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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. FRONTISPIECE

HENRY CULLEN ADAMS, OF WISCONSIN.

Born NovemBer 28, 1850. Diep JuLty 9, 1906.

Mr. Adams represented the Second Congressional District of Wisconsin in the Fifty-
eighth and Fifty-ninth Congresses. He was an active member of the Committee
on Agriculture, and was the author of the act for the increased endowment of the
agricultural experiment stations, generally known as the Adams Act.

YEARBOOK

UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

\ ESS
NT

Re
QUsssssss”

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1907.

[CHaptTer 23, Stat. at L., 1895.]
[AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents.]

* * * * * : * *

Section 73, paragraph 2:

The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted
and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One, which shall contain purely business
and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the Presi-
dent and Congress; Part Two, which shall contain such reports from the different
Bureaus and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompa-
nied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially
suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general
report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be
printed of Part One, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the
House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of Part
Two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred
and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty
thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustrations for
the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance
with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject
to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said
parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself.

3

4

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A35
50 b

cop 3

PBR EE AvG.E..

The Yearbook for 1906 closely follows in. the main the style and
character of its predecessors. The Annual Report of the Secretary of
Agriculture is reproduced in compliance with the act of Congress,
which requires that the Yearbook shall ‘‘include a general report of
the operations of the Department.”

The special papers contributed by the several Bureaus and Offices
of the Department number twenty-five and occupy 332 pages. These
papers are all contributed by employees of the Department, and the
subject-matter of each is closely related to some line of departmental
work.

An earnest effort has been made not only to maintain but to extend
the scope and value of the Appendix so far as this could be done with-
out too greatly enlarging its dimensions. It may be stated here, as
an answer to many inquiries, that it has been found impossible to
admit any but national associations in what may be termed the agri-
cultural directory, which forms an important part of the Appendix.

More than usual attention has been given to the presentation of
agricultural statistics, as these constitute one of the most important
features of the Yearbook. There appear in this volume all the usual
Yearbook tables showing acreage, production, prices, values, etc., of
the principal farm crops oi the United States, production ‘of the same
crops in nearly all foreign countries, international trade in many lead-
ing products, and statistics of all the principal animal industries. The
exports and imports of agricultural products are presented with the
usual fullness. One very valuable feature of these statistics is the
presentation of data for previous years (usually four or more) so that
comparison may reveal the increase or decrease of production or trade.

The statistical portion has also been considerably enlarged by includ-
ing a number of new tables. The most important of these are tables
giving statistics of the cotton crop of the United States for one hun-
dred and seventeen years (1790-1906); production of sugar in the
United States and its possessions for fifty-three years (1854-1906); and
farm and factory results in the beet-sugar industry for six years
(1901-1906). The statistics of internatioual trade have been amplified
by the inclusion of tables showing the international trade in corn,

3

4 " PREFAOR.

wheat and wheat flour, hops, tea, coffee, oil cake and oil-cake meal,
resin, spirits of turpentine, india rubber, wood pulp, hides and skins,
butter, and cheese. Many of the facts embraced in these new tables
are, it is believed, brought together and presented in this form for
the first time in any publication. ;

The Appendix includes a review of weather conditions during the
crop season of 1906; a review of the live-stock industry during the
year, involving a statement of the greatly increased scope of the Gov-
erument meat inspection; reports on plant diseases, and the principal
injurious insects in 1906; the areas surveyed and mapped by the
Bureau of Soils; an account of what is being done under the new
** pure food law;” a report on the progress of forestry, and a report
on game protection for the year.

The portrait of Hon. Henry Cullen Adams, Representative in the
Fifty-ninth Congress for the Second district of Wisconsin, has been
selected for the frontispiece. In view of the conspicuous services
rendered to agriculture by Mr. Adams during his public career,
recently cut short by death, this selection will be appreciated by the
friends of agriculture throughout the country.

The tendency in past years has been to increase the size of the
Yearbook. This tendency has been rigorously controlled in the pres-
ent volume, with the result that it contains nearly 100 pages less than
the Yearbook for 1905, and only 43 plates, as against 73 in the previous
volume. The result has been to produce a volume more convenient
in size than several of its recent predecessors. .

Gro. Wm. Hi,

Department Hditor.
Wasuinaton, D. C., May 29, 1907.

CO. NT mNaILS

ene Wie MOLIBIAE ys fos 52a Ss eee ee ee Sees SS cee ees eee
New Problems of the Weather. By Willis L. Moore, W. J. Humphreys,
DED LL, SENS STS as nga SR a a a Se
The Present Status of the Nitrogen Problem. By A. F. Woods.......--.----
Object-lesson Roads. By Logan Waller Page .............--...---.--------
Introduction of Elementary Agriculture into Schools. By A. C. True......-
Cage-bird Traflic of the United States. By Henry Oldys............--.-----
ae Ueeet pou Surveys. By J. A. Bonsteel .....- c+... .2.2.-.22 22020225.
Bias that Hat Scale Insects. By W. L. McAtee ........-.......-:-.-------
The Effect of Climatic Conditions on the Composition of Durum Wheat. By
Terre eaters ee ee Se ee Anke os ke ensc ssbabessseeee ne
resceme Warden of To-day. -By R: W. Williams, jr. >.:..5..22..-.222:-.-
meaemannverions. By J. §:-Cottons:: .2-222.2..820 2. feleless.otecet
The Preparation of Unfermented Apple Juice. By H. C. Gore.........-.---
Foreign Restrictions on American Meat. By Frank R. Rutter.........-----
Methods of Reducing the Cost of Producing Beet Sugar. By C. O. Townsend.
Corn-breeding Work at the Experiment Stations. By J. I. Schulte .......--
Pemeaineir Upc ad food. By M. I. Jaiias.: 2.20222... 220 eile i eee.
Some Recent Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. By W. D. Hunter.
Cloud-bursts, So-called. By Edward L. Wells .....:.....-../....-2..2--.-:
New Citrus and Pineapple Productions of the Department of Agriculture. By
rT EOE Rr as. Si ee Se eee en Cee ae Be eh eee.
Distribution of Tuberculin and Mallein by the Bureau of Animal Industry.
TESS SLES ap ae ea ca i SR
PoarmuneoNe wy iiriis, “By William A: Taylor. 2::.::2.22.22-..-2222.023.5-
Freight Costs and Market Values. By Frank Andrews............---.-----
Peeropaces Varieties.” by A.D: Shamel. 2.2 2 22100322252. 22.. 202 ee
Opportunities for Dairying:
hacnem), “yaw m. barhebexter: 28. Sos 20. 9... Pe eee.
Ij. New England. By George’ M. Whitaker..........-.2-2.2-2-.2222.
eit; The North Central: States.> "By BAD. White=!:: 2-252 222.2 2.223:
ethic sontht by i: E--Rawist ce tee ees co ees 2p ee, Me
cetne Paciiic Coast. By Han McDonald eo ee eee.
Lime-sulphur Washes for the San Jose Scale. By A. L. Quaintance ........-
National Forests and the Lumber Supply. By Thomas H. Sherrard .........
Appendix:
Organization of the Department of Agriculture ...... Pee sae Desa Sas
Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years end-
iis ate, Ade), A006 same 1907 . 2222 8esa a eae es anes Ge Shs se
Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having
Peter APRUCHILENTE Seen = ot oe See sae e ew oes usnsdecs

199
213
225
239
247
265
279
295
313
325

329

6 CONTENTS.

Appendix—Continued. Page.

Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations,
directors, and ‘principal lines of workes2=--225-= ===. --.-=_- +. 461
Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations... 464
Officials in charge of farmers’ institutes.-_--.-----2-------------12-2223 464
American Association of Farmers’ Institute Workers............-------- 464
State officials in charge of agriculture 5-22232 oe eee eis tee 465
National dairy associations..<< 2.252 222ee see eee eee ee 465
American National Live Stock Association --........------.--- ree, CaP 466
American Association of Live Stock Herd Book Secretaries. -..-....-.---- 466
National Wool Growers’-Association-. = 22-282 ose roe a0 eee ae ae 466
The Corn-belt Meat Producers’ Association. .-..-------.2-<--222-222 2222 466
Protection against contagion from foreign cattle .......-...-.-..-------- 466
Stock breedeys’ associations - ==. .2-..--2-22<--6+----=>-5 466
Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests ............------------ 468
Forestry associations = . 0. S22 sees ete eee Dace Se eee = ee 469
Schools of forestry . -..22 /2252 582 cane a> bese = eee Se oe 469
National Bee Keepers’ Assotistion25 22552225: = <2 35 3 . ee
National Association of Economic Entomologists .......-.-..----------- 470
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists -.-...----.---------------- 470
National horticultural and kindred societies......-...------------------ 470
State hishway officials... .. =: coe bee eee 5 = = 471
State officials in charge of protection of game.......-----------.-------- 471
Organizations for protection of birds and game ...-.....----------.----- 472
American Breeders’ Association - .:... 2. 2225-<: :«.-=222~-- - 4a 472
Farmers’ National Congress. .... -.. - <- 9-25 3e26\- 25 -5== ee = - 472
Patrons of Husbandry <3. .<-.2: =: =... -:5.622 6 See ee ee eee 472
Review of weather conditions during the crop season of 1906.........--. 473
The live-stock industry in 1906-.......-....-:.5.-22224.== == 492
Plant diseases in 1906. .-..2.=--=s2-< -.-4.2..=-22 23 499
+ The principal injurious insects of 1906........-... 22... 2325-2 =eeeee 508
Areas surveyed and mapped by the Bureau of Soils........------------- 517
Progress in food and drug inspection and correlated investigations -....-- 520
Review ofzoadlaws,enacted-in 19062. 2. 2.. .52.25- o25- oe =e 521
Progress in farm management in 1906..............------s2<2.--eeeee 524
Progress of forestry: in.1906... . 2.22. 1-2 ---=+54=-2-.5-55 5 oe 525
Game: protection 1n‘1906 . 2. 2222522 2o 523 o2 Feo 2 533
Farmers’ institutes . .... 22. 2--<.icteg-<6 tee se6 te: os = 541
Statistics of the principal crops):+.5..22-. 343---.--.-*-3----== == 542
Farm animals and their products ....-..--.5--.-<- io<5-<.---e= eee 632
International trade in animal products-.-.-..........------sssceseeee 637
Farm animals and their products in continental United States - ----.-. 648
Transportation rates... .-. 3.) 3<4 tae <eonw = eh eess-- se -e 665
Imports and exports of agricultural products .........-.---.------------ 670
Legal weights per bushel..............-..-Ge0c0-2s-0s=45--5 eee nn
TMOOX. .< oa ceced cnc se cee ccees cubeeu gee swe eeeeee re Sees ae eee 695

eS

OE —— a

—-" =

PbS TR A Reo

PLATES.

Page.
Henry CuLLEN Apams, of Wisconsin.................--- Frontispiece
Puate I. Buildings and apparatus at Mount Weather, Va............-..-.-- 122
Il: Appliances in use at Mount Weather, Va.........-..--------.---- 122
III. Buildings and instruments at Mount Weather, Va............-..-- 122
IV. Fig. 1. First object-lesson roads built by the Office of Public
Roads, Atlanta, Ga., 1895. Fig. 2. Tarring road at Jackson,
Tenn.—Latest advance in road surfacing.................------ 142
VY. The evolution of a country road, Uniontown, Ala................-- 142
VI. Macadam road at Auburn, Nebr., built through river bottom......- 148
VII. Fig. 1. Crushing plant, Walla Walla, Wash. Fig. 2. Preparing set
grade for macadam road with traction engine and road machine,
Arkansas City, Kans. Fig. 3. Concrete bridge, Texarkana, Ark. 148
VIII. Methods of shipping and testing cage birds............-.--------- 170
EST ag ECE 516 IG re saga de ee 178
X. Photomicrographs of cross sections of wheat grown under varying
PRIMATOL fh ees oo ek wate tnak ake Leumeta eee 210
XI. Whoie wheat showing (1) flinty, (2) half starchy, and (3) starchy
PRPSITAR Peete he be Sci cn meine mt acter ee Choe Een Ne re oe = 210
XII. Fig. 1. A stallion used in improving a herd of range horses in
North Dakota. Fig. 2. Range horses, the progeny of stallions like
that ahowniin omnes sss eee esse sta eee ee ee se eee es 236
XITI. Fig. 1. Polish women thinning beets. Fig. 2. Belgian method of
SORE OSA Se ES Soe See Sy Se Pee 274
XIV. Fig. 1. Power hoe that may be utilized in blocking and hoeing
sugar beets. Fig. 2. Siloing sugar beets for the factory......... 274
XV. Fig. 1. California Indians pounding acorn meal for food. Fig. 2.
California Indian leaching acorns for food............-.-.-------- 306
XVI. Early versus late planting in the control of the boll weevil. -..-.---.- 322
ee Nomen EIR TNeH AMG 52 Se Bah 2 Ge as ee eel eee 332
ay ae MANGE, 328 32 SUE es Phys Pda 52 BLES. 2 332
OSE CA es Re ee ene ee 332
XX. Fig. 1. Branch of the Savage citrange. Fig. 2. Branch of the
Cohan Ci piees 5 ores eee ee ee PO a SS Lo 332
ele VE horntoen eremipe 2 S123 ee ae Se co SSE ASS. 338
XXII. Fig. 1. Deliciosa pineapple. Fig. 2. Dade pineapple............. 338
XXIII. Fig. 1. Coquina pineapple. Fig. 2. Jupiter pineapple........... 342
XXIV. Fig.1. Jensen pineapple. Fig.2. Orlando pineapple. Fig. 3. Bis-
exyeeipisicapples 2. Sis. el ee ae ee? aoa 342
oeaeeninetin perapple 2 SS. See eee ee es. Ss 356
Bra sive: ed apple. 2 222 2.572 Wied sa ES ewe, 358
cg AE TEE TS Ce eS ee ee, | 358
aay Par early. Whedier peach:.2 2222... 54 See oe ee. 360

8 ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.

MUX IX... Banner grape: ..22b2)nasdue cee ee ee ee een a aie es 360
XXX... Josephine persimmon. i acess eceeeeees ses se -) = ee 364
OAK. ‘Chappelow avocado: -/2..aice haa ae eee aes toe 364
XX LE, Pocan “varieties. 1.522 Aeterna ene a a ek a 368
XX XI. .Uncle:Sam Sumatra tobaccosteaaa-eeeeese ere hae eee 392
XXXIV» Hazlewood: Cuban tobaecosss- seer ee eee sea a ae ee 892
XIV... Brewer: Hy brid: tobacco 22. 2cmeneme cee ee eo ree ee 396
XXXVI. Cooley Hybrid, tobacco. 2537-2 eae eee = eee eee 396

XXXVII. Plants for cooking lime-sulphur wash. Fig. 1. A single-kettle fur-

nace. Fig. 2. A well-arranged plant for cooking the wash on a
large scale... jcgesinc anne -dadeess pinbe sen eee oe 442

XXXVIII. Plants for cooking lime-sulphur wash: (1) A western New York

outfit, (2) an inconvenient cooking plant, and (3) an outfit with
two large tanks for cooking, with boiler between..............-- 442
XXXIX. Outfits used for spraying lime-sulphur wash.........-.-----......- 444

XL. Departures from normai temperature for the crop season of 1906, -

from:.March I to September 30::.. 22.3.2. cose 476

XLI. Total precipitation for the crop season of 1906, from March 1 to Sep-
tember. 30.25 .22-c-u tots a oennit tee ce tale on eee ee 476

XLII. Departures from normal precipitation for the crop season of 1906,
from March.1 to September 30°03.) 4.332504 476
XLIII. Successful example of planting denuded State land................ 530

Fic.

16.
. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor-

TEXT FIGURES.

» Black olive-scale.n. jee bis ous osk Les A ee eee 193
“Greedy seale. oc. fscccdsu os Jo ose cv edie te ce etee cee Lagos 195
.. Oyster-shell bark-lousess.):).0. 4 .-550% 2k ee ee 196
. Pasteurizer for apple juice... 22.22/05... deecrsass seen aaa 245
. Value of pork, lard, cattle, and beef exported, 1866-1906 ............. 248
. Laborers’ houses—one method of solving the labor question in growing
sugar beets. liecci soe. 26S pak ae. Se ae ee 273
. A portable house used in some parts of the sugar-beet area ............ 274
. Percentage composition of an oily nut and a starchy nut.......-.. 300
. Map of cotton belt in the United States, showing area infested by boll
weevil in 1906 and difference in amount of annual normal precipita-
tion in different portions of infested and uninfested territory......... 314
. Section of skin of Savage and Colman citranges.......-............-.- 331
. Typical leat of Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco... oc 25. -i205. S2Ueeeeeee 390
. Typical leaf of Hazlewood Cuban tobacco..... 222925204 saves 392
pical leaf of Brewer Hybrid tobacco. -......----h22=0 1-0 394
T'ypical leaf of Cooley Hybrid tobacco... ..2..- 2.0254. 5... eee 396
Two plans for conducting steam into barrels.............-......-2-..- 44)
Top view of plant for cooking lime-sulphur wash............--.---.- 442

mal of many years for Missouri Valley and Pacific coast.........--- 474

. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor-

mal of many years for Middle, South Atlantic, and Gulf States. .... 475

. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor-

mal of many years for Lake region, upper Mississippi Valley, Ohio
Valley, and Tennessee. ........ J. de veee ut cae see ee eee 476

. Areas covered by the Soil Survey -2 222.052.0205 517
. Rise in prices per thousand feet of different kinds of lumber, 1894-1906. 527
. Map of State forest reservations 222 saeueee wes omen on eles aera ere 530

i i, i

YEARBOOK

OF THE

U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Mr. PRESIDENT:

In presenting my Tenth Annual Report of the work of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the position of the producer from the soil in the
development of our country is indicated.

It will be seen that he is making progress in the sciences and arts
of agriculture; that the researches of the Department and of the
experiment stations are enabling him to meet the requirements of a
growing population for larger quantities of field products; that the
time of the man and the yield of the acre become more responsive as
more imperative demands are made upon them; that our research
extends to all the States and Territories and to our island possessions;
that every feature of interest in soils, plants, and animals has due
attention; that explorations during the past year in extreme northern -
latitudes of Europe and Asia have resulted in accessions of plants
suitable to our dry regions that promise to help in bringing them into
profitable production.

The laws made by Congress at its last session to be put into execution
by the Department have required and have received special attention.
The meat law is being enforced with but little friction. At this time
inspection is made in about 1,000 houses, and about 1,300 experts have
been added to the inspection force of the Bureau of Animai Industry.

Rules have been made, as required by Congress, for the execution of
the pure-food law, and hearings are being given to parties interested.
The law regarding the extermination of the cattle fever tick (Boophi-
lus annulatus) of the Southern States is being put in force and good
results are following. Progress is being made in dealing with the
gipsy and brown-tail moths in New England, imported parasites being
successfully established. A beginning has been made in determining
correct rules for grading grain and acquiring facts regarding methods

of handling it in its movement toward the market.
9

10 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The law providing for the humane treatment of live stock in transit
is receiving careful consideration, and violations will be reported to
the Department of Justice.

REVIEW OF PRODUCTION.
NATIONAL DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURE.

Economic revolution in the art and science of agriculture, which
became noticeable in this country half a dozen years ago, has continued
during 1906, with tremendous effect upon the nation’s prosperity.

Crops so large as to be beyond any rational comprehension have
strained the freight-carrying ability of railroads. Directly and
indirectly the farmer has set up a demand for iron and steel that has
exceeded the productive power of the chief producer among nations.
His contribution to the supply of loan capital has been beyond caleu-
lation and recalls the fact that the depression in the loan and invest-
ment market of 1903 was cleared away by the following crop.

Meanwhile the farmer has been a generous consumer, and has given
powerful support to the market of the industrial producer, to the
trade of the merchant, and to the wages of the workingman.

The farmer has become aware of the importance of the place that
he occupies in the Republic, and in the pride of his occupation he is
ready to offer this yearly account of himself to the people.

Preliminary crop estiniates, subject to modification, must be used in
the following review of the year’s farm production, in advance of the .
final estimates of the Department, to be made a little later. The esti-
mate of total agricultural wealth production has been continued from
previous years and is again presented as an indication of the financial
results of the year’s operations. All attempts in the past, by subtract-
ing from this grand total of value such products as are used wholly or
in part in the making of other farm products in order that the farmer’s
net wealth production might be ascertained, have given no indication
of what that net production was and have only obscured the matter.

TOTAL WEALTH PRODUCED.

Taken at that point in production at which they acquire commercial
value, the farm products of the year, estimated for every detail pre-
sented by the census, have a farm value of $6,794,000,000. This is
$485,000,000 above the value of 1905, $635,000,000 above 1904,
$877,000,000 above 1903, and $2,077,000,000 above the census for
1899.

The value of the farm products of 1906 was 8 per cent greater than
that of 1905, 10 per cent over 1904, 15 per cent over 1903, and 44 per
cent over 1899.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a ld |

A simple series of index numbers is readily constructed, which shows
the progressive movement of wealth production by the farmer. The
value of the products of 1899 being taken at 100, the value for 1903
stands at 125, for 1904 at 131, for 1905 at 134, and for 1906 at 144

GAINS AND LOSSES.

Analysis into items of the grand total of wealth produced discovers
that most of the increase over 1905 is due to horses and meat animals,
and this is so partly because of the Department’s much increased esti-
mate of the number of these animals last January, and more largely
because of higher prices than a year ago.

The price of milk ran higher than in 1905, but the value thus gained
in wealth produced was perhaps more than offset by the lower prices
for butter. So, in the case of poultry, the gain in live and dressed
poultry was more than balanced by the reduced egg value, since the
mean farm price of eggs, as ascertained by this Department, declined
from 18.7 cents during 1905 to 17 cents during 1906.

Crops, in a general balance of gain against loss in value, in com-
parison with the crops of 1905, have made substantial but not large
gain—about $22,000,000; so that the previous foremost year in value
of products, 1905, is exceeded by 1906 in both crops and animal prod-
ucts, and thus this year became the leading one in value of farm
products in the history of the country by $485,000,000 over 1905.

On the side of gains over 1905, two short crops are conspicuous;
hay leads with a gain of perhaps $80,000,000 in value, and the oat
crop is second, with a gain of possibly $14,000,000. Barley and cotton-
seed each promise a gain of $10,000,000; beet sugar, $7,000,000;
tobacco, $2,000,000 or more; and hops, $1,000,000.

Against these gains are the losses of three abundant crops—
$60,000,000, more or less, for wheat, and $10,000,000 each for corn
and potatoes. The loss on rye and cane sugar may be about half a
million dollars each, if anything. The net decline for all cereals may
be $40,000,000.

The foregoing gains and losses in value, as well as others not men-
tioned, are exceedingly uncertain, and are to be regarded only as
indicative of a general conclusion.

CHIEF CROPS.

ALL CEREALS.—While the value of all cereals dropped about
$40,000,000 below the total of 1905, and about $12,000,000 below the
total of 1904, the number of bushels for 1906, which was 4,688,000,000,
was 120,000,000 bushels above the yield of 1905, 570,000,000 above the
yield of 1904, and 835,000,000 bushels above the yield of 1903.

12 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Corn remains by far the most valuable crop, and the figure that it
may reach this year is $1,100,000,000 for 2,881,000,000 bushels—per-
haps a little under the value of the next largest crop, that of 1905.

THE COTTON crop, fiber and seed combined, follows corn in order of
value, although it is only three-fifths of the value of the corncrop. No
comments here must be regarded as indicating what the Department’s
estimate of the cotton-fiber production isto be. Uponthe basis of the
general commercial expectation of a crop, it should be worth to tbe
grower nearly $640,000,000. In Texas alone the cotton crop is greater
than that of British India and nearly three times that of Egypt, and it
is half as much again as the crop of the world, outside of the United
States, India, and Egypt.

' Hay is a crop that receives small popular attention, and yet it is the
third one in value if cotton seed is included in the cotton crop, and
this year it approaches $600,000,000 for a product that is short by per-
haps 8,000,000 tons.

Wueat.—The fourth crop in order of value is wheat, which this
year may be worth over $450,000,000, a value that has been exceeded
in several years; but in quantity this year’s crop, with its 740,000,000
bushels, is only 8,000,000 bushels below the largest crop grown—that
o1:1901.

Oats.—The crop of oats, on account of unfavorable weather, has
fallen below the usual amount, but its value will be perhaps not far
under $300,000,000, or about the same as for 1905, and not much
under the highest value reached, in 1902.

Poraroxs.—With a probable crop of fully 300,000,000 bushels
potatoes reach next to their highest production, which was in 1904;
but the total value, $150,000,000, rests upon a rather low average per
bushel and has been exceeded in other years.

Baruey.—Seventh among the crops in order of value is barley, a
cereal that has gained 21 per cent in production in seven years. The
145,000,000 bushels grown this year may be worth $65,000,000, both
bushels and dollars being much more than for the highest preceding
years—1904 being the previous record year for yield and 1902 for value.

Tosacco, which has shown weakness for several years on account of
low prices, while not yet recovering its former place in pounds
grown, has a crop this year of 629,000,000 pounds, with a value which
is in close company with the three years of highest value, and it is
expected will be worth $55,000,000, or perhaps $2,000,000 more.

Suaar.—A remarkable development has been made within a few
years by now the ninth crop—beet sugar. The production in 1906 is
placed at 345,000 long tons, witha value supposed to be near $34,000,000.
Seven years ago only 72,972 tons were produced, and their value was
about $7,000,000.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

The year was a rather bad one for cane sugar, but in spite of this
the total production of beet and cane sugar slightly exceeded the highest
previous figure, although in value of sugar the year stands second.
The value of all kinds of sugar, sirup, and molasses reaches a total of
$75,000,000, second only to 1904, which was cane sugar’s best year.

FLAXSEED.—The 27,000,000 bushels of flaxseed have been exceeded
by three years, although the value, $25,000,000, reaches the highest
point.

Rice, standing twelfth in order, is another crop with its highest
value, perhaps $18,000,000, although in production the 770,000,000
pounds of rough rice are second to 1904. Markets that have developed
in Hawaii and Porto Rico have helped to keep the price high enough
to account for the total value placed upon the crop.

RykE has become a minor crop and has now fallen below rice in
value. The crop of this year is below the larger crops of recent
years, and is about 28,000,000 bushels, worth perhaps $17,000,000.

Hors.—The fourteenth crop is hops, which reached its largest
dimensions this year with 56,000,000 pounds, and as high a value as it
ever had, except in 1904, say, $7,000,000.

Summary.—On the whole, crop values have been neither notably
high nor low in comparison with recent years, but the crops are so
many in number that losses meet gains, and the crops have been on
such a high price level in the general average that they have raised
the total crop value somewhat above 1905 and the high preceding
years. To reach a still higher point in this extraordinary series of .
high annual values than had been touched before is an achievement that
deserves attention.

EXPORTS OF FARM PRODUCTS EXCEED FORMER YEARS.

Farm products continue to be so far beyond the national require-
ments that the farm still overshadows the mill, the factory, and the
workshop in providing exports. With his surplus beyond the nation’s
need, the farmer has loaded the fleets of oceans. These products were
exported to the value of $976,000,000 during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1906—enough to build a high-class railroad halfway around
the earth. This is the largest amount ever reached by agricultural!
exports for this or any other country, and exceeded by $24,000,000 the
extraordinary value of 1901, which had previously been the record
year.”

PRINCIPAL ITEMS.

Principal among the items that make the increase over the fiscal
year 1905 are grain and its products, chiefly wheat and flour, for
which the gain was $79,000,000; packing-house products, for which

14 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the gain was over $37,000,000; cotton, $19,600,000; various seeds,
$6,355,000; dairy products, $3,900,000; and live animals, $2,400,000.
Products exhibiting a decrease were mostly inconsiderable. In hops,
the decline was $1,355,000; tobacco, $992,000; vegetable oils, $726,000;
fruits, $440,000.

HIGHEST VALUE OF COTTON EXPORTS,

Cotton maintains its long lead over other chief exports, with a
value of $401,000,000 for 3,634,000,000 pounds, so that the latest year
was exceeded only by 1898, 1899, and 1905 in quantity exported; but
in value of exported cotton the figures for 1906 are $19,600,000 higher
than for 1905, which was previously the record year, and $29,000,000
higher than for 1904, which was third in order in the value of these
exports.

In exports of grain and grain products for 1906 the value again
reached a high amount and has been exceeded only 13 times in the
last fifty-six years. The value of this class of exports last year was
almost exactly the average of the preceding twenty-five years.

LEADING YEAR FOR PACKING-HOUSE PRODUCTS.

Packing-house products are another class of exports that found their
leading year in value in 1906, the amount being $207,700,000. No pre-
vious year had reached $200,000,000, and only two years had passed
$180,000,000. The value of exported fresh beef, $24,300,000, was
well up to the average of recent years; lard exports to the value of
$60,000,000 and a quantity of 742,000,000 pounds went far beyond the
highest figure of preceding years in both respects; bacon took an
upward turn with exports valued at $36,000,000 for 361,000,000 pounds
and rose well up toward the higher export years of the past. The level
of recent years was reached in the exports of hams, their value being
$20,000,000 and weight 194,000,000 pounds. The highest exports,
both in quantity and value, of oleo oil in previous years were far over-
topped by the exports of this commodity in 1906, and the 210,000,000
pounds exported were valued at $17,500,000.

IMPORTS OF FARM PRODUCTS.

The imports as well as the exports of agricultural products reached
their highest value in 1906, when the amount was $554,000,000, or less
than one-fourth of a million dollars over the value of 1905, which was
then the highest record. The principal increases over 1905 in these
imports were $20,000,000 for packing-house products, almost entirely
composed of hides, skins, hair, and bristles; $4,400,000 for tobacco;
$2,700,000 for vegetable fibers; $1,900,000 each for seeds and vegeta-
ble oils; $1,800,000 for fruits; $1,200,000 for nuts; and $1,100,000
for vegetables. On the other hand, there were decreases in imports

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

which nearly balanced the increases, and principal among these were
coffee, with a loss of $11,000,000; sugar and molasses, with a loss of
$12,600,000; wool and silk, with a loss of $7,000,000 each; and tea, with
a loss of $1,650,000.

The principal imported articles are the same year after year, and
among them for 1906 the imports of packing-house products were
valued at $96,000,000; of sugar and molasses, $86,000,000; of coffee,
$73,000,000; of silk, $54,000,000; of vegetable fibers, $50,000,000; of
wool, $39,000,000; of tobacco, $22,000,000; of fruits, $21,500,000; of
tea, $14,600,000; and of vegetable oils, $12,600,000.

FOREIGN TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS.

On account of the increasing value of forest products, the exports
of these commodities in 1906 reached a considerably higher figure than
ever before, with a value of $77,000,000, or $13,748,000 more than
in 1905. The imports of these products also increased in value by
$3,000,000; all items exhibit an increase except india rubber, the
imports of which declined by $4,800,000. In total value the imports
of forest products were $95,700,000 in 1906, an amount far above that
of any preceding year except 1905.

BALANCE OF TRADE.

The so-called balance of trade in the international exchange of agri-
cultural commodities continues to run in favor of this country by an
enormous amount; for 1906 the agricultural exports exceeded similar
imports by $433,000,000, an amount which places this year with the
seven high years beginning with 1898 and much above the balance of
1905. This new foreign credit, which equaled that of a rich nation,
was mostly offset by large borrowings in this country from Europe for
the purpose of enlarging railroads and other capital.

While the farmer placed to the National credit in other countries
$433,000,000 in 1906, other producers, all included, secured a balance
in favor of this country of only $85,000,000. During the last seven-
teen years the farmer has built up a balance of trade in foreign
exchange of agricultural products amounting to $6,068,000,000, while
all other producers find themselves at the end of the same period with
a total on the debtor side of the account to the extent of $459,000,000.

INCREASE OF FARMING CAPITAL.

Having produced fabulous wealth during the year and having sent
to foreign countries out of the wealth of the preceding year enough
to pay the interest-bearing national debt, the farmer may now take
account of his farming capital. The large rate of increase in its value
since 1900 is not a mere matter of a higher price level and higher land
values. In the meantime the farmer has earned a surplus income,

16 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

much of which he has invested in his farming equipment, in buildings,
in many improvements, in live stock, in machinery, and in furtherance
of the comforts and pleasures of living.

REAL ESTATE AND FARM EQUIPMENT.

The farm real estate, as ascertained by this Department last year,
increased in value $6,131,000,000 since the census year, or enough to
raise the census value to $22,745,000,000. Domestic animals were
worth $2,979,000,000, according to the census enumerators, and now
they are estimated tc be worth more than $4,000,000,000. There has
been a very active demand for implements and machinery, not only
by farmers who have become financially able for the first time to buy,
as in the South, but by farmers already provided with them, who have
needed to reduce their dependence upon human labor by setting more
serviceable machines.

If real estate, domestic animals, other live stock, and implements
and machinery are combined, the farmers’ capital, as composed of
these items, has increased by perhaps $8,000,000,000 since the
census valuation, or about 40 per cent, and now amounts to perhaps
$28,000,000,000.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The domestic animals of the farm number about 200,000,000 at
the time for which it is estimated by the Department, which is Jana-
ary 1. Strictly beef cattle, sheep, and swine are each one-fourth of
the total, and dairy cows and draft animals each about one-tenth.
The value of these animals has increased during the year, and only
avery rough estimate can now say how much, in advance of the
careful estimate to be made in January. Perhaps the gain is about
$400,000,000; at any rate, the increase seems to be as much as 10 per
cent.

MEAT SUPPLY.

NUMBER OF ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED.

Upon the farmers’ vast herds of meat animals the nation depends
for its most expensive class of foods in various kinds of meat and for
one-third of its dietary. The figures of meat production, which are
the result of a recent large and searching investigation by this Depart-
ment, strikingly express the magnitude of the farmer’s occupation, as
evidenced by only one of its branches, and the largeness of its per-
formance in national sustenance and exports.

In the last census year, 1900, 93,502,000 meat animals were slaugh-
tered and exported, and of these 18,809,000 were cattle, including
calves; 24,548,000 were sheep, including lambs; and over one-half, or
50,145,000, were hogs. Every time the clock ticks a second during
ten hours of a workday the farmer drives nine meat animals to the
butcher.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17
POUNDS OF MEAT PRODUCED:

The meat production of 1900, in terms of dressed weight and weight
of edible parts not included in dressed weight, was 19,186,330,000
pounds, of which 2,433,035,000 pounds, or 12.68 per cent, were
exported, so that the national consumption was 16,753,295,000 pounds.

Such great numbers may be better understood if they are reduced
to the average of the census private family, 4.6 persons. To sucha
family in 1900 the farmer supplied 49 pounds of veal, 431 pounds of
beef, 30 pounds of lamb, 39 pounds of mutton, and 465 pounds of
pork, including lard, or, in all, 1,014 pounds of meat, amounting to
half a ton.

If the exports had been consumed at home, they would have given
to each family more beef than the foregoing by 50 pounds, more pork
by 97 pounds, or together 147 pounds.

In the consumption of meat, expressed in terms of entire animals,
each family asks the farmer for over one-third of a calf, over two-
thirds of a steer or cow, over three-fourths of a lamb, nearly three-
fourths of a sheep, and two and one-half hogs, and the farmer
responds so liberally that one-eighth of his supply is left over for the
foreigner. It is upon the selling of this surplus in foreign countries
that the farmer depends for the maintenance of profitable prices for
his meat animals.

LARGE PLACE OF THE SURPLUS IN THE WORLD’S TRADE.

This fraction of one-eighth is small, but it becomes remarkably
magnified when it crosses the Atlantic Ocean. The national surplus
of meat for cne year, if composed of the different kinds as actually
used in consumption, is sufficient to feed either the United Kingdom
or the German Empire for nearly half a year, or both for nearly one-
fourth of a year, and the population of these two countries in 1901
was 98,000,000, as compared with a population of 76,000,000 in this
country the year before.

This little fraction of the national product of meat which goes to
other countries looks large when viewed in another aspect. In the
world’s international trade in packing-house products and live meat
animals the place occupied by the exports from the United States is
indicated by about 40 per cent of the total value.

IMPORTANCE OF SWINE.

As a meat producer, the importance of the hog appears in the fore-
going statement. The yearly turnover or slaughter of hogs is equal
to about four-fifths of the number on hand June 1, and the meat, in-
cluding lard, produced in 1900 was 9,279,583,000 pounds, or more than

3 Aa1906——2

18 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .

half a billion pounds over the 8,771,263,000 pounds of veal and beef,
and over eight times the 1,135,484,000 pounds of lamb and mutton.

In one State alone, Iowa, the pork products for 1906, including lard,
are equivalent in pounds to nearly the entire exports of the meat
products of swine in 1900. Should Iowa suddenly lose its swine, for
the time being exports of their products must substantially cease or
the home consumption of them be reduced one-fifth.

Briefly mentioned, such are some of the main results of the Depart-
ment’s investigation of the meat supply. They indicate the propor-
tions of the part that the farmer of this country takes, in only one
direction of his work, as a provider of meat to now 85,000,000 fellow-
countrymen and to the rest of mankind.

CONSUMERS’ YEARLY MEAT BILL.

Meat consumers, as well as farmers who are meat producers, have
concern with the national dietary. This nutritive element contributes
one-third or more of the total assimilated nutrients of the dietary,
both in pounds of protein, or flesh-forming material, and in calories of
energy. In expense to the consumer the fraction is undoubtedly
much larger. The investigations of the National Bureau of Labor into
the retail prices of food indicate, for the many representative family
budgets included in the investigations, that the average retail price of
meat, for all kinds in the proportions of actual consumption, was 124
cents in 1900, 18 cents in 1901, and 133 cents in 1905; the average
increased, perhaps, to 13%, or at the most to 14, cents in 1906.

At these average meat prices and with the meat consumption of 1900,
the national retail meat bill was $2,052,279,000 in 1900, and it was
$2,303,578,000 to $2,345,461,000 in 1906. Every increase of one-
fourth of a cent per pound in the national average retail price of meat
raises the total yearly expense to consumers by $41,883,000. The
increase of one cent a pound since 1900 cost consumers this year
$167,533,000.

FUTURE PRODUCTION.
FAULTS OF THE PAST.

The mighty production of the farm for one-third of a century has
come out of an agriculture having many faults. In a large degree
there has been one-crop farming; crop rotation, as practiced, has often
been too short and unwise; the grasses and leguminous forage crops
have been neglected, domestic animals have not sufficiently entered
into the farm economy, and many dairy cows have been kept at a loss.
The fertilizers made on the farm have been regarded as a nuisance in
some regions; they have been wasted and misapplied by many farm-
ers; humus has not been plowed into the ground as generally as it
should have been; and in many a place the unprotected soil has been
washed into the streams.

) gee weed. | lied, 5

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19
ECONOMIC J USTIFICATION.

This, in. few words, is the historic story of agriculture in a new
country; yet the course of agriculture in this country, bad as it may
seem in its unscientific aspect, has had large economic justification.
While pioneers, poor and in debt, are establishing themselves they
have no capital, even if they had the knowledge, with which to carry
on agriculture to the satisfaction of the critic. They must have build-
ings, machinery, and live stock, even at the expense of the soil.

Millions upon millions of acres of fresh land have been coming
into production faster than domestic consumption has required, and,
at times, beyond the takings of importing countries. For many
years the farmer was threatened with 40-cent wheat, 20-cent corn, and
5-cent cotton, and at times he was face to face with the hard condi-
tions implied in these destructive prices. A more scientific agricul-
ture would have raised wheat that no one wanted to eat, corn to store
on the farm and.perhaps eventually to be used for fuel, and cotton
not worth the picking.

LARGER PRODUCTION INDICATED.

So it has happened, with reason, that the production per acre has
been low; but there is no likelihood that low production is fixed and
that the farmer must continue his extensive system. When consump-
tion demands and when prices sustain, the farmer will respond. The
doors of knowledge and example are opening wider to him.

There is abundant information concerning crop rotation, the depend-
ence of high production upon the domestic animals, concerning grasses,
clover, and alfalfa, and concerning the mixing of vegetable matter
with the soil. Systems of farm management and soil treatment have
assumed greater importance in their effect upon production; and
there is the breeding of plants, which alone can multiply production
so as to glut the market.

MULTIPLICATION OF THE COTTON CROP.

If there were need to do so, the cotton farmer and planter could
double the present crop of two-fifths of a bale per acre, and the feat
would need nothing more than demonstrated and well-understood prin-
ciples of farm management. It would be no work of magic to multiply
the production of cotton per acre by 3 and get a bale and a quarter;
and, besides this, the planter has more than three times the present
actual acreage in cotton readily available and awaiting his use. More
than the present area of cotton can thus be grown in a three-year crop
rotation when the needs of the world demand it.

20 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
INCREASE OF CORN.

In accordance with principles demonstrated, known, and applicable,
hints of which have been given, the corn crop per acre can be increased
by one-half within a quarter of a century, and without any pretense
that the limit has been reached. No wizard’s services are needed for
this, but just education. .

MORE WHEAT PER ACRE.

The same statement is applicable to wheat. There is no sensible ©
reason why half as much again wheat may not be had from an acre
within less than a generation of time. It is only a question of knowl-
edge, of education, of cultural system, and of farm management, all
of which learning is and will be at the service of the farmer as he

needs it.
GAIN IN OTHER CROPS.

Equally feasible is a 50 per cent increase in the crops per acre
of oats, barley, rye, and buckwheat. Potatoes, instead of growing
less than 100 bushels per acre, should double their production.
Wherever only 600 to 800 pounds of tobacco are got from an acre,
three-fourths of a ton is the prospect.

Fruits, berries, and vegetables have a future too large to estimate.
The cannery and the railway fast freight and refrigerator car have
overcome obstacles of latitude, of longitude, and of season, and there
is every indication that the farmer can supply any possible demand
for these foods at home or abroad.

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Farmers will learn how to feed more prolific breeds and strains of
swine than the ones which they are now chiefly raising, and thus will
pork and its products be increased per individual of the permanent
stock of hogs. One-fourth of the dairy cows of the country do not
pay for their feed, and more than half of them do not return any ~
profit; in proportion as the dairyman weighs the milk of each cow and
applies the Babcock test will he increase the supply of milk, butter,
and cheese. It is merely a matter of education.

Poultry is one of the steady and helpful sources of farm income.
Movements are already on foot which may be expected to increase
the egg production per hen by at least a dozen per year within a gen-
eration; and there are poultrymen who are not enthusiasts who fore-
tell double that increase. If the hens of this year had each laid a
dozen eggs more than they did, the increased value of this product
would have been possibly $50,000,000.

A MATTER OF EDUCATIOwW

The farmer will not fail the nation if the nation does not fail the
farmer. He will need education to know the powers of the soil which

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

are now hidden from him. The prospective year:y expenditure of
$10,000,000 for educational and research work by Nation and States,
with such increases as may come from time to time, must have enor-
mousefiects. There may be agricultural schools for the small children,
and agricultural high schools for the larger ones, and their education
will be continued in the colleges.

The work of the Department of Agriculture has already had results
which are valued at hundreds of millions of dollars annually, and yet
the Department feels that it has barely crossed the threshold of its mis-
sion of discovery and education. Cooperating to the same ends are 60
experiment stations in 51 States and Territories, the 63 agricultural
colleges, thousands of farmers’ institute meetings yearly, many excellent
agricultural periodical publications and new instructive books. Then
there is a new line of work which is so productive of results that it is
constantly extending, and that is the demonstration farm, the encour-
agement of individual farmers to change their agriculture so as to
multiply their yields and their profits, and thus afford object lessons
to other farmers.

Thus it appears that forces are now at work which will very consid-
erably increase the production of the farms within a generation, and
which promise to continue the increase indefinitely. He who would
write the last chapter of the progress of the agriculture of this country
must await the procession of the centuries.

OPENING OF A NEW ERA.

The farmer is financially in a position now to do what he could not
have done previous to the recent years of his prosperity.

ADVANCE OF FARMERS’ WELFARE.

National welfare has been promoted by few revolutions in agricul-
tural economics to the extent that it has been and will be promoted by
10-cent cotton. The greater part of the cotton planters are out of
their former bondage to future maintenance, and they are paying no
enormous rates of interest for advancements—rates which were esti-
mated fifteen years ago to average 40 per cent a year.

In the Middle West the prosperity of the farmers during the last
half dozen years and over has advanced in such mass and with such
speed that no parallel can be found in the economic history of agri-
culture. One of the great changes that have come over this region
is the conversion of a million agricultural debtors, paying high rates
of interest and finding great difficulty in procuring the wherewithal
out of prices much too low, into financially independent farmers, debt-
free, and begging the banks to receive their savings at as small a rate
of interest as 2 per cent.

22 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

POWER OF THE FARMERS’ NEW CAPITAL.

Farmers are using their new capital to abolish the waste places of
the land. The river is leveed and alluvial bottoms subject to overflow
become worth hundreds of dollars per acre for vegetables; a marsh is
drained by ditches and tiles and celery makes it the most valuable
land in the county; semiarid land is constantly cultivated so as to make
a mulch of finely pulverized earth on the surface, and the crops that
it will grow make the farmer prosperous; durum wheat or alfalfa is
introduced and again the semiarid wastes are made to do the will of
the cultivator; leguminous plants give humus and nitrogen to the sandy
waste, to the use and profit of the farmer; the unused rocky, stony
field or mountain side, offensive both to the economic and to the
esthetic eye, blossoms with the apple, the peach, the pear, and the
plum, and adds to the evidences that every square foot of the land
may be made productive unless it is arid; and even then irrigation
works, as far as water is available, swell the evidence. Along all of
these lines of production farmers are using their newly acquired capi-
tal and are progressing as never before in their prosperity.

Formerly there was an abundance of farm labor anda dearth of —

farming capital; now these conditions are reversed and labor is scarce

and capital abundant. Notwithstanding the farmers’ inability to do —

some things for want of labor, the new situation is a great improve-
ment upon the old one. The farmer can now employ every labor-
saving device and thus reduce both the labor and the cost of produc-
tion; he can raise his land toa higher state of fertility than can be
made by chemical fertilizers alone, because he can advance the needed
capital for permanent soil improvement and is in a position to await
results; he can produce things that require years for the first crop, as
in tbe case of fruits; he can provide such capital as is needed to dis-
tribute his products and thus cooperation is open to him to a greater
extent than ever before; he can secure a better education for his
children to the end, among other things, that they may do better with
the old farm than he did.

PROMISING OUTLOOK.

The farmer’s standard of living is rising higher and higher. The
common things of his farm go to the city to become luxuries. He is
becoming a traveler; and he has his telephone and his daily mail and
newspaper. His life is healthful to body and sane to mind, and
the noise and fever of the city have not become the craving of his
nerves, nor his ideal of the everyday pleasures of life. A new dignity
has come to agriculture, along with its economic strength; and the
farmer has a new horizon far back of that of his prairie and his moun-
tains, which is more promising than the sky-line of the city.

Pe ne

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

For the abundance that the Creator has sustained the farmer in sup-
plying, for the stability of the national agriculture, and for the com-
forting prospect of a potent future, there are many evidences that the
people are ready to join ina day of reverent and joyous Thanksgiving.

It is no little gratification to the head of this Department in pre-
senting the foregoing picture of the farmer’s place in the economy of
the country and picturing the possibilities of his future to realize that
this Department and its work have had an important share in the
development which has culminated in the farmer’s present prosperity,
and that they are bound, if intelligently and generously administered,
to play an important part in the future of American agriculture.
With this thought in mind I will proceed to present for your consid-
eration a review of the various channels through which the Department
performs its important work and to place on record what has been
done through them during the past year.

WEATHER BUREAU.
FORECASTS AND WARNINGS.

The Weather Bureau has issued warnings of dangerous gales on the
Great Lakes and along the seacoasts, and has kept the great commer-
cial and agricultural interests of the country as fully advised as
possible of the coming of adverse weather conditions.

EXTENSION OF THE FIELD OF OBSERVATION.

Its field of observation is being gradually extended in the hope that
a view of the atmospheric conditions which prevail over the great
oceanic and continental areas will prove of especial value in making
forecasts for this country. The two points from which advices of
atmospheric changes are most desired at present are Siberia and the
region in and about Bering Sea. It is hoped to obtain reports from
Siberia through the courtesy of the Russian Meteorological Service.
The laying of a cable by the United States Signal Service, connecting
Alaska with this country, makes it feasible to secure much-desired
weather reports from that part of the globe.

EXTENSION OF STORM-WARNING SERVICE TO VESSELS AT SEA.

During the year a plan has been perfected whereby vessels at sea
equipped with wireless telegraphic apparatus may receive warnings of
severe storms if within communicating distance of shore stations, or
of other vessels which have received a warning.

OBSERVATORY BUILDINGS.

Five observatory buildings have been completed during the year,
and one (the physical laboratory at Mount Weather, Va.) has been
partially completed. The number of buildings of all classes now
owned and occupied by the Weather Bureau is 41.

24 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DISTRIBUTION OF FORECASTS THROUGH TELEPHONE EXCHANGES.

The number of telephone subscribers receiving the daily forecasts
on June 30, 1905, was 464,738. This number was augmented during
the year by over half a million, so that at the close of this fiscal year
more than a million telephone subscribers were receiving the daily
forecasts.

INVESTIGATION OF FROST CONDITIONS IN CRANBERRY DISTRICTS.

A special investigation has been carried on during a part of the
year, having as its object the establishment of a scientific basis for
accurate frost predictions in the cranberry régions of the country,
especially in Wisconsin. The conditions of both soil and air which
shortly precede and accompany frost have been studied closely, and
valuable data have been secured.

INCREASE IN THE WEATHER SERVICE.

The utilities of the Weather Bureau are such that there is a constant
and growing demand for an extension of the service so as to provide
for telegraphing and publishing more meteorological data and estab-
lishing additional Weather Bureau stations. However, special effort
is made to meet these demands with the existing appropriation, and
no request that involves asking Congress for additional funds is
honored except after a careful and thorough investigation of the
necessities of the case.

There is already an extensive output of meteorological information
that comes from the 183 full meteorological stations maintained by the
Bureau and from several hundred stations reporting only temperature
and rainfall. The daily output finds its way to the public mainly
through the columns of the newspapers and in the maps and bulletins
issued at Washington and outlying stations. Outside of Washington
there are 105 stations which issue an aggregate of 25,000 weather maps
daily, making a yearly issue of over 8,000,000 copies. The number of
monthly climatological reports printed at 40 different section centers
is 30,944, being an average of about 700 copies per month from each
center; these contain the daily climatological features of various
climatic districts. There isa constant demand from agricultural, com-
mercial, and shipping interests for an additional amount of such data.

MOUNT WEATHER RESEARCH OBSERVATORY.

Progress has been made in the establishment of the Mount Weather
Research Observatory. A station of the first order has been main-
tained throughout the year for taking and telegraphing reports that
are useful in making forecasts.

oe
¥

a ee Sod eeeiekie seoeaee RCE act acd, os a Adee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Zo

In the preparation for kite and balloon work, a number of import-
ant instruments have been installed and made ready for systematic
work. Observations of the upper air are now being regularly taken
in concert with similar aerial research institutions in foreign countries.

The interior finishings of the magnetic observatory buildings, the
erection of the piers, and the installation of the magnetic instruments
were completed during the year, and automatic and other records are
now being continuously made.

RECORDS OF EARTHQUAKES.

The attention drawn to scientific observation of earthquakes by the
calamity that befell San Francisco on April 18, last, has prompted the
Department to authorize the Weather Bureau to install an additional
number of instruments at places of observation where the Department
owns buildings and suitable ground. It is probable that during the
coming year about 15 or 20 additional stations will be equipped with
seismographs, so that the progress across our continent of earth
vibrations can be more accurately measured and the data submitted for
scientific discussion. These additional observations can be secured
with only the expense involved in the purchase of instruments and
their installation.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
THE MEAT INSPECTION.

Meat inspection has been for several months a very live topic before
the public. During the year the Federal meat inspection was con-
ducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry at 163 establishments in 58
cities, and 42,901,284 animals were inspected at the time of slaughter,
nearly all of them having also been previously inspected in stock
yards. This represents the greatest amount of work done in any one
year since the inspection was inaugurated in 1891. Of the animals
inspected, 158,953 carcasses and 126,159 parts of carcasses were con-
demned for disease or other cause. The total cost of the meat inspec-
tion, including the microscopic inspection of pork for export to
certain countries, was $852,561.70.

The importance of more thorough meat inspection and sanitation bas
been forcibly shown by the recent agitation and investigations relat-
ing to some of the packing-house methods. The new law which was
designed to correct certain evils was passed by Congress June 30, 1906,
and hence the work of the fiscal year under review was performed
under former laws, which were, in many respects, defective and unsat-
isfactory. The act of March 3, 1891, as amended March 2, 1895, pro-
vided for the inspection of all live cattle intended for export or whose
carcasses or products were intended for export; also for the manda-
tory ante-mortem inspection of cattle, sheep, and hogs, and the

26 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

additional permissive post-mortem inspection of their carcasses for
interstate trade. It has never been possible, however, to apply the
inspection to all the establishments coming within the law, since the
appropriations have been insufficient for that purpose. Many
establishments which desired inspection have had to be refused because
of lack of funds to extend the service. Many that should have been
compelled to have inspection were able to avoid it, as the former
laws compelled inspection only in the case of export beef.

The law gave the Department no authority whatever to control the
sanitation of abattoirs and packing houses, or to prevent adulteration
or the use of chemicals and preservatives; nor was any authority given
for following up meats which had once been inspected and passed imme-
diately after slaughter, or for condemning any such meat which might
afterwards have become unwholesome or unclean before or during the
process of canning or packing or before being placed on the market.
The inspection was therefore practically limited to the ante-mortem
inspection of animals and the inspection of the carcasses immediately
after slaughter. The meat found free from disease and otherwise
wholesome at the time of this post-mortem inspection was properly
marked, and that found diseased or unwholesome was destroyed. This
inspection was efficient so far as it went, and it went as far as the law
and the limited appropriations permitted. In its efforts to maintain an
efficient inspection the Department sometimes even assumed authority
not conferred by law, notably by requiring the destruction of con-
demned carcasses. In all the recent agitation the wholesomeness of
the inspected fresh meat has not been seriously questioned. The dis-
closures of unsatisfactory conditions have related almost wholly to mat-
ters over which the Department had no legal control, such as the
preparation of sausages, canned and cured meats, etc., the use of pre-
servatives, and the insanitary condition and methods of the packing
houses.

Realizing the shortcomings of the old law, the Department has
several times in the past recommended the enactment of new legisla-
tion und the increase of appropriations for the extension and improve-
ment of the service. Bills designed to remedy some of the defects
were at different times introduced in Congress but failed to pass.

Even before the appearance of recent publications criticizing the
insanitary conditions at the Chicago stock yards and packing houses,
and reflecting upon the Federal meat-inspection service, steps had
been taken to investigate these matters. A committee consisting
of Dr. John R. Mohler, chief of the Pathological Division of the
Bureau of Animal Industry, Dr. Rice P. Steddom, chief of the Inspec-
tion Division of that Bureau, and Mr. George P. McCabe, Solicitor of
the Department, was sent to Chicago and madea thorough investigation.
They made an exhaustive report, which was promptly transmitted to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

the President and was afterwards by him laid before Congress. An
independent investigation was also made under the President’s direc-
tion by Messrs. Charles P. Neill and James B. Reynolds. Prompt and
vigorous measures were taken to remedy the conditions disclosed by
the reports of these committees, but it was realized that the Depart-
ment could do very littie under existing law and that the real remedy
lay in new legislation backed by public sentiment.

Such new legislation was provided by Congress in the so-called
meat-inspection amendment to the agricultural appropriation act of
June 30,1906. This law provides for a more thorough and comprehen-
sive inspection system and makes a permanent annual appropriation
of $3,000,000 to pay the cost of the inspection. With the greater
authority now vested in the Secretary of Agriculture and with the
largely increased appropriation, the service will be greatly extended
in scope and in the number of establishments and quantity of product
covered. The inspection will be extended as rapidly as possible to
establishments engaged in interstate or foreign commerce and which
come within the law. It will be applied not only to the live animals
before slaughter and their carcasses at the time of slaughter, as here-
tofore, but also to the meats and meat food products in all the subse-
quent stages and processes of preparation, curing, canning, etc. Sani-
tary equipment, conditions, and methods will be required, the use of
harmful chemicals and preservatives and of false and misleading labels
will be prevented, and the transportation of meat in interstate and for-
eign commerce will be supervised and regulated. It is probable that it
will be necessary to request Congress to appropriate an even larger sum
to provide inspection for all establishments embraced within the law.

American live stock has long been considered the healthiest in the
world. With our enlarged and improved inspection system, the stamp
of the Government will be more than ever a mark of wholesomeness.

We must not imagine, however, that since the packing houses have
been cleaned up and the inspection improved all the meat found in our
local markets may be considered clean and wholesome. It must be
borne in mind that the Federal jurisdiction is limited to interstate and
foreign commerce, and that this inspection can legally be applied only
toestablishments doing an interstate or foreign business. To be sure,
the Department insists on inspecting the entire output of each estab-
lishment at which its inspection is maintained, even though part of the
product is to be consumed within the State; but the Federal inspec-
tion does not and can not reach the establishments doing business
exclusively within a State. The Department, under the new law, can
and will enforce cleanliness and sanitation in the establishments doing
an interstate and export business, but it is powerless to reach the local
houses. The latter must be looked after by the State and municipal
authorities. Each State or community must protect itself against

28 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

oe

unwholesome meats originating within the State. In the absence of
an efficient local inspection the consumer’s only safety lies in seeing
that meat bears the Government label.

INSPECTION OF EXPORT ANIMALS.

The export trade in live animals is fostered by the inspection con-
ducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry. During the fiscal year
more than 1,000,000 inspections were,made before exportation, and
over half a million animals were again inspected on arrival at British
ports by Bureau inspectors stationed there. Seven hundred and forty-
nine inspections of vessels carrying export animals were made before
clearance, and they were required to conform to certain regulations
as to space, fittings, attendants, feed, water, ventilation, ete. The
percentage of animals lost in transit was less than one-quarter of 1
per cent.

INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORTED ANIMALS.

Our domestic live stock is protected from the contagion of destruc-
tive diseases which exist in other parts of the world by a rigid system
of inspection and quarantine of imported animals. In this service
during the year 168,600 animals were inspected, and 1,898 of these
were quarantined.

The quarantine stations on the Atlantic seaboard, with one excep
tion, are in satisfactory condition. The station near Baltimore will
soon have to be abandoned because of the dilapidated condition of the
buildings and the building up of that locality. When a suitable loca-
tion is secured an appropriation by Congress for the equipment of the
new station will be necessary.

