Utah.
The potato flea-beetle ( Zpitrix cucumeris Harr.) caused a loss to potato growers in
Colorado, estimated at $500,000, injury having been chiefly due to the beetles
boring into the tubers. The red-legged flea-beetle (Crepidodera rufipes Linn.) was
destructive to the foliage of peach in Ohio and to peach and apple in West Virginia,
its attack following the clearing of locust for the planting of orchard trees. The
western cabbage flea-beetle ( Phyllotreta pusilla Horn) did great injury to sugar beet
in western Colorado and in Utah and Idaho. The pale-striped flea-beetle (Systena
blanda Mels.) did severe damage to cotton near Jackson, Ga., and S. teniata Say to
sugar beet in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific region.

FLOUR BEETLE, CONFUSED ( Triboliwm confusum Duy. ).—Considerable damage to malt
stored in St. Louis. It was also, with other grain insects, troublesome in stored
wheat at Columbus, Ohio, where it was successfully destroyed with bisulphid of
carbon. On the whole it was much less complained of than in 1903. Hydrocyanic
acid gas was thoroughly tested by the Bureau of Entomology, and, while not perfect,
proves a good remedy.

FULLER’S ROSE BEETLE (Aramigus fulleri Horn).—Abundant in strawberry fields in
Los Angeles County, Cal., where it was studied in cooperation with the Bureau of
Entomology.

GOOSEBERRY FRUIT FLY (Hpochra canadensis Loew).—Severely injured gooseberry
and currant in northern Colorado.

GRAPE ROOT-WoRM ( Fidia viticida Walsh ).—Less injurious in Ohio than in the past.
The long-legged grape fidia (Fidia longipes Mels.) did considerable damage to the
vine in North Carolina.

GRAPE BERRY-MOTH (Polychrosis viteana Clem. [Hudemis botrana auct.]).—Consid-
erable damage to vineyards in Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania.

GRASSHOPPERS OR Locusts.—Less troublesome during 1904 than for many years.
The conditions regulating the breeding habits of these species were studied by a
special agent of the Bureau of Entomology in Nebraska, northern Colorado, Wyo-
ming, Montana, and western Kansas, and were found to be greatly improving.

Gypsy motH (Porthetria [Ocneria] dispar Linn.).—Special study by the Bureau of
Entomology during the season. It appears to be still confined to the immediate
neighborhood of Boston, Mass., and Providence, R. I.

HARLEQUIN CABBAGE BUG (Murgantia histrionica Hahn).—This pest caused very
severe injury to cruciferous plants in Georgia and Texas, but near Washington, D. C.,
and northward it has almost entirely disappeared.

Hessian FLY (Mayetiola [ Cecidomyia] destructor Say ).—Taking the country at large,
the fly has been less of a pest during the last year than for some time.

Hop LousE or Apuis ( Phorodon humuli Schrank ).—A subject of special investiga-
tion in California. Spraying with kerosene emulsion, combined with tobacco and
with whale-oil soap combined with quassia, were effective in destroying the pest.

IDAHO OR MORMON CRICKET (Anabrus simplex Hald.).—Occurred in unprecedented
numbers in Routt County, Colo., and in some parts of Utah, destroying crops of
grain, hay, potatoes, and ‘‘everything planted in gardens.”’

JUNE BEETLE, GREEN ( Allorhina nitida Linn. ).—The white grub of this species was
reported injurious on tennis grounds on Long Island, and to celery and strawberry beds
in Virginia, but the beetle was rare beyond the memory of local entomologists about
the District of Columbia, and in Pennsylvania, which militated against reported
good results of the use of kerosene emulsion and whale-oil soap the previous year.

MEDITERRANEAN FLOUR MOTH (Ephestia kuehniella Zell.).—Reported as causing
injuries in mills in new localities in California, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Iowa, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and Georgia.

MeEton Louse ( Aphis gossypii Gloy. ).—Troublesome in melon districts in Colorado.

Mosquitoes ( Culicide ).—Mosquitoes were the subject of more extensive investiga-
tions in this country as well as abroad than in any previous year. Work on a con-
siderable scale was done in New York and New Jersey, and is planned for the future.

‘“New OrvLEANS’’ ANT (Iridomyrmex humilis Mayr.).—Caused serious trouble in
dwellings in New Orleans, its ravages extending to fields, flower beds, and sidewalks.
It was also troublesome in carrying and fostering aphides, scales, and mealy bugs.

604 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ONION PLY, BLACK (Tritoxa fleca Wied.).—Ordinarily considered rare as a pest,
completely de stroyed a crop of onions in store in one locality in Pennsylvania. The
insects continued breeding in the onions until nothing but a shell was left.

ONION MAGGOrP ( Pegomya cepetorum Meade).—This was one of the most injurious
insects of the year, appearing to be prevalent throughout its range, or wherever
onions are grown in the more northern States. The losses following its ravages were
enormous. General infestation of onion fields was reported in New York, New Jer-
sey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Ohio. Reports
were also received from Texas and Oregon.

OYSTER-SHELL SCALE (Mytilaspis pomorum=Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn. ).—From western
Pennsylvania (about Pittsburg), Ohio, and Illinois come reports of serious injury to
poplar, willow, lilac, elm, and horse-chestnut. In northern Ohio nurserymen are
experiencing great difficulty i in controlling this scale.

PEA LousE ( Neclarophora destructor Johns. [ pisi?] ).—Conspicuous by an almost com-
plete absence of complaints, but was noted in Colorado for the first time. Its pres-
ence was reported in New Jersey.

Pear siua@ (Eriocampoides limacina Retz.):—Destructive in cherry orchards in —
Ohio. About the District of Columbia it was somewhat less abundant than usual.

PECAN WEEVIL (Balaninus caryae Horn).—Injury to pecan by this species was
reported in Texas, Arkansas, and Georgia. Some investigations on its life history
were conducted by the Bureau of Entomology in cooperation with correspondents.

PEPPER WEEVIL (Anthonomus xnicotinctus eel ).—Observed injuring pepper in
southern Texas, where it has evidently been introduced or spread from Mexico.

Puantr-puacs (uschistus servus Say, E. variolarius Beauy., and LH. tristigmus Say).—
Observed in great numbers in September in the District of Columbia attacking aspara-_
gus, the first two mentioned also puncturing the pods of okra. CUbalus pugnax Fab., —
a common grass feeder, threatened rice fields in Louisiana. Hilarious green plant-
bug ( Nezara hilaris Say} was injurious to cotton in the South, and to okra in the
District of Columbia and vicinity.

PLUM curRCULIO ( Conotrachelus nenuphar Hbst.).—About held its own as the most —
important enemy of stone fruits. It has increased markedly as an apple pest.
Experiments conducted with a spray of arsenate of lead have given considerable
measure of success, particularly when combined with the careful gathering of wind-
falls, and the agitation of the soil in which the curculios pupate in July and August. —
In Georgia 15 to 20 per cent of the peach crop was rendered unmarketable through
this species. In Ontario, Canada, it destroyed the greater part of the plum crop.

POND-LILY LEAF-BEETLE ( Galerucella nympheex Linn.).—Great numbers in the Dis-
trict of Columbia attacking the leaves of basket willow and beans, showing capability —
of considerable damage to both plants. The species lives normally on pond lily
(Nympheea) and arrowhead (Sagittaria) .

POWDER-POST BEETLES (Lyctus spp.).—Injury by Lyctus unipunctatus Hbst. was—
noted on the woodwork of electric cars at Steubenville, Ohio.

PURPLE SCALE ( Mytilaspis citricola Pack. ).—Reported ‘to be effectually controlled in
Los Angeles County, Cal., by an introduced ladybird, Rhizobius lophantx Blaisd.

RADISH MAGGOT ( Anthomyia radicum (?)). —Troublesome in Colorado and Canada. —

Rice Grus (Chalepus trachypygus Burm.).—Very abundant in the South, espe-
cially in the fall in cane fields of southern Louisiana.

RosE LEAF-BEETLE ( Nodonota puncticollis Say ).—Unusually destructive in Maryla
and Virginia, playing havoe with rose bushes, fruit and shade trees, strawberry plated
and shrubbery on lawns.

RosE WorM, BRISTLY ( Cladius pectinicornis Fourc. ).—Was destructive from the De
trict of Columbia to Missouri.

San José ScaE ( Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.).—Complaints of this species g ») wo
fewer each year. The remedy which gives most promise of success is the lin
sulphur- salt wash, which has been used with profit generally during the year, notabl: ly )
in New York, Pennsyly ania, North Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia.

SEED-CORN MAGGOT (Pegomya fusciceps Zett. . —Exceedingly troublesome, especially
in the South—in North Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida—as also in New York.
Beans, peas, onion, cantaloupe, cucumber, squash, potato, and cabbage were ©
principal crops damaged. se

SowsuGs.—In all years the subject of more or less complaint, these creatures he
been studied this year, with the result that it has been practically demonstrated # th:
they are more troublesome than generally supposed hitherto. The species under
special observation were Armadillidium vulgare Latr. and Porcellio laevis Latr. —

SquasH BUG ( Anasa tristis DeG.).—Continues in abeyance, but a limited outbreak
occurred in Ohio. Bie

INJURIOUS INSECTS IN 1904. 605

STALK BORER (Papaipema nitela Guen.).—More destructive in 1904 than hitherto
recorded, operating in most thick-stalked plants, and doing particular injury to corn,
potato, and tomato; strawberry and other bush fruits; dahlia and related ornamental
plants; as also to wheat and oats. Numerous outbreaks were reported in Pennsy]-
vania and New York, through Ohio to Iowa, Nebraska, and Missouri. Less general
injury was noted in Arkansas, West Virginia, North Carolina, and Connecticut.

STRAWBERRY CROWN GIRDLER ( Otiorhynchus ovatus Linn. ).—Conspicuous pest Maine
westward to Montana. In Montana and British Columbia, destructive to berry.

STRAWBERRY WEEVIL ( Anthonomus signatus Say ).—Complaints of this species were
made in Anne Arundel County, Md., and in North Carolina. In the latter State the
loss was estimated at from 10 to 50 per cent of the crop, or $100,000.

SUGAR-BEET ARMY WoRM (Caradrina exigua Hbn.),—Outbreaks of this species
occurred in southern California.

SUGAR-BEET CROWN-BORER ( //ulstia undulatella Clem. ).—Injurious to sugar beet in
southern California.

SUGAR-BEET LEAF-BEETLES (Monowia puncticollis Say and M. consputa Lec. ).—Very
destructive to sugar beet in Colorado, Utah, and Idaho. They are usually present
in the alkali districts, whence the name of ‘‘alkali bugs.’’

SUGAR-BEET WEBWORM (Lovostege sticticalis Linn.).—Extremely and generally
destructive to sugar beet in Colorado east of the Rocky Mountains, its operations
extending over thousands of acres. Spraying with Paris green proved effective.
This and the other sugar-beet pests mentioned were observed by Mr. E. 8. G. Titus,
of the Bureau of Entomology.

SUGAR-CANE BEETLE ( Ligyrus rugiceps Lec. ).—Very destructive to cane in Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Texas, where it was studied by Mr. Titus.

SWEET-POTATO WEEVIL ( Cylas formicarius Fab. ).—Continued its destructive work in
Louisiana and Texas, and was reported injurious in Cuba as well.

TARNISHED PLANT-BUG (Jygus pratensis Linn.).—Cause of unusual damage to chrys-
anthemums grown at Haverford, Pa., the principal injury being due to the dying of
the tips without blossoming. In the vicinity of the District of Columbia the species
was somewhat unusually rare.

TERRAPIN SCALE ( Lecanium nigrofasciatum Perg.).—Reports of serious infestations of
peach, plum, and maple trees come from districts in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir-
ginia, and Ohio. This scale insect occurs on more than twenty different host-plants.

Tunrips.—Different species attracted considerable attention. The onion thrips
( Thrips tabaci Lind.) reduced the normal yield of onions in one locality in Ohio by
25 per cent, causing the characteristic blast due to this species. In Texas, in Dimmit
County, an entire crop of 600 acres was infested. Similar attack was reported in
Kimble County. Thestrawberry thrips ( Thrips tritici Fitch) was injurious to tobacco
and to blackberry and strawberry blooms in Florida. It threatens to ruin the tobacco
crop of that State, more especially where ‘‘Sumatra wrapper’’ is grown under shade.
An unidentified thrips did damage in Santa Clara County, Cal., to prune trees by
blasting the petals, the loss footing up into the thousands. The cestrum thrips (/elio-
thrips femoralis Heeg.) was present in greenhouses in the District of Columbia and
injured sugar beets grown for experimental purposes.

TWIG GIRDLER ( Oncideres cingulata Say ).—Attracted considerable attention in Texas
in November, injuring pecan, elm, cotton, rose bushes, pear, hackberry, and salt
cedar. Rose bushes were also injured in Florida; hickory, elm, and locust, as well
as pecan, in Arkansas; and pecan in North Carolina and Mississippi.

WATERCRESS LEAF-BEETLE (Phedon exruginosa Suffr.).—A new enemy to water-
cress in Pennsylvania in 1903, this beetle did similar injury in 1904, but it is believed
that it can be controlled by growing watercress in running water and removing it
from houses and ponds where running water can not be obtained.

WILLOW CURCULIO, IMPORTED ( Cryptorhynchus lapathi Linn. ).—Reported doing injury
in Ohio, New York, and Michigan, and to have been introduced into North Dakota
from Minnesota, showing very rapid distribution through commerce. °

West [INDIAN PEACH SCALE ( Diaspis pentagona Targ.).—Many complaints of damage
from this scale are sent in from Atlantic States south of Pennsylvania. It infests a
wide range of plants, but principally peach, cherry, and apricot.

Wrreworms ( Elateridx).—Ditferent species were prevalent in various localities and
injurious to a variety of crops. At Auburn, N. Y., they injured the roots of cabbage;
at Oxnard, Cal., sugar beets; in Indiana and Virginia, corn. The species in the
last State were Melanotus communis Gyll. and M. cribulosus Lec. In the cotton States
much injury, which was not verified, was attributed to the click-beetle, Monocrepi-
dius vespertinus Fab., on cotton bolls.

ZEBRA CATERPILLAR (Mamestra picta Harr.).—Reported injurious during July to
pee tery in northern Michigan; to garden beets and other vegetable crops at Pitts-

urg, Pa.

606 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

d
GAME PROTECTION IN 1904.
By T. 8. Paumer, Assistant, Biological Survey.

During the year 1904 substantial progress was made in game protection, not only |
in legislation and in administration of the laws, but also in the increased attention
which was given to methods of preserving or increasing the stock of game and to the
establishment of game refuges and State parks. Widespread interest in the protec-

tion of migratory birds was aroused by the Shiras bill (H. R. 15601), which pro-
posed to place migratory game under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government.
This measure was introduced in the House of Representatives on December 5, 1904,
and referred to the Committee on Agriculture, but was not reported, and conse-
quently did not pass at this session of Congress. Its introduction, however, served
to call attention to the subject, and will probably exert a marked influence in the
progress of this phase of game protection.

The amount of legislation was small in comparison with that of 1903, owing to the
few legislatures in session in even years. It compares favorably, however, with that
of either 1900 or 1902, by which it may be properly measured. Twelve of the 17
States and Territories which held legislative sessions during the year made some
changes in their game laws. Louisiana and Ohio adopted general game Jaws, and
Louisiana and Mississippi passed the uniform law for the protection of nongame
birds already in force in 27 States and 3 Canadian Provinces. Several States gave
increased protection to shore birds: Louisiana and Ohio added them to the list of
protected game, New York abolished spring shooting, and Massachusetts shortened
their sale season; snipe were added to the game list of lowa, and upland plover to—
that of New Jersey. An advance was made in opening up Louisiana to nonresident
hunters under license and allowing them the privilege of carrying home a limited
amount of game and in requiring licenses from unnaturalized foreign-born residents
hunting in the State. Vermont, only a few days prior to the opening of the deer
season, adopted the license system and required a $15 license of nonresidents hunt-
ing deer in the State. Among other changes in the license system may be men-
tioned the Maryland requirement of a $10 license for shooting on the Patuxent River,
and the Nova Scotia $30 moose license. Ohio reduced the license fee from $25 to
$15, and Kentucky, following Tennessee, adopted the system of charging each non-
resident the fee demanded of nonresidents in his own State. Bag limits were placed
on wild turkeys and waterfowl by Iowa, and on all game by Louisiana, and the bag
limit on partridges was reduced by Vermont.

Among the retrograde tendencies of the year’s legislation were the defeat in Mary-
land of all general game bills, except the game-warden bill, and the enactment of 17
county game laws; the passage of a bill in New Jersey permitting spring shooting of
Wilson snipe and lengthening the seasons for other shore birds and waterfowl; the
removal in Virginia of all protection from Wilson snipe; and the adoption of measures
in Ohio reestablishing spring shooting of waterfowl, removing protection from prairie
chickens and wild turkeys, and allowing a season for doves, previously protected —
throughout the year.

,
a
LEGISLATION, j |
a
4
|

- DECISIONS.

Rarely, if ever, have so many important questions in game protection been decided
in a single year as in 1904. Eleven game decisions of more or less general interest —
were rendered by the higher courts in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Georgia, —
Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, and New York. In Arkansas the provision absolutely —
prohibiting nonresidents from hunting in the State was held by the supreme courté —
to be unconstitutional in so far as it interfered with landowners hunting on their own
premises (State 7. Mallory, 83 8. W., 955). In Illinois an equally important license
decision was rendered by the supreme court of Illinois in the case of Cummings . —
The People (71 N. E., 1031). In this decision the right of the State to discriminate
against nonresidents was also sustained and in addition it was decided that lands
owned or rented as game preserves were not farm lands in the meaning of the law
and hence owners and tenants were not entitled to hunt without a license. The
Colorado decision (Hornbeke v. White, 76 Pac., 926) upheld the constitutionality of
the game law of 1899. This case, the first game case in the State ever carried to the

aIn the Yearbook for 1903, page 567, reference was made to this case, which had then been recen tly
decided by the circuit court of Crittenden County. f

BIRD AND GAME PROTECTION. 607

court of appeals, involved the possession of 300 deer hides, and resulted in a vindica-
tion of the authority of the State to maintain its title in the game and to prescribe
the conditions under which game should be killed or held in possession.

Two important decisions were handed down in Minnesota, one sustaining the right
to prevent trespass on private land used as a duck pass (L. Realty Co. v. Johnson,
100 N. W., 94), the other considering the question of excessive fines (State v. Poole,
100 N. W., 647). In the latter decision a fine of $10 to $25 for each bird illegally in
possession was held to be not excessive, even though the minimum fine for the pos-
session of 2,000 ducks would amount to $20,000.

The supreme court of Nebraska likewise handed down two game decisions, one
holding, among other things, that a fine of $5 for each prairie chicken unlawfully in
possession was not excessive (McMahon »v. State, 97 N. W., 1035), the other that the
provision of the game law authorizing confiscation of guns and other hunting para-
phernalia was unconstitutional in so far as it permitted such property to be confis-
cated without due process of law. (McConnell v. McKillip, 99 N. W., 505. )

Two adverse decisions were rendered in New York, one by the appellate division
of the supreme court in a case involving the possession of 36 snow buntings (The
People v. Cohen, 86 N. Y. Supp., 475), and the other by the court of appeals, finally
dismissing the case against the Arctic Freezing Company (The People v. Bootman,
66 N. E., 1113). The latter had been before the courts since 1901 and had attracted
widespread attention on account of the large fines involved. The main question at
issue was whether the State law applied to game imported from other States. The
court held that although the law in force at the time the seizure was made did not
apply to imported game, nevertheless it was competent for the State to enact such a
law. This has already been done in chapter 141 of the acts of 1902.

EDUCATIONAL WORK.

With the ever increasing complexity of game laws the necessity for making their
provisions better known and the need of educational work become more and more
apparent. Most of the States now publish their game laws in separate form, but a
few make no such provision and the public often find difficulty in securing copies of
the law or ascertaining the latest amendments. Oregon has recently authorized the
publication of 1,500 and New York of 18,000 copies of the game law. In Illinois
nearly 200,000 copies of the game law have been distributed during the past two years,
and in some sections of North Carolina the wardens are required as part of their duties
to post notices containing a digest of the laws and to make a systematic house-to-house
distribution of literature on game protection. In carrying on its educational work
the Audubon Society of North Carolina distributed through its wardens and by mail
over 136,000 copies of publications relating to birds and game protection. In the field
of educational work the national committee of Audubon societies during the three
years of its existence has taken an important place and is constantly extending its
sphere of usefulness. Its main activities during 1904 were directed toward increasing
public sentiment in favor of bird protection by distributing publications and coor-
dinating the efforts of the State societies; assisting the different States to secure
the passage of better laws; aiding in the enforcement of laws by maintaining wardens
to guard the important breeding colonies of birds on the Atlantic coast and in Oregon;
cooperating with various agencies to secure protection for birds on the islands of the
Pacific, to restrict the traffic in native song birds in the United States, and to prevent
the use of plumage of nongame birds for millinery purposes. Its influence thus
extends to every phase of bird protection, to every State and Territory, and even
beyond the limits of the Union.

ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS.

Several changes occurred in the methods of enforcement of State laws. Kentucky
made provision for appointment of county fish and game wardens, and Ohio reor-
ganized its existing system. Maryland enacted a new game warden law, legislating
all deputies out of office, which led to a practical suspension of the warden work for
several months on account of the delay in appointing new deputies. In Maine the
omission from the Revised Statutes of 1903 of the right to search without warrant
seriously handicapped the commission of that State in its efforts to detect illegal ship-
ments of game and resulted in the export of considerable quantities of game to the
Boston market. In Massachusetts the commission finally obtained the right to search
with warrant and was enabled to enforce the law much more effectively than formerly.

The large receipts from fees in some of the States which have adopted the license
system, notably Illinois, Maine, and Wisconsin, made it possible to place the warden
service in those States on a firm basis and permitted a more effective enforcement of

608 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the law than has heretofore been feasible. In Wisconsin 90 deputies were regularly
employed under salary and in Illinois 114. The number of prosecutions for violation
of the game laws in Illinois from July 1, 1908, to December 17, 1904, was 321, of which
84 per cent resulted in conviction. In Maine 65 cases of illegal killing of moose were
reported. Many of these lacked the evidence necessary for prosecution, but a number
of convictions were secured; in each of 4 cases the offender paid a fine of $500, and
in a fifth case served a sentence of four months in jail. In Montana one of the most
noted game cases in recent years was brought to a successful conclusion. The
defendant, a resident of New York, was convicted of unlawfully killing 4 mountain
sheep in Teton County and 1 antelope in Fergus County and was fined $500 for each
offense. In North Carolina, where a force of 45 wardens was employed by the
Audubon Society, 66 convictions were secured, of which 25 were for killing game out
of season, 18 for violation of the nongame bird law, and 17 for hunting on other
persons’ land without permission. Pennsylvania paid special attention to the enforce-
ment of the law relating to foreigners hunting without license and secured 117 con-
victions for this offense, or nearly 25 per cent of all the year’s convictions under the _
game law. |

In New Jersey the number of convictions for violations of the game laws was 308, 4
or over 90 per cent of the prosecutions, and of these 103 were for offenses against the __
provisions protecting nongame birds. Several severe penalties were imposed, among __
which may be mentioned 4 fines of $100 each, one of $140, and 18 sentences of
imprisonment for periods ranging from 10 days for killing a snowbird to 90 days for
killing 2 robins.

A new field of activity for warden forces was developed through the loss of birds
occasioned by the severe winter of 1903-4. Arrangements were made by the State
wardens of Maryland and Indiana to feed quail and other game birds during severe
weather, grain for this purpose being purchased and distributed by the regular dep-
uties. Efforts along the same line were made by associations and private individu-
als. These measures were so successful that feeding birds in winter is likely to
become a regular feature of warden work.

CONDITION OF THE GAME.

Unfortunately no means now exist for obtaining detailed reports on the condition
of game in various parts of the United States. The reports of State game officials
often leave much to be desired, and only occasionally a special report is made like
that recently undertaken in Massachusetts. Enough data are, however, available
to show the general conditions existing in certain sections. The cold winter of 1903-4
caused great mortality among the quail in Indiana and Michigan, and particularly in
Massachusetts, where 90 per cent of the birds were estimated to have perished. The
condition of ruffed grouse in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania was likewise unsatis-
factory, butin Minnesota and Wisconsin the birds were more than usually abundant,
so much so that they were brought into the Chicago market in sufficient numbers to
lower the price. In Michigan conservative estimates by deputy wardens stationed
along the lines of the Detroit and Mackinac and the Michigan Central railroads placed
the number of partridges carried south over these roads during the open season at
more than 16,000. Careful investigation on the part of the game commissioner of
Illinois, based on reports collected from the wardens during each month in the
autumn, showed the condition of game of his State to be very satisfactory. Prairie
chickens, which had been protected for two years, were found in two-thirds of the —
counties, and in some sections were rapidly increasing. In Nebraska the strict
enforcement of the nonexport law, preventing shipment of game in large quantities —
to eastern markets, was largely responsible for a greater abundance of prairie —
chickens than had been noted for several years. In Montana the season was espe- —
cially favorable for upland game birds. The autumn flight of woodcock in the —
Middle and North Atlantic States was unusually good, and many birds were reported —
from various sections. The flight of waterfowl both in the Mississippi Valley and —
along the Atlantic coast was also larger than usual. In Currituck County, N. C.,
the local gunners received about $100,000 for the ducks and geese sold during the —
winter of 1904-5. States in the North which have stopped spring shooting report
ducks breeding in many places where recently they were unknown, as, for example, in
western and northern New York, where four species remained to breed in the summer
of 1904. A striking illustration of the effect of spring protection was afforded in Mon-

«Forbush, The Decrease of Certain Birds in New England, Auk, XXII, pp. 25-31, 1905. A more
extended paper is to appear in the Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture now in
press. 4

BIRD AND GAME PROTECTION. 609

tana. In 1903 shooting was stopped at the beginning of the year, and thousands of
ducks bred and reared their young in the State, but in 1904, the game law having
been declared unconstitutional and the previous law revived, no protection was
afforded until May 1, and it was rare to find asingle brood on ponds where hundreds
of birds could have been seen the previous year.

In the case of big game there seems to have been a decrease in deer in some of the
principal States in the East and an increase in some parts of the West. Maine reports
some decrease in moose and a marked decrease in the number of deer during the
past two years, attributed to the fact that killing has probably exceeded the annual
increase. In 1904, 222 moose and 3,558 deer were shipped through Bangor, as com-
pared with 232 moose and 3,786 deer in the previous year; but these figures by no
means represent the entire number of big game killed in the State. In the Adiron-
dacks many deer perished during the winter. This destruction was at first attributed
to disease, but was afterwards considered to be due to the severe season. The num-
ber of deer shipments was noticeably less than that of the previous year, comprising
1,618 carcasses, 124 saddles, and 152 heads, as compared with 1,961 carcasses, 145
saddles, and 188 heads in 1903. The number of black bears killed in 1904 was 106.

In Michigan there was a decided falling off in the number of deer killed—7,000 as
compared with 22,000 in 1908. This decrease was probably due in part to unfavor-
able weather during the open season of 1904, and also in part to the increase of wolves.
In Montana the warden reports a steady increase in big game during the last three
years: moose, caribou, and mountain sheep, now absolutely protected, are becoming
numerous; mountain goats are probably more numerous than in any other State,
except Washington; deer are increasing in all parts of the State, and elk are very
plentiful in many sections, the number being estimated at 25,000 to 30,000 or more.
In Wyoming also the State warden reports the outlook very favorable. Moose
have absolute protection; sheep are now found in the Shoshone, Teton, Gros
Ventre, Wind River, and Bighorn mountains, and a few hundred are stil! left;
deer are scattered throughout the State and show a decided increase during the past
three years. Antelope are still numerous in Crook and Weston counties, a few hur-
dred range in Shirley Basin in Carbon County, and about 5,000 in Uinta, Fremont,
and Sweetwater counties. About 200 elk are found in the Big Horn Mountains and
about 25,000 in the Yellowstone Forest Reserve. The big game killed in 1904 num-
bered about 560 antelope and 1,100 elk, but statistics are lacking in the case of deer
and mountain sheep. The acting superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park
reports that the winter of 1903-4 was a favorable one for the game in the park.
The new buffalo herd now numbers 39. Mule deer are increasing and becoming
tamer each year, 120 being counted on the parade ground of Fort Yellowstone one
day during the winter. The band of mountain sheep which winters on Mount
Evarts did well, and a new band of about 100 was seen near the northwestern corner
of the park. The herd of antelope which winters near Gardiner also did well, and
about 1,150 were counted during the winter. The number of bear remains about
the same. Mountain lions are increasing, and are so destructive to elk, deer, and
mountain sheep that it has been necessary to take steps to destroy them.

IMPORTATIONS OF LIVE MAMMALS AND BIRDS.

During the calendar year 330 mammals and 271,342 birds were imported into
the United States under permit. Among the mammals were 11 beaver from Canada
and 106 squirrels from Europe. Of the birds 232,617 were canaries, 942 pheasants,
3,568 quail, 1,043 other game birds, and 33,172 miscellaneous species. Among the
last-mentioned species were several from India seldom brought to the United States,
a horned screamer and several other rare species from South America,and a Somali
ostrich (Struthio molydophanes), the first ever brought to this country. Two ship-
ments of 50 Madagascar weavers ( Foudia madagascariensis) are also of interest, as they
belong to a species which might become injurious should it once gain a foothold
in this country.

Several entries, both of eggs and birds, show the progress of efforts to stock covers
with foreign game birds, chiefly pheasants, partridges, quail, capercailzie, and black
grouse. The total number of eggs imported was 2,858, of which about 660 were
‘those of partridges and the remainder those of pheasants. Among the consignments
of game birds was one containing 192 Hungarian partridges, destined for South Caro-
lina. In spite of repeated attempts, the introduction of the European partridge into
the United States has not yet been satisfactorily accomplished, and experiments with
eggs are not more successful than with birds, less than 50 per cent of those imported in
1904 having hatched. The importation of Chinese quail for market purposes in
California was practically stopped early in the year by the enforcement of a provision

2 al904——39

610 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the State law prohibiting the sale of these birds. Two shipments of Mexican
quail, one for California, the other for Bowling Green, Ky., also deserve mention.
By far the most interesting game birds imported, however, were about 100 capereailzie
and 25 black grouse. These birds were liberated on Grand Island, Mich., which
a private corporation is converting into an important game preserve. This experi-
ment marks a notable step in the introduction of the capercailzie into America, and its
result will be watched with even greater interest than that made by the fish and
game commission of Ontario in 1903.

PRESERVES.

The interest in private preserves continues to increase in all sections of the country.
The record of the year shows the establishment of at least 25 private preserves in a
dozen or more States. In California, particularly, ducking grounds are in great
demand, and the number of preserves has increased rapidly in recent years. In
Southern California, where suitable grounds are scarce, artificial ponds have been
constructed and lands overflowed in some cases to make conditions more attractive
to the birds.

The movement toward establishing State game refuges and parks received added
impetus in several Eastern States. In Indiana the forest reserve at Henryville was
stocked with Mongolian pheasants. In Minnesota some 20,000 acres of land in St.
Louis County north of Lake Superior were given to the State by act of Congress of
April 28, 1904. This reservation, while primarily for experimental forestry, may in
time become a forest, fish, and game preserve. In New York the legislature fixed —
the boundaries of the Catskill Park and set aside all lands now owned by the State —
within these limits. In pursuance of the policy of restocking the Adirondack Park, it
made an appropriation of $500 for the purchase of beaver and seven of these animals _
were obtained as a nucleus for future colonies. Better success is anticipated than _
in the case of the moose, which have already disappeared, although liberated only a
year or two ago. The herd of 22 elk introduced in 1901 has increased to about 200.

Progress in the matter of Federal game refuges was quite as marked as that in
the case of State parks. On Pelican Island Reservation, Florida, established in 1908,
conditions were unusual. The pelicans arrived at the reservation early in the season
and began to nest on two small flats adjoining the main island, but in February a
storm destroyed many of the eggs and young, and the birds left the reservation early
in the spring. In November, however, they returned in considerable numbers and
began nesting as usual on the main island, where they are guarded by a warden and
are protected by the State law. A second small reservation comprising Breton, Old
Harbor, and Free Mason islands, off the coast of Louisiana near the mouth of the
Mississippi River, was set aside by order of the President on October 4, 1904, as a
game refuge and breeding ground for birds. Large numbers of ducks resort to these
islands in winter and certain species of terns breed there in spring and summer. A
bill to create a game refuge in the Wichita Forest Reserve was favorably reported by
the Committee on Public Lands of Congress and passed the House of Representatives
on December 12. A few weeks later it passed the Senate, and on January 24, 1905,
became a law. This is the largest game refuge of the kind in the United States. —
When the general bill authorizing the President to establish game refuges which has
been pending before Congress for two years or more is finally passed, similar refuges «
will undoubtedly be established in other forest reserves in the West.

STATE ROAD LEGISLATION AND APPROPRIATIONS.
By M. O. Evpripexr, Road Expert, Office of Public Road Inquiries.

A considerable share of the lawmaking in regard to roads during 1904 was directed
toward the regulation of motor vehicles on country highways. Much attention was
also given to measures intended to stimulate and aid in the construction and improve-
ment of roads.

Connecticur.—The regular biennial appropriation for State aid in road building
was available. It amounted to $225,000 for 1903-1904. Bi.

DerLaware.—Under a law passed in 1903 the State appropriation for road building
in 1904 was $30,000. The State pays one-half theexpenses of public-road construction.

Iowa.—Three laws were made in April, 1904. First was an act (chap. 73, 1904)
empowering county and city authorities named to procure, under condemnation il
necessary, any lands needed for gravel or other material for improving roads anc
streets. A second law (chap. 52, 1904) provides for the appointment of a State high-

ROAD LEGISLATION AND APPROPRIATIONS. 611

way commission. The Iowa State College, at Ames, is to act as such commission.
The duties of the commission shall be to devise and adopt plans and systems of high-
way construction and maintenance, disseminate practical information on road con-
struction, and assist in building object-lesson roads. The control of automobiles is
the object of third act (chap. 53, 1904), providing registration, numbering, limit of
speed, brakes, bells, lamps, signals, etc., for motor vehicles. Violation is punishable
by $25 fine for a first offense; $25 to $50 fine, or jail sentence not exceeding thirty
days, for subsequent offenses.

Kerntucky.—Provision for the issue of county bonds to obtain money for road
construction is made by a law passed in March (chap. 77, 1904). Submission to a
vote of the people of the county is required, and a petition of 15 per cent of the
qualified voters must precede such submission. A county tax not to exceed 50 cents
on $100 may be levied to pay off the bonds. Another act (chap. 98, 1904) enables
the road supervisor to condemn by legal process land or material needed for build-
ing roads or bridges. A motor-vehicle law (chap. 122, 1904) fixes a speed limit,
requires reasonable precautions to prevent frightening draft horses on the road, and
provides for lights and signals. The penalty is a fine of $10 to $100.

Marytanp.—Motor vehicles (chap. 518, 1904) must be registered, numbered, pro-
vided with lights, brakes, locks, and signals, and limited to speeds named in the law.
The motor vehicle must stop at the roadside when animals in transport or in use are
frightened by it; and racing of any kind is forbidden. The penalty for violation is
from $20 to $1,000 or three months in jail. Another act (chap. 225, 1904) provides
State aid for road building to a maximum of $200,000 annually, one-half of cost to be
paid by the State. This aid is apportioned to each county in the ratio of the county’s
public-road mileage to the total State mileage.

Massacuuserts.—City and town governments are authorized (chap. 125, 1904) to
contribute money, labor, or materials to any highway which the State commission
may construct in the city or town. There is an appropriation of $490,000 a year to
pay three-fourths the cost of State roads constructed in the several counties.

Mississipp1.—An amendment to section 311 of the annotated code of 1892 (chap.
140, 1904) enables any county to issue bonds, to run not to exceed twenty-five years,
for the construction of public roads, and provides for a special tax to pay off such
bonds. These bonds, however, must not raise the bonded indebtedness of the county
above 5 per cent of its taxable property.

New Jersey.—Planting and care of shade trees in the public highways of cities is
authorized (chap. 142, 1904), the cost of planting to be borne by the owner of abut-
ting property. Two minor acts (chaps. 133 and 138, 1904) supplement the laws for
acquisition cf turnpikes and control of plank roads. The State appropriation’ for
road building, 1904, was $250,000, and the average cost of macadam roads $7,000 per
ae 14 feet wide and 6 inches deep. The State pays one-third the cost of public
roads.

New Yorx.—A motor-vehicle law (chap. 538, 1904) replaces previous legislation
on this subject. It provides for registration, numbers, badges, brakes, lamps, sig-
nals, etc., and directs that on meeting animals in use on the road every reasonable
precaution must be taken by the motor operator to prevent accident. On signal from
the person in charge of the animals the motor vehicle must stop and, if necessary,
cause the motor to cease running until the danger has passed. Speed limits are fixed,
but races are provided for under the control of local authorities and with proper
restrictions for the safety of the public. Local ordinances requiring license or excltd-
ing from the highway motor owners who have complied with the State law are forbid-
den. Penalties for violation of the law run from $25 fine to $100 fine and ten days’
imprisonment. Other acts (chaps. 297, 609, and 612) make changes in the relations of
the State engineer to the actual work of road construction, and authorize the highway
commissioner to take under process of law any ground necessary for ditches or drains
in connection with road building. The total amount available for road building and
maintenance in 1904 was $3,524,480. The average cost of macadam roads in the State
in 1903 was $8,063 a mile. The State pays one-half for public roads.

Onio.——Counties are authorized (p. 131, 1904) to buy toll roads and maintain them
as free turnpikes. Bond issues not to exceed $225,000, with tax levy not to exceed 1
cent on $100 for payment, are provided for; but the bonds must be voted by the peo-
ple of the county. Another act (p. 575, 1904) permits the creation of separate road
districts of the several townships of the State and authorizes a tax for improvements.
The tax may not exceed 6 cents on $100. The creation of the road district must be
voted by the people of the township. A third law (p. 550, 1904) provides that upon
petition of 100 taxpayers of the township for public-road improvement the trustees
of any township must hold an election on the question of improving roads by general
taxation. A fourth law (p. 434, 1904) provides that any county through which the

612 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

old National road extends shall expend on its improvement all the money on hand
or henceforth received as tolls on that road.

PENNSYLVANIA.—The apportionment from the State fund for road building, an
original total of $6,500,000, was $500,000 for 1904. The State pays two-thirds the cost
of public-road construction.

Ruope IstAnp.—A motor-vehicle act (chap. 1157, 1904) provides for registration,
numbers, locks, brakes, signals, lights, and directs the operator to use every reason-
able precaution to avoid frightening horses on the road. The penalty is $20 or —
imprisonment not exceeding three months. Money collected is to go for road
improvement. An appropriation of $105,000 for State aid in road building was
made for 1904. :

SoutH Caro.tina.—An annual tax levy is provided for (chap. 216, 1904). Upona
written petition of one-fourth the resident electors and one-fourth the resident free- _
holders 21 years old, the county commissioner must order an election upon the ques-
tion of a tax levy, not to exceed 2 cents on $100. Any surplus of the tax collected
in any year, which remains till the next year, is still to be used for road improvement. _

Vermont.—The Vermont plan for State aid for highway improvement assesses
annually a State tax of 5 mills on the dollar, to which is added the revenues from
the local-option license law. The fund for the year 1904 is $130,811.37. This is —
apportioned to all the towns in the State, proportional to mileage of roads in each
town.

ViraintA.—A comprehensive law (chap. 106, 1904) was enacted which puts the
control and management of roads, bridges, and landings in the hands of the county
supervisors. They are to locate and maintain roads, and for the purpose may take
any necessary lands by due legal process. They are to levy annually a county tax
not exceeding 40 cents on $100 for certain road uses and also a magisterial district
tax not exceeding 40 cents on $100 for certain road uses. If the levy exceeds 30 cents —
on $100 the question whether such a tax shall be levied must be submitted to a vote
of the people. They are to appoint in January, biennially, a road superintendent
who shall be a civil engineer or a person well versed in road building. This super- —
intendent is to keep the roads in order, and with certain restrictions may take mate-
rial from private property for the purpose. Bond issues for road improvement are
provided for. Upon petition of a majority of county supervisors the circuit court
may order an election on the question of such bond issue and if three-fifths of the —
qualified voters, including three-fifths of the freeholders, are for it, the bonds are to ©
be issued and a tax levied to pay them. But the bonded indebtedness is not to be —
made so large that the interest charge will require a yearly tax exceeding 20 cents on
$100. The courts, upon application of the road supervisors, are to send the jail pris-
oners to work on the roads. The circuit court may grant authority to build a tram
road not over 6 feet wide along any public road. The supervisors may macadamize
any road, and may take possession of and maintain any turnpike abandoned by its
owners. An amendment (chap. 42, 1904) provides for the continuance of tolls on —
turnpikes and fixes the rates.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.

By Etwoop Maran, Chief, Irrigation and Drainage Investigations, Office of Eaperiment
Stations.

The work of the United States Department of Agriculture in irrigation and dre
age is under the direction of the Office of Experiment Stations, and is carried out—
very largely in cooperation with State experiment stations and State engineers.
Several States have made appropriations to cover a part of the cost of this cooper-
ative work. California appropriated $10,000 for two years’ work; Utah, $10,000 for
two years’ work; Nevada, $2,000 for two years’ work, and in Nebraska, $5,000 for two
years’ work. a

STUDY OF METHODS OF APPLICATION OF WATER.

The fundamental purpose of the work is improvement in farming with the ai
of irrigation, and the principal effort has been directed to the working out of im-
proved methods. The first subject taken up was the quantity of water used in general
practice, this data to serve as a basis for future study. From the first the work has
gradually tended toward more scientific investigations to determine the exact water
requirements of crops and to work out systems of distribution and methods of appli-
cation which will help to limit the use of water to the quantity required. The lim.
ited water supply of the arid region makes this work of great importance, since the
extension of the irrigated area depends very largely upon a more economical use ¢
water. .

PROGRESS IN IRRIGATION. 613

During the season of 1904 measurements of the quantity of water used in ordinary
ractice were made in the Modesto and Turlock districts in California, in the Lost
iver Valley, Oregon, in the Yakima Valley, Washington, and in the Raft River

sia ef Idaho. A scientific study of the water requirements of crops was carried on

in California, Washington, Nevada, and New Mexico.

In California experiments were carried on to work out methods of checking losses
from evaporation when water is applied to the land. It was found that when water
was applied in furrows 3 inches deep, 13 per cent less water was lost than when the
surface was flooded and that when thé water was applied in furrows 12 inches deep
there was a saving of 25 per cent over flooding.

At a number of State stations experiments were carried on to determine the quan-
tity of water which would produce the largest return from various crops, but the results
have not been tabulated.

The cost and adaptability of the various methods of applying water to land were
studied in all parts of the arid region. The check method was found well adapted to
lands having an even slope of from 8 to 15 feet per mile, seeded to grains and grasses.
Preparing the land for this system of irrigation is expensive, but applying water after
the land has been prepared is cheaper than by any other method. Flooding also is
used with grains and grasses. For this little preparation of the land is necessary, but
applying the water is more expensive than with checks, since an even distribution of
the water requires constant attention.

Furrow irrigation is found to be best for all cultivated crops. The top soil is not
wet, so that losses by evaporation are greatly reduced and the land can be sooner cul-
tivated, still further reducing losses by evaporation. This method is not expensive
and allows of the use of a smaller stream than flooding or checks, but it requires more
time in applying water. The basin method, which is used for orchards, requires a
great deal of work in preparing for applying the water, but a large stream can be used
and the work of irrigation done quickly.

PREPARING LAND FOR IRRIGATION.

The success of irrigation farming depends very largely upon the proper preparation
of the land. This consists in the removing of brush, leveling the ground, and build-
ing of laterals. Reports from all sections of the arid region show the average cost of
this work to be as shown in the following table:

Cost of preparing land for irrigation.

Cost.
PER LHS SROCURUNI & oo tial sc SE meicieeeirt e me e e ee te tenta Stata emer oleae Sees acne eo $1. 50 to $5
espns CHO Men 5882 as 5 Seto sf ae eh ctw wR Ree aie ee ced pi in J ewdees cece 1.00 to 15
Pea LCT ERIS CUS . aon fae bas Cates nen De So ee ast See ee eae Serine wie cc Na.as opiate noise = 1.00 to 15

PAWL Sacto ee ae on en hele alate bie ae te CAS eee aR Seo Se ok Rifas cOkiale o's wise Saweees 3.50 to 385

THE SEMIARID REGIONS.

There is a wide belt of land east of the Rocky Mountains extending from Mexico to
Canada where crops can be raised in occasional years without irrigation, where cattle
raising is the principal industry. Climatic conditions make either agriculture or
live-stock raising more or less uncertain. This Office is makinga study of this region
for the purpose of working out a system of agriculture which will relieve this uncer-
tainty so far as possible. Experiments in dry farming are being carried on, but it is
believed that the best results can be secured by a combination, having a small irri-
gated area on which crops will be assured even in dry years and a larger area in dry
farming where crops can be secured during wet years. A large part of this land is
beyond the reach of water from streams and the supply must be secured either by
storing the storm waters or pumping. During 1904 the work in this field consisted
in the collection of information regarding the cost of pumping and the efficiency of
various kinds of pumps, windmills, and engines. The following table shows the
average cost of windmills of different sizes, the average areas served by them, and
the cost per acre. This table is the average for a large number of plants and repre-
sents the results secured in operation, not theoretical capacities.

614 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Cost of windmills.

Area | Cost per

Size of
mill, Cost. | served. | acre.
J
Feet. Acres, q
8 $90 1, 23 $73.17
10 120 3, 08 38. 96
12 150 5.07 29, 59

The annual cost of maintenance for 43 mills on the acreage basis was $2.35 per acre

served,
Data collected in California, Arizona, and Texas show the fuel cost of pumped

water in these States to be as follows:

Fuel cost of pumped water.

Acre-foot| Average | Cost at

State. lifted 1 ground

surface,
California: 37 nian tes. ins. feee rock Sue sesh ane oasis deh sete leash ene e $0. 066 $5.16
Avigona SS plants oo isp fk wees cdo. Gewese es ae ke mepede cites aide aie ea . 053 1.97
Teves. OOMIRDES «6 kiss canis Sse sia an smell einie ab pons onan ni alan neyan wiaieweatatale in ier . 043 Le

—

The same data as to the fuel cost of raising water, averaged on the basis of the
quantity of water lifted by the individual plants, is given in the following table:

Fuel cost of raising 1 acre-foot of water 1 foot.

| Cost.

GONGCTREGVGIARG. « «oso nac cnc cicnaecd= sane sinanpisne nes nets sedate wan dees aban aie ec a Bee $0. 030
Pumps discharging less than 1 cubic foot per second .... 1.22... cies sete enc vincececeuns Sane 094
Pumps discharging 1 cubic foot per second and less than 5..............---2.-2--. 02-2 eeeeee . »08e
Pumps discharging 5 cubic feet per second and less than 10.........---.---------eeeeeee eee . 025
Pumps discharging 10 cubic feet per second OF MGCL ... 2... w eee een ne wesc nee eee eons seen . 023

This table brings out the great advantage of establishing large plants wherever —
possible. This can be brought about by establishing one plant for several farnis,
rather than a separate plant for each farm. i

The following table gives the average discharges of centrifugal pumps of different
sizes and the areas which can be served by these pumps on the basis of the average —
quantities of water used on the various crops, as reported for pumping plants in
Texas: : é

Discharges of pumps of different sizes and areas served.

Areas served.

Size of | Dis-
pump. charge.

— 4

|

Alfalfa
or truck.

| Galls. per
Inches. . minute.

At the University of California a laboratory was established for testing the ope1
tion of pumps of various kinds and sizes to determine the conditions under w
they give the best results. These tests show that each pump has a definite head ané
speed, at which it gives the best results. They show also that centrifugal pumps
give the best results where the suction head is lowest, showing that pumps shouleé
be placed as near as possible to the water supply.

PROGRESS IN IRRIGATION, 615

RICE IRRIGATION,

Records of the quantities of water used in rice irrigation in Louisiana and Texas
for the past four years show that the tendency is toward using smaller quantities of
water, as it is found that deep water prevents the proper warming of the soil by the
sun’s rays and produces spindling plants which are easily blown down.

The great extension of the area devoted to rice along the Gulf coast has exhausted
the supply of fresh water in the streams, and the question of the advisability of using
Binekish water has arisen. It is found that salt water injures young rice, but helps
rice which is well along in its growth. It was feared, however, that the continued
use of the salt water might bring about such an accumulation of salt in the soil as to
injure the lands, but no permanent injury to the land has so far resulted. In the
past season no difference could be observed in the yield of land which had received
salt water in previous years and that of land which had received only fresh water.
Heavy rains and the use of fresh water during seasons when the supply is ample
apparently wash out the salt. In the Mermentau River a dam has been built to hold
up the fresh water during the wet season and to keep out salt water when the stream
is low. The season of 1904 was the first in which this dam was in use and its opera-
tion is believed to have saved the rice crop of 1904 along the Mermentau. It is prob-
able that the same plan could be adopted on the other stteams along the Gulf coast
to great advantage.

The success of the rice industry in Louisiana and Texas has led to experiments in
rice farming in Arkansas. This Office, in cooperation with the Arkansas Experi-
ment Station, established an experimental station near Lonoke, Ark., to determine
the feasibility of raising rice on the prairie lands of Arkansas which haye not been
successfully farmed in any other crop. The experiments show an ample water sup-
ply at a depth of 70 feet. The cost of sinking an 8-inch well to a depth of 114
feet was $4 per foot. A full statement of the cost and expenses of operation is not
yet available. Another plant in the same neighborhood serving 70 acres cost, for
the well and machinery, $27.39 per acre served, and the expense of operation for
the season of 1904, including interest on the investment, was $19.21 per acre served.
The yield was 74.6 bushels per acre.

CRANBERRIES.

Success in cranberry culture depends to a large extent upon the control of the
water supply. In the cranberry marshes of Wisconsin frost is liable to occur at any
time during the picking season, and water is used as a protection. The experiments
of the past season show that on cold nights the temperature is higher over sanded
bog where all unnecessary vegetation has been removed and over well-drained bog
than over ordinary matted bog. However, these measures only lessen the danger.
Flooding is the one sure method of prevention. When frost is expected the vines
are wet or submerged, and when the danger is passed the water must be immediately
drained off or the berries may be injured. The work at the experimental station is
to determine the proper methods of handling water to get it on and off of the bogs as
quickly as possible.

PORTO RICO.

In cooperation with the Porto Rico Experiment Station experiments are being
made in irrigation of truck, sugar cane, and rice. The experiments in irrigation of
sugar cane are being made in cooperation with the sugar planters of the island.

DRAINAGE.

The drainage work of the Department includes the study of the problems which
relate to the draining of individual farms and the larger problems of draining whole
districts. This work includes both the engineering features and the forms of organi-
zation which are best adapted to the larger drainage projects.

In the West waste water from irrigation and leakage from ditches have caused a
rise of ground water which has swamped large areas and caused an accumulation of
alkali which has rendered large areas unproductive. Ata number of stations wells
were put down and measurements made to determine the rate of the rise of this
ground water, to secure a basis for computing the capacities of drains and to deter-
mine the direction from which the excess water is coming, making it possible in
many instances to put in intercepting ditches which will carry off the seepage water
hefore it reaches the lands which have been injured. Where this can be done it is
not necessary to use underdrains in the injured land, but where the water can not
be intercepted it must be removed by underdrainage.

616 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the East the object of drainage is usually to remove surplus water coming from
rainfall or overflowed streams. The reclamation of overflowed areas along the Mis-
souri, Illinois, and Wabash rivers was studied during the past season. In some cases
it was found possible to relieve the land by straightening natural-drainage channels
so that they would be able to carry the flood flow instead of overflowing the bottom
lands. In other cases it was found necessary to build levees surrounding the lands
to be reclaimed, thus keeping out flood waters, and put in pumping plants to relieve
the land of the surplus water from seepage. Along the Illinois River mistakes in
the construction of levees have been the cause of the failure of many drainage dis-
tricts. It is recommended that in the construction of levees the foundations be
cleared of all stumps and other vegetable matter and that a muck ditch be put in
under the levee. It was also found that in general practice levees were not high
enough and the slopes were too steep. It is recommended that no slopes be made —
steeper than 8 to 1.

In cooperation with the Lowa State College tests were made to determine the rela-
tive cost of putting in tile drains by machinery and by hand. It was found that the
putting in of the tile drains, including the digging of the ditches, on a field of 320
acres, by machinery, cost $149.44, and that this work done by hand would have cost
$196.20, a saving of 23 per cent by the use of machinery. The use of a machine was
not recommended for individual farmers, as the investment is considerable and the
operation of the machine requires practice and skill. It is, however, recommended
for contractors for this class of work, as they could keep the machine in use a large
part of the time and have it operated by men who devote their time to it.

LAWS AND INSTITUTIONS.

Irrigation from the Platte River and its tributaries from an interstate standpoint
has been studied for the past two years and a report of this work is now ready for
publication. This report is a study of the laws and decisions of the three States,
Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska. The courts of both Nebraska and Wyoming
have declared for the recognition of priorities regardless of State lines, while the
courts of Colorado have not yet ruled on this question. This report gives complete
tables of the rights established in the three States and discusses the physical condi- —
tions which influence their enforcement. Return seepage has greater influence than —
any other one physical condition upon the enforcement of water rights. Return
seepage from the lands along the upper sections of the stream provides a supply for
lower users, doing away with the necessity of turning down to them the entire flow —
of the stream where their rights are earlier than those above. There seems to be
little likelihood of general conflict between water users in the different States, but on
both branches of the Platte there will be opportunity for conflict between appropri-
ators immediately above and below the State lines. At present the water users in
the lower States have no means of protecting their rights except through the courts,
and the principal need on these streams, from an interstate standpoint, is some ‘offi-
cer or commission with interstate powers to distribute the water between the States.
oe same conditions exist on Raft River in Idaho and Utah, and there the need is
the same.

The operation of the Idaho law of 1903 was studied on Raft River, Idaho. The
chief difficulty encountered by the water master, who was also an agent of this Office,
was the absence of proper measuring devices, and it is reeommended that the laws
for the putting in of these devices be amended in such a way that the expense of —
putting them in, if the owners of the ditches fail to do so, shall not fall upon the water
master.

The most efficient systems of distribution of water under canals was under inyesti-
gation in California in the Modesto and Turlock districts and in the vicinity of
Imperial. The first step in working out a proper system of distribution for these
districts was a measurement of the water delivered to consumers, and this has been
provided for. The work will be continued through the coming year. In the Impe-
rial Valley the farmers under the various laterals of the Imperial Canal system are
organized into stock companies, and the same system is recommended for the Modeste
and Turlock districts. a

Seven States have created the office of State engineer and a report on the practical
workings of the laws creating this office in these seven States has been prepared. I
is the purpose of this study to compare the laws of the several States to determine
which provisions have proved beneficial and which ones can be improved. 5

The development of the rice industry and the use of streams for irrigating rice ir
the comparatively humid States of Louisiana and Texas has called attention to the

PROGRESS IN IRRIGATION. 617

necessity for some legislation on water rights in these States. The conditions in the
rice district and the present State laws of Louisiana and Texas were studied during
the season of 1904, and a report isin preparation discussing the needed legislation in
these States.
DISPOSAL OF LAND BY THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT FOR IRRIGATION,
The law of August 18, 1894, known as the Carey Law, grants to each of the arid
States 1,000,000 acres of land on condition of its reclamation. During the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1904, land was applied for and segregated under the Carey Law, as
follows: @
Operations under Carey Act in 1904.

Number Lands in

Number

Number |

Lands (nn 44 Patents
States. of : of applications of Paine
projects.| ®PPlied for. | projects.| approved. | projects. issued.
a fr fA |
Acres. Acres | Acres.
INLAY ses tunas aren aeeuheeens 1 EI DBDP Le leet gcre alse is toe eae ts |- odeiowstssis | s Slicte ce eee
UST A ee ees 2 111, 180.77 y PEER Se a Oat ea
PER Sater eu cae ithe Asana eens awa ael emo was aero a nl 3, 675. 22 1| 10,104.03
DEERE Sie ohn ene Cote ares be 5 17, 783. 60 2 LB ROTLOOT |Siaewle's seo bese haere
PE VOULING rates hockii eves odesaeese 5 86, 019. 63 7 236, 986. 93 3 18, 413. 08

Under the the desert land law there were original entries of 753,731.33 acres, and
final entries of 268,913.43 acres.

RECLAMATION SERVICE.

The act of Congress of June 17, 1902, known as the reclamation act, sets aside the
proceeds from the disposal of public lands in certain States for examination, survey,
and construction of irrigation works for the reclamation of arid and semiarid lands.
The fund for this purpose at the end of the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904, was
$23,012,836.46, and itis estimated that the addition to this fund for the next fiscal
year will be $4,000,000. This money is tentatively allotted for surveys and construc-
tion work in the various States and Territories as shown by the following table. A
portion of this money has already been expended in the works now underway, and
in several of the States and Territories where feasible projects have not been selected
the amount given is 51 per cent of the amount arising within that State which,
under the law, must be expended in the State.

Allotment of reclamation funds. °

States and Territories. Project. Acres. Estimate. Authority.

PEPTPAITI Oo) ads, weal ax o Balt Rivers: J... Be ae Se 160, 000 | $8,000,000 | General estimates, ¢

PIB. Ss Se NS bg iit Rel apa See yon | ee 100,000 | 3,000,000 | May 20, 1904.

WOLOTAMO!. 55-6 wee Soe re gi peat Aa | 28 eee De 100,000 | 2,250,000 | June 7, 1904.

PCRRCRS OD ts rst Sls Mani ORs oie haa ee es ot 130,000 | 2,600,000 | April 23, 1904.

OC besa f NEDA LENS 00) cr cee ote oi oe 49,903 | Restricted fund.

MGHtHHS 52.22... .--| Milk River (?) 60, 000 891, 991 Oo.

WERTHNEM Ol oS oe North Platiet.cs ie esc 100,000 | 1,000,000 | May 3,1904.d

PROTOS ok aiteceie sun fbi) (Ene pee operas 200,000 | 3,000,00C | General estimates. ¢

New.Mexico...o..:s-<- HONGO) ten taco eee ieesion ve 10, 000 240,000 | November 10, 1903.

North Dakota -.....-. Fort Buford and pumping... 60,000 | 1,737,111 | Restricted funds, e

Okiahomay cos. sos. Otter Creek: 2.5222 ores eae 40,000 | 1,301,590 Do.

Ofeponi We sie sso ses. ok Malheur<séc. ices 90,000 | 2,000,600 | May 11,1904.

BOUG DAO -oneo ae Bellorourghe .3< 2 acspesaeme eae 60,000 | 2,100,000 | May 10, 1904.

MS 3 5s ee eee Utah Lake. ol so. cocczecesees= 20, 000 154,199 | Restricted fund.

MReSIIN ETON ost 5-5 <'se Palouse. 2533... 2 ee ee 100,000 | 1,395, 035 Do.

NOTING 4:7. cvabncetos Shoshone ...7.. scevassenenee 100,000 | 2,250,000 | February 10, 1904.
OU: oo sg pie AG oN wieidnne aaa case au = eee eae 1, 332, 000 | 26,970, 429

a Report of Commissioner of General Land Office, 1904, p. 33.

b Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1904, p. 95.

c See letter of March 14, 1904, and quarterly estimates.

ad For Pathfinder Reservoir in Wyoming; further details under survey.

e Fort Buford project heads in Montana; the sum of $1,200,000 set aside May 10, 1904.

618 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EXTENT OF IRRIGATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

|
The following table, showing the extent of irrigation in the United States in 1902, |
is taken from Bulletin 16 of the Census Bureau: |

Irrigation statistics for the United States.

Acres irri-
gated,

Cost of sys-
tems,

Region, States, ete.

$92, 731, 594

Wed Brahe oso. vnc aww dn wev cen avare oh dcckicnhcacseandsiacuiees 9, 481, 289

Amie Bhakes s ..cocclisc. SSR vilsns ceeualep uve sleutiileddese wedekebeneedee 8, 471, 641 77, 430, 212
ys ae eR eS Se ae eee re Pras ee oe poten SF 247, 250 4, 688, 298
COMUTORW IDs Soot a oo oenchkocdeader ncanlsanwks susan hug uanedeLe eave uses ce Sees 1, 708, 720 23, 772, 157
OOP RAE 50 oo i nbs ang ede we evant gies bande sk yanks REG eaak as een eeen ate 1, 754, 761 14, 769, 561
CEST yt SRS eget ie FS eget er a wd ates oie te Sabie aman ca eect eaters ote eee rare 718, 595 6, 190, 071
MRONNURIAR ood wc dncnawedetecenacapmncene cayesnas deen badd e ee ees eee 1, 140, 694 5, 576, 975
WO WMR ont ole acs wae oat Soleo sinn Wars fag cons bee Selec ea oes oe ee eee 70, 001 1, 706, 212
WOW BORIC aso ice ssc censie'd co eye pelea moaste maadeeldds dete ene eee eee 254, 945 4,301,915 —
CRG oes Sia wisian chk nik Sete Sma ROME S « cat ums 6 oon aan bite aaints 2 aoe eee 439, 981 2, 089, 609
RORY een vo oe vane tens Canidae Kee Cab aa ven's china wee uae cat acai Sees 713, 621 7, 303, 607
Warhineton: oo ks aan cba cun's atc tle dec s Scala a sia pe eenta Sites ioslae ony ene eee 154, 962 2, 330, 758
Wyoming so05.5 56 oseock shea os atate ~ boo wie weicls totaeniian yale oats bake eee eee 773, 111 4, 701, 049

Semiarid States oes cote ea cccwecscwes ccd oaks a euelntee cs oe eee nee 403, 449 5, 105, 390
NT ee ee Ee See ree Sn me ye a ee ne ee 28, 922 599, 098.
PORES Bits cin dusia's wae md hw bn tinsnl oom ieee) sis sian Suni wy aicier etc tet art she ta rere cen a eae a 245, 910 2, 463, 748
North Dakota <3 oss .ci< sata e cousas mace cusn ns sn aicee caamant Gee EOE ema seen 10, 384 45, 087
ORIONOMG. Ws ooo sete caching in woe eee woe Selena abides aa eee heh ene eee e oe eee 3, 328 36,770 —
Servet Dal Obe os cco wd oS eters ais bat ho in es ae ee ee 53, 137 381,569
TIN ie wie ans on hin can Semis hee ne on ee sa/Se ee ate Bee here ee 61, 768 1,579, 118

B00 Siabod. js ac os nly oek Slay sens tn oo Oi RSE en eae eee 606, 199 10, 195, 992
OTD cs canna vunep 155 che alse a aends canh nt CRod ae mee eee uae eens Eee 274, 990
CARIB 5 Gio iin Gwe gas bok vwuy aston co Sues bee cibed ims soe a2 een ean ae tenure ahmanes 4, 747, 359
Brew CORPOIG. 86 ois. <5 sg eka Panes Shenapeevaw ts de> cee aatate ee 112, 905
BousiiGarohing. ooo oe i co hrs omit abate dere cine S setae oe err ei eer ae eens Cee 1, 348, 104
SPAS hres sic ninc cin'wcn Suan we eit Sarit eae iain eine aie reas Clee eee Rete ee ee 3,717 6384

aThis excludes rice irrigation.

IRRIGATION CONSTRUCTION.

There are no records of irrigation construction. The activity in that line is shown |
to some extent by the records of filings of claims or applications in the States where —
such filings are recorded. The filing of a claim or application is not necessarily fol-—
lowed by construction, but the number of such filings is an index to the activity in
such work.

Colorado.—In 1903-4 there were begun in Colorado 1,093 ditches having an aggre-
gate capacity of 37,817 cubic feet per second. Filings were made for 392 reservoirs
having a total aggregate capacity of 149,586,227 cubic feet.

Idaho.—Between March 11, 1903, when the new irrigation law became operative,
and November 1, 1904, 1,285 applications for permits to use water were received and
900 permits issued for the diversion of 27,951.87 cubic feet of water per second fo!
irrigation and domestie purposes, and 76,078.23 cubic feet per second for mining,
power, transportation, and other nonconsuming purposes. These permits authorize
the reclamation of 1,672,131.98 acres of land and a generation of 696,197.82 horse-
power. Permits for 290.75 cubic feet of water per second for the irrigation of 15,513
acres have lapsed by failure of the holders to make proof of the application of water
within the prescribed time, and for the same reasons permits to divert 100.36 cubie
feet per second for power and other nonconsuming purposes to develop 262 horse
power have been canceled. e

Nebraska.—During the year 1904, 37 applications were received, 29 of which were
allowed, 7 dismissed, and 1 not yet acted upon. a

Wyoming.—For the year ending August 31, 1904, there were received 1,448 appli-
cations for water. One hundred and forty of these were rejected or not returned
aiter being corrected. There were approved 744 original applications, 208 applica-
tions for enlargements, 50 applications for reservoirs, and 106 combined reservoir
and ditch applications.

PUBLICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BOOKS. 619

PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The publications of the United States Department of Agriculture are mainly of
three general classes:

I. Publications issued annually, comprising the Yearbooks, the Annual Reports of
the Department, the annual reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Weather
Bureau, the Bureau of Soils, and the Office of Experiment Stations.

II. Other departmental reports, divisional bulletins, etc. Of these, each Bureau,
Division, and Office has its separate series, in which the publications are numbered
consecutively as issued. They comprise reports and discussions of a scientific or
technical character. '

III. Farmers’ Bulletins, divisional circulars, reprinted Yearbook articles, and other
popular papers.

The publications in Class I are distributed by the Department and by Senators and
Representatives in Congress. For instance, of the 500,000 copies of the Yearbook
usually issued, the Department receives only 30,000, while the remaining 470,000
copies are distributed by Members of Congress. The Department’s supply of the
publications of this class, being so limited, has to be reserved almost exclusively for
distribution to special correspondents and in return for services rendered.

The publications of Class II are not for distribution by Members of Congress, and
they are not issued in editions large enough to warrant free general distribution by
the Department. The supply is used mainly for distribution to those who cooperate
with the Department or render it some service, and to educational and other public
institutions. A sample copy of this class of publications can usually be sent on appli-
cation, but aside from this the Department generally finds it necessary to refer
applicants to the Superintendent of Documents, of whom further mention is made
below.

The publications of Class III treat in a practical way of subjects of particular inter-
est to farmers. They are usually issued in large editions, and are for free general
distribution by the Department. The Farmers’ Bulletins are also for distribution by
Senators and Representatives in Congress, to each of whom is furnished annually,
according to law, a quota of several thousand copies for distribution among his
constituents.

A limited supply of nearly all the publications in Classes I and IT is, in compliance
with the law, placed in the hands of the Superintendent of Documents for sale at
cost of printing. Applications for these should be addressed to the Superintendent
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., and should be
accompanied by postal money order payabie to him for the amount of the price.
No postage stamps nor private checks should be sent. The Superintendent of Docu-
ments is not permitted to sell more than one copy of any public document to the
same person. The Public Printer may sell to one person any number not to exceed
250 copies if ordered before the publicatio_: goes to press. Under a recent resolution
the Superintendent of Documents is permitted, with the approval of the head of
any Department of the Government, to reprint any public document in numbers
sufficient to supply the demand under the restriction of not more than one copy to
the same person.

The Secretary of Agriculture has no voice in designating the public libraries which
shall be depositories of public documents. Of the distribution of documents to such
depositories, including the publications of this and all other Departments of the Gov-
ernment, the Superintendent of Documents has full charge.

For publications of the Weather Bureau, requests and remittances should be directed
to the Chief of the Weather Bureau.

The Department has no list of persons to whom all publications are sent. A
monthly list is issued on the first day of each month giving the titles of all publica-
tions issued during the previous month, with all the explanations necessary to enable
applicants to order intelligently. This list will be mailed regularly to all who apply
for it. The Department also issues and sends out to all who apply for them a com-
plete list of all its publications printed for free distribution and a list of all the
Department’s publications for sale by the Superintendent of Documents.

620 YEARBOOK OF THE: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

STANDARDS FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS, 1904.

Milk. a Cream.|} Butter. Cheese,
States. By Fy . fia _ ra
ota Solids > Tota 2
solids. | not fat. Fat. solids, Fat. ‘ Fat. Fat.
Per cent. | Per ct. | Per ct| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per cent.
United States@.... b12 8.5 | 8.25 9, 25 18 82.5 | Full cream, 50 p. ¢. of the
te Foy solids to ys
SoA sg 71 | eae PRR Ee ep eee) SRA Mae ee © te ull cream c. fat; halt
skim, me .c. tat: skim fro:
man milk. Fancy except-
COlOWAGO ic cay pdeumcheweennscastsesunesdlp enna beleenen geolcorbastelepany= ane Pull cream, 35 p. c, total
solids to be fat; skim, fat
less than 35 p. e. of total
solids.
Dist. of Columbia..}.........- 9 8.5 9.3 20 83
Notover
12 p. c.
water or
5 p.c.salt.
COO on er SOB RO -lessdadesxlone PER EPA Bret Ha
Bawall se 2c5225352- 3 by) Be a Re ee re | oe ee
JOGDOS Vi j2-Nendegaclvcadeeye ee 8 ers, etn i8 82.5 | Full cream, 30p. c. fat (faney
excepted); 8 im, less than
30 p. c. fat; less than 1
. ¢. sale prohibited.
Witnoisd: 622K. bee a 3 Bre Sep fs e15 80 Whole milk, 48 p. e.
solids to be fat.
SOOM <<< .¢2- 25h] sauneseees 9 3 re oe jesass 80 | Skim, minimum fat 10p.e
‘| Maxi-
mum
water
15'D..G..
salt,6p.c
EOWR 2h eee A SEs BH ecsomesets 15 |...--.--0¢ : “a
Mente.) vc Jas iL ag) ee ee ): i oe eee Some 15 80 Skim, less than 10 p. e. fat.
WEARING). 2! cn o o'x's Ce'a's i DS) Pee Be eet et wa eee eee a
Marylandys......«. ee evaaaecs 1S lel eee eens! ee Bear) ies Eh a
Massachusetts..... 18 9.3 3.7 OO ice See ere Zz
April-September 12 9 Bo ecwenwawel oaeue teens seeee 4
OMIA eo no an.m alas yy ee BY Gi gue an alin ce ae colenwee eee ie
SDs MPAs one ceeds aoe SEIS Va nen coals omnes nee
1, 029-383 1. 032-87 ~
Minnesota........- th ie) Sea Ewha ee g20| Maxi- | Full cream, 45 p. ec. tota
mum solids to be fat; skim, fat
water, less than 45 p. c. of vote
16 p.¢e solids.
Missouri: 25: case lee ed acct Se ee oe ee eee Fuil cream, from milk v
3 p.c.fat; skim from n
less than 3 Pp. ¢. fam
Montana<t2... S222 12 9 3 9 P: c. LOL sss ote ee
solids
not fat
NODIRSEOA +) \ f= test ee eee eee Rael Seat Te TD, oot
New Hampshire... 13 9.5 3.5 C Ray Aaa eed Ede Re
April and Sept .. 1D all ace see. Bis eee. eee ee tees ;
New Jersey........ 1. aa glee any| ee Re BP NAR SE cael | Capea a eR =
New Yorka........ eT te ec + egy begat OR Re & peak ay ea! Enauitle a at Skim, from skim milk. _
North Carolina ¢... 12 65° VOR. 24 ees 18 82.5 | Fullcream ,50 p.c. total sol
to be fat; skim, frome
milk; cream chees
6 p.c. minimum fat.
North Dakota ..... TS Vikeeeeet PES ele cS ee Cos Skim, from skim m e
I oon. Satin: Che 1 er) See. Sree ic bead Se 80 Full cream, 30 p. e. fat; sk
less than 30 D. C, faite
a Bn aS 12 9 3 ) 20 | Not over| Full cream, 30 p. ¢. fat; hi
Sp. grav 14 p. ¢c. skim, 15 to 30 p.¢.; qu Ki
1. 088 water skim, 73 to 15 p. O.5, <

less than 7} p.c. Fi
excepted. ee

a Proclamation of Secretary of Agriculture, Cir. 10, Nov. 20, 1903.
b Condensed milk, 28 per cent milk solids, of which one-fourth must be fat.
e Cream containing thickener must be labeled. _
aCondensed milk must contain not less than 8.5 per cent fat; eva orated cream containing |
than 15 per cent fat must be labeled ‘‘an unsweetened condensed milk. i
e Coffee cream shall contain at least 15 per cent fat, and whipping cream at least 22 per cent fi
J Condensed milk must contain the equivalent of 12. 5 percent of milk solidsin crude milk of w!
3.5 per cent shall be fats.
@ No thickener allowed. .
hIn New York, Ohio, and Wyoming the milk solids of condensed milk must be in quantity
equivalent of 12 per cent of milk solids in crude milk of which solids 2.5 per cent shall be fat.
~Condensed milk must contain 28 per cent milk solids and 7 per cent fat.

STATISTICS OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 621

Milk. eae iGieasn,| “Butter. Cheese.
oer ., tal Solid re, A's i Ly aa =
ota olids ota 2
solids. |not fat.) F@t | solids. ia
Per cent. | Per ct. | Perct.| Per ct.

Pennsylvania ..... i” ll ep a ee 3 8 Full cream, 82 p.c. fat; three-
fourths cream, 24 p.c. fat;
one-half cream, 16 p. c. fat;
one-fourth cream, 8 p. c¢.
fat; skim, below 8 p. c. fat.
Fancy, less than 5 pounds,
excepted.

POU EuICO... ec cuve 1S: *iitanswrewe SS PA ware whence watavie's 2 Full cream, 30 p. c. fat; one-
halfskim,15p.c. fat; skim,
10'p. ¢,

Rhode Island...... LZ? palate 2 eel SR erticd eraeiceginy Pere ce:

South Caroling --..|...0..-..- 8.5 Den i saneecnl oe Saag meTLeme ace size

South Dakota ..... aS Mg (ea ee Beto a ceees 20 80. Full cream, 45 p. c. solids to

be fat; skim, fat less than

45 p. c.
VDT Dee. Ri aie hab Weeee,s <n. 3 9 p.c. 20 83 Skim, 7 to 11 inches in diam-
solids eter; minimum height, 9

not fat. inches.

WitIPOUNG ..cccs cas 12.5 Sera oc me elena ee ee ete ie mae dee apie vies

May and June... eee ee Serie SAIS ER” Neto pees Sine cee ewaemae

WEIN COLE w asa.5.cp epee ate acon 8 Gur Withers LBS We aes seetince Full cream, 30 p.c. fat; skim,
15 p. c. fat. Fancy ex-
cepted.

WSS a ae (A ee ae eee ee Sie Esai acs oo |e ere a oil a creo minotere Skim, 10 inches in diameter,
9 inches height.

Wyominga........ 12S clocmes one PA: ee | 8 Spe gel lps es cee 80 Skim, less than 20 p.c. fat.

May and June... Te ICE roc eter gel Oe aeseeoe one mel Ce ars See

aIn New York, Ohio, and Wyoming the milk solids of condensed milk must be in quantity the
equivalent of 12 per cent of milk solids in crude milk of which solids 2.5 shall be fat.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

Farmers’ institutes were held during the year ended June 30, 1904, in all of the
States and Territories excepting Arkansas, South Dakota, Wyoming, Alaska, Indian
Territory, and Porto Rico. The following table gives a summary of the work for
the year:

Statistics of farmers’ institutes for season ended June 80, 1904.

Funds for in-| Reports of

Meetings. © stitutes. proceedings.
°o ae
. ' . res ft = = -
2/13 5S |2)/88 133 &
4 a ee = Blo |ho a
States and Terri-| § Bit 2 SB |Hlog log S | Methods of distribu-
tories. 2 Blog | a) Se hee E ag tion.
E : na 8 2 = a” 3” = °
a || | sa a a i a ee by
ieiels | & |S|s82/e82| 3) 2
nH 1O}a 1% a lai < A |
AIR DSIMGS, <5 53S pi) is Ae 3,639} 9} $600) $600) No..]......-
2 at A ne Desi (exerci pees SES econ (Se | Hs ea | oeepeye eee | ee a (oe
ASIPOND: iiscae nas ere = i! 600} 3 BUle stan WUNO eal =n oe ae
MP MMRAR Geen Sas cke' loo caalvas ene] warn saa abort sete nie meee bees [ee ee als =
California .....-- 113} 62) 651 43,680} 20) 7,234) 7,234 -| 12,500} Agricultural jour-
nals and State re-
port.
O1OTEOO ws a000- 15} 11 4 1,660) 11 Bldie a eee IWOr Ste on =
Connecticut ..... 15) - Silos 2,500} 29 yt) Ae es 5, 000
Delaware.......- IBN er) IB es 3,436) 14 750 750 5, 000
ile 6a’ 15} 14 1 ey a cee ee 3, 000
hi 3 34; 32 2 7,000; 8} 1,000) 1,000 2, 000
PIB WEA) ctoo- ccs s0 4 Dieses 200; 9 ot See 1, 000
WaenOe was. Ci oe ee 17 8,100) 11} 1,000) 1,000 5,000} By mail.
PEMROIS) oc0.0 =e anon if. ae 105 84,681]. 82) 18,178) 17,650 20, 000
iG 175} 10) 165 59,189) 46) 10,000} 10, 000 600} Annual report State
board of agricul-
' ture.

aNo institutes held.

622 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Statistics of farmers’ institutes for season ended June 80, 1904—Continued,

Meetings | - | Fundsforin-| Reports of

© stitutes. proceedings.
°
a - be be Ss I Ss :
States and Terri-| § | Ei | Qlgp jog } Methods of distribu-
tories. 2 5 + gigs igs ; bf tion,
Bile 2 lal, lie |B] eg
ma mo > be Lo} Lo} be
Eig|s = |4|e8a\ees| 3 | 8
= |e@}2 s SlagRlada| SB |
}° a = ° a | aOR | AOR f= 5
Ss) °o a & a < a A
bette Phe bes ae scat
Indian Territory4|..... lasignsiecucs by alsin cluceoncuathecclanvenesinencensiseeunsiavengea
PWR ook siiec casa Wee 70, 6350 17,750)... . 7,420; 7,425) No... 2: Jean
Lg) ee ee 58} 30) 28)...... 14.489) 319) 2.000). 2,000) Nou... ....
Kentucky ....... Alo. 4 8 1,200) 13 500) 5,000) Yes.| 8,000, Supplements to ag-
| ricultural journa
Louisiana........ 89): -S0p. zo e~ 79} 12,000! 16) 2,000) 2,000) Yes.| 3,000 eo lists and in-—
stitutes.
Maine. .:.s .«<5k. O72). VB cade 79| 5,473} 20) 2,500} 2,500) Yes.| 6,000) State reports.
Maryland........ Ooh ok 23 71, $8,250) 16) 4,000) 6,000) Yes./....... Abstract mailed.
Massachusetts ...} 104) 104)..... 125; 11,089] 78] 1,580) 2,700) No..I...:..:
Michigan ........ 292} 218) 74| 812) 52,236) 54}; 9,825) 9,325) Yes.} 9,000) Through institutes.
Minnesota....... 154, 129) 25) 3878) 46,210) 13) 18,000) 18,000) Yes.| 30,000) Institute annual.
Mississippi....... 107} 105} 2} 214} 11,326] 17] 1,725 3,000] No..|....... By, experiment sta-
ions.
Missourt sc. 2.55. 147) 141 6 811) 380,220) 26) 5,000) 5,000) Yes.| 7,000
Montana: ...42%> 44, 40 4 81; 4,500) 18) 4,000; 4,000) Yes.| 5,000) At institutes and
through mails,
Nebraska ........ 96| 43) 58! 880! 25,097) 26) 6,000) 6,000) No..|..-.....
Newade. i sco scc. 4 3 1 10 453! 6 ot ee Yes} 1,000
New Hampshire.| 18 16 2 38] 3,400) 16} 1,588) 1,500) Yes.| 2,000
New Jersey....-- 80), 25) ZS. 229) 4,500) 20) 2; 800) 2, 800) No.-|2. 2225
New Mexico..... 4g 1 9 160! 9 ae NO. hs ives
Now York... ...:- 267; 100) 167/ 1,154) 64,347| 63! 20,000) 20,000) Yes.| 25,000} By State director —
and legislature.
North Carolina..| 35) 31 4 71; 8,411) 10 850! 1,400) Yes .} 27, 000 a
North Dakota ...| 46) 23} 23) 151) 18,567} 10! 4,000} 4,000) Yes.| 10,000} At institutes and
through mails.
Ohige es. 2 ute: O45 Sac. 245) 1,225) 75,360) 33) 16,747) 16,750| Yes.| 20,000) Agricultural socie- —
ties and institute
officers.
Oklahoma....... 52| 28) 24 129) 5,200) 8 1,000 300}) No tsh2 2s Se
Orogon!>...2.5 3% 14) 8 6 46, 4,500) 9 350 500} Nowslsa. seek
Pennsylvania....| 204) 59) 145) 805) 70,380) 58) 20,500) 20,500) Yes.| 31,600; By legislature and
Department of Ag- |
riculture.
Porte: Rico a <. occkison ele So, cess eect bocce ciel stan | aoe ween fe ee oa toe
Rhode Island.... 2, 500
South Carolina:.:|' 83). 82{. “I.e-...} 8,690) 20) *- 600; ~ '600) No vic>. ce
South: Dakota 6 lsc cc et ee eet os vot sel ee c wal oc eC RReM EE, eee
Tennessee ....... 5. 000) 6000) No. lo. 2.5
Us > eo HE pes es $s; 10, 000
Dita ies eso. nema 1. 5,000! By mail.
Vermont:;.2- =: 5, 8, 000 Do.
Viilreinia os. 6c Be OOO) Oi DOO). tc sae falepleeinis
Washington ..... 2500) 2 0000 Noxt(s. 32.2%
West Virginia ... 4, .| 10,000} Newspapers.
Wisconsin ....... 12, 60, 000
Wroming ¢ —....<-| 5. oo 2 bot cae te tess Bc a Netecha here sua Paste ops e are Pieters eau
Wotal<<2.- |210, 211/223, 164 329, 200

aNo institutes held. b Estimated.

PUBLIC LANDS OPEN FOR SETTLEMENT.

The figures given in the table below show the location of the public lands in the
United States still open for occupation under the homestead and other laws for acqui-
sition of titles by individuals. In general, the lands noted in the column “Area
surveyed”’ are available for immediate private occupation under any of the laws now
in force for grant of title by the Government. The lands scheduled as ‘‘ Unsuryeyed
must, of course, be surveyed before a grant can be made. The column head ‘A
appropriated’’ indicates roughly to what extent the section where the lands a1
located is already settled and under cultivation. The greater portion of the vacai
land is in the timbered regions of the Southern States, the Lake region, and
Pacific coast, and the mountainous and arid regions of the Far West. The portion ¢
lands cultivable without clearing or irrigation is comparatively small.

A
i

re

+

PUBLIC LANDS OPEN FOR SETTLEMENT. 623

Applications for and information regarding public lands should be addressed to
the registers and receivers of the United States district land offices in the cities and
towns noted in the table. Full information should be obtained before any move is
made toward occupation of these lands.

The total amount of land disposed of by the Government in the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1904, was 16,405,821.95 acres; and the gross receipts in payment for it,
$9, 283,341.98, of which approximately $6,826,253.59 was turned over to the fund
for the reclamation of ad lata,

Lands open for settlement, and location of land offices in the United States, June 80, 1904.

[Abridged from Report of Commissioner of General Land Office. }

Area unappropriated.

Area appro-

State and location of office.

Area sur- | Area unsur- priated.
veyed.
ALABAMA, Apion
Rae Moa eaead taints Lite mote bane aahc.ieciendcieaceen cence ones OY BOU Nb s so ceeack eo 7, 806, 210
PMIONMEIOLS: (dee Coke SGC cen cote awa skeen rome sre ton 12 ee hd bea ae 24, 580, 500
ARIZONA.
MIEN, © oS tern een ced eta oe ete ca ete e Co nmale ote ee 6, 230, 224 18, 547, 015 3, 251, 605
Sic pec A eRe Res peepee 5 Ss 32 52 ayaa ertntee Bk Sr A Aa cacy tee 5, 834, 569 16, 389, 785 2, 289, 942
ARKANSAS.
DEMANDE Sen hc s sie ee ee are te Oe eatin a nc om cneemie case 37 VS U7 ee sin WE a 7, 982, 893
pm RERARD UNH ro 8 ees COU ees. Ses Wich wn oto ad abies s owibe sevice ee GG! ys Se ee ee 3, 290, 047
EN ION EE et Rene. ee one cas oe on eaew et ae ieee G16 S00) |v os ee see 4, 624, 200
PENSE re ah ePrice a Shc M enews are tth Ss.c aioe Ga wha tines wees s vice 01s Began snc oS «4 15, 216, 123
CALIFORNIA.
EERE anc ek, Son ce ete ccm rice ecu cabach «cesses 364, 150 188, 934 2, 313, 333
MaRS TI COS. ts oo) eet Seer eee ote coun ce 9 nome ceminien < 8, 759, 926 8, 607, 331 745, 080
EDS otha > onene sk enn noe ep uence asa nkaadean cae 9, 050, 884 2, 405, 044 6, 147, 048
WROMIIM MCS e ets oe oe eR ee Ro Soe once eae yeas 686, 495 170, 955 4, 123, 447
Ree UNIR ee Corot oon chnrcn ts Gate Sen Ce ee mise Me Ses ule cclolerais'g aoe 2, 290, 108 242, 524 4, 707, 816
SO TS ys ae ee Oe 2S = oe aS PR ee ce 416, 888 4, 380 2, 381, 947
Pe MIRE AISA ey tee ae kets aati aw stncis cminals eens aoe 3, 200, 154 136, 999 10, 857, 614
Pea SMa AD TAME ok See rates cic nas oS ha thon re Re De vewaetelne s 361, 439 27,747 4, 762, 573
“SITS SAV GEIL SS RaRReRe = SE gen SE ee ene eat Ae 2, 344, 891 254, 412 1, 993, 204
alee SNe eee eciae ale ok Onin see acl ars Sting oemae mee neee 602, 255 98, 277 | 5, 905, 291
COLORADO
PBST ate Ne Socket Aer maps ieee ae ale oilers winieesivn oie aie Se See tio WeQsdG9n e223 2826 See 2, 287, 131
RELL ISCOy Poe aia PRE a iy 1S a pa EO IN OF SRR A eg a lp Pelee yor 1, 546, 081 516, 060 1, 903, 299
DLE TS ecg ede pipet pn aie ee hype a lide be tuted nh) Gate ip 3, 737, 991 390, 323 5, 923, 146
WUMIMINIED St oo tS Soda em nee nota estaba oe eee ee eee See eacek 2, 905, 797 468, 611 732, 292
Se mCNIG BOVINGR i025 kA Sone socalled edad own aeys's sneak Suk 5, 863, 129 1, 265, 040 1, 482, 234
eMAMTINOI oo roa wa ane a’ dete pin oinera pe erink eo - e eee enemace gee ats 1, 729, 149 532, 006 447, 765
EOE A ce ek am hn aman hein tat oe ane taom cei eskns Rae j Iga 20 ee eens eee: 1, 785, 658
NE Pa ie hee ioe Sy ete aa er een ne met mae ece be cw are S108 S69 N sae Se oe 1, 903, 131
ue ee RS eA oe Se es on ee a 1, 396, 877 801, 995 697, 988
MIRRORS oo each aa teen Pen eerste cna tem meee & =e (ae ia 3, 283, 592 618, 268 717, 348
Des <i pe SE hey oe oe ks ee ee 4, 736, 479 6, 240 5, 329, 102
PRMDNIE Rogie ne acta eo clecene cons Soni aotuis es eee ome d cee heer seu sees PEI PON OH thon Soe sect ee 2,013, 122
FLORIDA.
Rept RR CREMONA a i Sh aha Diet eh eR Beane ewe sean ah res rhe te 997,777 160, 070 33, 895, 534
IDAHO
ACMI OG rn a a cine a a> ata Soe ae hem mene kas omen ae aa 2, 205, 324 2,672, 722 4, 822,160
ISS Petia a ones Seine Dea eee tee ee ome ae ee een eee 4,011, 843 7, 108, 504 1, 782, 262
Pe MIONO. 365 nreks Uaee en vane cbpaa a dade nawaasbelen eee 505, 389 2, 308, 364 1, 605, 018
RAMEE ros Orn at cae A aianlane Sere Sao mipaiate misters ea oe aie rane ore 3, 268, 909 12, 529, 276 1, 283, 952
ME WANUOL 205 os Awd ance desk cae hath done one doar ateeioe se lease 857, 384 4, 200, 921 2, 069, 835
KANSAS. |
Cran coed opie nti et Sune pee wean <oncethe hee eee enore BAMOO Seta Sete soe) 7, 438, 360
UAPGMILY, ao odin e donee maa t arcs bens aKn en eaen ade wee Meee eS TCL Necet rere te 15, 515, 162
ES a RE Sry ee Me, ree ta BOD IBA Wook kee ceed 6, 102, 936
LOUISIANA
PMASOMIMIGROR ST a inn'didon laine eapaldiiecanteewmase wees wan i nMates 66, 77E 65, 018 3, 884, 361
MAN. Xe oat Ea eds cn oe is as Vad caseue codes w anne wes anes SP aI Mn eats i wat 23, 535, 374

a Land office discontinued since issuance of report for 1904.

624 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Lands open for settlement, and location of land offices in the United States, etc.—Cont’d,

Area unappropriated.

State and location of office. ‘Ayes em | Aven. Sere A SD pte
veyed. veyed.

MICHIGAN. yee pe,
MIBYOVIONG ..5 vcnscansseneds hae weveccbur dean duerans isa deeedews BAD 007 |. canemnssacuae

MINNESOTA.
Cpa LOG. <ccsnccctindessctb recientes sidieans waeaaveaeaaeen DIBATOD ls cote sitocwans 2, 504, 550
CROOKBION v ccacaceicccdbpadecdch voces ssdeaadeaceuceavarnawars 943, 760 350, 400 7, 042, 680
BVTUIIEN us nnin banvan seleGeeeddanauene bieakaebenneniacemdenan 1, 008, 300 533, 798 7, 188, 742
Gks ROL Ss paainku cae Se cns coe deaaas ke suet and tuk Salen Saneeareel 19; 400 lc sscvcnuee eee 28, 987, 880

MISSISSIPPI.
DGRRBOR Os ii doch dddacusssusdunae depueeamevannuusnas ai aedaneeed 02, GO | casesceneeae 29, 592, 700

MISSOURI.

BOOW Vasa accu dea ecsn ance hacbcddocsoal ceucree ae edaniesaee 48,380 |....... Duce ter 26, 252, 620
TROMGOD.. conn yn anus shape cucuueahpstienucews dusahUapexeeuneeen 71,000 | nc tu sone 9,925, 910
SOPINPNOLG |. c. cn acca cblna we'sies a sctblcseh obec sive diweestabosdse cine 72, FAN Nes ccincceeeneee 7,425, 629

MONTANA. } My
BOZOIIG se Sits ken a's awa Sun oe dagicbhbnvales vs nendenseWaleeemnn 2, 062, 518 1, 608, 012 3, 548, 190
Greate lia. 2. osc nas we sda ete aatonnemmee coeutehe eee cet 7, 183, 502 7, 383, 420 3, 569, 298
SIRIGIE sh cued vcadexs save umead eens ea eeine an pines eaee ae 2, 286, 585 4, 5388, 572 3,032,754
RMN 5 ago dutand paves canbe wed de awa Eat iveh ew aa eee 194, 771 3, 576, 907 2,002,416
BO WIStOR: on oc, oe acs'eociduan mals eee enlace Tm atanic ara we Maeeele aren 2, 948, 189 2, 779, 893 2,291,000 —
DESO OET c= <5 0s nena nupsdcas tenadedpanwkasdakaesniewcede 8, 348, 531 14, 147, 185 2,461, 444
BN EG Si gen cogsdd uibapates iden abrnariarakinnens eae 434, 927 4, 012, 423 1, 616,

NEBRASKA.
ARVO cian pace na wad pasaceicoue wide amen dees attain eae aan 2.884.782}. wened fanaa ee 3,
PIO OADOG. n5.ccenaua den deens caswebkes tun tease saben manana 1,842,879) |. 2. cmaeteeieae 2,
BOP Toa a tag eR 2 ile LEE OS RS OE A ee ca Be ea 667. [uss snare sees ll,
MGQDOOE: O ocsc ees cow calls cdatn suites ate bu teins Ce era uceaaye aes 182,749... ne berger 5,
Noreb Platte. .<--o. 52 oe sone uae © Seen cocoa taawe rents ees 657, 288)... cana 3,
ORE Pan Soar ay a 5c db ans Gates Davis univ pliable cian ie Jaen 568, 575 |. -..cun agenee 8,
PMR ON ot ono odin gratniaia a a nla a mnie erie otatate ae cin ater plaal ore sleet erettateate 807, 778. |. 2 seen 2.
"VOIOREING ooo. Sores c cance scene ee eue come raven as agaanemee 25048; 171. | ..0sscetneeeenee 2,

NEVADA.
CembOR Clty. oc cccvevncs vivckn bciseerseenerekeeaeek saatonene 30, 833, 050 30, 417, 580
NEW MEXICO.
CB FROM odns vein nwniss Susnn savpmiin cau? aetacanatinaumewaaaaiees 6, 580, 010 415, 464
SSOFIGOR o's coca anetnwts ce eea wee as bane dae Beeee een eeanee 18, 194, 185 5, 422, 386
RGB WORD. «ics wcpnntnd Uitden <6 dave adobe arn ae dedeuaeeses beeen ee 7, 817, 500 5, 810, 913
BOA Fe ieninscde Kun cpadan ee eekitoeh at sia we cee aans ceeweraan 10, 581, 961 2,479, 971
NORTH DAKOTA

PISMAVCR 0c 5 adic son sais Rage oe Oe bees Dias aaa eee aaa 4, 815, 105 3, 215, 036
Devils Bake... ices ooo log Seon oe en wanede canemeacaues 147, 420 Nass ead ccmene
Diy i sae ReneS <a er) Selene of dig be ea a aE ee © eee 42,'000') . 03.50 Saseeeee
Grama Worls: <3. er oe ee ee ae ee a ae oe ne 490) | 5 2% ae tee
BER a dae atnt veces todunh twas dete wan vey shall gerne euae aidan 2, 785, 150 87, 320

OKLAHOMA.
Alva... eeeeeee eee sees eee ewww oe SS eee . egace eae eee eee enne 38, 477 eee ee eee eee
PON od ccs as yeh cats o wslabastcne De eee pin aoa ae tad sagan 6, 288. |sia3 5 owintca oot
GUUDTIO Sore nbs oaks cane netic ame sion enn aie ours oie ioe ciel este Fama TO cee
Mingeiishern: coos es cok Soc. BRR Sa ek oe eee 4 S46) bie. Ue
LO WtOR: on csce casein a ctd's We a dare Meebo etchelan sce nate cobeieanee ED SOaul an welshinee eee
MAM OUT ooo cho akinra die omatan Grtieie eet einer ahaa et ee ieee ee LS. .G05ul ssc one ewe eoeee
Woodware. oo co apeweweces c seeaoeslats cacienta be Ses ie 1. OB 7. B22 Vise ewoonme wees

OREGON.

BRUV TAS. os ‘santa Sie tig ape aes pl amaig s Ate asc ialpoeieintate ates a acl an nineee 4, 042, 631 1, 386, 719
TRSTAN GG. ooo og co ttk co udneink tak waste aul aia ewe en = ee ace 1, 700, 859 159, 222
PR ROULOW isc = Lens sce ankcn ae Oe cen teas an oe nae eet ae 4, 941, 547 8, 242, 240
Oresan (City -2225 oa Le ee oe ee re 361, 955 127, 716
FEGHO DITO a. ic oieinodanc sas Goss halves avike ncleard dokwee/sodaas Son eoe 864, 193 451, 909
TEA AEB nin Kina copa d axxnat hese hos kee adbtaauasles aan 2, 616, 104 279, 159

a Land office discontinued since issuance of report for 1904.

METHOD FOR ESTIMATING COTTON YIELD. 625

Lands open for settlement, and location of land offices in the United States, etc.—Cont’ d.,
Area unappropriated.
Area appro-

State and location of office. Area sur- | Area unsur- priated.
veyed, veyed.
aa | . Veer es r raed.
ia satin Acres. Acres. Acres.
NS ins ne ys Wik deny sag Cenwd Wb aka cen enet eneackie etal Bay OS aa 8, 251, 448
nn tan. Padtircgag olen lee uGhataxeease eae = aaaeenn Ls Oa [ee did voi a'e's 1, 883, 845
OR OP Sa ES by ee ae 53 ee ree MRSOUD lectus ibecusses 4, 348, 625
SNE CL Rea ooh cs chai hid pb wu SE hw tlm coe dactens od wheas eg) a eee 7, 167, 920
ea Ne ye a ee ee reels as Bia ep A, Saeed ee aC ROE eee 1, 772, 895
re Cran awe bub d wa deh be enter tcaeie oe rieied dae dae 7, 527, 474 806, 831 2, 668, 675
eS oe SR ey 2 as Ap ae RS ap epee MODE ie cia v owe exeke 5,171, 701
UTAH
EET CREO as Odin La ous > macahars wa mrc bead oh nate kiaata wae ack 11, 560, 475 28, 142, 991 5, 087, 495
WASHINGTON.

EE ENN oi, 85,25 aoeh Caw Nah nce eee Ak Wawo vase ue itmnSieo-a ies 459, 778 707, 660 2, 587, 649
RII eae nce wa alee nen oe Sa aE ee eu eine ae ak 45, 462 102, 200 2, 811, 550
RR ete ee sacra ts Uinta eae aa waist ier =a een aoe acto alias cate 61, 639 196, 414 3, 856, 058
RNAS GR fe we Std wi Siren bs die cor als lew uf RTRs a cme eal saan sara oe 542, 723 1, 778, 001 5, 052, 635
Vancouver 231, 100 156, 470 8, 501, 950
Walla Walla 512, 900 274, 859 2,376, 950
NTO Gasca ct Ls ac sae taneeewnw cece ckse ahs vd acne d 2, 155, 352 1, 638, 374 2, 301, 825

WISCONSIN.
SERINE ot Ps SON, ors oka Ee Ss Colne he he twa eee Rn Ue sa petenet BU Uc wipe shad sare 3, 019, 067
SRR POR ate oll a oa US wie pact ala cian w eee ome e nese BUS OOON| aaickte anges cic 14,197,176
TEST ha an Sy eae a ny Soe SS i ain a age Papp sd De, DAN Weraetocneane aie ee 17, 554, 740

WYOMING.
SRNR eee ECL aa Le a Re meas ees cias waa Vantin 6, 240, 521 768, 897 1, 812, 121
Rae RAOMEDN IS CSC tn on ata ws iy cl ae wid SE A Se cag Rae erin ops, aca 8, 557, 917 65, 261 3, 090, 632
CLE SP RS oe EP ae Sg a Sane oe Sek Ny hon tn 7, 422, 952 226, 998 858, 050
OURS EA Easel 1 pS a ey A ye ee 5, 678, 304 1, 377, 625 2, 632, 074
OPT ESE eal neers a Gi SE Se pees ra aparece Sant oop ree ae 1, 788, 200 171,071 955, 415
NRE ED ete od wna ses Stn Ae en nea eae e Satie whale nie wart dl 4 GS71, ASS |\awattcs oceans 1, 143, 725

METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE YIELD OF COTTON IN THE FIELD.
By J. C. Crawrorp, Special Agent Bureau of Entomology.

To estimate the yield of cotton from the plants in the field the following directions
will be found useful: Determine the average number of sound bolls per plant by
counting the number of such bolls on some five adjacent plants in at least three
separate places in the field and dividing the total number of bolls counted in this
manner by the total number of plants examined. Where the field is very large, or
contains different soils, more than three places should be selected for counting. In
the first column of the following table find the distance between the plants in the
field, the crop of which is to be estimated. Then refer to the number on the same
line in the following column headed by the size of bolls to which the variety planted
belongs. Dividing the average number of bolls per plant in the field by the number
found in this manner in the table will give the fraction of a bale per acre that will
be produced. Example: If, in the case of a small boll variety like the King, the
average number of bolls per plant is found to be 10, and the plants are chopped to a
distance of 2 feet in rows 4 feet apart, the amount of the prospective yield per acre
will be 10 divided by 25.4, or 0.39 of a bale. In using this table due allowance must
be made for poor stands.

2 a1904——40

626 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Number of cotton bolls per plant of various classes required at certain distances to produce —
a bale per acre when cotton gins 834 per cent of lint. .

- Medium-| ¢
Distance "| Large. are Small
between Number bolls, 50 sized bolls, 85
lants, | Of Plants to 65 per bolls, 70 to 100 per
In feet, | PEF 8¢re.| “Pound, | to 80 per aca
. P * | pound, F y
1 x 3 14, 520 5.9 7 PY | 9.5
Sy. ae 10, 890 7.9 10,3 12,7
1x 5 8, 712 9.8 12.9 15.9
1 x 6 7, 260 11.8 15, 4 19.1
1ix 3 9, 680 8.9 11.6 14.0
13x 4 7, 260 11.8 15. 4 19,1
1x 5 5, 808 14.8 19.3 23.8
1:x 6 4, 840 17.8 23.2 28.6
2x 2 10, 890 7.9 10.3 ert
2x 3 7, 260 11.8 15.4 19.1
ax4 5, 445 15.8 20. 6 25. 4
2x 5 4, 356 19,7 25.8 31.8
2x 6 3, 630 23. 2 30.9 38. 4
$. 8 4, 840 17.8 23.2 28.6

The following classification of some of the principal varieties of cotton according
to the size of the bolls, taken from Bulletin 107, Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station, page 192, will assist in the use of the table: -

Large Boll Cottons, 50-65 per pound of seed cotton: Chase Improved, Texas
Stormproof, Drake, Strickland, Banks, Russell, Lee Improved, Japan, Chris-—
topher Improved, Culpepper, Peerless, Thrash Select, Truitt, Jones Improved,
Ellis, Dunean, Scroggins Prolific. Nancy Hanks, Maddox, Cummings, ©
Sprueill, Coppedge, Griffin. ..

Medium-sized Boll Cottons, 70-80 per pound of seed cotton: Texas Bur, Smith
Improved, Jackson Limbless, Herndon Select, W. A. Cook, Doughty, Big
Boll, Minor, Texas Oaks, Mattis, Hawkins, Hawkins Jumbo, Hilliard, Pinker-
ton, Petit Gulf, Allen Improved, Bur. a

Small Boll Cottons, 85-100 per pound of seed cotton: King, Parker, Wellborn,
Tyler, Limb Cluster, Borden Prolific, Wise, Peterkin, Dickson, Boyd Pro-
lific, Shine Early, Dearing, Norris, Bates Poor Land, Excelsior, Sea Island.

STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS.+¢
CORN.

Corn crop of countries named, 1899-1908.

Countries. 1899.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

United piateds ect OL. Clstee eek © 2, 078, 144, 000 |2, 105, 103, 000 |1, 522, 520, 000 |2, 523, 648, 000
Canada (Ontario). 2c Vs... nar. 22, 356, 000 27, 947, 000 25, 621, 000 21, 159, 000
MGzIOO sen dete ae Poe 93, 438, 000 92, 204, 000 93, 459, 000 78, 099, 0CO

Total North America..... 2,193, 938, 000 |2, 225, 254, 000 }|1, 641, 600, 000 |2, 622, 906, 000
Cee eae ee ee ee 9, 000, 000 8, 000, 000 9, 000, 000
Ayan ting 5 sii ee eo ee ' 66,185, 000 55, 612, 000
REBUY 420 wares et eee ts 6, 000, 000 3, 035, 000 5, 576, 000

Total South America..... 81, 185, 000 66, 647,000 | 113, 418, 000 98, 078, 000
PRD CO. o.)0 ote cece ice eee | 25 22, 232, 000 26, 393, 000 24, 928, 000
oy 077s Ui ae eee gare oes Ae RN ER 26, 016, 000 25, 759, 000 25, 272, 000
Pectin Se eee eS 16, 000, 000 16, 000, 000
107A eR eres ene AR ae ps ee ea 83, 286, 00U 71, 028, 000
| SE ee eg 15,446,000 | 17,535,000 | 13, 462, 000
PREY 5 ois ee 127, 656,000 | 127,389,000 | 104, 546, 000
Croatia-Slavonia .......:.---<+- 18, 691, 000 20, 469, 000 15, 255, 000

Total Austria-Hungary ..| 145,244,000 | 161,793, 000 133, 263, 000

aThe figures in the following tables were furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, Deps
Agriculture, except such as otherwise credited. All prices are on gold basis.

STATISTICS OF CORN. 627

’ Corn crop of countries named, 1899-1908—Continued.
Countries, 1899, 1901. 1902. 1903.
ro es —_—_—_—_—. - SS —_——— { ——___—__
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

BOOHINGIIG sp akan crsnedaneacctaaal? «aty LeLOoe 85,047,000 | 116,945, 000 68, 447, 000 80, 272, 000
Bulgaria and EF, Roumelia..... 20, 462, 000 18, 000, 000 25, 000, 000 18, 109, 000 20, 000, 000
ETI ieEics cra aden vee base date cue 25, 988, 000 18, 472, 000 18, 849, 000 18, 396, 000 19, 479, 000
“oe EN Reyer | 80,912, 000 84, 256, 000 68, 400, 000 48, 647, 000 | 50, 732, 000

TOU DUTOPS wscbincsacdnsd 405, 990,000 | 465,102,000 | 562,194,000 | 424,090, 000 492, 957, 000
OF Sea Ae hry ea SE 349, 000 350,000 | 350, 000 350, 000 350, 000
URE es See Res aharcce its Decides 30, 000, 000 25, 000, 000 30, 000, 000 30, 000, 000 30, 000, 000
BIGUG COON Yi. os culue necccse luce 2, 858, 000 2, 000, 000 2, 000, 000 2, 000, 000 2, 000, 000

Ota ATTIC cant cenateese 38, 207, 000 27, 350, 000 82, 350, 000 32, 350, 000 | 82, 350, 000
RTM OUOMIELE UG e oSite taliban es cee 9, 780, 000 10, 025, 000 10, 168, 000 7, 847, 000 | 5, 615, 000

RECAPITULATION BY CONTINENTS.

North America...../........--- 2, 193, 938, 000 |2, 225, 254, 000 |1, 641, 600, 000 |2, 622, 906, 000 | 2, 364, 388, 000
South America ..........-..---- 81,185,000 | ' 66,647,000 | 113,418,000 |’ 98,078,000 | 162; 711; 000
| SPIRES ARS eraene PAe mes . 405,990,000 | 465,102,000 | 662,194,000 | 424'090;000 | 492’ 957° 000
7S See oe eee 33, 207,090 | 27,350,000 | 32,350,000 | 32,350,000 | 32° 350,000
Mtetralttie...2u.s.-.ccc.- +058. 9,780,000 | 10,025,000} 10,168,000] 7,847,000 5, 615, 000

2, 724, 100, 000 |2, 794, 378, 000 |2, 359, 730, 000 |3, 185, 271, 000 | 3, 058, 021, 000

1895-1896. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1899-1900.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
10, 762, 000 11, 199, 000 21, 501, 000 32, 983, 000 21, 551, 000
5, 770, 000 13, 246, 000 20, 018, 000 25, 430, 000 17, 687, 000

eee athe to 6,819,000 | 18,608,000} 37,528,000] 24,043; 000 11, 070, 000
Te A SR nec Be 6,760,000 | 17,800,000] 45,412,000} 30,132° 000 16, 662, 000
Gwe ie 532 6,338,000 | 23,913,000 | 52,980,000} 33,198,000] 18,738, 000
ps LE oe es ee 7,381,000 | 22,635,000 | 49,559,000 | 25,870, 000 17, 555, 000
CN MN a BCS ah 9,164,000 | 26,457,000 | 48,292,000} 26,936,000} 19, 024, 000
OSS RS RRO ee Ra? od 17,035,000 | 29,725,000 | 53,522,000] 36,726,000] 20,110. 000
Man ees A A 17,040,000 | 33,764,000 | 52,457,000 | 44,792,000 | 28, 340, 000
ROA: he! i pee ae 19,290,000 | 32,670,000 | 52,228,000] 43,618,000 31, 883; 000
MVE be 2 2 ee 13,239,000 | 21,707,000 | 34,734,000 | 34,236,000 | 30,416,000
SUED Yor. ee eee 11,231,000 | 16,161,000 | 28,288,000} 19,070,000} 18, 289,000

1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1903-1904. 1904-1905.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
19, 087, 000 21, 522, 000 8, 541, 000 13, 410, 000 12, 362, 000
18, 613, 000 19, 648, 000 9, 013, 000 11, 715, 000 10, 073, 000
8, 766, 000 19, 476, 000 3, 823, 000 9, 487, 000 8, 014, 000
11, 106, 000 21, 215, 000 4, 607, 000 15, 063, 000 10, 703, 000
Nevambers. - sissies 11,061,000 | 19, 137, 000 4,229,000 | 12,147,000 5, 119, 000
DeneeOR. cincden ces oct hs scout 12,791,000 | 16,599, 000 4,552, 000 9, 817, 000 5, 445, 000
JRDNID Ye 3. 2 Facet eet cen aoe 14, 313, 000 16, 825, 000 9, 345, 000 9, 547, 000 15, 351, 000
FODIEATYs - iow 5 so hae sese = oe 21, 950, 000 17, 197, 000 11, 535, 000 12, 807, 000 19, 721, 000
MgrGhira tts See. Seah te tee 27, 538, 000 15, 270, 000 15, 180, 000 16, 669, 000 16, 752, 000
TM ek a dois can Jo nis «ett oon ee 28, 947, 000 13, 540, 000 16, 901, 000 16, 571, 000 16, 124, 000
WIPE Rete ce bos can we oe a eel 24, 544, 000 9, 093, 000 9, 454, 000 AS, 20 OOO. | ss5. sete Somes
PEE ene owe cu sapepaee one ae t 21, 904, 000 6, 317, 000 7, 039, 000 eae OUD) sits at aes ae

aThese figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by
Bradstreet’s.

628

Year.

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of corn of the United States, 1866-1904.

YEARBOOK OF

Condition of the corn crop of the United States, monthly, 1890-1904,

Year.

1901 ....
1902 <o <*
1903 =...
1904 ....

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in corn, 94,043,613 acres, ~~
reported in 1902; the greatest production, 2,523,648,312 bushels, i in the same y ea
the greatest farm ‘value on December 1, $1, 087, 461, 440, in 1904; the greatest ave ‘

Acreage.

Acres.

..--| 34, 306, 538
----} 32, 520, 249
---| 34, 887, 246
-| 37, 108, 245
-| 38, 646, 977
-| 34, 091, 137

35, 526, 836

-| 89, 197,148

41, 036, 918
44, 841, 371

-| 49, 033, 364
-| 50, 369, 113

51, 585, 000
53, 085, 450
62, 317, 842
64, 262) 025
65, 659, 545

-| 68, 301, 889
---| 69, 683, 780
---| 73,180, 150

75, 694, 208

...| 72, 392, 720
-| 75,672, 763

78, 319, 651

-.| 71,970, 768

76, 204, 515

...| 70, 626, 658
- 27} 72) 086, 465
| 62; 582) 269

82, 075, 830

....| 81,027, 156
“| 80,095; 051

77, 721, 781

---| 82, 108, 587

83, 320, 872
91, 349, 928
94’ 043, 613
88,091, 993
92, 231, 581

Aver-
age
yield
per
acre.

Bush.
25.3
23.6
26.0
23.6
28.3
29.1
80.8
23.8
20.7
29.5
26.2

70. 6 | 1895 .
92.5 || 1896 ..
79.8 || 1897...
75.1 || 1898...
64,2 is 1899...