CONTROL OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

The work for the control and eradication of contagious diseases of
live stock in our own country has been attended with encouraging
results. Sheep scab and cattle mange, which a few years ago had
spread over the greater part of the Western States, are gradually
yielding to our efforts. It is believed that their complete eradication
will be only a matter of a few years. During the year sheep scab has
been greatly diminished in Arizona and Idaho, and practically stamped
outin Utahand Wyoming. Even more rapid progress has been made
with cattle mange. Washington and Oregon, and large portions of
Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, have
been freed from this disease and released from quarantine, and it is
expected that the same will soon be true of extensive areas in North
Dakota and South Dakota and other portions of Wyoming and Texas.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

Maladie du coit, or dourine, an insidious venereal disease of horses,
which existed in portions of South Dakota, Nebraska, and Iowa, is
now believed to have been eradicated, after several years of vigilant
work. Out of 965 inspections during the year no positive cases and
but 3 suspicious cases were found.

ERADICATION OF THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK.

Under the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 30,
1906, appropriating $82,500 to enable the Secretary of Agricuiture to
undertake experimental work in cooperation with State authorities
in eradicating the ticks transmitting Southern cattle fever, the Depart-
ment has for some months past been assisting the States and Terri-
tories from California to Virginiaalong these lines. Anticipating the
action of Congress an investigation was made respecting the laws of the
yarious States, and through the various attorneys-general inquiry was
made relative to the existence of State laws under which the Govern-
ment could undertake the work of tick eradication. It was found
that, while some State laws afford ample provisions, other States either
have no law bearing on the subject, or the statutes are inadequate.
The table following shows the particular points covered by the inves-
tigation and the general trend of the information received.

Provisions of State laws relating to quarantine, disinfection, etc.

Questions and answers.

Are local officers author-

» “f | -
ized and empowered t0 | are such officers |Ate State Off) May the State con-
spect live stock and | _©™powered to ["t5 issue rules fer authority
State. enforce quarantine enforce such dis- and regulations upon Federe!
including counties, |-'2fection of ani- |" ot apishing eet MES
dmieis faraak< and mals and premises SS ae to actas officials
ranches, and to control | #8 ™ay be nec- | ing quarantine| Of the State io
the movement of live essary? ines? such matteis?
stock? | |
!
Alabama .......... No live-stock quarantine or euttinry law.
Arkansas .......... Peace officers may enforce | No .............. 1. nae ae
quarantine lines fixed
by law and by the
f : United States.
California). ....3. BAe ee ee ee Impliedly ....... WS .oconene ses VAS eee Officials
only.
MIGVIOR § 222. 520 - No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law. f
rn es See Yes; impliedly so......-..-. Messnce eo ee | Yestue cae Not prevented.
Indian Territory .. No law to cover these matters.
Kentueky ~....:.5. NERS Saas recon eek crac Cae eee c os Yes ..
Louisiana ......... Yes; impliedly so........- BE re Cee ee ee Yes ..
Mississippi......... : No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law.
Minseuye =... = 2... INOS =. 20 2 ss ee ee NO ee INOses oc55c22
MGTEAE ITOH TA =.= | VOR. 25 oboe antec e~ ocak ee Novel -22.Se Wests. se oncene
Oklahoma......... WES. oscosn was cnaouee ae Wes 2 ole. asses Vesioseec.5
South Carolina .... No law to cover these matters.
Tennéssee ......... OS ho Ee oe Sh ge ae NGS Saath Wess... 34-5
PROREN Pee 2c 2.25 oe dS Re ee West ee Megane
toi) NE ee oe Yes... 2. oe Vier 2 ere ee 225)

30 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The matter was early taken up with the proper officials in the States
and Territories interested and arrangements were made for the Depart-
ment to cooperate with them to the extent that their respective laws
would permit. Under these arrangements the work has been done in
close cooperation with the local authorities, who were permitted to
designate the counties or localities to be covered and to recommend
for appointment as agents of the Department men acquainted with the
local conditions in the respective localities.

The territory in which it was desired to operate was divided into
five sections, as follows:

1. California.

2. Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana.

3. Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi.

4, Georgia and South Carolina.

5. Virginia and North Carolina.

The work was organized as soon as possible after the passage of the
law, but it was late in July before it could be begun at all, and even
ieee before it could be taken up in some sections.

As the conditions in the different sections were widely divergent,
the plans of procedure and methods employed necessarily varied
greatly. In some States meetings were held at which the subject of
tick eradication was discussed with farmers, stockmen, and other inter-
ested citizens. These meetings were intended to be largely educa-
tional, but they gave an opportunity to petition State authorities for
relief and to express preference for local inspectors, thus developing
an enthusiasm and interest that can only come from a close personal
identification with an enterprise of this sort. In some places it was
necessary to employ inspectors who could live in the saddle and wield
a lasso like a cowboy. These men worked in groups of about a dozen,
each group having a cook and a camping outfit. They covered their
territory systematically, roping and examining cattle wherever found,
and informing the owners of infested animals of the most practical
method of getting rid of the ticks. It was found advisable to buy a
carload of crude petroleum (in barrels) for use in the treatment of
infested animals. This oil was distributed and used under the imme-
diate supervision of inspectors of the Department in the southeastern
States, and was doubtless the means of doing what could have been done
in no other way, as the crude oil is difficult to obtain in small quantities
and at points far distant from its production.

The table following shows by States the number of herds inspected,
the number of cattle inspected, the number found free of ticks, and
In number found to be infested—the grand total of inspections being

29,315 herds containing 522,529 cattle.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. sii

Results of inspection work to October 31, 1906.

Inspections.
Number
State. Cattle. of
Herds. counties.
Free. | Infected.} Total.

Alabama . 4 5, 550 5, 554 2
Arkansas . 6, 671 2,332 9, 003 2
California .. ; 67,517 58,889 | 126, 406 11
ei eb ee SS eee ene 4,474 10, 053 6, 365 16, 418 7
(0. De | 4,077 18, 653 7, 332 20, 985 4
no. TEE ly. -,. 3 be 126 3, 000 1, 480 4, 430 3
(ESO DCS LS a Sena eee rc | Swtosraee ion pemecees |Sesteros cic Goec benches itece teks
0 eS TP ho a eS ee ee ee a | 10, 589 97, 860 16, 972 114, 832 5
(oS RIL EE. 43). SES Ss Re Re eee oe Sears oe 6,317 23, 204 15, 840 39, 044 17
ES etalon clas con osc caa\nn's cence asa aeemah 410 86, 682 99,175 185, 857 17
ee oa eect el - sie n\e's inne seein cine = ace a |-------- eeeeeeees Seeeeeeens Peeeneee es Seer ee
PES 3 eS ee ee ee ae ore 29, 315 308, 644 213, 885 522, 529 | 68

a In addition, in Kentucky 1,396 herds and 6,904 cattle were reinspected.
bIn addition, in Tennessee 822 herds and 4,174 cattle were reinspected.

The work is still progressing in some States, but will be practically
discontinued about December 1 on account of the lack of funds. The
outlook for next season’s operations in the different infested sections
is very encouraging, and the work should be resumed in the early
spring.

In considering the work done and the results attained thus far it
should be borne in mind that the season was well advanced before the law
was passed, and that, although some steps were taken in anticipation of
its passage, yet the actual plans and organization for the work were
late in formation. It should also be remembered that the amount
appropriated was only intended to be used to inaugurate the work,
and yet, as set forth above, employees of the Department have inspected
29,315 herds, containing 522,529 cattle, and have, in connection with
local authorities, so attended to their disinfection and to the super-
vision thereof that forty whole counties and parts of eleven other
counties, with an aggregate area of almost 50,000 square miles, wiil
probably be released from quarantine before the end of this fiscal year.
This is an area larger than that of the entire State of Virginia. Plans
are laid and specific work is outlined for resumption in the early
spring. The State officers, cattle owners, and others affected are
intensely interested; educational work will be carried on, and there is
every reason to believe that, with proper funds at the disposal of the
Department next season, large inroads may be made into the territory
now quarantined, and hundreds of thousands of cattle be given an
unrestricted market, thus giving direct results to an immense number
of people. This will stimulate interest in those States in which active
interest is now lacking and will doubtless result in a more general
‘movement against the cattle tick.

If the Congress at its next session will appropriate $250,000 for
extending these operations and will continue to adequately sustain

oe YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

them, and the States interested will do their part in the way of enact-
ing favorable laws and appropriating money to be used in this cooper-
ative work, it is only a question of time when the southern cattle tick
in this country will bea thing of the past.

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF DISEASES.

The scientific investigations of contagious diseases by the Bureau of
Animal Industry have yielded results of especial importance with
regard to tuberculosis and hog cholera during the past year.

TUBERCULOSIS.

The increasing and alarming frequency of tuberculosis in hogs, as
observed in the meat-inspection service during recent years, led to
experiments to determine the most probable source of infection of
these animals. The practical conclusions of these investigations are
that the most frequent causes of tuberculosis in hogs are to be found
in the common practices of allowing these animals to follow cattle in
the feed lot and of feeding them on skimmed milk or separator refuse.
The feces of tuberculous cattle have been found to be heavily charged
with tubercle bacilli. The experiments indicate that animals with
tuberculous lungs, while they do not expectorate after coughing up
tuberculous material, nevertheless scatter the bacilli freely by swal-
lowing them, having them pass through their intestines, and discharging
them with their feces. Hogs readily contract tuberculosis from eating
the excrement of tuberculous cattle. For milk to be infected with
tubercle bacilli it is not necessary that the udder should be diseased;
infected feces are believed to be a common cause of contamination of
miik drawn in the environment of tuberculous cows. Thus it seems
that a single diseased cow may be the means of infecting the mill of
an entire herd.

Other experiments showed that the location of lesions in the bodies
of animals affected with tuberculosis is no guide to the mode or chan-
nel of infection. For instance, lesions in the lungs have usually here-
tofore been regarded as indicating that the infection was acquired by
inhalation. The incorrectness of this view was shown by producing
lung disease by inoculating hogs in the tip of the tail and by feeding
them with tuberculous material.

These results emphasize anew the great importance of every farmer
keeping his herd free from tuberculosis.

Experiments in the application of the tuberculin test to hogs showed
that when proper precautions are taken tuberculin is about as accu-
rate in detecting tuberculosis in hogs as in the case of cattle. The
test was found reliable in 97 per cent of the infected experimental
animals,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 30

HOG CHOLERA.

Hog cholera has long been a cause of heavy loss to the farmers, and
for years scientists in the Department and in various parts of the
world have been working on the problem of the cause and prevention
of this disease. Recent work of the Bureau of Animal Industry has
demonstrated that the contagion consists of a virus which exists in the
blood and other fluids of diseased animals, but which can pass through
the finest filter, is invisible under the microscope, and therefore can not
be isolated or discerned by any of the usual methods. This important
discovery, which has since been confirmed by eminent scientific
authorities in England and on the Continent of Europe, affords an
explanation of the failure of past efforts to produce a satisfactory
vaccine.

The real cause of the disease having at last been determined, the
Bureau has during the past season conducted experiments with a view
to producing a vaccine or serum which will prevent or cure the dis-
ease. Successful results have already been obtained in an experimental
way, and efforts are now being made to adapt the method to practical
and general use. The method has been patented by the Department
in the name of the scientist who evolved it, Dr. Marion Dorset, the
patent having been taken out in such a manner as to insure to all the
people in the United States the right to its use free of royalty.

PARASITES OF SHEEP.

The stomach worm or twisted wireworm of sheep, a parasite causing
great damage to flocks in many parts of the United States, has been
studied, and the principal facts in its life history, which have hitherto
been unknown, have been worked out. The eggs of the parasite are
scattered over the pastures in the droppings of infested sheep or cattle.
The embryos, which in a certain stage are enveloped in a sheath which
enables them to withstand freezing and dryness, climb up blades of
grass. When infested grass is eaten by a sheep the embryos continue
their development in that animal. Experiments now in progress
indicate that with certain precautions it is entirely feasible to raise
lambs free from this and some other troublesome parasites.

BLACKLEG VACCINE.

The Department has continued to supply blackleg vaccine free of
charge to stock owners, and reports indicate that the prevalence of
this disease is gradually being reduced. During the year 1,350,915
doses of this vaccine were prepared and distributed. The losses
among animals treated with this vaccine during the previous year were
less than one-half of 1 per cent.

3 al906——3

34 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

PEDIGREE ASSOCIATIONS.

After consultation with officers of American pedigree record asso-
ciations, the Department has radically changed the regulations regard-
ing the importation of animals for breeding purposes. Hitherto
certificates of approved domestic and foreign associations have been
accepted with the requirement that they should show the ancestors for
two generations. This requirement caused inconvenience and dissat-
isfaction to importers, but the Department felt that unless it could
supervise more closely the books of record such a requirement was
necessary to give a reasonable assurance of pure breeding. The new
regulations simply require that animals imported for breeding pur-
poses shall be registered in an approved American book of record in
order to be entitled to free entry. Where a breed has no book of
record in the United States the certificate of the Chief of the Bureau
of Animal Industry must be obtained. The records of the approved
associations are closely supervised by the Department and must con-
form to prescribed conditions in order to remain on the approved
list. This change should prove beneficial to the breeding industry.
It will not only make officers more careful in the management of pedi-
eree registers, but will practically compel the registration of imported
pure-bred animals in American books.

HORSE-BREEDING INVESTIGATIONS.

Satisfactory progress is being made in the experiments in breeding
heavy harness horses at the Colorado Experiment Station. The stud
has been increased by the purchase of two Kentucky mares of desir-
able strains of breeding. It is considered advisable to increase further
the number of experimental animals, and the Department should be
prepared to purchase exceptionally good mares as opportunity offers.
This line of experiments promises to be of the greatest value to Ameri-
can stockmen and should be carried out systematically and thoroughly.

Experiments have been begun, in cooperation with the Vermont
Experiment Station, in breeding Morgan horses with the object of
preventing the loss of the Morgan blood, preserving the type, and
increasing the size. Seven mares and two fillies were purchased in
Vermont and two mares in Kentucky for these experiments.

"FECUNDITY OF SOWS.

Some unexpected but instructive results were obtained by a study
of the fecundity of Poland-China sows. It had been supposed that
this breed of hogs was declining in fecundity, and the Department
was urged to undertake experiments with a view to overcoming this
tendency. An investigation into the pedigree records and a compari-
son of two periods of years, based upon nearly 55,000 litters, showed

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 345]

that the average number of pigs per litter was 7.04 during the years
1882-1886, and 7.52 during 1898-1902. There was thus an increase of
0.48 per litter instead of a decrease. These results led to a similar
investigation of the Duroc-Jersey breed, and while the popular sup-
position that this breed is more prolific than the Poland-China was
confirmed, it appeared that the average size of litters of Duroc-Jerseys
had remained practically stationary for several years, the figures being
9.22 for 1893-1897 and 9.27 for 1898-1902. These investigations are
being followed with studies of the inheritance of fecundity.

POULTRY BREEDING.

Investigations, with a view to developing a strain of chickens with
increased egg-laying capacity, are being conducted in cooperation with
the Maine Experiment Station. Several hens have been found to lay
more than 200 eggs in one year, and the results seem to indicate that
by selecting the best layers for breeding purposes and by proper
feeding the average egg yield of a flock can be increased. The great
benefit of such an increase is too obvious to require comment.

EXPERIMENTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION.

A careful scientific study of the fundamental principles of animal
nutrition by means of a respiration calorimeter has been in progress
for several years at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station by coopera-
tion between the Department and that station, and some important
and valuable results have been realized. Beginning with the food as
a source of energy to the animal machine, the investigators follow this
energy through to its ultimate effect, determining how much escapes in
the undigested residues of the food, how much is expended in the
digestion and assimilation of the food, and what surplus remains to sus-
tain the life of the animal or to enable it to produce meat, milk, or work.

The results thus far published include experiments with timothy
hay, red clover hay, and corn meal, and they have shown that the so-
called ‘*fuel value” of feeding stuffs can not be taken as a measure of
their nutritive value. The experiments have amply demonstrated
that the real nutritive values of stock feeds are much less than their
fuel values, the former ranging from 56 to 67 per cent of the latter in
the particular feeds used. Experiments to study the effect of age and
breed upon the percentage of food energy utilized have not been
concluded.

FEEDING COTTON-SEED PRODUCTS TO HOGS.

The Bureau of Animal Industry has conducted experiments during
the year to test the harmful properties of cotton seed and cotton-seed
meal when fed to hogs. These substances proved fatal to the hogs,
the time required to cause death being longer when a varied ration was

36 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fed than when only one kind of grain was fed in addition to the cotton-
seed meal. The results obtained by experiment stations as to the
fatal effects of cotton-seed products in combination with corn meal
were confirmed, but it appears from the Department’s experiments
that bran and middlings, instead of neutralizing the injurious effect of
the cotton seed, as had been concluded from experiment station work,
gave results very little better than corn meal. The experiments with
bran and middlings will be repeated and other tests made. Chemical
and pathological studies are being made with a view to discovering the
cause of the harmful effects of cotton seed when fed to hogs.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

The work of the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry
has been considerably extended during the year. Results of a:valuable
and practical nature to the dairy industry have been obtained from —
investigations in the manufacture and storage of butter and cheese
and the production and delivery of market milk; and a good begin-
ning has been made in the work for the improvement and develop-
ment of dairying in the South and the investigations and studies
regarding the construction of dairy buildings and the organization and
management of dairy enterprises.

BUTTER INVESTIGATIONS.

About 5,000 pounds of butter were made under different conditions
and stored for eight months at different temperatures. The conclu-
sion from this experiment is that the use of cream received at the
creamery in a sweet condition, light salting of the butter, and low
temperatures (10° F. below zero to 10° F. above zero) give much the
best results for storage butter.

Two common troubles of butter makers—mold in butter tubs and the
fishy flavor of butter—have been studied. The coating of tubs with
paraffin has been found to be an effective method of preventing mold.
Investigations regarding the fishy flavor have not progressed far
enough to determine the cause of this trouble and are being continued.

A system of market inspection of butter at New York and Chicago
has been started with a view to assisting creameries to improve the
quality of their product. When butter arriving at one of these mar-
kets is found deficient in quality a statement of its condition is sent to
the butter maker, to the dealer who purchases the butter, and to the
dairy and food commissioner of the State in which the butter was

produced.
CHEESE INVESTIGATIONS.

Further work was done during the year in the manufacture and
storage of cheese. A quantity of American Cheddar style cheese was

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

made, cured, and stored under varying conditions, and the details of
the experiments, with a review of previous work on the subject, were
published. The cheese that scored highest was that placed in storage
at 32° F. directly from the press, while that scoring lowest was cured
entirely in the factory curing-room at about 65° F. Cold curing
appears to derive its value chiefly from its effect on what otherwise
might be poor cheese. The popular taste is growing decidedly toward
mild cheese, and to meet this demand it seems desirable to have cheese
ripened, so far as it is ripened at all, at low temperatures.

The experiments in the manufacture of soft cheese of leading Euro-
pean varieties have been continued throughout the year in cooperation
with the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station. During the winter a
scientist connected with this work spent two months in Europe study-
ing the manufacture of cheese, and these studies have resulted in
marked progress in our investigations regarding Camembert and
Roquefort cheese. While there are some problems yet to be investi-
gated, the knowledge so far gained of the fungi, methods, and condi-
tions necessary in the production of these kinds of cheese indicates
that it is entirely practicable to manufacture in this country soft
cheeses of these types fully equal to the best European product.

THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF MILK.

Probably no article of food is more generally consumed than milk,
and in striving for pure foods a wholesome milk supply must be con-
sidered of prime importance. During the year the Dairy Division
has investigated the milk supplies of various cities, and has begun
studies of the organization and working of milk sanitary commissions
and other bodies whose object is to improve the quality of market
milk.

The competitive exhibit of milk and cream at the National Dairy
Show in Chicago in February was in charge of the Dairy Division
and gave an object lesson of great educational value. It was demon-
strated that milk and cream produced under sanitary conditions could
be shipped long distances and kept sweet for several weeks without
any other means of preservation than cleanliness and low temperatures.

DAIRY IMPROVEMENT IN THE SOUTH.

A careful survey of dairy conditions in the South has been made as
the first step in the work of improving these conditions and promoting
the dairy interests of that section. This preliminary work has shown
that while in some cases southern dairy herds are yielding as good
results as are ordinarily expected in any part of the country, there is
great need throughout the South for education in improved methods of
dairy breeding and feeding and milk production. Many of the south-
ern people show a desire to learn more of dairying so as to get away

38 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

from the one-crop system. One serious handicap is the inferior class
of cattle found there, probably due largely to the presence of the cattle
tick.

OTHER DAIRY WORK.

To meet the demand for information and assistance as to the con-
struction of dairy buildings, some studies and experiments have been
and are being made. A circular giving plans for an improved dairy
barn was published, and many plans for dairy buildings of various
kinds have been worked out and sent to farmers throughout the country.
Some experiments have been made in building silos of three types of
construction.

Investigations into the organization, equipment, and management of
creameries and cheese factories have been undertaken to enable the
Department to give advice and assistance on these subjects.

RENOVATED BUTTER.

In the administration of the portion of the law of May 9, 1902,
which relates to renovated butter, the Department has continued its
supervision of the manufacture and sale of this article. The factories
and ingredients are inspected to insure sanitary conditions and whole-
someness, and the product is inspected in the markets with a view to
detecting and preventing violations of the law and regulations as to
proper labeling. The factories are in better sanitary condition than
in past years, and as a rule the manufacturers show a disposition to
comply with the Jaw and regulations. Evidence of the illegal sale of
renovated butter by dealers in several cities has been collected, how-
ever, and some prosecutions have been instituted. The regulations of
the Department have been sustained in two court decisions.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

A leading feature of the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry dur-
ing the past year has been the cooperative demonstration work with
farmers, fruit growers, and others. It has been my established policy
to have our own officers carefully scrutinize all operations, including
those which involve the conducting of business as well as those in
which both field and scientific investigations are concerned.

INTRODUCING NEW CROPS AND NEW INDUSTRIES.

The search by agricultural explorers in foreign lands for new crops
has been continued. A trained man has spent the last year in the cul-
tivated fields and wild mountains of north China and Manchuria
searching for new plants and seeds worthy to be transplanted to this
country and for wild forms of our cultivated fruits and vegetables
which may have characters of hardiness or unusual vigor that will

ee oe

i i |

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

make them useful for the plant breeders of the United States. Ship-
ments of scions and of seeds representing hundreds of interesting
things have been sent in and are now growing in the trial gardens of
the Department. Among the things secured are new hardy Pekin
persimmon varieties, interesting varieties of the English walnut, the
Chinese pistache, wild and cultivated apricots, the wild peach from its
supposed original home, hardy apples and edible-fruited hawthorns,
millets and field beans, a lawn sedge that is promising, and a very
remarkable lot of Chinese grape varieties, not to mention a most
unusually interesting collection of ornamental trees and shrubs suited
to the climate of the Eastern and Middle States.

NEW ALFALFAS AND OTHER CROPS.—One of the most important achieve-
ments of the Bureau’s exploration work is the recent discovery by Prof.
N. E. Hansen, of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station,
who is now abroad in the interest of the Department, of the existence of
a Siberian alfalfa, an excellent forage plant with yellow instead of the
usual blue flowers. This plant is native on the dry steppes of Siberia,
where the mercury sometimes freezes without snow, thus proving the
ability of the plant to withstand with no protection a temperature of
about 40 degrees below zero. The existence of this alfalfa has been
suspected for many years, and its final discovery, it is believed, may
mark an epoch in the agriculture of the northwestern prairie regions
of the United States, where the rainfall is slight and the winters are
exceedingly cold. Professor Hansen is making a very careful study of
this plant, with a view to its cultivation in this country. A quantity of
the seed of this valuable crop has been secured, which will be given a
thorough trial by the Department at an early date. It will supplement
durum wheat in a rotative system and avoid the necessity of summer
fallowing.

The most distinct of any of the alfalfas is the newly introduced
Arabian, characterized by its large leaflets, hairiness, and vigorous
growth. Its quick recovery after cutting renders an extra cutting
possible in long seasons. It is proving of special value in the irrigated
sections of California and the Southwest, though its lack of hardiness
makes it unsuited to the colder parts of the country. Attempts are
under way to establish strains resistant to cold and drought.

A species of vetch called the Tangier pea has proved superior to all
others in California in its luxuriance of growth, having yielded as
high as 9 tons of green feed per acre. On account of this great
amount of herbage it chokes out weeds very effectually. As a green
manure crop it promises in California to supersede all others. Its
value as forage remains to be ascertained. A large quantity of seed
is being grown so as to introduce it extensively next season.

A most luxuriant subtropical grass, called the Para grass, has proved
well adapted to the Gulf coast region, Arizona, and California. Where

40 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

sufficient moisture is provided this grass will yield about 8 tons of hay
per acre. It is coarse in quality, but very nutritious. The seed is
very poor in quality, but the grass can readily be grown from cut-
tings, one plant covering 100 square feet or more ina season. It is
planned to distribute the cuttings extensively in the spring of 1907.

ENCOURAGING THE MATTING INDUSTRY.—The United States imports
every year larger and larger quantities of hand-made floor coverings
made from several species of aquatic rushes and sedges that grow
pretty generally over the world. In 1906 more than 50,000,000 yards
were imported, and more than $4,000,000 paid for them, notwith-
standing the fact that looms have been invented that can weave the
rushes into useful floor mats. These looms, the result of American
ingenuity, when tended by single operators, can turn out more than
30 yards of matting a day—a strong contrast to the hand looms in use
in foreign countries from which we draw our supplies of matting.
The common rushes of our neglected swamp lands and tidal regions
can be made into matting, but these lack the delicate, slender charac-
ter of the cultivated forms in use in the Orient, India, and Africa.
Our explorers have been gathering living plants of the best foreign
varieties, as well as selecting the most promising native types for
trial plantings in the abandoned rice plantations of the Carolinas and
for the delta regions of the Mississippi and Rio Grande, where cheap
lands, which are not now growing profitable crops, are awaiting for a
rew plant culture.

A NEW SUBTROPICAL FRUIT.—The Florida fruit growers have had
their enthusiasm aroused this year by the ripening of several of the
delicious, fiberless East Indian mangoes which the Department has
introduced. The collection is one of the largest in the world, and’
Florida growers are waiting to see the behavior of the different sorts
now under trial before pune ting large areas in this fruit, without doubt
one of the great fruits of the world.

SUCCESSFUL DATE CULTURE.—The date palms intredeten by the
Department into southern California and Arizona have borae hun-
dreds of pounds of delicious fruit this year. Even the famous Deglet
Noor from the Sahara has ripened perfectly in the Salton Basin,
proving that this unique desert culture has passed from the stage of a
pure experiment into that of a new industry.

THe PIsTacny Nuv.—The investigation of the pistache, a promising
dry-land nut crop, has resulted in a distinct widening of the possibili-
ties of its culture through the introduction from Turkestan of hardy
forms. Three wild species suitable for stocks have been introduced
from the driest deserts of the Old World, and a very hardy stock has
also been secured in northern China.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE PATHOLOGISTS.

The year has been an unusual one in the field of plant pathology.
There have been serious outbreaks of disease and the staff of men
engaged in this work has been kept very busy.

Prar BLIGHT.—The Department has worked out by careful bacte-
riological investigation methods of controlling this serious menace to
the pear and apple industry. The disastrous attacks of the old eastern
pear blight upon the magnificent pear orchards of California have
brought into prominence the importance of this work. During the
past six years the Department has been engaged in demonstrating on
a small seale in certain isolated orchards the practicability of control-
ling the disease, mainly by the eradication of the blighted portions of
the tree and the antiseptic treatment of the wounds. Strenuous
efforts are being made by the Department, in cooperation with the
State experiment station and the State and county horticultural com-
missioners of California, to assist in applying these methods in saving
the California orchards. The pear orchards of California represent a
valuation of about $15,000,000, producing an average annual income
to the fruit growers of $1,500,000. One-third of this, at least, has
already been destroyed, but we hope to help the growers to save the
remainder. Pear blight is destroying the pear industry in several
other western States, and urgent requests have been made for assist-
ance, which the Department expects to grant as far as it is able.

LirTLE PEACH AND PEACH YELLOWS.—The little peach disease has
now been kept under controj for three years on the test area in
Michigan, and it is believed that the efficacy of the method has been
fully demonstrated there. Work has therefore been transferred toa
similar demonstration, in cooperation with the Cornell Experiment
Station, in a test area in Niagara County, N. Y. This is confidently
expected to show the possibility of greatly reducing the ravages of
the little peach disease and also of the peach yellows.

Peach yellows has been unusually destructive in West Virginia and
Maryland during the past season. Department experts have been
studying the disease in cooperation with the West Virginia State
Experiment Station and urging the application of eradication methods.
In one district, at least, in West Virginia, fully 90 per cent of the
peach trees have been destroyed by the yellows during the past three
years, and mainly during the present season.

APPLE BITTER ROT IN THE OzARK MounTAIN REGION.—Last. sea-
son’s successful spraying experiments in Virginia demonstrated for
the first time the possibility of controlling bitter rot of the apple on
the Yellow Newtown variety and indicated the exact dates of treat-
ment. This work has now been transferred to the Ozark districts of
Missouri and Arkansas. Here it has been tested on a much larger

42 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

scale and on different varieties of apples. The results fully corrobo-
rate last year’s conclusions and have demonstrated the entire feasi-
bility of practically complete control of this serious orchard disease.
Some minor rots and defects of the apple have also been more com-
pletely brought under control as a result of.this treatment.

GUMMING FUNGUS OR SHOT-HOLE FUNGUS OF THE PEACH.—The
gumming fungus or shot-hole fungus has been increasing in California
at an alarming rate during the last five or six years and has resulted
in very severe losses to the peach growers of that State. It threatens
the destruction of the peach industry of the Sacramento and San
Joaquin valleys. A treatment was suggested, after proper study by
Department officials, which has been wholly successful.

WILT-RESISTANT MELONS.—Wilt has nearly destroyed the water-
melon industry in many sections of the South. All known varieties of
melons have been tested, but none resistant to the disease was found.
It was found, however, that the citron is resistant, and the Depart-
ment undertook by hybridization to breed this quality into the melon.
The result has been successful, and there has been secured and fixed a
variety of melon very resistant to wilt—a heavy yielder, of excellent
quality, and well adapted to shipping. Next season it will be propa-
gated for distribution.

WILT-RESISTANT COTTON.—The wilt-resistant selections of Sea
Island cottons are now regularly used in the infected soils in the Sea
Island districts of South Carolina. The loss from wilt has thus
been practically eliminated in the principal region in which this
special cotton is grown. The disease is still causing much loss in the
interior districts, where this variety of cotton is grown, owing to the
fact that many of the growers do not appreciate the value of resistant
seed. Demonstration tests, however, are rapidly convincing them.
Excellent wilt-resistant selections of Upland varieties have also been
secured. Seed will be distributed this year to cooperators and propa-
gated next year for more general distribution.

DISEASE-RESISTANT POTATOES.—For several years this Department
has been testing various American and European varieties of potatoes,
especially for disease resistance, and has now secured several good
varieties resistant to both the early and late blight, as well! as to tip-
burn and flea beetles. The work is carried on principally in coopera-
tion with the Vermont Experiment Station, though several other
States are also cooperating.

PROGRESS IN CEREAL WORK.

EXTENSION OF THE WINTER WHEAT AREA.—About four years ago
the Department began a systematic distribution of the Kharkof wheat,
and extensive trials of this variety in cooperation with the State experi-
ment stations. It is the hardiest winter wheat yet grown in this

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

country, and is now thoroughly established. By its use the areain which
winter wheat can be successfully cultivated has been much extended
to the northward and westward, particularly in Nebraska and Iowa,
while a considerable amount is now grown in South Dakota and
southern Minnesota. It will be conservative to state that wherever
this wheat has been introduced the yield per acre is being increased
on an average of 5 bushels.

EsTABLISHMENT OF WINTER BARLEY.—Much attention has been
given this year to the introduction and development of winter varieties
of barley. It is well known that fall-sown grain will yield much more
on the same ground than spring-sown grain, in addition to the fact
that winter grain is almost always of better quality. Excepting some
Southern States, winter barley has heretofore been practically un-
known in this country. After three years of demonstration work,
the Tennessee Winter barley is now well established in Kansas, Okla-
homa, and southern Nebraska, in addition to a few successful trials
that have been made in the North Central States. The results of the
introduction of this barley are remarkable and very interesting.
Wherever it has been grown it is now often yielding 50 per cent more
to the acre than the ordinary spring barley. Besides, it has the advan-
tage of giving much winter pasturage in seasons that are favorable for
pasturing.

The unusual success of some of our introduced Swedish and Aus-
trian pedigreed barleys is opening up the great possibilities of pure
strains of this cereal, especially for malting purposes.

Durum wHeEat.—In the field work on durum wheat all efforts are
now being concentrated on its improvement, particularly in the devel-
opment first of pure types. Much help is being given in the investi-
gations of this wheat by the experiment stations, particularly those of
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Colorado. It is so well demon-
strated that the Kubanka variety is the best, considering all qualities, for
the northern districts that farmers everywhere throughout the North
are urged to sow only thistype. A number of experiments, including
baking tests, all of which have been published, have proved conclu-
sively that it is equal to the best No. 1 hard spring wheat for making
bread. The results in the sale of this wheat during the last season
and so far this season have been favorable far beyond expectation.
Last year about 10,000,000 bushels were exported to foreign coun-
tries, and the price on an export basis at New York City and on the
Canadian border was at several times equal to that of the hard spring
wheat. Probably at least 20,000,000 bushels were produced in 1905,
which, after making ample allowance for seed, leaves several million
bushels that must have been used for bread in this country. A good
portion of this was used in Minneapolis. For the crop this year a

44 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

safe estimate would be about 50,000,000 bushels, or approximately
one-twelfth of the usual wheat crop of this country.

From the daily and weekly reports received from the markets, it
appears that about 12,000,000 bushels of this crop have so far been
sold for export. This season, at New York City, durum wheat is so
far’selling uniformly at 5 or 6 cents less than the same grade of Mani-
toba hard. The increasing export demand from dealers who know
how to judge this class of wheat ought to be strong evidence of its
value to American manufacturers, and it is hoped that in the future
our home consumption will increase much more rapidly.

Sixty Day oat.—In previous reports attention has been called to
the superiority of the introduced Swedish Select oat over other stand-
ard varieties throughout the Northern States. During the same time
another variety of oats has been introduced from Russia, known as the
Sixty Day, but which matures, however, in a little over ninety instead
of sixty days. It is so much earlier than other varieties that it often
escapes many fungous and insect pests that attack other oats, as well
as the effects of severe periods of drought. It is very prolific as a
rule, and has an unusually wide adaptation geographically.

AMARILLO TESTING FARM.—The testing farm at Amarillo, Tex., has
heen in operation one year, and the fall seeding of the second year is
now finished. The operations here are to a large extent in the nature
of pioneer work to demonstrate to the inhabitants of the large area of
the Panhandle of Texas that agriculture can actually be conducted in
tliat region. The experiments were conducted previously at Chan-
ning, Tex. That much success has been attained in this work is indi-
cated in the many crops that have been successfully grown throughout
that territory during the last year, the farmers having been induced to
sow these crops largely through the influence of these investigations.

INVESTIGATIONS IN CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH WEST.— Experiments
for the purpose of improving the quality of wheat in California have
been conducted for two years at Modesto and Yuba City, Cal. In
addition, seed of some of the most promising varieties of wheat used
in these experiments has been furnished in cooperative trials with
farmers in other States of the Southwest. From the results of the
work so far it is evident that at least two of these new wheats are very
well adapted to the southwestern United States and are at the same
time good milling wheats.

CHEMICAL AND BAKING TESTS OF FLOUR AND GRAIN.—In cooperation
with the Bureau of Chemistry many chemical analyses and other tests
have been made of introduced grains, particularly oats and barleys,
to determine their feeding value. An important piece of work has
been the investigations of the comparative value of durum-wheat

flour for bread making conducted for this Department by the Colum-
bus Laboratories of Chicago.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

A STUDY OF WHEAT DETERIORATION.—During the year a special
investigation, also in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry, has
been made to determine the causes of the deterioration of wheat from
the milling standpoint. An important clue to the solution of this
problem has been discovered, and when the matter is fully worked out
it will, without doubt, enable the farmer to prevent the production of
soft and light-colored grains that are much inferior in quality.

RICE INVESTIGATIONS. —A series of experiments for the thorough study
of rice, its varieties, methods of handling, irrigation, etc., has been
inaugurated in cooperation with the Louisiana Agricultural Experi
ment Station, Crowley, La., having been selected as the place of oper-
ations. More than 300 distinct varieties of rice are under experiment.
The results of this season already show that a good beginning has been
made in this work.

GRAIN STANDARDIZATION.

From time to time during the past five years demands have been
made upon the Department for aid in the grading and handling of
grain. It has been fully recognized that this is a matter which
demands most careful investigation, as both our home and foreign
markets are involved. Grain grading as now practiced by the various
State and other organized bodies has not been satisfactory, chiefly on
account of the lack of uniformity. The Department. has consistently
held the ground that some system of standardization is absolutely nec-
essary as a first step toward securing uniform methods of grain grad-
ing. With a view to eventually bringing about this standardization,
Congress at its last session authorized the establishment of laboratories
for the purpose of examining and reporting upon the nature, quality,
and condition of any sample, parcel, or consignment of seed or grain
entering into interstate or foreign commerce. After a careful study
of the situation, two laboratories, all the funds at hand would permit,
have been established—one at Baltimore, Md., the other at New
Orleans, La. At both places the Department has received the cordial
cooperation of the chambers of commerce, and is now about to enter
upon the regular duties connected with the laboratories.

It will be the object of these laboratories to make a thorough study of
present systems of grain grading with a view to reaching, if practica-
ble, conclusions which will make standardization possible. It is ree-
ognized that much preliminary work must be done, and, furthermore,
that special apparatus will have to be devised for quickly determining
the moisture content of grain, and for conducting other observations
and investigations. A moisture-determining apparatus has already
been devised and is now in useat our laboratories. It is believed that
improvements can be made in these devices and the Department’s
officers are already at work on this problem.

46 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Recognizing the need for the closest relations with the grain trade,
the Department has secured the services of an expert in grain grading,
whose long experience should be of the greatest value in working out
the many problems which must necessarily be connected with this
important line of work.

DRY-LAND FARMING.

Recognizing the necessity for more systematic efforts along the line
of dry-land farming, during the past year important field and
laboratory investigations have been arranged for, which, it is believed,
will be of great value to those who have already settled or who con-
template settling in semiarid areas where irrigation is impracticable.
The Great Plains area, lying between the ninety-eighth and one hun-
dred and fourth meridians and including approximately 330,000 square
miles, is one of the most important districts where this work is being
conducted.

SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.—Throughout this vast area there is
not a single State experiment station, although there are several sub-
stations. The plan of the work is to establish special substations in
cooperation with the State experiment stations in North Dakota, South
Dakota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Colorado, Kansas, and Texas. At
these stations a series of tests will be carried on which will enable the
State authorities and the Department to answer definitely important
questions as to systems of cropping and farm management in this
extended area. The successful work already inaugurated with the
durum wheats leads to the belief that there are several other crops
which might also prove highly successful.

ADVICE TO PROSPECTIVE SETTLERS.—On account of the efforts made
by land agents for the past two or three years to induce farmers to
take up land in this region it seems proper to make a few cautionary
statements in regard to this entire section of country. While there
are great agricultural possibilities in the region, the fact must not be
overlooked that farming there must be conducted along radically differ-
ent lines from those of the more humid portions of the United States.
Unquestionably many settlers have gone into this section who will be
grievously disappointed in the near future. In spite of the fact that
the past few seasons have given abundant rainfalls, the evidence is
pretty conclusive that conditions will soon resume their normal state,
which is one of semiaridity, and these conditions must be met ina
way for which few farmers of the section are now prepared. It is
needful to look with great caution upon the statements emanating
from interested parties as to the probability of continued rainfalls and
the growing of crops similar to those now commonly known to the
more eastern sections of the United States.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

GOOD SEED FOR THE FARMER.

Several lines of work carried on during the year have for their
object the improvement of the seed upon which the farmer must depend
for his crops. The investigations of seed adulterations previously
mentioned in these reports have been continued, and there is every evi-
dence that the publication of the names of firms found to be selling adul-
terated seed has been the means of checking the evil. In all this work
the Department has but one object, namely, to protect the farmer from
unscrupulous dealers who make a practice of foisting bad seed upon
him. The rank and file of American seedsmen do not follow any such
practices and are as anxious as the Department to protect the farmer.

A CAMPAIGN OF EDUCATION. —The Seed Laboratory has tested for both
seedsmen and farmers hundreds of samples of seeds during the past year,
and in this way has greatly encouraged the propaganda for good seed.
A feature of the work has been a campaign of education for better seed.
Cheap seed is often the most expensive thing connected with a crop.
A few cents saved on each pound of alfalfa or clover seed may cost
the farmer all of his work in preparing and fertilizing the ground,
besides the loss of an entire season in getting the crop started. The
Bureau has also been actively engaged in encouraging the good-seed
work through addresses at farmers’ institutes and other meetings.

BETTER GRADES OF SEED CORN.—Special work has been done during
the past year in demonstrating the great importance of high-grade
seed corn. The work was inaugurated to establish the great value of
proper care of the ordinary seed as grown by the farmer. The main
point at issue was the gain in yield due to the vitality of the seed.
Actual field demonstrations have shown that, taking corn in the aver-
age—that is, corn from different parts of the United States as ordi-
narily saved for seed by farmers—the yield would be increased about
15 per cent if the vitality were perfect. The Department has pointed
out simple methods of testing vitality that any farmer can follow, and
has shown in field practice that the adoption of such methods by the
farmer may increase his yield from 10 to 15 per cent. Similar work
has been conducted with a number of other crops.

WORK ON THE SUGAR BEET.

PRODUCTION OF HIGH-GRADE STRAINS OF SEED.—The work on breed-
“ing high-grade strains of sugar-beet seed has been very satisfactory
during the year. This work is being conducted in cooperation with a
number of experiment stations and private individuals. The first
commercial crop of seed raised from roots selected under departmental
supervision was harvested this year by a grower in Washington State
and some 15,000 pounds of seed were secured, all from beets which,

48 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

commercially analyzed by the Department, showed sugar contents of
21 to 22 per cent. In the work of selection rigid attention is given to
every detail of size, color, form of root, shape of leaf, ete. The
Department has received from a number of sources satisfactory evi-
dence that the American seed which it is developing is highly satis-
factory. One factory alone reports that the American-grown seed
increased the yield 1.19 tons per acre on an area covering 391 acres,
divided among 158 farmers. This seed was put out in competition with
some of the most expensive grades of imported seed obtainable. As
a line of work closely connected with the foregoing, the Department
is carefully investigating and testing various varieties of sugar-beet

seed imported, together with all strains of sugar-peet seed grown by

American firms.

SINGLE-GERM SEED.—Very satisfactory results have been secured in
the development of a sugar-beet seed which will contain a single germ.
It is highly important to secure beet seed which will eliminate a con-
siderable portion of the work of thinning. The latest returns from
our investigations along this line show that our beets are averaging
about 26 per cent of single-germ seed and that such seed is producing
beets yielding from 16 to 17 per cent sugar. The purity coefficient is
also found to be satisfactory.

The important work on fertilizers, the improvement of cultural con-
ditions, and the extension of the sugar-beet area has been continued.

’ FRUIT MARKETING, TRANSPORTATION, AND STORAGE INVESTIGATIONS.

Experimental investigations of the methods of harvesting, packing,
transporting, and storing fresh fruits of various kinds have been con-
tinued during the year. The fruit transportation studies have been
confined chiefly to questions involved in the transcontinental shipment
of deciduous and citrus fruits of the Pacific coast to eastern markets.

SHIPMENTS OF PEACHES AND PLUMS.—Experimental carload ship-
ments of perishable varieties of peaches and plums, which were allowed
to remain on the trees in California until they reached much fuller
ripeness than has previously been considered safe by shippers, dis-
closed the fact that such fruit can be delivered in eastern markets in
practically as sound condition as when taken from the tree. The supe-
riority in flavor and wholesomeness of such sound, ripe fruit as com-
pared with fruit either overripe and decayed or prematurely picked
and wilted, which makes up so large a portion of the commercial sup-
ply of our cities, was clearly apparent. Special treatment of these
experimental shipments consisted simply in the quick cooling of the
packed fruit from the high temperatures which it possessed when picked
from the tree to a temperature of 40° to 50° F. before it was loaded
in ordinary iced cars for shipment. Carloads of fruit thus treated not

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

only required less ice in transit, but maintained more uniform tempera-
tures in the top and bottom of the car, with resultant greater uniform-
ity of condition of contents when unloaded.

EXPERIMENTS IN CITRUS FRUIT TRANSPORTATION.—Along similar
lines, but with closer attention to methods of harvesting and manipu-
lating the fruit, a careful study of orange-handling methods in southern
California was made. This revealed many interesting and important
facts. It was found that the difference in the carrying quality of
oranges from different producing districts in southern California was
due primarily to the methods of handling practiced rather than to
inherent characteristics of the fruit itself. Oranges free from mechan-
ical injuries, inflicted during the various processes of harvesting,
rarely showed decay during the ordinary shipment period, even when
transported without icing. On the contrary, similar fruit which had
suffered from inconspicuous cuts or abrasions of the skin developed
from 25 to 75 per cent of decay under similar conditions. A compre-
hensive series of experiments, in which fruit treated by different
methods was subjected to conditions favorable to the development of
decay, showed that where unmutilated fruit as it came from the tree
developed but 1.5 per cent of decay, similar fruit, when dry brushed,
showed 4.5 per cent, and washed fruit 10.5 per cent. The whole
trend of the results of the investigation thus far indicates that com-
plexity of methods and appliances in the handling of oranges results
in increased mechanical injury and correspondingly heavy losses from
decay in transit.

A study of the transportation of oranges across the continent, in
which different methods of shipment were compared, showed that

_ where oranges that had been mechanically injured were shipped under

ventilation, 14 per cent of decay developed. Similar fruit shipped
under ordinary icing developed 7 per cent of decay, while fruit that
was precooled and shipped in iced cars developed but 4 per cent.
Studies of the effect of holding the packed fruit before shipment
showed that, on the average, fruit shipped the first day after packing
developed but 2 per cent of decay; that shipped the third day, 3.5 per
cent; the fifth, 8.6 per cent, and the seventh day, 9.5 per cent. The
proportion of decay developed in the mechanically injured fruit
included in the above experiments was very much above these general
averages, the important fact developed being that prompt shipment
after packing greatly reduces the risk in transit.

RESULTS OF FRUIT TRANSPORTATION WORK.—These inv estigations
have had the active support of growers, shippers, and transportation
interests. In the citrus industry advantage is being taken of the
results of the work. Packing houses are being remodeled and simpli-
fied, the fruit is being piapped more quickly after picking. All the

3 Al906——4

50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

interests involved have shown a disposition to take advantage of the
facts developed in the investigations. One of the prominent shipping
interests of the Pacific coast has estimated that the work of the Bureau
along this line saved the growers at least $250,000 in the season of
1905-6.

STUDIES OF FRUIT STORAGE.-—In the fruit-storage investigations the
cooperative study of the effect of sod and tillage on the keeping of
apples has been continued with the New York State Agricultural
Experiment Station, and special studies in relation to temperatures
have been made in the East. The apple-storage investigations have
been extended to Pacific coast fruit, considerable quantities of apples
from different California apple districts having been stored in that
State and in the East for comparison. Special attention has been
given to farm storage-house questions.

EXPORT SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS.—In the fruit-marketing investiga-
tions the experimental export shipment of summer apples from Dela-
ware was continued, and similar shipments also of winter varieties
from New York and Virginia. The problems connected with the
exportation of winter apples to European countries are recognized as
of the highest importance in this connection and are being studied as
thoroughly as the conditions render practicable. The importance of the
apple export trade to our domestic fruit industry is shown by the fact
that while the crop of 1905 was estimated to be the smallest during
the past decade, the portion exported was but 7 per cent less than the
average of the previous five years, constituting, as nearly as can be
estimated, more than 5 per cent of the estimated total crop. Fuller
information as to conditions prevailing in ocean transportation and in
foreign markets is greatly needed.

The exportation of eastern-grown ‘‘ Bartlett” and other early pears,
which began with the Department experiments in 1901, shows a grati-
fying increase, the total exports of pears during the fiscal year being
valued at $631,972, the larger part of which exports were of eastern-
grown fruit. The beneficial effect of this export movement of pears
was very evident in our markets, where good prices prevailed in con-
sequence.

DEVELOPING NEW CROPS BY BREEDING AND SELECTION.

The Bureau’s work in developing, by breeding and selection, new
types of various crops has been very successful during the past year.
A number of new sorts have been secured, some of which have been
placed with growers and are now being grown on a large scale.

Nrw cirrus FrRurrs.—The production of the new group of fruits,
the citranges, or hardy oranges, is one of the most far-reaching and
important triumphs which has ever been achieved as a result of care-
fully planned breeding experiments. Three varieties—the Rusk, Wil-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

lits, and Morton—have already been named, and trees have been dis-
tributed to about 2,000 fruit growers and nurserymen, principally in
the Gulf States and in Oregonand Washington. Two other new vari-
eties have been produced, having large fruits similar in appearance to
ordinary oranges, and these will be named and distributed in the near
future. Both of these varieties are somewhat different from the sorts
previously named, and are believed to possess superior merits in cer-
tain characters. Both are large, fine-appearing acid fruits, and are
very juicy. They will prove valuable, especially for culinary purposes
and in the making of acid drinks. Another variety has been secured
which has fairly good fruits, and gives promise of utility as a hedge
plant and lawn tree. The citranges are of special value for cultiva-
tion in regions slightly too cold for the ordinary orange, and can be
recommended for planting throughout the Gulf States and in regions
of low altitude in Oregon, Washington, Arizona, and New Mexico.

NEW PINEAPPLE VARIETIES.—Three of the new varieties of hybrid
pineapples have this year been distributed to a number of good grow-
ers, and next year stock of all of the new varieties developed by the
Department will be available for distribution. The further experi-
ments in this field have resulted in the discovery of six more new
hybrids which possess qualities that will render them valuable for cul-
tivation. These will be placed with growers at the earliest possible
date. All of the new varieties of pineapples are superior in flavor to
the ordinary varieties, and many of them have smooth or spineless
leaves, a quality of considerable value to the grower. All pineapple
growers who have had an opportunity to examine and test these
hybrids are impressed with their superior quality and promise.

A NEW EARLY VARIETY OF CoTTon.—It has been claimed by ento-
mologists and others studying the control of the cotton boll weevil
that varieties of cotton are needed which will mature their entire
product very early in the season, in order to permit the crop to be
harvested and the stalks destroyed early in the fall. A new early
defoliate variety has been produced by an agent of the Department,
working in cooperation with the Texas Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, which possesses these qualities in marked degree and which, at
the same time, is a productive sort having fairly large bolls. This
new variety, the present season, ripened its fruit and matured earlier
than any other of the varieties tested in comparison with it, among
them being the King, which is probably the earliest variety cultivated.
The new variety gives promise of being of great value for planting
in boll-weevil infested regions. Several other varieties of cotton
selected to secure earliness and productiveness, fitting them for boll-
weevil conditions, have been under experimentation, and select seed
of two of these sorts, the Edson and Triumph, will be distributed
this winter.

o2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ~

NEW STRAINS OF corN.—In the corn-breeding experiments great
advances have been made. One variety, which has been carefully bred
in central Ohio, has, for the last four years, shown an average yearly
gain of 10 bushels per acre over the original variety. Seed of this
variety has been sent to numerous farmers and is giving excellent
results. The breeding work with sweet corn, having as its object the

improvement of strains for canning purposes, has been continued with -

good success. It has been demonstrated that an excellent quality of
sweet corn seed can be grown, and that with good care it will germinate
much better and produce a better crop than such seed as is customarily
purchased by canning companies.

IMPROVEMENT OF OATS.—-The most promising features of the oat-
breeding work are the new hybrids recently developed. These are
large grained and early in season, and retain the vigor and size of the
late-season parent. They bid fair to excel and eventually succeed all
the early varieties now grown in the central Mississippi region. Selec-
tions for disease resistance have also been made, and the year’s experi-
ments have proved tnat it is possible to secure smut-resistant varieties.
One selection of the Burt variety has proved to be almost smut proof.

CROPS RESISTANT TO ALKALI AND DROUGHT.—The testing of different
varieties of the leading field crops with regard to their alkali resistance
is being continued and extended. Much information that will permit
of a choice of crop plants and plant varieties for alkali lands and pro-
vide a solid basis for the increase of resistance by breeding has been
obtained. The field investigations of crop plants in relation to alkali
are being supplemented by extensive laboratory experiments. Asa
part of the investigations of the Bureau in dry-land agriculture, the
breeding of drought-resistant strains of important field crops has been
taken up in cooperation with some of the State experiment stations.

PROGRESS IN TOBACCO WORK.

The tobacco-breeding experiments have proved particularly success-
ful, and several of the new sorts produced in the course of the Depart-
ment’s experiments have already been planted extensively by tobacco
growers, and are giving excellent results in increased yields of a superior
grade of tobacco.

CONNECTICUT WRAPPER TOBACCOS.—In the work of improving Con-
necticut wrapper tobaccos two new hybrids have been produced—the
Brewer and the Cooley. The Brewer is a hybrid of the native Con-
necticut Broadleaf with the imported Cuban, while the Cooley is a
hybrid of the native Connecticut Havana Seed variety with the
Imported Sumatra. In the hybrids the good qualities, hardiness, and
adaptability to Connecticut conditions of the native varieties are com-
bined with the superior wrapper qualities of the imported Cuban and

_

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

Sumatra. The product of the hybrids has superior qualities for cigar-
wrapper purposes, possessing characters which go to make up a valu-
able wrapper tobacco. Numerous growers have been pleased with the
superior grade of tobacco produced by these hybrids and are this year
growing a considerable quantity of the new varieties and selecting seed
to extend their planting next year.

WRAPPER AND FILLER TOBACCOS IN THE SoutH.—The experiments
conducted in Fiorida in the improvement of tobacco varieties have
demonstrated the value of this work to growers. Carefully selected
strains of Sumatra have clearly shown their superiority, both in qual-
ity and yielding capacity, to the ordinary Sumatra-grown. The crops
grown from select seed furnished by the Department to 12 different
planters are far superior to the remainder of their crops and are
decidedly the best crops of tobacco in the State. Asa result of this
demonstration of the value of the methods of selection and preserva-
tion of seed worked out by the Department of Agriculture, almost all
of the large tobacco growers are this year using similar methods, and
more than 50,000 paper bags have been used during the past summer
by growers in covering the flower clusters of their select seed plants.

MARYLAND SMOKING TOBACCOS.—Experiments in the improvement
of the Maryland smoking tobaccos have been carried on during the
year in cooperation with the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station. Selections made to secure greater uniformity and increased
yields have shown striking results. The fields of tobacco grown from
select seed are believed to be the best tobacco grown in the State the
present season.

MiscELLANEOUS TOBACCO WORK.—One of the most important features
of the tobacco-breeding investigations is the development of methods by
which the grade and quality of the tobacco produced can be accurately
determined. During the last year an apparatus has been devised for
testing the burn of cigars accurately and another for testing the burn
of strips of leaves. These machines will prove of great value in con-
nection with the breeding experiments and probably also in the com-
mercial testing of samples of wrapper tobacco. Investigations of the
curing of tobacco have been undertaken, directed more especially
toward the control of pole burn by means of artificial heat. Several
diseases of tobacco are receiving attention, and the breeding of varie-
ties for disease resistance gives promise of good results.

EXTENSION OF EXPERIMENTS.—The tobacco-breeding experiments
are being extended to the tobacco-producing areas of Kentucky, Ohio,
and Virginia, and it is probable that results can be obtained in these
regions as important as those produced in Connecticut and Florida.
The introduction of the methods of seed selection and seed separation
alone in these extensive tobacco-producing States will add many thou-
sands of dollars to the value of the crop grown.

54 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

Work ON CAMPHOR.—Rapid progress has been made in the investi-
gation of camphor production, a number of camphor trees of various
ages having been placed at the disposal of the Department for experi-
mental work. More than 30 pounds cf camphor were prepared, which
on purification gave very favorable results. Tests of a scientific nature
showed the identity of this product with that of the Orient. A careful
survey of the camphor trees now widely scattered throughout Florida,
and of the conditions of soil, drainage, etc., in which they occur, has
made it seem reasonably clear that camphor will flourish over a large
part of the area from which frost has driven the orange industry.

STUDIES OF POISONOUS PLANTS.—In the poisonous-plant investiga-
tions chief attention has been given during the year to the poisonous
action of the so-called loco weeds in causing the loco disease in horses
and cattle. The general outcome of this work has shown very clearly
that these weeds are able to produce the symptoms characteristic of
locoism and are unquestionably the chief cause of the immense loss to
the stock-grazing interests of the West. Remedial measures are now
being sought, as are also means of exterminating the weeds and meth-
ods of counteracting the poison.

PROGRESS IN GROWING AMERICAN TEA.

The work in South Carolina for the purpose of determining the
possibilities of the commercial production of tea in the United States
has progressed satisfactorily during the year. The younger gardens
have given an increased yield, due in part to a change in the method
of picking which was tested during the year. Asa result of all influ-
ences the greatest yield during the history of the experiments was
obtained, something over 12,000 pounds of dry tea. In the factory

some new machinery was tested. The compression of finely ground

tea into tablets was attempted with a machine of the same general
type as that used by manufacturing chemists, the result being that
after a few trials a hard, sightly tablet was produced which readily
dissolves in hot water. The superior adaptability of this form of
preparation for purposes where compactness is desired is apparent.
In addition to the work in South Carolina a tea garden has been
established at Pierce, Tex. The work at this point gives promise of
very satisfactory results.

IMPROVEMENTS IN DISTRIBUTING NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA.

The method of distributing cultures dried on cotton for the inocula-
tion of leguminous crops was discontinued during the year, and in
its place the plan adopted of distributing pure liquid cultures her-
metically sealed in glass tubes. This has been proved to be a great

-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55

improvement over the old system. It is planned to distribute during
the current year larger cultures to the farmers, and thus render it pos-
sible to reduce the time formerly required to develop a rich culture
for inoculating leguminous crops. Many field tests in this work are
under way on large farms, and it is hoped by this careful experi-
mental work to acquire much valuable information concerning the
best manner of treatment of certain soils and crops in order to obtain
successful inoculations.

WORK ON WATER CONTAMINATION.

The work of the Bureau of Plant Industry in the treatment of water
supplies with copper sulphate for the destruction of alge and patho-
genic bacteria has passed from the experimental stage to that of actual
practical use. Investigations of the use of copper sulphate in sewage
disposal have indicated that in small sewage plants the use of copper
will make it possible to produce sewage effluents that are entirely free
from pathogenic bacteria. Work is being planned to test the efliciency
of copper in connection with filtration. Additional work is to be car-
ried on throughout the United States in order to determine the value
of copper in various types of water. The copper treatment of water
supplies, sewage disposal, etc., should in all cases be supervised by an
expert. Before this method of purification is attempted the condi-
tions must be worked out on a scientific basis in each instance.

FARM-MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATIONS.

The farm-management investigations during the past year have been
carried on along two principal lines, namely, the study of farm prac-
tice and demonstrations in improved methods. The object of the
first is to make a careful study of farm methods as followed by suc-
cessful men in different sections of the country and representing
different types of agriculture. These studies lead to the securing of
data which enable the Department to assist farmers and others in
planning methods of cropping and maintaining soil fertility. In con-
nection with this work special attention has been given to crops
adapted to new sections and to the relation between certain improved
crops and soil fertility. Alfalfa has been found to be adapted to an
important soil formation in Alabama and Mississippi, and is rapidly
becoming a valuable crop of that section. This soil is heavily charged
with lime. In this connection the Bureau of Plant Industry follows
closely the work of the Bureau of Soils in its soil mapping. A spe-
cial study has been made during the year of the practices of farmers
in the East who have been successful in growing alfalfa.

METHODS OF STORING SILAGE.—In connection with the studies of
farm practice, a special investigation has been made during the year

56 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of methods of storing silage. The kinds of crops used for silage, the
cost of growing and of siloing them have all been considered.

CoNnTROL OF JOHNSON GRASS.—The farm-management investigations
also dea! with the question of weed control. It is believed that data
have been secured which will enable the farmer to control Johnson
grass and utilize it in a satisfactory way in crop rotation in the South.
The secret of success in this work lies in the fact that in a Johnson
grass sod left undisturbed for two or three years the rootstocks are
found only at the surface. In this condition the pest is easily destroyed
by shallow plowing and a little extra cultivation the next summer.
This permits Johnson grass to be grown in a rotation, such as cotton,
corn and cowpeas, winter oats, and Johnson grass for two years.
Where the pest is allowed to grow on land that is cultivated in cotton
or corn the rootstocks penetrate deeply into the soil and eradication
is extremely difficult.

CACTUS-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.—Investigations into the value of
cactus as food for cattle have been continued. <A carload of steers were
fattened on cactus and cotton-seed meal, at a cost of 33 cents per pound
of gain. As a feed for dairy cows 6 pounds of fresh cactus equaled
1 pound of sorghum hay when fed witha mixture of grain and mill stuff.

OBJECT-LESSON FARMS.—The object-lesson farms referred to in for-
mer reports have been continued. As the result of the work on one of
these farms, many farmers in Alabama have sown alfalfa and are thus
preparing for the advent of the boll weevil. ‘The great advantage of
pasturing hogs on alfalfa in that section has heen demonstrated. In
order to meet the demand for object-lesson farms in the South the
system of establishing these farms has been changed. Instead of
assuming close supervision of the farms, working plans are now pre-
pared. This enables the Department to reach many more localities
than were possible under the former system.

Nearly all successful farms are unique in their management. They
represent systems wrought out by men of unusual energy and intelli-
gence who have gone resolutely about discovering and utilizing the
full possibilities of their land. From such men we are learning facts
which when properly classified will constitute the art of farm man-
agement. These farms demonstrate the great value of intelligent
management, as compared with hard work applied unintelligently.

SPECIAL WORK ON COTTON.

The special work on cotton which has for its object the meeting of
the ravages of the boll weevil in the South has been continued along
pretty nearly the same lines set forth in my last report. The coope-
rative work with farmers has been a special feature and has been
extended into Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas. This work is

eve REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

now carried on in the States mentioned, and in addition special atten-
tion has been devoted to Texas, which is in the heart of the boll-
weevil infested territory. Experience has enabled the Bureau of Plant
Industry to systematize the work so as to reach practica: farmers and
secure their interest and cooperation. It is estimated that through this
work the Department is now reaching, directly and indirectly, in the
neighborhood of 100,000 farmers in the States mentioned.

The plan is a simple one, and from its very simplicity is found to
be effective. Meetings of farmers are held in different communities
and arrangements made whereby representative men agree to bandle
a part or all of their land with the advice and assistance of the Depart-
ment’s agents. No radical recommendations are made in the matter
of changing the existing systems, unless such systems are known to
be bad. The varieties of cotton known to be best adapted for boll-
weevil conditions are recommended and planted. Systems of fer-
tilization are suggested and, wherever practicable, diversification is
encouraged. The farmers who are cooperating with the Department
in the work receive regular visits from our agents and, in addition,
furnish weekly reports setting forth their operations and the results.
At the end of the season there is, as a rule, a demonstration as to the
effectiveness and value of the systems laid out as compared with the
old methods. A special point which the Department makes in all
this work is that no radically new methods are being urged. We
simply endeavor to have put into practice methods which are already
known to be highly successful, encouraging the farmer himself to
take the leading part in the work.

The breeding work, having for its object the securing of types of
cotton better adapted to boll-weevil conditions, has alreidy been
referred to under the head of plant-breeding investigations. Asa
part of this special work on cotton, investigations of root rot have
been continued, the same being largely field studies to determine the
value of crop rotations in eradicating the pest from the soil. Inves-
tigations of cottons found in Guatemala and other southern countries
have also been continued and some interesting results secured. Some
of these cottons give promise of proving valuable for use in connec-
tion with breeding work. + Having developed for a long series of years
in combat with the boll weevil, they have characteristics quite different
from any types of cottons which we now possess.

DEPARTMENT GROUNDS AND ARLINGTON FARM.

The Department grounds, consisting of 40 acres, are now in a well-
developed state. During the year all the roads have been improved,
a special appropriation of $3,500 being used for the purpose. The
glass houses on the grounds have been further improved and are now

. being used for many lines of work carried on by the Bureau.

58 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

At the Arlington Experimental Farm there are about 350 acres
under cultivation. Many varied lines of work are being carried on,
including the testing of foreign crops, variety tests of all seeds and
plants sent out, cover crops for orchards, variety orchard and other
fruit tests, etc. The farm now has a well-equipped range of glass
houses for experimental work and all the newer portions of the land
are being brought into good tilth by the use of proper management
and green manures.

CONGRESSIONAL SEED DISTRIBUTION.

The Congressional seed work for the year has been conducted along
practically the same lines as in the past. The number of packages of
miscelianeous vegetable and flower seed sent out during the year was
about 7,000,000. There has been no change in this number during
the past five years.

FIELD LABORATORIES AND TESTING GARDENS.

At its Mississippi Valley laboratory, located at St. Louis, Mo., the
Bureau of Plant Industry has conducted investigations of many of the
diseases which affect forest and fruit trees in that region. Methods
of treating fence posts have also been worked out during the year.
Considerable attention has been given to the crown-gall disease of
orchard and other fruits, with the object of finding a means for prevent-
ing the further spread of the disease. The results obtained have shown
that the crown gall of the apple tree can be very largely prevented
by careful attention to root grafting and by subsequent wrapping of
the grafts with cloth, rubber, or paper. It has-been found that this
type of the disease is not contagious, while, on the other hand, the
crown gall of the grape may be transmitted through the soil and may be
spread by irrigation water from one vineyard to another. American
varieties of grapes have been found to be very resistant to the disease,
and the most probable method of its control will consist in the grow-
ing of resistant varieties. Further proof has been obtained as to the
contagious nature of the crown-gall disease of stone fruits.

In the work on various diseases of forest trees, an investigation of
the diseases of red gum has been continued at various points in the
Mississippi Valley. The diseases of the living tree were investigated,
particularly the form of rot which destroys thousands of feet of gum
timber every year after it is cut. A large quantity of timber was
given a treatment as a preliminary test to ascertain whether this
destruction could be prevented. The treatment showed an increase of
20 per cent in the amount of lumber cut, meaning almost a total pre-

vention. The methods of treatment worked out are being tried by
lumbermen on a commercial scale.

_ —_—--”---

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

At the Subtropical Laboratory, Miami, Fla., the Bureau is conduct-
ing investigations of the diseases affecting tropical and subtropical
plants, such as the mango, avocado, and citrus fruits. Methods have
been worked out for the control of these troubles. Experiments in
the propagation of tropical and subtropical fruits are also being con-
ducted at this laboratory.

The Bureau of Plant Industry is carrying on at its Plant Introduc-
tion Garden, located at Chico, Cal., experiments in the propagation of
many seeds and plants introduced from foreign countries. Trials of
forage crops and vegetables suited to the Southwest are also being
conducted at this garden. Twelve acres at the garden have been set
aside for experimental work on European grape varieties, 4,180 cut-
tings having been rooted during the past season. A number of these
were distributed during the past spring among the experimental vine-
yards maintained by the Bureau in different parts of California.
Experimental work in the propagation of figs and of the pistache nut
is also being carried on at the garden and with growers in the South-
western States.

In addition to the foregoing, the Bureau is conducting an experi-
mental farm at San Antonio, Tex. The object of the work at this
farm is to test new crops likely to prove of value to the region repre-
sented, and to find the best methods of tillage by which the relatively
large but irregular rainfall of the region may be utilized in the profit-
able production of the staple crops.

FOREST SERVICE.
NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES.

The fiscal year 1905-6 was and will remain notable in the history
of the Forest Service for the progress made in actually applying a
National reserve policy. In area the reserves were increased during
the year from 85,693,422 to 106,999,138 acres. In revenue the
reserves brought in $767,219.96, as against $60,142.62 for the previ-
ous year and $58,436.19 for the year 1903-4. In timber sales there
were disposed of for immediate or early removal nearly 300 million
board feet of lumber at stumpage prices ranging up to $4 per thou-
sand (besides other material to a large value), as against 96,060,258
board feet, with a maximum price of $2.50 per thousand in 1904-5,
and 69,257,710 board feet in 1903-4. The number of free-use per-
mits granted in the same years also showed progressive increase. In
the year 1904-5 the reserves were under Forest Service control only
after February 1.

One fiscal year of full control has established two Aide facts—
that the reserves advance the present interests of the people of the
West and that they will speedily pay the cost of administering them.

60 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PUBLIC UTILITY OF THE RESERVES.

These National forests are being madeusefulnow. The benefits which
they are to secure are not deferred benefits. Through Government
control the interests of the future are safeguarded, but not by sacri-
ficing those of the present. Far from handicapping the development
of the States in which they lie, the reserves will powerfully promote
development. They work counter to the prosecution of no industry,
and retard the beneficial use of no resource.

The wealth of the West lies, and will long lie, in what the soi! will
produce and in what the earth hides. Labor and capital will here
find employment mainly in turning to use the farm land, grazing land,
timber land, and mineral lands of the region, and in the commerce to
which these great productive industries will give rise. That the
reserves beneficially affect all of these industries is becoming clearer
to the people of the West every day, and in consequence the policy of
public administration of our unappropriated timber lands becomes
more and more firmly established in the approval of a united public
sentiment. Local sentiment has sometimes been unfavorable to the
creation of reserves before their effect upon the public welfare was
understood; but opposition has always dissolved under the test of
actual experience.

The reserves do not withhold land from agricultural use, but greatly
increase the amount of available farm land. Though they were made
from the most rugged and mountainous parts of the West and were
intended to include only land unsuited for agriculture, by the act of
June 11, 1906, the right is given settlers to homestead within the
reserves wherever strips and patches of tillable land can be found. At
the sume time, through their water-conserving power, these forests fix
in regions of scanty rainfall the amount of land which can be brought
under the plow, since at best much otherwise fertile land must go
uncultivated for want of water. Without forest preservation much
of the land now under irrigation would have to be abandoned again to
the desert. Thus the promotion of agriculture is one of the main ends
of the forest-reserve policy.

Mining in the West is mainly in regions surrounded by reserves or
included within them; but the reserves do not impede the development
of mineral resources. On the contrary, by guaranteeing future sup-
plies of timber they are indispensable to the future development of
these resources, as the great mining interests well know. They do
not interfere with the prospector, who has the same right to prospect
and locate in forest reserves that he has on any other part of the
public domain.

Administrative control of the forest reserves is beneficial to the
grazing industry. The sentiment of stockmen throughout the West is
unitedly in favor of such control, because of the gain to them now

0

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

that the reserve ranges are safe from overcrowding and deterioration.
Thus the rights of the individual user are respected and the permanence
of this great resource is assured. I wish to commend particularly in
this connection the heartiness and good spirit with which the associa-
tions of western stockmen have cooperated in our efforts to enforce
fair and just measures for the regulation of grazing in the interest of
all users of the forests, and in the interest of the public, to whom these
forests belong. The charge of a grazing fee, made for the first time
during the past year, though reasonable in view of the advantages of
grazing regulation to the stockmen and the cost of reserve administration
to the Government, and justly due in the interest of the public, might
have been expected to cause dissatisfaction and friction. On the con-
trary, as soon as the reasons for the charge and the method in which
it would be applied had been explained, it was generally approved
and paid willingly and promptly. It was followed by no falling off in
the number of stock grazed in the reserves. In some cases the asso-
ciations of stockmen have voluntarily aided the Service in settling
local difficulties. Their whole conduct has shown remarkable modera-
tion, far-sightedness, and readiness to recognize and accept what is in
the permanent interest of their industry, even though it involves the
sacrifice of immediate personal advantage.

Finally, Forest Service administration of the reserves is’ beneficial
alike to the lumber industry and to the timber-consuming public.
There is now standing on the reserves not less than 300 billion board
feet of merchantable timber. This is not locked up from present
use as a hoarded supply against future needs; it is ready for the
immediate demands of a developing country. It will not be rushed
upon the wholesale market in competition with the cheap stumpage
prices of private owners anxious for ready money, and it will not be
disposed of under a short-sighted policy of utilization which would
leave a gap between the end of the present supply and the oncoming
of the second crop; but it is and will continue to be available, first for
the small user—home-builder, rancher, or miner—and then for the
needs of lumber concerns, large miners, and railroads, for which a
timber supply is indispensable, and which in turn are indispensable to
the prosperity of the West.

The supply of timber furnished by the matured crop now on the
ground is so vast in proportion to the present demand that there might
seem to be no need for caution in its use. Were no more cut than
last year it would suffice for four hundred years. In the mature
forest production is at a standstill, so that from the point of view of
the largest possible production of timber lumbering under such
methodsas will insure a second crop is highly desirable. The demand
upon the reserves, however, is as yet insignificant in proportion
to even the present need, most of which is met by the supply from

62 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUIJ.TURH,

private holdings. The reserves form the heart of the western timber
lands. They are generally less accessible than the private holdings
which surround them, and would naturally form the last resource of
the lumberman. They must be so maintained as first of all to be
ready to meet the future demands of the regions in which they lie.
With a growing population and expanding industries these demands
will far exceed those of the present. The crucial probiem of manage-
ment will be to insure a timber and water supply for the great West,
and to conserve the summer stock ranges. To meet it successfully
will require careful foresight and the best technical information.
Timber sales are now made with strict attention to the welfare of the
forest, and at stumpage prices often decidedly in advance of the market.

THE RESERVES SELF-SUSTAINING.

The income from the reserves is as yet but a small fraction of what
may be expected as they approach full utilization. Yet their adminis-
tration is already on a sound business basis. Not only are they meet-
ing from their receipts a very large part of the cost of their main-
tenance; they are even now beginning to show a decided decrease in
het expense to the Government. My estimate of the appropriation
necessary to meet the general expenses of the Forest Service is less
by $100,000 than the appropriation of last year, notwithstanding that
the total area of the reserves has been substantially enlarged by Execu-
tive action, that increasing use necessitates greater expense of admin-
istration, and that in general the work of the Service is growing very
rapidly. Though theadministration of the reserves forms but a part of
the field of work, it may confidently be expected that within five years
from the transfer of the reserves to this Department the Forest Serv-
ice will cost the taxpayer nothing whatever.

In reaching this result no unjust burden will have been laid on any
interest. As public property the National forests should yield to the
public a reasonable return for whatever of value private individuals
secure from them for their own profit. In accordance with this prin-
ciple, applicants for special privileges—as rights of way, reservoir
sites, power-house sites, and similar concessions—have been called
upon to pay for such privileges on the basis of their commercial value.
For example, in the case of water powers duly located under the State
laws, but which can not be developed without the occupancy of reserve
land, besides a charge for the land occupied, based on its value as
forest land, a small charge per unit of power developed is made, not
for the use of the water itself, which is granted directly by the State,
but for the conservation of the supply which the preservation of the
forests furnishes, and which, were it not for the existence of the
reserve, the water-right owner could secure only by himself acquir-
ing great bodies of forest land. Such a charge is essentially similar

: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 63

to the charge for stock grazed upon the reserves. It is a return for
actual value received, and throws upon those who profit by public
control of the reserves a share of the cost of maintaining that control.

By the wise and just provision of Congress in enacting at its last
session that 10 per cent of the gross receipts from the National reserves
shall be made over to the several States in which they are situated, for
the benefit of the counties which would otherwise receive no revenue
from a part of their area, a real grievance was redressed. Even with
the present use of the reserves the benefits thus reaped from them by
the communities in their neighborhood are of substantial importance.
As time goes on the importance of this provision will increase, and
eventually the counties will find themselves far better off than they
would have been without the reserves, for private ownership followed
by exploitation would have destroyed the sources of revenue by leav-
ing little or nothing of permanent taxable value, whereas now every
resource is conserved and will be made to pay its just share of income.
Since the fundamental purpose for which reserves exist is to secure
the best permanent use of all resources, their effect is to add to prop-
erty value, and by turning over 10 per cent of their gross receipts to
local use they will contribute far more to the local public needs than
the taxes they would pay if they were private property.

Protection of the reserves from fire has been the most important
task laid upon the Forest Service. It is cause for congratulation that
the loss by fire during the year was so slight. Indeed, the saving
which resulted from the organized care of the reserve force was
undoubtedly worth more than the whole cost of administering the
reserves. Only about eight fires of any consequence occurred on the
reserves during the calendar year 1905,a season of extreme dryness
and one in which under ordinary circumstances the damage from fires
should have been unusually large. This small number was due in large
part to the system of patrol, which leads to the discovery of fires
before much damage has been done. So far during the calendar year
1906 the damage from fire has been extremely small, even in compari-
son with that in 1905. Increased efficiency of the patrol system, com-
bined with favorable climatic conditions, has led to this favorable
result. ;

WORK OF THE YEAR.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The progress made by the Forest Service in the brief period of
seventeen months, during which it has had charge of the reserves, in
introducing management upon a vast field of operations in virgin
forests of varied types, compares favorably with anything that the
history of forestry can show in any country. From Minnesota to
southern California and from Washington to New Mexico, reserve

64 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

timber is now being cut under regulations looking to a second crop.
With larger experience the methods now applied will doubtless be
found faulty in some respects, and with opportunity for more
intensive use which the rising value of timber will afford, much more
satisfactory results will be possible; but the important fact is that,
confronted with a problem of unexampled magnitude in its kind, the
Forest Service proved able to substitute conservative for destructive
use, while greatly increasing the use itself.

Live timber is cut on the reserves under stipulations based on
actual study of the forest conditions to protect the forest and the
water supply from injury. Piling of the waste left by logging is
always required, a diameter limit is set to prevent too heavy cutting,
seed trees are left where necessary to provide for reproduction, full
utilization of all salable material is compelled, and young growth is
protected from injury. All this the purchaser is under contract to
perform, under the supervision of the forest officers, who are held to
efficiency by systematic inspection. Yet in spite of these require-
ments, which slightly reduce the profits of lumbering to the pur-
chaser, record stumpage prices have often been obtained, and the
average price realized has been far above that usually paid in the
same regions. Living trees to be cut are marked beforehand by
the forest officers, who also scale the lumber before it is removed.

Though some large sales of timber have been made in regions where
great quantities of mature forest were available and exposed to dete-
‘rioration, the constant policy has been to encourage the small user.
Besides the free-use permits, in more than 99 cases out of every 100
the sales were of less than 5 million board feet.

Receipts for the sale of timber on the reserves were nearly $250,000,
while the contract sales of the year reach a total of over $500,000.
Five years is the longest period allowed under these contracts in which
to cut the timber sold. Timber which can be harvested with profit
only by large operations and with a heavy outlay for the construction
of a milling plant or means of transportation, or both, must necessa-
rily be sold under a contract extending over several years; but no
sales are made permitting the speculative holding of timber against a
rise in market price.

The largest totals of sales by States were in South Dakota (73 mil-
lion board feet), Wyoming (71 million feet), and Montana (over 53
million feet). Inthe latter two States heavy lodgepole pine forests
are ready for the ax, but difficult to lumber from their inaccessibility.
At the same time a suddendemand for lodgepole pine railroad ties has
opened a market for this timber and made it possible to sell by large
contracts under conditions which will permit a second cutting after
thirty or forty years. In South Dakota a special reason exists for
pressing the sale of timber with the utmost energy. By the ravages

a

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65

of a bark beetle great quantities of timber are being destroyed, and
the annihilation of the entire forest of the region is threatened. Only
by extensive cutting of infested trees can the spread of the beetles be
checked and the damaged timber be utilized.

In Colorado and Arizona sales of timber totaled over 27 million
board feet for each State, and in Utah and California over 10 million.
In Colorado and Utah these sales were mainly of fire-killed timber,
largely used in mining. In Arizona large quantities of mature
accessible timber permitted extensive cutting without injury to the
forest. In other States cutting was comparatively insignificant in
amount, save in Idaho, where nearly 9 million feet were cut.

Little difficulty was experienced in preventing timber trespass upon
the reserves. Where such trespass occurred the full value of the
timber taken was recovered. Practically no loss was sustained from
theft.

COOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT.

The Forest Service continues to receive applications from private
owners for assistance in introducing forest management upon their
holdings. So far as possible the Forest Service will give aid in this
work as in the past, since it js plainly in the public interest to promote
the practice of forestry among private owners on business principles.
It is significant that while at the first it was necessary to prepare a
working plan for every timber tract before recommendations for con-
servative management could be made, during the past year, out of 54
timber tracts examined, it was possible on 48 to outline at once a sys-
tem of management and the regulations to put it into effect. Working
plans were made during the year for 6 large tracts in New York,
Kentucky, Michigan, and South Carolina, and for 100 woodlots in 16
States.

In the woodlot work, which assists small owners, particuiarly farm-
ers, to make the best use of their woodland, special attention was
given to the Middle West. Very different problems are here pre-
sented from those of the Eastern States, hitherto the main field of
woodlot study. As the need of timber becomes more pressing, the
yield from these small forest areas, which nevertheless in the aggregate
form a large part of our total woodland area, will become increasingly
important. On the whole, the farmer knows how to utilize his wood-
land far less intelligently than any other part of his farm. If he can
be brought to an early realization of the future value of good timber
and knowledge of how to grow it, great benefit will result, both to the
farmer and to the community, which later will stand in need of every
available supply.

Cooperative forest studies were carried on during the year with
the States of California, New Hampshire, and North Carolina; with the
Office of Indian Affairs of the Department of the Interior, on the

3 «al1906——5

66 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Wisconsin Indian Reservation; with the War Department, on the mili-
tary reservation in New Mexico; and with the Hydrographic Division
of the United States Geological Survey, upon the Potomac River
watershed. Tie production in Wisconsin and Minnesota, in coopera-
tion with the Northern Pacific Railroad, and the effect of sulphur fumes
from smelters on neighboring forests in Tennessee, in cooperation
with private forest owners and with the Bureaus of Chemistry and
Entomology, were also studied.

FOREST EXTENSION.

The field of forest planting in the United States broadens with
every year. In the East the economic conditions are bringing rapidly
nearer intensive forest management, which will involve extensive
planting, both to stock the land fully and to shorten the interval
between crops. In the Middle West the rising value of lumber is
tending to make the growing of trees profitable on land now in pas-
ture or under the plow. Knowledge gained by past investigations of
how to make trees grow under adverse conditions opens enlarged
possibilities to private owners in the more arid parts of the far
West. By far the most important part of the field, however, is that
of reserve planting. Here in the future a gigantic task will. be pre-
sented, upon which the Forest Service has already begun a prelimi-
nary attack. Planting will furnish a future timber supply, improve
drainage basins, and replace inferior species with more valuable trees.
Of the 107,000,000 acres of reserves enormous areas are partly or
wholly unforested.

In the Middle West alone are 5 reserves, aggregating over 750,000
acres, which are practically treeless and on which planting is now
under way. Doubtless future additions to the reserves will still fur-
ther increase the task. While some of this land may never support
trees, the public welfare will eventually demand that the larger part
of it be forested. Unaided natural reproduction can never accom-
plish the task in time. As the need for wood and water increases,
planting ona scale as yet entirely unthought of in this or any other
country will be carried on.

For private planting the two most serious obstacles to widespread
activity are the high cost and the poor quality of both the nursery
stock and the tree seeds now commercially obtainable. In some cases
eastern tree planters have been compelled to import from Europe
nursery stock of American trees, and adulterated seeds are common
on the market. It is not possible for the Forest Service to supply
nursery stock for private use, but it is doing what it can to aid the
planter by tests of the purity and germinative powers of seeds fur-
nished by different dealers, and by information as to prices at which
seeds and stock may be obtained in different regions.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67

For planting on the reserves the Forest Service must raise its own
material. Six planting stations are now established, with an annual
capacity of 6,000,000 seedlings. Yet to plant 1 square mile requires
more than 700,000 seedlings. Though four years have passed since
the first nursery station was established, the work as yet done has
been hardly more than experimental, and in the newer nurseries few
of the seedlings are old enough to plant out. To meet the needs of
the reserves, preparations for planting must be made on a vastly
greater scale.

As a first step, nursery sites will be established at rangers’ head-
quarters on all the reserves. As rapidly as possible the reserve force
will be trained to carry on this work, and nursery stations will be
multiplied.

The real progress made toward reserve planting appears not in the
number of trees set out or the present capacity of the stations, but in
the fact that practical methods of doing the work at reasonable cost
have been found. In spite of the high cost of labor in this country,
an acre of land can now under ordinary conditions be planted to forest
by the Service almost as cheaply as the same work is done in Ger-
many. The whole problem of successful forest planting under the
conditions of aridity, elevation, lack of transportation facilities, and
scarcity of labor, combined with the lack of any experience which
could guide to right action, was one of extreme difficulty. Though
much yet remains to be done before a perfected system of planting
will have been secured, the work now done amounts to a demon-
stration that success is within reach. This in itself is no small
achievement.

COOPERATIVE PLANTING.

The Forest Service cooperates with private owners to secure forest
extension by preparing planting plans for them. Two years ago the
average size of the planting plans made was 68 acres. Last year it
was 310 acres. This is significant of changing conditions. Increas-
ingly as the necessity of provision for the future needs becomes plain,
large owners are seeking the cooperation of the Service. A number
of railroads have begun to plan for tie production from planted tim-
ber; coal companies are preparing to utilize waste land, and cities are
seeking to improve their watersheds and at the same time derive a
revenue from the land held for watershed protection.

Examinations were made of over 300,000 acres on which the owners
wish to consider planting, and detailed planting plans were made for
over 10,000 acres in 19 States.

Cooperation with other Departments, by the preparation of planting
plans, included the War Department, the Bureau of Fisheries of the
Department of Commerce and Labor, and the Reclamation Service of
the Department of the Interior.

68 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

DENDROLOGY.

The investigation of turpentining methods was pushed along lines
which promise important economic results by diminishing the wound
inflicted on the tree and greatly prolonging the period during which a
tract may be worked. A chemical study of the turpentine from differ-
ent species of pines (conducted in cooperation with the University of
North Carolina) is under way to learn which species furnish the most
valuable yield.

Studies of forest distribution and resources were continued. The
experimental basket-willow holts demonstrated the success of the cul-
tural methods advocated by the Service by producing a crop of rods of
the finest quality. Analyses of willow barks established their value
for use in tanning. By the identification of many samples of woods
valuable information was furnished wood users.

FOREST PRODUCTS.

An important means of reducing the drain upon our forests is the
treatment of wood by seasoning, by the use of chemicals, or by both
combined, to make it last longer. Careful experiments are under way
to determine the most effective and economical methods of treating
railroad ties, telephone and telegraph poles and cross arms, and fence
posts. Material cut at different times of the year, seasoned at differ-
ent times of the year, and by different methods, and treated by differ-
ent processes is being tested in service to find out how it can be made
most durable.

Wood distillation to utilize the waste product of lumbering, and the
suitability of untried woods for making paper pulp, were made the
subjects of special studies.

Over 12,000 tests of the strength of timber were made. The woods
tested include loblolly pine, red fir, western hemlock, Norway pine,
tamarack, white and red oak, and eucalyptus. By these tests, which
show the suitability of the various kinds of wood for different uses,
both timber-land owners and those who employ wood in building and
manufacturing have received great benefit. New woods have been
brought into use and economy in the use of material has been pro-
moted. The present facilities for this work are inadequate, and it is
important that a special laboratory be provided at Washington.

By statistical study of the production and consumption of lumber
in various forms and compilation of the various grading rules now in
use, information greatly desired by the lumber trade but never before
obtainable was gathered, better conditions were promoted, and light
was thrown on the highly important question of the probable duration
of the country’s lumber supply. Special studies of the manufacture
of cooperage stock, of vehicles and implements, and of boxes, and of
certain kiln-drying methods, gave results of decided value both to the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

manufacturers and to timber-land owners. Wood as a paving mate-
rial was also studied, and experiments were started to discover the best
kinds of wood to use and how they should be treated and laid.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.

The activities of the Bureau of Chemistry during the year included
a great variety of investigations.

EXAMINATION OF BUTTER, MILK, AND CREAM.

More than 800 samples of butter were investigated, to see if they
complied with the requirements of the law relating to renovated
butter. A study of the effects of cold storage upon the chemical com-
position of milk and cream was inaugurated, to determine the length
of time during which such products can be safely kept in cold storage.

CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS.

The effect of environment upon the content of sugar in Indian sweet
corn was studied. The almost universal use of sweet corn for food
throughout the country renders such an investigation of peculiar inter-
est to consumers as well as to producers. <A single variety of seed was
planted in different localities from South Carolina to Maine, and the
quantity of sugar in the product was carefully determined. At the
same time meteorological data were secured which are utilized in
determining the effect of environment in all of its factors upon the
composition of the product. It was found that within twenty-four
hours after harvest, if exposed to ordinary temperatures, a very con-
siderable percentage of the sugar has disappeared from the grains of
the corn. This fact has led to the observation that it is necessary to
market the product as soon as possible after harvest, and meanwhile
to keep it at as low a temperature as can be secured. ;

Studies looking to the improvement of the different varieties of
Indian corn, by selection based upon analytical data, were under-
taken. These studies are a continuation of those conducted the pre-
ceding year upon the effect of environment on the chemical composi-
tion of the sugar beet. In all, over 3,000 analyses were made of cere-
als in the prosecution of the above investigations. These investiga-
tions also include the effect of environment upon the chemical compo-
sition of barley as related to the brewing industries.

7

STUDY OF DENATURED ALCOHOL.

An important investigation was also begun upon the economic pro-
duction of alcohol from various raw materials in relation to the pro-
duction of denatured alcohol for industrial purposes. The object of
this investigation was to discover the vaiue of various waste materials

70 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of factories—wood, molasses, sweet potatoes, cornstalks, etc.—in the
production of alcohol for denaturing. This work is likely to prove
of great value to our farmers in developing new sources of income
from the production of denatured alcohol for industrial purposes.

TESTING OF SUPPLIES FURNISHED UNDER CONTRACT.

In the Contracts Laboratory, the object of which is the examination
of materials furnished to the different Departments of the Govern-
ment under contract, 69 samples were examined for the War Depart-
ment, 19 for the Navy Department, 65 for the Department of the
Interior, 36 for the Treasury, 73 for the Post-Office, 1 for the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor, 73 for the Government Printing Office,
and 59 for the Department of Agriculture. These examinations were
of the most rigid character, and the result of the work has been to
secure a much higher quality of material than was formerly supplied
under the contract system.

EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.

The examination of drugs has been particularly fruitful during the
year. Five hundred and fifty-three samples were examined for purity
and quality. A large part of the work of the Drug Laboratory has
been in connection with the Post-Office Department for the purpose of
suppressing traffic in fraudulent preparations transmitted through the
mails. As the result of these investigations a large number of fraud
orders have been issued forbidding the use of the mails for such pur-
poses. Other important investigations were undertaken in the testing.
of chemical reagents, of oils and essences, and of plant drugs.

ANALYSIS OF WATERS, INSECTICIDES, AND CATTLE FOODS.

The examination of waters used as beverages has been continued,
and also the analysis of waters used for irrigation. Thirty-nine sam-
ples of insecticides were investigated during the year. Studies were
made also of the lime-sulphur-salt wash and allied mixtures. One
hundred and fifty-four samples of cattle food were analyzed to deter-
mine the quality of the cattle foods sold upon the markets. Studies
were also made of the injurious effects of fumes from smelters upon
vegetation, and testimony was given in the courts relating thereto. It
is evident that the sulphurous acid fumes produced in most smelters
are of a character to injure vegetation and also animal health in a
region very widely extended about the factory. It appears probable
that in the near future smelters will be required to convert the sul-
phurous acid into sulphuric acid or some other substance which will
not cause the injuries above mentioned.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. <t

STUDY OF TANNING MATERIALS, PAPER, AND TURPENTINE.

The study of tanning materials was continued, especially of the
Sicilian sumacs. The effects of different tanning materials upon the
character, quality, and durability of leather were investigated. Inves-
tigations of great importance, not only to the various Departments of
the Government but to the people in general, are those relating to the
character of paper used for public records. Investigations have been
continued respecting the composition of turpentine distilled from wood
and its relations to the ordinary turpentine.

FOOD INSPECTION.

The food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, imposes upon the Depart-
ment additional duties of a most important character. The two chief
purposes kept in view by this act throughout all its sections are, first,
to prevent the introduction of any injurious or debasing substance into
foods or drugs, and, second, to secure the correct labeling of all food
and drug products. This act applies to all interstate and foreign
commerce in all foods and drugs, and also to all imported meat food
products. The proper enforcement of this act must prove of immense
benefit to all the people of this country in securing freedom from adul-
teration and fraud. Regulations providing for the administration of
the law have been carefully prepared, and 30,000 copies have been
distributed throughout the country.

The inspection of imported foods at the ports of entry has been
extended, especially at New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The
earthquake and fire at San Francisco in April unfortunately destroyed
our laboratory at that port. Itis hoped that this enforced suspension,
however, will not be of long duration.

Five thousand seven hundred and forty-nine samples of imported
food products were examined during the fiscal year. Of the 1,246
samples which were found not to comply with the law, 531 were
released without prejudice because it was evident that no intent
to defraud or deceive the people of the country existed; 577 were
admitted after being relabeled so as to comply with the provisions of
the law; 138 invoices were required to be reshipped beyond the juris-
diction of the United States. In addition to the above number of
samples, 8,735 inspections were made upon the floors of the appraisers’
stores.

The effect of the food-inspection law on foreign commerce has been
most salutary. In many cases kinds of food products which were
formerly very generally misbranded are now found to be almost uni-
versally free of suspicion. There has been a very decided improve-
ment in the quality of imported food products, due to inspection.

72 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FOOD STUDIES.

The Division of Foods has also conducted special investigations into
the extent of domestic adulteration of food products and an investiga-
tion of tropical and subtropical fruits, as well as of fruits of domestic
production.

A very extensive investigation made to determine the character of
distilled liquors, both those imported into the United States and those
of domestic manufacture, has been practically completed.

The study ot the effects of colors, preservatives, and other sub-
stances added to foods has been continued during the year, and most
valuable data relating thereto are now being prepared for publication.
This investigation is particularly valuable because the experiments
are made upon human beings.

MICROSCOPIC WORK.

The microscope has become one of the most valuable adjuncts in the
examination of food products and materials used for technical pur-
poses. Micro-chemical investigations have been largely made in the
work of the Bureau of Chemistry and have extended not only to
foods but also to leathers, papers, tanning materials, and bacteriolog-
ical examinations. The total number of samples examined during the
year was 1,067. The bacterio-chemical work has been of extreme
importance. This is especially true in connection with the work
authorized by Congress on the effects of cold storage upon wholesome-
ness of food products. Particularly in investigating the relative
merits of drawn and undrawn fowls when placed in cold storage, the
bacterio-chemical examination is of vital importance. Studies have
therefore been made to determine whether the bacteria of the intesti-
nal tract migrate to the flesh of the fowl during the period of cold
storage, and, if so, what chemical changes are produced thereby.
The bacterio-chemical investigations have extended toa large number
of other subjects, particularly to the chemical changes which take
place in milk, cream, and evaporated and condensed milks, and to the
general changes of a bacterial character which foods undergo on
keeping.

BUREAU OF SOILS.

Underlying all attempts to improve the general agricultural welfare
of the country lies the necessity for a correct knowledge of the char-
acter and variety of its soils. Such knowledge is fundamental, and
without it no great progress can be made in securing further diversifi-
cation of crops, the introduction of new crops, or the more economical
production of the great staples now known.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 73

THE SOIL SURVEY.

Since 1899 the Bureau of Soils has been conducting an investigation
of the soils of the United States which will ultimately result in a
thorough familiarity with the vast, varied, and but partially appre-
ciated soil resources of the country. The purpose of this work is
to ascertain the variety and extent of the chief characteristic soils of
the country, to determine the crop or crops which can be raised to the
best advantage upon each of these soils, and to discover what pecul-
iarities of soil management are best suited to secure the maximum
results on each soil in different and widely separated localities.

EXTENT OF THE SURVEYS.

During the fiscal year 1906 soil surveys covering 19,341 square
miles, or 12,370,240 acres, were made in 29 States and 2 Territories.
In all, to June 30, 1906, 251 different surveys have been made in 43
States and 4 Territories, covering a total area of 118,687 square miles,
or 75,959,680 acres. These surveys have covered not only a wide
range of soil and climatic conditions, but also the typical soils upon
which the chief staple crops as well as many new and special crops are
being produced.

THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED.

The work of the soil survey in 1906 and in preceding years, while
dealing chiefly with the characteristic soils upon which the staple
crops—corn, wheat, cotton, grass, etc.—are produced in different sec-
tions and under different conditions of soil and climate, has also
encountered many specific problems of wide interest and application.
The opening of large areas for agricultural occupation has necessitated
in several States a study of the existing soil types in order that the
appropriate crops for production upon each might be determined.
The widespread interest in the agricultural capabilities of undrained
lands in many sections has led to demands for surveys which shall
determine the character of crops to which such soils may be farmed
after reclamation. The breaking up of large dry-farmed ranches for
more intensive forms of agriculture under irrigation has also neces-
sitated surveys which could be used as a basal guide in crop selection.
The extension of crops like tobacco and alfalfa into entirely new areas
whose soil adaptations were formerly unknown has been made possible
by the soil surveys. The introduction of new crops has been accom-
plished along the lines suggested by the surveys. One of the chief
purposes and uses of the surveys has been to aid individual farmers
in the selection of land suited to general or special crops in regions
unknown or but partly known.

74 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
THE SOIL RESOURCES OF THE COUNTRY.

In the work of the soil survey, since its inception in 1899, 461 dis-
tinct types of soils have been encountered. Some of these types
are of great extent, covering areas measured by thousands of square
miles. Still others are of local extent and distribution. Some are
distributed over a considerable range of climatic environment. Others
are so restricted that they may be said to lie in a single climatic belt.
The great striking fact, however, is that with such a great variety of
individual soils only about a dozen important crops are now produced
in the entire country. Again, the same crop is produced with the
greatest diversity of success or failure upon a great variety of soils, to
some of which the crop is well suited while upon others it is annually
produced at a loss. Before the farmers of all sections of the United
States can reduce agriculture to a basis of permanent business success
the knowledge of these facts must be thoroughly disseminated and
fully understood.

It has been found that in addition to the broad subdivision of the
country into a humid region, an arid region, and a rather indefinite
semiarid region, there are at least thirteen grand divisions among the
soils which may be termed soil provinces. The soils of the Atlantic
and Gulf Coastal Plains differ materially from those of the Piedmont
Plateau. The soils of the glaciated region of the Northern States are
materially different from those of the limestone valleys, and from the
alluvial bottom Jands or the residual prairies of the Western States.
Still greater differences exist between the soils of the Pacific coast

valleys or the Great Interior Basin and those of the Eastern State -

provinces. All of these differences have their deep significance in the
selection of crops and in the management of the soils. Even within
single provinces there are groups of soils which differ profoundly
from all others, and these differences must be recognized and their
crop signification understood. Each series also ranges from the coars-
est sandy and gravelly types or individuals to the finest-grained clays.
No two of the numerous individual soils possess exactly the same
characteristics, and no two are, therefore, adapted in the same degree
to exactly the same crops nor to the same treatment and handling.

When all of these differences have been ascertained, and when the
significance of these differences comes to be understood, the country
will be able by the introduction of new crops and by greater special-
ization in crop production to increase greatly the agricultural efficiency
of every tilled acre.

DEMANDS FOR THE WORK.

Each year brings an increasing number of requests for survey work
in particular localities to serve a great diversity of interests. The
development of new lands in the United States has not ceased and the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75

need for specific and unprejudiced information concerning soils in
newly developed regions has become widely recognized. The exten-
sion of tobacco culture through certain portions of the Gulf States has
led to numerous requests for surveys to locate areas of soil where
the Cuban type of filler tobacco may be grown successfully. Only a
few soils are suited to the production of this leaf, and unless such soils
are found in an area the attempt to introduce the crop must result in
failure. The growth of the fruit interests in all sections of the coun-
try has led to widespread demands for surveys to determine what soils
are peculiarly adapted to the growing of apples, pears, peaches, grapes,
or citrus fruits, the location of these soils, and their extent. The
depression of farm vaiues in some sections has called attention to the
possibility of rehabilitating these farms and soils through the introduc-
tion of new crops and of new methods, and surveys are requested to
furnish guidance along these lines. New areas for the production of
market-garden and truck crops are being developed along the Atlantic
and Gulf coast lines, and surveys have been requested for many of
these areas. The northward spread of the culture of rice upon prairie
lands has given rise to requests for surveys to indicate soils and regions
where this crop might be introduced.

As a result the Bureau of Soils has always on file requests for several
times as many surveys as can be made during any one year, and the
completion of each year’s work is accompanied by an increased rather
than a diminished volume of requests. While such a condition is
gratifying from the standpoint of public appreciation of the value of
the work, it is embarrassing and unsatisfactory because of the neces-
sity for selecting among so many requests of almost equal urgency
those areas which may be undertaken each year. The public demand
for the making of these surveys and the constant application for sur-
vey reports, not only for areas which have been surveyed, but also for
those which have not yet been undertaken, both evince the necessity
for a considerable increase in the volume of soil-survey work in the
immediate future.

RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS.

The progress of the work on the several alkali reclamation tracts dur-
ing the fiscal year just closed has been gratifying, both as regards the
immediate success of the experiments and as regards the stimulating
effect that these results have had upon private initiative in the work
of reclaiming similarly affected neighboring lands.

PROGRESS ON THE UTAH TRACT.

On the Swan tract, near Salt Lake City, Utah, the work consisted
largely of experiments with various crops, as the removal of alkali
had practically been accomplished by repeated flooding in 1903 and

76 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1904. The thrifty growth of alfalfa and of other crops, not perhaps
as sensitive to alkali, clearly demonstrates the great changes that have
taken place in the soil since it has been treated. Formerly this field
presented a desolate appearance, with large areas heavily incrusted
with alkali. The success of this experiment can not but be far-reach-
ing in its influence upon the alkali question in the Salt Lake Valley.

COMPLETION OF WORK AT FRESNO.

Our earlier work on the Toft-Hansen tract, near Fresno, Cal., had
freed the upper layers of soil from alkali, and very satisfactory crops
had been grown; however, while the alkali question had been solved,
a constant source of danger was the high ground water, which rises
very rapidly in this district after water is turned into the canals each
spring. The original drainage system was not very deep, and the
question of keeping the drains free from sand and silt proved serious.
In order further to experiment with the lowering of the ground water,
it was thought advisable to install a new drainage system. This was
completed in November, 1905. The entire drainage system was low-
ered from 14 to 23 feet, and the ground water is now kept at a safe
depth, not only under the land drained, but under adjoining farms to
the extent of 200 acres.

The success of this work has proved of great value to the farmers
of the alkali and seepage-infested district about Fresno, and many have
signified their intention of undertaking work similar to that carried
on by the Bureau of Soils. At the close of the irrigation season of
1906, the Bureau’s work in the Fresno district will close, as the owners
of the land are well pleased with the reclaimed condition of the soil
and the success of the newly installed drainage system.

CONTINUATION OF THE WORK AT YAKIMA, WASH.

In Washington, in the Yakima Valley, the results have not been
quite as satisfactory as was hoped when the work was commenced.
While parts of the Gervais tract, near North Yakima, have been
thoroughly reclaimed and produced in 1905 a heavy crop of hay, valued
at $160, other parts of the tract have not yielded to treatment so
readily. That some parts of the tract still contain appreciable quan-
tities of black alkali is evident from the crop returns, from repeated
chemical tests, and from the characteristic dark stains in the soil. It
is somewhat difficult to explain the retention of alkali by the soils of
the Yakima Valley. It is well known that hardpan retards the move-
ment of alkali, and it seems probable also that the volcanic ash soils of
this valley may have a high absorptive capacity, enabling them still to
retain injurious quantities of black alkali in spite of repeated flooding.
Good lands in this region produce such profitable crops that the exact

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. rig

treatment for the alkali lands should be ascertained if possible, even
though the total cost of reclamation be great as compared with other
districts.

RAPID COMPLETION OF THE RECLAMATION WORK IN ARIZONA.

The record of the Cummings tract, near Tempe, in the Salt River
Valley, Arizona, is excellent. The drainage system was installed
early in 1904, but no water was available for leaching out the alkali
until many months later. When the water supply became more
abundant the removal of the alkali was comparatively simple. At
the present time 144 acres support a fine stand of alfalfa, planted in
November, 1905, while the remainder has produced a heavy crop of
barley. The owner of the land is fully satisfied with the showing of
the crops and only awaits the seeding of the small tract to alfalfa before
accepting the land according to the contract originally agreed upon.
As the water supply of the valley is still further increased by the
extensive operations of the United States Reclamation Service in
constructing storage reservoirs, the subject of eliminating alkali and
controlling the ground water will become more important, and the
Bureau is very fortunate in having undertaken and completed this
work at such an opportune time.

RESULTS IN MONTANA,

The showing of the O’Donnell tract in the Yellowstone Valley,
Montana, is fully as good, if not better, than the one just mentioned.
The drainage system was installed during 1904, but too late to allow
any flooding. During 1905 the land was continuously flooded for sev-
eral months. From the outset the drainage system worked perfectly
and large quantities of alkali were removed by the drainage water.
Tests made in June, 1906, showed that the alkali content to a depth of
4 feet had decreased to approximately 0.2 per cent over the entire
tract. In 1904 the soil contained more than 1 per cent toa depth of
4 feet, largely concentrated in the first and second feet. The compar-
ison shows the extent to which the alkali had been removed by a sin-
gle year’s flooding. Early this year the soil was put in order and
seeded to oats. This crop produced a yield that compared favorably
with the most productive lands in the valley.

Since it has been shown that alkali can be removed from the soils in
the Billings district the outlook is most promising. One of the worst
alkali and seepage areas has been included in a drainage district, and
a deep outlet ditch now constructed will serve to carry the surplus
water from smaller, more detailed drainage systems in individual fields.
Smaller local drainage systems are also being formed by private
enterprise.

78 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
NEED FOR CONTINUING THE DEMONSTRATIONS.

In carrying on the work in reclaiming alkali soils we have had many
different conditions to meet and local difficulties to overcome. At
each tract the character of the soil differed from that of the other
tracts, and at no two places are the alkali conditions nor the details of
attacking the problem the same. This makes plain the wisdom of
extending the work to other affected districts in order that full and
exact plans may be placed in the hands of the farmers suffering this
common evil of the arid West.

Already urgent requests for the extension of this work are on file in
the Department, and in view of its great economic importance it is the
intention to follow the completion of the present demonstrations with
the reclamation of small tracts in some other of the worst affected
sections. There is no one soil problem more important to a large
number of our western farmers than this, and none, happily, that is
capable of such quick solution or that involves so great and so certain
immediate increase in their wealth.

TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS.

During the fiscal year just closed the Bureau of Soils has continued
its investigations for the improvement of tobacco in Texas, Alabama,
Ohio, Virginia, and Connecticut.

EXPERIMENTS IN TEXAS.

The tobacco grown in Texas during the preceding year was distrib-
uted to the trade for the purpose of ascertaining its commercial value.
In all 300 samples were sent out, and from the numerous replies
received it can be positively stated that the tobacco produced in Texas
meets the requirements of the trade as a high-class domestic filler.
About 200 acres are now being grown on the Orangeburg soils in
Nacogdoches, Anderson, Houston, and Montgomery counties in east
Texas, while in central Texas, in Lavaca and Lee counties, experi-
ments were conducted on similar soils. The industry is now assum-
ing a commercial status, as a ready market has been created for the
leaf. Great interest has been shown by the trade, by railroads, and
by local interests in east Texas as a tobacco-producing region, and,
with the promising beginning made in the counties mentioned, there
is every reason to believe that this section of the State will soon be
recognized as an important factor in our tobacco industry.

PROSPECTS IN ALABAMA.

The investigations for the production of filler leaf in Alabama have
this past year been extended into Dallas County, in the southern part
of which the Orangeburg soils appear. In Perry County the acreage

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79

increased over 100 per cent. A ready market has been found for the
product, and this has proved a stimulus to the growers. The tobacco
produced is similar in quality to the Texas and Florida leaf, and the
cost of production is 4 little less.

FERMENTATION AND SELECTION IN OHIO.

In Ohio the work of introducing the bulk method of fermentation
has been continued, and over 25,000,000 pounds of tobacco have been
fermented according to the method prescribed by the Bureau of Soils.
It has taken a period of five years to accomplish these results, and the
system is now so well established in Ohio that the packers should be
able to proceed without further supervision by our experts. Besides
the fermentation work, the work of introducing Cuban seed filler in
Ohio bas been continued, 25 acres having been planted by the farmers
under the direction of the Bureau. This was contracted for with local
packers at prices ranging from 18 to 20 cents a pound.

In Ohio, also, cooperative experiments have been conducted with
the Bureau of Plant Industry in the selecting and breeding of improved
types of tobacco, with a view to securing types of leaf giving a larger
yield and having a uniform quality. Selections were made of Zimmer
Spanish, Little Dutch, Ohio Seedleaf, and Ohio Cuban. It is believed
that by this method of selection of seed native varieties of Ohio
tobacco may be greatly improved, since where so many varieties are
grown, as in the Miami Valley of Ohio, there is great danger of their
becoming mixed.

EXPORT TOBACCO IN VIRGINIA.

The experiments begun in Virginia in 1904 with heavy fire-cured
tobacco have been continued during ‘the past fiscal year. In the first
year of this work it was demonstrated that by the use of carefully
selected fertilizers the profits in growing this type of leaf could be
increased considerably as compared with those obtained by the Virginia
farmer. During the past year the same treatment of the same land
was followed, and, between the two crops of tobacco, rye was sown
as a cover crop and plowed under in the spring of the year. The
results obtained show the accumulative effects of the fertilizer and
cultural methods used. The land was divided into 3-acre plats. On
one the fertilizer practice common to the locality was followed, on the
second a slightly better brand was applied, and on the third a still
more expensive application was made.

The cost of production of the three plats was respectively $44.50,
$63.60, and $85.49, which shows a net profit of $15.63 on plat 1,
$37.01 on plat 2, and $40.10 on plat 3. It is interesting to note that
the same plats of ground receiving the same treatment in 1904 netted
profits of $5, $21, and $24, respectively, showing gains in 1905 over

SO YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1904 of $10.63, $16.01, and $16.10, respectively. These results are

highly significant as indicating what may be done in this important

tobacco district by the use of such methods as are practiced, for instance,
by the Connecticut Broadleaf growers.

BEGINNING OF EXPERIMENTS WITH VIRGINIA BRIGHT TOBACCO.

Investigations for the improvement of the Bright tobacco of Vir-
ginia were also begun during the past fiscal year (ended June 30,
1906), in cooperation with the Virginia Experiment Station, the
experimental field being situated near Chatham, in Pittsylvania County,
the center of the Bright tobacco belt of Virginia, and within 20 miles
of Danville, the largest market for this class of tobacco. The experi-
ment is still in progress, and it will be impossible to — definite
results until next year.

CONNECTICUT SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO.

In the Connecticut Valley the work of producing, under shade, a
wrapper leaf having all the qualities demanded by the trade has been
continued in connection with the breeding experiments of the Bureau
of Plant Industry. Eleven selections were taken in a 4-acre tent, seven
from Sumatra seed and four from Cuban seed of the third generation
in Connecticut. The yield of Sumatra ranged from 1,445 to 1,612
pounds per acre, and of Cuban from 1,134 to 1,384 pounds per acre.
Out of these eleven types there have been selected two types of Sumatra
and one of Cuban seed that appear to meet the demands of the trade.

Besides the area in the experimental tent of the Department, there
were grown by private planters during the year about 120 acres under
cloth shade, both Cuban seed and Connecticut Broadleaf being planted.
This is a slight increase over the acreage planted the preceding year
and indicates that the trade is becoming interested in the shade product.
One firm growing Broadleaf sold the tobacco for $1,061 an acre, giving
a profit of about $300 an acre. The Cuban tobacco was sold for $1,200
anacre. During the summer of 1906 the crop grown by the Department
from selected seed of both the Cuban and Sumatra varieties was dis-
tributed to thirty-three of the largest leaf dealers and cigar manufac-
turers in the principal cities of the East. These were sent out with a
request that they test the leaf and report to the Department their
opinion of its quality and its adaptability for manufacturing purposes.
Up to the time of closing this report answers have been received from
twenty-five of those to whom samples were sent, and with one excep-
tion they report that the tobacco has all the qualities demanded by the
trade ina domestic cigar wrapper, and if tobacco similar to the samples
sent can be grown on a commercial scale they do not hesitate to say
that a ready market can be found for it.

There can be no question that tobacco of this quality can be produced

— - ° °° °°”

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Sl

on a commercial scale by careful growers if the methods used and
recommended by the Bureau of Soils are followed. Notwithstanding
the uniformly favorable reports received from the trade on the merits
of this tobacco, the Bureau, however, would caution the prospective
grower against embarking in the industry on too large a scale at the
outset.

PREVENTION OF POLE SWEAT.

Owing to the serious damage caused annually in Connecticut by pole
sweat or house burn, the Bureau of Soils conducted some preliminary
investigations in curing sheds containing both the cut and primed
tobaceo. A detailed record of the moisture and temperature condi-
tions in each shed was kept, as also of the condition of the tobacco,
with a view to determining the point of relative humidity and tem-
perature of atmosphere at which tobacco would begin to pole sweat
and the means to prevent the atmosphere of the shed becoming such
as to favor its spread. This study will be closely followed, as it is
believed that results can be obtained which will be of great value to
the Connecticut growers.

Urgent demands have been made upon the Department to extend its
operations into Florida, Maryland, Wisconsin, and Tennessee, but
owing to the limited appropriation for this work it has so far been
impossible to comply with these requests.

BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Practically all of the investigations under way in the Bureau of
Entomology at the time of my last report have been continued with
excellent results, and several new and important lines of work have
been begun.

' THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.

_ Encouraging progress has been made in the work against the Mex-
ican cotton boll weevil, as shown by an extensive canvass of the cotton
planters who have followed the recommendations of the Bureau.
Owing to climatic conditions in the summer and fall of 1904 and in
the winter of 1904-5, some of the area that became infested late in the
summer of 1904 was entirely devoid of weevils in the early part of
1905, but the fall movements of the weevil in 1905 more than covered
this area. This permitted studies for which there had been previously
little opportunity, and many points which had a bearing upon the
possibility of the continued advance of the pest were investigated.

EXPERIMENTAL FARMS.

The continuation of the experimental farms at fourteen places in
Texas has been deemed desirable, as the value of experimental field
work depends largely upon the number of seasons through which it has

3 a1906——6

82 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

been carried. Two additional experimental farms have been carried
on in Louisiana. The whole acreage placed under contract in these
experiments is 877.

The modifications in the cultural system of lessening damage, made
necessary by the change in habits of the insect, were carefully studied
in connection with the work carried on in the laboratory.

OTHER FIELD WORK.

In addition to experimental plats on a large scale numerous field
experiments were conducted, including an extensive experiment in
the hand picking of infested bolls and considerable other work
directed to the solution of questions which can not be tested with the
fullest practical effect in the laboratory.

The continued spread of the weevil has been carefully watched, and
publications regarding the new territory infested have been issued in
cooperation with the Weather Bureau. Careful study has been made
of the conditions in western Texas in order to determine whether the
weevil is likely to spread to that part of the State in spite of the gen-
eral idea that such spread will not take place.

LABORATORY WORK.

In the well-fitted laboratory now located at Dallas, Tex., the effects
of different temperatures and the condition of food supply upon the
development of the weevil were tested, the breeding of parasites was
continued, and a special study was made of a native ant which seems
to be becoming more and more an important factor in the natural con-
trol of the weevil. Investigations of the distribution of this ant, its
adaptability to different soil conditions, and the possibility of its arti-
ficial propagation have also been made.

TRUE PARASITES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.

Since the weevil entered Texas native parasites have had little effect
upon it until recently. During the year, however, it was found that in
the Brownsville region—first entered by the weevil about 1893—native
parasites have accommodated themselves to its habits, and now at least
50 per cent of the early stages are sometimes destroyed by these
parasites. Consequently much attention is being paid to the parasite
question, in order to determine whether it will be possible to assist the
work of these beneficial insects. It seems probable that the small
results gained from the work of parasites down to the present time
are largely due to the recent invasion of the cotton fields of the South
by the injurious insect.

COOPERATION WITH THE LOUISIANA CROP PEST COMMISSION.

Cooperation with the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, begun in
1904, was continued during the year, three assistants being employed
by the Bureau for work in Louisiana. During the season of 1905 it

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83

was planned to enter upon an extensive study of the so-called migra-
tory movement of the boll weevil in order to learn, if possible, some
method of checking its further advances, or at least to learn more
definitely the approximate time when other regions may become
infested. On account, however, of the occurrence of yellow fever
and the consequent rigid quarantine, it was impossible to carry on
this work in full, but a number of important observations were made.
_ In cooperation with the commission more than 25,000 weevils were
carefully studied under natural conditions during the winter.

THE COTTON BOLLWORM.