July. Aug. | Sept. oa Year, | July. Aug.
| |

..| 99.3 |102, 5
.| 92.4 | 96.0] 91
82.9 | 84.2 | 79
90.5 | 87.0 | 84.
86.5 | 89.9 | 85,

Production.

Bushels.
867, 946, 295
768, 320, 000
906, 527, 000
874, 320, 000
1, 094, 255, 000
991, 898, 000
1, 092, 719, 000
9382, 274, 000
850, 148, 500
1, 321, 069, 000
1, 283, 827, 500
1, 342, 558, 000
1, 388, 218, 750
1, 547, 901, 790
1, 717, 434, 543
1, 194, 916, 000
1, 617, 025, 100
1, 551, 066, 895
1, 795, 528, 432
1, 986, 176, 000
1, 665, 441, 000
1, 456, 161, 000
1, 987, 790, 000
2,112, 892, 000
1, 489, 970, 000
2, 060, 154, 000
1, 628, 464, 000
1, 619, 496, 181
1, 212, 770, 052
2, 151, 138, 580
2, 288, 875, 165
1, 902, 967, 933
1, 924, 184, 660
2, 078, 148, 983
2,105, 102, 516
1, 522, 519, 891
2, 523, 648, 312
2, 244, 176, 925
2, 467, 480, 934

Aver-

age
farm

price |Farm value,

35.3

WwonmNmnNmnhkww, CO we 0 CO we he > GO CO CO o_
SESSSRRASSSSRAESVESSSSSRESE SE
STW AIWSOIWAIOIRAODWOH RPOOAIKOIAOAO-I1P OC-I1 tO

60.5

THE DEPARTMENT OF

Sept. | Oct. | Year, ‘July.

AGRICULTURE,

Dec. 1.

Dollars.
411, 450, 880
437, 769, 763
424, 056, 649
522) 550, 509
540, 520, 456
430, 355, 910
885, 736, 210
411, 961,151
496, 271, 255
484, 674, 804
436, 108, 621
467, 635, 230
440, 280, 517
580, 486, 217
679, 714, 499
759, 482, 170
783, 867,175
658, 051, 485
640, 735, 859
685, 674, 630
610, 311, 000
646, 106, 770
677, 561, 580
597, 918, 829
754, 433, 451
886, 439, 228
642, 146, 680
591, 625, 627
554, 719, 162
644, 985, 534
491, 006, 967
601, 072, 952
652, 023, 428
629, 210, 110
761, 220, 034
921, 555, 768

40.3 |1,017,017,349
42.5 | 952, 868, 801
44.1 |1,087,461,440

Chicago cash

bushel,

December.

Cts.

aCoincident with ‘‘corner.”’

price epee

May of
following
year.

Low. | High. tay.

16, 026, 947
12, 493,522 —
8, 286, 665
2, 140, 487
10, 676, 873 ©
35, 727,010 —
40, 154, 374
ate
’ oe
50, 910, 532
72,652,611
87,192,110
87, 884, 892
99, 572,829
93, 648, 147
41 655, 653
46, 258, 606
52, 876, 456
64,829,617 ©
70,841,673
103, 418, 709
32, 041, 529
76, 602, 285
47,121, 894
101, 100, 375
Le ae
TTT om O46.
213, 123, 412 ©
76, 639, 261
58, 222, 061

’
ue

yield per acre, 30.8 bushels, in 1872; the createst average farm ] price per bushel,

cents in 1881.

For the five years, 1900-1904, the average area was 89,807,597 acr

the average production, 2,172,585,716 bushels; the average farm value on Decer
ber 1, $946,024,678; the average yield per acre, 24.2 bushels; the average farm price
per bushel on December 1, 43.5 cents. ’

»

STATISTICS OF CORN.

629

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of corn of the United States in 1904, by States.

States and Terri-

rp of 1904,

___ |Stock in farmers’ hands

Shipped out

- ; Onr of county
tories. Acreage. Prod uction. Value. March 1, 1905, where grown.
Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. Per cent. Bushels.
SGINO sen tkes wckace 12, 871 510, 979 418, 898 97, O86 LD ww we Se ae
New Hampshire ... 27, 597 753, 398 542, 447 180, 816 py eee ce
WRRIRTOUIAG eth cous waa 59, 427 2,188, 429 1, 557, 403 576, 026 yf | 21, 334
Massachusetts ....- 44, 855 1, 596, 780 1, 149, 682 463, 066 29 47, 908
Rhode Island ...... 9, 912 8387, 999 2838, 919 135, 200 40 3, 380
ec cage ae EINER 54, 505 2,120, 244 1, 547,778 699, 681 Pl atalee aes oo atete
New York.......... 625, 615 17, 079, 290 10, 930, 746 4,782, 201 28 341, 586
New Jersey......... 274, 999 10, 449, 962 6, 060, 978 4, 388, 984 42 1, 985, 493
Pennsylvania ...... 1, 427, 522 48, 5385, 748 28, 636, 091 16, 016, 797 33 2,912,145
Delaware .........- 187, 116 5, 688, 326 2, 787, 280 8, 014, 813 53 2,161, 564
MALVIANG J.) ..ctuee 635, 146 21, 2138, 876 10, 606, 988 9, 758, 383 46 7, 212, 718
PUL Se or wos ohn oe 1, 841, 198 42,899, 913 25, 310, 949 20, 591, 958 48 5, 147, 990
North Carolina..... 2, 677, 992 40, 705, 478 25, 237, 396 20,759, 794 51 2,035, 274
South Carolina..... 1, 789, 503 22, 189, 837 15, 532, 886 11, 982, 512 54 1, 109, 492
GEGTOIG f5 aie cee 8, 977, 707 47, 334, 713 83, 607, 646 24, 614, O51 52 1, 893, 389
BIOTA eescns wak ats 620, 592 6, 640, 834 4, 980, 250 3, 187, 860 48 199, 210
ATR DOING. 2s. scee ace 2, 791, 811 41, 877, 165 25, 126, 299 22,194, 897 53 1, 256, 315
Mississippi ......... 2, 079, 040 39, 709, 664 22,237,412 | 21,046, 122 53 1, 985, 483
TOGIAIaNa 2225S. .65 1, 369, 771 27, 258, 443 15, 587, 318 10, 358, 208 38 545, 169
PRBS. os cies ce cs 6, 048, 792 1386, 702, 699 71, 085, 403 49, 212, 972 36 19, 188, 378
PTIAMBOR. oy cco on 2, 237, 621 48, 332, 614 25, 616, 285 19, 333, 046 40 1, 933, 305
Tennessee.......... 8, 235, 601 80, 890, 025 40, 445, 012 33, 973, 810 42 16, 986, 905
West Virginia...... 757, 961 19, 176, 413 12, 272, 904 6, 328, 216 33 958, 821
TGRTUGCIEY sioe% Sn\0 525 8, 227, 345 86, 815, 580 42, 5389, 634 36, 462, 544 42 10, 417, 870
NO ice nk on cate! 6/065, 494 99, 628, 555 45, 829, 135 33, 873, 709 24 20, 921, 997
LOC es 1, 298, 373 36, 990, 468 19, 235, 043 9, 987, 426 27 2, 589, 333
IMGIANG |. ck. 2c. 4 4, 652, 281 148, 396, 852 58, 792, 709 53, 056, 835 37 40,151,119
PUGHOISS. . dos < os boss 9, 428, 320 344, 1338, 680 184, 212, 185 123, 888, 125 36 154, 860, 156
Wisconsin.......... 1, 519, 189 45,119, 913 20, 755, 160 12, 182, 377 27 2, 255, 996
Minnesota :.......... 1, 554, 241 41, 809, 083 15, 051, 270 12, 124, 634 29 2, 926, 636
iC ee eee es 9, 295, 683 808, 039, 266 100, 002,958 | 127,276, 492 42 63, 638, 246
EEE a 5, 783, 307 151, 522, 643 66, 669, 963 48, 487, 246 32 9, 091, 359
J: |: a er 6, 440, 654 134, 609, 669 55, 189, 964 44, 421,191 33 18, 845, 354
MBDIANKS +=. s55....- 7, 955, 559 260, 942, 835 86, 110, 971 112, 205, 204 43 122, 642, 897
South Dakota....-- 1, 560, 678 43, 855, 052 15, 787, 819 14, 083, 617 32 8, 771, 010
North Dakota...... 90, 308 1, 914, 530 765, 812 344, 615 18 38, 291
WOMENS. a.- acec-=s 8, 902 86, 624 58, 904 23, 388 Pa ete ane
Wine 202s. 55... 2, 218 72, 085 41, 088 17, 300 72.4 |SERe ae ae
Delle: 6 (eae 117, 837 2, 415, 658 1, 304, 455 603, 914 25 120, 783
New Mexico......- 34, 281 778,179 606, 980 171, 199 22 23, 345
ANIC. oo sok 6, 091 144, 966 131, 919 20, 295 14 1, 450
Miike eno ee ee 11, 468 380, 738 274, 131 76, 148 2 Oy Ee eee cee ce
BOAR Got aati. 5, 346 156, 688 109, 647 23, 496 15 3, 133
Washington........ 9, 815 242, 430 160, 004 33, 940 14 4, 849
WEEP OR? oc sonke ssc a g oF Sy be 495, 706 802, 381 49, 571 10 4, 957
Calsornig.. 2.5... 54, 415 _ 1,556, 269 1, 213, 890 280, 128 18 280, 128
Oklahoma ......... 1, 729, 953 48, 611, 679 18, 958, 555 17, 986, 321 37 9, 236, 219
Indian Territory...| 1,685, 957 54, 625, 007 21, 850, 003 22, 942, 503 42 16, 933, 752
NO on toes c 92, 231, 581 2, 467, 480, 934 1, 087, 461,440 | 954, 268, 217 38. 7 551, 634, 734
Average yield per acre of corn in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.
States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
‘ Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. Bush.| Bush.| Bush.

1 Er ree eS ae es lp ES ae 42.0 | 87. 37. 40. 36.0 | 36.0 39.4 2137 30.2 39.7
New Hampshire . ES oe 40.2} 42.0 | 34.0) 41:0] 389.0] 387.0] 38.5] 23.3] 21.0 Fie
Wermopn ty 3: 2-2 se, sues a 45.6 | 41.0] 35.0] 48.0] 386.0] 40.0] 40.0/ 21.8] 23.4 35.9
Massachusetts... ..:..-2.2=-. 43.9} 43.0] 32.5 | 40.0] 36.0] 88.0] 40.5| 31.3] 24.0 36.0
Rhode Island sa eae eet iatoee BUS | hS4e 0 ee Be.O ped OSL: 0): 82:60 a | 28.4 30.1 34.1
Cennechicut , .ite.ss--d sean 57.9 | 388.0] 31.5 | 387.0) 89.0] 88.0] 39.0] 31.5| 22.4 38.9
POW OV OTK. 20. wid nas stebteeen 35. 6 34.0] 381.0] 33.0 31.0 32.0 33.0} 25.0 25.0 2S
New Jersey .-.-- 2 ecs--<es aces 33.0} 33.0 31.5 37.0 | 39.0 33.0 86.9 | 34.5 24.0 38.0
PENNS) VADIS ¢ 26s vies oun eachnn 83.5 | 40.0} 36.0] 87.0} 82.0] 25.0] 35.0] 36.1] 31.2 34.0
DEIAWOIC.. 14.2536 Siw nee aes 21.0} 22.0] 29.0 | 25.0] 22.0|- 24.0] 30.0| 28.0] 27.5 30.4
Maryland ep tae tae wled aioe ales 26.8 | 32.0] 33.0 31.0] 382.0] 26.0 34.2 32.4 | 28.7 33.4
Virpinin i 2es tov a5 on sas 18:6 | 21. 5] 48. OF }= 9220 20.0] 16.0 1 Ae 4 22.0) 218 23.3
North Carolina .............. 14.5) 12.0] 18.0] 14.0] 13.0] 12.0] 12.0| 18.9] 14.7 15.2
South Carolina............--. 11.1 9.0) 9.0) 10.0) 9.0) 7.0] 6.9] 10.4} 103] 12.4
Georgia .....-.-----------++-- 13.0} 11.0) 11.0; 90] 10.0] 10.0} 10.0} 9.0} 11.7} 11.9
PIGEIGR Sead ese wenads sda Sach 11.2} 10.0 8.0 9.0 | 10.0 8.0 9.0 8.6 9.9 10.7
Alabama.........-.---..-+--- 15.9] 12.5] 12.0] 15.0] 12.0] 11.0] 10.9 8.4] 14.8 15.0
Missiasippl 24. .0i05 chs sneeeenes 15.8 | 13.51 14.5] 18.0] 16.0] 11.0] 10.9; 11.5] 18.4 19.1

630 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Average yield per acre of corn in the United States, 1895-1904, by States—Continued. |

States and Territories, 1895, | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.

Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush.

LOBIBaIOMR 6 oc 5 oe races oe 18.8 13.0 17.0 18. 0 18.0 17.0 13.7 12.5 20, 6 19.9
ewes oo desde oo cee 26.4 9.5 18.5 25.0 18.0 18.0 11.6 8.1 24.2 22.6
Avraness 32.2... eto 21.5 13.5 16.0 20.0 20. 0 19.0 8.1 21.8 20.9 21.6
Paenvieeges’ .-.*.-h. coce oe eee 25.0 23. 0 21.0 26. 0 20.0 20.0 14,2 21.9 23.5 25.0
Wont Virethis: Joe asccessdeus 24.2 30.0 24.5 29.9 26.0 27.0 23.0 26.5 22.6 25.3
ROntuORy css eic sees es savannas 31.2} 28.0] 238.0} 81.0] 21.0] 26.0] 15.6] 27.0) 26.6 26.9
TI Pe rao Oe a 32.6 41.0 82.5 37.0 36.0 37.0 26.1 38.0 29.6 32.5
1a OG ee eee BEE 33.8 88.0} 31.5 34.0 25. 0 36.0; 34.5 26.4 33,5 28.6
POOR Fo ee a eee 82.8 35.0 | 380.0 86.0 38.0 38. 0 19.8 87.9 | $8.3 31.5
021101701) RS oe eee ae 37.4 40.5 82.5 80.0 36.0 37.0 21.4 38.7 32.2 36.5
AS) RS Se es 31.8 37.0 33.0 85. 0 35. 0 40.0 27.4 28.2 29.3 29.7
pS oa ee ee ee = 81.2] 80.5 | 26.0} 82.0] 88.0] 88.0] 26:8 | 23:8) ae 2639
1 eT a ee ES a Ae $5.1 | $9.0} 20.0) $5.0] $1.0] 88.01 25:0] 82:0) 32.6
1 Ty Saree: eee same Be. Sid 36.0 27.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 28.0 10.1 39.0 32.4 26.2
1 a a aT ee a Pg ed 24°38 | .28:0.|- 18.0 | .16.0% 27:05i..19°0 7.8 | 29.9 | 25.6 20.9
NGMRPANNG: <> lea. se. So aoe 16.1 37.5 80:0 |. 21505) ) 28.0 26.0 14.1 82.3} 26.0 32.8
South Dakota : <<... <ic. Seas ch EN 26.0 24.0 28.0 26.0 27.0 21.0 18.9 27,3 28,1
North Dakota............---. 21.3] 35.0] 17.0] 19.0] 28.0] 16.0] 22.6|°19.4| 25.2] 21.9
Montana). 5 2s. Se 25.0 | 26.0 18.0 | 28.0] 28.0] 15.0] 25.07] 22:0) 2am 2.2
Wyomnin ms... oss eoese tenes 27.5 | 25.0 12.0 16.0 22.0 34. 0 39.5 19.8 19.4 82.5
Colorages. i. oecedens hae 20.7 16.0 19.0 18.0 17.0 19.0 27.4 16.5 19.8 20.5
New Mexico. oeeieckcsw cere 27.2) 16.0.}.27.0 | 21.0) 20.0 | 22.0 S2:6)) 22.03) ae 2257
BPPAOVNG 5 cin oc Shanes nS aloe ae es luda site Jad oats «lab steealpedecae Ine aa tele 18.0 | 20,2) 228 23.8
Utes ct oe a 20.3 25.0 22.0 21.0 20.0} 20.0 19.4 20.1 21.4 33.2
1 Cs ee nn ok Sn er) tens eS ee ee | te ee. ol EE 23.0 | 24.7] S46 29.3
Weshitietan slide cusses <sineaes Ly at 14.0 18.0 12.0 23.0 20.0 17.6) 23.0) 2a 24.7
Oem Ss: cs, Celeste bk enmsaes 26.4 22.0.) 28.0 24.0} 22.0 23.0 20.8 | 28.4] 25.8 28.8.
Galriomnia:-.. >t) 2.k sb aaeeeee 84.6 | $7.0) 81.5 26.0) 27.0) 25.0) 81.0 | 80.5 )veeum 28.6 —
CRONE Fe. o's oho wins eee dl wees ols See rebasee cera enanecete 19.0 | 26.0 7.8 | 25.8) a8 25°%)
aT SS Mg a 2g ee pe a Be A SOR kB BE de ee | ee 12:0 | 24.9) 2iom 32.4
General average ....... 26.2 | 28.2] 23.8] 24.8] 26.38] 25.8] 16.7] 26.8: apes 26.8

Average value per acre of corn in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States. —

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.
aie oe ro) ee aan eae $22.68 |$17.39 |$17.39 |$19. 20 |$18. 00 |$19. 80 |$29. 94 |$16.06 |$19.93 | $32.16
New Hampshire -...--<a.---- 20.50 | 18.90 | 15.30 | 18.86 | 19.11 | 20.72 | 30.03 | 17.01 | 18.23 | 19.66 —
WHE Ont: oi ee eee 21.89 | 15.58 | 15.05 | 18.92 | 16.92 | 20.00 | 29.20 | 14.82 | 14.51 | 26.21
Massachusetis' ....-..aceses. 22.83 | 19.78 | 15.28 | 19.60 | 18.36 | 20.52 | 30.78 | 23.16 | 15.84] 25.92
Rhode Talend: <2. Joe 17.30 | 16.66 | 16.74 | 21.76 | 16.43 | 21.44 | 24.40 | 22.15 | 24.38 3
Conneetieut’.: 2... seo 19.33 | 15.96 | 15.48 | 19.24 | 19.50 | 20.90 | 29.25 | 23.381 | 15.01 | 28.
Now, York... eee 16.02 | 12.92 | 12.40 | 14.19 | 18.95 | 15.04 | 23.76 | 16.75 | 15.00} 17.47 ~
New JOrsey. 2-0 cn 2 -senuwdeause 13. 86 | 11.88 | 11.97 | 14.80 | 15.60 | 14.85 | 24.35 | 19.82 | 18.68 | 22.04
Penney] Vania os 2... asec: 13.07 | 18.20 | 22.24 ) 14.80 | 18.12 | 11.25 | 21.70 | 20.94 | 17.78 | 20.06
Bielaware. 2 no o2 eee 7.14| 5.60] 8.70) 7.75:| 7.48 | 9.12 | 17.10 | 18.72 | 18.485)
Maryland..-.<. 495.4. 5 ses 9.92 | 10.24] 9.90 | 10.85} 11.52 | 10.66 | 19.84 | 16.52 | 14.64] 16.70
by bck yee ae ne cpt Alpe A oe 6.& | 6.88} 6.84] 7.70] 7.60 | 7.84 | 18.10 | 11.44] 11.55} 13.75
North: Carolina®<<- 5. 32.2 .362. 5.51] 4.44] 5.59|/ 6.02] 6.11 | 6.84] 8.76] 8.34] 8.97 9. 42
Sonth Caroling! o.- sc2 55. 5.11 | 4.14] 4.41 | 460] 4.50) 4.48) 6:80) T.18))07e 8.68 —
CE COT 1 ipa RIE fangs ih api 5.88 | 4.78 | 6.28 | 4.82] 5:00'| 5.70) 8.20°| 6:57 | Site 8.45 —
WIIG os oo ct oe ree 5:26} 5.80} 4.40) 4.50] 5.80) 4.80) 7.65) 6/62; eee 8. 02
FOC eee eee eee 5.88 | 5.68 | 5.52) 6.15 | 5.64:| 6.88 | 8.89) 5/68)) 9enae 9.00 —
Minsissin ih: oon. 232 «ace SS 5.85 | 6.941 6.58 |. 7:02 | 7.86] 6.88} 8.07 | 7.02) 9588 =
BOUISIANE Mt ods Secs nc does 7,24} 5.85 | 7.65) 7.88 | 7.92 | .8,50)| 10.27 |. -8:25.) oe
Tewea:) te. ooo hg. = eons 8.18 | 8:90 | 7.68} 8.50] 6.48) 8.46) 9.28) 5.359) Eee
Arkansas J). 5 Pho eee 6.88 |. 4.99 | 6.40] 5.80] 7.60 | 8.17] 6.56 | 10.44 | 10.66
‘Pennessee 2... & sasske ses oe 6,75 | 6744) 7.56 | 7.54) 7.80 | 9.80:| 9.28 | 10.29) tives
West Virginia [222205545 ee. 9.68 | 10.20 | 9.80} 10.73 | 11.70 | 18.50 | 14.95 | 14.31 | 14.46
Rentuakoc co eiseese eee 8.42] 7.00] 8.05] 8.37] 7.77 | 10.40] 9.52 | 11.84 | 14.90
OUIO = oo ee > Be Baan Se 8.80} 8.61 | 8.12} 9.99 | 10.80 | 12.58 | 14.88 | 15.96 | 18.91
Wighieatr oc | ote oe sss 10.82 | 9.12! 8.50 | 11.56! 9.00 | 18.32 | 17.94 | 18.78 | 15.42
Indiana fs 5 tere 8 ee: 6.65 | 6.30} 9.00} 10.26 | 12.16 | 10.89 | 18.64 | 11.95
MEMINOIS cite or eee ac eee t 8.23 | 7.29} 6.88} 7.50} 9.86 | 11.84 | 12.20 | 18.98 | 11.59
WVHeONSIN 3S. 2 ee 9.54] 8.14] 8.25] 9.80] 10.50 | 18.20 | 14.25 | 14.10 | 12.60
MIsNOROTA S. -s sao occ ok aon = 6.24 | 5.79 | 6.24 | 7.681 7.92 | 9.57 '|.11,88 | -9.12>) 10075
UV Se eS ee eee eee See 6.82 | 5.46 | 4.98] 8.05] 7.13 | 10.26 | 18.00 | 10.56 | 10.64
acme a. 58k eS Shee « 7.20) 5. 40 1.6: 24 |" R02) 7280) $8.96 |} 6, 77>). 12:87 eee
Womeag: 327.2 Me ASS 4.62 |. 6.04 | 3.96 |°416.) (6:75 | 6.08:|. 4:91 | 10:17) “Sia
Memraaka ses... 28 2 ib et | | 2.90} 4.88) 56.10] 4.62] 6.44] 8.06] 7.61] 9.69) 7.28
Sout Dakota: oo... oe 2.55} 4.68 | 6.04) 6.44 1° 6.76 | 7.83 | 9.451 7.76.) 9952
North Dakote'..- =. >...2-25.4 5.11.) 8.75 | 5.44] 6.84] 7.59 | 6.72 | 10.40] 8.73 | 10.58
Mortara. Js. io ooo oek 18.75 | 15.60 | 11.70 | 18.48 | 11.96 | 8.85 | 22.50 | 15.84 | 14.94
WHOM ook ease oo asic asi 15.67 1 19.50 | 6.00! 8.801 9.46 | 20.40 | 28.44 | 11.68 | 11.25

STATISTICS OF CORN. 631

Average value per acre of corn in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States—Continued.

ee

1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

States and Territories.

SIRs Noata'p tenian maemo $7.22 | $7.20 | $7.31 | $9.12 |$12.65 | $9.73 |$10.69 | $11.07
NOW IAORLCO wwe asacbinnccesan 15. 66 | 11.76 | 11.60 | 14.08 | 24.33 | 17.16 | 18.00 gy ea
MUCH WEN, Se ose nig atte Meas Fox aligaie ao ala wis'als idle ob aeMal Sereme bin sac acle alec scess 16.20 | 20.40 | 20.16 21. 66
ROMER a SRA tats Bt we oCee pene anaes 12.10 | 12.60 | 11.80 | 12.60 | 17.46 | 13.47 | 14.98 | 238.90
PON En res Cok ah Catal Gav cal aca sacl tee oa blebs acewbec| sac ee4. 8.80 | 15.81 | 19.67 | 20.51
WV MENUS TOL a tna Fue cesteea ce 9.90 | 5.04 | 12.65 | 11.80 | 10.15 | 14.95 | 12.70 16. 30
MERGING Were. deun suid ce tows 18.25 | 14.40 | 14.08 | 18.11 | 31.86 | 15.44 | 17.29 | 17.57
WR ITOLUULG Ad ab oes Se eas ota Soha 17.64 | 16.12 | 16.20 | 15.26 | 21.08 | 23.49 | 22.72 22.31
WRVAMOMO, oe css cree cb ecUneae Ven eee tleee nde dlueweewalawses ore 8.80 | 6.76 | 5.55 | 10.06} 8.85 | 10.96
MMIII POLTIOL Vis a oho seule deca lwetote nal anaes law etadlal teas tleccencclsoceecu 9.12 | 10.71 | 10.80 | 12.96

’ General average ....... 6. 64 6:26.) 7,10; 7.66} 9.02 | 10.09.) 10.81 |! 10.82) 11.79

Average farm price of corn per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents.
54 47 47 48 50 55 76 4

ly Foie A ape SC ae Ne a ea, - ee 7 66 81
New Hampshire ............. 51 78 73 63 72
MERINO ES anit eae cls on. ont oe 48 7 68 | 62 73
Massachusetts ............-.- 52 76 74 66 | 72
PIE SATO csi de sloac a ete ae 56 76 78 | 81 | 84
MPOTINICCUIGIIG «co ccluise< count 51 75 74 67 | 73
OWE MORE: dee gt ce can een. 45 72 67 | 60 | 64
PGW CXSOY <<... dcon'ateueweccs 42 66 56 57 58
Pennsylvania.......... Beatie 39 62 58 |} 57 59
ARLE ES) 2 cae os pc Se ae 34 57 49 49 49
MU WAM Ae ees eos oe ee 37 58 61 51 | 50
SIP RNRY Se oc 2S ok ce Semae 37 59 52 53 59
Mere Caroling: .2.. soso. 38 ie 60 61 62
BOUUN Caroline: ...... sans00<% 46 84 69 69 70
JRE ETR DN TREES 2 ea TS ea 41 82 73 69 | 71
TDIFES HTC Fri Re Sea, <5 A ae oe ey ers 47 85 77 73 75
POU) 200) a ee ae ere 37 AG. 67 57 60
NMISMESID DT feina 2: sane 37 74 61 54 56
bain ae ae Se Boe ee as 40 75 66 58 57
TORR omer eee joe cs CHEE 31 80 66 48 52
ag (CU OT: Os ae SS eee ee 32 81 49 51 53
MiPRECAROD I os otiee ome as wie 7 65 47 49 50
Wiest Varsinia. ete 40 65 54 64 64
RGU Pi feta: Poteet. ais See e | 61 42 56 49
OE a Re ee a re os ee 27 bY 42 47 46
Mercian -. 250. Sof sie ece se 32 52 52 46 52
UE Se eee ee ey mew 23 _ 55 36 36 41
Mr Pie ee ee SE ees 22 57 36 36 39
BWARCORISUN 2552 7 e A es 30 52 50 |: 43 46
MAIACHOTN coon) noe Oe 20 45 40 38 36
Le Bete Oe = Se Se Ne Ae hee 18 52 33 38 33
1) DARIO Fg eas Bol aed oe ee le Ae 20 67 33 34 44
ee eR fee ee ee 19 63 34 36 41
Melsenaica 8 ou: 5 Se cen as 18 54 30 28 33
Soar Dakota 2.0.22 t ou Ses. 23 45 41 35 36
North Dakota. .o 2.2.2: eect 24 46 45 42 40
GA GA one SSC te ece ene 75 90 72 62 68
OAV ORIINIES © orton ne emacs 57 the 59 58 57
OGTR rhe Beet ie oe eer 41 74 59 54 54
WGw-IWexICO 5220 os... be 56 LE 78 75 78
W Neto 210, Gee palais of Eb EeES are ae 75 90 101 90 91
Geb: ee os oe ee eee: 49 90 67 70 72
TANG: =). | ao uce tee ae ee lems 60 62 57 70
Wasiingtons 025-25 cr eee s 40 58 65 55 66
EZ ON. ico = suns ae ceetashees 55 57 66 67 61
SGATDONTIIG | ooo oleh ee 53 68 77 74 | 78
PIANOS. oa wi Se eee beer alee 76 39 38 39
india: Territory. <b i bieece| ae ode ee 76 43 39 40

General average ....... 25.3 30.3 | 35. 7 | 60.5] 40.3] 42.5| 44.1

632 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Freight rates, average jor corn, in cents, St. Louis to New Orleans, by river.

Per bushel, Per bushel. Per bushel, )
MNES ae nae __| Sacks, ae ee
Year. | Low | High || ¥°" | Low | High |P¢r 100 Low | High |P¢r 100) Year.
water.) water. water.) water. oad water.| water, ‘
1869....| 6.82 | 8.42 || 1877 7.63 | 8.59 | 20.04 5.00 | 7.00 | 16.00 | eade's
1870....| 9.23 | 13.66 || 1878 4. 96 8.93 | 17.36 | 5.00: 7.00 | 18.25 || 1896.....
1871....| 6.72 | 16.29 || 1879 5.00 | 11.00 | 18.00 5.00 | 7.50 | 15.00 || 1897.....
1872....| 9.79 | 19.04 || 1880 7.00 | 9.50 | 19.00 5.00 | 7.00 | 17.93 || 1898..... :
1873....} 6.15 | 9.67 || 1881 4.00 | 8.00 | 20.00 | 5.00 | 7.00 | 15.66 || 1899.....
1874....| 4.95 | 8.09 || 1882 5.50 | 7.00 | 20.00 | 5.00 | 7.50 | 16.28 || 1900.....
1875....| 4.87 | 10.01 || 1883 5, 00 7.00 | 17.75 5. 00 7.00 | 16.87 || 1901.....
1876....| 5.02 | 11.30 || 1884 6,00.) 7, 00 34.00 |) 3808... .cclececovbeaeeass 17, 54
H. 2S86.5) -6.00:}'-'7,00 1-28.00 | -ESbe. ool oe el aoe 17.14 || 1908.....
aNo shipment.
Freight rates, average for corn, in cents per bushel, Chicago to New York.
: By lake By lake 3 ; - By lake By lake

Year. and canal.a| and rail, | BY #!! rail. Year. and canal.a| and rail, | BY #l rail.
TAU ac ang costello poet eee 11. 34 TOCbO: T8980. voce eae 5.93 7.32 11.36
TRIG: se nccks wae 8.75 9. 68 $46.12-1| S801 ees 6. 32 7.53 14.00
it yy ee 9. 59 13. 42 18.:08 ||} T8022 <5. ee 5. 95 real 12. 96
i Ree 8.83 10. 45 16.389 |} 1898.......... 7.18 7.97 13. 65
FAG cee ee eon 10. 49 12. 20 74,66: jf TAS4 =. see 2 4.93 6. 50 12,32.
SO ee 13. 41 14. 48 U7; 48 | eee 4.50 6.40 10. 2.
BRE seen cncn Pai | 9, 42 $3.40: |) Gene-ccoe esos 5.78 6.15 1€.50 ©
Typo aes 6.72 10. 28 18. 50 || 1897.......... 4.53 6. 92 11. 43
Li eee ee 8.03 11. 00 LUA 1608s ec acs aes 3.81 4.41 9. 80
JOGA 5 cas cewaae 6. 55 8. 50 Ta: SOc LE99U ann sews 5. 08 5. 83 10.08
RED oc edna» 6. 30 8.01 P2582 NW TOO Sees ae 4.07 4.72 9.19
TOS6 3. wh cance 8. 45 11. 20 FA. 00" 900K ores 4.61 5.16 9, 21
TROT 5 cue nnes 8.50 11. 20 FAO ee a oe 4. 88 5. 51 9. 94
POAD tees cou 6.71 10. 26 Ta D4 ft THOS. ee nace 4.85 5. 78 10. 54
TARO a cea cine 6. 32 8.19 32,60 "}). WOO4 oe 63.63 4.82 10. 38

aIncluding Buffalo charges and tolls. b Exclusive of Buffalo charges.

GRAIN IN Farmers’ Hanps, Marca 1, 1905.

~

The report of the Bureau of Statistics placed the estimate of corn in farmers’ hands
on March 1, 1905, about 954,000,000 bushels, or 38.7 per cent of last year’s ore
against 37.4 per cent of the crop of 1903 on hand on March 1, 1904, and 41.6 per cent —
of the crop of 1902 on hand at the corresponding date in 1903. - 5 ie

The amount of wheat remaining in farmers’ hands was about 111,000,000 bushels,
or 20.1 per cent of last year’s crop, as compared with the 20.8 per cent of the cro :
1903 on hand on March 1, 1904, and 24.5 per cent of the crop of 1902 on hand at the
corresponding date in 1903. é .

Of oats there were reported to be about 347,000,000 bushels, or 38.8 per cent of
last year’s crop, still in farmers’ hands, as compared with 34.9 per cent of the crop _
of 1903 on hand on March 1, 1904, and 36.9 per cent of the crop of 1902 on hand at
the corresponding date in 1903. by

638

OF CORN.

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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

‘oOsSTOUBIY Teg = ‘sINOT ‘Ig ‘yoNEg ‘os BdIYO ‘YBUUIDUID ‘IOUII [Vg "YIOK MON

634

“‘ponulju0g—fo6l-66sI ‘sanjigy panug ay) fo sano Burpva) ur jaysng vad uso fo sanrud aynsajoy 4

STATISTIOS OF WHEAT. —~—- 685

Monthly average prices of corn in Chicago.¢@

[Cents per bushel.]

Month. 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904,

ees ae mA \— sf eo 8 :

LS ) aS ee ee 42 347 | 43 265 | 22, 367 | GO | 4548) 45}
ee eee 42 | 8444) 421 | 287.) 224 38% | 5846) 439 | 504
MEE chdocwcGON clade wane. 40}3| 353 | 449 | 286 | 239 41} | 58y%| 434 | 524
Greeti ewiedd oxiuine 40} | 3873 Ao 295 | 24,3, 444 | 60% | 43) | 6144
DEL GR DD hint dG read ytticat 42 375 51 284 24} 5075; 6148) 45 43
PONG Geet wc cases waseavens 39%, sot 50 | 278 | 24y% 4243) 661 | 495 | 4812
Ly pee ch = Vance beh ae ox 3844) 43 445 26 267% 50; 72 5] 48}
PND tie sa wh ns cewsveses 38,%,| 53,1;] 40% | 223 | 29% 568 | 57 | 514 | 534
ee en 89; | 53 | 3348) 20% | 298 5648) 593 | 49 | 522
MGT... Sonik HEN, Bes. 39 | 50}4) 303 | 248 | 26 5648) 583 | 443 | 53%
|) a es 37%, 50 283 | 24% | 2644 60; | 55 4375 5475
DECEMHEP si. os. vc vae savers 353 | 463 | 2523 | 284 | 264 65 | 50: | 423 | 463
Yearly average 3944; 437;; 402 | 258 | 25,% 5Uys| 5948) 462 | 50}

a This table exhibits average cash prices for the past twelve years. The monthly prices are means
between the lowest and highest prices for each month, and the yearly prices are the averages of the
monthly averages.

WHEAT.

Wheat crop of countries named, 1900-1904.

Countries. 1904.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

ined States see. 2. oss ackioz 522, 230,000 | 748,460,000 | 670,063,000 | 637,822, 000 552, 400, 000
SE dy arckuandaahbegs 31,265,000 | 22,118,000 | 26,904,000} 22,583,000 | 13, 030, 000
TAT TTR] 1: el a 13, 436, 000 52, 094, 000 54, 750, 000 41, 381, 000 40, 397, 000
HMPA OnMORNaAda: % Jc... <-'4- nh) 9, 000, 000 16, 000, 000 17, 009, 000 20, 000, 000 | 23, 000, 000

otal Canada... 7s. Se. 53, 701, 000 90, 212, 000 98, 654, 000 83, 964, 000 | 76, 427, 000
Neemiemncetee 22 oe so oreo ah. 12, 429, 000 12, 021, 000 8, 477, 000 12, 000, 000 12, 000, 000

Total North America..... 588, 360,000 | 850, 693, 000 TT , 194, 000 733, 786, 000 640, 827, 000
Ss 2 see has ena cople satan ae 12, 000, 000 9, 000, 000 12, 000, 000 13, 000, 000 13, 000, 000
PATENTING So sGecccrw acc cee ots 101, 655, 000 74, 753, 000 56, 380, 000 100, 636, 000 120, 598, 000
MIRA set eels See 6, 891, 000 3, 664, 000 7, 604, 000 5, 240, 000 7,000, 000

Total South America..... 120, 546, 000 87, 417,.000 75, 984, 000 118, 876, 000 | 140, 598, 000
Grempgititain $£2.05 21-88) 54,299,000 | 54,111,000} 58,463,000 | 49, 144, 000 38, 043, 000
MONTIEL en fist yo se se ees 1, 682, 000 1, 470, 000 1, 602, 000 1,176, 000 1, 040, 000

Total United Kingdom... 55, 981, 000 55, 581, 000 60, 065, 000 50, 320, 000 39, 083, 000
RAISIN Soin aa. dra: a wi vic wien alae Pubes 300, 000 300, 000 265, 000 307, 000 300, 000
Sc aE ee ak Pee, 32 ee 5, 380, 000 4,193, 000 4, 757, 000 5, 547, 000 5, 417, 000
LE hd 2 ees ere nie 1 3, 604, 000 942, 000 4, 528, 000 4, 461, 000 4, 000, 000
NGLURCTIANGS ssi c5 crews readers 4, 671, 000 4, 231, 000 5, 105, 000 4, 258, 000 4, 300, 000
[Eich Srv ver ee Soe eee eee Seen 13, 788, 000 14, 148, 000 14, 521, 000 12, 350, 000 12, 500, 000
Lb RCTS, cnet eee ee ae Fs ena 326, 083, 000 310, 938, 000 327, 841, 000 364, 320, 000 296, 606, 000
MMe ee ees a aie win ae rein 100, 703, 000 136, 905, 000 133, 523, 000 128, 979, 000 110, 000, 000
PIL eco et et og 8,000,000 | 10,000,000 | 10, 400, 000 8, 000, 000 4, 000, 000
Fiat ete. oe ete ee st aa ae 1338, 741, 000 164, 587, 000 159, 000, 000 179, 200, 000 150, 400, 000
Switzerland § 22. .tie..s.se6e 4, 200, 000 4, 400, 000 4, 200, 000 : , 000 4, 000, 000
RFORIMATLY <0. coe take bles ve wmcces 141, 139, 000 91, 817, 000 148, 315, 000 130, 626, 000 139, 803, 000
Wedirind.....0- SR 40, 929, 000 49, 655, 000 | 46,198,000 | 53, 646, 000
Sremeary.......2iv2.2en chee 141, 202, 000 170, 884,000 | 161,958,000 | 187,078, 000
Croatia-Slavonia. 2.02. 7-..4. 2053 11, 035, 000 12, 017, 000 14, 664, 000 10, 274, 000

Bosnia-Herzegovina..........-. 1, 750, 000 2, 300, 000 3, 923, 000 3, 000, 000

Total Austria-Hungary... , 194, 916, 000 226, 743, 000 203, 998, 000
BOUMAIUA «ocak cu ceetstesdesduc 73, 700, 000 53, 738, 000
BURMA. geek eae eee ga og 38, 581, 000 42, 000, 000
RP WIS 56 ap suede tunes oes sane 10, 885, 000 9, 186, 000
PEOUUCMORTO (6 peep eed ren sues 100, 000 200, 000
Tarkey in-Warope:-5.225.0...0200 26, 000, 000 23, 000, 000
CRCCCE 5 a dese statauvasvaesuciensss

000 8, 000, 000 7, 000, 000

636 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Wheat crop of countries named, 1900-1904—Continued, ‘

Countries,

1900. 1901. 1902.

Russia proper.........-
POMDG us sc doesent
North Caucasus........
Pinland &> teen eas

Total Russia in Europe...

UADAD . .. 555 cusnn omens

ae
Egypt

West Australia ........

South Australia

WuesHnsland 2222.5. <6%
New South Waless..2. .sseecces:
WiIGIOFION. = oo sesbees ae
Wesmabntin -. Seo ee ee
New Zealand..........

Africa Sen nssecdnsueeews

World’s visible supply of wheat, first of each month, for ten years.

Month,

PIOUS ick oo ohare as oe
OCIODEY =. 5. . caste see es

December

SARUSTY . 5252 das; seeks
PEMPRREY.o< «<0 -\ cannons
BORDOR: <a26..5 coals se

biiinveas cian 507, 696, 000 /1, 513, 553, 000°

eee ee
ee ee et

peed Sa8 | 50, 111, 000

eee eee eee

annie 2, 640, 751, 000 |2, 945, 275, 000 |

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
eee 319, 193, 000 319, 991, 000 463, 258, 000
19, 722, 090 14, 409, 000 20, 849, 000
56, 948, 000 67, 232, 000 77, 069, 000
159, 000 140, 000 79, 000
396, 022,000 | 401,772, 000 _ 560, 755, 000

1, 817, 602, 000

20, 172,000 | 16,504,000 | 80,796, 000
6,959,000 | 9,645,000 | 15,897, 000
35,000,000 | 35,000,000 | 38,025, 000

eel 62,131,000 | 61, 149, 000 | 84, 718, 000
30,000,000 | 30,000,000 | 35, 000, 000

1’ 447,000 | 12943,000| 1,181, 000
16,000,000 | 15,200,000 | 13° 600; 000

eeneerbicy 200,000; 000 | 264” 825,000 | 227° 380; 000
21/688, 000 | — 22'457°000 | — 20; 000, 000

ale ge 331, 266,000 | 395,574,000 | 381,879, 000
~ 23,006,000 | 23,000,000 | 33, 804, 000
4/872'000} — 4,428/000 | 4,127) 000
13,000,000 | 1270007000 | 12) 000; 000

2' 000,000 } 2,000,000 | 2° 000, 000

42, 872,000 | ~ 41,428,000 | 51, 931, 000

1, 018, 000 799, 000 963, 000

8,720,000 | 11,608,000 | — 8, 265,000

634,000 | 1,232’000 | 1,746; 000

14,033,000 | 16,683,000 | 15;.275, 000
15,718,000 | 18,410,000 | 12,510,000
1,136,000 | 1,145,000 994. 000

8852,000 | 6,733,000 | 4,174” 000
56,610,000 | 43, 927, 000

RECAPITULATION BY CONTINENTS.

pie eee 588, 360,000 | 850, 693,000 | 777, 194, 000
oe BENS 120, 546, 000
Mears 1, 507,596, 000 |1, 513, 553, 000 |1, 817, 602, 000 |1, 828, 419, 000
Cenk Vent 331, 266, 000 | ' 395,574,000 | | 381, 879, 000

87, 417, 000 75, 984, 000

42, 872, 000
50, 111, 000

41, 428, 000
56, 610, 000

51, 931, 000

ba Re, 176, 584,000 | 151,271,000 | 119; 162) 000

209, 859, 000. | 190,559,000 | 189,321, 000
218, 796, 000 | 202,329,000 | 156,016, 000

sae nicoeete 224, 778,000 | 184,616,000 | 157, 008, 000
ke bak BE 202) 832, 000 | 173,496,000 | 151,717,000

cba din Geeta 191, 905,000 | 155,533,000 | 140, 571, 000
a ee 18U, 627,000 | 189,049,000 | 132, 037, 000
Sa dale 161,149,000 | 121,491,000 | 111, 233, 000
Heeb oe 147, 564,000 | 106,912,000 | 109, 845, 000

a@¥From Broomhall’s Corn Trade News.

551, 942, 000

478, 515, 000

43, 927, 000
3, 148, 517, 000 Bs 230, 580, 000

—S eee
1, 828, 419, 000 | 1, 726,177,000
————————— SS eee

48, 670, 000
20, 995, 000

4
|
‘
616, 646,000
40, 437, 000

1, 000, 000

2, 000, 000
50, 523, 000

, 000 —
8, 140, 000
84, 627,000

$05,
7; 693, 000
20, 461, 000

738, 786, 000
118, 876, 000

478, 515, 000
50, 523, 000 |.
20, 461, 000

1898-1899. | 1899-1900,

1895-1896. 1896-1897. 1897-1898.

Bushels Bushels. Bushels.
we nan wees 160, 303,000 | 187,454, 000 88, 378, 000
iets Ve aes 158, 042,000 | 124, 292, 000 77, 590, 000
pees Tee 152° 276, 000 | 126, 485, 000 87, 075, 000

2 952, 000

STATISTIOS OF WHEAT. 637

World's visible supply of wheat, first of each month, for ten years—Continued.

Month, 1900-1901, 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1903-1904. 1904-1905,
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
ph pices > tunannaneacewn 149, 889, 000 185, 692, 000 108, 671, 000 95, 820, 000 118, 073, 000
(aS ee See ee 150, 198, 000 182, 879, 000 98, 944, 000 87, 566, 000 103, 740, 000
ee So 5 eee 164, 629, 000 141, 071, 000 102) 864, 900 96, 907, 000 115, 183, 000
oD Si aie 2 aS Eee ee 188, 200, 000 159, 465, 000 133, 376, 000 182, 972, 000 144, 400, 000
RUSSO co ncn hh wv a nvee ade wok 200, 892, 000 169, 854, 000 163, 491, 000 145, 618, 000 170, 240, 000
PRION 22: stoned cpa on as ob 2038, 287, 000 202, 108, 000 179, 4838, 000 161, 891, 000 186, 891, 000
NIG icc willy kis hein idee etuk.a's 200, 584,000 |. 200,990,000 | 174,640,000 | 167,712,000 178, 710, 000
PERM O kv ailn coed wlatd wwe oahae ote 197, 851, 000 202, 278, 000 168, 170, 000 159, 464, 000 171, 124, 000
PNM oe Sears cots ot eee ae's ain wee 192, 749, 000 191, 877, 000 168, 658, 000 152, 035, 000 165, 370, 000
eM Boca wind canten Cag ne wes kicue ae 187, 817, 000 179, 789, 000 149, 748, 000 TATROUE ONO duldeween «aco ee
TUES Dinas wets Gan wek warsin ca tee nly ab 753, 000 | 155,486,000 | 127,088,000 |} 145,840,000 |..............
MUMS. Os Gale wdlnn dnc atc e Kabhie 152, 518, 000 181, 255, 000 112, 963, 000 ASORLOUT OO Ui Neila oto ww ooo
World’s exports of wheat and flour for five years, 1900-1904.4
[Crop years ending August 1.]
Country. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
United States and Canada...... 188, 256, 000 249, 192, 000 261, 248, 000 237, 472, 000 142, 104, 000
cost, 20 Nei I pee Ste re, Sees ee 58, 960, 000 77, 152, 000 87,448,000 | 184,176, 000 138, 160, 000
Pues PeDiINSsUls, «32 o- eden cas 16, 336, 000 40, 368, 000 44, 152, 000 57, 008, 000 56, 952, 000
Argentina and Uruguay........ 79, 408, 000 40, 216, 000 21,144,000 | ®61, 440,000 681, 080, 000
LEE fu 717 yo Ad Ee ae ee aes 3, 824, 000 5, 056, 000 15, 600, 000 27, 192, 000 56, 968, 000
PASI UTRRSIEL Sts prices tn aiey arciaele Sac 7, 040, 000 18, 496, 000 LE MOR OOUN matealaa'ae<lcres's 28, 280, 000
AIsiTIa- PUN Pal, 6 occ ees a oe f 2; 072, 000 4, 424, 000 1, 352, 000 2, 992, 000 4, 936, 000
Chile, North ‘Africa, Persia,
Turkey- in-Asia, Cyprus, ete.. 15, 944, 000 20, 016, 000 17, 640, 000 9, 856, 000 10, 568, 000
RPE a Snows. Sew sawicteee 371, 840,000 | 454,920,000 | 463,376,000 | 530,136, 000 519, 048, 000

a From Broomhall’s Corn Trade News.
6 Non-European quantities are included in the figures for the years 1903 and 1904.

Visible supply of wheat in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.
EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS.a

Moath. 1895-1896. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1899-1900.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Dig eal nace kenacu a ceaue eee se 53, 568, 000 61, 354, 000 27, 090, 000 18, 069, 000 46, 544, 000
2 2 i ee eS. a eS 46, 767, 000 58, 414, 000 23, 793, 000 11, 430, 000 49, 155, 000
oN ee rey a 44, 732, 000 57, 588, 000 20, 362, 000 10, 499, 000 48, 087, 000
ve LLL TES 9 ah SRR OSS Ag ese 55, 078, 000 63, 955, 000 81, 508, 000 22, 857, 000 60, 040, 000
[UTES ELEN (c'est ee 75, 598, 000 76, 716, 000 42, 609, 000 33, 930, 000 77, 195, 000
UDG EEL TIS 2 epee OS ie gel Be Rae Re 8 87, 688, 000 76, 433, 000 49, 859, C00 45, 914, 000 84, 687, 000
CLE TEV CUD ee SS eh Sl Se as 97, 769, 000 73, 270, 000 54,173,000, 51,057,000 89, 252, 000
Bar Ve ee oats cations mn 97, 592, 000 68, 092, 000 51, 105, 000 51, 648, 000 87, 473, 000
LSD 6 ge ee Sg re a el ee 94° 538, 000 61, 664, 000 45, 021, 000 51, 085, 000 83. 935, 000
|: eR ASR i Open 5 a peeeenee 89, 156, 000 55, 946, 000 40, 577, 000 51, 747, 000 77, 113, 000
Ware keer a sees 2 SS 80, 590, 000 49, 684, 000 31, 039, 000 47, 258, 000 70, 764, 000
Hy Oi, Ca ety Si RIN gatos Se, a am 68, 773, 000 37, 975, 000 27,479, 000 42, 092, 000 57, 617, 000
Month. 1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1903-1904. 1904-1905.
Bushels. Bushels Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
PUA So ss ws Pe Pee ne nee 59, 063, 000 37, 819, 000 26, 786, 000 24, 142, 000 21, 131, 090
MPTING W506. So ates Ce eee 60, 398, 000 40, 924, 000 31, 436, 000 21, 480, 000 19, 508, 000
Bantam ber . - chistes uer- sudo 69, 003, 000 42, 242, 000 33, 579, 000 22, 824, 000 20, 905, 000
OS a ae eee 76,071,000 | 53,790,000 | 44,217,000} 38,043, 000 29, 230, 000
Mave Ders. Jos55use0 ones cee ae 82, 238, 000 64, 616, 000 67, 490, 000 49, 269, 000 48, 752, 000
DEO DEY <5 Saitek a atlases aa 89, 591, 000 85, 631, 000 78, 352, 000 59, 050, 000 60, 887, 000
PRT tg ees eee ADE eee 88, 456, 000 , 900, 80, 769, 000 61, 827, 000 61, 240, 000
POPE UALY,, snc Sunere se ndte eceesae 86, 324, 000 88, 800, 000 81, 348, 000 62, 118, 000 57, 697, 000
ee, NERA RES AHN Da CS 79,300,000 | 82,790,000 | 76,336,000 | 55,459, 000 52, 907, 000
SPE a's wisdroveege dake pews weet 73, 879, 000 73, 576, 000 67, 954, 000 49, 639, 000 46, 865, 000
Mi So. See nee es eee 60, 298, 000 54, 610, 000 52, 585, 000 C1 GC Eng a a
ENN Ess i ws» Ste ee eae owe Se 47, 109; 000 37, 676, 000 36, 040, 000 29° 685, 000}. -.:...... ae

a The figures for stocks east ot the Rocky Mountains represent 62 principal points of accumulation,

including the Manitoba elevators and stocks afloat on la

es and canals, as reported by Bradstreet’s.

688 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Visible supply of wheat in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten
years—Continued.

PACIFIC COAST.

Month, 1895-1896. | 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899, 1899-1900,

——ai

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
July.. 6, 549, 000 1, 927, 000 1, 112, 000 2, 935, 000 3, 409, 000
To SCR GPR AE EN 6, 850, 000 1, 917, 000 2, 247, 000 2, 608, 000 4,188,000 |
September 8, 799, 000 3, 512, 000 4, 651, 000 8, 065, 000 6, 282,000
OGnaDGR. ee. co sch cae <cee eeu ne 9, 760, 000 5, 454, 000 6, 251, 000 4, 671, 000 8, 858, 000
NOVO DOF. « «sci: on ca we ehacee aes 9, 651, 000 6, 883, 000 7,391, 000 5, 621, 000 11, 085, 000
DeCOWNEP . osk daxs wecudedsc ces 8, 276, 000 6, 548, 000 6, 944, 000 6, 269, 000 10, 678, 000
PARUAIT cick 5 cums cian cadee oes 7, 116, 000 4, 189, 000 6, 661, 000 5, 923, 000 9, 022, 000
pT RR ees tee 5, 559, 000 3, 005, 000 5, 318, 000 5, 030, 000 8, 923, 000
EOPAN oo Vaasa ds fanaa enn wane to's 4, 296, 000 1, 857, 000 4, 424, 000 5, 104, 000 7,814, 000
DOM seas undcak Catthtcce 3, 822, 000 1, 730, 000 3, 466, 000 4, 321, 000 7,207,000 —
TR te a en ein leaks 3, 182, 000 1, 614, 000 38, 051, 000 4, 455, 000 7, 050, 000
4 ee Se RE ie Ya ee aS 2, 556, 000 1, 221, 000 3, 236, 000 3, 635, 000 6, 866, 000

= = —— ——— [>
Month. 1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1904-1905.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Ts ia aes A ROE APTS rae 5, 903, 000 38, 228, 000 2, 725, 000 1, 668, 000
ARE a hs widen tous boca 5, 770, 000 3, 935, 000 2,345, 000 1, 351, 000 ,
BGNtOM DOR. oso) ae ne samen pace wane 7, 483, 000 4, 266, 000 3, 024, 000 1, 582, 000
OG POP fon a ee aon ae 10, 208, 000 6, 235, 000 4, 737, 000 4,106,000 —
Novemner. =. 60 oe tee esas 9, 983, 000 7, 262, 000 4,719, 000 3, 874, 000
Desa ok oe oon 10, 057, 000 7, 378, 000 5, 361, 000 3, 733, 000
JRE. ck Coe esa abaeceed 8, 686, 000 7, 186, 000 4, 992, 000 38, 458, 000
Pe ei SI aE AE Fe 8, 717, 000 6, 521, 000 4, 373, 000 3,051,000
IMarGIRo ts 23) cu ote ke cae 6, 972, 000 5, 542, 000 3, 435, 000 2, 726, 000 ©
TS PA ere pret oe 6, 325, 000 5, 428, 000 3, 810, 000 2,486,000
1 RS a eae tet. 5, 084, 000 3, 685, 000 8,683,000 | 2,078;000 occ oeceuemee a
JUMGs.2 otc ees ose cna aes 4, 672, 000 3, 139, 000 2,546,000 | 2,078,000 |...... ogi By

Statement showing the amount of wheat in farmers’ hands, visible supply of the United States
and Canada, and of the world, and price, on March 1, 1891-1905.

Stocks Visible sup-
in farmers’ ply of the Modi. the
handsin | United States| PY

world.

and Canada.

United States.

Bushels. Bushels. Cts. per bu. —
GE rarcarngin(s Sia (0 diein'a eia'nin/avaipeccie'a Racaa oaetaTes 112, 470, 655 50; 995; 000° | .\.\.:- <= cinema J45
Le sn Say sai canine uate te ea eee as ates 171, 070, 881 68, 007, 000 :
PEM cra sip Sune a's ad can asa onl wea ee amie 185, 205, 430 110, 693, 000 000
gS ese SE Be Sat at pale ie gS ales Giant tence 114, 059, 560 105, 863, 000 2, 400, 000
IE en in atten 2k hal laches Bor x gnats eater 74, 999, 790 110, 546, 060 212, 400, 000
VEBG et cares we te od cela tie enn mere ics etree 123, 045, 290 98, 834, 000 191, 900, 000
AT oasis Cue wn's Caan Wain sale wa ce ornate 88, 149, 072 63, 521, 000 155, 500, 000
NST pias RS si een 2) cae: SE Se Raye 2 NN ae 121, 320, 500 49, 445, 000 140, 600, 000
Ne dine sacs dang catia Malaise niece Anh elena eerie 198, 056, 496 56, 189, 000 151, 100, 000
NN ai tots) as ain dain eisai ey GE aie eiesterenee ase 158, 745, 595 91, 749, 000 181, 500, 000
DN are Sak xin Samatd watatde aeons cane ae ace 128, 098, 074 86, 272, 000 192, 700, 000
RT arctatn arerain <0 Wiciyante cimler yt eaetetcfo esata tae 178, 702, 583 88, 332, 000 191, 900, 000
RR ic Soe nas cadens acwenteboak ana cane 164, 047, 106 79, 771, 000 163, 700, 000
UTI ee aa Ch new ones aedele sins ace renin 132, 608, 382 58, 889, 000 152, 000, 000 »
POOR io os wcins ain + = case nuak eens > aeieuaeaee 111, 054, 959 55, 633, 000 165, 400, 000

STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 639

Condition of the wheat crop of the United States, monthly, 1886-1904.

Spring wheat.

When When
April. May. June. July. har- June. July. August. har-
vested. vested.

94.1 94.9 92.7 90.8 98.5 83. 83.5
88.1 85. 8 84.9 84.0 87.3 79. 78.1
82.0 73.1 73.3 77.4 92.8 95. TU
94.0 96.0 93.1 89. 4 94,4 83. 83.8
81.0 80.0 78.1 73.5 91.3 94. 79.8
96.9 97.9 96.6 96.7 92.6 94, 97,2
81.2 84. 0 88.3 87.6 92.3 90. 81.2
77.4 75.3 75.5 a74.0 86.4 AL ew sO | eo 2atay os

86.7 81.4 83. 2 a83.7 88.0 Corl? Pe Gian... see
81.4 82.9 rial a75.4 97.8 ae Bees Gs Oe cease ie. apa aos
hy fea 82.7 77.9 a74,6 99.9 AE td te CRC a a
81.4 80.2 78.5 a85.7 89.6 RRA SL ed Dea
86. 7 86.5 90. 8 a 86.7 100.9 EEN UL RS 3 | ies ie 2
77.9 76.2 67.3 a70.9 91.4 OL.1. |ewes O02 l\beeteeseus
82.1 88.9 82.7 a69.6 87.3 DOs eel nee DOs iow deen tae
91.7 94.1 87.8 482.8 92.0 ed een ee eae oe
78.7 76.4 rive a 80.0 95. 4 Dak |e. DBO TE eve erates
97.3 92.6 82.2 a74.7 95.9 Sr TR | eee
76.5 76.5 WUT PPGreh Wan cw eereae 93.4 93.7 66.2

aIncludes both winter and spring.

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of wheat of the United States, 1866-1904.

rey- Chicago cash price per 2
pies a Wiahet. = Domestic
farm ee in-

: cluding

. price | Farm value, 7
Acreage. Production. per lee? 1 December. | following flour, —
ate years be-
aay, sins
.| Low. |High. Lh Me

Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Cian 4Cta: | Cts | Cts: Bushels.
151, 999,906 | 152.7 232, 109, 6380 129 145 185 211 12, 646, 941
212, 441,400 | 145.2 308, 387, 146 126 140 134 161 25, 284, 803

Acres.
15, 424, 496
18,321, 561

18, 460, 132 224, 036,600 | 108.5 | 2438, 032, 746 80 88 87 96 | 29,717,201
19, 181, 004 260,146,900 | 76.5 | 199, 024, 996 63 76 79 92 | 53,900,780
18, 992, 591 235, 884,700 | 94.4 | 222,766, 969 91 98 | 1138} 120] 52,580,111
19, 943, 893 230,722,400 | 114.5 | 264,075,851 | 107 | 111] 120] 143] 38,995,755

20, 858, 359
22, 171, 676
24, 967, 027
26, 381, 512
27, 627, 021
26, 277, 546
32, 108, 560
32, 545, 950

249, 997,100 | 111.4} 278.522,068| 97| 108| 112] 122] 52,014) 715
281,254,700 | 106.9 | 300,669,533 | 96] 106| 105] 114] 91,510,398
308, 102,700 | 86.3 | 265,881,167| 78| 83| 78] 941] 72,912,817
292,136,000 | 89.5 | 261,396,926| 82{ 91| 89] 100] 74,750,682
289, 356,500 | 96.3 | 278,697,238 | 104 | 117| 130] 172] 57,043,936
364, 194,146 | 105.7 | 385,089,444 | 103| 108| 98] 113] 92,071,726
420,122,400 | 77.6 | 325,814,119] 81] 84] 91] 102 | 150,502,506
448, 756, 630 | 110.8 | 497,030,142 | 122 1333) 1122] 119 | 180,304,180

37, 986, 717 498, 549,868 | 95.1 | 474,201,850 | _933| 1093) 101 | 112s] 186, 321,514
37, 709, 020 383, 280,090 | 119.2 456, 880, 427 124?) 129 123 140 | 121, 892, 389

37, 067, 194 504,185,470 | 88.4 | 445,602,125 | 912; 943/ 108] 1133] 147,811,316

36, 455, 593 421,086,160 | 91.1 383,649,272] 94 994) 85 | 943] 111,534,182

39, 475, 885 512,765,000 | 64.5 | 330,862,260] 692, 763) 852) 903] 132,570,366

34, 189, 246 357, 112, 000 77.1 275, 320, 390 827; 89 722 79 94, 565, 793

457, 218, 000 68. 7 314, 226, 020 752 792 802 88?) 158, 804, 969

456, 329,000 | 68.1 | 310,612,960 | 754 791) 813) 892] 119, 625,344

415, 868,000 | 92.6 | 385,248,030] 968 1053| 772| 953) 88,600,742

490, 560, 000 69.8 342, 491, 707 762, 803 89}; 100 | 109, 430, 467

36, 087, 154 399, 262, 000 83.8 334, 773, 678 872, 9232 982; 108 | 106,181,316

39, 916, 897 611, 780, 000 §3.9 513, 472, 711 893 933 80 852| 225, 665, 812

38, 554, 430 515, 949, 000 62.4 322, 111, 881 692 Fi3' 682 763| 191, 912, 635

34, 629, 418 396, 131, 725 53.8 218, 171, 381 592 4 524 4) 164, 283, 129

34, 882, 436 460, 267, 416 49.1 225, 902, 025 52} 63% 603 853) 144, 812,718

ct, re 34, 047, 332 467, 102, 947 50.9 237, 938, 998 53} 64} 572 67%| 126, 4438, 968
1306.26 52 34, 618, 646 427, 684, 346 72.6 310, 602, 539 748 932 683 973| 145, 124, 972
bboy ee 39, 465, 530, 149, 168 80.8 428, 547, 121 92 109 117 185 | 217, 306, 005
1898 ..... 44, 055, 278 675,148,705 | 58.2 | 392,770,320] 623) 70| 683| 793 222 618, 420
REO) 4 ote 44, 592, 516 547, 303, 846 58. 4 319, 545, 259 64 692 634 673| 186, 096, 762
3900 cca 42, 495, 385 522, 229, 505 61.9 323, 515, 177 692 743 70 753| 215, 990, 073
BOOh e028 49, 895, 514 748, 460, 218 62.4 467, 350, 156 730) 0 79k 723 763| 234, 772, 516
SOOT. disilasine 46, 202, 424 670, 063, 008 63.0 | 422,224,117 71z 772 742 80$| 202, 905, 598
1908 s5%02 49, 464, 967 jt 637, 821, 835 69.5 448, 024, 826 773| 87 873} 1014) 120, 727,613
1904 ..... 44,074,875 | 12.5] 552,399,517 | 92.4 | 510, 489, 874 15 | epee 2c: 5-1. cee. e

640

YEARBOOK OF

THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in wheat, 49,895,514 acres, was
reported in 1901; the greatest production, 748,460,218 bushels, in 1901; the greatest

farm value on December iP $513, 4
15.3 bushels, in 1891 and in 1898;
December 1, $1.527, in 1866.

72,711, in 1891; the greatest average yield per acre,

the greatest average farm price per bushel on
For the five years 1900-1904 the average area was

46,426,633 acres; the average production, 626,194,817 bushels; the average farm value

on December 1, $433,

farm price per bushel on December 1, 69.2 cents.

320,830; the average yield. per acre, 13.5 bushels; the average

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of wheat of the United States in 1904 by States.

States and Territories.

Acreage.
Acres.

) 1b Ce dena anicous tatea 7,725
WOTTRORE. ink Date 1, 606
New York.< 2322: 3.2 474, 572
NOW. JGIECY 2si oa <5) bw couse 104, 673
Penrisy) vane s.. .. <<cet asks 1, 550, 210
DAIGWRTG: 6 i ale cee ween 112, 587
Marglane .) 342. nes. oe 770, 710
Vive sino. en vee ee 711,477
North Osroling. 2.3. t.222 32: 571, 228
South Carolina... ...5..20<.- 279, 926
Genraein’ 5. ccaceeasdesacues 291, 370
Atlee ae <n ae ee 102, 926
Missiosinpt occ cce' ice oe 2, 909
Vewas See ook tee ee Ss 1, 166, 688
APEBT OE Fe ae ak we 217, 674
Temmereeinn. oo aoe 808, 558
West Virminia...-.-..<. 0... 812, 755
KRGMIVGEG -n.5 ccc noone weeks 644, 678
OB raphe see us ee eeaek 1, 527, 259
Mienioay 32a eu, see es 701, 327
CLT eye See, 5 ee 1, 361, 521
ERE see. 2. Boe = See ek ee 1, 561, 045
WRISGOMGER So Sd Pas Le 483, 006
Misrenorin 52 = bs * eo i. 5, 839, 395
WOW ~ 53.2. se pct eee eerie 967, 654
IWISGOUED fos cook cose Seas 2, 321, 636
Ue ee ee ee 5, 231, 158
Nebrankee. 2 205 23 es oe 2,313, 688
South Dakota... :c.250 232. 3, 287, 165
North Dakotas. .cucbfecses 4, 567, 135
PAOUSE Ao te ee Soe 108, 608
Wyoming... oe... ee eee 23, 574
COlOMROO =e 2. Does tee ee 259, 546
New Me@ricGi. ess nce cwcee 34, 428
AERO oo. sb eect h eee 13, 964
Bac) Se ee Bs Oa ees oe 180, 219
Newate s522) 2 a ee 25, 283
PORNO eee oes doe 298, 056
Washington. 3... 2262S 3. 1, 446, 733
CWICHGR Soo) ha enteeeey 740, 250
Cabiomien: 20... cod 1, 618, 043
ORVanoma: -.5 22s akon cnc ee 1, 285, 527
Indian Territory........... 246, 438

Crop of 1904.

Produc-
tion.

Bushels.
179, 992
40, 311

5, 362, 664
1, 392, 151
21, 857, 961
1, 676, 801
10, 327, 514
7, 257, 065
4,912, 561
2, 267, 401
2, 564, 056
1, 060, 188
25, 599
12, 483, 562
2,198, 507
9, 298, 417
8, 158, 826
7,349, 329
17, 563, 478
6, 873, 005
12, 525, 993
21, 542, 421
7, 483, 563
68, 344, 256
11, 266, 220
27, 163, 141
65, 019, 471
81, 453, 943
31, 556, 784
53, 892, 193
2, 596, 731
520, 985

5, 917, 649
440, 678
356, 082

4, 793, 825
662, 415

6, 832, 727
82, 140, 603
14, 050, 193
17, 474, 864
15, 040, 666
3, 474, 776

Value.

Dollars.
187, 192
45, 551
5, 845, 304
1, 581, 366
23, 606, 598
1, 810, 945
10, 947, 165

25, 855

13, 731, 918
2, 220, 492
10, 321, 243
3, 443, 120
8, 010, 769
19, 319, 826
7, 422° 845
13, 277,558
21, 757, 845
7, 333, 892
59, 459, 508
10, 189, 598
26, 076, 615
57, 867, 329
27 364, 930
24,929, 859
43, 652, 676
2) 311, 091
468, 886

5, 385, 061
467, 119
402, 373
4,122, 690
609, 422

5, 466, 181
25, 712, 482
11, 380, 657
15, 377, 880
13, 987, 819
3, 405, 280

44,074, 875 |552, 399, 517 |510, 489, 874

Stock in farmers’
hands March 1, 1905,

Bushels. Per cent.
53, 998 30
14, 109 35
1, 233, 413 | 28
348, 038 25
7,481, 707 34
452, 736 27
2, 168, 778 yi
1, 669, 125 23
1, 375, 517 28
430, 806 19
743, 576 29
233, 230 22
4, 096 16
1, 872, 584 15
549, 627 25
1, 952, 668 21
789, 706 25
1, 469, 866 20
4, 215, 235 24
1, 305, 871 19
2, 254, 679 18
8, 662, 212 17
1, 870, 891 25
16, 402, 621 24
3, 041, 879 27
4, 889, 365 18 12) 495, $45
10, 403, 115 16 44° 213, 240
7, 548, 946 24 18) 872) 366
8, 204, 764 26 22, 405, 317
10, 239, 517 19 44,191, 598
, 183 25 701,117
161, 505 a} 15, 680
1, 183, 530 20 2, 485, 413
83, 729 19 138, 220
49, 851 14 oie eee
1, 342, 271 28 1, 965, 468
218, 597 33 6,
956, 582 14 4, 304, 618
3, 535, 466 11 25, 069, 670
1, 967, 027 14 8, 992, 124
1,922, 235 ab) 10. 310, 170
1, 804, 880 12 8, 793" 586
347, 478 10 486, 469
111, 054, 959 20.1 302, 771, 219

STATISTIOS OF WHEAT. 641

Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1, of winter and spring wheat in the United
States in 1904.

Winter wheat. Spring wheat.
us} : Lo} ,
‘s. EA re Bx
States and Ter- Be ae & g Be fs
ritories, o 2 roduc- | ® Farm val- oY] Produc- |#A| Farm yal-
Acreage. Pe tion. e ue Dec, 1. | Acreage. we! tion. T° ue Dec. 1.
oA oe pr ee
< ee < =
, Acres. | Bu.| Bushels. |Cents.| Dollars. Acres. | Bu.| Bushels. | Cts.| Dollars.
RRMUNG ia ave wc uladwindatsulenantalevele meee Pits ok lb ive wile Caw a 7,725) 23.3 179, 992) 104 187,192
DEITY sco ow larctarsic.4 src dhe et eee e ae eek - 1k ee ate Cane a eee 1, 606} 25.1 40, 311) 113 45, 651
New York..... A714, Diz| ae Dl) POyoOes GOs) AON ke U7 ORU TOU A wale nna s' ow e|nic'c ace bvercivincts|Jencleaca vss vad.
New Jersey ... 104, 673) 18.8} 1,892,151 110} 1,531, 366
Pennsylvania .} 1,550, 210} 14.1] 21,857,961] 108) 23, 606, 598
Delaware ..... 112, 587} 14.9} 1,676, 801 108} 1,810, 945
Maryland..... 770,710) 18.4) 10,827,514) 106) 10,947,165
Nirginia):2..:. 711, 477) 10.2} 7,257,065} 109) 7,910, 201
‘NorthCarolina| 671,228) 8.6) 4,912,561) 119) 5,845,948
South Carolina 279, 926) 8.1) 2,267,401) 126] 2, 856, 925
Georgia ....... 91,370} 8.8] 2,564, 056 126} 3,230, 711
Alabama...... 102, 926} 10.3) 1,060,188} 115} 1,219, 159
Mississippi -. 2,909) 8.8 25,599} 101 25, 855}. .
Peres ise. 32.2%. 1,166, 688) 10.7] 12,488,562} 110] 18,781,918
ATEaNASS) 5... . 217,674] 10.1) 2,198, 507 101} 2,220, 492
Tennessee ....| 808,558) 11.5) 9,298,417) 111) 10,321, 243
West Virginia.| 312,755) 10.1) 3,158,826) 109) 3,443,120
Kentucky..... 644, 678) 11.4] 7,349,329} 109] 8,010,769
NOTNG ise She, 035 1, 527, 259) 11.5) 17,563,478) 110] 19,319, 826
Michigan ..... 701,327) 9.8) 6,873,005} 108) 7,422,845
Ingiana..<..<. 1, 361,521) 9.2} 12,525,993) 106) 18, 277,553
SilIMOISS SS. cs 1, 561, 045) 13.8} 21,542,421) 101} 21,757,845
Wisconsin ....| 115,543) 17.7] 2,045,111 98] 2,004, 209 367, 463) 14.8) 5,438,452) 98] 5,329, 683
8 Ee RR ilies (Spee es ER eee eae Deans 5, 389, 395} 12. 8} 68,344, 256) 87] 59, 459, 503
OWE cca cen cus 55, 944! 15.6 872, 726 90 785, 458 911, 710} 11.4) 10,393,494) 90) 9,354,145
Missouri ...... 2,321, 636] 11.7] 27, 163, 141 CORZGTOCOsG LG este kOe Lik, Sees Sepa e he. Sb oe
IPMIRAR. Wc <<. 4, 989, 621) 12.3) 61, 372, 335 89} 54, 621, 381 241, 532) 15.1! 3,647,133) 89] 3,245,948
Nebraska ..... 1, 880, 394] 14. 4) 27, 077, 674 87| 23, 557, 576 433, 294| 10.1) 4,376,269) 87] 8,807,354
MeL MUMMIRNCOU He tot eh cnc oc cee teens sciseolee ates lac wart occ eke 3, 287,165) 9.6] 31,556,784) (79) 24,929, 859
Pe DAKO Seo. ss catlicatelt oucmenesie|acestaltsociewed sate 4, 567,135) 11.8) 53,892,193} 81) 48, 652, 676
ROOMS ere eel Gaio ccs os] Sonu cl veclewsucls cols cuseeleneteceben cr 108, 608} 23.9) 2,596,731) 89) 2,311,091
MOMMA ere oer en leet aim, c els Snjcrs Mee oe mill momeaaee ee 23,574] 22.1 520,985) 90 468, 886
SOMA Oi te co tecinre vated sch cclincosnalaeenet asses 259, 546} 22.8} 5,917,649) 91) 6,385, 061
PSE RA peste ae tote Solon ae |UD oo ee te |e mae leweeee nts o 34, 428] 12.8 440, 678) 106 467,119
AREAOTIA e's, 2 oe oes s = sioe | See ae Rear ek, Rs SN pee al ae 18, 964! 25.5 356, 082! 113 402, 373
Meee eee a ts Soc c cmc |necccchcs cs Peaee lease cee case 180, 219} 26.6) 4,793,825] 86) 4,122,690
DCMI aE erate Pane oe se he a a ccallicic w o oe alow al Weletine| Sanne aes a 25, 283] 26. 662,415} 92 609, 422
TOGO 5. sc8 154, 919] 22.8) 3,454, 694 80} 2,763, 755 143,137) 23.6) 3,878,033) 80} 2,'702, 426
Washington...} 521,451) 28.1) 14, 652, 778 80] 11, 722, 218 925, 282| 18.9) 17,487, 830} 80) 18, 990, 264
Oregon. -...5.. 402, 296] 21.4} 8, 609, 184 81} 6,973,399 337, 954) 16.1) 5,441,059) 81) 4,407,258
California..... 1, 618, 048} 10.8) 17, 474, 864 SSID at IFO ener ee cea oe tec sew aeue os so|sece|s cnzemee ten
Oklahoma ....} 1,285,527} 11.7} 15, 040, 666 ES Ses ee IS oie St a ee eee ae Mem eee a
Indian Ter....| 246,438) 14.1) 3,474,776 BO Aue 2OO | nemeere. 6 (oa Pacinos nec Saaie lowed femecin woes

United States. |26, 865, 855] 12. 4/832, 935, 346) 97. 8/325, 611, 373] 17, 209, 020| 12. 8/219, 464, 171/84. 2/184, 878, 501
Average yield per acre of wheat in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

LL RE ee eee 19.2| 22.0] 16.5] 19.5 | 22.5] 19.5] 23.9] 25.3| 25.5 23.3

Now Bampanire Lest. cect OR Set rat Ol tOsO4 Poa hie HAG.O sot > co cissee ns c|ccos oo dle see ces
MECHIOMh. ... suc. wee eseneeok 2050 2400) 2170s) 22-5). 22.0. 1, 23) 6: 18.7 |, 18.8 | 20.9 25.1
GRURGCNCHL. «0.5. cocen eeceelas eee omen oa oe OY TW C8 se rn i a bo ae
PGW YOUR cones swweneeceweuse Gok ietoeor eee eee We eee P h757- 1. 18:1 f 16.8} 17.8 118
NEW JERSCY: -ocenicspnsd acuecss 12.4 16.5 | to.0 |) ated) 14.6.1 19:1.) 16:8 | 16:0] 14.0 138.3
Pennsylvania 0.22 ass. =2 166°) 14,05) aoe peo ac-6 |) 18.6.|. 17.1 | 15.8 |. .1656 14.1
DGln Were sc. oUacst-Ussdaclee es LG do ae Soeoolesiers | 520.9 |. 18.5) 16.5 |. 10.2 14.9
Mary lata? : 3.47 ssvsuee ts L701) Ade [hs aes aor as, 19.5. | 17:2)| 14.7 | 12:5 13.4
WEIni a fh. stenoses pies 9.3 9.81) (12704) 147 8.4] 11.9] 10.9 5.7 8.7 10.2
North Carolina... ci condsecc 6.9 7.8 8.0 9.2 6.7 9.6 8.7 5.8 5.1 8.6
South Caroling: 206s ctarees. 6.4 6.8 8.7} 10.6 6.5 9.0 8.8 5.6 6.5 8.1
OOTOIR O25 te eran aanade ne 6.2 8.0 9.4 10.0 6.8 9.1 8.2 6.0 6.2 8.8
mere 36 eee eae coe 7.6 8.0} 10.0] 12.0 7.6 9.5 8.7 6.0 9.1 10.3
MIISSIODL oct ube deceneinemd 8.0 8.5] 10.0] 13.9 gay | 9.6 8.8 8.0 8.0 8.8
cds OR See Pe ee oe Pee 6:7 > STs eee Se ee esc lel) 18:4 8.9 9.0} 18:4 10.7
MPEANSES 3... ic ooakbue sess 9.4 8.0] 10.5] 11.0 8.6 | 10.1 8.8 9.1 7.0 10.1

2 «al904——41

642 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield per acre of wheat in the United States, 1895-1904, by States—Continued.

States and Territories, 1895, | 1896, | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush.| Bush.

TPONNOMOO. is Odin tench thee 8.8 8.6 21.3) 23 8.7 9.9} 10.8 7.2 ve 11.6
Weat Virwinia. ..ceh sicnctes; 10.6} 10.38) 18.4] 18.8 9.3 9.8] 10.9 7.71 10:3 10,1
Wentuoky occ avasevdicwcbeas 10.9 8.7 | 18.6] 15.4 9.1] 183.0) 32.2 9.3 8.4 11.4
OO: c oie fe ectree canes ea 13.3 9.0 16.9 16.9 14.2 6.0 15.3 YB | 13.7 11.5
Miohigen (5.3. conc cack thease 18.21 12.8)) :1b.6:1 ‘9008 8.4 1/6 13a) 37.7) eb 9.8
SAGs ae a va ate eee 9.2 9.0; 18.0] 15.6 9.8 5.3 | 15.8| 16.0] 10.0 9.2
SIINOI. Gas as tees acaba, 11.0} 14.7 7.9} 12.0.) 30.0 | ‘Wei eT 27.9 8.4 13.8
Wisconsin. ..... Ray eee 15.6.1 ./18.8 |. .2265 |. 180°) Ib.0)) eb ieI6. 2 38.1 | Ie 15.5
MINN GHOER 1 3/s We soe dwn ae hee 23.0)" 14.2; 18.0] 15.8] 18.4] 10.6}| 12.9] 13.9; 18.1 12.8
TOGUERY 5 cic eile Sanco x ole Vane ciate 19:6:| 16.0} 18.0.) 16.7} 18.0.| 15,671 36.2) 3123:71°338 11.6
a eee eee, 12.0:1) 11.7 9.0 9.8 9.9] 12.5} 15.9] 19.9 8.7 17.7
Rancas.:.5...... na Ney Peck 402. fe. ROSE h! IBGE) * 429 9:8 |, 17.7 | 18:6} 30.4). 4ek 12,4
pS) ae ee ee YE eae 12.0 |. .14.0)})-:14.5 | 16.4) ©10.8:)) 22:0;) F722 @ eee 13.6
Bouth Dakota. ...-<sivvschan= 12:0:|. 23.2 8.0) 12.4] 10.7 6.9: :12;0) 422.2] Is8 9.6
WOwe DawOwe conn cca css stews 21.0; 11.8) 103) 1447 112.8 4.9 018.12 [1435.9 | 323 11.8
DC RS ee eee ees 23.9} 26.5) 82.5] 29.5] 25.7] 26.6] 26.5 |/ 26.0| 28.2 23.9
WVOONG hs cwave sb ane nk wenan 26.0 | 24.5] 25.0) 28.7 | 18:8] 17.6) 2456) 28.61 20:9 22.1
Galorain: ee oe es 28°61. V5 th 24,01 2658.) (SB 7b 2256. 246.0 Roe eee 22.8
BOW MOXZICO...1k oso ca essa shee 20.4 |, 21.0) 24.0] 28:8: )°:38.:8) 20:0) S28.) 17.2 ae 12.8
PAP IRON RS eS a ee Ste 20.5.1 5.28.0) 18:0) 8127 | 16.8") 04.6 7 2k 8s Be ee 25.5
Wyte se ated ch ethan 22.41. 26.57" 21.0 | 28.0") “20. 72h -2050)|) 20/6' 7 21.2) ae 26.6
Weta. fom so a oe ee 21.7}. 80.0°} 24:3.) 29,0 | 28.0: 24.6.) 2522 | 2c Li aie 26.2
RMN os aes ha ws cen eens kee 17.8-| "24.80 22:0.) S10. 1°24. 200 “20.18 i 2878) eee ae 22.9
WREDID SON Goo once caus nee 15.5} 18.0] 28:6 | 24:2 | 22.7) 23:57 °29.1 }222.2 | 28 22.2
SC a Behe ee aa ee ee 20.0} 17.0} 2P%O) 2056 | 919-2") 188 | Shot } 20-6 eee 19.0
Dlsrarnte ee ok oe 18.0} 14.6] 10:0 O52 | o14.2°) 108 ) 180 | 10.9) Bee 10,8
Pirlo now * so 11.4 |. TOY L980} 2459 | Ate Ba BOO F6s4 Pe ae pu PS
Indian Territory .....<<.<s6-*s ‘bee sis Sucllete « Urwale eee ot See Shea ag be rere 12.2.) 32.8.) 228 14.1

General average .....-.. 18.7 | 12.4) 18:4}. 16:8] (12.8: 22.8} 2 10.) 146)) eee 12.5

Average yield of wheat in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1894-1908.

i United
United . Ger- ; .
Year States. Russia. many. Austria. | Hungary.| France. —
(@) (>) (>) (>) (>) (4) - (4)
gt ee eee eee, ee 18 10.8 25.1 17.4 18.2 20.1 31.7
TRON F< et See eS te eee 127 9.8 24.4 15.3 20.7 19.7 27.2
11. ees, pee 2 So oy ae cs 12.4 9.0 26.4 15.9 19.4 20.0 84.7
22. PR ee ae ane, eee 13. 4 7.3 25.3 41852 117 15.1 30.0
BORG SF. eae Cea eis ae 15.8 9.8 27.2 18.0 190 21.1 35.8
1121) Ee ee ge ae © ey 22°35 9.1 28. 4 18.9 17.8 2 33.8
RE I reek fw tt ae 5b ha 12.8 8.1 27.9 15.5 16.9 19, 2 29.6
1 1) Reet ee See eee € 15.0 7.9 23.5 16.7 15.2 18.5 31.9
1217 SR epic eee Ee a 14.5 11.1 30.3 19.0 20.7 20.2 33.9
it) Ae eee een Seema, Ae 12.9 10.6 29.3 a 18.9 YIM 4 $1.1
AV OVR SO} 675 San tre re 13.5 9.4 26.8 16.8 17.6 19.8 32.0
a Winchester bushels. b Bushels of 60 pounds.

Average value per acre of wheat in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States.

Maine. 22 83ne 28 see. tos es: 4 $15. 74 |$18.48 1$17.49 |$17.36 |$20. 47 |$17.55 |$28.18 |$23.28 |$24.99 | $24. 23
New Hampshire ............. 14°67 ( 2E 06.) BA 60 | 2 48 4 86: 84 0 00: lo et ee . abe we neti
Vermont 45. 22.6 22. -6 1.9526: 20.01 | 22.79 | 17.68 | 20.25 | 18.70 | 18.33 | 17.58 | 20.49 | 19.85 | 28.36
Connectiont.\ 2.4. ..2 S44. ich ae oF 20.00 | 17.60 | 27.89 | ¥47.05.|...-<..]...2- 21.5 -eee eee =
Nau MGrks.< == 6h fee 7, 12.31 | 14.08 | 19.26 | 15.26 | 14.80 | 13.63 | 10.74 | 18.27 | 14.42 12. 32
INGW: SersOY .< Meee Rebac ss 8.80 | 18.62 | 17.20 | 12.70 | 10.88 | 14.18 | 12.10 | 12.16 | 11.48} 14.68
Pennsylvaevis 22 .. 5 2.80.5 b. 10.79 | 11.62 | 17.93 | 11.90 8. 98 9,72 | 12.81 | 11.58.) 12,825) aie
HMeiAware.s. = Kse6s do 8abc ue 7.42 | 15.66 | 20.21 9.18 8.70 | 14.21 | 18.18 | 12.38} 7.96 | 16.09
1 3 ee a 10.88 | 14.96 | 17.86 | 10.71 9.59 | 13.84 | 12.21 | 10.58 | 9.88} 14.20
VONAGE ee OR Ee ee eee 6. 05 7.44 | 11.04 9.31 5.80 | 8.67 7.96 | 4.50.1 ‘7.38 11.12
Worth: Caroling’ 3: 2.9.5... 4:97 | 6.06) 7.52}. 7.18 | 5.49 | 7.87 | 7.18 |. 4.88 | 4:9B)) uaa
Sonth Ostolinas 2: <../.0. 8... 4. 5. 63 6.05 |} 10. 27 9. 96 6. 44 9.09 8.62 | 6.71 6.56 | 10.21
COTO eos oi Shele data dans bre 5.08 | 7.12] 9.68] 9.80] 6.66] 8.64] 7.71] 5.88] 5.95| 11.09

STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 643

Average value per acre of wheat in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States—Continued.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901, | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
RENAME et cea co aad he ac eee 2 $6.00 | $6.80 |$10. 10 |$10. 80 | $6.76 | $8.45 | $7.66 | $5.58 | $8.65 | $11.85
PRMPIMRR ISIC, Vina gules dn se teaks 4.88 6. 97 9.90 | 11. 54 6.01 8, 06 7.67 6. 80 7.44 8. 89
SRE. Uc ets & wclan ante ae eae 58 3.76 8.78 | 14.06 | 10.06 7,66 | 11.78 6,94 6.93 | 10.45 Lew
PRONIGRR. We ccs coh aess Cores 6.65 | 5.68] 8.82] 6.88] 5.6 6.57 | 6.86 | 6.10] 5.46] 10.20
LR EROMMOG. Sais ci u'n Sitws c's ca/nione 5. 46 6.29 | 10. 64 8. 84 6.79 7,82 7.99 5.47 5. 96 177
WVOSt: Vane ide .5..50s)o.os sevens 7.31 8.038 | 11.98 | 9.80} 6.60] 7.55] 889] 6.81 8.67 | 11.01
ROCRTOULMEY ohn. Qs va ieass cates we 6,65 | 6.61 | 12.10 | 9.66)° 6.01 | 8.97 | 8.71 | 6.88 | 6.80 | 12,48
OO eS Ge de, | a 7.98 | 7.02 | 14.87] 11.15] 9,09] 4.26 | 10.86 | 12.14] 10.96 | 12.65
POOR a0. Os ck Sau we coca 7. 92°) 10/75: | 18567 | 18:81 | 6.46) 6:24 | 7.88 | 12.2] | 11,94 10. 58
BPRS TICN Soin acl cece hiro wat Dice Wh de eh Pe ts lh Ocoee Ore) Sper 11,08 | 10.883) 7780 9.75
OMRON fem aso Saeco ee Oe 5.83 | 10.88 | 7.03} 6.60] 6.30] 8.32! 12.14] 10.56] 6.30] 18.94
MMERCODRID co uk once cute ook eoeeh 7.91 9.31 | 10.50 | 10.62 |} 9.46] 9.92 | 10.48 | 11.61 | 11.22 15.18
RETR EOMIR, a. nic. « Bar sin ru wxich es cracotiete 10,12 | 9,66.) 10.01 |} 8.53 | 7.87 | 6.62| 7.74) 8.48] 9.04 11.14
OT ONE SE ale oro wt Wairoa, i Sea 8.97 | 9.92 | 9.75) 8.68] 7.15| 9.20] 9.75) 6.96] 7.69] 10.48
LEO Ed (RS aoe a ao oe 6.42.) ~ 6.19 |) 7.66") 6. 78-)- G14.) 37-88"1°10, 97. | 11.54 | 6.18] 11.28
PPODISOS sc ac0E 2 Totes wee Ree kas 3.47 | 6.68 | 11.47 | 7.:10.)--5.10 | 9.78 | 10.92 | 5.73 | 8.383] 11.06
URS ATOUS REL ot in ire es ae, wn Oa A580) “S5h22 105 00-71 |. 6.05 | «66.86 | 9;28:| 10.28 | 8,47 11. 83
BoOuth Dakota stci0. ete cececs 4.56 | 6.94] 6.52] 6.20] 5.36] 4.00) 6.84] 6.95] 8.56 7.58
WOT VeKOte iL. = 5 2. oe T0800 FORO) | Te T5841 6. BB: a 2 84" | 7.07 |_-9,.22-1 8.00 9. 56
MUOMPCR MBL. Shoes oo. Seats 17.45 | 17.49 | 22:10 | 17.11 | 15.68 | 16.28 | 17.76 | 16.12 | 18.61 21. 28
DM RUOMNTR TIS 2 Bier Se Sea c rccte chs c 16. 64 | 15.19 | 17.50 | 16.35 | 12.60 | 18.38 | 16.91 | 19.04 | 15.47 | 19.89
Es i) ee a ai 13.16 | 10.67 | 16.80 | 14.73 | 18.51 | 13.38 | 16.15 | 13.50 | 17.566 | 22.75
ROW MeOSICO 0566. os. be cee 14.89 | 138.86 | 18.00 | 14.76 | 8.42 | 14.28 | 15.48 | 14.71 | 18.80 | 13.57
POET ROA ils javaa oer ge 13.33 | 18.40 | 18.32 | 29.16 | 9.79 | 11.53 | 18.53 | 19.64 | 23.53 | 28.82
LO) Na, a eh A, Ria 2 ee 9.86 | 18.02 | 14.28 | 15.12 | 10.97 | 11.49 |! 14.35 | 16.11 | 18.08 | 22.88
VEU E!. See ee iL AteL Ee oe 10.63 | 20.70 | 21.87 | 27.65 | 18.68 | 17.15 | 22.09 | 25.56 | 27.32 | 24.10
Seltcie 2S. dee See Jos. a oe Ds 8.37 | 15.93 | 15.40 | 15.81.| 12.10 | 9.57 | 12.93 | 15.44 | 15.86 | 18.34
WOSHINE TON Joo. S535 ett Lae 6.35 | 18.32 | 15.98 | 18.07 | 11.58 | 11.99 | 18.67 | 14.44 | 14.04 | 17.77
Were arse dies Sheth eke SAO I2 240 |) 24 | 27 | 1OC18 7.59. 1 PIE S7 | 187387) tS.:98: |). 15.37
CPIITOR ONE tee rs dw SE ae 4.00 eLend|) sB 80k) 6564. 82749 6.97 67280 1) Shi72. | 9. 74 9. 50
OERTANROMA,. ccs oo. sou bene 6.47 | 8.84] 14.44] 7.75 | '7.05 | 10.07 | 10.38 | 6.44] 9.39] 10.88
SL MRMN SR OTANE TD « ofnc is WES eR ah Ree ro een oS eae vinfwea es w]e rane 2 8.42] 7.50] 8.28] 13.82

General average ....... G99") .6597 4) 10, 86.) 8.920) 7 VN i GL, | OSr Ol 14s} 896.|" 11.58

Average farm price of wheat per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by
States.

States and Territories. 1895, | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

LS tos 0 ee es eer eo $0.82 ($0.84 |$1.06 $0.89 {$0.91 /$0.90 |$0.97 |$0.92 |$0.98 | $1.04
New Hampshire ............. 10; ds OO a0 . 92 . 95 ODA Nacea Sere ciate faa ceimmienall Cee
DrenmOn tb. <2 oot) a. ot ee seeee . 69 pe een os | . 90 . 85 . 78 .94 | 1.09 .95 1.13
PONMCC UCU. aCe. sn..saae seas CBO acces 1.00 . 88 .95 SES Fd | ee ee a fet kaaet ae) PRR sl (a ap
Me War OPK 2 2 ae Con ce ce eet . 68 . 88 . 90 a eZ . 80 By i . 82 79 .81 1.09
Mwy CISCY doesn... ceeoe ee Bardi . 89 . 93 We etd. .74 au . 76 . 82 1.10
PeuNsSylvania sod: sc. olecce . 65 . 83 ou . 68 . 66 a4 42 13 79 1. 08
MFCM WOO 5 SSE occ Sees . 64 . 87 . 94 . 69 . 68 .70 ae il id . 78 1. 08
_ i Oi: Se i ae ee . 64 . 88 93 . 70 . 68 il Ail vie .79 1. 06
WHPORIAS 28S arteess is ~ anes . 65 . 80 . 92 . 66 . 69 hips ne .79 . 84 1.09
Worth Carouna.<. 22.22.82. By . 83 6 94%0,|). 278 . 82 . 82 oy} . 92 .97 1.19
Pout Carolina. ... 2-5. .ces.¢- 88 89 | 1.18 94 99 | 1.01 98 | 1.02 1.01 1. 26
CEES ha | | EE Ra oe ES ON 82 89 | 1.038 98 98 95 94 98 96 1, 26
HTN. Kee ee low See tes oe 80 85 | 1.01 90 89 89 88 93 95 1.15
MARRINSI DDL 2. sos 2iu wid loc see wet . 61 . 82 .99 . 83 . 78 . 84 . 86 .85 298 1.01
PRBS 6 ok eas ae re eee ee . 66 ay (3) . 89 . 68 . 68 . 64 .78 Pas i 4 es: 1.10
URES = Bsc Cea gttes ache 59 71 . 84 58 . 64 65 78 67 78 1.01
SRETIITICRBCE 20S Ue cee eine eae 62 . 74 . 95 67 78 79 74 76 84 5 sb
Weal Virvinia: . 27-6). .4 ue 69 .78 . 89 71 brfil 77 cir 82 85 1.09
KOOVUCKY npn ce dee eee eee 61 76 . 89 62 . 66 69 72 74 81 1.09
16s ok cteaeou coos See ee 60 78 . 88 66 . 64 Zfil (il 71 80 1.10
MACHIPON oS oc scan gee woe enme . 60 . 84 . 87 . 64 . 65 . 69 aii . 69 a 1. 08
MAG IATID 3. < eas cyewetan eoeee oe . 57 . 80 . 89 . 63 . 64 .70 .70 . 68 . 78 1. 06
WHOIS... $252. cb Lars vases 53 74 . 89 . 60 . 63 . 64 . 69 59 40 1.01
WY ABGDTIRN Dos es ete eid ee ee 51 70 . 84 . 59 61 64 65 64 72 . 98
MIR VICROUN ck consudnoumates . 44 . 68 ay «| . 54 .55 . 63 . 60 .61 . 69 .87
TOW. oi ic essence wee wee . 46 . 62 . 75 . 62 . 55 . 59 . 60 . 55 . 62 . 90
MISHOUITY oviru cin. we aches oe 51 70 85 . 59 62 63 69 58 71 . 96
mavined. 63.7 ne ere 45 63 74 . 50 52 55 59 55 59 89
MGDPBABKM .. 2<5 Shwe toe wae ees .40 . 58 . 69 .47 .49 . 58 .54 .49 . 54 . 87
South. Dakota .c0022 veedencs . 38 . 62 . 69 . 50 . 50 . 58 . 58 57 . 62 .79
North Dakota. fo seeuoeds sees . 38 . 64 .74 .51 51 .08 . 54 . 58 . 63 .81
MORGANS Le ecient 78 . 66 . 68 . 58 .61 .61 . 67 . 62 . 66 . 89
WYOMING... ssasawes ce ek cen . 64 . 62 .70 . 69 . 67 . 76 . 69 .81 .74 . 90

Golnthle. 2s 3<intcradeeawnee: . 56 .61 .70 . 56 .57 59 . 67 .75 . 66 91

644 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average farm price of wheat per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by
States—Continued,

States and Territories. 1895, | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900, | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904,
Now Mezileo <<..ceischsoscent $0.73 |$0.66 ($0.75 /$0.62 ($0.61 ($0.68 ($0.72 ($0.86 ($0.75 | $1.06
AVIEDR Ce tac cs vonwureube ts . 65 . 80 .74 ~ 92 . 64 79 . 85 1. 05 .93 1,13
TURE as coco cans atodewssteeee . 44 . 68 . 68 . 54 .53 . 55 .70 . 76 . 80 . 86
NRE 6. ck eicbuuase cds Oeews 49 . 69 . 90 . 95 . 76 .70 . 88 98 . 99 92
TORE Soo ike oven aces ouat ests 47 . 65 .70 51 . 50 . 46 . 61 .70 . 75 . 80
Weetameon .< wc dacs washes awe 41 74 . 68 54 51 51 .47 . 65 . 69 . 80
CUMIN. a Sas se codec cen bscue .47 72 «72 . 62 . 53 . 55 . 54 . 67 ott $1
Opistorniiagia. oss ce aseneceoeeste . 60 88 . 53 .%2 . 62 . 58 . 60 . 80 . 87 88
OReree obs. wvckcees aes 48 68 . 76 52 53 53 63 . 58 63 93
Indian Perrttory 255i .6 he cbalscteescicc sects sceececlesbemnelicee cee teoekans 69 61 69 98

General average ....... 509 726 808 | .&82 584 619 624 6380 | .695 . 924

Freight rates, average for wheat, in cents, St. Louis to New Orleans, by river.

Bulk, | Sacks, Bulk, | Sacks, Bulk, | Sacks, Bulk, | Sacks,
Year. per j|perl00|| Year. per |per100|} Year. per |per100|} Year. per | per 100
bushel.| lbs. bushel.| Ibs. bushel.| Ibs. bushel.| Ibs.
1877. 8.11 | 20.04 |} 1884.. 6.63 | 14.00 || 1891.. 6.88 | 16.28 || 1898 ... 4. 50 10. 00
1878. 7.19 | 17.386 || 1885... 6.40 | 15.00 || 1892... 6.50} 16.87 || 1899...| @4.50 10. 00
1879 7.75 | 18.00 |} 1886.. 6.50 | 16.00 || 18938.. 6.65 | 17.54 |} 1900...) 44,25 10. 00
1880 8.25 | 19.00 || 1887.... 6.00 | 18,25 |} 1894... 5.89 | 17.14 || 1901...) @4.25 10. 00
1881. . 6.00 | 20.00 |} 1888.... 6.50 | 15.00 || 1895... 5.95 | 18.00 || 1902 ...| a4.20 10.00
1882... 6.42 | 20.00 |} 1889.... 5.95 | 17.93 || 1896.. 5.00 | 14.54 |} 1903 ...} @5.00 10. 00
1883. . 5.50 |} 17.75 || 1890.... 6.58 | 15.66 || 1897.... 4.88 | 10.83 || 1904...) (0) (6)
a¥, o. b. New Orleans. bNo shipments.
Freight rates, average for wheat, in cents per bushel, New York to Chicago.
By lake By lake ; : By lake By lake :
Year. and canal.a| and rail, | BY 8! rail. Year. and canal.a} and rail. | BY ll rail.
Pas He re 12.09 20. 89 6. 76 8.52 14. 30
9. 82 10.19 15.12 6. 95 8. 57 15. 00
11. 09 14. 75 19. 56 6.45 7.59 13. 80
9, 96 11, $9 17.56 7.66 8.48 14. 63
11. 87 18.13 17.74 5.11 7.00 13. 20
13.13 15. 80 19. 80 4. 86 6. 96 11,89
8. 67 10. 49 14. 40 6.19 6.61 12. 00
7.23 10. 91 14. 47 5. 22 7.42 12.50
9.01 11. 63 16. 20 b 4.45 4.91 12.00
7.00 10. 00 138. 20 65.81 6. 63 11. 60
6. 54 9. 02 18. 20 b4.49 5.10 9. 96
9.10 12.00 15. 00 b5.11 5. 54 9. 88
9. 50 12. 00 15.75 v5, 26 5. 89 10. 62
7.05 11.14 14. 50 66.40 6. 37 11. 29
6. 92 8. 97 15. 00 64.73 5. 50 11,12

aIncluding Buffalo charges and tolls. + Exclusive of Buffalo charges.

645

OF WHEAT.

STATISTIOS

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THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

YEARBOOK OF

646

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“‘YstH | “MOT
*10JUTM ?
per ‘% “ON ore
“yIOK MON

‘ponuyu0pj—r06l-66sl ‘sammiy panug ay) fo sauna burpna, us paysng sad yoayn fo sanrud ayosajoyy

STATISTIOS OF OATS. 647

Monthly average prices of wheat in Chicago. 4

[Cents per bushel.]

Month. 1898. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. 100, | 901 | 902 1903. 190
wenaaty 2.63... .<. 0 cela 75s] Glya| 554 | 627s] 824 | 99%) 714 | G4y,| 735) 771 | 75 | 874
OE paneer ae 7348] 574 | 58¢ | 66 | 79% | 1014 | 72% sot 7374| 7444] 774 | 98
A aR Se aaa 76 | 5749) 5S7yy| 657%] 7948] 1034 | 704 | 654 | 744 | 72% | 7325] 9By%
et etry 79 af G1E | GGL | 80y4| 112: | 731 | 664 | 72~| 734 | 75¥%4| 934
MUG hat 4 3, oe trea 721 | 66y%| 73yz5| 628 | 8By%| 151 | 7348] G5y%| 72x] 744%| 7744! 967
PS il el A 657] D8y4| 76) GOFa| 75yo| 974 | 754 | 7644) Te | 73L| 80/4] 99
eM de G0l'| 55y5| 68 | 581 | 74 | 762] 72 | 773| 67yq| 754 | 794 | 1033
Pe. Stee 693 | 55 | 658 | 58751 912 | 703] 713] 74 | 7148] 721 | 839 | 107
September ..............-. 66s 53 | 6Oygs|- 62: | 933 | 653 | 724 | 7538] 69%) 82h | 839 | 1139
Oo ae cae 634 | 537g] 60; | 733 | 95%| 662] 71y| 744 | 691 | 714 | 82% | 1153
November .............-.. 60; | 664 | 58% | 82t4| 95% | 67 | 68: | 7148] 712 | 73%] 81 | 11448
December..............+-. 6148] 583%| 59: | 83: | 100} | 663 | 663 | 71481 761 | 74,%| 822 | 116%

Yearly average ..... 672 | 575] 62% | 6642) 85t%| 899 7195; 7043) 72 745 792 | 1034

aThis table exhibits average cash prices for the past twelve years. The monthly prices are the
means between the lowest and highest prices for each month, and the yearly prices are the averages
of the monthly averages.

OATS.

Oat crop of countries named, 1900-1904.

Countries. 1900. ; 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

United States..............----- 809, 126.000 | 736,809,000 | 987,843,000 | 784,094,000 | 894, 596, 000
oS TRY ge ee ee Det 92,520,000 | 80,803,000 | 109,786,000 | 113,337,000 | 105, 393, 000
Miaar S08 65). 3. Cece Se 9 092,000 | 28,673,000 | 35,565,000 | 34,077,000} 37, 434; 000
Rest of Canada...............-. 63,000,000 | 60,000,000 | 60,000,000 | 60,000,000 | — 60,000; 000

Total Canada..........--- 154, 612,000 | 169, 476,000 | 205,351,000 | 207,414,000 | 202, 827, 000

Total North America..... 963, 738,000 | 906, 285, 000 |1, 193, 194, 000 991, 508, 000, 000 | 1,097, "423, 000
Great Britain................--- 118, 467,000 | 113,576,000 | 134,493,000 | 128,611,000 | 131,423, 000
ak OS DS Sen Beets 61,291,000 | 62,240,000 | 65,570,000 | 58,816,000 | 60, 142, 000

Total United Kingdom...| 179,758,000 | 175,816,000 | 200,063,000 | 187,427,000 | 191,565,000
epcilen 2). ie). 2G tt oh ee 62,627,000 | 55,342,000 | 57,323,000 | 62,979,000 | 50, 117, 000
SECS IR te roa 40,323,000 | 37,409/000 | 40,822,000 | 41,176,000 | 40, 000, 000
Noetherlands..-..2....-.-.02.2c- 17,296,000 | 18,485,000} 19,241,000 | 20,112,000} —_ 19, 000, 000
Balahintr se jt 35,815,000 | 36,820,000 | 45,588,000 | 48,345,000 | 46, 000, 000
Berean 5, 5 a8 fe. re ee 250, 597,000 | 225,283,000 | 276,948,000 | 300,366,000 | 261, 264’ 000
PGES soc, ee oe 16,429,000 | 22)788/000 | 23,349,000 | 22)942'000 | —_ 19, 000, 000
SA eS Re” er 16,000,000 | 15,000,000 | 13,000,000 | 16,000,009 | 13,000; 000
mata 5 cc: a 488, 594,000 | 485,716,000 | 514,452,000 | 542) 432/000 | 477,852) 000
abil. 6258 Pe. ME 2) ae 118, 181,000 | 118,191,000 | 125,473,000 | 128,330,000 | 109, 542, 000
rarpuree. 220) so. HON ese 70, 637,000 | 68,083,000 | 82,807,000 | 87,334,000 | 62,775, 000
Croatia-Slavonia ............... 5,564,000] 5,814,000} 6,301,000 | 7,330,000 5, 206, 000

Total Austria-Hungary...| 194,382,000 | 192,088,000 | 214,581,000 | 222,994,000 | 177, 523, 000
Woumante (c5. 592 220 of ~ 8,704,000 | 16,540,000 | 21,905,000 | 33,108,000 | 12, 608, 000
IGUTIA. |. cL cools ee, ae eee 6, 000, 000 8, 000, 000 10, 000, 000 15, 000, 000 8, 000, 000
Russia proper .........2......0. 744,037,000 | 527,576,000 | 807,888,000 | 650, 405, 000 | 967, 100, 000
Powad «2.1. tees ee 51,235,000 | 56,150,000! 63,167,000 | 58,745,000} 44,393, 000
North Caucasus............+---- 17,519,000 | 11,932,000 | 16,112,000 | 18, 939, 000 | 14, 593; 000

Total Russia in Europe...| 812,791,000 | 595, 658,000 | 887,167,000 | 728, 089, 000 | 1, 026, 086, 000

Total Europe ........-..-- 2, 129, 316, 000 |1, 884, 945, 000 2, 824, 43 324, 439, 000 |2, 240, 970, 000 | 2, 342, 015, 000
Ln 2) app hoe apeam. eP 5. 34,918,000 | 21,569,000 | 34,078,000 | 60,352,000 | 46, 937, 000
Conttal AMG. sass cb at. pe cet ons 5, 987, 000 6, 870, 000 9, 433, 000 11, 342, 000 8, 011, 000

Wat do Tepe rel HE Dhaba el
Total Russia in Asia...... 40,905,000 | 28,439,000 | 43,511,000 | 71,694,000 | 54, 948, 000

ee ee es 40,905,000 | 28,439,000 | 43,511,000 | 71, 694, 000 54, 948, 000

eo OOS |) ee |) |
errr oo: oO eee 0S _OL 0 saasSsSsS<S ee aaonmemmm—_>—os

648 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,
Oat crop of countries named, 1900-1904—Continued.

Countries. 1900. | 1901. 1902, 1903. 1904.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

Aimerin 2. cori ss Sane 5, 000, 000 5, 000, 000 8,729, 000 6, 000, 000 6, 616, 000
Cane Colony: sancnaudevessaeuven 1, 750, 000 1, 750, 000 1, 750, 000 1, 500, 000 1, 500, 000
Total ATOR oo). cet eae 6, 750, 000 6,750, 000 10, 479, 000 7, 500, 000 8, 116, 000
ee | ee ————— |

Weat Avatralia .. isc. cnxscecven 76, 000 90, 000 164, 000 173, 000 267, 000
Sonth ‘AVStraue ...cc<ssteeneece 225, 000 378, 000 484, 000 640, 000 931, 000
CIB MIRYIO | oor coats oenieee 11, 000 8, 000 44, 000 1, 000 73, 000
New South Wales ........<.%s<- 648, 000 612, 000 709, 000 363, 000 1, 292, 000
MIOUAMIR . .. . suedsidntn atone eae 6, 309, 000 9, 884, 000 6, 937, 000 4, 542, 000 13, 858, 000
ea PN eR RRS oF 1, 184, 000 1, 451, 000 1, 756, 000 1, 808, 000 1, 673, 000
PROB SSPE, ie ee ee ae ee 16, 840, 000 19, 687, 000 15, 519, 000 22, 452, 000 15, 583, 000
Total Australasia......... 25, 293, 000 32, 110, 000 25, 613, 000 29, 979, 000 33, 677, 000

RECAPITULATION BY CONTINENTS.