The work on the cotton bollworm during the fiscal year was largely
in the character of demonstrations, indicating the value of conclusions
already reached and detailed in the last annual report of the Ento-
mologist, and successful efforts were made locally in the extermination
of the bollworm by means of poisons.

OTHER COTTON INSECTS.

The work on other cotton insects has been done largely in cooperation
with the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. A field agent of the
Bureau was stationed at the Texas Agricultural College, devoting his
attention to the other insects affecting the cotton plant. The important
discovery has been made that it is possible to propagate the predaceous
enemies of the cotton plant-louse, an insect which sometimes causes great
damage to young cotton. It is believed that this work will lead toa
practical method of controlling the pest.

INTRODUCTION OF BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

The most important work in connection with the introduction of
beneficial insects has been the importing from Europe of the para-
sites and predaceous enemies of the gipsy and brown-tail moths, in
cooperation with the officials of the State of Massachusetts.

PARASITES OF THE GIPSY MOTH AND BROWN-TAIL MOTH.

It has been shown that it is an easy matter to bring the European
parasites of these injurious insects to this country, simply by collect-
ing numbers of the larve and chrysalides in different parts of Europe
and sending them direct to Boston. A certain percentage of these
insects on arrival in New England have given out the European para-
sites, which have either been cultivated in wire-gauze inclosures, with
plenty of food, or have been liberated in the open, there being chosen
for this’ purpose patches of woods not subject to forest fires or to
remedial work against the insects. It has been ascertained further—
and this is a fact hitherto unknown even to European entomologists— —
that the young larve of the brown-tail moth in their overwintering

84 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

nests in Europe are extensively parasitized. Therefore, during the
winter of 1905-6 over 117,000 nests of the brown-tail moth were col-
lected in 33 different localities in Europe, ranging between North Ger-
many, South Hungary, and West Brittany, and comprising a large
range of varying elevations and climatic conditions. More than 70,000
parasites were reared from these nests on American soil. About 8 per
cent of these were hyperparasites; that is, parasites upon parasites.

By means of specially constructed cages the hyperparasites were
separated and destroyed. The primary parasites were placed in out-
of-door cages or liberated in the open. The largest colonies included
10,000, 15,000, and 25,000 parasites, respectively. Owing to the very
wet season a fungous disease prevailed among the caterpillars, vitiat-
ing to some extent the results of the experiments, but nevertheless
three species of parasites were seen to lay their eggs in American-
born caterpillars, and there is positive proof of the development on
American soil of at least one complete generation of two of the Euro-
pean species. It has been shown that they may breed successfully
through the season.

Egg parasites of the brown-tail moth have also been imported dur-
ing the summer, and have been seen to lay their eggs in the eggs of
North American injurious insects. Two important European preda-
tory ground beetles have been successfully imported, and have bred
through an entire generation upon American soil. Large numbers of
‘Tachina flies have been reared from European specimens of the larve
of both the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth, and are breeding in
the vicinity of Boston.

The greatest care has been taken to prevent the introduction of
hyperparasites and other injurious insects, and there seems every
reason to suppose that sooner or later the complete natural environ-
ment of both the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth will be estab-
lished in New England, placing them on a par with European condi-
tions, thus greatly reducing their present importance.

NEW LADYBIRDS FROM EUROPE.

During the late winter months and spring of 1906 several species of
European ladybirds, well known as destroyers of plant lice, scale
insects, and soft-bodied insects of other groups, have been imported
from Germany, France, and Austria. All of these have been liber-
ated in the vicinity of the parasite laboratory at North Saugus, Mass.,
the country about being orchards and forests, with an occasional
vegetable garden, promising plenty of food for the beneficial species.

THE KELEP OR GUATEMALAN ANT.

Efforts to successfully overwinter in Texas the kelep or Guatemalan
ant enemy of the cotton boll weevil have failed and a possible useful
role for this insect in Texas is seemingly very slight. It is possible

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85

that this species may have some economic value in some of our tropical
or subtropical possessions, where the climate will be more suitable
than in Texas.

THE SENDING OF USEFUL INSECTS ABROAD.

It is possible, in many instances, to secure the sending of beneficial
insects by the official entomologists of other countries without expense
tothe Department, as was done notably in the case of the introduc-
tion of an important enemy of the black scale from the government
of Cape Colony, South Africa. In return for such services and as an
earnest for possible future courtesy of the same sort exportations of
parasitic and predatory insects have been made, under the auspices of
the Bureau of Entomology, to foreign countries. A notable instance
has taken place during the fiscal year. A scale insect which occurs
abundantly upon various fruit trees in portions of the United States is
a serious enemy to the mulberry tree in Italy, and therefore large
sendings of parasitized scales of this species have been shipped to
Professor Berlese, Director of the Royal Station for Agriculture and
Entomology, at Florence. After arrival two species of parasites were
bred in some numbers, and efforts are now being made to colonize
them in Lombardy. It is hoped that they will prove effective aids in
the eradication of the mulberry scale.

INSECTS DAMAGING FORESTS.

Investigations of insects damaging forests have progressed in a
satisfactory manner in cooperation with the Forest Service of the
Department. Numerous problems have been studied and a large
store of general information upon forest insects has been accumulated.

Field work has been conducted from stations in West Virginia,
North Carolina, South Dakota, Idaho, Washington, and California,
the locations of the stations being determined by the advantages
offered at the points selected for the study of some special problem or
problems.

A special investigation was carried on in regard to the Black Hills
beetle, which has extensively ravaged the forests in Colorado, and the
results prove to be in the highest degree satisfactory and have been
published in Bulletin 56 of the Bureau. The recommendations are
now being actively followed by private persons with excellent chances
of checking what might otherwise prove a most serious invasion.

The conditions in the Black Hills are not so encouraging, owing,
doubtless, to the failure of the parties interested to realize the importance
of the recommendations of the Bureau. These difficulties, however,
have now been partially overcome, and all concerned seem alive to the
- seriousness of the situation.

86 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Investigations in the South of the destructive pine-bark beetle and
of a number of important insects injurious to forest products have
been carried on, and studies have been made in regard to the insect.
enemies of forest reproduction. Special studies and recommendations
have been made concerning the western pine-bark beetle in the region
north of Boise, Idaho, and a study of the forest insects of the Pacific
slope has been carried on.

INSECTS DAMAGING DECIDUOUS FRUIT TREES.

For the investigation of insect enemies of deciduous fruit trees
field stations at Youngstown, N. Y., and Fort Valley, Ga., were car-
ried on to the close of the growing season of 1905, and in the spring
of 1906 others were started at Myrtle, Ga., and North East, Pa.
Later another one was established at Nebraska City, Nebr. In the
course of this work some studies have been made of the parasites of
the San Jose scale, and experiments have been made with a number of
insecticide mixtures. The chemical study of the lime-sulphur and
other washes has been undertaken in cooperation with the Bureau of
Chemistry. New studies have been made of the plum curculio. The
peach borer has also been studied throughout its geographic range, and
extensive demonstration work has been done in Nebraska on remedies
for the codling moth, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry,
which at the same time was dealing with the apple scab, combination
treatments for both being carried on cooperatively. Cooperation in
this work is also under way with the severai other experiment stations
and the Georgia State entomologist.

FIELD-CROP INSECTS.

The most important work in connection with field-crop insects has
been upon the Hessian fly and jointworms, especial investigations
having been made of the Hessian fly in the spring-wheat regions. It
was predicted that this insect-would not damage wheat in regions
where the spring crop is exclusively grown. This has proved to be a
fallacy, and by reason of remarkable changes in the life history of the
insect it has adapted itself to the conditions existing in the far north-
western country. This means a radical modification in remedial work,
and the studies have indicated that it will not be difficult to bring about
conditions of comparatively small insect damage. Important results
have also been reached in the study of parasites of the Hessian fly,
which will probably have a marked effect upon the multiplication of
the fly. In the same way the jointworm investigations have resulted
in the acquisition of important knowledge, both regarding possible
remedial work and the handling of parasites. Studies have also been
made of clover seed and clover insects, and also of other field-crop
pests.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87

INSECTS AFFECTING VEGETABLE CROPS AND STORED PRODUCTS.

Work on insects affecting vegetable crops and stored products has
been continued along the same lines as conducted in previous years.
Insects affecting the sugar beet have been studied with care, and a
special investigation has been made of a leaf hopper affecting this
crop in Utah, Idaho, and Colorado. Many other insects of this group
have been under careful observation, and results of value have been
obtained.

INSECTS WHICH CARRY DISEASE TO MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The work of the Bureau on the subject of mosquitoes has been con-
tinued. A further study of the yellow-fever mosquito was made in
the autumn of 1905, and experiments were made with remedies and
methods of destruction against both larvee and adults. Records have
been brought together of the life histories and geographic distribu-
tion of the majority of the mosquitoes inhabiting North and Central
America and the West Indies.

In the spring of 1906 a publication was issued upon the subject of
the house fly, calling attention to its agency in the spread of typhoid
fever, pointing out proper methods for its control, and urging the
adoption of these methods by individuals and communities.

It was shown by observations made by the Bureau of Entomology
upon a series of stables in two different sections of the city of Wash-
ington that itis a comparatively easy matter greatly to reduce the num-
bers of the house fly in any given community at a comparatively slight
expenditure of funds and effort.

The investigation of the life history of the Texas cattle tick, men-
tioned in the last annual report, has been continued in cooperation
with the entomologists of the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Alabama,
Tennessee, and South Carolina. This work has considerably increased
our knowledge of the development of the tick, and in cénnection with
this work the life history and habits of a number of other common
ticks, frequently confused with the fever-transmitting species, have
been investigated.

SCALE INSECTS AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK WITH INSECTICIDES.

This work, in special charge of the Assistant Chief of the Bureau
of Entomology, has been continued. An immense amount of material
in this group is sent in to the Bureau for identification and advice and
the work grows in importance and value.

A thorough inspection was made of all new plants which the Depart-
‘ment of Agriculture is importing from different parts of the world to
detect and destroy any new insect enemies, principally scale insects,
which might be brought in with them.

88 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The work with insecticides has covered tests with standard insecti-
cides, fumigation of mills, granaries, and dwellings against insect pests,
and many new insecticide ideas or mixtures, which come to the Bureau
for attention almost daily, have been examined and reported on.

Tests carried on upon a large scale and in a very thorough manner.
with sulphurous-acid gas have fully demonstrated its usefulness.

BEE CULTURE.

The work on bee culture has greatly increased. A large number of
queen bees of different varieties were reared and distributed from the
Department apiary, as well as from the substation at Chico, Cal.
Investigations of the giant bees of India and the Phe were con-
tinued through the year.

The various methods of queen rearing have been tested in gute
queens for distribution, and studies in bee diseases and in the impor-
tant subject of honey-producing plants have been carried on.

SILK CULTURE.

There has been no change in the method and scope of the work on
silk culture during the year. The correspondence was increased; a
supply of eggs has been brought from Europe and distributed to cor-
respondents in the United States; mulberry stock has been distributed,
and cocoons have been purchased from correspondents and reeled.

OTHER INVESTIGATIONS.

Work on insects injurious to strawberry, raspberry, blackberry,
and other bush fruits has been continued, and studies have been made
of insects injurious to flower gardens and in greenhouses. An especial
study of the insect enemies of roses is under way. The study of
insects affecting shade and ornamental trees has also been continued,
and an investigation has been made into the habits of the gad flies.

Routine work in the laboratory has greatly increased and biological
studies have been made of nearly 500 species not hitherto studied.
Increase has also been noted in the work of determining specimens
for the entomologists of experiment stations and other workers. Many
thousands of specimens have been received for this purpose.

BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

LIFE AND CROP ZONES.

The Biological Survey deals with many of the problems of the farm;
orchard, and stock range, and aims to answer in a practical way many
of the questions that arise in their management. One of the most

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89

important of these is the selection of crops and breeds of stock adapted
to the local peculiarities of temperature, moisture, and other climatic
factors that prevail, not only in different areas, but which in mountain-
ous regions often characterize different parts of the same farm. A
direct and reliable guide to such selection, apart from costly experi-
mentation, is afforded by the distribution of the native plants and
animals, for it has been learned that animals and plants are not scat-
tered haphazard over the land, but in their distribution are governed
by fixed laws. Thus the association, on a given area of certain birds,
mammals, trees, and shrubs, presupposes the existence there of certain
climatic and physical conditions.

It naturally follows that there is a direct relation between the plant
and animal life of such an area and the nature of the crops that can
be grown upon it. The purpose of a biological survey of the several
States is to supply life-zone maps based upon a study of the natural
animal and plant life, followed by crop-zone maps with lists of fruits
and crops which will best thrive in such areas. A generalized report
of this nature, covering the United States as a whole, has been already
published (Bull. 10, Biological Survey). The work is now being car-
ried on in more detail and on larger scale maps in several of the
Western States.

DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF DUCKS AND SHORE BIRDS.

As the game birds of the country diminish in numbers, and as their
importance in the eyes of sportsmen and for food increases, the neces-
sity of legislative protection becomes more imperative.

In order to afford an accurate basis for such legislation, the routes
of migration and the time of arrival and departure of ducks and geese
and the shore birds have been carefully studied.

ECONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS.
ECONOMIC MAMMALOGY.

The field included in this branch of the work is wide and important,
the losses inflicted upon the agricultural and stock-raising interests in
the United States by noxious animals amounting annually to many
millions of dollars. The most prominent offenders are the wolves and
the gnawing animals known as rodents—especially the rats and mice,
rabbits, ground squirrels, and gophers. Much time and ingenuity and
vast sums of money have been expended in devising means to restrict
the numbers and minimize the damage done by these animals. ‘Traps,
poisons, and gases have been carefully experimented with under vary-
ing circumstances, and have proved more or less effective, but the
farmer does not always possess the requisite time and skill to employ
them to best advantage, and even when they serve to accomplish the
object intended the cost is considerable.

90 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Meanwhile agriculture is assuming more and more importance in
the United States, and with increasing crops comes a corresponding
increase in the numbers of the pests that destroy them.

In the hope of finding a remedy, the Bureau of Biological Survey
is now engaged in experiments with epidemic diseases—diseases which
in the course of nature break out at intervals and serve to reduce the
numbers of rabbits, squirrels, mice, and other noxious animals to
below the danger point. As some, if not all these diseases, are of
bacterial origin, it is thought possible to obtain and preserve cultures
of them for employment when and where occasion arises. Prior to
their use in the field, however, a series of careful experiments is nec-
essary to determine the character of the diseases—whether limited, as
some undoubtedly are, to particular animals—the degree of their viru-
lence, the extent of their communicability from animal to animal of a
colony, and above all to make sure that human beings and farm stock
are immune from their influence. :

In cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry, experiments
have been already made with a virus for destroying rats and mice,
and in cooperation with the State Agricultural Experiment Station at
Pullman, Wash., experiments are being tried with a disease endemic
to one of the ground squirrels of that region. The results of the latter
experiments are awaited with peculiar interest, since the area infested
by ground squirrels in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho is very large,
and everywhere over it great damage is done to the wheat crop.

With a view to eliciting timely information as to the prevalence of
epidemic disease among rabbits, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, rats,
and mice, a circular of inquiry has been widely distributed. The sub-
ject is one of large possibilities, and time and money will be well spent
if effective and economical methods are found to relieve the farmer of
part of the burden and expense of protecting his crops from rodent
pests, which are as numerous and destructive as they are ubiquitous
and elusive.

DEPREDATIONS BY WOLVES.

In cooperation with the Forest Service investigations are being made
with a view to the reduction of the numbers of wolves on the stock
ranges and on the game and forest reserves of the West. Wolves are
still numerous in certain sections, and by reason of their size and
strength constitute a formidable enemy to stock and to wild game.
It is thought that effective means for the abatement of the nuisance
have been found and a report on the subject will soon be ready for
publication.

THE RABBIT PEST.

The damage to nurseries, orchards, and crops of the United States
by rabbits has always been great, though happily nowhere reaching
the proportions reported in Australia. Many experiments have been

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. OI]

made by assistants of the Survey for the purpose of discovering cheap
methods of protecting orchards by wire fencing and by other means,
and of reducing the number of rabbits by traps and poisons. It is
believed that young trees in orchards and in forest reserves, where
they are particularly liable to destruction by rabbits, can be cheaply
and efliciently protected by cylinders of woven wire, and experiments
are being undertaken in cooperation with the Forest Service for test-
ing the efficiency of such protectors. Rabbits in various parts of the
country appear to be peculiarly susceptible to epidemic diseases, and
as they are one of our most destructive rodents special efforts are
being made to detect the presence of one of these epidemics for the
purpose of securing cultures as a means of reducing their numbers.

THE BOLL WEEVIL.

During the year investigations were continued in the Texas cotton
districts with reference to birds that feed upon the weevil. The
results are encouraging. In all, 28 species of birds have been found to
be more or less active enemies of the insect. Included in this number
is the nighthawk, heretofore not known to eat the weevil. The night-
hawk proves to be an active consumer of the insect. Its protection by
law therefore is earnestly recommended. This is all the more neces-
sary, since the bird is often shot for food.

Of all the birds that prey upon the weevil, orioles are the most
active and persistent. For this reason the possible introduction into
the Gulf States of one or more additional species of these birds is
being considered. Only one of the three species that visit the cotton-
producing belt breeds extensively within it; hence if one is introduced
it should be a species likely to make its summer home within the area
infested by the weevil, as all birds are particularly assiduous in their
search for insects during the time they are feeding the young.

CALIFORNIA FRUIT ORCHARDS.

Work in the California fruit orchards is being continued and a study
made of the food habits of birds destructive to orchard fruit, with a
view to the suggestion of preventive measures.

Careful investigations are being conducted also into the food habits
of all birds that live in and around orchards, so that the orchardist
may be clearly informed as to the beneficial species, in order that he
may be able to discriminate between friends and foes.

SCALE INSECTS.

Few kinds of insects are so inimical to the health and existence of
fruit trees and other crop plants as the scales, and owing to their small
size and peculiar habits few are so diffcult to cope with. It has been

generally supposed that birds lend no assistance in the destruction of
scales. This proves to be an error, for the Biological Survey has

92 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

already found that more than 50 species of birdseat scale insects. Not
only is this true, but in the case of certain species, as the grosbeaks,
scales have been ascertained to form a large percentage of the food.

GAME PROTECTION AND INTRYDDUCTION.

The experience of many countries proves how widespread is the
desire to introduce foreign mammals and birds. When these are
merely for cage pets or for exhibition in zoological collections, little
or no harm results. But when, as frequently happens, exotic species
are liberated in the hope that they will become acclimated and form
permanent additions to the fauna, there is always danger that, like the
English sparrow, they will be only too successful in adapting them-
selves to the new environment and prove serious pests. The disas-
trous experiments of Jamaica, Porto Rico, Hawaii, New Zealand,
Australia, and other regions abundantly illustrate this danger. Sev-
eral countries take the precaution of regulating such importations,
the United States among the number. Since 1900 the Department of
Agriculture has supervised all importations of live birds and mammals
into the United States. A few well-known species of birds and mam-
mals are allowed to enter without special authorization, but all others
are refused entry except under permit by the Department. The num-
ber thus entered during the year was 654 mammals, 274,914 canaries,
and 47,256 miscellaneous birds.

The growth of the trade in imported birds is made manifest by the
fact that the figures show an increase of 25 per cent over those for
last year, and of 33, 27, and 37 per cent, respectively, over those for
1903-4, 1902-8, and 1901-2. Despite the large number of birds and
mammals imported under permit, averaging more than 6,000 a week
throughout the past year, it is believed that no prohibited species was
brought into the country.

Increased interest is shown in the importation of foreign game birds
for stocking covers. During the year 864 European partridges, 116
capercailzie, 73 black game, and 59 other game birds were imported
for this purpose. Some of these experiments promise excellent
results.

Stocking covers with birds hatched from imported eggs has hereto-
fore been unsuccessful in most cases. Last spring, however, of 5,564
eggs imported under permit by the Department, 5,500 were English
pheasant eggs secured by the game commissioner of Illinois, who
reports that 3,000 live, healthy chicks were obtained—an unusually
large percentage.

Large shipments of birds are examined by inspectors and the number
and kinds are reported to the Department. The expense of fees has
hitherto been borne by importers, since no appropriation for the pur-
pose was made by Congress. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory °

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93

and protest was made by importers. Since February 1, 1906, the
Department has undertaken to pay these fees, and an appropriation
should be made to sustain the service, as in the case of inspection of
meats. The lack of such appropriation permits inspection only of the
most important shipments.

INTERSTATE COMMERCE IN GAME.

The close surveillance of interstate traffic in game established in the
Middle West has driven illegal shippers to the use of freight instead
of express, and has brought the situation in that region under partial
control. Attention will therefore be centered during the coming year
on the Southwest, where systematic violations of the law are frequent.
An effort will be made also to check numerous illegal shipments that
occur in the South, particularly in West Virginia, Virginia, and North
Carolina.

The limited means available for this work make progress slow and
difficult. A sufficient sum should be appropriated to permit the
employment of three supervisors, at Chicago, St. Louis, and Balti-
more, respectively, to study conditions, secure evidence of illegalities,
assist prosecuting officers, and aid generally in a more effective
enforcement of the law.

BIRD RESERVATIONS.

One of the most successful methods of preserving the birds of a
country is by setting aside regions that contain important colonies of
breeding birds as bird reservations or ‘‘refuges.” England, Aus-
tralia, Canada, New Zealand, and other countries have followed this
plan with great success, and in 1903 the United States inaugurated it
by making a bird reservation of Pelican Island, Florida, to preserve
the only colony of brown pelicans on the east coast of Florida.
Afterwards two more reservations were established—Breton Island,
Louisiana, and Stump Lake, North Dakota—and in the year just
ended four more were added to the list, two in Florida, consisting of
Passage and Indian keys, at the mouth of Tampa Bay, and two in
Michigan, comprising the Huron Islands and the Siskiwit Islands in
Lake Huron.

These reservations contain large colonies of water birds—ducks,
gulls, terns, pelicans, etc.—and their establishment will serve to pre--
serve certain native species from possible extermination and provide
favorable places for the study of bird life. It has been found essen-
tial to have Federal authority to punish trespassers instead of depend-
ing on varying State laws, and accordingly, at the suggestion of this
Department, Congress passed an act (approved June 29, 1906) provid-
ing a penalty for trespass on bird and game reservations. This law
will enable the wardens on bird reservations to protect them from
marauders.

94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BIG GAME REFUGES.

It is gratifying to state that part of the herd of dwarf elk presented
to the Government by Miller and Lux was successfully transferred to
the Sequoia National Park in November, 1905, thus insuring the pres-
ervation of this rare species.

It is now possible, also, to transfer to an ideal buffalo range in the
Wichita game preserve the herd of buffalo offered to the Department
by the New York Zoological Society, as Congress at its recent session
appropriated $15,000 for the construction of the fence necessary for a
proper inclosure.

The plan of preserving big game from extermination by providing
game refuges where shooting is either prohibited or carefully regu-
lated is at present attracting attention all over the world. In order to
profit by the experience of other countries in a matter that must soon
be of pressing interest in the United States, investigation has been
made of the systems employed in Canada, particularly Ontario and
Quebec, the Transvaal, Natal, British East Africa, Sudan, and Cape
Colony. This work has been carried on by correspondence and will
be continued and extended during the coming year.

GAME PROTECTION IN ALASKA.

The preservation of the game of Alaska continues to present dif-
ficult problems. With the present unsatisfactory game law, and no
appropriation available for enforcing its provisions, the efforts of the
Department have been confined to preventing export of heads and
skins by trophy hunters and dealers in hides, a fruitful source of

destruction.
INFORMATION CONCERNING GAME.

In performance of the important duty of collecting and disseminat-
‘ing information relating to game, the annual summary of game laws,
posters of close seasons, and directory of officers and organizations
concerned in the protection of game have been published as usual, and
also various pamphlets relating to special features of game protection.
In the near future it is intended to secure and publish information
concerning hunting-license statistics, game refuges and preserves,
introduction and propagation of game birds, duties of the modern
game warden, and the cage-bird traffic of the United States.

The constant demand for information on these and kindred matters
shows how important is this phase of the work. It is impossible to
meet this demand satisfactorily with the present limited force and
available means, and an increase in both is much needed.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.

The work of the Division of Publications continues inevitably to
increase with the growth of the Department. The number of publi-
cations issued in 1904 was 972; in 1905, 1,072; and in 1906, 1,171.
The number of copies issued in 1906 aggregated 13,488,021. The
larger proportion of these publications consisted of reprints, but the
new publications in 1906, exclusive of those of the Weather Bureau,
numbered +14.

FARMERS’ BULLETINS.

The total number of issues of Farmers’ Bulletins during the fiscal
year was 437, of which 404 were reprints, and the total number of
copies was 6,568,000.

The demand for Farmers’ Bulletins by Senators and Representa-
tives, who under the law are entitled to 80 per cent of the whole
number printed, has been so much larger than usual that practically
none were left to carry over to the present fiscal year. There being
therefore no surplus available and the appropriation for the current
fiscal year being no larger than formerly, the number available for
each Congressman will this year be greatly reduced. I have there-
fore felt obliged to include provision for an increase in the number
of these bulletins in my estimates for the ensuing year. The num-
ber of copies of Farmers’ Bulletins distributed during the past year
on Congressional orders aggregated 5,279,476.

ADVISORY COMMITTEE.

On January 23, 1906, in accordance with your Executive order of
the 20th of that month, I appointed an advisory committee on the sub-
ject of printing and publication, as follows: The Assistant Secretary,
chairman; the Chief of the Weather Bureau, and the Department
Editor, secretary. The rules laid down for the guidance of the com-
mittee in the Executive order referred to, conform so closely to the
regulations governing the printing and binding of this Department
imposed upon the Division of Publications, of which the Department
Editor is the chief, that it was not found necessary by the committee
to adopt a different system of work or to recommend many changes in
the existing orders. The services of the committee were, however,
extremely helpful in disposing of many questions submitted to it by
the Department Editor, which would otherwise have called for my
personal intervention. Up to date the committee has held ten meet-
ings, not at stated times, but at the call of the chairman whenever
questions of importance were ready to be submitted to it.

96 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONGRESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS.

Several important amendments to the law governing the public
printing and binding have resulted from the special investigation con-
ducted by the Joint Committee on Printing of the Senate and House.
One of these provides that the first cost of all publications known as
Congressional publications shall be charged to the printing fund of
the Department itself instead of to the appropriation for the printing
and binding for Congress, together with the cost of the copies assigned
to the Secretary for Departmental use. This has made it necessary,
of course, to secure an increase in the appropriation for printing for
the use of this Department, and the additional amount estimated, as
above made necessary, has been duly appropriated by Congress. This,
in reality, is not an increase, but a transfer from one fund to another.

Another amendment provides that public documents ordered printed
for Congress may be printed in two or more editions not exceeding
in the aggregate the total number authorized by law. This provision
applies not only to the number assigned to the use of Congress, but
also to the number assigned to the use of the Department. This
amendment will doubtless tend greatly to prevent waste by over-
publication.

LIMITATION OF APPROPRIATION FOR PRINTING.

A further amendment to the law provides that estimates for the
printing and binding of each Department shall be included in a single
item, and that after the expiration of the current fiscal year no appro-
priations other than those made specifically and solely for the printing
and binding shall be used for such purposes. In this connection, I
desire to place myself on record as strongly favoring the inclusion of
the appropriation for printing and binding in the regular appropria-
tion bill for the support of this Department, instead of being, as now,
included in a separate appropriation in the sundry civil bill for the
general printing and binding of the Government.

INCREASING DEMAND FOR PUBLICATIONS.

The demands for publications continue to increase more rapidly
than does the ability of the Department to meet them. The policy
followed in the past of continuing the distribution after supplying the
regular divisional lists, including libraries, agricultural colleges, and
stations, exchanges—foreign and domestic—and persons actively coop-
erating in the work of the Department, to all miscellaneous appli-
cants until the edition was exhausted, and then ordering a reprint to
satisfy further demands, while perhaps the best method to be pursued

_

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97

in any plan of unlimited gratuitous distribution, was found very
unsatisfactory.

In the first place, the funds at our discal precluded the possibility
of unlimited reprints, and thus, while a great many persons were sup-
plied who undoubtedly did not need the publications they asked for, a
large number of persons to whom the publications would prove useful
were unavoidably left unsupplied, including very often persons whose
services to the Department gave them a special claim on us for our
publications. Such a plan might have been satisfactory enough in the
days when the demand for the Department’s publications was not so
ereat, though even then it was wasteful; but at the present time to
undertake to supply all miscellaneous applicants—and this is the only
fair way if the principle of gratuitous distribution is to obtain—
would inyolve a cost far exceeding any sum which Congress is likely
to provide. In the face of the difficulty thus presented to me for
solution, I concluded to abandon any attempt at general gratuitous
distribution of all Department publications other than Farmers’ Bul-
letins and circulars. .

FIRST EDITIONS.

On April 14, 1906, I issued a general order which limited the first
edition of every publication to the number of copies necessary to
supply libraries, educational institutions, the press, State and foreign
officials connected with agriculture, exchanges, and such persons as
render tangible service to the Department, either by actively cooperat-
ing in its work or as special correspondents, and including a small
number to be reserved for emergencies and for use in correspondence,
and to furnish a small supply to be placed in the hands of the Super.
intendent of Documents for sale. I am indebted to the courtesy of
this official for the subjoined statement, showing the total number of
the publications of this Department sold by him during the last fiscal
year and the sums received therefor, and, for purposes of comparison,
the total number sold of all Government publications and the amount
received:

Publications of Department of Agriculture......... copies. . 47,745
AIMpntit TECELVEOstheTClOP = oee.. << 2c coc5 been ee cee $5, 388. 28
ATi Government: publications: - 2.2.0.2 2.2.2... - copies. . 75, 828
Amount recelyed mheretors 22-52045552526~ se Ssecces $16, 495. 88

REPRINTS BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.

I am also indebted to the Superintendent of Documents for a report
showing that under the provisions of joint resolution No. 11, approved
March 28, 1904, and with the concurrence of this office, as therein pro-
vided, 43 reprints of Department publications were ordered by him from
the Public Printer during the year ending June 30, 1906, in editions of

3 Al906——7

98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

from 100 to 1,500 copies, in order to satisfy the requests of purchas-
ers. Under the terms of the resolution referred to, these reprints,
which aggregated over 10,000 copies, were paid for from the funds
received by the Superintendent of Documents from the sale of our
publications. This sale of Government publications under the pro-
visions of the resolution, which authorize him to reprint as occasion
requires, defraying the cost of same from the sums received by him
as purchase money, affords the most equitable plan for the distribu-
tion of these publications to miscellaneous applicants. It involves no
waste, meets the requirements of all parties interested at a minimum
cost to the Government, and provides for a supply adequate to any
possible demand.

To make this system a complete success requires the extensive
advertising of the existence of these publications, and to this end this
Department supplies each month to all persons desiring it a list of the
publications issued during the month previous. * By this means, and
through the intelligent courtesy of the press, our publications are widely
advertised. A second requirement is, in my opinion, that these pub-
lications should be sold at cost of paper, printing, and binding, the
cost of the first edition, which includes the making of the plates, being
properly defrayed by the Government. Another great convenience
would be afforded to intending purchasers if the Superintendent
of Documents were authorized to receive postage stamps as cash.
This is especially true where the sums involved amount to or include
fractions of a dollar.

DEMAND FOR PUBLICATIONS BY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.

A great many demands are being made upon us by educational insti-
tutions for publications of this Department to be used as text-books,
and as these demands usually involve supplying whole classes of stu-
dents with the same publication, the question promises to present some
difficulties. Heretofore I have made it a point to grant such requests,
but how long I can continue to do so gratuitously, in the face of
rapidly increasing demands of this character, is problematical. In
many cases, especially where there has been cooperation between State
institutions and this Department, the number desired is so great that
the parties themselves desire the privilege of purchasing hundreds,
and sometimes thousands, of copies.

Under the law regulating such matters the Public Printer is author-
ized to sell not more than 250 copies to any individual, and the appli-
cant must file his order before the publication goes to press. In the
cases I refer to, this number is generally inadequate, and moreover it
is impossible to comply with the condition. There is then left to the
institution or official desiring the publications the alternative of pur-
chasing the plates, with a view naturally to saving the cost of composi-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99

tion. Under the law no saving can be effected in this way. The Public
Printer is compelled to charge not only the cost of the metal in making
the plates, but also the original cost of composition. I would suggest
an amendment to the law, authorizing the Public Printer to supply
duplicate plates of Government publications at the cost of such dupli-
cation, with 10 per cent added for handling, to all applicants duly
indorsed by the head of the Department issuing the publication.

BUREAU OF STATISTICS.
SUMMARY OF THE WORK DURING THE YEAR.

The work of the Bureau of Statistics is performed in three divisions:
(1) The Division of Domestic Crop Reports, (2) the Division of Foreign
Markets, (3) the Miscellaneous Division.

As in former years, the principal work of the Bureau of Statistics
has been the collection and dissemination of information regarding the
acreage, condition, and yield of the principal agricultural crops of the
United States.

The Division of Domestic Crop Reports handles the great mass of
reports received from month to month by the Bureau for the use of
the Statistician and the Crop Reporting Board in preparing the esti-
mates of the Bureau.

The work accomplished in this Division is supplemented by reports
received from salaried State statistical agents, one of whom is located
in each State, and from special field agents who travel within and
throughout defined territory, consisting of two or more States, exam-
ining the crops in the field and securing information for the use of the
Bureau from all available sources, such as country bankers, agricul-
tural implement dealers, representative farmers, country merchants,
and others.

During the year the scope of this work has been very greatly
broadened, the increase being approximately 100 per cent. Twenty-
five crops not previously dealt with by the Bureau have been added,
concerning which reports of condition are made from month to month.
This has taxed the working capacity of the clerical force of the Bureau,
and has rendered it necessary that they be required to do considerable
work above and beyond the regular hours of service ordinarily required.

The special field service of the Bureau of Statistics, as well as the
corps of State statistical agents, has been considerably strengthened
and the work of these employees has been placed upon a uniform,
scientific basis, such as did not formerly prevail. The reports of the
Bureau and the methods employed in making them seem to have met
with general approval, and have largely increased the confidence of
producers, consumers, dealers, and the public generally in their
integrity and accuracy.

100 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In order to prevent the possibility of information regarding the
reports of the Bureau being prematurely given out, methods have been
adopted which render such leakages impossible. These are explained
and described in detail in the annual report of the Statistician of the
Bureau. The value of the monthly crop reports of this Bureau has
been so thoroughly established that any suggestion looking to their
curtailment meets with vigorous objection and opposition from all who
are interested in the promulgation of fair, unbiased estimates regard-
ing acreages, conditions, and yields of the products of agriculture.

The Division of Foreign Markets compiles information regarding
the imports and exports of all the different classes of farm products;
also of manufactured products as far as the output of packing houses
can be so denominated. The information thus gathered is published
annually in bulletins, to which wide circulation is given. In addition
to this regular work, studies are made of conditions in countries com-
peting with the United States in the world’s markets, with regard to
packing-house products and meat animals, and a large amount of
instructive matter has been collected and published.

Investigations have also been conducted by this Division of the
world’s meat trade; of the comparative healthfulness of meat animals
in different countries; of the situation throughout the world with regard
to cotton production; of the British market for dairy products and
its sources of supply; wheat growing in Russia; freight rates, and the
world’s production and trade in barley, rye, potatoes, wheat, tobacco,
cotton, and other agricultural products.

During the past year a very interesting study was consummated
upon the subject of the increase in farm values in the United States,
the results of which have been published in bulletins which have
attracted wide attention and interest.

In the Miscellaneous Division of the Bureau of Statistics, which
embraces the statistical library, the necessary translations incident to
the work are made; and a few clerks are engaged in special work,
such as the compiling and preparing of material to be used in answer-
ing inquiries for agricultural statistics made by Members of Congress
and others. The services of the clerks in this Division are called into
requisition in the tabulation and computation of the monthly crop
reports, or for any other purpose for which they may be required.

An employee of the Bureau of Statistics is stationed in London and
from that point makes trips to the different European countries, col-
lecting information regarding crop acreages, conditions, and yields,
which he sends to Washington each month for publication in the Crop
Reporter, a monthly publication of the Bureau, in which are given the
reports of the Bureau, placed in comparison with reports for previous
years at the corresponding dates, together with various other statis-

tical information of interest to farmers and dealers in and consumers of
farm products.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101

Much statistical work in the way of tabulation and computation
has been done for other Bureaus of the Department, and though the
regular work has been greatly increased through the enlargement of its
scope, all the statistical service required by other Bureaus has been
accomplished promptly and satisfactorily. The work of the Depart-
ment is being unified and made cooperative in many lines of research
and demonstration.

Investigations have been carried on through a series of years regard-
ing the cost of producing farm products, and results of these investi-
gations have been embodied in bulletins, which, it is believed, will be
of great value and interest.

THE LIBRARY.

The growth of the Library has exceeded that of any previous year,
so that at present the scientists of the Department have available for
their use a collection of scientific books, periodicals, and pamphlets
numbering over 92,000. All new publications of value relating to
general agriculture and to special subjects concerning which investi-
gations are being carried on by the Department have been purchased,
over 500 periodicals alone being received regularly. This Library is
gradually growing to be the most complete collection of agricultural
literature in the country. Many valuable purchases and gifts have
been included in the 5,000 additions of the past year. For the advance-
ment of work in connection with food and drug regulations, meat
inspection, and game protection an unusual amount has been expended
for law books and other works published in this country and abroad
relative to these subjects. Every new line of work entered upon by
the Department makes a correspondingly new demand upon the
Library.

CATALOGUING.

The card catalogue of 160,000 author and subject entries is the most
valuable key to the resources of the Library. The cataloguing has
been kept up to date, so that the material on a given subject is readily
available. Cooperation with the Library of Congress and with other
institutions which print cards has enabled the Library to secure a larger
number of printed cards for its catalogue than ever before. These
cards are not only for books and pamphlets of its own, but many show
what may be found on subjects of interest to this Department in other
departmental libraries. By this means the scope of the catalogue is
largely increased at the least cost of time and money.

The cataloguing of the publications of the Department has progressed
from year to year until now there isa card catalogue to these documents
up to the latest bulletin issued. These cards are valued by all libraries
receiving our publications regularly, affording as they do the only

102 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

up-to-date means of reference to all authors and subjects of the publi-
cations. On account of the increasing demands for this catalogue and
of the lack of space in the library for handling and storing the cards, it
has been found advisable to transfer the printing and distribution of
cards to the Library of Congress. This cooperation has given satis-
factory results in the advancement of the work.

Not only is the Library indispensable in connection with the work of
the Department, but much work has been done in it by visiting spe-
cialists, and to many agricultural colleges and experiment stations
temporary loans of publications not elsewhere to be found in the
country have been made.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. :

The great value of the agricultural experiment stations as agencies
for the advancement of agriculture through scientific research was
recognized by Congress in a signal manner during the past year by
the passage of the Adams Act. This measure, introduced and cham-
pioned by the late Hon. Henry Cullen Adams, of Wisconsin, had the
unanimous approval of the committees on agriculture in both Houses,
passed in Congress without a dissenting vote, and received the
approval of the President March 16,1906. It provides that each State
and Territory shall annually receive from the National Treasury a
grant of money in addition to that given for the establishment and main-
tenance of agricultural experiment stations by the act of March 2,
1887 (Hatch Act). The initial appropriation to each State under the
Adams Act is $5,000 for the fiscal year 1906. To this amount $2,000
is to be added each year for five years, after which an appropriation
of $15,000 is to continue annually. Thus in 1911 and each year there-
after each State will receive $30,000, double the amount hitherto
granted under the Hatch Act. The new act recognizes the fact that
through previous National and State legislation the stations are
thoroughly organized, are equipped with lands and buildings, and have
funds for the printing and distribution of publications.

The extension and strengthening of the experimental work of the
stations is therefore made the sole object of the Adams Act, and the
additional funds are ‘‘to be applied only to paying the necessary
expenses of conducting original researches or experiments bearing
directly on the agricultural industry of the United States.” The
Adams fund is thus essentially a research fund, and if properly used
should produce results of the greatest and most permanent value to
American agriculture. The State experiment stations have already
performed service of great value. They have done much to secure
radical and widespread improvements in agricultural practice; they
have contributed in large measure to the creation of a new American

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103

literature of agriculture and made it available to every farmer; they
have collected much of the material from which a science of agricul-
ture is being formulated as the basis for the instruction of successive
generations of farmers in colleges, schools, and farmers’ institutes.
As their work has developed, it has naturally divided itself into several
broad classes, which may be briefly summarized as (1) original research;
(2) verification and demonstration experiments, often of a local char-
acter and import; (3) inspection service; and (4) dissemination of infor-
mation. So great has been the local pressure for work of the last
three classes that by far the greatest share of the National and State
funds has been spent in these lines. The Adams fund now comes in
to enable the stations to broaden and deepen their original researches,
on the results of which largely depends the success of their other work.

Previous to the passage of the Adams Act the funds of the stations
from sources within the States had steadily increased, until in 1905
they -exceeded the revenue derived from the National Treasury.
There is every reason to believe that the States and local communities
will continue to deal liberally with the stations, and that thus they
will be able to extend their more popular and directly practical work.
The United States will thus have a much more thorough and compre-
hensive system of agricultural experiment stations.

Congress having put in my hands the administration of the Adams
Act, I have assigned to the Office of Experiment Stations the duty of
dealing with the experiment stations in matters relating to this act.

The untimely death of Mr. Adams has taken away one of the fore-
most leaders in the cause of agricultural progress in this country.
His clear insight into agricultural problems and needs, his thorough
sympathy with farmers, his appreciation of the benefits accruing to
agriculture from the work of properly trained scientists, his independ-
ence of thought and action, his fearless advocacy of measures which
he deemed of importance to agriculture, his experience in public life
both as an administrator and as a legislator, his thorough honesty,
which won the respect and confidence even of those who opposed him,
put him ina position to render the highest and best service in National
councils and legislation. In consideration of the important social and
economic changes which our rural communities are passing through
in these days, as well as of the vast material interests involved in our
agriculture, the loss of such a leader is most keenly felt. Great, how-
ever, was his achievement in the short period in which he was a mem-
ber of Congress, for the name of Representative Adams, of Wisconsin,
will ever be linked with that of Senator Morrill, of Vermont, and Rep-
resentative Hatch, of Missouri, as the author of a measure of funda-
mental and permanent importance to the institutions which advance
and disseminate the knowledge on which our agricultural progress
and permanent prosperity largely depend.

104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.

‘In response to demands from numerous sources:the work of the
Department relating to agricultural education has been gradually
broadened, until now it touches nearly every phase of the subject.
This Department, through the Office of Experiment Stations, has been
active in aiding the establishment of agricultural high schools and the
introduction of agricultural subjects into the curricula of the public
schools. Representatives of that Office have addressed important edu-
cational and agricultural meetings in the interests of agricultural
education in a number of States, have given advice regarding legisla-
tion and courses of study, and have assisted in the inauguration of
agricultural instruction and the securing of agricultural teachers in
different localities. The agricultural colleges have been visited and
conferences have been held with their officers and teachers. A special
study has been made of the agricultural work in the colleges for
negroes.

The general interests of higher education in agriculture have been
promoted through cooperation with the Association of American Agri-
cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. As chairman of the stand-
ing committee on agricultural instruction, the Director of that Office
has aided in studies with reference to the improvement of courses of
instruction in the agricultural colleges and schools. He has also acted
as dean of the Graduate School of Agriculture, which held a second
successful session at the University of Lilinois the past summer. The
faculty of this school consisted of 35 of our leading agricultural teach-
ers and experts from this Department and the agricultural colleges
and experiment stations. The students, drawn from 34 States and
Territories, were mainly the younger men already engaged in agri-
cultural teaching and experimenting.

With the development of the Department’s work along educational
lines it has become clear that it may accomplish important and valua-
ble service as a central agency for the promotion of agricultural edu-
cation in cooperation with the State departments of agriculture and
education, the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and the
State and National agricultural organizations. The most important
lines of educational effort in which the Department should engage
may be briefly outlined as follows:

(1) To aid the agricultural colleges to reduce the results of the
investigations made by this Department and the experiment stations
to pedagogical form for use in agricultural colleges and schools of dif-
ferent grades. This work is now proceeding too slowly to keep pace
with the accumulation of material, and the lack of well-ordered
manuals and illustrative materials is a great hindrance to the effective
organization of agricultural instruction.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105

(2) To promote the efficiency of agricultural instruction in the negro
land-grant colleges, in order that the funds granted for negro education
by the Federal Government may contribute toward keeping the negro
on the farm and making him a more efficient factor in agricultural pro-
duction for his own good and that of the nation, rather than, as is
largely the case at present, drawing him away from the farm into the
uncertainties and dangers of city life.

(3) To aid the agricultural organizations in the several States in
promoting an efficient organization of agricultural high schools, con-
solidated common schools, and other educational agencies best adapted
to secure a high state of prosperity and contentment in rural life. It
is along these lines that the great educational effort of the immediate
future is to be made. The forces behind the movement for industrial
education have hitherto devoted themselves very largely to the pro-
motion of instruction in the city industries. It is now apparent that
a similar work needs to be done for the great fundamental industries
grouped under agriculture. Much work will be required to bring the
masses of our agricultural population into sympathetic touch with the
progressive movement in education and to secure for them a school
system in harmony with their environment and their relations to the
world’s work and civilization. As the nation’s representative of agri-
cultural enlightenment and progress, this Department should be in a
position to render effective aid in this enterprise, on the success of
which depends so largely the permanent prosperity and contentment
of our agricultural people.

(4) Since the success of agricultural instruction in the public schools
will depend very largely on the teachers, this Department should aid
the agricultural colleges and other State educational institutions in
preparing and inaugurating training courses for teachers of agricul-
ture in secondary and elementary schools.

(5) Since agriculture as a fundamental industry is of vital impor-
tance to all our people, this Department should present such results
of its work and that of the experiment stations at home and abroad as
are adapted to instructional purposes in connection with nature study
and elementary agriculture in a form available to teachers and pupils
in both country and city, the object being to impress our youth with
the dignity, value, and attractiveness of country life and pursuits.

THE FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

Interest in the farmers’ institutes continues to increase throughout
the country, and a larger attendance is reported for the past year than
ever before. The Department is keeping in close touch with the
State organizations under which the institutes are held, and is especially
aiding the lecturers to obtain up-to-date information regarding the

106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

progress made in agricultural science and practice. In many locali-
ties there is a demand for more extended and definite instruction than
can be given in the ordinary institutes. The Department is therefore
having short courses of lectures prepared by experts, which may be
used in so-called movable agricultural schools. Inquiry is also being
made regarding the value of various other means more or less exten-
sively used for interesting farmers and their families in improved prac-
tice on their farms and in their households. Representatives of the
Department have accompanied the special railroad trains which have
carried exhibits and lecturers to thousands of farmers in many parts
of the country, proving a popular and effective means of awak-
ening interest in the work of the Department and the experiment
stations. The farmers’ institutes and other forms of what is often
called extension work in agricultural education are very important
supplements to the publications of the Department and the stations,
as well as to the regular work of the agricultural colleges and schools.
The Department should share in this extension work and seek to pro-
mote its general interests.

EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN ALASKA, HAWAII, AND PORTO RICO.

A systematic effort has been begun to determine the feasibility of
the live-stock industry in Alaska. A small herd of Galloway cattle
has been purchased and located at Kenai, in Cook Inlet, and at Wood
Island. These cattle have subsisted during the summer upon the
native grasses, and a considerable supply of grain hay has been grown
at the Kenai Station with which to maintain them during the winter.
Wheat, rye, barley,and oats matured in 1905 and 1906 at the Rampart
Station inthe Yukon Valley, but 300 miles farther south, in the Copper
River Valley, cold and drought killed all but the hardiest varieties of
cereals. A large amount of grain hay was obtained at the Copper
Center Station and sold at a highly remunerative price. It has been
shown that many of the Alaskan soils require lime, and a method has
therefore been devised for the cheap local production of lime in small
quantities. Arrangements have been made to open a station near the
prosperous mining towns of Fairbanks and Chena, on the Tanana
River, as soon as funds are available for this purpose.

The Hawaii Station reports an increasing appreciation of its efforts
toward diversifying the agricultural industries of the islands, and as
a direct result of three years’ experimental work with tobacco it is
said that this year fully 200 acres were planted. The discovery by
the station chemist that Hawaiian feeding stuffs are deficient in lime
is an important one, and will make it possible to arrange more satis-
factory rations for live stock. The investigations on the marketing
of tropical fruits promise to open markets in the Pacific coast, which
can best be supplied from Hawaii. Investigations begun with the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107

object of rehabilitating the rice industry have been so favorably
received that private individuals have generously contributed consid-
erable sums of money to aid in carrying them on.

The Porto Rico station is extending its influence, and requests for
cooperative work are coming from numerous sources. While the
income of the station has been too limited to enable it to meet these
demands, yet they show a growing sentiment in favor of the station
which is very encouraging. The coffee experiments have begun to
show results, and the improved methods of pruning and cultivation are
quite apparent in the increased yields obtained. A successful effort
is being made to grow lowland rice, and this industry should be greatly
extended. The Porto Ricans are large consumers of rice, most of
which is now imported. Among the forage crops experiments with
cowpeas have been most successful, and it is believed that they can
be grown throughout the island. Numerous horticultural experiments
are in progress, and studies are being made of insect pests and plant
diseases. .

The work of the stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico is now
so well established that they can profitably make use of increased
funds. Considering the fact that all buildings, equipment, and live
stock must be provided for these stations from the Federal funds, there
is even greater need of more liberal appropriations for their mainte-
nance than in the case of the State experiment stations. I therefore
recommend that an appropriation be given to the stations in Alaska,
Hawaii, and Porto Rico equal to the amount given the State stations
under the Hatch and Adams acts.

PROGRESS IN NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS.

The investigations on the food and nutrition of man, conducted in
different States and Territories under the auspices of the Office of
Experiment Stations, have, as in the past, been carried on in coopera-
tion with universities and other schools, as well as public institutions,
but chiefly with agricultural experiment stations and agricultural col-
leges. By this cooperation the Department funds have been materi-
ally supplemented in various ways and the scope and possibilities of
_ the work greatly increased. The chief object of the investigations is
to learn the nutritive value of agricultural products of animal and
vegetable origin and the proportions in which such food materials of
different kinds may be most intelligently used to the advantage of
both producer and consumer. The general policy has been to under-
take, in the different centers of investigation, work for which the
institution or region offered exceptional facilities. Thus, at the Cali-
fornia Agricultural Experiment Station studies have been undertaken
with fruits and nuts and the products made from them; at the Minne-
sota and Maine experiment stations with wheat, corn, and other cereal
foods; at the University of Tennessee with cowpeas and other legumes;

108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., with cheese made
and cured in different ways. New experiments have been undertaken
whenever the finishing up of any line of work has rendered this pos-
sible, and it has been the purpose to select for study especially those
problems which have a direct bearing upon agriculture.

The experiments which have been conducted at the California Agri-
cultural Experiment Station have furnished additional evidence of the
considerable amount of nutritive material which may be supplied in
readily digestible form by fruits and nuts intelligently used as part
of the diet. It appears further that fruits and nuts are more useful
when eaten in combination with other food materials than in large
quantities by themselves or at the end of an otherwise hearty meal.

The studies of cereal breakfast foods undertaken at the Maine and
Minnesota experiment stations have shown that different classes of
goods made from the same grain do not differ materially in nutritive
value though there is a considerable range in price. As a whole,
cereal breakfast foods are nutritious and reasonably economical. As
regards digestibility they closely resemble bread made from the coarser
flours and are somewhat less thoroughly assimilated than bread made
from white flour. It has also been shown that flour products other
than bread closely resemble bread in digestibility and total nutritive
value.

From studies with corn products, undertaken at the Maine Experi-
ment Station, it appears that corn bread of different sorts has about the
same digestibility as bread made from coarse wheat flour, and that it
is well worthy of a place in the diet as a reasonably inexpensive source
of nutritive material, as well as for the sake of variety.

The studies of different methods of cooking meat carried on at the
University of Illinois have shown that it is possible to control cooking
processes so that a fairly uniform product may be obtained when simi-
lar cuts of meat are cooked by either boiling or roasting. As a whole,
meats of different kinds and cuts supply nutritive material, particu-
larly protein and fat, in forms which are very well assimilated.

Investigations on the digestibility and nutritive value of cheese
carried on at Middletown, Conn., have shown that cheese (American
cheddar) is very thoroughly assimilated and is not productive of diges-
tive disturbances as commonly supposed. When desired it may be
used in comparatively large quantities as an inexpensive source of
protein and energy in the diet. Cheese, being rich in protein and fat,
should be combined with cereal foods, fruits, and similar products,
which supply an abundance of carbohydrates, and when eaten in con-
siderable quantities should replace rather than supplement such
nitrogenous foods as meat, eggs, and dried legumes. The experiments
furnish the first extensive demonstration by scientific methods of the
high nutritive vaiue of this important dairy product. The great

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109

importance of cheese as a source of protein has not been hitherto ap-
preciated and in a sense its commercial value asa food has lacked
satisfactory basis.

The investigations carried on with the respiration calorimeter at
Middletown, Conn., have furnished new and valuable factors regard-
ing the average amount of energy in the form of food required by men
at rest and performing various kinds of work, the carbon dioxid and
energy output at different times of the day under different conditions
of work and rest, and related topics.

The investigations undertaken at the Hawaii Agricultural Experi-
ment Station have furnished interesting data regarding the nutritive
value of tropical food products and the kinds and amounts of food
consumed by persons living under different circumstances in tropical
regions.

At Columbia University, New York, the investigations which have
been undertaken furnish new and valuable data regarding the demands
of the body for the ash constituents of food.

The results of the nutrition investigations are made public by means
of technical bulletins and popular summaries, and a great deal of mis-
cellaneous information is also supplied to teachers, students, and other
persons by means of correspondence, the increasing demand for pub-
lications and other data being an indication of the favorable way in
which the work is regarded by the people at large.

Extended use has been made of: the nutrition publications as text-
books in a large number of schools, colleg2s, and medical schools
throughout the country, owing to the fact that satisfactory text-books
on these subjects have not hitherto been available. In this connection
it may be mentioned that there are 45 agricultural colleges or similar
institutions receiving Government aid for white students, and an equal
number for colored people, where some of the courses of instruction
necessitate the use of such data.

The proper economical feeding of families or groups—that is, the
best methods of utilizing the food products which come from the
farm—is a subject the importance of which can hardly be overesti-
mated, and a knowledge of the important facts regarding the nutri-
tive value of different foods can not fail to bring about improved
standards of living on farms and elsewhere and benefit alike the pro-
ducer, the distributer, and the consumer of food products.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.

Three years ago the Office of Experiment Stations detailed some of
its irrigation experts to work out and introduce the right methods of
irrigation in some of the older districts where water is scarce and
costly and where skill and economy in its use are of the utmost impor-
tance, and also took up giving practical advice to beginners in irriga-
tion in sections where irrigation was being introduced. The conditions

110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

under which these men worked therefore were widely different, but
the results have been the same in each case. Wherever this educa-
tional work was begun there has been a marked appreciation of its
value. Each one of these men has become a fixture in the State and
section where he was first located. Every attempt to send him toa
different section to take up this work has been met by protests and
- remonstrances which could not be disregarded. The result has been
that requests for similar work in other localities made by Members of
Congress, governors, and communities could not be responded to,
although the value of the work and the reasonableness of the requests
were fully appreciated. To meet these demands the number of men
engaged in this work should be increased during the coming year.

Thus far this work has been carried on entirely in aid of settlers
under private works, but it is believed that the time has come when
this Department should take up the work of educating and aiding set-
tlers under Government reclamation projects, and that experts should
be detailed to these projects to show the methods of applying water
which should be adopted, the kind of tools to be used, the time when
land should be irrigated, the quantity of water which should be used,
and the cultivation which should follow this use.

The experience of the past few years has also shown that this edu-
cational work and the successful conduct of original investigations can
both be best carried on through the establishment of farms where the
best methods can be worked out and illustrated and their results dem-
onstrated. While bull>tins and reports are of great value, they are
not equal to an object lesson. Nothing will teach these farmers how
they should do their work so quickly as to be able to see fields pre-
pared in the right way, water handled in the right way, and the soil
cultivated in the right manner. I believe therefore that on each
reclamation area a demonstration farm should be established, on which
the methods of irrigation can be taught by a practical expert from
this Department, and trust that provision will be made for this by
the next Congress.

Five irrigation extension stations for the demonstration of methods
of using groundwater and flood and storm waters in irrigation as sup-
plementary to dry farming have been located in the semiarid belt dur-
ing the past year. At these stations it is expected to work out and
demonstrate the methods and practices for utilizing limited water sup-
plies in the irrigation of from 1 to 10 acres of land, and the meth-
ods of irrigation and tillage needed to conserve this moisture in the
soil, and the benefits which will come by making such irrigation a fea-
ture of every semiarid farm. ‘This work has assumed a new impor-
tance because of the great wave of settlement which is now sweeping
over this region.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A}

A number of influences, some of them proper and some questiona-
ble, are aiding in this settlement. Among those that are legitimate
are the greater possibilities due to the introduction of drought-resist-
ant crops, the improved methods of tillage, and the series of wet
years with which that section has been favored. But there will come
other dry years, and the permanent prosperity of these settlers will
largely depend upon their having fortified themselves against the risk
of drought by utilizing every opportunity for a water supply that the
region affords. Nothing will aid more to enhance their comfort or
relieve them from the danger of dry years than to have from 1 to 10
acres of land irrigated where crops can be grown regardless of the
rainfall. Provision for such irrigation will enable the farmer to grow
trees for fruit and shade, haye a limited area of high-priced products,
enough vegetables for his family, and forage for his cows and horses.
It will also enable him to make the surroundings of his homestead
attractive, thus adding to the comfort and contentment of country
life in these regions.

That the demonstration farm is an effective influence in promoting
the extension of this kind of irrigation has been proven by the results
of the oldest of these stations, located at Cheyenne, Wyo. This sta-
tion, through the utilization of underground waters lifted by windmills,
has produced crops equaling those of the old irrigated districts. It
has shown the extent and value of water resources hitherto neglected.
The station was visited during the year by fully 5,000 people, and its
methods and results observed and described in a large number of sci-
entific newspapers and magazines, as well as in the local press of that
region. It has encouraged a large number of farmers to conserve and
utilize water supplies which were hitherto going to waste, and the
year’s results are considered as marking the beginning of a new era of
agriculture in that section.

In many parts of the arid and semiarid region water for irrigation
can be secured only by pumping. The Department has a constant
call for information as to the cost of such irrigation and the types of
pumps and the kind of power which should be used. We have col-
lected a large amount of information on these‘subjects, which is now
being prepared for publication, and recently have inaugurated some
comprehensive tests to determine the value of alcohol as a power agent
in pumping water for irrigation and drainage, and in other agricul-
tural work, with a view to giving practical information to farmers
about the value of denatured alcohol as compared to gasoline, and
the conditions under which it should be used to secure the maximum
efficiency.