North America ..............+-- 963, 738, 000 | 906, 285, 000 |1, 193,194, 000.| 991, 508,000 | 1, 097, 428, 000
SR ge TT NC 2,129; 316, 000 |1, 884, 945; 000 |2; 324) 439; 000 |2, 240, 970, 000 | 2, 342, 015, 000
Rate soe. tae ee 40,905,000 |’ 28,439,000 | | 43,511,000 | ' 71,694,000 54, 948, 000
Ailes.) 5c eee 6, 750, 000 6,750,000 | 10,479, 000 7, 500, 000 8, 116, 000
Rembeelania::.3c2s.. eee 25,293,000 | 82,110,000 | 25,613,000 | 29, 979, 000 33, 677, 000

Wisbeyuet onc ots of Ree 3, 166, 002, 000 |2, 858, 529, 000 |3, 597, 236, 000 |3, 341, 651, 000 | 8, 536, 179, 000

Visible suppiy of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years. 4

Month, 1895-1896. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899,
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
PUG San dotted We ap unavans eee 9, 007, 000 14, 120, 000 12, 912, 000 8, 716, 000 10, 262, 000
A eee SET Ee oe eee ee et 4, 653, 000 10, 384, 000 9, 604, 000 4, 971, 000 6, 885, 000
Hentember sss: oss. cs esseeeeeinn 4, 673, 000 11, 410, 000 18, 784, 000 7, 360, 000 10, 973, 000
Nersher ite c....\se cl ee ee 4, 124, 000 18, 821, 000 15, 573, 000 9, 286, 000 18, 127, 000
November 256+ oe bee. ees ee 8, 020, 000 17, 217, 000 20, 096, 000 11,352,000 | | 18,254,000
Decaniher to) ok Bis ote 10, 248, 000 17, 995, 000 19, 768, 000 9, 460, 000 11, 789, 000
nD ee Pee arate 10, 446, 000 19, 5388, 000 16, 148, 000 10, 893, 000 12, 004, 000
RGD FAI cecil tere cae renee eee 11, 446, 000 19, 978, 000 20, 245, 000 18, 231, 000 11, 876, 000
Marah. $5.55 08 Se oO 12, 211, 000 20, 832, 000 17, 925, 000 14, 782, 000 12, 449, 000
ADDED cies ete he Rae 14, 326, 000 20, 672, 000 15, 609, 000 15, 725, 000 14, 176, 000
Maries oo. 52. be Aaa 13, 426, 000 16, 138, 000 14, 402, 000 18, 971, 000 18, 845, 000
Tienes Ars 5. See ee ee ee 18, 460, 000 12, 878, 000 10, 421, 000 13, 661, 000 12, 301, 000
Month. 1900-1901. 1901-1902, 1902-1903. 1903-1904. 1904-1905.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Wisse cia vida cia =Gind asa haces sep 12, 716, 000 15, 275, 000 2, 420, 000 6, 686, 000 6, 766, 000
UIE a os wine te nares wae oe 9, 364, 000 7, 808, 000 2, 988, 000 8, 623, 000 4, 044, 000
BONER DOM. oc cca ons as ees ee 18, 853, 000 10, 603, 000 5, 159, 000 11, 714, 000 19, 607, 000
COMO 2m do onc tahicnccasnaean 17, 140, 000 14, 445, 000 11, 241, 000 10, 876, 000 31, 553, 000
November 20, 528, 000 12, 899, 000 10, 661, 000 18, 332, 000 33, 693, 000
December 18, 136, 000 10, 109, 000 10, 401, 000 13, 995,000 | « 34,108,000
JRHUGIY. =. 266 cas 15, 861, 000 8, 680, 000 8, 794, 000 13, 785, 000 31, 348, 000
February 16, 175, 000 8, 537, 000 8, 727, 000 14, 774, 000 26, 095, 000
NESTON 5 os Sine ett econ Re te 16, 800, 000 8, 207, 000 12, 437, 000 15, 241, 000 22,570, OVO
FOBT. cs nwian watts <cateneeirs steers 15, 823, 000 6, 606, 000 12, 432, 000 15, 377, 000 22,667, 000
DCS, ae rE fey eee tine ae er ne 16, 824, 000 5, 010, 000 9, 992, 000 12, 965,000: |... co. canes
UH Ores ccc eee eonwnce cee aes 14, 989, 000 4, 571, 000 7,160, 000 8, 296, 000:..|.. :cmcctelonlaibentare

aThese figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Boeke oe Amr a stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported
y Bradstreet’s.

STATISTICS OF OATS. 649

Condition of the oat crop of the United States, monthly, 1887-1904.
-

a ui bi

o vo vo

ye q re) a Y | vey rr

Year 3 . é 8 Year, 3 i. 3 & ear. eT r é é

Ra SEM Bis 1} 6. he =i Se oe gk

5 S < D 5 > “4 n a | * < DL
1887 ....] 91.0 | 85.9 | 85.6 | 838.4 |} 1898...] 88.9 | 88.8 | 78.3 | 74.9 || 1899 ...] 88.7 | 90.0 | 90.8 87.2
1888 ....| 95.4 | 96.2 |'91.7 | 87.2 || 1894...] 87.0] 77.7 | 76.5 | 77.8 || 1900...| 91.7 | 86.5 | 86.0 82.9
1889 ....] 98.8 | 94.1 | 92.8 | 90.0 |] 1895...) 84.38 | 83.2 | 84.5 | 86.0 || 1901 ...| 85.3 | 83.7 | 73.6 fp Ma |
1890 .. 89.8 | 81.6 | 70.1 | 64.4 || 1896 ...] 98.8 | 96.3 | 77.3 | 74.0 |} 1902...| 90.6 | 92.1 | 89.4 $7.2
1891 ....| 85.1 | 87.6 | 89.5 | 90.7 || 1897...) 89.0 | 87.5 | 86.0 | 84.6 || 19038 ...| 85.5 | 84.8 | 79.5 76.7
1892 .. 88.5 | 87.2 | 86.2 | 78.9 || 1898 ...| $8.0 | 92.8 | 84.2 | 79.0 || 1904...| 89.2 | 89.8 | 86.6 85.6

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of oats of the United States, 1866-1904.

Av- Chicago cash price per

Domestic

eh erage bushel, No. 2. exports, po
erage! prod farm Farm May of fol- including POP i
Year. | Acreage. |yiela| FTO¢UC- |Price) value, |pecember.| lowing | @!@e2) | years

tion. per 8 fiscal :
per | > Dee. 1, ear. , begin-

acre bush sf years be- :

; el Se oe eee te PITS ena.
: : > July 1.a
Dec. 1 Low. |High.| Low. |High.| July 1.4

Aeres. |Bush.| Bushels. | Cts. | Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels.
1866.60. 8, 864,219] 30.2) 268,141,077) 35.1) 94,057,945) 36 43 59 78 825, 895} 778,198
rt. Sees 10, 746,416} 25.9) 278,698,000} 44.5) 123,902,556) 52 Seti re telocs ee 122,554! 780,798
868-2. 2. 9,665,736) 26.4) 254,960,800) 41.7} 106,355,976} 43 493} 663| 623 481,871) 326,659
1369223. 9,461, 441) 30.5) 288, 334,000} 388.0) 109,521,734) 40 443) 463] 533 121, 517/2, 266, 785
pot | ee 8, 792, 895) 28.1) 247,277,400) 39.0) 96,443,637) 373] 41 473; 61 147,572} 599,514
ff ae 8, 365, 809] 30. 6/ 255, 743,000) 36.2; 92,591,359] 303) 33 343} 424 262,975) 535, 250
Bin eae 9,000, 769) 30.2) 271,747,000} 29.9) 81,303,518) 233) 253) 30 34 714,072) 225, 555
ps) eee 9,751,700} 27.7) 270,340,000} 34.6) 93,474,161] 34 403) 44 483 812, 873} 191, 802
ae... 10, 897,412} 22.1) 240,369,000} 47.1) 118,138,934) 513 +} 57%} 643 504, 770)1, 500, 040
1875.2 = 11, 915, 075) 29.7) 354,317,500) 32.0) 113,441,491) 293) 303) 288] 3814! 1,466,228) 121,547
aby (eee 18, 358, 908} 24.0) 320,884,000) 32.4) 103,844,896] 313} 343) 373) 453) 2,854,128) 41,597
aU eae 12,826,148) 381.7] 406,394,000} 28.4) 115,546,194) 241) 27 23 27 | 8,715,479} 21,391
py ae 13,176,500) 31.4) 413,578,560} 24.6) 101,752,468} 193) 203) 243) 303] 5,452,136) 18,395
5 gs pain 12, 683, 500} 28.7) 363, 761,320} 33.1] 120,533,294) 3232) 363| 293) 342 766, 366) 489,576
ab 5 Uae 16, 187,977| 25.8) 417, 885,380) 36.0) 150,243,565) 2924) 333) 363) 394 402,904} 64,412
BATES 22: 16, 831,600} 24.7| 416,481,000) 46.4) 193,198,970} 433; 463) 483) 563 625, 690)1, 850, 983
1982... :'.. 18,494,691] 26.4! 488,250,610} 37.5] 182,978,022} 343} 413) 3883) 423 461,496; 815,017
ih eee 20, 324, 962| 28.1! 571, 302,400] 32.7} 187,040,264) 293) 363) 303) 342) 3,274,622) 121,069
1884..... 21,300,917| 27.4) 583,628,000) 27.7) 161,528,470} 223 2} 843! 387] 6,203,104) . 94,310
Cee 22,788,680) 27.6) 629,409,000) 28.5) 179,631,860) 27 29 263| 298 7,311,306] 149, 480
1886..... 23, 658,474) 26.4) 624,134,000) 29.8) 186,137,930) 253) 273) 253) 273] 1,374,685) 139,575
to) aa 25, 920,906} 25.4) 659,618,000) 30.4} 200,699,790} 288! 302) 323) 38 573,080! 123, 817
1888..... 26, 998, 282! 26.0) 701,735,000! 27.8) 195,424,240! 25 2627] 213) 233) 1,191,471! 131,501
1889..... 27,462,316} 27.4) 751,515,000} 22.9) 171,781,008} 20 21 243} 30 | 15,107,238) 153, 232
1890..... 26, 431, 869) 19.8] 523,621,000} 42.4| 222,048,486} 392) 432) 451) 54] 1,382,836) 41,848
/ ae 25,581,861) 28.9) 738,394,000} 31.5) 232,312,267) 312) 338) 284) 333] 10,586,644) 47,782
1892..... 27,063, 835) 24.4) 661,035,000} 31.7) 209,253,611; 258! 312} 283) 322) 2,700,793) 49,433
1893. .... 27, 273, 033) 23.4) 638, 854, 850} 29.4) 187,576,092) 273) 291) 323} 36] 6,290,229) 31,759
MSOF. 3 3 27,023,553) 24.5) 662,036,928} 32.4) 214,816,920) 283} 293; 273} 303] 1,708,824) 830,318
i |) 27, 878,406) 29.6) 824, 443,537) 19.9] 168,655,068} 168) 173) 18 193; 15,156,618) 66,602
18062552 - 27,565,985) 25.7} 707,346,440} 18.7) 182,485,033) 163; 182) 162) 183) 87,725,083) 131,204
oo (ieee 25, 730,375) 27.2) 698,767,809} 21.2) 147,974,719) 21 Z| 26 32 | 73, 880,307| 25,093
189635-*.. 25,777,110) 28.4) 730,906,643} 25.5) 186,405,364) 26 273, 24 273| 33,534, 362} 28,098
1899..... 26, 341,380) 30.2) 796,177,713} 24.9) 198, 167, 975 2) 23 213} 233) 45,048,857) 54,576
1900..... 27, 364, 795; 29.6} 809,125,989] 25.3) 208, 669,233) 213} 223] 272| 31 | 42,268,931; 32,107
cL eae 28, 541,476) 25.8) 736,808,724) 39.9) 293,658,777) 42 481; 41 493) 13,277,612} 38,978
Se 28, 653,144) 34.5] 987,842,712} 30.7) 303,584,852) 293) 32 333; 382) 8,381,805) 150,065
1903..... 27,638,126) 28.4) 784,094,199) 34.1) 267, 661, 665 1) 38 4731 50] 1,960,740) 188,984
Ce 27, 542,669) 32.1) 894,595,552) 31.3) 279,900,013) 432 Bente Selita asl a cat ca ee oe hee ee ee

ain years 1866 to 1882, inclusive, oatmeal is not included.

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in oats, 28,653,144 acres, was re-
ported in 1902; the greatest production, 987,842,712 bushels, in the same year; the
greatest farm value on December 1, $303,584,852, in the same year; the greatest
average production per acre, 34.5 bushels in the same year; the greatest average farm
price per bushel on December 1, 47.1 cents in 1874. For the five years, 1900-1904,
the average area was 28,008,042 acres; the average production, 842,493,435 bushels; the
average farm value on December 1, $270,694,908; the average yield per acre, 30.1
bushels; the average farm price per bushel on December 1, 32.1 cents.

650 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of oats of the United States in 1904, by States,

Crop of 1904,

Shipped out

____| Stock on hand Mar. 1, | “> ¢ county

States and Territories,

Acreage. Production, Value, | 1906, where grown,
Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. Per cent. | Bushels,

MAING... ccceus ces yene: 118, 957 4,170, 826 1, 876, 872 1, 501, 497 36 41, 708
New Hampshire .... 12,174 404,177 189, 963 129, 337 82 |. canecneaneee
WOFINOIE ..... cae auec>s 80, 129 3, 036, 889 1, 336, 231 1, 214, 756 40 |< onnaseu nee
Massachusetts .....-. 6, 637 225, 658 101, 546 58, 671 26 || cnens eee
Rhode Island ........ 1, 604 40, 742 19,149 18, 037 82 |. waeuene eee
Connecticut ......... 10, 077 337, 580 148, 535 77, 643 28 | ..ecccneeeaee
Naw York... <a. ss->-- 1, 245, 752 42, 480, 143 16, 142, 454 19, 116, 064 45 3, 398, 411
New Jersey ....-..--- 63, 143 2, 052, 148 820, 859 964, 510 47 287, 301
Pennsylvania.......-. 1, 172, 915 39, 761, 818 15, 109, 491 15, 109, 491 38 2, 385, 709
Delaware .....- Ee Salcte 4,341 122, 416 50, 191 25, 707 21 12, 242
Marriand vosic cs. 535 35, 656 1, 058, 983 381, 234 296, 515 28 127, 078
WiVORIMIT oa cans te cent 183, 811 3, 878, 412 1, 667, 717 1, 396, 228 36 271, 489
North Carolina....... 205, 874 38, 252, 809 1, 691, 461 813, 202 25 97, 584
South Carolina....-.-.. 191, 336 3, 271, 846 1, 963, 108 458, 058 14 229, 029
Georgia...» scisseust.: 235, 606 3, 486, 969 1, 917, 833 557, 915 16 69, 739
RIOR AE aoe es <. 32, 562 420, 050 252, 030 75, 609 18 8,401
ATeDaMA o2cs oes saneys 197, 787 2, 947, 026 1, 591, 394 471, 524 16 29,470
Miseissippl :...s2..-- 101, 544 1, 949, 645 1, 018, 815 565, 397 29 19, 496
Teupiane ...2sctc- a. 31, 494 579, 490 260, 770 81, 129 If || Soveeneeenee
ORRR on awe Sane as 896, 510 28, 688, 320 12, 622, 861 5, 737, 664 20 7, 458, 963
Arransas oy oot vdss 211, 276 4, 795, 965 2, 062, 265 1, 390, 830 29 143, 879
7TRYNOHIOO sn6 <alcn s< oe 155, 779 3, 286, 937 1, 216, 167 1, 150, 428 35 460,171
West Virginia........ 85, 606 2, 259, 998 994, 399 836, 199 37 180, 800
Kentucky.:......5-2- 228, 553 5, 485, 272 2,194, 109 1, 919, 845 35 438, 822
O07) Ce eae ee ee 1, 215, 979 49, 733, 541 15, 914, 733 18, 401, 410 37 16, 909, 404
Michioan. ..<c..-..4- 990, 002 32, 175, 065 10, 617, 771 13, 191, 777 41 , 687, 268
NSO Sa ee 1, 279, 720 42, 358, 732 12, 707, 620 13, 554, 794 32 17, 790, 667
PMO. ee. scans 2 x5 3, 666,936 | 117,341, 952 35, 202, 586 41, 069, 683 35 61, 017, 815
WISCONSIN... sae a5 2, 478, 129 86, 734, 515 24, 285, 664 89, 877, 877 46 16, 479, 558
Minnesota’. ¢<...+.<- 2° 172-925 85, 178, 503 22, 146, 411 38, 330, 326 45 , 0938, 551
TOW Gis cidiwavakaekas 3, 822,600 | 122, 323, 200 30, 580, 800 48, 929, 280 40 45, 259, 584
BCLS hy Ek nee 716, 544 16, 265, 549 5, 580, 287 5, 692, 942 35 1, 789, 210
Manuals corcc sees a5 952, 583 16, 955, 087 5, 595, 179 5, 425, 628 32 1, 356, 407
WNebraak @co2. sc. Ja.%s 1, 886, 270 57, 908, 489 14, 477, 122 26, 637, 905 46 24, 900, 650
South Dakota ........ 713, 468 27, 825, 252 6, 956, 318 11, 964, 858 43 7, 234, 566
North Dakota........ 829, 154 31, 010, 360 7,442, 486 16, 745, 594 54 5, 891, 968
Montana..." 2.0. 2... 167, 207 6, 303, 704 2, 899, 704 2, 148, 259 34 1, 891, 111
Wevomingie. . ge. 4... 41, 787 1, 261, 967 492, 167 378, 590 30 100, 957
COlOrREO oo: cbc. c's 1386, 563 4, 834, 330 2, 223, 792 1, 837, 045 38 1, 805, 269
New Mexico ......... 9, 927 194, 569 110, 904 48, 642 25 11, 674
A PIBON Gi tacts askin OSS a 999 30, 070 22, 252 6, 916 28) |. ceaakies Coen
RGD Ge sae ere cam ake 44, 966 1, 690, 722 794, 639 422, 680 25 557, 938
NOVGOR cswen sect bance 6, 267 231, 879 146, 084 55, 651 2A |. care'ctece ee
TARO. om see cuits cae oe 92, 778 8, 646, 175 1, 823, 088 838, 620 23 1, 640, 779
Washington. «<=. <.=.> 164, 971 7,407,198 8, 185, 095 1, 708, 656 23 2,814, 735
OKORON «own ces dea 281, 842 , 910, 550 3, 059, 958 1, 757, 848 27 2,018, 270
Oalviormipies. <<. ..22: 167, 084 5, 697, 564 38, 247, 611 683, 708 12 1, 709, 269
Oklanomear.. cassie 283, 117 6, 002, 080 2, 160, 749 1, 740, 603 29 80, 270
Indian Territory ..... 216, 782 6, 980, 380 2, 652, 544 1, 745, 095 25 628, 234
Totals: oc we oh 27, 842,669 | 894,595,552 | 279,900,013 | 347, 165, 643 38.8 261, 989, 446

Average yield per acre of oats in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901 1902. | 1908. | 1904.
Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.
Maine: cacs acre cose sae 40.1} 40.0] 81. 36. 35.0] 387.5] 36.0] 39.0] 39. 36.6
New Hampshire ..........-..- 36.9} 388.0) 35.0] 33.0] 35.0] 32.6] 29.5] 35.0] 31.1 33. 2
IWARM Os cou eos sa ete 43.8) 40.5] 88.0] 88.0] 87.0] 384.9] 38.0] 40.0} S852 37.9
Massachusetih:2~.<22s 55 esses 86.0). 36.0} 32:0) $2.0.) 38,0.) 86.8°| 81.0) .82.2.5caiag 34.0
Rhode Island « .....32. Se0nces 92.41. 80:0. 1.82.05). 27.0 | 2670}. 80.9 | 29.4.) Be 35) aaa 25.4
Connectiouts.:...<2- cues sess 31.9°1 29.0] 29.0 | 28:2) 28:0.| 81.0 1 28.7) Sét.b) aie 33.5
MGW WORK. 7.2 Seee ee ame $1.7 | 38:0:) “8h O 27255) 8170 ft" 2.9") 21. 6-0 4000 ree 384.1
New Fersew) Geek soe $5.5 | 84.0. |» 25.0.) 49.6 | 240}. 29.6]. 16.00)» B82) 2ebc2bae 32.5
Pennsylvania so. 2566-0 81.7 | 81.0 | ¢28.2:) 2328: 183.0 |. SE. 1.) 18.9.) «365s eee 33.9
PIAA EO Soh. a. occ kane 19.1 29''0:| “22 0", 22°00 2050}: 2h 01> 18h 22. ere 28.2
Maryvlene i525 0002 oe! 96:2 1 24.0 ') 240.) 299.5. b> 2820) 1 24.0. : 18. 81) 6. Tr eee 29.7
Minera o< 21. Deeyoutts tee PRA 618.5%) 2D Opt o LG BibeeFSsOe 14:8.) 1409. PB aalaee 214
WOTtH GCarOlna. ns. 4% 5. Se ns TH.aet 12/00 18:0 | 214-3 12.0 18.9 | tard Se eee 15.8
South Caroline... -. 5.2% - oceans 15/2) BLO Web TAS Ou 15s 10° 1b.8 5), Saas by Pe |
Genre ts Glee Lee 145°) ' 1250 |*-¥4,0' )" 1636 9.0) -150.}) 14. 8:) 12s eae 14.8
Wleridgin 6 sesoy £1) eter. cer 1033 112-0 9.0] 15.4 9.0) bo31.3%) 13,1 16a 12.9
IODA. oN oo aos la eS 14.9 |} 14.0.1 < 18.0 )| 36,81) 10:0). 14.4} 14.5) 10,97) sbes 14.9
Mississipnl :-ccais-s-onene er 16.7°| 318.0 | 14.0 | 18:5 TOOT 14.0:] °15.2°| “Ibv42) tase 19.2

STATISTICS OF OATS. 651

Average yield per acre of outs in the United States, 1895-1904, by States—Continued.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

Bush, | Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.

PIRI cen. 5 os's alg on aeans 15.0 10.0 18.0 18.1 18.0 18.0 13.4 15, 2 15.9 18.4
EE oe ite eran c eh a'clasive went 20.7 20.0 25.0] 29.7 25.0 38.0 16.3 23. 2 35. 5 32.0
MORN eis chit ct a cacae ah es 25.4 16.0 Li Oi), 22,8 19.0 yy) By} 12.3 20.0 18.6 ya) Se
MEIUMEOG Gor. this innslc sae us oe 22, 0°), 26,0 |) 10.0)" -18.7 | 14.0} 16.6) 17.61 17.81 18.5 pA ly
MVIGRU. WV ATHAUIRs war cents vate pin os 20. 2) prea Val iecd. Or eles Onl, 2.0.) 21.0 | 18.7 | 28.6.1 21,7 26.4
BOUNCES iia c ashe cs cde csv kens ZGnd |paedis OL ele Or tam, a [eke O 2k. 8.) 19.7 |° 22.9) 99.4 24.0
ORE doen b Shs Uke alceen Sets 81.7 | 81.0 | 82.0 | 80.9 | 86.0] 88.0] 81.5] 41.1] 80.6 40.9
PUPCTLISEATL goa v's cite wid les: Oe b'~ ah 28.9 |, 30.0}, 26.0 |. 82.8 | 84.0 | 86.7 | 29.0] 89.9] 80.5 82.5
UCM MIIEL Wrtoe wk a'viecs os see ne ets 22.9 | 29.0} 80.2) 29.2) 82.0] 82.7) 28.6] 85.4] 24,4 33.1
BIOS cock ine k wine ah chan ee ee 24.4) 28.0) 32.0] 29.0] 38.0] 388.0] 28.2] 37.7] 26.6 32.0
BRUM URITL woth au tke Lauer os o5.3 | 155.4 |. 34.0'| 86:1], 86.0 |..82.0'] 29.1] 89.9] $2.8 35. 0
RTMUTIONOUG dis nc ainin ns octunwaaioes 89.9) 88.0] 26.0] 86.3 82.0; 25.2] 82.1] 89.0] 82.8 39.2
RM ees Das ania eine hoi< Saale 46.2} 27.5 | 30.0] 34.0] 33.0} 34.0] 29.8] 380.7] 24.0 32.0
REDON. feds Sos ole scuseaden as Citas O) incam G (nel. Or), 2D, Ol 2s.4) 11.2) $2.6) 22,2 Wid
Io acco MAES eae gee grea gree ese | 17.9), lds OF) 124..0° |. 18. 0)|\ (29,0! |. -81-.6:| 18.6 | 88.6] 26,2 17.8
TUL OSCE. as oe Dak awk ahve mer fe 23.6) |— 19.0'| SL.0) |. $2.1 |..8070+—-21. 8 | 19.8 |. 34.6 | 29.5 30.7
South Dakota nu cies sa. cus 25.3 | 27.6] 22.0] 26.87 26.0] 21.6} 28.8] 34.8] 88.6 39.0
PIGEON ORO: eile cet otecen dtu S21!) / 22.0 | 26.0: 1-(30:7,| 80.0} 10.8 | 82.6] 88.4 | 27.4]° 37.4
WENCH is wtb wc emiec ue 4 35.8 | 47.0} 42.0] 40.6} 38.0] 389.0] 42.0] 41.9] 46.4 87.7
MOLE sc Scie coe Soctcc's Cacwn ets 41.0| 32.0] 35.0; 31.2; 30.0] 384.2] 41.0] 36.0] 29.4 30. 2
MOIOTAGO go. 62.4% hs cb ee 34.3 | 28.0] 34.0] 35.8) 27.0] 32.8] 33.8 | 26.8] 33.3 35. 4
BME MICO ac acicicles am cite det O99) | e2t. Ol ods Di) 38. & |) -24,0'| 80.1 1) 31.6] 19.1) 2256 19.6
ReMANO Sik ee UAE oe wa | pet oe | Robe nie |aoe we teaoetmas | Essa ia ices & 35.0 |. 81.7 | 85:5 30.1
MMR ARAR fa Peake. Sale Pied ci cieuwwe 33.8 | 38.0; 35.0] 39.7) 34.0] 35.9] 33.0] 385.5] 36.4 37.6
CI Ri ots Be os wher PA a nin ete AA ie al cd Pn eg hs cee a Sse do bac: < aoe 43.0 | 34.8] 28.6 37.0
PRTG eer. a9- baie wm belo viee Se 35.2 | 42.0] 36.3] 43.6] 34.0] 386.6] 388.3} 42.1] 41.5 39.3
WMA RINE LON fas ses cee oe canoe 3 40.3} 36.0] 48.0] 41.9] 37.0 | 34.4] 47.5] 46.2] 47.9 44.9
2S Mn Sere ere 28.8 | 21.0] 32.0 | 27.0; 30.0; 18.5] 31.5] 28.7] 33.8 23.1
WRIROLIIIG .. Haro atk e's a Keb has « 28.1] 31.0; 18.0] 33.0] 31.0] 24.6] 30.4] 380.5] 34.8 34.1
NINE EG Mes wih 8 Sink ew rhs ical Sf tanta ~'s Yams rude Veidw ona a |Uide aa ap [acres 20.7 | 47.8] 26.4 pA
Sy SREREGI, ord ops whee ne Sa cons af wesc wna ss ba]> can’ cb laedec ae 25.0 | 32.6] 30.0 32.2
General average ....... DOP eros Te leedeta” |i mtork ti SOs ore 20s6+ (1. 2b. o51.. 04.0 | 28.4 32.1

Average yield of oats in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1894-1908.

Year. eee Russia. none Austria. | Hungary.| France. Kingdom.
(2) (>) (>) () (5) (2) (4)
Sa ee eS oe aa cima 24.5 21.7 46.8 25.9 30.1 PA ep 43.7
| oe eee ees ee ee 29.6 19.9 43.2 26. 2 29.6 27.5 39.5
OGRE osc e on cto ee oe Ses 25.7 19.2 41.8 23.1 31.4 27.0 39.2
ere Era t es sco: .. 24 eens 27.2 15,7 39.9 21.5 24.3 23.1 40.1
Mees ie os haces wo eene aotee 28.4 16.5 47.1 27.3 30. 2 29.0 43.6
OO ee a 30. 2 23. 6 48.0 30.2 33. 3 27.8 41.8
POU Ie eee oe Sa Tee ee 29.6 19.5 48.0 25. 2 28.1 25:7 41.2
Sted Sich iis vn eh toes cae at 25. 8 14,0 44.5 25. 6 28.1 23.5 40.6
il (PAS eS Sean ae eee = Ae 34.5 21.8 50. 2 27.6 34.0 29. 2 45.9
PODS here ch te Bon we ee cat 28.4 Vis 51.3 28.4 34.4 31.6 44,2
Average 25 22.2is<e2%% 28.4 19.0 46.1 26.1 30.3 27. 42.0
a Winchester bushels. b Bushels of 32 pounds.

Average value per acre of oats in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
‘ 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

GRE: (a S| Sh eae wise) 73

MEGING? C8 05.0) Bouse POU es wank $13.63 |$12. 40 | $9.92 |$12.24 /$13.30 |$14.25 $17.50 |$17.55 |$17.77 | $16.47
New Hampshitet ~..52i2: <..; 12.92 | 18.30 | 13.30 | 12.54 | 13.65 | 12.39 | 15.34 | 15.40 | 14.93 15. 60
WEPMOQUGE <> ..c% Ieee a noe eS 14.37 | 12.56 | 10.56 | 18.30 | 13.69 | 12.56 | 16.50 | 17.20 | 16.81 16. 68
Massachtsetis 2%. 5.25 08. oun 12. 24 | 12.60 | 10.56 | 11.84 | 12.54 | 18.98 | 17.05 | 14.49 | 15.53 15. 30
Rhode: leland: F2....42525 ccs 12.64} 9.30} 10.88} 9.99} 9.62 | 11.74 | 15.88 | 15.57 | 12.65 11. 94
Connectlen’ . 226: vo cyeweuee 9.89 | 8.99} 9.86 | 10.15 | 10.36 | 10.85 | 15.50 | 14.14 | 14.04 14. 74
WOW VOEK.). coh s ce ee eke’ 8.88 | 8.58 | 8.37] 8.53 | 10.23] 8.93 | 10.37 | 14.40] 13.94 | 12.96
WCW JCINCY sa sep deck ones shy 10. 29 9.52 7.50 6.08 7.92 9.18 7.52 | 12.56 | 10.92 13. 00
PennsyIVAIG. sencvcs aoe sso ' 8.56] 7.43) 7.61] 6.99} 9.57] 9.33] 8.50 | 12.41 | 10.58 | 12.88
PICA WAT s ons p stv enone rie) 5.54 | 6.09) 5.06] 6.60] 5.00] 6.30] 8.33] 9.49] 8.88] 11.56
ES gh eee See eae 7.07 5.62 | 6.24] 5.65] 6.90| 7.44 beh) Oy 16-|. BFZA4 10. 69
WIRING 6 iin MiSiu swat eases on 5.31 | 4.81 | 38.48] 4.67] 4.62] 5.48] 6.26] 7.35] 5.93 9. 07

652 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of oats in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States—Continued.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902, | 1908, | 1904,
Worth Carolina .< =:+< & >. oe<s $5.74 | $4.20 | $4.81 | $5.29 | $4.92 | $6.26 | $7.34 | $6.48 | $5.93 | $8, 22
South Carolina............... 7.45 | 5.28] 6.98 | 7.74| 6.64] 7.44] 9.80] 7.73] 8.261 10,26
Georeia ees) i a ae 6. 67 4, 92 5. 88 7.97 4,32 7.35 9. 92 5. 88 7.48 8.14
Pd ag C2 SS ke ARO 6. 63 6. 36 4.77 8, 32 4. 50 5. 65 9, 43 8. 30 7.92 7.74
a ae a eae Sees 6, 26 5.74 5.59 6. 89 4, 30 6. 34 9, 28 6, 00 8. 58 8. 05
eT ARE, A RRR oA 6.12 6. 72 6.16 Po WG 5. 00 6, 44 9. 58 7.85 7.65 9, 98
T eNO se es ts wee 5.40 , 3.40 6. 84 6. 88 7, 20 7.20 8. 04 7. 60 7.31 8. 28
FINO otis eee ey oe 5.38.| 6.80] 6.75 | 8.82] 7.50|11.40]| 9.78 | 11.87 | 15.62] 14.08
DPROniGes hs. £o8e tee ee 8.138 4. 96 5. 61 6. 61 6. 46 Tat 7.01 8. 20 8.18 9.76
Loti.) GER RRSS ae Pee “pee! 6.08 | 4.29 2.80 5, 24 4.48 5. 81 7.87 7,27 7 7.80
Weat Virginia. ..2.. sccesaves- 7.49; 6.72] 6.00] 5.85] 8.05] 7.14] 8.041)11.78} 9.98} 11.62
En INONe. «ion concn ata~Snaee 6.81 | 5.04] 4.86] 6.05] 5.76] 6.60] 8.08! 7.99] 8.24 9, 60
17 Ca gee ee ee ee 6. 97 6, 27 6. 40 7,42 9. 00 9.88 | 12,28 | 13.15 | 11.02 13, 09
2 AES ee eee 5.50 | 6.70] 5.98 | 8.86] 9.52] 9.54] 11.89 18.17 | 10.98} 10.72
TUES A ee eee 4,58 4, 64 5.74 6.72 7.36 7.52 | 10, 87 9. 91 7.81 9. 93
PAULO RR et ae ee 4.15 4, 20 5. 76 6. 67 8. 36 8.74 | 11.28 | 10. 56 8.51 9, 60
WOR os Rata en vedanss =e 6.08 | 5.95 | 6.46] 8.66} 8.28] 7.86] 11.854 11.97 | 11.15 9. 80
MID NOAOEA: «ok aa eee sas 5.59 | 4.95] 4.94] 7.62] 7.04] 6.05] 10.91 | 10.63] 9.69] 10,19
LT Re ES | See 6.47 | 3.80] 4.80] 8.16] 6.27] 6.80|10.73| 7.67] 6.96 8.00
PB rind, Seek Fe oe ee a8 4.99} 3.06] 4.18] 8.91] 6.00] 6.380] 4.82] 9.10] 7.07 Fee
NT ES Be ee ee ee $:04 | 2.081 4.82 | 8.96) 6.88) 7.27) 8:00) 20,0be) 2a 5. 87
Nebraska: oe one Eo 8.83 | 2.09} 4.65] 6.42] 6.60] 5:28] 7.88] 8.66} 7.97 7.67
Sonth Dakote * 2 72.5. 2h 2.3 4.385} 3.58 | °38.96 |] 5.63] 5.98] 65.16| 9.79 | 10.09 | 11.19 9.75
North Dakotas. 22... ..<c2ve.:. 5.14} 3.96} 6.98} 7.98} 8.10] 8.80 | 10.76 | 10.87] 8,49 8,98
Montane 22m bs eo eee ted 15.75 | 14.57 | 18.86 | 14.21 | 14.82 | 16.38 |} 15.12 |} 15.08 | 16.24 | 17.84
WH ROMTOe ote ee 15.99 | 16.96 | 12.25 | 12.48 | 12.00 | 16.07 | 19.68 | 18.00 | 14.70 11.78
Colored. =. oe ee ose | 9.60 | 8.40 | 10.88 | 14.68 | 11.34 | 14.10 | 16.90 | 13.67 | 18.65 | 16.28
WoerrWez1e6 25. i os san nose | 17.96 | 10.80 | 14.56 | 15.91 | 10.56 | 14.45 | 18.96 | 12.99 | 14.01 | 11.17
PPTROUVD 8 io. A Soe chim ones blockers clocaee nls Soe claw e alae ee eee 21.00 | 23.78 | 21.65 | 22,27
J) Tee eee ee eh ore: 10.14 | 14.82 | 11.55 | 15.09 | 13.60 | 16.80 | 16.83 | 16.68 | 17.84 17. 67
CTY G0 ae ee ee ce Pe ce eee) Cm Oe A RS eo SE eee Ee ee 80.10 | 24.386 | 19.45 | 23.381
LG 1 eR eal rag tape © jin gem ~ ay -| 10.21 | 12.60 | 11.62 | 15.70 | 12.92 | 14.64 | 16.85 | 20.21 | 18.68 | 19.65
Wasbimeton . 5-5.) kes occcee 11. 28 | 14.40 | 16.80 | 16.76 | 14.06 | 138.76 | 16.63 | 22.64 | 18.20} 19.381
yn! (0) ) Se epee ee FRR 7.78 | 6.93 | 11.20 | 10.80 | 12.30 | 7.59 | 10.71 | 11.77 | 14.87 10.86
California...... ne Tee: 10. 96.| 13.64 | 8.82 | 16.50 | 14.57 | 11.82 | 18.88 | 15.55 | 18.79 | 19.44
OR TAD OWIE «. S «oo io wn cue hele ee eee aL eee Bat Sere, Cle oie ee ee eee 10.35 | 16.25} 8.98 7.63
Indian Territory on. 3.6.62 oa seere al cate aee ee. = ros oue eaae ae loa emer 11.50 | 12.06 | 10.50 | 12.24

General average ....... 5.87 | 4,81 | 5.75 | 7.23] 7.52 | 7.63 | 10.29 | 10.60} 9.68] 10.05

Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

-————— | ———q— ju“ | oe | “~]/ O_ | _____ *S C |

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
34 31 32 34 38 38 50 45 45

IM BTINO 35. aa canceea cus cee meee 45
New Hampshire ............- 85 |- 35 38 38 39 38 52 44 48 47
Wermont..2.5 ies-. .ceeee- 33 31 32 35 a7 36 50 43 44 44
Massachusetts 2.2.05: 2 2223.3 34 35 33 37 38 38 55 45 49 45
Rhode Island ....-.. RR EC RE 39 31 34 37 37 38 54 43 45 47
CONMSOWOUG .< 255525 .00 Utes. 31 31 34 36 37 35 54 41 45 44
Wow Vork.<. °c. cese. we 28 26 27 31 33 32 48 36 41 38
NOWUCIBOY i vn wun <6 slaains ees 29 28 30 31 33 31 47 39 43 40
PeNBSY! VAN 20256522525 eens 27 24 27 30 29 30 45 34 37 38
WEIR WIAIFC: oak dock caret. Se 29 21 23 30 25 30 45 42 40 41
VEU CTE 2 eee Sa ee 27 23 26 29 30 31 41 38 40 36
PAINS ROR Soha ok cee thee eek es 30 26 29 29 33 37 42 42 43 43
Worth Carolina... = o-. <<.. 23. 38 35 37 37 41 45 61 BE 62 52
Houth: Caroling..=..- 4. ccc sc20 49 48 45 45 47 48 62 59 59 60
OCG Sit SS a ees Aes 46 41 42 48 48 49 67 53 55 55
RU LOCSG coon ee re eee ee 65 53 53 54 50 50 72 61 60 60
Alabaster Ss. eee 42 41 43 41 43 44 64 55 54 54
Misses pphcce oe cos ~ Som eae 39 44 44 42 50 46 63 61 51 52
BOUWHIANG.{ 0.0 oo ten eee anes 36 34 388 38 40 40 60 50 46 45
Perna er CA Le Pte es eee 26 34 27 28 30 30 60 49 44

rien rinse ct <5. vs. 2s 2 A Oe 32 31 33 29 34 $5 57 41 44 43
OPH EHIGE Ws < .. SS2c 5S. wee wate 27 26 28 28 32 35 45 42 42 37
WV GHr vireo inia: 62.0 5554S 2 £24 32 28 30 30 35 34 43 41 46 44
CTO TS 55 5 oo adn nw Weacass 26 24 27 27 82 31 41 36 41 40
LTT ee Pe ae ep ae es ee 22 17 20 24 25 26 39 82 36 82
Miahigan..2< 12. as: bee 32k 23 19 28 27 28 26 41 83 36 33
yneltanais ses oo 2 oh ae eS 20 16 19 23 23 23 38 28 32 30
BiINOIS 6) = ok hc Oe SS Soe 17 15 18 23 22 23 40 28 32 30
BVTEOODEE fe | i. oko Ue. cee ek 18 17 19 24 23 23 39 30 34 28
Minnesota. 652.5... 80 82k 14 15 19 21 22 24 34 27 30 26
a ee es ee Te Ee Se 14 12 16 24 19 20 36 25 29 25

STATISTIOS OF OATS. 653

Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by
States—Continued.

States and Territories, 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901.

1902. | 1903. | 1904.

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents, | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
17 19 23 24 23 ‘ 28 3!

SOE SS Cre See 18 ; 32 | 34
MRAM aw atey donc wacniwomec tc 17 16 18 22 22 23 43 30 30 33
INGUPORMA:. « cick wcacedndsvepees iu 11 15 20 22 24 37 25 27 25
Boots warote.:. Scv.cisss ns 17 13 18 21 23 24 34 29 29 25
BOs EOLE oe o's orden Sow once 16 18 26 26 27 32 33 27 81 24
MLM... cata sak wosre se ae 44 81 33 35 389 42 36 36 85 46
PV GIGEM Mk os wa non bede sak mea 39 53 85 4) 40 47 48 50 50 39
OLOTOMO wii wigs orwat are Sow in eee 28 30 82 41 42 43 50 51 41 46
Sue ORICO’ 4S S50. on xy snare Se 45 40 41 41 44 48 60 68 62 57
RMSIEINS er hate seine Calc mubasdoa ced ods salt erURES Bebroolauat eel us fac cells wes wc « 60 75 61 74
DORR iG wicishan wk Oris te onan 30 39 33 38 40 44 51 47 49 47
OL NG sa SE ge eT ve gay AER EN FIRE sepa] KE | Ahmet yy. Meta Sl (EIR eo) os a (Bi Pl 70 70 68 63
US hea eee re 29 30 32 36 38 40 44 48 45 50
Re 9 es ee es 28 40 35 40 38 40 35 | 49 38 43
SRTORORT Rte Peis batt ce balteuss 27 33 35 40 41 41 34 41 44 47
RUITOTIIGT 6 o's 26 ot oe aac macien 39 44 49 50 47 46 44 | 51 54 57
RUNNIN PNRM Aimee csciae SEEN ee eat ee Phe ta eed ee lig wee a lina Se eikianlis ora oral adie Gere 50 34 34 36
NN ng CR STE ee ee ee Be Ee Ae) ee (eee ee 46 | 37 35 38

General average -...... E959 | AS. 8 (9-21. 2|- 20,0.) 24,9 | 2b;8.) 39.9) 30..7-| “84.1 31.3

Transportation rates, average for oats in sacks, in cents per 100 pounds, St. Louis to New
Orleans, by river.

BR aes oni ouasic eee Na LOO iliataa is een io in orale vale 2 Sia sas a onal UE UE as eS ie ei ONE or 10. 00
OMEN RSE Bere ers TWh Mite. atin darn nies oso AGT. | MOOU os nie aie oon a Ase os adie « 10. 00
Lin eee ee ee UY a ee oe ae eae Ge OSLO ets melita. <3 Sano 10. 00
Ci SEN Nese SA SRS Coe eee PELE TIM seks wousieckess hack bese Dnt RM enti Fahad bw om nie wa 10. 00
MGS else eae a ois stare te wes LOE Sie. ae Se Presa Oe ee JUL A ees ee oe ee 10. 00
BS Olea = anc ncn when gee as Pied ot ie Logb pasate aoe ce cece e o2'con'c Ue ee 10. 00
eR Se SP Ae Ms Os Se Onn chee tore ne oa NOR Se Me Los peer aceeea sense ws cece (a)

«No shipment.

AMERICAN OATMEAL IN CANADA.

Under date of Halifax, Nova Scotia, December 8, 1904, United States Consul-
General Holloway transmitted the following extract from the Halifax Maritime
Merchant:

Several carloads of United States oatmeal have lately been dumped on the Cana-
dian market. Unfortunately for the Canadian miller this can not under present
conditions be prevented, and has to be met by a reduction in the prices of the
domestic product. In the United States there has been a bumper oat crop, while in
Canada the crop has been quite small, so the American miller has been able to send
his oatmeal into the Canadian market and, after paying the duty of 64 cents, is able
to undersell the Canadian article by 25 cents a barrel. The market at present is
unsettled in consequence.

New CEREAL INDUSTRY IN CANADA.

Consul Worman, Three Rivers, Canada, reported on January 31, 1905, that French
and Italian parties contemplate manufacturing in Canada, on a large scale, all kinds
of pastry food, but particularly macaroni. As the present output of macaroni in the
United States consumes 3,000 barrels of flour daily, such a project should have the
attention of those engaged in the milling industry.

AGRICULTURE,

THE DEPARTMENT OF

YEARBOOK OF

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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRLOULTURE.

Monthly average prices of oats in Chicago.

[Cents per bushel.]

Month, 1893. | 1894. | 1895, 1896, | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902, | 1903. | 1904,
SATURTY cin ynsuneusaemeee 31 28: | 283 | 1823) 16% | 223 | 27 223 | 235 | 42 33} | 39
FeDruary .d.s<% cease andeeee 803 | 282 | 282 | 1948) 163 | 253 | 278 | 235 | 2448) 42 34} 4234
Mare ~ oi.c.eseacsasn ames 2948} 30),; 298 | 193 | 163 | 2543) 263 | 23% | 25§ | 425 | S32}8) 40%
BOY eon ant ceu bao tee cee ott 322 | 297,; 193 | 172 | 28%] 2648) 243 | 265 | 423 | 3398) 389
MO Sona ganas ne ena 80} | 344 | 299%| 1848) 17%] 29. | 255 | 225 | 29%) 453 | S539) 424
DUE Sev axn ns, oeabasceee 29% | 42 285; 165 | 18) | 233 | 253 | 24 275 | 433 | 39% | 41
PUES acuweneirdents vactcsees 264,| 38; 235 | 16% | 17%) 23% | 2276) 233 | 333) 43 39; | 41}
VIVRE Un a8 ct neoa ae raen 234 | 30¢-| 205 | 17% | 18) 21% | 205 | 21 35$ | 28 35}
Bentem ber <5 secwsesncandss 26,%;| 29%; 193 | 16 1948} 218] 223 | 2144) 35,4) 2634) 36 31 ys
on eee ee a oe 271 | 288 | 18: | 18%; 182 | 23; | 223) 22 36; | 28% | 365 | 295
NOVGIIDER ..ifnccaenssaess 283 | 292 | 183 | 18% | 205 | 26 233 | 22: | 40§ | 28§ | 355 | 30%
BE ee ee 28: | 298 | 17355) 17§ | 2275] 265 | 228 | 223 | 453 | 30§ | 36% i
Yearly average ..... 28: | 3813 | 2423 | 18y,/ 18: | 243 | 243 | 223] 32 37y5| 35}8) 37

«This table exhibits average cash prices for the
means between the lowest and highest prices for ea
of the monthly averages.

er. twelve years. The monthly prices are the
ch month, and the yearly prices are the averages

BARLEY.
Barley crop of countries named, 1900-1904.

Countries. 1900. 1901, 1902, 1903. 1904.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

Wnlénd Blabee. 5.2 osckccseseees 58, 926,000 | 109,933,000 | 134,954,000 | 131,861,000 | 139, 749, 000
Ontario oo eee 17, 443,000 | 17, 289, 000 25, 147, 000 25, 342, 000
Maminbe: occ: Coe. ee 3) 032) 000 6,742,000 | 12,229" 000 8, 982: 000 11,530, 000
RiGRt OF CAMBROIS « o. 5 veces snuncaes 3, 500, 000 4, 500, 000 5, 000, 000 , 000, 000 , 000,

Total Canada..........-.. 23,975,000 | 28,531, 00 39, 802,000 | 39, 129, 000 43, 872, 000
SE SR SR pe 10, 529, 000 7, 727, 000 6, 045, 000 9, 000, 000

Total North America..... 93, 430,000 | 146,191,000 | 180,801,000 | 179, 990, 000
Cirent Briteth.... ie 2s. ccs 64,278,000 | 63,033,000 | 68,590,000 | 61, 348, 000
roland. oe. oh ce Se 6, 485, 000 6, 808, 000 8, 273,000 6, 076, 000

Total United Kingdom...| 70,763,000 | 69,841,000 | 76,863,000 | 67, 424, 000
ae a a ORE 13,821,000 | 12,753,000 | 12,283,000 | 14, 653, 000
Danmark. .5:.. 1). ee 29’ 826,000 | 22/ 283/000 | 23,287,000 | 23, 340; 000
Netherlands.................... 4” 583, 000 3. 876, 000 ’ 652. 000 3, 823) 000
Belsiam ... oe ee 4. 754, 000 4. 650, 000 4) 974) 000 3) 923° 000
RVQUBO, occ oe ee ees 40, 847, 000 38, 857, 000 41, 948, 000 43, 345, 000 4
Camis s. 5. Sask eee 56,716,000 | 79,834,000 | 81,279,000 | 64, 359, 000
Traly<...= 0... oe eee "000; 000 ’ 000, 000 * 000, 000 8, 000, 000 |
Garmemy ..<. ccd die eek 137,889,000 | 152)537,000 | 142’ 392/000 | 152) 653; 000
TE Se thes ea a ewe! 61,480,000 | 67,091,000 | 78,788,000 | 73, 873, 000 |
enor y so 58, Lhccoaat et eee 58, 877, 000 50, 071, 000 62, 350, 000 64, 577, 000
Croatia-Slavonia ............... 2’ 902’ 000 3.051, 000 3, 259, 000 3, 839 000

Total Austria-Hungary...} 118,259,000 | 120,213,000 | 139,897,000 | 142, 289, 000
Reumatia oo. S. eo ee 14,618,000 | 24,222,000 | 24,586,000 | 29, 716, 000
Re aaa aes ©, Teas ere 10, 000, 000 , 500, 11, 000, 000 19, 000, 000
Russia proper........----.-..0-. 187, 230,000 | 189,435,000 | 274,899,000 | 289, 699, 000°
Poland s.. 3c. ab ie ee 18,415,000 | 20,640,000 | 22,185,000 | 20,819; 000
North Caucasus ................ 27°105,000 | 25,685,000 | 35,530,000 | 39; 980, 000

Total Russia in Europe...| 282,750,000 | 235,760,000 | 332,614,000 | 350, 498, 000

Total Europe............- 734, 826,000 | 782,326,000 | 901,275,000 | 923, 023, 000
Bibbs. 3. chad ee 2, 969, 000 2, 003, 000 2,628,000 | 4, 213, 000
Central Agia... 2 ee ee ee 1, 262, 000 2, 154, 000 3, 008, 000 2, 759, 000

Total Russia in Asia...... 4, 231, 000 4, 157, 000 5, 636, 000 6, 972, 000 6, 912, 000
Jae: 600k eee ee $2, 697,000 | 83,352,000 | 74,321,000 | 82,000,000 | 80, 000, 000

Total Asia............---- 86,928,000 | 87,509,000 | 79,957,000 | 88, 972, 000 86, 912, 000

——_
—

STATISTIOS OF BARLEY. 657

Barley crop of countries named, 1900-1904—Continued.

Countries. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

meee Ceti... eR 35,000,000 | 85,000,000 | 47,906,000 | 46, 000, 000 37, 106, 000
RN SRREC IY IES TA 4) 908; 000 3, 449, 000 3,201,000 | 11 322’ 000 14) 815, 000
Gane Oolotiy. 6o)0. 026.0222 ..00 800, 000 700, 000 800, 000 700, 000 800; 000
Total Africa.............. 40,708,000 | 9,149,000 | 51,907,000 | 58, 022, 000 52, 721, 000

West Australia ...............-. 58, 000 30, 000 37, 000 48, 000 ~ 55, 000
Re ur AURULALO® co. diane ecu nex 195, 000 218, 000 251, 000 327, 000 503, 000
MIMGGNMURNIG 62 ciacccedpiedn edie 122, 000 131, 000 286, 000 4, 000 527, 000
Mew POUL WS ..5 cl. vo ccgece 138, 000 117, 000 107, 000 19, 000 180, 000
CR hoe oa ee 1, 512; 000 1, 254; 000 716, 000 579, 000 1, 256, 000
SS a A 70, 000 70, 000 173, 000 103, 000 125, 000
PW EMCI NGG: co vuepennmcaee 1, 685, 000 1, 060, 000 883, 000 1, 172, 000 1, 197, 000
Total Australasia......... 3, 730, 000 2, 880, 000 2, 453, 000 2, 252, 000 3, 843, 000
Grand Total.............. 959, 622, 000 |1, 058, 055, 000 {1, 216, 393, 000 {1, 252, 259, 000 | 1, 167, 053, 000

Visible supply of barley in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.@

Month. 1895-1896. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1899-1900.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Deak nein Tabb cece is baw geees 166, 000 805, 000 1, 574, 000 587, 000 1, 059, 000
BME ED e(2) oR ae Ee ree ere 48, 000 771, 000 1, 051, 000 584, 000 694, 000
SIU Co ei ee 121, 000 790, 000 1, 578, 000 548, 000 1, 055, 000
MPISSTS DN emote a cia win a vie oS ae wine's 1, 956, 000 2, 292, 000 2, 630, 000 2, 125, 000 1, 739, 000
PMeHIe Pe. coon tees cutee Succue 3, 645, 000 6, 032, 000 4, 267, 000 3, 777, 000 3, 925, 000
LOSE Sr ne ae os eee 5, 674, 000 5, 500, 000 6, 318, 000 4, 406, 000 4, 695, 000
RANA seh cates Sisiw 6 atccine ate are 4, 017, 000 4, 501, 000 5,115, 000 4, 372, 000 3, 122, 000
LUPUS CH yy ee ee at 2,970, 000 4, 183, 000 3, 455, 000 4,017, 00U 2, 303, 000
‘TOD Pi ge ee See tee rar 2, 081, 000 4, 124, 000 2,571, 000 3, 067, 000 2,138, 000
[ao te ee ae eee ee 1, 298, 000 3, 514, 000 1, 492, 000 2, 626, 000 1, 712, 000
POMS sie Sot wae Oatvc 1, 253, 000 2, 816, 000 1, 159, 000 1, 913, 000 1, 720, 000
AAC eh Tht oa Sei nes eines 957, 000 1, 819, 000 815, 000 1, 555, 000 1, 267, 000

Month. 1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1903-1904. 1904-1905.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
AL EMOF SA 2 SRS eer me a SAR Aa See 1, 038, 000 528, 000 847, 000 602, 000 2, 046, 000
PMEMENGE ecco oe na cucens cieae 702, 000 335, 000 217, 000 471, 000 1, 656, 000
BOMeeMIDCr, -..\....5 22 dene one leeen 1, 158, 000 956, 000 419, 000 1, 024, 000 1, 694, 000
WIPED. Ste in Sos oe ete cwe Foe 2,779, 000 3, 610, 000 2, 460, 000 5, 047, 000 6, 551, 000
WOReUADeS! 2. os 5 2k Sab a oe os 5, 396, 000 4,813,000 |- 5,064,000 7,313, 000 9, 329, 000
LIP aS ls i re ea ee 6, 053, 000 5, 416, 000 5, 680, 000 7,975, 000 9, 620, 000
IMTS gs oc ee coc cin cence ee 5, 395, 000 4, 580, 000 4, 389, 000 6, 907, 000 10, 403, 000
MeRTURTY s . ooo. see ee aoe 4, 331, 000 5, 244, 000 3, 843, 000 6, 338, 000 8, 801, 000
POE toe 3155 hiwitos octets eteoew 3, 903, 000 5, 065, 000 3, 107, 000 5, 441, 000 6, 952, 000
PATI cana wok a. mca 9,e\= wR re 2, 879, 000 4, 075, 000 2, 426, 000 4, 975, 000 4, 674, 000
Ree et SAL oct ce ene ee 1, 761, 000 2,146, 000 1, 493, 000 Broo UG lore ee tie cece
Nabe: Wie, Sue! <2 a eee penn gel Seca 1, 351, 000 1, 836, 000 1, 133, 000 oy 108, QOOL) bss

aThese figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals as reported by
Bradstreet’s,

Condition of the barley crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1904.

Sep- Sep-

2 Au- Au

Year. June. ; July. gust aa Year June. | July gust rae
pS Ba eer oe 95.6} 91. 9° 390. Gr} SSS Same say ot ecco os 87.4] 88.5] 87.5 86.4
jin hg ee See ees aoe S 86.4; 88.8 | 82.8 | 78.6 ]) 1808..-.........:.... 78.8 | 85.7 | 79.3 79.2
Bic le a ea ne 90. 3 90.9 93.8 A Sc) a 91.4 92.0 93.6 86.7
Sa REE ee ae S2Z.1 | 02.0:) GEE BT Oi Pe eae a cease 86:2 | 76:3 |, 71.6 70.7
i ee ee $6.3 | 86.6 | S26) OS Wome too. wk. 98.8 | 91.3 | 86.9 85. 8
En EE CP $2:2.| 76:8 | 69.3 | 7icbonmooeee. tt. 93.6 | 93.7] 90.2 89.7
Mehdi aint Rute ote 90.3 91.9 87.2 Aa |i na 91.5 86.8 83.4 82.1
i Le es Ree oe 98:0 | 88.2) 82.9 | S83 th Oe eee ee 90.5] 88.5] 88.1 84.7

2 Aal904——42

65

8

YEARBOOK

OF

THE DEPARTMENT

OF

AGRICULTURE,

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1904,

AV-

Chicago cash price per

we erage bushel, No, 2,
CFase! Produc- Land Farm i May of
Year, | Acreage. | yield tion per value, December. | following
per , b Dee. 1. : spebhe:
ush- year,
acre, el, bark), Pee
Dec.1. Low. |High.| Low. |High.
Acres. | Bush.| Bushels. Cts. Dollars. Cis. | Cla. | Cle. | Cte.
1866.;<.. 492,532} 22.9) 11,283,807) 70.2 7,916, 342 59 70 85 100
1867.5... 1,131,217} 22.7| 25,727,000} 70.1) 18,027,746) 150 | 180} 227] 260
1868..... 937,498} 24.4] 22,896,100) 109.0) 24,948,127) 140] 170] 149] 176
1869..... 1, 025, 795} 27.9) 28,652,200) 70.8) 20,298,164) 74 85 50 62
1870..... 1,108,924} 23.7] 26,295,400) 79.1) 20,792,213) 68 80 72 95
td ee 1,113,735} 24.0} 26,718,500} 75.8} 20,264,015) 553) 64 55 71
i ee 1,397,082} 19.2} 26,846,400) 68.6) 18,415,839) 60 70 71 85
1878... 5. 1,387,106} 23.1) 32,044,491) 86.7) 27,794,229) 132} 158} 180); 155
Sly, ROS 1, 580, 626] 20.6} 32,552,500} 86.0) 27,997,824; 120] 1293] 115) 1387
1875... 1,789, 902) 20.6} 36,908,600; 74.1) 27,367,522) 81 8&8 623] » 724
1896.25: 1,766,511} 21.9) 38,710,500} 63.0; 24,402,691) 633) 68%) 80 85
1977-2 -< 1,614, 654) 21.3} 34,441,400} 62.8} 21,629,130) 563) 64 463} 524
1878....;. 1,790,400} 23.6} 42,245,630) 57.9) 24,454,301; 91] 100 64 73
1700 3<%; 1, 680,700} 24.0} 40,283,100) 58.9} 28,714,444) 86 92 75 80
1880..... 1, 843, 329] 24.5) 45,165,346) 66.6) 30,090,742) 100 | 120 95 | 105
Fc ieategegd 1, 967,510} 20.9} 41,161,330} 82.3] 33,862,513} 101} 107] 100) 100
1882350 2,272,103) 21.5} 48,953,926) 62.9) 30,768,015) 79 82 80 80
1883...--; 2,379,009) 21.1) 50,136,097} 58.7} 29,420,423) 62 67 65 74
1884..... 2,608, 818} 23.5) 61,203,000) 48.7) 29,779,170) 53 58 65 65
FS8B ee was 2,729,359) 21.4) 58,360,000) 56.3, 32,867,696) 62 65 58 60
S86 = Sa 2,652,957, 22.4) 59,428,000) 53.6) 31,840,510) 61 54 57 57
3887... 20. 2,901,953) 19.6) 56,812,000) 51.9) 29,464,390) 80 80 69 77
1888... - ;. 2,.906:982) 21.8). 63884-0000) 80.00 37672, 082). 26. cwccalewemeclasames
1889..... 3, 220, 834) 24.3) 78,332,976) 41.6) 32,614,271) 58 DSL pees | eee ee
1890..... $,195,502| 21.41 67, 168, 844) 60.7) “483M; B00). 25.) ce eae loseeee
nt eae 8,852,579) 25.9] 86,889, 158] 52.4) 46,470; 840) 6 osc laciectel a rvene
1 a 8,400, 361) 23.6} 80,096,762) 47.5) 38,026,062) 65 67 65 65
1899... 3, 220,371] 21.7] 69,869,495} 41.1) 28,729,386) 52 54 55 60
1894..... 3,170, 602} 19.4} 61,400,465) 44.2) 27,134,127) 533) 55 51 52
to! Se 3, 299,973] 26.4) 87,072,744) 33.7) 29,312,418) 33 40 25 36
1896. 2... 2, 950, 589] 23.6} 69,695, 223} 32.3) 22,491,241) a22 37 | 4243) 35
Voy eae 2,719,116) 24.5} 66,685,127) 37.7) 25,142,189) @253) 42) 36 53
1898..... 2,583,125) 21.6} 55,792,257) 41.3} 23,064,359) 440 503) @36 42
1809 2,878,229) 25.5} 73,381,563) 40.3) 29,594,254) a35 45 | 236 44
T9O0. ccs: 2,894, 282} 20.4) 58,925, 833) 40.8) 24,075,271) @37 61 | 437 57
10D os. 4,295, 744) 25.6} 109,932,924) 45.2) 49,705,163) 256 63 | @64 72
i 7 oe 4, 661, 063) 29.0) 134,954,023) 45.9) 61,898,634) @36 70 | a65 62
1008. see 4,993, 1387} 26.4) 131,861,391) 45.6) 60,166,313) @42 623} 38 59
1904. /05.5 5,145, 878} 27.2) 139,748,958) 42.0} 58,651,807) 38 52

—

a Chicago prices from 1895 are for No. 3 grade.

Domestic

years
beginning
July 1.

Bushels.

Se
Ss

BN

BESSSRSESSSNS:
PSSsSsease

SeaVes
fz)
—
oa

oo
ind
~I
&

050; 687
724) 955| 8, 596, 122
629, 130) 9, 986, 507
252 183/10, 197,115

1, 305, 300/10, 855; 594
550, 884/10, 831, 461

1, 440, 321/11; 368, 414

1, 408, 311/11; 332) 545
973, 062! 5; 078, 738

2, 800, 075 3) 146, 328

3, 035, 267| 1,970, 129

5, 219) 405 ’ 061

1, 563, 754| 2, 116, 816

7,680, 331| | 837,384

w
_
Ree
~J
oo
oa
=
SCHrENMNOOON SS Oh Orc

oe ae = ew. Se

bo
5
3

20, 030, 301) 1, 271) 787
11, 237,077} | 124) 804
2; 267; 403} 110,475
23) 661, 662| 189,757
6,293,207, 171,004
8,714,268] 57,406
8. 429'141| 56, 462

10, 881, 627 90, 708

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in barley, 5,145,878 acres, was
reported in 1904; the greatest production, 139,748,958 bushels, in the same year; the
greatest farm value on December 1, $61,898,634, in 1902; the greatest average yield
per acre, 29 bushels in 1902; the greatest average farm price per bushel, $1.09, in
1868. For the five years, 1900-1904, the average area was 4,398,021 acres; the average
production, 115,084,626 bushels; the average farm value on December 1, $50,899,438;
the average yield per acre, 26.2 bushels; the average farm price per bushel on

December 1, 44.

2 cents.

Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1904, by States.

States and Territories.

New Hampshire
Vermont

Maryland
Virginia
Texas
Tennessee
Kentucky.

Pennsylvania......

Acreage.

spehe k

yie .

per Production.

acre,

Bushels. Bushels.
32.7 271, 933
20.7 32, 810
33.1 437, 019
26.8 2,614, 554
22.6 , 620
21.8 31, 632
24.7 63, 602
31.0 161, 448
22.0 27,170
20. 6 17, 325

Average | Average
value per} Farm value,

farm
price,
Dec. 1.

Cents.
71

acre, Dec. 1.

Dec. 1.

Dollars. Dollars.
23.22 193, 072
15. 53 24,

21. 85 288, 433
15. 28 1, 490, 296
12. 66 114, 587
13. 95 20, 244
15. 07 38, 797
22.63 117, 857
14. 08 17, 389

13.39 11,261

a

STATISTIOS

OF BARLEY.

659

Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1904, by States—Cont’ d.

Bh e

yie > '

per Production,

acre,
Bushels. Bushels.

27.56 786, 472
24.1 868, 082
29,2 296, 059
ak: 640, 129
80. 0 14, 941, 290
28. 4 82, 128, 041
27.8 18, 552, 945
20.3 39, 159
21.6 3, 238, 488
27.4 1, 878, 407
28.0 9, 787, 624
28.1 17, 518, 074
29.9 523, 310
80.1 36, 872
87,1 715, 844
23.6 16, 378
33.6 500, 405
88.3 317,775
35.9 252, 126
37.4 1, 707, 310
34.8 5, 824, 198
28.7 1, 753, 111
2257 28,091, 999
30.1 477,747
27.2 | 189,748, 958

States and Territories. Acreage. |
Acres. }

WME: 2 ob rs eC if ccssab ccaken 28, 599
bhi bc Ca Se eee ee as a 36, 020
Cot VS ee oe eee ae 10, 189
RETIRE aaa sen kd 2s bw te ans 23, 621
MP IMCOUSIT Ah See ec kw du ade 498, 043
PE REIGROUE osu S dkex vast. desis. 1, 131, 093
SER cam c abr te wk aw wce alas 487, 516
i eh Ye ae ee 1, 929
PROG tect iets cred wea cite ie 149, 930
[1 a es 68, 555
BGG DAKOLR. «ces cc ce wee cies 849, 558
PRU ROUL So. ccc seccdeus 628, 419
PROMI iaaneu. ocsdeUowies os 17, 502
kyo be tl: a ee eee ee 1, 225
LC LOE Cri: 2 | ae ea a eg 19, 295
INOW GRACO: cS sac occ’ dais vies we 694
OMA WR dic code Kas se een ew cas 14, 893
LOLOL ep a ere 8, 297
RRREMBNL OD Eo ieee id usa agua nae 7, 023
PME SCELD ASk ckSece toca uae 45, 650
Wy PEMD LOG: .\. oie... skishns 167, 362
LES eee 61, 084
MOGNIIIie occ teccas hele eek 1, 237, 533
IR IBNOMB 6 hone ae cued. bao ede 15, 872
United States .......... 5, 145, 878

Average | Average

farm |value per} Farm value,
rice, acre, Dec, 1.
ec. 1, Dec. 1.
Cents. Dollars. Dollars.
52 14. 30 408, 965
55 13. 25 477, 445
48 14, 02 142, 108
43 11. 65 275, 256
43 12. 90 6, 424, 755
32 9, 09 10, 279, 373
36 10. 01 4, 879, 060
62 12. 59 24,279
37 7.99 1,198, 241
31 8. 49 582, 306
32 8. 96 8, 132, 040
28 7. 87 4, 905, 061
62 18. 54 324, 452
57 17.16 21,017
57 21.15 408, 031
90 21. 24 14,740
93 31. 25 465, 377
57 21. 83 181, 132
72 25. 85 181, 531
63 23. 56 1, 075, 605
49 17, 05 2, 853, 857
59 16. 93 1, 034, 335
60 13. 62 16, 855, 199
40 12. 04 191, 099
42.0 11. 40 58, 651, 807

Average yield per acre of barley in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories.

1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908.

ee eg er es ed ee as ees

es es ee ed es es

ee ee es es

CO SSOSSSEHEHSKSOCEKE ale evr seaeBlLAceeae Slat eee ealwmowduaus cleodepeseleuceacac

—_—_"—-—- OOO OO | | | | SS EE,

Bush
WI Seek tote kid ate de 82.4
New Hampshire ............. 25.6
WIGLEIGHE Se 5s. ose 4. 0e ee. 83:2
Massachusetta . G23. 3.50.85. 235
Mnode Tela » seek ess 23.5
NOW OMe asta dhe 2259
BANGER VANS... se. 2-.--30-2~= 20.2
Maryland
Virginia
meee =< ee St oe Soe 21.6
IED CROCS 2s | hes ae See a tea pt tala B
MPETOUCK ion fos: ict ee eee 83.3
CLOSY Cy Seg 2 ie QRS: a IE i aie 28.2
MICHISAD.s fest Joo. Peaks. 1834
MIG oo... cok ont oaeeeee 15.0
HUNTIMS > JCC oe... Soe Ok eee 20.0
MERRGONAII. Soo. ts SL ees 29.3
NERA Les oo. Ie OSS 36.0
fi. See | ee ee eee eee 28.0
MEARS. ces oc eed: 15.3
LES CIO T IS Ny eR ee ea, ce SRE Re Be 14.4
Nebraskar ol2 5 eel. 28.4
SOE DAO... --e se 2. 20-0e 19.5
North Dakota .ostercccwe.us 30. 4
MPOnIATA SS aoe tee oat 25.0
Wyoming
OOlIOTRQG....0.-2. nese + eee $1.3
New MeCXICO >. J5505- hoe snes 28.0
Arizona
REA pe Ss, He wwe in emit 30.0
Nevada
QIN 3 a6 ose ce en ere 24.5
WOSHIRPUON . ones es oeens eee 37.3
OREIOU Ss swan nace neg eine saw 7 ae
COIMOTIIE: Secu eet eae wee 20.3
Oklahoma
General average ....... 26.4

Bush. | Bush
20 52950
2325 | 25.0
30.0] 31.0
24,6: 1 8050
28.0 | 29.0
2bs2"| 24:50
19.4] 21.0
20.0} 18.0
1820) |, 2120
16.0] 21.0
283/74) -28.0
25.2} 24.0
age | P2on0
ATA SA BN
29.1 30.0
28.4 | 25.0
26.0 | 26.0
20.0] 18.0
28.0 | 17.0
OTSA |) *26:0
23/001: .23:.0
26.4 | 24.0
3630 | 35.0
30.5} 28.0
33.8 | 382.0
37.0.1 38.0
35.0} 35.0
39.8 | 35.0
29.1 |. 28.0
10.5 | 26.0
2h Gh 25. 5

1904.
Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush.) Bush.

Dio). 27..be)- 20.4). -29.9 32.7
DO AN Qs 22 > -1958 20.7
Dost |. 2946s) > 29)-7. 1.29.2 a3. 1
a a eee 6 (Rs od ee G8 a tae
SRO satis ene alee eek | No. See eee
92701 \> -14,.0:). -28..5°4- -2636 26.8
POO Lis2elv eee O || 28 22.6
1830: 2720) |. 25-9 21.8

24.9) 18.3] 24.4 24.7

24.6 |-.13.5.\. 21.38) 24,4 31.0
Mee Nip dGasr) <l6..00) 2056 22.0
D8aGle lO4ul 26,90 |- 204 20.6
DiOhie ee Ohe ee. | oases 2d
2a79 |x s2208"|--26.6.) 2522 24.1
D456 -|\..2954-|| = 28:0) |)..2238 29.2
2b Gulia 2a Dulla oo. 6 |. 28:2 27.1
OAD hee ei ae Were eeade tT 30.0
225431125: 82h Z8s6i|> 2553 28.4
26:4 | :23,6:) 26-3.) -23;4 27.8
2058" |. 16.5.) 25..0.4:. 1823 20.3
SOF eLSS9) ly, G05 8159 21.6
ACG. torn i oth ik 26.6 27.4
Wa 22,46 209). St 28.0
Be] 2852) 31.6.1), 21.6 28.1
Barc |>-89,.0:) 870! |) 40:2 29.9
A | ee’: Set (A a 30.1

2206 | 28:7 | 26.0 | Sees Sit
29, 0") Sis7 (1 ig (apd Pt | 23.6
OBE eso. || > 82-8 33.6

36.8.1. 36:0.) 32.1 |). 87.6 38.3
Bo.0 | S408 | S46 35.9

32,8:| 40.2: 46.8 | 84.4 37.4
So04 | 43.5.) 4807 | 87.9 34.8
25:9 1) <ou.6 | 31.9: 83:2 28.7
G57 1) 26.0): 2620 1} “25.7 yd
22.0} 36.0] 26.9 30.1

20.4 | 625.6 | 29:0 | 26.4 po Re

660 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield of barley in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1894-1908,

ite | | |
Year. aited Russia | nae Austria, | Hungary. | France. Bt pme y
a 5 SS a eres, ee ae a ea
(a) (b) (b) (b) (oe) | (a) (a)
BOOS - onc vcaun seen vckeaeeuess 19.4 15.3 33.0 22.3 22.7 22.0 35.9
TBD os eck be a aS edad ease 26.4 13.7 31.2 20.9 21.4 21.9 33.1
BOG. ee os oe cg de ee sue 23.6 12.8 30.7 19.3 24.0 21.8 35. 2
We dwa tee nk vane dducsniee eee 24.5 11.8 29.0 17.6 17.6 19.4 33.9
NO eee on a'ns dalekeeeseane 21.6 14.9 32.2 22.0 23.6 23.3 37.4
LE eee tae 8 ele 25. 5 nS ap 33.8 24.9 24.0 7 35.7
Ra Ses atlas su aconire 20.4 11.4 33.4 20. 2 20.9 21.8 82.7
1 5 eae = Rae pane 2 ie SSSR I 25.6 as 33.3 22.5 20.0 a4 32.7
SN re en an aed eee wine 29.0 15.6 85.1 24.5 24.7 24.5 36.9
TO ee on my teen emcees 26. 4 15.5 36, 2 24.7 24.9 25. 2 83.4
AVOTORS o.com canvacckes 24.2 18.3 32.8 21.9 22.4 | 22.4 34.7
a Winchester bushels, b Bushels of 48 pounds.

Average value per acre of barley in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,

1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
MGI Gatun ceacetncat-ccceunes $16.85 |$12.16 [$13.75 |$15.12 |$17.11 |$16. 99 |$18. 43 [$19.99 |$21.23 | $23. 22
New Hampshire ............. 14.34 | 15.53 | 18.50 | 18.63 | 16.25 | 16.21 | 17.20 | 15.90 | 16.63 | 15.53
Vermanies o2 5.04060 eo. es ee oe 15.60 | 18.53 | 18.11 | 14.10 | 16.12 | 18.13 | 19.54 | 18.12 | 17.52 | 21.85
Mansaobnsetts .. <a. sieteens 14.63 | 17.40 | 22.77 | 16.17 | 20.40 | 17.80 |... ..<)...<c.cleceeeeee
Rnede Tsland cos cecensansa ss 17.68 | 17.40 | 15,122 | 17,08. | 20.30. | 21.66 |... 2. .].0.05 only ae ee
Wiew Y ORR gas ee eee 18.55 | 9.05 | 10.50 | 12.10 | 12.00 | 11.22] 7.84] 15.68 | 14.63 | 15.28
Pennsyl vanie co son. eee ens 8.28 | 6.88 | 9.55] 8.54 | 10.29] 9.50] 10.15 | 11.34] 11.98} 12.66
MAPVION Onis sc vec.nlsscuk a closes ould stolen cme ee Roe a eee 9.36 | 18.23 | 12.95 | 138.95
Ware, ise oibin Bein k wens He web pen oe lainan Rouse ko a eee lanes oe aaa ae 11.70 | 9.88 | 18.91 | 15.07
ORE 1. nee ca arats «exces 11.66 | 6.00 | 10.75 | 10.00 | 11.88 | 17.71 | 11.88 | 15.384 | 17.08 | 22.638
PERMNOGRDG ea) oe ect oe as 11.55 | 6.380 | 10.62 | 10.08} 7.04} 9.11] 11.76] 9.76 |-13.89 | 14.08
Weep rnOry ts ase cs wes seene 12.65 | 5.92] 8.00] 6.40] 9.03 | 16.73 | 18.77 | 14.50 | 18.48 | 13.39
Ole: Foes o. $5057 8 11.56 | 7.68 | 11.69 | 12.63 | 12.60 | 11.61 | 12.70 | 15.83 | 11.65 | 14.380
Mienioans. oo. so ax cnmoes 7.78 | 9.87 | 8.60 | 11.09 | 11.52 | 11.28 | 12.81 | 14.87] 18.10 | Deige
BOMANO os « coe ae 6.00 |} 6.70] 8.386 | 10.30 | 11.25 | 11.56 | 12.95 | 12.88 | 11.40] 14.02
TH MOIs sen. 2. PSs. ances 9.00 | 7.35} 9.50 | 10.65 | 18.63 | 12.08 | 12.99 | 12.58 | 12.41 | 11.65
NRISGOTI ST 2. ts. Sus peices 9.96 | 7.40} 8.96 | 11.64 | 12.00 | 11.22 | 18.87 | 15.55 | 18.30 | 12.90
Minnesota, occ. o'sss 5 Seen se 8.64 | 5.44] 6.12] 9.87] 7.75 | 8.51 | 11.61 |] 10.58 | 9.86 9. 09
Tawa 2.0: ote ee ae 6.44 | 5.52] 5.76] 8.84] 8.06] 9.77 |}11.09] 9.47} 842] 10.01
Missouri 2.22 Soest ~ ie ee ee 7.84 | 4.388] 7.60] 7.20] 7.56] 9.86] 9.08] 18.75 | 9.88] 12.59
SS ee eee a a ee 8.81 |. 1.01 | 4.88.) 7.56) 4,69). 7.10 | 7.15.1 6.08) ee 7.99
NMobraskar. st: - 5.6 2. ce eers 6.82 | 3.78 | 5.28 | 6.78 | 7.80} 65.81] 6.56} 10.26 | 8.78 8.49
South Dakota... ssc. 00 codes 8.71 5.42 | 4.40] 6.21 6. 67 4.43 9.41 | 11.10 | 10.36 8. 96
Warth Dakota. ---2< .-- a4. 6208 | $8.88 | 6.07] °7.66 | 7:92 1 2/87 | 11-98) 12.38) 7.87
Montans +. <<. 38.20.44 es 14.75 | 18.75 | 19.00 | 20.52 | 17.85 | 18.62 | 22.23 | 18.87 | 23.382 | 18.54
Wrongs: 252055 a3. Ratsee eee bce ie oe ee Sie eee ee eee 21.12 ' 18.30 | 15.34! 17.16
Colorado.d. 2k. ee eee 18.78 | 9.20 | 14.28 | 14.08.) 15.40 | 12.40 | 18.08 | 15.78 | 23.86} 21.15
New Mexioo:. 0:36 b08s. o.28-- 19.04 | 12.35 | 17.88 | 18.59 | 19.52 | 17.98 | 20.61 | 11.43 | 14.78 | 21.24
Arizona: 6 202 sate | Ee kee Si Ser aa ee Dee Lee er ee eee eee ee 19. 52 | 22.98 | 28.62 | 31.25
Way Se, Biers ek oes ein es 11.70 | 11.38 | 18.95 | 17.39 | 17.16 | 20.07 | 18.55 | 18.94 | 22.138 | 21.88
Newadao.c6. oh eo ess hehe Be Pesce Be, ee oe ee Se ee 23.10 | 27.44 | 29.41 | 25.85
10 SO eS ee ae ee 10.29 | 8.387 | 14.70 | 16.80 | 16.10 | 16.40 | 21.31 | 24.54 | 17.89 | 23.56
Washington. t2s..2. 3. ase. 14.17 | 10.40 | 19.85 | 17.91 | 15.40 | 18.08 | 17.83 | 20.10 | 18.95 | 17.06
Canon te. ec JS it as oe 8.84] 9.81 | 14.63 | 14.26 | 14.00 | 12.14 | 14.99 | 16.59 | 19.59 | 16.93
OColerornia. #4. 3). ee 8) 8.12 | 10.87 | 12.42 | 6.82} 18.00] 7.18 | 10.66 | 16.38 | 15.68 | 13.62
ORIBNOMA. 3. wa win cla sale Ss Casale Oude a ole cmee ig be eens Lie eee eee ae aes 10.78 | 15.12 | 11.84} 12.04

General average .....-.- 8.88 | 7.62] 9.25 | 8.98] 10.28| 8.32 | 11.57 | 13.28 | 12.05

11. 40

STATISTICS OF BARLEY. 661

Average farm price of barley per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 19038. | 1904.

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. ask Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
ae « 55 wR ‘« 4 > Lod Lod

1 ES ON ee ee oe Seer 52 43 59 62 67 68 71 71
New Hampshire.............. 56 53 60 58 65 67 80 75 84 75
PUESEOING a cada wc pun cewieael wie s 47 41 46 47 52 52 66 61 60 66
TOT er 65 58 66 66 68 i SE ais (PS See a ee ee
MbOGe THANG... ike enue vii) 60 54 61 70 f(A ee eee) ee oe co ree
PROWL OFiien «ccc ci soe. awake 81 89 42 48 |. 60 51 56 55 55 57
PSNNAY] VADIO.<.ccenswsnes dene 41 40 39 44 49 50 59 54 56 56
RUPMRR AMUN Sis ins ste ce cele Mates lathes Se Me LEE oo salle care MEISE sc octal oc sé0'cle 52 49 50 64
es sen uctie s acs Seka hh es Se ANS eS peated SeAbp oe él ¢ cys ox 0 47 54 57 61
(OD Ee eee, eee 54 50 43 50 66 72 88 72 70 7
MIA TIOROOS 6 oo wt CGne x tras Mos 50 45 59 56 64 62 70 61 65 64
BOIS, 5 cnn a cae ow ketene 38 40 40 40 43 55 eft! 56 63 65
RR RGN. cok Sw aa ak eee 41 38 41 44 45 43 51 49 50 52
RURRMUIDUNI ST. Soucc cme x cect ewe 43 42 40 44 48 47 54 52 52 55
PEPUONNO S85 ans, So Ss te ean 40 83 44 44 45 47 51 46 50 48
PRUAGIB Siow oe hate ec aes 45 31 38 39 47 47 53 44 44 43
A ices eS 2 ee eee 84 27 32 40 40 44 51 46 48 43
TSCROOR oos.cotacaoue aves es 24 20 24 33 31 38 45 37 37 32
RIN Oi ate eee o N as at Phat 23 21 24 34 31 37 47 36 36 36
REMAOITT dats sac Hees ste 48 25 40 36 42 45 55 55 54 62
LO STE Oa cae eS, al 23 22 25 27 27 33 45 38 34 37
WO TASH coe vos cae. o <beeks 24 19 24 25 30 33 41 33 33 31
Meth Darotm. .. co... ..0 Joke 19 19 22 27 29 31 42 38 33 32
aria DMKOUR: 25 .57..-...6< 20 21 27 29 33 35 40 36 36 28
MOTO o.oo. oe a ees 59 55 50 57 51 48 52 51 58 62
a arc BN lr RTS 6 a NG CE aa eid oy NS Gmbh IWn d's dl Sida 65 75 72 57
GEMM 2 ck i a 60 46) 61 > 461. 66 | 9 ee aa 9 ee 1 57
NEW IM@RIGO ss 5. 35./0..5 bos). 68 65 55 55 61 62 65 71 64 90
I rs rk as Se eed et Nes ck Shoes 5 |i le Rosca 68 91 72 93
We Be os 39 42 45 47 52 | 55 53 59 59 57
IAT UD AE Keo Oy Seas ip RR SMR Ree Elf Seo Re a IS eee (a eet (ee es eee 70 80 85 72
UE ee ne ae 42 22 42 48 46 50 53 53 52 63
jf ES ees 38 40 43 45 44 39 41 46 50 49
ELSE ODS RS ee eee 2a 40 45 45 49 50 42 49 52 59 59
RSS O RT Bog a a een 40 48 54 65 50 43 41 63 61 60
RRM TSR es teh oh <, SP a pe | eRe ards Al ascot oe Haheete ates Jeceseee 49 42 44 40
General average ....... oo. 7 | $2.3}. 37.7 |. 41.8 | 40.3.) 40.8} 45.2 | 45.9 | 45. 6 42.0

Transportation rates, average for barley in sacks, in cents per 100 pounds, St. Louis to
New Orleans, by river.

cS ae lp REP i ae) a = a Ne Sh ee ie Oe a a 10. 00
i a eae Ra eet aOR Pe = oa ee eos | TR 2 ORC a a 10. 00
eh eck I Ps RR Ai Ee Rae ral ae i es ee ee. 10. 00
"at ee RS ORS i OE eae Boks | tered ale Soeer soot eee ce 10. 00
oa ES ae fn |Ot8O ce ees Sat ETS ee eg ea 10.00
Se i TS bee i ae 08) 1806. Se ee ee USS Ca en 10. 00
oS ae ee p.08:|- 18972 5 ees hose hE, 2 aot trey hahaa (a)

a No shipment.

Wholesale prices of barley per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. San Francisco.
eee Extra No. 3 a No.1, brewing
Date. Western. spring. No. 3. (per ewt.).
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1900. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. /
SURREY et hots sok nk ee A 14 tee 49 50 443 49 34 48 | $0.723| $0.75
MLURLY acccm asec ous een tees mas 50 51 47 49 34 46 723 .79
{OSS Oe ee pegs ere, yee eae eS 52 50 47 49 36 44 722 . 733
RSD cits, sh oaaents Patan patter eee oe 62 523 47 49 36 45 . 723 724
TG sent lO etic deco echt Rhee 52 52 47 49 36 44 673} . 72k
Bs ea eee ee. Sa eel ee 51 C5) ee | 36 48 672 .70
JOG cs oon» 2 van ok cas va 54 ee ee 36 48 70 bw 55a
RGSTIBGS ON oR nas cemcubhe> «amen ae 52 TS ie SOS) ee re 33 50 723) . 724
BEDLOMI DEE obras dann nenanocanh ae 54 58 46 55 38 57 724) . 724
OGtODEL: J, sc.0 ace aks a8 a Maa 60 62 56 64 36 59 713) 72%
INOVCIGICY. sf ccinduk alae ements det 62 65 56 66 36 62 722) .75
December... cokwerwews ease Tate aas 64 66 58 66 37 61 723) 7d

662 YEARBOOK OF

Wholesale prices of barley per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904—Conv d,

THE DEPARTMENT

OF AGRIOULTURE,

New York. Cincinnati. Chicago, San Francisco,
= Extra No, 3 No.1 brewing )
Date. Western. spring. No, 3. (per ewt.) .
, wk See |
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. |
q
1901. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. |
SR UNIT evo. o va Sowa ceeeei ae dandes 65 68 62 70 36 63 | $0.75 | $0.80
SN ee ae eee ie 65 70 62 70 37 61 . 734 81 |
WON 5 255.35 3s tess sw eter. Dewees 59 65 62 66 37 59 . 75 . 82
BO So Soc es vaetacueoh ies sweunedudes 61 63 60 66 38 58 . 783 . 85 ‘
MNP ohio. sduehests cher s=asaanean 63 63 60 64 37 57 774) oh ae
WING i cnceiwnc eda Phase sesh pes nun fednus la Gedus cel dawe gaps 59 62 40 54 75 80 j
|e Saas 8 SRE aes 2 SS 2 57 bl CS See 40 65 7H) 824
FO ak SE ee oe Po ee 64 67 58 60 48 65 . 80 . 83}
BTORIDOE. 64 Sadiacesunees venek tense 65 67 65 67 50 62 . 80 . 825
OBUNDOR AS. das en ns ceon ewes goatee 60 68 62 67 61 60 . 774 824
WOvem DOP; ..v- fo. .ss overs - sds se esse 62 69 62 66 51 63 763 . 825 .
DecemDar =... estes cc hoes vdewe laws 70 72 68 69 56 63 783 .85 |
1902. :
JRDUBES Sh. os i ce cies vice ob ween ages ss 72 75 67 70 57 654 . 80 . 95
Wobrwary s «2. ss. s och Shc he eos 73 73 67 69 58 64 90] 1.02,
Marah: © jens -panddeess yeas msm eases 73 74 67 70 58 67 .923} 1.024
yt, | ee eee eee a Se ae 73 74 68 74 61 70 .933} 1. 024
WAG oie ess wae sae PS eeoeee ey 7 75 67 69 64 72 . 95 1. 073
DOIG oo da iincis tote enc Hote kn te ee deeds eer areal een wee 67 69 64 71 -923| 1.012
PING oc cided oc ode Soo dws buttons hates xcle de scuctpive vacirdlets eames sheets 48 73 . 923; 1.00
FO ES URE eee ee 71 DGS Ud xe a ex de ae 41 65 . 933] - 1.012
Sere 6 2c coda dec eee es 65 71 55 65 38 63 963) 1,16
ONG Pin. one Boa nkteoe «nse een 64 66 55 65 35 60 1, 128) ° si3g8
MOVeM DOF i< . 25. 5.51 ek wants 66 66 55 65 35 58 1.183} 1.30 ,
PROGONU NE ee. = a aaisn's'x big none raatas 68 68 55 65 36 70 1.2231 1.82%
1903. No. 1 feed.
en EL ae: aa Se og APR Oy Ce FE 55 65 45 58} 1.16 = F
Lo ah) 2 ee SR, 2 i ae Oe be 56 65 47 56 | 1.15 1, 22
65 46 od} 1.11} 1, 20 q
46 55 | 1.05 1.16 @
48 56 | 1.05 1,12}
49 54 . 90 1,123
47 53 .97% 1.10
47 57 | 1.024 1.137
51 63 | 1.083 1.16}
OCtohbenc. sa20s . SETS A, OEE I Se oe eee 61 69 46 62} 1.083 1. 163
NOVOM DOF fs aca e oo.css cits dels ooo Ga seta lonleebten Rieaeie gets 62 69 43 613} 1.112 Lik
WOOT GE 2 oa .6 Ges c c eaucnd donee ole da aae ets we aes 60 69 42 614] 1.074 1.15 :
1904.
DANUREYS « occces<cccen clin tan cdamentar die aga sats ha caeGles = 60 69 37 6L | tae 1.133
LCC eRe RRR eee einen.) emacs ancl nat ore rs 62 69 40 61 | 1.073 1.15
WOOIOE Siok es boon ak tedetcen hates Ubaae oe veal oectelces « 62 69 40 54} 1.062 1.15
fy Oey Paci meter pk clay rn, Sy ee ee 62 69 38 60 | 1.07% 1.15
1 TOP ARE ie Re Cate nse hk ke SiR a hc pe 62 69 38 59 | 1.033 1.10
UE Liisa t See EOS eee ets ee, Ser eae te ase seta 62 69 35 59 .95 1. 062
A 51 he ee rE SOR eS Oe | Sea et re ae eee rebar cere 36 55 . 95 1. 033
AIIRUISE <= oot cet econ te cea eae ene ae oe eens win ctal einisee erates ite Geta eve 38 55 | 1.033 1.10
BACON DOL == 520. saa mas ces es bantee oa: ee enna aie aats esas eee eee 38 55 | 1.05 1.123
OGINNEE © FCoks . eek eet BC ee ee eee 55 62 37 54] 1.074 1.123
BOUGM DON: .6 ah a3, oes a wee cee aaa eee coe ee 55 60 38 63 | 1.073 1.13}
DOORN DOP 5 laa cn Cada anon beu sea asieoeh aiae 55 60 38 52 | 1.40 1.15
RYE.
Rye crop of countries named, 1900-1904.
Countries. 1900 1901 1902. 1903. 1904.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. ’
Tiitted fimtes «Cbs. wc tse csc, 23, 996, 000 30, 345, 000 33, 631, 000 29, 363, 000 27, 242,000 —
OM RTIO oso n's tobe ate ca eee 2, 432, 000 2, 625, 000 3, 620, 000 3, 064, 000 2, 065, 000
Mabe SS. eS. hia des vay ; 64, 000 51, 000 51, 000 130, 000°
Rest.of Canada .{.00....222e9552 286, 000 800, 000 800, 000 800, 000 800, 000 —
Total Ganads.. ooo.) 542.4 2,745, 000 3, 489, 000 4, 471, 000 3, 915, 000 2, 995, 001
Total North America..... 26, 741, 000 33, 834, 000 38, 102, 000 33, 278, 000 30, 237,

STATISTIOS OF

RYE.

Rye crop of countries named, 1900-1904—Continued.

663

Countries, 1900, 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904,
Bushels, Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

SEMIREREL SERINE Ee Ue eet es ck coc ee eae a ena OEA Phils Gita aeittee ne sides nod opadiecieetvels ougueceduch br
en eee eee ee) ee Cee et eer aa abe hea eels. bie ma sek: |enie'w anos 4&0 pelea aban cwhe meats

Total United Kingdom...| 2,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 2,000,000 | —-2, 000, 000 2, 000, 000
EEE Ce Pe ee Le 23,708,000 | 21,771,000 | 22,293,000 | 24,261,000 | 20, 960, 000
a ao 19,958,000 | 16,605,000 | 18,779,000 | 19,305; 000 18, 000, 000
Mathorlands...02,ic6.5:-..1 08 13,644,000 | 14,180,000 | 13,971/000 | 13, 973, 000 14, 000, 000
MED Jo Cat class ch bed 19,854,000 | 25,045,000 | 22,374/000 | 21,756,000 | 22, 000, 000
ME So) Ouhie 1 ke eae 59,277,000 | 58,198,000 | 47,051,000 | 57,951,000 | 53, 343, 000
esc SH Le Pie habe 21'424'000 | 28,370,000 | 26,187,000 | 22, 511, 000 19, 000, 000
Tah Ch ca anae ik 4,000,000 } 4,000,000} — 3,200,000} 4, 000, 000 3; 200; 000
ESS SSE Sain age ae a 336, 624,000 | 321,350,000 | 373,768;000 | 389; 923,000 | 396, 075, 000
gece ae URN aE 54,792,000 | 75,514,000 | 82,482,000 | 81,130,000 | 91, 728, 000
Hungary ...... SOS RSE 40,205,000 | 40,883,000 | 49,458}000 | 47,355,000 | 43, 880, 000
Croatia-Slavonia ............... 9'286,000} 2,774,000} 3,049,000 | 3,386, 000 2) 401, 000

Total Austria-Hungary...| 97,283,000 | 119,171,000 | 134,989,000 | 131,871,000 | 138, 009, 000
MGI oS. 221. 0... See eee 5, 990, 000 9, 573, 000 6, 958, 000° 7,145, 000 2, 201, 000
On ana Re Rar, 7,000, 000 7,000, 000 000,000 | 11; 000; 000 13; 000, 000
Russia proper ..............---- 828, 816,000 | 680,205,000 | 810,537,000 | 803,296,000 | 893, 064, 000
7S (te 67,621,000 | 50,781,000 | 75,257,000 | 69,100,000 | 76, 606, 000
North Caucasus .......-........ 7,500, 7,937,000 | 8,654,000 | 7, 498, 000 8) 179, 000

Total Russia in Europe...| 903,937,000 | 738,923,000 | 894,448,000 | 879,894,000 | 977, 849, 000

Total Europe ...........-- 1, 514, 699, 000 /1, 366, 186, 000 |1, 574, 018, 000 |1, 585, 590, 000 | 1, 679, 637, 000
Tipe ge iaasreagicee 15,853,000 | 15,620,000 | 23,080,000 | 30,982,000 | 29, 445, 000
PeeeME AER <A 7Et SL Ey fend 2055. 341, 000 382, 000 1, 489, 000 1, 066, 000 1, 087, 000

Total Russia in Asia...... 16,194,000 | 16,002,000 | 24,569,000 | 32,048,000] 30, 532, 000

i es es

1, 557, 634, 000 |1, 416, 022, 000°

1, 636, 689, 000 |1, 650, 916, 000 | 1, 740, 406, 000

aNorye is raised in Japan. In the Japanese official crop reports occurs the caption ‘‘Seigle,’’ the
French word for rye, and in previous issues of the Yearbook of this Department the figures under
that caption have been taken as indicating the rye cropof Japan. Careful investigation has revealed
that the word seigle in the Japanese reports was intended to indicate a variety of barley. The figures
appearing in former issues of the Yearbook as the rye crop of Japun have therefore in this issue been
omitted and have been embodied in another table with the barley crop of Japan.

Visible supply of rye in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.

Month. 1895-1896. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1899-1900.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
MEL ees alee an a aes aca Seto siee 158, 000 1, 575, 000 2, 464, 000 988, 000 4,
PROPS ats Sa tad as Su wie Soon 215, 000 1, 630, 000 1, 946, 000 365, 000 638, 000
Bepieiiper scars soos en 6 tae sa 511, 000 2, 328, 000 2, 499, 000 721, 000 647, 000
OGORER ions. toe eee teens 700, 000 2, 040, 000 3, 064, 000 894, 000 962, 000
NG VETO? 2 2o72 0. sect wasse naa. 1, 250, 000 2, 596, 000 3, 832, 000 1, 260, 000 1, 906, 000
DGGCBINBEL- 5. or - oe ede ses 1, 702, 000 2, 695, 000 3, 932, 000 1, 212, 000 1, 892, 000
PEIN ae ee eee es 1, 739, 000 3, 276, 000 4, 436, 000 1, 573, 000 1, 806, 000
NGDrUueEy).. cco. cette eso eats 1, 763, 000 4, 266, 000 4, 291, 000 1, 576, 000 1, 734, 000
MGTCH 2... 1200 see sses senaslaees 1, 710, 000 4, 104, 000 4, 099, 000 1, 724, 000 1, 951, 000
PAN ees as pone ee beara ae 1, 631, 000 4, 12%, 000 3, 682, 000 1, 658, 000 1, 566, 000
PO cote sce ts ae aa clangetete mite 1, 481, 000 3, 607, 000 3, 039, 000 1, 335, 000 1, 441, 000
LES Ee Span Ree SAP ROe Pe lgear s 1, 467, 000 2, 798, 000 1, 526, 000 975, 000 1, 206, 000

aThese figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
ead NT stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by
radstreet’s,

664

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Visible supply of rye in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years—

Continued,
Month. 1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1903-1904, 1904-1905,
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. ’ Bushels.
SOW ct cdo csc nueaacaieede ees 806, 000 747, 000 442, 000 926, 000 938, 000
ROMER iran cdvarndetenune 725, 000 753, 000 328, 000 867, 000 968, 000
RaoaeeBbOr . .. «<i ubaeeacssc cnet 1, 056, 000 1, 864, 000 903, 000 866, 000 1, 233, 000
CONOR so 6 08a ceceee eee 1, 216, 000 2, 440, 000 1, 362, 000 1, 259, 000 1, 686, 000
Nowarn ber . 3 <<ctbadsccsoeseecee 1, 513, 000 2, 863, 000 1, 828, 000 1, 509, 000 2, 055, 000
DOSGTADOE 65. on Cc eee 1, 754, 000 8, 463, 000 2, 159, 000 1, 744, 000 2, 525, 000
PADUMPT 1 nc nxctvceccdasnonsaeee 1, 651, 000 8, 257, 000 2, 454, 000 1, 833, 000 2, 504, 000
Mabatere: . tid So) 10 we 1, 530, 000 8, 270, 000 2, 354, 600 1, 746, 000 2, 259, 000
TS Sa RT Ee aE Up He 1, 532, 000 2, 972, 000 2, 273, 000 1, 717, 000 1, 961, 000
Ph Re ER OS eS Se 1, 333, 000 2, 639, 000 1, 688, 000 1, 483, 000 1, 554, 000
Se 5. wo once cucee vaca 1, 112, 000 1, 910, 000 1, 879, 000 eee
Re ee eS oe eee 938, 000 950, 000 2, 027, 000 1, 186,000 |..<ssacecuneen
Condition of the rye crop of the United States, monthly, 1887-1904.

When When
Year. | Apr. | May. | June.| July.| Aug. | har- || Year.| Apr. | May. |June.} July.| Aug. | har-

vested. vested
1887...| 92.0] 90.8] 88.9] 88.0] 84.6] 82.2 || 1896..; 82.9] 87.7] 85.2! 83.8] 88.0 82.0
1888...} 98.5 | 92.9] 938.9] 95.1] 91.4] 92.8 || 1897..; 88.9] 88.0] 89.9| 95.0] 89.8 90.1
1889... 93.9 | 96.5] 95.2] 96.7] 95.4] 91.6 || 1898. 92.1} 94.5] 97.1] 938.8] 93.7 89.4
1890... 92.8} 98.5] 92.3] 92.0] 86.8] 85.4 || 1899..) 84.9] 85.2] 84.0] 83.3] 89.0 82.0
1891.. 95.4 | 97.2] 95.4] 93.9] 89.6] 95.1 |) 1900..; 84.8] 88.5] 87.6] 89.6] 76.0 84.2
1892. $7.0] 88.9] 91.0] 92.9] 89.8] 88.5 |] 1901..); 938.1) 94.6] 93.9] 93.5] 83.6 84.0
1893. . 85.7} 82.7] 84.6] 88.8] 78.5] 82.0 || 1902. 85.4 | 83.4] 88.1] 90.3] 90.5 90. 2
1894... 94.4] 90.7] 93.2] 93.9] 79.8] 86.9 |} 19038. 97.9} 98.3 | 90.6} 89.2] 87.2 84.1
1895... 87.0 | 88.7] 85.7] 82.2] 84.0] 88.7 || 1904. 82.3 | 81.2] 86.3 |490.8 | 91.8 86.9

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of rye of the United States, 1866-1904.

Production.

a Spring rye.

Year. Acreage.
Acres.

1866..... 1, 548, 033
YY eee 1, 689, 175
18682... 1, 651, $321
oO a 1, 657, 584
1870-23: 1, 176, 137
ut 7 tae 1, 069, 531
1872 <3 1, 048, 654
Seance: 1, 150, 355
1S: ae 1,116, 716
1) ae 1, 359, 788
sy ee 1, 468, 374
Cy) 1, 412, 902
iy 1, 622, 700
iy) ee 1, 625, 450
| eae 1, 767, 619
eS eae 1, 789, 100
FARO 2, 227, 894
1883.52; 2,314, 754
1884....,] 2,348, 963
1885-2<-. 2,129, 301
1886252 2,129, 918
1887..... 2, 058, 447
15835025: 2, 364, 805
1889..... 2,171, 493
18902 SS. 2,141, 858
ys 2,176, 466
thoy 2,163, 657
i 2, 088,
Bh! eee 1, 944, 780
1895.....! 1,890,345

Bushels.

20, 864, 944
23, 184, 000
22, 504, 800
22, 527, 900
15, 473, 600
15, 365, 500
14, 888, 600
15, 142, 000
14, 990, 900
17, 722, 100
20, 374, 800
21, 170, 100
25, 842, 790
23, 639, 460
24, 540, 829
20, 704, 950
29, 960, 037

26, 555, 446
26, 727, 615
27, 210, 070

Aver-
age

farm

price | Farm value,
per Dec. 1.

bush-
el,

Dec. 1

Cents Dollars.
82.2 17, 149, 716

100. 4 23, 280, 584
94.9 21, 349, 190
77.0 17, 341, 861
roe 11, 326, 967
ye 10, 927, 623
67.6 10, 071, 061
70.3 10, 638, 258
77.4 11, 610, 339
67.1 11, 894, 223
61.4 12, 504, 970
57.6 12, 201, 759
52.5 138, 566, 002
65.6 15, 507, 431
75.6 18, 564, 560
93.3 19, 327, 415
61.5 18, 439, 194
58.1 16, 800, 508
51.9 14, 857, 040
57.9 12, 594, 820
63.8 18, 181, 330
64.6 11, 283, 140
58.8 16, 721, 869
42.3 |. 12,009, 752
62.9 16, 229, 992
77.4 24, 589, 217
54.2 15, 160, 056
61.3 138, 612, 222
60.1 18, 395, 476
44.0 11, 964, 826

Chicago cash price per

bushel, No. 2.
May of
December. | following
year.

Low. |High. |Low. |High.

Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.
4

eel Rakes: 142 | 150
132 | 157] 173 | 185
1063} 118} 100} 1153

66 774) 78 835
67 7 81 91
62 633} 75 93
573] 70.| 683); 70
70 81 91 | 102
93 993} 103 | 1075
67 683} 613| 703
653} 73 70 923
553} 563) = 54 60
44 443) 47 52
733} 81 733} 85
82 913} 115 | 118
963} 98 77 83
57 583) 62 67
563} 60 4] 623
51 52 68 73
583; 61 58 61
53 | 543 a| 563
553} 613} = 63 68
50 52 39 413
44 453} 493) 54
643} 683) 88 92
86 92 703] 79
46 51 503} 62
45 473} 443) 48
473} 49 623| 67
82 353] 33 365

Domestic
a eae in-
cluding
rye flour,
fiscal years
beginning
July 1.

Bushels.

S

3

=

BSASSSSEEE

Sober
yngie
IO.

ae
BESse

STATISTICS OF RYE.

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports

665

of rye of the United States,

1866-—1904—Continue
" Chicago cash price per

‘a5 frahel, No.2, P Domestic
Aver- farm : wer ene in-

age 410@ cluding

" aed price | Farm value, May of é

Year. | Acreage. | yield | Production. per Dec. 1. December. | following | 7¥¢ flour,
per bush- rear fiscal years

acre. el RY oe EA one beginning

Dec. 1 Low. |High.| Low. High. ~ gps

— — ——_—_ ——— ee ae _—_—_—_—-_ — __—_

Acres Bush. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Cents.| Cents.| Cents. cents. Bushels.
SUG; .s> 1,831,201 | 13.3 24,869,047 | 40.9 9, 960, 769 37 42}; 323) 85}! 8,575,667
TOOL denne 1,708, 561 | 16,1 27,363,324 | 44.7 12, 239, 647 453 47 48 75 | 15,662, 035
1898..... 1,648,207 | 15.6 25,657,522 | 46.3 11, 875, 350 52} 5541 564 62 | 10,169, 822
Uo 1,659,308 | 14.4 23,961,741 | 51.0 12, 214, 118 49 52 53 563; 2,382,012
1900... ... 1,691,362 | 15.1 23,995,927 | 61.2 12, 295, 417 453 493 513 54 2, 345, 512
Peel. 2 1,987,505 | 15.3 30, 344, 880 | 55.7 16, 909, 742 59 653 54} 58 2,712,077
Ue oo 1,978,548 | 17.0 33, 630,592 | 50.8 17, 080, 793 48 493 48 50} 5, 445, 273
$e oi nic 1,906,894 | 15.4 29,363,416 | 54.5 15, 993, 871 502) 523 693 78 784, 068
1904..... he 792, 678 | 15.2 27,241,515 | 68.8 18, 748, 323 73 go area Ia ea |e oe ee

; |

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in rye, 2,364,805 acres, was
reported in 1888; the greatest production, 33,630,592 bushels, in 1902; the greatest
farm value on December 1, $24,589,217, in 1891; the greatest average yield per acre,
17 bushels, in 1902; the greatest average farm price per bushel on December 1,

$1.004, in 1867.

For the five years 1900-1904 the average area is 1,851,396 acres;

the average production, 28,915,256 bushels; the average farm value on December 1,
$16,205,629; the average yield per acre, 15.6 bushels; the average farm price per

bushel on December 1, 56 cents.

Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1904, by States.

Average | Average

value per] Farm value,

Dec. 1

Dollars.
23, 824
56, 011
139, 705
1, 589, 766
857, 095
3, 810, 647
9, 208
230, 865

Average pains
States and Territories. Acreage. jfyield per} Production. :
mere: price acre
Dee. 1.. Dec. 1.
Acres Bushels Bushels. Cents Dollars

MErMOUoL Ue. seth ste ewes dec’ 1, 905 16.9 32,194 74 12. 5)
IMGRSRCRMBE TAS! =f xibit sctae coc 4,018 17.0 68, 306 82 13. 94
GannmeGweie’ = 2 a5 hic o\s és uklesse 10, 464 16.9 176, 842 79 18. 35
NG@wVOrksts 3 Sone. ces 147, 146 14.8 27s TOL 73 10. 80
New UGINEY ss oh ese an se wc ae 69, 967 IAG. 1, 224, 422 70 12. 25
PenNSHVAING 0. =o s cece cose 346, 265 15.5 5, 367, 108 gl 11 01
DCIRWATG Soe 2 25 e- s ws ctee 1, 069 11.8 12,614 73 8. 61
VEO RAINED 12. cia choc s'< a's’ ons ots 20, 525 14.8 303, 770 76 11. 25
ANPP NIAID coe Sry hp wiclniems lose 23, 841 15.7 374, 304 74 11. 62
North CATOMNS. = -.2o.ccees acm 19, 698 9.9 195, 010 87 8.61
south Carolinas. 5.23.02 4, 226 7.5 31, 695 126 9.45
GEOTB NL oon. vos ucoe assem 13, 640 8.3 113,212 102 8.47
GUTOR Soi ce 6 lot Seen Veena ee 1, 557 10.4 16, 193 120 12. 48
MOO ch chicos ose tect a Seon 38, 375 13.1 44, 212 86 ch ey
PRMAORAR ode Soe. cinccdee'eus an 2, 3382 alk eat 25, 885 88 9.77
RIPON CO) 527.8 oo. Soe oen cn 12, 983 a yf 151, 316 79 9, 24
Were VATeINIG SS. |: .j3 i eseees 10, 188 12.5 127, 350 Td 9. 63
MOMueRy . ....<.. 5 --50i+52.~.- 12, 228 13.7 167, 524 80 10. 96
CEs sae ain eer ee aa 18, 748 16.1 221, 343 74 11.91
Magnipny -s. -2 = atensaecs 3 132, 772 13.2 1, 752, 590 72 9.50
MAGIRGDAS ot ohoth osc aes cai 82, 780 14.6 478, 588 69 10. 07
WiMMOIS =P a ces eas 72, 930 17.6 1, 288, 568 70 12. 32
WineOunin. so esse Sct eet 302, 794 16.2 4, 905, 268 69 11.18
MIBCHOLE. at ee See 93, 162 a ieee 1, 648, 967 64 11. 33
Ek 7 elec Ss ROR ty pena han neon eras 61, 606 17.2 1, 059, 623 60 10. 32
MSG | tbh 2 aa aes tee 19, 642 14.4 282, 045 64 9. 22
IGRMIRABRC oo oc as Sava ce aoe 70, 332 13,2 928, 382 65 8.58
Nebraska ...... ees tegen 3 136, 534 15.8 2, 157, 237 55 8. 69
Seain Dakota... 2.6222 bs 58 33, 843 16.5 558, 410 57 9, 41
North DAKGta.. 2 i. enesdeose 22, 404 18.5 414, 474 60 11.10
Bo Re ie ee 1, 871 19.9 37, 233 77 15. 32
Werte. 3. 2505 sat ocak 396 19.5 7, 722 40 7. 80
CEUIOLEUO 6a deh se Volos woes 2, 786 19; 58, 213 65 12. 41
NEN ee ere eine eae Sa 3, 701 16.0 59, 216 67 10. 72
TORR Ss or avelen mara ae 1, 293 19,7 25, 472 75 14.77
Washington: -22.5¢52.0 022-5 2, 823 19.0 53, 637 79 15. 01
Gin oe aes hp a a 11, 135 14.4 160, 344 89 12. 82
GRISTORIES 5 iso aoe ee 2 z 67, 402 7.6 512, 255 7 5. 93
Oklahomse .......-..2..+<«.+- 3, 342 9.4 31, 415 62 | 5. 83

TOU se Bickctes eee naas 1, 792, 673 15.2 27, 241,515 68.8 10. 46

18, 748, 323

666 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Average yield per acre of rye in the United States, 1895-1904, by States,

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902, | 1903, | 1904,

Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush. -

Maine: co -s cca coos tee 19.21 38.01 318.5 | YBOb BO 27.9.1. ceeclecccceuloadecee eee
New Hampshire ............. 16.0} 19:6) 38.0) 27.6} 35.0 br Bhd |. .ccectlecevdanle eau eeneeeee
Warmont.c..c0.: 5 eee ees 16.0] 18.6} 16.0] 19.1 17.0} 16.6] 18.38] 16.9] 19.4 16.9
Maassachusctts ......<.scocees 10:9.) 22.01 10:6 1.36.71 36.0) 160] 18-9: b: 382) Ie 17.0
Ganneationt “4 bi). 2... eieee 16.9| 15.4] 19.0} 18.0] 18.0] 17.0] 18.0] 17.4] 17.0 16.9
NOW VOPR: 2. ces ci cesee wee i a eee eet ed 14.9! 17.5] 15.2 14.8
GWE ATER oe aaa 18,6] 18.8 |..17.0 1) 15.5.) 16.0 | 35.9 |) 16:0) 160) VS 17.5
Penney) vanid«..~<..asexchess 15.L1 16.0 | 19.0 | I6/2 | .15.0.) 26.8). 35.9°) 26On aa 15.6
WOR WAG oo oske vcd occ we rns le baw telbddotedlac wexkale cases aaeaekie sae 15.3 338.5 14.8 11.8 —
LAUT RE Ae oe ea Sones 12.9 9.2}; 17.0| 14.5] 14:0] 16.5] 14.4) 24.0] 18.7 14.8
iy | RRR Ar pag RAG st 1-0}, 100). 3.0 P38 9.0: 570.8} 2i3 9.6} 12.2 16.7
Worth Carolina ...........--- Pa 7.5 8.8 9.1 7.0 8.9 8.5 8.2 8.8 9.9
South Carolina ;.-2.-..-<s-ces 9.3 4.8 6.6 8.5 5.0 7.5 Py j 7.6 7.6 7.5
CRE T ae ee anie apis / oP 7.1 7.4 8.0 6.0 7.0 7,6 1,08 7.9 8.8
DP ee eee 10. 2 8.0 0-6-0 STFC} 8.0 7.8 8.0} 10.0] 10.6 10.4
areas tS ~ 6.) Meath See RE 5.5 7.0. f. 22:0 1 712-0: } 530-0 5 eo eee 9.9| 14.2 18.1
Aparna. 233 oe os 10:0 |) 200°) 15-0 bE 4 BeOS S7'|, 128 9.7 pA He
WENVOGKIOO . .o ccncuvsce ee bene 1 9.0} 10.0] 10.5 9.0 11.0 |. 15.8) 20) 2a ph
West Vireinia:: 7... - 16.2) - 20:6") (16-1 IL 2 T1300 Ie a ae 8.1) 2s 12.5
Montuahkw. 6. Jat tac nes ak 18:2 |) 1100 |} °18,0:}: 18:0} 20:0 f 18.2] 114:0)) 3a eee 13.7
OHIO: ccs ccnkse le eet 14.8 9.6 18.0 17.4 16.0 16.6 16.9 17.5 15.3 16.1
TQM OT See an Soto eat a 13.6 9.27 15.0] 15.8} 14.0.) 14.6] 14.0:| 27.9.) tie 13.2
Tndiana §. 27. Se ee 12.2:}. 10:6} 13.0 | ‘16:6 | 180°) 36.2 | 34-5 ) 226) 22 14.6
Tihineied 24 bo Shs ee 15.2 & 2658 1:03.56 >. 1S 160 In 2 POU ee eee 17.6
Wisconsin). 8 3028. ee 16:1 | 14.6] 16.0 | 15.8 | 15.0 |). 16.8 ))' 15.95) 18295) [eae 16.2
MIN NOBUS, «ac aca toe dees 21.1} 15.6] 17:2) 20.6.) 18.01 19.5] 319.81 20:8 1) tae 17.7
BPR eee ee ene cee 20.6} 17,5} 36.0] 19.0) 18:01] 18:0] 1841) 174") Siew 17:4
Reimann ess, 220 os eee 19°29. Aeon. Oi 2a es RRO ; 14:2 |; 18.2 | aee 14.4
LE Sn Ea Se ee ye 5.9 7,0)" 314.0 | 35.6 } 71:0 14..8:.|' 12.00) 3a 13.2
PRAIPREINEL cx a4 Sco as anne oe 9.$°| “16.9 | (17.0 | 38: 8 |) 26:0 15.0 | 20.8) 142 15.8
Routh Dakota. 2.2..0.. oe. $4.) 13.6:| 16.5: | 36.6 | 16.0 14.4] 18.8{ 20.2 16.5
North: Dakota. 2. i s328 ee. 2:3 f 32.'0'| “140 | 28: 0-10 18.8 | .20s2°) Stare 18.5
MOIS TG. ooo ow os Lawn Saohesue ental wack ou leree seahorse eas bo clecotabetcs tite 26.7 | 26.0} 24.6 19.9
WRC es act ost dada antes sleea ee anlasag ee aig iatahe ee 24.0] 18.0] 18.0 19.5
Calaradorc as. bocce nc entiaeres cuss 14. 5° | 23°5.h0 1520 fe 18.05). 1470 16.1) 15.9.) 1858 19.1
eee. Se ee eee eee 19.8) 20.0] 12.0] 19.5] 17.0 14:3° |" 12) 45) =e 16.0
MORO ais oi os EE a ad Dn he She ted oo hee td ck al eee ree ote ee 16.0} 20.2} 18.5 19.7
Wasineton ick oes os estes 26.7:| 15.0} 19.5] 18.0}. 16.0 17.5;) 17.8 | 22.6 19.0 |
ge i as aS Ce dR is © ly As Si A Vi 8 15.7 | 18,4 | ae 14.4
Catiiomiay.. See oo TENG") SEES: % “1222 9.0} 15. 12:8; 1 120 ree 7.6 2
Ollakome =~.) ws 2b ol 35, be as. ca ee bte Oe ta Acie lore boaters bee eee 14.8} 16.0] 17.9 9.4 |
General average .....-. 14.4} 18.8] 16.1] 15.6] 14.4 15.3 | 17.0} 16.4 15.2 |
}

Year. ee Russia. Sm Austria. | Hungary.| France. | Ireland.
(a () (2) (>). (>) (a) b

PRS ecvain ct winte om atralee s eciatete es < 18:7 nay § 22.0 17.2 19.5 19.5 ( bs. 4
OI, fale ao tin k Howe sk Lite oe yale 14.4 116 20.9 14.5 16.7 18.8 26.8
1s ee I eS ee Re ae pes Sa 18.38 10.9 22.7 16.3 18.2 18.7 25.4
11 y (ee See Cee Ca 16.1 9.3 21.8 13.9 13.5 13.4 21.6
LUE A 4 aE ee oe a oe Soe 15.6 10.5 24.2 17.7 16.9 18.3 25.8
IRPVRD ties Ro ae Set eee te ST ee ed, 14.4 12.8 23.6 18.7 iV Ry 18.2 25.8 .
USMY Sohctns ia’ es ealg a cian ae cae s 16. 1 12.5 22.9 13.0 15.1 16.9 25.6
PE See Me Se Se Ce eee 15.8 14.0 22.4 16.9 15.8 16.7 27.4
(2) BRE Re A et et ye Re a PS eS LAO 12.5 24.5 18.2 19.4 14.3 28.0
PBEM oho. skate ate Scala ee cer 15.4 12,2 26.3 18.2 16.8 18,1 26.9

AVGTARG 5220 cock? een: 15.0 11.9 238.1 16.5 16.9 17.3 25.9

a Winchester bushels. > Bushels of 56 pounds.

STATISTIOS OF RYE,

Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value

1895-1904, by States.

667

December 1,

$12. 51
13. 94

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897, | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 19038.
oo SES ea an i SP gis. 82 |$12. 06 |$11.07 |$15.12 |$12. 60 Ig14..10 SES ee a el eee
POW GIN DEDITS 2... c ence vens Pent ete le ny Lee eee OMe ALEyt ote O24 1S 6 «coc o|oe'e'e o'e|ccceonele oo ne om
MTOR Ger axcacsteasccde wees 9.12 | 12.09 | 9.60] 11.08 | 10.54 | 10.13 |$14. 64 |$13. 01 '$12. 61
Massachusetis ........c2..05 18.33 | 15.40 | 11.90 | 10.52 | 12.64 | 12.68 | 12.56 | 12.16 | 10.00
CODNCGUGUE sc oe. ace en's 10.65 | 8.78 | 11.21 | 10.80 | 11.52 | 11.05 | 12.96 | 18.05 | 12.07
PUT OOD os SU wats vdciem a tie'o'n's's 8. 69 6. 29 8. 88 8.75 8. 96 8. 46 9.24 | 10.15 9, 27
EPO WOLBGY avec oe over ek ses 6.94 | 6.49} 8.50] 7.75 | 8.26) 8.74] 8.85] 10.00] 8.838
EBRNSVLVRDIO. Gee ad cme cua aes WeODE FeDael. Orla | eae Or ih tO) Sr LL | 9.64 '| 848: | 9.67
TUTE. ad tne fo oee ed eee | ater e Sate eee ated ges © <M ates eit Cle dina nislsrcse-s +0 8.87 | 8.87 | 9.03
PERI VRONNG s dia cts eT eee 6.82 | 4.42] 7.82] 7.83 | 7.98) 8.58| 8.06] 8.12] 8.08
TAT MAIN cass 2 ntg: store bine sien 5.72} 4.80] 5.50} 6.15) 4.77) 6.09 | 6.77] 6.84] 8.05
More Caroling =... ous. ce as 4.93 | 6.82] 5.28) 5.82| 5.25| 6.76| 6.63) 6.97 | 7.39
South Carolina <2. .0..6... se. 10.70} 4.18} 6.68 | 8.67 | 56.45) 7.87 | 8.55) 8.59] 8.138
1.80 CAE a ees Ree ae GelZe|e weleaie Oc Ole tO4 |" O.te | cok | 6.00") "6, 98°] 9,01
UMAR ata tt sach eet sts 8.57 | 7.04} 11.33 | 11.65 | 8.32 | ~8-08 | 8.32 | 10.50 | 11.45
RGN soy Sete eek ees 4.13 | 4.69] 8.64] 8.52 | 8.20 | 11.05 | 10.32 | 7.52 10.61
PNM AMSR Rs 785 ec se a caee ses ae Orzo) THO0 Or dG: | seta | Bria t 6528.\° "7574 | 8.98") “8.16
PR OMIOO foo Sa ce Sic cos aaa 4.46 | 5.40] 5.804 5.56) 6.03] 7.48 | 8.386] 8.03] 9.92
WV OSU VANPIMIA CoS somes oe O62.) Or O41" D8) 0582 || 6:20" | 6.72") 7,80.) 6.512) 8217
PERIEOUCI Gh cccce Sotte ae eeo eee 7.39 | 5.94] 6,89} 7.15) 7.00| 8.25) 9.38] 8.381] 8.00
NORM ee Pe ek he es eee ee 6. 66} 13)74)) 7.92 | 7.83 | 8.80 |° 9.138.) 9.380] 9.27) 8.87
LO MECUNTR ES Ra) eae Rp eta es ares 5.44} 2.94! 6.30] 6.58) 7.28 | 7.01 | 7.28) 8.77] 7.90
MIAN Sods scaese~ ae eoes BAe Se 62 |, Or407)' 6,.67-| 6,24 1° 7.55. “7,68 | 6.67 | 6.68
UT Ua fe) fe a a 6.08} 5.20! 6.82} 6.51! 7.05| 8.08! 9.69; 9.55! 8.58
0) AE SOS ee ee ee ee Dubs 4. o2 | 6:56 | 6.58 | 7:20). 7.74) 8.27 | 9,45.| 8.80
MMM CSOUN As... 56) 522 ces Se 5.91] 4.68] 6.36] 7.79) 7.56] 8.19| 9.46] 9.59] 8,28
MRE CE Boss Pes SoA e Soc 65890)": 08: | 6:76) -7..60°| 7.203) 7288.) 5 9:20 | 7.81 |. 7.44
i ESS Cg a ESS ee ea 4.760) 5, 79,1. 5:28). 6.16) 6.650") 714 | 9:51 | 8.74 | 7.04
MTN Ne see ats eas See 2.24 | 12.45) 6.60) 5,77 | 4.62.) 6.54.) 7.87) 5.40) 7.18
TNS) SSS ee en eee Se ae BOR hoy e241 0n44-| 16,59" 60881) 6.68..10°6..90.| 7.3L |. 5:25
South Dakota: ....-.2..222.2. 210°} 3.13°| 5.78 | 6.64) 5.55 | 4.18 | 6.19 | 7.71 | 8.08
Gren DAKO <2... Soe6 6 222- 5.75 | 2.64 | 6.22.) 6.40) 5.55 | 2.13 | 5.93 | 8.69] 6.75
EAI See So STs a Reetee oleae ee tiles sice sas Je Al ae tee eee 16. 02 | 16.00 | 15.50
Rae EN SINS cet Sa, Seat aya Net etna teres Bm mete a Poe oie Sieve Pie! [Loestc a. love [Ne, ci aoa ai) 19.20 | 9.00 | 12.42
WOIGTAOOS Soe sad atone s Hee 6.96 | 14.57.) 7.80 | 9.00] 6.72] 9.07 | 9.98 |) 8:90) 11.16

TRE rar rt lt FS IS PE 6.93 NOOR) S7e20: |) 8.97 |,- 8:16 |, 9510) +9: 28>) 7556.) -10).46
LSD.) 4 GR A eee eee Oe Ee ee ee ee 10.05 | 12.12 | 12.02
WREDINE LON. 352522. 2ossahe cs 20.03 | 7.50 | 12.09 | 10.44) 9.60] 9.45 | 10 85} 11.39 | 15.12
fre ite AS eee pee 6.0D> |, 70620) 8.8). 10737_ (7.70); 9582 | 10.361) 9:78.) 13,77
ON Tire) 5 it ee eee 6273.) (8..20¢)) 7298) | 65500 11.70): 7.54 | 7.305) 9,00 | 9:47
NR ee see oe cern | cok ae ol cies foil fetes Sattw nara | acac oc-oailawwiae.cie « 10.36 | 7.52) 8.95

General average ....... Giddo|) Ose le velos aie oe | veoO.| Tce | 8.51 | 8.63 | 8.39 |

Average farm price of rye per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents.
WITT ay Gc Ge cies aloie on organs store 85 6 84 DMV Sse er se Sealer) oo eae ee
Vee Che ecole a 76 72 84 75 81 oP 4| Ee Specie | ale eas | naman | (Pee ee
TEL ALET 01 Papel ga en ea 57 65 60 58 62 61 80 70 65 74
MORSACHUSCLIS jac 155. 65.L Ce 67 70 61 63 79 75 79 80 73 82
GODMECUOUL 22 oe oso emcees tee 63 57 59 60 64 65 72 75 71 79
PPE aay ol nag Mee oe a 48 44 48 50 56 56 62 58 61 73
DREW MCTROM oo c.s cic eae whet oes 51 47 50 50. 55 55 59 61 64 70
PENNSVIVAIIG 04 o2- 3 <2 es nnn 50 47 43 47 51 53 60 53 62 71
ODT WTREO aes oc Sete ak elt cee ere ete eect eet le cersenccilln oo are 58 62 61 73
PAYV ISTIC fs 2Sece stent eb. 49 48 46 54 57 52 56 58 59 76
Mee atiOr octet. ce eee 52 48 50 46 58 58 61 66 66 74
Worth Caroune. oo ores eee 64 71 60 64 75 76 78 85 84. 87
Pt GRTOLLA gos oak a Bees 115 87 86 102 109 105 1 113 107 126
GeOreiad . cos. 32 ae eee eee 85 101 92 98 112 103 106 110 114 102
Pinar Mei One ee 84 88 118 105 104 103 104 105 108 120
POMC so Ss ate ox nates cae ee See 75 67 72 71 82 67 93 76 74 86
WURGNISON 2. cto sewa ee ce 72 70 86 65 74 72 89 iB) 84 88
WERRCHNOO! 5 pate emcser owas 62 60 58 53 67 68 74 73 74 79
West Vireinin: (os scennneene 61 56 51 52 62 64 65 68 71 77
KR GNGUCRY on Mec dees rs eo aan 56 54 58 55 70 63 67 62 69 89
ORIG. foes os ee eer owls sai 45 39 44 45 55 55 55 53 58 74
MIR IORAY ite asp e5 sate oon eae ae 40 32 42 43 52 48 52 49 51 72
RM IRNIOs Sofew. os dares aul abate 42 36 42 43 48 50 53 46 53 69
SUMSIOIN 3. x ears oc dormte 2 Foe noth 40 34 44 44 47 47 57 50 52 70
WIINCOMBIG Co. b veteneen dacs ee 35 33 41 43 48 49 52 50 50 69
MIN OBOG) ads kacw ee es eas 28 80 37 38 42 42 49 43 45 64
jE ae ae eee 31 29 36 40 40 41 50) 42 44 | 60

668 YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Average farm price of rye per bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by

States—Continued.

States and Territories, | 1895. | 1896. | 1897, | 1898, | 1899. | 1900, | 1901. | 1902, | 1908. | 1904,
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
Wirt so cise he 89 47 44 47 50 51 67 55 64
WANG. of 6240. ok cack ee ee 388 35 40 87 42 43 55 45 44 65
WIGDEGMIR co ous dee cclcn os ox aoe 30 22 82 34 38 40 46 36 37 55
South Dako . ones ens dak wae 25 27 35 34 37 39 43 41 40 57
North Dakota; .<: .<..e<cxcuc 27 22 36 36 37 41 43 43 43 60
MIGWIBDA oi on ss Waidcicncdcok Se oclewhcndalee ck (oleae ee. ee eee 60 64 63 77
WONG ne a ee a eo ed oe acd oe RE ep Oey a) teeter ed el Pee 80 50 69 40
GONSOG — . 5052 os Se eo 48 62 52 50 48 54 62 56 61 65
ee ee eee ae eee 85 40 60 46 48 52 65 61 65 67
PRON ih is es le a's or SeR ce tlcics dcaa ete doe eke Se ee a ee a eee 67 60 65 75 .
Wemerrictn oe 75 50 62 58 60 58 62 64 72 79 |
iy ys) eee SERS ae eee eae ere 64 60 59 72 70 61 66 73 97 89
oi Gila See eee eee Spee 58 60 65 70 78 58 57 75 77 78
STAIGIOG, ois Sales wi Sw 6's's cre wbaign on nel oa oy 45] dees ae ee ee eae 70 47 50 62
General average ......-. 44. 0 | 40.9 | 44.7) 46.3] 61.0{ 61.2] 55.7] 650.8] 54.5 68. 8

Orleans, by river.

Transportation rates, average fer rye in sacks, in cents per 100 pounds, St. Louis to New )
|

WHO Bini wacdedes sy cee 14. OO ot TSO wa cs tthe ceatenen oe see 16. 28°} 1898. 3:2. 3s ssame cle cece 10.00
a eee oer ee oe IDO) TSU cote nes acme osene 16.87 | T000'.. ness ccckmhae eee 10.00
Ce ee a ee 36. OO? 3O08 inch ec adswnwaeanee eee 17. 54 | 1900 5. wan cs snes poe nee 10. 00
pio) RASS SS Se eee Ce eee pS ae a ee ee $7.24) 200h:. icc 255s caeite ce 10.00
BAG ate oe Se sane Ra tanholons 3600 f TR ochic teal soma eetndvoes 33.00 | 2008 . 0.5 .065-c05 Secce eee 10.00
ARAL SS eee Te TY. 90 2) 2 aos reece ere nee 14.04 | T9008 2. iieiss -cdeie nes meee 10. 00
Lo REA ORE See ee eae 15.68 4 1607 5h .nanywevenntete cake 10.83 | 2904 0 sic. skagen (@)

aNo shipment.

.

Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the

-_—<q“— | ——wqX | qi |__| _ | —___ | __..__

New York. Cincinnati.
Date. Prime State. INO. "2:
Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1900. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents
SOTIUSI. ooo Sa eet ee ee 60 612 ' 69 64
WODPUATY. <j; ooo nek coe nce ee eee 603 642 61 65
a Se eee eee emees WET 60% 633 60 64
DT a a ee oe a ae eee ee 604 632 60 634
Sn ee Sn ee Sore Ee AN" 602 62} 61 635
ETN en Po as ee et 612 68 61 67
SULY SCs cc wees te See 57 65 59 66
MORUSLE. oo toe ee ee NS ee eee 4 58 513 60
Senream here oe rt on ee 563 603 53 57
OOTONCE 8.258 enka ate eT 56 61 55 59
Weve ber 4 <3 22") vast a ee ee 54 56 52 56
PSeem ers a: Joos 5 soko. se Gee ee 54 56 52 553
1901
= a ett oR ee I SS ok ef 57 59 53 584
ROTARY. Wo es re ee 592 . 61 56 59
cd ES pee St OE Ear at ls bee 604 61 55 59
ME 2 et a es ee } 3 54 583
1, Fy ee ee ee ae ae ES BP et 59 61} 57 62
Ss ete ape ee et sg SERS PRE 55 594 55 61
O51 a a eae por eNO gL iP Oe Sadth 512 61 45 553
F010. | a ae OR ee Ra le eS hg Tee: 59 61 623 64
September <2 oe 2 eee 59 62 564 60
CEtONeR Raul keene 58 622 563 593
November... .-5 oo. ~ 0b eee ee Se 63 68 57 653
Pee bare ooo Fo os conc bexs 683 724 643 73
1902.
UI eo Sete Eins A Se 68 74 66 713
Wighrtiawy i. % oi Bee ioe eae AOR 68 70 64 67
i ae ee a ey cea Ee Dia 63 69 63 65
yt EA 4. eee Tee Lee Sa eee 63 66 62 64
ry eed eerie AR. ee ge. ede see LO PT ae 65 67 60 633

United States, 1900-1904.

Chicago. Duluth.
No. 2.
Low. | High.

Low High.

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
50 52 483
51 552 50
522 55 51
53 553 514
53 562 51}
52? 603 623
50 58 49
48 514 48

Pe 533 50
47i 522 48
442 48 46
453 493 46:
47% 49} 48
48} 2 492
492 651i 502
483 53 49}
512 54 51
463 53 463
47 57 463
52 60 50
523 56 50
53 56 505
543 61 523
59 65} 574
56 673 54
56 604 53

3 58 52
543 574 52
544 58 54

STATISTICS OF RYE. 669

Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904—Cont’ d.

= New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. Duluth.
Date. Prime State. No. 2. No. 2.

SRR MEAT CT CE a Low. | High.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.

1902. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
SNe taee cuts civ ancte deiks uet/enecuss 65 66} 54 59 569 58 554 564
POY Sie itba binned akv Wea atx vaaidw a eee 65} 664 554 58 52} 614 51} 58
POUMUNGS cers ovcs Gece sina senwdcuws 574 66 51 56 48 54 46 51
DUO WOEien cok atks aiee dete ewssediaace 57 59} 52} 55} 49 504 47} 49
CLE Eg 8 as ee pe a ge I ee 67 583 52 53 48 50} 47 49
ROW OMMIOL ss os Sew usin aka cpeaces sbunec 58 59 51 54 48} 514 49 493
PAROGMEDEL des 4a <0.aUndvess sbiea dior s ate 574 594 51 56 48 493 48 49}
1903.
MINE Pi aietd tac ease ea aa ie ea weelet Alina vialeisieys| nde octane 554 59 48 } 48 49
seen OA Pe ars paras ace mcparai ini vipis iach | bw Aviary Shaleie oe plae 57% 58s 483 51} 48 49
TE Es Ran, sano (INES 56 581 484 51k 49 49}
PEPIN Seat hee e's Seuss Seed ceive ce ws||Qae eee Sal g ante wees 55 58 48 51 49 504
ORE ein Sd ce pak aa ghde cusaws ows heals toe doalocva wees 54 58 48 50} 49} 50
MUDCAT hota Sena ese ne alae actos wileere trem tral amiedeee.d 57 58 49 533 50 52
Re Runs Woe adap eu leaba centenarians lee atiena nfoadadsag 56 574 492 514 48} 504
ES rs PPO me ee Tad Pere: T) eee AT 55 60 503 534 504 522
I an. ot anal eobedquuhiwnn|chabesapentnabix 595 63 53 60 504 554
MMA eS Wie cae ens casein wae ces | Ucate telecine 61 63 53 2 52 54
November 58 62 514 582 52 54
MEEAPSEI ET. ede cies tre eta Uta te ke cl et poems sleweclectole 59 623 505 524 51 522
1904. | q
RI CS Seen tee chon es cos ale ae we me |e ati oe we 61 64 OL 57 i Be
RUN = ole eee, «ian rca aa eters Sele | meres] ee atten 63 81 56 77 58 73
| a a oe ee Se ee 76 80 664 76 63 yp i
PREY Sun oe ak Gol ao scatters men oearedeslis,s Ratu 74 78 66 {p2 64 684
Te th a aie Se 8 Se Pal ee oe ee 75 80 693 78 65 69
eerie tees CA. . Oe ee hs SMEs eee [oa od sas lina totes 76 80 635 75 55 67
MEE aca 2's.iau a om carae eels ae cate | od cate cicle tat ce arelw os 73 78 63 7 55 80
SS eS Se Ses ee 2 i ee ee Pee ie oe 70 76% 62 76 62 75
MERUETE DED SoS se os. wee Creer dete. (ested es c[s ret aeee 75 83 692 75 72 77
REMI. ore ca et c.ccale eater aeiae |< ottiees = lecarenee 81 87 75 793 77 792
EURMOTEAIOE. Sok nmin sok dct wee ent ain) mm ele aes 3a cinta sae 83 87 76 81 74 80
PEPE NOL ciwecien sces + cen scents ccise ce stecleteeaeee 81 86 73 75 71 74
Monthly average prices of rye in Chicago.4
[Cents per bushel.]
Month. 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904,
FO hs Se ae Se ps 54 443 | 491 | 362 | 36 462 | 563] 51 48§ | 613 | 492 | 54
MGITIIAES 22 5. moos ges ons 52 45 513 | 393 | 34 483 | 553 | 6533 | 492] 58: | 6504 | 672
Nea eats ew ace mast 49: | 473 | 523 | 37% | 33: | 498 | 522 | 533] 503 | 562] 503 | 712
UMAR ic Sint) see ce rs +--| 493 | 48 60 363 | 333] 56 553 | 542 | 603 | 56 49: | 69
aw awn ck wg oahu aad 57 463 | 643 | 34% | 342 | 613 | 592 | 54g | 523 | 562 | 493 | 732
EE Fae, 5 5 me Saacis Seen 503 | 473 | 633 | 312 | 3833] 45 59 573 | 493 | 572} 512 | 692
5 ib oe I 47 44 51 302 | 373 | 453 | 553] 54 52 563 | 503 | 69
PES = daring onc a bab 45 453 | 42 30 48i | 433] 54 493 | 56 51 52 69
September. ..2 un. ee sees 438i | 473 | 89 333 | 493 | 453 | 56 513 2 | 493 | 663 | 722
TU TELPEY 0. 27 eRe 2 Ee Se DR ae 45 47 39 373 | 46 48 563 | 493 | 548 | 492 + | 772
NOWECRIDEN 5 Seas. oaks ws 453} | 473 | 363 | 393 | 464] 513 | 51 46; | 573] 50 643 | 78)
DECEMPEL. oo eesessmeecse ss 463 | 4823 | 34 3893 | 462 | 54 4 | 47§ | 622 | 487] 513) 74
Yearly average ..... 483 | 46,%| 48§ | 35%) 40 493 | 55.) 52 533 | 54355) 51§ | 7043

aThis table exhibits average cash prices for the pest twelve years. The monthly prices are the
means between the lowest and highest prices for each month, and the yearly prices are the averages
of the monthly averages.

670 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUCKWHRBAT, |

Condition of the buckwheat crop of the United States, monthly, 1887-1904.
Year, | Aug. sept.| Oct. | Year,| Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Year,| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. || Year.) Aug. | Sept.| Oct. |

1887 ..| 93.3 | 89.1 | 76.6 || 1892.} 92.9 | 89.0 | 85.6 || 1897.| 94.9 | 95.1 | 90.8 || 1901./ 91.1 | 90.9} 90.5 |
1888 ..| 92.5 | 98.7 | 79.1 || 1893.) 88.8 | 77.5 | 73.5 || 1898.) 87.2 | 88.8 | 76.2 || 1902.| 91.4 | 86.4) 80.5
1889 ..| 95.2 | 92.1 | 90.0 || 1894.| 82.3 | 69.2 | 72.0 || 1899.) 93.2 | 75.2 | 70.2 || 1903.| 93.9 | 91.0] 83.0

1890 ..| 90.1 | 90.5 | 90.7 |} 1895.| 85.2 | 87.5 | 84.8 || 1900.) 87.9 | 80.5 | 72.8 || 1904.| 92.8 | 91.5 | 88.7 ;
1891 ..| 97.3 | 96.6 | 92.7 || 1896.) 96.0 | 93.2 | 86.0

Acreage, production, value, and price of buckwheat in the United States, 1866-1904.

gehen
Average arm |
Year, Acreage. | yield per| Production. | price per ro
acre. bushel, ae )
Dee. 1.
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.

TORS Seaedaes woes sabes. ton deeds pee ss 1, 045, 624 21.8 22, 791, 839 67.6 15, 413, 160
TON cra dontilsn dak domees sae e oeeean tenes 1, 227, 826 17.4 21, 359, 000 78.7 16, 812, 070
Ay ee Cee eS oe 1, 118, 993 17.8 19, 863, 700 78.0 15, 490, 426
pi Re eee eee eee el ee 1, 028, 693 16.9 17, 431, 100 71.9 12, 534, 851
pi: eee Sey Selle ces 536, 992 18.3 9, 841, 500 70.5 6, 937, 471
TUN fo sade han spateacsen cues Lad sane aus 413, 915 20.1 8, 328, 700 74.5 6, 208, 165
WRT a ceases sok wines vo eines bet eee 448, 497 18.1 8, 133, 500 73.5 5, 979, 222
BRR iaas dow das vane nee + acske Ook wane ene 454, 152 17.3 7, 837, 700 75.0 5, 878, 629

452, 590 17.7 8, 016, 600 72.9 5, 843, 645

575, 530 17.5 10, 082, 100 62.0 6, 254, 564

666, 441 14.5 9, 668, 800 66.6 6, 435, 836
BET sc cuidantians > ke Ook one Meehan can geen 649, 923 15.7 10, 177, 000 66.9 6, 808, 180
MIDs ecw ds ads <n» b= ohle ont a Seb ane bodes 673, 100 18.2 12, 246, 820 52.6 6,441,240
Re vote = Ge in'k ste passe tekanseebens 639, 900 20.5 13, 140, 000 59.8 7, 856, 191
DES ie cand Baten hans oh6 ode Sg Sete 822, 802 17.8 14, 617, 585 59. 4 8, 682, 488
Nn avg Couns A eth ads funder aateerda 828, 815 11.4 9, 486, 200 86.5 8, 205, 705 |
BR sis ns Paden 2s $4 site One gee ang cee ae 847, 112 13.0 11, 019, 353 73.0 8, 038, 862
ee Oa ee eer eee ye 857, 349 8.9 7, 668, 954 82.2 6, 303, 980
BE cp bcittiraas «func snu tes Gadiens Gere 879, 403 12.6 11, 116, 000 58.9 6, 549, 020
EP EE Ep, CE EET REE OF FP 914, 394 13.8 12, 626, 000 55.9 7, 057, 363 :
NE as shnnan Seren rosn maeeen bene 917, 915 12.9 11, 869, 000 54.5 6, 465, 120
| Ee ee ate Rae ee, 910, 506 11.9 10, 844, 000 56. 5 6,122,320,
Bo vin dake nexus ene vay sendintcn oe ate 912, 630 13.2 12, 050, 000 63.3 7, 627, 647 :
2 SA ete, Soe oberon oP em 2th 837, 162 14.5 12, 110, 329 60.5 6,113,119
TS oud ors a ature eo tan hae tan tages 844, 579 14.7 12, 432, 831 57.4 7, 132, 872
Ss sawn stewedas eet ss lone ae eee nae 849, 364 15.0 12, 760, 932 57.0 7, 271, 506
ects es ea ae 2s Poe eed 861, 451 14.1 12, 143, 185 51.8 6, 295,643
POs ds ha hem 5s Rikon obhaneS See 815, 614 14.9 12, 122, 311 58. 4_ 7, 074, 450
BOG ac sh yu Sask eek a ovens See ee 789, 232 16.1 12, 668, 200 55. 6 7,040,238 —
BO) lee cau wee e ans wae aeete ae ae ene 763, 277 20.1 15, 341, 399 45, 2 6, 936, 325
FE anand Veen big his dali a 754, 898 18.7 14, 089, 783 39, 2 5, 522, 339
je) a Ee AES BA ALES Hae OES SS ed 717, 836 20.9 14, 997, 451 42.1 6, 319, 188 .
TOU Yo goo whe tan dae Geek ei seae =e ete'a de 678, 332 17.3 11, 721, 927 45. 0 5,271,462
bo aR PRES Sy ay ah roe ALS ae 670, 148 16.6 11, 094, 473 55.7 6, 188, 675 ‘
TO ee ae ent eee a AMES ee 637, 930 15.0 9, 566, 966 55. 8 5, 341, 413
1 lps ES IR Sts SN, AE tee 811, 164 18.6 15, 125, 939 56.3 8, 523, 317
Ce i Aap PE SI ER BR eee Ne eps ee: 804, 889 18.1 14, 529, 770 59. 6 8, 654, 704
ot Sage ES nee SE See 804, 393 27:7 14, 243, 644 60.7 8, 650, 733
FONT. ph egou td cpakan picasa isn Sn eats 793. 625 18.9 15, 008, 336 62.2 9, 330, 768

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in buckwheat, 1,227,826 acres, was
reported in 1867; the greatest production, 22,791,839 bushels, in 1866; the greatest
farm value on December 1, $16,812,070, in 1867; the greatest average yield per acre,
21.8 bushels, in 1866; the greatest average farm price per bushel on December 1,
86.5 cents, in 1881. For the five years 1900-1904 the average area is 770,400 acres;
the average production, 13,694,931 bushels; the average farm value on December 1,
$8,100,187: the average yield per acre, 17.8 bushels; the average farm price per
bushel on December 1, 59.1 cents.

STATISTICS OF BUCKWHEAT. 671

Acreage, production, and value of buckwheat in the United States in 1904, by States.

Average | Average

farm value Farm value,
orice, | per acre, Dec 1,
Jec, 1, Dec. 1.

Average
States, Acreage, yield | Production.
per acre,

LN | |

Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Dollars.

DELO s siditiaS < ale ahh, hdd oto owe as 28, 725 32.5 771, 062 52 16. 90 400, 952
New Hampshire ............. 1, 952 25. 1 48, 995 68 17. 07 33, 317
PrOLRIONG kwh as Salbcek rive +s cee 9, 227 26.3 242, 670 56 14. 73 135, 895
PLOSBAGRUAOUS. <0 (5c sae ec once s 2, 507 16.2 40, 613 72 11. 66 29, 241
BIONMIOCUCUL a. cei anc view mene 8, 636 16.3 59, 267 73 11.90 43, 265
NE eee et ee 841, 749 18.8 6, 424, 881 61 11. 47 8,919,177
POW POLED Vi a ckcbk Went bocsees 13, 005 20.8 270, 504 66 13. 73 178, 533
BOGMTING 1 VANS wise a ibe get oak xm 244, 629 18.8 4, 599, 025 63 11. 84 2, 897, 386
DRRWALO’ bo 0 sitive gens one oie ne 1,475 izeak 17, 848 62 (fa 11, 066
UE as Ea Se eee ger 8, 290 18.2 150, 878 63 11.47 95, 053
MLIAPETEPOANS oc Swaiei vite San Soke 0 19, 414 LO 330, 038 64 10. 88 211, 224
PROMEIE GAPORMTNO OS vies ccc b oie ae 5, 719 14.7 84, 069 71 10. 44 59, 689
LOS ee erage 578 15.5 8, 959 fil 11.01 6, 361
WV GHG VIDRURIS oat oa a fence ek = 21, 131 19.1 403, 602 72 13. 75 290, 593
RM cee ee ooaact talks eek se 9, 180 16.9 155, 142 72 207 111, 702
CUTE MS oe 35, 086 15. 4 540, 324 ol 9.39 329, 598
BMVCMIOUTIEL C6 oir -<\. Ba caieic cc See arte 5, 282 16.1 85, 040 70 11, 27 59, 528
SURMIVOIN tals 28 eos sowae csi ew zee 4, 574 17.9 81, 875 78 13. 96 63, 862
SEIBRERBE St k i8 IC. oles a tas Be 23, 874 17.7 422,570 63 11.15 266, 219
PERTITRGRORE NGS 2.2, sto ss SAS se ciate 4,777 16.1 72,188 60 9. 06 43, 280
Bene i ee eh er ada 8, 015 14.8 118, 622 67 9. 92 79,477
LSS TTS a 16S Sep eee eae ae 2,014 13.5 27,189 85 11. 48 23,111
LOE Oh ee ie ae ee 1,594 14.0 22,316 80 11. 20 17, 853
Rey Sh dR ee aie ee see 935 14.7 13,744 91 13. 38 12, 507
NOFiR DRE OA ,.5. 2/50. < =,0,0.00"-'- 1, 257 13.5 16, 970 70 9. 45 11, 879

United States .......... 793, 625 18.9 15, 008, 336 62.2 11. 76 9, 330, 768

Average yield per acre of buckwheat in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.

States, 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.

Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush.
42.3! |. 35.0

WVITIG patete cinerea 6 cere Oeics oa six 2 38.6 26.5 |} 22.0} 30.0] 31.7] 30.4] 29.8 32.5
New tanipshire -< of... se. 29 Dis Zi leeaiOulpe 20.0), 20.01), 22,0" 210 1 2050:| 19.6 25.1
TING se eit acters oc 34.0 | «31.4 | 240 ol4°) 23.0), 25.07} 25.1 1 225.0 | 24.0 26.3
Massaenesetts 22.522... 2. 16.0 | 18.3) 400") 200 | 20,03) -170 1) 18.9} 344 | 38.7 16.2
OS 15.4 | 14.2} 17.0] 19.0] 19.0] 16.0] 18.0] 18.4] 17.5 16.3
GW MOP en se See ccc c la. 21 Ae SAG le eens etOG, fe scOw 24 Ose 1eeS.) 17-7'| 18,8 18.8
WE SUG Ghigo Spe 1S 7 \ue 20a el GrOniae eis Oiie 21, Ole 16.0F 0 19504 22561 18. 20.8
EPRMEVIVOHIG 2 .5...---.5-.- 19Eo Visor One dye |. 20.0.0 14.0) | 51955 I 18.1 | 1655 18.8
SO WAI oo ncuaes se ncn on,20'- 10,0 |. 20.8 ees) 16.6 1.18.61. 13.0:1 17.8 | 16.2: |. 16.2 124
(a ee 2 10.9 }.22.7 Ve teee P1220 18.0) 15.0: 1° 17.5 | 17:0 | 16.8 18.2
Way sath 1 eee ee er LOE | RES cOS te Oileed ioc |. i4.0:) o13.0) | * 16.9) |) 1636) |, 18:6 17.0
NOTtMESTOAA <2 2. 2 far aes 1250 \5 20:00 Li Ok 1925 i 7 0) AS OF |) 16.6 | 1456") 12.7 14.7
HIEHTIPARGE | een ot Seek 10,0 | 24.0). 18:0) 18:0 |. 12.01 14,0) 14:2 | 18:9) 14.7 15.5
BVIPR bE Wiset NIE nec fee oe SES yp LO Dito Or cero ta Ou a4 Ot 20.6 | 2255 }- 17-2 19.1
LEEK D at ee ey ae eye 14.6} 136.3 1.18.0 F280 1 16.0.) 16.0°) - 18.1 | .13.9 | 16.6 16.9
Pee a ces F752 |. 153 LTO see i hd OF) 14.0 14.1 13,0:-|.15..5:|) 154
OE ES ee ee oe JAS |p eos) ped. Orie 1554 [2 16.0) | 14.07} 13.1) 176°) 16.8 16.1
LUST SS eae Ae ay ee Soe 13.3 | 18.8] 13.0] 14.0] 15.0] 15.0} 11.0] 15.5] 15.3 17.9
MIRCOMAIN omer scot ee Lico: pede Ot eae Otedorg hte, Obl 14007 1904)" -16,0:) 15.6 17.7
MITIMCBOM see ces Ge nas oso 152 a) |S LOG le tie Heo Oliv Ooo, G i 145°)" 18, 9-1 16.2 15.1
BO Wines sees cnet ows. 13.5} 16.2] 17.0] 16.0] 16.0] 15.0] 18.5] 16.0] 15.1 14.8

Shandris eet 10.2] 21.8| 15.0] 15.8] 14.0| 13.0| 6.0! 16.01 14.8] 13.5

MATING tem cae ee ae ae nas ni] a ote tales oe eee earee ae |S eet g ole sieneet 7.9 135-0" 12 -18..4 14.0
NGDIBBKE,._. ars sass as] eee Get, ied oils Oi tes Se | FO: O16. OFF 11-55 |) 14.7 |. 19:0 14.7
MOTE DR OGM eotceerte eee a ot co noe eae want al nae rai acme len ete dale oes «ue PED |) “1050" | ~ 127 13.5
CRORON ooo ee eee ID ieee me oOU we IaeOrl sn deeO ly 15.0 foo ote lees ccoclooece cle wee coe

672 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Average value per acre of buckwheat in the United States, based upon farm value December
1, 1895-1904, by States.

States. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899, | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.

Mate. oc cbc ee $17. 76 |$16.07 |$15. 40 |$10. 34 | $9.68 |$14.70 /$15.22 |$15. 81 |$15. 20 | $16. 90
New Hampshire ............- 14.05 | 17.20 | 14.85 | 9.40 | 10.00 | 11.44 | 11.55 | 13.00 | 11.56 | 17,07
WOFMDRE |. 3. cunts een 12.77 | 12.56 | 11.04 9.84 | 11.96 | 12.50 | 14.81 | 14.00 | 18.20 14. 73
Moaspachusetts | <<. 82s .c4cc.- 8.85 | 9.70 | 12.54 | 12.20 | 14.00 | 12.24 | 11.53 | 10.66] 9.32] 11.66
Connections 53. .+ :.2 35. 8.62 | 7.24] 9.69 | 10.64 | 11.97 | 10.40 | 11.70 | 18.06 | 12.42 | 11,90
Naw Worm: ca oso ecco eet 9.42} 6.96 | 8.80] 7.56] 7.67] 7.98 | 10.72 |} 10.44 | 10.80] 11.47
NOW ARIGOY 2.2.0 ceccdspaeenss 9.35 |} 8.07 | 7.84 | 11.34] 11.76 | 9.44] 9.88 | 14.40] 11,58] 13.78
Pennsylvania .... 22. <-..-cns: 8.76-|. 6.57 | 8.82 | 7.57] 10.80] 7.70 | 10.92 | 11.04 | 10,56] 11.84
pS eile ad oo! Bee 5.00} 6.00} 6.84) 6.60] 8.82] 6.76} 9.79} 9.12] 8.36 7.50
pO, eee ees oo ee al CORE 6.10} 11.12] 9.69] 6.47} 7.28] 8.55 | 10.50 | 10.37 | 10.27] 11.47
RMN R ree emer Sk ete 5.451 8.46 | 7.00] 7.79| 7.66] 7.15| 8.90] 9.96 | 11.857 10,88
Woreh Caroling .. ces ccsag cies 5.28 | 12.00 | 5.39] 9.86] 8.33 | 7.28] 9.67] 8.99} 7.86} 10.44
Waririqmmee <1) ot oi 8.) a 5.40 | 14.88 | 10.26] 9.86] 6.84] 8.26] 8.388 | 18.68 | 9.70)| 11.01
WHOSE VIEWING 0 an scckveucs 10. 72 9,75 9.31 | 10,05 9. 52 9.52 | 12.15 | 18.95 | 11.70 13. 75
Weipa SE hs ea ae Se 8.03 |} 8.08 | 9.00 | 10.20} 9.28 | 9.28] 9.66] 8.48] 10.79 | 12.17
ION. CL canes eit eos 7.40} 5.81 | 6.46] 5.96] 6.06 | 7.14] 7.19 F 6.89] 8.387 9. 39
Trae 3. eso ec ee. Se 8.29 | 12.24] 6.86] 9.88] 9.44] 8.54] 7.99] 10.21 |} 11.76] 11.27
1 ET a Piet RE SUSE Oe 5.85 | 6.21) 7.41 | 7.281 8.70] 9:75 7.70} 12.01 | Eo
MRIBROINAIT be eee 8.23 | 5.18] 6.84] 6.20] 9.45| 8.26| 7.82 | 9,44] 9.52) T2356
MINVGHNEE 6. ke kcte a eee 7.80} 4.35] 7.65] 7.85] 8.84] 8.55] 8.99] 7.92] 8.06 9. 06
PWM tote nee eee 6.75:| 7.45 | 8.88 | 7.69 | 9.28 | 9.60.) 9.45) 1% 20), 10:92 9.92
LS ETS a ie Pie ah BEET hw oe 5.92 | 15.26 | 9.00] 9.48 | 8.54] 8.97] 4.56] 9.34}]11.10] 11.48
bt Sepa aah ere, CE ESAnREY RELI e Was) ah Seng ese Shoe] tee be aR rs 5.92]; 9.00 | 14.85] 11.20
NGUIRSIR: | ccc ok ck eee. 4.86 | 10.65 | 7.14] 7.81] 9.92 | 10.24] 6.67! 7:79)|18.11 | 28588
Worth Dakote oo cccces can cl pcatelete res hoe oie es eee bee 6.90 | 5.40] 6.78 9. 45
Cp So oe Oe et es 7.75 114.28 | 9:90 | 8.122 |°12.58.| 10.01 |.2.....)...2. occa eee

General average ......- 9.09 | 7.32} 8.80] 7.77 | 9.23 | 8.37 | 10.51 | 10.76 | 10.75 | 21076

Average farm price of buckwheat per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1895-1904, by
States.

States, 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

| | | | Ss | FFE SE | | -

Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
46 38 44 39 44 49 48 52 51 52

1G ae aE SD ey I FP nae

New Hampshire ...;.......... 47 63 55 47 50 52 55 65
[MARION E he saeco eee oe 37 40 46 46 52 50 59 56
Massachusetts, 2. . 32.1 1c cnn cak 59 53 66 61 70 72 61 74
CONNOCUEM sion ccna teeeeeee: 56 51 57 56 63 65 65 71
ew. VOPR... ose atnsek kee an cake 44 37 40 45 59 57 57 59
New Jersey. oo .225..b. ee 50 39 49 54 56 59 52 64
FeNUSy WWenia-. o<0t casa 44 38 42 44 54 55 56 61
WPI WARE, foci oe ck ee 50 30 36 40 49 52 55 60
Marv lege. 7 so i baste 56 49 51 53 56 67 60 61
VRTEUINIA, oe hel ou b beets 54 47 50 45 54 55 56 60
North Garolina: ..s Jscs co nack 44 60 49 48 49 56 62 62
SPANTIGSHOG, |. id, utes soe ae eee 54 62 57 52 57 59 59 76
Wiest. Virginian... b< oe ee 57 50 49 49 56 56 59 62
Dy ae eRe he Sa ae ae OE INS 43 50 51 58 58 60 61
EOI oie cca ue eee kckecie wats 43 38 38 42) 55 51 51 53
ITIVE es ee ee 58 51 49 51 59 61 61 58
LA OS eh TS pein Se StL AEM 8 44 45 57 52 58 65 70 71
WHIROOUSIIY So oc eck tae ieee 46 38 38 40 63 59 59 59
Nermmenata: 2 22 or. ee 51 41 45 49 52 57 62 57
LCV eee A Cen ath te hee ae 50 46 49 48 58 64 70 70
PINSON Too oo oe cn cnet ues 58 70 60 60 61 69 76 58
PESUTISAS «5 ues So g Glas Sums ee CRISS Se re re |e eee een ce 75 70
WNebraskh.. = 565. 22. och ts we 65 50 61 61 62 64 58 53
North. Dakota. oh ee te see ale ee ae oh ee ge Te ee oe 60 54
WIPORONY oe reco nce eee 50 68 55 58 74 U7 \sncecsalecddccccless see ee

STATISTICS

OF POTATOES.

POTATOES.

673

Condition of the potato crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1904.

Year July. | Aug, Sept. Oct.
TOMO Toews (sence nc 95.1 94.3 81.7 77.9 || 1897
Sessa. Ukeweewes 91.7 77.4 66.7 61.7 || 1898
0 a ee ae 95.8 96, 5 94.8 91.3 || 1899
ak ae 90. 0 86.8 74.8 67.7 || 1900
OS SS ee 94.8 86.0 71.8 71.2 || 1901
ees 92.3 74.0 62.4 64.3 || 1902
Ee A ee 91.5 89.7 90.8 87.4 || 1903
ae Operas 99. 0 94.8 83, 2 81.7 || 1904

Year. July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct.

ee reo 87.8 77.9 66.7 61.6
ACA ee ie 95.5 83.9 Wed 72.6
Shae a atie we as 93.8 93.0 86.3 81.7
Guanine « ae 91.3 88, 2 80.0 74.4
eats as oa ek 87.4 62.3 52.2 54.0
a 92.9 94.8 89.1 82.5
ot eine ane 88.1 87,2 84.3 74.6
paths cehes = be 93.9 94.1 91.6 89.5

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of potatoes of the United States, 1866-1904,

Aver-

age
Year. | Acreage. | yield} Production.

per

acre

Acres. |Bush Bushels.

1866....} 1,069, 381 |100.2 | 107, 200, 976
1867....| 1,192,195 | 82.0 | 97,7838, 000
1868....| 1,181,552 | 93.8 | 106, 090, 000
1869....| 1,222, 250 |109.5 | 183, 886, 000
1870....{ 1,325,119 | 86.6 | 114, 775, 000
1871....| 1,220,912 | 98.7 | 120, 461, 700
1872....| 1,331,331 | 85.3 | 118, 516, 000
1873....}| 1,295,139 | 81.9 | 106, 089, 000
1874....| 1,310,041 | 80.9 | 105, 981, 000
1875....| 1,510,041 |110.5 | 166, 877, 000
1876....| 1,741,983 | 71.7 | 124, 827,000
1877....| 1,792,287 | 94.9 | 170,092, 000
1878....| 1,776,800 | 69.9 | 124, 126, 650
1879....| 1,836,800 | 98.9 | 181, 626, 400
1880....} 1,842,510 | 91.0 | 167, 659, 570
1881....| 2,041,670 | 53.5 | 109, 145, 494
1882....| 2,171,636 | 78.7 | 170, 972, 508
1883....| 2,289,275 | 90.9 | 208, 164, 425
1884....} 2,220,980 | 85.8 | 190, 642, 000
1885. . 2, 265, 823 | 77.2 | 175, 029, 000
1886....} 2,287,186 | 73.5 | 168, 051, 000
1887....| 2,357,322 | 56.9 | 134,103, 000
1888....| 2,533,280 ! 79.9 | 202, 365, 000
1889....| 2,647,989 | 77.4 | 204, 881, 441
1890....] 2,651,579 | 55.9 | 148, 289, 696
1891....| 2,714,770 | 93.7 | 254, 423, 607
1892....| 2,547,962 | 61.5 | 156, 654, 819
1893....} 2,605,186 | 70.3 | 183, 034, 203
1894....| 2,737,973 | 62.4 | 170, 787, 338
1895. ...| 2, 954, 952 100.6 | 297, 237,370
1896....| 2,767,465 | 91.1 | 252, 234, 540
1897....| 2,534,577 | 64.7 | 164, 015, 964
1898....| 2,557, 729 | 75.2 |.192, 306, 338
1899. ...| 2,581, 353 | 88.6 | 228, 783, 232
1900....| 2,611, 054 | 80.8 | 210, 926, 897
1901....| 2, 864,335 | 65.5 | 187, 598, 087
1902....| 2,965, 587 | 96.0 | 284, 632, 787
1903....] 2,916, 855 | 84.7 | 247,127, 880
1904....| 3,015,675 |110.4 | 332, 830, 300

28.6

2 Ie oN
ot ee a
ORE THOR

62, 918, 660
57, 481, 362
74, 621,019
64, 905, 189
60, 692, 129
69, 153, 709
65, 223, 314
57, 357, 515
77, 319, 541
74, 272, 500
72, 923, 575
79, 153, 673
81, 062, 214
99, 291, 341
95, 304, 844
87, 849, 991
75, 524, 290
78, 153, 403
78, 441, 940
91, 506, 740
81, 413, 589
72, 610, 934
112; 341, 708
91, 012, 962
103, 567, 520
108, 661, 801
91, 526, 787
78, 984, 901
72, 182, 350
89, 643, 059
79,574, 772
89, 328, 832
90, 811, 167
143, 979, 470
134, 111, 436
151, 688, 094
150, 673, 392

Chicago price per
bushel, Burbank.

May of fol-
lowing
year.

December.

Low. |High.| Low. |High.

Otae WwOter ||) Cts Cts.
PRE NG eae 33 50
44 47 65 90
70 83 65 85
30 37 24 45
33 45 30 60
82 93 95 | 110
30 40 30 50
60 72 70 98
51 60 64 88
43 58 40 70
18 24 10 23
18 26 19 26
50 62 60 87
30 36 33 52
35 46 27 39
40 48 35 60
75 82 58 | 100
42 48 42 60
60 66 32 38
Sor le llGrpots sel. <5

Domestic} Imports
exports, | during
fiscal fiscal
years be-| years be-
ginning | ginning
July 1. | July 1.

Bushels. | Bushels.
198, 265
209, 555
138, 470

75, 336
458, 758
96, 259
346, 840
549, 073
188, 757
92,148

8, 205, 555
528, 584

2, 624, 149
721, 868

2,170, 372

8, 789, 860

2, 362, 362
425, 408
658, 633

1, 937, 416

1, 432, 490

8, 259, 538
883, 3

3, 415, 578
5, 401, 912
186, 871
4,317, 021
3, 002, 578
1, 341, 533
175, 240
246, 178
1, 171, 378
530, 420
155, 861
371, 911
7, 656, 162
58, 505

3, 166, 581

The preceding table shows that the greatest area in potatoes, 3,015,675 acres, was
reported in 1904; the greatest production, 332,830,300 bushels, in the same year; the
greatest farm value on December 1, $151,638,094, in 1903; the greatest yield per acre,
110.5 bushels, in 1875; the greatest average farm price per bushel on December 1, 91

cents, in 1881.

For the five years 1900-1904 the average area is 2,874,701 acres; the

average production, 252,623,190 bushels; the average farm value on December 1,
$134, 242,712; the average yield per acre, 87.9 bushels; the average farm price per
bushel on December 1, 53.1 cents.

2 al904——43

674 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

Acreage, production, and value of potatoes in the United States in 1904, by States,

Average Average | Average

States and Territories, Acreage. ye s. Production, ~— a riya rom aa
oa : Dec, 1. | Dec, 1.

Acreés. Bushels. Bushels, Cents. Dollars Dollars.
DEGINGs ose eck cesndesce i eswhee 91, 431 215 19, 657, 665 48 103, 20 9, 435, 679
New Hampshire ............. 19, 922 135 2, 689, 470 56 75. 60 1, 506, 103
WOPMMONG s oSas5 an duis se ces cel 27, 388 128 38, 505, 664 47 60. 16 1, 647, 662
Massachusetts .......scccene- 29, 740 119 3, 539, 060 71 84, 49 2,512, 733
Rhode Taland « oc cicscccsacks 6, 832 137 935, 984 76 104,12 711, 348
OOVneerviOus: os xa cousin ocx ects 32, 254 96 8, 096, 384 72 69, 12 2, 229, 396
Gram Ck eo ee Sat 442, 254 93 41, 129, 622 54 50, 22 22, 209, 996
MAW OTOOP oa 628 ccace td asnawt 62, 876 115 7, 230, 740 61 70.15 4, 410, 751
Pennsylvania ..........c2<-:- 256, 361 106 27,174, 266 54 57. 24 14, 674, 104
POUR WETS os deka wes cdane nent 7, 601 84 638, 484 53 44, 52 338, 397
RRP VISTI Voc Sac ocw'ecencolass 29, 939 99 2, 963, 961 51 50. 49 1, 511, 620
TIN se Se oe ce oe 52, 986 83 4, 397, 838 55 45. 65 2,418, 811
North Garolina 2... .s<2..0s<. 25, 627 78 1, 998, 906 70 54. 60 1, 399, 234
South Carolina... ss2.<cs0se cts 8, 726 88 767, 888 101 88. 88 775, 567
George, sick. ecto ca oc eeetee 8, 542 70 597, 940 107 74. 90 639, 796
iy OSG PRE pee ee aa fe aS SEEN 3, 454 102 352, 308 129 131. 58 454, 477
ATR DEIIG LW, Soe te cotsndc ences 9, 450 61 576, 450 99 60. 39 570, 686
ME SERIONIT oo to sta eee 5, 748 82 471, 336 85 69. 70 400, 636
POWIEIMU cnn cam eheek sR oaekact 8, 710 70 609, 700 91 63. 70 554, 827
ORR cas tes tenner tons 31, 196 72 2, 246, 112 93 66.96 2, 088, 884
“A PRANBGS = 25. ow esereeeee 22, 612 77 1, 741, 124 75 57.75 1, 305, 843
"PONMORGGS . iawweclsiecuctiaecnt 24, 583 71 1, 745, 393 62 44, 02 1, 082, 144
Weak Vireinis.. «cust cewcreean 34, 036 101 3, 437, 636 54 54. 64 1, 856, 323
Mantnae woes. 2) ss pace newt 35, 803 83 2,971, 649 55 45. 65 1, 634, 407
MO rah ene och denen ee 163, 566 98 16, 029, 468 47 46. 06 7, 533, 850
Wioehilsan’. oo) 2h). soa cas 262, 865 121 31, 806, 665 29 35. 09 9, 223, 938
PVLCMUATIE oo oo a he ecw Sewanee 80, 225 93 7, 460, 925 45 41, 85 3, 357, 416
WUTIVIOIS: = 20 oes woe os wea sie teres 147, 670 108 15, 948, 360 47 50. 76 7,495, 729
MU IBCOUNA TE tk cee re oa Aa 249, 997 126 31, 499, 622 28 35. 28 8, 819, 894
Minnesote 26s s0os: feos: 187, 215 102 13, 995, 930 29 29.58 4, 058, 820

Ves es Se oeres sae Pee Oa 164, 368 136 22, 354, 048 28 38. 08 6, 259, 133 |

1S a Oe ee 85, 237 96 8, 182, 752 48 46. 08 3, 927, 721
Warnngn 5 fee eo. lat leis 69, 257 80 5, 540, 560 56 44. 80 3, 102, 714
NODYOSKA) ~ <1 5s acon obese beee 85, 435 120 10, 252, 200 26 31. 20 2, 665, 572
South Dakota. 220. .eeeses 33, 086 96 3, 176,256 30 28. 80 952, 877
North Dakota -2. =... <.<26 ces 24, 926 111 2, 766, 786 32 35. 52 885, 372
WOM See ee sale 28 13, 162 143 1, 882, 166 61 87. 23 1, 148, 121

Wiyermriny | == Sooo) eae: 3, 848 161 619, 528 62 99. 82 ss
CROPBOO Seat eee cao nsee 54, 311 159 8, 685, 449 37 58. 83 8,195, 116

New MerziG0). 2225 bie ce ess: 1, 386 62 82, 832 78 48. 36 64,
fdr REE i ee eee 12, 483 137 1,710,171 48 65. 76 820, 882
INGVOUS 3.2052 svete wawret ss 2,724 131 356, $44 65 85.15 231, 949
LO LG ple a) aS een my eS oes ee 11, 439 139 1, 590, 021 63 87.57 1, 001, 713
Washineton. a2. .2...s\. eee: 29, 999 120 3, 599, 880 56 67. 20 2, 015, 983
Oregon Fe Soke tote SS 37, 489 87 8, 261, 543 59 51. 33 1, 924, 310
Maltrormia.; oo .2. hb pot ee 47,001 129 6, 063, 129 67 86. 43 4, 062, 296
ORishoma wee 7 bat een oe 10, 125 85 860, 625 77 65. 45 662, 681
JDGIAN ‘Territory. <<. 0.5 ces 9, 840 69 678, 960 75 61.75 509, 220
United States .......... 3, 015, 675 110.4 | 332, 830, 300 45.3 49, 96 150, 673, 392

Average yield per acre of potatoes in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.
Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.
PRIN Gs aacuctee dst cuskoec es 163 165 59 130 139 126 150 130 196 215
New Hampshire ............. 134 108 51 90 127 101 108 120 98 135
Wermontd 2423. o3es35e4ek dose 154 128 70 105 132 134 90 94 138 128
Massachusetis:.. «(i 0--5 24555 133 108 62 97 134 79 77 109 96 119
Rhode [sland 6.0 ese 138 105 110 123 142 94 98 164 125 137
Conneotiouti.222 oes es eect 128 106 54 100 130 96 81 92 96 96
New Yorktown) 0050: ae? 122 89 62 73 88 81 78 66 89 93
eew Janey sa7) hes he 94 94 68 75 83 69 59 132 99 115
PEPNSVLVSMIS 2) Sok ee lll 109 63 54 85 58 62 83 91 106
Dela Weta re oo oe ee 58 78 60 49 52 48 55 79 84 84 —
Maryland 22s. Ji (eee 87 90 74 58 64 55 60 80 70 99
Mamettriia<3)4 6225 65 ee ee 73 93 61 68 66 58 71 75 84 83
North, Cerolina: . 2s -<% atsees 79 79 66 67 57 61 64 64 67 78
South Carolia: 0. ere 90 52 65 65 56 78 70 69 81 88
Georgie: 542. Se ces. SSS, 58 55 52 54 46 68 64 58 73 70
lal Gty fst i eee eee 55 75 75 64 69 60 62 90 82 102
Wiabsmnees 2. eee ee 70 64 55 74 56 69 67 50 67 61
(ho: AS eee Reape 58 70 59 74 61 66 62 69 82 82

STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 675

Average yield per acre of potatoes in the United States, 1895-1904, by States—Cont’d

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.

Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush.) Bush. | Bush.
55 6 78 60 70 30 7

TL ISMRTAG, oC a8 on Sh sises eee bees 89 4 6 65 50 0
PE ids os cade sobs awe aWi wa 89 2 60 78 64 62 54 66 67 72
PEEIOGE wih ve skh Une a.eip'akis > 70 59 55 74 63 72 46 72 70 77
MEILONNOO. £5. aGWi ck csc ekbec 64 62 40 52 44 54 46 62 66 71
WVCRU VAT IIIG ow weis nant vekestis's 69 93 56 62 te 80 52 96 80 101
Uses lel A ne aS Ss = eee 86 85 47 64 51 70 35 80 73 83
Re CREE hd ck GMa ites dicen nal ws 63 89 42 61 71 76 54 94 83 98
PEROMERGID veh cnwincah& thee bean 101 88 72 79 66 97 81 72 78 121
SMCEISBTIEL GG yale onsale, cd sn oioylgel 6m 66 85 31 71 76 83 31 101 76 93
OO SS ck ve dun acco nes 77 97 38 70 96 92 35 118 72 108
Eset wie awmraere cictiie wrenches 107 78 99 98 103 103 75 115 58 126
MIPEORUILEL Lc <ra.t'n cman niete ew 158 84 106 85 96 81 68 98 64 102
ee eee 106 94 60 80 100 72 32 98 56 136
SLT gS gnc ge appa eigen 109 78 42 66 82 93 17 128 66 96
DAMIER Sic ciate Sink wine ehiee eka wie 72 69 48 70 95 72 26 138 58 80
IRRSTORE Re doen ch baseuve 67 90 69 65 94 66 33 137 64 120
PEE DRAB OUR faeces ka asceeen 66 96 94 72 78 73 45 74 89 96
POOLE ARMOUR ic Sec wccew seen 128 102 99 87 103 52 110 105 84 111
Oho See ee ee ee ee 53 170 156 104 141 134 157 153 176 143
UII OA ais ach xem anges a 100 167 150 120 125 99 113 100 167 161
MMCNRLO Doe wc poe ioneeunics 95 88 97 77 84 56 120 100 145 159
POMOC ICO Vs Sescjcm oa kc clue 80 72 90 58 49 19 50 72 87 62
ure Movcaetagt Be peat lgrate Systane 172 155 148 135 120 118 114 157 177 137
PURMRRCLON < fot oa iad in ape we re © 150 190 135 155 102 156 141 212 117 131
MCI opto a ko Sa seis Wald ctiecie ve 105 162 140 120 124 136 108 149 160 139
MVORNANE GON 2 oi. caossbarw.0 w 149 125 162 108 144 116 117 136 145 120
NORE Cos we tei teewam sRScns2 64 87 160 86 115 110 90 103 107 87
NRMP TS DEEDS onc Gas x nine athe ature 75 80 105 95 119 104 101 118 130 129
MOBRMRINS ISIN Sandee cit arte nc 5) en cea nian Cre ate Sau Paola a Slates os viefaucw state 55 97 78 85
Rae RTT ITLON UA: 6- cet coat rit cates: ween ck. ote Sel new « cow awh. oe Aetio wate 63 85 70 69

General average ....... 100.6 | 91.1] 64.7] 75.2] 88.6] 80.8] 65.5] 96.0] 84.7] 110.4

Average value per acre of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December
1, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories 1895. | 1896 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 1902. | 1903. | 1904,

; |
WeSC oS ek se ee = 42 - 70) $52.51) $59.80) $58.38, $61.'74/$100. 50) $84. 50/$109. 76/$103. 20
New Hampshire's... 2%... 2.88] 50.76] 45.90] 44.10) 58.42) 53.53] 85.32) 82.80) 63.70) 75.60
MEPMONGS) ooo SF. coca ee weed 40.04 37. 12} 49.00) 44.10 47. 52! 53. 60} 57.60) 54.52) 69.00) 60.16
HORNA ONTISCLIA!. fe. Ones 63.84] 61.56] 55.80} 61.11) 76.38! 52.14] 69.30] 88.29] 68.16] 84.49
MeHOUe SHANG 325. oo. eae 62.10) 56.70) 106.70] 78.72) 71.00} 65.80} 91.14) 123.00) 102.50] 104.12
WOHNGCHCUG 32.00... oat dene 52.48) 48.76) 48.60) 55.00) 59.80) 67.20) 76.14) 67.16) 74.88) 69.12
MW CFI on eee ee ee 28.06] 27.59) 41.54) 30.66) 35.20} 36.45) 55.38) 38.94) 49.84] 50.22
MEW J CIsOy 626-52. 23 eee ee 31.96} 33.84) 538.04) 45.75) 42.33) 41.40} 50.15) 80.52) 68.31) 70.15
PSTINAyLVANIA. <2. - o.oo 31.08] 29.43) 41.58) 31.32] 36.55) 30.74| 47.12) 47.31] 56.42) 57.24
weinware. .c-..~0~.¢. cee ose 22.04) 27.30) 39.00) 33.81) 26.52) 28.80} 42.90) 40.29) 47.04) 44.52
PE VAPIIGES «oo aio acim eels oem 26.10} 27.00} 50.32) 30.74) 32.64) 29.70) 46.20) 41.60; 42.00) 50.49
Rebtatih so... ee ee 27.74| 31.62) 42.70) 37.40) 36.96} 34.22) 52.54) 43.50) 53.76) 45.65

43.45) 33.97; 42.24) 41.54) 37.62) 39.65) 46.08) 42.88) 49.58) 54.60
65.70) 34 32) 68.25) 65.00) 58.24) 78.00) 77.00) 66.24) 84.24) 88.88

North Carolina
South Carolina

GCOTeIn Blog at Ses ew dese a 41.18} 41.25) 52.00} 40.50) 38.18) 52.36) 67.84) 52.20) 68.62) 74.90
ENOMIOR Oren co cset toe ck oe ses 55.00} 63.00) 90.00) 76.80] 85.56) 68.60) 79.98) 109. 80) 103.32) 131.58
BIgDaMAGs. 2. jhe escapee x as 56.70) 48.00) 51.70) 61.42) 48.72) 56.58) 73.03) 46.50) 64.32) 60.39
Mississippi ....... eee ae 37.12) 43.40) 48.38) 53.28) 62.22) 54.78) 71.30) 63.48] 72.16) 69.70
BOUIMSMA Rt ccc 6 aw. eae os 64.08) 41.80) 54.40) 58.50) 48.60) 55.30) 60.60) 58.30) 45.50] 63.70
WOXES o. aecssaoee ewan see 69.42) 40.56) 57.00) 67.08) 58.24) 54:56) 67.50) 56.10) 58.96) 66.96
AT KANSASI <5 aoa a nece ees 35.70} 31.27) 46.20) 40.70) 44.78) 41.04) 57.96) 48.96) 55.30) 67.75
WENTICNHCE oe ache ao sehen ae 25.60} 24.80) 29.20) 29.64) 28.60} 31.82) 39.56) 39.68] 42.24) 44.02
Wreet Virwinias Svcd. cose ws 28.98} 28.83) 36.40) 33.48) 37.44) 40.80) 44.20) 48.96) 52.80) 54.54
MentUCRKY <<. 5< en vce eek nes 33.54} 28.05} 31.49) 29.44) 31.11) 35.00) 30.45) 42.40) 49.64) 45.65
pe A EE Bt hy ee 4 Edt 20.16) 24.14) 26.04) 25.01) 30.53) 30.40) 45.90) 41.36) 50.63) 46.06
BMICHISARD <3. cates o sak Se ees 16.16; 16.72) 30.96; 21.88) 21.12! 25.22) 55.08! 29.52) 38.22! 35.09
BWUAR A 26s osteo ae oe 20.46) 21.25) 19.22} 29.11) 32.68] 31.54) 27.90) 41.41) 50.16} 41.85
INOS: cvecv as atSs daa eee 23.10) 25.22) 23.56) 32.20) 39.36] 37.72) 32.55) 49.56) 51.84) 50.76
Wisconsht > 023 AG es. spe eee 18.19} 14.82) 37.62} 23.52) 26.78) 28.84) 50.25! 37.95) 33.64] 35.28
Minnesota Sos. scesseseeter ey 22.12) 17.64) 32.86) 21.25) 24.00] 24.30) 45.56) 30.38) 39.04) 29.58
LOWS «ce PAN caehe nam dotdnet 20.14} 20.68} 28.20} 24.00) 23.00) 26.64) 30.08) 33.32) 42.00) 38.08
WIGSOTIE Won wan commu eae aan 27.25) 24.18) 26.46) 29.04) 38.20) 32.55) 18.02) 44.80) 50.16) 46.08
CONGO oo Saniwian a sie bho ae tires 30.24} 18.63) 26.40) 35.70) 42.75) 34.56) 27.04) 62.10) 49.30) 44.80
INGDPAGEG 6 cares ben cites wees 20.10) 22.50) 31.74) 24.05) 23.50) 32.34) 34.65) 36.99) 41.60) 31.20
South DaAKota. cu5vcccvscass>- 17.16} 19.20) 30.08) 20.16) 21.06) 26.28) 38.25) 32.56) 48.06) 28.80
NOV DIRK OW rat nn ce cage. | 21.76} 21.42) 32.67) 29.58) 27.81] 25.48) 58.90) 34.65) 40.32) 35.52
MGUURDS.. buick cepesvateesewn>- _ 25.44) 64.40) 62.40) 57.20) 74.73) 71.02) 114.61) 76.50) 77.44) 87.23
WhyOMne iUicdsnsattisacsn¥e> | 56.00! 71.81) 82.50! 78.00! 76.25! 67.32) 112.40) 65.27) 95.19] 99.82

676 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of potatoes in the United States, basea upon farm value December
1, 1895-1904, by States—Continued.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904,
OCOMOTAMD | oc snus ces studs annce’ “. - $41.36 $54. 32) $41.58, $46, 20 $45. 92)$108. 00) $51. 00} $87. 00) $58. 53
Naw MGxi6o « .s.oscacusssesss 48.96 70.20, 45.24} 83.32] 21.66) 59.00] 68.32! 73.08] 48,36
Wee i ccceis .besedsudas sewn Ba rr 49.60 44.40) 41.85) 66.00) 56.64) 68.40) 70.65) 83.19) 65.76
ovate. Fost eos 57.00} 72.20 98.55) 189.50) 91.80) 87.36) 128.31) 133.56) $1.90) 85.15
TG Bas anes cana 42.00) 48.60, 44.80) 64.80) 75.64) 68.92} 90.72) 55.13) 73.60} 87.57
Weirintor >. oo cces vwch woe 41.72} 50.00) 45,386) 42.14) 72.00) 654.52) 71.37| 51.68) 52.20) 67.20
OMRON oe oo ace awake sneer eeas 24.96) 33,93 64.00 42) 66.35) 49.50) 63.00) 56.65) 653.50) 61.33
Ui G25) ee ae aaa 36.00) 42.40 51.45) 62.25) 74.97) 55.12) 77.77| -68.44| 85,80) 86.43
OCahoma’ 0.5 se dune vals cas cot blanetuelsinet cule keess alent aleeeed es 69.30} 74.69) 76.44) 65,45
Tnitan Terrttory . cos) ss sc yowslsneateshienserulranecs clones anclasaeaenlsnaanas 78.12} 54.40) 60,20) 51.75

General average ....... 26.73] 26 mt 85. 37} 31.11) 34.60) 384.78) 50.27] 45,22) 51.99) 49.96

Average farm price of potatoes Be bushel in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by
States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
34 38 89 46 42 49 67 65 56 48

SING: 22 Be ees re

New Hampshire ............. 32 47 90 49 46 53 79 69 65 56
MIGRINOW ee. ck coke dk anne 26 29 70 42 36 40 64 58 50 47
Massachusetts =... ceccacws 48 57 90 63 57 66 90 81 71 71
Rhone Taland.. os)... 2ces5-<- 45 54 97 64 50 70 93 75 82 76
CUMBNOCGUOUE uo. ow athe cw ane 41 46 90 55 46 70 94 73 78 72
DG) (a a eR 8 PRE 23 31 67 42 40 45 71 59 56 54
NOW JEPECY 2.05.2 samocascnans 34 36 78 61 51 60 85 61 69 61
Panpevivanis esc sGswcssecs 28 27 66 58 43 53 76 57 62 54
Deieware cco). dese nose 38 35 65 69 51 60 78 51 56 53
Maewlarng eo Fe 5 cs 30 30 68 53 51 54 77 52 60 51
yy ger gl 21 Ti Rea EA keg 1 88 34 70 55 56 59 74 58 64 55
INOTER-OSTOUNS 2.22.5. cock 55 43 64 62 66 65 ‘ae 67 74 70
South Carolina... .cccc.cissccs 73 66 105 100 104 100 110 96 104 101
Genrer igo te eee. See 71 75 100 75 83 77 106 90 94 107
FRO oe ee a ee 100 84 120 120 124 106 129 122 126 129
Atanas <n ooe oio eei eee 81 75 94 83 87 82 109 9 99
Misgiasippl .... 2 .--2-seseecss 64 62 82 72 102 83 115 92 88 85
BOAR eo Ri ah ea ee 72 76 85 75 81 79 101 82 91 91
Perna cs) Sree San as eae 78 78 95 86 91 88 125 85 88 93
Fy a a Pre eo 51 53 84 55 71 57 126 68 79 75
TPENTIOBEEO Ts conn cee ohn cee ek 40 40 73 57 65 58 86 64 64 62
West Vireitila~......ccs---. 42 31 65 54 52 61 85 51 66 54
RONUDORY <<. . ci oces Sse ae hee 39 33 67 46 61 50 87 53 68 55
Onion he £8 hae ee Be 32 26 62 41 43 40 85 44 61 47.
Miehiogne ee. ts 2o2 bee 16 19 43 27 32 26 68 41 49 29
TGA ae Ae see ee cee 31 25 62 41 43 38 90 41 66 45
Bilineish] 227 «eo 30 26 62 46 41 41 93 42 72 47
WISEORSIN reece an neh cen 17 19 38 24 26 28 67 33 58 '
Minnesots: = 2. ose ee oe 14 21 31 25 25 30 67 31 61 29
TS eee coe dora tanner s 19 22 47 30 23 37 94 34 75 28
Mitssauprt. seo ae one 8 ee 25 81 63 44 40 35 106 35 76 48
WMMISR Ar onc ake tete seaieck 56k 42 27 55 51 45 48 104 45 85 56
WeENPRMEH 2.2. 52; acc cers ee 30 25 46 ST 25 49 105 27 65 26
Soutn Dekote... 2 5.<2.. 25... 26 20 32 28 27 86 85 44 54 30
North Dakota. 2. .<..<.-.2.5 << 17 21 33 34 27 49 49 33 48 32
Montamar ocae sao. SS oo 2k 48 32 40 55 53 53 73 50 44 61
Wve wc see. aes ceed 56 43 55 65 61 68 100 61 57 62
Cloradey. 528 yo ee eas 33 47 56 54 55 82 90 51 60 37
Near. MOxICO ooo. fo 8 eee ee 63 68 78 78 68 114 118 81 84 78
fog 0 eg oe ee Sia pe af Ae Ps 34 82 30 31 55 48 60 45 47 48
Nevede once es 38 38 73 90 90 56 91 63 70 65
Takano. 22. oot are ee ee Bee 40 30 82 54 61 47 84 37 46 63
Washinton. .223..2.. 24225 28 40 28 39 50 47 61 38 36 56
OQreson = 2-. nee eee 39 39 40 47 49 45 70 55 50 59
EIN DIE oats oe eee eae 48 53 49 55 63 53 77 58 66 67
Oklshoma o: * foe 5 ee ee aa, Shenae - eee ae eRe pein tees 126 77 98 V7
PRGA Terrstory 5. os ais hata shen Pes oss ealsh coun oben eile cules eens _ 124 64 86 75

General average ....... 26.6 | 28.6] 54.7] 41.4] 39.0] 43.1] 76.7 | 47.1] 61.4 45.3

STATISTICS OF POTATOES,

677

Wholesale prices of potatoes per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

Date.

MRRP DN as x pha ae o Wid waa ame
IGE = oie Ws nwa’ o's oe
MOOG ets ce vig ec ahce ise
INOVERAIDOR ca os shes os a

December... 222... Fiera ogee eso
M Caeectater
y (ess. 55:
PAM RIN De et tee aca ntete SFr ake cent etch als
Wiebe at ret oi ec as cho ees, ce.
INGWOMIDGE tic eekceaceiitnc cele ae
PEEGRIDCr cet tissescecece ee Teese

Pasco sn se sees. $6 os 38

OCUSDET A ee ek Sickie et:
Novenmer 2c.) 4. 8b 38
December: 7.622 i2i tise hede

SHIUATY ss 852s kw slecSes eck
METAR Ys Oo Aen tee ae
ee eee

ROO IEN te dhe So ic Sense

PRR ood OU sian Pek oon
mew ember 03 20. =. cee
Wecembpers A. s55-5 34 cece SS

JORUGI Yo ee ota cence
HSprLusrwy: 2 sss oScteseee =

March

Muount:. =: . 2.< cee Sdetares

October’. 3-5. beara cee
November... - sete: erste
DeCEMpGE. osacitas heb oe

March ee oe

ee ee

eee wee

steele

es

es

es

eee ee ee

- Cincinnati,

Per bushel.

Chicago,

ee ee ee

Low. | High.
$0.45 | $0.57
45 . 65
43 . 50
32 45
33 . 50
35 . 50
.40 .45
» 82 . 40
. 38 47
. 40 . 50
.42 .50
.40 .48
. 30 .47
~o0 .45
.38 . 76
. 64 .90
.95 1.10
75 1. 20
.40 2tD
. 60 . 95
.78 . 90
Per barrel.
2. 20 2.40
2.10 2. 40
2.10 2. 60
2. 45 3.00
2.25 3.00
2.10 2.40
. 90 2.40
. 90 1.05
Be: 135
1.26 1.35
1. 50 1. 60
1. 85 1.50
1. 65 1. 80
1. 50 1. 60
1. 50 1.70
1.35 1. 65
1.65 1.90
1.50 3.00
1.75 2.95
175 1.95
1.50 1. 80
1.20 1.80
1. 20 2.10
1. 80 2.10

w

o
Prom ppt
GFESSSSSSS

Sere PRS SRTe
2 ~

S S

=

n

S

to
Oo
=
co
vr

Bi u phar k
per bushel.

Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents.
40 50
40 49
35 45
26 37
27 39
31 41
30 40
25 37
29 46
40 48
40 49
38 43
38 42
30 42
35 60
35 78
110 125
56 107
59 68
59 82
75 82
70 80
68 76
68 80
72 100
58 100
47 60
30 38
30 44
42 48
42 48
45 48
45 47
43 47
38 46
42 60
50 85
54 60
50 70
60 66
62 95
85 91
86 102
89 122
95 116
115 118
31 40
32 42
32 38

Mil weuke: e,
Per bushel.

High.

Low.

Cents. | Cents.
25 40
25 42
25 45
20 38
20 35
20 80
20 55
30 40
28 38
23 35
23 42
30 50
38 50
35 50
35 45
32 45
35 60
30 80
65 125
85 135
40 110
40 75
60 82
65 87
72 87
(pe 85
70 85
70 103
50 103
40 90
30 85
28 50
28 40
30 40
34 43
35 43
40 45
38 40
35 40
35 40
35 52
46 90
35 75
40 70
35 60
AD 60
50 65
55 65
50 85
78 85 |
83 95
90 120
75 118
75 120
40 90
30 60
28 78 |
25 33
20 30

St. Conia:

Barbank:

per bushel.
Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents.
43 | 52
43 | 50
B5 | 46
27 40
30 | 45
36 | 45
| ips ae PSG Sonera a
82 | 40
32 | 38
33 | 48
45 | 54
45 54
18 20
yi 43
41 45
39 53
50 80
70 140
70 75
83 100
83 83
78 83
78 84
76 90
81 105
90 105
72 80
41 44
50 54
51 55
50 55
51 54
50 53
42 54
45 63
65 125
40 | 65
55 72
67 80
65 68
69 78
90 | 96
94 97
115 125
105 115
LTT) hee SS
47 | 52
42 45
36 43
364) 45

678 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,
HAY.

Condition of the hay crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1904.

Clover. Timothy. Clover. Timothy.
Year. on Year. ———
June, | July. | July. | Aug. June, | July.
BORO eh nce cncncdicadseemdlaseecsaclieeneens C405 Joel ceaceusnencyd 06.0 |. ecuvsclecnsecuuluanee
Hit EE ae 95. 1 94, 0 93.9 O66.) 2ORR.. cc vane so sclonhepbealevsadeeainnwaneen 99.3
ROR acddewabewas bia 91.0 89.3 87.4 00:0 ll G00. evacccecuchoc en beeilecespewelaenuerae 86.7
Ut SAS eee ne 94.9 95. 5 96.8 GB. it SOND’ cons ccenssenlncnssosalenac¥av ates Snel 79.9
bc ESE RES ee | @7 92.6 89.8 $0.6 (il 2008 cere <cccepulestsn sss feves caseleu eee 84.1
TOES Jee cap tes ae | 87.8 80, 2 77.3 Roc O ll EOUe as cn bad seuss stele Gk oP ae 86. 3 84.9 90. 0
SO i. Soe tsa ce <a 82.8 73.9 70.8 PR Ba! ae Se Sea ae 82.7 84. 2 84.0 92,2
Lf SRA eee | 88.4 83.7 84.8 876 iil 200G os cts svtes as 94. 0 91.4 92.8 94.0
Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of hay of the United States, 1866-1904.
. Chicago prices No. 1 timo-
Aver- a thy per ton, by carload lots. | Domestic
a ea
; i _ | farm | Farm value, fiscal
Year. Acreage. | yield | Production.| price Dec.1 December May of follow- ears be-
per per “ , ing year. ae
acre. ton, | Se ~
Dec.1 Low. | High.| Low. | High
Acres. Tons. Tons. Dolls. Dollars. Dolls, | Dolls. | Dolls. | Dolls.| Tons.
Pee 17,668, 904 | 1.28 | 21,°778, 627 [10.16] <290, 885, 772")... e clews cacclasannculeueeeee 5, 028
ee 20,020,554} 1.31 | 26,277,000 | 10.21 | 268,800,628 |.......}.......]......-Jesencas 5, 645
tee 21,541,578 | 1.21 | 26,141,900 | 10.08] 263,589, 285 |.......].......|...<..:|essaeuaseeeeeeennen
$869.5... 18,591,281 | 1.42 | . 26,420,000 | 10.18 | 268,983, 048 |. .......]..0....1...saseeeeeeeen 6, 723
t870 5... 19, 861,805 | 1.23-| 24,525,000 | 22.47 | 805, 743, 224 |... ..-[. ess esloascjsnete eee 4, 581
its GaP Rae 19, 009,062 | 1.17] 22,239,400 | 14.80 | $17,989, 700 |.......[--o500)nan<aneieeeeene 5, 266
ity ee 20,818,986 | 1.17.| 28,812,800 | 12.904 | 308,024,627 |......./...... |... nsclesreeen 4,557
[> ee 21, 804,084 | 1.15 | 25,085,100 | 12.58 | 814,241, 087 |. ..... |... clennwen eines eee 4, 889
CC 21,'769,772 | 1.16 | 25,188,900 | 11.94 | 800,222, 454 |.......]......-|t sn. calusmenee 7, 183
a 27 | eae 28,507,064 | 1.10] 27,878,600 | 10.78 | . 200,377, S80 |... ...]..,..cnlancueumieeenane 7,528
ae 25, 282,797 | 1.22] 80,867,100 | 8.97 | 276,001,422 |.......)....... 9.00 | 10.00 7, 287
ES77 <<: 25, 367,708 | 1.25] 31,629,300 | 8.37] 264,879,796 | 9.50] 10.50| 9.75 | 10.75 9,514
ts (tee 26,931,300 |} 1.47] 39,605,296 | 7.20 | 285,015,625 8.00] 8.50} 9.00 | 11.50 8, 127
3879 ~ 3: 27,484,991 | 1.29 | 35,493,000 | 9.32 | 330,804,494 | 14.00 | 14.50 | 14.00 | 15.00 13, 739
Uf). ee 25, 863,955 | 1.23 | 31,925,233 | 11.65 | 371,811,084 | 15.00 | 15.50 | 17.00 | 19.00 12,
Ser. 2a. 30, 888,700 | 1.14 | 35,135,064 | 11.82 | 415,131,366 | 16.00 | 16.50 | 15.00 | 16. 50 10, 570
1882... 32, 339,585 | 1.18 | 38,188,049 | 9.70 | 371,170,326 | 11.50 | 12.25 | 12.00 | 138.00 13,
Nt) eae 35,515,948 | 1.32 | 46,864,009 | 8.19 | 384,834,451 | 9.00} 10.00 | 12.50 | 17.00 16, 908
1 a 38, 571,593 | 1.26 | 48,470,460 | 8.17 | 396,139,309 | 10.00 | 11.50 | 15.50 | 17.50 11, 142
1885 .....| 39,849,701 | 1.12] 44,731,650 | 8.71 | 389,752,873 | 11.00 | 12.00 | 10.00 | 12.00 13, 390
TaAGN 36,501,688 | 1.15 | 41,796,499 | 8.46 | 353,437,699 | 9.50 | 10.50 | 11.00 | 12.50 13, 873
TOC <in'o = 37, 664,739 | 1.10 | 41,454,458 | 9.97 | 413,440, 283 | 13.50 | 14.50 | 17.00 | 21.00 18, 198
bh... eae 38,591,903 | 1.21 | 46,643,094 | 8.76 | 408,499,565 | 11.00 | 11.50 | 10.50 | 11.00 21, 928
Rod -.- -~ 52, 947,236 | 1.26] 66,829,612 | 7.04 | 470,374,948 | 9.00] 10.00} 9.00 | 14.00 36, 274
1890 <5: 50,712,613 | 1.19} 60,197,589 | 7.87 | 478,569,972 |} 9.00} 10.50 | 12.50 | 15.50 28,
199k -<.. - 51,044,490 | 1.19] 60,817,771 | 8.12 | 494,113,616 | 12.50} 15.00 | 13.50 | 14.00 35, 201
URS 7 See 50, 853,061 | 1.18 | 59,823,735 | 8.20 | 490,427,798 | 11.00} 11.50 | 12.00 | 13.50 33, 084
12M Bae 49,618,469 | 1.33] 65,766,158 | 8.68 | 570,882,872 | 10.00 | 10.50 ; 10.00 | 10.50 54, 446
1802 2. 5. 48,321,272 | 1.14] 54,874,408 | 8.54 | 468,578,321 | 10.00 | 11.00 | 10.00 | 10.25 47,117
BOO) |. <.p- 44, 206,453 | 1.06 | 47,078,541 | 8.35 | 393,185,615 | 12.00 | 12.50 | 11.50 | 12.00 59, 052
Ta00". 5... 43, 259,756 | 1.37 | 59,282,168 | 6.55 | 388,145,614] 8.00] 8.50] 8.50| 9.00 61, 658
18972. -- 42,426,770 | 1.43 | 60,664,876 | 6.62 | 401,390,728} 8.00] 8.50] 9.50 | 10.50 81, 827
iy ee 42,780,827 | 1.55] 66,376,920 | 6.00 | 398,060,647} 8.00] 8.25] 9.50 | 10.50 64, 916
0 ieeree 41, 328,462 | 1.35] 56,655,756 | 7.27 | 411,926,187 | 10.50 | 11.50 | 10.50 | 12.50 72, 716
POU oso 39,132,890 | 1.28 | 50,110,906 | 8.89 | 445,538,870 | 11.50 | 14.00 | 12.00 | 18.50 89,
Ge ws 3's 39, 390,508 | 1.28 | 50,590,877 | 10.01 | 506,191,533 | 12.50 | 13.90 | 18.00 | 14.00 153, 431
1} eee 39, 825,227 | 1.50] 59,857,576 | 9.06 | 542,036,364 | 12.00 | 13.00 | 13.50 | 15.00 50, 970
2 Ree 39,938,759 | 1.54] 61,305,940 | 9.08 | 556,376,880 | 10.00 | 12.00 | 12.50 | 13.00 60, 734
1904 ..... 89, 998, 602 | 1.52 | 60,696,028 | 8.72 | 629,107,625 | 10.50 | 11.50 |.......}.....csacunuusuee

The preceding table shows that the greatest area devoted to hay, 52,947,236 acres,
was reported in 1889; the greatest production, 66,829,612 tons, in the same year; the
greatest farm value on December 1, $570,882,872, in 1893; the greatest average yield
per acre, 1.55 tons, in 1898; the greatest average farm price per ton on December 1,
$14.30, in 1871. For the five years 1900-1904 the average area is 39,656,197 acres;
the average production, 56,512,265 tons; the average farm value on December 1],
$515,850,254; the average yield per acre, 1.43 tons; the average farm price per ton
on December 1, $9.13.

STATISTICS OF HAY. 679

Acreage, production, and value of hay in the United States in 1904, by States.

Average Average | Average

States and Territories. Acreage. | yield per} Production. aes: " sonore! cha = Wie
aCte: Dec. 1. Dec. 1.
Acres. Tons. Tons. Dollars. | Dollars. Dollars.

TERRI dias haa blu wicld'e oven na 1, 290, 852 1.10 1, 419, 937 9, 72 10, 69 18, 801, 788
New Hampshire ............. 625, 788 1, 02 638, 304 13. 49 13. 76 8,610, 721
MSIOM Veit ant alt tte dinideweak ss 870, 617 1. 25 1, 088, 271 9, 48 11. 85 10, 316, 809
Massachusetts ............... 582, 890 1. 26 716, 955 15. 76 19, 38 11, 299, 211
PEBOGO TSANG ee cs natn ccciaicwe x 65, 242 1.16 75, 681 17. 38 20. 16 1, 315, 336
MIORGEGHCUG «5 c% cid cceumuase 484, 751 1. 06 518, 836 14, 89 15.78 7,651, 018
ENG Y Clad. 5s acta a elattents cat 4, 765, 294 1.36 6, 480, 800 10. 44 14. 20 67, 659, 552
ENGW:WOIROY 4s wnt weenlndviatonas 424, 568 1.39 590, 150 14. 67 20. 39 8, 657, 500
PONV VANDI os sas n koa ecw asc 8, 108, 052 1. 45 4, 499, 425 11. 82 17.14 53, 183, 204
PUOIR WEIS clic cat mee taeeeae 77, 091 1.59 122, 575 13. 89 22.09 1, 702, 567
Lona Ci aS eee ee 301, 064 1.36 409, 447 12. 48 16. 97 5, 109, 899
WERT oi, ds sss nce ewok’ 458, 820 1. 39 637, 760 12.55 17.44 8, 003, 888
INOTUH CEROUNA) i. 62 5-9 cee w sic 128, 197 ny (2 220, 499 14. 56 25.04 8, 210, 465
South Carolina .............. 60, 706 i: BS 92, 880 12.18 18. 64 1, 131, 278
MIOOLMIO wecus eek tks Cee eeee se 89, 851 1, 52 136, 574 15.14 23. 01 2, 067,730
Tip Lolia he Ce ae oS Rae ee ee ae 12, 499 1. 36 16, 999 16. 67 22. 67 283, 373
PIQUA gS ocmtae wticee sects wae 56, 872 71 96, 396 12, 18 20.74 1, 169, 283
IMIS REL attc eet ckaalc he aee ae 45,277 WZ 77, 876 10. 85 18. 66 844, 955
HVOUMIRTAN As 05 OSS uk.. cc ceedees es 21, 488 2. 06 44, 265 12. 20 25.13 540, 033
RMOKUNICE Ldueus Tou wototeed. tec 407, 900 1.77 721, 983 8.12 14. 37 5, 862, 502
LAS LSD CC (a ee ene eae 78, 595 Ate 135, 188 9, 82 16. 89 1, 327, 497
BONN GSRER han t <eccunis Ca oaeteo.c 349, 944 1. 66 580, 907 12.01 19. 94 6, 976, 693
WVGAL VITeIDIe <2 << ont. eon ces 533, 276 1.47 783, 916 12. 41 18. 24 9, 728, 398
BPULUO GV sick cle Riis ccba ctor sis 485, 298 1.44 698, 829 11.51 16.57 8, 043, 522
ACO Pee alate dc tid ee x ata ta actor ee 2, 718, 453 1. 43 3, 880, 238 9.25 13. 23 35, 892, 202
Michigans 5. teak aoe tee ke 2, 126, 883 1. 25 2, 658, 604 9. 09 11. 36 24, 166, 710
NMG TUNA EE Ree o os wie Rie ram ei oe ein’e oo 1, 751, 155 137 2, 399, 082 8. 58 11.75 20, 584, 124
WMUNOINE oe okt his des antes ei 2, 747, 095 1. 36 3, 736, 049 8. 66 11. 78 32, 354, 184
WISCONSIN.) A. A ance toe L512) 271 1. 67 2, 959, 693 7.89 13.18 23, 351, 978
MITIMIGROUA 3.50 ok sch cose cone ee 867, 136 1.74 1, 508, 817 5.51 9.59 8, 3138, 582
Rec ee oe Ue Seems 3, 182, 322 1.62 5, 074, 362 5. 36 8. 68 27, 198, 580
MIPSOUMN sc. task eens eee 2, 992, 267 1.47 4, 398, 632 6. 62 9.73 29,118, 944
BOMRAASS op 5ot eco Aeterna 1, 795, 246 1. 67 2, 998, 061 4.38 | Jaok 13, 131, 507
BNSTOS IOS re cocci Sajna sie eeieis tute 578, 821 1.76 1, 018, 725 38. 82 6.72 3, 891, 530
BOUGMMORK OLR 2-5 occ Sce nc oe 202, 768 1.43 289, 958 4, 24 6. 06 1, 229, 422
Morbo Dakota 22.25.35. 156, 410 1.57 245, 564 4,21 6. 61 1, 033, 824
CSET 01 ee a 348, 980 1.92 670, 042 8.70 16. 70 5, 829, 365
WN ROMAIN Soe 3. Sjere ct iar lie 176, 501 PAV A 400, 657 5. 75 13. 05 2, 303, 778
Ootonsaqorse sa sss Stee 'o 671, 945 1. 85 1, 243, 098 6.71 12. 41 8, 341, 188
INOWRNECRICD 2 ooh. cneone oe: 71, 897 2.58 185, 494 11. 42 29. 46 2,118, 341
Towa 7) pe agen ner oe Re pepe a 60, 652 Deal. 164, 367 14. 84 40. 22 2, 439, 206
TAY ee oe Ey ae ae See oes 354, 820 3.54 1, 256, 063 6.31 22. 34 7, 925, 758
ING VCE on baat ce ees kee oe 159, 042 38. 04 483, 488 7.60 23.10 3, 674, 509
LEE UN Ce See cit aire tater ayer oer or 374, 968 3.07 1, 151, 152 6. 08 18. 67 6, 999, 004
Washinton. . 250%) cee ck 325, 705 2.18 710, 037 11. 34 24.72 8, 051, 820
TOR ONE os 4 eset eee oe 378, 715 2.04 772, 579 10.18 20.77 7, 864, 854
WaliOrmips 202 Sos cow eens 583, 286 2.08 1, 184, 071 10. 41 21.13 12, 326,179
FIARNOWIR >), 22. chee cece oe 293, 337 a Wea) 442, 939 4.90 7.40 2,170, 401
Cian Territory :.-. 225-2 43, 495 1.49 64, 808 4. 62 6. 88 299, 413
United States .......... 39, 998, 602 1. 52 60, 696, 028 8.72 13. 23 529, 107, 625

Average yield per acre of hay in the United States, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons.
Th Ok 0

Maine. Fate. ct osha coceee ss 1.02 1.00 ee 90 0.9) 1.05 1.07 . 98 1.10
New Hampshire ............. .95 SOO rtd) HL:.25 . 89 Baa) As 284+ 06 . 92 1.02
VGRmony sass: So dese ees 1.07 alps) 1.30 1. 45 1.14 1. 24 1. 36 1,27 1.18 1, 25
Magsachusetis .2255.2.-4-<.45 ga | £25 (40. (42. 2.18 .97 t, 2D 1.60 | 1.86 1. 23
Rhode Island:. .3 25-6 Se. ka (OL -| sO WE Eby as . 89 .92 92) V1s08si- a OF 1.16
Ponnecticuh..--csceureoeeeeed . 85 1.07 1. 20 1.31 . 94 .89 1.01 1.35 [a 1. 06
INGW MOEK. been azs ans poet oe Ay 3 VOL <'35 170, 40.1 2. 04 (Steet: 80!) ddd |b 26 1.36
NGw-derney \. 5.04. oases Del | B16. te By. 42 pean 1. 26.) - 4.82.) 1522) | 1.28 1.39
PCNBSYIVANIG wink oes - 2 nen = UL ae aot aos 20 | 1.10 | 1.19 | 1.19}. 1.27 1.45
Delaware -)..5. 5) 1 2 eke 223) 10. EB Socio 1; 38 1 >. 1-04 .98 | 1.12] 1.09] 1.64 1, 59
Marylana:c:seeetss/.43 ee 1, 25 (OC ae eel te 1s} 4.09 |. 1.221 1.01 |] 1.24 1. 36
WALSTITG fou cee coc Panes Ls 20s | pace pease to 1.10 |} -1.16-| 1.20] 1:.06.| 1.80 1.39
Nortir Carona... cc-- le ees 1. 68: 1° 2.26 (eb 2b e701" 1.50 | 1.41 1.66 | 1.44] 1.60 Lay
South: Caroling. <...'.teecs ods 4,00 }) 85 ee 00 te OO 4, 22 | 2,.92-|-1.46 | 1.22]. 1.46 1:58
Geormig ssi iss sedis ec teede ks 1.60 1). 1,88 |= aoa vo 1.45 | 1,69) 1.46) 1.86] 1.58 1.52
IGT: 20h es feet e es vee L.bS | 2.40 a 00 peat oo }) 2.46) 1.20) 1.48] 1.24] 1.47 1.36
AIS Dan oS. Soe eke ce nme [5,661 5 3540) eae ae oe ee Go 1.85 | - 1.75 | 1.50) °1.77 1.71

680 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Average yield per acre of hay in the United States, 1895-1904, by States—Continued.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900, | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904,
Tons. | Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons.

Mississippi 1.95 1. 35 48 1. 90 1.4 1.75 1.69 1. 40 1.74 1,72
LOUIMEDS .. occ ceuicgwouceaew 2.02 1, 90 1, 90 2.10 1.95 2.00 1, 85 1. 80 2.04 2.06
PORES eee ew tek easels 1, 48 1.00 1, 40 1. 50 1. 43 1, 80 1, 25 1. 40 1.84 1.77
Aviramess : 2) ou 5. ee Bes 1. 20 1.18 1, 30 1. 54 1. 48 1. 63 1.10 1, 60 1. 60 1.72
POR NOUING Koi «Wonk cubated 1.39 1.40 1.45 1. 50 1.31 1.40 1,62 1, 44 1, 58 1, 66
WORETV SreiWO . cs 20... seeeateds 71 1,23 1. 35 1. 64 1,29 1,18 1,37 1.12 1.38 1.47
MOVINOR YT «ois dais dines oo odes 1.35.) 3.20) 1177] 1.45) 1.20) 1.40] 184) L&4& tue 1.44
0 eR SE Pee Bee Pe .68 | 1.26/ 1.44] 1.89] 1.80) 1.06] 1.86} 1481 L@ 1. 43
BRIO, 8 oi 2c: we. cs feab eas . 58 1.16 1.49 1, 36 1.23 1,29 1. 26 1.45 1, 37 1, 25
bys) 1) re Sere ens a ee Ob 3.80:) 1248.1 3.45). 86.) BOE 1.27 1) Ee eee 1.37
Ny A eee es . 66 1. 38 1, 29 1. 56 1. 29 1.27 1,08 1. 50 1, 64 1.36
NET. en wie. Coe? 88.) 1.25.) LOB 1.50) 2.47) LIES? Be eee 1, 67
yy Re ee See ee 180°) 31:60.) 1.67). 1.801.170 |] 2.16) 2. E476 eee 1.74
LY ais ae rae Ste 1.08:) 1:74 |}. 1.50 | 1.76:1° 4.84) Ll Le! bey 1, 62
IOIVENY oo se ce eee BN te 1. 43 1.15 1. 60 1.37 1,29 .75 1.59 1, 57 1,47
rns 6a Os ee eee Od 2,42) 380) | 0 146 ee eee 5 MS ay, 1.58 1. 67
NODTAGES. 2 acc cibs cece k cess 99} 1.66] 1.60.) 1.60). 66} 1.88) <1, 30-7. 76 eee 1.76
Bouth Dakota <sicki< octane 79} 3,28) 225} 1.88/)53.4 7 1.18 1-1. bY 323 ee 1.43
North Dakota «... <<ces cesses 1.43°) 1,65.| 2,60 | 1/50) “3.88 92) 1601 2.66 1.57
Momniana. =. (22-4 \:t6/--cceneews .94'| 2.881 L501. 1.451 2.42) 260). L970) ee ae 1.92
VON =o 2. ae oe ees 1.08} 21.65) 1.65| 196). 3.47) 1.68) 1.76.) 3:63:0 ge 2.37
Colerelo acc oe eens 2.42.) 2.20.| 2.26] 2.201 -2:30:) 2.23.) -2:08 ) 3 Oa 1. 85
New MGXICO |». 25.3. 5<oshees 2.61.| 8.00 | 8.50) 8 75 1.1.70 | 2.06) 2.8L) 2:40) ee 2.58
A PINON ooo. oS oo ae bee 1.85 |} 8.20; 8.00] 8.501 2.68| 2.81 | 2.85] 234) gas 2.72
CA ees oe oo tt et ae 2.56.1 2.70 | 2.95 | 8.251 °2.50.1 265.1 2.45 | 2 G2 eee 3.54
Nevada) oo. wo se ee ee 8.01.1 2:55] 2.60:|. 2:60 1} 1.87.) 2.48 | 2.00) 2.98 [> ae 8. 04
UG POLY le eee eae Bee wees, 2. 57 2.60 2.30 3. 75 2. 50 2.80 2. 58 2.67 2.82 3.07
Weanbineton:! jc. 3) oS 185.1, 295'| .2;25.|> 2.75 -2.08:) > 2.16.) 2580.) 2.29. eee 2.18
ES Ae, See ore oN 1.78 | 1.98+ 1,90 | 1.90 | 3.97 | 2.385 | 2:07 .| -2.04°| ome 2.04
PONG iy 1: Se Se ee ea 1:66). 1:65} 1.60] 1.60). 1.68 | 1.51 | 1.82] 1.81) 2.288 2.03
CNR AROMNG: ok wees ors sn eho cou low nse GEIS aebs Oh ie bic ke Lee eee ee oe .96 | 1.26] 1.34 1.51
Enchian TArrieory aise sso cidods}s weds Stile eikacn tia huets (see ee laneelea| pisses 1.46 | 1.32] 1.50 1,49
General average ......- 1.06; 2.87 | 1.48] 1.55. | 88.) 1. 28;,) 128) 268 eee 1.52

Average value per acre of hay in the United States, based wpon farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
PEGG sa saa. deh ase hwnd bones $9.87 |$10. 25 /$10.73 | $9.12 | $9.09 |$11.66 [$10.96 $10.74 $10.00 | $10. 69
New Hampshire ............. 11.88 | 12.38 | 18.23 | 11.56 | 10.46 | 13.48 | 15.87 | 14.36 | 12.20} 13.76
VARIOUS 35 ic+ oie tess aded-ene 18.11 | 12.85 | 12.03 | 9.21 | 10.55 | 13.70 | 13.36 | 12.26 | 12.84] 11.85
Massachusetts .............-- 19.42 | 20.99 | 19.46 | 17.18 | 17.52 | 16.88 | 21.16 | 26.64 | 22.74 | 19.38
Rhode Ialand ......65- << deeen 15.70 | 18.26 | 16.67 | 14.93 | 15.35 | 17.20 | 17.54 | 19.46 | 20.28 | 20.16
Compectiout,. «<= .n0ss<0-4nnc- 18.68 | 15.74 | 15.60 | 14.61 | 13.63 | 14.89 | 14.77 | 21.19 | 16.86 | 15.78
ba Cs MER RE TEER aeeires. 10.00 | 9.75 | 11.14] 8.05 | 10.87 | 11.38 | 13.75 | 14.11 | 18.81 | 14.20
WOW WORT ns cso nasn yess are 15.29 | 16.50 | 18.81 | 18.63 | 12.74 | 20.22 | 18.86 | 19.08 | 19.70 | 20.39
Pennsylvania ...,...-<.¢sses 12, 42 | 12.88 | 12.81 | 11.46 | 13.80 | 15.29 | 15.90 | 16.66 | 17.15} 17.14
DRISWOIO dass cxsacewanesrkes 14.96 | 14.30 | 18.50 | 11.66 | 12.12 | 18.67 | 13.84 | 15.73 | 24.382 | 22.09
pa A ER OES Se 14.44 | 10.31 | 14.17 | 11.16 | 18.73 | 15.31 | 16.07 | 14.19 | 17.38 | 16.97
pie) Re ee ee 12.92 | 11.03 | 11.07 | 11.22 | 11.27 | 15.43 | 14.41 | 14.39 | 17.85 | 17.44
North Carolina .. ..0.0-0.< << 16.53 | 13.55 | 12.19 | 15.81 | 15.15 | 15.79 | 17.93 | 17.64 | 21.47 | 25.04
South Carolina .............. 7.62 | 15.06 | 11.50 | 15.20 | 12.56 | 15.18 | 16.03 | 13.72 | 17.11 | 18.64
REE on Were oe wy bans 3 Sauk 17.44 | 15.25 | 17.55 | 20.56 | 19.07 | 21.55 | 20.92 | 18.22 | 23.18 | 23.01
i | Se erga oe 20.24 | 18.20 | 14.25 | 22.56 | 22.41 | 16.44 | 22.72 | 19.02 | 27.67 | 22.67
RAEN im seals co's woes vin gae ess 15.93 | 18.72 | 18.86 | 17.57 | 18.92 | 19.52. | 21.12 | 17.42 | 21.93 | 20.74)
DEIRG OU iso an weiscon ed= ae 18.91 | 12.77 | 14.06 | 15.96 | 18.32 | 17.41 | 17.62 | 14.35 | 20.18 | 18.66
PP ae See Gree es 19.47 | 16.63 | 16.62 | 19.74 | 18.92 | 18.80 | 20.50 | 21.10 | 23.15 | 25.13
POA 5s Wancmeis ta ee ewae 9.52 | 7.20] 10.15 | 8.77 | 10.15 | 12.24 | 13.27 | 12.04 | 15.09 | 14.37
SAMBA: 5 n.. oNee atic on Oh plow 11.12 | 8.90 | 11.25 | 10.39 | 12.80 | 14.483 | 12.89 | 15.04 | 15.17 | 16.89
PORNO S es a5 55s Sow na eens as 15.05 | 18.54 | 16.59 | 14.25 | 14.74 | 16.52 | 18.71 | 16.99 | 19.42 | 19.94
West Virginia. o...-.casc<55- 9.04 | 11.94 | 11.95 | 12.94 | 12.19 | 15.81 | 18.91 | 16.05 | 19.04} 18.24
PR OGSUORY joo din os ere aoe 14.77 | 11.35 | 11.70 | 138.19 | 18.42 | 15.89 | 16.25 | 16.27 | 17.62 | 16.57
OLE a Pop el ae 7.40 9] 9.00} 7.99 | 11.63 | 11.71 | 11.86 | 14.59 | 14.20 | 18.28
MIORIGORS 6 cess. onct 7.59 11.55 | 9.72 | 10.37 | 12.19 | 10.85 | 12.03 | 12.28) 11.36

8.44 | 8.12 | 10.45 | 11.80 | 11.79 | 12.66 | 12.568 | 11.75
7.93 | 9.20 | 10.00 | 10.67 | 12.10 | 13.31 | 12.83} 11.78
8.44 | 8.62 | 10.07 | 11.10 | 18.58 | 15.03 | 14.17} 13.18
7.06 | 6.66| 7.40} 8.06] 8.65 9.43 | 12.16 9. 59
6.37 | 7.09} 7.10] 9.66 | 9.59 | 10.92 | 9.72 8. 68

Indiana RS or a eee tank Sel Say 2 Pre Ge oe

loz)
ile}
a
SOS I S0 S7' > > CG SO SOKO
lo eBlok oy yl whe she~e Bie)
ASSSSLLESRSS
~~]
oO
ne

7.96 ‘ 9.28 | 8.56 | 8.97 | 8.99 | 10.96 | 10.49 9.73
4. 04 4.42] 4.74] 5.49] 6.01 | 7.25 | 7.33] 7.60 7.31
eee ey ree 8. 52 4.80} 5.28| 6.14| 7.11| 7.71] 7.59] 7.58 6. 72
South Dakota .......--:...-.- 2.60 8.69} 4.14] 4.43 | 4.66] 5.16] 5.10} 6.71 6. 06
North Dakota... ..... 253.2. 4, 94 5.20] 4.87] 5.21 | 5.20] 5.84] 6.09} 6.48 6. 61
PROUONA 5 5.55565 on ones ase neee 10. 72 11.63 | 9.86 ! 10,93 | 13.92 | 14.60 | 12.67 | 18.32! 16.70

— a Se ~~

gt
— 7

—

i i ea

— [., — a

re s
Sot Bue ith

STATISTICS OF HAY. 681

Average value per acre of hay in the United States, based u a farm value December 1,
1895-1904, by States—Continue

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904.
REET on ch ots we vena daa $7.02 |$11.07 | $9.90 [$11.40 | $9.70 |$12. 26 |$12. 64 /$12.01 1$14.27 | $13.05
MINEO San cchavecnwaatiew ours 14,21 | 18.68 | 12.88 | 11.88 | 15.43 | 16.95 | 18.80 | 18.99 | 19.15 12. 41
NGI MEORICO Sic tcc ecrc cca ca 20.88 | 17.10 | 24.50 | 27.56 | 18.02 | 20.89 | 23.89 | 26.88 | 26.24 29. 46
PION a dc on akncudinanceaae 16.65 | 28.00 | 15.00 | 42.00 | 27.22 | 26.10 | 26.16 | 28.62 | 35.78 40, 22
hi Ray ae ee Bae: oF ey eee 18.49 | 18.50 | 14.01 | 14.62 | 17.75 | 21.07 | 20.70 | 19.18 | 20.18 22. 34
PERL 7 tc cere hea or eteareiete 20.32 | 12.29 | 12.50 | 18.20 | 14.81 | 18.71 | 19.80 | 29.73 | $1.11 23.10
no 9 CC RES State ie Pag tent i 16.06 | 12.25 | 12.08 | 18.37 | 15.75 | 18.20 | 15.25 | 14.69 | 19. 64 18, 67
MEGHIUNSTONS cpkuwitveaneudaws 12.49 | 18.83 | 20.25 | 18.30 | 17.98 | 20.52 | 19.60 | 20.45 | 30.78 24. 72
PRO Sich otiviaes veaue wae weak ese 10.89 | 18.07 | 14.73 | 18.78 | 18.49 | 15.98 | 14.82 | 15.26 | 21.07 20.77
SME SS haa ban Ghile Weekes 11.72 | 10.48 | 14.40 | 22.80 | 18.04 | 12.81 | 14.41 | 17.03 | 24.25 21.138
MEE MMCNAENG S65 ag oe pte a can wlan S Po oie or [eee erates tetas scr well sade See 6750's 6. 68,10 ts Be 7.40
SPREE EOL ET UO Ys cick o ta wek us| ktm nlc anc (ata ee eo obi x Me secs oles doe ae 11.01 | 6.57) 8.86 6. 88

General average ....... 8.89 | 8.97) 9.46 | 9.30] 9.97 | 11.89 | 12. 85 | 13. 61 | 13.93 | 13.23

Average farm price of hay per ton in the United States December 1, 1895-1904, by States.