Every year the area of irrigated land that needs drainage is
increased, which proves that irrigation and drainage must go hand in
hand. During the past year the Department has been carrying on

sil be YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

extended drainage investigations of some of the irrigated districts
injured by surplus water in Utah, Washington, Nebraska, and Cali-
fornia, this work been paid for in part by State appropriations. These
investigations have been carried on as a preliminary step in the prep-
aration of drainage plans.

The past year has also demonstrated the benefits of good engineering
in securing the efficiency of drainage as a remedy for alkali. The
drains put in by the farmers of Utah on lands which were regarded
as ruined by alkali have so relieved the lands in a single year that
they are now ready for cultivation, and land drained three years ago
according to plans prepared by the engineers of this Department, this
year produced $75 worth of sugar beets to the acre. Equally encour-
aging results on a larger scale have followed the carrying out of the
plans of the Department’s engineers in the State of Washington.

The drainage of the swamp overflowed.lands in the humid parts of
the United States would extend or greatly improve agriculture over
an area almost equal to that of the States of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
This makes farm drainage a matter of National interest and importance.
Nor will the increase in agriculture mark the full measure of the bene-
fits of this drainage. Many of these swamps are a menace to the
health of surrounding neighborhoods and a great obstacle to the devel-
opment of commerce and manufacturing. The reclamation of some of
these areas, like the coastal swamps of the Carolinas, the Everglades
of Florida, and the St. Francis Basin in Arkansas, presents agricul-
tural and engineering problems of great complexity, which can not
be solved by private enterprise; the cost and the area of country
involved are both too great. Asa rule agricultural drainage requires
special legislation to provide for the organization of the district to be
benefited and the raising and expenditure of funds under public or
semipublic authority. The general interest manifested in drainage
in this country, with the large amount of work done at present, has
given rise to many important questions, legislative, financial, engineer-
ing, and agricultural. The calls on the Department along these lines
have been far greater than could be met. During the past year it has
rendered important aid by conferences with State officials and others
in making surveys and investigations to determine the feasibility of
large drainage projects and prepare plans for the work. During the
year this Department has carried on these surveys and investigations
in thirty-one of the forty-six States.

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS.

Throughout the country, and more particularly in the rural districts,
there is a steadily growing demand for information as to the best
methods of road construction. Considering the country as a whole,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 113

it is probably true that in no phase of development are we so back-
ward as in the extension of hard and durable roads. In the cases in
which the people are willing to expend money on the improvement of
their highways, it frequently happens that, owing to inexperience
and lack of organization, the money is partially or totally wasted. In
some communities abundantly able to support a system of good roads,
very little work is done, owing to a lack of knowledge of what can be
accomplished with the resources at hand. It is precisely in cases like
these that the work of the Office of Public Roads is proving of signal
yalue. While it is no part of the scope of its work to undertake the
construction of roads that can be and should be the care of communi-
ties within the States, the educational value of employing expert
supervision, as well as, to a limited extent, machinery for the con-
struction of sections of improved roads in different parts of the coun-
try, has been amply demonstrated.

The act of Congress making appropriation for the Office of Public
Roads makes three distinct requirements in relation to the work to be
performed, viz, to investigate systems of road administration through-
out the United States, to give expert advice on road construction, and
to investigate the chemical and physical properties of road materials.
During the past year the work of the Office has been arranged in three
general divisions along the lines indicated.

The Office is also collecting information as to comparative cost of
road work, methods of building various types of roads, State-aid
roads, legislation regarding road management, the value of wide tires,
the use of convict labor in road building, cost of wagon transportation,
and bond issues for road improvement. Numerous inquiries are
received asking for information on the subject of the road laws of the
various States, and a complete digest of the road laws of all the States
is being prepared for publication.

EXPERT ADVICE ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION.

Expert advice on road construction has been given and experi-
mental field work carried on by the Office. There were employed on
this work at the close of the fiscal year, in addition to the chief
engineer, 3 engineers, 1 consulting engineer, 6 engineer students,
6 road experts, and 5 expert roller operators. Whenever it is pos-
sible and where application has been made in the proper way, object-
lesson roads are constructed for the purpose of illustrating the best
methods of road building. The local authorities furnish all material,
common labor, teams, and fuel, the Office supplying supervising engi-
neers and in some cases part or all of the necessary machinery. In
addition to this, tests are made to determine the best material

3 Aa1906——8

114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

available for the road. It frequently happens that these short sec-
tions of object-lesson roads have subsequently led to the construction
of fine systems of improved roads in the localities in which they were
built. During the past fiscal year 17 roads were built in11 States, rep-
resenting a wide diversity in character of construction and kinds of
material used.

In many cases in which it is not deemed advisable to undertake the
construction of an object-lesson road, engineers and experts of the
Office are able to give advice that enables local authorities to improve
the conditions and surmount difficulties. It is evident that where
only small amounts of money are available for road improvement it is
frequently better to improve the highways already existing than to
attempt the construction of macadam roads. Special attention has
been given to this phase of the work and the Office has been able to do
much in developing the use of sand clay and burnt clay for roads in
large areas of country, especially in the South, where no stone is
available.

In order to give expert advice on special problems which are con-
tinually arising in road construction and maintenance, it is necessary
to carry on experimental work. During the past year methods of
rendering roads dustless have been investigated. The growing use of
motor vehicles has presented a new and difficult problem to engineers
and road builders. Systematic experiments were carried on at Jack-
son, Tenn., during che spring and summer of 1905, in cooperation with
the city engineer, to determine the value of coal tar for preventing dust
and preserving the surface of macadam roads. Tests were also made
with Texas oil and its residuums on earth and macadam roads. The
expense entailed in these experiments was small. The quantity of tar
applied per square yard averaged 0.45 gallon and the cost of labor for
applying this quantity of tar was less than 1 cent per square yard.
After more than seven months, including the winter season of 1905-6,
the tarred roads are still in excellent condition.

Additional experiments were conducted during the summer of 1906
on the Potomac River drive in Washington, D. C., in cooperation
with the Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds. Crude coal tar
similar to that used at Jackson, Tenn., was used in this work. These
experiments have been completed but a short time. The great demand
which exists all over the country for some sort of treatment of road
surfaces to suppress the growing dust nuisance has developed a num-
ber of materials which it is claimed will answer the purpose. Many
of these materials, which are mainly emulsions of oil and tar with
water, have been given trade names and patented. It is to be hoped
that careful experiment will show that some material like crude coal
tar, which can be obtained and easily applied wherever there is a gas
plant, will prove to be efficient if properly used. It may be said that

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115

a large number of trials of crude tar in France and a few in this coun-
try, notably the one at Jackson, Tenn., have given excellent results.
In other cases partial or entire failure has followed the experiments,
and it yet remains to be determined whether the successful use of
materials of this nature can be developed. The Office will make
unremitting efforts to solve this problem by such experiments as can
be carried on in different parts of the country in cooperation with
local authorities.

In order to recruit the ranks of engineers that are necessary to the
success of the work of the Office, the plan was adopted of appointing
graduates from civil engineering schools to the positions of civil engi-
neer students, as fully explained in the annual report of the Office of
Public Roads for 1905. Up to June 30, 1906, nine students had been
appointed, at $600 per annum. Of this number three have been given
permanent appointments at increased salaries. The other six have not
yet completed the one-year course.

A number of schools and colleges have within recent years estab-
lished summer schools in road building.

INVESTIGATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF ROAD MATERIALS,

During the past year 384 samples were received at the laboratory
for routine tests, of which number 273 were samples of rock, intended
for macadam road building. Of the 273 samples, about 42 per
cent were limestone, 11 per cent dolomite, 10 per cent trap, 8 per
cent sandstone, and 8 per cent granite. The remaining samples were
of a miscellaneous character, including brick, cements, and sand.
Some of this testing work is done in cooperation with various Depart-
ments of the Government. A comparison of the demand for tests
with the records of previous years shows that it has increased about
33 per cent.

A significant fact, in connection with the laboratory work, is that a
very large number of samples have come from the Eastern and Mid-
dle States, which have not received much assistance in the form of
object-lesson roads. This tends to distribute uniformly the benefit
arising from the work of the Office.

There is a growing amount of cooperation between the various State
geologists and the Office in the preparation of data showing the
character of material suitable for road work in the different States.
From one State alone more than 80 samples have been tested. The
information thus secured has been used in a bulletin, recently prepared
and published by the geologist in charge, on the road-building
resources of this State. Chemical and physical examinations have
included practically all materials which directly or indirectly come
into use in road construction.

116 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The studies of decomposition of various kinds of rock dusts under
the action of water, which were undertaken in order to determine
the reasons for the important quality of binding power in macadam-
road materials, have brought to light some specially interesting facts.
For instance, it has been found that. by mixing certain rocks of
inferior binding power on the surface of the road a much higher bind-
ing power results, as in the case of limestone and granite. As the
binding or cementing power of rocks is one of the chief factors in the
life of a road, the value of this discovery is of obvious importance.
These results, originally obtained in the laboratory, have been con-
firmed by observation and experiment on roads. In the course of this
investigation it was found that the decomposing action of water on
certain types of ground rocks went much further than had been pre-
viously believed to be the case. This applies to the alkalies, and
especially the potash, contained in many rocks. The results have sug-
gested the possible use of ground rock as a potash fertilizer. Work
along this line has now been turned over to another Bureau of the
Department, where it can be appropriately followed up and carefully
investigated.

Owing to the numerous complaints of farmers in regard to the rapid
deterioration of the modern fence wire in comparison with that manu-
factured in former years, an investigation of the subject was begun to
see what could be done to remedy the defect. Farmers’ Bulletin 239
contains a report of this investigation, which has aroused the interest
of manufacturers and has determined some of them to take active
steps toward producing a fence wire more resistant to atmospheric
corrosion.

The scarcity of timber in many sections of the country, not only for
construction work, but for fence posts, has in recent years led to a
more general use of concrete. This material is admirably adapted for
farm purposes, but there seems to be a general lack of knowledge con-
cerning its preparation and use. After a series of tests and investi-
gations, Farmers’ Bulletin 235 was issued, giving full information
concerning cement, cement mortar, the mixing of concretes, and the
construction of concrete sidewalks, driveways, fence posts, etc. A
number of persons throughout the country who claim to have obtained
special patents on concrete fence posts have attempted to prevent
farmers from constructing their own posts by threats of prosecution
for infringement. In view of the fact that concrete construction of
all kinds reenforced with plain, straight, metal strips, bars, and tubes
has been in general use in all countries for many years, the claims of
such persons are usually without warrant. The Office has been enabled
to be of great service to farmers by making it clear to them that, unless
special forms and devices of reenforeement were employed which were

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 117

distinctly patentable, no rights were infringed by the use of concrete
with plain metal reenforcement.

Before being assigned to work in the field the engineer students
employed in the Office receive a course of instruction in the testing
laboratory. This work consists in actually making the various tests
of road materials and computing results. The information thus
obtained is considered necessary in connection with the selection of
the best materials for road construction before a thorough understand-
ing of the relations which exist between laboratory tests and the
behavior of these materials under traffic can be gained.

A number of new projects and lines of investigation have been
mapped out for the immediate future.

Outside of the laboratory a study of road machinery will be under-
taken to determine the suitability of various types for different kinds
of road work.

Cooperation will be sought with the Geological Survey for the pur-
pose of indicating the various classes of roads on topographic maps
issued by the Survey. Cooperation has been begun with the Forest
Service in laying out and constructing wagon roads and trails in forest
reserves to facilitate lumbering. As a beginning one engineer has been
detailed to this work and has been some months in the Yellowstone
Reserve. ‘The field report indicates that much good will follow the pre-
liminary survey which has been made.

Cooperation with the Post-Office Department has been begun in
order to facilitate rural delivery by the improvement of country roads.
This work is of vital importance. The plan, which carries the approval
of the Secretary of Agriculture and the Postmaster-General, provides
that whenever a road upon which a rural route has been or is about
to be established is reported by the carrier or inspector to be impassable
or in bad repair, the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General will advise
the Director of the Office of Public Roads of the fact and request that
he have an engineer inspector detailed to examine the road and-give
such advice and instruction to the local officials as may be required.

Upon receipt of such information from the Fourth Assistant Post-
master-General, the Director of the Office of Public Roads will com-
municate with the local officials and supply them with a copy of the
circular of instructions and a blank form for making application for
the detail of such engineer inspector. It is not the purpose of the
Office of Public Roads to actually construct the road or to make any
contribution in money, materials, or labor. In most. cases a road is
impassable on account of defects which can be remedied by the use of
proper methods. The engineer inspector who examines the road will
note carefully all such defects and advise as to what steps can be taken
to place the road in proper condition without great expense. If prac-

118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ticable, and if so desired, he may in some cases assume iene y
Ten of the work for the purpose of instruction.

As the chief aim and purpose of the Office of Public Roads is to bring
about a general and uniform improvement of the country roads through-
out the United States, a cooperative plan:such as the one described
above offers the best possible means of achieving positive results in
furtherance of that purpose. By this means correct methods of road
building and road maintenance will be introduced into practically every
section of the country. The engineer inspectors assigned to this work
will, in visiting places which have requested assistance of this charac-
ter, follow an itinerary which will include a number of places in a
given territory. This will greatly minimize the expense of each
inspection and permit the inspector to cover a much larger territory
than would be possible in a special assignment to each place. A begin-
ning has been made during the current fiscal year, and efforts will be
made to increase the scope of the work in the future.

EXPENDITURES AND EMPLOYEES.

Congress appropriated $7,175,690 for the maintenance of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the year ended June 30,1906. This was
$1,081,150 more than the appropriation for the preceding year. In
addition the Department received from various sources, chiefly sales
of products, $15,473.45. At the close of the year there was still
unexpended, of the appropriation, $1,175,362.15, nearly all of which
will be required to meet outstanding obligations. The unexpended
balance for the year 1904 ($55,712.37) was, on June 30, 1906, covered
into the Treasury. The account for 1905 was still open. Of the
special appropriations aggregating $1,250,000 for new buildings,
$642,107.25 had been expended prior to September 10, 1906.

For the current year (ending June 30, 1907) Congress appropriated
$9,210,440 for the regular work of the Department. The increase is
chiefly due to the broadening of the meat inspection. For that service
the permanent appropriation is $3,000,000. The estimated revenues
of $700,000 from sales of products of the forest reserves and $780,934.68
available for the new buildings bring the total amount to be disbursed
by this Department during the current year up to $10,691,374. 68.

The number of persons on the rolls of the Department of Agricul-
ture on July 1, 1906, was, outside of Washington, 4,648; in Washing-
ton, 1,594; total, 6,242, showing an increase during the year of 796.
Of the total number, more than 1,800 have been on the rolls for six
years or longer. In the classified service 917 were promoted in salary
and class, and 403 resigned. The total number of deaths during the
year was 28,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 119

NEW BUILDING FOR THE DEPARTMENT.

The act approved February 9, 1903, authorizing an appropriation of
$1,500,000 for a new building, made possible the beginning of the
construction of suitable quarters for the accommodation of the Depart-
ment’s work.

It was very necessary in the new building operations to make
arrangements for future requirements, and with this in mind, together
with the imperative need for suitable laboratories to carry on the
important investigations of the various Bureaus, it was concluded to
erect two segments of a building, so arranged that extensions could be
provided as required, these segments to be used primarily for labora-
tory work and to provide fireproof accommodations for the Library.
Contracts have been awarded for structures of suitable type and
design to correspond with other Government buildings in the city, the
base being constructed of granite and the superstructure of white
marble.

The work has now progressed, with the exception of the interior
finish, to approximately the fourth-floor line, and it is probable that
the roof will be on before the winter season. The roofing and closing
in will allow the interior work to be carried on during the winter
without interruption, which, without unforeseen complications, will
insure the completion of operations within the contract time, namely,
November 14, 1907, and within the $1,500,000 authorized by Con-
gress. The mechanical equipment work, including the heating and
ventilating apparatus, the electric wiring and conduit systems, and
the electric elevators, has been started, and these systems will be
ready for use at the time of the completion of the buildings.

The estimated growth of the Department, made at the time the
appropriation for the new building was approved, has been greatly
exceeded. Statistics show that there has been during this period of
approximately three and one-half years, exclusive of the Weather
Bureau, an increase in the number of employees of from 1,037 to 1,483
in Washington, D. C., making a percentage increase of 438. Further,
the space required by this force of employees has increased from 137,963
square feet to approximately 264,000, this being a 99 per cent
increase, and the rentals paid from the Department appropriation
have increased from $21,700 to $54,408.96, or over 150 per cent.

This rapid increase will require other segments of the proposed
buildings to be constructed before the Department will have sufficient
and suitable accommodations for its work and before the large amount
paid annually for rentals can be substantially decreased.

To carry on the work of the Department in an efficient manner on
the lines laid down in the foregoing report has necessitated provision
for somewhat increased appropriations. This report will fall short

120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of its purpose if it has not made clear the importance of the interests
the Department is designed to serve, and the necessity for carrying
on its work. Moreover, the duties devolving upon it are imposed
upon it by law, and it is with full appreciation of these several con-
siderations that estimates for its expenses must be viewed. The esti-
mates for the ensuing year have been most conservatively prepared,
based upon the lines of work imposed upon the Department by the
Congress, and I earnestly commend them to the favorable considera-
tion of that body.

Respectfully submitted.

JAMES Wiuson, Secretary.
Wasuineton, D. C.,
November 24, 1906.

hm

NEW PROBLEMS OF THE WEATHER.

By Wits L. Moors, W. J. Humpureys, and O. L. Fassie,
Of the Weather Bureau.

A knowledge of the coming weather enters so intimately into every
contemplated human action that the question is often asked: What are
the prospects for further improvement in the accuracy of weather fore-
casts, and can the seasonsever be foretold? The answer is that, while the
Government hasa corps of forecasters who are now applying all of the
knowledge of the atmosphere that has been revealed, little hope for
material improvement in their work can be held out until a substantial
addition is made to the pure science of the problem. This can only
come through experiment, study, and research. With 200 stations
engaged in applying the science, it is a wise economy to devote at least
one of them to the work of adding to the knowledge that is now costing
us nearly a million and a half dollars annually toapply. Accordingly,
those in charge have endeavored to lay out a plan of study and research
leading to an increase in our knowledge of the laws governing the
atmosphere such as should eventually enable our successors, if not
ourselves, to add to the accuracy of weather forecasts and to make
them for a longer period in advance. -

THE MOUNT WEATHER RESEARCH OBSERVATORY.

In order that this country may do its share toward the advance-
ment of meteorology along the lines that specially relate to conditions
in America, it is imperative that the Weather Bureau should establish
an observatory for its own special research work. A piece of land has
therefore been secured and work has been inaugurated at an estab-
lishment that is intended to respond to the present and prospec-
tive needs of meteorology. This establishment is called the Mount
Weather Research Observatory, and is organized on a broad and
elastic basis, so that it may from year to year expand with the growing
knowledge of our needs. (See Pls. I-III.)

STUDY OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE.

In order to prosecute the researches contemplated at Mount Weather,
a plant has been established there especially adapted to the investiga-
tion of the physical condition of the atmosphere at great elevations
above the surface of the earth. Hitherto our knowledge of the

121

12 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

conditions of temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind velocity and
direction has been based upon observations made at or near the
surface of the earth or upon mountain peaks. Current conceptions
of the laws of storms and of the general circulation of the atmosphere
are based upon such observations almost entirely. Records obtained
in recent years by means of balloons have demonstrated the existence
of hitherto unsuspected variations and contrasts in temperature at
very great elevations, and have shown that observations on mountain
tops and at equal elevations in the free air vary widely.

The necessity for a better knowledge of temperature conditions at

great elevations has directed the minds of many meteorologists to the
study of the best methods for lifting self-recording instruments high
above the earth’s surface. The result has been the invention in recent
years of ingenious forms of kites and of specially designed balloons
for this purpose. The kite has again become an instrument for
scientific research, and now enables us to bring down records of
atmospheric conditions at elevations of 2 and 3 miles, and even of 4
miles, as was recently demonstrated at the German aeronautical
observatory near Lindenberg. By means of small rubber balloons,
marvelously light self-recording instruments have been carried up to
the remarkable heights of 10 to 15 miles, bringing back records of
low temperatures and high wind velocities which have been a revela-
tion to meteorologists—records which are compelling a reconstruction
of existing ideas concerning the dynamics of the atmosphere.
' Pioneer work along these lines was begun some years ago by means
of kites, both at Weather Bureau stations and, under the direction of
Mr. A. L. Rotch, at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, Mass.
By experiments begun at St. Louis at the time of the World’s Fair
in the summer of 1904, Mr. Rotch also initiated the practice in this
country of sending up small rubber balloons.

The observatory at Mount Weather is now well equipped with the
necessary plant for carrying on this new and promising work of aerial
research, and has for nearly a year been cooperating with Kuropean
institutions and with the Blue Hill Observatory in sending up, on
prearranged days, kites or captive balloons. These kites may be
raised in winds varying from 10 miles per hour to 35 or 40 miles at
the surface. With winds of less than 10 miles per hour it is necessary
to employ captive balloons. To attain great heights small free rubber
balloons of 2 or 3 cubic yards capacity, called pilot balloons, are
employed. The instruments carried by the kites and balloons vary
in weight from 14 to 3 or 4 pounds and record variations in the tem-
perature, the pressure, the humidity of the air, and the wind velocity.

The balloons are filled with hydrogen gas in order to secure the
greatest lifting power. This necessitates the use of special apparatus
for the manufacture of hydrogen. At the Mount Weather Research

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE lI.

BUILDINGS AND APPARATUS AT MOUNT WEATHER, VA.

[1.—Power house and balloon shed. 2.—Revolving kite and balloon shed. 3.—The Siegs-
feld kite balloon. 4.—Hergesell balloon meteorograph in protecting basket. ]

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE Il.

APPLIANCES IN USE AT MOUNT WEATHER, VA.

[1.—French balloon meteort graph. 2.—Marvin kite meteorograph with anemometer.

3.—Hargrave-Marvin box kites. 4.—Marvin meteorograph, with record.]

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE III.

BUILDINGS AND INSTRUMENTS AT MOUNT WEATHER, VA.

[1.—Administration building. 2.—Magnetic observatory buildings. 3,—Interior of magnetic
observatory—magnetometer and indicator. 4.—Interior of magnetic observatory—decli-

nometer and theodolite.]

NEW PROBLEMS OF THE WEATHER. 123

Observatory a strong electric current is passed through water, break-
ing up the liquid into its constituent elements of hydrogen and oxy-
gen. These gases are then collected and stored in appropriate tanks
for future use as occasion may require.

As the small pilot balloons carry up their instruments to heights of
many miles, where the prevailing temperatures are at all times very
low (sometimes exceeding 100° Fahrenheit below zero), it is necessary
to test the accuracy of the thermographs at these low points. For
this purpose the observatory is equipped with a plant for the manu-
facture of liquid air, by means of which the instruments may be tested
to the lowest points likely to be reached at great elevations.

In the near future these small rubber pilot balloons, carrying with
them to elevations of 30,000 to 50,000 feet the light self-recording
instruments referred to, will be liberated simultaneously at 20 to 30
Weather Bureau stations surrounding typical storm centers. Obser-
vations obtained in this manner at various elevations when com-
pared with the records made at the same time at the surface of the
earth will doubtless throw much new light upon the mechanism of
storms, cold waves, etc., and give to meteorologists a better under-
standing of the general circulation of the atmosphere.

STUDY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN SUN AND WEATHER.

As one of the primary objects in view in establishing Mount Weather
Observatory is to make a study of the relations existing between the
various forms of solar radiation and terrestrial weather conditions,
much attention has been given to the instrumental equipment and to
securing men to study the variations in the amount of heat energy
given off by the sun from day to day and variations in the amount of
heat absorbed by the atmosphere. Some work along these lines has
already been done; but a special building and instruments will soon be
necessary for the study of these important problems of solar physics.

At present the most sensitive index of changes in solar energy is the
suspended magnet. There is no doubt that changes in the intensity
and direction of the magnetic force as registered at the earth’s surface
are coincident with the appearance and disappearance of certain well-
recognized periodic phenomena observed on the face of the sun. It
is fortunate that we have in the magnetism of the earth a terrestrial
element which varies in delicate sympathetic relation with the activi-
ties of the sun and is at the same time subject to continuous observa-
tion and registration. Toappreciate the value of terrestrial magnetism
as a faithful index of the state of the sun it should be understood that
not only are there regular ebbs and flows of magnetic force in response
to the sun’s annual approach and recession, his axial rotation and daily
passage through the heavens, but even the outburst of a solar spot is
simultaneously announced by a disturbance of the earth’s magnetism.

124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

So important to the study of the sun is a continuous record of the
magnetic variations that one of the first steps in the establishment of
the observatory was the installation of a magnetic plant consisting of
the best modern instruments for the direct observation and for the
continuous registration of the variations in the magnetism of the earth.
The standard observatory instruments, both for continuous registra-
tion and direct measurement, are of the type devised by Wild for the
model magnetic observatory at Pavlovsk, Russia. These are supple-
mented by a set of Eschenhagen magnetographs, the extreme sensi-
tiveness of which peculiarly fits them for recording minute fluctua-
tions of the earth’s magnetic force.

The principal application of the results of the observations will be
to supplement the direct observations of the sun, and thus to carry on
the record of the solar activity continuously day and night in all con-
ditions of weather. Researches will also be carried on to determine
the existence and measure the extent of probable direct relations
between meteorological disturbances and magnetic variations. The
magnetic records will also be specially studied in conjunction with the
results of observations of the radioactivity and the electrical condition
of the air, particularly during thunder-storms and at times of auro-
ral displays, for the purpose of revealing their relation to meteoro-
logical conditions.

EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

‘The physical laboratory is not yet completed, and consequently it
has not been possible to undertake investigations here ir experimental
physics. However, through the kindness of the authorities of the
University of Virginia a good deal of spectroscopic work has been
done at that institution. Some of the results have been published in
the Astrophysical Journal, and there are many data yet on hand to be
worked up at the earliest opportunity. An investigation, by the aid
of a large telescope, of the causes and meteorological relations of the
scintillation of stars is in progress at the University of Virginia along
lines suggested by one of the Mount Weather officials. A special
photometer has been devised for the purpose of measuring the relative
densities of clouds, particularly when the entire sky is covered. As
soon as the laboratory is completed and equipped investigations will
be begun on atmospheric electricity, its origin, distribution, and laws,
the causes and nature of precipitation, heat and light absorption, and
other physical phenomena of importance to the meteorologist.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM.

By A. F. Woops, —
Pathologist and Physiologist and Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

One of the greatest problems in the maintenance of soil fertility
for the maximum production of crops is how to secure and keep a
sufficient supply of available nitrogen at the least cost. For most of
our arable lands it is now pretty well agreed that this is a problem of
bacteriology, with the soil as a culture medium. As in most other
great problems, nature and practical experience have pointed the
way to its solution. Many of the standard practices of cultivation,
crop rotation, etc., which have developed from experience have very
important relations to bacterial action in the soil. In fact, the true
relation of many of these practices can be understood only from the
standpoint of bacterial activity. It remains for science to explain,
systematize, and improve practice, placing conditions more accu-
rately under our control. The sources of nitrogen supply are, first,
the nitrogen already contained in soils; second, that supplied to the
soil by the decay of organic matter; and, third, the fixation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen.

THE DIRECTLY AVAILABLE NITROGEN CONTENT OF SOILS.

The nitrogen in soils is of two types: (1) The ammonia, nitrites,
and nitrates, in which forms it is available to crops; and (2) the
nitrogen locked up in organic matter and not directly available. The
nitrate nitrogen (nitrogen in the form of nitrates) is in most soils
present only in small quantity. This supply is quickly taken out by
crops or washed out by rains, and if it is not renewed by the action
of certain bacteria on the nitrogenous organic matter in the soil or
from the atmosphere by other bacteria it must be added directly as
nitrate of soda or nitrate of potash, or some other manure must be
used containing directly available nitrogen. Manures containing
directly available nitrogen are very expensive. The best of these is
nitrate of soda, and at the present rate of use the known supply will
be exhausted in less than fifty years. More than 1,543,120 tons were
used in 1905. Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson has reiterated in a

125

126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

recent address® the prophecy of Prof. William Crookes, that we shall
have a wheat famine unless the yield per acre, averaging for the
whole world 12;%, bushels, can be increased. He believes with
Crookes and many others who have studied the question carefully
that the supply of nitrates is the most important factor in the situ-
ation, and it is important not only for wheat but for all other crops.
We are not, however, as Professor Thompson seems to believe,
dependent on the electrical method, briefly discussed later in this
paper, for obtaining this supply. The larger part of the nitrogen
required in agriculture is now and will always be obtained from the
atmosphere through the agency of certain soil bacteria. By careful
study of these organisms and their requirements we can greatly
increase their activity. The electrical method, however, will.be use-
ful in supplying a part of the immediately available nitrate needed
in intensive agricultural operations.

THE DECAY OF ORGANIC MATTER.

The organic matters which are added to the soils in manures and
in vegetable and animal remains must go through certain processes
of decay before the plant foods they contain become available to
crops. Bacteria and fungi of various kinds are the active agents
which bring about these changes. Decay is not a simple process, the
same in all places and under all conditions. The process varies when
the same materials under the same conditions are acted upon by
different organisms or groups of bacteria which produce it.

In general, organic materials contain two classes of compounds:
(1) The nitrogenous or albuminoid compounds, like flesh and blood
of animals and the protoplasm of plant cells; and (2) the nonnitrog-
enous compounds—the carbohydrates (such as sugars, starches, and
cellulose) and the hydrocarbons, as fats. The first class contains
the nitrogen formerly taken from the soil as nitrate by some plant,
but which in its highly organized form is unavailable to crops until
converted into ammonia or nitrate again by certain bacteria. The
compounds of the second class serve as food for certain bacteria
which are able to obtain their nitrogen from the air and will be dis-
cussed later.

The highly organized nitrogenous materials above mentioned, in
soils containing a good supply of phosphates, potash, carbonate of
lime, and air, moisture, and the right kinds of bacteria, are first mod-
ified or digested into soluble peptones by a class of bacteria which
secrete a peptonizing ferment. Bacillus tumescens Zopf, B. ellen-
bachiensis Caron, B. mycoides Fliigge, etc., are good examples of this

a See Nature; vol. 73, p. 355, 1906.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 127

class. These peptonized products (peptones and albumoses) are
then converted into ammonia through the action of these same species
and other ammonifying bacteria. The ammonia may then be con-
verted into nitrite by another class of bacteria, principally Mitro-
monas europe, widely distributed in Europe, and by species of Nitro-
coccus, said to be peculiar to the soils of America and Australia.* The
nitrite is then oxidized to nitrate by still another kind of bacterium,
Nitrobacter.

On the other hand, if the soil is poorly aerated or deficient in mois-
ture, lime, or other mineral plant foods, the course of this digestion or
decay of organic matter is modified. Acids accumulate, and the
bacterial action is largely replaced by that of fungi and forms of bac-
teria that can grow in the presence of acids. The organic matter
becomes more or less pickled or humified. The more active forms of
peptonizing and ammonifying bacteria and the nitrifying forms are
suppressed by the conditions unfavorable to their development. Peaty
soils represent the extreme of this type. In the improvement of such
soils the great stores of nitrogen and carbon of the humus may be
made available by the addition of the mineral foods if they are lack-
ing—especially carbonate of lime or potash—by proper aeration, and
finally by the addition of the peptonizing, ammonifying, and nitrify-
ing bacteria. In the present state of our knowledge the last is best
accomplished by spreading a few hundred pounds per acre of good,
naturally rich, well-worked loam, which usually contains these bacte-
ria. Care should be taken, however, to secure this inoculating soil
from fields known to be free from serious weeds, insects, and plant-
disease organisms. It is to be hoped that our knowledge of soil bac-
teriology will develop in the near future to the point where we will be
able to determine by bacterial analysis what organisms are present in a
given soil and what bacteria are needed to raise the bacterial activity
to the highest state of efficiency, assuming of course that the proper
conditions for their growth have been supplied. Briefly, these con-
ditions are a warm temperature, good aeration brought about by
thorough and frequent cultivation, proper moisture conditions, also
favored by thorough and frequent cultivation, good drainage, and a
good supply of decaying organic matter, carbonate of lime, phos-
phates, and other mineral foods.

@ Hall, Alfred D. The Soil, p. 72, 1903.

128 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following table, taken from Bulletin 65 of the Delaware College
Agricultural Experiment Station, by F. D. Chester, shows the vary-
ing activity of some of the bacteria here under discussion:

Chemical functions of certain soil bacteria.

agrees and pep- II. Aciditying coeffi-
tonization of media. Ammo- Saree cient.
Species and culture. nifying | of nitrates
: Blood P coefli- | + nitrites. Dextrose| Saccha-
Gelatin. THREETA Milk. | cient. broth. | .z0se
broth.
| ry ne
Bacillus tumescens Zopt:
Culture ese ees as saae eer ++ + + 1.2 — 1. 66 1.85
Culture 513905 2.022- 22 poate ++ + + 1.6 ~ 1. 66 2.85
Culfure:5170n2 252523522 ae ++ _ + 2.3 2556 3. 60
Culture'S198° 2. ~ 2. S22 een oa + + 3.0 — 1.57 1.40
Culture 5201... 2-22-25 ------ ++ + + 4.2) Seances
Bacillus ellenbachiensis Caron:
Culture D2 tee eee ++ + + 10.0 + 2. 55 2. 30
Culture 5167...-.. Jae See ++ + + 25.0 + 2.44 3. 00
Culture: 52005 33. eee ee ++ + + 25.0 + 3. 66 1. 55
Bacillus alcaligenes Petruschky
var. pulvinatus Chester.....-- _ - = Trace. aa 0 0
Bacillus alcaligenes var. dela-
variensis Chester...-.--.------- | _ -_ - 13.0 _ 0 0
Streptothrix soli Chester-.....---- + - = — 5.0 _ 0 0
Streptothrix brown sp. indt.....- _ - - 5.0 — 0 0
Bacillus mycoides Fliigge..-...--- + + + 12.0 + 2.22 ae
Bacillus alcalescens Ford...-.-- — — 2.3 + 1.80 1. 80
Bacillus gracilis Zim. (?)..--.-.- + = — 10.0 — 0 0
Bacillus sp. indt.:
Culture 5140s o5-2e epee eee ++ + == 10.0 — 1.77 1. 30

In this table a single plus sign ( +) indicates feeble or slow activity,
a double plus (+ +) indicates a strong activity of the kind indicated
at the head of the column, and a minus sign ( —) indicates no activity
of the kind. The figures in column II indicate the relative ammonify-
ing activity, and those in column IV the acidifying activity. One
important deduction from this table is that the different species vary
widely in their ability to accomplish certain work and that cultures of
the same species vary greatly. There is therefore opportunity to
increase bacterial efficiency in a soil by selection and introduction of
the most effective species and the most effective strains of these spe-
cies, and to reduce in number the inefficient and injurious species.
The mere making of conditions favorable to a beneficial or desired
species is not sufficient to insure its development unless there is a
large number of individuals of the desired species present. There are
many species of bacteria—good, bad, and indifferent—that can
develop under the same conditions, just as there are many weeds that
grow vigorously under conditions favorable to crops. It may be

-THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 129

necessary in some eases to reduce the number of these forms. It
is essential that an accurate knowledge be gained of all the organisms
occurring in various soils, the changes that they produce, their sym-
biotic and antagonistic relations and the conditions affecting them,
and the relation of their activity to crop production. Chester? has
suggested a very good method for accomplishing this in a uniform
manner. A few examples of some of his determinations of bacterial
or zymotic efficiency of various soils will be instructive.

A soil from the experiment station garden, Newark, Del., consisting
of a heavy clay loam which had been brought to a high state of fertility
by plowing under crimson clover for a number of years and kept under
active tillage, gave the average results of two analyses as follows:

Per gram
of dry soil.
DUMP ERISORRES Oo ee oes St toe oad. Ua ae ae 1, 600, 000
PEEPALLAIS! TUINERCENB SY 2.08 2 oe atl oe ak So OS eR 1, 200, 000
Bacillus alcaligenes var. delavariensis ................---- 330, 000
LD] ET thee ete Sl A Rod A a ele Aa Aa 3, 130, 000

As shown in the table or page 128, B. tumescens is the only one of these
organisms that can convert nitrogenous matter into peptones with any
degree of energy. The relative ammonifying power of these organ-
isms is proportionate to the ammonifying power of the individual
organism and to the number of organisms. On this basis this soil
has a relative ammonifying efficiency of 13.73 and an acidifying

Nearly a year later (April 11, 1903) an examination of this same
soil showed a great reduction in the number and activity of the
bacteria present:

Per gram

of dry soil.
RP NUNANTRCAS Fie iss Sachin oig deme e ee taj tinens 5 ox 20, 000
eo iene ee eee an hoe 2 See ee 745, 000
Bacillus alcaligenes var. pulvinatus .................---- 20, 000
IELLES ELLER DACIONSISS 2. se foo Nee toe | es Sec ciwr’e 170, 000
LO SDT ASST a ee eee se 20, 000
(PETIT ORS C7 |S ee a a Rd 319, 000
. LM CVICN EES. ieee ia Sy aero ee ae ee er 1, 294, 000

The relative ammonifying efficiency of the soil at this time was
determined to be only 2.48 and the total acidifying efficiency 1.81.
The bacterial or zymotic efficiency of this soil is therefore much lower
than it was at the first examination.

@ Bul. 65, Del. Col. Agric. Exp. Sta.
3 «a1906——9

130 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ©

On May 11, 1903, a sample of soil from sandy land which had been
brought into a good state of fertility was examined, with the following
results:

Per gram

, of dry soil.

Bacilliss ellenbachiensts .. ... 41.0 2p eae ee ee ee 140, 000
Bacillus alealigenes var. delavariensis .......-....2--------- 380, 000
Bactllus TUMescens.. .... 22.22.24 ae ee SS as CR 5 Se 20, 000
Total.....no+ ne. -toee: Het ee eee ee es 540, 000

The relative ammonifying efficiency is 8.9; the acidifying efficiency
only 0.58. It is interesting to note that the bacterial efficiency of
this soil is nearly three times as great as that of the station soil at the
second examination, though the latter contained approximately three
times the number of bacteria. This is explained by the great effi-
ciency of Bacillus ellenbachiensis.

Nitrification and nitrogen-fixing activity can be determined and
expressed on a relative basis in a similar manner. The addition of
available nitrogen to soils through the decay of nitrogenous matter
can never exceed or even approximate the amount taken from the
soil in the production of that organic material. It represents a gain
in nitrogen only in the sense that it is saved. It is not desirable that
its conversion into soluble form should much exceed the demands of
the crop; otherwise it may be lost. It is evident, however, that with
the great waste of organic matter which must inevitably go on we must
have other sources of nitrogen to cover the loss and meet the rapidly
increasing demand for it, not only in agriculture but in other arts.

THE FIXATION OF ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN BY SOIL BACTERIA.

Leaving, now, the question of the changes in the nitrogenous organic
matter in the soil, we will consider the fixation of atmospheric nitro-
gen by a class of bacteria that uses the carbohydrate constituents
(sugar, starches, cellulose, etc.) of the vegetable matter in the soil.
There are two classes of bacteria that can fix atmospheric nitrogen:
(1) Those that are not associated with any particular crops, and (2)
the root-nodule forms associated principally with legumes. The first
group depends on the carbohydrate material in the organic matter of
the soil derived from decaying vegetation or from certain minute alge
(the Cyanophycee or blue-green alge). The second group depends
principally on the carbohydrates supplied by the plants in the roots
of which the bacteria are growing. ‘The latter elass will be considered
later. .

The independent soil forms are widely distributed and belong to
several genera. A very good comparison of some of these has been
made by Chester, and is shown in the table on the following page
taken from Bulletin 66, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment
Station.

Oo

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 131

Gains of nitrogen in nitrogen-poor media by certain nitrogen-assimilating organisms.

Dara. | of trogen | Milligrams | ,,Gaimsot, | Pereent-
: “i tion of | per 100c.c. of] of nitrogen isms paiaae
Species of organism in culture. culture juninoculated| per 100c.c. Sanita afl eer
in days.| medium in culture. per 100c.c. gen.*
(blank).
Alfalfa root-tubercle organism pure cul-
VCE oe. eee eS ee eto 14 0. 600 1. 200 | 0. 600 | 100
ee oe eee ta aa aaes- 40 - 532 2. 002 1.470 | 276
Ty ot oS eee ee } 15 - 490 1. 484 - 994 | 203
Los: 2 JRE ee Eno 30 . 578 2.450 1. 872 | 324
Racitus tiumestens . 22.52.52... esse. 16 - 446 1.490 1.044 234
REE aA ge 22 sarc tl 28 .446 1. 600 1.154 259
Pseudomonas fluorescens var. nonli-
oT a ee ee ee eee son 16 - 400 1.710 1.310 3827
oo ue er oe 28 .400 1.720 1. 320 330
Batitimecqwndicams .....-.....<....--.=< | 15 490 1. 372 - 882 180
. a2 . 22 Se ee eee eee 30 . 578 1. 542 - 964 167
IW... .2) 9 ee eRe 28 1.00 2.12 1 112
PCMEEM ICHMT ONCS J. 25.2 -.55-kent eee h ee 15 490 1.172 . 682 139
a eh SE ee aoe eres 20 - 578 2.940 2. 362 401
0. J ee een ee 28 1.00 1.87 . 87 87
RCW EMMENCLUES... -. == <2 5 -e 2 0-----~ 28 1.00 1.81 81 81
Bacttius fluorescens... -.:....-..-----:--- 28 1.00 1. 87 87 87
Bacillus aurantiacus -....5.....-....---- 28 1.00 2.25 1.25 125
Azotobacter with—
Bacillus aurantiacus......--..---.-- 15 - 450 1. 642 1.162 235
Bacillus salmoneus -.......:.----.--- 30 . 578 1. 890 1.312 227
Azotobacter with—
CIGADIULS) CRUBGE CONS. a:ncc soe nto=-a=- 15 . 490 1.792 1. 302 266
Bacillus aurantiacus...........---.- ) 30 . 578 2. 556 1.978 342

* The figures in this column are about 100 less than those given in the bulletin cited, and show the
actual per cent of gain in nitrogen.

In warm, well-aerated soils containing sugars, starches, and cellulose
from decaying grasses and other vegetation, and well supplied with
carbonate of lime or cther bases and mineral foods, these bacteria fix
considerable atmospheric nitrogen. The amount, of course, depends
upon the nature and amount of carbohydrate food available, the
species present, their number, and the degree of favorableness of the
other factors mentioned. In ordinary cultivated soils the supply of
available carbohydrate materials is the factor that usually limits free-
nitrogen fixation. The almost complete removal of crops leaves very
little carbonaceous food for these bacteria. To stimulate the develop-
ment of these bacteria, assuming that they are present, it is essential
that considerable carbonaceous matter be incorporated into the soil.

In grass lands and in wild lands generally, where much of the carbon-
aceous matter preduced finally becomes incorporated with the soil, the
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the Azotobacter group? and the

a Beijerinck, who described these forms, holds that Azotobacter can fix atmospheric
nitrogen only in association with other forms, such as Granulobacter and Radiobacter.
This point, however, is not yet definitely settled. It is settled, though, that these
forms working together fix nitrogen much more actively than when they work inde-
pendently.

132 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

other independent nitrogen-fixing bacteria is very great. An exami-
nation of two fields at Rothamsted which had run wild for more than
twenty years showed an accumulation of nitrogen of approximately 45
pounds per acre per annum in a field poorly supplied with carbonate of
lime, and 98 pounds per acre per annum in a field well supplied with
carbonate of lime. Bacteriological tests of these fields showed that
Azotobacter was present in much larger numbers and had greater
powers of fixation in the field containing an abundance of carbonate of
lime. ?

This has been going on in connection with, but entirely independent
of, nitrification for ages, wherever the conditions are favorable and the
proper bacteria are present. This is true especially of prairie soils in
all parts of the ‘world. The work ‘of these organisms represents an
absolute gain in available nitrogen. It is highly essential that we
should learn more about them and get better control of their activities
for the benefit of agriculture. An attempt has been made to de this in

the preparation of ‘ Alinit,’”’ which is a culture of Bacillus ellenbachi-
ensis. This is, however, a species of very small, if any, nitrogen-fixing
power. It is of more value as a peptonizer and ammonifier. When it
has given good results it has probably been where it was needed for such
Ww =e rather than nitrogen fixation. Success in the use of cultures can
come only when bacteria of high efficiency are sclected for a particular
kind of work, and are used under conditions favorable to their develop-
ment and where examination indicates that they are needed. A few
failures due to imperfect knowledge must not discourage workers in
this important field. Excellent work is being accomplished in the
study of these forms in this country, especially by Voorhees and Lip-
man, of the New Jersey station, and Chester, of the Delaware station. ?®

ROOT-NODULE BACTERIA.

The bacteria of this class, like the Azotobacter group, are able under
favorable conditions to fix more or less atmospheric nitrogen inde-
pendent of lezumes. They reach their highest efficiency, however,
when growing in the roots of legumes (clovers, alfalfa, peas, beans,
etc.), where they usually form nodules. The origin of the species is
possibly from a soil form, Radiobacter, commonly growing in associa-
tion with Azotobacter.

The value of leguminous crops as soil improvers has been well
known for centuries, and they are regularly used for this purpose,
especially in the older agricultural countries. It is, however, only
since the W ork of Hellriegel and Wilfarth in 1888 that it has been

a Science, new series, Vol. XXII, p. 455.
b See Bul. 180, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., and the station reports for 1903 and 1904; also
the Delaware station bulletins previously referred to.

Peres

er

OE

—eEeeEeEeEE————E—=_ =

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 133

universally recognized that the ability of these crops to grow in soil

devoid of nitrogen is due to the presence of certain bacteria in the
root nodules. These bacteria have been carefully studied by many
investigators in Europe and in this country, and much valuable infor-
mation has been secured regarding them. The literature of the sub-
ject has been reviewed so many times in various publications that
it is not necessary to go over it again.”

It has been amply demonstrated, not only by hundreds of years
of actual experience but by numberless carefully conducted experi-
ments in many countries and under widely varying conditions, that
clovers and numerous other legumes supplied with tubercle bacteria
obtain from the air through the agency of these bacteria, under favor-
able conditions, all the nitrogen they require, and that they leave
in the soil considerable quantities for succeeding crops. In Germany
the amount of nitrogen added to the soil by legumes, besides that taken
off in the crop, is estimated at 200 pounds per acre. In the United
States the average for sixteen States is 122 pounds, equivalent to
not less than 800 to 1,000 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre.? These
effects, of course, are secured where the conditions for fixation are
favorable, viz, where the soil is abundantly supplied with nodule
bacteria of high efficiency and where the available nitrogen content
of the soil is low and the soil is well supplied with carbonate of lime
or its equivalent, and when the phosphates and other elements of
available plant food are present in sufficient quantity. If the soil
is already rich in nitrates, the leguminous crop may do no more than
maintain the nitrogen equilibrium. This is an important thing to do,
however, inasmuch as this nitrogen will be required by subsequent
crops in the rotation and the requirement of expensive nitrogenous
manures is thereby reduced.

VARIETIES AND EFFICIENCY OF ROOT-NODULE BACTERIA.

It is now pretty well agreed that the nodule bacteria on most
legumes belong to the same species. However, there are well-defined
strains or varieties especially adapted to certain genera and species
of legumes which adapt themselves with more or less difficulty to
other genera and species. The immediate efficiency of the bacteria
will, therefore, depend upon the natural or artificial inoculation of
the particular lerume with the best strain of bacteria adapted to it.
In soils, therefore, where it is desired to cultivate a particular legume,
and where that legume or a closely related species has not been suc-
cessfully cultivated and well supplied with nodules, it is desirable
that the proper bacteria be supplied. Experiments and practical
tests made by this Department show that there is great variation

@ See Bul. 71, Bureau of Plant Industry.

134 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the nitrogen-fixing power of these bacteria, dependent in part
upon the conditions under which they have been growing. If they
are in a soil which provides them with an abundant supply of com-
bined nitrogen, they ultimately lose, to a large extent, the power
of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Under such conditions they are of
little or no benefit to the crop. It is an easy matter to select strains
of high nitrogen-fixing power as indicated by the effect of the bacteria
on the crop when growing in comparatively nitrogen-free soils. The
cultivation of these selected strains on nitrogen-free media for a
few generations greatly increases their nitrogen-fixing power, and
therefore their value for inoculation purposes. Exactly the same
principles apply to these bacteria as apply to other plants. There
are some strains of beets that will make 15 to 20 per cent of sugar.
These are worth cultivating for their sugar; but the ordinary strains
from which these have been developed by selection contained only
5 or 6 per cent of sugar. A man who wants to make a success of
growing sugar beets plants seeds of high sugar-producing strains.
The importance of using selected seed for all crops has been so amply
demonstrated that no argument in favor of the practice is needed.
It is the very foundation of progress in plant culture. Soil bacteria
are no exceptions to the rule, and pure-bred bacteria for specific work
are as clearly an economic necessity as pure-bred cattle or pure-bred
sugar beets.

DISTRIBUTION OF INOCULATED SOIL.

We are often told that these bacteria are widely distributed and
are present in most soils. This is true as applied to the older culti-
vated areas, where various legumes have been cultivated, but it does
not follow that soils containing a few or even a considerable number
of these bacteria would not be benefited by inoculation with suitable
kinds of bacteria. The varieties present may not be adapted to the
legume which it is desired to plant, and may have little or no benefi-
cial effect on it, or if the proper strain is present in small numbers
it may, and usually does, take several years to bring the bacterial
content of the soil up to an efficient basis. This, of course, is too
slow a process. It would be just as reasonable to depend on getting
a crop of clover or bluegrass in this way. It can be done in some
places, but it is at least a makeshift method, and does not appeal to
a practical up-to-date farmer.

In newer regions, where legumes have not been cultivated, very
few soils have enough of these bacteria in them to be of any practical
value, and inoculation is essential. This may be accomplished
either by the use of soil from a field where the crop is making a vigor-
ous growth, with the roots well supplied with nodules, indicating that
the soil contains the right bacteria, or by the use of pure cultures.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 135

from selected plants. The soil method, of course, introduces not
only the nodule-forming species, but numerous other forms, such
as those previously discussed in this paper, and these may often be
as much needed as the tubercle forms. Where they as well as the
nodule forms are needed, soil transfer is usually the most satisfac-
tory method of inoculation. This is likely to be the case in “‘sour”’
soils. It is, however, expensive and cumbersome, especially where
the soil has to be transported for some distance.
Another and much more serious drawback to this method is the
danger of introducing into a farm injurious and disease-producing
bacteria and fungi, as well as troublesome weeds. It is not safe to
use soils from areas in which such pests occur. Anyone who has seen
the great injury wrought by root nematodes, the wilt diseases of
melons, cowpeas, tobacco, cotton, tomatoes, potatoes, flax, the black-
rot of cabbage and cauliflower, the various stem and root diseases
of clover and alfalfa, and diseases of other crops almost too numer-
ous to mention, and widely distributed, will investigate carefully
before importing soil that may contain the spores of these organisms.

PURE-CULTURE INOCULATION.

For the reasons above mentioned, pure-culiure inoculation must
eventually mainly replace the soil-transfer methods for all kinds of
soil inoculation, but this has not yet been put on a practical basis
for any except the nodule bacteria. The improved cultural and selec-
tion methods introduced by this Department in the practical handling .
of these forms have brought within reach of every farmer who may need
them pure cultures of the most virile, vigorous, and best types of root-
nodule bacteria for each particular leguminous crop. It requires care
and skill, however, to make and keep these cultures in good condition.
For lack of this, many who have tried to make these cultures have
failed. The pure-culture method has come to stay, however. It will
be improved by experience and continue to increase in usefulness in
the hands of careful and progressive workers. It is suggested, before
using cultures from any source, that farmers secure from this Depart-
ment and read carefully Farmers’ Bulletin 240. The Department of
Agriculture is distributing the bacteria during the present season
(1906) in nitrogen-free liquid cultures hermetically sealed. Excel-
lent results can also be obtained in distributing the cultures in dry
form. They must be dried quickly, however, from solutions con-
taining very small amounts of soluble salts, and kept dry until ready
for use; otherwise they are likely to moljd and spoil. This Depart-
ment has used this method very successfully for several years. It is
also used successfully by Ferguson, of the Virginia Experiment
Station.¢ ,

a See Bul. 159, Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta.

136 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE FIXATION OF NITROGEN FROM THE ATMOSPHERE BY ELECTRICAL
METHODS.

While much can be accomplished through the agency of soil bac-
teria in conserving and increasing the supply of combined nitrogen,
there will always be a demand, in intensive culture especially, for an
immediately available supply of nitrates or other forms of fixed nitro-
gen. The great Chilean deposits, which furnished more than one and
a half million tons in 1905, will, at the present rate of use, according
to careful estimates, be exhausted in less than fift ty years. It has
long been known, however, that atmospheric nitrogen can be oxidized
under the influence of electricity, producing nitric oxid fumes, which
are then combined with water, to form nitric acid, or with quicklime,
forming calcium nitrate. Other bases may also be used. Various
attempts have been made from time to time to develop a process. by
which nitrogen can be combined commercially. The most promising
results have thus far been secured with franck’s process of making
calcium cyanamid and with the Birkland and Eyde process of pro-
ducing nitrates. The former process consists in combining nitrogen
with the carbides of alkalis, producing cyanids, or, in the case of

calcium, producing calcium cyanamid (CaCN,), containing 35 per cent
of nitrogen—more than twice the amount present in Chile saltpeter.
The calcium cyanamid, when properly used, has proved to be an excel-
lent nitrogenous fertilizer for many crops, and quite equal to ammonia
compounds, into which it can be readily converted. The ammonia
thus produced can be further oxidized by conducting it over highly
heated metallic oxids, thus producing nitric acid.

The Birkland and Eyde process, however, appears to be the most
promising as a means of producing nitrates. A special electric furnace
is used, in which an alternating electric arc between 3,000 and 4,000
volts is produced in connection with a large electro magnet, which
forces it to take the form of a roaring disk of flame. Air is forced
through this furnace at the rate of about 3,000 cubic feet per minute,
the nitrogen being oxidized in the furnace to nitric oxid. These
fumes are then collected, and after further oxidation are absorbed
in water towers, foe nitric acid, or by powdered quicklime,
forming calcium nitrate. Of course, the nitric acid can be com-
bined with almost any desirable base, such as soda or potash. With
cheap water power nitrates can be produced by this process to com-
pete in cost with nitrate of soda.¢

These direct processes of securing nitrogen will certainly be rapidly
improved, and what has been accomplished already in this direction
should remove the last vestige of doubt that we shall be able to secure
at a reasonable cost all of the immediately available nitrogen we may
need, in addition to the great supply that may be secured through
bacterial action.

aSee ‘‘ Nature, ’’ vol. 73, p. 355; also, Exp. Sta. Record, Vol. XVII, pp. 746--750.
‘For a full, illustrated account see Engineering News, vol. 57, No. 6, pp. 100, 151.

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.

By Logan WALLER Pace,
Director of the Office of Public Roads.

NECESSITY FOR INSTRUCTION IN ROAD BUILDING.

Improvement of the public roads of the United States is a work of
so great magnitude and involves the solution of so many problems
of economic importance that it demands attention from every unit of
government, from the township to the National Government. At the
present time the township, the county, and the State are providing
means for the construction and maintenance of roads to the extent of
approximately $70,000,000 annually, according to information com-
piled by this Office. It is unfortunately true, however, that the
expenditure of the greater portion of this large sum is intrusted to
men who have practically no knowledge of road building and who are
acting under systems of road administration and management that are
obsolete and totally inadequate.

Until very recent years highway engineering has received slight at-
tention in the engineering schools of the country, and, consequently,
the supply of properly equipped men for this branch of engineering
has not been equal to the demand. With approximately 2,300,000
miles of rural highways in the United States and an approximate
annual expenditure of $70,000,000, the absolute necessity of placing
road construction and administration on a correct basis may there-
fore be seen.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY.

- Congress, in 1893, realizing that much work of an investigative and
educational character, which could be done best by the National
Government, was necessary before any effectual progress could be
made in the improvement of public roads, established the Office of
Road Inquiry for the purpose of investigating systems of road man-
agement and disseminating information on the subject of road build-
ing. An appropriation of $10,000 was made to carry out the provi-
sions of this act. Slight changes have been made from time to time
in the language of the appropriation bills, and the amounts have

137

1388 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

been increased until the Office of Public Roads?“ is now intrusted with
the investigation of systems of road management, the giving of expert
advice on road building, investigation of road materials and their
chemical and physical properties, and the dissemination of informa-
tion upon these subjects. The appropriation for the fiscal year
1907 is $70,000.

The act of Congress provides for two distinct fields of educational »
and investigative work, one bearing upon the economic questions
involved, and the other upon the practical and technical features of
road construction and maintenance. The work along economic lines
is defined by the requirement that systems of road management be
investigated. The practical side of the work is indicated by the pro-
visions of the bill which require that expert advice be given and that
road materials be investigated. The giving of expert advice has to
deal primarily with the construction and maintenance of all classes of
roads, while the investigation of road materials includes field and
laboratory tests, as well as an investigation into the quantity, quality,
and location of road-making materials jn all parts of the country.

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.

The Office of Public Roads, in endeavoring to carry out the pro-
visions of the act of Congress, has adopted a method of instruction
known as the object-lesson road method. Its purpose is to instruct
local road builders in the principles of road construction, to demon-
strate the advantage of a properly built road, and to ascertain the
best local material available for road building.

The Office maintains a corps of highway engineers, expert road
foremen, and machinery operators for field duty; and also chemists,
geologists, and engineers to investigate by laboratory and other tests
the properties and relative values of road materials. When a county
or community desires to improve its roads, application is made to
the Office on a form which is furnished upon request. This applica-
tion provides that the local authorities shall guarantee right of way,
all materials, common labor, teams, and fuel, the Office furnishing
engineering advice, surveys, estimates, expert supervision, and road
machinery. The following questions accompany each application
form sent out:

Can you supply this Office with plan and profile of road?

What is the nature of the soil along the proposed road?

What is the general grade of road—level, rolling, or hilly?

Does the road cross any waterways? If so, what are their widths, what kinds of
culverts or bridges are now in use, and what is the condition of each?

@ This is the present title of the Office.

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. 139

Have you a crusher or any road-building machinery that you will furnish? If so,
what?

What is the cost of labor per day? ,

What amount of money is available to be expended on this work?