States and Territories. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1503. | 1904.
RRR Nc eer ata ook loys caries = 68 |$10. 25 | $9.75 | $7.60 |$10.10 |$12.95 $10. 44 |$10.04 1$10.20 | $9.72
New Hampshire ............. 12.50 | 12.90 | 11.50 | 9.25 | 11.75 | 15.50 | 12.40 | 18.55 | 18.26 | 13.49
RUS DMMOUNG 25 5 wa aiew cee wmicccleaee 12.25 | 10.28 | 9.25) 6.85] 9.25 ]-11.05| 9.82] 9.65 | 10.88 9. 48
BES SSL VT) nr: Ee ee a 17.50 | 16.40 | 13.90 | 12.10 | 15.50 | 17.40 | 17.49 | 16.65 | 16.72 | 15.76
BHgae (ela et econ 17.25 | 16.60 | 14.50 | 12.65 | 17.25 | 18.70 | 19.06 | 18.89 | 18.95 | 17.38
PPM OOULCU Gena con ccm cus cam 16.10" | 24071, |.43;.00) | 105 15 | 14,50 | 16:78 | 14,62.) 15.70 |. 15..19'| 14. 89
IN Wet ODKR Renae ewes cet ens ~| 18.70 | 12.04 | 8.25 | 5.76°| 10,45 | 14.05 | 10.58 | 10.53 | 10.96 | 10.44
MEW JOTACY: << asin cb wcec ecu de 12.64 | 14.85 | 10.75 | 9.60 | 15.35 | 16.05 | 14.29 | 15.64 | 15.39] 14.67
PensSvl Vas ... oss assoc ccs n 12,50.) 42,0) 9.05") 7.90. |' dl. 50 |18.90)|. 18..64. 14: 00:] 13.50.), 11. 82
PAPIAUIEG- o 52 co's ac bwicwdn ees 12.16 | 13.00 | 10.00 | 8.45 | 11.65 | 18.95 | 12.36 | 14.43 | 14.83 | 13.89
TLC LC Ga a Pe ook ee 11.65 | 11.85 | 10.50 | 9.80 | 12.15 | 14.05 | 18.17 | 14.05 | 14.02 | 12.48
PREETI cctecos wir a on ce Silent 11545) (O10) 20 10225) |. 8550.) 10525: |18.30) | 12: 01 | 18.68.) 18.73 | 12.55
MOC CATOMNNG <2 <<. 6c.6un2~ 105 14 | 105 75; | (9.776 |, 9580 | 10: 10°] 11.20 | 10.80% 12:25 | 18:42] 14.56
South Carolinas... ..<...<.02 WeO2e| 11292) lil. 50! |) 19.00") 10,80. 110-50) |, 10:98 20h. 250) 11-72" | 12.18
PORT Sete Cet eiS ws ocatce Powe 10,90: | 11.05 | 13.00 |) 11-75 | 18.15 | 12.75 | 14.38 | 18.40 | 15.15 | 15.14
Tit Oss ek CS eae 13. 23 | 13.00 | 14.25 | 14.10 | 15.35 | 18.70 | 15.36 | 15.84 | 18.82 | 16.67
FEY OTS et ie aR EN ee 105 21-) 9280. | 105 25:1)" 09225 | 11.40) ||) 10565. | 12.07 | 141. 6L | 12:39 | 12.18
MBUBSISSID DI cod was cea een 9.70-| 9.46) 9.50) 8.40] 9.25] 9.95:| 10.51 | 10.25 | 11.60 | 10.85
Wp ESTA oo wicca ta eae oe GGA WSs tDe uote mea she OS 70 Oe 40 t1 08°) tie 72 | 11.85. |— Tea
Ae Nae ia Se ek SS Geta) le fe DU neds COs ee osSo” |i 7.10) 6.80) | 10:.62'| .8;60| 8.20 8.12
Yad oS) a 9:27 | 754) 8:65 '|-6:75 | 8.65 | 8.85 | 11.72-' 9.40; 9.48 9. 82
‘TERNGHSCE. . <a. ' ws see cee ee eee 10,83) || 9.67, | 10.476) | 29750") 11.25.) 11.80} 12.31.) 2h. 80 | 12.29 | 12.08
MLGSb NV TILE i ciy'e oe eet cance 12.73 | 9.79 | 8.85 | 8.40] 9.45 | 18.40 | 18.80 | 14.33 | 18.80] 12.41
EGR UCKY co cch cece dssajavews 10792 | -92.46:|/10500) |). 9510) |) 10:40 | 11.35 | 12:13 | 11.30 | 32.07). 11.64
ie Te Re pe a eet SE 12.76 | 7.938} -6.25| 6:75 | 8.95°! 11.05 | 8.72 | 10.20 | 10.00 9. 25
TEMS PRET isos anor oa = 13.09 | 8.48 | 7.75} 7.16] 8.50] 9.45| 8.61] 8.30] 8.93 9.09
SRO Sst oe fa cos Some wee oe IE O8 | + (els \t0./90s en bs00) | 7. 80°) 97b-) 9.28 | 8.67 | 8.56 8.58
BMTHOIN Senso etccs se osieta hoes 10.25 | 6.89 | 6.15 | 5.90 | 7.75 | 8.40 | 11.20| 8.87] 8.338 8. 66
WARGOUAIT tees) ok Duet ee 9.68 | 6.60 | 6.25) 6.75) 6.85 | 9.65 10.53] 7.91 | 7.50 7.89
MEM MORGI Go. ows nec wemeneee Dole lesa ton eae noacOn|), 400.) 6.9b.1) -6: 681° 5.36 | ‘6.61 5.51
LY DSS oe See Se een tae 6.45 3.99 4, 25 4,05 5.30 6. 80 7.67 6. 50 5. 46 5. 36
(NE bd aS ee ee ree eee: ee 6.80 | 4.85| 6.15] 5.80] 6.25] 6.95] 11.99/ 6.89] 6.68 6. 62
UREN Se Se ns seco eee S20) || 2s 10> |e toe40) | seep) 3.00 | 4.55 | 7.67: 4.31 | 4.81 4.38
PP PeMM hie ce se cee Ss 3.06.) 2:44.) 3.00°| 23.30 | - 3:70 | 5.16 | 6:17) 4.86) 4.48 38. 82
Sous USEO.. . <0... oc eeee. Soa | ude coeOnl eo UF 16.40 | 8.95.) 4549 |. 4015. | .4.68 4, 24
Nort DaeOtaes.2i. ooece eases 3.481" 3239] °S. 250) - 8226) | °3. 30") - 5265.|° 8.65 | 3.67 | 4.64 4,21
MGORRIS Sire sje t atcha bas D140) Grob leiiasO ease | 2.70)| 8:70)! 8.18.) 7.54 | 8.81 8.70
WYODURG <2. sc ses screen G2 O0LT ('7s34elar6; 0080 0-00') .6.60"]) 7.80) 7.18" \" 7:28 | 6.67 5. '75
GColorada 3. s72 caer eck pasos 5.87 |} 6.22] 5.50] 6.40| 7.35 | -7.60| 9.04| 9.89] 7.48 6.71
New: MG@XIGO™ 7.6cea- one ep wees S.00) 1 °65705)) 17. 0031) 7585)|) 10) 60:1) 9:90 |: 10. 34 | 11.18 | 11.12 | 11.42
Artzong =. peewee ean knees 9.00 | 8.75} 5.00 | 12.00 | 10.85 | 11.30] 9.18 | 12.23 | 10.34] 14.84
TAs oo dn pena ee ee ee 5.27 5. 00 4.75 4.50 7.10 7.95 8.45 7.32 6. 84 6.31
WGVAGE ic dcnscrwantoueeeee se 67051 4582.)) 6.00)15. 7200.) .7.65°|°7;'70:| 7.92.| 9.05 | 9.97 7.60
BGIIG 2 > occa tira eee eee 6.25 | 4.71] 5.25] 4.90] 6.80] 6.50] 5.91] 5.50] 6.86 6.08
WERGDINE EO oo ax:s nisin Sao 6.75 7.09 9. 00 7.60 8.90 9.50 8.52 8.93 | 12.77 11. 34
CEP ON <2. ..cum een eke eee 6.12} 6.60) 7.75] 7.25] 6.85 | 6.80] 7.16| 7.48] 10.18| 10.18
Caloric ous caepnaeee 7.06 6.35 9.00 | 14. 25 8.00 8.15 7.92 9.41 | 11.66 10. 41
CRIRDOMG Jcupeniciswn sam anae oul saho sats bod oneal ate ee eer hee Sacre 6.86 |} 5.30] 5.61 4.90
TRoihe Territory «unk < ceeens op leho ss ucics cate ce) eee etes os 7.64 | 4.98} 5. ll 4.62

Wholesale prices of hay (baled) per ton in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904,

682 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .
|
1

Chicago. | Cincinnati. St. Louis,
4 No. 1 timothy, No, 1 timothy, No, 1 timothy,
Date. per ton. per ton. per ton,
SG SOE ED ee ee
Low. High. Low. High. Low. High.
1900. |
PR Fe cag coe tke eet eet enna $10. 50 $11. 00 $13. 00 $14. 00 $11. 00 $12. 50
UOEET on kan Oo aeons on pee ee 10. 50 10. 75 13. 50 14. 00 10. 50 12,00
DN" eee a ae ae eo eee 10. 50 11. 00 13.75 14, 25 11.00 12.50
BAR A. ee eee 11. 00 13. 00 14, 50 15. 00 11. 50 13. 00
VO a RR ag le Ae pap ee SC se Ee 11. 50 12. 00 14, 25 15. 00 11. 00 13. 50
ht eR A ee ea ee 10. 00 11. 00 14. 00 14. 75 10. 50 13. 50
LA i rae ie he Pee ee TA Aa ee 10. 50 12.00 13.75 14, 25 11.00 14. 50
Se RS oS EE ee 11. 00 11. 60 11. 50 15. 00 9.75 13. 00
REGS ss neennnctepiad ada. 11. 00 11. 50 12. 50 13.75 10. 00 12,00
TL Oe Se a eta) ee ee 11.00 11. 50 13. 50 14. 50 11. 00 12. 50
RPISOITINOW jmoore = ee 12. 00 13. 50 13. 50 14. 00 10. 75 13.50
Deoember?. 2 ssa. cee oo oy ee Se 12. 50 13. 50 13. 75 14, 50 11. 50 14.00 |
1901.
FROUETS one tos 5c oinndoc claws eet oe 12. 00 13. 00 14. 00 14. 50 11. 50 13.50
PODIDAPY cco 2 eee ee ee 12. 00 12. 50 14. 00 14, 25 11. 50 12.75
REIS | 8 gs as bw Hides doo dad. Ceadiee oe 12. 00 13.00 13. 50 14. 50 11.50 14.00 —
TAN 1 eR eg ee ge ER he ae BD 12. 50 18. 00 14. 00 15. 50 12. 50 14. 50
OSS ues waite o oR ORE ad ae elas eee eee 12. 50 138. 50 14. 25 14, 50 12. 00 14.50
[1 ee Same mage Apap ES NLS RES BOWS f 12. 50 13. 00 12. 50 13. 50 12. 00 15. 50
OEE i ot cea ttm: eee eens Cee ee 13. 00 14. 00 12. 25 15. 00 12. 50 17.00 @
ripe oo ets he ee ne Nera Dee eee 13. 00 14. 00 12. 25 15. 00 13. 00 16. 00
BATROMONE! 5 Se conc > cats Sad'sie sae eo eee 12.00 12.50 12. 50 13. 25 12. 50 15. 50
MERTEIDOR cs fon ee ek on a ee ee 12. 00 12. 50 12, 50 13. 25 12. 50 14.50
IN GEMDOP 4. oss oe ws eee cate 13. 00 13. 50 12, 50 13. 25 13.00 14. 50
LCC CS TEST egtedt Ge Waa et ae eek eben Be PSR Oct 13. 00 13. 50 13. 00 14. 00 13.50 15. 00
1902.
GNI Corin bee ee Ea es 12.50 13. 00 12. 50 13.75 13. 50 15. 50
BLT ete RR an SR a a ae 12. 00 12.50 12.50 13. 25 13. 00 14. 50
Beg eins SU ak ip ai te Daan A a Se 12. 00 12. 50 12.75 13, 25 13. 00 14. 50
FT ad TRA, gathen be, SE add ae Mee i Teh gee Bee 12.50 13. 00 12.75 13. 25 13. 00 15, 26
Reno cate (ice oe baks oe ee eee Se ee 12. 50 13. 50 13. 00 13. 50 13. 00 16, 50
mt TS RS OP ae a pe ie 12. 00 12.50 12.75 13. 00 12.00 16. 00
UU oat ac eae ees Ne See ee 12. 00 12. 50 13.75 15. 50 138. 00 16.00
PT et fe Is ene ee nn <r e 12. 00 12. 50 12. 00 15. 50 10. 00 15. 00
PIE ILOMIDG hess crn neh ee oe ee Oe ae 12. 00 12. 50 11.00 138. 00 9.50 12.00
CIGTODEI Jo. cease eo oe ee ea soe oes 12. 00 12. 50 13. 00 14.00 11. 00 13.00 |
BOvem Der ste ce. ee ee es eee 12. 00 12. 50 13.00 14. 00 11. 00 13.50
DOCOM DAR so. oo as oh ganic oes eee 12. 00 12. 50 abs ly 16. 50 13. 50 15. 50
1908.
PN ee eke ns wknd SE Oe eee 12.00 13. 00 15. 50 17, 25 13. 50 15. 50
NRT i tate <n eect cote Rae eee eee 12. 00 13. 00 16. 00 16.75 13. 50 15.00
PCD ee Se ae Se ee, ae me ee ee 12. 00 13. 50 16. 00 17.50 14. 00 16.00
RS Rae a er OTN 13. 00 15. 00 16. 25 18. 00 13. 50 16.00
yer. ee ee. ea ee oe ee 13.50 15. 00 15. 25 18. 00 13. 00 16. 00
TEED So Os See cc eee ee ee eee 13. 00 15. 00 17. 50 19.50 14. 50 25.00 | ;
5 Lh ee ene Tepe ae See LR Si Re eR 13. 00 13.50 16. 50 18. 00 9. 50 16.50
POG Sa 2) UPS a lee Oe Ree ee ep eee 11. 00 13. 50 11.50 17.00 10. 00 15.00 |
Senrempar 46 522s Set ee. 10.00 12.00 11. 50 13. 50 10. 00 12.00
CISTODEP: Sot... Jones ees ee 10. 00 11. 50 12. 50 13. 25 10. 00 12.50
Wowem ber 2% .:c525-0 eee ee 10. 00 11. 50 12. 25 12.75 10. 00 12.50
SN es co vane p dale ne= ase op sean 10. 00 12. 00 12. 50 138. 00 10. 00 13. 50
1904. ;
STs a Va eto a ae See fe Pie es STE is BO AN 10. 50 12. 50 12. 50 13. 25 10. 00 11.50
BODTUSIY: oon cu beac to as eae eee ue 10. 50 12.50 12. 50 13. 50 10. 50 11.50
Sergey: 5 Bee Noh ee 10. 50 13, 00 12. 50 14. 00 10. 50 12.00
BPTI shee ae cn Sd 11. 50 14. 50 13, 75 14.00 11.00 ‘13.00
Ways. OS Skk oc Ue ae AE Ae ine ek, eee fl 12.00 15. 00 14, 00 15. 60 12. 50 13.00
PUNO hic asa os eee ais eee ee 12.00 15. 00 13. 00 14. 00 12. 00 13. 50
PL ee ae a res I a RS TEE RN 10. 00 14. 00 12. 00 13.75 12.00 13.0089
AUIS USE voi eh a Oe eee eee ie 10. 00 15. 00 11. 50 14, 00 11.50 13. 50
September 20.5.6 oacn ope ee os) ae eee 9. 00 12.00 11. 00 32525 10. 50 12. 50
Qeatoper 2. 23.75 ook Ee eh en 10. 00 12. 50 11. 50 12. 50 10. 50 12. 50
November. 7. 220 es ve eee ee 10. 00 12. 50 11, 25 12. 00 11. 00 11.50
December! 245 ce 5 ate ee ee ee 10. 50 12. 50 12. 00 12. 50 10. 50 11.6053

STATISTIOS OF OOTTON. 683

COTTON.

Commercial cotton crop of 19038-1904.

[In commercial bales. }

Movement and mill purchases, | T#ken from other States and

ports.
— pars p. aecorn mes ee er Oe
States and Territories. = deals ‘ate tone Taken mercial
orwarded|Bought by rom crop.
by rail, etc.| mills. Total. other ahr Total.
States. I ;
EROS, «. ow cowannneshs 856, 135 217,760 | 1,073, 895 67, 496 17,545 85,041 988, 854
CS ee ee 798, 733 1, 807 800, 540 9 res Se 46, 462 754, 078
| re 49, Ge |b cpus xaee = 49, 832 |e Paes ae ae 499 49, 333
oo i 1, 128, 073 412,824 | 1,535, 897 219, 252 10, 654 229,906 | 1,305,991
Indian Territory ...... QEINZES> |b ieee Anion 282, 238 2 O0bulemaed bes o - 2, 663 279, 575
OTE I 9 eee ae SD |ckweks aets ST po OS Gd RIC ito 33
BONURGIY <n cciueccsees 861 19, 458 20, 319 1D ADO" spces 62 3c 19, 458 861
CES a err 900, 946 14,777 915, 723 72, 761 14,777 87, 538 828, 185
PEI Nias sckeewe 1, 481, 208 29,804 | 1,611,012 85, 665 479 86,144 | 1,424, 868
MRCOG a edn os sa oe 2 = 40, 612 4,535 45, 147 BE DOD Nee seco k. 2 4, 535 40, 612
North Carolina........ 3138, 524 497, 572 811, 096 209, 296 27,472 236, 768 574, 328
oo ee 290} Fee Ve tok sae. 170, 764 Mag eee 673 170, 091
South Carolina........ 477, 007 569,559 | 1, 046, 566 184, 763 30, 425 215, 188 831, 378
Tennessee ..........-.- 250, 988 43, 146 294, 134 40, 156 2, 863 43,019 261, 115
UE ec cek cams Saseys = 2, 632, 526 15,120 | 2,647, 646 DOR EES Visa Sams 7% a « 109,138 | 2,538, 508
gt) ee 13, 143 50, 660 63, 803 BO, B00 ules coset... 50, 660 13, 143
United States... 9, 391, 623 | 1,877,022 | 11,268,645 | 1,118,477 | 104,215 | 1,217,692 | 10,050, 953
Value of the commercial crop of 1903-1904.
Upland crop. Sea-island crop.
States and Ter- ‘ ‘ fins UV itech nee Wee ae it 1 Dotal
Scie Weight] Price Pro- |Weight| Price
ritories. a pe per per Value. | duc- | per per | Value, | Value.
; bale. | pound. tion. | bale. | pound.

Bales. Lbs. Cents. Dollars. | Bales.| Lbs. Cents. | Dollars. | Dollars.

Ata bama.....2: Sede Gatun S00 ns MenOas | Pobu GUNG Late e fee ela secre walt ot ge atme ss clare oe 56, 999, 819
Arkansas: J2tsso- Jb O78 iP Olo jas |eelenOl PACs 4O0s O00) 2 - SG lace meen isc esccee le maas- omar 46, 486, 895
MIOTHER =. So nce’ so 21,328 | 447.2 | 11.84] 1,129,285 |28,005 | 382.0 | 22.50 |2,407,030 | 3,536,315
Geormia. 2:25. o2c0 1, 266,836 | 485.3 | 11.84 | 72,791,788 {39,155 | 384.0 | 21.50 |3, 232, 637 | 76,024, 425
indian Territory.) 279, 675:} 516.9 | TSS (27,049, 273)... 25 epee nn selec sce se|ee see nege 17, 149, 273
MOORES. «7. bes <i 33 | 600.0} 12.01 De Obe elo Seine s|stsa cies as lost er sciopais ov ale es 1, 982
Kentucky ....... 861 | 541.0] 11.89 BO SOOE ae a ate a lee eas wale Savaiolate alo odoceSSOe 55, 384
HOUIsIANa ..02..- SIR 165 O0d 2 (eetese | SO OUr eA OON Roe coca h et etercinicc jaemcee calle cs coe ue 49, 607, 420
Mississippi. ...... A Ava. SGSMIDOTs Slee Ome OOM eae lh 28 alae tote conics |lnwici euler ain sie oie um mim = 85, 957, 499
MisSOUIT > 5 <2< AO GIPANE S25 eet cola area Bor |e ac me listen eies a Pate ciunrarsieficie Sema mei 2, 552, 884
Meri OATOlMNA chs 2074. GAG Hit 1 0.0, |e avOl el aay teen ODO o] es ot yc lens sieoraic acrcis cose Sen woe elnle 32, 832, 953
Oklahoma....... AFOOT ON || SURO MMAEE OOS oo cA Nal thassin ail arate sianers cific iam wm mec ae 10, 091, 686
South Carolina..| 821,829 | 488.5 | 11.66 | 46,331,514 | 9,549 | 347.3 | 26.75 | 887,128 | 47,218, 642
Tennessee ......- Sel 1A Pb 1g 0 |) Pda OU) 1d: oO yOOD Eben s see ela caieys.« oe flais oreio ow of amie tee wree 15, 436, 365
IROSOB = scione css 2 BSS, DOS pola. ade GoD a aoe Ges | oe stone cle Male. ecco mecca cma mo Sed oie 154, 988, 987
WARING, ..2io8 2a: 18, 143 | 477.8 |) 12.01 OO ane one eet one o's | Dictwiert = Sei ne ciale wie ac 754, 195

United States. .} 9,974,244 | 502.1 | 11.85 |593, 167,929 |76,709 | 378.7 | 22.47 |6,526,795 |599, 694, 724

Condition of the cotton crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1904.

Year. June. | July. gust = bar Year. June. | July. gust — hae,
eee 86.4 | 87.6| 89.8 | 86.6] 81.5 |] 1897.......... 83.5 | 86.0] 86.9] 78.3 70.0
[ae 88.8} 91.4] 89.5 | 85.5] 80.0 || 1898.......... 80.0) 91.2] 91.2| 79.8 ‘76.4
1) Spe ee 85.7 | 88.6| 88.9 | 82.7] 75.7 || 1899.......... 85.7 | 87.8] 84.0| 68.5] 62.4
WOE. oc: ttcus 85.9} 86.9| 82.3] 76.8] 78.3 || 1900.......... 82.5 | 75.8] 76.0] 68.2] 67.0
$008. i Eee S56} 827 80.4) TS 78 ro ieee... -.- ee) St. 1 77.2 | 71.4 61.4
$008 wis. 3012 §8.3 | 89.6] 91.8] 85.9] 82.7 || 1902...,...... 95.1 | 84.7] 81.9] 64.0] 568.8
ne 81.0] 82.3] 77.9] 70.8] 65.1 || 1903.......... 74,0) F770, (79.7 | 81.2 | soil
BOE xio nda vice 97.2 | 92.5] 80.1 | 64.2] 60.7 || 1904.......... 83.0 | 88.0] 91.6] 84.1 75.8

684 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of colton of the United States, 1879-1904.

New York closing
prices per pound on
i

middling upland. Domestic
> “i Se ee
Year. Acreage. E cowne Value. May of deont gan
. December. | following | beginning
year. uly 1,
Low. |High.} Low. | High.
Bales of 500
Acres. Bales. Dollars. | Cents.|Cents.|Cents.|Cents.| pounds.

TATRA ROD =... cccuaitbe voces 12, 595, 500 5, 761,252 | 248, 482, '700 |... .<claccvcsleseeas|panccel meeen een
ae ee ye 15, 475, 300 6,605,750 | 297,787,210 | 113 12 10%} 105 4, 381, 857
pO ee ee 16, 710, 780 5,456,048 | 245,522,160} 11%] 123 | 12 123 8, 479, 952
TRIES oxo cnavenssaanes 16, 276, 691 6,949, 756 | 323,372,147 | 10: | 10,4) 10 114 4, 576, 150
J Sh eee 16, 777, 993 5, 718, 200 | 237,554,856 | 108 | 10%) 114 11} 8, 725, 145
Ey an a a 17,439,612 | 65,706,165 | 241,484,903 | 10,%| 114%/ 10}4) 1 3, 783, 319
PT ne 18, 300, 865 6,575,691 | 268,786,319 9%; 9 9 9 4, 116,
poly See es 18, 454, 603 6, 505, 087 | 247, 505, 550 9 9,5} 10 11 4, 388, 915
VET-1808 «oct ak rae 18,641,067 | 7,046,833 | 279,724,086; 10$| 108 | 948! 1045] 4,528, 242
eS eee 19, 058, 591 6, 938,290 | 281,312, 968 9 ;| il 11 4, 769, 633
pT A eee eae 20, 171, 896 7,511,322 | 290,069,389 | 103 | 103 | 1148 12 4, 943, 600
STOOD 5 cee be 20,809,053 | 8,652,597 | 351,970,341] 93| 9% 8% | 848] 5,814,717
TEST ei 20,714,937 | 9,035,379 | 311,982,601] 73] 8y| 72] Tye) 5,870,440
CA ee eee 18, 067, 924 6,700,365 | 267,344, 564 93 | 10 7% 7t#| 4,424, 230
PR Pes 5. win cn hy 19, 525, 000 7,549,817 | 250, 145, 067 732! «8, 4 7% 5, 366, 565
Po) ee ee 23, 687,950 | 49,476,435 | 259, 164, 640 544; 548] 63 7% 7, 034, 866
0b t898 c in canemteasuae 20,184,808 | 47,161,094 | 293,358,852 | 82 8%} 8 83 4, 670, 453
Le ae 23, 273,209 | 48,632,705 | 291, 811, 564 77s} 7td| 78 7t8| 6,207,516
ET he aes 24,319, 584 |a10,897,857 | 319,491,412] 523) 538] 68,1 6 7, 725, 572
aT ee eee 24, 967,295 | 411,189,205 | 305, 467, 041 53 55 6} 6 7, 575, 888
Pt ON a os ininin ars cane 23,403,153 | 49,142,838 | 334, 847, 868 7% 7} 9 9 6, 201, 166
po Eo OR ES 25, 758, 189 |@10, 401,453 | 511,098,111] 93 | 108, 8| 8%] 6,661,781
PO 00S « sncln'e as w ealwes 27, 220,414 | 410, 662,995 | 418, 358, 366 8 8 93 7,001, 558
TONE TODS occ cicavceenint 27,114,103 | 410,725,422 | 458, 051, 005 8} 85 | 123 | 13%] 7,086, 0386
JO0G GOES. 5 i cnisuintacrnda 28, 016, 893 |@10, 050,953 | 599, 694, 724 a ee ed OY Se

«Commercial crop. : : yaa
b From 1879-1880 to 1893-1894, inclusive, the farm value on December 1 is given, and for other years
the commercial value.

Cotton acreage from 1898-1899 to 1908-1904, inclusive.

States and Territories. 1898-1899. | 1899-1900. | 1900-1901. | 1901-1902. | 1902-1903. | 1903-1904,

Acres Acres Acres. Acres Aeres Acres

Minivan. 35.600. -F 5. ees 51, 162 35, 302 30, 572 85, 145 36, 843 39, 864
Narth Caroling..' 2) cs 1,311,708 | 1,219,888 | 1,091,034 } 1,112,260 | 1,075, 743 1, 155, 028
Routh Carolina. .>..50s<2654 2,353,213 | 2,212,020 | 2,195,252 | 2,248,569 | 2,205, 016 2,318, 100
ODI RIREN Fok wn nic meen ote 8,535,205 | 3,287,741 | 38,783,015 | 4,006,199 | 3, 868, 542 4, 048, 912
Where a ase a et eee 152, 452 149, 403 235, 451 254, 596 253, 961 268, 666
Pileahama: 5. ociit ea ees 8,003,176 | 2,883,049 | 3,403,746 | 3,642,964 | 3,501,614 3, 608, 049
1S a oa ey 2,900,298 | 2,784,286 | 3,194,795 | 3,193,570 | 3,183, 989 3, 327, 960
ACER, See ee os 1,480,781 | 1,586,124 | 1,617,586 Ve
WERMS 4 oon ont ot wee ee se soaoees q.
Dal) re, SPER ge, Salat
Tennessee
CUS 7 PR ae alia a ee
Oklahoma :
Indien Territory: ).3-2..5-.5 - 314, 906 299, 161 453, 560 530, 923 658, 699 702, 966
(a2) SE ee aa Spe et 85 40 BO) |. cw cemen san lemcede ae nick's eee ee "a
1 TPN Rat ee ee a ee 8 414 311 380 122 76.
Meantueky.....--4. s.scsee seco: 137 70 328 175 2, 367 1, 957

Total sen oe ics 24, 967,295 | 23, 408, 497 | 25, 758,139 | 27,220,414 | 27,114,103 | 28,016, 893 -

Corron IN East AFRICA.

The report early in 1905 of the commissioner sent out by the British Government
to investigate the cotton growing possibilities in East Africa made the following
statement: .

Unless difficulties, which at the present are insuperable, can be removed, cotton
cultivation in East Africa will never be undertaken on any considerable scale.

First among the difficulties the commissioner places labor, on account of the ina-
bility of the natives and their disinclination for work. The total area devoted to
cotton growing under European supervision can scarcely exceed a few thousand
acres. The commissioner’s opinion is that the only solution of the difficulty is
indentured labor from India or China.

ee ee ee

STATISTICS OF COTTON. 685

Prices of middling upland cotton in New Orleans, monthly, 1890-1904.

{In cents per pound. ]

January. | February. March. April. May. June.
Year. See FAT es) + aa a ae oa a ee er mre
; Low. |High.| Low. |High.| Low. High.| Low. |High.) Low. |High.| Low. |High
° | (2p ee 9§ | 1034) 10% | 1044] 1034 11 | 11 | 1148) 11y,| 117] 11%) 113
eS ee 88] 9x6] 84 | Ors] «8B | BF fs| 844) 8x1 83 "4 8}
RRS Se eee 643) 77% 64} 6¢| 6b] 6b| 6F| 7 7 (Ft ae
PORN eeartan cwokad weakens 9 98 833} = 92 Bis 9 T¥s| 8y5| 7 7% TV 7%
cs tte ah wtae 6d Caceaoee TA) TR | Il Tee OT | 7 7 7s} 638) TZesl 63 | 74
BE retin ne diaiicn rn on tial 5 Sy} 5 By} yy) SOG 5} 6} 6y5, 7 64 7
ET RR a ep 743] 8 7 8 4 | 748) | 7| | 72] tal 78
BNE ig te Sieh Shen ets a ott 7%| 638) 7sy| 648] 7¥el 7es| 7oel 78| 78
ey iy iret ee he 3 ny 5 bye! 53 | 5s! 52] 54al 6yy BF 6 yy
rere oe ed 5} 6 5t4} 6 yy a 5} 5t4| = 6 5 54
CU Rees. Ree yet? 2p to Se 1-9 9 | 97s, 9F | 98 | Stel 9b sti 943
BOR bar Wus ahve esenkinks wins 94; 944] Oe} xs) 748 ty} 8 Bis 77% 8 7 875
1) | allah ee gia Me adit 73 | 8 7H] 8x5 84 #| Sf] 98 | 95) 98] 8H 9,
BND eran vasa coves boas Nek B8yx| 83 | 82 | 9% | 9 92 | 98 | 10x] 10.) 1144) 1144) 13%
GE iied cikocveeetiasevckis 13 | 1548) 133] 16%) 133 | 16 | 1327] 15,5| 12¢ | 132 | 1034) 122
July August September.| October. | N ovember. | December.
Year. eR 8 EE SS | ES Le een Seas Sec
Low. |High.| Low. |High-:| Low. |High.| Low. |High.| Low. |High.| Low. High.
eee ‘11yq_| 113 | 102] 113] 93] 103 | 948) 10%) 9] 9%! 843! 92
" Gaeg) A ae i ae dae ae A Fh TE | 8 8 t) 7) 88] | TE] 7 | 7h
1892... 2-2 eee e ee eee nee 7 7¥e| 648| 7x5} 648) 7x] 0 7xe} 748) 74 95 9%; 94%
See aa ae Bae Pere a Tel Te) Se TE Sk re Te | Oe
(|, SE SE Semen 65 63 675) . 6% Bi} 3 533| 53 é 55 Byy| 5 ys
Lee eR Se a Skee Hears 6% 63 633; 733| 7| 83 855} Ys| 85 8% 73 83;
RRO Mois icone artc sus Soe 65 613 +8, 8 7% i UF 73 7¥5| 7% 644; 7%
US eer 748] 738) Tye] 748) Gee] Tye] (53 a rs 5a 54 53
Ee eae be} 6052 | 62] 64a] 421 52] 438 43] 6} 5 54
Se eS y aw. ohn Se eeadex 53 5} 53 58] 53 7 63 is 3 Ty¥s| 7% i
ee SS ae 9: | 102] 93] 103} 93] 113] Sig] 108] 9 92 | 92] 94g
EEEree Sa Se hc Seuss new eoe 83 83%, 8 838, 748) = 83 Tzxe| 8% - Cig) 208 875
ots fea eS ae avers 8% 975; 83 83 83;| 88 8 A 73 8 748) 82
ba ta.n eia pin estate aime arate e oiare 125 133 | 123] 132 93 |} 123 93 | 103} 10 113,;| 113 | 138
i a eee 10} | 113] 102] 112] 10 | 118, 93] 103, 82] 92] 63] 8%
i
Compressed cotton by rail, average freight rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.
From New Orleans From Mem- From New Orleans From Mem-
to—a phis to— to—a phis to—
g a
° ra] j : ~ a « ‘
Year. a4 a 3 ad Year. = Q o ad
drei ke teed din ls| eis a
°° a & ” 9 } a a 3
e Eee te eam ee ay tea ie i =
o o qo 3 7) {) o o Gq 3 oe °
ioe) A a aa) A = sa) A Ay a Zz isa)
Peele sce ae 58 53 54 54 | 66 7 | a’): 55 50 50 50 | 47 52
fh os een 53 48 61 51 | 61 aS yo 51 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5
PRBS ze oa ets 60 55 53 52 | 72 JOA) sh 5 ee ee 53 48 48 48 | 50.5} 55.5
gD ee ee 60 55 53 52 | 64 BO: PLSOG) «teed. a 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 53.5
i fo 3 Peeeneaesniens 60 55 53 52 | 56 Bi IBOT. ose os 55 50 50 50 | 50 55
AGSGs che cee 52 47 45 44 | 53 OS! ISOS: oes oes. 55 50 50 50 | 47 52
toy ee ae 50 45 43 42 | 53 DG" (Passes a 52 47 47 47 | 48 53
its) See ee 50 45 43 42 | 47 Bee POO oc sinc 2 ote 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 65.5
earns gs44¢ 52 47 45 44 | 50.5 BOs ASOL oc seae cco 55 50 50 50 | 50.5] 655.5
Ps 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 55 |} 1902 ........ 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5
SSE tose case 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 gl | (ES Us See 55 50 50 50 | 50.5] 55.5
A 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 BB t 1008 5.2. u. 55 50 50 60 | 50.5 | 50.5

a These rates are mainly used for basing purposes.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

686

Mg ¥L
L tL
5 tz
8 8
is Re
8 tL
a8 #
%g $2
8 2g
76 8
6 +6
#6 #6
6 | 6
6 | 6
SOL | 6
It 16
ot t6
OL 6
16 #8
6 76
16 $6
6 t
¢ re
$y, »
$2 ayy,
L na
asi a a
19 9
79 Hs
9 ag
#9 4g
9 4g
9 4g
39 9
#9 9
9 #¢
"3quaQ | “syuaO
‘QStH | “MOT
“H[OHION

A L 8 Rt
i : TS L
is tz i8 L
£g 3 ig $2
ts 8 8 tL
#8 #L 7 48
2 #L 8 $2
4, ZL 8 74
yA L 8 2,
6 rd 6 #L
$6 6 46 6
$6 16 $6 6
$6 16 46 6
$6 6 6 6
TOL 6 Ot tg
fOr 6 #01 #3
See ee $6 #8
aati ala) Take lat $6 6
16 6 #6 836
$6 76 £6 t
$6 6 { 6
8 L 8 $2
L tL tL ¥L
7L L L a3),
$1 +L #L 39
#L $9 L $9
$9 4g $9 4G
3g 4g He ig
3g PO eee ce
ag 4g $9 aa)
4g ig ag #¢
9 3g $¢ {
9 9 #4¢ §¢
9 4g $t¢ Hs
tg ig #¢ 1G
"3yuaQ | “sya | “s7WaD | “szUAaD
‘3TH | “MOT astH | MOT
“MOLSUTONEM “MO IsITIBYO

L L #8 1
v3 L L #1
8 L #8 ,
#8 $2 8 at,
#s $2 8 *8
78 8 8 8
+8 L #19 L
8 | ZL 18 #L
78 Shy #8 T
6 | 's ie 6
6 6 6 tT
46 #6 H6 #6
26 216 H6 i
6 #8 6 6
or | #8 or | es
#01 “16 Or 16
6 6 ai6 88
36 536 $6 £6
+6 fas #6 48
26 6 | 26 £8
26 #6 | 26 16
ole ie |
8 L

#2 Sty, TL
Sz 41 ary, tL
TL £9 it ay,
49 9 L $19
19 ag 9 =| #9
4g 4G £9 4g
#¢ §G 4g }
§¢ 8g ag tg
§¢ #¢ 8t¢ 4
Hes G #¢ 4g
$1¢ G 9

#¢ 2G at!) ig
"squag | ‘squag | ‘squaQ | ‘s7UaD
‘G3tH | “MOT | ‘G3TH | “MOT
“(BUUBABS “HOJSOA[BY)

4 tL
4g L
a a
|
8 831,
78 8
; 8
26 546
46 6
#6 £6
OL #48
TOL 49
tT | 6
#6 46
— ic
6 8
216 #8
#6 6
a6 88
8 HL
FL #L
hy ¥L
L L
a
#9 Gg
#¢ #¢
#¢ «| «4G
#t¢ gq
#G #¢
ig ¢
+ 4G
t 2c
to «=| sg
eT OL®) | "3]UaQ
‘3H | “MOT
‘srqdmoyy

akg #L
sh L
ag L
ig HL
8 8
a
8 oy
8g 21g
ah6 StL
aF6 26
26 216
2a ee:
yor | #8
711 16
70L 16
TOL 46
936 218
$6 #18
6 16
6 6
} 1,
€L ¥L
L at),
a as 49
#49 #9
9 #¢
g #G
#g $¢
Gg #¢
} 24
#G 8g
t Hs
9 Rtg
¢ aig
*$qUIO *3q7UIaQ
‘(3tH | “MOT

‘SUBOTIO MON

#8 8
ve |
4g §ig
Els
#49 3g
cm} ate
ae | &
or | %6
ZL 46
®F0L 6
or | 6
IL 216
IL 26
401 56
70L £46
OL #18
26 6
£6 336
26 a6
516 4g
8 tL
EL 41
241 tL
#L a2),
8 +
t 79
| 7
Hig | atg
i |
939 a9
9 at9
a) 3

‘squag | ‘squag

“USI

"HIOK MON

ee

wee ee eee

re

es

ee es

At ae vorreeess**T9qQuIe0E(q,
tee ae “77"""* JOQUIOAON
ees. Son ae igen ae 19q0}00
ae pehnen == 9" TOQUE
TRO Te Tee Stee se = 20a

2 ae See ne el - Aye

ea eae ee | F. [Nady

eae ven ashe e > Tre
“Sane ee AIBNIQI

seece eens reo~sec “APOE

meat ee lak ae sk raquie0eq
Se ne ae gee IaqmMoAON
eu a Ie eae - 1940100
pitt Te alae a vt raquieydag
Poe is oe eee ysnsny
eeccecscsessees vee a aS
aaa ela i RE it ge Sem os a eed 19.)
ets ea a = ea 8 ole A
pth cath hg tel pte le eS i es OL Rs" -- judy

were eee ee ee eee eee rece eeeeee 1oq u1900q
wee c center cece scr sseccescaccee 19QMoAON
ee eee 1040100
woe cc cc cewesnecensccasscamsenses i1aquieydeg
weet cece reer e ene e ee ee ce eee eeeene ysn3ny

Slee ae Tae A ee ee ALBNIGIT
se Br Oe ee ae oe ae ae Arenues

O6I-668I ‘sang papuy ayy fo samo Bupa) ur ‘punod wad uojos punjdn buyppru sanrsd brrs0))

687

OF COTTON.

STATISTICS

La Soe

TESS ooo SHS

mo
ODOAAAH

CLO SaaSSSSee
SS SHS BSS

a an ee
ADODODrEe

he
~

e
L

00 °6

Go ‘OL
69 ‘OL
06 “IT
¢9 “IT
co IT
G8 “OL
06 “ST
GP ST
¢9 ‘9T
Go °LT
¢L‘9T

OL FL
99 “TT
09 OL
00 “éT
GL OL
0g “ST
Gs “SL
CT SL
cL ‘Or
QP OL
Go OL
c0 6

Pee See SCC ae ale eS Se Sa oe eae “-"* Jaqo1O
a ae Cubchmenne. OC sere in ye
Pineal S = Xo min ere 2S * Pee) ince Saas
Cie hs et eae eS “-Ayne
per Srreizs iS Soe Oh Se Eerie See =>" "ee" “Some
er es P2f o2 aver sean Oe eae Ras

saat pS Se SG kESS EPS Rin 2 56> ee re

Aarne Te wae oe ee * eq uleoeqd
a RM EAR ata ec ah pol a EG
Fe Oe CES ae ee ae rie ae Oe * 18q0100
Oe Eh ee a nee oe ed raqureydasg
seas f5 chee Se ae og Soret ee ea
grease Te eee ee Ee ae epee eee
own ween ew ancasccncnccceccss eabacsst}- Game
eee IFS 2 SiR POL SRST RS ORR eRe ener ee ST aaa
et eee Fe was Se Poke Fee tudy
dete ss > So met ee ae a 1) Ore
ete SO eS ara es a a SOOT
spre aca oth i a Ppt alsa a lal Nb eI ey aT

CRP pee RRS Pe ES OE aE
Rehan thick oe ae get ee oe ae Oe Re
ea ee bess ce ean ae. Se are oe a 8
ee eee pekinese tip -arwipae sa |
ae oO SE SERA AS sep ee an

PITT err reer ere eee ee “ss srdy
RRR eS y-0 5 To a a ae a ereees TOBA

a as at tle te se tt tS AIBNIQIT
Panis ee ASS S aK Se ne ee ORS Sere eee

688 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TOBACCO.
Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in the United States in 1904, by States.

Average Average | Average

. : : lu
States. Acreage. yield _ | Production, a areata: Torn veran
Pet eens: Dec. 1. | Dee. 1.
Acres Pounds Pounds. Cents Dollars Dollars.
New Hampshire.............-. 119 1,610 191, 590 15.0 241. 50 28, 738
VWerIviOnit SS. oo OT. ee Sear 174 1, 685 293, 190 15.0 252.75 43, 978
Massachusetts. ............22- 4, 444 1, 690 7, 510, 360 18. 6 314. 34 1, 396, 927
OCORMOStIOUNG. 6.3 sss adcaccesnen 12,705 1, 685 21, 407, 925 22.6 380. 81 4, 838, 191
Wa VOrk +. ccs scceucneetumas 5, 492 1,145 6, 288, 340 10.0 114. 50 628, 834
PODNSYI VEDIO... 6. seccncccass= 14, 457 1, 289 18, 635, 073 8.9 114. 72 1, 658, 521
OLN TINS oe. deco aanams 32, 067 621 19, 913, 607 6.5 40. 36 1, 294, 384
MN Pe a on 138, 086 725 | 96, 487, 350 7.4 53. 65 7, 140, 064
Weren Cerone.) |. tec seen 148, 968 685 98, 618, 080 8.6 58. 91 8, 481, 155
South Caroling . .. ~cc..<scecs- 11, 648 703 8, 185, 029 8.2 57. 65 671, 172
Cerin eR ae oe oe 1, 868 650 1, 214, 200 20.6 133. 90 250, 125
B11 Cr” een ater pak Re RES 4, 434 815 8, 618, 710 31.5 256. 73 1, 188, 319
Alebiesin «2 |. s. . s cn edict 585 379 221, 715 15.5 58. 75 34, 366
Ee GE ae ye cee 170 408 69, 360 15.6 63. 65 10, $20
OSE oe aun eaees 89 438 38, 982 21.5 94.17 8, 381
ewes 22. ook eo ciesare ss 469 600 281, 400 19.5 117.00 54, 873
ADTs es ta deae ete 1, 234 565 697, 210 12.0 67. 80 838, 665
MONK OBROB. 3. on sic waves ee aet 47, 703 730 34, 823, 190 5.8 42.34 2,019, 745
West Virginian]. 24. ecss ees 4, 087 710 9 901, 770 8.5 60. 35 6,
MOMTUGRY 6 ooo sack on caus anicn 277, 409 827 229) 417, 243 6.4 62, 93 14, 682, 704
Oe oa eae eet eee 59, 827 849 50, 793, 123 8.0 67. 92 4, 063, 450
MTT Sle Sao datas 278 675 187, 650 6.5 43. 87 12, 197
Wa a Ve eR RE oe es ee 6, 244 691 4, 314, 604 8.5 58. 73 366, 741
Ur ee eee eae re oe 1,155 670 7738, 850 5.4 36.18 41, 7
Wisconsin........ Pe ca eee 40, 931 1, 282 52, 473, 542 7.8 100. 00 4, 092, 936
17 See ee ape 1, 771 626 1, 108, 646 8.5 63. 21 94,
United States .......... 806, 409 819.0 | 660, 460, 739 8.1 66. 20 53, 382, 959
Tobacco crops of 1900 and 1901.
1900. 1901.
Aver- Aver-
Aver- Aver-
States. age | produc- |farm| Farm acré- | 8°! ‘Produc-. |farm) meee
Acreage. |yield tion ria value, ¢ yield Han rice value,
per : yy co’| Deo.1 8 per . 4 co'| Detects
acre ; acre. ex
Acres Lbs. | Pounds. |Cents.| Dollars. Acres. | Lbs."| Pounds. |Cents.| Dollars.
Dg: See 111} 1, 666 184, 926) 15 27, 739 125) 1, 500 187,500) 15 28, 125
Ad eRe 200} 1, 800 360,000) 12 43, 200 212) 1, 722 365, 000) 10 ‘
Masa <* =. 4,041) 1,823) 7,367,363) 15 1, 141, 194 4,284); 1,810} 7,752,200) 12 964, 216
Conn? ...5- 10, 948) 1,684} 18,485,765} 15 2, 833, O41) 11, 782} 1,586} 18,682,319) 15 2, 756, 221
1 GES 8,527} 1,185} 10,101,350) 8 844, 897 8, 835} 1,134} 10,019,7 7 , 094
Bas. ooee 24,147) 1,524) 36,802,670) 6 2, 259, 897; 18,771) 1,495} 28,070,700; 6 1, 712, 642
LT a Sia 43, 995} 527) 238,182,736) 6 1, 314, 948 44,081) 597 26, 315, 655! 6 1, 675, 676 -
AC Se RE 170,700} 618) 105,543,960) 6 , 000, 995} 168,800) 635 107, 196,529) 8 8, 180, 765
1 oe ee 193,329} 618} 119,504,625) 7 , 096, 164|} 189, 020 560) 105, 807,677; 9 9, 714, 248
PrNer eee 26,567} 873} 23,203,003) 7 1, 590, 648 27,259) 768 20, 946, 705| 7 1, 551, 519
pee oe 2,066) 495) 1,023,336) 15 148, 431 1,990) 494 982,691); 18 176, 972
i) Bet Sen 2, 22 546 1, 211, 066} 26 309, 814 2,610) 544 Le 420, 705| 27 882, 859
‘eee 771 282 217, 665| 27 58, 126 729) 266) 194,167) 19 36, 404
1 ye ae 190; 623 118, 327) 18 21,712 208} 576 119, 848) 18 22,148
1 a 112} 265 29,730) 23 6, 873 103} 323 83,295} 28 9,181
i ye oe 5 RS 611 348 212,860) 18 38, 790 302) 363 109,715} 16 17, 795
ARES 83 1,580; 407 643, 594) 12 75, 105 1,327) 344 456, 574; 138 58, 658
ARENT tics 2 65,405) 657) 42,971,283) 6 2,403, 517 66,478} 717} 47,659,810) 6 2, 860, 129
WV eitesic oe 4,819} 592) 2,852,263) 7 209, 184 4,723} 6589} 2,781,912) 8 215, 874
VS eee nat 367,262} 810) 297,584,134; 6 | 17,245, 872|| 374,644) 867) 324,809,420) 6 | 18,644,931
Ohio: -..cc. , 503) 891) 58,370,304) 7 8, 795, 869 62,357| 873) 54,466,263) 7 8, 974, 205
Might 5 x. 98! 600 G 9 5, 34 100) 655 65,500} 7 4, 585
Tn Fe ee 9,279} 778) (7,174,722) 6 440, 472 8,299} 788] 6,541,416) 5 354, 143
ee. es 1,568) 509 796,177, 7 53, 980 1,324} 426 563,728) 7 39, 825.
Wisc 24 38,651) 1,400; 54,126,366) 7 3, 857, 720 38, 738] 1,354) 52,441,051); 8 4, 054, 830
MO. «ncn 2 8, 732) 608} 2,268,316) 138 287, 599 2,09 459 963, 248] 15 144, 068
Be: RRS, 1, 046,427; 778) 814,345,341) 6.6] 53, 661, 132//1, 039,199, 788) 818,953,373) 7.1) 58, 283, 108

STATISTIOS OF HOPS. 689

HOPS.

Wholesale prices of hops per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

New York, Cincinnati. Chicago.

Pacifie coast,

Date. Choice State. Choice. common to
choice.

Low. High. Low. High. Low. High.

SNe ee ee ee ee

1900. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents.
PIU. wane niece suns sand acetates cane 124 13} 13 13 9 10
MOORMAN fra tts usin s scwwa seuss emenan cine 12} 13} 124 12} 9 y 10
12} 13} 123 12} 9 10
12} 134 12} 124 9 10
12} 14 10 10 10 ll
13 14 10 10 61 10
13 14 10 10 64 11
13 15 10 10 64 11
13 15 16} 16} 8 11
8) Oh an Opes I RD ar aes EB Sete eae 17 21 16} 164 aly 18
POV REIMOE oe Sorc cel ea sca ue lande inne ee ws 20 21 174 174 17 18
PUMOIHMIOGE cn cn an cee ene aslee Warder actos ae 18 21 18 18 17 18
1901.
a a ee ee ee pene ep 17 20 173 17} 17 18
TREE GOs ak oa sce mclaale ke eee ewe emir oe celled aie a ealell twkieete on on 17} 17} 17 18
Sry 2 ee ore eat eA ey Oy 18 20 173 173 18 19
Guy y e31," EESR SERS eh alg ae RNR s Be iG SO, 2 0k ane 18 20 17} 172 18 19
PE. Sete Cece as etc tuc tae Sace mae 173 20 17% 17% 18 19
ERIM 2 SOUL EES coe ca teen NoWmb cane 173 18 173 17} 17 18
ONE eat ake seen cee alo ubiouine onc meuiahatas 16 18 17% 17% 17 18
PRR tas Ss wie eae cn eck Soups Gos been 14 17 173 173 15 16
BOURNE! 4. noc recs c ses ee eae eee. 13 16 173 172 14 15
MOORES 2 Wen eek dk cme be ceeeeeaeene 14 153 14 14 124 14
Nei weEEeT o 6 CRA CU acy se cee awe cacce 14 153 133 13} 12: 14
DeGeener: <= oO Seceue se eucuecewacceeaceus - 14 153 14 14 13 15
1902.
PAO Sata wince se oetcwecbacee were 14 16 143 143 123 14
MOREA PC 2 sce no oe Be amie aeaite io 144 18 153 15% 15 16
Wigner ss rete e sc eee cccan cece 17 19 17: 174 13 164
WANS RTE es Sais sein vie cle acme smowe 18 20 183 18% 15 18
pT oll SETS as 2 SE, ES el So ee Re Pape 19 22 193 194 15 20
BrCl: gly eo ete el Mey ae ee” ee 203 24 21: 214 15 20
JULES eee oko ede coh a eene te dulors 22 26 23 23 20 22
eRINUE Seo cs Uno ites cence oR ebaee crass 242 28 25 25 22 25
BODMIMMED ~~ .5~s cece ces senes mse sence ease 26 28 263 263 25 26
CE EY Ae tet a eal Sone See aia: 2) aoe eae te 32 37 293 292 26 29
INGORE cdc os ossta see soe eate wiccsee sa 35 88 30 30 26 30
WUT GT ocin'n'a acianein Canin chide a afeides aioe a 35 38 30 30 29 31
1903 Good to choice.
WATERED wr aksc oon hin op eee wot eae 35 37 29 29 27
es eee ee hy er epee 33 37 29 29 27 31
TEPCR TS Eo pa en 5 oo eee ee ee eae oe 30 35 i 294 25 29
Ss ov steainidw 0 8 a Ae hig arbi eae 23 30 25 25 20 25
Pe Sle aa 2 inn we oper re ee oe 23 24 25 25 20 24
DRI es oS sca eee en le beast 224 24 24 24 22 24
a NOT Gag jl be a ey aa Re ei aE com 20% 233 24 24 19 22
TIBOR See Lt 5 oie aes aan Ree a 203 26 24 24 21 25
BOOGIE 6 ons eee ce name deun na wackaneess 244 30 25 25 26 28
OGiONEr .. o.cee see nn ada ele esp oebe sabes 30 33 26 |: 26 20 27
INO VGRRIIGN oe aes eee eee 30 32 26 26 24 26
Decewipers.. J fae wat heaeseuzesce eee 30 35 27 27 24 27
1904.
SRDVATY Ss. 2uh- ee eee enw s sere 34 37 28 31 283 34
VCDIDALY * wx 6 atric ae aoe es eee 36 38 31 34 30
TESTOR. ncn un eRe ame eie « wee oe ol ee 34 38 30 32 32 34
1 ee errr rr rr errr 33 36 30 32 30 34
WRF i oes vo Se eeigoaes pad a eee 33 35 29 31 30 35
JUNG 52% 5 oS. Cove pees een aaa pa ee 32 35 29 30 30 32
SAY: 650 cat sidadchab nen ta stveenh on sendeees 32 34 29 30 30 31
0 eee ee ee er Tree 32 35 29 29 30 34
September. - an cduduancdecscstpesscodivene 33 37 29 31 283 31
Oboe... sans teen deed nana i eesen cave as 35 41 31 36 30 354
NoOvyemlOh is a2. olde onde < ccbai cone eee 36 » 41 36 37 32 37
DeOCCMDOE. 2s tcacdakntns downs ene ee chee 35 38 34 36 33 37

2 al904—44

690 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FLAXSEED.

Flax crop of countries named, 1901-1908.

Seed. Fiber.

Country, RS
1901. 1902. 1903. 1901. 1902, 1903.
Bushéls. Bushels. Bushels. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds,

United States .......... a 25, 000, 000 | 29, 285, 000 | 27,301, 000 |...........cce{ececccccceccccleccececceeee
Manitoba .............. 275, 000 582, 000 5O2 O00 |. ..c<cexzacnclésaccedows odculemenunenan
Mavien-<..Co t eo 165, 000 152, 000 150000 "|; :.-c00sccceccl.onavdaseosedateenunnan
Argentina ............. 15, 352, 000 | 14,371,000 | 90,076,000 |.........---c.|..2--cceeceschesenee mena
Total America ...} 40,792, 000 | 44,390,000 | 58,109,000 |..............|eeeeccceeceecs[ececeeceeeeee
enh Se Eee eee RINE SES A FAR TES Ta MPT oo WTI 29,736,000 | 25,182,000 | 19, 827, 000
rsa eta ee espns hy 60,000 | «60,000 | @60,000 | ©3, 162.000 | 3,162,000 | 63, 162, 000
Netherlands ........... 389, 000 384, 000 362,000 | 18,387,000 | 19,234,000 | 18,497,000
HAM. So Cees 280, 000 266, 000 272,000 | 25,538,000 | 24; 280,000 | 24, 790, 000
NG. Soak. cokacte 611, 000 450,000 | «500,000 | 54,683,000} 39,624,000 | 447,000, 000
17 RR memes Pe | Rae otek 6) | gy ate eg Se a 41, 917, 000 41,917,000 | 41,917, 000
sptaebete #35 orice ee ek 1, 131,000 | 1,034,000 | 1,120,000 | 122, 267,000 | 113, 508,000 | 103, 848, 000
PROD SOY 5 0.5 ccceclnse aes 162, 000 178, 000 «170, 000 13, 461, 000 18, 533,000 | @15, 000, 000
Croatia-Slavonia ...... 23, 000 26,000 | 24000 8, 684, 000 8, 803,000 | a8, 000, 000

Total Austria-

Hungary....... 1,316,000 | 1,233,000 | 1,314,000 | 144,412,000 | 140,844,000 | 126, 848, 000
Roumania ............. 554,000 | 1,005,000 | 2,064, 000 1, 433, 000 4,484,000 | 12, 267, 000
Bulgariad.............. 23, 000 23, 000 23) 000 2, 116, 000 2, 116, 000 2, 116, 000
TS Sik ale ee e 11,000 e11,000} 11,000 832; 000 2) 847) 000 1, 861, 000
Ee Se ee Lo 15, 227,000 | 20,173,000 | 17,997,000 | 728, 044, 000 |1, 165, 098, 000 |1, 003) 641, 000

Total Europe ....| 18,471,000 | 23, 605,000 | 22, 603, 000 |1, 050, 260, 000 |1, 468, 788, 000 |1, 1, 301, 4 426, 000
British India........... ~ 18, 041, 000 | 14,077,000 | 19, 268, 000 |...........cc-|-- +. eccusa sue fnan nen
PPO RG. Foc ee eS 10, 000 10, 000 10, 000 |. wiis.c.cnccine ans berscesme sin o's oan teeter

RECAPITULATION,
Ameriog . 3200 °.° «<5 2 40,792,000 | 44,890,000 | 58,109,000 |.....:.-:s--c]-cocaccsacecesfeaeneeanemanaa
Weropec.t-e cs .ccee 18, 471, 000 | 23; 605; 000 | 22) 603; 000 |1, 050, 260, 000 |1, 468, 788, 000 |1, 301, 426, 000
British India........... 18, 041,000 | 14,077,000 | 19, 263,000 |.........----c].-c-<-+s-accne|eeeeeeeeamn
Da) Ee ey Ase 10, 000 10; 000 000 wee u Qalan sic eate] ang nele wo:e oly acne ee

Total ee 72, 314, 000 | 82,082,000 | 99,985, 000 |1, 050, 260, 000 |1, 468, 788, 000 |1, 301, 426, 000
aCommercial estimate. b Average, 1898-1900. ce Average, 1892-1895. a Average, 1897-1899.

€1897 figures. J Includes Poland.

Acreage, production, and value of flaxseed in the United States in 1904, by States.

Average | Average

Average | |’ farm |value
c F per] Farm value,
States. Acreage. res Las Production. price, acre, Dec. 1
: Dec. 1 Dec. 1
: : Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Dollars.

NUCBCONAID 5. Ms sigs cent e een 25, 442 12.2 310, 392 112 13. 66 347, 689
PRILEMOMRRE Ls a5 ook Jase see 537, 356 10.8 5, 803, 445 101 10. 91 5, 861, 479
BOW Severs anevetko dey scutes 65, 037 10.5 682, 888 98 10. 29 669, 230
DOGO 24 ght) eS ee 24, 342 6.0 146, 052 97 5. 82 * 141, 670
MOGnsas- i Gos soleus teach 95, 055 6.0 570, 330 93 5. 58 530, 407
Nobragita i 0... 22. <acteee esa, 12, 327 7.0 86, 289 100 7.00 86, 289
Seuth Dakote. .. /....ss0s.G2. 207, 256 10.0 = 072, 560 98 9. 80 2,031, 109
North: Dakota. -<... soc ee ok 1, 283, 792 10.6 13, 078, 195 99 10. 49 12, 947, 413
Moritana..t2 ee. oo. . See Se 9, 334 8.0 74, 672 95 7.60 70, 988
LG CUS ee CS ee ee pre 23, 729 10.7 2538, 900 85 9. 09 215, 815
rer ret Cree 2, 231 12.0 26, 772 122 14. 64 32, 662
CREMOPNIAS Soon oo Ss sk eee 1, 022 12.5 12,775 106 13, 25 13, 542
GMGROMS 2 i. 2 050. ewe tcxee- 20, 402 12.0 244, 824 99 11. 88 242, 376
Indian Territory... -[. 2-2... 4 6,240} * 6.0 37, 440 102 6.12 38, 189
United States........... 2, 263, 565 10.3 23, 400, 534 99.3 10. 26 23, 228, 758

-

STATISTICS OF FLAXSEED. 691

Monthly average prices of flaxseed in Chicago.4@

[Cents per bushel,]

Month, 1893. | 1894.} 1895,| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.) 1899.| 1900.| 1901.| 1902.| 1903.) 1904,

WIEN: oc walcce de spas 1129} 1379] 140%) 913] 769] 124 | 1153 152 | 1663] 1654] 119] 108
[foes eee arene e 120 | 1384] 1413] 903] 763] 126] 117| 159 | 168| 1684! 117] 1139
MME Stoo. site cack ies 1193) 134§] 140} 88 | 78%] 1208] 1194] 162) | 1574] 1684) 1114] 112
RRS A ee 1144} 126] 1403] 903) 753] 124] 1183) 170} | 161 | 1724] 109 | 1073
ee 055 28s a cate ks 1079} 1314] 1473) 86 | 77%] 181] 1099] 178 | 1693] 1684] 1123] 104}
SAE. 5 oR, Choa bOade cote 109 | 1383] 1499] 793! 774] 113 1053/177 | 179 | 165| 106 | 104
i "FIRE RS Fe 107 | 1283] 188] 73| 83 | 963] 1003| 165 | 1844] 155 | 963) 118
oS SRD CO EE 94g} 1253] 1073! 68%] 1037] 89 | 1083] 141 | 1624) 146] 99 | 121
September ................ 1013} 136] 973) 703} 1033] 899] 1123] 1503 | 152] 1353] 1014] 118}
PS 5 CA tr oes 102} 145] 943! 743} 993] 984! 1283] 1663 | 1493] 1214] 963] 112}
ERS a ee - 1083] 1463] 923] 753! 1063] 1014] 1333] 172 | 1463] 118| 95 | 1133
PGDOIAHIOE. . .. : o cei as.ss 128! 1453] 93°'| 754! 113!| 108%! 145 | 1623 | 1493] 1193] 963] 118}

Yearly average ..... 1103} 136 | 1232] 803} 892] 1103! 1178] 163y,| 1622] 1503] 105 | 1123

aThis table exhibits average cash prices for the past twelve years. The monthly prices are the
means between the lowest and highest prices for each month, and the yearly prices are the averages
of the monthly averages.

Wholesale prices of flaxseed per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

St. Louis. Cincinnati. Chicago. Milwaukee. Duluth.
Date. Prime. No. 1.
Sa eo eel Low. | High. | Low. | High
Low High Low | High
1900.
NOMMATY 0.552 =5---) $1.45 | $1.50] $1.00 | $1.00] $1.48] $1.56] $1.42 | $1.56] $1.40 | $1.50
MODEUBLY?..- ok ncn ee 1.52 1. 58 1.00 1. 00 1.58 1.60 1. 50 1. 60 1.51 1.514
MWRRCOE © 0s sab ears 1. 57 1. 62 1.00 1.00 1. 60 1, 65 1, 45 1. 65 1, 56 1. 64
eS eee 1. 62 1.70 1.00 1. 20 1. 65 1.75 1,614} 1.73 1. 64 1,73
Ea han x wine om 0 1, 62 1.65 1,20 1.20 1.76 1.80 1.65 1.80 1.70 1. 80
ee con seme 1.55 1.58 1. 20 1.30 1.74 1. 80 1.721} 1.80 1. 80 1. 80
i es oe ee 1.35 1.60 1.20 1.30 1. 50 1.80 1, 42 1. 80 1. 40 1. 80
ys ee 1. 25 1.45 1.20 1.20 1.32 1.50 1,30 1, 42 1.283] 1.44
September ....--..-- 1. 42 1.563; 1.20 1.30 1.413] 1.593| 1.423) 1.75 1.43 1.59
October . 2.05. s5ess 1. 46 1,75 1.30 1. 30 1.473} 1.86 1.483} 1.86 1.483] 1.87
November « .... =. -. 1. 50 1.78 1.30 1.30 1.60 1. 84 1.60 1, 82 1.593} 1.853
December...-..-.--- 1, 62 1. 62 1.30 1.45 1.533} 1.71 1.54 1. 68 1.60 1. 803
1901.
PRRUSIN 6 osrim aamees 1. 50 1.72 1.30 1. 45 1,56 tN ir 1.45 1.76 1.57 1.73
MAbruary: ..... 422 2% 1.58 1.72 1.30 1.50 1. 60 1.76 1. 60 1.75 1, 59 1,724
MePCH 2.25565. os 1.50 1. 60 1.35 1. 50 iL b2 1. 63 1.45 1.633} 1.683) 1.61
Senso decent eee 1. 49 dbz 1. 20 1. 50 1,52 1.70 1. 45 1.70 1.543) 1,764
MY ee caso cowie 1. 56 1, 67 1. 20 1. 20 1.643} 1.74 1.55 1.75 1. 67 1.78
SIU) 2 eee aes 1. 67 1. 68 1.20 1. 30 1.70 1. 88 1.35 1. 88 1. 65 1. 88
eee ace n= 1.50 1. 65 1.30 1. 30 1.79 1.90 1.75 1. 88 1.75 1. 88
“Aer 1 | ee eee 1.37 1. 65 1.30 1.40 1. 40 1. 85 1.48 1. 83 1.44 1.75
September ......... 1.37 1.38 1.25 1.35 1.38 1. 66 1.40 1.65 1.39 1.62
CEODOE <n ess san oe 1.38 1. 48 1. 26 1. 25 1.41 1. 58 1.44 1.63 1.38 1. 54
MGVERLDOL -<---'4-02] acer eee lace ates 1.25 1.30 1.40 1.523! 1.40 1.523] 1.343) 1.492
PRU RMUNET so. vocea 5c] abel wm sere 1.30 1.30 1.383} 1.61 1.39 1.61 1.343) 1.554
1902.
BCS TY TS SUR | Ae I eR a 1.30 1.40 1.58 78 1.61 1.73 1.563| 1.714
ey Oneal EP 1.30 1.40 1. 63 1.74 1. 66 1.73 1. 65 sy p-
Be ae ee or eee ee 1.30 1. 40 1. 63 1.74 1. 68 1.74 1. 65 1.74
ab le oa wiabael| ole do Se 1.30 1. 40 1. 65 1.80 1.74 1.80 gy je 1.78
1.50 1.65 1.30 1. 40 1.58 1.79 1.76 DD), clock 1
1, 50 1.50 1. 25 1.35 1. 54 1.76 1.78 1.76 1. 60 1. 763
1.41 1.50 1.30 1.40 1. 36 1.74 1. 43 1.74 1. 35 1. 66
Magrust siden ccess 1.324; 1.45 1. 25 1.30 1.37 1. 55 1. 40 1.55 1.35 1. 50
September ......... 122 1.38 1.25 1, 25 1,253} 1.46 1.26 1.45 1.243} 1.47
October faves.s ewes 1:12 1, 25 1.25 1.26 1.15 1. 28 1.19 1. 28 1.153) 1.273
November ......... p Rye 1.143 1, 25 1.25 1.138 1.23 1.18 1.23 1.1 5} 1. 20
December.......--.| 1.11 1.14 1.25 1. 25 1.14 1. 25 1. 20 L. 1.16 1.214
1903.
J ANURLY. 6se<8 nub oe 1.12 Lid 1.30 1.30 1.14 1. 24 1 YA 1, 24 1.14} 1, 20
February «si 20025: 1.10 1.14 1.30 1.30 1.12 i y24 1.16 1,22 1.019). Le
Maroh.: <3. i¢s05-5< 1.05 1,12 1.30 1.30 1.06 lek lyg 1.00 1.17 1.073} 1.13)
ADVIL. iv cinke ceunions 1. 05 1. 08 1.10 1.30 1. 06 1.12 1.09 1.113 1. 083 ies!
MOY Ssh oe eee 1.07 5 Pe hey 1. 00 1.10 1. 08 1,174) 71.11 1.173} 1.103) 1.16
SUNG. cake aneeewe .95 1.08 1.00 1.00 . 98 1.14 1.013 1.14 . 993 1.13
A), Meee 91 . 96 1.00 1.00 . 90 1. 023 - 95} 1. 023 . 95 1
AUSUG céisedeaneas -91 1.00 1.00 1.00 .93 1. 05 97 1.05 963! 1.01%

692 YEARBOOK OF

THE

DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE,

Wholesale prices of flaxseed per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-

1904—Continued.

St. Louis. Cincinnati, Chicago. Milwaukee. Duluth,
Date, Prime. No. 1.
— Low. | High. |-— Low High. | Low. | High.
Low. | High. Low. | High.
1903.
September ......... $0. 92 $1.00 | $1.00} $1.00} $0.94 $1. 09 $0.99 | $1.09 |} $0.99 | $1.09
OGTODEPRS chavccndace . 86 .93 1.00 1.00 . 89 1, 033 . 945 1, 04 . 92 1, 023
November ......... . 86 89 1. 00 1, 00 . 90 1. 00 94 1, 00 934 1.00
Deeember......---- . 873 903 1.00 1.00 . 90} 1, 023 973 1,014 954 1.00
1904,
JONUVANY. . .cccun cuss .924) 1,07 1.00 1.00 .97 1,19 1.033} 1.19 1.014; 1.17
February ....-....- 1. 06 1.083} 1.00 1. 00 1.09 1.183} 1.16 1.183} 1.13§| 1.17
De a ea 1. 04 1. 06 1.00 1. 00 1.07} 1.163 1.138 1.16} 1.14 1.15}
WN ee ee ee . 96 1. 06 1. 00 1. 00 . 984 1.16 1.06 1.14} 1.05} 1, 15%
ON gee EES, Bae . 96 .983} 1.00 1.00 -99%} 1.093} 1.063) 1,10 1.053} 1.08
SNUNINOE Boas ee .97 . 98 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1. 08 1. 063 1. 08} 1. 073 1. OOF
Cy Pee . 98 1.153} 1.00 1.00 1. 02 1, 24 1.073} 1.24 1.093} 1.24
AUMUND =... - Sou coos 1.183} 1. 1.163; 1.263} 1.23 1,263} 1.23 1, 265
September ......... 1. 08 if 1.09 1, 28 1,243} 1.28 1.163} 1.28
Ootebers...c.ccnacs 1.06 a 1.07 1.18 1.143 1.18} 1.133 1,173
November ......... 1.07 iO 1.08 1.193} 1.153) 1.193) 1.14 1. 185
December. <.;5...<- 1 aa 1. up | 1. 26 1.19 1. 26 1.18 1. 253
RICE.
Acreage, production, and value of rice in the United States in 1904, by States.
Average | Average
Average i ]
States. Acreage. yong Production. be mee Pedant pe dos
: Dec. 1 Dec. 1
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars Dollars.
North Caroling... a< va>00e sean 1, 800 32.4 58, 320 79 26. 6 46, 073
South Caroling. 35s. -. scene 33, 300 25.0 832, 500 67 16. 75 557, 775
GOR Shen ees 9, 000 26.0 234, 000 66 17.16 154, 440
Ploritig. eee Mer ee, aces 3, 706 28.0 1038, 768 96 26. 88 99, 617
Fe eg aR © eR 1, 956 34.8 68, 069 99 34. 45 67, 388
Wilentesinnl $2. > Gleedna<aseeh 1, 544 26.7 39, 681 99 25, 44 39, 284
Louisiana 22-05 toe. <swens oe 376, 500 30. 4 11, 445, 600 - 65 19, 76 7,439, 640
WORGS W ikin bon Seen aE Ueeeee & 234, 200 36. 6 8, 314, 100 66 23. 43 5, 487, 306
United States .......... 662, 006 31.9 21, 096, 038 65. 8 20. 98 18, 891, 523
Wholesale prices of rice per pound, 1900-1904.
New York. Cincinnati. Memphis.
: New Orleans
Domestic = Not classed by ‘
Date. (good). Prime. name.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1900. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents..| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
SMI on ok cc ots ca abate enunens 43 4} 53 6 3 7 3} 63
FPORPUGIYV..2. 2c siacctcemnmnes aucune oe 4} 43 5: 6 3 ( 3} 63
PORTOR Sl. onan nal pnabione ween seen 43 4g Fe 6 34 7 3} 63
PORE wie sare aly wo ctsaias ante oa eae ee 4§ 45 53 6 33 63 3} 6t
MGY 5 cian aeidanstadswssbhaweetee oe 43 45 : 6 3 7 3} 64
Oi ee aaa 5 ok eee 4} 4} 63 6 3 7k 43 6§
ARULY sti Soe As ot ct 4} 4} 63 6 3 7k 43 63
NIP BIS Bs) 2 Sef A stam ane oie pieainne 4} 43 $ 6 3 73 4t 63
Rapsemiber \5 <2 o-. scan’ clean x Sone 4} 42 5t 6 3t 7i 4 6}
CBRE oS ot icin nw We i comcrctulen 43 43 53 6 4 7% + 6
DIGMGM DOM acne fon cos Counce wenase 4} 5 53 6 4 if i 6
TMNT cowie Fas esis wins taemies ee et 5 5 53 6 33 7% 2 6
1901.
RT eI Ses i wrariciwwieteniarometene 5 5 53 | Beare | nae « oesn't om maieince teem FS
POMP Ys Foes. £55 t chee eee woes 43 ) 53 GE oe os cance esaletaewenee aueee é
MOTOR. ooo one let sencnwswnanensess Al 42 5i GE ee neh So aie ole tetas 2
3 ol ee eee eee eee eee 43 43 bi 64 eee ewee worcsvece eee ewreele meee eee

STATISTIOS OF RIOR. 693

Wholesale prices of rice per pound, 1900-1904—Continued.

New York, Cincinnati. Memphis.
~ Domestic Not classed by
Date. (good). Prime. name,

New Orleans.

Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.

1901. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.

EN ae oc nest tbh diana sue dae tain teak 4} 4} 5} OR ikea au <chdeiphedadies Grapes naa al

MRO. te valad ied Sikane épataeeedee chs 4) 45 6} eg Re) ER A) Pr ery Prob pee

a iixdctin Cotes es a on un Wea ee ee 4} 5 5} alee eda alee nacht ahieraes laters sas

TINGE s Jie ws ees neve e cn Kennan vaine's 5 5 5} ie) See eee ee re nr Pee

RO ROILODE cc ccnek naa > cetaes tawctein 5 5 5} Se See Be POs s ge ares ee eee

LOS a ee rere! err ree 5 5 6} 2) Hones ee ee eee pee

PURE EODAT ccd 6 aidts wisi tien ant ania eae ae 4} 47 5} Ob |e cadlacesep ey Pap ees bars ee

MMRBGE «> 5 chin mn tans dns ean dae 4} 43 5h ro) a aS ea RRS MER SEE oS! ig Pe

43 4} 5} a ere ae Be | ee egal a0 6
4} 4} $ gC a ee red eee ni Acree
4} 4} 5} SR Re epee ee ee ie oe a
4} 44 5} ol a a rae See Irie) eee
4} 5 5 re ed | Ata ie Peon Bene Sere [Be
4; 52 5} AS eee A pene oP | PEN pei ee er gtr,
4; 5} 53 ro) | een ee Ren SSS PI, SE (2 et

3 4y 5} Ge pete ras | wt dso eral ale oom, rail ete
4z 4; 54 Gia ease wc on oace nel sic n ore hol ban

RPI LS | tiene ced incu keh eke dae 4) di + ed eee Cena aa ey meee [ew Sk =

NGVOULUCK <5. cccwdntetc Bee ae 43 47 5} BEM abe awallnaws.c ins |wicad oe aot a ehsaie ions

(OO Oe ee ee ee ea 5 5 3 BS ose sa cleo sitvacecln« athe se lan aewees 3

1903.

RE SRTRAT LE oleh Seti, Sins siaaiso prin 'w she ps sie aks oe 4G 5 43

HOMERS Tes kan aes ive hole hic Soot S 5 5 43

PANG rcs oor sin tos wit eaeoenennes 52 2 42

NE cr crate bead, age el ee Bi Bi 43

es 2 a Se oS A eee 52 + 43

UL ee ee eee on eee 52 ¢ 43

RMR ta oie aw Seabee cio aa eeek o-oo 5i + 43

CRS 00 ee See os oe 5} ra 4}

MN a ais ois occ warciewmat.awerwion's 42 + 4a

OGRE) 0 sR eA Serr arises 4h é di

RP CRDNIOR eS oc cinls Sic wa, c's wie dare'a os 41 3 43

NSCOR Sa oe cin winin w wm wait ces: < 015 4 4 48

1904.

ASUS a eee a ee 4i 4: 4}

ME PEUGIN: candice ties waciec csiceten eee 4 4 4}

Mamet). {2 54ec68.2 conven eee e 4 4 4

APTA Sint, so als noe eee eee neew ence cay 4 4 t

DRO Yeren oo axes. eats. Lock ae ele 3} 4 4

TN IAE o e Aenwel a impaired hair epee eimrencwfete 33 3} i

SCTE ERS = SARE Se re or SE 3% 33 3}

RUS UR Ge Soo So aeha a paid accom chicas emetaiae 33 . 3 3}

Septeni Per sie sks suc cowe estas 33 33 3}

OCP BEE Ss os tk aceevienkon ees eee ee 33 33 3}

INGWRERDOE 2222 ipa sas sous cosh aes we 33 33° 3?

DGCOM DEP... seeks aecvte cpa shaw ioe 33 33 3}

SUGAR.
Sugar production of countries named, 1900-1901 to 1904-1905.4
Countries. 1900-1901. | 1901-1902. | 1902-1903. | 1903-1904. | 1904-1905.
CANE SUGAR.

United States: Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons.
LOPISIADS 4 cans os ancien even make etre 270, 338 321, 676 300, 000 215, 000 330, 000
Porto aeOtie swab ch aver eeuietto ns saab 80, 000 85, 000 85, 000 130, 000 155, 000
Ha weliGgn deiswus 006 60 ces career 321, 462 317, 509 391, 062 328, 103 312, 000

CUDal5 sd nae ee ab ee abeeancane gecaee 635, 856 850, 181 998,878 | 1,040, 228 1, 175, 000

British West Indies:

TIniGAG; GLOW ascerscce ss adicaanen 52, 673 52, 673 42,679 44, 058 28, 000
Barbados, CEDOLIS vo ccduwt cancun ecsane 55, 360 46, 315 38, 179 58, 081 42,000
JOTTGAGG Sista a ete ee nee sion erred 17, 059 15, 843 18, 772 14, 255 18, 000
Antigua and St. Kitts ..............-. 21, 579 19, 000 18, 000 19, 000 19, 000

aCane-sugar production and United States beet-sugar production from Willett & Gray (in tons of
2,240 pounds); European beet-sugar production from Licht (in metric tons of 2,204.622 pounds).

694

YEARBOOK OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF

AGRIOULTURE,

Sugar production of countries named, 1900-1901 to 1904-1905—Continued,

| 1900-1901.

Countries.
CANE suUGAR—continued,
French West Indies: Tons

Martinique, exports
Guadeloupe

Danish West Indies:

Haiti and Santo Domingo
Lesser Antilles (not named above)

St Cindy 2S Son an teceoe de oboe ess

1901-1902.

1902-1903.

1903-1904,

13, 000

113, 282
13, 000
3, 000
140, 000
142, 895
197, 000

2, 717, 824

15, 000
885, 561

1904-1905,

28, 000

277, 473

28, 000

4, 145, 311

28, 000

2, 305, 013
1, 301; 548
1, 123, 545
1; 098, 983
324, 960
203, 193
393, 236

6, 750, 478

62, 723
6, 660
12, 748

325, 082
5, 561, 257

71,12
9, 430

441, 116

5, 874, 968

MOI ON oats soa deh We eadaes eaenuas
Central America:
CGratowiats . 235.25 t cope uewwaseacnce
San: Galwa@Or «vsccis cw tens ace Gapeasess 5, 000
CC, eee ee ey 3, 500
rte, iG. : tank caewn oe danny oxen 4, 000
South America:
British Guiana (Demarara), exports... 4, 559
Dutch Guiana (Surinam).........---. 18, 000
Wenemole icc. scocasee wea eaten ngas 3, 000
POP: OxXPORE. \csc caress -selenbestnnc sss 135, 000
AVROWTIND- (255 obs aktne's tole ae een mate 114, 252
Paws 6c. kt esos bears wales das ss 308, 011
Total AMOrGA: 50-55% sowde ee Wa anes 2, 380, 399
Asia:
British India, exports ...s-.0s.ce0550% 15, 000
ON A ne Paee se PLOTS meee! Fo ee SES Ee 709, 928
Philippine Islands, exports .......--- 55, 400
RGA AIO = Woe cn cee cswe coke ae eee 780, 328
Australia and Polynesia:
OQneensland 4. < isos ee enn 92, 554
New (Both. Wales ss 2/0 -Cu-0 2. Sec nee 19, 000
Fiji Islands, exports. .........--.----- 33, 000
Total Australia and Polynesia ..... 144, 554
Africa:
ER rac oe Ae ck pices totam ete ae 94, 880
MR OERa rg ols uk ce te ese aa sans 175, 267
RIQUMIOI 92) cons ca ton we ealaaweaseas 42, 631
Teta A Tien 6 ioe elo ee eee ar 312, 778
Europe;
SHAME NC lawsugdnsscclpu eh eeeay nen tees 28, 000
Total cane-sugar production ....... 3, 646, 059
BEET SUGAR. Pace |"
Europe:
Gorman <. 25325 séseuq eae ans eees 1, 984, 187
AMSIFIRY osc decs ae eee ee ete aceon 1, 094, 043
PYOMCO! oi dhicedstd. Ante a ee asies 1, 118, 893
RUISRIB... Wa os daca a beuat male waeet aoe 918, 888
Ta Ua ea he A) Re ae Pe Se poe 333, 119
FP OUEATIO So orice oe ena a niatate ele eeicaw see 178, 081
Other GOUMEMEH oo 65.6 se Lencebee seme 367, 919
Total MurOpe so << ik 25's oa caxeestearene 5, 990, 080
United States:
CANIORDIR 4c iby ev. doa stabs coos wee 25, 451
INONTESKS . $20 55552.) ae soho Rae 4, 406
tah os Fee a eet ee oe eine ene 7, 630
IN@W DY ODE = cucu ones ue a hae nee eee 3, 669
MICHIGOn ooo ok a Ge ae ened conto 24, 533
Miniiesote | oy 2-2 Bn Saree eee eee 1, 186
OPOLON oC nas se watiedelne a sistent 888
BBE WVONS 3 oat Mare a ence een a ee ee 1, 150
Colorado onc. eee See 5, 982
Wisshine ian: > ones denenn eden 625
ROS ae cir ne eek roe re Cea aes 1, 339
MG LT SE Re PR mal nek Cage oe Se SEE AA Re mene Bene
ARES IN GD oh heen Sen am a ie gee Se cis mel distances o aittnce ial meres aoclnere i atein el cists eae
Total United States: 225.0. =... <n 76, 859

Total beet sugar

Total cane and beet sugar

———————— ee | eee

6, 083, 103

| |

9, 902, 031 | 10, 318, 828

9, 483, 976

STATISTIOS OF SUGAR. 695

Quantity and value of sugar imported into the United States from the principal sources of
supply during each fiscal year, from 1900 to 1904, inclusive.

QUANTITY.

» . » d » 2)... a
Countries from Annual hae! si i ian I asi
which average, bee
imported, 1900-1904, 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904, 1904
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
RoR ies anal tae sina etclore 1,601,026,740)| 705,456,230)1,099,404,363| 984,216,925|2,396,497,779/2,819,558,402|| 76.19
Dutch East Indies...| 781,805,678}|1,162,202,854| 777,986,990) 636,710,315} 891,758,090] 440,370,139)| 11.90
Santo Domingo. ..... 109,951,865]| 122,206,692} 107,193,244) 111,580,425) 112,988,77 95,790,189 2. 59
British Guiana ...... 151,988,319}| 149,715,600} 183,331,202) 181,287,759] 172,361,34 73,295,689]; 1.98
British West Indies..} 177,242,479|| 200,479,351) 232,989,234] 194,969,474| 191,924,220) 65,850,114|| 1.78
Philippine Islands...} 29,190,364]} 49,490,542 4, 693, 333] 11,424,000} 18,773,333) 61,570,614 1. 66
2 SR Ss Se 88,971,565|| 75,155,975 129; 534, "403 102,647,624) 88,848,044) 48,671,777 1.32
DIE nisin a0 005 naiwrerne 56,306,840}| 74,015,702 63, 389, 981} 59,557,884] 62,848,580) 22,222,552 60
Danish West Indies..| 23,792,625 21,664,980 19,217,052 16,037,682} 41,205,950) 20,837,461 . 56
ERO EO LIN ietac aa 9) an Se oe 164, 230, 500|} 89,684,600} 293,327,013] 849,794,460] 74,159,889) 14,186,540 . 38
Dutch Guiana....... 13, 381,419 13,265,520} 14,063,215} 16,861,587] 15,722,225 6,994,546 .19
SPOTTY 0 ows adc ne 324'581,686 590,984,996] 716,824,596] 217, 872, 627| 91,745,860 5,480,349 15
Chinese Empire..... 4,054,526 4,606,743 7,914,450 2'397,107 752,285 4,602,045 a
RURMROMG Leics. sae usee 3, 006; 858 878,778 1,399,269 2,436,647 6,285,045 4,034,551 ph
Austria-Hungary a 701,466 96,130,457} 161,174,865] 111, 818, 771) 40,857,724 3,525,512 .10
LL eee 450,705 1,892,029 1,358,503 338,368 2,414,373 1,250,252 . 03
United Kingdom.... 7'578' 604 9,375,569] 17,272,407) 11,125,336 119,73 TO ewes «=
Netherlands......... 6,929,806 153,860) 25,327,230 8,967,942 PULA | i ae emery | TE
Russia, European.... 6,947,198 866,788) 32,770,130 NOOO Oath nie atari Mielis cc sate oe oe
OlGDUU. daeaw ae <6 5 17,155,646)| 15,198,903} 70,099,670 ALS G00 ee. nen sale tebe acter Ee bey
British East Indies . . 1,977,040 VOAD ASB tun am Secs Ba CO lees Hoe alec we ae SS ni eee
British Africa:

Other cncesccaff, SOTO Be,no,oralt SMM psec
Mot MeL os oe 8s cae a504,713,105)} 504,713,105 (b) b (b 33 | eee
Par BiGd..5.5252--: a72,558,181 72, 558,181 (b) b (b B)!>. 2 eee s
Other countries ..... 9,983,739}| 11, 045, 969 9,047,117} 10,297,949 7,144,850) 12,382,811 |

OU one os oe 3,788,347 ,993]|4,018,086,530|3,975,005,840/3,031,915,875)4,216, 108,106 3,700, ¢ 623,613 613 | 100. 00
VALUE.
Dollars. Doliars. Dollars. Doliars. Dollars. Dollars.
GUD 2c. Mo atonee oi ties 32, 416, 845 || 18, 248, 644 | 26,373,690 | 18, 205,411 | 42,714,079 | 56, 547, 403 78.63
Dutch East Indies...| 14, 824,584 || 24,170,081 | 16, 965,511 | 12,325,518 | 18,251,816 | 7,409,996 || 10.30
Santo Domingo...... 2, 448, 736 || 3,365, 061 , 999,067 | 2,061,977 | 2,107,428 | 1,750,145 2. 43
British Guiana ...... 3,343, 289 || 3,779,398 | 4,803,479 | 3,372,104] 3,333,082 | 1,428,438 1.99
British West InGies..| 3,423,477 || 4,603,409 | 5,058,565 | 3,226,575 | 3,136,172 | 1,092,663 1. 52
Philippine Islands... 474, 448 925, 335 108, 857 188, 159 270, 729 884, 160 1, 23
ho Cw Fe Se Ries 1,687,079 || 1,444,784 | 2,702,180 | 1,910,311 | 1,517,514 860, 605 1.20
Batt dala aches 1, 255, 638 || 1,848,077 | 1,658,695 | 1,351,088 | 1,014,831 415, 551 . 58
Danteh West Indies. . 497, 046 544, 985 460, 694 377, 581 705, 587 396, 384 . 55
raza 2 ees ee ok 2,665,195 |) 1,698,588 | 56,347,503 | 4,908,735 | 1,176,049 200, 102 . 28
AHAGR. - ss o2.5es cee: 155, 983 94, 809 108, 137 128, 441 256, 894 196, 633 27
Dutch Guiana....... 308, 778 375, 683 382, 876 349, 242 301, 235 134, 902 .19
Chinese Empire ..... 111, 350 125, 986 229, 795 63, 429 13, 640 123, 900 17
CE), eee 6, 597, 699 || 12, 346, 734 | 15,556,811 | 3,697,284 | 1,370,305 117, 410 .16
Austria-Hungary ....| 1,781,332 2. 132,790 | 3,727,094 | 2,288,547 677, 836 80, 393 a
ee eee 45, 184 41, 082 35, 994 9, 408 103, 439 35, 998 . 05
United Kingdom.... 171, 119 228, 447 431, 959 192, 945 2, 241 oA eee
Netherlands......... 192, 085 4,151 718, 422 232, 963 ASSBS Nicdssee cos calleuceoce
Russia, European.... 176, 317 22, 993 829, 401 ZU NGM ae sat Se oe re Sand Fs 2s SNe wiee oe
Belgium We Jak cen Soke 418, 006 353,699 | 1,724,724 MARCI | tcoea te bo tl oes aaaenaee||oece oe
British East Indies . . 40, 989 7) Se ae GaGa Mata ces sel wace ore cae tele ce aeee
British Africa:

Greed ais Senn am wear foe et etre ane
OT en) Fee a20, 392,150 || 20, 392, 150 ti (b) +8 >} a Soe
Porto Rico. ...-22 +s. a2, 449, 616 2, 449, 616 b (Dj b) By he eae
Other countries...... 226, 054 289, 327 , 270 234, 346 131, 258 241, 071 . 34

TRC ene. ee 77, 960, 919 ||100, 250, 974 | 90, 487,800 | 55, 061, 097 | 72,088,973 | 71,915, 753 | 100. 00
aStatistics for 1900 only. v»No longer in the returns of foreign trade.

696 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Production of beet and cane sugar in the United States. 4

Cane Cane
Years, Beet. (Louisi- Total. || Years, Beet. (Louisi- | Total.)
ana). ana).
- ies -
Tons.¢ Tons.¢ Tons.¢ Tons.¢ Tons.¢ Tons.¢
RORB-OE o oo cdxwhivas 535 128, 443 398 9781) 1904-05. wcecencces 20, 092 317, 334 337, 426
SGOS-O an wassseces, 953 94, 376 95, 829 || 1895-96........... 29, 220- 237, 721 266, 941
ROG we oe eas 600 127, 958 128, 558 || 1896-97........... 37, 536 282, 009 319, 545
IBEG-Or os cane vnbs 800 80, 859 81, 659 || 1897-08... siceeee 40, 398 310, 313 350, 711
hl 2. Spee 255 157, 971 158, 226 || 1898-99........... 32,471 248, 658 281, 129
oo ee 1, 861 144, 878 146, 739 || 1899-1900......... 72,972 142, 485 215, 457
1889-90 ... wn vesans 2, 203 1380, 413 182, 616 |} 1900-1901......... 76, 859 270, 338 847, 197
RE iain winnie 3, 459 215, 844 219, 803) |}, JOOL-2. ow snciecscn 163, 126 321, 676 484, 802
LTE eaten 5, 356 160,987 | 166,293 || 1902-8............ 195, 463 329, 227 524, 690
Bea <i ew ais we « 12,018 217, 525 229, 643 || 1908-4............ 208, 185 215, 000 423,135
1893-94... en nneee 19, 950 265, 836 | 285,786 || 1904-5............ 209, 722 330, 000 539, 722

a Data as to beet sugar are obtained from the following sources: For 1899-1900, from the Twelfth
Census; for 1897-98, from a special report of the Department of Agriculture; and for other years from
Willett and Gray. Data as to cane sugar are from the following sources: For 1889-90, 1898-99, and
1899-1900, from the Eleventh and Twelfth censuses;'for 1903-4 and 1904-5, from Willett and Gray;
for other years, from Bouchereau’s Annual Louisiana Sugar Reports (the figures for 1892-93 being
taken from his revised statement).

bThese figures do not include cane sugar produced outside of Louisiana; in 1889-90 such sugar
amounted to 4,089 tons, and 1899-1900 to 1,510 tons.

¢ Tons of 2,240 pounds.

BEANS.
Wholesale prices of beans per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. Detroit. San Francisco.

Date. Pea. Pea. Pea. Pea. | per ewt.

ee eee eee eee

1900.
JRNUGEY®. <<. sa. $1. 863} $2.063| $2.25] $2.40) $1.70} $2.123} $1.78 | $2.05 | $2.85 $3. 00
MOHrUaArY .<~2.-0..: 1, 98 218 2. 40 2. 40 1. 90 2.10 1.98 2. 05 3.5 3. 25
Mareh 53.32 h2:2 1.90 2:11, 2. 20 2.40 1. 90 2.10 2.00 2.00 3.15 8. 35
7.40131 baie sa ee Cee 1,90 2.15 2.10 2.15 1. 90 2. 20 2. 00 2.08 3.40 3. 50
1 a a ee eee 1.853} 2.25 2. 00 2. 55 1, 90 2.18 2.08 2.10 3. 40 3. 50
UNG ota eee 1. 80 2. 25 2. 45 2.55 1. 90 2.16 2.10 2.10 3. 25 3.40
OT) Ri ey Ag ke 1. 80 2.213} 2,45 2. 55 1.90 2.15 2.10 2.10 3. 40 3. 50
BODE Si os 1. 753 2.08 2. 45 2. 55 1.90 2.15 Not quoted. 8. 50 3.65
September ......... 1.79 2.073}. 2.10 2.55 1.75 2. 25 1,55 1.70 3.75 4.00
OGtober 325 855~.524 1.95 2.10 2.10 2.25 1. 65 1.90 1.70 1. 84 3. 60 3. 75
November ......... 1.91 2.05 2.10 2. 25 1. 68 1. 87 1.70 1.90 3. 90 4.00
December. 6-<...; 2.14 247 bi (ZO 2. 25 1.70 2.10 1.90 2.08 4.00 4. 50

1901.
PONUGEV ro coer. ee 9.05 2:85 2. 50 2.55 1.75 2. 20 1.85 2.15 3. 60 4.70
February --:......- 2. 20 2.273! 2.60 2.50 1. 80 2.10 1.94 2.00 8.75 4.90
Marehs. <1 stj.5c% 5 2.00 2.25 2.40 2. 60 . 90 2.02 1. 80 1.88 3. 60 4. 90
2) a1 Ae ee aes ee 2.00 2.123} 2.40 2.40 125 nb 1. 80 1. 90 8.75 4.95
tS a pe SS at 12972) 2.40 2.40 2.40 1.25 1.90 1.74 1. 80 3.70 4.95
1 ae a 1.95 2.123} 2.40 2.40 1.50 2.05 1.75 1. 95 3. 60 4.90
VU ee ace oe eceee 2.07%] 2.25 2. 40 2.40 1. 60 2. 60 1. 85 2.40 3.40 5.00
AROMA. 3 oe): a2 2.30 2.774} 2.40 3. 00 2.10 2. 80 2.40 2.40 2.00 4.25
September ......... 2.25 2.3 8. 00 3. 00 1. 65 2.80 2.40 2.40 2.05 4, 25
October ........ aa. 2.05 2.30 2. 60 3.00 1. 55 2.00 1. 68 1. 92 2. 00 5. 00
November <2... = 1.95 2.05 2. 60 9:75 1. 50 1.92 1. 66 1. 85 2. 50 3. 50
December.......... 1,95 2.00 2. 60 2.75 1. 69 1.87 uy 1.81 2. 80 3. 25

1902. Lima.
JOnUORT th 65 52 1.75 2.00 2.60 2.70 1.40 1. 83 1. 60 1.79 4.40 4. 65
Pebruaty 7. --..0-sc0 1. 65 1. 80 2. 60 2.70 1. 40 1.75 1.53 162 4. 40 4. 60
Marah. 23 250. ¢2~ | 1. 60 1.75 2.60 | .2.'70 1:20 1.65 1, 28 1.51 4.35 4.40
AST Se ee wh 1.50 1.823; 2.30 2.70 . 85 1.80 1. 28 1. 62 3. 30 3. 60
eat y Seo regs Ae ie od 75 1.85 2.30 2. 60 1. 50 1. 85 1.56 1.75 3. 60 3. 80
DENG oe eras. 6% 1. 60 1.70 2. 30 2. 60 1.50 1.70 1. 48 1. 60 3. 60 3. 85
Oulvste oes ee 1. 65 2.00 2.30 2. 50 1. 60 1.90 1. 60 1.90 3. 60 3. 85
dQ) S| ee eae 1.95 2. 05 2.30 2. 50 1. 60 1. 96 1. 63 1. 90 3. 80 4.10
September ......... 1. 90 1.95 2.30 2. 50 1. 60 1.90 1.75 1.85 3.70 3.90
Ocwmber.-<. 228: 1.923} 2.45 2. 25 2. 50 1.78 2.49 1 70 1.98 4.10 4.35
November -........ 2.30 2.45 2. 20 2. 40 2.15 2.30 1. 66 1. 88 4.20 4.50
December.......... 2. 25 St 2.25 240) 21D 2-30 1.74 1.81 4,25 4.55

Small white,

697

San Francisco.

per cwt.
Low. | High.
Small white.
$2.90 | $8.40
2.90,| 3.35
3. 00 3. 80
3. 00 3. 30
2.90 8. 25
8. 00 3. 25
8.00 3. 25
8. 00 8. 20
2. 85 3. 25
8. 00 8. 25
2.75 3.15
2. 40 3. 00
2.75 3. 00
2. 80 8. 00
2. 85 3.10
2. 90 3.15
2.95 3.10
2.90 3.05
2.75 3.00
2.75 3. 00
2.75 3.10
2..75 3. 324
2.75 3. 30
2.75 3. 30

STATISTICS OF CLOVER SEED.
Wholesale prices of beans per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904—
Continued.
New Yow. Cincinnati. Chicago, Detroit.
Date. Pea. Pea. Pea, Pea.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.

1903. Navy.
UCT $2.35 | $2.874 | $2.40 | $2.50] $1.26 | $2.40 | $2.24) $2.35
PORSUBrY Wi <5 oo. 8s 2. 82 2.40 2. 25 2.50 1. 20 2. 30 ZrO 2. 28
ed EE SS 2. 20 2. 80 2. 30 2.40 1, 25 2. 25 2.10 2.16
PP oe Pade stn ee 2. 00 2.25 2.15 2.40 - 90 2. 20 1, 88 2.10
Tet a slap x cod a's a 2.15 2.85 2.15 2.25 . 90 2.30 2.07 2.85
AMER nites ah acs Ole 2.80 2.35 2.15 2.25 1, 25 2. 35 2. 20 2.25
LO og: ol a 2.274} 2.823) 2.16 2.25 1, 20 2. 23 2.10 2,21
PMD: cate seicee 2.15 2.272 2.15 2.25 1.15 2.25 1.91 1. 96
September ......... 2, 25 2.40 2.15 2,25 t 50 2.50 2.10 2.85
ISGUSOME coke acne 2.15 2.40 Zep 2. 25 . 05 2,25 1. 90 2. 28
November ......... 2.10 2.25 2.15 2.25 1.05 2.15 1.90 2.00
December. ........- 2.05 2.15 2.05 2.25 1. 35 2. 00 1. 82 1. 90

1904.
WETIIRTY,« oe sean cake 1.973} 2.05 2.05 2.10 1. 00 1.90 1.75 1 BY
BGURURLY so. 22.8. 1.75 2. 20 2.05 2.10 1. 25 2.05 1.74 1. 98
Tl ee 1.80 2. 20 2. 05 2.10 1, 25 2. 05 1.70 1.95
(NR SR Sa = 1.75 1.973} 2.05 2.10 1.00 1. 85 1.70 1. 80
RE Se see 1.75 2.072} 2.05 2.10 1.10 1, 80 1.70 1, 87
DUMRO Kes ck. Lee 1. 50 1.90 2.05 2510 1.10 1.78 1.60 1.70
7 a a Raped 1.50 1,823} 2.05 2.10 1.10 1.70 1.60 1. 61
CT eee ee 1. 50 1,823} 2.05 2.10 1.10 1.65 1.61 1.78
September ......... 1.50 1. 80 2.05 2.10 - 90 BBO: bacsesenslewebatas
RPOE «onc ooh aw thi 1.50 1. 90 2.05 2.10 . 90 1.75 1. 65 Bip
November ......... 1. 50 1.823) 1.80 1.90 1.10 1. 70 1.58 1. 64
December.......... 1.70 1.80 1.80 1.90 1.20 1.70 1.58 1,62

CLOVER SEED.

Wholesale prices of clover seed per 100 pounds (60 pounds to the bushel), 1900-1904.

Detroit.

Per bushel.

Cincinnati. Chicago.
Date. vee e yer Poor to choice.
Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1900.
RUBIO Solar v cata tarae mi ce om aiane a e ace a $4.00 | $4.50] $5.00] $8.40
WODIMEIN 20.2 a ek as es aoe ss 4.00 4.50 5. 00 8. 50
MABTOU cic ce tose n suet a econ een aa 4.00 4. 65 5. 00 8.50
SE Utes ence keene acre ata ce tee 4.00 4. 6b 4.00 8.10
EWE cig a heee ciclera oie are ak mee ree 4.00 4. 20 4.00 7.50
“EL (cae Ae an ein ea ee Petey bos. es age ae 4.00 4. 50 4.50 8.00
pC AE Se peer oe ed ee oe, “oe 4.25 4.50 4.50 8.00
PAI AN Sata. oo = as owe oma area teams 4.25 ‘ 5. 20 4.00 | 10.25
SoU Pa Oe ee ee eee 4.80 |" 6.75 5.00 | 10.25
COPE OD 8 ee Ee ene et eps, eet ed 5. 00 6. 00 5.00 | 10.75
NOMEUIDER 2 toon ease ae nc saunas nt 5. 00 5.70 5.00 | 10.25
DOCCTABEI SA. re vn wee asses owls mielaie ares 5. 00 5. 70 4.00 | 10.50
1901.
BEATE sg gars, Snore ds mi a ee aay ie 5. 50 6. 25 4.00 | 11.00
FPODrus?y, san denn 22s nbs ob ewe ae 5.75 6. 60 5.00 | 11.50
6. 00 6. 40 5.00 | 11.15
5. 80 6. 40 5.00 | 11.00
5.80 | - 6.00 4.00 | 10.75
= i igielavectp ain et lie pe ln pia ma oT aa deel pee era 5. 00 9. 50
mire | kieielointne tw ataete ee 6.00 | 10.00
6.00 6. 00 7,00 | 10.25
September 4. 85 5. 80 4.50 | 10.40
OCTO DCR ain cae ttatnin do aerate tase 4. 50 5.10 4.50 8.75
November 4. 60 5. 25 5. 00 9. 25
DOCEMLDEE tow dens oot eae ods cu ok pes ge 4.75 5. 60 6. 00 9. 50
1902. Per 100 pounds.
PARURIY -» die asia oo fa aie ea tans ae ee 8. 65 9. 60 7.00 | 10.00
BeODraary gasises snd san cp bass uncasas= 8. 65 9. 20 6. 50 9.70
1 Tee eR Se Se. Be ae 8.00 9. 20 6. 00 9. 00
Apr dl. nnn dite an acevsuascusenssscnsess 7.10 8. 35 4.00 8.35
MAC. .* wieceeb ag ell bee ee © 2 ane te a 0 6. 85 7. 50 5. 50 8.35

Toledo.
Poor to choice
(per bushel).
Low. | High
$5.57] $5.80
5. 55 5. 80
5. 20 5. 672
4.95 5.15
5. 00 5. 00
5.10 5.30
5. 50 5. 50
5. 40 6. 20
6.10 6.10
6.50 7.85
6.15 6. 40
6. 60 6. 872
Prime.
7.10 7.35
6. 80 7.40
6. 55 6.75
6. 50 6.75
6. 30 6. 573
6. 40 6. 50
6.20 | 6.60
5. 80 6. 60
6.15 5.90
6.15} 5.60
5. 40 5. 65
5.623} 65.90
4,25 6.15
4.95 5. 80
4. 30 5. 65
3. 90 5.30
3. 90 5, 223

DDD DT NT
SAKRASSSSSSS

ANAANA BAAR AH
GSRRSSSSSERE

De STO
Sssa3

AMAIA HM nore ongnenK

SHSSSRSSSERKS SSSSHRRRSSS TG

MAANANARA AAA HIN

MAMMA
Sass

698 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

Wholesale prices of clover seed per 100 pounds (60 pounds to the bushel}, 1900-1904—

Continued.
Cincinnati. Chicago. Toledo. Detroit.
Prime (per i Poor to choice
Date. Duaely Poor to choice. (per bushel). Per bushel,
Low. | High. | Low. | High, | Low. | High. | Low. | High,

1S ls A pa eee RL eee AS al $6.85 | $7.30 | $6.00] $8.35] $4.00 | $5.25 | Not quoted.
Bo, a mee SOES te ES 6, 85 7.50 6. 00 8. 40 4.10 5. 30 Not quoted.
DIOR, Oo oe. a oc eis ees es ees 7.10 8. 35 6. 00 9.10 4. 20 5.60 | Not quoted,
Geena her 5. 6. oases ie hee 7.10 8. 35 7. 00 9. 50 4, 25 5.65 | $5.15 $5. 90
CONGR ee eh en Soe s thes eiwalets 7.50 8.75 7.00 11. 35 4.70 7.00 5.15 5. 60
OVO DOP os oo Sook cis < Soalledes vanes 7.50 | . 9.20 8.00 | 11.15 4.75 7.10 5. 85 5, 65
PIGOGID DES is Sc 0c thw wis 5% Gloss web wears 8.35 9, 20 8.00} 10.90 5. 50 6. 85 5. 60 5. 90

1903. Per bushel.
IA Src A. Wh ee Oe 5. 25 6. 50 8.50 | 11.90 4. 40 7.423} 7.25 7.30
1 OLN ae ee eae Ae SES es 6. 00 6. 50 9.25} 11.90 5, 25 7, 25 7.00 7.10
1 Re STE Se Se ee 6. 25 (AL gl ee a 12. 50 4.00 7.42} 6. 95 7.40
WOTEL. a5 )s cis S Sac te ane ee wie dace 6. 00 6. 90 5.00 | 12.25 3. 60 7.624} 6.60 7.25
TR ok we a okie! cla uals viicets eitwarsieeitals cae 5. 40 7.00 8.00 | 12.50 4. 00 7.70 7.50 7.50
IWIN eo a nc waren cole hace Cate te 5. 40 6. 00 8.00 | 11.75 6. 00 6.75 | Not quoted.
a 131 \: ee es en I AS Se A ee idl | ee 2 8.00 | 12.50 6. 40 7.10 | Not quoted.
VIPS io a oi inra scan Sie wc Pre een io chaos Petai« aerate 8.50 | 12.50 4. 85 7.10 | Not quoted.
BONA Her: 2 = .c ake ws. fae bahoncee ee 5. 00 5. 70 5.00} 11.00 4. 00 6.65 | Not quoted.
OQOTODOT oo ws ws ewe cane conse eee 5. 25 5. 70 6.00 | 11.50 3.75 6. 80 6. 45 6. 90
NOVeMm DEE 3s so. one a es cee 5. 25 5. 60 4.00 | 11.00 3.40 6.823} 6.50 6. 60
December, 8 oie Vere. oe 5. 25 6. 00 6.00 | 11.25 3. 05 7.05 6. 80 6.95

1904.
ONGEY Ge eo oc sean suka tenae oe 5.75 6. 25 6.00 | 11.50 3.10 7.073} 6.75 7.00
ROMER Fx mage unica ewe 5. 75 6, 25 6.00 } 11.25 4. 00 7,023} 6.75 6. 90.
Wareh). foee ot ood. eee oon eee oe ee 5. 75 6. 90 6.00 | 11.65 2. 50 7.15 6. 20 7.10
OT ce eet eee heee ee ae 5. 50 6. 50 7.50 | 11.00 3.00 6.623} 6.20 6. 55
Ey Paes Ei ee EEE ea IR 4. 80 5. 00 6.00 | 10.75 3. 00 6.35 6. 30 6. 35°
RUM ee tc Fe Mee en ee 4. 80 5. 00 6.00 | 10.75 2.50 6.25 |}. Nenwes beck c Soe
FUT Spy Srin pee ene eng ieee 4 ele 2 ee 4.80 5.00 7.00 | 11.25 3. 00 6. 60 6. 25 6. 50
OTING Sorc oS a oe en ee ne 4, 80 6. 50 8.00 | 12.75 5. 70 7.60 6. 50 7.50
Semtam her.) wwe eke c ews ceeeeesaes 6. 00 6. 50 9.00 | 12.50 3. 60 7.45 7.05 7.45
ICCONGES een tee se ee eee 5. 50 6.75 7.00 | 12.25 3. 00 7.623} 7.30 7.55
ORONO ee tector eas 5. 50 6. 50 7.00 | 12.25 3. 30 7.70 7.35 7.65
VD YTCOT ST] J 12 ag RO Ae Bes Sea ee? Sa 5. 50 750 7.00 | 18.00 8.623] 7.96 7.70 7.95

TIMOTHY SEED.
Wholesale prices of timothy seed per 100 pounds (45 pounds to the bushel), 1900-1904.

Cincinnati. Chicago. Milwaukee.
Date. Per bushel. Per 100 pounds. Per 100 pounds.

Low. High. Low. High. Low. High.

| | | | | ee |

1900.
OW UAPY ban oocein ce ants bhic ne Gat ers eenee $1. 03 $1. 07 $2. 473 $2. 55 $2. 00 $2. 50
12 ee ee A ee eng ae Mg eo” 1. 03 Pe. 2.40 2.55 2.00 2.50
March SiR ina. aoa RR Wes Sse Ree eta Beaters 1.05 102 2.323 2. 50 1.90 2.55
LAS Le RO tg Sen Pe EAE es Coit | 1. 07 112 2.85 2.472 1.90 2. 55
RG Ue os re cate a cin ees ede ee Ts 1.07 12 2.40 2.59 1.90 2.60
SPUIO Se cick as bn cee m ae image aoe eee eee 1. 07 1.12 2.40 3.40 2.00 3.15
SPE oe 2 a ae ae ee eee cee a eee 1.15 1.40 3. 00 3.40 2.65 8. 25
(RUSURG. Wan seits nat cet es whee eee 1.85 1. 80 3. 00 4.023 2.75 4, 25
BODLQIMDOGE ic. cccesa kc Sec emee tee haa 1. 60 1. 95 3. 90 4. 60 3. 50 4.50
Motober v5 sas Sok sea. one eee eee eee 1.70 2.00 4.15 4.40 3. 50 4. 30
NOVEM DOR. cso serch st ate wie oe oe se 1.70 1.85 4, 20 4.55 3. 50 4. 20
December Ss. ied ve eee cae dau weno 1.70 1,85 4. 45 4. 65, 3. 50 4.40
1901.
1 OT Ug Se nee Apa ie Secu fea, eR SS 1.70 2. 00 4. 60 4.773 3. 65 4.50
OGD VUS EV hi. at Cea no eee ee oe eee 1. 85 2.05 4.35 4. 60 4.00 4.50
Merch: Ge aon Sere ete a Eee ne ee 1.85 2.00 4.00 4.40 3.75 4.40
AA} ai | GES ES pas Pas ip aint G0 ene eel 1.80 1.95 3.75 4.15 3. 50 4. 20
Ao ee aoa eo Seabee ce ce aoe 1. 80 1.85 3.85 3.90 3. 00 4.00
NE pn it UE et eee ach hove et Becerra eee 3. 60 4.30 3.00 4 60
TUT aie ea ele i Pes aot Be oh SA Nea ee Pao TR Sel ade a = 4.30 5. 25 3. 65 5.25 —
TORT TE. | cies MRR pe eee be a 2. 00 2.40 4.90 5. 75 3.75 5. 26
PNR? 3.2 occ 2. OS bee ee nb 2.30 2. 40 5. 20 5. 70 4, 25 5.25 —
DIGEODER 2 3. oscad Soe a te ee eee ss Os 2.35 2. 60 5. 50 5. 90 4, 25 5. 60
1p 1) oY eee renee Ge Se be ee 2. 50 2. 65 5.75 6. 35 4.50 6.00
PIGGBURNEE Joc ccs no nanscaeeeeuseeesaeanss = 2. 50 2.90 6.35 6. 55 5. 00 6.50

—"s

.