What months are preferable for carrying on this work? Why?

What is the earliest date this work can start?

What kinds of road-building materials are locally available, and how far are they
situated from the road? Samples of such materials should be selected and shipped to
this Office, that tests may be made before construction is started. Blank forms and
instructions are supplied for this purpose.

The system now in effect provides for an inspection report by the
engineer first sent out to examine the road proposed for improvement,
this report covering the following essential points:

Miles of road inspected and location.

Length of section to be improved.

Relative amount of travel over road compared with other roads in vicinity.

Local authorities having jurisdiction over road to be improved.

Individuals or organizations especially interested in the work.

Amount from public treasury.

Amount from private subscription.

Total amount of money ready for the work.

Nearest shipping point. Name of railroad.

Best time of year for doing work (state earliest and latest months), and why.

Nature of materials and distance from road.

Present grades; drainage; nature of soil.

’ Cost of labor and teams per day.
Engineers or surveyors in vicinity competent to make plans and profiles of road.

If, after consideration of the inspection report, it is decided to
undertake the work of construction, surveys are made and estimates
prepared, after which the expert foreman, machinery operator, and
necessary road machinery are provided. Daily reports are required
from the beginning of the work. These daily reports contain exact
and detailed information, as shown by the copy of the blank form
on the following page. It will be seen from the form that the unit
cost may be computed from the data contained in these reports,
thereby affording a basis for estimating cost of additional mileage.

When an object-lesson road is completed a final report and sum-
mary of the work done is prepared by the engineer in charge of the
construction, which shows all details of the work, such as the length,
width, thickness, and kind of surfacing material; method of construc-
tion and time consumed; kind and size of machinery used for excava-
tion, crushing, loading, distributing, and rolling stone; kind, size, and
length of all side, cross; and under drains and culverts; together with
the total cost of the road to the community and to this Office, and the
unit cost (that is, the cost per cubic yard, square yard, or ton) for
excavation, quarrying, crushing, hauling, spreading, sprinkling, and
rolling.

140

Dainty Rerort oF WorkK ON OssEcT-LESSON ROAD AT

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sta, "... tO Sta. ces

Sta. 2:-to Staeee

Sta. 2. totes

Sta. .2-to Stageer

Sta. ...to Stace.

cosa. SbOS Shee

Date: Weather: Length of working day: —— hours.
Signature: -
Force employed. Work done.
TNours’| hour | Total. || Harth exea-
or days. | or day. UO SeBosellace cu. yds.
zy; Tr eal "Saw big adie
Foremen.....--..---------|-------+-/-+-+-+++-+)-+------ shapeds sss. tere sq. yds.
AS UL SLOT CT OWN OTM a peyeaye alte rare te First course
Excavation: placed......|..- sq. yds.
Men.........-..--.----|---------|---------]-------- Second course
Teams.......-...------|-------+-)--++--+--|---+---- placed...... -sq. yds.
Shaping: Surface course .
Men.......--.---------|---------)---------|-------- placed...... sq. yds.
Teams.........-.------|---+-----/---------|-------- Road surface
Quarry: completed ..|...sq. yds.
MeN). « <6 iceccssuatcccseleepeeeeeel, eee oeesleemereae Material
TPOATNS's =< 3c)... beminestall nee esis cas leer os
Crusher:
A (:) 1 Ree roe scenes sore ||aseocmtoele seme

Engine and engineer. . .
Hauling surfacing mate-
Tial:
MTovcrusher-2- == esses
To:T0ad {ace see
Loading surfacing mate-
Tig abs alesse eee

Steam or horse roller......
Sprnklers2=.4..ceen seers
obese SORE masonry --
Shoulder drains......-...-
Bee Gann kin oats drains ..
WisiherbOviec =, scacmeneetiee
Wiatehimatie 2 scan osneereee

Remarks:

In every case samples of all available road materials are secured by.

Materials used, paid for by unit measure.

Quantity.

Price. Total.

Surfacing ma-
terial. <j beeen
Fuel for
CNUISHEr soos ee sce cee
uelifor roller: |s-sse eee
Oil, waste, re-

the inspecting engineer and sent to the laboratory of the Office for
Such tests are made free of charge to
citizens of the United States, and proper instructions for shipping the
rock samples are furnished upon request, with details as follows:

analysis and comparative tests.

(1) All samples should be selected to represent as nearly as possible an average of the

material.

(2) A sample of rock for laboratory tests must consist of stones which will pass
through a 3-inch but not through a 14-inch ring—excepting one piece, which should
measure approximately 4 by 6 inches on one face, and be about 3 inches thick. The

whole sample should weigh not less than 30 pounds.

be shipped in burlap bags.

It is desired that samples of rock

—

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. 141

(3) A sample of gravel must weigh not less than 25 pounds, and should not contain
stones over 1 inch in diameter. Such samples must be shipped in boxes, sufficiently
tight to prevent the finer material from sifting out.

(4) A sample of paving brick must contain 36 whole bricks, or 24 blocks, which must
be securely packed in a box for shipment.

(5) A blank form and addressed tag envelope will be supplied by the Office for each
sample. The blank form must be filled and placed in the tag envelope, which must be
used as the address for the sample. It is essential that the blank forms be filled with
the utmost care, as they are filed as records of the samples.

(6) The Office desires to keep a record of the actual wear on roads built of the mate-
rials tested. If the material which this sample represents has been or is about to be
used on roads, this Office desires to be informed of the addresses of those in charge of
the construction and maintenance of such roads.

The engineer, when making his preliminary investigation, gives due
consideration to transportation facilities, railroad rates, and nearest
material within shipping distance, in case local materials are unsuita-
ble, inaccessible, or available only at prohibitive cost.

The cooperation in object-lesson road work is entirely free, and the
local authorities are not required to pay any portion of the salary or
expenses of the Government engineers or experts, or for freight or
repair of machinery owned by the Government.

The construction crew consists of one expert foreman and one expert
roller and machinery operator. Heavy machinery requiring the direc-
tion of an expert operator is unnecessary, except in the construction of
macadam roads, and it frequently is the case that only an expert fore-
man is‘assigned to the work. Engineering assistance is given from
time to time as the case requires, the work being under the general
direction of the chief engineer or the assistant engineer, one of whom is
present at some stage in the construction of each road.

The extent of the machinery equipment is governed by the require-
ments in each case, the outfit for a macadam road usually consisting of
wheel and drag scrapers, plows, road machine, crushing plant, distrib-
uting and dumping wagons, sprinkler, and roller. (See Pl. IV, figs.
1 and 2.) A modern crushing plant consists of crusher, elevator, re-
volving screens, and bins for at least three sizes of crushed stone. The
capacity of the average portable crusher is from 60 to 100 cubic yards
per day. A gravel road usually requires the same machinery, except
the crushing plant, while sand-clay roads may be easily constructed
with a plow, road machine, and horse roller, though if excavation is
required, wheel and drag scrapers may be necessary.

The horse rollers generally used by this Office are from 3 to 4 tons in
weight. Ten-ton steam rollers have been used on most of the object-
lesson roads, although 74-ton rollers were used in a few cases.

The assistance given by the Government in object-lesson road build-
ing is not designed to extend beyond the educational stage, and it is,
therefore, usually confined to such length of time as is necessary to
instruct properly the local road foreman, who is expected to continue
the construction begun by the Government engineers. No definite

142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

length of road is guaranteed to be built, but it may be said that it
rarely exceeds a mile, and is usually less than that distance.

It may be well to state that owing to the immense number of appli-
cations for object-lesson roads it is never possible to comply with all
requests, and the practice is therefore followed of apportioning assist-
ance to those sections of the country which have previously received
the smallest percentage, or which stand in greatest need of this kind of
instruction. Requests receive due consideration in order of priority,
so far as the location of the construction outfits will permit.

PURPOSES OF OBJECT-LESSON ROAD WORK.

Briefly stated, the purposes of object-lesson roads are, first, to intro-
duce among local road builders correct methods of construction and
maintenance; second, to demonstrate the advantages of a properly
built road in order to stimulate public sentiment for road improve-
ment and arouse a spirit of progress; third, to afford a basis for esti-
mating cost of additional road construction, which may be subse-
quently carried on by the county or community; fourth, to demon-
strate the availability and relative value of local materials as far as
practicable; or, where no local material exists, to determine whether
materials can be shipped in by rail:so as to make the construction of
hard roads feasible at moderate cost.

The most important effect of the object-lesson road is the consequent
improvement in methods of construction. The widespread igno-
rance of the elementary principles of road construction has already
been mentioned. It is fortunately true, however, that these princi-
ples are not intricate nor difficult to learn, and a small amount of
instruction properly directed in each community will go far toward
promoting a general improvement of the public roads. This instruc-
tion can not be given theoretically with entire success, for actual expe-
rience is essential to the acquirement of a working knowledge of the
subject. Practical instruction is easily understood and the knowledge
is retained; furthermore, it is an unanswerable reply to incorrect the-
ories often firmly fixed in the minds of the ultraconservative element
of a community.

Another advantage which frequently accrues to localities through
this medium is the substitution of less costly methods of construction
for those already in use. In 1905 the construction of a short section
of sand-clay road, near Troy, Ala., established the wisdom of provid-
ing a system of sand-clay roads supplemented by macadam only on
heavily traveled thoroughfares. At the time of the construction of
the sand-clay road the county was almost on the point of issuing
bonds for a large amount to construct macadam roads exclusively.
The result has been the saving of a large sum of money, with no
material curtailment of transportation facilities.

Nearly all innovations, whether labor-saving inventions, scientific
discoveries, or economic achievements, have met at their inception

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE IV.

ao Larth Road.

FiG. 1.—FiRST OBJECT-LESSON ROADS BUILT BY THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS,
ATLANTA, GA., 1895.

FIG. 2.—TARRING ROAD AT JACKSON, TENN.—LATEST ADVANCE IN ROAD SURFACING.

PLATE V.

OV

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 190

Fic. 1.—BEFORE IMPROVEMENT.

Fic. 2.—SusGRADE READY FOR MACADAMIZING.

Fic. 3.—FiINisHED MACADAM> ROAD.

THE EVOLUTION OF A COUNTRY ROAD, UNIONTOWN, ALA.

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. 143

with determined and bitter opposition from the majority. It is the
energetic, progressive minority to whom we must look for material as
well as intellectual progress, and so it is in many communities with
regard to road improvement, where the narrow conservatism of the
majority may stand as an obstacle to the inauguration of any well-
defined and comprehensive scheme looking toward the betterment of
theroads. The cooperation of the local authorities in the construction
of an object-lesson road is frequently accepted as a compromise measure
and serves as a sort of test case to determine whether a progressive or a
passive policy shall prevail in the community. The road thus serves
as the entering wedge in the establishment of a system of improved
highways and the consequent development and advancement of the
material prosperity of the country.

While the cost of roads varies widely, owing to the variation of the
factors entering into road construction, such as the amount of excava-
tion, cost of material, depth and width of material, and wages of
laborers, it is possible to approximate the cost of additional road
building in a section of country where an object-lesson road has been
built by applying the unit-cost data of the completed road to the
known conditions. For instance, while it would not be safe to say
that because an object-lesson road was built at a cost of $4,000 per
mile the average cost for additional construction should be $4,000,
it would be practicable to arrive at the total approximate cost by
comparing each unit of cost and allowing for differences known to exist.

In some cases satisfactory roads are being constructed at a great
cost not justified by existing conditions. The object-lesson road often
serves as a check upon this kind of extravagance or dishonesty.

In some localities hard roads are being built of material brought in
by rail, whereas a local material could be used to advantage at lower
cost. In other cases no effort is made to build macadam roads
because of the lack of a suitable material in the immediate locality.
Macadam roads have been built at moderate cost of material hauled
by rail distances exceeding 100 miles. In still other cases inferior
materials are used when good material may be had at the same cost.
The object-lesson road, in conjunction with the testing laboratory, is
designed to meet these conditions.

Until the fiscal year 1905, the Office of Public Roads was unable
to perfect a system whereby complete cost data’ and record of con-
struction could be obtained and placed im the hands of local road offi-
cials. Under the present system the file for each object-lesson road
contains application, inspection repert, profile and cross section, esti-
mate, machinery report, daily reports of work, final report, laboratory
tests, and photographs showing various stages of progress. Dupli-
cates of these records are available for the use of the authorities having
jurisdiction over the read improved.

144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EXTENT OF OBJECT-LESSON ROAD CONSTRUCTION,

The first object-lesson roads were constructed on the grounds of the
Cotton States and International Exposition, at Atlanta, Ga., in 1895.
Three roads were constructed, of macadam, sand, and earth, respec-
tively, as shown in Plate V, figure1. The macadam road was 300 feet
in length, in 50-foot stretches, each of different grade, the first being
level, and the others having 2,4,6,8, and 10 percent grade, respectively.
The sand and earth roads were each 200 feet in length, divided into
50-foot stretches, and conforming in grades to the macadam road.
The surface. of the macadam road was composed of Trenton limestone
brought from quarries near Chattanooga, Tenn., the depth of material
being 6 inches and the width 12 feet. _

Cooperation with experiment stations in carrying on object-lesson
road work in conformance with the provision in the act of Congress
requiring the Office of Road Inquiry to assist agricultural colleges and
experiment stations was first undertaken at Geneva, N. Y., during the
fiscal year 1895-96. It was found at the beginning of the work that
to restrict it to cooperation with experiment stations would limit
its usefulness too greatly, and since 1896 the construction of object-
lesson roads has been carried on throughout the entire country in
direct cooperation with local officials. During the fiscal year 1896-97
object-lesson roads were constructed at New Brunswick and Florence,
N. J.; Ilion, N. Y.; Warren, Pa.; and Kingston, R. I. During the
following year the scope of the work was broadened materially. Four-
teen roads were built that year, located in Maryland, Ohio, Minnesota,
Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, and the District of Columbia. .

It will be noticed that at first this object-lesson work was confined
to the Eastern States, but during the year 1897-98 most of the work
was done in the Middle West.

During the fiscal year 1899-1900 there was a marked curtailment
in the object-lesson road work, only 5 roads having been constructed
in 1899 and 8 in 1900. Since 1900 this branch of the work has had
more attention, 14 roads having been constructed in 1901, 15 in 1902,
9 in 1903, 3 in. 1904, 19 in 1905, and 17 in 1906.

Owing to larger appropriation and increased facilities, it is expected
that a greater number of object-lesson roads will be completed during
this year (1906-7) than in any previous year since the Office was
established. Already roads have been completed at Seattle, Wash.;
Salem and Pendleton, Oreg.; Bozeman, Mont.; Benton, La.; Dyers-
burg, Tenn.; Occoquan, Va.; Chevy Chase, Md., and Washington,
D. C. Other roads are under construction at Oswego, Kans.; New
Orleans, La.; Paintsville, Ky.; Lenoir City, Tenn., and Williamsburg
and Norfolk, Va.

In all, 113 object-lesson roads have been constructed since the
beginning of the work, distributed in 32 States, as follows: 12 in Ohio;
8 in North Carolina; 7 in Florida, South Carolina, and Virginia, respec-
tively; 6 in Alabama; 5 each in Missouri and Tennessee; 4 each in

— 2

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.

145

Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, and Pennsylvania; 3 in
Arkansas, Michigan, New York, and Washington, respectively; 2 in
the District of Columbia, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, and Texas, respectively; and 1
each in Iowa, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and
Wisconsin.

Local materials were used in the construction of these roads where-
ever it was possible. Limestone was the principal material, though
various grades of granite and trap rock were used in many places.
The number of roads built of each particular variety of material was
as follows: Limestone, 30; granite, 21; gravel, 12; trap and basalt,
9; sand clay, 9; chert, 9; shells, 3; novaculite, 4; steel track, 4;
gneiss, 3; earth, 2; brick, slag, 1; burnt clay, 1; hornblende-
schist, 1; marl, 1; and oil, 1.

The following table gives in brief form all of the essential details
relating to the dimensions and cost of the object-lesson roads built in
1904-5:

25

Date in relation to object-lesson roads constructed in 1904-5.
a

Materials used. Baie ete Cost. s
ss
Place. Pp 32
King, | Souregand trans) |S | di [square] Pareger | 28

a = | 5'| yard. a

A e1A 1S)

Ft. | Ft.) In
Fernandina, Fla.....- Shellstese es «seers Cale 2k esac 1,199 | 24] 6 | $0.348 | $4,899.84 |$1.00
Pensacola, Fla........ Granite and trap.| Ballast from Ger- 506 | 32 .429 } 8,053.76 | 1.25
many.
Jacksonville, Fla..... 1. rd eee Seabees By rail 250 miles..| 5,280 | 15 | 6 .592} 5,211.03 | 1.25
Weosho, Moi. =>... .5..: Novaculite........ TOCA = 20 eee. 22 2 ae 2,640 | 12]. 7 . 434 | 23,055.36 | 1.00
Beaumont, Tex....... Clam shells....... By boat 28 miles. .! 3,154] 16] 7] 1.019 | 59,565.01 |....-
Tallahassee, Fla.....-. Sand-clay........ TOGHI ee ce ase csc 4,480 | 16 | 73} .055 516.27 | 1.00
Pensacola, Fla........ Sand-clay.......- Oca este cacaena- 1,800 | 15] 8 .140 | ¢1, 232.00 |..-..
Gainesville, Fla....... IBMING eee cie. code oe By wagon 6 miles.| 265] 70| 8 .278 | 11, 416.53 | 1.00
Shreveport, La......-. Gravel soe. sos sa= By rail 32 miles...| 3,306 | 16| 8 .334 | 3,135.15 | 1.00
Walls Walla, Wash..-| Trap.............- By rail 13 miles...| 2,048} 18| 8 -415 | 4,382.40 | 1.50
Bellingham, Wash....} Granite........... By rail 30 miles..-} 2,050; 15] 8 .785 | 6,908.00 } 2.00
Hencalp aie -= 2.2.52 Limestone........ By rail 100 miles..| 4,510 | 12] 8 .985 | 6,934.40 | 1.75
Gainesville, Fla.....-. Sand-clay........ | Oo eee ee ae 5,280} 14] 9 . 107 881.25 | 1.00
Springfield, Mo....... Novaculite....... By wagon 23 miles| 1,310} 16| 9 .335 | 3,144.53 | 1.00
Arkansas City, Kans.| Limestone........ Toca eee c cee 3,615 | 14 | 10 .396 | 3,252.48 | 1.50
Chagrin Falls, Ohio...| Sandstone and | Local............- 2,400 | 10 | 10 .800 | 4,693.33 | 1.56
granite. ci
Columbus, Ohio...... Bricks and gran- | Local..........-.- 835 | 18 | 10 . 976 |\410, 306.56 | 1.50
ite.

Lebanon, Mo......... Novaculite........ Local ia ccse sca 2,950} 9 | 11 .335 | €1, 768.80 | 1.00
Clarksdale, Miss...... Burnt-clayic. = -2 Oniroade-. e525 300 | 12 |. .210 | £1, 478.40 | 1.25

aTncludes $408.25 for culverts.

City and county prisoners used for labor.

eConvict labor used.

Cost was for material only, at $2.15 per cubic yard.

d Bricks from burned buildings were crushed and rolled for foundation; bow!ders from fields were

crushed and used for surfacing.
€ Novaculite from fields was used.
7 This was an experimental road.

3 a1906 10

146 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In view of the fact that the width of the roads built during 1904-5
varied from 9 to 70 feet, it will be interesting to compare the esti-
mated average cost of each kind of road constructed, per square
yard, and also per mile, for a roadway 12 feet wide. This informa-
tion is shown in the following table:

Comparison of cost of roads 12 feet wide built of different materials.

Cost of road.

a

a : r of

Kind of material. nei : ae Rate per
built. | 54 mile.

<3 yard.

Gibamiteuaccc. 2 a 55. Soe ee A a a ear oe ee ete 4 $0. 747 $5, 262. 40
TAN OS EOMEE 5 << Be cece = see ea oS comet ee 2 695 4,861.12
Shells . . 2 s-thes seesson coe Jes cies eb aoe sme oatetera ea aietetsatete teresa oe = leleise yeas 2 683 4,811. 84
Mat). «0c sccc0 saeco cc oosseeeteeenae eee eee eee Seer ean eee eee e 592 4,116.68
ft) Tl ee Sen ee ag ep ESS See Sea SS Ne ee ee a! 415. 2,921.60
Nevsieite: « - i= 235 So serene a eee Sau ae stele Se re tine = entree 3 368 2,590. 72
GTavel. <<.ncc% co cca ee oe eae eee ee eee Eee ene aoe ace eee 1 334 2, 351.36
BQUUUSN a gol) eee ee oo IRR CRE eRe emer BEA CODRCOaLe a one nO RES FECA} 1 278 1, 957, 12
Burnt clay 213 25 Sa acess erase ito oases erste les ee eee ena 1 210 1, 478. 40
3

Sand-Claiy ..2.<, s522 52. 58e a epee ee ne ee | em ee ete

Arwetags: & csshcersk tee eee aaa ee es ek pee 442 | 3,105.99

It will be seen that the average cost of the 10 different kinds of
roads in 1904-5 was 44 cents per square yard, and that the average
rate per mile for a 12-foot roadway was $3,105.99.

The maximum cost of macadam roads constructed during the
fiscal year 1905-6 was $1.42 per square yard, the average 67 cents,
and the minimum 24 cents. (See table on p. 147.) The clam and
oyster shell roads cost 39 cents per square yard, and the gravel and
chert roads, 11 cents. The average cost of the sand-clay roads
was 44 cents per square yard. It will be noticed that the maximum
and the average cost of macadam roads during 1905-6 were somewhat
higher than in 1904-5. This is due to the fact that the cost of labor
and teams had advanced during the year 1905-6 and that more
unfavorable conditions were encountered during that year. The
average depth of material in the roads built, during the year 1905-6
was about 7 inches. The average width of macadam was 18 feet,
and the average rate per mile for the macadam roads constructed
was $6,642.80.

If all the roads constructed in 1905-6 had been only 12 feet
wide, then the rate per mile for the macadam roads, at the average
rate of 67 cents per square yard, would have been $4,716.80; the
cost of the oyster-shell road, at 39 cents per square yard, would have
been $2,745.60; the cost of gravel and chert road at 11 cents per
square yard, would have been about $774.40 per mile and the cost
of sand-clay roads, at the rate of 44 cents per square yard, would
have been $217 per mile.

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. 147

Data in relation to object-lesson roads constructed in 1905-6.

Materials used. Dimensions of road.
Place. Miles
Kind. ftom Length.| Width. Dent eo.
Feet. Feet. Tnches.| Sq. yds.
Coshocton, Ohio....-.-- Gravel, sand, and limestone. . 1.38 4,335 9-15 10 | 5, 891
Auburn, Nebr.....--.-.- DANIBRLONEs .- >- 335 -aemn eps - 80 3, 900 a5 10 6,623
Columbia, Mo.......-.-. PAMGHEANG <-. 5-35 55-5. See Local. 5, 253 16 6 9,339
MgO INO <0 52--2-56 Pamestone-- .-°-.-=..-.5---- Local. 3,700 14 8 5, 756
Pullman, Wash....... B57 60 bine Se ee eee Se ay cea Local. . 1,338 14 6 2,081
Texarkana, Ark....... ete epee es eo sais 3,334 12 7| 4,445
1Gravel-s + 5. ss8ss- 5.05 as £0
San Antonio, Tex..... Ut) a | 2.25 1, 469 27.4 6| 4,478
Lafayette, La......... Clam and oyster shells...... . 600 14 6 982
Snow Hill, Ala.......-. | Eimestone<- 2... 54. -<.--.--- -50 4, 446 12 6 5, 928
Uniontown, Ala... Chest and ang. c,| wso0|f $500] 334 | 6] 7684
Abbeville, S. C.......- Gravel and chert..........-- 2.50 1,970 | 18-24 6| 4,473
Mitre Al: 3) a re WING o7 eee ee ae } 2.00 1,602 | 32-40 8 6, 893
Kenansville, S.C......| Sand-clay.............-..... .20| 5,900 20 6| 13,111
icon N.C. .:-.....| Sand-clay.........-..-...-.. | Local. 600 | 16 6} 1,066.6
Memowe N, C_--c. 3-3) Sand-clay . .-<-----<----cnsse Local. 800 12 3 1, 066.6
Washington, N.C..... POON og oe on a «ns a | Local. 2,7 14 6 4, 200
Mount Weather, Va...| Hornblende-schist..........- -20 2,047 | 15-18 6 4,783
Cost. Cost of
Pane yee | eae age
Slonim Totalcost.| square eer ae
yard. ; Men. Teams.
| |
Coshocton, Ohio............ ree ee $2,820.29| $0.4g | 8453400 | $1.60 $3.50
||. to 4,224.15 |
DPMMITESIEIPEDER Tory 2 = PL | 9, 416.07 | 1.42 | 512,496.00 1.50 3.00
2 Se eee ane Serene | 5,094.28 54 5, 120. 44 1.50 3.00
| > Pi a a 3,229.16 | .561 | 4, 607. 67 1.50 3.00
TEPC U TE Co eae a ag A ea |’ 2458.50] 1.17 9, 600. 00 2.50 4.50
DoS AT ee ee | 2,968.99 | . 668 4, 702. 02 1.50 3.50
SOS Ss ee a | 4,398. 57 - 981 ¢ 15, 711. 70 1.50 3.00
ee oe a kee 383. 50 .39 3, 200. 00 sea) 3.00
CEL A a hae a | 2 465.53 | .41 2, 886. 40 5 2.25
; | ae 4 2, 460. 00 E
pL TIT RE or eg Ad Eee a Oe : 2, 677. 06 -30 | to 2,874.00 1.00 3.50
DOU LET. d(C eS See ae eee ey see 496. 00 Bp i 1, 419. 73 d .75 2.50
Union, S.'C.- =... Be ane are eee nae San nee 1, 671. 42 . 242 5, 494. 37 ses f 2.50
LSP TOTES ZL (CBS Ae Oe = ee ee 440.35 . 033 387.18 . 80 2. 25
LESTE SCS ato ae ee eee a ee eee 31. 45 . 03 276. 92 7 1.00 | 2.50
PRMDETTUSIN Wren Sacco cee emn eee ese 28. 86 . 027 T9000) | ae See Se See
PEE IN OS oe a ee ee. ek 375. 50 -09 739.13 1.00 2.50
MOE WetbHOr. Vino ce acoso ance aoe eee oe h 2,629. 81 56 5, 913. 60 1.50 3.50

@ Including curb 10 inches wide and 12 inches deep, built to protect road from floods.

+ Cost more than usual, on account of curb, extra depth of material, and otherextras. Road entirely
submerged by floods for seven days during construction.

¢ A great deal of rain and very hot weather prevailed, which made it expensive to prepare the subgrade
of “black gumbo” soil. This work was iocated on a city street, but the cost of curbs, together with the
cost of lowering water and gas mains and making sewer connections, has been omitted, so that the
cost may be compared with the cost of country roads.

@ Convict labor used; price paid for subsistence was $0.30 per day.

e Traction engine used for hauling surfacing material; cost per day, $5.50.

J Traction engine used for hauling stone; cost per day, $5.

9 Twenty-three convicts were employed on this work, at $0.75 per day.

h Cost of curbs, catch-basins, and brick-paved gutters has been omitted, in order that the cost may
be compared with that of country roads.

‘

148 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The foregoing data relating to cost of object-lesson roads do not
include the expense incurred by this Office, which is approximately
10 per ent of the total cost. It must not be supposed, however, that
the same kinds of roads as those which have been built under the
direction of this Office can always be constructed in any locality at
the same rate, but it is safe to say that where the same conditions
prevail as to the cost of labor, materials, etc., the rate should be prac-
tically the same, or less if the work is done on a large scale.

RESULTS.

It is interesting to observe that progress in road building has
usually followed the construction of object-lesson roads.

This has been demonstrated beyond doubt in a number of cases,
among which may be mentioned the following:

KNOXVILLE, TENN.—In 1899 an object-lesson road was conse
at this place which occasioned much interest, not only in Knox
County, but in adjoining counties. The officials of Bradley County,
after a careful inspection of the road at Knoxville, started a move-
ment to issue bonds to the amount of $90,000 for the purpose of
carrying on similar work in Bradley County. After much opposition
the plan was put into effect. The consequent improvement in the
roads was of such general benefit that additional bonds were issued,
bringing the total issue to $186,000. These bonds met so great a
demand that $210,000 was realized from their sale. Lands that
were worth from $8 to $10 per acre before road improvement now
find ready sale at from $15 to $30 per acre.

Maptson County, Tenn.—This county has expended $150,000
and is preparing to expend an equal additional amount on road
building, following the construction of an object-lesson road in 1901.
Madison County has now over 50 miles of high-class macadam roads.

PrENsAcoLa, Fia.—The following is a report on the object-lesson
road built in 1904:

Since its construction the work of building temporary roads has proceeded with
good results, and now the city in the near future will issue $150,000 worth of bonds for
street improvements, and this sum, together with the sum to be paid by property
holders under our law of apportionment, will amount to $450,000, to be expended for
this purpose.

GAINESVILLE, FLta.—The following is a report on the object-lesson
road built in 1904:

We immediately invested in machinery, the duplicate of that which you used, and
have constructed as nearly as possible like yours 2,613 feet of 50-foot streets, and are
following sewer construction on other streets as rapidly as the sewers are put down.

I feel confident that your object lesson here has been of immense benefit to the
community. We had an abundance of raw material without knowledge of how to
use it.

Directly traceable to your work here is considerable similar construction in the city
of Jacksonville, Fla., as well as Lake City, Fla. Both cities sent representatives here
to examine your work, and are proceeding on the same line with the same material.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE VI.

Fic. 1.—METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION, SHOWING CURB TO PREVENT WASHING.

Fic. 2.—Roap UNDER WATER.

Fic. 3.—-ComPLeTED Roap.

MACADAM ROAD AT AUBURN, NEBR., BUILT THROUGH RIVER BOTTOM.

z ‘ \ :
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: /
j ,
J t . i
H y ;
= -
4 a “ a
* i : =e , *
rf . ; ‘ e «(2 Ure
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i] s *
8 a, v"
| \ mS :

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE VII.

Fic. 2.—PREPARING SET GRADE FOR MACADAM ROAD WITH TRACTION ENGINE AND
ROAD MACHINE, ARKANSAS CITY, KANS.

Fic. 3.—CONCRETE BRIDGE, TEXARKANA, ARK.

., a a” 4 =) Pa
* “ w=
* F \
7
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7
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.
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e
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Le © ’
tS As

OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. 149

Uniontown, Aua.—An official of this place reports as follows upon
the object-lesson road completed in 1906. Plate VI shows the various
stages in the construction of this macadam road.

As a result of the work done here by your Department, the city is now expending
$25,000 on the streets.

The whole county is alive with good-roads ideas. The county commissioners will
take the matter in hand as to the advisability of making road districts and issuing
bonds to improve the roads. All of this comes directly from the object-lesson road
built by your Office 1 mile north from city limits.

Avusurn, Nesr.—The following is quoted from a letter concerning
the road built in 1906:

There has been an additional mile of road improved as a result of the object-lesson
work done at this place, and the Auburn Commercial Club, working in conjunction
with the board of county commissioners, expect to go right on with the good work
until every public highway leading out of this city has been put in first-class condition.

The splendid effect following the object-lesson road work at this place is so exten-
sive that adjoining counties are sending representatives here to inspect the work and
to familiarize themselves with the construction of the road.

It is generally conceded that we now have the finest and most durable section of
good roads in the State of Nebraska.

Plate VII illustrates the peculiar conditions met in the construction
of the object-lesson road at this place.

IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL MAIL ROUTES.

In order to promote the efficiency of the rural-delivery service and
at the same time render effective aid in the improvement of roads
throughout the United States, the following plan of cooperation has
been arranged between the Post-Office Department, through the
office of the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General, and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, through the Office of Public Roads. This plan
of cooperation was approved by the Secretary of Agriculture July 3,
1906, and the Postmaster-General July 10, 1906.

Whenever a road upon which a rural route has been or is about to
be established is reported by the carrier or inspector to be impassable
or in bad repair, the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General will advise
the Director of the Office of Public Roads of the fact and request
that he have an engineer inspector detailed to examine the road and
give such advice and instruction to the local officials as may be
required.

Upon receipt of such information from the Fourth Assistant Post-
master-General, the Director of this Office will communicate with the
local officials and supply them with a circular of instructions and a
blank form for making application for the detail of such engineer
inspector.

It is not the purpose of this Office actually to construct the road or
to make any contribution either in money, materials, or labor. In

150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

most cases a road is impassable on account of defects which can be
remedied by the use of proper methods. The engineer inspector who
examines the road will note carefully all such defects and advise as to
what steps can be taken to place the road in proper condition without
great expense. If practicable, and if so desired, he may in some cases
assume temporary direction of the work for the purpose of instruction.

There will be no expense to the community on account of the
detail of such engineer, as his salary and expenses are paid by the
Federal Government.

LECTURES ON OBJECT-LESSON METHODS.

The present plan of confining the object-lesson road work to practi-
cal instruction will probably be improved in the near future and the-
oretical instruction by means of lectures will be given in conjunction
with instruction by the object-lesson method. A lecture may of
itself be entirely inadequate to impart a working knowledge of road
construction; and on the other hand it is probable that instruction
by the object-lesson method alone will fail to convey a sufficient
knowledge of the most difficult points in connection with road build-
ing. The theoretical portion of the instruction will probably consist
of one or more lectures during the continuance of the work, in which
subjects of primary importance will be discussed, such as grading,
drainage, selection and preparation of materials, maintenance of
roads, operation and repair of machinery, organization, methods of
administration, and computation of cost data. These lectures, while
intended particularly for road overseers, road foremen, and all offi-
cials having connection with road building, are open to the general
public and occasion will be given for a general discussion of ways,
means, methods, and practice, in addition to the subjects of the lec-
ture. The organization and practice governing teachers’ and farmers’
institutes will to some extent be applied to these road institutes. It
is expected that the authorities having jurisdiction over the road
under construction will lend their cooperation in securing the pres-
ence of the persons to whom this instruction should be given. In
some cases the county court, county commissioners, or county super-
visors have authority to direct the various road overseers to partici-
pate in the construction of the object-lesson road and in the road
institute held in connection with the work; in other cases they can
only urge the presence of the overseers. It will of course be neces-
sary that arrangements be made to correspond with local conditions
in each case.

By this means it is hoped that the influence of each road institute
and object-lesson road will extend far beyond the immediate neigh-
borhood and result in a more widely extended improvement in the
public roads than would be possible by following the present plan.

INTRODUCTION OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE INTO
SCHOOLS.

By A. C. TRUE,
Director of the Office of Experiment Stations.

The teaching of improved methods of agriculture to the masses of
our agricultural youth has recently been advocated by the President
of the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture, a former United
States Commissioner of Labor who is now the president of a Massa-
chusetts college, the president of one of our greatest railroads, the
president of the University of Virginia, the superintendent of schools
of New York City, acting as president of the National Educational
Association, and by such bodies as the National Educational Associa-
tion, the National Grange, and the National [Irrigation Congress.
This may fairly be taken as a sure indication that the discussion of this
subject has become very widesp”ead, and that public opinion is becom-
ing crystallized in favor of using the schools for the dissemination of
agricultural knowledge. After a long period of comparative neglect
of agricultural interests by the leaders of thought and action in this
country, a great awakening to the tremendous issues which are
involved in the permanent prosperity of our agriculture and in the
maintenance of a high level of intelligence among our agricultural
people has come, and happily the minds of our most influential men
are turning more and more to the public schools as the fittest and best
centers from which to spread a knowledge of the principles of agricul-
ture and in which to inculcate a love of country life and an apprecia-
tion of the dignity of agricultural pursuits. Sentiments favorable to
agriculture are no longer expressed by our public men simply as a
compliment to our farmers. It is rather a new and serious sense of
the real importance of the farmer to the commonwealth, and a fear of
the perils into which the crowding of our population in great cities and
the neglect to maintain the fertility of our soil are sure to bring us,
that are leading thoughtful men of all classes to pay earnest attention
to the educational needs of our rural population. This means a great
step in advance on this subject. It is now possible to secure a fair
hearing of the claims of agriculture to a place in our public schools and
a thorough testing of plans for the teaching of this subject in a wide
and effective way. It becomes important, therefore, to look more
closely at the methods which are being pursued to acquaint our

151

152 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

farmers, educators, and legislators with the needs of the rural schools
in different parts of our country and to make definite suggestions for
their improvement.

Under the authority of Congress and the Secretary of Agriculture
the Office of Experiment Stations has been collating information from
various sources regarding the progress of this movement, and the
present summary is presented to show in brief the results of this
investigation.

INTEREST AMONG FARMERS’ ORGANIZATIONS.

Our investigation shows that in the farmers’ organizations through-
out the country, which as a rule comprise our more intelligent and
progressive farmers, the introduction of agricultural instruction into
the schools is being actively discussed and warmly approved. Local
organizations are passing this question up to the State organizations,
and these in turn are sending it on to the National organizations.
Committees on legislation are being appointed, and there are many
evidences of an earnest and persistent effort to secure definite results.

Not content to wait for the formulation of definite courses of
instruction in agriculture for the rural schools and the training of
teachers in this subject, there is in many places an effort to do some-
thing tangible to arouse the interest of farmers’ boys in the study of
agriculture. Through the agency of farmers’ organizations cooperat-
ing with the State agricultural colleges and State and county depart-
ments of education, boys’ agricultural clubs have been organized,
largely in connection with the schools, in Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Towa, Kansas, Nebraska, Ohio, Texas, and probably other States.
The members of these clubs have regular institute meetings and
lecture courses, go on excursions to educational institutions and large
farms, conduct variety tests with corn, cotton, sugar beets, and other
crops, and exhibit their products at school, county, and State fairs.

The agricultural press is devoting a larger space than ever before to
the discussion of educational topics, and wherever an attempt is made
to establish the teaching of agriculture in the schools it is widely and
fully advertised. Entire numbers of some papers are given up to the
presentation of various phases of agricultural education.

ATTITUDE OF SCHOOL OFFICERS AND TEACHERS.

A remarkable change has taken place in the attitude of school offi-
cers and teachers regarding nature study and elementary agriculture
as school subjects. A few years ago it was unusual to find any sub-
ject relating to agriculture in public schools in the programmes of
teachers’ meetings. Now scarcely an educational meeting: of impor-
tance is held anywhere in the United States without at least one paper

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. ts

on some phase of this subject, and in many cases whole sessions are
devoted to the discussion of various topics relating to it, from nature
study and schoo! gardening to the more formal courses in agriculture.
A few examples will serve to show how widespread is this interest.

At the sixty-seventh annual convention of the American Institute
of Instruction at New Haven, Conn., in July, 1906, which is largely
attended by school officers and teachers from different parts of New
England, the teaching of elementary agriculture was largely discussed
in the department of rural education, formal papers on this subject
being presented by the superintendent of education of Vermont and
the professor of agriculture of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.

New England has also been aroused to a serious and thorough dis-
cussion of this matter by the report of a commission on industrial and
technical education presented to the legislature of Massachusetts in
April, 1906. The chairman of this commission was Hon. Carroll D.
Wright, for many years United States Commissioner of Labor and
now president of Clark University at Worcester, Mass. This com-
mission was appointed by the governor of Massachusetts in accord-
ance with an act of the legislature, and spent nearly a year in a study
of the relation of children to our industries and the condition of indus-
trial education at home and abroad. The commission found that
“there is a widespread interest in the general subject of industrial
education, or special training for vocations,” but that our people gen-
erally, and even those who are most interested in the subject, have no
definite ideas as to its proper scope or method. ‘Compared with the
opportunities afforded in Europe for acquiring knowledge and skill in
productive industry, the work now being done in Massachusetts is
strikingly and painfully inadequate,” and while in this country “the
general public has been strangely blind to the narrowness of the public
school education,” in Europe there is “ the universal recognition of the
necessity of special education for every form of industrial life.”
Among their conclusions were the following:

The State needs a wider diffusion of industrial intelligence as a foundation for the
highest technical success, and this can only be acquired in connection with the general
system of education into which it should enter as an integral part from the beginning.
The latest philosophy of education reenforces the demands of productive industry by
showing that that which fits a child best for his place in the world as a producer tends to
his own highest development physically, intellectually, and morally.

There seem to be two lines in which industrial education may be developed—(1)
through the existing public school system, and (2) through independent industrial
schools. In regard to the former the commission recommends that cities and towns
so modify the work in the elementary schools as to include for boys and girls instruc-
tion and practice in the elements ot productive industry, including agriculture and
the mechanic and domestic arts, and that this instruction be of such a character as to
secure from it the highest cultural as well as the highest industrial value; and that the
work in the high schools be modified so that the instruction in mathematics, the sci-
ences, and drawing shall show the application and use of these subjects in industrial

154 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

life, with special reference to local industries, so that the students may see that these
subjects are not designed primarily and solely for academic purposes, but that they
may be utilized for the purposes of practical life—that is, algebra and geometry should
be so taught in the public schools as to show their relations to construction; botany to
horticulture and agriculture; chemistry to agriculture, manufactures, and domestic
sciences, and drawing to every form of industry.

The commission would also recommend that ali towns and cities provide, by new
elective industrial courses in high schools, instruction in the principles of agriculture
and the domestic and mechanic arts.

This commission has been continued, and Prof. Paul Hanus, profes-
sor of the history and art of teaching in Harvard University, has been
appointed chairman. Professor Hanus is thoroughly alive to the
need of industrial education, believing that “the education demanded
by democratic society in modern times must be a preparation for
active life,’ and that “the only real preparation for life’s duties,
opportunities, and privileges is participation in them, so far as they
can be rendered intelligible, interesting, and accessible to children
and youth of school age.’”’ This being so, he favors “liberal provision
for elementary training in agriculture, industrial and commercial
pursuits, in addition to general manual training, at the upper end of
the grammar school and also at the upper end of the high school.”

In New York, at the annual meeting of the State Association of
School Commissioners and Superintendents, held at Cornell Univer-
sity, in October, 1906, the best means of adapting rural schools to
their environment was discussed, and it was generally agreed that
agriculture should be taught as a part of the general scheme of peda-
gogy, of which it should be the basic factor.

In Indiana the county superintendents in twelve counties have
organized clubs for the study of crops, and the Association of County
Superintendents has asked Purdue University to organize a training
school for teachers in agriculture and nature study.

The State Teachers’ Association of Michigan at its meeting in 1905
adopted resolutions favoring the teaching of agriculture in the public
schools.

In Missouri the State superintendent made the following statement
in his report for 1904:

Fifteen years ago I urged at county teachers’ associations and granges that the ele-
ments of agriculture be taught in public schools. Since then sentiment has grown
until there isa great demand for it. for five years the law has recognized it by making
it one of a group of subjects from which applicants must select to be examined for first-
grade certificate or State certificate. Four years ago State normal schools established
departments of agriculture and nature study. There are now many teachers in the
State prepared to teach elementary agriculture.

In 1905 the Missouri State Teachers’ Association asked that agri-
culture be made a requirement for any grade of teachers’ certificate.

In California, at a joint meeting of the State Teachers’ Association
and the State Farmers’ Institute, held at the University of California

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 155

in December, 1905, and attended by some 7,000 persons, the subject
of agricultural education was discussed from various points of view,
and as a result of this meeting a committee was organized to promote
the interests of such education in the public schools of the State.

At a conference for education in the South, held at Lexington, Ky.,
in May, 1906, and attended by leading educators from a number of
States, much attention was given to the claims of agriculture to a
place in the school curriculum.

At the meeting of the Virginia State Teachers’ Association and
affiliated organizations in November, 1906, the teaching of agricul-
ture in the public schools was widely and thoroughly discussed, and
President Alderman, of the University of Virginia, in the closing
address of that great meeting, declared that among the things which
should be considered as settled in the campaign for a better school
system now being actively carried on in that State was that agricul-
ture in some form should be generally taught in the schools.

At the annual convention of the National Educational Association,
held at Asbury Park, N. J., in July, 1905, elementary agricultural
instruction was a prominent subject of discussion, and such instruc-
tion was favored in the annual address of the president, Dr. William H.
Maxwell, superintendent of schools of New York City, delivered to
thousands of teachers at the opening session. The committee on
industrial education in schools for rural communities, appointed two
years before, brought in an elaborate report, in which it maintained
“that the rural schools, which tram nearly one-half of the school popu-
lation of this country, should recognize the fact that the major portion
of their pupils will continue to live upon the farm, and should pro-
vide specific, definite technical training for them for the activities of
farm life. It adduced strong arguments in support of this position
and emphasized the educational value as well as the practical utility
of courses of study framed with this end in view. The committee
favored the consolidation of rural schools in order that teachers
specially fitted for this work might be secured and the instruction
made more efficient. It also advocated the establishment of high
schools to meet the special needs of the rural population for secondary
education directly related to agricultural practice.”

PROGRESS IN LEGISLATION.

Steady progress is being made in securing legislation favorable to
the teaching of agriculture in public schools. The laws of over 30
States now permit or require such instruction. Among the States
which require the teaching of agriculture in all elementary schools
are Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North
Carola, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Legisla-
tion on this subject is commonly accompanied with provisions making

156 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

agriculture one of the subjects on which teachers may or must be
examined. In Nebraska, for example, candidates for first and second
grade county certificates must pass an examination in the elements
of agriculture. In Wisconsin, since 1901, teachers have been required
to pass an examination in elementary agriculture in order to secure
any grade of teachers’ certificate. In New Hampshire teachers in
secondary schools are required to have training in agriculture. In
Virginia teachers securing first-grade certificates must pass an exami-
nation on either physical geography, elementary physics, or elemen-
tary agriculture. In Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Missouri, North
Carolina, and South Dakota all teachers must pass examination on
this subject. In New York the new syllabus for elementary schools
contains nature study and agriculture, and teachers in training
classes are required to cover all subjects in the syllabus. In Ohio the
Teachers’ Reading Circle requires the study of one text-book on ele-
mentary agriculture each year. The laws are also beginning to rec-
ognize the fact that definite provision should be made for the training
of teachers along agricultural lmes. Thus a recent act in Michigan,
which enables counties to maintain normal training classes with State
aid, requires the teaching of agriculture to such classes. In Massa-
chusetts the legislature appropriated $5,000 for normal work at the
State Agricultural College as one result of the report ef the commission
on industriel education above referred to.

It is also being seen that the high schools are very largely the aa
tutions in which the teachers of the rural schools receive their most
advanced training, and this fact is now making it easier to secure
legislation for high-school instruction in agriculture. Already under
State laws there are agricultural high schools in Alabama, California,
Minnesota, and Wisconsin. In 1905 the Minnesota legislature passed
an act providing for local option in the establishment and mainte-
nance of county schools of agriculture and domestic economy, limiting
to $20,000 the amount which any county may appropriate for this
purpose in one year. Two or more counties may unite to establish
such a school. Each school must have connected with it a tract of
land suitable for experiments and demonstrations of not less than
10 acres.

At the session of 1906 the Georgia legislature passed an act estab-
lishing 11 agricultural high schools, as branches of the State College
of Agriculture. These schools will each receive from the State about
$6,000 a year, derived from the inspection fees collected by the State -
department of agriculture, but each community in which such a
school is located must furnish not less than 200 acres of land and the
necessary equipment. The people are responding enthusiastically to
this requirement, and about $800,000 in land and money has been
offered for the equipment of these schools.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 157

In New Hampshire, beginning with 1906, high schools and acade-
mies may be approved by the State superintendent of education if
they are prepared to teach agriculture.

Recent legislation in Virginia provides for the establishment of
public high schools under the authority of the State superintendent
of education. Arrangements are being made to open about 150 such
schools, and it is intended to make instruction in agriculture a feature
of the course in such of these schools as are located in the rural
districts.

FORMULATION OF COURSES.

One of the objections often made to the introduction of agriculture
into our schools is that the teachers do not know what should be
taught under this head. This may have been a valid excuse in the
past, but to-day is no longer so. While there is still much differ-
ence of opinion as to details, the general scheme of instruction has
been pretty well worked out. For example, the Office of Experiment
Stations has published an outline plan of a course in nature study
and elementary agriculture for rural schools. This was prepared by
a committee of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and
Experiment Stations, and therefore represents broadly the views of
educators in different parts of the country on this subject. In this
publication,* which may be obtained on application to this Depart-
ment, it is suggested that during the first six years of the child’s
attendance at school he should be led to make observations of the
plants and animals on the farm and in the fields and woods, together
with simple studies of soils, weather conditions, and other natural
objects and phenomena. A more formal study of climate, soils, fer-
tilizers, farm crops, fruits, domestic animals, dairying, en haild:
ings and machinery, neers and farm accounts is outlined for
the seventh and penth school years. The committee has followed
this with a series of simple exercises and demonstrations on some of
the elementary principles of agriculture. These have recently been
published as a circular of the Office of Experiment Stations.

In Missouri a course in agriculture for the public schools was pre-
pared several years ago by the State superintendent of schools. This
has since been superseded by a more nearly complete presentation of
this subject in a bulletin prepared by the State superintendent and
published by the State board of agriculture. This bulletin advocates
presenting the subject of agriculture “(1) by experiments at home
and in the field, (2) by studying facts as given in texts and bulletins,
and (3) by school gardens connected with school grounds.” Nu-
merous experiments and observations are suggested throughout the
bulletin.

a Office of Experiment Stations Circular 60, The Teaching of Agriculture in the
Rural Common Schools.

158 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In Illinois a somewhat detailed course has been prepared by the
dean of the College of Agriculture. This course is arranged by
months, and gives suggestions for a large number of experiments and
observations bearing on all the divisions of agriculture. Consider-
able reading along agricultural lines is suggested, as well as drawing,
composition, and other work intended to correlate agriculture with
other school work. This Illinois course has not only been used in
that State, but has also been adopted by several other States and
published in the reports of their State superintendents of education.

In Minnesota a bulletin prepared by Prof. W. M. Hays, then pro-
fessor of agriculture of the College of Agriculture and now Assistant
Secretary of Agriculture, has been widely used in the schools of that
and other States. This bulletin contains a large number of practical
and illustrative exercises for use in connection with elementary
instruction in agriculture.

In Wisconsin the State superintendent of public instruction, in
1906, prepared an outline for instruction in the elements of agricul-
ture for the use of teachers in common schools. In this outline it is
recommended that agriculture be taught in the last half of the eighth
year, and that nature study be given in all grades through general
exercises and in connection with language exercises, geography, reading,
and history. The outline is divided into three parts, (1) agriculture,
including the soil, water and the soil, tilling the soil, soil enrich-
ment, the plant, the leguminous plants, plant enemies, rotation of
crops, selection of seed, the farm garden, weeds, and home and school
gardens; (2) farm animals, including care and feeding, type forms,
and farm economics, and (3) farm poultry.

Outlines of courses, sample lessons, and other helps for teachers have
also been published by the State departments of education in Georgia,
Indiana, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolia, New
Hampshire, New York, and probably in other States.

The New York State department of education has published a sylla-
bus of a course in agriculture for high schools, and this will be followed
by a detailed series of lessons and laboratory and field exercises.

PREPARATION OF TEXT-BOOKS AND MANUALS.

The demand for text-books, manuals, and reference books on agri-
culture adapted to school use is steadily growing. The agricultural
experts connected with our agricultural colleges and experiment sta-
tions are thus encouraged to prepare such books, and publishers are
now active in seeking for books of this character. The number of bul-
letins useful to teachers and students which are issued by the United
States Department of Agriculture and the State experiment stations
has greatly increased in recent years, and the demand for these from
educational institutions is now large. Among elementary text-books

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 159

which are already used more or less extensively in schools are Burkett,
Stevens and Hill’s Agriculture for Beginners; Goff and Mayne’s First
Principles of Agriculture; Bailey’s Principles of Agriculture; Good-
rich’s First Book of Farming; Brooks’s Agriculture; Jackson and
Daugherty’s Agriculture through the Laboratory and School Garden;
Shepperd and McDowell's Elements of Agriculture (prepared espe-
cially for North Dakota schools), and Hatch and Haselwood’s Ele-
mentary Agriculture with Practical Arithmetic. The last mentioned
is an interesting attempt to correlate instruction im agriculture with
that in arithmetic by connecting with the several lessons in agriculture
a number of practical arithmetical problems directly relating to the
farm. For the high-school library and the teachers’ use we have such
advanced manuals as Hunt’s Cereals in America; Smith’s Profitable
Stock Feeding; Henry’s Feeds and Feeding; Jordan’s Feeding of
Animals; King’s Soil, Irrigation and Drainage, and Physics of Agricul-
ture; Decker’s Dairying; Snyder’s Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life;
Mead’s Irrigation Institutions; Taylor’s Agricultural Economics,
and others. For general reference books we have the new Interna-
tional Encyclopedia; Bailey’s Encyclopedia of Horticulture; Wilcox
and Smith’s Encyclopedia for Farmers; Bailey’s Garden Craft and
Rural Science Series; the Yearbooks of the United States Department
of Agriculture, and others of similar character. The bulletins and
books which the schools can easily secure contain many descriptions
and illustrations of simple and inexpensive apparatus and other facili-
ties which may be purchased or made by the teacher. There is no
excuse for keeping agriculture out of the schcols to-day because of a
lack of suitable books or other aids to such instruction. Suggestions
‘for the adaptation of country schoolhouses to this new work are now
being made. At Cornell University a model schoolhouse is being
erected, which, in addition to the usual recitation room, will have a
large laboratory for nature study and elementary agriculture.

PROVISION FOR TRAINING TEACHERS.

Realizing that a vital point in the effective teaching of agriculture
in our public schools is the training of teachers in this subject, the
friends of this movement are now making active efforts to establish
agricultural courses for teachers in our colleges and normal schools.
The agricultural colleges in a number of States have given instruction
to considerable numbers of teachers at summer schools. They are now
beginning to establish regular normal courses, provision for such work
having recently been made at the colleges in Illinois, Mississippi,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, and New York. The colleges in
Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, New York, Mississippi, and Rhode Island also have
so-called extension departments which are seeking to come into close

160 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

touch with teachers as well as with country boys and girls, and thus
promote the wider diffusion of agricultural education. These colleges
are also using their influence to turn students in their regular courses
to the career of teaching. The agricultural high schools, whether
attached to the agricultural colleges or independent of them, are also
training teachers. Some of the normal schools in Alabama, Georgia,
Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, California, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts,
Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma,
Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin
are giving regular instruction in nature study and elementary
agriculture.
ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.

Meanwhile the establishment of courses in agriculture in secondary
and primary schools is going on in different parts of the country. The
agricultural high schools organized in connection with the agricultural
colleges in Minnesota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Wash-
ington report an increased number of students, and are better equipped
than ever before. The National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., has
been recognized by the State legislature, which granted it an appro-
priation of $12,000, to be used for agricultural instruction. This
school now receives more applicants for admission than it can accom-
modate, and is obliged to keep a waiting list. In Wisconsin the Dunn
County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy at Menominee
has graduated three classes—21 boys and girls in 1904, 19 in 1905, and
16in 1906. The California Polytechnic School, at San Luis Obispo, has
become firmly established and has a good equipment and a consider-
able number of agricultural students. The nine district agricultural
schools in Alabama are steadily growing in popularity, and the effi-
ciency of their agricultural work has been much increased. The agri-
cultural course at the Mount Hermon School, in Massachusetts, is being
well maintained. In Missouri agriculture is being taught in 200 high
schools, in Ohio in 30, and in one or more schools in Alabama, New
Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New York, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska,
Louisiana, Indiana, Maine, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oklahoma,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and
Wisconsin.

Agricultural high schools have recently been organized at Crookston,
Minn., and Calvert, Md. At the latter a graduate of the Iowa Agri-
cultural College has been elected principal, and a course of study
closely following the course recommended by the committee on
instruction in agriculture of the Association of American Agricul-
tural Colleges and Experiment Stations® has been adopted, and the

a Office of Experiment Stations Circular 60.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 161

agricultural work is arousing much interest not only among the pupils
but also among the farmers of the county. The principal visits other
schools in the vicinity for the purpose of getting their teachers and
pupils interested in agricultural subjects. The school is strictly rural,
and although it has been running only since the 1st of November, 1906,
there is an enrollment of 47, the school building is crowded, and already
there is talk of a new building next year. Georgia is organizing eleven
suchschools. The agricultural courses in schools for negroes at Hamp-
ton, Va., and Tuskegee, Ala., are maintained very efficiently, and
efforts are being made to strengthen the agricultural courses of sec-
ondary grade in a number of the land-grant colleges for negroes in
other Southern States.

In Ohio it is reported that elementary agriculture is taught in
approximately 500 township schools; in Missouri in 3,000 schools; in
North Dakota in 300 schools; and this subject is regularly taught in a
considerable number of schools in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Indian Territory, lowa, Louisiana, Maine, Nebraska, New Hampshire,
New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia,
Wisconsin, and Washington.

NUMBER OF PUPILS STUDYING AGRICULTURE.

Reliable statistics of the number of pupils studying agriculture in
our public schools are not available, but from the reports recently
received at the Office of Experiment Stations it is certain that they
are numbered by thousands. From the report of the State super-
intendent of education of Missouri for 1905 we have gathered the
following interesting statistics: The total number of schools doing
high-school work in that State is 555, with 1,428 teachers and 28,354
students. The total number of students in agriculture is 1,180. In
the sciences, which are more or less related to agriculture, the num-
bers are as follows: Botany, 2,742; zoology, 1,905; chemistry, 1,492;
physics, 3,386; physical geography, 4,215; physiology, 3,411. Latin
is taken by 14,117 students, but Greek by only 200. In manual
training there are 2,582 students, in bookkeeping 1,534, and in
stenography 436. As some indication of the number of farmers’
children in these high schools it may be stated that there are 4,000
nonresident pupils. From these high schools come very largely
the teachers required by the elementary country schools, and 3,000
new teachers are needed for these schools in Missouri each year.
These statistics show several things: (1) That a good beginning
has been made in teaching agriculture in the Missouri high schools;
(2) that there is so much elementary science taught in these schools
that there should be little difficulty in laying a proper foundation

for effective agricultural instruction; (3) that there are so many =~.

3 41906—11

162 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT CF AGRICULTURE.

farmers’ children in these schools that with proper courses of instruc-
tion the high schools of Missouri may easily become powerful agen-
cies for sending back to the farms young people thoroughly alive
to the advantages of country hfe and the-requirements of a pro-
gressive agriculture; (4) that it is vital to the advancement of the
best interests of the elementary rural schools that the atmosphere
and instruction of schools should be favorable to agriculture, for to
these high schools the country school must largely look for teachers.

HOW FARMERS MAY HELP THE SCHOOLS.