STATISTIOS OF TIMOTHY SEED. 699
Wholesale prices of timothy seed per 100 pounds (45 pounds to the bushel), 1900-1904—
Jontinued.,
Cincinnati, | Chicago. Milwaukee.
Date Per bushel. | Per 100 pounds. Per 100 pounds,
Low. High. Low. High. Low. High.
1902. Per 100 pounds.
MMIORR Oasis ain ap cele Ghana cee weds OOM $6.10 $6. 40 $5. 00 $6. 55 $5. 50 $6. 25
PTE ALE aptetro batt anne accea hehehe aka 6.10 6. 40 5. 00 6. 60 5. 6 6, 25
RO ao ie wide SERS aac y Cui mae 6.10 6. 40 5. 00 7.00 5. 50 6. 60
NT dat Wales oth wide eile <idta nti sick austen ake 6. 40 6. 60 4. 50 7.10 6. 00 6.75
Re Ne oon lg a Bans dobtardn wane Gane abate ctl a coed abate alee one bate 5. 00 7.35 5. 50 6.75
SO RREESE Ses ath, Win a hein s Biaraid im ale't b keleodete tel wesc hk natal nia a Rierainte y 4.50 6. 35 5. 00 6, 25
RE TRY lo cid co nn CREW s Sn mete Seti eee Easter et el kn «west 4,50 5. 75 4.00 5. 75
BEIM HON. crows kien «einai an'a stad wed te ae arate 3. 90 4. 40 3. 25 5. 75 3. 75 5. 00
OD CS amin ed eee gO mg ae aera ts 3. 80 4. 00 2. 00 4.75 2.75 4.10
WORUOMET sis caer a tee aeRame sw oh aeinviel ay cite 3. 30 3. 65 2. 00 4, 20 2.50 3. 75
PED OMNI 5c:5ac ho Mla Gucleiaon adie W laine oteierk wale 3.40 3. 65 2.00 4.25 3.00 3. 75
OCGIE DOE osu ena Sthcdtave'nens deus Werk ona 3.40 3. 65 2.00 4,25 8.00 3.75
1903. Per bushel.
MIRAE Ve ci a we eS eR arin ates tie el ae 1.55 alatr() 2. 50 4.35 8. 00 3.75
RUCISIAMRLE Mas. oe cane saad a ne eee ae ene 1.55 1. 70 2. 50 4.35 3. 00 3.75
MI Si oad oars > a RES eet ine te EER RS 1, 45 1. 65 2.00 3. 95 2. 00 3.75
Tete oo al ase eciecenklen oe em knee ere 1,35 1.50 2.00 3.70 2.00 3. 25
LEE DA eR ers) Ge ayes ae eer oe eee 1.35 1. 50 2. 00 3.75 2. 26 2.90
PMI le oc od a eicie Pee aki 2 b= oe eee ee 1.35 1. 60 2. 00 4.00 2. 35 3. 35
LE, OS a SF) of Se ce eee ae 4 [pee aro Bee | in tre 1.75 3. 65 2. 60 3. 35
SPINES tenn a Re oe rh atte crehe, Taaiiaidwoked Cabal weecs seas. 1.75 3. 40 2. 50 3. 25
BDA GT oe os ae cierekia bigess «wk wwiche ofotnraai 1.35 1.50 2.50 3. 40 2. 50 3. 25
MS LPIIO Nyt cree a ERLLY oo cake atale he Cis oes 1, 25 1.50 2.00 3.174 2. 30 3. 00
RO VRMUDEN cites auc bcMep tac heh eee seers 1, 25 1. 40 2.00 3.00 2.25 2. 85
BRBODMEDOR SS oid acer os eh ce hee Sere 1. 20 1. 40 2.00 3.05 2.25 2.75
1904.
RRR OE BOUT vehi heen Sis na ek eee nA a 1. 20 1.35 2.00 3. 25 2.25 3.15
MTGE SAS ee Oe eae aaer. Skee oe 1525 1.35 2. 25 3. 25 2. 50 3.15
rere gn o* 5: 5 ae he eee ae 1, 26 1.35 2.00 8.25 2.00 3.15
LTT Ls > ee aie re eee Seay Se pee 1.20 1.35 2. 00 3. 00 2. 00 2.90
MIR lg tS EE He Pe a aes ee. Set 1. 20 1.30 2.00 3.05 2.25 2.90
eR ME See oe eh Rts | Sistece tke ae 1.20 gh 3 0) 2.00 3. 05 2. 25 2.90
ALE Te ce 8 Peleg lea oe Re sa 1. 20 1.30 2.00 3. 25 2. 00 3. 00
PN MNCs oie oes c laminae se cekae cece. 1. 20 1.35 2.00 8.05 2. 50 3. 00
Beprempernest ett BS r se oot eles, LA 1.15 1.35 2.00 3. 00 2.25 3. 00
\SGUOET Ooo as ee oie can ee ae edie p bs Ra, 1.25 1.75 2.75 2.10 2. 80
WO VRIES tne eee OP ora eine 1.15 1.30 1.75 2.70 2.10 2. 65
IDR CETEIDOR seek kw ness stn Cee 1.15 1.30 1.75 2 74) 2. 25 2. 65
Monthly average prices per bushel of timothy seed in Chicago. 4
Month. 1893. | 1894. | 1895.| 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
1 Ey fe ee $4. 425 ($4. 25 |$5. 713/$3. 683/$2.70 |$2. 732 |$2. 363/$2. 512 |$4. 682 |$6.40 |$4. 30 |$3.00
REBIORTY ant Soa 4.46 | 4.173) 5.75 | 3.75 | 2.65 | 2.862 | 2.45 | 2.472 | 4.472 | 6.50 | 4.05 | 3.022
CIR Oo eee ee 4.34 | 4.20 | 5.562) 3.35 | 2.674 | 2.90 | 2.323) 2.41: | 4.20 | 6.70 | 3.65 | 2.95
AT csacscuinarcul Go are 4.13 | 4.273) 5.323) 3.25 | 2.85 | 2.812 | 2.362) 2.41: | 3.95 | 7.023] 3.35 | 2.90
MAY 32 Ue e see 3.874 | 4.074] 5.25 | 3.25 | 2.90 | 2.80 | 2.323] 2.472 | 8.622 | 6.823] 3.60 | 2.962
Tt Wee eee Mea oe ee 3.75 | 4.374] 5.372! 3.05 | 2.7382 | 2.70 | 2.85 | 2.90 | 3.95 | 6.05 | 3.80 | 2. 982
U9 os ee ete te rar 38.97% | 4.922) 5.80 | 3.023) 2.722 | 2.574 | 2.45 | 3.20 | 4.773 | 5.60 | 3.50 | 2.972
AUSUBVE 6-250. 250 3.522 | 5.323) 4.80 | 2.874] 2.812 | 2.474 | 2.473] 3.512 | 5.323 | 4.80 | 3.273) 2.922
September .......... 3.35 | 5.50 | 3.95 | 2.564] 2.75 | 2.412 | 2.423) 4.25 | 5.45 | 4.10 | 3.25 | 2.85
Octobers 2s oso vue. 3.324 | 5. 4332) 3.50 | 2.55 | 2.662 | 2.273 | 2.423) 4.272 | 5.70 | 3.95 | 2.963) 2.65
November .......... 3.274 | 5.523) 3.574) 2.561) 2.663 | 2.223 | 2.4332) 4.372 | 6.05 | 3.922) 2.923) 2. 662
Hecemper -<. 5. 3S wes 3.85 | 5.60 | 3.523) 2.623) 2.682 | 2.25 | 2.423) 4.55 6.45 | 4.123) 2.95 | 2.712

Yearly average .| 3.85}4) 4. 803

a
x
we
ow

aThis table exhibits average cash prices for the past twelve years. The monthly prices are the
means between the lowest and highest prices for each month, and the yearly prices are the averages

of the monthly averages.

700

YEARBOOK OF

THE

DEPARTMENT

OF AGRICULTURE,

FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS.

HORSES

AND MULES.

Number and farm value of horses and mules, 1880-1905.

January 1—

Horses.

Number, Value,

11, 201, 800 $613, 296, 611
11, 429, 626 667, 954, 325
10, 521, 554 615, 824, 914
10, 838, 111 765, 041, 308
11, 169, 683 833, 734, 400
11, 564, 572 852, 282, 947
12, 077, 657 860, 823, 208
12, 496, 744 901, 685, 755
13, 172, 936 946, 096, 154
13, 663, 294 982, 194, 827
14, 213, 837 978, 516, 562
14, 056, 750 941, 823, 222
15, 498,140 | 1, 007, 593, 636

16, 206, 802
16, 081, 139
15, 893, 318
15, 124, 057
14, 364, 667
13, 960, 911
13, 665, 307
13, 537, 524
16, 744, 723
16, 531, 224
16, 557, 378
16, 736, 059
17, 057, 702

992) 225, 185
769, 224, 799
576, 730, 580
500, 140, 186
452, 649, 396
478, 362, 407
511, 074, 813
603, 969, 442
885, 200, 168
968, 935, 178
1, 080, 705, 959
1, 136, 940, 298
1, 200; 310, 020

Imports and exports of horses and mules, with average prices, 1892-1904.

Imports of horses.

Year ended

Average
price.

Exports of horses.

————— |} J ——— | | Es | es,

June 30— Num-
ber.

TRO R eb 2 14, 074
NRO G ck oes 15, 451
yo eed 6, 166
Pay Poe eo 13, 098
i{ eae 9, 991
11 "7 = ee 6, 998
it. i See 3, 085
TRO Seek 3, 042
1) a ee a 8, 102
TO ok 2-3 3, 785
i {1 ea 4, 832
A) a a ae 4,999
ee ee ae 4,726

head, valued at 20,331,000 franes ($3,923,883) in 1903, against 23,227 head, valued at

$2, 455, 868
2, 388, 267
1, 319, 672
1, 055, 191

662, 591
464, 808
414, 899
551, 050
596, 592
985, 738
1, 577, 234
1, 56, 296
1, 460, 287

$174. 50
164. 57
214. 01

80. 56
66. 32
66. 42
134. 49
181.15
192. 32
260. 43
326. 41
307. 32
308. 99

Num Average
ber Value price.
3,226 | $611,188 | $189. 46
2, 967 718, 607 242. 20
5, 246 | 1, 108, 995 211. 40

18, 984 | 2, 209, 298 157. 99

25, 126 | 3, 530, 703 140. 52

39, 582 | 4, 769, 265 120. 64

51,150 | 6,176, 569 120. 75

45,778 | 5, 444, 342 118. 93

64, 722 | 7,612, 616 117. 62

82, 2 8, 873, 845 107. 89

108, 020 |10, 048, 046 97. 53

34,007 | 3,152, 159 92. 69

42,001 } 8,189, 100 75. 93

Imports oF Horses INTO FRANCE.

(From Annales du Commerce Extérieure, 1904.)

Imports of horses into France have risen from 17,561 head, worth 12,184,000
francs ($2,351,512) in 1902, to 19,022 head, valued at 12,928,000 francs ($2,495,104)
in 1903. There were increases in the imports of horses, mares, and colts. Algeria
remains the principal source of supply for stallions; geldings and mares come prin-
cipally from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, and England.

While the imports have increased equine exports have decreased, namely, 19,089

24,103,000 franes ($4,651,879) in 1902.

Mules.
Number, Value.
1, 729, 500 $105, 948, 319
1, 720, 731 120, 096, 164
1, 835, 169 180, 945, 378
1, 871, 079 148, 732, 390
1, 914, 126 161, 214, 976
1, 972, 569 162, 497, 097
2, 052, 593 163, 381, 096
2,117,141 167, 057, 538
2,191, 727 174, 853, 563
2, 257, 574 179, 444, 481
2, 331, 027 182, 394, 099
2, 296, 582 178, 847, 370
2, 314, 699 174, 8&2, 070
~2, 331, 128 164, 763, 751
2, 852, 231 146, 232, 811
2, 333, 108 110, 927, 834
2, 278, 946 103, 204, 457
2, 215, 654 , 302,
2, 190, 282 96, 109, 516
2, 134, 213 95, 963, 261
2, 086, 027 111, 717, 092
2, 864, 458 183, 232, 209
2, 757, 017 186, 411, 704
2, 728, 088 197, 753, 327
2, 757, 916 217, 582, 832
2, 888, 710 251, 840, 378
Exports of mules.
Num- Average
ber, | Value price.
1,965 | $238,591 $121. 42.
1, 634 210, 278 128. 69
2, 063 240, 961 116. 80
2,515 186, 452 74.14
5, 918 406, 161 68. 63
7,473 545, 331 72.97
8, 098 664, 789 82.09
6, 755 516, 908 76. 52
43, 369 | 3,919, 478 90. 38
34, 405 | 3,210, 267 93. 31
27,586 | 2, 692, 298 97. 60
4, 294 21, 725 121. 47
3, 658 412, 971 112. 90

STATISTICS OF HORSES AND MULES. 701

Number, average price, and farm value of horses and mules in the United States January 1,
1905, by States.

Horses. Mules.

States and Territories. ayemes oe |
Number. arm | Farm value. | Number. ti | Farm yalue.
rice, rice,
ant. Jan. 1.

DEMAND ced u hah oes cides eben dehed 186, 150 Pee OS Hl 110) A490) | cine nin cvicd|acccbosecelec » osetia
New Hampshire ............. 63, 625 79. 08 pA AN AIOE aisle cin:aato's | ciate siete sie cla oe oom vi dwia
MiQMIION Ve cewn colle of aees Uke ak 90, 894 79. '74 Sane aal a i ea sw dea dda a cls o'db or ee o.0 en ewe
DOASAGNUACTIS 6.5 Sa acs he 148, 189 110. 45 SEEM LUCE tO ian wo vias (nlin's wialeltecleven nbarccbens
HUNGOS ASIAN’... cc vee ewe dees 15, 764 90. 76 DRI Sakid eo aiid onic w:y td aa bale wb ain wale
MMOOUCUL i. . x ccn chen cReew 58, 002 93. 26 Dee Ais lee keen ote a | avin o-c'pla widlllo ov arate v's Diya
PENS OUI. G cass 36 eee eee 637, 600 94, 22 60, 077, 605 3, 787 $102. 26 $387, 253
OOM MOLEOY: oc. o dG kaoekuan 94, 278 98, 58 9, 293, 580 4,974 118. 45 564, 316
PORTNYIVGNIA.. . ovis tec eccdecd 607, 506 92. 56 56, 230, 811 38, 532 99. 87 3, 848, 129
DICER: vain wc deacwas vemeenen 35, 089 80. 48 2, 823, 805 5, 387 98. 30 529, 561
MGT UII So. edn aencetuwenns 148, 683 79, 71 11, 452, 476 18, 080 100. 93 1, 824, 745
MEMS. 2s .S doe ee cee as 252, 506 74. 80 19, 635, 500 42,015 93. 46 3, 926, 864
North Carolina soo. scsi sce od 164, 030 87.25 14,311,389 | 142,217 102. 92 14, 636, 500
Bouts Carolina: .avescess ks 22 74, 731 88. 45 6, 610, 239 106, 592 110. 20 11, 746, 672
SED GR SR eee Sry 123,141 99, 42 12, 248, 293 201, 060 117. 96 23, 716, 413
BOON Check cos cued cs beware 47, 413 80. 99 3, 839, 931 16, 025 120. 87 1, 936, 948
PRIOR. os cn ee eee 147, 754 71.33 10, 589,723 | 161,599 97.52 15, 758, 485
SCS ec ak, a ee ees 252, 226 62. 98 15, 886,143 | 219, 902 95.13 20, 919, 089
POMPEY. te < Tere cee 183, 068 52. 93 9,690,587 | 137,574 104. 51 14, 377,177
MBSA hia eo ets ee 1, 277, 768 35. 46 45,308,760 | 391,038 60. 87 23, 803, 473
Awami, So. 2 okie ose ke 253, 419 56. 52 14, 322,391 | 158,505 78. 67 12, 469, 563
WOHMEMCS- 62s... Sae Sacicdeaels 272, 326 78. 61 21,408,453 | 163,991 93. 84 15, 389, 200
ip re re ees Sepa 169, 030 74. 64 12, 616, 713 9, 888 82. 00 810, 790
PSR EGR mus on st censdeaeess 395, 352 71.16 28,127,471 | 177,030 86. 20 15, 260, 524
GING tech eaten coe ueeete eee 785, 893 87.28 68, 590, 061 16, 454 86. 83 1, 428, 700
WRRMORTR. Liss witid aWe ee bewee 553, 495 87. 71 48, 545, 800 2, 632 68. 49 180, 272
pS eee ee ee 636, 141 87.42 55, 608, 572 57, 435 87.21 5, 009, 084
Peas. +}- 2% 2s ote oes 1, 232, 304 85.04 | 104,795, 162 127,570 87.17 11, 120, 709
WEIRMOIAIN 2. 52 see ee Se 567, 554 86. 20 48, 921,705 4,748 72.33 343, 442
DMREROM. 66 66 SF os 688, 706 75.97 52, 320, 858 8, 082 75. 59 610, 957
Lo ee ees ee ee 1, 144, 456 74.49 85, 250, 746 44, 096 80. 05 3, 529, 755
Ct es ees ree 809, 887 69.14 55, 995,599 ; 243, 466 79. 92 19, 457, 407
UG ot ES ee ae ee, 880, 627 65. 92 58,052,253 | 107,112 75. 67 8, 105, 476
WME ot es Eee 795, 552 62. 26 49, 534, 566 52, 844 76.11 3, 969, 198
Boulh Dakota: . sz) ss 15-6. 467, 258 58. 59 27, 375, 247 6, 962 68. 00 473, 440
Norlt DAKOM 25 52.5555 5 SX 391, 705 70. 06 27, 448, 401 7,457 83.77 624, 707
yi ey ae ae 236, 781 38. 37 9, 084, 698 3, 424 57.17 195, 754
Ww oe oy Sect ce ey ales 101, 237 29. 92 38, 029, 508 1, 481 51.05 75, 608
Wold ncn Sen psec ese 219, 546 41. 96 9, 211, 315 9, 280 62. 61 580, 112
Ne wiMexIcoue.< Jen. boc 112, 454 22. 68 2, 550, 612 4, 946 40.79 201, 726
PRT OS Sas. Staal ete wee 106, 605 25. 50 2, 718, 271 3, 923 47.77 187, 385
Ditadiy 2 Se RUS coe 104, 256 39.05 4, 071, 521 2, 064 32. 20 66, 461
INGWHHG) oss Wc steak oo eecoe 76, 620 42. 62 3, 265, 645 2, 239 50.13 112, 252
AD. S058 os cbs 2 eth eee sve 145, 195 43. 44 6, 307, 422 1, 582 56. 52 89, 416
WSSRINE TONS . 0S. cue. ooo 225, 755 63.10 14, 244, 307 2, 435 65. 97 160, 625
TOP DR Noses anos akos ees 215, 017 54, 42 11, 700, 376 6, 805 638.15 429, 762
CedrOrnis 25.7 she foo eeeee 363, 339 67.48 24, 518, 741 66, 361 76.39 5, 069, 044
GEinhonie 6.0.0 ns Pose 354, 976 52. 68 18, 701, 121 62, 409 73.79 4, 605, 362
indian ‘Territory =: 2... s.cceu. 193, 849 41.01 7,949, 206 44.707 73.99 3, 308, 022
United States .......... 17, 057, 702 70. 37 |1, 200, 310, 020 |2, 888, 710 87.18 251, 840, 378

CoMPETITION IN LivgE-Stock TRADE IN ARGENTINA.

United States Minister pees at Buenos Aires, Argentina, wrote on September
20, 1904, regarding live-stock sales there that English importers, with the exception
of one who had long had a monopoly of the market, were not disposed to sit by and
see a portion of their business fall to the United States. They were open in their
criticism, judged the animals from the British point of view, and all had influence
with a wide circle of friends; but perhaps the most effective opposition came from
certain native breeders who are not in favor of bringing further live stock into
Argentina.

702 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Range of prices for horses in Omaha, monthly, 1900-1904.

Drafts. ped aed Southern, Western, Drivers. | Carsiags
Date. ee) S| OLS eos eee wid ra
Low. | High. | Low. | High.| Low. | High.}| Low. | High.| Low. | High. | Low. | High,

1900,
January. .../$75, 00 |$135. 00 |$55. 00 [$85.00 |$20. 00 |$45. 00 |$10. 00 |$20, 00 |$95.00 |$225. 00 |$200. 00 |$300,
February ..} 80.00 | 150.00 | 55,00 | 90.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95,00 | 225.00 | 200.00 | 300,
March ..... 90.00 | 165,00 | 55.00 | 90.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200,00 | 300,
April. .scea. 90.00 | 175.00 | 60.00 |100.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00} 20.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200.00 | 300,
1 eee 100.00 | 150.00 | 65.00 |105.00 | 20.00 | 45,00 | 12.50 | 22.50 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 300.00 | 450,
UNA sc oes. 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 65.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 25.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 300.00 | 450.
as ek 5 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 15.00 | 27.50 | 75.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 325.
August..... 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 17.50 | 30.00 | 75.00 | 220.00 | 210.00 | 420.
September .| 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 85.00 | 175.00 | 215.00 | 360.
October ....}100.00 | 160.00 | 40,00 | 65.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 80.00 | 77.50 |} 90.00 | 215.00 | 175.00 | 435,
November .} 90.00 | 150.00 | 40.00 | 60,00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 12.50 | 45.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 230.00 | 370,
December. .|100, 00 | 160.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 55.00 | 12.50 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 300.00 | 200.00 | 375

1901.
January....} 90.00 | 150.00 | 55.00 | 85.00 | 25.00 | 60.00 | 10.00 | 30.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200. 800.
February ..|} 95.00 | 160.00 | 55.00 | 90.00 | 25.00 |} 60.00 | 10.00 | 30.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200. 300.
March ..... 90.00 | 165.00 | 55.00 | 90.00 | 20.00 | 55.00 |} 10.00 | 30.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200. 300.
AMIEL: <.co.. 90.00 | 200.00 | 60.00 |100.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 35.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200. 400.
Mayet. wa. .- 100. 00 | 200.00 | 65.00 |105.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 35.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 300. 450.
JONG sacs. 90.00 | 150.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 300. 450.
Joly.:'; ce. 90.00 | 160.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 45.00 | 75.00 | 200.00 | 200. 400.
August. .... 90.00 | 160.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 5.00 | 40.00 | 75.00 | 220.00 | 210. 420.
September .| 90.00 | 175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 5.00 | 50.00 | 85.00 | 175.00 | 215. 360.
October ..../100.00 | 175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 60.00 | 90.00 | 215.00 | 175. 435.
November .| 90.00 | 160.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 45.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 230. 370.
December. ./100. 00 | 160.00 | 45.00 | 85.00 | 20.00 | 55.00 | 12.50 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 300.00 | 200. 375,

00 | 10.00 | 50,00 | 95,00 | 225,00 | 200, 350.

February 95.00 | 185.00 | 60.00 |100.00 | 35.00 | 80.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 | 95,00 | 225.00 | 200, 350.
March ..... 100. 00 | 200.00 | 60.00 {100.00 | 35.00 | 80.00 | 10.00 | 50. 95.00 | 225.00 | 200. 350.
P| re 100.00 | 225.00 | 60.00 |110.00 | 30.00 | 65.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 |100.00 | 250.00 | 200, 500.
BW wane <a> 100.00 | 250.00 | 65.00 {105.00 | 25.00 | 60.00 | 12.50 | 60.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 300. 500.
JUNG... ./::.. 90.00 | 200.00 | 60.00 | 90. 20.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 60.00 | 90 325. 00 | 300. 450.
SONY cea. 90.00 | 175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 65.00 | 75 200.00 | 200. 400.
August..... 90.00 | 175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 80.00 | 75 210. 420.
September .| 90.00 | 175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 |100.00 | 85 215. 360.
October ..../100. 00 ).175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 |100.00 | 90 175. 435
November .| 90.00 | 160.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 20.00 | 65.00 | 10.00 | 80.00 | 90 230. 370
December. ./100,00 | 185.00 | 45.00 | 85.00 | 20.00 | 70.00 | 12.50 | 60.00 | 90 300. 00 7 375

1903.

January....| 90,00 | 175.00 | 50.00 | 80.00 | 35.00 | 70.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 | 95. 225. 00 : 350.
February ..| 95.00 | 185.00 | 60.00 |100.00 | 35.00 | 75.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 | 95. 225. 00 | 200. 350.
March ..... 100. 00 | 200.00 | 60.00 |110.00 | 35.00 | 70.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 |100. 230.00 | 200. 400.
1 Sea 100.00 | 250.00 | 60.00 |110.00 | 30.00 | 65.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 |100. 250. 00 | 200. 500.
| 110. 00 | 250.00 | 65.00 /105.00 | 20.00 | 55.00 | 12.50 | 60.00 |100. 350. 00 | 250. 550.
June ....... 90.00 | 200.00 | 65.00 {100.00 | 15.00 | 40.00 | 12.50 | 65.00 |100, 00 | 375.00 | 300. 450.
A) ee 90.00 | 175.00 | 50.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 65.00 | 75.00 | 275.00 | 200. 400.
August..... 90.00 | 175.00 | 45.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 90.00 | 75.00 | 220.00 | 210. 420.
September .| 90.00 | 175.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 10,00 {100.00 | 95.00 | 200.00 | 215. 360.
October ..../100.00 | 180.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 |100.00 | 90.00 | 215.00 | 200. 435.
November .| 90.00 | 160.00 | 45.00 | 85.00 | 20.00 | 60.00 | 10.00 | 80.00 |100.00 | 325.00 | 226. 370.
December../100.00 | 185.00 | 45.00 | 85.00 | 20.00 | 60.00 | 12.50 | 60.00 /100.00 | 300.00 | 200. 375.

1904.

Ssssssssssss SSSSSSssssssS SeSSsssssssss SSsesesessss SSSsessesesss

S
SSSSSSSSESSSES SSSSSSSSSSES SSSSSSSSSSSES SSSSSSSSSSES

January..../120.00 | 175.00 | 65.00 | 90.00 | 45.00 | 90.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 | 75.00 | 150.00 | 300. 400.
February ../120.00 | 175.00 | 70.00 | 90.00 | 40.00 | 80.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 | 75.00 | 150.00 |} 300. 400.
March ...../120.00 | 175.00 | 75.00 | 95.00 | 35.00 | 70.00 | 10.00 00 | 75.00 | 150.00 | 300. 400.
ee 125.00 | 200,00 | 75.00 |100.00 | 30.00 | 65.00 | 10.00 | 50.00 | 90.00 | 175.00 | 300. 400.
|S pie eee 140.00 | 275.00 | 90.00 |125.00 | 30.00 | 65.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 |125. 00 | 300.00 | 300. 750,
eee 135. 00 | 250.00 | 75.00 {110.00 | 30.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 40.00 |125.00 | 300.00 | 300. 700.
SUEY: weds dca 125. 00 | 200.00 | 65.00 |100.00 | 30.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 65.00 /126. 90 | 175.00 | 300. 400.
August..... 120.00 | 175.00 | 50.00 | 90.00 | 30.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 90.00 |100. 00 | 175.00 | 300. 400.
September ./120.00 | 175.00 | 60.00 {100.00 | 30.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 |110.00 100,00 | 175.00 | 300. 400.
October ....|125.00 | 200.00 | 65.00 |100.00 | 40.00 | 75.00 | 15.00 |100. 00 /125.00 | 200.00 | 30. 450.
November ./130.00 | 235.00 | 70.00 |100.00 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 10.00 | 35.00 {125.00 | 200.00 | 300. 450.
December. ./130, 00 | 225.00 | 70.00 |100.00 | 45.00 | 75.00 | 12.50 | 60.00 |125.00 | 200.00 | 300. 400,

1902.
January....| 90,00 | 175.00 | 55.00 | 85.00 | 35.00 | 80.

SSSSS sS88SSES
= oo bo bo “ 2 :
SARMSSASSS SHaSSamsSSssHi FAASSAISARS SRARSSARIRGHS SKARSSHs
Sses

STATISTICS OF OATTLE.

CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Number and farm value of milch cows and other cattle, 1880 to 1905.

703

Milch cows. Other cattle.

January 1— ate aT ; Fi ae eS

Number, Value. Number. Value.
12, 027, 000 $279, 899, 420 21, 231, 000 $341, 761, 154
12, 368, 653 296, 277, 060 20, 938, 710 362, 861, 509
12, 611, 632 326, 489, 310 23, 280, 238 463, 069, 501
18, 125, 685 396, 575, 405 28, 046, 077 611, 549, 109
13, 501, 206 423, 486, 649 29, 046, 101 683, 229, 054
13, 904, 722 412, 908, 093 29, 866, 573 694, 382, 913
14, 235, 388 389, 985, 523 31, 275, 242 661, 956, 274
14, 522, 083 378, 789, 589 33, 511, 750 663, 137, 926
14, 856, 414 366, 252, 173 34, 378, 363 611, 750, 520
15, 298, 625 366, 226, 376 35, 032, 417 597, 236, 812
15, 952, 883 353, 152, 138 36, 849, 024 560, 625, 137
16, 019, 591 346, 397, 900 36, 875, 648 544, 127, 908
16, 416, 351 351, 378, 182 87, 651, 239 570, 749, 155
16, 424, 087 307, 299, 785 35, 954, 196 547, 882, 204
16, 487, 400 358, 998, 661 36, 608, 168 536, 789, 747
16, 504, 629 362, 601, 729 34, 364, 216 482, 999, 129
16, 137, 586 363, 955, 545 32, 085, 409 508, 928, 416
15, 941, 727 369, 239, 993 30, 508, 408 507, 929, 421
15, 840, 886 434, 813, 826 29, 264, 197 612, 296, 634
15, 990, 115 474, 233, 925 27, 994, 225 637, 931, 135
16, 292, 360 514, 812, 106 27, 610, 054 689, 486, 260
16, 833, 657 505, 093, 077 45, 500, 213 906, 644, 003
16, 696, 802 488, 130, 324 44,727,797 839, 126, 073
17, 105, 227 516, 711, 914 44, 659, 206 824, 054, 902
17, 419, 817 508, 841, 489 43, 629, 498 712, 178, 134
17, 572, 464 482, 272, 208 43, 669, 443 661, 571, 308

Imports and exports of live cattle, with average prices, 1892 to 1904.
Imports. Exports.
Year ended June 30—
Average | y, Average
Number. Value price. Number Value price.

cht es es Real See Et cee ae 2, 168 $47, 466 $21.89 | 394,607 | $35, 099, 095 $88. 95
lL ga eS ae ees Ce ee es ee 3, 293 45, 682 13.87 | 287,094 26, 032, 428 90. 68
BE Se Pos i sn ats ost ee evn anes hale a 1, 592 18, 704 11.75 | 359, 278 33, 461, 922 _ 93.14
IE PR Ee RE ee ee 149, 781 765, 853 5.11 | 331, 722 30, 603, 796 y2. 26
a eS ROR Bie ad 5 217, 826 1, 509, 856 6.93 | 372, 461 34, 560, 672 92.79
MPU YS... os oe oe ea ekg mee oe 328, 977 2, 589, 857 7.87 | 392,190 36, 357, 451 92. 70
oS RA eS aa a ae See 291, 589 2, 913, 223 9.99 | 439, 255 37, 827, 500 86.12
ee ot RS ee ae 199, 752 2, 320, 362 11.62 | 389,490 30, 516, 833 78. 35
ye A ES RS a a? = ee , 006 2, 257, 694 12.47 | 397, 286 30, 635, 153 77.11
SR PS SRE S PD BS Ba SE See 146, 022 1, 931, 433 13.23 | 459, 218 37, 566, 980 81. 81
TREE 2 nse heede tp Rae 96, 027 1, 608, 722 16.75 | 392, 884 29, 902, 212 76.11
SEO EECEE hed SIF OE 66, 175 1, 161, 548 17.55 | 402,178 29, 848, 936 74, 22
| Reppert a = oy 8 9 sree 16, 056 310, 737 19.35 | 593, 409 42, 256, 291 71, 21

Export oF CATTLE FROM VENEZUELA.

Consul Jerome B. Peterson reported from Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, under date
of January 11, 1905, that figures recently published in the Boletin de Noticias show
the exports of cattle from the port of Puerto Cabello from January 1, 1898, to Decem-

ber 31, 1904, to have been 299,437.

These cattle weighed 214,227,906 pounds, and
were valued at $5,105,750. There were included in this number 15,605 cows.

The

exports in the year 1904 alone amounted to 91,887 cattle, weighing 61,418,899 pounds

and valued at $1,112,165.97. This number included 8,091 cows.

704 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Number, average price, and farm value of cattle in the United States on January 1, 1905,

Milech cows.

Other cattle.

Average

‘ a reas Average
States and Territories
, . farm Pow 3 farm :
Number, price, Farm value.| Number. price, Farm value,
Jan. 1 Jan. 1,

MSING. s faowisseeren stoees 189, 125 $29. 16 $5, 514, 885 121, 216 $16.16 $1, 959, 191
New Hampshire ......... 129, 900 32. 34 4, 200, 966 104, 254 16. 31 1, 700, 182
WOFIHORG 6 ocecedence cseens 285, 315 24. 06 6, 864, 679 225, 870 14. 37 3, 246, 605
Massachusetts ........... 190, 627° 36. 84 6, 927, 385 92, 447 16. 72 1, 546, 073
Rhode Island .........-.. 25, 466 41.70 1, 061, 932 10, 444 17.74 184, 939
Connectiout .:..<-..2:6¢ 130, 863 34, 94 4, 572, 353 85, 743 17. 33 1, 485, 702
NOW TORE. owes seecsekeeee 1, 721, 541 31.72 64, 607, 281 917, 574 16.19 14, 855, 158
INGW JOISOY =. .c.ceccasaes 184, 618 39. 83 7, 261, 026 79, 599 20. 00 1, 591, 732
Pennsylvania ... 32. ..0+e« 1, 086, 723 29.91 32, 503, 885 774, 496 15. 95 12, 350, 887
VIGIRWRID:. oo o2022sccecneck , 127 29, 25 1, 027, 465 20, 962 17.44 365, 614
MarVIEne .5 <a. ¢sudasceuwe 147, 423 29. 54 4, 354, 875 133, 979 17. 69 2, 369, 928
bipts i) Si re on eee 252, 727 24, 92 6, 297, 957 431, 827 16, 60 7,166,172
North Carolina .......... 198, 482 20. 90 4, 043, 774 301, 524 10, 37 3, 126, 860 ‘
South Carolina........... 109, 704 24. 64 2,703, 107 173, 071 10. 92 1, 890, 053
ECON ee he 277, 295 24.73 6, 857, 505 629, 139 10, 28 6, 467, 927
Bigniday oo. egos eee 87, 010 23. 48 2, 042, 995 512, 075 9.12 4, 671, 966
Al Ove MG oe Votes oe 230, 120 19. 63 4, 517, 256 367, 972 7.82 2, 876, 660
Missineinnl .; ..s<cceascese 272, 004 22. 50 6, 120, 090 389, 281 8. 20 3,191, 832
Boutsliona’.....5. 2.-22c2 166, 320 22. 84 3, 798, 749 400, 896 9. 78 3, 922, 363
TERRE oro. pace eceee ose 838, 431 19. 82 16, 617, 702 8, 249, 749 10. 09 83, 260, 593
OS) ey, ee eS ee 280, 863 17,27 4, 850, 504 473, 654 7.54 8, 570, 070
TeNNnesseC. . 1... Jc-b as cacs 282, 529 21. 88 6,181, 735 424, 886 10. 94 4, 650, 169
West Virginia... 02. . 2... 180, 379 28. 05 5, 059, 631 338, 305 19. 73 6, 674, 865
Kentucky. ...:. 0 .0.0cc05 286, 716 24. 00 6, 881, 184 512, 989 15. 54 7, 972, 828
ODIO ao tcasas cote acunne 790, 695 31. 81 25, 152, 008 1, 096, 607 19. 56 21, 451, 600
Wichieei.n 3. se e<as0n a 556, 149 28.77 16, 000, 407 699, 914 14. 32 10, 019, 412
BNGIAVIO <. ode bodes ne wne 547, 584 29. 63 16, 224, 914 985, 141 19. 56 19, 266, 209
VY CS, eS We ee 995, 429 29.53 29, 395, 018 1, 666, 872 20. 74 34, 578, 093
WiSCOMSIN = 35 ieessc sep eeen 1, 095, 862 27.85 30, 519, 757 1, 148, 583 13. 68 15, 714, 448
MINMGROUR .. cone conse ee 36, 848 24. 65 20, 628, 303 941, 806 11.18 10, 529, 208
TOWGe ccs eaan Gea ce nantes 1, 335, 832 27.90 87, 269, 713 8, 467, 507 19. 42 67, 348, 010
MistOurl ch. os <pe. cea 669, 787 24.53 18, 976, 875 1, 490, 089 17. 21 25, 42, 496
BYIBER: Sco ese oee knw coe 671, 276 23.69 18, 902, 528 2, 682, 299 17. 21 46, 159, 947
NGRYRRER: <0. osucuaassncad 669, 334 25. 83 17, 288, 897 2,379, 478 17.34 41, 249, 675
South Dakota ............ 401, 703 24. 65 9, 901, 979 1, 470, 563 16. 59 24, 389, 434
North: DAaAkOtd vic. ....<.5 194, 332 26.18 5, 087, 612 598, 705 16. 47 9, 858, 878
MOWIGNE 250.2 es os aoe 55, 030 32. 88 1, 809, 386 1, 048, 455 18. 42 19, 314, 006
WVOmine 5. oot ose San ccs 20, 167 34. 58 697, 375 $12, 061 21.33 17, 321, 264
OGoloraGo s -.a0.32 22 BR S255 120, 557 30. 63 3, 680, 605 1, 273, 180 17.53 22, 322, 790
New Mexico... io. sch... 20, 374 81. 08 633, 224 851, 968 18. 84 11, 788, 682
ye ae ae Se ee 19, 233 35. 50 682, 772 512, 294 16.11 8, 252, 594
Mtahis<. 3 Sethe 72,971 31.12 2, 270, 858 264, 301 16. 69 4, 243, 297
NGVAGS coco ct aut tesoyaat 16, 655 37.56 625, 562 390, 020 16. 49 6, 429, 481
Rete eee a oe eee ees 59, 620 30. 35 1, 809, 467 358, 251 16.39 5, 871, 095
Washington. 2s. de28 se 159, 088 31.31 4, 981, 045 306, 438 16. 27 4, 986, 606
OrevOn <3 acs case Soa eee 188, 923 27.5 8, 832, 886 581, 501 14.69 8, 544, 232
Caltfornia ive. .i .s- eA: 354, 559 36. 57 12, 966, 223 1, 122, 218 19, 29 21, 648, 258
Okishowia 7h...0. - a2. S52 186, 730 19. 35 8, 613, 226 1, 284, 399 13. 32 17, 102, 925
Indian Territory ......... 99, 418 24. 67 2, 452, 642 474, 841 13. 57 6, 445, 304

United States ...... 17, 572, 464 27.44 | 482,272, 203 43, 669, 443 15.15 661, 571, 308

Sale of blooded American heifers at Buenos Aires, Argentina, September 6, 1904.

Argentine | American

Heifer. Buyer. paper. gold.

Lavender Daisy and calfs...-..240 cece. eee B: Gimenez Pag’. .-6 023228 $4, 200. 00
Viscountess of Ravenswood 8d....5252...25 .5<)5 202: GO oor ee ede 1, 950. 00
Second Elderlawn) Victoria, |... 0 22s. wake te Juan Chapar 20. ois. -<5.58 1, 800. 00
Morry Ravenswood SG: 2-00 3. sata te ae oe Leonardo Pereyra .........- 1, 500. 00
Viscountess of Ravenswood 6th................. Hab Cha par osc sates 1, 500. 00
A COnite ViIEcOunresss Soe cos nic ae ae eee eee Juan Stent..<5 5 eb eee eee 1, 400. 00
MOrrecRS Vena wWOOG) <2 toe eo nee a ge Ramon. J. Carcano :..%. 25.5 1, 350. 00
Willare Ooun tems. soca hens et atc wake B; Gimenez Pam... << .i2ae: 1, 200. 00
PRDSY CORSO Se Aina wee a eens Se 2 a Juan Cngnan ss. 3s <scs2s25 Ke 1, 200. 00
Merry Ra wenswood 268 cee tn feo onc ns Ramon J. Carcano ......... 1, 100. 00
Viscountess of Ravenswood 5th................. Jen SteNn€. 522 ce en ees 1, 100. 00
Viscountess of Ravenswood 7th................. Ramon J. Carcano ........- 1, 100. 00

PRG Re ot se cars ce See ee ENS Ng Secll Cita Sole ot ne arn eee ee 19, 400. 00

NINN CN ete ei rar er Tat a Raine Walsall des on Be bieo es ten oe Rae ee 1, 616. 66

STATISTIOS OF CATTLE. 705

Wholesale prices of cattle per 100 pounds, 1900 to 1904.

Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. Omaha,
: Inferior to Fair to me- Good to choice | aropsen haawa
Date. prime, dium. native steers, Native beeves.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
|

1900, ae 1,400 lbs. | ‘
aa sa 5h swing wu Aisinlgum vale eee $2. 25 $6. 60 $3. 25 $4, 25 $4. 20 $6. 00 $4. 00 $6, 25
POUL Gade CiGN ont edule qu Sues cams 2. 25 6.10 8.35 4.35 4, 20 §. 75 8.75 5. 55
PO Cte Cok bak ata s aes woes see 2, 25 6.05 3. 40 4. 50 4.55 5. 50 8.75 5. 20
MES ee ae ae eee ae Wie comin ote hime cue 2. 25 6. 00 8.75 4.65 4. 50 5.75 8.75 5, 25
RM iat Bata atin Sins s. wate eee eee ae 2. 50 5. 80 4.10 4.70 4. 50 5. 50 4.00 5. 30
REC BES wid chides bint oode asi tia 2. 25 5. 90 4.00 4.60 4.40 5. 60 4.00 5.40
2 RS a lh a Se 8 ee Be 2. 25 5. 75 3.75 4.50 4, 25 5. 70 4.00 5. 50
MIN ashe a tints tae wwe Wend whee 2. 25 6.10 8.65 4.60 4, 25 6. 00 4.00 5. 80
RUINS ac as ene w ene ceihews wanes 2. 25 6. 00 8.75 4. 60 4, 20 5. 85 8.75 5. 70
RICE anh SAG x pckn's new Crptinks Soma be 1.75 6. 00 3.10 4. 40 4.10 5. 85 3.75 5. 50
Tk) 6) 21 5 a Raya gis et nam IE Ray 1. 75 6. 00 3.00 4.15 4.00 5. 85 3.75 5, 50
ROUTES oy se aia Haass. Decca eis oe tate ge ss) | a ae 3. 00 4.3! 4.10 6. 50 3. 50 7.50

1901
RATER en bien ek wii ace oa 2.70 6.15 3. 25 4.35 4.75 5. 60 3. 50 5. 35
RING Olin, eS ame wos ee eC NS ens aor 2.70 6.10 3.15 4.15 4.75 5. 65 3. 50 5. 30
UIA ENE et a o's ace tren Oe we ase mate ea 2.70 6. 25 8.15 4,25 4.75 5. 60 3.75 5. 40
TEN He ar Sao Can Sw a woe mae ia ea 2.70 6.10 3.35 4. 60 4.75 5. 85 3.79 5.45
1 alle pS ni Seah ap mel op Peg» ae 270 6.10 3. 60 4.65 4.80 6. 00 8.75 5. 60
REM oa ae wie omen Cen eee ee 2.'70 6.55 8.75 4.40 5. 00 6. 00 4. 00 5.90
Navi eie tia. Gian alkanien me ately < Sa eee 2. 20 6.55 3. 25 4. 25 4.75 6.35 4.00 5.75
CT nhc [rea ee a en ee Raa BE ered San Pete | 2.20 6. 35 3. 00 4.50 5. 00 6. 35 4.00 5. 90
SIC ro OTe it aed Mailigs pears Sapa: inte B20 6. 60 3.15 4.25 5. 00 6.40 4.00 6. 25
MAR mea eer oie ac ahatecics erste inne 2. 20 6. 85 3. 00 4.25 5. 50 6.75 4.00 6. 40
WRIVEMIIME. (Nest cecus cut ceun csr came 2.10 6. 90 3. 00 4.15 5. 50 7.00 4.00 7.25
PIPCOUINRE eww emc weak ae Sl ace natn ae 2.10 7.00 3. 25 4. 60 5. 50 8. 25 3. 50 6. 85

; 1902

COSTE) (a oo ee ie a a SRE < RE 2.20 7.75 3.75 4.65 6.10 7.00 3.40 6.55
MUERTE Wy i= Sat aecre 0 4 «ete armmaiand saan 2.25 7.35 3. 65 4.75 6. 35 6. 50 3. 50 6. 25
ESE ttc... - rca oe Save meee ele aye 2. 35 7.39 3.75 5. 25 6. 40 6. 75 4.00 6.70
PERSE ot Suc ck wo elum mn aacine be tise te 2.30 7.50 4.25 5. 40 6.95 7.10 4.50 7.00
RUN ene. 5 ceca eter Serbo 2.50 7.10 4.10 5. 35 6.90 7.50 4.35 7.40
iE ee. oon oc cre kn elena oe ce ae 2.35 8.50 3. 25 5.25 7.50 8. 00 4, 25 7.85
MULES 5, 5 a cide ee eatne os sauna 2.25 8. 85 3. 16 5. 25 7. 50 8.35 5. 00 8.15
RIT See on ins he ote a oie So's 2.40 9. 00 3. 25 5.25 7.40 8.75 5.00 §.15
fe] 21 0) ea Re a a eee ES 2.25 8.85 3.00 4. 40 6. 60 8.00 4.15 7.85
BOLD ac o2 eae eI Re a eee 1.90 8.75 2.90 4.25 6. 35 7.10 4.50 7.25
JASN CEC I ye GS te a nl pe ae pe 2.00 7.40 3. 00 4.15 6.15 7.25 3,20 6. 00
MIPCOMISET ON one Coane ce ea rots Soca 2.00 | 14.50 3. 00 4, 25 5. 25 6. 00 3. 00 6. 25

1903.
ate AS SES oink ore oe ead age oe shoei 2.00 6. 85 3.15 4.35 5.10 5. 75 38. 35 5.10
EPRI oe ack cor eee mae ae oes 2.35 6.15 3.10 4, 25 5.10 5. 25 3.15 5.15
MMERERRET Ce Sore ico Saicrnre relane eel ecacs 2.50 5. 75 8. 35 4.40 5.10 5. 40 3.45 5.35
LAUDS CTS i ce a pps ce ches 2.50 5. 80 3.75 4.40 5.10 5. 60 3. 20 5. 25
oe 5 - et IR ek he Sie oe 2.50 5. 65 3.25 4.40 5. 00 5. 50 3. 85 5.10
MINN es sen OS Sega oes eet oe aera 2. 25 5. 65 3. 00 4.40 5.10 5. 25 3. 75 5. 20
DIM ee aes et wee ee oa eee B20 5. 65 2. 85 4.10 5.15 5. 35 3. 65 5. 35
IAI! Pane ae cupe sd supe cama 2.15 6.10 2.50 4.00 5. 25 5. 55 3. 85 5.75
Coie CAEL TET 2 Cy eee Ae ean ie mete ar Gps hl 2.00 6.15 2.25 3. 75 5. 60 5. 70 3. 60 5. 75
WPARSEIC Eto 2s oC cineie maninioee ewido es 1. 65 6. 00 2.50 3. 65 5. 40 5.55 3. 90 5. 50
MIME. oc omcbuc' oo nec biawenien ee 1.50 5. 85 2.35 3. 40 5.15 5. 40 3. 00 5. 30
NE ION re aa idee ov winte wicielea nels 0 ec tales 1.50 8.35 2.35 3.75 5.10 6.00 2.65 5. 30

1904
ana se eee oe ee ain ae bene 2.10 5. 90 38. 00 4.00 5.15 5. 35 3. 20 5.10
IS ee ee cae 4 oaey an eae 2. 25 6. 00 3. 00 3.75 4.90 5. 35 3. 00 5. 50
We we oie ete eres ae ee as 2.15 6. 00 38.00 4.00 5.00 5.35 2.75 5. 20
ADEM eco ue tahoe bee tee ones a a eae 2. 25 5. 80 3.15 4.00 5. 25 5. 40 3.00 5.10

ot Rd PO So epee ae ee Bees 2.35 5. 85 3.10 4.25 5.05 5.35 38. 00 5. 55

ATA Se, Meters erect ane ete oes ae see 2. 35 6. 70 3.00 4. 25 5. 75 6.40 3. 50 6. 25
BU Se er ae ee aera eas 2. 20 6. 65 3. 00. 4,25 5. 90 6.25 3.40 6. 00
‘AURORE s ie oto nee a ne eee 2.20 6. 40 2. 65 4.00 5. 60 6. 00 3. 25 5. 85
Septeinber. sxc. ccunt = Nene ae eee 2.15 6. 40 2.50 3.75 5.75 6. 00 4.00 6.00
Geto ber. 2 oat ions. wees a eeawbencee sues 1.70 7.00 2.50 8.75 6. 05 6. 60 4.25 6.35
NOVGMDCL.. 225 saan eee ee eases 1.70 7.15 2.50 8. 50 5.15 6. 60 8.10 6.15
DOCG DOE ciswars sap cee wessew ey veaowe 1. 80 7.65 2. 25 38. 60 5.75 6. 00 3.10 6.15

2 al904——45

706 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Wholesale prices of butter per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

New York. Cincinnati. Chicago, | Elgin,
Creamery 2 Creamery Creamery
Date, extra. Creamery. firsts. extra.

Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. Low. | High.

LE ee

1900, Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
MOTOTC cocoon cnnae sundae anaes 24 30 21 27 22 29 24 29
Webruary ....cees- err, 24 26 7” - 22 21 244 24 24
ROO ion, oe ake a A, Sa a 233 26 21 22 21 244 24 2A}
Se 8 ot a ee ae ee 17} 23 16 20 154 234 18 224
OY oe oc hace hn neta eee 18} 193 16 18 153 194 19} 19}
aS SS Ee LI SO SE) (ae Le) eee Oe 16 18 163 194 18 19}
UU a ee oe 2 Ae eee ee 19 20 17 18 17 19} 19 19
oT SS ee EE eR SEE 2S 183 21 17 20 17 21 19} 214
PORIOIIDOR 2. «dann ecsses sewacca duce, 21 22 18 21 173 214 205 214
J TY ee wats Gace ae aueeane 204 223 18 21 17 22 20} y-
10 Es a ae Sa ae ee 22k 27 20 25 18 254 22 26
POOOTE OE sos cdenedscuwidves haaauss 25 26 23 24 20 24 244 25
1901
BANDON on. co cedcne Cunssbueboreeens 21 25 18 24 15 23 21 244
MODFURIY co 0. as5 5. 04<oe ae oe 22 24 18 22 16 v5) 21 234
Marvel oe... 25: On Son's Cone cea uawes 22 232 19 21 18 23 21}
927 Be es a ae a Se ee ol 18 21 17 20 16 203 20 213
A oe Cann ea ce id ce sive a ste enero ne 18 18 17 18 153 18} 18} 184
ni TR a eo ee A RE 19 194 17 19 16 19 18} 19
ce os swear ta taatea ccm ek wae 18 19 17 19 16 20 19
A VISWUES Dede as wc Rens o atdela date aii 20 21 V7 19 17 20 21
MQTIREIIINE | oc 5 estan ns Uaee sae eee 20 L 18 20 16 21 20 21
8 SNR a ee eee 21 22% 20 21 17 22 21} 22
Piewemnber ©... 3288.) acces 223 253 22 23 18 242 22 244
PISCRI NEP. von creas ccee see 24 254 22 23 20 244 243 244
23 26 22 23 20 24 24 24}
26 30 22 26 20 29 29
27 30 23 24 22 28 26 28
22 33 23 27 18 31 22 30
223 25 19 20 19 23 22 22
214 223 19 20 183 22 21 22
204 21? 18 21 183 213 20 21
19 204 Gy 19 16 19 20
SOPCRIN DEP os os dae con eon ones 194 23 17 213 17 t 19 ry 4
ROOT ee oe oe a oe oe ear ele ee 223 25 204 224 19 242 223 2
WMOVOMDEE o0.25 cba. cw nweleeenteceees 25 283 213 25 213 27 244 27
PIGORTR DOS oa cpvigdionn aban cen <vexee 28 30 25 27 8 283 28 29
1903.
PBYNIATY - choc cet acd eee ees eee 28k 284 22 27 20 28 25 29
POOR ORYY. oo watt te sg sak Sere cee 2 28 22 25 20 27k 25 27
TOMEODY: cas an's ashiguie se sacacen ania 27 29% 243 26 24 283 27k 28%
MOTEL a gates 5 wc nates am anaes cyto eS 223 293 193 26 21 283 22% 28%
|. 13 RUAN See eae ea 22 23 174 203 17 22 20 22%
MONG Sak cas ak oe aw eck Sees eee 20% 223 18 21 18 22 20
5 eee I aR ie Ree a FR abet te 19 204 153 20 17 20 18} 20
29 4 1 SPI RR a I SOE aan Bab 19 192 153 183 16 19 18} 19}
Bapeeln PGP ss wie ee ob ood cee ee 19? 21} 164 20 ug 213 193 213
CIOU DOE Jon aidc cel seni u unten soar 20 223 18 20 17 213 203 214
Ome ba 2S 23) ese oes ee ee 223 253 194 223 18 24% 22 24
py i a eS SD 2 2 23 254 213 233 19 25 24 25
1904.
IIR rene 2 See oe a ee 22 243 193 223 17 233 22 24
POMC UARYs fee cewwens eves oh none ee 23 261 213 24 18 26 23 26
Mare Be enw tia ae ono eee 24 26% 22 24 19 26 243 26
1S RE pe eA ol NO CE BML Ge 8 22 244 203 23 19 242 23 24}
ES cn ete ee Gee oe ener ae 18 244 173 213 15 23 17% 23
CRE Se RRS aie Sat cot, SS) 173 183 173 19 15 18 173 17}
Ula Gee ae ete oe eta Sees SMS 173 18 17 19 15 18 17 17}
ys 3 4S | Re eee ee ee tel SE ah hE 173 19} 17 19 15 18} 17 19
POBUOT DEE eisrccn oontns <dcasetscoae 19 21 19 203 164 193 19 20
ORG. hint oo chs Ses ceteeee tes oe 20 233 20 22 17 22 20 23
PIO VGN RGR oN® 2) Pern oe eee sree 23 264 23 253 19 243 23 25
CN gene Now athens ee cn 26 28 263 28 20 28 25 28

STATISTIOS

OF CHEESE.

707

Wholesale prices of cheese per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

New York, Cincinnati.
: September, te
Date. colored. Factory.
Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1900. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
SOTDUEES Gis ov coc see daee Sdunatenem acne 123 13 12 12}
bo Sa IER oy a ee ee oe 12 13} 12 124
PT hhc ae eect Bc iinis anim wan 13} 134 12 12}
RAINES Sots os Ae oo ee icniecivieee ion yt 13} Ps 124
Ws Ph nk as, SOE ON bee Akai wie Wales ae 4 a & | 9 114
SE SE REG Pg ey 42 ee ee gi 10 8} 9
MEME SaWecciey 5 <tutleencewcu paw ett axenec 9 9} 8} 9}
eae eth 8 Ae ae ee gi 10% 8h 10}
EO as Sse es ee 12 123 10 10}
Oe. 2 CoS SOUL Bete semees..e 103 113 104 11}
PRINS, 5 Pibee ge ates od le ches 103 val 10} cal
BOOSIE a vecerctitactwWiededaaw ses ati 11} 103 11
1901.
PEEL Y fae aatenc Ae hie alte eS Ricaiad veo 11} 12 il 12
PIR tai badare wc ake eate nen cht as 12 12% 114 12
RS RSS oe SR Se ANS rk SO on Me oe 12 123 113 12
Te RL a ye Se PREM Fea 114 124 11 12
PUM ee iao us os ca Gu ain. c Sos kloan comet 4 94 84 12
RES ree fa niece Cie oicicto oaitreie otto aes 9 9? FS s
SWE ee tas wet has cine Bulan Ga Sare 9 5 i :
SRM RINSE Se cataimae ye oo Gs Okiimtale eee eae 9% 93 9 10
BEC MOI. coc esale se csacetcscnoeeres FS 10} 4b 10
NEMO acdc ctes seed une ts cmb. dein’ 101 10} 2 104
POV CREMMST fo. coSaee Oe an wind eee newoec 104 10} 10 103
PRONE s sisted tte ta ean ae me Pointe oa 10 113 10 103
1902.
PAAR. do woke ata yeeadeee se aes liz 113 10 11
METAL. .). Chae os ee eee cbsinean 11: 123 103 114
ND io a seeker sm wile ting ie a iil 12} 132 as 114
co = RI pare Gir oe ee Be 13 133 igi 123
an he Se ga eae 102 13 113 12}
oD SR ie ae eo oe eee Pe 92 103 12:
SCT 2 ahs ae a aa ek > ne 92 102 103 103
CEE Oo ai oc hs ota eee weeie L 104 103 104
Soci) 2 SS See ae ee eee * 102 12 103 103
och LL a ee 22 OS PREG Sy TAU a Sey em See 12 123 11 123
Pry Geese a oes oe ee 124 13 1 124
DECIDE sa cstinets ah os eekeniee nce 13 133 12 13
1903.
PRINT eas nigh sien See oe aha Witadel oot 14 14 123 123
eee fC). ose a. oc Sete RE copie 143 14} 123 12}
= AEE, SAP cot Oe epeigmmrneats Lene <-S IPN Se eeeame 142 15 123 12}
Maries 8 eo So Bes ee hy 15 12} 123
cS gS Ny. RE = coe Ye eM © Rebe 114 123 123 124
SONI 2 os 5228 San ee ew Da eee 103 103 11 11i
DR haa crassa ehh wins erst irate ate 10 103 103 10}
RP UN A. se =. Sas Ie ao Oe cope ee 102 103 103 103
PEE OR o)... py ninsina diumtar aa dbien en 103 122 lui 103
ST Nerds ec ene ter ele ere 113 123 103 104
PUTTIN. oe cece ewe San eem eee cee 114 12 102 103
BIOPRT DONS 3.55 a2.5 noone ae ea eareeiepies 12 12 103 103
1904.
SPORTAL Sb seul Gudeetia wun eeeinanaens 12 12 10} 103
BeOLURES ho pte a os aa a dee 12 12 103 104
je ane hs ES Ts Eee 12 12 103 103
sa RRS ee he Oe comet ee 102 12 103 103
ERG ate eth oa IS Os ite 7 8 9} 10
PISS Ses cetea nen Se nate aki eeene vE: 9 8 4
Bp hae ape Se A fa BY Ye ERIE BS OE 8 9 8 d
AD RBBE Saisie pitino dn cae cob oan ee 8 9 8 9
September sic. sees Bugs oeS- sae ee 8? 10 8} 9
Geter <& ape tae sce uae. ee 10 10} 8h 9
November ta. acta: wearers oct. 104 11} 8} 103
DSCERIBE Sk Se tee jade o SUE Feet 11} 12 10 103

Chicago.
Young
Americas,
Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents.
9 12}
9 12}
9 12}
8} 124
8} 10
8} 10}
8 10}
8 114
10 11}
10 114
10 13
10} 10}
10} 114
11} 114
11 11}
11} 11}
103 11}
9 104
4 10%
10 104
10 10}
10 10}
9} 10+
10 103
103 111
103 124
11? 121
13 13
123 134
102 123
102 103
103 nee
103 113
113 113
113 12
143 132
13 134
124 13
122 133
122 132
102 132
104 102
10 102
9 11
2 fil
10 at
10 103
10 10
10 10
°y 103
10 102
9 10
8 9
3 $
7 8}
7? 8}
8 ‘
81 103
10 114
11 11:

St. Louis.

Full cream.

Low.

Cents.
12}

ee

High.

—

708 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

SHEEP AND WOOL,

Number and farm value of sheep, 1880-1905.

Sheep.

Sheep.
January 1— —— : — January 1—
Number. Value. Number. Value,
[eee eee UE 40,765, 900. |: $90; 280, 587 ||| 1808... ec cnececwcccccs 47, 273,553 | $125, 909, 264
Vt | ee eee ee 43, 569, 899 104, O70; 750. EROS. cee e cock cndaebeteee 45, 048, 017 89, 186, 110
Tee oe ee Son ue uiods 45, 016, 224 106, 506. 054 PIBOD o-oo ccecuenecsed 42, 294, 064 66, 685, 767
ty | ES ae sa See hs reel 49, 237, 291 124.385, Sb. 3886 2. eee cak Séccnewen 38, 298, 783 65, 167, 735
\ | SS Pe ee a 50, 626, 626 119. 008 706 \GBA7 |. coat Swécccnecu chen 36, 818, 643 67, 020, 942
SOS ee eae 50. 860,'243 1...107, 060, 650 |} 1808 .. oo... cncccsccccucn’ 37, 656, 960 92, 721, 133
1 ee Fae ee ee 48, 322, 331 02. 443.8675 1] \3A98 |. 326). os eb eae cen 39, 114, 453 107, 697, 530
11 FSS a ean Oe ar 44.760, 314:1 80, 872,830 19000 vo voce uvdesVeaeeaes 41,883,065 | 122, 665, 913
1: ER Se Se 43, 544, 755 80/970: 926: 11:200) ... 20. oss cdaee ete nabs 59, 756, 718 178, 072, 476
Oe ee ee Rt 42, 599, 079 90; 640.269 ‘jis}002 . ot Sudo ccc ksemen se 62, 039, 091 164, 446, 091
ys eee Ee Se ee Bere 44,886. 072° | . 100, 650,762. 3908 . 22225. ous weaekes 63, 964, 876 168, 315, 750
TR ee i oes awe 43, 431, 136 FOS Gaz, 4467. it 2004 Sec. acevteanwace 51, 630, 144 133, 530, 099
SeRG os. 2 ss ee: 44/088. 365.) 116, 127, 290° W1908 | coerce oes n cee apes 45, 170, 423 127, 331, 850

Number, average price, and farm value of sheep in the United States on January 1, 1905.

Aver- Aver-
States and Terri- ss nae Farm States and Terri-| y : sae Farm
tories. Number. be value. tories. Number. a. value
Jan. 1. Jan. 1
WISING.. ous... -4s 270,025 | $3.02 $815, 048 || Indiana ......... 1,134,771.| $3.81 | $4,320, 074
New Hampshire . 75, 997 3. 22 9A5 158. |) Timo... Jt. 5..6 705, 358 4.27 8, 010, 821
Vermont ....--2<: 214, 445 3. 28 703, 680 || Wisconsin ....... 21, 632 3. 26 3, 007, 838
Massachusetts ... 40, 818 3. 86 157,533 || Minnesota....... 385, 003 3,12 1, 202, 558
Rhode Island.... 8, 216 4.11 98 748i POWs, oogesu bcbawe 698, 316 3. 80 2, 652, 483
Connecticut ..... 33, 569 4.19 140, 500 |! Missouri......... 770, 340 pay 2, 409, 624
New York-.....: 985, 480 4.07 | 4,009,525 || Kansas’.:........ 229, 001 3.10 709, 583
New Jersey .....- 43, 344 4.36 188, 841 || Nebraska ........ 419, 339 2. 98 1, 248, 666
Pennsylvania. ... 895, 982 3.81 | 3,415,394 || South Dakota ... 806, 704 2.99 2, 413, 095
Delaware ........ 10, 512 3. 92 41, 237 || North Dakota ... 702, 290 3.08 2, 159, 823
Maryland........ 147, 208 3. 66 538, 267 || Montana ........ 5, 638, 967 2.94 | 16,551, 495
Mirginia: 2.3... ...< 452, 128 3.10 | 1,403,813 || Wyoming..:..... 3, 267, 887 2. 46 8, 034, 754
North Carolina .. 209, 118 1.99 415, 727 |) Colorado.....02.< 1, 458, 749 2. 68 3, 911, 344
South Carolina... 58, 857 2.05 120,374 || New Mexico..... 2, 856, 745 1.98 5, 656, 356
Georrie 223 Pose. 273, 893 1.81 496,102 || Arizona ......... 816, 141 2.55 2, 0838, 771
Wiloridae s.s05658 50 108, 736 1.95 DIO Ute Wy i... Santee 2, 344, 108 2.52 5, 908, 558
Alabama. <2.) 53 189, 900 1. 65 312,424 |) Nevada.........- 1, 345, 791 2.51 3, 378, 608
Mississippi .....-- 183, 739 1:57 287-786: 11 eeenaut $25 Ss 2, 978, 068 2. 62 7, 796, 285
Louisiana........ 174, 888 1.79 313,907 || Washington ..... 849, 618 2.65 2, 253, 017
TORGR 2.22 ds once 1, 617, 125 2.08 | 38,356,344 |) Oregon .......... 2, 546, 662 2.30 5, 868, 274
Arkansas ........ 204, 665 1. 60 327,075 || California ...... .| 2,180,399 2.67 5, 824, 718
Tennessee ....-..- 297, 374 yy | 676, 288 || Oklahoma....... 63, 600 2.79 177, 508
West Virginia.... 512, 671 3.19 | 1,635,061 || Indian Territory 26, 560 2. 90 76, 978
Kentucky... <<. 654, 999 2:4 1, 800, 592 a a
Obine = 55-3. 2, 601, 010 3.41 | 8, 865, 284 United States | 45, 170, 423 2.82 | 127, 331, 850
Michigan’. .....+- 1, 759, 675 3.50 | 6,163,789
Imports and exports of sheep, with average prices, 1892-1904.
Imports. Exports.
Year ended June 30— ;
. . Average | x, Average
Number.| Value. price. Number.| Value ried

LOO. 5 oh See a eee ee 380, 814 | $1, 440, 5380 $3.78 46, 960 $161, 105 $3. 43
FRSS i he 8 ee ee ees 459,484 | 1,682,977 3. 66 37, 260 126, 394 3.389
dts, Re ee NG See ee SE 242, 568 788, 181 8.25 | 182,370 832, 763 6. 29
LS. Ree Sees © ste ess ee ee 291, 461 682, 618 2.34 | 405,748 | 2,630, 686 6. 48
ERG oe So oe be Sos oe 322, 692 8538, 5380 2.65 | 491,565 | 3,076, 384 6. 26
CC ee ees eerie oe 405, 633 | 1,019, 668 2.51 | 244,120] 1,531, 645 6,27
GEG Lok won ae teeta an cv accwae a aaseeees 392,314 | 1,106,322 2.82 | 199,690 | 1,213, 886 6. 08
PODS en en ace aoe tees anes 345,911 | 1,200, 081 3.47 | 1438, 286 853, 555 5. 96
Dh | Ree oe a a En pe Mame ede 381,792 | 1,365, 026 3.58-} 125, 772 733, 477 5. 83
UR oe ae ees crate anc hein a mincing ata 331,488 | 1, 236, 277 3.73 | 297,925 | 1,933,000 6.49
SOO Tg 8 oe cate neem neta bce skismaians 266, 953 956, 711 3.58 | 358,720 | 1,940, 060 5.41
BOT os Sinica eemraie ns pan n ee amen she 623. | 1,036, 984 8.44 | 176,961 | 1,067, 860 6. 03
ORM 2s Coe nea eanalen a cen an ae wae 238, 094 815, 289 3.42 | 301,313 | 1,954, 604 6.49

STATISTICS OF SHEEP. 709

Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. Omaha,
R Inferior to . ‘ Good to fe es
Date. choice. Good to extra, choice natives. Native.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. High. | Low. | High.
1900.
RRO Lats chsicit Ge wa aku Gwe Oelwein wd o $2.75 | $5.25 | $3.85 | $4.75 | $4.00| $5.25] $3.25 $5. 25
CNM sa charter hl a. Coal wel petal ea hinlie's 8, 25 5. 85 4, 00 5. 7E 4.75 5. 60 8.5 5.75
RED eran lancet caer w cleo winlwie’ o's aha’ 4.00 6. 00 5. 00 6. 00 5, 25 5. 75 8. 50 6.10
Ve ae Se ee ae ene 4, 25 6. 50 5. 00 6.00 5, 25 6. 25 8. 50 6.10
je a ee ee ee ee Seer 3-75 6. 50 38. 00 4.75 4.50 5. 50 3. 50 6.00
RTA Oe IS cela ara Ae ee Saas a Wate 3. 25 5. 70 2.75 4.5 4, 25 4.75 8. 25 5. 25
SAMAR MTD nS tonne ehlitia eiaiaia ord Se wiheyl oo = ne 2.75 6.15 2.25 4.25 8.90 4.30 3. 00 4.60
i a ee ee ot ee 2. 60 4.70 2.00 4,25 3. 50 4,25 3. 00 4. 60
LT a ee 2. 50 4,25 2.00 3. 90 8.40 4.00 2. 50 4.00
SOOT hn nnn ibintie Dalal Sole Ges wees eee 2.50 4, 25 1. 50 4. 00 38. 50 4. 00 2.00 4. 00
Sa > gps Se RS FR hy es 2. 50 4.35 1, 25 3.75 8. 50 4.00 2. 00 4. 25
TMDL RIE 63a atcha Siaicheia/lnigle Siecle’ Sores 2. 50 5. 00 1,25 3.75 3. 65 4, 25 2. 25 4.35
1901.
WTATUET Soa tare Kins SAP as Sate So (iltealara ie 0 v 2.75 4.75 2.75 4, 25 3.75 4.50 3. 00 4.90
PERT a cis cwitinn aicraere iat SAG Citar 2.75 4.75 8. 25 4,25 4.00 4.50 3. 00 4.75
ISIN tits aiceickw Wa uicu Moca aw pereed oe 2.75 5. 00 8. 25 4. 50 4. 00 5.10 3. 00 4.85
“ACS LL eS ae ee Se eee 3. 00 5.15 3. 75 4.50 4. 25 5.10 3.00 5.00
1 oS See re eee Cremer, ae ee 2.75 5. 00 3. 65 4, 25 4.00 4.75 2.50 4.40
ari stubsi ahve cate w ee eee tae heb 2.75 4.70 3. 00 4.00 3. 25 4. 60 2.25 4,25
UU aE a atiahe wa auinenwin: db vaksiast ta Seeds ate vietas 2.65 4.40 3.00 3. 65 cL Ua Ree ae Sy (3 2.25 4.65
ATP ARG ete le he cience oe Acie wets sie Mer aa ote" 2. 65 4.05 2.40 3. 65 3.00 3.75 2.00 3. 60
SSRIS IMG ot Gielen ie Gia uno scat © Waele 2.75 4.00 2.25 3.40 3. 00 3. 65 2.00 38. 60
RUSE ode oreo eee aut sawn Winie's ot 2.75 4.40 2,16 3.15 3.10 3. 50 2. 25 4,25
PV OUTII OD Coe eh kilos aha hie > taxa cc'e 2.50 4.30 2.15 3.00 3.15 3.75 2. 25 8.75
PONE Coun cit. Vileudwabt sees tatens 2.50 4. 50 2.40 3. 60 3. 25 4. 00 2. 50 4.50
1902.
MRO YS. os Sia clea Uinkw Sate ee owieraieeweie 2.00 4.75 3. 00 4, 25 4,25 5.00 4.00 5.15
PIAL, |... Sstee Sutceaen iat & cee oie 2.00 5. 50 3.50 5. 50 4.75 5. 60 4. 20 5. 85
Ms oa eee eee eee iok winicinine 3. 00 5.75 4.25 5. 50 5. 50 5. 75 4.40 5. 90
PMs care eee OR INs win eae 2.50 6. 50 3.75 5. 50 5. 50 6. 25 4.75 6. 25
10, 2 RES a a Re, on Seat eee ee 2.25 6. 50 4.35 5. 75 6. 00 6.35 5. 40 6. 00
“GD 2, SS eee Se Sane 1.50 6. 25 3.50 4.60 3.70 5. 60 4.50 6. 00
Mes Ae ok I A Soe iso a 1.75 5. 00 3.10 4.00 4.00 4. 60 3. 80 4.50
RRA ee ts he. SSN avid otal wine's a 1. 50 4, 25 2.25 4.00 3. 85 cs een ee pats Se
SC) SoU oa ee ae ee ee 1.50 4.50 2. 00 3.40 3. 65 4.00 2.00 3.40
WOUOREE 6. ccs ee Ste Ce wed we ce 1.50 4, 25 2. 65 3. 40 3.90 4.00 3. 00 4.10
RS IeEIDOT eee, Sate mesa OE oss 3% 1. 50 4, 25 2.50 3.35 ea, 4.00 3.40 4.25
WECempers. ca zat gre ext. cx 1.25 4.75 2.75 4.00 3. 80 4.50 3.50 4.75
1903.
DRMUATY 2 = cbch cSous alee we see ae acs 2 2.60 5. 25 8: 25 4.50 4.50 5. 00 3. 60 5. 40
RCREUATY 2.2) ius tect ees beets 2.00 5.75 3.75 5. 00 5. 25 5. 20 4. 50 5. 80
WER MOR e 3--. clocsuy shat Set Low sins 2.00 7.00 4,25 6. 00 5. 50 6.15 4. 60 6.75
£075 0 Ce Bees ee ee ey ee 2.25 7.00 4.10 6. 25 6. 00 6. 25 4.50 6.75
POUND a te ais eat ata ‘on 1. 60 6. 25 3. 60 4.75 4.50 5. 25 4.00 5. 50
IS Sach ae ae ace eect eae 2.00 6. 00 3. 00 4.50 4.50 4.75 3. 80 5. 50
DRAG Fete eae hie Soke eee 1.50 5. 25 2.90 4.00 3. 75 4.75 3. 00 4.50
AgISMSbl f at's seis ed ep ees See 8a 1.50 4.25 2.75 3. 35 3. 50 3. 85 3. 00 4.00
DeMLeOM DET <2 5.22 SN Se ae eeeobiawc eee 1.50 4,25 2.60 3.40 3.65 4.00 3. 50 3.50
WCUSREN > «i152 > ocseeetesiees fice eke k 1.50 4,25 2.75 3. 50 3. 65 4.00 3.55 3. 55
MMT DO! on 2c was) Se et caro oeL ees 1.25 4.35 2. 60 3. 30 3. 60 3. 65 38. 25 4.00
DSCCMHCN. a-ha. Ee eLearn ee e 1.50 4,25 2. 60 3.75 3.65 3. 85 3. 25 4.40
1904.
SREY oe on ote ow pio ana eee eon wee 2.00 4.75 3. 25 4.00 3. %D 4.75 2.25 5.10
Pepruary 4555-67 tes ee ot eae ee 2.00 4.75 3. 40 4. 60 4.75 4.75 2. 60 5. 26
REORUE poet oe ee ee eee 2.00 5. 50 3. 65 4.50 4.75 4.90 2. 50 5. 25
Apri go eee eet ae, 2.50 6. 00 4.00 4.50 5. 40 5. 60 3. 25 5. 65
| h ORR PR Oe pine Sore geerr 2.00 6. 00 8.75 4.55 5. 50 5. 65 4.00 5.90
JUNO soi Wek ies ee Mae eee eee 1.75 5. 50 3. 00 4.40 4. 60 5. 50 4.00 5. 25
JMLY o.oo Jc ooh eee atta Saat 1.50 5.50 2.75 4.00 4.00 4,25 3. 75 5.00
AUSUSt...’.\. co ben bie eb ek eee 2.00 4.25 2.75 4.00 3.75 4.00 3. 40 4.35
Bepteas DOR. as vais. co sect ein sae 1.75 4.50 2.75 3. 50 3.75 Oh i Rees fee
QOIODER Sek bs PE eee me eee 1.50 4.75 2,75 3.50 4.10 A OO) | Saw rcees's fen eee
NOVEINDRE = a6 e005 et. eo ae 1.75 5. 00 2.75 4.00 4, 25 4.75 3. 75 4.50
DGECGMDCL F555 seme Gus ones Rake eee 2.50 5. 65 3. 50 4.50 4.75 4. 90 4.00 5.50

710 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Wool product of the United States for 1904, by States.

[Estimates of Mr. 8. N. D, North.]}

: : Average ; é
Number of < Per cent |Wool, washed ;
States and Territories, sheep Apr. 1, wet ofshrink-| and un- Ones
1904, 9 1904. age, 1904. washed, behets
Pounds, Pounds, Pounds.

MESENG jcc new natcenn een renee ales: 230, 000 6 40 1, 380, 000 828, 000
Now Hampehire.ec.s. s ifn tece su dacas ce 63, 000 6.2 50 390, 600 195, 300
WORMORe «25 6.25 kaw Sanu coageascsunse abet 160, 000 6 50 960, 000 480, 000
Mineosnonvaetts «6 ) os Ae ee ee 30, 000 5.8 45 174, 000 95, 700
MOCO FRIANG <6. 2s os ch acncsceeeewoeene. 6, 500 5.5 42 35, 750 20, 735
We Neel. = <5 <ooscl ceak eee oes 30, 000 5 40 150, 000 90, 000
IGG VOPR oss kono cscs dachienc cece nnd 675, 000 6 50 4, 050, 000 2, 025, 000
RUE DONNER. ook ee Sak cance daw mene es «s 32, 000 5 47 160, 000 84, 800
OTC EWR: ob es cnn ocak see's 850, 000 6 52 5, 100, 000 2, 448, 000
Wi WEIR. 262 ee Bea hana wanes 6, 500 6 50 39, 000 19, 500
PURE oe och aan ck en oak aes ease ee as 100, 000 5 47 500, 000 265, 000
pe, be cae aeeiens t codeine awnien an x 335, 000 4.5 38 1, 507, 500 934, 650
Wereh Cerohna cic. 2s <0ck oreo oe wt ioc cens 205, 000 4 42 $20, 000 475, 600
Sonkh Caroline’... ..cos 0c «noes bees Saxe 50, 000 4 42 200, 000 116, 000
PET a ER tik SP SE A ee ae 250, 000 3.8 40 950, 000 570, 000
WIOTIOS ooo ck. coe oo oe Gecae ies une aa ea an 100, 000 3.5 40 350, 000 210, 000
Mia eIRe: & hock ie ewer nee eae eee eS 200, 000 3.5 40 700, 000 420, 000
pL Te CE SS >” yp as 230, 000 4 42 920, 000 533, 600
WOUISQIME Boo fi. Rohr s soe eek bees ness 155, 000 3.'7 45 573, 500 315, 425
Wega 2255 7.022 eR 2 eet 2 ee 1, 440, 000 6.5 68 9, 360, 000 , 995, 200
TE a a ee a diets cee Glee 200, 000 4 42 , 000 464, 000
MI IOHNGS. 8 oo Baas ae oie 260, 000 4,25 40 1, 105, 000 663, 000
West Virginia. oto... ose focus poets 475, 000 5.3 46 2,517, 500 1, 359, 450
A UC he oe ree ok naga Se es Reet 579, 000 5 38 2, 875, 1, 782, 500
IO sino ase ens Sudan akan 2, 033, 072 6 52 12, 198, 432 5, 855, 247
Wieshiowts ho oh. oe. ay re cen cna es 1, 200, 000 6.5 50 7, 800, 000 3, 900, 000
PROIGDS oo so csioais eee cee koe as Soe wenes 700, 000 6.5 50 4, 550, 000 2, 275, 000
VINER Oca s see te one ee 525, 000 7.25 52 3, 806, 250 1, 827, 000
WHISGONBIO © ooo seees ccaey eens Stason 700, 000 6.75 48 4, 525, 000 2, 353, 000
Min NesEE © 2S. Sook <. sueaaven nests tee. 350, 000 7 52 2, 450, 000 1, 176, 000
BOWER eo ssc t ne oo wna ew ass ee 540, 000 6.5 50 3, 510, 000 1, 755, 000
MEISSONERE Se oe = cet wee ss does oan = ooo 575, 000 6.5 49 38, 737, 500 1, 906, 125
MrT OR GS eS. MA oe ear oc uecmenee te 170, 000 8 68 1, 360, 000 435, 200
BITES EG sais <n eee ctw's choee heats setae 250, 000 8 68 2, 000, 000 640, 000
PUMEENY DIMOU onions ts ccke oe eee were ees 575, 000 6.75 60 3, 881, 250 1, 552, 500
Ug eA eee oe 450, 000 6.5 60 2, 925, 060 1,170, 000
RN oo? op cee thn Se eee poet Sees 5, 576, 000 6.75 64 37, 773, 000 13, 598, 280
WU PORTE 9 ocd Ries gabe ye wane oneee ss 3, 800, 000 7.75 70 29, 450, 000 8, 835, 000
WOAGTOU Oe sic ae as -\v chew amen oneeeees 1, 300, 000 7 68 9, 100, 000 2,912, 000
Wer MexI0G = oe eeeds . oS eee 3, 150, 000 5.5 64 17, 325, 000 6, 237, 000.
WaZONE aoe poate bab ee ese Sean 620, 000 7 69 4, 340, 000 1, 345, 400
NIRA arse wwe wepeeuasae dae etak base oe 2, 025, 000 6.5 67 13, 162, 500 4, 324, 685
NY OVO oc eis e a a we Pawo Sian & See 600, 000 ie 70 4, 200, 000 1, 260, 000
Sew Os or Ss) 2 OR ee eee 2, 300, 000 6.5: » 65 14, 950, 000 5, 232, 500
Washington: 2. 24.52 22.5.8 6. aeons 560, 000 8 68 4, 480, 000 1, 433, €00
PPCHOD TASS oe aan SR ee ae ck ca ee 2, 000, 000 7.25 69 14, 500, 000 4, 495, 000
SOVIIORNIR sh. = Soe wee ee eee ee 1, 625, 000 7,25 68 11, 781, 250 3, 770, 000
Oklahoma and Indian Territory ..-..-... 60, 000 6 68 360, 000 115, 200

Tndtted States <: {sibs Sg eee 38, 342, 072 6. 50 61.6 | 249, 783, 032 95, 795, 147
Polled' 60)... 25. 063 ok Se ose cee oe os ae eaete oe Sie iain cameuteets 33 42, 000, 000 28, 140, 000

Total prodaet, 1908 Wo. Fo) eaccwen be bebaot ac cect ls sage eieniacsssudees 291, 783, 032 123, 935, 147

Production of home-grown wool and imports of wool and sheepskins in the United Kingdom
1900 to 1904. “

{London Times.]

Home-grown| Foreign and Sheepskins is
oO

Year. wool produc-|colonial wool] © e
tion. imported, | ported.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
MOONY cs re Oe Soe ao ES oe Ran rns ca Ee 141,146,000 | 558, 154, 732 85, 197, 124 779, 407, 856
MIE eh 2s 8 Sh nh 0 ee 138, 483,000 | 686, 956, 308 84, 159, 984 909, 599, 292
21 Rage pe a ete ne era a, We MER RS, 135, 684,000 | 637,521, 986 91, 505, 165 864, 721, 151
ee ee ee ee Pra ee Somers 133, 124,000 | 599,500,932 | 100, 963, 976 833, 588, 908
TO Sid a Au tad Soup eR ERE MT eae a tied a oe ae 131, 963,000 | 561, 706, 689 85, 595, 648 779, 265, 337

STATISTICS

OF WOOL,

711

Wholesale prices of wool per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

Date.

1900,

ete we eee ee

OLE 6 5 ae RTE a age
EE POLLS 16 wo pee deans
SPOCOMIGIED sb somes apne

ee es

ee

So” ey aa

PREIS S bie ters obo eres eo
October
TROVSINICL See ccs oe
December. < o.c.5--

1903.

OPENS MIO TD Sateen ow'a Se oe ai
MODIUGEY. < o qon ce ieee

PUES a soe Che eet A ctae
September
October

1904.

October
November

wee wee ee

Se

eww eee ee

ee

eT

ee

wee ewe ee wee

ee

wee tee eee wee

es

ey

ee ee wee

wwe ww eee

Boston, New York, | Philadelphia. St. Louis.
XX Ohio, XX Ohio, Best tub-
washed. XX Ohio. washed, washed,
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cenls.
37 38 36 39 36 37 29 35
37 37 36 39 36 37 35 36
34 36 36 39 36 37 33 35
2 34 36 37 f 35 33 34
31 32 34 37 33 34 33 34
29 31 84 36 30 32 28 324
29 29 28 36 29 32 28 29
28 29 28 2 29 30 29 29
274 28 28 30 28 30 29 29
27 27k 28 30 28 29 29 29
27 28 28 30 27 28 29 294
28 28 28 30 27 28 29 294
27 28 264 4 | 27 28 28 294
27 27 26 264 27 28 27 28
26 27 254 26 26 27 27 274
264 264 25% 26 25 27 27 27
26 26 25% 254 25 27 25 27
26 264 254 254 25 27 24 25
264 27 25% 254 25 26s" bss As a Stellan
27 27 254 25% 26 27 24 24
26 27 25% 254 26 27 24 25
26 26 254 254 26 27 24 24
26 27 254 254 26 27 24 25
263 27 254 254 26 27 24 244
27 27 26 pee | 26 27 24 24}
27 27 26 27 26 27 242 243
27 27 26 27% 26 27 24 24
27 27 264 27k 26 27 24 24
27 27 264 274 26 27 24 25
27 27k 264 274 26 2 24 25
27 28 263 27% 264 274 24 254
28 28 264 27k 274 28 253 264
29 29 263 274 27 29 26 264
30 ihe) ean al [ae pee 27 29 26 27
29 31 28 29 29 30 273 28}
32 32 30 32 31 32 28 29
32 32} 31 32 31 32 29 29
31 33 31 32 31 32 29 29
31 32 31 32 31 32 28 29
31 32 31 82 3l 32 27 28}
30 32 30 33 31 32 27 284
31 34 30 31 30 3L 28 29
33 34 30 31 32 33 29 29%
33 85 31 33 32 33 29 294
34 35 28 82 32 33 30 30
34 35 28 32 33 34 30 30}
34 35 28 32 33 34 303 31
34 35 28 By 33 34 303 }
334 34 28 32 33 33 304 304
33 34 28 382 33 33 304 31
33 34 28 32 33 33 $ 3L
32 34 28 32 33 33 30% 31
32 33 28 32 32% 324 303 32
32 34 28 32 314 314 32 33
34 35 28 35 3i} 33 33 34}
34 35 32 35 33 33 35 35
34 35 34 35 33 33 35 36
34 35 32 35 33 33 34} 36}
35 26 32 35 33 334 37 40
34 36 32 35 335 335 40 4i

712 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Range of prices of wool in Boston, monthly, 1900-1904.4

[Cents per pound, }

Indiana

Ohio fine, quarter- Ohio XX, | Ohio, No. 1, mee Michigan
unwashed, blood, washed. washed, shed. |» Washed.
Date. unwashed. waaned.

Low. High.| Low. High. Low, ‘High, Lew. High.| Low. High.| Low. High.

|

1900.
JOMIOREY asec. oskudieeeeas> 25 26 28 29 37 38 88 39 38 40 29 29
BODVUOlT acc. ..0s diva sc cee 25 25 28 29 37 37 38 38 38 38 28 29
Waveho 2 fe... Soc tackseos 22 23 27 28 34 36 35 37 35 374 | 24 27
Pa) eg ge eee ee 21 22 25 27 32 34 35 35 35 35 24 24
1 TY Sa Oe ee ear eee 20 21 25 26 31 32 34 35 33 35 24 24
TTT a te EO a ee 19 20 25 25 29 31 32 33 32 33 23 24
Be ee eee mre fae 19 24 25 29 29 31 32 31 82 23 23
DT a ee eee ee 19 19 23 24 28 29 380 31 29 31 22 23
Bantam ber; 5. s/s ahce< 05's 18 19 25 24 27: | 28 80 380 29 29 22 22
Oaraner 22 o2s oes ee eee ke 18 19 23 24 27 271 | 28 29 273 28 213 22
WNOVOEMDEGP . 2 oieishkoszscns 18 19 23 24 27 28 28 29 28 30 22
December. 2.5 sh essasciexs 18 18 23 24 28 28 28 28 29 29 22 223

1901
RWMOEG once ie ptm oo dae a MH 18 23 233 | 27 28 28 29 29 30 22 22
BODTOATY Sos os csacesesncce 163 | 17 23 24 27 27 27% 28 28 30 21 22
Were 6. oot ans Sethe 2 oA 164 18 22: |} 23 26 27 26 27 29 30 21 21
APO ©. sn won aces eawn aes 17 18 22 223 263 264 | 26 27 28 30 21 21
Mage. Set a Se eS 17 17 20 21 26 26 25 26 28 30 20 20
SIG 2 ge ee eae 17: | 18 19: | 20 26 263 | 25 26 28 29 20 204
BUR Ws concen oekaki aweees 18 18 20 20 264 | 27 26 26 28 30 21 213
Fe Re Rn ory Sa ae 18 183} | 20 20 27 27 263 | 263 | 28 30 203 21
Heprem hers. << ssc ses es 183 184 | 203 203 | 26 27 26 26:4 | 28 28: | 21 21
CTO eee as the on ae es 18} 183 | 20 20 26 26 25 26 28 20 21
NOVEM DED . ss 4s seck S203 19 19 20 213 26 27 26 26} 27: | 29 21 21
PeGeinnee oo oe 19 193 |} 21: 22 263 | 27 26 27 28 29 21 21

1902
ERD VTS oe a. ton chus ae'y's 193 | 20 22 22 27 27 27 27 28 29 21 21
Gh rOAr Wi. onc pans eee g 20 20 22 22 27 27 27 27 28 29 21 21
"A ee ee 193} 193 | 21) | 22 27 27 263 | 27 28 29 21 21
Pad lal ees eee 19} | 193 | 212] 23 27 27 263 | 263 | 28 28: | 20% 213
1 Ae ee ee ene 19 193 | 203} 203] 27 27 26 26 28 283 | 21 22
OT Yap Sa a ee ee 19 20 203 | 21 27 27: | 26 26 28 29 22 22
1 pg 20 20 21 22 27 28 26 27 28 31 22 22
BVGOSE. Se. anew vane 20 21 22 23 28 28 28 29 30 33 22 23
Beprember. .wccoatas- nee DE}. BEE} 22 23 29 29 29 30 831i 32 23 23
October 22 3h) 4 see ee 21h |} 213 | 23 23 30 30 30 30 381i | 32 23 24
NOVOM DOR 5 ose eechkociscisk 212 | 22 23 23 29 31 30 81 31: | 383 24 25
December. 2.-o2 sas cnc ssn oy 23 23 24 24 32 82 31 81 33 35 26 27

1903.
PRU WEY ose cos wrest <5 22 53 233 | 24 32 323 | 31 82 34 35 27 278
Uc] TL) Ng gy 9 UR er 22 23 24 25 31 og 31 33 34 35 27 273
MOTO ee oe tee cee oe 22 23 22 24 $1 82 31 32 334 | 34 26 27
BD, Lae oh se oes ce 20 22 22 233 31 32 30 81 SSk ft. °84- 2) 26 264
1." 5, anes 5 ae ANE Ses pee 20 22 22 234 | 30 32 29 31 83h | 85 25 26 ;
OD Ts ee ee cee eee ag St Beer ee 2) 24 ys 25 31 34 30 33 34 37 25 26
TRL wa = SS i ee es 23 24 23 25 33 34 32 33 36 87 | O21 22
WSUS 0. oadenee cored 23 25 24 25 33 35 32 33 36 37 214 29
September <2. o. Geet et 24 25 24 25 34 35 32 33 36 37 21 22
Cleteher sa =. ee we bcs 2 24 25 24 25 34 35 32 34 36 37 21 22
INGUBINUGK SoU. 220-4 cacahs: 24 25 24 25 34 35 33 34 35 37 Ys 22
December... «one ceaccoeules 24 25 24 25 34 35 33 34 35 36 yal 22

1904.
MSW UOIY Soo + ow isch woud 23 24 24 25 3331 | 34 32 33 85 36 21 22
BOPIUORY <c...0cskscteanacecs 22 24 243 | 263 33 34 32 33 35 36 20 22
WMaroh:t ee. cee Rou yy ae ee | 244 | 253 | 33 34 32 33 35 36 20 ved @
pri) ee eer nae COR om SS 22 23 25 254 | 32 34 30 32 34 35 19 21
Mays 85. Sho. cde weeubenbeas 22 23 24 25 32 33 30 32 34 35 19 20
WO oo ek Se ee eee 22 23 24 27 32 34 30 33 34 36 19 22
VOM. 2a. Ss asc ee ee 21 24 27 30 34 35 33 34 35 36 21 22
1 (19 fo Ae eR ieee er 24 25 28 30 34 85 33 34 354 | 36 21 22
September: 2.5 s08 ws sees 24 25 28 29 34 35 33 34 353 | 36 21 22
Oetoher ys oe wee ee 23 25 28 30 34 35 33 85 354 | 36 21 22
Nowerber.o 22. eS 23 25 30 32 35 36 35 38 353 | 38 21 22
WeGSHINRl.. steer aos rcene 24 25 31 33 34 36 37 40 37 38 21 22

a Furnished by Commercial Bulletin, Boston.
bSince June 12, 1903, the standard quotation has been Michigan ina unwashed,

STATISTICS OF WOOL. 718

Range.of prices of wool in Boston, monthly, 1909-1904—Continued.,

[Cents per pound.}

Fine medi- line free

Fine select-

~ pee m Texas, 12 on Pulled, A | Pulled, B
ed Terri- | um Terri- / fall, Texas eee poodagr a
tory, staple | tory, cloth- ore or Califor- Mec te ses a
Date. scoured, ing scoured,| SCOUrFEG. Inia seoured,| SCOUTEG: RCOUTEC.
Low. |High.| Low. High.| Low. |High.| Low. |High. | Low. |High.| Low. |High.
1900, |
TORN. wie. apes ban’ sae 73 74 60 62 63 | +65 2 55 55 57 48 50
MODLURIS, antn vases ceccean ts 68 70 58 60 60 62 50 52 55 56 48 49
AUGECTRED Gib wm elels Mistee'> oa ae pine 65 67 55 57 58 60 47 50 50 Ad 46 48
DNTSLC .~$.chnbatns melts etre 63 65 53 55 57 58 47 48 50 Ay2 40 45
Es ES ee Sa Re Pe 60 62 51 53 56 57 46 48 47 50 40 42
MIRE a in oe aie weraldinin se «nts are 55 60 50 61 53 55 42 46 47 50 40 42
care Mia Wh Snips eras ate.c cate 53 55 46 50 62 53 4k 42 46 47 3Y 40
PUR wh Guia bien .c ine en ie 52 53 46 48 52 52 40 42 45 46 37 40
PEPMOINOG! ce uakpnksids apes 50 52 45 47 50 52 38 40 45 45 36 38
POOR tchwibwanke a dsune 50 50 45 45 50 50 38 40 42 45 36 38
IWEVRUAWEL Kats csewpecs «tee 50 52 45 47 50 50 38 40 43 46 37 40
December........ EA wae ene 49 50 45 46 48 60 40 40 45 46} 37 39
1901
SEMINOLE ON A at, le seas ain Res 50 50 39 43 48 48 38 40 42 45 37 | 38
PETRI, cise a sec kaenn eed 48 50 38 39 47 50 37 40 40 45 35 35
PUENN nn G os Ge cet ais ob Babe 43 45 85 38 43 45 36 38 38 42 34 39
Pinta ctett Gna dime x ae eihe 45 47 38 40 43 47 36 37 38 40 33 34
ee eee 45 47 40 40 45 47 36 37 35 38 31 82
Lt ae ae Ss ee gy Ve 45 47 40 42 45 47 36 37 35 39 30 30
ULCLS 2S Se Saar 46 48 42 43 47 50 36 40 37 40 31 33
Bae et ote cs betas ste aes 47 50 43 44 48 50 40 40 38 40 33 33
BERLE PEN et ba. in ceca eee 49 50 44 44 50 50 40 40 38 40 33 33
RURDED oe Sec So ct wn ce ee 49 50 42 44 50 50 40 40 38 40 32 32
DNGVEMIDOr os. tecoce. Gee es 49 50 43 44 48 50 40 42 38 40 32 33
Desember ccs ewww sevact 49 50 43 44 48 50 40 42 38 40 34 34
1902
MONTEL oe Sia a. cemiats cintere aia 49 55 44 47 48 50 40 42 38 42 34 36
Heprarys: +... Ree FR See 54 55 46 47 48 55 40 45 38 42 36 36
1 10 SNe eS a eM ea 50 55 45 46 52 55 40 45 38 42 35 36
ET tre tek ox ike tues 50 52 44 44 52 53 40 42 38 42 33 33
ng ae: ee Se ace a 50 52 42 45 48 52 38 40 38 41 33 34
Bin cS See es ae ee ae 48 52 42 44 50 |- 55 38 40 38 42 34 35
SUE cette canSetl 50 55 45 47 52 57 38 40 38 45 36 38
Bit 1S LS ee ee 55 57 47 49 55 57 40 40 42 45 39 39
September cs 22.2. 552. 55 57 49 49 55 57 40 40 40 45 37 38
DREW seus cee oe race 55 57 49 49 55 57 40 45 40 45 37 Ag |
NOGEMNCL «oc. -ccveccst soe 55 58 49 50 55 60 44 48 40 44 37 39
qrecem bere... fet sc. 5 ce 58 59 50 50 57 60 46 48 44 46 40 40
1903.
VANUALY °<.2.22--saccse owes 56 60 54 58 57 60 46 48 44 46 40 42
PE DIMEALY, oon win wc ctie eae 5d 58 52 56 55 58 45 48 43 46 40 43
MI eet S2ce. os os tenes 54 56 52 54 55 57 45 46 42 45 39 42
MRS 22 eon ee see e nee 54 55 52 53 55 57 45 46 40 44 39 41
MET cet ach cee eee 52 55 50 53 53 57 45 46 40 45 39 42
Piha 8 A ote Snook ree 52 55 50 53 53 57 45 48 42 46 40 42
Bret bo at asto aus eae 53 55 52 53 55 57 46 48 43 47 40 44
SLO ee SS et Ss 54 56 52 53 55 57 46 48 45 47 43 44
Penvember. .... 226.55 cane 55 56 52 53 55 57 46 48 44 47 42 44
ROI 8 ore ke mass eee 55 56 52 53 5d 57 46 48 44 47 42 43
Wovember.. 2.2.22... 2230 53 56 51 53 55 56 45 48 44 47 40 43
DOGERRDCL ic oe as - ons s acaeee ¢ 53 Ay) 51 52 55 56 44 46 43 45 40 42
1904.
JQRUSTY. «ie cise need ea ats 50 52 50 52 55 56 | 45 46 43 47 40 43
Mebruary .posescns cle eaess 53 55 50 52 55 56 45 46 44 47 41 43
ECS fs Part Mite, ae) SR a ee) 53 55 50 52 54 56 45 46 44 47 41 43
PS.) Se eens ey 53 55 50 52 53 55 44 46 44 47 42 43
MGW 53 ce-ch oe ee ee 52 53 50 51 52 53 44 45 45 47 42 44
JORG oN ok FCLeuees 52 58 50 52 52 60 44 45 45 48 43 45
DP ee eae ee ces 58 62 53 60 58 60 44 45 46 49 43 46
ROSUBtE...n eat ee een 60 63 58 60 58 60 44 45 48 50 45 48
Bepremver soo sans. dem se 62 65 58 62 58 63 44 47 48 52 47 50
OCIODER,. 5 coset ae teats. 63 65 60 62 62 63 45 50 50 54 48 50
HOVCM NEE. 2.75 es wen eoe 64 70 60 65 62 63 48 53 54 57 50 53
DeCemiere Sc cake season 68 70 65 68 62 68 52 56 58 60 52 55

714 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HOGS.

Number and farm value of hogs, 1880 to 1905, with exports.

On farms, January 1. Exports for year ended June 30,
Year, Average 4
Number. Value, farm Number. Value, Aversue
value, price.
BOM) caces san dus evade daaumees 34, 034,100 | $145, 781, 515 $4. 28 83, 434 $421, 089 $5. 05
1 OT) ORS a ee eer 8 a 36, 247,683 | 170, 535, 435 4.70 77, 456 572, 138 7.39
BOOR « cwitind Bacuas a bane wn Catan 44, 122, 200 263, 543, 195 5. 97 36, 368 509, 651 14. 01
sf ee Se ap ey. |e 43, 270, 086 291, 951, 22 6.75 16, 129 272, 516 16. 90
: 1 a eer ere ae 44, 200, 893 | 246, 301, 139 5, 57 46, 382 627, 480 13. 58
iT Oe eee see be 45, 142,657 | 226, 401, 683 5. 02 55, 025 579, 183 10. 53
1 ON Re See oes eee 46,092,043 | 196, 569, 894 4, 26 74, 187 674, 297 9. 09
BD co Se ciads deste eae Sabewe 44,612,836 | 200, 043, 291 4, 48 75, 383 564, 753 7.49
BOO. wen du dasa wbasves anaes 44, 346,525 | 220,811, 082 4. 98 23, 755 193, 017 8.13
NOD Side «swears oo etdn iw wdnee 50, 301,592 | 291, 807, 193 5.79 45, 128 356, 764 7.91
ERGO aot oc Beak tema aa one. 3 51, 602,780 | 248, 418, 336 4.72 91, 148 909, 042 9. 97
TOO 5 Jak. van dGalne side cemamens 50, 625,106 | 210,193, 923 4.15 95, 654 | 1, 146, 630 11.99
TRO occas koe Cue ene 52, 398,019 | 241,031, 415 4. 60 31, 963 364, 08 11.39
LD) ERS Ra Re ee syste Eee 46,094,807 | 295, 426, 492 6.41 27,375 397, 162 14. 51
SOG so wine sa veda was ates ceaee 45, 206,498 | 270, 384, 626 5. 98 1, 553 14, 753 9. 50
ReOO codecs. god os oes oe 44,165,716 | 219,501, 267 4.97 7,130 72, 424 10. 16
BOG > oaths slasyeee'n Saltese eae S 42,842,759 | 186,529,745 4.35 21, 049 227, 297 10. 80
ERO? a cdg nn dawae sends cosas 40,600,276 | 166,272,770 4.10 28, 751 295, 998 10. 30
bt ree Ae ee eee 39, 759,993 | 174,351, 409 4.39 14, 411 110, 487 7. 67
TROD ee odes ote take on eoe 38, 651,631 | 170,109, 743 4.40 33, 031 227, 241 6. 88
RO on aa ae ame ethene 37,079,356 | 185, 472,321 5. 00 51, 180 394, 813 7.71
OT saunas demas ack ewncedselas 56, 982, 142 |- 353, 012, 143 6. 20 22,318 238, 465 10. 68
Ne See ce dbass Seah csale otam 48, 698,890 | 342,120,780 7.03 8, 368 88, 330 10. 56
EM as Rtas dnwan an cecan ends 46, 922,624 | 364, 973, 688 7.78 4, 031 40, 923 10.15
Rae ate Poa 8 ies z---| 47,009,367 | 289, 224, 627 6,15 6, 345 53, 780 8. 48
1 ee es eee ee 2 eee 47,320,511 | 2838, 254, 978 B99 |. cise ne an cin n =i| = ~:n5m o/e.niut at

Number, average price, and farm value of hogs in the United States on January 1, 1905.

Aver- Aver-
States and Terri- | y =o Farm || States and Terri-| . age Farm
“¥4 Number. | farm = : Number. | farm
tories. price, value, tories. rind value,
Jan. 1. an. 1.

MAING sass enceaw ss 64,701 | $9.45 $611,424 || Indiana ........-. 2,631,470 | $5.77 | $15, 183, 582
New Hampshire . 50, 220 9. 44 Mie O77:|| TMOIS.. 5c wee 3, 747, 120 6.74 | 25, 255, 589
Vermont... 5.3.2 90, 405 7.85 709, 679 || Wisconsin ....... 1, 653, 316 7.78 | 12,862, 798
Massachusetts ... 71,920 | 11.28 811, 258 || Minnesota....... 1, 268, 561 7.05 8, 943, 3
Rhode Island.... 12,569 | 12,22 15S. 598: lh Towa... 6sacs owe 7, 290, 625 6.71 | 48,920, 094
Connecticut ..... 46,036 | 12.00 552, 432 || Missouri.......<. 8, 110, 582 4.50 | 13,997,619
New York. 2.<c.3% 675, 613 8.36 | 5,648,125 |} Kansas.......... 1, 949, 782 6.25 | 12,186, 138
New Jersey ...... 150,988 | 10.40} 1,570,275 || Nebraska........ 2, 888, 844 6.51 | 18, 806, 374
Pennsylvania.... 980, O8O 8.28 | 8,115,062 || South Dakota.... 836, 824 6. 63 5, 548, 143
Delaware .......- 45,128 7.89 396, 060 || North Dakota ... 191, 540 7.37 1,411,
Maryland .s..52-- 290, 324 74h.) 2: 353 301 "|i. Montana: . 2... 57,592 8.11 467, O71
Mirginia.. .3seuoe 767, 163 4.97 | 38,812,800 || Wyoming ....... 15, 665 8. 05 126, 103
North Carolina...} 1, 058, 146 4.85 | 5,132,008 || Colorado ........ 77,357 y Fy 558, 518
South Carolina... 664, 907 5.52 | 3,670,287 || New Mexico..... 21, 126 5. 80 122, 531
Moorman toa... 1, 396, 922 5.14 | 7, 180-179) || Arizona <......<- 18, 184 7.44 135, 289
Mioride 2.542055. 883, 741 3.4901" 1 889, 256 ll Utah So 22occnees 56, 250 7.62 428, 625
(OVC ee 1, 034, 092 4.53 | 4,684, 437 || Nevada.......... 14, 157 8. 47 119, 910
Mississippi ....... 1, 087, 780 4.\80: hi 6, 22h 344s) dahon 5 se eo. 1138, 703 7.05 801, 606
Louisiana ........ 655, 866 4.78 | 3,135,039 || Washington ..... 174, 128 7. 68 1, 337, 308
MORES 22.0 co Gbo. 2, 525, 48 4.68 | 11, 817,225 || Oregon .......... 268, 933 6. 06 1, 629, 734
Arkansas .2.2c..: 1, 031,245 3.63 | ~8, 748, 419 |} California ....... 621, 384 6.10 3, 180, 442
Tennessee ...-...- 1, 011, 516 4.70 | 4,754,125 |} Oklahoma....... 496, 343 5.47 2, 714, 996
West Virginia.... 306, 459 5.33 | 1,633,426 || Indian Territory 708, 823 4.73 3, 352, 733
Kentueky........ 1, 185, 636 3.99 | 4,730, 688 ——_——_
OHIO . f32352 sees: 2, 701, 250 6.30 | 17, 017, 875 United States} 47, 320, 511 5. 99 , 254,
Miehigan ..2..22 920, 447 6.67 | 6,189, 381

715
of the United States,

ves O

*,*

Wholesale prices of live hogs per 100 pounds in leading cit

OF HOGS.
1900-1904.

STATISTICS

mice ~ ioe sion 1G len lon ton

~o ten
No Mowe OND aAng OMI 1910 191910191910 12° ° SSece 1
a R SFeqgeessss ates) TeoHuEN SRO RVLRBLSBL SSB DABRAREDODAR SERSSSRS3
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_
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—
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4 doreoet tts aS IDSooOMMOOOINNIN oonmconscooeso eoooons eno 1D ttt
S at RRSASSASSAS AmeSSnnSssencs SHR FSSRSASHSS SRSRGASBHSOLD SRS RSRSaeees
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| 3 |
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¢ . > ve) if) ou u -) 1 u 1
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— i=
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Sta Ae : Pe etenetes a neti ate : 4 1 i ee NE” Mase ee: A
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— . ‘ ‘ net oo ¢ ea 2S Cae J. wee = 77-2 2 ae oe . a . pee 4 OS ee ass | oS oer
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on? oo. . = .2 S -8' eee ‘i 2 3S ao A se ce eo*s° Divaie 8 €oee se , a bit lee we) ' n> § PT ae re
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fs BS me ae ee ae | enews T 2a 8. s" aR) sega), Sm S' dh) 8 B'S. Pe ee OD el ee Bed o, ‘ ‘ Dae 2 Pade oe eee pi ee oS ine [Sanaa s
pt eee ae eke ae eh ouecn PATS bevgns vol ee tes ae) Meteraiel eee Bi a Tee Se Poh area. Petr hos . ; bt, bet
‘Be fe —_ 9508 Ibs ce natbelaten, aeitie of 5 Ea atete os eae eee a8 Pe rhe ahead yes MAL Lip Sodp thy eae cae ee a
Phe 6 — ‘2,25 > Nae a on Mae? ae 225 be ee te OL OS aie he eT Poe ts ee ee
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ess s ‘302 iL Son =) . ‘s02 c=) mi. ‘3025 Ses: ‘s0255
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SSSaeSSsaS53 seebssshess3 sSskesteasts ssakrsthasso assskeetyass 3
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SRASTARRINOZA KBeAd26RdNOZAR Shaded nOZQ SmedeandnOZQ Smad dndZa

716 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Monthly average prices of live hogs in Chicago, @

[In dollars per 100 pounds. ]

Month, 1893. 1804, | 1896. ise, | 1897, | 1898. | 1899, 190, | 1901, 1902. | 1903. | 1904.
ay

JONGARY <<.~cech ee 4,221! 7.45 | 5.273! 4.25 | 3.90 | 8.30 | 8.674] 8.673) 4.534] 5.132] 6.20 | 4.70
Weoruary %..0.ccausee 4.57:| 7.974] 6.074| 4.123) 3.973| 8.424| 3.93%] 3.75 | 4.824] 5.374! 6.00 | 5.05
Marod <..:casseecasieans 4.55 | 7.55 | 4.724] 4.573| 3.90 | 3.80 | 3.913] 3.75 | 5.074] 5.70 | 6.823 | 5. 268
FT aR ie 4.50 | 7.024) 4.973| 4.913) 3.60 | 8.873] 3.87}| 8.824] 5.474! 5.90 | 6.925 | 4.95
|” AR ERI Seen tT: * 4.55 | 7.40 | 4.873| 4.589| 8.273| 8.65 | 4.25 | 8.75 | 5.23%] 5.75 | 6.95 | 4.575
Fah. ast ioc, eae 4.974] 6.624] 4.75 | 4.65 | 3.15 | 3.378) 4.024] 3.724) 5. 139) 5.924] 7.80 | 4.90
AR ae ana a oi 5.65 | 5.60 | 5.80 | 5.10 | 3.10 | 3.524! 3.883) 4.124) 5.20 | 5.85 | 7.62) | 5.824
ye RS LR 5.40 | 5.05 | 5.35 | 4.624] 3.10 | 4.00 | 3.824) 4.424] 5.162) 6.05 | 7.024 | 5.175
September ..........---- 5.15 | 6.00-| 5.823] 4.10 | 2.973] 4.124! 8.774] 4.40 | 5.274] 6.60 | 7.50 | 5.535
Oh a A 5. 363| 6.373] 5.124) 3.85 | 8.10 | 8.80 | 3.624] 4.35 | 4.924] 6.273! 6.964 | 5. 414
November .......-..---- 5.483| 5.70 | 4.324] 3.523| 3.80 | 8.473] 8.474] 3.95 | 4.739] 5.65 | 6.85 | 4.70
December...........---- 6.121| 5.1281 4.324] 8.473) 3.25 | 8.35 | 3.424) 4.00 | 4.75 | 6.00 | 6.25 | 4.983
Yearly average....| 5.043] 6.49 | 4. 99g] 4.31 | 3.383] 3.643] 3.803) 3 973 5 024 5 85) 6. 78y5| 5. 0435

aThis table exhibits average cash prices of live hogs for the past twelve years. The monthly prices
are the means between the lowest and highest prices for each month, and the yearly prices are avyer-
ages of the monthly averages.