Having now reviewed the progress which has been made in recent
years in opening the way for the teaching of agriculture in our publie
schools, it may be weil to give brief attention to some of the ways
in which the farmers themselves may further promote the improve-
ment of the rural schools in this and other respects. Our agricul-
tural communities have never been so prosperous as to-day. And
there is every reason to believe that with intelligent management
of the land and sound judgment in the marketing of the products
this prosperity may be permanently maintamed. The farmers
now have the means to improve not only their lands and buildings,
but also their general social conditions. The experience of the past
century has shown that a thorough and effective school system in
which the curriculum recognizes the industrial, intellectual, and
social needs of the community is a most influential factor in pre-
moting material wealth, as well as a broad and satisfactory life.
Our farmers will be wise, therefore, if they use a portion of their
increased means to strengthen and improve the rural schools. Some
have feared that agricultural prosperity would lead to a neglect of
education in our rural communities. But the indications are that
this is not to be so. Our agricultural colleges and schools report
both an increase in the number of students and an improvement in
their quality. It appears that with the improvement of agricultural
conditions there is a renewed interest in farming as a business, and
farm boys of strong mental caliber and active ambition are seeking
in larger numbers to prepare themselves in the best way for a life on
the farm.

There is also widespread recognition of the fact that our present
agricultural prosperity rests on a different basis from that of pre-
vious periods in our history. There have been times when multitudes
of our farmers were prosperous because they had occupied large areas
of virgin soil freely granted them by the Government or purchased at
a very low price. To-day our agricultural prosperity has come partly
from increased demand for farm products at home and abroad and
partly from the more skillful use of the land and the growing of imz,
proved crops and animals. And the improvement of agricultural

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 163

methods and products has been very largely the result of the
work of the United States Department of Agriculture and the State
experiment stations. Technical and scientific knowledge is, as never
before, a requisite of the most successful farming. The schools can
be made efficient aids to the acquirement of that knowledge which
our farm youth must have in order to perpetuate and extend the
prosperity which their fathers now enjoy. Therefore our intelligent
farmers are seeking to improve the rural schools, and will do so
more actively as they come more generally to understand the im-
portance of such action.

Better-trained teachers, improved school houses and grounds,
more apparatus and books, free transportation of pupils to conscli-
dated schools, high schools made available to all country children,
and the teaching of agriculture and home ecomonics will cost some-
thing, and if they are to be had they must be paid for. But unless
all past experience is a false guide, this improved school system will
be one of the most profitable investments ever made by a civilized
community. And if our farmers are alert to their interests they
will push these improvements along rapidly, and they will not permit
the entire expense to come out of the taxable farm property. The
villages and cities, whose prosperity rests on the farms, and the
accumulated wealth of the State should contribute to the education
of the rural people. This is already recognized in a number of our
States as a wise and just principle. The nation has also recognized
it by appropriating large sums for the higher agricultural education.

It can not be too strongly urged that the movement for the im-
provement of the rural schools, and in particular for the teaching
of topics directly relating to agriculture and farm home life, should
receive the active support of the masses of our farmers. And this
support should be felt in our legislatures, boards of education, and
local school management. This will require study. of the present
condition of our rural schools and careful consideration of their
needs. As regards agricultural instruction there should be an under-
standing of what the elementary and secondary schools may prop-
erly teach and the relation of such studies to those ordinarily pursued
in our schools. For example, our farmers should come to under-
stand that it is not the ordinary practice of agriculture which can
or should be taught in the public schools. It is rather the observation
of the things in the natural world which the farmer has to deal with,
the use of natural laws for the benefit of agriculture, the reasons
why certain farm practices are beneficial and others injurious to
the land that the school may teach. For example, in a dairy region
the composition of milk, the causes of the souring of milk, and the
ways of preventing this may be taught in school; in a potato-growing
region, the nature and cause of potato blight; thé reason Why ‘it ‘is:
necessary to spray the vines before the disease appears; where the

164 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

soils are deficient in nitrogen, the advantage of green manuring
with leguminous plants and the reasons therefor; in an arid region,
the use of the soil mulch and why it prevents the escape of soil mois-
ture. And, above all, the farmer should see to it that the rural
school-teacher is a friend of agriculture and loses no good opportunity to
show his or her pupils the advantages and opportunities of country life.
The farmers can also do a great deal to promote the teaching of
agriculture in the rural schools by encouraging the teachers to take
up this subject and to prepare themselves to give instruction in it.
The farmers are very largely the managers of rural schools and their
children are the teachers in them. Merely by taking an active inter-
est in the local schools, inviting the teachers and scholars to visit the
farm, especially when there are unusually good crops and fine ani-
mals to be seen there, or sending specimens of products or injurious
birds or insects to the school, the intelligent farmer may help to create
a sentiment in favor of agricultural instruction there. Teachers,
like other workers, will inevitably respond to an active demand for
new things... As soon as it becomes generally understood that the
farmers are bound to have agriculture taught in the schools, candi-
dates for teachers’ positions will get ready to teach it. With many
of our educational leaders fully believing that subjects directly related
to the life work of the pupils should be taught and a host of the intel-
ligent farmers insisting that our future agricultural prosperity will
largely depend on such teaching in the schools, a way will surely be
found to bring this great reform to a successful issue. Meanwhile let
us have great patience with even the most imperfect attempts on the
part of our schools to work along this line. The whole matter of
elementary and secondary instruction in agriculture is in an experi-
mental stage. Many trials of courses, methods of teaching, books,
apparatus, and other facilities must be made before plans fully adapted
to the conditions of different agricultural regions can be matured.
Intelligent and kindly criticism should be invited and utilized by all
who are engaged in this work. In this way alone can the best prog-
ress be made.
~ What is now being done, with all its imperfections, is tremendously
important. Principles of action are being determined. Every suc-
cessful example of the effective teaching of agriculture, whether in a
little country school or in the agricultural high school, is helping to
indicate along what line the future growth of this movement must
proceed. There is therefore much cause for congratulation that in
so many different States and under such a variety of conditions
honest and substantial efforts are being made to solve the problems
of our rural schools and to test the usefulness of agricultural instruc-
tion as a means of improving country life and perpetuating agricul-
tural prosperity.

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES.

By Henry O.pys,
Assistant, Biological Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

Three hundred thousand cage-birds, largely canaries, are annually
imported into the United States. Some of these are destined for
zoological parks and a few for private aviaries, but the great majority
find their way into the hands of those who desire to have a cage-bird
or two to brighten the home. ‘This yearly influx of captive birds may
seem large, considering the comparatively small number usually in
evidence; but it must be remembered that they are scattered over an
area of more than 3,000,000 square miles, and are distributed among a
population of more than 80,000,000, which allows but 4 birds a year
to every 1,000 persons, or about 400 birds to a city of the size of
Columbus, Ohio.

The practice of keeping live birds in confinement is worldwide and
extends so far back in history that the time of its origin is unknown.
It exists among the natives of tropical as well as temperate countries,
was found in vogue on the islands of the Pacific when they were first
discovered, and was habitual with the Peruvians under the Incas and the
Aztecs under Montezuma. Caged birds were popular in classic Greece
and Rome. ‘The Alexandrian parrakeet-—-a ring-necked parrakeet of
India—which is much fancied at the present day, is said to have been
first brought to Europe by one of the generals of Alexander the
Great. Before this living birds had been kept by the nations of west-
ern Asia, and the voices of bulbuls and other attractive singers doubt-
less added to the charms of the hanging gardens of Babylon, while
in China and Japan the art of domesticating wild birds has been prac-
ticed for many centuries.

It is not difficult to account for the motive that underlies this wide-
spread habit. The same spirit that leads to the domestication of wild
flowers for adornment of the home and the pleasure derived from their
beauty or fragrance is responsible for the similar transplanting of
wild birds from their natural homes to those of their captors, and
the parallel extends to the subsequent production of new varieties.

As a people, Americans have less of this spirit than prevails else-
where. Despite the multitudes of birds weekly entering the country—

_a single vessel will occasionally deliver ten or fifteen thousand—our
165

166 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

interest in avicultural pursuits is comparatively slight. In Europe
aviaries are numerous and their owners maintain a common interest
by means of avicultural organizations and periodicals. Bird shows
are held annually or oftener in London, Berlin, and many other Euro-
pean cities. A friendly but keen rivalry prevails among the owners
of aviaries as to which shall first succeed in breeding species that have
not previously been bred in captivity or in producing new hybrids.
The journals and magazines devoted to aviculture serve as a medium
of exchange of methods and experiences and keep their readers in touch
with each other. In Germany, particularly, the practice of keeping,
rearing, and studying cage-birds is very common. In many. a dwell-
ing one room is set apart for birds, and these bird rooms are not con-
fined to a particular class, but are found in the homes of people of
every rank and condition. As long ago as 1880 some 200 societies
of amateurs existed, and several weekly publications and magazines
devoted to birds attested the general interest in avicultural pursuits.

The breeding of cage-birds for sale isa regular occupation in several
parts of Europe. Germany produces hundreds of thousands of sing-
ing canaries in the Harz Mountains, those of St. Andreasburg being
unrivaled songsters ; in England, Scotland, and Belgium fancy vari-
eties of canaries are regularly bred for the trade; and at the Royal
Society’s zoological gardens of Antwerp, Belgium, the breeding of
many species of foreign cage-birds is systematically conducted.

The United States has few aviaries, and most of these are devoted to
pheasants and other large birds. For a few years an avicultural peri-
odical was published, but the support it received was apparently insuf-
ficient, and at present there seem to be no periodicals and very few
associations strictly devoted to aviculture. Hence in this country
there is not that community of interest and information that charac-
terizes the avocation in Europe. America supports a few small shows,
mainly exhibitions of canaries; and smail exhibitions of cage birds,
mostly canaries, are usually held as adjuncts to the annual poultry
shows of New York, Boston, Chicago, Toronto, and other cities.
The breeding of canaries and cage-birds for the trade in any numbers
is practically unknown on this side of the Atlantic.

TRAFFIC IN DOMESTIC BIRDS.

The once extensive trade in native American birds has dwindled to
the vanishing point. Formerly mockingbirds, bluebirds, cardinals,
tanagers, indigo birds, and nonpareils were caught in large numbers
and sold either here or abroad, and more or less trade in other species
prevailed. Bluebirds, which are known as blue robins or blue
nightingales in England and France, were imported into England some
time before 1869, as'anothat yearthey were first bred in the London!

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 167

Zoological Gardens. They are regarded with much favor by amateurs
and have been repeatedly bred in private aviaries. Mockingbirds
were bred in French aviaries before 1873. While intolerant of cage
mates, they are much valued in Europe for their song, which, how-
ever, is there considered inferior to that of the nightingale—a judg-
ment partly assisted, perhaps, by patriotic bias and association.
Scarlet tanagers and cardinals are ranked very high in Europe,
and frequently win prizes in bird shows. Evidence of the esteem as
cage-birds in which the latter are held is shown by the fact that they
are listed on the price list of a London bird dealer for September,
1906, at more than $5 apiece. Of interest in this connection is the
statement of Gemelli Careri, quoted by Nuttall in his Manual of
Ornithology published in 1832, that ‘‘the Spaniards of Havana in a
time of public distress and scarcity bought so many of these birds
[cardinals], with which a vessel was partly freighted from Florida,
that the sum expended at $10 apiece amounted to no less than
$18,000.” Indigo birds and nonpareils are valued for their attractive
plumage. Of the latter thousands were annually exported to Europe,
where they sold for $1.50 to $2 apiece.-

In consequence of the continual trapping to supply the increasing
demand, several of these birds became rare in localities where once
they had been common. Nearly every State had a law protecting
nongame birds, but such laws were at that time imperfectly framed
and ineffectively enforced. The ustal exception authorizing the keep-
ing of birds in cages as domestic pets was unaccompanied by any
restriction on trade, which, in consequence, flourished. Imperfect as
these laws were, they were rendered still less effective by the absence
of public interest in their observance and adequate provision for their
enforcement. Gradually, however, the influence of the bird-protec-
tive movement began to make itself felt and the laws were improved.
One State after another adopted a model law framed by a committee
of the American Ornithologists’ Union, which instead of simply pro-
hibiting the kiliing of a few birds specifically named, as had formerly
been done, prohibited the killing, capture, or possession of all birds
other than game birds and a few injurious species, and interdicted all
trade in them. The interest in bird life awakened by the efforts of
this organization and the various State Audubon societies caused
these laws to be more or less vigorously enforced, and the trade in
native birds declined proportionately. Supplies were still obtained,
however, from States that had not adopted modern laws, and the
export trade to Europe continued brisk. One by one these remain-
ing strongholds were carried by the forces of bird protection until
finally, in 1904, Louisiana, the only State left from which birds were
procurable, adopted the model law, and now, beyond a few surrepti-
tious and illegal shipments, the domestic and foreign trade:m native '*

168 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

American birds has been entirely abolished. Occasionally a small
consignment of mockingbirds or cardinals is smuggled to Hamburg
or some other European port, but the life of the trade is gone.

TRAFFIC IN FOREIGN BIRDS.

The importation of foreign cage-birds has grown to its present pro-
portion, not only in this country, but in Europe as well, within the
last fifty years. Upto the middle of the last century, apart from
parrots and some other of the larger species, few birds were imported
into Europe, and as late as 1860 only about 60 different kinds of for-
eign birds were brought in, and these in moderate numbers. But
about this time a rapid increase began, and by 1880 the species im-
ported approximated 700 and the individuals from 500,000 to 800,060.
The Japanese robin, a favorite cage-bird of to-day, was first brought
to the London Zoological Gardens in 1886, and the shell parrakeet of
Australia, now one of the best known of exotic birds, and sold at whole-
sale in London for about $1.37 a pair, was first brought to England
by Gould in 1840, and for the next ten years commanded $100 to $125
a pair. ‘

In the United States the growth of importation has undergone a
_ similar development, lagging, however, slightly behind the Euro-
pean growth. In both cases the sudden invasion of the markets by
foreign birds was due to the advantages of quick transportation. When
supplies from distant lands were brought by sailing vessels but few
birds survived the long voyages. But the steamship afforded oppor-
tunity for conveying birds with speed and safety, and dealers were
quick to avail themselves of the changed conditions. As long ago as
1865 there was a brisk American trade in foreign cage-birds of all
kinds, and by 1880 this had so inereased that a single dealer in New
York City handled 70,000 canaries each season.

NUMBER OF BIRDS IMPORTED.

The decline in the trade in domestic cage-birds has doubtless
stimulated the trade in foreign cage-birds, which advanced from
235,433 imported under permit of the Department of Agriculture in
the year ending June 30, 1902, to 322,297 in the year ending June
30, 1906, an increase of 37 per cent in four years. At the beginning of
this period the model bird-protective law previously mentioned had
been adopted by 16 States; at its close it was in force in 35.

Of the birds imported in the year ending June 30, 1906, 274,914

were canaries and 47,383 miscellaneous birds. The canaries were
nearly all raised in Germany. Thirty-three per cent of the miscella-
neous birds were from the Orient, 30 per cent from Europe, 22 per cent
from Australia,.7 per cent; from Cuba and Mexico, 6 per cent from

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 169

Africa, and i per cent from South America. The remaining 1 per
cent were of unknown origin. In addition to these, 2,700 canaries,
mostly from Germany, and about 6,000 parrots from various jeopieal
countries came in without permit, no permit being issued for these
birds when they are unaccompanied by others.

HOW BIRDS ARE SECURED.

A peep behind the scenes is always interesting, and when we see
diverse and remote regions of the world pouring their treasures of
bird life into our country a desire is awakened to know by what means
this is accomplished.

In some cases the method is as old as the history of maritime com-
merce. From the time when vessels began to make voyages to other
countries sailors have brought back trophies of various sorts, includ-
ing specimens of the fauna of distant lands. Some birds are still thus
brought in and are bought by dealers in the various ports of entry.

This method, somewhat systematized, prevails at San Francisco,
where the trade, temporarily suspended by the earthquake and fire, is
now beginning to revive. Supplies are here obtained from the crews
of steamers coming from China and Japan, who make a regular business
of transporting cage-birds, usually under an arrangement with the
steamship companies by which they are employed See freight
is paid out of the proceeds of sales. The birds thus imported are con-
siderable in number, but few in species, being mainly Java sparrows,
diamond sparrows, Chinese mockingbirds, and other common kinds.

But most of the birds imported are secured by more highly organized
methods. Several of the leading importers maintain forces of men to
secure the desired birds either in their native haunts or in European
ports to which they are brought by the agents of other importers.

Parrots are generally taken while still in the nest. During the nest-
ing season the leading American houses send men to Cuba, Mexico, or
South America to obtain stock. Headquarters are established by these
agents at some point convenient to the parrot country and natives are -
employed to secure the young birds, which are forwarded to the United
States in periodical shipments. Agents have sometimes been sent from
this country to Africa to secure supplies of the favorite African
gray parrot, but these are usually obtained in European ports from
vessels arriving with supplies for the large European houses.

Smail birds, other than canaries, are generally captured with nets.
Expert netters continually visit remote regions in the interest of whole-
sale houses of Hamburg, London, Liverpool, and other large cities of
Europe. Similar expeditions are dispatched from New York and
Philadelphia to Cuba and Mexico and occasionally to more distant
lands—even India; but the principal American houses maintain con-
nections with establishments in Germany: thrdieh Which their sapplies
of Old World and South American birds are more commonly procured.

176 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Canaries are obtained by agents who visit breeders in the Harz
Mountains, the Tyrol, and other parts of Europe. A few, however,
are imported at San Francisco from breeders in China and Japan.

HOW BIRDS ARE SHIPPED.

Most of the small birds received from Africa and Australia are
shipped in large boxes especially prepared for the purpose (see PI.
VIII, fig. 1). These boxes are of different sizes and accommodate from
1 to 125 or 150 birds, according to size of box or of birds shipped.
Shell parrakeets are sent from Australia in especially large boxes,
sometimes as many as 500 making the journey ina single box. The
birds so shipped are of a peaceable disposition and may be caged
together without fear of their injuring one another; but some birds,
such as bullfinches, goldfinches, and male canaries, are quarrelsome,
and each bird has to be placed in a separate cage.

Canaries are confined in small wicker cages, seven of which are
strung on a stick, constituting what is technically known as a row.
When shipped across the. ocean these rows are crated and a linen or
burlap sack specially made for the purpose is placed about each crate
(see Pl. VIII, figs. 2and3). .Acrate usually contains33 rows. To para-
phrase the old riddle—every sack has 33 rows, every row has 7 cages,
every cage has 1 canary (or sometimes 2 if the occupants are the more
peaceable females). Often more than two dozen crates are shipped
in one consignment. Each of these must be opened every day of the
voyage, every row removed, and food and water placed in the cages.
In this daily re-crating the rows are rearranged so that the benefits of
outside positions may be more evenly distribated among the birds.

On arrival in port consignments of birds (which pay no duty) are
entered at the custom-house under permit from the Department of
Agriculture, usually secured in advance by theimporter. The larger
shipments are generally examined by one of the special inspectors of
the Department stationed at the principal ports of entry. Nearly all
shipments subject to such inspection enter at New York and Phila-
delphia. After the inspector has examined a consignment to ascer-
tain that it contains no objectionable species, and has noted, for sub-
sequent report to the Department, the number and kinds of birds it
comprises, the importer is free to dispose of it.

It is the aim of the importer to sell his stock as quickly as possible,
to diminish his lossés by death and so increase his profit. It is esti-
mated that the mortality en route and in the store among some of the
more delicate species of birds, such as African finches, may reach 14
per cent.

Zoological parks and aviaries are usually supplied direct by the
importers, but the general publig is reached by way of the retailer,

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE VIII.

Ui] iif iii i i
POOR

‘
i
jit

——

Ha ae A ie i pat

— —— — TH i
a vem TM ae

Pu Vy
\ War")

METHODS OF SHIPPING AND TESTING CAGE BIRDS.
[1.—Cage for shipping small birds (see p. 170). 2.—Crate of canaries ready for shipment
(see p. 170). 3.—Crate of canaries partly open to show rows of cages (see p. 170).
4.—Testing singing of canaries (see p. 173).]

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 171

Many small bird stores are scattered over the country, and some of
the large department stores have added birds to the great variety of
merchandise they handle. Small consignments are shipped to retail
dealers by express (at double rates). In the cages or boxes are placed
water and food sufficient to last until arrival at destination. Some-
times, when the distances are unusually long, the express messengers
supply fresh water and food en route, and large consignments are
often accompanied by agents of the importers. Several of the princi-
pal imperters have branch establishments at various points, such as
New Orleans, Chicago, and San Francisco, which fill western orders.

THE RETAIL TRADE IN BIRDS.

While retailers do more or less business during the entire year,
three well-defined seasons are established. In EF ebruary canaries
begin to breed, and for the first two or three months of the year the
trade in breeding canaries, especially females, is brisk. About the
time it subsides the first shipments of young parrots arrive from Cuba
and Mexico. These at once take the stage and hold it until the mid.
dle of August, when it is no longer possible to secure young birds.
Interest then turns chiefly to singing canaries and the many other small
cage-birds that are imported. The sale for these grows greater and
greater and reaches its maximum by Christmastide, after which it
abruptly declines. Many dealers probably make more sales in Decem-
ber than during all the rest of the year. In the Christmas season of
1905 one Philadelphia department store sold 4,000 canaries, besides
other cage-birds.

From the character of the demand for cage-birds it is evident that
the retail trade is, as a rule, not enough by itself to yield a profitable
income. It is usually, therefore, combined with some trade of an
allied nature. in retail bird stores one may usually find fowls of
various kinds, pheasants, dogs, monkeys, squirrels, white mice, guinea-
pigs, goldfish, and even lizards and snakes. The sale of food and
cages also constitutes an item, and sometimes the proprietor acts as
surgeon and physician te domestic pets.

SPECIES IMPORTED.

During the year ending June 30, 1906, more than 200 species of
cage-birds were imported into the United States. These comprised
canaries, parrots (under which term we may include parrakeets, cocka-
toos, macaws, and lories), European birds, Oriental birds, African
birds, Australian birds, and a few South American, Mexican, and
Cuban birds. It is obviously impossible, in the space of the present
article, to consider all these in detail; but a brief account of some of
the most important will be of MELA Say a oe Pe

172 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
CANARIES.

So widely known has the sweet-singing canary become that should
an inhabitant of one of the civilized countries of the world visit the
Canary Islands and hear the wild birds in their native home the strains
would, in all probability, bring to the traveler memories of his own
home. The clear and varied notes of this favorite singer are familiar
to young and old, and many dwellings, from the great mansion to the
obscure cottage, are alike brightened by their beauty. The position
of the canary among cage-birds is unique—not only because of its
widespread popularity, but also from the fact that centuries cf domes-
tication have rendered it peculiarly dependent on man. Its cage has
become its natural home and to it liberty would probably mean death.

The bird is a native of the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Funchal
(Madeira), and is said to have been brought from the Canaries to Spain
and kept asa cage-bird by the Spanish nobility shortly before the time
of the discovery of America. Other accounts make Italy the first
country into which it was introduced and place the time early in the
sixteenth century. It is sufficient for present purposes to note that
it has been domesticated and prized as a cage-bird for the past four
centuries. The wild bird is smaller than the bird now so familiar, and
is also differently colored, having less bright yellow and considerable
olive and brownish in its coloring. Nor does it sing as sweetly.
Nevertheless, it is so attractive that soon after its introduction it
became a general favorite, and was bred so assiduously that it is said
that by the beginning of the eighteenth century 27 different varieties
were produced. It is interesting to note that canaries are now
exported from England to the Canary Islands.

The canary is a very good imitator. Mature birds have been known
to reproduce very closely the songs of even such birds as chewinks,
house wrens, and others, and the faculty has been utilized by breeders
to determine to a certain extent the quality or character of the song of
a young bird. In Germany young canaries have been associated with
nightingales and in England with woodlarks to this end. But the
method commonly employed at present is to place the young bird with
a canary that possesses a superior song and is kept solely for training
purposes. The fine singers used for this purpose are called **cam-
paninis” and command high prices. Singers are measured by the rich-
ness and sweetness, not the strength, of their tones. Thus the voice
of one of the choice St. Andreasburg ‘‘ rollers” (which sell at whole-
sale for $24 to $36 a dozen, according to season, while ordinary canaries
range from $15 to $21 a dozen) could easily be drowned by the sing-
ing of many an inferior canary. A single bird with a superior voice,
especially a campanini, will sometimes command a price for which
several dozen ordinary singers can be bought. Ordinary female birds,

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 173

on the other hand, which are purchased mainly for breeding purposes,
may be had as low as $6 a dozen at wholesale.

As previously stated, singing canaries are bred in the Harz Moun-
tains of Germany. Large numbers are raised by the cottagers of this
region and are bought directly from them by buyers for the wholesale
establishments of Germany and England and the German branches of
American establishments. How much the industry means to the peas-
ants near St. Andreasburg, the Brocken, and other localities in the
Harz Mountains may be gathered from the fact that thirty years ago
it was estimated that the trade amounted to $300,000 a year.

Some canaries sing much more freely than others, and immediately
after the arrival of a consignment at the store of the importer the inter-
esting process of testing the singing qualifications of the different
individuals is begun. Cages are piled one deep in a tier containing 40
or 50 rows. In front of this large, somewhat semicircular pile, each
cage containing a single occupant, sits the tester, watching and listen-
ing (see Pl. VIII, fig. 4). Many notes are to be heard, but it is difficult
to determine from which of the many scores of throats they proceed.
This is the duty assigned the tester, and when he is certain that any
particular bird is singing, he places a chalk mark on the cage contain-
ingit. Marked cages are subsequently removed and their occupants are
sold as guaranteed singers. Testing canaries is difficult and requires
both patience and training, yet on a clear, sunny day, when the birds
sing more freely and can be more clearly seen, an expert will some:
times mark 500 cages.

In the breeding of canaries song has not been the only desideratum,
but has shared consideration with shape and color. The potency of
artificial selection is as well shown in this pursuit as in the rearing of
fancy pigeons, and some quite as distorted shapes are produced. Thus
Belgium has succeeded in giving to the world a big canary with broad
shoulders abnormally raised above the small head. And Scotland has
produced a type—the Scotch fancy canary—that is bent like a bow, so
that when the bird is at rest on a perch a line drawn from bill to tip
of tail would pass well in front of the feet. Other abnormal products
of breeders’ ingenuity are the Yorkshire canary, very long and very
slim, and the Lancashire or Manchester coppy, well proportioned, but
a2 very giant among canaries.

Still other fancy varieties are the Norwich canary, at present a
popular favorite, the London fancy canary, the border fancy canary,
and the lizard canary, a dark bird with gold or silver spangles and
yellow crown. All these are further subdivided by breeders and
fanciers. Norwich canaries and Manchester coppies are frequently
ornamented with crests. Endowing with a crest a bird that has none
naturally is striking evidence of the possibilities of artificial selection,

174 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The diversity is further augmented by color possibilities. All
canaries are either ‘‘yellow” or ‘‘buff.” These are technical terms,
however, and are somewhat misleading. A yellow (or jonque) canary
is one whose plumage is lustrous; a buff (or mealy) one is one whose
plumage is dull and has a frosted appearance. Cinnamon canaries with
pink eyes, and green and piebald canaries also, are bred, and a few
decades ago it was discovered that by feeding young canaries freely on
cayenne pepper the yellow could be deepened into a rich orange. The
combinations offered by these different characteristics are very numer-
ous, and when to them are added the results of hybridizing with other
species—goldfinch, linnet, siskin, and others—as is done for the pro-
duction of the. much-prized ‘‘ mules,” unlimited possibilities seem to
open out before the breeder. In breeding for shape and color, singing
qualities are neglected, and canaries in which these are so highly
developed often have little left of the sweet song that was the chief
cause of their original domestication.

In view of the great number of varieties that have been produced
and the differences in style and quality of song, and taking into con-
sideration also the patience, care, and skill bestowed by breeders in
producing and maintaining at an established standard the various
results of their work, it is not surprising to find great differences in
the prices of canaries. Ordinary male canaries may be bought for
$1.50 to $2 apiece at retail, and from this the prices rise, through
Norwich, Yorkshire, lizard, Manchester, and Belgian canaries in order,
and reach in the last a wholesale rate of $30 to $50 a pair. Song pro-
duction has not been led into bizarre channels, and that beauty of song
is more highly estimated than odd shape is shown by the fact that
one of the finest singers among the ‘‘rollers” may command as much
as $150.

PARROTS.

So far as known, the first introduction of parrots into Europe
occurred in the fourth century B. C., when, it is related, one of the
generals of Alexander’s army, returning from India, brought with

him specimens of the ring-necked parrakeet. These parrakeets, which |

were called ‘‘Alexandrian parrakeets,” after the monarch in whose
reign they were introduced, are still very popular with bird-fanciers,
and are so common in India that sailors continually bring them to
Kurope and America. They are docile, and while slow in acquiring
speech, finally make excellent talkers. Roman writers inform us that
they were not eaten in India, but were held sacred because of their
ability to reproduce human speech.

African parrots were brought to Rome in the time of Nero from

beyond upper Egypt, where they had been discovered by explorers. _

They were highly prized, both as pets and as table delicacies, by the

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 175

Romans, who kept them in cages of tortoise-shell and ivory with silver
wires, and often paid more for one than for a slave.

The earliest knowledge we have of the keeping of West African
parrots as pets in Europe dates back to 1455, when Senegal parrots
were first introduced. American parrots owe their introduction into
the Old World to Columbus, who earried a few back with him on his
return from his first voyage to America. They were among the
objects of interest when he made his formal entry into Seville on
March 31, 1493. Five years later the Portuguese circumnavigated
the Cape of Good Hope, subjugated a part of India, and reintroduced
the Indian parrots into Europe.

The most popular parrots are the little green Australian parrakeets,
variously known as shell or grass parrakeets, budgerigars, or love
birds. These birds, familiar on the city streets in the capacity of
fortune-tellers and performers of tricks, are retailed in this country
at $4 or $5 a pair. They are among the easiest of all foreign birds to
breed and are raised in Jarge numbers in Europe, from which source
come many of the birds brought to the United States. In the year
ending June 30, 1906, we imported 5,387 to supply the demand, includ-
ing a few of a yellow variety produced by the breeders of Belgium
and France. Shell parrakeets are easily transported from Australia,
owing to their ability to exist for long periods without water, and
have frequently been carried to Europe in sailing vessels, making a
three or four months’ voyage, without being supplied with water.

Cuban parrots have recently risen in favor and several thousand
were needed to meet the year’s demand. These medium-sized green,
red, and blue birds with whitish crowns make fairly good talkers, and
sell at wholesale for $24 to $27 a dozen.

Amazons from Mexico and Central and South America, which aver-
age $6 apiece at wholesale, are favorites among the larger parrots.
They are known as blue-fronted, red-fronted, yellow heads, double-
yellow heads, etc., according to the markings of the head. The blue-
fronted amazons seem to be preferred in Europe; but the double-
yellow heads make the best talkers, and when well trained command
prices ranging as high as several hundred dollars apiece.

The African gray parrots are probably unrivaled in ability to repro-.
duce human speech, and have been popular pets in Europe since the
Middle Ages. Unfortunately they do not stand transfer very well
and the great majority of the few imported die soon after arrival.

The larger parrots have not yet learned to talk when they arrive,
and, as a rule, are disposed of at once to retailers. By these they are
often taught by means of specially constructed graphophones, which
automatically repeat, for hours at a time, selected words, phrases, or

pare ad ce atnd naxirey Wino! rIOW 7

176 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘Parrots often attain great age—gray parrots have been known
to live ninety years. They display affection and intelligence, and
make very interesting, albeit somewhat noisy pets. They should be
allowed frequent liberty from the cage for exercise, where it is
feasible; and they are much pleased and benefited by simple toys with
which to relieve the tedium of confinement—an empty spool, a piece
of tape fastened to the wire of the cage, or some similar object.

Macaws, large birds with glaring reds, blues, yellows, and greens
in their coloration and with voices to match, are secured in tropical
America; a few lories are brought from the Pacific regions; and many
cockatoos from Australia and neighboring islands. Of the last the
rose cockatoo from the Moluccas seems to be preferred. Nearly 300
were imported during the year. Both macaws and cockatoos are diffi-
cult to handle. Their powerful beaks are weapons not to be despised,
and are used so freely that specially strong cages and perches are
needed to withstand their destructive attacks. Macaws were greatly
prized as pets by the Peruvians before the Spanish conquest.

The little yellow-crested cockateels from Australia seem to win less
favor here than in England, where they are fairly common in ayia-
ries, while but 30 or 40 seem to be enough to supply our annual needs.
They retail here at $8 apiece and in England at about $2.50 a pair, a
difference in price that may partly account for the difference in fayor.

EUROPEAN BIRDS.

The European birds ordinarily imported are sold at wholesale for $9
a dozen, with two exceptions—siskins, plain-colored birds, which are
usually secured for crossing with canaries and which bring only $6 a
dozen, and trained or ‘“‘ piping” bullfinches, which command $15 each.
The handsome goldtinches are easily first in popular estimation, as is
shown by the fact that 5,000 are annually brought in. Of bullfinches,
1,500, mostly untrained, entered during the year. More than a
thousand each of siskins and linnets are imported each year and several
hundred skylarks and chaffinches. Song thrushes, blackbirds, and
black-caps show some degree of popularity; and so doubtless would
the robin redbreast—the true robin of our nursery tales and jingles—
were it easier to keep alive in confinement. Nearly a hundred night-
ingales are annually brought across the ocean, but very few ever again
utter the song that has become so famous. Their silence is a mute but
eloquent protest against their captivity, and serves to remind us that
in caging a bird we do not necessarily cage its song.

ORIENTAL BIRDS.

The Orient furnishes several of the most popular cage birds—Java
sparrows, of which we imported 6,285 in the year ending June 30, 1906;

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. i Pe

Japanese robins, of which 4,539 were brought in; Japanese nuns of
various kinds, which aggregated 1,780; and strawberry finches, of which
1,280 were needed to supply the demand.

Java sparrows, also known as paddy or rice birds because of their
destructive work in rice fields, are hardy and breed freely in captivity.
Their general color is a soft bluish gray, set off by the red bill and
conspicuous white marking about the face. A white variety has
been produced in the Orient. These retail for $3.50 each, while the
grays bring only $1.50 apiece. Pure whites are not very common—
‘in most white birds more or less of the blue-gray appears. Java
sparrows were among the earliest foreign birds imported both in Europe
and the United States, and those procured for the trade are, like
canaries, chiefly cage-bred birds. The Japanese now breed these
birds in large numbers. In order to increase production they raise
the young by hand, feeding them with a sort of spoon cut from a thin
bamboo splint. The old birds, thus relieved of the care of their young,
are free to breed again at once.

Japanese robins, usually called Pekin nightingales by English avi-
culturists (who know our cardinals as Virginia nightingales), were
imported to the number of 4,539. They are peculiarly colored—dark
and greenish with distinctive yellow and orange on breast, bill, and
wings. ‘They are easy to keep, possess a sweet and musical song, and
have a song period of ten months, which contrasts favorably with those
of most cage-birds, the nightingale, for example, which, when it sings
atall,is in song for only twomonths. They are native in China, Japan,
and India, and were first brought to England about 1866 and to the
United States ten or fifteen years later. They retail at $4 each.

Nuns are small birds of different species, such as the black-headed,
white-headed, and tricolored nuns, the spicebird or chestnut finch, and
others. Most of them have more or less dark brown in the coloring.
A pure white variety and a buff and white variety of one species—the
Japanese nun, also known as bengalee or mannikin—hbear testimony to
the assiduity of Japanese breeders.

An attractive singer that seems to be growing in popularity is the
shama thrush from India. Its song suggests by turns those of catbird,
bobolink, and brown thrasher, but contains some clear mellow tones
not in the repertoire of those singers.

A few bulbuls are brought from India, mainly red-vented bulbuls,,
but including other kinds. These do not include, however, the famous
bulbul of Persia, the oriental counterpart of the European nightingale,
and they add comparatively little to the total number of songsters
imported.

The hill minas of India, like parrots, can be taught to talk, but very
few are imported. These retail at $17 apiece.

3 a1906——12

178 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AFRICAN BIRDS.

Most of the cage-birds from Africa, which are brought to London,
Liverpool, Marseille, Bordeaux, and other European ports in immense
numbers, are secured for beauty of plumage, not song. The African
weavers, 994 of which were imported during the year, in addition to
attractive coloring offer an interesting exhibition of their skill in the
art that has given them their name. At nesting time, if furnished with
worsted or other suitable material, they will weave this in and out of
the wires of their cages, making neat and compact examples of their
handiwork. Bishops and Madagascar weavers are brilliant red and
black in coloring, cut-throats have a band of red across the throat,
from which is derived the name, and whidah birds (incorrectly called
‘‘widow” birds) have extremely long tails. The group furnishes an
instance in which one family contains both bishops and cut-throats.
A Napoleon also figures among its members, and all are frequently
associated with Japanese nuns and Brazilian cardinals.

Waxbills numbered 555 in the year’s importations. These include
the dainty little cordon bleu, or crimson-eared waxbill, various species
of silverbills, and several other kinds. The violet-eared waxbill, a
bird of radiant, prismatic beauty, is brought to England, but has
apparently not yet come to the United States. The tiny zebra finches,
easy to keep and breeding readily in captivity, are favorites with the
bird-keeping public, 591 coming in during the year. African siskins
are also somewhat popular, and a small but increasing number of edel-
singers, or African gray singers, one of the few African species that
have a pleasing song, are imported annually.

African birds generally bring $1.50 a pair at wholesale. Most of
them have light, unmusical, but not disagreeable, notes, and being
bright and active, give life to room or aviary where they are confined.
While the breeding time of most of them is during our winter (the
seasons being reversed south of the equator), many of the little immi-
grants adapt themselves readily to the changed conditions and breed
in the summer of the North Temperate Zone.

AUSTRALIAN BIRDS.

Ordinary Australian birds also sell for $1.50 a pair wholesale. Of
these, apart from shell parrakeets, diamond sparrows are imported in
the largest numbers, the year’s supply being 332.

Australia is notable, however, for its charming Lady Gould finches,
which, perhaps, reach the highest point of beauty and elegance attained
by any of the smaller cage-birds of the world (see Pl. IX). Few are
sold in this country, possibly because of their high price—$9 to $10 a
pair at wholesale—and because they are difficult to keep (an English
fancier says of them that they suffer all the ills that. beset other cage-
birds and several special ones of their own). They are highly prized

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE IX.

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A.ROBN & CO BALTIMORE

LADY GOULD FINCH.

CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 179

in England, where they have been bred a number of times. The main
reason for their unusual mortality seems to be improper treatment.
Because they come from the warm climate of Australia, they are
usually kept where they have plenty of sunlight. As a matter of fact,
however, as recently pointed out by a writer in ‘‘ Bird Notes,” they
inhabit dense scrub, and in their natural habitat avoid the direct rays
of the sun. To place them ina smail cage in the sunlight is a very
effective method of destroying them. Lady Gould finches are attract-
ive in their ways as well as in appearance. They tame readily, are
not pugnacious with cage mates, and exhibit many individualities of
disposition. They have a very interesting little dance that sometimes
forms a part of their courtship.

BIRDS FROM SOUTH AMERICA, MEXICO, AND CUBA.

Omitting parrots, gray cardinals are the principal cage-birds
imported from South America. In England these vie in favor with
our own cardinal, from which they differ in being gray in color, with
no red excepting about the head. During the last fiscal year we
imported 455, which were retailed at $3.50 each. A number of differ-
ent species of small birds are annually brought from Mexico and
Cuba, but none in important numbers except tomeguinos, known also
as grassquits or melodious Cuban finches and olive Cuban finches,
according to species. These sell for $1.50 a pair wholesale, and 665
entered during the year.

BIRDS BRED IN CAPTIVITY.

In Europe, as has been stated, great interest is manifested in breed-
ing cage-birds. This interest attaches to the propagation, not only of
rare birds, but of many species that are commonly found in aviaries.
There is a great difference in the ease with which birds may be bred
in captivity. Some, such as shell parrakeets, zebra finches, Java spar-
rows, strawberry finches, and our own bluebirds and indigo birds, breed
readily and their young can be raised without much difficulty. But
some of the parrots and small cage-birds refuse to mate, others will
not sit on their eggs, and others yet neglect their young. To breed
such species requires much patience and ingenuity, and success is valued
accordingly. In the United States, where bird-fanciers are few and
lack association, there is not the same general interest in the breeding
of captive birds. Few Oriental birds other than Java sparrows and
but few of the small cage-birds from Africa and Australia have been
successfully bred in the United States. Among the more important
birds that have been reared in this country are the canary, shell par-
rakeet, black-crested mina, all-green parrakeet, gray parrakeet, cocka-
teel, graceful ground-dove, barred-shoulder dove, zebra finch, white

@See a detailed account of this dance by Captain Perreau in ‘‘ Bird Notes’’ for
November, 1905, Vol. 1V, No. 8, p. 203.

180 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Java sparrow, gray Java sparrow, cut-throat finch, and saffron finch.
Some hybrids have been produced by breeding canaries with gold-
finches, linnets, and other birds, thus securing well-known and greatly
valued mules.

OPPORTUNITY FOR AMERICAN ENTERPRISE.

The large and rapidly growing demand for canaries and other cage-
birds that has sprung up in the United States and that is now satisfied
by importations from abroad suggests the possibility of establishing
the industry of raising birds for market on this side of the Atlantic.
It is more than likely that interest in the keeping of cage-birds will
continue to spread, and that its growth will result in the development
of societies, periodicals, annual shows, and other features that mark
its advance in Europe. Breeding canaries for market brings, as has
been shown, several hundred thousand dollars annually to the peasants
of the Harz Mountains of Germany; canaries of fancy shapes that com-
mand high prices are regularly bred in England, Scotland, Belgium, and
other countries; and it is important to note that in nearly every instance
the pursuit is carried on as an adjunct to some other occupation. There
is no reason why the American market should not be supplied by
American breeders. The need already exists; imported birds are not
so well adapted to our climate as those raised here, and home produc-
tion would obviate the large losses incident to the ocean voyage.

Many difficulties must be met. Captive birds are subject to numer-
ous diseases and, under the most favorable circumstances, require
careful treatment. Attention to diet is important, particularly in the
case of soft-billed birds, whose food is chiefly insects. Questions of
suitable temperature for aviaries, of securing sufficient open-air exer-
cise without undue exposure, of preventing destruction of birds or
their eggs by cage-mates, of inducing birds to breed, and many other
problems constantly tax the patience and skill of the aviculturist; and
owing to climatic differences between Europe and America many of
these questions would doubtless have to be settled anew.

But American ingenuity and energy should be able to meet and
overcome all obstacles and establish the business on a paying basis.
Due weight should be given the fact that the experiment requires
little capital. It can easily be started at small expense and extended
only as the profits justify extension. The field is a promising one.
The success attending cage-bird breeding in Europe, the great demand
for birds as pets in this country revealed by our large importations,
the superior value of those bred in America, and the facility with
which the business can be established and maintained offer strong
inducements to American enterprise.

THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS.

By J. A. BONSTEEL,
In Charge of Soil Survey, Bureau of Soils.

The soil of the United States constitutes the one great inexhaustible
natural resource of the country; from it spring not only the food and
raiment of the people, but nearly one-half (42 per cent) of the mate-
rials used in manufacture and a majority of the materials exchanged
in commerce. From the soil, in the present generation, the farmers
of the United States have won a living for themselves and for their
countrymen, and in addition have furnished the commodities whose
sale and exchange have much reduced the dependence of this country
upon the capital of foreign nations.

SMALL PROPORTION OF LAND UNDER TILLAGE.

The agricultural domain of the United States (exclusive of the
outlying possessions) in 1900 comprised 5,739,657 farms, aggregating
841,201,546 acres. Of this area almost exactly one-half is improved
land and the remainder consists of woodlots, swamps, and land that
has never been plowed or cropped. Although this is a great total,
less than one-half of the whole land area has been turned into farms,
and less than one-fifth is actually improved. Even upon this show-
ing the farm lands of the United States comprise seven times the
farm-land area of France, with 39 million people; eight times the
farm-land area of Germany, with 60 million people; and thirty-one
times the farm-land area of England and Wales, with 34 million peo-
ple. The American farms now existing could be made to produce
enough to feed many times the country’s present population were
the best and most intensive agricultural methods of European coun-
tries applied, and still have a surplus for export.

It is to the full development of these vast but dormant resources
that the soil-survey work is devoted.

SOIL RESOURCES MAY BE GREATLY INCREASED.

The soil itseif is not a fixed and generally decreasing source of
income, as are many of the other natural resources of the country.
The wealth of the soil may not properly be compared with a fixed
bank account upon which drafts in the form of crops are continuously

181

182 . YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

drawn with the ultimate result of the complete exhaustion of the
capital involved. The soil is more nearly comparable with an
invested fund whose annual interest is paid in the form of crops and
which, under proper management, may be continually increased from
its annual earnings. The forces of nature which have produced soils
have not ceased to act, and through their steady, continued operations
they are capable of maintaining and renewing the producing power of
this great natural resource when they are properly directed and
assisted by the husbandman. In this respect soils, as a natural
resource, differ mest materially from mines. The mine of metal or of
mineral fuel constitutes a resource whose extent may be ascertained
and whose total content may be measured. It is possible under
certain conditions for skillful engineers to estimate with considerable
exactness the total amount of material which may be removed from a
mine and the length of time which it will continue to yield. With the
soil this is not possible. Even where surface soils are bodily removed
and useless subsoils are exposed, these, if only left to nature, may in
time be brought to useful productivity; when nature is properly
assisted the process becomes rapid. When through mismanagement
the crop-producing power of a soil is impaired, a simple change in
crop rotation or in the mechanical handling of the soil is often suffi-
cient to make its continued cultivation possible and profitable. Thus
the soil, under businesslike and scientific management, is capable of
yielding not only annual but annually increasing profits. While bad
management, neglect, or avarice may cause a temporary check in the
producing capacity of the individual field, history shows and statistics
prove that, in all civilized countries, through all historic times, the
soils of the world have responded with increased crops to increasingly
intensive culture for the support of growing populations. It is only
within brief periods of time and over limited areas that improvidence
or neglect has been able to cause decreased returns from the soil.

The time has not yet arrived when even the present known resources
of American soils are fully called upon to feed the people of our own
nation. No such intensity of cultivation is demanded as in Germany,
where the average farm comprises 19 acres, or in France, where it is
34 acres, nor even as in England and Wales, where it is 63.4 acres. In
the United States land is still so abundant that the average farm con-
tains 146.2 acres and less than half of it is improved. The time may
some day come, and doubtless will—it may be when there are 300
millions of Americans instead of 85 millions—when more land will be
needed for farms. Much sooner will come a time when the farm land
now in use must be handled more intensively and more effectively
and each acre must be made to produce to its maximum capacity the
crops for which it is best fitted.

THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 183
STUDY OF LARGE PROBLEMS.

It is partly in anticipation of that time that the soil survey is
examining into the total soil resources of the country and investigat-
ing the broad problems of the relationship of soil to crop, which must
be solved before American soils and American farmers can do their
best, the one for the other. In crop production, even under ordinary
farm methods, there are two groups of influences which control the
selection of appropriate crops—the planning of crop rotations and the
adoption of correct systems of farming. These are the influences of
the climate and the soil. Neither may be neglected by any man who
hopes for complete success, and the due and relative importance of
each must be ascertained.

EXTENT OF SURVEYS ALREADY MADE.

The work of making soil surveys was begun in 1899, and by June 30,
1906, an aggregate area of 118,686 square miles, or 75,959,865 acres,
had been mapped. This comprises something less than one-tenth of
the area actually in farms and about one twenty-fifth of the entire
area of the United States. These surveys have been made in 43
States and 4 Territories. They have been so distributed as to
constitute numerous studies of each important geographical and
agricultural district.

SOIL TYPES, SERIES, AND PROVINCES.

The work of the soil survey is based upon the principle that there
are differences among soils which so affect plants that not all soils are
equally suited to the production of all crops. This work, therefore,
comprises a study of both the character of these soil differences and
the effects which they produce in the growing of farm crops.

In the field work of the soil survey the soils are studied to determine
their texture, or the relative amounts of coarse or fine particles of
which they consist; their structure, or the relationship of these parti-
cles one to the others; their organic matter content, both quantity
and distribution; their internal natural drainage, and their topo-
graphic relief. These factors operating together determine the char-
acter of the home which plants are to find in the soil. All masses or
areas of soil which are found to be closely similar in all of these
respects are said to belong to the same soil type. Under similar
climatic surroundings the type is capable of producing similar kinds
of crops, and under the same conditions of farm management and of
farm efficiency they may be expected to produce practically equiva-
lent amounts of crops.

It has also been found that several soil types in a given region may
differ only in their texture, being identical or similar in all other

184 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

respects. Such a group of soils is called a series. Again, several
series have been found to be derived from the same classes of material
by similar processes and to exist in a region having similar climatic
features in the broadest sense. Such a region constitutes a soil

province.
EXTENT OF SOIL TYPES.

The soil survey recognizes at present 13 great soil provinces, 58 soil
series, and 461 soil types. Of these types some 130 are more or less
local in character, while the remainder are of widespread occurrence
within their respective provinces. For example, the Norfolk sand is
a warm, porous soil of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain Province,
suited to the production of truck crops. This type has been mapped
in 34 different areas, located in 14 States, extending from New Eng-
land to Texas. The total area covered by this type in the areas
mapped amounts to 1,702,000 acres, or 2,660 square miles. Its
extent within the total area of these 14 States is many times as great.
Throughout the region where it occurs this soil has a definite crop
adaptation, and the variety of crops which may be raised sucessfully
upon it is hmited by nature.

Similarly the Marshall silt loam has been mapped in 22 areas,
located in 9 different States, to an extent of 3,921,000 acres, or 6,126
square miles. It is again safe to say that within these States several
times as many acres exist as have been mapped. Seven-eighths of
the area of this soil is preeminently adapted to corn production, and
the remaining one-eighth, while under climatic surroundings unfavor-
able to corn, is well suited to the production of one or more other crops
of equal value. F

Although these two types of soil are extreme cases, they are by no
means the only valuable soils of wide distribution and well-recog-
nized crop adaptation. Among the other 459 types there are some of
which areas as large as the smaller States have already been mapped.
There are others of which areas scarcely larger than a single town-
ship have so far been encountered and mapped. Whether exten-
sive or limited in area, each presents its own peculiarities and no two
could safely be classed together as possessing identical properties and
the same utility.

ADAPTATION OF CROPS TO SOILS.

Enough has been said to demonstrate the wide range and the won-
derful richness of the soil resources of the country. The other prob-
lem of equal importance, possibly the greatest agricultural problem of
the nation as a whole, is that of the proper and complete development
of these resources along lines which shall give not only increased crop
values, but also increasing ability to produce crops upon the part of the
soils.

THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 185

Careful consideration must be given to thefact that at least 461 types
of soil possessing distinctive properties are already known toexist. It
rests with some one, whether a private individual or a public official,
to determine the crop or crops to which each one of these soils is best
adapted; to devise the methods of soil management by which each
one of these soils may be made to produce a sufficient crop to repay all
expenses and to render a profit; to adapt the systems of farm economy
through crop rotations, tillage, and fertilization so that these different
soils may produce their crops for long periods of time at least without
deterioration and, if American farming is to become a science, with
actual increase in crop-producing power.

Moreover, it is necessary that the discovery, introduction, and cul-
ture of crops adapted to these various types shall follow such lines
that the greatest food values as well as the highest commercial values
shall be rendered by each soil. It is also a necessity that upon
widely extended types such crops shall be grown as are subject to
wide demand in the markets of the world. Otherwise the farmers
engaged in crop production must face a destructive competition or
else portions of the soil type must be neglected or but feebly utilized.
One may anticipate the time when all areas of Norfolk sand having
suitable climatic conditions and transportation facilities can be made to
produce great crops of those vegetables which now constitute winter
luxuries for the few. At the present day such widespread produc-
tion, coupled with a limited demand, would force prices to a point
where the returns from the crop would only pay the charges of trans-
portation and of retailing and the producer would be left with neither
expenses nor profits paid. Therefore, before such anticipations can be
realized, either demand must incréase, as it will with increasing popu-
lation and individual wealth, or transportation costs must diminish,
as they also will with the progress of invention and a proper increase
in competition.

The soil-survey work thus possesses a dual aspect: (1) It must deal
with those problems of crop and soil adaptation which concern the
present individuals and generation; and (2) it must accumulate a
fund of information in regard to soils which will assist in solving the
broad problems of the nation’s soil resources and the utilization of
these resources, not only for the support of a growing population, but
also for maintaining a favorable balance of trade for the nation.

REPORTS ON ACTUAL USES OF SOILS.

The individual report upon each soil-survey area contains an
account of each soil type within the area. It gives a description of
the characteristic appearance of the type and summarizes the crop
uses to which it is put within the area. The methods of handling the
soil are given, and a general statement is also made of the range of

186 -YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

crop production. Such a report summarizes the actual uses of the
soil within these restricted limits, and it also summarizes the farm
practices in the given region. Each report also contains an account of
the crops raised in other areas where the same type of soil has been
encountered; and suggestions as to new crops, new methods of soil
management, and new industries are made as a result of this wider
knowledge secured from numerous surveys.

PRESENT USES OF SOIL REPORTS.

From these reports on soil surveys.the individual farmer may learn
the relationships of the soils upon his own farm, not only to the other
soils in the immediate neighborhood, but to soils of the same character
in widely separated regions. He may thus observe and study under-
standingly the methods and results obtained under the most favorable
conditions by successful farmers upon these soils. His horizon of
observation is enlarged, and he may more surely apply the experience
and the observation of others to his own particular needs and condi-
tions. He is able to consider his own farm, not as an isolated property,
but in its due relationship to other farms located upon the same soils
and in a region of similar climatic surroundings. The single report
thus serves the purpose of the individual whose problem is one of a
fixed and occupied region.

At the present time, as at all times in the history of the country,
there is a large class of persons who for various reasons desire to secure
new farms in more or less distant localities for the pursuit of general
agriculture or for the production of special crops. Inquiries from
such persons always cover certain climatic and soil features, and each
desires to secure information which will enable him to compare condi-
tions personally known to himself with those of new locailties under
consideration. Inquiries of this nature are constantly received at the
Department of Agriculture, and wherever possible the information is
supplied by the reports and maps covering the areas concerned. No
advice to do this or that is communicated; only the information upon
which a judgment may be based. The use of soil-survey reports for
this purpose is by no means confined to reports upon regions which
are sparsely settled or newly opened for agricultural occupation. The
constant changes in farm values in all parts of the United States are
calling the attention of individual farmers to particular localities in
the older States, where possible advantages may be gained from the
sale of high-priced lands and the purchase of others which, for the
time, are offered at a lower figure. Greater demands have been made
during the past few years for soil-survey reports covering areas in the
Eastern and Southern States than for those in any other localities.
Whatever the cause, the attention of individuals and of investors is
strongly shown by this demand.

THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 187

During the past decade the funds accumulated by large investment
companies have increasingly sought a farm-land outlet. The soil-
survey reports are regularly requested by many such companies.
Some only desire the reports in particular circumscribed regions.
Others desire these reports as an unprejudiced basis upon which a
judgment of land uses and of farm development in widespread and
remote regions may be based. Obviously, the common interest of the
entire community is served by these reports of soil facts, just as the
individual interests of the persons concerned are safeguarded at the
same time.

The use of the soil-survey maps and reports by educational institu-
tions has greatly imcreased within a few years, accompanying a
renewed activity in the study of soils and in the teaching of soil sub-
jects. Not only are the maps and reports used by those institutions
directly for the study of soils, but they are also used in studies of crop
production, of farm economics, and of the distribution of agricultural
products. Nonagricultural colleges and universities are also using
these reports in connection with courses in commercial geography.
It has thus become necessary to hold such uses in mind in the distri-
bution of the individual soil-survey reports and of the annual report
known as Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils.

/

FUTURE NEED FOR EXACT INFORMATION.

All of these uses of soil maps and of soil-survey reports are imme-
diate and present. They are more or less personal to the individual
farmer, investor, or student. They do not constitute the only use
nor possibly the greatest use of these surveys. As agriculture, based
on the soil as its fundamental resource, is the greatest business of the
country at the present time, so it must remain for many generations
to come. Agriculture is still a generalized business, although its
specialization into horticulture, market gardening, tobacco culture,
cotton culture, and other subdivisions has begun. With increasing
population, with greater intensity of cultivation, greater demands
will continually be made upon the soil and greater precision and skill
in the selection and handling of soils for special crops will be required.
It will be extravagantly wasteful to allow these developments to occur
along the lines of chance and to secure the ultimate ends as the result
of haphazard trial or experimentation. The soil and climatic factors
which govern plant and crop growth must be understood and appre-
ciated. Whenever through any cause a particularly valuable crop
is brought to perfection upon a given soil, the extent and geographic
distribution and the climatic environment of that soil must be known
in order to insure the successful spread of its culture.

Even at the present day there is continual inquiry as to the soil
conditions under which specific crops may be successfully grown, and

188 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

crops formerly confined to narrow regions are spreading to other locali-
ties. The culture of alfalfa, the production of sugar beets, the intro-
duction of new varieties of tobacco or of old varieties into new regions,
all illustrate this tendency. Discussions of soils in connection with
the great staple crops are usually confined to corn soils, wheat soils,
cotton soils, or grass soils. Little attention is paid to the pertinent
fact that each of these crops has developed well-marked varieties
suited to quite different regions, climates, and soils. It has become
necessary to study not tobacco soils, but cigar-wrapper tobacco soils
or cigar-filler tobacco soils. This is recognized. The equally impor-
tant fact that corn and wheat, cotton, rice, and the other great staples
should be studied as varieties adapted to different kinds of soil has
not been equally emphasized.

From the study of American soil differences, soil adaptations, and
soil resources, and from the long-continued observation, classification,
and correlation of soil and crop facts, may be ascertained by the spe-
cialist new uses, now unperceived, of each and every acre of agricul-
tural land, so that statistics will no longer report less than one-half of
the land of the country apportioned into farms and less than one-fifth
actually improved and tilled. From.these studies and from the devel-
opment of laws of soil and plant association it will undoubtedly be
possible, at some future day, to increase the number of great staple
crops from a scant dozen to several score, each occupying its proper
place in the farm economy of the country and each produced under
those circumstances of soil and climate best fitted to its growth.

Those other problems, even now appearing in American agricul-
ture, of the rehabilitation of so-called ‘‘ worn-out’? and abandoned
farms, of maintaining and even increasing the producing capacity of
broad areas, while they are probably economic and farm-management
problems to a considerable extent, are only capable of solution after a
thorough study of the soil conditions in the field. These problems may
not even be outlined without the aid of soil-survey work; much less
can they be solved.