EGGS.

Wholesale prices of eggs per dozen in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904.

New York. Chicago. St. Louis.
Cincinnati.
4 Average best Average best
Date. fresh. Fresh. fresh,

1900. . Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
RUUA BIS oa anne akeon we weet agin = aes 17 26 15 19
ME DRUATY? ook con on cs dsb kee eens 13} 19 123 14
parol eae. oe) ee ee 12 17 : 14
BP Fate en ain he ciclo cca: = Wald idee ate toate 12 133 Fy 11
WE ee oi SE 2 ee 8 eee eee 12} 143 104 11
SUNG sae chwroe Ms ns nace Geueens seeS 13 15 10: 11
UG fe ih oc ceeee ee ea eee 13 17 9 10
UOC ee PUM ($2 RI A cay oe al at eae ae 14 18 9 12
peptem ber a... oias sae cee eee 12: 14 11} 15
SICTORGE os oe cae cen eee seen 19 val 14 16
INO VENDOR acinog cece coe eee eee 20 27 16 20
DGGEMUGE. ano we Ox ecociewnien yakiees 23 29 18 ~- 22

1901.
ABNUSLV 0. sce wacde ck + saws dan we sees 19} 2% | 16 20
Menrviary..<. 5°. So 5. saree eee 17 2123 15 173
1 ee ee SA Se 13 173 1 15
GATNEEY Noe Bas oe oe cet ae oe ee 13} 14 11 12
A ct eS bes Sake ae 133 “144 11 11
RWIS hip S er oe he Soe Cae ean 13 14: ni 11
by a ae PTS SE ae ee 2 ine EOE 14 18 9 10
BMY TC | a a eg pe, ee RA ai es Se te 16 20 9 13
RODEGMNer = 2. 26 ote tee we 18 22 134 iF
UOTE. oo otk oe t= cok les bt oa 20 23 17 ie
WOMGMNEH .)- bane bak odes ce oe 22 29 17 23
Meee m Here le oe ees 23 31 23 25

1902.
SEMI. «noc cow tee ieee er hee 26 34 22 30
Reprugrys. 2 soo 2: ee eee eee 27 87 21 32
DEORE Fis i cig ech whos soe ee 15} 30 133 23
pe a 8 Ie epee Oe es oe A Se 153 18 14 15
PN eee reat gt ge SR ak Se 16 174 14 15
PRIS 8 i Se SS SE tr eae er Li 20 14 143
2 TY A) Sg aa ie te ee ieee 18 20: 14 143
AMUSUBL S53. Sas ann 3. oh ceatan Bae 18 21 14 16
Meptember » Wu. sare Jas swadeeee ae 20 24 163 183
MGIOURR Ae. e252 wh ee ee ees 21 25 18 21
INQUCTRIORS vor bo 5 <4 aaa ree ee, 22 26 19 23

Neeem hers oo ae Oe aeeelonts 24 29 21 23

STATISTICS OF EGGS. TLT

Wholesale prices of eggs per dozen in leading cities of the United States, 1900-1904—Cont’ d.

New York. Chicago. St. Louis.
Cincinnati. Ree Ss *,
4 Average best ae Average best
Date, fresh, Fresh. fresh.

Low. | High. | Low. High. | Low. | High. Low. | High.

1903. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents: Cents.
PRI T WES Santee heh cach cae aos 6% 24 28 20 26 21 26} 17} 225
Lge gi CWS gee gs Se a ee ee pce 16 25 12 20 14 20 12} 18
TURMONI ER GRRL Sai siera he Wacath sine ew aed Sie nek 14} 21 12 16} 12} 20 11 16}
Toya | MS Ee steer Bd Sy oie 15 17} 12 14 12} 15} 11 14}
RMMEC 28 oe ek, ane oe oak eerie ok 16 19 18} 14 13 15 12} 14
EIS Wage d dae Cath nak s oe aea ett 17} 193 13} 14 12} 15} 12} 15
2 a SRE Se Bp ESS SE a AEE. SES 18} 23 12 14 11 16 11 124
Be. ics ov sawebukchenesuewmeucr es 15} 26 12} 18 10 19 14 19
MRATACRENIIOL Sasso vis aa’ per naratoeted eae 19 28 18 19 16 20 18} 19
CREE es con ck ene couse tees ae ok 21 33 19 22 17 23 19 21}
TO ae Le | Rpg eeibars OS Ss ie 22 45 20 28 18 28 21} 26
IUGR sin atre Coun tacnsciasiees ss 28 45 20 26 22 30 24 28}

1904.
WERT Ys ew wank cen sib sen Sie uie See oie 4 | 47 23 32 22 34} 28 29
BONO L UE. ace. atinn sahies te omoee a wee a 20 40 19 29 18 334 17} 29
SCR So ak idee ails be nike eRe aie 16 25 14} 20 14} 20 13} 16
ee ease ns ou ac niah corm eR ee 17 21 15} aig 15} 18} 14} 15}
Rtas ie iad eal Sede soe eee 17 21 15 7 14 18 18 15}
50 TS erie, oh cee ae 17} 21 153 16 13 17} 14} 15}
IME dtr e moa ants wb ae Sates cme ten 173 24 15} 16 aig | 20 13 17}
POPU Sia ates, Vena han <meta woes 19 26 15 18 11 20} 16 19}
MME D, dora t natin aieniams aukminaseoe 20 30 16 19 13 22 173 201
SMC EO DOR onc at tae Gou. Coan cma ene vedee 20 30 18 20 13 23% 19 204
MARS EROT cen ote ac kta cint ween scale i 38 21 26 17 28 213 27
RIECOUNIOR oscee: sth ue aurteee eas ctee 20 40 22 27 16 30 24 27

TRANSPORTATION RATES.

Average freight rates on grain, in cents, from St. Louis to Liverpool, via river to New Orleans,
and via rail to New York.

: ] ;
ve leans by river. yerpool.
To NewOrleansbyrive Ce ee To Liverpool
: to New oN are
re On grain Via New | Via New
Year. in sacks, o et pid ginte 5 Orleans | York on
per 100 per bushel ease on wheat, | wheat, per
pounds. ieee * |perbushel.| bushel.
Stet ER res 2 oa ee Fe SR! oS SoBe iar ag Fao ape 20 6 a ee eee
ET EE ORES RAE eee Bid 20 65 293 228 232
Spe tam eee Rote ~ Oe ae ee Re ee acres 173 53 33 195 27
POW As occ’ cee Bonaire ees Tad waa ee care. 14 63 26 14y5 212
1S RR: CORR EET aR oak tae en tee. the 15 62 224 153 204
SM ects os Ss at oh inten Tags a2 eee eee eee 16 63 29 16% 24
TRS TS oi Siro ws ald SO Ie OA Oe Eee 18} 6 32, 15 24}
Ma OS a cin oS nc ata oe oan > ne te 15 63 29% 158 22.95
OT Se ak cae a'nhe tie Weitere es Cet a 17. 93 5. 95 283 17: 24.97
CSS, SS ARE ite la Sac 15. 66 6. 58 27% 14: 21.48
| oy RP el: A 6 EPR RE, ACRE NEL Sm oy 16, 28 6. 873 29 15} 23. 55
POs foe eter amano ohare ct cee ie ees 16. 87 6. 50 26.62 14 21
BOUSs Be ck weer ee a ae See a ide 17.54 6.55 28. 50 14.71 21.72
RODE oie cine ae a gs A tla 3 ein a le eee eee 17.14 5. 89 24.73 11.69 18.71
EB90 oo ont Se eos oe a ian ode Pe cn 13. 00 5.95 23. 57 12: 18. 33
TS otis See eae elie ae an 3 eee ee 14. 54 5.00 23. 00 13. 50 19. 673
TROT 34 22 Seo eee setenv ae ae eee 10. 83 4,88 23. 64 12.89 20. 33
bo ee SS rae Sy oe ape ge key | 10. 00 4.50 22. 25 14. 24 20.32
TSW 2. 2 c2C cana eahrd savas Foe gle ae ee ees 10. 00 4.50 21. 95 12. 33 17.88
MOOG ns ob ts coy PI Seiten eis Pear ee 10. 00 a4, 25 19. 38 14. 64 18. 41
1OGF Ws s5 Sk ane abeeeon wakes. ca tee See eee 10. 00 a 4,25 19. 33 9. 48 14.03
NOG, 2 Ss Se Se cae ies ces « CA eee he eeeee 10. 00 a4. 20 20. 66 8. 53 - 15.33
NOGS. .dss/5e SoGaes Seek wove s aaltl, eeeres 10. 00 a 6.00 22. 25 10. 00 16. 02
ROO: . é. Skoceb cubagbs dunk os ocohonbn aes (0) (d) 21.51 (b) 15. 25

aF.o. b. New Orleans, vb No shipment.

718 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York by rail, average rates, in cents, per 100

pou nds,
a Dressed | g Dressed
3 hogs. 3 hogs.
Biw iin Al wi ~
v a to} a
Year. 2 3 = ° Year. 3 3 FI i)
a Hy g n oa , a
slalalal 8 |S8| 53 é}alal3| 8 |Sa] aa
S\igisil#| @ [es] as 3|8| e| 3 Eo | a
ee_ak OS- oi Ae ° ZiGiats! B ka °
olminl®a A —G 2) Oo;Min|m A G 6)
:! ly a ee 35 | 3 61 | 60 Sl OS eee SOR toca ae 28 | 20 | 30 | 60] 45 45
ee ee 36 | 29 | 53 | 60 ae a rho” Se ae 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 | 45 45 45
aR aR 40 | 32|50|60| 64-|......}...... | a 98 | 30} 30] 60| 45 | 45 45
SE 6 cau i 31 | 28 | 44 | 60 | ~ 30) eee: Se BROG ceo ces ot 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 | 45 45 45
ee 31 | 26 | 43 | 60 Pe ah ee = od chy GSP ee eee: 28 | 30 | 30 | 60} 45 45 45
a ese 33 | 30 | 42 | 60 61 53 G85 SS0R Us oacetaon 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 | 45 45 45
oy MRSS ed se 33 | 32 | 40} 60 62 59 Yl ee 4c: ee ee a25 | 25 | 25 | 60 | 40 40 40
. |. | ae See 22 | 26 | 31 | 60 46 46 86° 3000... secs 28 | 30 | 80 | 60 | 45 45 45
|) Ng Sea 25 | 30 | 30 | 60 47 47 QB IRA GOL Uc aster exe 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 | 42.9 | 42.9 42.9
RaOO a isccicceze 23 | 28 | 30 | 60 39 39 89: 1000... ..35 sacs 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 | 41.2 | 41.2 41.2
Lt GR, Sete 27 | 30 | 30 | 60 45 45 4B ||. 1908%... Js ccace 28 | 30 | 30] 60 | 45 45 45
y hs) ree 2 28 | 28 | 30 | 60 45 45 45. 2906 J. s eunce oe 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 | 45 45 45

a Rates did not go into effect until February 1, 1899; until that time the 1898 rates governed,

Meats, packed, Cincinnati to New York by rail, average rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.

Year Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May. Fiend July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.} Dec ae

(| A 39 39 39 34.5 | 30.5 | 80.5 | 80.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 31.5 | 35 33. 41
io! | Sp ie Se ee 35 35 85 $0.5: [80.5-) 25.7 | 2155 | 21.5.) 21.5 1-21-64 21 bo ae 26.73
NS as aan os Balen n't 21.5 | 24.8 ) 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 30.5 . 85
eis fc ean 80.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 29.2 | 26 26 26 26 26 26 26.7 | 30.5 27. 83
REE alec hloetn con ote 80.5 | 80.5 | 23.8 | 17.5 | 17.64 18.4 | 28 26 26 26 26 26 24, 22
1 eRe oe er 24.4 | 21.5 | 20 20.6 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 22.8 | 26 21.10
ee ee eae 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 yy Pe | 26.14
BONO a ten ek oe ee 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27.12
Ue ee 28 28.5 | 26.3 | 26 26 26 19.9 | 17.3 | 15.5 | 18.8 | 21.5 | 23.6 23.11
Sky ay te Se oe 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

Sie 6 aos ss 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 24.8 | 20 20 20 20 23. 89
| a an 20 24.3 | 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25. 36
$ROB 3 foes Soewe scx 26 26 26 26 26 25.7 | 21:5 | 2h05>| 21.53) 28.6 >) 2b pare 23.70
RGB eo RE 21.8 | 28:7} 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25. 43
bh. So ee ee 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

FRG Sit ds Saesds 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

a eee 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
Oe ee Sere 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
TRS Sot eer cinst ne 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
Dt ORE Se cee 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 21.5 || 21.5 aie 24. 83 ,
1, a ae 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

i)’ | SE ae ees ay © 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

Vy: Oke i ee BSF 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

POOR TE 2a Wik ete 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 " 26
BA? 1). CR ee oe 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

Compressed colton by rail, average rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.

From New Orleans |From Mem- From New Orleans | From Mem-
toa— phis to— toa— phis to—
E E j
- . q - - . aq x id
Year, od iC 9 od Year. a4 ‘a 2
e io} ft) ° io) e e ° a ° Oo . :
ail age Mie Ue i: g/ei3/2/=
8 ; oe $2
nD > = = 5 a7 DR > = = FA
fe) o aq 3 ® fo} ° o q 3 o
isa] A Ay ~Q Az ioe) Q A Ay ies) Zz —
{Saget 58 53 54 54 | 66 1H 8899 ~.2e~<a5 55 50 50 50 | 47 52
tee 53 48 51 5k} 61 66°79) 1894.2 2... 51 50 50 50 | 50.5 55.
ee 60 55 53 62 | 72 VPAN A800. eK 53 48 48 48 | 50.5} 58.
pt Se ee 60 55 53 52 | 54 50s) £696 <2 toe 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 65.
CC ee 60 55 53 52 | 56 BSsif Gey et cx 55 50 50 50 | 50 55
Fane. oe Se: 52 47 45 44 | 53 Sail LOUD octets eee 55 50 50 50 | 47 62
PORT. ees css. 50 45 43 42°55 680i! 1S88s.chos 38 52 47 47 47 | 48 53
BARS. SO = 50 45 43 42 | 47 bal 0 0) J ee 55 50 50 | 50] 50.5) 55.
UC a ae 52 47 45 44 | 50.5 CS S3Gy | Wha ds See ee ce 55 50 50 50 | 50. 5..|° 2B:
4s) See eee 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 65: || "1902 22 eee 55 50 50 50 | 50.5-| 55,
co) eee 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 65) | 1bereon aes 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 || “68;
ee ona 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 55 | $902 s. Sa2e 65 50 50 50 | 50.5 | “S0nm

aThese rates are mainly used for basing purposes.

j

TRANSPORTATION RATES. 719

Corn and wheat, average rates in cents per bushel, Chicago to New York.

Corn, Wheat.

Year
. B y Jake Lie lake By lake By lake

yds, a and rail, By all rail. com canal eh aes and rail. By all rail,
Sea Meisinn wit Sou rebate vue hahaha wbhaes 11. 34 19.5 Waban te aiken ou 12.09 20. 89
ST aa aikeresie Giese kaa reeaman 8.75 9. 68 14,12 9. 82 10.19 15.12
PEE GL tanh « dank dep <u cea 9. 59 13. 42 18. 03 11.09 14. 75 19. 56
TEE th since bax drs sce adie ocotbes 8. 83 10. 45 16. 39 9. 96 11. 99 17. 56
SS, Re eee: 10. 49 12.2 14. 56 11. 87 18.18 17.74
RSE «ap babes eee ALS RGA AD bs wt ste 13. 41 14. 43 17.48 13.13 15.8 19.8
Meee thc & Gi Cw aati aieel sah sen Mott 9. 42 13.4 8.67 10. 49 14.4
LSet as phe cee ctw ets a eR aap ee 6.72 10. 28 13.5 7.23 10. 91 14.47
GS th Ala x sone a a ees eats ah 8. 03 11 15, 12 9. 01 11. 63 16,2
fT Se RS ea ee Ge 6.55 8.5 12.32 i 10 13.2
Redes Oe Rin cit Garch tenet wiser wo ersieatle 6.3 8.01 12.32 6. 54 9. 02 13. 2
BS SOK a coronaire St oon Saas 8.45 11.2 14 9.10 12 15
a eats: Te 8.5 11.2 14.7 9.5 12 15.75
oi UN GS RE ees cee ey 6.71 10. 26 13. 54 7.05 11.14 14.5
a Ss ee Se 6. 32 8.19 12.6 6. 92 8.97 15
PN oe i cs isl rc esis aie nee 5.93 7.82 11.36 6.76 8. 52 14.3
REREG Retr eel eke ee sawed 6.32 7.53 14 6.95 8.57 15
Be Sate Aa oe eee cere 5.95 7.21 12. 96 6.45 7.59 13.8
Sn EC ee CP ee 7.18 7.97 13. 65 7. 66 8. 48 14. 63
Te eee ie SRR SSeS sy EE 4.93 6.5 12. 32 5.11 7 13.2
SEM ied Cy wld aoe cle oc aman 4. 50 6.4 10. 29 4. 86 6. 96 11. 89
TN SS Sp ae a ee ee 5. 75 6.15 10.5 6.19 6.61 12
BE Te saben ip on xetmoke wena coda 4.53 6.92 11. 43 5. 22 7.42 12.5
LU Ree GEE er ie He 3.81 4.41 9.8 b4, 45 4.91 12
RG ets cairo peck ketene 5. 08 5. 83 10. 08 b5. 81 6. 63 11.6
Rn Pee Py eck oe Bit AS adn 4.07 4.72 9.19 64,49 5.1 9. 96
MO a sees Oc Re a ne on omens 4.61 5.16 9.21 65.11 5. 54 9. 88
RR tee te iii Se siete wl yates 4.83 5. 51 9.94 b5. 26 5. 89 10. 62
OEE BA hon Gebidls aha vBomlacks 4. 85 5. 78 10. 54 b5.4 6.37 11. 29
eS ee ite Dh ert ee. 3 b3. 63 4. 82 10. 38 64.73 5. 50 ik. 32

aincluding Buffalo charges and tolls. b Exclusive of Buffalo charges.

Average freight rates, in cents per ton per mile. °

Bis = ie Zia s = |%
m4 “ie 8D Span ae 3 2 s i =
Ao. 4. oS ae oe Ue aye
bm | ES ae |. 2 A Shlael a p> | 3 2
= i ena a i Ne r= ge I fo Se so ey WS a =
a | s | 8s So} @ | Se) teh) a (Ua BE PS) & | oe lag
Year. ; <a |°R Sea! 8 |es rf} Se roy las ae be: ee
ee ea os| 4 | s/2#| 8 lasize| 3 | € | 24/82
bp a ale : Sie 3 = BY o | | aAy 2 | S) © ga
ON a SU I ee a a a a oe =
Sila i"s) ea (28) 8 123816 | 318-187) 2 1—]8 13
E/E /BRl ela testis tele ls | Sie ia ts
“— °o I [*) ot = —_
Be 1 ie gee TE ted eee tee) on ee ale dO. | Da ote
1875....| 3.624] 1.346] 1.119} 1.061] 0.887] 0.989} 0.970] 1.299] 1.691] 1.688] 1.833] 1.649] 2. 164 1. 687| 1.421
1876....| 2.218] 1.139} .929} .972| .722| .841) .827| 1.062] 1.587| 1.693] 1.798] 1.438] 2.211] 1.638] 1.217
1877....| 1.955] 1.136] .954) .898] £813} .954| 1.024! 1.035] 1.719] 1.563] 1.949] 1.361| 2.135/ 1.382| 1.286
1878....| 1.582} 1.113] .919) .960| .724| .914| .867| .985| 1.616] 1.539| 1. 762| 1.354] 2. 236] 1.635| 1.296
1879....| 1.299] 1.100] .793| .779| .641| .823| .754| . 860] 1.523 1.429] 1.704] 1.054] 1.991) 1.528] 1.153
1880....| 1.36 | 1.207} .879} .836] .750| .918/...... . 866| 1.543] 1.209] 1.749] 1.206]...... 1.594] 1.232
1881....| 1.26 | 1.038) .783) .805| .617| .857| .745| .892| 1.522] 1.220] 1.702] 1.241] 2.178] 1.503] 1.188
1882....| 1.17 | 1.064) .738| .749| .628| .874) .752| 753] 1.417| 1.281| 1.481| 1.253] 2. 102/ 1.349] 1.102
1883....| 1.19 | 1.197] .915| .786| .728| .881/ .787| .722] 1.433] 1.170] 1.391] 1.128] 1.913) 1.323] 1.205
1884....| 1.09 | 1.093] .834] .719| .652] .804} .673| .672| 1.368! 1.097| 1.293] 1.008] 1.557] 1.344] 1.136
1885....| 1.06 | .944] .688| 656] .553| .695| .577| 550] 1.307] 1.043] 1.278] 1.009] 1.420] 1.159] 1.011
1886....| 1.07 | 1.101] .765| .659} .639| .755| .692| .541] 1.157] 1.071| 1.168] 961] 1.266| 1.079| 999
1887....| 1.13 | 1.107) .782| .687) .670| .730) .717| .537; 1.087| 1.012) 1.089] .946| 1.213] 1.075 1984
1888....| 1.116] 1.099] .753) .716| .861| .723| .660| .541/ 1.068] .964| 1.020] .973] 1.170| 1.049! 1.001
1889... 1.015] 1.030] .712| .644/ .632} .685| .69| .538! .839| |971| 1.067] 525] 1.166] .998| 922
1890....; .995] 1.105] .730) .665| .644! .661| .69| .561/ .942| [995] .995| ‘s9s] 1.138] .972| ‘941
1891....| .991] 1.089] .740| .636] .630} .656| .70| .525| .934| 1.039] 1.003} .980] 1.131] .968| .895
1892....|. .925] 1.057] .699| .614| .602| .647| .67| .518] . 908) 1.055] 1.026} 973] 1.080] .948) .898
1893.:..| .923| 1.006] .701|) .631| .599} .620| .68| .511| .845| 1.039] 1.026} 949] 1.033] .917| |878
1894....} .895] .944] .733| .621| .587 .65 | .478| .839| .989| 1.037] .974| .970| .876| | 860
1895....| .878| .969] .726| .604) .567| .565] .64| .425| .808| 1.084] 1.075| 994] 1971] .831/ .839
1896....| .864] .942} .668| .606| .551| .563| .66| .425| .745] 1.017] 1.003| 1925] 957] |806| .806
1897....| .870| .918| .679| .610| .538} .561| .60| .419| .671| .958] 1.008) .891| .962] .791| .798
1898....| .844] .839! .606] .575| .530| .521| .57] .369/ .695| .966| .972| .866| .950| .743| .758
1899....| .771| .778| .586| .539} .481] .469] .50| .362| .688| .996| .937| .800| 1.016] .727| .724
1900....| .798} .824] .558] .588| .490] .504] .58] .343/ .650| .987] .930] |794| 1.050] .752| .729
1901....| (a 831} .575| .615| .489) .562/ .564 .388| .619] 1.000] .861| .723| 1.042] .772| .750
1902... “) () .632} .664} .503! .590/ .61| .402| .622] 1.034] .840| .678| .979] .744| .757
1903....| (a) | (®) | .634) .637] .519| .598} .62] 1.114] .591| 1.013] .865| [599] 9731 [781] :763

a Leased by the Boston and Maine Railroad.
+ Leased by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.

720 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Average rates, in cents per passenger per mile.

|
|

|

aE : BE a 131s) la dg
aig. bo q a S 3 5 ~ =
a a. 2 lo ; ilo le Fa a {2
e | ee Sela lGelo |S |Belge/el}e|8 I's
a uy ae ’ Ss ; ame ilose A a
i |S [se] [etl oe (Ee) se) s [Sal ge] S| a joules
Year. . = Z CE] @ Se | & e2\|aB 2 a |e
“loluce| .}/ea| € |=s|S$"| 8 |es|/3£) 8 | 3 | oe aa
Be Sis aA |65/| & lws ls os) a Ge OP 3 |2 E
3 . SB . [wo] = £18 =m |om| oo] © me | 8 =
2 =| DD ° sO a A} bo a .
a i) - | & le qa |2 Z 2 18s a -| 3 § |4 z
3 |e | EF) 8 |a giz 18 Sls | 5 = 1B oie
fe, a |Z a |S ao |e 3) A |S 6 S) S tacte
1875... 1.910 ee 1. 885) 1.955) 2.088} 2. 259) 2. 407 8. = 2. 882) 2.687) 2. 690) 2. 755 2.878) 3.219) 2.
1876....| 1. 864] 2.099] 1.693) 1.859) 1.846) 1.819) 1. 830 3. 322! 2. 804| 2. 626) 2. 805} 2.614) 2.974) 3.018) 2.
1877....| 1.947) 2.174] 1.953) 1.772] 2.182) 2.185} 2.192) 3. 786) 2.942) 2.'772) 2.994) 2.798 3.140) 3.167} 2.
1878... 1. 969] 2.217; 1.978) 2.158) 2.255) 2.277; 2, 258) 3.738) 3.122] 2.933) 3.029) 2.'795; 3.226) 3.345; 2.
1879... 1. 888) 2.137) 2.044) 2.090) 2,221) 2.253) 2.228) 3.630) 3.066) 2.971) 2.908) 2.417)...... 3. 444) 2.
1880. . 1. 885} 2. 096] 1.999) 2.041) 2.135) 2.222 2.156) 2.959) 2.514) 2. 806) 2. 868) 2. 076)...... 8.476) 2.
1881... 1. 820) 1.970) 1. 862) 2.016} 1.988) 2.152 1.895) 2.989) 2.164) 2. 666) 2. 856) 1.828) 3.341) 3. 168) 2.
1882....| 1.'715} 1.993] 1. 808) 1.948) 2.156) 2.249 2.024) 2. 605) 2.388) 2.505) 2.579] 1.951) 8.300) 2.706} 2.
1883. . 1. 790) 2. O88} 1. 986} 1.673] 2.196} 2.297) 2.198) 2.373) 2.424) 2.504) 2.516) 2.141) 3.128) 2. 614) 2.
1884... 1. 651) 1. 908} 1.942) 2.189) 2.170) 2.258, 2, 222) 2.379) 2.225) 2.572) 2.553) 1.900) 2. 952) 2. $42) 3.
1885....| 1.833] 1.838} 1.419} 1.756} 2. 058| 1.950, 1.569) 2.270) 2.211] 2.466) 2. 563) 2.026) 2.749) 2.103) 2.
1886... 1. 756] 1. 853} 1.845} 1.890} 2.098) 2.114 2.130) 2.131) 2. 208) 2.420) 2.415) 2.023) 2.185) 2. 436) 2.
1887. ...| 1.89 | 1.880) 1.989) 2.089} 2.260] 2.125 2.255) 2.074) 2.268) 2.328) 2.538] 2.062) 2 301) 2. 394) 2.
1888. 1. 978} 1.976) 1. 967) 1.851) 2.280) 2.111) 2.10 | 2.025] 2.197) 2.312) 2.445) 2.123) 2.248) 2,429) 2.
1889... 1. 957} 1. 869) 1.932) 1.'722) 2.286) 2.076 2.18 | 1.709] 1.927) 2.285) 2.415) 2.128) 2.135) 2.370) 2.
1890....| 1.915) 1. 858} 1.910) 1.584) 2.254) 2.094 2.25 | 2.056) 2.022) 2.149) 2.359) 2. 004) 2. 045). 2. 403) 2.
1891. ...| 1.869) 1.818) 1.905) 1.601) 2.105) 2.070 2.23 | 2.155) 2.073) 2.322) 2.408) 2.205) 2 059 2. 483) 2.
1892....| 1.916} 1.828) 1. 887} 1.589} 2.183) 2.028 2.00 | 2.181] 2.101) 2.808} 2. 464) 2.043) 2.104) 2. 448) 2.
1893 ....| 1.869) 1.835} 1.832) 1.551) 2.195) 1.968 1.98 | 1.989) 1.999) 2.095) 2.414) 1.981) 1 987, 2. 432) 2.
1894. ...} 1.851) 1.794) 1. 857} 1.509} 2.069) 1.993 2.00 | 1.905} 1.925) 1.891) 2.191) 1.776) 1.758} 2.365) 1.
1895....| 1.819) 1.770) 1.837) 1.560) 2.215) 1.971) 2.06 | 1.980) 1.995; 2.146} 2.411) 2.119) 1.962) 2.318) 2.
1896....| 1.769} 1.752] 1.838) 1.641) 2.148) 1.950 1.88 | 1.952} 1.979) 2.108} 2.375) 2.117) 2.075) 2.187] 2.019
1897....} 1.811) 1.'754} 1.842) 1.543) 2.108) 1.958 2.02 | 1.980) 1.979) 2.153) 2.289} 2.116) 2.101) 2.254) 2.022
1898....| 1.826) 1.'750} 1. 806) 1.548) 2.032/a1. 953 2.02 | 1.943) 1.938) 2.092} 2.362} 2.058) 1.945) 2.152) 1.973
1899....| 1.800) 1.744) 1.766) 1.536) 2.074/e1. 937) 2.02 | 1.860} 2.014) 2.036) 2.337) 2.055) 1.941) 2. 243) 1. 925
1900....} 1.805) 1.754) 1.793) 1.540} 2.223) 1.952 2.05 | 1.973) 2.021] 2. 064) 2.346) 1.908) 1 968) 2.318} 2.003
io a 8 1.742] 1.'799| 1.541) 1.993) 1.992 2.09 | 1. 984] 1.960) 2.095) 2.324) 1.936} 2.085; 2.355) 2.0138
2002...) (2 c) 1. 723) 1.531} 1.828] 1.999 2.04 | 2.023) 1.999} 2.1385) 2.317] 1.860} 2.007) 2.319) 1. 986
1903. . (0 2) fi 2.05 | 2.044] 1.971) 2.157) 2.309) 1.981] 1.941) 2.369) 2. 006

773, 1.500) 2. a ty i al

aExcludes ferry earnings at Jersey City, N. J.
bLeased by the Boston and Maine Railroad.
e Leased by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.

Average rates on grain, flour, and provisions, in cents per 100 pounds, through from
Chicago to European ports, by all rail to seaboard and thence by steamers, from 1895 to
1904.

Shipped to— Articles. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904.

qq“ | — | | — | EE | | _ _ | | | ee

Liverpool «....} Grail. «...-..- 32 88.5 | 83.6 | 34.35 | 29.72 | 29.48 | 21.47 | 20.85 | 22.68 | 20.19
DO. aus Sacked flour..| 34 34.3 | 36.81 | 37.66 | 30.12 | 27.9 | 23 23.5 | 25.19 |. 21.00
9 ae ee Provisions....| 41.81 | 44.91 | 44.4 | 47.15 | 40.5 | 48.84 | 36 36.25 | 41.9 | 36.56
Glasgow....-- i) ee 34.19 | 34.22 | 35.23 | 86 82.35 | 30.98 | 24.1 | 21.75 | 24.43 | 22.38
ty ee Sacked flour..| 36.25 | 36.5 | 39.06 | 39.06 | 31.25 | 31.56 | 24.38 | 22.75 | 25.38 | 23.20
Die a: Provisions....| 49.69 | 49.97 | 52.5 | 52.5 | 44.69 | 55.31 | 45.16 | 41.88 | 46.88 | 44.06
EOndon. - .. <<< Grain . 35-5 5- 33. 29 | 33.48 | 34 35 80.6 | 81.1 | 28.23 | 21.75 | 23.56 | 21°50
DO Sacked flour..} 35.13 | 35.28 | 36.12 | 37.25 | 33.5 | 35.01 | 25.5 | 24 25.19 | 22.25
DOs5..4 5555 Provisions....| 46.03 | 47.15 | 48.14 | 49.69 | 44.14 | 55.87 | 44.75 | 39.06 | 44.06 | 44.06
Antwerp ...../..... Oboe 48.28 | 49.69 | 51.09 | 52.5 | 47.5 | 51.09 | 46.25 | 41.5 | 49.69 | 48.28
Fram bure’. . cc }2s56 aS eee ae 50 51 51 52 46 50 44 39 47 46. 00
Amsterdam ..]..... GO 226. 50 52 62 62.5 | 47 51 45 40 42 42.00
Rotterdam ...}..... Ry she, 48 52 52 52.5 | 47 51 45 40 42 42.00
Copenhagen..|..... CO esa 55.31 | 58.12 | 57.28 |.58.18 | 51.72 | 55.31 | 47.75 | 42 49.69 | 46.88
Stockholm ...]..... est eee 66. 56 | 69.37 | 68.53 | 69.25 | 62.97 | 64.5 | 53.25 | 45 52.5 | 49.69
Se ee ee "3 3 ee 55.31 | 58.12 | 57.28 | 58.18 | 51.72 | 55.31 | 47.75 | 42 49.69 | 46.88
Hordeaux. 2<:|-= 2s do .......-| 64.18 | 64.13 | 64.13 | 65.75 | 59.12 | 64.12 | 54.25 | 51.25 | 56.25 | 56.25

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742

YEARBOOK OF

THE

DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE,

VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS AND CURRENCIES.
[As given by the Director of the United States Mint and published by the Secretary of the Treasury.]
COUNTRIES WITH FIXED CURRENCIES.

— ——

Countries.

Standard.

Monetary unit.

Valuein

U.S. gold.
Argentine Republic .| Gold and silver..| Peso ..........--- $0. 96, 5
Austria-Hungary Gola --.-scsscdnnd CON -sscchesas . 20,3
BRIG . t.5kesuess Gold and silver..| Franc ....<.-..... .19,3
jo EE aed th OE Gola nc cosa teen Mees saan: . 4, 6
British N. A. (except |..... €0 snes cdups Deller sh sisees 1.00
Newfoundland).
British Honduras....|....- (21 a ee en tS eS OG Sous evens 1.00
a ea ed een CLE ee ore IPGEO.. «Sees xasescs . 36,5
Cnlombia. ... csses-hsweee 0 ee ee DGUaAr co hic thans 1.00
Coats, RIOR. <<. soon cautaces = 2 ee ee A CORO ois nocckn ae . 46,5
Cry 11 ee Sa I he Gold and silver...) Peso ........-.<-<- «Sh
Denmark... <i 6s<sees GOlO). J cokes aan CROWN. cana eine ae . 26,8
MeVaGOF < --d..asecn lve ene OO sce ees SUGKS = pbmmc one an . 48,7
Log eRe Bee | eee GO oe awan daee Pound (100 pias- 4.94,3
ters)

Pinlant. <5. 24. 45shasteasns GTR Pe Be - Man. «Goac<sea5s .19,3
PIANC ois cokes cece os Gold and silver..} Franc ..........- .19,3
Germany ......ss8-=- Golgs unc < 2s twee hit 03) See eee 23,8
Great Britain.....-..|.<.<> COs casa chase Pound sterling ..} 4.86, 63
Greenes. (oo ss 5. ks os Gold and silver..| Drachma ........ . 19,8
Mattie oe oo ce eae ae GOI te a GOUTCR. oo... . 96,5
Enters Sos he ene Golde. oe55.e5e 04 Rwpee.2 ce. Lone . 32,4
UC ee eRe Se Gold and silver Ty Se ee ee ee .19,8
PRAT 2. undsssausoes Gola css waves Wee Beek ya . 49,8
Pnevte son le ce ae nok erates CO nae eae Deltar jek os... 28 1.00
Netherlands........- Gold nee SEPP GR Win MECHORED: wigtisrslsein ='0's . 40,2
Newfoundland ...... Goldie. ces eece NOY Y Ch eee ee 1.01,4
POs og ete woot epee CO ee Car ae 7) Saat eee .48,7
Portugal. o.5ssenseses {> sas CO acasweceene Witrois es oes 1.08
Rese. io: a Sones ees |s ane GQSl5.s- 5056 Rule cn: Se 58 .51,5
Be 6 ose ol pe Gold and silver..| Peseta ...-.....°: .19,8
Sweden and Norway.) Gold......--..-.. CTD Ts Meco a 2 26,8
Switzerland .......-. Gold- and silver.:| France ..<..-<.-<. 19,3
Ur GY: oie cena sues os GOld.c.cnaeh eon PIASte? & sx. < 40.5. .04,4
WOGUBY.. 220-9 a=2eeleoans GOs. cere PASI 5 Soe oe te ge 1. 03, 4
Veneauela.....55.--< Gold and silver..| Bolivar.......... .19,3

Coins.

Gold—argentine ($4.82,4) and }
argentine; silyer—peso and
divisions.

Gold—20 crowns ($4.05,2) and
10 crowns.

Gold—10 and 20 francs; silver—
5 frances.

Gold—5, 10, and 20 milrcis; sil-
ver—}, 1, and 2 milreis.

Gold—escudo ($1.25), doubloon
($3.65), and con or ($7.30);
silver—peso and divisions.

Gold—condor (39.647) and dou-
ble condor; silvyer—peso.

Gold—2, 5, 10, and 2) colons; sil-
ver—5,10,25,and 50centisimos.

Gold—doubloon = ($.01,7); sil-
ver—peso (60 cents).

Gold—10 and 20 crowns.

Gold—10 sucres ($4.8665); sil-
ver—sucre and divisions.

Gold—10, 20, 50, and 100 piasters;
silver—l, 2, 10, and 20 piasters.

Gold—19 and 20 marks ($1.93
and $3.85,9).

Gold—5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
francs; silver—5 franes.

Gold—5, 10, and 20 marks.

Gold—sovereign (pound ster-
ing) and half sovereign.

Gold—5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 drach-
mas; silver—5 drachmas.

Silver—gourde. ~

Gold—sovereign ($4.8665); sil-
ver—rupee and divisions.

Gold—5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire;
silver—5 lire.

Gold—1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen.

Gold—10 florins;
and 23 florins.
Gold—#2 ($2.02,7).
Gold—libra ($4. 8665); silver—
sol and divisions.

Gold—1, 2, 5, and 10 milreis.

Gold—imperial ($7.718) and 3

ee ($3.80); silver—3, 3,

vi 1 ruble.*

Gold—25 pesetas; silver—5 pe-
setas.

Gold—10 and 20 crowns.

Gold—5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
franes; silver—5 franes.

Gold—25, 50, 100, 200, and 500
piasters.

Gold—peso;
divisions.

Gold—5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 boli-
vars; silver—5 bolivars.

silver—i, 1,

silver—peso and

COUNTRIES WITH FLUCTUATING CURRENCIES.

Country and monetary

unit.

Bolivia:

Silver boliviano..

Central America:

Silver Bes0).-c.5. 5

China:

Canton tael.......
@hifu tae! -.s.2-:2
Fuchau tael ......
Haikwan tael ....

Country and monetary

unit.

I | Ef

China—Continued.
Niuchwang tael ....

Peking tael ..

Shanghai tael

Tientsin tael.
Mexico:

Silver dollar a
Persia:

Silver kran ..

is |ts|tg|ts

ey ~

Cts. |. Cis.) Cla Gis:

64.4 | 62 64.8 | 66.3
per ees. 67 64.4 | 67.4 | €8.9
J28 Boe 62.7 | 60.3 | 68.1 | 64.5
Sane 66.6 | 64 67 (8.5
RA 45.5 | 48.8-| 45.8 | 46.8
a ee TT Vick \eaaeee vi)

aThe Mexican dollar is to have in Mexico after May 1, 1905, a fixed value of 49.8 cents.

ba 7 0 ee

Page.
Accounts and Disbursements, Division, work, organization, and duties.. 115-116, 541
Adirondacks, expenses in lumbering, relation to profits..............----- 459-460
PORGEEEY 270 r Oen OUI chal Seka wes veeicenteeive cress 453
Agulterants, lard, difficulty of detecting << 224 cs. sens edccs nines se neee secede 359
Agricultural clubs, boys’, article by Dick J. Crosby............-...--.---- 489-496
Suimeeary OF DINE Sa wie [5s ek Sood cccecarns 495-496
SPRPINA g5 MRI piace pai opr arise, in RAE Se at le Ed nist nit weg 493
Colleges and institutions with courses in agriculture, list.....- 543-545
new buildings and appropriations ..............--.---- 96
OATS COMER Rss «oa hn kare sae etew beth tca cl esee ce 96-97
development of Argentina, article by Frank W. Bicknell..-... 271-286
Chpineneine, TOURER a5. S288. Sakis = 56S een dee 455 wa oan 110-111
experiment stations, directors, work, ete.........-..---.----- 546-548
implements, United States, use in Argentina .................-- 285
products, imports and exports, statistics ..............--..--- 721-741
Agriculture, College, Illinois, work with boys in corn growing --.-...-----. 491, 492
Department, aid to movement for agriculture in schools.......-- 98-99
appropriations, 1903-1906. 2... 2a-se0---6-- wecne- 543
new citrus creations, article by Herbert J. Webber
Boa, Welter FO wineie «3.5.5 <5. Seca ct 221-240
Grpanization and work, oi. :0cseseus aes be den es 539-542
Terie. NereP is aod kn CE eens a ees - - 116
relations to forest planting on farm......--.----- 269, 270
respiration calorimeter work. ..=<-.<2-.-2.--<----: 207
* development of study and publication in States...........---- 521-522
mrg-tais sear ae Soo ek ea cobs woe tibwens dekh bua eaee 50
Crile Tomar set isis ais ceed woes Cores Leda 104
Gostemale India, two aystemaio (cs. 6.2 2oc2ek - seen aac ecu 480-482
instruction in common schools, aid from Department -....------ 98-99
opportunities, articles by B. T. Galloway, M. B. Waite, and W. J.
PATRI AS gol rast. pid Vos oe ote) leet és cases 161-190
products as source of wealth, discussion by Secretary.......---.-- 10-15
relation to manufacturing, remarks ...............---+--.--.---- 161
Pn ie tee os ae no eS pe ade loca ca 539
in, foo: Imp pechion:;. <6 a5 us axccceas ne 152, 153, 154, 155
pecan aioe. A Pa soo ee de 55, 90, 104, 113
PEO s a se ee tase CONS SU Shasta. 2.7 9-118
Rater erincrannets CAG ss eh eae pe ee bp es oS 550
publications, article by Charles H. Greathouse... ---- 521-526
reports, extracts; and imeidenta: ..) de Ss eal... 524-525
TOOT UM OTNRE COTO Ro te ee rae nin wade are 522-524
Alabama argillacea, relations to boll weevil. ..............-.....-..-----.--- 201
experiment station, steer-feeding investigation...-.....-.---..----- 536
Waresiry Durcea Gs per mires oe eo os Lea Ys owen ls la vee 453
EPGER, CIROCL Ole CAPE. ca ee oo chi ebidcsumed te . 232
GADGET EE OPIN TR ee oa i ot Ga Hat ta Eee 75
Alaska experiment stations, work, discussion................--.----.------ 99-101
frost, destruction of cereals in August at Copper Center -.......------ 100
SUERIRAS "SATION OMR Sr nr ia lla gatas oc tnds epanuies 89
Alfalfa and irrigation, factors in Colorado potato growing ---.....---.----- 312-313
DOMES to Arron me per ne a A ec cues 278-279
Paalern BiGlon, renee. os he eeeid dss bs Seid J cede od ccs edsicmcecas 587
use under trees along fence lines, suggestion. ..........-...---------- 266
uneialness in GOtIOTy TERTON, TID on on i oe ioe eccau ccdaes 505
VORNO.GF WiC DIORK TiN CUO aes ca sibee sd. occ ccandéceeewaeteass 269

744 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.

Alfalies atid GIOVGTR, TOIRREESD, «20. cncicn unas ceveccuecnsendakunabeaeaale 37

Algae, destruction by use of copper sulphate ..........-.--.----eeeceeeeceee 50

Alkali land, reclamation, ciscnmmion J... << ccc cescccce deeuecbecdaccuseeueeee 72-75

euceems in Yoolamation .... 6.6... siccesckcuscamsoeecuse een 74

Alkali-loving plants for Western lands, remarks...........-..-------------- 39

Allegheny Mountain region, fruit growing opportunities ............-.----.- 179

Almonds, destruction by California tay >... 06. do 0s es dt. decd a dee uwemeenene 249

Angelicas, wined, MBKING ...ossec races ces urscuccbvascucheteeeceneecuT een 373
Animal breeding and feeding investigations by Bureau of Animal Industry,

article by D. Ee Salmon .35 0.5 eee och ce coe. eee eee 527-55

Industry, Bureau, organization and duties............-.------.--.-- 540

work, discussion by Secretary..........---.----- 19-25

Animals and birds, foreign, entry into United States, remarks..........----. 88

diseases, legislation, review by D. E. Salmon .................-..-- 581

farm, and their. products, statistics . 02. .2 25. iy- clio eavec pean 700-717

: in Argentina, number and breeds of sheep..........-.----.----- . 277-278

Ant, Guatemalan, boll weevil enemy, colonization, ete. (see also kelep) ...... 35, 80

Ants, black, injuries 10 W000 ....0< ns ecuctucwe os woes ee enue ce ane 390

white, or termites, injuries to timbers, ties, etc............-....---- 389-390

Aphis, fruit-tree, value of manure as remedy. ...--.--.--- sees ceceeesensss 175

Apiary, model, Arlington farm, note... ......<. (o. WJbee We cease wae ees sae 86

Appalachians, Forestry Bureau experiments. ........-.---.-s-eeceseceeenens 453

A PPONGIR 5 5's wn Va, ie nln web eee nln wows eyes ee ee ee eels Eicetae ae an 539-741

Apple and peach growing in Rocky Mountain region ...........------.------ 178

diseases in: 1904 ...0.4 J bie i eee UR a 582

insect enemies, important, and damage to crop...-.-----.----.----- 469-471

orchards, failure to bear, suggestion of remedy....-...--...---.------ 174

scores, TeMmarkes .:. 65 SSS eee Ae Se 420

trees, spraying, cost, estimate. .23....s5. Uses e Se oes oe a eee 471

Apples, Bloomfield and Doctor, new and promising, description, ete....-... 399-402

breeding; note... ws oS oleae ee a ae 121

crop of 1904, noteson i. oe eee ee 573, 574, 575, 576

OX DOT co's sw wis wee ne ee winter ae ee hee ig 736

preferences of German and British markets ...........-..-..------- 432

vagaries of buyere:. 0. SiS. teceee yt et ees oe eee 420, 425-426

winter, shipments to foreign markets, remarks ........-.--.--- SNE 3 - 43

Appointment Clerk, duties. 2.5.5 nec ek sus sme eee sa ite ee Oe ee 539

Appropriation, Porto Rican, for experiment station..-..........-.-...-.--.-- 102

Appropriations and legislation, road, State, summary by M.O. Eldridge.... 610-612

Department of Agriculture, 1903-1905-.........-......--.--- 543

remarka ost. Se ee 115

State, for agricultural colleges, remarks ........--.---------- 96

Argentina, agricultural development, article by Frank W. Bicknell.......- 271-286

animals, number and breeds of sheep ...........---..---------- 277-278

benefits from alfalfa growing ~ ... oss... Ss ee aes ce eee eee 278-279

corn, increase in production for feed .........-...--------.---- 283-284

dairy industry ..22.5, 2 goon cod Wee es Se ee ee eee 278

difficulties pf small farmer’... 2. 222. 2.3. eee tok eee 285-286

flax, fruit; cotton, and tobseeo..< =... 0....8.0 oe see eee 284-285

freight rates; Rote ico. 00)-25 BS. a Se ea eee ee 281

shipments of chilled beef to England.........-.-..--.-----...--- 277

ptook shipmentan. << os See a Cee <n kee 275-276

wheat production, yield and milling .................---.-- 279-280, 282

Arizona, alkali lands, experimente +... s1 S222 2. ese eee 73

date growin’, TOL. Oi. ~~~. 2 Sons ole eee eae ea eee 3l

tree. pest investigation, note .... 22.2.5 20. ade eenees eee 83

Arkaneas, rice territory; StU . oo on wwe wise wee ok oe cane bee eee eek ee 108

Arlington: farm, remarks... 05... woes eu os eee ee 51

Arsenical poisons, use against cotton bollworm, note.....-.--.-------------- 81

Ash,.Forestry: Bureau experiments. ¢o4<~--~ Ss..4- cans senate eee teed een 453

- Assistant Secretary, Col. J. H. Brigham, notice of death ............-------- 117

duties S20 bcos. ae ee ae ee 539

Atmosphere, relation to food and physiological processes of plants...-..--- 122-123
Atwater, W. O., and F. G. Benepict, article on ‘‘The respiration calorime-

ee ee NE eee Suwesncueeseet erst shetSee eee 205-220

INDEX. 745

Page.

Bacteria and fungi, part in production of soil conditions, note ..............- 124

ee ee ET ST Se SAC a is 2 peas ees oe ee 10, 49

typhoid fever and Asiatic cholera, destruction, note...............-2- 51

Bailey, Professor, remarks on quality of fruit as related to marketing ......-. 419

Balaninus, spp., nut weevils, discussion .........ceccncnccccccoccccccccce 301-310

EE, BE WOL GUNG 5 cn ndibe cae eat ip boa <iciunte lay < ~aboen nwwpidemen 102

Barberry, relation to development of wheat rust, remarks................. 125, 126

Bark, leaving on timber, source of danger from insects..............-.-...--- 391

Pelaw@on: to NS6Ct IDIUTIEN OF JOM DOR iis eeew ce cues ceases acacecsaei nance 395

Ses WOOOUE. GUC, 5 ITUATION TIN IROOM A, Sioa c'S'a win dtel's ents w'o dno nli'e wale bcnnlan s 381

Barley, acreage, production, prices, exports, etc........--20.----eecceceene 658-662

CROP. OF COTURIN COUNUTIOS: TOGD= 1008. oan nc avin em ena nin twite'n.e concece 656-657

Sr Ua, Sie a RN rai aie Sista dd is neal Net bee A nb te #0. wid’ were 100

visible supply, United States and Canada ...............-..------2-- 657

RB ETE a a ek er ene ee ee 110

Barrels, alcoholic TGUIGS,. ISOCb RELAIS 6 anc on de wins se ainewejen dun cae acencevvce 397
Beat, F. E.L., article on ‘‘The relation of birds to fruit growing in Cali-

hig API eS SSSA SS nn m= ea Pee 241-254

SGUILHECES OF DITO, GUSCTVARIOTE oa cede nw ind cin vias oo wa wind am als 514

Beans, prices wholesale (see also Castor) ......-.----.20---eeeee en eeeneees 696-697

Bedding and ornamental plants, growing as a specialty.............--.------ 169

a Eta AITO, TI PCAN ES oe lp aie wits Divas aciwila dew masini ute on oon dk as ama 86

ee Keepers’ Association, National, Of1CIAIG. oo. ou... eee cece ees ee nce 555

ee. SOPeGtrY ISUNeRls ee DETTE re kd oer kot tae Anca Gono xcin mam cine cei om 453

ee URONIC SS DFE, a hal NE Sa datas lve ius ww wie > 0a, m eye 458

Deehaud Mutton, exports Irom AreentNs <5 26% wine 56a vce ns wo dew nine oon on sie 276

pork production under Southern conditions. ....-.....-.....----- 536-537

porterhouse steak and neck, comparison.............-.--.--..-.------. 422

RONEN ee Sh ea Eh Soniye FE i ace Pas SEO. etree ain > = x ..--- 189-190

Pee RE POlLel, TH UETVER Bo, WOOUE «5 asia. vue on nerd au alone onan ede Els ps oc en we 390

EL DORE WIRE BO NII ncn Le Sis Sem ni dia wished aie bch adhd eh DW mo em ees 87

Beet and cane sugar, United States production.........-.. .22-----2-0-e2-2- 696

MRT ate, Slats ih a 2 83 Sears a hw «ne Pu newacwinlba wis» 584

seed breeding, effects of soil and environment...-...................- 347-348

PORES 5 SEMIS ARMS MUE SIE RRR 2 st SUS sadn aed elf aig =, pro i 350-351

puper precoding. article, byl. Ti «A THON, 26 66 aed nw pee on ow wk 341-352

importance of growing in United States.................- 343-344

BEDS RUNGE: SOT" TSN nie hit ie Tm ne wi oe een ac 344-345

scientific growing, summary of steps........-.-.....-.---.- 350

WOLS: Ot DIODRYIE Mele. otic ie tls bd det ies «2 a bo sos 351-352

JOE Sn RRR Erte ea tal ae eae ne Gee a - ome in te 348-349

NET MATION, TMIIONED 6 ys Sudesh fo a na eee pete & am, acl ans at 29

eter AE ith hg 2 Ree gen Olt OS Mare Oy One ee 28-29

men, inattention to seed used in growing beets, note .......-...- 342

MERA PATRI OPTI Go 5 odin DMN a Svea tokie Scand nghicwis s 29

hh ee oe ee eee, ee A BAO pa ae i Bt a its 27

Beetles, drug, injuries to medicinal products of forest (see also Weevil) ...---- 391

timber, or ainbrosia beetles, injuries to trees, lumber, ete -......-. 383-385

Dei AeOICUMON TOF S600 TIKI Pais. Fa ilo iim os cine pe eae wees 344, 345, 346

sigarrcontent, Cllect Of INCTORSR.. - 5s. —abanin = Seppe «eee, « <5 - 341-342
Benepvict, F. G., and W. O. Atwarer, article on ‘‘The respiration calorime-

Ci ee me ig wee sen a coe Re OORT. ik IU, oe So 205-220
Bennett, Prof. R. L., work against cotton boll weevil ................-..-..- 498
Bermudas ptans, ‘use 100i) Pimding On TOS. 66. cie. isk oscar ce+ee- osncca- 337
Sean, onena SEL A see ee a ae ee oo ee a ie i 583

wild, abundance in Eastern States and availability as bird food...... 244

Berry, JAMEs, review of weather and crop conditions, 1904 .............-- 556-580
Beverages, meaning of word under food law; food inspection.........- 153, 158-159
3ICKNELL, FRANK W., article on ‘‘ Agricultural development in Argentina’’. 271-286
BiceLow, W. D., review of food legislation and inspection, 1904............ 593-597
Binding quality of road materia), S00 Sid os earns Cees s-nemk sisandeswadwanae< 332
Biological Survey, investigation of fruit eating by birds in California......... 243
CRAIN ESA EE I os aioe ehh 9 & Se, bie pel laeee ne 541

reeommendations of Secretary ........-.............-...- 90

WORK, FOVICW Dee ned ins o ois dane « Sew aulawedh x 86-90

746 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page,
Birch, grades, yields, ete., in lumber experiments .........--..----------- 455-458
VEING DY MMO ANA NTIS 2 eee ce cvs ccteucecnecwdereensdeneeaen 457
yellow, Forestry Bureau experiments ........-.--.-- aewcivaw deme decane 453
Bird depredations, GROG. 6 ooo cg Sb cs oe acas ee bens eet ene 243
food, supply of wild berries and availability in Eastern States .......-. 244-245
migration, Gndy eMmares 23 Ses os oS ie eon avast eeeean 88
Birds and game, organizations for protection, officers ..........-....-.-.---- 556
live mammals, importatians, 1904 ... 2... cee cence c es ceccrccs 609-610
mammals, injurious, importation, prohibition ...........--..--.--- 515
California, rapid increase of many species, with causes .......-....-- 241-242
damages to crops gonerally, remarks 2. oo. ..< da. cccnswcnnceeuuupeenune 245
eating of noxious Iscdis . i... osk Se eS ee ea 253-254
food habits, -benheficial and harmful 2... 600.2 foc e oc do Lee ee 87-88
foreign, importation, note . 00 2s. eS bem s one n eceeeen saan 88
fruit eating in California, investigation by Biological Survey.......--.-.- 243
game, raising in captivity, experiments and results. ........----------- 516
injurious species, protection against introduction.........-.....----- 514-515
kinds injurious to crops in California, discussion......-.---..------- 246-254
migration and depredations in California .....-..----------+----------- 242
PrOtectiOn $a:. 2 sew wi R e's 38 Seb ce Gee ee ee ee een ee 509-511, 513-514
relation to fruit growing in California, article by F. E. L. Beal. ..---- 241-254
Blackbird, eating of fruit, remarks: / 2... <6. ced ons Scce ey ec e es oes see eee 248
Blackleg, vaceine and mallein, distribution .2 <2.) shes. Soe eS Se 24
Bloom, cotton, remarks. . ioc cuss cere eee aa eet 144
Boll weevil and diseases, ravages of cotton, work of Bureau of Plant Industry
in meeting, article by B.-L 'Galloway J no eee Sa 497-508
breeding and selection of cotton in work for control........---- 498-502
causes of control in Guatemalan cotton.....-.-------.---------- 487-488
control work, distribution of early maturing cotton........-.--- 507-508
cotton, attempts to prevent advance ........--------.--.----<«- 202-203
cause for less number of generations --....-..------------ 193
death of larvee by unusual growth of plant....-....--.--- 487
destruction of plants in fall as means of control......----- 200
effect of ravages Ooi. 60. SP CS ae on ee ee 197
extension, 1904, note (ete also Weevil) < 2... 0.22. c2 tee 601
in United States, present status .........2. 22.2. s-eee 191-204
investigation and control, outlook ...........-.-------- 203-204
problems not yet:eolved .. 200. £555. SOS eewn eee 199-201
relations to cotton-leaf worm. ...<. 22.52. 2.42 263.5. eee 201
results of demonstration farm work for control....-...----- 506
service expected of kelep, or Guatemalan ant.......------ 485
territory affeeieG <ice.ce. 6 ist dss ooe echt ae 192-195
damage to cotton, estimates ..... 2.262. csi seis eon eee ee 195-197
effect of dryness of climate, note: 2.20. oc se ee 479
larvee, death by reason of ‘‘gelatinization’’ in cotton .....---- 500-501
plan of work in plant industry for restriction. ........-------- 497-498
protection of Guatemalan cotton by kelep -.-.-.------------- 476, 478
scope of Department’s investigations. .......----------------- 197-199
season of 1904, note. -22—. ow we 3 ee ee eee 564-575
spread by-cotton seed ...< 22.0.2. 00 5202. Le 193
to all Guatemalan cotton, illustrative example.....-.----- 484 .

study of tropical cottons in work for control.......-..-.------- ‘, “GS
Bollworm, cotton, and minor cotton insects, remarks .......-.-------------- 80
investigation =~ ......55 2-2 RO 198-199
damsgige tn-3006 <tc heen Se ee ee ee 601
bo ermi-, oot. os oe et ee a ee 465
lessening of damage ip 1904 _. 2482225: 5 2 Seek kb coe eee ae 196
work: for c@eisyl. ooo 3} oO SS ea Ss OS ae 80-81
Books, Department, reprinting and sale, remarks ......-.------------------ 114
on agriculture, State publication and distribution........-..--.---- 521-526

Borax, experiments on use as food preservative, discussion........-.-------- 6
ood preservative, effect of varying quantities .........-.+----------- 64-65
Bordeaux mixture, remedy for sugar-beet diseases.........----------!------ 29
value against potato rot, etc., mote .........--..------- 126-127
Borers, powder post, injuries to lumber, woodwork, and implements .----- 387-389
round-headed and flat-headed, habits, appearance, etc........-.------ 386

injuries to wood, lumber, bark, etc......-....------ 385-386

INDEX. 747

Page.
Boric acid. (Sve Borax.)
Boston, wool prices, range monthly, 1900-1904............-.....-.--.---- 712-713
Boys’ agricultural clubs, article by Dick J. Crosby...............---..---- 480-496
cute: TI nOlh> CeOIR Ck carwano bas we bacid wn dele maid cows swe 491-493
Sek TCR Na CAME ee oles hits cies wa odie uileinen 493-494
Illinois, sentiment outgrowth of corn-growing contest..............-.. 490
es, 1000 INSDOSIOM: WHER sdatuk pain dim babhkn d cat sw ncdiiwmoutisn cede 159
Brandy, making, and California production .. 02.2 ces ccccccscascnccecsccsc 374
Branier, Enpwarp A., article on ‘‘The determination of timber values’’.... 453-460
Bread, rye and wheat, quality and demand .............--..---.-. 427-428, 429-430
SRCORGNIE EOSIN Fe Pie civcuchscpcvankisities With OEikueia whe ddbwee omwe 737
Breed, American horses, trotter as foundation..............0-ccseccnesees 531-533
Breeding and feeding investigations, animal, of Bureau of Animal Industry,
Srticie Oy UE. GIONS Rede a0 eis ta pcg udememsvedane 527-538
POREOCRATIES (HIRIAN 0 RIN rah g's dmiowidinin wei 6 Rieiiewia Sie cine ew nie 516
selection, improvement of tobacco, article by Archibald D.
I ia ae alata ch tea ed ects Sc tad Sb pind wre Si mins 435-452
plant, work against cotton boll weevil .........-- 498-502
BINNS, TI NOLSAUIOL, PORORTEG. oi acdslckicpiadieciwcme ceerenianmces 538
COPIA, TOTIEE chet Bi cick s Fo ttle en Gd we’ nine nein sede nm ae 532-535
citrus fruit, early Department work in Florida ...............--. 221-223
cotton, experiments near boll-weevil territory..................- 501-502
I eek a re ti ed ele wien eco wc a.s wie dee 34
sparse foliage and hairiness as desiderata ...............-.. 501
early varieties of cotton, work against boll weevil ...............-- 499
SEMSHINGUA, SPORE MOL. NARs, od kc ciw os b eae eine aie eid dew w''s = 537-538
horses, suggestion for relief of market shortage -.....-......-.--.-- 531
BE YORRIGER IONE SEIT OROREO swe bic ars Starke tis aioe tc CG cE Seng oe een 537
plant, development in nineteenth century.............--..----- 120-122
GW CTORIONS: CIBCURMNOR sales Seuiss Schiele owen lewd 45-47
potatoes, poor quality of new Colorado varieties -.........-...---- 315
SHEED Ba DOM Hy IN VORUICRIONS. «6 5 aia ce woin oe cg leeeehe ewadees 528
stock, high prices in Argentina, discussion ........-.....--.----- 274-275
sugar-beet seed, article by J. E. W. Tracy.................-.--.- 341-352
enee. mated, Gevelopment, NOS 6, s usca ckcdiuid Gat Ack die teannie dl cewedae 9
Bridges and culverts, use in road building.......................-.--..... 332-333
Brigham, Col. J. H., late Assistant Secretary, notice of death .............. 117-118
warning regarding irrigation......................---.-. 525
British India; source. of supply: of caghor. beang.2.. oc ce seks. Sc ce vce 297
BAe ACI AGN, TOMER 5 ee a ete nessa e nn oo oe 43
North America, exports of United States horses.............-.-.-- 530-531
eoweee Inernis Ware es ROT: a. Be ty al ees iek de wind os alk aac 40
Mp ertarTall TOE IO R Et e o o o1d ale sl chai ats Spake brent its c dane bid < <2 601
rpah. Tires, effect On J0negh TOMArES S39 os ca eraterers eee Ue Phen s ss 135
Buckwheat, acreage, production, prices, etc .. .. -6 assacas ocnena coe wenn 670-672
cake, whiteness, influence on demand.............--..-.--.--.- 430
Ben Sirk tree, Cesiienion DF ins foc Se i eds epce con pediiepae cm - - =o 247
Beiidines, agricultural college, new; Dotesis jos ee cGis eticdetk ein cure n.----- 96
Department, rental, construction, and plans ...........--.. 116, 116-117
SIRS. RURIR Ls Tt oe as bi eg as ct 110, 111, 112
Balb:growing as new industry, remarks... .~ <.<..-ssees5l-lasnslccss.-.----- 31
Bureaus, Divisions, Offices. (See Accounts, Animal, Biological, Chemistry,
Entomology, Experiment Stations, Forestry, Plant, Publications, Road,
Soils, Statistics, Weather.)
Botter, Argenta, mashity Bid TOS is 6 he bik csc de wals o~ 2 een cee 278
CONRAN CO ECM. Cok octet oe oan sows chu wenbeacues 424
SRE CERIUM. Bare datos eel w wide eee SOR ale cn bine eam pedtee me 184-185
Cr OCI 2285 a fo ein 60 ac att bh ones 5 a ope an ~ ahead an bu 376
inspection, beneficial effects, notes..............-- jot cdi wade oak 24
methods of judging quality and desirability............-.--..-..--- 417-418
COD ais «tities tok ase pa bije its Stress toon atin igi pee eS. o 185, 706
SCOTS, Apetrit Ores tO. UBC 66 sia kasich -wambews ss a ddoiadeoneun ee
Buttermilk, production and eile; TOMeRKsi6. 55.4. ~ sien ses se ee eee eaneds 185
By-OFOd Rees, GIES, CAUANOR. 0 soni Sapaning 6h RNa nk aphein we becls 527% 377-380
Gehies, eupmarine:. Weather Daree ioc oases ie dag oe cq avanhecuesnsiinbnel 18

nce, TOCRBC-DIENE WOES 5 6nd siete Che Ae SEE ihn ma Wade pints Sanaa « 39

748 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page,
Oalifornia, birds, food habits, remark « ..:cccdcccescupecahtcceseabsausennen 87
birds, injurious to fruit, specific discussion..............--.---- 246-254
burnizie of slash: .... .occcecccteteccsnbumcehsveuepecaaen eee 138
conditions for bird food as compared with Eastern States......-. 244-245
date: STOWE: TIOtG « hem weducsos-eoeaedee tes AP eee: eee, 31
forest lands, mapping, NOtC.......-.+.---ceceseseceescercussunss 58
grape culture and wine and raisin production, notes..........-. 366, 368
losses by fire in virgin timber, remarks.............--------s-e<- 135
reclamation of alkali land, progress.........-..--------+-eeeeceee 73
relation of birds to fruit growing, article by F. E. L. Beal....... 241-254
road experiment and legislation. ......<cccossssscccsedcueusaneen 68
southern, windbreak......#f3i¢wvesol ee luk Leet Ae 265
sugar beet seed production............seecnsenceneteccennteecens 28
University, nutrition. investigations. co... os.<bise dstebbees Mane 106
water sc arcity as cause of fruit-eating by birds..............-.--.- 244
work against scale inseetas. . joo... eee ei 82
Calorimeter, experiments, nutrition investigations, remarks .........---.---- 105
publication of results, note. .........<y--sencncces 214
some result <2 ..cs vise sdinc tosh eke tobe eee 214-216
respiration, article by W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict--.-. 205-220
deacription: ...5.. .12 0 seU sce es Ja Gee ee 207-211
field for-work ...0525 5.06.2 2 eee 220
results in study of human temperatures........-- 218-220
tests of accuracy, eter: «iis. goules ween ee 211-212
use in study of animal nutrition ..........-...----- 528
results and value in study of ventilation problems.-........-.-- 215-217
tests.of accuracy, remarks. 24/0. bs 40.0. See eee 211-212
use of water in study of heat and energy of human body...... 209-210
Canaries, importation, note... ...0 ios es Soe See eh 88
Cane and beet sugar, United States production ...........-2.-62.0-0---cecee 696 |
sugar, leaf hopper, remarke... 354022225226 e te ae Ostet oe eee 202
Genned crapes, recipe. onu~ dawGrriw eye sese eeeeeeee (Ud eases ah ae 375
Capillarity, influence on mov ement of water in:soll (cis 20ulsis Dose eee 142
Capital, farm, increase, discussion by'Secroetapy - <. 2 5.:'. 2 2502). Seen 13-14
Carbon bisulphid, remedy for nut weevila...6 63 Sinks lie eee 306, 310
dioxid and heat, amounts given off by human body............--- 214-216
normal content of air, and human endurance .........-..--. 216-218
Carmon, head of Department carriage-horse stud, points, pedigree, etc. .--.- 534-535
Carriage horses, development of breed, effortai.2. 6. 24632 eee 533-535
points considered in purchase for Department experiments... 533
supply and demand) remarks. .:....0.2<05 s/.40) Jie 532-533
Cassava, Para grass and Guinea grass, remarks .......-.-..+------------e- 587-588
proposed experiment as hog-feed.....55<.2<s<....<.-S is .02. Soe 536
varieties and. uses, remarks... co ie oo Ae SS ee eee 41
Castor bean, distribution, remarks. <<...) 2. Sit eee ae 297
beans, British India as souree’of supply <. 2... .2 so. 5-4... se tee 298
decline in production . 2. < osa-0S 0 Rael ee eee 295-296
foreign-regions of production. 22-2 3. 2.430. te ee 298
overproduction ‘in United States. ...4.. . 200) -.0. 55 eee 294-295
sources, of suppl ya. cos oscckd bene dda canh sue ee ee eee 292-298
supply. and demand... <scsewe dentine ee 296-297 .
yield of. oil:and pomaceé... side leeds 22 Pike ee 292
oil, gradem. aocic oa Sowedun en cco aue Bek woe Bea a 291
industry, article by Charles M. Daugherty ........---...----.-- 287-298
development and location ‘of mills in United States.... 293-297
TAAN DERCHNLO oi os 5 ses a at ews Snel eee ae oe 290-292
mills, establishment in United States ..........-.-----..-------- 293-294
Miscellaneous: WEEE as... aw dcede wink (Um cnle Bola enlanne oe See 289-290
WSEAS MOGICING <5 jc sS eden we SRT 288
peds, discussion .. 2. Shes es ee eee 287-290
yield, from heen’. << 2esdeses~ aanss.s deena ks da eae 202 -
Catalpa, hardy, and black walnut, planting on farm woodlot ............---- 260
Gaitle, Alaska, notes 2 se oases ied ont PRS Ee eee 100, 101
and dairy BIOGUCIEAREtICS .2 sions ee a in mie eee 703-707
Ajvgentine» brandinganote \. <2 o46sssca2 oh. She See, See 273
beef. prod RCHOR. 2.1 Seen = - 5 os oS Ss eR a ee 189-190
ee aa ers’ associations, breeders, numbers registered, etc.........---. 551-552

INDEX. 749

Page

Cattle, breeds popular in Argentina ....0...0 cdsedsetesedl ces casuisccnns cceven 275

dual purpose, proposed investigation... ........2c2cceeeecsceeseceee 537

importation for breeding use, remarks ............00-0cseecececeeenee 538

SESS SR NU clei aed SO RG ie Wait ow 6 Gen te-ie bein wi he 721, 732

IIT re Ae I a is klnlaiui pio s etnies Beker’ s 190

SEC CRIN OI desea we resintivas vn saben 472-473

SOBRGG, Tien wo cose a da Pei Wal bares Ab Mie Wee Os ie hoe be yiiew daan'e 9

numbers, Imports and exports, prices, etc .. 2... ecw een ccccenccce 703-705

PFiced WHOLCEAIS «. . « «'nninnn se uwedinn sive side sh bmw scence tien dmeceesccecce 705

Ciel ee Ns eae Web add Kayes ween cue ndedoane 100, 101

scab or mange, I Ssh GRE ee oS cae cco: 9, 21-22

tuberculosis, need for control, remarks ..... 2... ..ccceccwcwseesccnces 23

Cementing power of road material, RES SEES Lae CEL eS 67

Central America, antiquity and stability TS Te: i ee a a 477

Cereal crops, damage by insects, discussion ............-....------.-+---- 465-468

rusts and smuts, study and treatment, remarks ..:...5........-. 125-126, 585

OR ns be SR 2 RR PSL CRE INE Se Ey i oes eee re 46

RE SE ee eens en are tae meh anh ane wid ok wom 585-586

eater TINS, UU nen Tae ae dene ws op owns 20 wncah pa wen 100

CR NT i re iS nk aw Sette w wie Sow low oem whale 473

Cheese, color, influence RRM Ng tek gin 1 Baie Sd kthes 06 ap su os vous eee 424

discoveries in methods of imine, we Mmartetl foc ol. ok cre a eles 188

making, Gkgeriumenh station AINGIEN yase So. i ec ee cee eee bane 95

Een PDs oi reed Se ele ee wis tcc win ew nn Saeed neh 187-189

prices wholesale .......- ee are AES ac win nie wpa b wields 707

TABI Ss Ineror Ma Quality BCOrRs Qos 22 ke ck setae 418-419, 419

Chemistry, Bureau, organization and duties . 2.2.02 scesee-ee ss eeee ee eeee 540-541

. MORK, TOVIEW UF DOCTOIBLY ie. cocina acide een ae moe one 62-69

Chemists, Official Agricultural, Association, officers..................-..---- 555

emer ticH, Gaal UCmOnoiy DitOl, TIOICS on do oie bn SK nn ai we eal ee een oe 248, 249

SOMME Oma MININ I Seger ee OE a age 5a nl LE Saale ine eArin @ ew iube 421

Chestnut crop, losses a OLE EE, ee ae Se ee ee ee ee 299, 300

HGPCHLLY: OUPeall CX PSrUNONtA 2 6.5 2.0 be a nhiaw ons ae Viewee ence. 453

planting between fields for windbreak, nuts, and fence posts .-...-- 262

weevils, injury to chestnut crop, species, descriptions, etc.......- 299-308

wild, relation to chestnut PCIE AMOS 5 ASS Waite ea Sw mee ow 3 305, 307

Chicago horse ‘market, Ue Os Sis 6 21 ee ee ee a a a -.. 529-530

Chickens, color as np ean ltt Sha. ac. dee... 2s ak 423

ee a OHL, POL WOWRE Se se) es dees owe ccued 479, 480

Pataes < igre, ree arrreiias Oe eat re 8k ca hoe Gwe ole. De ee ae 539

Chilocorus similis, ladybird enemy of San Jose scale -.-....-..--.------.-...-- 81

ROAM IEL PIRES. AGING ILS COPED 22 re ea is. Sint tila el en ie Sw ath etn dain we Sete 465

Chinquapins, relation to chestnut, growing)... ---. >... son. eee oe cee ees 307

use an: trap crop for chesinul Weevil. a4 oe. 6 oS che ec winin n 2 e 305

De DRO WR NOGunciIntiGN, Mim GerINe oe ae. a get meee Sitew Wemsin aidan ac 590

UarirenDEen, I. H., article on “The nut weevils”’ .....sosle.. nt - ese ence es 299-310

review of injurious insects in 1904.................-.. 600-605

Cholera, Asiatic, destruction of bacteria by use of copper sulphate.........--. 51

Cholesterol, nature and use in test of cotton-seed oil .........-....---- 360, 361, 362

Caen rn EE, COMUINETS TANCES oho seo oe ee ia tea ae we 424-425

Gager 10peerus crowing S00 Curing Ja OIG S08 oe occ Sa es wee en osc es 75

Cigar-leaf tobacco, TOES TELS eee Se eae ES ie Pe RES SES tt oe gee yee hn 435

Cigars, SIEInA ie eran ARONA SOR SUI RIEAIN sD og ol cin wii mente 428

Cigar- wrapper tobacco, study and conclusions, remarks .............-------- 437

Citrange, derivation Sete ee ee Se 228

new group of citrus fruits, discussion ......-.-...-.............= 227-235

Rusk, name, origin, and description and uses ..-....-..-----.--. 228-229

value, discussion, VGH CONMOIRTIROIOR co oo... < inte kien Gren nb oo 234-235

. Willits, use with oysters and fish as substitute for lemon.........-. 231

Citrangeade, drink from new citrus fruit, notes...........-....-..-.-..... 229, 234
Citrus creations, new, of Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert J.

Webber and WOlécer: 7. ree ns. ls ie ew acclen cone 221-240

fruits, breeding, objects of Florida work of Department..............- 222

pe Bg ee ea (9 ee ee 583

GREY, DIUGUCO Eo osdea as aman - = ME aaa aaa renee ds x as 223-227

loose-skinned, tangelo as new group ............-.......-.-. 235-238

750 ' YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page,
Citrus fruite, new group called citrange ...........--2 cee eccesccecceccees 227-235
WOIOPD gins oks oc ce ccc kcced peceecous Sedevestbars tee 29
etudy-:in Porto Rico, remarks... 26652. esse deeer eee eee dé eee 103
industry, enipping losses, remarks. ...:< 20255 5ccsecus cc btvecseasteeen 45
trifoliata, trifoliate orange, use in breeding hardy citrus fruits.....-- 224-227
CiarK, J. Max, article on ‘‘ Potato culture near Greeley, Colo.”’ .......--.. 311-322
Clay subsoil, treatment for fruit growing. ...........-c.-.cesnesceeccccceses 173
Qlaye, road making, etady 2.065. ssccveccnducccaceteseecdeve taascoeeneaee 66-67
Climate and crop conditions, publication of information ............-.--.-- 356-358
service, Weather Bureau, benefit to homeseeker .....-..-- 355-356
remarks ..3..0000. sce see ae 16
Argentine, Notes. 22 iwc ose 255 sob ed eee 271, 272-273, 283
food requirements with variation, comparison with calorimeter ...-.-.. 219
relation to cotton growing in Guatemala ...........-.-..--.-------- 481
Climatic conditions and soil, adaptation of tobacco..........-.-.----.---- - 437-439
lack of knowledge as cause of loss to homeseekers..-..-..-.- 305
relation to spread of cotton boll weevil ...-..-..--.------ 193
Climatology, Weather Bureau publications ............------.--2-. A Lee 357
Ciena, definition of term ~. 20006550 eke esc issisec yee ad eee oe eee 223
Crornier, GrorGe L., article on ‘‘Forest planting and farm management’’.. 255-270
Clothing, relation to warmth of body ..:- =... 5: 205 2022o0 Fe eee 219
Clover seed, prices wholesale: ~ 2.3 0.0. coe ee eee eee 697-698
eickness, romarks...9 025. 0..5.3c eee eee 588
lovers and alfalias, remarks. 2. -.i2..2 2s. cs eosescsesee st Sti eee 37
Clubs, agricultural, boys’, article by Dick J. Crosby .........---.----.---- 489-496
Coben, ltaporta : 2. so 32s leh sk oss cca oe LO ae ee ee re eee 724
Cocoons, silkworm, market and purchase by Department, note...........--- 85
Codimeg moth, damage to apple: .. 5... 25200 ac bss cae eee ee eee 469-471
destruction by birds; remarke -) /..2...025..2-2 see oeee 87, 248
spread and remedy, 1904; note. 2.005.002 .2.cecl i coe 602
CxMice, tamports . is ss cick a eee ee eee eae Eee 724
insects, plants, pruning, ete., in Porto Rico, remarks.....--.....----- 103
raising, Guatemala, notes .. 2.552225 26 ce cei ceed eee eee 482
©oims and currencies, foreign, values 0.22. 0 Slo se 022 occa ve ee 742
Cold storage for fruit keeping, farm and general use.....-....--.-.---------- 44, 45
remedy for nut weevil .. 2.22200. 60-2 Lo ec 307

Colleges, Agricultural, and Experiment Stations, Association, work for agri-
enlture in schools. 20-20 2 ss. eee 98
institutions with courses in agriculture, list. ---- 543-545
appropriations, new buildings, ete......---------.--.- 96-97
and Experiment Stations, American Agricultural, Association, officers. 549
Colorado, cattle scab or mange, note.: ...2 0s. sos. ec ee SS Ne 21
experiment station, horse breeding investigations .-...-....--.---- 527
Greeley, potato culture, article by J. Max Clark ...........---.- 311-322
localities other than Greeley for potato growing.......---.-------- 312
size: of potato fields, remarks. .-° 2. 2 aE ooo eee c 322
Columbian Exposition, relation to European demand for American horses.... 530
Concrete, fence posts, roofs, etc., use, remarks... 2. ./52.52-2--5--5. ccc ceeee 68
reeniorced,.use in road Puram. |S P22 Se sa Se ie ee eee 333
Condiments, usefulness in foods; mote : 22 wise pao eee ta eee 157
Congress, Members, distribution of cotton seed in work against boll weevil... 507
provision for publication of soil survey reports, remarks.........-- 72
supply of agricultural publications. :< 2. «22 2.2 3. os eee 113
Congressional seed distribution, rémarks.-. 2.0.2. 5.0. enol oe cl oeeue 49
Connecticut, association of farmers and sportsmen, purpose ...........------ 518
tobacco growing, use of Sumatra seed, note ....--....-.-------- 437
wrapper leaf tobacce, remarks .. 5.45 tS ee 76-77
Consumers’ fancies, article by George K. Holmes.-...--.-...-.------------ 417-434
Contagion from foreign cattle, protection, regulations......-..-.-----.------ 551
Contagious disease, cattle scab or mange (see also Diseases) ......------------ 21-22
Coox, O. F., article on ‘‘ Cotton culture in Guatemala”’........--.--.----- 475-488
discovery of ant enemy of cotton boll weevil..-.....----.------ 80
ntady of pelatiniszation of cotton... 2.2. . 5. scott ee eee 501
Cekine ‘vies of castor ol, note: .. 1222525552265 ee eee 289
Cooperation, Department with State experiment stations........--.----.---- 93
Louisiana commission, in boll weevil work ........-..--..----- 79

INDEX. 751

Page.
Cooperative field work for public roads, remarks .............-.------------ 91-92
weisiom invesumations, Babes 2535 .oc SSL Le LL Bee ecSe 104
Siste torent etudies, rominrkes Fi (Sos fs 6 wos dS eh SSR sets 57
Copper Center, Alaska, experiment station work, remarks ..........-.-....- 100
compounds, uses against diseases, remarks .....................--- 127, 128
Salphate; use agaiiel MICNGUINOUER Fs Fs bs she ts eee Sli Seat eoe ce. 84
WALG? DUrICRON MOG. Sees ee ee a ens Seseks 50
Cord wood and pulpwood, insect injuries... 205.2 sl et ec ce eee betes ecccee 394
Corn, acreage, production, prices, export, etc..........-.....-.--.-------- 628-631
and wheat, freight rates, Chicago to New York..........-....-------- 719
PCd, ARO Se se le eG Na eis Put dees Uses eee sce we ek 284
BROS ines MNP Se et casted SZ ooh Sheek - 46
crop, contribution to national wealth, remarks by Secretary........-.-.-. 1]
Of GOrtaim Countries, 1800-1906... os oh tee ed ecb ee cb. ce 626-632
cultivation among walnut seedlings on woodlot...........--.--------- 261
RI ao ca Serine Es SR, SEAS eee isco 48]
COMBED 310 TOE ode sases U2 SOPOT eI RS ob ei cee ws 585
exhibit, St. Louis Exposition, discussions itis ob. cae cewek cee 489-491
CORRE as ae or bas Wein ave ols wuawligh intel sWah Ss Selo ok SSE TRESS 737
farmers’ boys and girls, exhibit at Louisiana Purchase Exposition... ~~... 98
feeding Of COtie ae RIPON A. ees Jo Szbe eS eee 275
FOUCOL, “SAVANE EG, DOGG So ecient ecwa Hac eeue toe. SSCoRg eb 95-96
growers, advantage in starting orchards.............-.2.5.------222--. 180
growing contest, Illinois, institution and results -......--...-.------ 489-492
early offer ‘of premiums te boye ive. Sc. essen coool leo 524
Gomi) GE1004 notes... fod cs le ee ele we Sc iut. sea 560-576
TRREG GAMAae, TAMAR. 644i 5s St as Uae bec ie 465-466
Bech) GUMS) PRNRATE Si eso EX UL rece ee ate ce 431
planters and windmills, tests and conclusions ...-...--.-.------------ 1J2
prices, wholesale, 1899-1904, by months -...-....2.2.2.-2-:.--.---- 633-635
root: word, Games to corn CrOPiL Ws S25 be ot SOLS Ss RL eee sets. 465
peed, (prohs pap vemein productions £2.40 0200 lds Poise toe we dec cL 190
REMIGRINOT RENEE PHM «255 Sow 5S IRS a 2 a A Sa 2 Cte = 644
wiaible supply, United States and Canada s022 20. 07si BOB. cos. ee 639
wheat and cotton, outlook, spring, 1904.02. L2.222. 202 Ji Les reces 562
Cea eerie, imerceme, note. 2 ys 7-0 bs i ae eee ee 197
production, prices, exports, ebesJiasz002. Be ess to 288.- 684—686
ancient anes in Central A mering. 23-50) ss ee a 2 os 477
Delt; Cited: States, Somawhs hi52 be sas Fe ks Se ees 141
WRRMGE COMEDIC SSIS 328 5 LS RLS ee et eck 147-150

boll weevil and diseases, ravages, Bureau of Plant Industry work in
meeting, article by B. T. Galloway (see also Weevil) -.....--..---- 497-508

bollworm. (See Bollworm.)

breediags now ty pee, Kembnree si os. Wb sl ct et eh oc hdc Ske 04, 199
compremed, freight rates; saib seers cs basses ak ete ete. 718
exep, ‘eomuarenl, TSUBA eae eee Joe nt Uae 2 es 683
cultural system against boll weevil, difficulties (see also Boll weevil). 199-200
culture, commercial, failure in Gatendals cj et Prt es Pace 478
in Guatemala, article try 4). 9 Cook zi tes iu sis eciiven =. 475-488
of Kekchi Indians, Costeeietoks sce dei ta 485-486
diseases, Department investigations ...............-.--- 36, 37, 199, 502-503
early big-boll, selections in work against boll weevil......--...---- 499-500
datriation Ob peed sso oo eesen eu Us tele siee oot Sot Ps. 30
maturing, distribution in work against boll weevil.........--- 507-508
Guatemalan variety, possibility of use in Texas ------ 480
goods, use of castor oil in printing and dyeing...--...-..-----.---- 287-290
growers, advantage in starting orchards. .............--..-.-..------ 180
growing, Season: of: 1004, NODEBDSAGe bese ie Las ce See 560-576
supremacy of United States, causes and danger ...........-- 192
Guatemalan, adaptability to western Texas ........-....--.--------- 480
aperts asic GROrts: S Caaay pops see aed tube elas ceed: 724, 735
Indian field culture in Guatemala and protection by kelep ....--..- 482, 484
bunpet eee ss 25.65 oS Oi ere ide oo OR Re ees 468469
insects, relations of leaf worm and boll weevil........-....-.-------- 201
introduction into English colonies in America, remarks -.....--.----- 476

Reka, characters socerecccsea seek er SS eh eek Sut 486-487

752 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.

Cotton lands, Arkansas and Mississippi, drainage, note.............-.-.----.- 110

large crop of 1904, causes of production .....cccgecccccdersendecece 195-196

leal worm, relations to boll weevil «<< sesscd sede bide Capec eles eee 201

long-stanle, new varieties, remarks .. occ sedovesdcooct¥a dant abanee’ 45

mills, new, production of market for vegetables .............-.------ 187

organizations for promotion of production, European ............-.-- 91

period of growing and conditions favorable...........---.----------- 144

picking, need. of dry weather, NOt ...csececcnscpucenswus racbews ane 147

niant, Weevil TOBIStANOG +. o:. o.<» ve cnn cb ninlevie'a oui ow abi bee ae eee 487

planting, moisture and warmth requirement .........--.-.-------- 141-142

raising, combination with stock raising, note............------------ 189

region, map showing infestation with boll weevil.............--.---- 194

relation of weather conditions to growth and development, article by

J, B. Marbury. ccwsivc ccc cvvsww secede lel sciuseeinae omen 141-150

root-rot and TUE. oss. ndedess dwleig ee eete hse eee eee 36, 568-575

seed, danger as hog feed, NOtO.. so sisinws sical coe bn eee eee ee 360

early maturing, distribution. 22... ..s.scssqe-nedus ede eee 35

profit probable.in production ........ sss essen <6 sagte ph ae eee 190

special work of Department . .........2- 2.00 ocensaasecerciv ee sis alee 32-36

Texas crop, decréase by boll weevil .. <5... 66-5 senncneeenneceleeeeee 197

tobacco, flax, and fruit, Argentine... --... cccscese 5. bene anes eee 284-285

Upland, American OFigin 0... - 0 enesenns uve wes des ee ou bine ee 476-477

varieties, early, defects, breeding, etc... ... -<..52 --<«-esseseene eee 499

variety tests against boll weevil .....2 sess. 200 cess ecenees ae eee 498

weevil-resistant, development in Guatemala, etc., notes.....-.-- 35, 477, 478

wheat, and corn, outlook spring, 1904 .. ..... sas ieonuienins nee 562

yield, method. of estimating-in field... .......<sscecin eee cinismndais eee 625-626

of crop, influence of sunshine, with charts .....-....-...--..-- 143-147

relation to weather, SUMMATICS: ... comes alren sie de bd Coe ee 149-150

Cottons, tropical, investigations in work against boll weevil.......-.-.-.--.- 502

Cotton-seed oil, detection after change by heating ..........-...-.---------- 362

in lard, article by .L. M. Tolman. .2...-cic<ceues 359-362

failure of ordinary tests. ....5...-->s5 «+a 46eem ope eee 259-260

new test, success, details... 2 .'.2. i.) Jessie wo sles eee eee 360-362

Cottonwood, growing for lumber and windbreak, remarks ........-------- 268, 269

Cow for dairy, importance in selection and yield of milk..............--...- 183

Cowpea, cultivation, Injury to Cotton i446 266s +n. ne ner eo osiemes Sone 37

Cowpeas, wilt disease, remarks.:..- ois. Sosncin ssc ns eine neec se sease Reem 37

Cows, dairy, southern, quality, note — «6.6. +. <tscusodhusenenls omelet een 189

milch, number, pried, tes «. = ddec wiwose vende oo Weis oe 703, 704

Crarr, Quincy R., review. of forestry in 1004. oi... 50s. cc ene Sete 588-593

Cranberries, irrigation; Temarks <s. bcs ica vinin ds ona yen Sele ase hee ae 108, 615

Cranberry, diseases and treatment, remarks -.....-...-.-.---20-scsesceee= 36, 583

Crawrorp, J. C., statement of method of estimating cotton yield......-.--- 625-626

Crop, acreage, production, prices, yields, etc —.......+.<.-..2.s-sesecemns 682-684

and climate conditions, publication of information.......-....-.---- 356-357

service, Weather Bureau, benefit to homeseeker-.....--- 355-356

Yomarks 2:2. $6 ss:sas 30s 16

weather conditions, review for. 1904. <2. wasn ccgennsne shinee 556-580

belts and life zones, mapping, remarks. «4.60260. 6 sakisisn de ne es Cee 86-87

reports, Department, appreciation and criticism.........-...---------- 91

season, April-September, 1904, summary by weeks.......--.----.---- 562-576

Crops, cover, growing in.orebard, remarks......-..~- s.ac=rs skeails!s sia aes 174-175

cut-flower, suggestions foMmgroWwer ss « a/i5:6 << «o5066 ses nceeegasaan aes 167-168

for oyerfloWed lamas ..2 ihc oncc: oi sete Sereben ss Dati a cate 42

general, for growing under glass near city... .. .-.-<.-ss-.-s-0+ssesee6 165

growing under glass, article by B. T. Galloway -.....-...----------- 161-169

Gulf coast and southern. Florida, remarks ..<. 928 ccc eseunnseouasee 41

kinds for preparation of soil for fruit growing......-----.------------- 173
maintenance of fartility.of soil: Note <6 sm clade pie ad ono maeeneseeeene 69 °

other than cotton, introduction in work against boll weevil...-..-.--- 503

principal, etatistioss< « «.cedseast oe sascate easiest 4 atte ae 626-699

pomping water-for irrigavion .. Jo..-~<>-.43--.+>5 465 +s ee See 107

rotation, in potato culture in: Colorado... .....< <=. boca =e~ Sopa 313

vegetable, for growing for city market ..........-..----...------ meee 166

1904, size and value, remarks of Secretary. .... <5. :<-es<sssencee@aens uh

Crossy, Dick J., article on ‘‘ Boys’ agricultural clubs’”’........-.-..-...-.-- 489-496

INDEX,

Crosses. (See Breeding and Hybrids.)

RE TRIE RMETSTI BOMMMONIG Biss onlin Nnica Se pac ONS Mall's ce wes bawsicsdiceduce ox

Crossing, and hybridization, relation to plant breeding..................--
improvement of fruits (see also Hybridization.) ...............---
varieties; tobacco im provements. <i. suis csscc ccc weccscsncdicce

Crystals, phytosterol and cholesterol, differences as test of cotton-seed oil...

CEDEMALOORLCO, GTO WING 18) SOSRE, TOU i occ cw cin secs Secciwcceseacuckenccincn 7
SOR: BIG de cate waenGown ecole bis cab cu SRs va ows ken e SOU ces es 43
WUckaG, VOLOW Dillod: ONEIOINORE AMO Ues ne cela dees eed eds ieee cee ccucndcs 514
CmOutaner, Cimebneg i TORR se a oo awa eat Sha eadieleacoedewsldtecbbeceas 584.
COMAVRUON, BOLMDOT ts ACO LOUNEO wi a8 email aac ash icl o cewen dececdwccnes 317
Cultural methods, cotton, effectiveness against boll weevil................-... 79
Culverts and bridges, use in road building .................22.2..0eeeeee+ 332-333"
Wurrant, Perlection, origi, Gescripu0n, - O62 ss woo oe awk sec ccc ene wisecee 404
PORE, CiTdlinie, SEIRtIOke ts INIOIOS aie iy oi wc on bes Udladeidia Wows Svs ccdeesens se 393
DAUR DORI OLIGEES GRIONIET, EDS. cece aware SASSO Se + oo we bec ndwb ew aroes bebe 550»
CONGISGM, SPOON Mb A LOGE Sy TRRORO RAL Se onde oc ined da bdewe nce ccb case 101
Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, butter scoring, note ...........- 418.
Sarmiing,, HOUSE Ol IRDOR PORT, TOO aes aco cca esececs cecdesccscueee 185
BERGA Tyg Ma SUR a ca tg tt cel pak nl ws Panclanih a a at ac a nls clad aligsoe a 278-
POC, Satie wide Fees Sao ee reais Mids bom cel nica ws secduncboe te 731
CERO UA Cah Siele s Wain Saf abt ccs oN Salm bic win vow Dene oe 24
SERIMAMEIS) RONRE toe oes Coed «pcan seu wae wonte 620-621
Soper Otel GIN ITMICOOIE, WIA DPOR I. 253. is x pou okedaed we de wdc owen de Sune 265 -
Bam, canyas, use in Colorado potato culture 25 ..22.2. cise lee ee pec cece 319-320
Darwin, tobacco crossing, experiments... ......22.s2-0.20cesee---0eesesene 452
Dates, American, establishment of growing as industry .........-.-...-..--- 3L
DAUGHERTY, CHARLES M., article on ‘‘ The castor oil industry”’............ 287-298
Demonstration farms, cooperative, use in work against boll weevil........- 505-506 -
Dendrology, work of Bureau of Forestry in 1904.._..........-..2.....------ 59~
Department, Agriculture. (See Agriculture. )
Dewey, Lyster H., identification of Asiatic cotton ......................---- 476-
aeeeereces woigicomis..daingec tO corm. 2251623. - 0 senna ssa sete oleh tee 465
Diet, fruit and nut, study at University of California, remarks............-..- 106-
Dietary studies and digestion experiments with Maine lumbermen, remarks... 106
Government Hospital for Insane, remarks..............----- 105
Digestion, experiments and dietary studies with Maine lumbermen.......-.-- 106
Diaping Of calele. dor Scab, Or Manse NOLS . 6c is oe dd edhe ee eee ee ee 21, 22>
Emeease. BECh, SC pmeemIIC he Sie ices wis Doe eo ook ok bo mane dea wees 29
Cotto 2006, INVERTER eh eso ee whe doea we ene 6 we ec woe nae 30-
Diseases and boll weevil, ravages of cotton, work of Bureau of Plant Industry,
erutie by -i i Gallowsien Jose | | cusses os Sot ee eee 497-508-
cattle and sheep, discussion by Secretary .................----..--- 21-23
cotton; Department investiumation so). os sat a Sei e ee 199°
SUE co a ei eer ee aes ee Sue. Lae aS 502-503-
domestic animals, legislation, 1904, summary by D. E. Salmon...... 581
wait, poggoeeltions for Mgmnnige ace ct ke sts ete deat so 175-176
Imsects as cause and estimated losed.. 5. 2-5-2. 2.2.60 l. a2 ac eee 474
pam, nnd Gomiestiic Minima sue oS ol IRS Shee a Sh ee 581-586-
Gomsbating rage ses) 86 see soe a Bc ca ok ee etidees 36-37
nature and, caused, GIsCWEIOR.. . s505 ss. eb a. . cee bn no 125-128.
BURT TCL, SATO ako get ie erat Bee Sd ak. shine « cnn Yaeenie sac 29
Diversification farms, use in work against boll weevil ............-.----. 34, 503-505-
Documents, reprints by Superintendent of Documents, remarks ...........--. 114
Domestic animals. (See Animals.)
OW Ss, HECHAINCND, TROGO dca sca Ws Gee vaaleWreate tin les dawn conn ee ee wae bes 514
Drainage and irrigation investigations, discussions ..--....--...----.------ 106-112
, 1904, review by Elwood Mead....-. 612-618.
Fort teed @eperenOnia ooo «3 od Sse rane en ote 102
SE OreR ee te YORG GUAR be oie oo ow ne ound eee cee wan cee wenn 331
MATRA SIOTIR BIN AG goal ia Winter He OSindi can a dod w eae mis cins anon 615-616.
PEE OG WOE OES dacninnich > ane eicbGuebbwemeneweus 108-116
Deioi aad S00Gs, NI DOrtits Bb A oo isc kc éPasdawtamcsddedmuns sdeeinsn 10

2 Aal1904——48

Se 880,

753
Page.

447, 448:
121

361, 362°
75

754 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page,
Drought, season of 1004, notes 6... csc cvsasccvevcveducevackucesebestuune 563-575
Drug-plants, American-grown, remarks .........-cccceeeececcncccccecceccce 31-32
Dry-land agriculture, remarks... .. . 02.00 ccccec sev cotoseseseevscscseuseuses 50
Ducks, protection by Texas laws, note 2... 6c et lec eee Uieeeuwesees 89
Durum wheats, raising, development as new industry. ...........--.--.-.--- 27
Duty of water and application to soil, remarks........-.-...------+--------- 107
Dyeing and printing cotton goods, use of castor Oil......-.---------------- 287-290
Eastern States, frost as obstacle to growing castor beans.......-.-----.------ 294
Ectatomma tuberculatum, ant enemy of boll weevil ......-.....-..---.----.-- 80
Education, agricultural, in common schools (see also Colleges, ete.) ........-- 98-99
meteorology, interest of Department. .......... 2-500 e cee eeeeeee 18
relation of plant physiology, remarks. ..........+..------.-- «. 128-132
Kags, color, influence on demand. ....... cciwe octet ee leueeseh eder pees sone 424
ORPONS - 5 occ ee ceccdiecincsadescvetassecus ideas osname © eaten oe ne 731
number per hen lJaid annually... . 2.00 scedeesi5 ite Sears ee eae renee 529
pheasant and quail, importation 22. scsud. cidcde ns sdcdks Obes eee eene 88
PROAUCKON BUG PRICES p05 os bss tedsssdeesedu sees eyeawees 4... 186, 716-717
Eupripce, M. O., summary of State road legislation and appropriations.... 610-612
Elk, preserve, establishment.in California... ..-.....2.0..2. 00 0s02 5 olivenen 90
Embryos, adventive, occurrence in citrus hybridization. .........--------- 226, 227
Engineering, agricultural, remarks «<.--....o0sc6<scsesc00er ses eee 110-111
or designing, farm, relation of forestry .......-.-.------------- 255
rural and farm machinery, study, remarks...........-...-..--- 97
surveys, etc., cost.in road: building .....)...<0. Jai. Sh cscs 337
English breeder, relation to development of thoroughbred ......---------.-- 532
Entomological exhibit, Louisiana Purchase Exposition...........----.------ 85
Entomologist, economic, problem in losses to crops, ete., note...--.---.----- 474
Entomology, Bureau, organization and duties................--------------- 541
work for control of cotton insects.........--.---. 197-198, 199
reviow by Secretary... . ... 2 5.62.0. SS ae 78-86
Ergometer, bicycle, use in calorimeter experiments. ..........-.------------- 212
Everglades, Florida, drainage problem... . ....2.s26.-50c.cssseucsees meena 109
Exeretory products, human, measurement ........ 2 50...00 5 Soccer eceanes 210
of human body, relation tofood-...........--.--..--+-.- 205
Experiment station, Guam, proposal, remarks.........------------------- 103-104
recommendation by Secretary ......--..-------- 104
stations, agricultural, directors, work, etc........-.---------- 546-548
Alaska, Gieumlon .of5 0.6 2 8 P29 eee 99-101
cooperation in animal breeding and feeding study.-..... 527
with Department, standing committee -.-..-

Hawaii and Porto Rico, remarks .......-.0...-5sl06- 102
Office, organization and duties. .......-.....-.-------- 542
work, review by Secretary ........-.---.---..- 93-113
State, cooperation with Department.........--..------ 51-52
Export.animals, inspection, remark@e J... osc ol UNE Sa 19-20
tobaccos, improvyemem, remierke..... 07.5 oes SE a 77-78
trade, fruit, effect of in vestipations ... 2... Sos et eee 44
relation. to horee: mimrket. 2 c5 oUt WE 530-531

Exporters, foreign, attitude toward food inspection in United States........- 160 -
Exports, agricultural (domestic) statisties: . 5... 2. vei 6. Sor aa 732-741
American, inspection, purpose... cows. 22 SC Pine ee 154-155
animal and animal products, remarks. - ... 222.2. 422 se oe eens 19-20
Argentine, remarks, with statisties... 2.2.0 005 2 ss ees oe 276, 280
castor beans and oil, from India. ois as-5.0 oe SE Oe 298
farm products, remarks by Secretary. ......----.---.------------5- 12-13
Exposition, Louisiana Purchase, apple and other fruit secores......---.- 420, 420-421
Dutte? score... sae foe DO eee 418

cigar tobacco, grand prize, note ...--..-----

comm growing contest ......-...s.4.-6 205 489, 491
Department exbibits .....--..--...---.- 61, 85, 97
entomological exhibit .....---------------- 85
exhibit of agricultural colleges -........---- 97
foveding euin bib sho b 30004. 61,593

St. Louis [Louisiana Purchase], corn exhibit ....... Leas - 98, 489-491

INDEX. 755

Page.
Farm animals and products, statistics (sce also Live stock).......-.-.----.- 700-717
ILA NACP,” WO i eo a BEE ate a anid, wo leSe sec 51
barns... ventiiatins: mee Mein oa as asi res as neil bt sess Di cdtSees 110
buildings and machinery, need of expert... ....ccecccccsscosccccccces 112
capital, increase, discussion by Secretary... 22. ccccsscececccccccccace 13-14
forest planting, relations of Department of Agriculture ............-- 269-270
Ig DOT. ONC Ear: MIRON IRE. TIGA en en's Sua SelcEas odeSbacdabavenbe 97
MEG, GUCOUISOOMIENS OF IROCRORE airress oon cdt in livantuetnduews clevctes sen 25
machinery, and Motive DOWSP, TOUTES, ......cc cccccts dec ccetnecccree 111-112
rural engineering, study, remarks...............-..--- 97
management and forest planting, ar ticle by George L. Clothier ...... 255-270
GRIGG. CRIGLE.OF WOR. UGE tee als So seco bees 52
Rooney: Vale OG GENIN ero cst s eA ee Seca SRE SL NG os Sean’ otee 515-516
pieniing.. Oed BG WIALROOR. ie tec cok cnsldde Cee See sets Sees ow 263-266
products, annual value and insect damage, estimates................-- 461.
foreign trade, discussion by Secretary. ................-..--. 12-13
leading crops, values and losses by insects .........-..------ 464

marketing, influence of color, appearance, and name..... 417-43
1904, estimates: of agvregabet iio vet awed ectcewn ces newees 12
relation to factory, PRATER. ok eee thats asians bat cere 161
meee.of tlihnterianG Uso... soi le dadies cca wdbiteadedene et cues 260
Beouet, American. Oroplbimeao. sh et an vende heh ek ads SER eee eee oS eee 161
Argentine, characteristics and difficulties ............-.--...-- 272, 285-286
benefits from game protection, article by T. 8. Palmer............ 509-520
Boys’ and Girls’ League, Texas, dai otal ea Oe eee Fe 494
education advisable for success, remarks piccianeetenns ete it aalo ae 131-132
honesty and buyers’ fancies as influences in preparing for market... 434
knowledge and power in crop management, remarks .........-..- 124-125
lessons on marketing from consumers’ fancies........-....-.-------- 433
North Carolina, benefit by leasing of shooting privileges.......--. 519-520
protection af property by game lawa. ow... 2.5.5 lee eect kes 512-513
relation to. plant physiology, moleso.. 2.0 .cd ee OL at 128-129
Herniers, advantages of forest, methods 2... oe de Jaleo eee 591-592
Argentine, tenure of land and quality of work ........--....-..--- 281
Denciits fror: hunters; vistiors, ebe nrc Pee AR BA 517
of game protection, plans for securing -............-.--- 518-520
boys and girls, clubs, formation and work ................-.....-- 98
children, instruction in-agebeulbure. poc0lo5es6 Ud ee 98-99
cooperation of Department in cotton cultivation.........-......--. 32, 78
failure to plan tree planting on woodlots.................-....--.- 258
financial progresa:and. well-hemyg ..... 255i ok ee 14-15
institute, Macoupin County, Ill., methods for securing attendance. 489-491
work in efforts avainst cotton boll weevil Js. 2... 6. cee 508
institutes, officials in charge, Spe. 25. MRS Ech ESR 549
gummary of work, statioties :.2522 002k. 20. 621-622
use in work against boll weevil .............-..-.-...2- 504
Work. ,eierkg.o 54.0 Ret et hee 99
National Goneress, aGicses) hese. Se4 UA t E 556
rights as to killing of game on lands.............-....-.--.------- 511
United States nativ e, movement from homes.........-.:...:-.-- 393-354
wealth production, discussion by Secretary ......-....------.----- 10-12
Farmhouse, location, relation of tree planting .................--.--.--.--- 266, 268
Farmhouses and Buildings, matesss.c2 -wenot ek ck odes Ek ob ee eee 110
<a general, article by W..J2 Spillman. 2 202.00. . 22 sess 181-190
increase in importance in Argentina. ............--------------.- 280
intensive and extensive contrasted ...............--+--+--.+.--- 171-172
reipaites statement = sci bi Ce. Se 181-190
vocation, acma sequbreniemitncJGosceh ok Oats i ee a EE 163
Farms, demonstration, use in work against boll weevil........--- 32, 78-79, 505-506
diversification, Southerm gemaeritecs Joss. 2. oo chs ane eee 34
use in work against boll weevil ..................-- 503-505
small, adaptation of irnitqrowing tioctec 2. eect eee 170-171
Farmstead, forest planting, special Se sie a Css 266-269
Feed, Argentina, increase in production of corn ..........---------.------ 283-284

UMS. 0F GRADE: DOSE .., case e Pee Re. Ee A Sn edie 378

756 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.

Feeding and breeding investigations, animal, of Bureau of Animal Industry,
articla by 2). EB. GalmMon <..<succene vcvvssesveopeeeuelbenadeneee 527-538
corn, to cattle, growing favorable, opinion in Argentina...........--- 275
experiment with steers in Alabama, remarks.......--.-.----------- 536
stuffs, commercial and condimental, use and inspection. .........--. 95, 96
Fence lines, objection to growing trees .... 2... ccececcevcssucwvenueetepeusepan 266
posts, roofs, etc., use of concrete .......s)saadsiscsee sas -ouusastue seam 68
use of living trees, notes... ..<.sisesuuhseeeees eu oeeeeeee 260, 261
Fermentation, slow, of wines...... ocecte dweiegncs cde eee 372
Fermenting tobacco; Note... <2). a sa decd beet Ges eb a Seee eee 75
Fertility of land, building up by dairy .. 10. Jssds.ecst eee ca Seen 183
Fertilizer and feed, use of grape POMARCE,..5.50 Soe ets ec te cwececnsscnems 378
use Of CASLOT POMAOS - on. 'acic = ok binncie nnind eens eee uneeke been anne 291
Fertilizers, sugar-heet, TOMATKS....v.006 cos oocewccccensccskiaues nee e es np heen 28-29
Fertilizing orchards, quantity and kind of material .........-...------------ 175
Fiber plants, diseases In 1904. 2.25. cc vice cisis eae w bcccibe space abe s cole 586
in veatigations, Temarks. 2 otc cou nes sec damielle nial eee 50
Porto Rico experiments ~ ......0. docks eS Sik a eee ee = 103
Figs, Smyrna, production in California, note......-.-.-- he ons ce pele Se 82
Filler tobaccos, supply. and: prices... ...-<veen ccc ncccsescasnn set eeen eee een 435
Finch, house, or linnet, injury to fruit and nature of food.......-...------ 246-248
Fires, forest, remarka (see also Forest) .<. 22-0. 2-n<sa-cddube «css > eee 60, 592
Flavor, importance.in. butter. ....-.<<.dsetitadnsd Lees sashes ap eee 418
Fiax, fruit, cotton, and tobacco, Argentine. ...<2.5 4.06 .siess sesso eee eee 284-285
Flaxseed, crops, acreage, production, and value ........-....------------- 690-692
Flickers, usefulness, note. ... 2 1- 4.0snas Sate esis Si LL Sais Se inl tial 514
Flood and river service, Weather Bureau, remarks...........--------------- 15-16
Floods in northern Californie, 3904 .s. spec cso. i kee 2ee dee ae eee 561
Florida Everglades, drainage problem. 2... .¢.22. 2 s'.6~ 25% Sov eee eee 109
freezes, injury to citrus industry, notes. 02.2... .c2s..s226.0h soe 223
freezing temperatures and effect on citranges.....-..-------------- 231-232
longleaf pine, damage: by fire, notes ........260. 2.8050. e soe 135
pouthern, forage CrOPG. sc... -s-nnsen cue epee canb sheet bee Seen 41
Flour and wheat, world’s export, 1900-1904... .... 2.5 Joos een bee 637
beetles and meal worms, note... 25% s.6ch<. w.ehenece Soe eee 83
grain and provisions, freight rates, Chicago to Europe .....-.--..----- 720
wheat, exports... - «ss 08 wg vacdeuee GweeeS See inna ner 737
Flours, nutritive value and digestibility, remarks .............-..------.--:- 105
Flower growing, commercial and truck gardening, suggestions -... 164, 165, 167, 168
seed, home grown, DOO. -n<cn Gases ies awetine> Skid ete eel ee 48
Flowers and vegetables, Alaska, notes ..... 0... s0slicle seen 99
fashions, remarks. .2.% ise seucdee en JA cae dec celeb eee 432
growing as business, requirements, methods, and profits..-.......- 167-168
Foliage, sparse, and hairiness as desiderata in breeding cotton.......-.-.---- 501
Food, bird, supply, effect on numbers and habits of certain species- -- - - 241, 242-243
borax experimenis, remarkB oss. .tnevd ics ice kbs Be. oe 63
habits, common birds, uselulness...; .......... 25st Sweenet. sa5e cee eeeee 514
inspection, beginning :..2cesd< swsescg enw tedoek dain sees ae 151
genera] Preemie: ais sis.o alisicis cbiclate sith Balen bin epee ee 159-160
law, execution:i 2-5 satecthinwdceds et ee ee ee 153-156
officials, United. States. oc 2c0 oeeciee J asisautes see 554
statistics, tables... .....solicci deena On alee eee 595-597
work of Bureau of Chemistry, remarks -.....-.- 3.22 e 2 62-63
law, present, segpe; remarks... -. <.ciwic aces Jace oS se ee 142-153
legislation and inspection, review by W. D. Bigelow.....-.---.----- 593-597
of plants, discBegien..c uss .. csc od See See ese ee eee 122-125
polish and gloss, influence on demand . ... 0.05. sscs0sheelacinie eee 425-429
products, foreign, inspection, article by H. W. Wiley...-...----..--- 151-160
Insect damage ovccwen vanuloen seias BS Gee Sa eee 473
preservatives, relation of food inspection............-------- 157
United States inspection for export.........--.---2..----- 154-155
standards, establishment by Secretary of Agriculture, remarks -.....-- 63
rights of Executive in fixing, judicial decision and legislation. 152
Foodg.and drinks, importers, Note.s. os... ss .Uedondabeniechverebageeeeee 10
lecal variations in.fancy of consumers ........5-.---<secces seg eee eee 432
relation 40 human body, study... ......<a0sschisctssGnn hae 205-207

whitences: influence on Gemand. .... ..<< ccacsausecs ddbinb memes Jones 429-430

INDEX. 757

Page.
Foot rot and gid of sheep, and rabies, remarks .............20--secceeeeeeee 23
Foot-and-mouth disease, effect on Argentine cattle trade .................. 273,274
purage and hay crope;sinsett Gamage ssc cs bos Sec UGS whe di ect Sedut yc 468
CROD WOLKE, WAVEMON oat edema veaee ease. Seu ceS ite th ok dee bo eaWe 37-39
crops and truck farming, use in work against boll weevil............-- 5O5
GISDRRON MT 2s Cs ana oS Se ROSE SU Sete cee cs Hanes 586
Sow son ETOH eORRON was ade ee Gea PAR Ses cc tes dete 41
plants atid-graing, insect. OUOUNIGE iss dese Leis eis Sos sss Sec erect 84
CPOMREE TORS ka dali an vce Hehehe Oe bss De dee die Dele
IVER IaR Oe REN Bee So os Soe oe 2b kel 6 ee Ce alesse 39-42
production, southern possibilities, note........-........------------ 189
Forecasts and special warnings, Weather Bureau, distribution............... 16-17
weather and long-range, remarks by Secretary..................-- 15,18
Foreign birds and animals, entry into United States, remarks ......-..----.. 88
trade, farm products, discussion by Secretary.........-...----.----- 12-1;
Forest conditions, regional studies, remarks (sce also Trees) .....-.-..------- 591
exhibit, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, remarks...............---.-- 61
SE UGREON,, Le Ore AOE iid cadet dues 6 cbse Sethe Swe we cu me 60
five ceateucton.in Guatemals, nob on wise cose. os chaos se leiie ce waldo 481
fires, attitude of lumbermen, article by E. A. Sterling ...........--. 133-140
erroneous ideas concerping elfectas . .u. . poss en Sic wede cus etels 135-136
insects, knowledge nécessary to prevent losses........---.------------ 382
management, large opportunities. ....................-..-.-- antithe heaal 58, 590
measurements, work of Bureau of Forestry in 1904.........-2..----- 58
Pietiecn atvan tage t6.1armers inocu Ao cle on. ccc ccetiee coed 591-592
planting about.farmstead, advantages .......25-.605.s-000se5 02-08 266-269
secording to: plan, Ghio exaniple ss ier dient. d. ae ees 259- 262
and farm management, article by George L. Clothier ...-..-. 255-270
needand methods, Tremarks.oisc0uk Wien 205k Ost 256, 592
problems, tieed Gt Investigation... ew 52 2 Pees in 53
produdis, spare ame Gxporte. 32S 5.4. oo 3 ee Oak 725, 735
insect injuries, article by A. D. Hopkins............-.--- 381-398
II ig AS Pen laos sam nid do ae So ED Be A So 56
quality of timber as factor of increase in value ..............-+.--.--- 453
reserve policy, progress in general understanding ...........--.------ 589
reserves: injaries by smelter fulness oocl 32) r.2 te, ee ee ese 62
eM Gihcin. dn ine ME AAS 6 Pierce Sona a beeen 589
planting and: polep ih creatioms 722002... kd 2s 55
pituation,. present in United: States: 6. oseu ssi et. ese ect eh 52
studies, cooperative. State, remarkess 5264. cyee nek os os eee ek 58
trees, species for planting in Middle West ............-.....-.-..--.-.- 264
Forestry associations and schools, officials, study, etc............--------- 554-555
Bureau, cooperation with State authorities, remarks ....-......-.-..- 56
experiments on increase in quality of timber.........-.-- 453-460
lines of work requiring extension, remarks.........--...-- 55-56
some practical. investigations. vfo0s 2269s. ees eens ee 590-591
ultimate function in Government and chief lines of work -. 54
WOLrk, Organizauon Git GGUes. 2425 .c.oes5 So ee ee se 52-62, 540
working plan for hardwood tract at McKeever, N. Y.----- 459
fields: for inture work Giacinto dio: 2 2 RE ee bs cn ot 53-56
ioreat Jeginlation ithe iatee. 622 oo so ce ORS weet 592-593
fostherGevelo panei mee 5 ea) na i OS See ce dG oS 57
helpfulness to: raslromds seieeeeass. oS) 220 S2Se - 5 bad ves J eee oe 591
progress in 1904, review by Quincy R. Craft.........-...--------- 588-593
recognition: by ihomber trade, neers. soc 5 eee. se eek 54
Sorests,.conital: (omtomeies MNS eta es ee See hs se nae eRe 481
damagihg ineotts; Pemawk su. ae e gos SSI esto 2 oN sede sezsbedes 83
fire Ioesds,: 86m8 Calmimee os. Sea 5 ak os wwe Sasa dU. 133-134
problem, new departure in management.......-.--...---.---- 138-139
protection, summary of suggestions -.........-.:-..-----.---- 139-140
insect: dasmsbed; ealimieenet Fret Sirol. bo ee CEES 6. as 471-472
planted in Llinois, comparative value of walnut and maple......---.- 257
private, fire protection, MEMAIEES oi6 5. os a So Soe. dR 5 es st 137-138

State and National, scientific studies. ...............5.....---------
Freezes, Florida, effect on citrus industry and citrange.........------- 223, 231-232
Breight rates, Azspentine, nove. 4..6.ce ses Sa eck PPS ass oes ede 281

ptatletlon; .. ccd side. teal tclacdis ba taka: 632, 644, 685, 717, 720

758 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page.

French market, fruit packing for trade. ... 22. s2-2c-seese yecet se bsccescssees 43

Frost, Alaska, destruction of cereals in August at Copper Center...........-. 100

damaging, spring, 1006 2. cnc occcdndecuncucsd Ghee ae 563, 564

freedam of Argentina, note .....cccvu cvwisdededbecweedGadueenueeies 283

relation of fonest belte on fared cos 6 cs ces cts i cbinbbbsseceetee eee 268

to growing castor plant. ~~ ..... .ccs.sschwesgbeeeseeaea eee 294

Fruit, cotton, .tohaaso; and flax, Argoritine.......seescivsbsecccuiecseeeees 284-285

European market, bandling and packing .......-..--..-------------- 43

fancy, as basis for preference Dow es.aren eilaieweaetgreisl ele es lps ele beet ieee On 419

grapevine, some uses, article by George C. Husmann..............- 363-380

grower, successful, Pequiremente....< .ccise sow sut deco cs sbaaloeaes 170

growing, adaptation to smell farme « .c3i260c< cnet ce eae 170-171

article by M. B: Walle 2.22 acccdiewucccuntes wl eee 169-181

excessive growth of tree; corn as preparatory crop.....-...--- 173

in Alaska, notes. is< sen 6s Selsaeskik bei eee 100

California, relation of birds, article by F. E. L. Beal..... 241-254

10046, nropreme is so... DaceGcelL adc nuscl Ae 586-587

intensive, methods and opportunities, discussion... 172-177, 177-179

preparation of land, remarks ...... .-.-..-----+----+++-++- 173-174

marketing investigniiomet . ... ....Csece ck wouese ede cee eee 42-44

shipping, | foreign markets, MIB oto wile Lee ee 10

storage inv estigations, progress, discussion... ..2.0 5000 5.5. 650i nee 44-45

trees, caution in use of stable manure ..0.25%5.5.. 5 -sses Cob 175

winter killing, remarka.2. 3.52... ccc bk. Sis oe 36

Praits, Alaska, notes «.6. nds c sue ese Ce eee ee eee 100

and meats, preserved, relation of food inspection .-..........--..---- 158

nuts, diet, investigations at University of California, remarks .... 106

vegetables, injurious insects, remarks............-.--..-.------- 82

citrus, new creations of Department of Agriculture............-- 29, 221-240

group called citrange ...2. Ul. Ue. 28 tek 227-235

digeasee in’ 1904 . oes eee RR eee eee 581-584

hardy citrus, methods of production in Department work........-- 223-227

imports and exports. v.31.» cciede cba wan dn Canteen Boeoe sae 727, 736

insect damage... .\.....cetkh sy meeeetad een eS eee 83, 469-471

new, development, note... 552 2. 54k ea ee 47

promising, article by William A. Taylor.............-...-.... 399-416

perishable, loss in shipping, causes; picking.......-.-.---------- 44-45, 177

Fungi and bacteria, part in production of soil conditions ................-.-- 124

Fungicidal treatment, value for cereal rusts and smuts, ete., remarks... 126, 127, 128
Fungic ide, lime, salt, and sulphur wash, use ...-....4-..-- 522-2552 --Sse08

Fungicides, kinds for fruit Prowing ous Siwickecc. 5s 175-176

Fungous diseases of coffee, cane, SLCHI TINTS TEE . 102

Farniture, wagons, etc., mecct 1njariegs. 2. 2. Se. ee Se ae 397

Gattoway, B. T., article on ‘‘Growing crops under glass’’......-.--.----- 161-169

‘Work of the Bureau of Plant Industry in meet-
ing the ravages of the boll weevil and some

diseases of cotton”? .........---.------eeee 497-508

Game and birds, organizations for protection... ..........2.-.-.-.-.s2eee-eee 556
birds, raising in captivity, experiments and results ......-......--.---- 516
eondition in, 1904... .. sockei ood AAS ee act ee ee ee 608-609

fresh and ‘high,’ remarks. ¢ ... 1. scenes esndnedos Sasa Se eee 422
increase under profection o . 502 ..cscdeseseh esse eee 518
interstate COMMER, TOMATE bo. 0c ek ak Shae Se eee 88
money value to iirsaer =. Joss Se cee aaa ee 515-516
Ownership, change of opinion =... 0.60 <<.+~s5hss.cueseesee Ae 510
preserves, establishment, 1Q06s iss ccna anaes Mee - 610
protection and introduction, GIsCURMION. ..... 2s AGE dia eee ee 88-90
benefits for farnier, aruicle by T.: S. Palmers. sssdcus4i2s. 509-520

educational. work: i 00O4 ous cxieesyaune shasta eee 607

Gnancial benefits tofammer. so. o. Soicecies.ckausabae 515-517

in: Abadia: vomeairktss 2060.52 oc/dée aceusw Ge eee ee Sa 89

1004. zeview by: T. 8. Palmares sic2s base Sth 606-610

plans for securing benefits for land owners. .-.....-------- 517-520

, Gardon. vegetables, diseasen: im 2004 - 2 Jue Sst el es a Je 584-585
Gardening, vegetable, development and needs...........----------------- 186-187

Gelatinization, cotton, cause of death of boll weevil larvee.......------ 487, 500-501

INDEX. 759

Page
Geographic distribution, animal and plant, study..............-.-.--.------ 86-87
Georgia, chestnuts free from weenlh attinlen’ 21 Gero eee «oc ccd voces bab. 300
WOOHOE, Offe0t OR: CITOINIG s 65 ccc cin case cewe boule eeei bape 232
work against San Jose wenle; TOMATES, Wei. s ec ie eect e ehecteee 81
Germination, tobacco seed, relation of GNS.GRG Welt iss. Sees ticcc isc 440
Gid and foot rot of sheep, ‘and PADIOS, TOMBFEG 65 os bois ce id ceo ee cece cece oe 23
Ginseng, fancy as basis of demand in China..................-2--ee eee eeee 430
ee earionltnral clubs, 60: 552005 GPU sw 5524 See oo Le en ie 493
Gossypium hirsutum, American CORGORIAMORD sides esis ceetb dbs 477
Grades, fruit, importance in packing and SRN DR ol calc ph SRS en 177
Grading, cost in road building at Jackson, Tenn ..........-.....---------- 334-335
Grain, Alaska growing (see also Corn, W heat, 2p RS EE SAE OE NDP 100
RD, POORER ie ss oh ts aden as Dac Nk k bse cee 717,719
rotation with potatoes in Colorado ..........2..--2---02-eeeeeeeee ees 313
Grains and forage plants, insect enemies ...........5...2.-..2 22-2 eee e eee ee 84
Grenes, Nationalveiicemsntaeole ct ss Cek ssa TUNA eee ckk res td 556
Grape breeding, combination of Kuropean and American varieties.........-. 121
CTOP, ‘VARIG Of WAKER . W060 sen sown SETI eens e cece cdeecesee 379-380
SGCRRSE IR AOE eine ce peer DUE oe Ss Sie AEE les 583
phylloxera and rots, Tensedies......0 0 wes bei hse dasenchovweds 127
growing, present state of dey QE le. UU ee ae 366-367
industry, discussion (see also Grapevine) ......-.--..-------+------- 367-375
Millenial, origin, Geacription, Ole octdeen Ws <wede at's Won ectee sages 403-404
skins and seeds, ‘products eAapcnaaliarscsatdhatet notin eae Wied ahs sible Od ict ker aha 378-379
WIG: ONG a sha Wo gre CS CR gs de USC 365
WOGd, META Dieieds ONG Wes ee. he ee ts Ne 364-365
Weapes, stow household sacipes. coc. s~ Va wek wee swe cee eels 375-377
SeUehs, BRO tePess. Son SoC te ec Gel hae eee 2 ed LS 375
growing in @raperies ame) pole. v.60 lides) - ea A ae es 367
Losses ‘Dy California Valley quatls 52 2)005 2530. ee. eee 250
POOCHER, CUE, MOORE oak es ee ee se he ee ee es 421
Grapevine and its fruit, some uses, article by George C. Husmann.......-- 363-381
legyes; UBO1 MeGICING, TOMATKS wwe nn envescubbeawusces dus - 364
Grapevines, cultivation for ornamental purposes, age, etc........--.....--- 365-366
num ber-in leading grape States: 025 6. eS eel ie als 368
peru ern mem Ride I tos Ue ek SOULE Lee Se < bh ecle wheats 41
lands and live ateck,. Alaska,;remarks': 22.11 2.2.25 585 ist... eee se 100-101
Grasses and forage plants, growing in Alaska, notes...........-..------ 99, 100, 101
MEADE AR iee sl Find deco tO reee s Usa Sie eee 587-588
forage plants, and stock feeding, discussion -...........------------- 39-42
invested enn eld, SEY So Soy eee ed CLS Uo et 39-42
alive, Goniestiosiion, 2omisress. 6... oY UILee Ae aed 40
seed) fox -tesia.ca Tanger, Howe ose s SESS shee iad outa i 38, 39
Se. CRPIIORs BORE cue Roe soe BO Pa Ed 6 cee ca ee ee 40
Gravel and rock for road building at Jackson, Tenn., sources............---- 325
Great Britain, American cattle trade, danger from etal none 5 4) aU SL, .. 22
GREATHOUSE, ‘CHarves H. , article on ‘‘State Publications on Agriculture’”’.. 521-526
Greeley, Colo., potato culture, artucte-by J... Max Olark 252 ou. o9 ic cele 311-3822
Greenhouse and ornamental pisats, disenwed ia 1904. 2). S26 Fee AW 8 a ON 586
eost for general. plant growiug 7). 02.0200 Re ke eee 165
crops, growing, article by B. T. Galloway ...........-...--.--. 161-169
Goll nenewal, BORER Boos 5a MEA. Jette ik Ak 166
Greenhouses and land in growing cut flowers, cost, etc........-.--.------- 167, 168
mew, construction, .remimwbe:. <5 200 0 Soe... Sota Se Leeda 51
Grosbeak, blackheaded, destruction of codling moth; fruit eating........-.- 87, 248
Growing potatoes at Greeley, Cols, pila, o0062 SA. Ss. nos Sonne 316-322
Growth, plant, physiological processes and essentials, remarks --...-.....--- 123
Guam, experiment station: proposed, Semiariig 62625... 2s oh LS a 103
Guatemala, enliquiby of eotumvoniinne ).0i 5 ene 3 a 8S 477
cotton culture, article by O. F. Cook ................00022.22- 475-488
Guatemalan ant, boll weevil enemy, colonization ..................-.--..+.- 35, 80
Gralf east. crops; vOmegree . MC sS Sesto es Fa ces Pe AE ene 41
Hams, deceptive use of name in selling ............-.......-2....4.-------- 423
Handle and wagon stock in rough, insect injuries...................-...---- 394
Hardwoods, Forestry Bureau experiments .....-..-.-....----------+-------- 453

Harrowing, inportance: in fruit growls dns CUS de He Ses tase n ce bas 174

760 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page,
Harvesting, careful, as preventive of chestnut weevils ............---.-.----- 808
Hatch Act funds, use by experiment stations, notes ........-.....-.-------- 93, 94
Hauling and roade in Argentina. ..05- oe cccsccvccensksulpveeneassaabebende 281
with teams, cost in road building at Jackson, Tenn ..............-. 335
traction engines, OOSb. oi. .s.sssawnsdidudeaeueeed es bantaaene 336-337
Hawaii experiment station, remarks. .......ccuschiedxcbecken vs cacuseeewben 102
foresta, bulletin. «oc .oi ice cols dnevied cowecekéaweeeweenenbees aE 58
Hay, acreage, production, prices, exports, etc ....s..cccscrcersspesvensuee 678-682
and forage.crons, insect damage. ...<ssics wcvivesuideddssesehesaeeee eee 468
haying, 1904, notet ss. s.v ccc csscstwen sweawecem exper see 565-570
wheat, contribution to national wealth, remarks by Secretary....-- ll
ORPONTB. os c'sp:d dvs cin o's Sdteigd 6 Unidwicuiels Gade elie a ectakdaas cae aie 738
weight and volume, remarke |... -.cc.00% o00scmsnedacass cb aesan ae 40
Hazelnut weevil, description, distribution, remedies, ete ......---...-..----- 310
Heat, amounts given off by human body, calorimeter data .........--.-..--- 210
and carbon dioxid, amounts given off by human body .......-.-.-.-. 214-216
regulation and measurement in calorimeter...........------+--+-+--- 209
relation of food in human body... ss.0.ss0>~kreeck eeee eee 205, 206
Hen, improvement in number of eggs ... .ccnceceseccnpescnnssscet nee 529
Heesian fy, damage 10 wheat ......> ssss«isn cuss cnetesebeeeeen beeen eeene 466, 603
Hides, cattle, losses by ox warble, estimate . su... ss. .6ceee see ae eee 472
Highway, rights of public and prohibition of shooting -.......--..---.------ 513
Hog raising in South, ‘remarke 5.25 2..i2%> ashe cesthewuse us ack eee eae 189
Hogs and poultry, destruction of nut weevil. ......-.--.-.0----eee-eeseces 309
breeders’ associations, secretaries, numbers registered, ete ........----- 553
danger of feeding cotton-seed meal, note....2.........-------.--ceeeee 360
OEPOTTH onc sha scs epesdmaee eee wos bk Wes alw eel weeds emcee 731
number, exports, prices, ete. (see also Swine, Pork).......----------- 714-716
Ho.umEs, GrorGceE K., article on ‘‘Consumers’ fancies”? .....-.....------ses 417-434
Homeseeker, relation of Weather Bureau, article by Edward L. Wells....- 353-362
Weather Bureau information, availability. ..........-..--.-.--- 357
Homeseekers, mistakes ..2.).. 65 .ns550e5 de. ck sd bee eee ieee oe ee 354-355
Honey: buyers, peculiarities... oos5 oxo asdcand mnie LA eee ee 424
Honeycomb, genuineness, remarks ... 32... 2wk sascte Juss semeee sneer 86
Honeysuckle, wild, use in binding soil on roads ........-.-..-2+--------+--- 337
Hopkins, A. D., article on ‘‘ Insect injuries to forest products”’...-...-.--- 381-398
estimate of forest losses by insects... .....-.---s--se= scesee 472
Hops, prices, wholesale, 1900-1004. ...': cin cd ew dei cemuvnecaeens owee eee 689
Horee breeding investigations ... «+ s«.ssse<% ieee wate Gas bet aies eee 529-536
light, kind for markets, a5 ssa cnvins. ns oe Rawk sk bas bee eee ee 5382
market, relation of export-trade...........<.s.- «5s shins ean eee aa 530-531
Horses, American, trotter as foundation for breed .............----.-------- 531
and mules, number, imports and exports, prices, etc.........--.-.-- 700-702
raising in South, remarks... «ses sedads dust ae 189
breeders’ associations, secretaries, numbers registered, ete....-.----- 552
breeding, importation, mistaken system.............--.------+--e-- 538
imports and CX Ports oasis. chew Sen shew wes REG 5 ate ee 721, 732
market, scarcity and. DRIGGH caic..o. abs esau eiesboes wcewnee 529-530, 531
Horticultural and kindred societies, national, list.............-.-.-..+------ 555
Horticulturist, education advisable for success......-..-...-ss-+---e-es--s- 131-1382
Hothouse crops, growing under. @leee «04:5 ac aba<isu babe wakeenesehess eee 161-169
Human body, amounts of heat and carbon dioxid given off .......-------- 214-216
relation of food to vital functions .......cuwsnsisavs os cate eee 205-206
temperatures, data from calorimeter .........-...---------- 218-220
Humid sections, United States, irrigation, remarks ...............-.---.----- 108
Hunrer, W. D., article on ‘‘ Present status of the cotton boll weevil in the
United, States? 2. us shige Ca ot on nis wold pemietetls Rikete ce ok nek ee 191-204
Hunters, numbers as shown by issue of game licenses.........-...----.----- 511
Hunting, game protection .aa-eheck 2... 3% J. o» dsesedeewaedaussee ceeeeeee 511-512
North Carolina, system of leasing shooting privileges .......-.---- 518-520
privileges, rental.as iarm. revenue «. 2... 6% sussex ewe dud cae ee 516
HusMANN, GrEorGEC., article on ‘‘Some uses of the grapevine and its fruit’’.. 363-380
Hybridization, citrus fruit, method in study and breeding in Florida. .--.-.- 221, 222
improving lint of early cotton varieties...............--.---- 500
method of producing hardy citrus fruits.............-.------ 224
relation to plant breeding (see also Crossing) .........---- 120, 121

statement of well-known principle; difficulties and losses..... 225

INDEX. 761

Page.

Hybrids, citrus, number and subsequent handling in Department work .... 222, 223
corn, potato, and tobacco, note (sce also Breeding) ............-..- 46

cothany Int ehOneeb iss. sed weseva tics ccs costae acts seed 45

sweet orange and trifoliate, differences in leaves.................-- 227

LoWAOCd, GE 15 AITO VOM Ga isd de cli acnad sc dees cove adds ccwasune 452

Ice gorges on rivers, Weather Bureau service, remarks.................----- 16.
Prog, Castor. HGRA, WROGUCUON: ck wires Shite dove ueees es ceeuee 293, 294, 295, 296
farmers’ association for protection from hunters, methods and work. 218-219

forest planting, kinds of trees and comparative value..............-- 257

STAVCL TO WRI ROO s BUT bak cicba nc cecccessucowcecsscosva 325

TONOTIS OWE RIOUIGUTS, TOUIATRR chic weed ea dew ow d was cunecucccece 24
Llinstrations, AUDON TIMOR OS UOCOATAOUEE 65 5 cca inn ennocdddecedesssducsceess 114
Implements, agricultural, United States, use in Argentina.............-.---- 285
DIOW. AUG DBITOW. Im TrUll OTOWING Ss J cincn 5 ccd ec dd vemedatececcs 174

Detate Wea WAss Ur COlGTROG is oa WU hawisle th dele cde sans Sodas 518-321

Perport ari lneis: ImeeeGeOMes Pan dle. 6 on wd deles came eas aw ns Selb dee aa ew aoe 20
Importation, injurious mammals and birds, prohibition, Federal and State... 515
Importations of lve. mammele and DITGE a. bso insk ocle oie Use ten wasesaved 609-610
PIDOTTS, RETICULAT As PRRMABUIR as ened Suh hod bbe Ca eee S cee cadaver éeemsda 721-751
birds and enimals,.came Nd epee. 2.52006 lla odes ee oie o wen dewwes 88

castor beans and oil into-United States ........20 2.260005 en steseeus 298

farm products, remarks by Secretary.............-------- are Sp 15

index cards, Department publication, note... .. 2.5.22. eee ee Se we en vecde 115
India, British, source of supply of castor beans............--.-------------- 298.
ESHA) SETINGHATS, AWOLYDGES jan. price Wud reese oo Nake ed ob ap ewes 480-482.
TRATED. PODOTLE ON AETICUIITS, OFIPIN; ClOes 5 olo.encue obo nem ne he ae aes 523-524
Indians, Guatemalan, growing of cotton and other crops......------------ 478, 481
amnect damage io enihity Cstinaties 5... < as Scewclewuiuepebnn--seesecens 472-473
PPR ron, UisCURION . S00. 252. 6 F. aa eae en dns 465-468

Pe Rite ie io Ai aa dS onde on ee eee aa cee 468-469

SOPCER, COUIRATER Sox Se oo o's one vas ot Rergite 471-472

MRAM Ala Mra rea Sesion ce ints Simla o wae, oe gt IC 469

Tey ane. TOLARE ETOPS ses ee be eas es ks Peete lpia Nie mo 468

GOT. HIS RO ace De Seb Lae awe da peeeeees 473-474

Guemuies of grains ang forage plants .\...'. 5-52... --02%5c- - +s 50s <= 5 ues 84
TET i aC CO BTRIUER Ge ip ea sw reo GLUE EA cen on awe ieee 382-391

to forest products, article by A. D. Hopkins......--..-.--- 381-398

POURG Aber, WIOCERION. 86 cna wes Dees hb oa bo eee 393-394

DESIS, TIMOR BOUR WEGEIC sin acer, nica Sawaya Pad ol> xno kta nd ore ata 83
Ineecticides, .axperimenieh Work, POMATES. « «62 ooo Seep ee one sesso siams 84
Ansectivorous. birds, PIGveCUON «is. siege oe pcs bares mice sles ae 509-510
Ruscets and INseCte;Ger In. 1kUIb PTOWIBE vives 6 onic 3 natin doen eins oo ~~ a sesine 5 175-176
scales, destruction by black-headed grosbeak -.............----- 248

annual loss from destructive insects, article by C. L. Marlatt.....-- 461-474
penelicial, wmported, Temesaren es So hs or. Seo ae ee eee wes 525 nk pt 81

cost of protection from damage and disease -.-.--.--.--------------- 474
Gamnagiip. to inresht, TOMAR RHa tea. Seek os betes deen iad a waa an 83
Geatruction Dy DideR DiNEs. S 7 eice tect y= Sie aden amet iad don vee dee 248
mogrious, destruction fyomitGe .. sa pees odin awe ae owen ome 513-514
principal, in 1904, summary by F. H. Chittenden .....-- 600-606

RO VOOR BI OU so ee on ok Ce oa bbe cone yes 83

DOKIOUM, \GemtrOGiaOn IT MeN sn soles rote oa aa es omnes ge dawson knn 253-254

POOH. GT QONINGL - ibaa ee a cee hia ca ees ete oda <~ 5 e enna eee ie 463-464

Scale Omen, ATR OU he Oia ae IS ae eed absense apeme 81, 82, 83
Inspection and legislation, food, review, by W. D. Bigelow ...-..--.-.------ 593-597
CRILIS. OCGU, Wee ORI ee, iss Sk das eis wari nedecadewtia 22-23

dairy products... ... 22-22... 2e2e ene n eee een ne ee es ene ee eee 24

SOEGATIIE UNE PORE Cee ow Oh a on od omni eens eae eee 90, 96
Me ee ee ee eer © eee 62, 159

language of law and nature of work..............---.---- 153-154

product, for American exporters. ................:..-....-- 154

products, foreign, article by H. W. Wiley.-.-.....--.---.---- 151-160

IRS Sa he ates ack ae We ona apab hs Ae nnecne ae 594-597

WOLRING GL UNE Oi panna tee A baine bs ome Se arn smae ces 156-159

Of ARITNAIA AN HAORE SOG MAIO e > ~ an os noe one ee cancun 19-21

Institutes, farmers’, officials and statistics..................-...-..--- 549, 621-622

762 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page.

Instrumental equipment, Weather Bureau .......5...-ccccnccecccewcecscees 19

Interstate commerce in game, remarks .i.si sc vie coc teves ewes ce dbvcdcseeueres _ 88

lowa, boys’ agricultural club and school fairs, organization and growth ...... 404

reports OF Serienltare. sis ca vit svccvde whe is ape veebun eras 524

achool fairs, study .of agriculture... . .civccscisiebeccin oeeosee enue 494-495

State College, tests of corn planters and windmills ............-...-.-- 112

Irrigated districts, iarming land, Grainahe 5 6 os cos ssie Sebl a cindeev beenaeeae 109

injury by alkali, and reclamation ....; Wi iviuctsesocieoeue 72-74

Irrigation and alfalfa, factors in Colorado Potato STOWE, . 260 siiowse cde dbabe 312-313

drainage investigations, discussion .........-.--.-.-..------ 106-113

1904, review by Elwood Mead...... 612-618

Porto Rieo, experiments: 6. .2t ewe ets Seat eee 102

construction, 1904 ......... 0 nccsccccb Uses ciel Sees eee 612-618

cost of preparing land, remarks. ..26/.. 6320s bee eee 107, 613

humid sections of United States, remarks.........-......- ce eee «. 108

lawa and institutions, 1904 .. 2. biden Be ates Ae eee 616-617

practices and mechanical devices in Colorado potato growing.... 317-322

reclamation: service, 1004... 25 6.48. a ol ES Re 617-618

Island possessions, growing tropical crops, note ...-...-..----.---.eu..--eee 10

Jackson, Tenn., conditions bearing on road building...........-.----.---- 323-324

day, California, eating of fruit... oo. ceik bodme chee eeensenes wee 248-250

felly, grape, FOCIDG. 5.2 2s Sek iw + whic bien ice monet ediakg eee aden 376

Jersey City, N. J.; castor-oil industry, notes... . 2...) ic- ome ociviewe msisens sees 294, 295

Johnson grass, remarks 2 oo. wi pis Sawa bod ese pS pei e wan eeeeeee 41

Judd, Dr. 8. D., usefulness of birds, notes .2 20... -.<-<.ceeunk oss aces eee 514

Ranzes. castor beans, PrOadvucwon <3. <.2 5 stern ataweaes ad eeanee ots 293, 294, 295, 296

Kelep, ant-like insect, protection of cotton in Guatemala........--..---.---- 476

enemy of cotton boll weevil, discovery. .......-.<<neenannss's0s= see 502

introduction into United States: 2... 2... .idoce xn cheaters een 484-485

weevil-eating, description and habits ....-.-....--.---+----- «+--== 483-484

Kenai experiment station, Alaska, work, remarks --....--..---------------- 100

King cotton, new early type, use in w ork against boll weevil.......--.-.... 499, 507

Kingbird, usefulness, DiGUO ) < ke wai s cw ods ace pi a/ae wndemotd ited aie nee 514

Kinglets, eating of hoxilous Insects... vos 5 ensslve senn cd dames aiwes es ee 254

Knapp, Dr. 8. A. , work against cotton boll weevil.........--.-.-.-------- 505-506

Knight, Thomas Andrew, “relation to plant improvement, note .............- 120

Labor, employment in road building at Jackson, Tenn..............-.---- 329-330

farm and farm machinery, note@. <2... ....20, co ese. tneaee ohne 97

Laboratory tests of beet seed ..............------- epee tie edad Jenn tec. 349
work on botl-woevil << cosa) ss os or be ee oe ee ee

Lacey Act, game protection, enforcement ...._....----- 2-3 noes eee se eenes 89, 90

Ladybird, enemy of San Jose scale, remarks........-.--.------------+eeeee- 81

Lake States, | forest fire 1omeee... wan oc oe own ewe omc oe Cees sale ase Coe eee 135
LANCASTER, Sam C., article on ‘‘ Practical road building in Madison County,

Wennensee" >5~ - <2 scacc he ee eee 323-340

Land, alkali, reclamation, rewerkec2 222552500420 acceso oes ee ee 72-74

cost. of. preparnig, for irrigation. <=... iv. coe a aces ees oe ee 106

poor, usefulness in intensrve farmitte >... 55... -525-- +e eos eae 172

Land-prant colleges, remarks... bins ed oa Se bee ee toemaeat dae cine 96

Landa, -agricultural, prices in Argentina: . 2.002 SSL Soe see an cong ee 285

fertility, maintenance and restoration, notes.........--------..------ 69, 70

public, oper for settlement, location; ete... -.....-.2..025-0- co caee 622-625

Lard adulterante, diffeutty of teslimg..... . 25-4 255-52 2 oo ieee 309

detection of cotton-seed oil after change by heating .-.......---.------- 362

artiche by bb. Mi: Tolman: $2032 0. 2 SS 359-362

melting point of certain acetates as test for cotton-seed oil.-.......--- 361, 362

Law, 2000, Scope Sil eKeCHBIO’ 26 66. <sne nese ae eee ae ee ee 152-160

for bond issue for roads at J ackaon, Pann ¢ 250 205 tales kee aaa 326

tea-inspection, text and Supreme Court decision.......---------++++- 151-152

Lawn, use of citrange as decorative tree... . 2.02. oo fo es. 2 see 235

Laws and institutions, irrigation, 1904 ......-. ene eet ple” Ray. RPA En) 616-617

Dae, Chanren, TRUE): cole SSS ce dk heheh oo Cees et on ee eee ee eee 594

eyviietices of reogremg. .. 538k ee ee ee eee 593

game protection, enforcement, 1904-22) 225 _. cL lo. e 607-608

relstion by farmer oS22- > 255 5222S U Ree en aie ree ee 509-511

Leat hopper. cane puear, Tramaerks.. i. ........2.¢.cseeneewenes sem ee aes 102

INDEX. 768

Page.
RTOS, MGT BOE CONEIOE.. Go dcuc Jucsawecaden ace telas senucocvucadscbecd 29
Leaf-miner, coffee pest in Porto Rico, efforts at control..............-------- 103
Leaf-worm, cotton, relations to boll weevil .... 2.2... ccc ence ccc ccccccccce 201
Leaves of sweet orange and trifoliate hybrids, differences................--.- 227
PREIOMRCS OTENTS ANG DFT, MOC ce eons caeec ch dbcnvcvcccccautes 224, 226
CCUITIOND 10h TART BIOWNEN ee coos coc ct sr onccenaccccterubechvsout 122
Leckenby, A. B., sotachiod of Bromus inermis varieties..........-2--20eee0e- 40
sr ne, UNE EOORUE secs hak eens a nema ne ee od= nso esC casa teens 379, 723
Legislation and appropriations, road, State, summary by M. O. Eldridge... 610-612
inspection, food, 1904, review by W. D. Bigelow........... 593-597
BOUT UE WORN EE: SN No eo ee a tcmercab coe ee’ 203-204
diseases of domestic animals, summary by D. I. Salmon ......... 581
forest and forestry, in the States... 22... nce ene cece nc ec cone 592-593
iS Pees Me TPE a cciad a actah cate seep es noes mca cc cece 606
RINSE UCR Vo dcen ads oe cae anesthe sass sp se ace oh ete. 510, 513
road building, for Madison County, Tenn ..................-.--. 326
es SS ns on ue ee eee ies wan been tah een 92-93
Legumes, relation to nitrogen gathering for soil, remarks...........-.-.. 49, 124, 125
Lemon, use of citrange as substitute ..................--- 2 eee eee 229, 231, 234-235
Lettuce, growing under glass, season, investment, and profit. .......-.--....- 166
Libraries, school, traveling, use in corn-growing study........-.-.--...-.--- 493
DaUurary, Work, Organcesuon ana Guurce .. lo... 12 os cose meee se csmace 114-115, 542
Ie, REET DONEEECUEMNR DN Sa ce naa cance one ae ene sae sce ohiae 511
Life zones and crop belts, mapping, remarks..............-..---.---------0- 86-87
REL TENIS TOE CONNENDE MN woe as ane We eb ed oe ale pt ao ae 3 os oranda 289
Lily, Bermuda, disease in imported bulbs, note... -.- Sa es Sp a= Sa BR ge oA = 31
Lime, sulphur, and salt wash, use against San Jose scale .........--..------- 82, 84
Linnet, or house finch, injury to fruit, and character of food ....-...-.-.-- 246-248
Lint, improvement by hybridization in early cotton varieties..........------ 500
AMR SA REL EMER fetes ee tas Segue ora wale Sie ee st Som, hn oe am 2 Sale ln 728
Little-peach disease, eradication..............------.-- ag eh os ae ees eee 36
Live stock, and grass lands, Alaska, remarks (sce also Farm animals) ...-... 100-101
Se, PRCEPNNG PRINT sn iar cae Gat es sed ae a ok eee et ae 718
Argentine, high prices for breeding animals ...........-..--..- 274-275
ICRIOUR, DTRCPIE on Se ec a 9 no Beei e e acarae ace eee 551
VERNER, APPerIING, CImCHeON 210.25, 45S baeehs = Seed oo em 273-274
Wer tri) CAMPOT DOINECS, TONE > 2/35 06 a wocge} oh ge dae a vee 291
farm, contribution to national wealth, remarks by Secretary .-.--- 11-12
St RIG IRON ee A eae os oe te ee eno ae eS 100, 101
PRUE PANTER TAME ais 20 ion x ad ee aot ie ilees nah eck Wie 189-190
Wipers, PANNE Y OMNCOTO sin ntola nn k tecebn re eee oes San eee Se 553-554
number of animals and breeds of sheep in Argentina.........-- 277-278
Sipemetre: meine. cS. oF oe Sates ON Se ks oe oe ok 275-276
DNS or SemOevineg momen Me teers oe. Sak se ae oes 364
Louisiana and Texas, cotton production, comparison....-.....---.---------- 197
authorities, cooperation in cotton investigations. .....-..---.--- 33, 79, 202
Cotton totl-woevin mireninem eas ae as 193
demonstration farm work against boll weevil -..-.--..-----.---- 506, 507

destruction of cotton plants for boll-weevil control ............--.-- 2
farmers, cooperation with Department in cotton cultivation.......- 32
Burestry Pureaa cx perme cc k a se aneseeeee 453
Prpene, Sarec’ Ok) Gora meeerene., ooh Ne en teu ee eto ee 233

Purchase Exposition. (See Exposition. )

Een NON Oe CRUE ON ee ee en ain aa sw - ok a caw s ak Ree 289
Laimber, cooperses, che:, Ory, rasece mayan o- 222 - oi ce cnn woe acne ee ome eeee 396
Serre, Uae Tea Leen eae eri x0 yok aon a te Rota 52
market, relation to method of handling timber, note.........-..--- 136
relation of quality to size of tree, experiments .......------------ 453-460
Foun Unseasored, IAEEL iayewe soon. - = 205 = 2 So ate e lage le. 395
yellow birch, grades, yield, prices, etc., in experiments ......-..- 455-458
Lumbering, conservative, profit in white-pine region, note .-.-........------ 58
profits, relation to size of trees, remarks...........-....-------- 459
WIGS BO S60 DAI. CRM as aaa woe oe oue dn eee aneanns Se 590
Lumbermen, attitude toward forest fires, article by E. A. Sterling .....-..- 133-140
conditions affecting fire losses, remarks.........--..--------- 134-135
hopelessness and indifference regarding forest fires.........-.--- 136

policy in handling timber lands and fires, change.......-.----- 137

764 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page,

Machinery and motive power, farm, remarks ........-...----cee+-eeeeeee 111-112

farm, and rural engineering, study, remarks ............-.--..-. 97

TING RNG CATE, DOUG 0 vo ccivecdiwarwen olan tinue eee 10

in cutting seed potetocs.... . .wce.uvuchaduth ohduedeneusneueeeee 314

Mahogany, and other tropical woods, insect injuries............---.--.--- 392-393

Maine experiment station, poultry breeding... ..........-+ececceccereccecces 528

income from hunters, summer visitors, etc......-....------.--------- 517

Mallein and blackleg vaccine, distribution .......5....ecce cece ccececccccess 24

Marmmals and birda, importation; 1904. «. 6.3.6. nade dub pulnetdieis uncle ones 609-610

injurious, importation, prohibition .............-.--.-- 515

Mange, or cattle scab, remarks ....< .s.ss<cuebe ee ens edhe lee eee 21-22

Manure, stable, duration of benefit; use with fruit trees............-----.-..- 175

Manures, commercial, restoration of soils, note .......-..------ ee cece eceeee 70

Maple, silver, comparison with black walnut as to growth.........-....---.- 257

sugar, Forestry Bureau experiments «<3... n«id--sa-0vesen eeeeeeeaee 453

value by sizes. and priced... ..« siavuice sosbe tin gencbcw'sad ee neaeeee 458

Maps and reports, soil survey, publication, etc ........-..-.--.---bee-seeeee 70, 72
Marsury, J. B., article on ‘‘ Relation of weather conditions to growth and

development:of cotton ?”) oa)... .aasiss'sab's wamered sictmuscral ms Bienen 141-150

Mares, purchase for Department horse-breeding experiments, type, etc.... 533-534

Market, European, for pears and apples, development ...........----------- 43

fine-leaf tobacco, problem .... 2.2... cwsmeccecetenbe neha witta ey epee 77

game, effect of legislation, note. .. .. 2... ~.<siss diverse sng acelin 89

horse, range of prices, 1899-1904, remarks ................---6----- 529

relation of export trade .. 0c sels ewe cackesseeeee eee 530, 531

milk, rotail and wholesale’. oo o.c5 sincb ude ceakiedae eeu coeeee 182, 183, 184

Marketing cut flowers, suggestions for grower .......----------.--e+e-ceeee 167

fruit, investigations: 25. .< ecu cdbem Boe eess cae oa aedel eee 42-44

packages, picking, eb¢.c....... Jo. aiccwnaneu ae caewd hon eee 177

tendency and suggestions ... ....0..22 2... scaeee se eee 170-171

influence of honesty and appearances. .....-.-.-..-------+---e-n-e 434

questions of art ca psychology a... 065.5. 2scceneee aces eee 417

vegetables, city, methods, notes... .2..s-2.<cecd2eancaeeeeeeee 165, 166

Markets, consumers’ fancies, article by George K. Holmes. ....-..----.---- 417-434

European, handling and packing, remarks............--.-.------- 43

Foreign, Division, Bureau of Statistics, work.........-..-.-.-.<c-s- 91

fruit, investigations... . sulle cameo cuee Ub ecae senna ae ae 42-44

game, effect of protective laws... ...2.. Jac -.c-ase odeee ene 89

German and British, preferences in apples, note...........-....---- 432

potato, for Greeley, Colo,, production ./....-5...--2.newsseenmene 311-312
Maruatt, C. L., article on ‘‘The annual loss occasioned by destructive in-

sects in the United States”... i. cs obe kde s ens awe een et Oo oe eee 461-474

Marmalade, grape, TOCIDOC < . a sicawesd =< cs essacnsn eee cesaearesd on ane 376

USO DL CHPORIG ..sic hae os aa wae ea ioe ERIE. ee 229, 234

Marshes, tidal, reclamation, note 2........0.5..caniewssemsem acdsee aa bieule seen 110

Maryland, forest work and map, note... 20s... -sss 0 cen snan'e~ auch 58

Massachusetts, reports on agriculture, origin and character.........------.-- 523,

Matting industry, developmcit,....< .~ s)n0=s~- escape ons cede sepa 27

MeaAp, ELwoop, review of irrigation and drainage investigations, 1904....-. 612-618

Meadowlark, usefulness on. farm. =. .-<<.0- ss ntacuuw cascn acne pee eben eee 514

Meal worms and flour beetles, note .. 2.26.6 cacnendeanaseswae cab eaneee eee 83

Meat and meat products, exports... .-. conde acwceee ne cce4 en nths senna 733

INSPOCtioN, FEMALES. ......coee a cwalide vwmekmr’d ces sa): kis pis alee eee 20-21

trade, frozen, from) Argentine ..2..0.0 5 256 nan0c seuss bee sete ee 276-277

Meats and fruits, preserved, relation of food inspection..........------------ 158

live stock, freight rates’. 5.5.2.0 <aupeweon s oencens alee 718

consumers’ fancies.and discrammations Ou; . a. .<5~6 acer >s anes 422-425

Mechanical devices and methods of applying water in Celorado.........-- 318-322

Meleagris ocellata, Guatemala turkey, use against boll weevil........-.------- 480

Memphis, Tenn., castor-oil manufacture, note...........-...---.----------- 296

Meteorological work, transfer from Navy Department to Weather Bureau -.-.-- 17

Meteorology, education, interest of Department..............-..------------ 18

Mexican Cotton boll weevil. (See Boll weevil.)

Michigan Agricultural College, origin of collegiate agricultural education, note. 495

Micro-organisms, soil changes, production, note. (See also Bacteria.)....--.- 124

Microscopic examination, use in testing road material, note -.........-.-.--- 332
inspection OF DOrk, NO .. «+ aa.ocuuveconn nd ee npsiont alates 21

INDEX. 765

Page,

Seeer een, bind sin OerONe, Sack wate tenth bsenehewec ads bewene cebu de vaae 242
eR OCIOU EL | A LOUIE EUR a ERA i eo AR Oe ke Soe ono 101
RESIGN, Cees Oe gr wah eS Sen Rdg th Oot mikod panwen t's nous 703, 704

Mik, skimmed, usein making DuGlermle. oc ands cic o ds cwcccodeaacesahs 185
trade, producing and retailing, discussion .................--....--- 182-184

Pe: DOMUE, DOs 5 26 sad ek ee a tay wet a TEES Che keds aunvs o'wcetuckwa 83
PELDOTS, LET GLAer GOL CURTIN WORN aaah. widis<xulden be Gare aedece vwewilendou 27
PE ITs AION ose cad, ees wr wa Seetine eiv nic dvs ib uhievboecs chia cet 282
Mills, castor-oil, establishment in United States ......................-..- 293-294
Sane TNO. DONATES or ra coe aoe Sut k daw wdiGe vinwe ccs adem ace 588
Mining, SConomic, FEIAtION 06. IGTOUTY sa .cwiewein nc ea tet tekd ec ccnnccéccnmenate 5D
MANZIOSOTA BG TIGEC, WHR RR ORN ts foc oo ees ois oa wai Dae wece.oecdccee ce 265
Misbranding of food products, law and its enforcement, notes .........-.-.-- 154, 157
Msesingippl, gtOVGl Ton FORG WULMGINM, TARO 6s. co dsc cece esti se oteevcece 325
Valley, fruit-growing opportunities... ............22...--c-0---- 178

Missouri, St. Louis, center of castor-oil industry.................. 293, 294, 295, 296
Seni GLa ee ORATOR 8a cee eee ames oe aa te «asks beencie Sc 73
Marphine; NeW Method OF Productions ood. sspears. 5 ob ee se cea wale caacese 32
Mosquitoes, use of copper sulphate for destruction, etc .............-.-.---- 84, 604
Moths, brown-tail and codling, 1904, notes..............--....---.---- 87, 601, 602
Motive power and machinery, farm, remarks..............----....----eeee- 111
MOtOrs, UTR BUG WAS WOT Kr NOCR Se 6 on ara Sisk a sed ca'elseeswecunavicd 107, 168
Mount Weather meteorological research observatory, remarks...........--.- 17
Mowing machine, early experience of Governor Boutwell..............--.-. 525
Mud, winter of 1902-3, stimulus to road building ..................----.---- 325
Mulberry trees: and cuttings, .in sill cultures... cise. osiecensececctcoaciewne 85
Mules and horses, number, imports and exports, prices, ete.........-- 700-702, 732
Muscular activity, increase of heat given off by human body ..............-- 210
outgo of heat and carbon dioxid from human body..---.. 215, 216

famtlon. and: beet, exports from Argentina 2.22 cc. . oa ls. oe. 2 Scan ee 276
Navy Department, exchange of work with Weather Bureau .............---- 17
Nectar, cotton, relation to boll-weevil Probletit.. ......4..- 05 en anes 487
New England, fruit-growing opportunities ..............------------+-----. 178
York, boys’ institute work in nature and farm study ---...----.....--- 493
Manenr anes: Dy Hl0C; REG jes SEG aes cha de baods docdee Shea 134

Pore y, Bureau cepeMIMents . . 2 oc. cckce eek Cb acisnat once ee 453

STEGE BUG. WING PIOGUCMOB. « Salis ca a SESS obs e neue Re nee 369

hardwood working plans, use of data on quality with size......-. 459

reports on agriculture, origin and character .........-...------ 522-523

PEUSEGG OE BOONE bi es ies aa oes, che se Ne a shin wae eee 418
Newspapers, use of articles prepared by Weather Bureau -........-..-.----- 358
DARNLOMW & TOI GI BONS - OY IBET on ee ale. «es «Ws ak Reeds oe tae 514
Nitrate of soda, value in sugar-beet cultivation, experiment .............-.-- 29
Nitrogen fixation, working out of problem, remarks ..-...........-.--- 49, 124-125
‘‘Nocatee’’ hybrid of tangerine and pomelo, note .-..........--...----..... 235
North Carolina, leasing of shooting privileges ............-...-.---.------ 519-520
tree-pest in vestigation, Rete)... + soc leecdizves aces sc. 83

Novaculite, road-building material, notes ................-.-.-..--------- 325, 327
Nut Growers’ Association, National, scale of points on pecans............--- 421
growing in United States, weevils as drawback..................--.---- 299
Weevils, article by F.. > CimMam@ens ovi6 5 oa swaaes eee ects cce 299-310
PURARSACS. £0: WO: RE ee NS ace. cain ein Wad cela 390-391

Nutrition, animal, use of calorimeter in study .:........-...-.--....-...---- 528
fundamental laws, study with calorimeter................-...---- 212

RLU ORE GETING GUI A OER nee a no ak Pain oad an ntaceees 104-106

study, articles on respiration calorimeter...........-...--..---- 205-220
DR BOS OCONENS oes on 3s te ote ee eG ied ote nid on nw Se owatewk aak Ke 421.
RPE TO SOE. 52 OR oa 8a eres Aika oe ace ots eunGits sed eae wwe 586

Oak, white, Forestry Bureau experiments: ... . .. . 2... 2. -scscdececewedeecee. 453
Oat, Swedish select, experiments, remarks... ...... 2.2... 02000-.ecnceecenes 32
Oats, acreage, production, prices, exports, etc .........-.-- pr ee 649-653
Sie RIO ORION Mies Sheet ig 26 G4 wid Kos Weed Sweden Sub sk wee eS 739
EN TO EE OA OCY «3 Oe Bae hn S44 ui ges nnans n+ Jeees hate Sones 46

crop of certain countries, 1900-1904. . 22... 22.2.2... seen ene e eee eee 647-648

SOE A MORON. Sais bhek Gat nnd ade nee nce ewaed bieadebo 100

—

766 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Geile, crowing seaasn of 1004, notes cc cease cute ceicvecu dis ceeveedaneetes 565-569
prives, whdleile, 1600-10045. oo. ic cicdccucsctdcenbeusdedvaceeaetes 654-656
visible supply, United States and Canada.....-...-.0. seacccecececceee 648
Observatory buildings, Weather Bureau, remarks by Secretary Bee em 15,17
Ohio, boys’ agricultural clubs, dey elopment Sewteu Cuvee coeedes ae eee arene 493
farm, example of forest planting accerding to plan si sc%sscassceeeee 259-262
growing and curing cigar tobaccos, remarks ...........---..------+<--- 75
reports on agriculture, origin and character_..........-.----.-.------- 523
Oil, castor, industry; article by Charles M. Daugherty...................-- 287-298
manolacture from grape seed « . 6 ois cca Saes whe cca bleeuutceeccaeus coer 378
mill, processes of operation .. <. 6346600565 es ee ee ae eee 290-291
use On roads, remarks (see also Cotton seed) ......-.--.--- eee eee eee e nee 68
Oils, edible, noted nds 2 fe. Ue ee, ee 1h6
Vv egetable, imports and omporte s.s.455 6's 2S GL eee 729, 739
Oklahome and Tessas, windbresak. ...5...00.. cb Re RA tee 265
eastor beans,. production... ))s5 6. 6 es CR eS 293, 294, 295, 296
Olive ail, inspection under feed. law... ssi e502. 0225 TLS eee 156-157
orchards, California, losses by ravages of robin ........-.--. bo, Aled 252-253
Olives, destructive feeding of birds in California............-.-...---.-.---- 243
Ontario fruit growers, apple seere.. oes See ee eee 420
Opium, production from poppy, note... 6f6c.606. soe es Se 32
Orange, breeding, noted ins ..c.dch cic sb. fe eS eee 121-122
diseases. 105-1004. (cess ee ts 2 eee ee eae 583
hybrids, characterinties,-efe 3 e eae 9, 30, 226, 227
sweet, male and female parent in crossing, differences in results -.. 225-226
trifoliate, description of plant, varieties, and fruit .-......-..-...-. 224-227
Oranges, color, influence om demand li. 2! 2022. esu¥s see 425
tangerine, now, ipeumetet. ib oa kk ab dss AU eee 238-240
Orchard, cost. of ceteblisiment:: ). 2221245 eee Re eee 179-180
growing other crops on- land. oo: 22a dc 0 oS ieee 174
nut, location, relation to weevils . ii.) sc.s 2 os ok oe egos eee 307
protection by. forest bell? . 202.5.0.. 5.0 20 Jee Se a 268
Orchards, correction of mistakes in planting. ..-. 2.2.05... 56.60.2265 000 agee 172
failure to bear, suggestion of remedy.......-.-------------------- 174
olive, California, losses by depreddtion of robins............-.-- 252-253
Oregon and Washington, forest losses by fire, note........---..---...-------- 134
Oriole, Bullock, destruction of codling moth; fruit eating...............- 87, 251
Ornamental and bedding plants, growing as specialty......----...---.....-- 169
Ornithology, economic, work of Department ................----.--.4-.0-0- 87-88
Orton, W. A., review of plant diseases in 1904.........-.2-20 222 ee cece cte 581-586
study of cotten. diseases) s 2265-755). Be RS Rae 502-503
Osage orange, planting between fields as windbreak and fence.-..-.---.-..- 261-262
Overfiowed lands, .crope for U8Gs. 26.0 gs ses caddesedes Peak bse ee eee 42
Oyster, plumpness and flavor, influence on demand...............---------- 429
Pacific coast, fruit handling, proposed experiments .............-...---..---- 45
lumber, fire-losses, motes. 2228e) 4 el J ea eee 135
opportunities in fruit erowime@®. .... 2. coc Shans Se i ee 17Z
problems; remarks cosine es Cee ong hee es ss dase eeae 41
Paeime blood in stallion Carmiom; remarks. <2. 4. 60s Ses ee ee ee ee 534
I acking anG handling traits... .</s.22005 Gees Ae. ES eS 43, 177
picking, and ; shipping fruit-for storage: ..vie5;5 bs 3 od. cee 4

PALMER, ". S., article on ‘Some benefits the farmer may derive from game
protection.’? 22 oc%.,. asda eee ey inate eae eee 509-520
review of game protection in 1904 ................-.-.-..-- 606-610
Parsee, black scale, : remarks . 2... coon eros se eh Se eee 81, 82
Parker cotton, value in weevil-infested region ......... des Ries sa 507, 508
Passenger rates, statistics... occ cS aceadewd son bole oe See 720
Pastures, Argentine, benefits from alfalfa .... 2.2... /osccs) ei cl sckaeetece 278-279
nee/in restoting sdlle Nélis. 6c 2s werk ocak deve eu eeeeeee 69
miter. for South 2.255662 5 S582 ng ELA AGN PA ea Ae bs i AE 40
Patrons. of hupbanary, officers io... pee a A eee 556
Peach and apple growing in Rocky Mountain region..............-.-------- 178
digeant, little-peach, eradication . 1.60... sc ew Pe Rh eS 36
aigeaned In, LOGt ib coli ye a ee Sedo eh ee ae 583
cechard; eqhtivation, note=........6.. 5.0.4 SS ee Ae eee 174

oj
Bie 1

INDEX. 767

Page.

Peach trees, destruction by freezing in Georgia.........22.ceeeceeeecccccece 233

EON OORIE, GES, MORON, «.. «adic ks nnmendide arb ke we Mieduke eebiu ce pend 420-421

MBORING Oi HRIDOIRR. 1254. bsidbives UECMO peOtl bane Jb. Cee MELE Ees 177

Pwar bligh’, distribution in. United States... ...ccecis cunsescccbuictocscasve 178

PRDOG AN to Sch otiin aiiet acid hddl canwn sec REW Oe winlacdell 582-583

Betmney, origin, Gencrintion, G60. .caiww seal oe eS 6r Tick nt Va cote UdERa 402-403

Beene, Sxport. trade, MOvelOnmMeNs 9 cca nw Has hddis SORE Se Wh diac eee LsweuS 45

DURRES, ORC. THOM OUR. 5 ii in nunc nbadinain ese nenblaa une es lh La cwallras 420-421

EN LADOS, GPAineee, HOG cck can nas awavicsie vnad0 vilats nvdeStakeun 109
Pecan, Centennial, Frotscher, Jewett, Pabst, Post, Rome, Russell, San Saba,

Stuart, Van Deman kinds, origin, name, description.............. 407-416

weevil, description, life history, remedies, ete ..................2.. 308-310

Pecans, value, naming, reproduction, and promising varieties.............. 405-416

Pedigree, consideration in Department horse breeding................- 533, 534, 535

Pecan, reservation for protection, NOLO oo... seers ans veSeecs sleelesl ccc cies 90

Pennsylvania experiment station, study of animal nutrition................. 528

reports on agriculture, origin and character................... 523

Pepper, planting in cotton by Kekchi Indians..................00....--0--4- 486

Persimmon, Delmas, origin, description, etc............cceee cece ccs ccnen 404-405

Pests, cotton, bollworm and minor, control, remarks (see also Boll weevil) ---- 80

TOGRCh, SOME GK AWE. an mdb inn ohac nen nneese utes ua apis kus eke 600

TOISCOMARGOUR WOFrk, THIDMTEM GS: soa ok ode cock be dae seek eicee 83

Pheasants, protection, effect on market .........-2.00..0cccecccccececseeess 89

SU, CO I asi oon ae ncn enn p dss k teu See 576, 511

Phylloxera, destruction of grapevines and necessity of grafting vines......... 366

Physical laboratory, Mount Weather, remarks ..........-.........22--.0--- 17
Physiology, plant, relation to development of agriculture, article by Albert F.

WOR soe sone cece npan ees Toes VEL UMN aL ee 119-132

training of investigator, remarks...............-.-..... 129-131

Phytosterol, absence from lard of hogs fed on cotton-seed meal.............- 361

nature and use in cotton-seed oil test ........2.2..2.222-. 360, 361, 362

Sees Od. snare BIE. 8 on ine wn enna sens See Ure se UP 177

packing, and shipping fruit for storage ............2.......002-.--.-- 44

Ee RICA MURDER, POCIDG. Wc once otk eon e SOS CRU Oe 376

Pine, longleaf, Forestry Bureau, experiments 22...2...20.. 020.000 504-0008%. 453

Southern, damage -by fires, notes. 2c... nsweds ceed. eek. 135

white and. longleaf, lumbering, DOs vies 22 ons oe te LS. oe ee cee 58, 59

xed, Jamboring, exauagleeisl) side cle Sue. vote abcde 590

Pineapples, Rew. VARIETIES, MOTO. 26 ecw ns SUS Seis ci oe Oe ES TOU 47

Paquette, making from .grape pomace 2..:0cseb..ceGael sebieee cos ce 378

Plant and seed introduction, progress, discussion .............-...-.-..----- 47-48

breeding,, development, in nineteenth century..............2....... 120-122

new creations, (ipcmabent 29)... |. Las. Bese toot 22h, 2 45-47

disengert, couabating.. progres nse eee eas ee se 36-37

im ARS, ‘review Dy: Wreiwks OCtE ... . . 0 0ciZaeere an eR 581-586

nature and caused; dmommon. fe 222k ds WE ee 125-128

growing, general, needs in agricultural vocation ............2.2....- 164-165

Industry, Bureau, organization and duties.................2........-. 540

' work against cotton insects and diseases ........-. 198, 199

in meeting ravages of boll weevil and some dis-
eases of cotton, article by B. T. Galloway... 497-508

review by Beewetery. 2... 00s ee. Se. 22. 25-52

vice, damapeite wihemk cut ita edi ok i noe aT oe hed 467

physiology, educational relations ......2i.6.00060022 200 doe eee 128-132
relation to development of agriculture, article by Albert

FWRI aici die piiremies wad tid Sts et See 119-132

Planting and. seeding, eprimg, 1908.60. oobe oes a5 ok Se bee a cece eens 562-565

forest, and farm management, article by George L. Clothier ...-.-.. 255-270

mistakes: of the: peek ssa Gs SCS. HCE oo os kk Sk RE RS 256-258

DOPREVO,“REERSEMIK<. 2 5 Scat nabd cena doease CELE BA 55

otatoes, method at. Greeley, Oolo. oi! 52. 5... cee ect kek eel 316

Plants, Gaionnd forage, ald stock -lpeGiae sw. eis ons Se sews Leia eve 39

cultivated, origin; growth essentials. ....................--.-. 119-120, 123

food and method of feeding, remarks.......................------ 122-125

new, from Eastern countries, remarks ................--2..--2.22nc: 47

poisonous to stock, investigation . ....0. 0... ec oe es ce cee eee e eek 49

768 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page
Plowing for potatoes in ‘Colorado, note... sci sc cevedcevelbc cewevleereuneeee 516
proper condition of snil, note .....csdscocssccancccubbadsabenaeenen 174
Plows, kinds in use in Colorado potato culture ...............----eceeeere 318-820
Plame, breeding, NOt: 2 fess asics c eweds oc vdwdgacevatiteste die tee 121
POAIS, OtC.,; NOONE. 205% wewddwc li ccd pode cee saews lee 420-421
Poison, danger to stock from castor pomace ........---.-.-+--+-e ence eececeee 291
Poisonous plants, danger to stock; remarks. .......iccliccusseccceseceeeueus 49
Poisens, weevil, difficulties In Us0-.)s ox wasseciclccaiucsnctticweeun ee 304-305
Pollination, croas, 1ODGCCO .< os csatis noe ccBabevaseecdewels anu 447-448
Polyembryony, citrus fruit, relation to breeding.............---..---------- 226
Pomate brandy, making \. oo... 0s. uwedh eck eae cee ee 377
castor, danger to stock, and yield from bean.......-.........----- 291-292
STAPO, PFOGUCHE uc abe odin caw sc alge 4 Wee ole eile uel le ee 377
Pome fruite, diseases in 1904 . cos. ac. ies di oe bee bet eee 582-583
Pemelo, crossing with tangerine, notes. ..... sss ss. cece deere eee 122
Poplar, yellow, Forestry Bureau experiments ...2.s5- 00 ics ses Lv eee 453
Poppy, production of OpiUM, Note . . <i: Seewinw veWeles ac eued oe cele 32
Pork and beef production under Southern conditions -........-+-,2------- 536-537
inspection, microscopic, Note... . 2.0.2.0 debedsesols deka. age 21
Porto Rico experiment station, remarks... s.2)...0sss'. 00.28 Gl latins 132
lrrigation -... caccensswkhcnag deen} acme anal bee sae 615
Potato, color and flavor, influence on demand... .......00.escdscncocceccu® 429
culture near Greeley, Colo., article by J. Max Clark............... 311-322
dineanes in 1904: 2. een cos 6s wine's wine ein cine ind age ted ie oe ale 585
prevention, Femarks. 54:5. s<0sa0s +d Bevo. Sideeee ee 127
growing in Colorado, irrigation methods and devices ..-.....--.--- 317-322
Potatoes, acreage, production, prices, exports, yields, ete ........-u..-.-<0 673-677
growing, Beason-of 1904, noted. .... 2.0.2.5... wees 572, 573, 574, 575, 576
improvement by breeding experiments sinwbik as Sale le Seen 46, 315
seed, cutting and. selection in. <cckd cael eka ee ae .. 314-315
Poultry and hogs, destruction. of nut-weevil ......! 5.2.54. ebsecteeieeee eee 309
breeding, investigations. ....... 6...6es.0.es50e pes pace eee eee 528
raising, profits and failures... ei... 0.<o. bleu... ek ee ee 185-186
Prairie chickens, protection:and prices, note... ... 2... s<ss seu aeeeeeenee 89
farm, model, plan for tree planting «...-202s sdceuc cn sae ene eee 262-263
Precipitation, relation to early growth of cottom .... <2... .2.< ss-sei.< ceases 142
1904, tables, eo gi ws iwacccebedi ete eace Oh) sees See 579-580
Prepotency, importance in breeding beet seed...........--..-- 22-2. eeees 346
Preservation, timber, remarks... is 2664 20 ben dw wt See eee eee eee 60
Preservatives, food, effect on ‘vital functions... 0.0.6.6. 2.eee.. 42. Lied eee 63-65
in food products, relation of food inspection ....-....---..----- 157
Preserves, use of citrange... <0. «.wdocties statues aaa eae , fn aes 229, 235
Prices. (See Crops, Corn, Wheat, Horses, Cattle, etc. )
Prickly pear and other cacti as food for-stock 2-: .. bcascc coal ae woe eee 74
Printing cost, reduction... sw. sdawht ot ees dooce veel Gece bat ane 114

Production. (See Crops, Corn, Wheat, Horses, Cattle, ete.)
Proliferation, cotton, cause of death of boll weevil lar vee; study.... 488, 500-501, 502

Prunes, destruction by California jay o.ad. isd ecled. cope duzaiedie eee 249
Pruning and thinning, directions in commercial fruit growing ......-.------- 176,
Publication, soil survey maps and reports, remarks .............----.------- 72
Publications, Division, work, organization and duties............----- 113-114, 541
State, issue and distribution dm, 3004: 225% 2.2.52 10 ek eee 525-526

on agriculture, article by Charles H. Greathouse. -...-.- 521-526

Pulpwood and cord wood, insect Injuries. ....<s.sieses~. ceeseske os case eee 394
Pumping water for crops, remarka:: és... sade lee ue ns deel cee eee 107-108
Pumps, use in rice irrigation... .. ..'..e<< ic cnweucbet ee foes ue ame eee 108
Quail, California Valley, eating of irditu..~,. ...<acesageendisies -~cu di aweene 250-251
live, demand and prices for breeding. ..-.2:..<<222.0s.60-e<e-05ee 516

Mox ican, ino portation, Notes. ...<5..~5/>eis.« serie a bee see ean 88
protection, effect on market, notes .234 2c vdeus es Lunes se eee . 4388
Quarantine, cotton boll weevil, laws, etc.............-.------+--.---- 198, 202-203
TRIOR “TOMO mc sal ss Sikg on debae ahh SES Geta Seis Ga oe ee 5)
Racing speed, relation to horse breeding and development .--.--..----- 532, 533, 634
Racan, W. H.; review of fruit growing in 1904 _....s2.-52<susosconpese eee 586-587

Railway companies, cooperation in road building at Jackson, Tenn.......--- 328

INDEX. 769

Page
Redlwar service, distribution of forecasts and warnings .............--------- 16
Rain, late summer, unfavorable effect on cotton ..............-..--.-------- 147
Rainfall and snow, February and March, 1904. .....4..2. -c.sl sec cece cuees 560, 561
moisture, ‘influence on deve JODURONE OF COCION J. os... evicnvinccces 141-142
relation to spread of cotton boll weevil ................-...--.--- 200-201
SeOTTS TUGUAUGHON,- GUAONTMM, TIOUGN ba. cee esac a Sails cede duleccensccnccnens 368
an tela Alaska, ex eriment EMeete PRUE oo ite en ccuecs acts dabwacus LOO
Ranchers, foraze problems, Department assistance................-...-.---- 3
Range inv estiga ations, URES EG SS TE PIS SRE Neer ET 38
Reclamation, alkali- land, NOU s cela ole Sa Poles Me baw oa! o's bola ln'n owitb'n's'n ves 72-75
Recommendations of Se cretary StU a daa ches eeoe ac Fie lod aoc Cw et» 55, 90, 104, 113-
Red River Valley, alfalfa growing, use of windbreak ...................---- 269
Reprinting and sale of Department books.............:..5..------.----2--- 114
Reserves: TOLGR DIGGING, TOIDETES Sos o os en ck eS she. pene cicnccwesbeecee 55, 60
Respiration calorimeter. (See Calorimeter. )
Respiratory gases, measurement in calorimeter .........-.-.2.-..--.------ 210-211
Rhizobius ventr alis, DIRCRIBCMNG DOTMMOG So SL Iii pea aces awd tows es a SEN 82°
Rice, A. G., summary, by States, of soils areas surveyed, 1904............-. 598-600
acreage, production, prices, POLE ee ek wo we ete be 692-693.
broken, Jow price aid Gualty <2.¢2...2226245.-e02 00) ee 426:
districts, DRPIPONMERa ed Waa Geet as tse ee Sees e eb ds le cans edt 108.
WHOLE isan weneus +4008 tee tctascadbeesineadec st ots. t. 2 chk oes 729
low-grade, feed for cattle, Texas experiment...................-.--- 536-537
production, development as new industry; insects -.-....-....-.--2----. 26, 84
statistical investigation, prospective. iv... 22... 26s l 22. e eee gf
River and flood service, Weather Bureau, remarks.............-..--.--.---- 15-16
Rivers cotton, resistance of wilt disease, note............-...--..-.--.+----- 37
Road building at Jackson, Tenn., cost of material and construction .....--- 333-337
conditions at Jackson, Tenn...........-.-.-..-- 323-324, 325, 327, 328
National school, veiarapi Olt 50 Ge See I. 8 69
practical, in Tennessee, article by Sam C. Lancaster .....--- 323-340
State-aid pian, main featares 222. 20s. Soe ees oe lS sole 92:
commission at J ackson, Tenn., creation: by: court :.:.::...2s2..22----24 326
Inquiries, Public, Office, work, organization and duties..........-- 91-93, 542
legislation and appropriations, State, summary by M. O. Eldridge.... 610-612
aie TOMINTER: 4. cd cscs Sos eke ae ils 28 Ss ee SL ee eke ws 92-93.
materials, testing, work of Bureau of Chemistry, remarks........2..--- 65-68.
mopds and Hanling, Arpentine.:..2 W252. eee 51st ee og - os Fe PS 281
Associaton, Good, National? officials. '.. o.2 2222. Sau... ode oe ke os dD
construction, method and details of work at Jackson, Tenn.......-- 330-332:
dirt, new method of keeping-in order ......-.2+..5-..--.--.20l..2---- 52h
Gheineerms tor PUldmie: NOUR CEs oo ak Sok 2a Seed ooo oes cae Sg
good, work and results at Jackson, Tenn ....-....--...-..-.--- 328, 339-340
POSINGOMAMOR Fs se Soc Sesh oe be aes 2 cscs ec eee et ese See tees 338-339
material, physical tests and binding quality..........2......-..-.---- 332
Gusece essen conairuchon: ied. o 2. |. ot ee Ne et Sac 92
thickness.of stone and -mortarscs:..2sers~ ieee liew oe 2. - 332
Ol Daly. PORTER. 2 t= 02 c= ame oad a2 CS oe 68-
Hovis, eeune OL trait, Giscussior 230 552¢.2 258 5.222. LSS ee 2 252- 254
Rock and gravel, road building, at Jackson, Tenn............-.....--.---- 325, 327
qualities for road-making, remarks... .2...-2. 0.02 on eo lei eee se 67
Rolis, P. H., citrus fruit growing in Florida, note. ..............-..0205..--- 223
Root development of cotton, relation of rainfall...............2-.-------- 142) 144
digomees, atuily and .romedy, SOma@rks-.. 20... senses 2 a Sen sessed 137
Ful, COLson,, MAVORMOMSOMat Sc cee ene Saere nt {2.8 2e.. 52 cus. LORE 36, 503
tobacco, disease and resistant plants, remarks..........---..------+---- 450
ot, tout and gid Of Sheep; FOMMOTER: wa Sic se iS ei oe ss tee se a ee ce 23
Rotation, crop, use im. restoring solle, notes i. oxi als. coe. cece ee nee 69
of crops and sheep feeding in potato culture.......-...--..----.---- 313
Rural free delivery, distribution of weather forecasts..............-.-.-.---- 16
Rush, species for making matting, remarks.................-.---.-....----. 27
Rusk citrange, name, origin, description, @nd uses... ....bicd.. c 02s. rene 228-229
Rust, inwiry ta coro, Lope Mee a ee tees scccee a sccckuppee ec ewe ota des 568-575
wheat and oats, cilia ee hans ak dani 27, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573
Rusts, cereal, study and irestmens,; FOMIerEs. 2.00 256s cccetds io. e 5 Coane 125-126
Rye, acreage, production, prices, exports, etc. ....5....-....6.....-...---- 663-669

2 Aal904——49

770 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

5 Page
Rye, bread, demand, decadence .....2-.---02ee0-+008 a éuudodd su tb cisiceeb ele
crop of certain countries, 1900-1904 ........s0ccccucwcsinaws eseesaccl . 662-HW%
growing in Alaska, Dates... ..<.viueiscbawice seks Jcadeeete saekaee 100
Satmon, D. E., article on ‘‘Animal breeding and feeding investigations by the
Bureau of Animal Industry ”’ ....~. cs sseaeeuehoe ceeeeseel 527-538
summary of legislation on animal diseases in 1904............ 551
Salt Lake City, reclamation of alkali lands, remarks .........--.----:--+--- ‘ 73
Saltbush, Australian, use‘on alkali Janda, .... «0. .<scecdsusedieaaauces ene mee 39
Sampson, F. G., work in citrus breeding and use of name......-------.----- 237
Gan Jose scale, in. 1904, note. 6. ... <i nine oe dca ad a sovdaeied aan eee 604
ladybird enemy, POMATKS 5).< sap. sevcsckwadisa up cowaeeeae 51
Send binders, remarks... .. < ss. feos os =< ve dee eo ewe ciestival oa ween eee 38
foundations, use and management in road building..........-.------ 337-338
Sanitary inspection of butter, beneficial effect... .......2.2-.s2cecccececenss é 24
Sanlings, insect Injuries. .. .....0-<5->.csdwasisse tceee dadew cepa ah <eeeeeee 3ov4
Saunders, William, introduction of trifoliate orange......-.---.---------+--+. 224
Sausages and other comminuted meats, inspection difficulties. ........--- so
Seab; cattle, or manpo, remarks. f.... s+ sce Wl Shes che nig heethins age nee 21-22
Seald, cranberry disease, NOC. <2. .4<~5.9s0y4ne sme ea cabgiennta aan eu meee 36
Seale, black, destruction by Bullock oriole -....<...<s.<-+ssssee=s5eaeeeee 251
insects. control work, «ss <asesewd yews ened enenteneneeueree a aed + cove 81-82
Gan Jose, ladybird enemy, romarke «2660.6 -sdiwensysdewd-<uene eee 81
use of lime, salt, and sulphur wash.....-.--..-.----s-<es-s 84
School fairs, Iowa, work in study of agriculture .........-..-.----.--<.< -- 494-495
for road building, remarks <2. 14 .asscnele danionn's> doe ken eee 69
work, encouragement of plant growing, note .....-.--..---.-----+--- 26
Schools, secondary and elementary, instruction in agriculture, remarks ...... 97-99
text-books and methods for agricultural training .......-...-------- 938
Scuppernong grape, growing, prospective development............---------- 367
Scutellista cyanea, black-scale parasite, remarks .....-..:-..---+------------- 82
Season, potato planting im Colorado... 2 sc. 6<ms6 on nse snmne hawaii ae 316
Seasoning timber, notes. . 0:5 0.5. nes ndnaabnlewiime<lees Salinas ea ean 61
Secretary of Agriculture, recommendations. ...........-.--.-.------ 5d, 90, 104, 113
report (see also Agriculture, Treasury) -..-.--- ee. 9-118
Seed and plant introduction, progress, discussion........-..---/----- slo 47-48
bed, tobacco, selection of plants ..<\.5 J 2-0 a<csck Suis one 124 -icing oe 442
beet, American-grown, excellence ...-. os ca ass olecel wala eee = fener od4
best method of production in commercial quantities ........--.- 345-347
foreign-grown, disadvantage of reliance ......-...-.-..--.---s-- 342-343
scientific growing, summary Of steps... . asa. os 22+ e-insens yoeu ease 350
single-germ balls, development, etc. ........-.-.-2------.2s00. 27-28, 29
sugar, work-of. Department... 2. ..s<dsudnke<cnne ped eke see 351-352
testa of character. 2. Sic, col Sa dk Beh ae Jade ae ee 348-349
cotton, early maturing, distriDWhOR... 2.6 socks nea s cin hip ewe Sie epee 35
distribution, Congressional and other, remarks...........--------- 48-49, 49
grass, gathering for trial, mote... 5...-.05¢.+2skeeses eames tense ks oe 40
improved, cause of increase of cotton crop. .-....-- 55 sckweeisd=Se0 meee 197
wmiants, individual, teat, ‘record; ete <......2..-.<spepomeeensen eee 449-450
potatoes; cutting: dnd selectione. 4.04 cot dks nin ote es aaeaines d aeengen 314-315
mrodnuction, opportunity of prolit. 2... dca agdidaenisieel tee ye ee 190
roots, beet, growing:and, siloinge <s- wis ted d-neent stern cacaws asee eee 300-351
“selection in Improvement of toDacee .< ks a+ <snes se -chee-e Sogn eee 443
sugar-beet, growing, remarke.....2. 2 neseeccss an bones ssl eeee ae . 27-28
tobacco, large.and heavy, VAtUe 660.8... ..sacscenen been 440-442
saving mnder hep; ete. ...sa.~bbisiks wkawiecn- eie~Seie eee 448-449
selection by grower, importance. . .aiunsase 0s cep os Soe wee 439-440
Sumatra and Cuban, import and. 480... jews sseueeecess een 437, 438
Seeding and-planting, spring, 19065): 625 xtcaliscsncseenepedadene ane aee 562-565
Seedlings, selection as method of producing hardy citrus fruits........---- 223-224
Seeds, exports (see also Clover, Flax, Timothy)... -- 1-5. 22 -<<.--0<-s4-0=-0s 739
vegetable and flower, distribution in Alaska ......-........+<-+<--s2- 99
Selection and breeding, improvement of tobacco; article by Archibald D.
SNE Si a nS oe beak ee a et a a 435-452
Seuparid resvions, irrigation, 1904 . . . 2. ccssasees tempered bean ieee aees 613-615
SHameL, ArcarBaLp D., article on ‘‘ The improvement of tobacco by breeding
MU PAICCSION ok os J ee oe Bede mk att cupcwe tee aatendaieenaan wee-es 400-402

INDEX. Th

: Page.
Shear, C. L., study of cotton diseases sais Seth eeu . Ui sc Leckved. aoe? oes

Sheep, Argentine, breeds and prices@ siccisis sevelsccecewsiescvccdce Jainisid bw SESS Ime
breeders’ associations, secretaries, numbers registered, ete.......... re EE
breeding, iny GU GBONRE sp asreta teed uel s did Sos in Ss wkebl Jawa sa 626
feeding and rotation of crops in ¢ ‘olorado. potato Cultare, since. s. 298 31s
(Oot TOG ONG Pid. TOMAFERs ica cclncecocdccaccces Sts ils ace akbs oad 23
number, imports and exports, prices, etc................-- 708-709, 721, 732
reusing in Alesre., NOG. sae eisletiuedadekil.jaiwiulec ooced Jen 100, 101

Shepard, Dr. Charles U., investigations of tea growing...... pwd cide dan 30

wage enc stave bolts, Ineect INiriIes Wns ccc di cavncaccacabewesce8 deteseseds 3o4

Shipment, live stock, I al ARTS OE cl awwenSesoulst Jovian sok ea weS 20

Shipping fruit, SF NG RE EIR 5 RAE GE DEAREST 170, 177

picking, and packing fruit for storamec . cin gah saree. cai Sia Sea. 45

Shooting privileges, leasing in North Carolina........-.....-2..-22----0-- 519-520

Shorthorn cattle, position and prices in Argentina................-.-.---- 273, 275

Ge CULES, NOMA oc rind sn win nw SMe SAS beh ea a sak cel aa eee 85

SORIOTEN ose acts attcakens 4 aeons Hl Ss SHELKD Se ore eee eee eee Fe 721

Siloing and growing beet ie WOOIR 5 cock aay een atabae eth Seals oe 350-351

Simpson, C. B., estimates of losses of apples by codling moth............-.-- 470

Slash burning by lumber companies, and Study némarkes. i ssus. ues. .aee 138

Sleep, effect on heat given off by human body, notesieut wcuoot sky ok bengal 210

Smut, wheat, oats, rye, barley, ete., study and treatment .....-..-.--- 126-127, 585

Snow and winter whe: it, 1 eS Pee ee eit te is nae odieb te oegee 560

relation of tree planting PO: GOT os cece EIQ A ods 08 ce See 267

Soil and climatic conditions, adaptation of tobaceco............---- i Sec8oa 437-439

environinent, effects in breeding beet seed ............--..-..---- 347-348
DINGOTR, TOMATRA Wi eicens i stndas cokes Ube ee availa so. 0 38
Guatemala, UES ad skins Oca eeu ang bie ROMs « Sbee S aLecld base oe 479, 481
kind for vegetable STOW. oad hoe ee oe A Aa ee 166
observations in potato growing at Greeley, Colo................--.-.-..- 312
poor, possible usefulnes in intensive farming........-..--.-------------- 172
preparation fox sroit erowing 66s Poo sen DOb8 vik wi eds Se. 2 ek 173-174
potatoes at Greeley, Colo..............2.... ata ee 316
relation to plant growth and production of changes, notes......... 123, 124, 125
SUtwey, Cost ber aguare IMNG . 204... 254.4 Ue. UA a 72
Tarto Rico, Arecibo: to Ponseuns 222. 2iddh sesics Vista ies 103
progress, statements with tables......0.....-..........- 70-72, 598, 600

PUTTER ANT BNO oc a rates cc aac Oa bse ARSON Ui Tok Se ee 42
Soils, areas surveyed and mapped in 1904, summary by States...........-. 598-600
Bureau, experimental growing of wrapper tobacco, notes........-..--- 437
Otvanizaiion atid: duiiemig tia sor: oe ra oo LS 541
Work, review. by Seoretarg od... ueeeiwa cuse cures. Se ae 69-78
Bene birds, Dagenran, imnportation; note. ...2...nulasoe sil Wad aay cs Aas 88
South C ‘arolina, ireezes, eitect.onarange hy brides. i... Sees end tno se 2 . 233
cheese making Yer Leet atin oom ee OCS OL de 187-189
diversification farms; winter pemtureticlsc 276. sno ds ese e knee nee 54, 40
itveetoch sag: seein ed eee oto eee gle CAR TE ao 189-190
Souther annerios. Tie 1GRIGS os oki meds cmagiw.lteus Beate es U8. Soe 135
States, reports om‘agricaltmmesuis J. fos... Jk Pet aoe AL 524
Sparrow, cree, useless Anse eee. ib ee ee cc TOES ee ce ce 514
SRLLMAN, W..J,, article on. Gomeral famuing <1. o27pelaieR eee oc 181-190
review of grasses and forage . plants, iti Re Ua at feo ee bao 587-585
Spraying aa ireda;. cost, youtanamness le Yt et) si ce ie Oued. Sic 471
ss by delay, DRGs ccteea ae eeth Se Sas SE PEC SUES oo Se 170
mes against bollworm and scale i PROCES tai cess ose 2S. ee ES 81

St. Louis, Mo., center of castor-oil industry in United States..............--- 243

Stallion, head of Department carriage-horse mus. we Aas 58 2S rad 534-535

State aid in road building, main aah ee See AT Pn 7 a ee ee 92

experiment stations, cooperation of Department............--..--..--- 94
otidinie snicharge of agriahliure... 1 nee 3. SOR a Pee Te es 0 550
Statistics, Bureau, organization and duties...........5..2..0-200 2c eens ew ee
DOG MEDCOGDR .u-6 aoe eae JR Oe 4 an Dea 595-597

work, review, by, Seevretary.......<icstc: Saws Js. MATS 90-91

Stave and shingle bolts, insect injuries ..... gp obweben pas bee. bie & a Sate 394

‘*Stecklinger,”’ definition, mae, Oleic. Shura ail ops esee ae. Be Sas) Leite 349, 350, 351

Steer-feeding ‘investigations in Alabama...... Ga adie dn Sis. Spe eal 536

STERLING, E, A., article on ‘‘Attitude of lumbermen toward forest fires’’... 133-140

772 YEARBOOK OF 'THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Stock breeders’ associations, secretaries, etC.......-e-eeeeee ne ee eccecwcees 551-553
danger from poisonous plants, investigations, remarks ...........--..- 49-50
feeding, forage and grasses, investigations..............--.--..--..---- 39-42
Florida, lack of feed and demand for range plants .........-..---..--- 40
live, and grass lands, Alaska (see also Live stock) .......-.-.----.--- 100-101
Stone, fruite, diseanes in T0042... oii coc eccccdccics ceuueU bebe we suee sees 583
sizes, kind, etec., in road building at Jackson, Tenn.....-..-- 325, 327, 331, 333
Storage and farm handling, fruit, remarks. 5.2.0.5 ovasssevoulee ss J ewaneuawes 45
slow fermentation of wine, management........-...-..-.------- 372
tobacco 860d, Not... 2. ow ss se ceucs Pedbewweeduees weeuesee ane 449
Stored products, insect damage. ... icc aiswa uceinee duwvucebee acs enGeeeen 473-474
Storm-warning Service, NOt... «a vis'e cs weds s'te'e cnt el Ucdelowaneuueeun eee 15
Stover, corn fodder, saving by tiBe, remarks... 020). 5x00 Heed eee ae eee 96
Strewberry, diseases in 1004. 52... ee oe lie stb. ee 583
Submarine cables in Weather Service, remarks ............-.-------c-ecceee 18
Subsoiling, value as preparation for fruit growing....-...--..-.------------- 173
Sugar beet, seed growing, development (see also Beet) ........-.---------- 27-28, 29
cane, Insect damage, NO. 2.66. 24s we cule naw seeunudbue tev eun ee pee ee 469
content of beets, effect ‘of increase, 2. .ssus c aes. 1b oc Ree 341-342
crop, importa into United States, ete .....5.5.<s bs ee Cee 693-696
demand for whiteness, note .2..<b eset ee Ce. RCo ee ee 429
Sulphate, copper, use in purification of water. .............-.-------eeeeeee- 50-51
Sumatra tobacco seed, Us. 2 ~ c....stike cebne «nue esa ncwwed sudeee whee sap 437
Sunshine, influence on yield of.cotton. - .2....2.0. ssw A 143-147
Swamp lands, crops for use; study: .. 2 so. peoe ne Loc Reece 42
peat drainage, notes... 5s. .uek see cae io eee 109
Swedish select oat, experiments, remarks .........--..-----eee-ee een eeeeee 32
Sweet corn, hybridization,. note:... <J.....5.05 be. oo ae ee wei ow ee ee ee 46
SwINGLe, WALTER T., and HersBert J. WEBBER, article on ‘‘ New citrus cre-
ations of the Department of Agriculture’? x... 202.0 2 Let 221-240
Taber, G. L., citrus fruit growing in Florida, note . sc.2.4.5 20.2 eee 223
Tanagers, mountain, flight in 1896, remarks... 2.2.05. 5.00. .e0ke. Coe 242
Tanbark, injury by round-headed borer, note ...........--.--.------.eee--e 385
insect injuries and prevention. .... 5. .00.5.0css. Joos bap eee 398
Tangelo, loose-skinned citrus fruit, new group, discussion ......-..-.------ 235-238
Tangerine, crossing with pomelo.and orange, notes .......-.--...----..----- 122
oranges, NeW, GISCUSSION «. ~ s. se ics cuecs chance eh eee 238-240
Tannin, grape seed, note......-.- gs elewee sien - oo ae 2 378
Tartar, cream, praduction and use, notes. 22... ie ci ee 379
TayLor, WILLIAM A., article on ‘‘ Promising new fruits’”’............-...-- 399-416
Tea, American, production, remarks.o 2.2... 2. ose ee ae a ee 30
grapevine leaves, use in making... .- cues. cs dc abe eso 364
AIM DOLEB «ono no's ain Se anion nwa edhe ae SE SESS Whee baleen 730
impure and unwholesome, act of Congress against importation.......--- 151
importation, legislation, and inspection.... 151-152
Team, distance traveled in day’s hauling... 0.0.0... ccewen ani cewe eee 335
Teas, finish, new method for producing... ..n5 3 3nktrertewe is aa eee 30
Telegraph service, distribution of weather reports, remarks ..........---- 16, 18-19
Telegraphy, wireless, transfer of work to Navy Department .............-.-- 17
Telephone service, distribution of forecasts and warnings......-..--.----..-- 16
Temperature, human body, daily variation, note ...................--.--.-- 218
relation to storage of fruits (see also Weather)........-.--.----- 44, 45
1904, tables (see also Weather)... Ww. 2.22240. 0. ee eh eee 577-578
Temperatures, freezing in South and effect on citrange............-.---.-- 231-233
human, results of calorimeter investigations....-...-...---- 218-220
Tennessee, castor-o1l industry; notes 22. Ask ori Wade eee 295, 296
practical road building, article by Sam C. Lancaster....-....--- 323-340
Termites, or white ants, injuries to timbers, ties, etc...........--.-------- 389-390
Tests, beet seed, chemical and other.< <2 ...0 Wels 344, 345, 348-349
corn planter and windmill, remarks 2... o262 nei eee Lee eee 112
cotton-seedoi], failure and success... .. 22: ssnc0sod asset nee 359-360
physical, of road material... cence eee es ee eee 332
variety, work against cotton boll weevil............-..-.----..------- 498
Texas Agricultural College, cooperation in-work on cotton ............------ 30
and Louisiana, comparison of cotton production.........-...---.--.-- 197

Oklahoma, -windbreak..~. os seeenvnsWeweutbs cusses ee

INDEX, 773

Page.

Texas boll weevil, continuance of danger, remarks....................-.0--- 80-81
problem, special features; need of law ...........-. 200, 201, 204

breeding new. types-of cotton. iil. ee Sh et Al cube Ue oe 34
demonstration farm work against boll weevil................. 78-79, 506, 507
experiment station, feeding experiment with rice for cattle .......-- 536-537
explanation of large production of cotton ..............2.-....----- 195-197
farmers, cooperation with Department in cotton cultivation ..........- 32
institute work against cotton boll weevil..........-...--..--- 508

DEMADINGTONE, WON 18s chs baa ek DIDS ee Reece Bel lee 404

TOUUCUOR OL MADER ET. vax pas en cek oe Suerte deteed od ts Ve tenees 184-485

laws on capture and sale of water fowl, note..................-..-.-- 89
SOG-OTOW el IN VORUIMAHONE Sle. ce Val oie Ue ce eee Se oh pert Meee ee 30
tobacco, favorable reports and prices. 2.2.2.2... sees se cee e cece oe seee 75
western, adaptability of Guatemala cotton.............-.....----.--- 480
Text-books and methods in agricultural education ...............--..--.---- 98
Thermometer, kind used for human temperature in calorimeter experiments... 281
Thinning and pruning, directions in commercial fruit growing. ..........-.-- 176
FORCHE, Hem LODE OD MATIN 35 in nities inenpealotcceuve bee ileoweemh 268
Thoroughbred, relation to English horses, et@ 2... 2. sec ec ccs cece eccwcece 532
TORN. -MOMIOL MCE. ARNIS O81 LOE odo Sak word ocd doings bes SOULS eee 251
Tick, cattle, relation to.cattle industry. in South .. 2.0.0. ...0.2.0. 262 eet eee 190
Teaet marenes, Tocinmsson, NOY LF. see obs i toh de ie ew atecuten 110
amar, INAPOTtEBCS Tih TEU GTOWINE ona acces sce cie a sie swede bes Se osthaweie 174
Timber, experiments, practical results (see also Forest, Lumber, Tree) ..-..- 458-460
mature, protection in-slagh burning. 2 lva..5 Verb tweet. 22 138-139

owners, relation to protection from fire ...........--..--.22---.00-- 137
preservation, strength, and mechanical properties, remarks......-.-- 60

round, requisites for preventing insect injuries..........-.----.---- 393-394

with bark on, danger irom: inseetas .fseia. i. sb eect. 391

ROTI CER a oS nc cin wd woduettee x GROW sid oR oe He we es ood DOE one 60-61

GROSSE? THO carcass Beata eee ead aed sae RIC SS oa er Ss Cod ae 53

trees, species for planting in Middle West........+...-.-2..-------- 264

value and tarketing, changes. 0207.0i sob 4 CSE. ee cit 136-137

values, determination, article by Edward A. Braniff...........--- 453-460
‘irgin,:-fire lossed in..Califormia. 22.205. 22s20304 so Us 135-136

worn, injuries to lope and timberac. .. <2... 2.4534 <. So ee 386-387
Timbers and woodwork, finished, insect injuries. .........---.-.---------- 396-397
mechanical and physical tests, remarks?. 2.0.22 .05.-.2..222-- Soeeee 591
TenOt ¥ped pricks: Wnoless le. 006s 20o boo oe Se S.-i 698-699
Weeeenne. BOGOR te. 8 ie ee ee he es cee see 39

Famice, catiag Or GOLI0Us tsetse ee St See LL a es let elle ed 253
Tobacco, adaptation to soil and climatic conditions.-..-.....--------.----- 437-439
breeding investigations, remarks. ...........-:------+-i-----2-<--- 46

change of type by change of soil, example.....-.....+--.-------- 438-439
CONGIONE. OF PTOW NIG: foo stesso ieee ee 436-437
Connecticut Sumatra, record and progeny notes .......---------- 450, 451

erops, acreage, production, and value. =... S22 p i. 2s2 25... eg 688

gared-: dame@ge- by Mimecte si... os sas So. eR sea Fcc 473-474

GiseRe EW: POIMANEN su cee a dae oe ee. Vl Soa ea eeu pee 37
iieade-resmiant mrains 25.5 .ofec copes es, . 2. eee esate Goel 450-451

enaed ai L004: . Sao SSeeuskupde ed aek ict see pase sat tee wig wee 585

flowers, selection for seed: production . 5.2.2.2... -..3.-.2.-25-2--5- 448

growing, season of 1904, ‘motess25.2..525...-2025---2 2-2. 563, 570, 571, 573

SPOTS MIME OE POPES, phaser ck css td aes Jp - CoS Cece ee 730, 740
improvement by breeding, article by Archibald D. Shamel..-.---- 435-452

Ineiogs OF PEIeCMM ess Sa ee 447-448

JIUVOStIGALIONG, AEOUMMON' bang adterd ess ged cavew stews ous ow cose owe eee 75-78

leaf, impoxGATIOG-ObMIEe-. wat sea War tGe oddese’s dnc eecpes cence. 445-446

leaves, variation in number, shape, and size.........-.---------- 443-445

plant, fertilization, importance in seed selection .......--..------ 447-448

planip, selectiOn: 1 peed POU sc sseu~ io SITES WSSU ee is eee 442

Porto Rico Oe. os ia dab eee ouee'e. 5 Re OSA case 8 oc 103
Pipetite, VarEetiOn-iit DAMMNGEN Soc toe Sek. } ss Suwa ee 26 cc coe a 446

seed, light and heavy, apparatus for separation ..........----.----- 441

SEVilig tinder DAR. ost Con ooes ee Dees ieehbusichueccsss 448-449

value of size and weight ........-. ibdasda ge eee Uwe anoee te 440-442

soni. possible: improvements s.50.<csckteuueiese ktdsesececcesce. 442-447

774. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Tobacco, suckers, variation in number ......cccscecccovcescvceccces RO
test of individual seed plants, record, ete......... i caet is eee watt 449-450
truck crops, etc,, insect damage, note. .......-.2-+e- eee ec eee E cieaaied 469
wrapper leaf, production and prices in Connecticut ..........-..--- 76-77
Tobaccos, export, improvement, FORMATEA, . «ates nice SHE idle stl neslekateneane 77-78
fine leaf, market problem, remarks... siccduces cdeldl csv edscobedeu 77
Toitman, L. M., article on ‘* Detection of cotton-seed oil in lard’’....... ---- 309-362
Tomato, diseases:in 1004... see acbinstccnies Wucuineed ebak Meeoeb oeubewe a
Trabut, Dr. Louis, crossing of tahacto. «5. .iss'.s. cdsous Witeestinweeeenet es 452
Traction engines, travel, amount of work and cost of work ca ay wi. vances - 336-337
Tracy, J. E. W. ., article on ‘‘Sugar-beet seed breeding”’ .............-.--- 341-352
Trade, foreign, farm products, discussion by Secretary).ii.s.ss et -sacus camel -- 12-13
Transportation rates, ptatisticg. .. . case ckischind live cteeee eateleailel onan 717-720
Treasury, Secretary, relation to food inspection oils Jw sdkide 152, 153, 154, 155, 156
Tree pests, work for control, note. . cccwescd in witsuc en ecco dbaekese ee 83
planting, farm, damage by improper location of groves.......---..---- . Re
relation to enowdriltec.. Sosa. ose cdvdads eckide de eee 267
studies, commercial, 1004, note . 12% cc. senciini cheese oj. cto 59
Trees and methods recommended for farm planting «..6usest Walaed bee - 263-266
fence line, objection... 0c. 5d ieee J Jee eee wer - 266
forest and.shade, diseases in 1904 0.5. co) cc eee ciweeuk cece bee ee 586
kinds planted in Illinois, with comparison of results..........-. 257-258
frait, winter-killing. remarks . 005... <.--5eeutwetld 6b case a 36
relation of size to quality ef-lamber..2.. ... 256% loc. cuwes eee 453-460
time of felling to insect injuries. ....-... s..+.-+20+2senbee 391, 393
species and arrangement in windbreak.....-..--..--2------e-s-ncecee 265
Trifoliate orange, desc ription; use in breeding citrus fruits ........-.-. 224, 224-227
Tropical vege tables, growling in Porto Rico, NOME: vcd. eela erence 1038
Trotter, foundation of American breed of haves ciety vat Li 531-5383
Truck and flower gardening, business, suggestions .......----.--1----- 164, 165, 167
crops, insect damage, NOte oo s.ce oe a enn ssn sa/enleis ewe ot ee 469
statistical inv estigation, _prospectiv Cin ele se es bee oe 91
farming and forage crops, use in work against boll weevil..-....-- iis <2,
growers, need of organization wee Gui.) 54 tc piibe Santee ceed ee 187
Trucking, development and needs (see also Gardening) ....-...-.------.--- 186-187
Taberoniin distribution... .2......6c.% “cee Leite ew soe ede a 23
Tuberculosis, bad ventilation of barns as cause, etc .........-------------- . 23,110
Turkeys _ uselulness against cotton boll weevil, mote........- sco... slekleees 479, 480
Turpentine gathering, cup-and-gutter system, ‘Temarks sau vc buna ae 590
production, saying by cup-and-gutter system, notes... cde lubes 57
Typhoid fever bacteria, destruction by copper sulphate. .......0-0, wees Me
United Kingdom, exports of United States horses ........-..-----.-----.- 530-531
States, annual loss from destructive insects, article by C. L. Marlatt. 461-474
movement of population ..2.6.0.5.<-s.8 Aas eee te 353-394
production of castor beans and demand or eu eteeeen 293-297
Upland cotton. (See Cotton. )
Urosigalphus armatus, enemy of nut weevil ....~2- 22-2220 -seeti. s+ leceeees 304
Utah, drainage for overirrigation (see also Salt Lake) .....-.......---.-.---- 109
reclamation of alkali Jand, progress... cs 0. heels Gas eeeeee 73
sugar-beet seed, production i eee ee ee 28
Vaccine, blackleg, and mallein, distribution....... 2. 02. 22. sceees bese eeeee 24
Vegetable crops, injurious Insecta. .... .)..45<.c0<4.s0< oceeee CH2e eee 83
gardening, development and needs... .....<...-2---n5s.shese cee 186-187
growing, as specialty in farming near city, remarks...........-- 165-166 -
Vegetables, ex porte .. 2. Guoc kaka. Soca kos. cet iells eteieete es one 741
field ana garden, diseases. in, 1904. 25.12. scbiie Peston seat 584-585
growing in Alepks, moteis sancasde tnlulveint adele eee 99, 100
several, color, ete., influence on demand ..............---- "_ 427-428
Ventilation and lighting, jarm barn ~<.)c....s. sn) dawes oi eens tee er.
problems, data obtained in calorimeter experiments......----- 216-218
factors for considerations wisi «1+ canteicack poheeconas 217
Vessel and wreck reporting, service, reorganization....-..--------------+---- 18
Vine ‘‘tears,’”’? use in medicine (see also Grapevine) .....-.-.---------------- ob4
Vinegar, crane remaritic.. =<. -. ~~ <2 dia an imteeueinesac-biedes sees 374

infnence of color on Gemand......:.chat<sseceurcscihibuue- cae 424-495

INDEX. | 775

Page,
manoyards, California, ravages of quail. s foo. cs secss denise wdc welecticnvgice sy 200
Virginia, Appomattox, tobacco experiment....... coms Fuslaiceds Wtudidses 1 78
Deanne Io, 45., arcce on,’ Fruit erowing”’ .. scdeseed dude << cause ds cade . 169-18]
Wagon and handle stock in rough, insect injuries ........................-. 304
Walnut, black and hardy catalpa, planting on farm woodlot........ cmna wets b> 260
comparison with silver maple as to growth.................-. 257
collection, management, and planting of nuts........-............- 260
Warble, ox, damage to cattle hides, estimate....... L Sieimoie » SUE EG 6 BauEE 472
neeen, OALing’ OF NOTIONS INBSCI wo 8d cols ic os dame ke Tikd vibiclwnbde we oka dle’ 254
Wardens, game, appointment and duties......... 2... ec cee cee nenennes 510, 513, 519
Warnings, special, and forecasts, Weather Bureau, distribution.............- 16-17
Wash, lime, salt, and sulphur, usefulness, remarks ...............-.----. 81, 82, 84
Washington and Oregon, forest losses by fire, note.......... ....---..-+----- 134
GUDCrINNL WIth, BIKGU Lasts. oso cccnbee tee setedand osicstiin'dse 73
SUSET=SEk SONG: DINGUCHION, TiOtCs go coekces subedesdd ashe ebsl 25
YES: DEBE INVENMRNTION, | MOO as cit. Juice abalesewl catia wwaedtlecdus od 83
Water, irrigation, distribution, methods, and problems ................--. 106-107
methods at Byplication, study, 1904. ¢ icsossa eds ccswse cence cSedis pa 612
PUrIUCAtIOn INVestiPATONS, TEMarESs «a cwisse ees Swewee ahs ae ceck .deas 50
Waeteriow!, Texas, inwhon capture, mote 2... cicoee BS 6 va canes ne oboe 89
Watermelon, diseases in 1904 ...... 62.22.22 eee ET Se Pa PEROT TT Te 585
Wealth, national, agriculture as source, discussion by Secretary ...........-- 10-15
Weather and crop eonditions, 1904, review by James Berry ...........-.-- 556-580
Burean information; indirect, PORCH Wicca: onde Sede a inde nck cin neces 358
relation to homeseeker, article by Edward L. Wells ....-- 353-362
voluntary observers and crop correspondents .......-.. otis alt
~- Work; benefit to: homeqecheetiuiees sod suk oun codecs scenes 355-358
orgsinization amd Geese steed. obec 15-19, 5389-540

conditions, relation to growth and development of cotton, article by
LL. Sh AT. |... «co tendaais das Ask Je bce él ee 141-150
relation to tree planting on farm, notes.............-.-.--...-.--- 267, 268
Review, Monthly, relation to climate and crop service .....-.-.---- 357

Websser, Hersert J., and WALTER T. SWINGLE, article on ‘‘ New citrus cre-
ations of the Department of Agriculture’’.......... 221-240
plant breeding, work against cotton boll weevil.....--. 498
statement as to fiber of Kekchi cotton...........-.---- 486
wreew mceds, vesizuction by lonet. remarkenuins ose eta agadeceeek es 247
Weeods) Geatruction of reed -by hirdeich is oc Socal woe eetuc~ sidemeccaieee 513-514
necesuty of timely destruction, NOle...6 505-5. cc8eedanede eS 170
Weevil, boll, effect of frost in limitation (see also Boll) ...........-.....--.- 196
Bic MR OGRE ee i ge Sin Bas aie toes 601, 604, 605

work in meeting ravages, and some cotton diseases, article by
DE ee Way ho teens nies Sa td Ss etter = 497-508
cheetnut,: water. teat of iibetilaoaties 5.) ou beiut cin cnee ete lawee © 305
cotton boll, direct work of Department for control .............-.-- 197-198
present status in United States, article by W. D. Hunter. 191-204
study and work ‘(ecaialeo Cotton) 2.0625. 50-ceiecuie. 9, 78-80
destruction by growth in cotton plant..........-..-.- Mattes 58 487
hadel-nnt,:deacription, remedies;ete: a: s.-. .. soi slates. J. slaeeed-. 310
nut, remedies, scalding and drying, heat and cold storage.......-- 306-307
LIOR C200. «i aned cede tad wee sce owt ka Wide ah oleae DOS AAS » 305
pecan, description, life history, remedies, etc.....--....--..------ 308-310
Weevil-eating kelep, description and habits..................--...2---e85 483-484
Weovil-resistant cotion, Temiares < cis nsce nud cnce reese Soviwe dace when Wee 35
Weevils, chestnut, damage to crop, species, description, control, etc .....-.-. 299-308
life tyekere iil. . ak oie saben Sass cues ka Sake Sen eedss - 303-304
methods of cOmtrok.2. sseedan bikae istics ve'ew ik Oba cmad 304-308
nut, and their allies, injuries to wood products ........-...-....- 390-391
article by ©. i. Onitteigemiedas 1o.ctse tk est twice coe nece 299-310
careful harvesting and cooperation as preventives............-.. 308
location. of orchard es preventive: .oc6 Wied saie Soci ewdew sn ce 307
DALUSR LOOM oon. cgnnsWaee tun edéevans soles Gee ale eee Mee « 304
Wetis, Epwarp L., article on‘‘ The Weather Bureau and the homeseeker’’. 353-358
West Virginia, Forestry Bureau experiments. ............--...0%-200----0e 453
fruit-growing opportunities ..........-. SOE G othe Such wwesesus 179

Wheat, acreage, production, prices, exports, etc..........-...e0seeee-e--- 639-644

776 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Page.

Wheat, and corn, freight rates Chicago.to New York............----.--.---s 719

hay, contribution to national wealth, remarks by Secretary. ...-. Il

corn, and cotton, outlook, spring, 1904....-......2.----ececercecens 62

cost of production in Argentina , «i <sicev cusvke vevantleds ¥ikienuees 281-282

crop of certain countries, 1900-1904 2. . scsi. ede wees env eccevseseces 635-636

Gipeanes In 1004... ..06 ce sicibie Cie bss cee tle belek s ae 585-586

OXPOTIS 20. ccessccnensnmsdneubwes = svedvanenssvebuse¥eueweseeeae 633, 737

growing and harvest, 1904, notes. ......22.-..-2cesser ce ceeccneess 560-574

INSOCE GAMNATO «on «n'a nv vc wdc ccigntv cece su Quls elise kd 2 Ue ieiieee 466

prices, wholesale, 1890-1904 . .... 20. <csssdeuesbsccbacsp epee nen 645-647

production, Argentine. ... joss scuscuwneueuks bey ewesselaes eae 279-280

relation of :price'to size of crop’... .. vacsek'sasu up sceec¥eses ke eee 462

rust, barberry as agent in spread, remarks...........------------- 125-126

visible supplies, first of month, ten years........----.------------ 636-638

winter, and snow, 1n.1004 . ....cstwiticsadebe ens ae eey eae 560

yield in Argentina ao a n.c'v:0.0'6: 0-5 pw bid ote ls oi miele betula ee tia at on 282

Wheats, durum, raising, development, as new industry ..-..-.---.---------- 27
W hiskies, food Inspection, NOM. oi ecU eck Ue SE a Seat a ee me yeaa 159 °

Whisky, color, influence on domand . « .i4 << st Hele oe a ls hase oe ea ee oe 425

White oak, Forestry.Bureau experiments - .< Jo. 2.2 sou nt ends dees oe eee 453

Witey, H. W., article on ‘‘Inspection of foreign food products”’ .......2.. 151-160

Willits citrange, name, origin, description, and.uses..........---.--.----- 229-231

Witlow, basket, industry, study wi io. yk 3.0 2k 4 eee bob ct ee 590

WILSON, JAMEs, report as Secretary of Agriculture...........---1.----.-..-- 9-118

Wilt, cotton, flax, and cowpea, disease and remedy, notes -......---.-----. 37, 127

tobacco. malady, new, remarks... ....< 005% esl hieet. ons neee dd ee 36

Wind, power source in farm work, study «202i 25. s30..0. 42s ebee. see 108

Windbreak belts,. value on farm, remarks . 2.2.25. 206656) cote ed eee 268, 269

location, composition, and arrangement ......-.-.------------ 264-265

Windbreaks, planting on farm, use of osage orange ......---.------------- 261-262

Windmills and corn planters, tests and conclusions ......-...--------------- 112

tests for pumping and other farm work ...-.......+..-.+--.s-<<e5 108

Winds, relation to.tree planting on farm... 2.060.600 2.0. ovesnne ae 268

Wine, American, production, development... ...5.....7.csece-. accseueeee 367-368

and cider, consumers’ fancies. 2.2 02. ak ee ao ke in ee 424-425

lées and, wines; importa. sé... es 2 Sac ae Ele ee 723, 728

Wines, fortifying,. note. S62 dudes Se Sh aS Oe isthe aoe eet are ee 372

kinds and methods of production: 5.36.56 .s8uss. Wa 370-374

requirement of certificates of purity in food inspection .........---- 158-159

Winter killing of irnit trees... .. Jc... ds So ee aie ee ee 36

relation to multiplication of boll weevil . ci.cc4..2t'. Gale Gaeees eee 478

Wireless telegraphy, transfer of work to Navy Department, remarks--......-- 17

Wisconsin Agricultural Coliege, farm barn investigation, remarks.....--...-- 170

irrigation in cranberry growing; swamp lands, drainage ..-..--.- 108, 109

Wood products, conditions favorable to insect WJOLY 6 snes oe WoW a 391-398

rough, insect injuries. .. 26.6 Ste... bade ees se - woe a Be eee 395-396

Woodland, increase in value by increase in quality with size of timber. ...--- 453

Woodlot, cultivation of walnut planted with catalpa ........---------.------ 261

planting plan, need and points for consideration .-......--.------ 258-259

Woops, ALBert F., article on ‘‘The relation of plant physiology to the devel-

opment.of agriculture”? 6208s oshoe ota CoRR oe ee ee ee 119-132

barks, .etc., injuries by insects i... 3. oxo cwkuew sRe nce hee ieee eee 381

Woodwork and timbers in buildings, insect injuries. .......-..----+-.------ 396-397

Wool, imports and: exportes .. 5 5.5 <25« heen Uc bap cele dele ee 722, 732

production and. prices: wholesale... ... 2-1. ..<s-s00d ows <b ede none 710-713

shipments of Argentina <0... .2y Sots acsee eet so eu~ dai ee ee 277

Worms, corn root and other, damage to corn (see also Weevil).-.------------ 465

timber, injury to logs and timbers oa «i ghiohie 7s tad ae bu wakes aera 386-387

Wrapper tobacco in Connecticut and Vi irginia, Tremerksc: ... 5. see 76-77, 78

most useful shape of tobacco leaf-........-.------.-------- 444

supply and prices. . << <5. 2-2 inves sas -bh es an dee 436

Wreck and vessel reporting service, reorganization .........----.--.-------- 18

Wrone, usefulness, note. 5 .<« on ccwcu cd wks ores sw deen Dae eee 514

Wyoming mares, purchase for Department experiments in breeding -..---. 533-534

Weast cultures, use in wine. moaking « . os. os. once Custenn owes Gael eee «- p70

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1904

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