The time has come in the agricultural development of the United
States when accurate and detailed knowledge of the soil—its charac-
ter, varieties, capabilities, and adaptations—is of great importance;
and as the years go by such knowledge will become more and more
important, until ultimately our greatly increased population will need
and will be able to utilize fully the diverse capabilities of these 461
different types of. soil.

BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS.

By W. L. McAres,
Assistant, Biological Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

The importance of birds to the farmer in his warfare against insects
is everywhere recognized; indeed, it may be said that successful agri-
culture would be well-nigh impossible without their aid. One
important réle, however, is filled by birds, in which the value of their
services has not been appreciated, chiefly, no doubt, because the facts
are not generally known. This is as destroyers of scale insects. Very
little has been published on the subject, although at least six foreign
species and about the same number of native ones have been reported
as feeding upon scales. These facts have been either overlooked or
little weight has been attached to them. Indeed, only recently cur-
rency has been given to a statement that birds never feed upon scales.
Not only is this statement not true, but investigations by the Biologi-
cal Survey prove conclusively that scales are eaten by many species
of birds and that with some species they are a favorite food.

DAMAGE TO TREES AND CROPS BY SCALE INSECTS.

Before attempting to estimate the value of the services of birds in
reducing the number of scale insects, it will be well to review briefly
the nature and extent of the damage inflicted by these pests. Many
authorities class the scales among the most destructive of insects.
They have caused the loss of hundreds of valuable orchards and are
dreaded by the horticulturist above all other insects, being especially
feared because of the insidiousness of their attack. When present in
small numbers they are easily overlooked and thus may become firmly
established in an orchard before their presence is detected.

When young and still more or less active, scale insects are carried
from tree to tree by numerous agencies, and hence spread with great
rapidity. When adult they firmly attach themselves to the plant,
upon the sap of which they feed, and their combined attacks gradually
reduce its vitality till finally death ensues. Many varieties of plants
are infested by them, and often large trees are completely incrusted
by a mass of scales composed of hundreds of thousands of individuals.
Even perfectly healthy trees do not survive the attacks of these
minute pests more than two or three years.

189

190 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In such extreme cases all methods of relief generally fail, and when
once the vigor of a tree is seriously impaired by scales there is no
remedy. The old growth must be cut down and burned and new stock
introduced. In most instances of scale attack, however, the problem
is less serious, and various suppressive measures are effectual. It is
during the lighter infestations that the controiling power of natural
enemies of the scale is most apparent.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF SCALE INSECTS.

In extreme cases of infestation by scales their natural enemies are
rarely able to control them, at least until the insects have done much
damage. The greatest value, therefore, of the natural enemies of
scales is In preventing undue increase of the insects, in restraining
them within what may be termed natural bounds, when the harm.they
do is comparatively of little moment.

As an example of a species usually harmless but occasionally increas-
ing beyond the limit of safety, the plum scale (Hulecanium cerasifex)
may becited. Of this species Lugger, ina report on Minnesota insects,
says: “This is usually an uncommon species, but is now found in
destructive numbers, not alone upon the cherry, but also more fre-
quently upon the plum; though apples, pears, and other trees do not
escape.’’*

The plum scale is injurious also in New York, but in many parts of
its range it is not numerous enough to be a pest, which indicates that
in these localities its enemies have been able to hold it in check and
thus maintain the balance. This is the ideal state. Under primitive
conditions. a balance among organisms, both animal and vegetable,
was more frequent and more stable than it now is, when man’s inter-
ference with the operation of natural laws, destroying some species
and protecting and propagating others, constantly disturbs the equi-
librium.

Owing to various changes, among the most important of which has
been the importation of unlimited numbers of foreign scales, which, for
a time at least, have enjoyed almost entire immunity from natural
enemies, the balance between scale insects and their enemies has been
most seriously affected, and the scales have increased enormously.
Hence in attempting to reduce the numbers of scale insects every
effort should be made to foster their natural enemies.

For the purpose of considering their economic value, the latter may
be divided into two groups—the parasitic and the predaceous enemies.
So effectively do the parasites (in great part minute Hymenoptera)
wage war against scales that they sometimes destroy not less than 85
per cent of the pests, together with their eggs. Nevertheless, as has
been stated by Dr. L. O. Howard, “‘it is perfectly obvious that these

a Bul. 69, Agr. Exp. Sta. Univ. of Minn., p. 217, 1900.

BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 191

parasites will not accomplish complete extermination.’’ However,
they do not have to fight the battle alone, for as allies they have the
group of predaceous enemies which comprises beetles, syrphus and
lace-wing flies, and true bugs among insects, and also mites, birds,
and mammals. Among these, beetles are undoubtedly the most im-
portant. Coccinellid beetles, or ladybirds, of many species feed upon
the scale insects, and in their ranks are the most successful destroyers
of scales known. One of them almost completely exterminated the
cottony cushion scale, formerly the most destructive insect of its
kind in California.

Mammals may be dismissed in this connection with the statement
that so far as known they count for but little in the warfare against
scales; one instance is known of mice devouring the Lecanium scales
from a peach tree in England.

As was noted in the introduction, comparatively little has found its
way into print as to the part birds play as destroyers of scale insects.
Among the most interesting published observations on this point are
those of R. Newstead, Chester, England. He mentions four scale
insects which were preyed upon by five species of birds, and it is to be
noted that two of the scales and two of the birds are identical with
species occurring in the United States. The house sparrow was found
apparently feeding upon the hawthorn scale (Zulecanium genevense),
which occurs only in Europe. Another scale insect, nevertheless,
and an injurious one, the oyster-shell bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomo-
rum), which was eaten by the birds Mr. Newstead studied, is a com-
mon pest in the United States. It was fed upon by the tree-creeper,
a near relative of our own brown creeper. The English author says:

Many times I have seen, with the aid of field glasses, the tree creeper ( Certhia famili-
aris) collecting this species during winter and spring; and from what I have seen of the
marsh tit (P[arus] palustris) and the blue tit (P. ceruleus), they, too, are fond of the
species.

He found a few of these scales likewise in the stomach of the
long-tailed tit (Acredula caudata). The latter bird, together with the
blue tit, fed also upon another scale insect which occurs in the United
States. This is a golden-colored scale (Asterolecanium variolosum),
which is sometimes injurious to shade trees. Newstead says:

I firmly believe this species is eagerly sought for by various species of tits. Here, in
Cheshire, the characteristic little depressions made in the twigs of the oak by this
species are to be found in thousands. Rarely is it that the Coccids are found in them.
This fact for many years led me to suspect the birds had taken them. It was not until
1894 that the matter was placed beyond doubt [by stomach examination]. The May
record is of the greatest interest, as at that time there would be a good selection of bird

food. It proves, therefore, that the species is a selected item in the dietary of the two
species of birds.

a The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 2d ser., VI [XX XI], pp. 84-86, 1895.

192 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is significant that the fourth species of scale insect (Aspidiotus
zonatus) found by him in the stomachs of birds is related to the
notorious San Jose scale. It was eaten by the blue tit (Parus ceru-
leus). Among other foreign birds known to feed upon scales is a South
African species, the white-eye (Zosterops capensis), which selects the
larger soft scales (Lecaniine).

Recent investigations show that a very much larger number of our
North American birds prey upon scales than was expected, and some
eat them to a considerable extent. Their influence upon the number
of these pests, while doubtless less than that of the predaceous insects,
is of far more importance than has yet been recognized. Among the
scales they devour are some most notorious pests.

SCALES EATEN BY NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.

At least two native birds eat the plum scale, which is destructive to
cherry and plum trees. One of them is the beautiful rose-breasted
grosbeak (Zamelodia ludoviciana). A female of this species collected
by the writer in Indiana had eaten 36 of these scales, composing 95
per cent of the stomach contents. Two other grosbeaks from Mlinois
did still better. One consumed about 45 plum scales, which made up
95 per cent of its food, while the other had eaten nothing but plum
scales, of which its stomach contained more than 100. The cardinal
or redbird also feeds upon the plum scale, one taken in Texas in April
having consumed a number sufficient to form 84 per cent of its
stomach contents.

These two species of birds devour other scale insects also, some of
which are closely related to the plum scale. The rose-breasted gros-
beak has been found to eat the hickory scale (Hulecanium caryz) and
the tulip scale (Eulecanium tulipifere). The latter is very destructive
to shade trees in some parts of the eastern United States. While both
the rose-breasted and the cardinal grosbeak eat scales of the genus
Eulecanium in large numbers, we have been unable to identify spe-
cifically any others, with the probable exception of the locust scale,
Eulecanium robinarium (Douglas), from the stomach of a cardinal
collected in Texas. Another grosbeak, the black-headed (Zamelodia
melanocephala), at home in the western United States, preys upon
scales of the same genus. It is known to select the frosted scale
(Eulecanium pruinosum), which attacks fruit trees such as apricot,
peach, prune, and cherry, and is already important economically, with
possibilities of becoming a serious pest if unchecked. It relishes also
the apricot scale (Hulecanium armeniacum), which is an enemy of
apricot, prune, pear, and other trees.

In the southeastern United States occurs an allied genus of scale
insects, Toumeyella. The cardinal feeds upon at least one species of
this group.

BIRDS THAT BAT SCALE INSECTS. 193

Distributed chiefly along the Pacific coast is a scale which is closely
related to those of the above-mentioned genera and is preyed upon by
many birds. This is the black olive scale (Saissetia olex, fig. 1). Its
great economic importance is emphasized in the following quotation
from Mr. C. L. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology:

The most destructive insect enemies of fruits in California are undoubtedly the scale
insects, few if any other insects, aside from the grape Phylloxera, at all approaching
them in this respect. Of these the ones of greatest moment, and in the control of
which vast sums of money are expended, are the black scale, the red scale, and the
San Jose scale. * * * Ofthe three, * * * the most serious pest at the present
time in California is undoubtedly the black scale. * * * This insect is not only a

i

Fic. 1.—Black olive scale (Saissetia olex). (From Koebele, Bureau of Entomology,
after Comstock.)

heavy drain on the vigor of the trees, but exudes a great quantity of honeydew, in
which a fungus propagates, creating a black, stifling deposit, which adheres closely to
the twigs and leaves and discolors the fruit. This scale infests both citrus and
deciduous trees, but is particularly injurious to the former, and also to the olive.a

This abundant and injurious scale is at present known to be fed
upon by no less than 29 species of birds, and their importance in
checking its increase can not be overlooked. These include three
woodpeckers, a jay, an oriole, five sparrows, four vireos, six warblers,

aYearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1896, p. 220.
3 al1906——13

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

194

two wrens, a nuthatch, four tits, a gnatcatcher, and a bluebird.
Several of them consume the black scale in great numbers, the two
most conspicuous in this respect being the black-headed grosbeak
and the bush-tit (Psaltriparus minimus). Eighteen per cent of the
entire food of 120 grosbeaks consisted of black olive scales, while 21
per cent of the year’s subsistence of more than 350 bush-tits was of
the same nature.

The work of birds upon the black scale is so conspicuous that it
has attracted the attention of field observers. In a letter to the
Biological Survey, F. S. Daggett says (March 17, 1903):

A thick top of pepper tree is opposite a window of my house. It is infested by black
scale, and the past few years I have noticed several varieties of birds going through
the top, carefully picking off scale. Audubon warblers do it, especially when it is cold
and no insects are flying; when it is warm they stay about the top, flying out after in-
sects, but do not seem to take the scale. The intermediate sparrow, however, is com-
monly seen in small flocks working on this scale, and they go through many gymnastic
motions, not expected in a sparrow, in order to get at the scale on the underside of
the twigs. The top is scarcely 10 feet from the window and I have watched them
closely. There is an overgrown cypress hedge under one side of the tree, from which
» the sparrows work up.

Prof. F. E. L. Beal, of the Biological Survey, while at Haywards,
Cal., May, 1906, noted particularly the relation of birds to this scale,
He writes: ‘‘I have proved that they eat them freely.”

Following is a list of the birds which thus far are known to feed
upon the black olive scale:

Willow woodpecker (Dryobates turati).

Nuttall woodpecker (Dryobates nuttallt).

California woodpecker (Melanerpes ff.
bairdi).

California jay (Aphelocoma californica).

Bullock oriole (Icterus bullocki).

Intermediate sparrow (Zonotrichia l.
gambeli).

Western chipping sparrow (Spizella s.
arizone).

Spurred towhee (Pipilo m. megalonyz).

California towhee (Pipilo crissalis).

Western warbling vireo (Vireo g. swain-
soni).

Cassin vireo ( Vireo s. cassini).

Hutton vireo ( Vireo huttont).

Least vireo ( Vireo pusillus).

Yellow warbler (Dendroica xstiva).

Myrtle warbler (Dendroica coronata).

Lutescent warbler (Helminthophila c.
lutescens).

Audubon warbler (Dendroica audubont).

Pacific yellowthroat (Geothlypis t. arizela).

Golden pileolated warbler (Wiisonia p.
pileolata).

Black-headed grosbeak (Zamelodia me-
lanocephala).

Cactus wren (Heleodytes brunneicapillus).

Vigors wren (Thryomanes b. spilurus).

Slender-billed nuthatch (Sittac. aculeata).

Plain titmouse (Bxolophus inornatus).

Chestnut-backed chickadee (Parus rufes-
cens).

Wren tit (Chamea fasciata).

California bush-tit (Psaltriparus m. cali-
fornicus).

Black-tailed gnatcatcher (Polioptila cali-
fornica).

Western bluebird (Sialia m. occidentalis).

Several of the above birds eat other scales, besides the one which

infests the olive.

One of these is the greedy scale (Aspidiotus rapaz,

fig. 2), which Dr. L. O. Howard says ‘‘was found until recently only
on the Pacific coast and in the far Southwest,’’ where “‘it levies a heavy

BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 195

annual tax on the fruit growers,’”’ and which “has the present season
[1894] made its appearance in Mississippi and Texas.’’* The greedy
scale attacks both citrus and deciduous trees, infesting a very large
number of food plants, among which it shows little preference,
and is one of the destructive scale insects. Investigations by the
Biological Survey prove that at least four species of birds—the
myrtle and Audubon warblers, wren-tit, and bush-tit—devour this
scale, some individuals examined having their stomachs filled with it.

Another scale insect which is eaten_by several birds, but which
differs from the last-mentioned species in that it confines itself to a
single host plant, is the oak scale (Kermes). Oak scales are not
conspicuously injurious, but this fact does not detract from the
value of the birds which feed upon them, since we can be assured

Fic. 2.—Greedy scale (Aspidiotus rapar). (From Howard, Bureau of Entomology.)

they do not neglect other kinds which are destructive. In fact, one
of the oak-scale feeders, the rose-breasted grosbeak, is already known
to feed upon other and harmful scales.

The following species of birds have been found to devour the oak
scale:

Rose-breasted grosbeak. Magnolia warbler.
Red-eyed vireo. Blackpoll warbler.
White-eyed vireo. Canadian warbler.

Worm-eating warbler.

The oaks, infested as they are by the comparatively innocuous
Kermes, are fortunate in comparison to the maples, which are attacked
by Pulvinaria. The cottony maple scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilis)
is a special pest of the tree from which it derives its common name, but

a Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1894, p. 249.

196 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it is found upon scores of others. The writer once observed an infesta-
tion of this scale so severe that shade trees along the streets of a small
town in Indiana, together with fruit trees, appeared almost white
from the choking masses of cottony wax produced by the scale insects.
Maples, poplars, and cherry trees were the principal hosts in this case.
According to Dr. L. O. Howard, ‘‘birds destroy the full-grown
scales, although one would hardly suppose a mouthful of wax to be
very palatable.”’ Doctor Howard “has often observed the English
sparrow apparently feeding upon this species.” 4

The same little vagrant foreigner that attacks the maple scale, and
about whose value there has been unending discussion, must be cred-

Fig. 3.—Oyster-shell bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum). (From How-
ard, Bureau of Entomology.)

ited with preying upon still another of these destructive pests. Dr.
C. V. Riley and Dr. L.O. Howard note that ‘ Miss Jennie R. Bush, of
San Luis Obispo County, Cal., finds it destroying a scale insect upon
the climbing rose.’’?

Among scale insects eaten by birds other than those above men-
tioned is a very abundant and widespread species, the oyster-shell
bark-louse ( Mytilaspis pomorum, fig. 3), which is sometimes quite
injurious. Indeed it is said that in some sections the oyster-shell
bark-louse is, with the exception of the San Jose scale, the most

a Bul. 22, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, p. 12, 1900.
bInsect Life, V, p. 349, July, 1893.

BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 197

destructive scale insect. It will be remembered that in England this
scale was found to be devoured by titmice and the tree creeper.
In America the same kinds of birds also select it. In regard to the
brown creeper of the United States (Certhia familiaris americana),
V. H. Lowe says:

That it feeds extensively on scale insects there is little doubt. It may often be seen
on scale-infested trees both in summer and winter pecking at the scales, especially the
larger ones, such as the oyster-shell bark-louse, evidently for the purpose of getting the
eggs or the live scales.

Of American titmice the black-capped chickadee is known to devour
the same pest. In an analysis of the stomach contents of one of these
birds Prof. C. M. Weed mentions ‘‘ bark-lice (Coccide), apparently
oyster-shell bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum).”® The white-breasted
nuthatch of the same family of birds also manifests a liking for the
scale. Mr.E. N. Forbush records the following concerning this species:

March 20, 1895, Mr. Bailey brought in specimens of apple twigs infested with the
bark-scale louse ( Mytilaspis pomorum). He reported that the nuthatch was feeding
on them. ¢ :

With this insect ends the list of scales which have been specifically
determined to serve as food for birds. It is to be remarked, however,
that scales are difficult to identify “ under the most favorable condi-
tions, and in the state in which they are often found in the stomachs of
birds their identification is impossible. Hence there are a number of
birds which, while not mentioned in connection with particular scale
insects, are nevertheless known to feed upon scales. These birds, 16
in number, include several woodpeckers, which, as their method of
feeding would indicate, pick up many scale insects. The downy
woodpecker is one of the most successful in gathering these minute
tree pests. :

Following is a list of birds ascertained to feed upon scale insects
none of which were specifically identified:

Hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus). Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata).
Northern downy woodpecker (Dryobates | Orchard oriole (Jcterus spurius).
p. medianus). Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula).
Red-cockaded woodpecker (Dryobates bo- | Cedar waxwing (Ampelis cedrorum).
realis). Townsend warbler (Dendroica townsendi).
Arctic three-toed woodpecker (Picoides | Tufted titmouse (Bzxolophus bicolor).
arcticus). Bridled titmouse (Bzolophus wollweberi).
Yellow-bellied woodpecker (Sphyrapicus | Carolina chickadee (Parus carolinensis).
varius). Ruby-crowned kinglet( Regulus calendula).

Red-headed woodpecker ( Melanerpes ery- | Varied thrush (Jzoreus nevius).
throcephalus).

aTrans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. and Bureau for Farmers’ Inst. Rpts., p. 321, 1898.

b Bul. 54, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 93, 1898.

c Mass. Crop Rep., p. 384, 1895.

dMr. JamesG. Sanders, of the Bureau of Entomology, has named several of the scale
insects mentioned in this paper and has given assistance in other ways.

198 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SUMMARY.

All told, 57 species of birds have been found to eat scale insects. It
is interesting to note that this number comprises representatives of 12
families, differing widely not only in structure but in habits. They
are distributed as follows: 9 woodpeckers, 2 jays, 3 orioles, 8 sparrows,
1 waxwing, 6 vireos, 11 warblers, 2 wrens, 1 tree creeper, 2 nuthatches
and 8 tits of the titmouse family, 1 kinglet and 1 gnatcatcher of the
Old World warbler family, and the varied thrush and the bluebird.

At first thought it seems strange that the larger birds should take
the trouble to pick up such small insects as scales. Yet the numer-
ous representation of woodpeckers on the list and the fact that the
grosbeaks among the bulkier species are most conspicuous scale
destroyers prove it unsafe to assume that a direct relation exists
between the size of a bird and its insect food. At the other extreme
of size among scale eaters are some veritable feathered midgets, as,
for example, the ruby-crowned kinglet, the black-tailed gnatcatcher,
and the bush-tit, the last of which makes more than one-fifth of its
food of scales.

Among the majority of these birds, both great and small, there is
noticeable one similarity of habit. They are tree frequenters. On
their arboreal excursions they must constantly come across scale
insects, and as the latter are no doubt nutritious and are toothsome
to the avian taste, it is only natural that birds should feed upon them.
A few species which do not often visit trees, but which are included
among the birds known to eat scales, probably secure them very
rarely.

It is worthy of note that the birds thus far found to prey upon
scales are practically the only species in their respective families that
have been carefully studied. Thus only a few stomachs of the black
and white creeper, one of the most exclusively arboreal birds in North
America, have as yet been examined; and while it can not be included
in the present list, there is little doubt that, in common with many
of its warbler kin, it subsists partly upon scale insects. Investiga-
tion of the réle birds play in destroying these insects is far from com-
plete, and, bearing in mind the number of scale-eating birds of each
of the families named above, it is fair to conclude that the majority
of the species of woodpeckers, vireos, arboreal warblers, nuthatches,
tits, kinglets, and gnatcatchers ultimately will be found to eat scale
insects. The fact that 57 kinds of birds feed upon scales, 29 of them
destroying one of the two most destructive species in the United
States, is most encouraging

While in the present state of our knowledge it can not be claimed
that birds are among the chief enemies of scales, yet they are proven
to be one of nature’s means of keeping these insects in check, and
there is no doubt that their aid is important.

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE COM-
POSITION OF DURUM WHEAT.

By J. A. LE CLERc,
Of the Bureau of Chemistry.

IMPORTANCE OF DURUM WHEAT.

The growing importance of durum wheat in this country, as shown
by the ever-increasing acreage devoted to its culture (the season of
1906 yielding a crop of over 50,000,000 bushels), makes this kind of
wheat a profitable subject of investigation. When one considers
that it is only since 1899 that any systematic attempt has been made
to propagate this valuable crop in the United States,” the value of the
investigation to our agricultural interests is evident.

Durum wheat (Triticum durum, in contradistinction to Triticum
vulgare, under which name ordinary spring and winter wheats are
known) is grown extensively in Russia, Algeria, Italy, and Spain.
In this country it flourishes remarkably well in the Great Plains areas
of the Middle West, where the climate is hot and dry, similar to that
of those European countries whence this wheat was obtained.

Durum wheat is a hard, flinty, translucent grain, very rich in gluten
and comparatively rich in sugars. The grain is long, and may be
either dark or light in color, according to the variety and the condi-
tions under which it is grown. It is somewhat poorer in gliadin than
the best bread wheats. Like other good varieties of wheat, durum or
hard wheat is one of the most nutritive and healthful of human foods,
containing as it does protein and nonnitrogenous substances in almost
the ideal ratio for maintaining the body in a normal condition, the
gluten (protein) being used in repairing waste body tissue, and the fat,
starch, etc. (nonnitrogenous substances), furnishing the heat and
energy required by the system. On account of its highly glutenous
nature it is extensively used, especially in Italy and France, in the
manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, and other edible pastes. For
this reason it has been called ‘‘macaroni wheat.’”’ There is likewise a
growing demand for durum wheat on the part of millers here and
abroad, both for making straight durum flour and for mixing with the
softer and less glutenous varieties in order to improve the quality of
the flour, making these wheats, therefore, valuable as bread wheats.

2U.8. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bul. 3, Macaroni wheats, and Bul. 70,
The commercial status of durum wheat, Carleton. The influence of environment upon
the composition of cereals is now the subject of cooperative study by the Bureau of
Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant Industry.

199

200 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

For these reasons we may expect the price of durum wheat in the near
future to be as high or higher than that of the ordinary spring or
winter wheat.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE QUALITY OF GRAIN.

In studying the influences which affect the quality of grain, one
may either grow the same variety of grain in a great many localities,
or else grow it in the same locality during a long series of years. In
either case we are able to note marked changes in the crop, due to the
climatic conditions under which it is grown. As it is only two years
since this cooperative work was undertaken, we are limited to a com-
parison of the same varieties grown in many different localities during
this time only. The requirements for growing a plant are many, and
the deficiency or excess of any one of them has its influence on the
crop. In order to grow, cereals require plant food, water, oxygen,
heat, and light. A wheat seed must have an initial temperature of at
- least 42° F. in order to germinate, and only when the temperature is
above that does the plant grow.

Cereals are influenced both in quantity and quality to a greater or
less extent by the soil in which they grow, the plant food contained
therein, the temperature of the season, the rainfall or the amount of
water they receive during the growing period, the amount of sunshine
they get, the humidity of the atmosphere, the previous crop, the time
of harvest, the length of the growing period, the kind of seed, ete.

In our study of the chemical and physical changes which durum
wheat has undergone in growing in different localities or in different
seasons, the following determinations have been made: Water, ash,
phosphoric aeid, nitrogen (gluten), the weight per thousand grains,
the weight per bushel, and the character of the grain (whether flinty
or mealy). As far as possible the following data were also collected:
The monthly temperature and rainfall and the elevation above sea
level of each locality, the time of growing and harvesting, the yield,
the successive number of crops grown after the introduction of the
original seed into this country, and whether or not the crop was
grown under irrigation.

The percentage of water in the grain was determined in all cases,
that all results might be calculated to a water-free and therefore com-
parable basis. The ash is of importance in showing the amount of
plant food taken up by the plant and transmitted to the grain. The
determination of phosphoric acid shows the amount of a most impor-
tant and too often neglected food constituent, it having been shown
that the phosphorus of wheat occurs as an organic compound having
a decidedly beneficial effect on nutrition.

The weight per thousand grains is of greater importance than is
generally supposed, for when taken into consideration with the
weight per bushel it forms the basis of valuation of commercial

CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 20]

wheats; for the heavier the wheat per bushel and per thousand
grains, the more protein, as a rule, does the sample contain, and there-
fore the more nutritious and valuable it is. The weight per thousand
grains is also of value in indicating the-amount of seed to be sown, as
the larger the seed the greater the volume that one should sow.

The nitrogen determination’ is the most important, as the food
and commercial value of cereals depends in a large measure on the
amount of gluten they contain. The character of a grain, whether
it be flinty or mealy, is likewise a good indication of the nutritive
value of a wheat, a more flinty or horny appearance always indicating,
in the same variety, a higher amount of gluten. The difference in
percentage of protein, as will be seen later, may be as much as 6 per
cent in favor of the flinty grain over the mealy one. In many places
the price of wheat is dependent mainly upon the gluten. content.
This is especially true in Budapest, in Magdeburg, and in other
markets where buyers depend on weight per bushel and the flinty or
amber appearance of the grain, for the more flinty or amber a wheat
of the same variety is the higher is the gluten content.

Before discussing the results obtained from the chemical studies
and field observations, it may be well to say that of all the samples and
varieties investigated three varieties of durum have been selected for
comparison—Kubanka, a Russian or northern wheat, and Pelissier
and Marouani, Mediterranean wheats, the latter two being from
Algeria. These were chosen because they had been grown under a
greater diversity of conditions, thus giving better opportunities for
more correct interpretation of the influence of the various conditions
on the chemical and physical characteristics.

In order to be able to judge correctly of the changes which a plant
undergoes in changing its habitat one should know the composition
of that plant in its own home. As only a very few of the original
samples were available for analysis it was necessary to rely on the
published results of wheat analyses for information concerning the
character of wheat grown in Russia and other countries. From these
sources it appears that Russian spring wheat contains about 3 per cent
of nitrogen, an amount slightly greater than that in the average of
our American-grown durum wheat, though many individual samples
of our durums far surpass that figure. The average per cent of pro-
tein in Italian durums is about the same as in those grown under our
best conditions. On the other hand, American-grown durums con-
tain several per cent more protein than those grown in Roumania.

The samples of Kubanka were grown in 1903, 1904, and 1905 in
every State west of the one hundredth meridian (approximately a
straight line drawn through western Dakota to Texas), most of them

aMr. T. C. Trescot, Bureau of Chemistry, made the nitrogen determinations and Mr.
Leavitt and Mr. Keister assisted in the analytical work.

202 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

coming from the great semiarid region. Some were grown in the irri-
gated lands of Colorado, Washington, Idaho, and Utah, and some in
the dry sections of those States.

EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE MOISTURE.

In comparing the results the remarkable influence which irrigation
or rainfall exerts when either is in excess is very striking. For exam-
ple, in 1903 eight samples were grown in the arid or semiarid regions
and seven samples in more humid localities, as given in the following
table:

Comparison of wheats grown in arid and humid regions.
ARID AND SEMIARID REGIONS.

Labo- : Phos- | Weight | Weight : :
Locality. rator Nitro: Ash. | phorie | per 1,000] per yey Pei
No. cen acid. | grains. | bushel. 8 . :
Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | Grams.a| Pounds. | Per cent.| Inches.
Belt; Mont. 9.4 s5.5 e 1492 2. 47 2.03 0. 92 39. 4 63.7 100 14
Rexburg, Idaho........ 1481 2.78 175 -91 . 32.9 62.1 95 15
idalig Colofsses esse 1485 3. 16 2.12 1.10 33. 8 60. 2 100 12
Westport, S. Dak...... 1476 2.79 2. 38 1.04 33. 6 60. 2 95 27
Brookings, 8. Dak. .... 600 2. 54 1.69 - 83 2002)°. pe wcces22|2sereceeee Cee
Culbertson, Nebr.....-- 1493 3. 00 2. 50 1.18 26. 4 58. 1 100 20
Heath iNebrsesscseeeee 678 2.72 2.05 - 98 26359 |e cece 100 13
IETS; SRSAMS So =e eerie 1478 2. 86 2. 48 1.24 24.7 iyi 100 33
AVIOTA PO. ovis tee aloe oi 2.79 2.13 1.03 G URS Tet] See sess 98" eaten
HUMID AND IRRIGATED REGIONS.
Mosca, Colo......------ 638 | 1.63 | 2.18 | 0.99 SA | > ew lh ee Labels (d)
Crestone, Colo.........- 1560 1.84 2.10 1.00 40.0 63. 1 20 (0)
Tiba pao Wwa bess sess 477 2. 46 2.08 .99 Oona, kes cs hac eee (b)
Bay City, Mich......... 1489 1. 96 2.09 . 98 25.3 58. 4 85 44
East Peru, Ilowa....... 1491 2.78 2.60 1.03 27.4 61.5 95 36
argo; Ni. D ake sees ase (049 2. 37 2.14 1.05 34.9 | 2c goes 8 | Ree eee 22
Mayfield, Utah......... 1, 483 2. 47 1. 85 . 88 34. 4 60. 2 75 (0) a
AVGTRESE® f=). ae laaecke. 2.22 2.15 -98 SovOy jl cece ee 69), acne
a One ounce=approximately 28 grams. b Crop was irrigated.

The most striking result is the higher nitrogen content of wheat
grown in the drier localities, the difference amounting to 0.57 per cent
of nitrogen or 3.2 per cent of protein (N X5.7=protein). There hap-
pens to be very little difference in per cent of ash or of phosphoric acid,
but the weight per thousand grains is considerably higher as a general
rule in the more moist regions. A glance at the column headed
“Flinty grains” will likewise reveal the fact that in the humid or in the
irrigated regions the general tendency of the wheat is to become mealy
or starchy. Similar results were obtained in 1905, though owing to
the presence of more moisture than usual in the semiarid regions the
difference in the nitrogen content is only 0.3 per ecnt, which is equiv-
alent to 1.7 per cent protein. The weight per thousand grains was as
31.7 is to 35.6, the humid regions producing the larger grains.

,

CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 203

In 1904 thirteen samples of Kubanka were grown in as many dif-
ferent places. By separating these into two classes, one consisting of
7 localities with 15 inches or less of rainfall, and the other of 6 locali-
ties with more than 15 inches of rainfall or having irrigation, it is again
seen that the wheats from the drier regions contain 0.47 per cent
more of nitrogen (2.7 per cent of protein). Furthermore, the wheat
of the humid regions contains a larger percentage of mealy kernels,
showing that there is a very close relation between the percentage of
protein and the percentage of flinty grains—that is, generally, the more
flinty the kernels the higher is the percentage of protein. An excess-
ive amount of rainfall or irrigation is almost always accompanied by
a crop containing a very low percentage of protein. This is further
shown in the work done in 14 different localities in the far Western
States; 7 of these places were irrigated and the percentage of protein
averaged 12.1, while in the 7 places where no irrigation was practiced
the protein content of the wheat was 15.4 per cent.

Two samples of durum wheat grown in Mexico were recently
received and analyzed. They had been grown from the same seed
and on adjacent land. One sample was irrigated, the other was not,
there being, moreover, very little rainfall during the growing season.
The following table shows the difference in the two samples:

Comparison of irrigated and nonirrigated durum wheats grown in Mexico.

Labo- | | ; | Weight
Samples. ratory | Protein. ey | of 1,000
No. | g * | grains.

| Per cent.| Per cent. Grams.

MIP Inal Hepdias =. 62.255. 522. 55s sceeske Uebos 28 ete eee-= 1780 12.3 100 38.8
SRIRAM UAE ee ne aes al ne se es os SS eae 1781 VS a 20 29.4
RRRAT ARNESON 0 oe re ee Te cola soe winia ye ie BE 1782 17.7

100 29. 2

The nonirrigated sample consisted of flinty kernels entirely and con-
tained 5.4 per cent more protein than the original seed and 6.6 per
cent more protein than the irrigated sample. The irrigated sample |
contained, moreover, very few flinty kernels (only 20 per cent).
The difference in protein content between the irrigated and nonirri-
gated samples is the greatest that the writer has ever observed, the
irrigated sample showing a marked deterioration both in chemical and
physical properties.

Such observations on the influence of excessive amounts of moisture
corroborate the results obtained by Lawes and Gilbert, in which
they showed that the hot, moderately dry seasons produced the
best quality of wheat, the cold, rainy seasons yielding the poorest
crops in the history of England. The six seasons of bad crops showed
rain to have fallen during each of 199 days. The seasons of good
crops had but 136 days during which it rained. The probable reason
for such differences is that an excessive rainfall dilutes the nitrater

204 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in: the soil too much, and there being but small amounts of carbo-
hydrates in the process of formation, owing to lack of sunshine, less
protein isformed. The result is a mealy grain of low protein content.

EFFECTS OF PROPER IRRIGATION IN DRY REGIONS.

Without water, however, there can be no vegetable production; even
the best soils must lie sterile. When, therefore, there is too little rain-
fall for plant growth, irrigation is the salvation of the crop. It supplies
water when needed, and in proper amounts. It is capable of doubling,
even trebling, crops. Backhaus found that irrigation increased wheat
straw 94 per cent and wheat grain 169 per cent, the actual value of
the increase in crop per acre-foot of water being $27 to $70.

In the mountain States of the West, where irrigation is practiced,
in Colorado for example, ideal conditions for plant growth prevail, for
there the sky is clear, the sunshine intense, the air dry. , Therefore,
if water can be supplied when the crops are in need of it, assimilation
will go on at its best and the production of organic substance will be
all the more favored. The result will be a large crop of large-sized
grain. The results, in fact, show this to be true. Whereas the aver-
age weight of a thousand grains grown in the semiarid regions from
Texas to North Dakota varies from 23 to 31 grams, a thousand grains
in the mountain States of Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, etc., where
irrigation is in vogue, average over 36 grams. The table following
shows the differences in the same variety of wheat (Kubanka) when
grown during three successive seasons with and without irrigation:

Kubanka wheats grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation.
UNDER DRY-LAND FARMING.

Risk ew Phos- | Weight | Weight | x;
Year. | Locality. ratory | pis Ash. | phoric| of 1,000 per ple
| No. | Beak | acid. | grains. | bushel. | 8T@!2S-
| ee | |
| | Per ct.| Perct.| Per ct.| Grams.a| Pounds. | Per ct.
1903 Tdaho esas. Ease sees. | 1481 2.78 1, 75y|, 40291 32.9 62.1 95
Coloradon. 2S 7 eee st 1485 | 3.16 2.12 1.10 _ 33.8 60. 2 100
Averages... stave d= Ss 2.97] 1.93] 1.00 BOG |. ce ee 97
\ 2 pal i
1904 | TASHO? 052 ae seccns ees. oe 1548 2.72 2.05 98 31.1 57.1 100
OR) FEE SE OL DE ee 1554 2. 60 2. 03 1.00 38. 4 63.0 95
Coloradond2cte~- oe see 1562 2.61 2. 32 1,21 23.3 61.5 100
DO wen cee Seco aan 1558 2.64 2. 40 1. 26 14.5 56.3 100
; |
AVO@Lagens oS eso seneeaewes 2. 64 2. 20 1, SG: Biuls etre pote 98
1905 Edeaho' ce ees. cosas cee 1555 | 3.01 1.76 79 35.0 63.5 100
DOU s.<i.-226 See Cees 1482 3. 15 2.08 1.12 27.3 60.9 100
Colorado: 23. =: ub eeee 1559 2. 41 2. 25 1.15 33.6 63. 1 95
D0 SS.2usc mace nes 1486 2. 45 2. 16 1.19 33. 1 62.1 90
Average...o51 2. Ano | Ao erent 2. 16 1.06 Bal Pee sil 96
Average of all. ...... 1 ee 2.75} 2.12] 1.07 30.3 60.9} 98

a One ounce = approximately 28 grams.

CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 205

Kubanka wheats grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation—Continued.
UNDER IRRIGATION.

Taboo Phos- | Weight | Weight

; Nitro- : Flinty
Year. Locality. ratory | Ash. | phoric | of 1,000 per :
m No. | 8e2- acid | grains. | bushel. | 87S)
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Grams. | Pounds. | Per ct. |
aget | Colorndo....-...<.-....... 638 | 1.63) 218] 0.99 cr 9 Saeeeeee! Bh. Oe
Di aes teseees teins 1560 | 1.84 2.10 | 1.00 40.0 63.1 20
Ca ae meee rr Ae eres ees ee ee 20
TG Es ee 1552! 2.37) 2.22] 1.13 | 39.7 62.8 g2 |
DD hoe eo ee 1549] 2.04] 2.11] 1.06 | 37.0 62.8 46
CHNOTOUO.. . cose - eo eee 1516 . 98 1.90 .97 37.0 63.1 38
DOCS. 2 ee See 1517 | 202) 225-1°°°1.10"| 35.8 60.9 47 |
Average............. WAP Bs) 210; 232] 1.06 ST cee ee 53
| | |
10Bh ese ToahO! outs) se s=282ne e528 - {yey A553) ip Pi BO) fre 224 | 118 35.8 62.1 90
i ie eon ae |, 156: | 1.85 1.97 . 89 36. 1 64.5 50
Dy aaa alle aaa | 1518 | 2.11) .2.05} 1.00 33.7 61.6 70
Repeep he: es oe 2.09; 2.08| 1.00 ive (eee es by 70
Average of all....... eee 2.02} 2.11] 1.03 36. 6 62.7] 55

These samples were grown in Colorado and Idaho, some under dry-
land farming, the others under irrigation. One of the first differences
noted is that under dry-land farming there is 0.73 per cent more nitro-
gen (or 4.16 per cent more protein) in the dry-land wheat than in that
grown under irrigation. The weight per thousand grains, however, is
greater under irrigation. The percentage of flinty kernels is markedly
greater under dry-land farming. It is almost always the case that
irrigation tends to produce a mealy grain, although in several instances
it has been noted that even under irrigation the grain has kept its
flinty character. This is explainable only on the theory that the irri-
gation has not been excessive, and suggests a line of research just
entered upon—that is, the investigation of the effects of varying
amounts of irrigation at different periods of growth. The grain
grown under dry-land farming contains practically the same amount
of phosphoric acid in the ash as that grown under irrigation, the per-
centage being 49 in each case.

INFLUENCE OF SOILS, FERTILIZERS, AND TEMPERATURE.

Soils and fertilizers also have more or less influence on the quality of
the crop. This influence is much less marked, however, than is that
of rainfall or of climate in general. One would naturally expect that
soil would exert less influence than the character of the season, from
the fact that only 5 per cent of the plant constituents are derived from
the soil. Yet it is a well-known fact that nitrogenous fertilizers affect
the straw content of cereals, and, to a certain extent, the percentage of
protein in the grain, Wiley having long since established that the nitro-
gen of the grain was present in proportion to the nitrogen of the soil.

206 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Lawes and Gilbert showed that manure performed the function of
lessening relatively the transpiration of plants. They established the
fact that for every gram of organic matter elaborated 250 to 300 times
as much water had been transpired, but that when the land was rich
in plant food, after having been well manured, for example, a rela-
tively smaller amount of water was taken up and given off by the plant.
Therefore, fertilizers not only supply the plant with the necessary food,
but lessen the relative amount of water transpired. It would follow
from this that fertilizers are of considerable assistance in combating
drought, for we know that potash increases the water-holding capacity
of soils, and that one of the chief uses of transpiration is to obtain for
the plant the necessary plant food; it is a means rather than an end.

The temperature of the season likewise has its influence on the qual-
ity and quantity of plants, hot seasons producing the most abundant
crops. As hot seasons are more or less dry seasons also, and wet and
cold seasons go together, the latter yielding the poor crops, one must
assume that it is not so much a matter of temperature alone as it is of
both temperature and moderate rainfall.

ADVANTAGE OF SHORT GROWING SEASON.
i

The length of the growing period also exerts its influence, the longer
period of growth giving, as a rule, a lower percentage of protein.
This is conclusively shown in the table following, the crops having
been grown without irrigation.

Effect of long and short periods of growth on nitrogen content and weight of wheat.
SHORT AND LONG PERIODS IN THE SAME LOCALITY.

| _ | Weight
Place Year. fory No. Days. ye ere ne Bary
Per cent.| Inches.| Grams.
KdaligColos-snss see. ese ee see ae aud 1903 1485 111 3. 16 12 33. 8
Da ee he Ie ial a a ere Ae Se 1905 1559 157 2. 41 20 33. 6
DORA Saree eee Beier SA feet 5. O08 1905 1486 153 2. 46 20 33. 1
Westport; Sa Dakss. -o-4-mete se eeeece 1903 1476 112 2.79 27 33. 6
1D [0 ee no aoe ee eee eee 1905 1477 123 2.04 33 34.3
Holyoke: Colotsstessacsss= hee sateen ne 1902 637 130 2. 54 22 35. 6
DOS epee Sse MOR et eee eee 1903 1666 119 | 3. 45 11 33.5

LONG PERIODS OF GROWTH, DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.

Tully, Kianst + te ese eee | 1904 1647 133 2.58 24 35.0
Rontavhe, candies ss yeeros ee | 1905 1519 152 2. 51 19 28
McCammon, Idaho................-.-- | 1904 1548 140 2, 72 12 Re
Dansing Colo... c...2-cs22 ee ee nee 1904 1562 145 2.61 21 23.3
Kdatia*' Colows..- 22. See eee 1905 1559 157 2. 41 20 33. 6
Do n.cehs Sous} -oasel see ee 1905 1486 153 2. 46 20 33. 1
Blockhouse, Washi... «a0 0.4 keen 1905 1538 254 1. 83 18 34.5
HOLY OKG}: COlOn wants cus ae Se eee 1902 637 130 2.54 22 35. 6
ANGI BZ O'6)5.0 = 550 fens So aba od decade | ee eee 162 2. 45 20 31.4 )

CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 207

Effect of long and short periods of growth on nitrogen content and weight of wheat—
Continued.

SHORT PERIODS OF GROWTH, DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.

Place. Year. pare me Days. tee pias of 00
|

|
Per cent.| Inches.| Grams.
North nid, Okla... ...... 2.20.2 .6.8 1903 1593 71 3. 42 29 40.3
Hitrporald; Okla... 2... ....<..+.- seed: 1903 659 82 2. 62 22 31.6
Co ge eee: 1904 1649 9% | 3.05 21 33. 2
LAPT EAT) gen 9 ea i ee 2 1903 649 Oe oon B25 3449
Fullerton, N. Dak...................-- 1904 1487 86 | 2.40 21 19.6
Heath, Nebr.....:2..-:-+. nS. ee PE 1905 1522 102 | 3.21 24 30.0
expuIe Tdano. o. 22 cane teeta ee | 1903 1481 85) |)" 2.78 15 | 32.9
Idalia, Colo.......... ht Nar ST te 1904 | 1558 97 | 2.64 a1 | 145
iter ante Wants ee ene 1904 1533 73 | 2.85 10 | 37.6
CUM (Co hi aa 1904 | 1537 70 1.99 A 0588-7
SS a 1903 | 1666 119 | 3.45 u 33.3
TA ESC EO Sea a | 2 oe | 90 | 2.80 19 | 81.0

The number of days varies from 71 in Oklahoma to 254 in Washing-
ton, where the sample was grown as a winter variety. The difference
in the average results between the short and long growing periods
is 0.35 per cent nitrogen or 2.1 per cent protein. From the length of
the period of growth and the average temperature during that period
some conclusions may be drawn as to the number of heat units
required to mature a crop in the various localities and under the vary-
ing conditions. We find, for instance, that North Enid, Okla., with
71 days as the growing period and 64° as the average temperature of
that period, requires 4,544 heat units to mature a wheat crop. On the
other hand, Idalia, Colo., required 157 days with an average tempera-
ture of 58°, or 9,106 heat units.

Professor Ladd, of North Dakota, found that for conditions prevail-
ing in that State an average of 98.5 days or 6,215 heat units were
required for wheat to mature. The results obtained by the writer
are very close to these figures, giving an average of 6,280 heat units
for North Dakota. For North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, and
Nebraska, averaged together, 7,037 heat units are required. Practi-
cally the same amount, 7,054, is found necessary in Colorado, Mon-
tana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. Heat is the chief factor in the
distribution of plants, as they only live where the air and soil are
warm enough to carry on the vital processes. The absorption of
water, and therefore of plant food, by the root hairs, the assimilation
of carbon by the chlorophyll of the leaves, stooling, flowering, and
maturing all require so many heat units. As a general thing the
length of the growing period, and therefore the heat units, decrease
as one goes toward the pole; in Norway, for example, barley requires
but 1,500 heat units to mature.

208 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

INFLUENCE OF SEED AND PREVIOUS CROP.

As to the influence of the seed on the crop, there is here also a
diversity of opinion, Fischer, in Germany, maintaining that it has
no influence, whereas in the work done by Hopkins, of Illinois, in grow-
ng corn for protein or for oil, the seed was selected because of the high
protein or oil content.

Considerable work is being done to determine the influence of the
previous crop on the quality of grain, such work being carried on in
cooperation with the experiment stations of Tennessee and California.
As the fertilizers exert more or less influence it is to be expected that
such crops as legumes will play some part in modifying the composi-
tion of wheat.

EFFECT OF TIME AND MANNER OF HARVESTING.

The time of harvest also affects the quality of a grain to a marked
degree. If harvested too early, the grain is shriveled and so of inferior
quality; if harvested too late, the quantity only is appreciably affected,
as a considerable loss is apt to take place through shattering. The
most propitious time for harvesting is when the grain is of a waxy
consistency and can be cleanly broken by the finger nail. From this
time on there is no appreciable change in the chemical composition of
the dry matter. Any delay in harvesting after the waxy consistency
of the grain makes its appearance may result in considerable loss, not
only through shattering, but from the effect of unfavorable weather
conditions. Even during the time of the Romans the saying was
“Better to harvest two days ahead than two days too late.” .

The changes which take place during the growing period are of
exceeding interest. Up to the time of full flowering, wheat has
elaborated 87 per cent .of the dry matter and has absorbed all the
nitrogen, lime, and potash that it requires and 74 per cent of the
phosphoric acid. From this it will be seen that the plant continues
to absorb phosphoric acid from the soil until almost mature. Shortly
before maturity the mother plant ceases to draw any further nourish-
ment from the soil, and it then becomes the function of the plant to
transport the elaborated materials to the head and grain. At this
time a severe drought, accompanied by excessively hot weather, is
apt to check the process of transporting the soluble substances elabo-
rated in the leaves and stems to the head and grain, thus causing the
production of a shriveled wheat.

In 1905 the writer collected several samples of wheat at Brookings,
S. Dak., some of which were harvested early, i. e., in the soft dough
stage, and some after fully maturing. In every case those samples
harvested early gave a very low weight per thousand grains and
were more or less shrunken. Those harvested late were plump.
The following table shows the results more in detail, giving the per-

CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 209

centage of nitrogen, the weight per thousand grains, and the percent-
age of flinty kernels. Enough samples were harvested so that part
of each one could be allowed to ripen in a protected place (indoors)
and part outdoors or exposed. In every case also part of the
sample was harvested with the stems, that is, the whole plant was
harvested, and of part only the heads were collected.

Comparison of wheats harvested early and late and under other varying conditions.

WHOLE PLANTS HARVESTED

Harvested early. Harvested late.
| :
pee | Tested for— Protected | Exposed Protected | Exposed
ee { 4 after aiter ) aft aiter
harvest. | harvest. nacrek harvest.
| |
- |
= NERORCN an ano a cn< eas per cent... 2. 02 2. 01 1. 99 1.99
Peas eck ae | Weight of 1,000 grains...... grams... 29. 94 26. 84 37. 68 36. 48
\\Flinty grains...........- per cent... 95. 00 80. 00 95. 00 90. 00
Ninibropen. 2) 2.2 022k per cent.. 2.01 1. 88 1. 80 1. 89
Cin |. Weight of 1,000 grains... ... grams... 30. 16 30. 74 33. 78 34. 24
i|Flinty grains...........- per cent. . 95. 00 85. 00 95. 00 90. 00
PN RED PON oJ es ee he See per cent... 1.91 1. 93 2. 04 1. 97
Cot ee ees }{ Weight of 1,000 grains. ..... grams... 29.10 28.50 35. 64 36.16
||Flinty grains.......... per cent... 95. 00 90. 00 90. 00 95. 00
\(Nitrogen...............-- per cent.. 2.14 2. 08 2.11 2.09
Wade e on eax Weight of 1,000 grains. ....- grams... 26. 50 24. 00 35. 98 33. 86
|(Flinty grains..........-. per cent.. 98. 00 90. 00 95. 00 95. 00
ieiEToPeN = - ce. <2. no. per cent.. 2. 02 1.98 1.99 1.99
Average. .|; Weight of 1,000 grains.....- grams... 28. 92 27. 52 35. 77 35. 19
i\(Flinty grains............ per cent... 96. 00 86. 00 94. 00 93. 00
i —
HEADS ONLY HARVESTED.
: =
INIETOPOER oS chee per cent... 2.15 | 2.17 1.94 1. 92
C3 ee Jw eight of 1,000 grains ...... grams. .| 23.94 | 23220 37. 08 36. 48
((Flinty STRING So >s ee per cent..| 100. 00 90. 00 85. 00 90. 00
ON IOpEnY 32.45 5-e per cent.. 1. 90 1.99 1. 92 1.91
BAR Ae ee ee | Weight of 1,000 grains ...... grams... 30. 90 27. 78 35. 64 34. 66
Flinty,erains 5.2 .<25...22 per cent... 95. 00 90. 00 95. 00 95. 00
| { Nitregeny. "222.2 = 52-27... per cent... 1.96 | 1.93 2.01 | 1.91
2 by ee Weight of 1,000 grains...... grams..|. 25.80 | 27.30 34. 64 35. 42
| Klinty praing(. <<. =. -..-22 per cent... 90. 00 85. 00 90. 00 90. 00
ROR CR eee saes saa per cent... 2.09 |. 2.02 2.14 | 2.10
ic Sees ee |; Weight of 1,000 grains ...... grams.. 2456 | 25.64 36.94 | 35.90
| RUNGCY: PFAING Se cas per cent... 95. 00 85. 00 95. CO 100. 00
|{Nitrogen .....-.-......... per cent... 2. 03 2.03 200" |) 1596
Average. .|; Weight of 1,000 grains ...._. grams.. 26. 30 25. 90 36. 07 35. 61
HELRGY. STAINS 2. ooo. c occas per cent... 95. 00 88. 00 91. 00 94. 00

The table shows that when only the heads are harvested early the
grain thereon is small and shriveled, whereas if harvested late the
grain is plump. The reason for this is that the heads harvested early
being cut off from the stems, the supply of elaborated food in the
latter is actually lost to the grain. The grain, therefore, is unable to
increase in weight. On the other hand, the heads which had ripened
on the stem, that is, those harvested late, had received from the latter
much of the elaborated material. The difference in the number of
flinty kernels in the grain harvested early and late when the samples
were protected is too small to afford any conclusions; but when the

3 a1906——14

210 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

samples were exposed, the one harvested early had a smaller number
of flinty kernels. This was true likewise of the samples harvested on
the stems; the one which was harvested early and exposed contained
a smaller amount of flinty grains than the one collected at full ma-
turity. This was due to the effect of weathering, as it is well known
that intermittent rains have an injurious effect on the grain in the
shock, much more so than when the grain is still standing. The grain
which was harvested late was not materially affected, so far as its
flinty character is concerned, by exposure, whether the heads only or
the whole plants were collected. Likewise there is little difference in
the weight per thousand or the percentage of nitrogen, showing that
at full maturity no more change goes on in the plant.

This table also shows that the percentage of nitrogen or protein is
practically the same in every sample whether harvested early or late,
heads separate or the whole plant, and whether these samples were
protected or exposed. The chief difference here is the the weight per
thousand, the samples harvested late weighing 7 to 10 grams more
than the early ones. This simply means that on ripening the elabo-
rated organic material inthe leaves, stems, and heads is transported
to the grain and that this material is also rich in proteid substances.
The number of starchy grains, that is, those having white spots, is not
very great in any case, as is shown by the percentage of flinty kernels.
The samples harvested early and exposed have the greatest number
of starchy grains.

From the table on page 209°it will be clearly seen that the sam-
ples of heads only, which are harvested early, yield a grain which is
appreciably smaller than when the whole plant is harvested early.
The same explanation here holds true as was made above when con-
sidering early and late harvesting of heads only, but to a less degree.
In this case only a comparatively small part of the elaborated mate-
rial is transported from the stem to the grain, giving it a higher
weight per thousand, that is, the weight per thousand grains where
the heads only were harvested early is 26.3 grams, whereas when the
whole plant is harvested at the same time the weight per thousand
has increased to 28.9 grams. Such experiments clearly show that
harvesting by means of “headers’’ should be carried on only when
the grain is fully mature, as otherwise an incompletely developed or
shriveled grain will be obtained.

VALUE OF DURUM WHEAT.

Professor Shepard, of South Dakota, has recently issued a report on
durum wheat, in which it is shown that Kubanka contains less bran
than Red Fife, that more flour is made from Kubanka, and that the
flour contains a larger amount of the proteid of the wheat than does
flour made from northern spring wheat. Baking tests, however, show

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906 LAE St

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF WHEAT GROWN UNDER
VARYING CONDITIONS.

{1.—Flinty wheat erain grown under dry farming. 2.—Half-starchy wheat

grain, 3.—Starchy wheat grain grown under excessive irrigation. ]

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906 PLATE XI.

A HOEN & CO BALTIMORE.

WHOLE WHEAT SHOWING (1) FLINTY, (2) HALF STARCHY, AND
(3) STARCHY GRAINS. (X43.)

CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 241

that spring wheat makes a larger loaf and contains a larger amount of
gliadin in the gluten than is the case with Kubanka wheat. Taking
it all in all, however, Professor Shepard states that ‘for the yield,
hardiness, flour yield, protein distribution, and the quality of both
bread and macaroni, durum wheat, especially Kubanka, is to be
recommended for general use.”’

Several years ago Clifford Richardson, of the Bureau of Chemistry,
published the results of several hundred analyses of wheat grown in
the various States of the Union, from which it appears that the aver-
age protein content of our American spring and winter wheat ( 7’ri-
ticum vulgare) is 12.2 per cent, whereas the average proteid content of
considerably over one hundred samples of durum analyzed by the
writer is 14.7, or 2.5 per cent more than that of the common wheat.

Durum wheat grown in Algeria contains only from 8 to 10 per cent
of water. Common wheat grown in countries adapted thereto con-
tains from 10 to 16 per cent of water, according to the moisture of the
atmosphere. The difference in the water content was sufficient to
make the French officials investigate the advisability of buying wheat
from dry-land regions, which wheats would contain less moisture, and
thus not only a large saving would be made in the cost of transporta-
tion, but more wheat per bushel would be actually obtained.

IRRIGATION EXPERIMENTS.

As climate is the great factor in influencing the composition of crops,
and as we are powerless to change it in any way, it devolves upon us
to make as wise a selection of our grains as possible, choosing those
which are more apt to resist the unfavorable elements. Though we
can not control rainfall, we are able in irrigated districts to determine
how much water a crop shall receive by irrigation. As excessive
irrigation tends to change the hard, flinty durum into a soft, mealy
grain, thus robbing it of its most important physical characteristic, as
well as lowering its nitrogen content below that of a true durum, it is
important to carefully determine the amounts of water that should be
given to a wheat crop and the times during the period of growth when
it should be applied. This question is the subject of an investigation
which is being conducted in cooperation with several of the Western
States where irrigation is practiced and facilities exist for irrigating
with definite amounts of water at stated periods.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF OVER-IRRIGATED GRAINS.

The photomicrographs shown in Plate X represent cross sections of
grain grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation. Figure 1
represents a durum grown on land not irrigated, being flinty, hard, and
translucent, and containing over 18 per cent of protein. No. 2 is an

212 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

intermediate grain, showing both the starchy and the flinty charac-
teristics. No. 3 represents a grain from the same kind of seed as that
which produced No. 1 and grown on adjacent land, but under exces-
sive irrigation, the result being a soft, mealy, dull-looking grain, some-
what shorter than No. 1 and containing only 12 per cent of protein.
It has lost its durum characteristics entirely, and is no more suitable
for making good macaroni than are our soft wheats. Plate XI is a
reproduction of an enlarged photograph of the whole wheat grains,
and represents the same samples as are shown in Plate X, No. 1
showing the dark amber color of the flinty grain, No. 2 the inter-
mediate sample, and No. 3 the light starchy grain. Both the photo-
micrographs and the photographs shown in these plates were made
by Burton J. Howard, chief of the microchemical laboratory of the
Bureau of Chemistry.

NECESSITY OF PRODUCING HIGH-PROTEIN WHEATS.

In conclusion, it may be well to emphasize the fact that the coun-
tries which are the great buyers of wheat purchase generally on the
basis of protein content, that is, on the basis of the weight per
bushel and the weight per thousand grains, while in some localities
wheats are bought on the basis of the chemical analysis itself. It is
therefore of the utmost importance, in order to retain our foreign
markets and maintain our commercial supremacy and national repu-
tation as producers of high-grade wheat, that the closest attention be
paid not only to the production of high-yielding wheats but also to
the cultivation of varieties having a high protein content, with a view
to growing wheats which combine these two characteristics—high
gluten content and large yields.

THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY.

By R. W. WriuraMs, Jr.,
Assistant, Biological Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

For several hundred years the enforcement of criminal laws of
all kinds in this country has been intrusted to sheriffs, constables,
and police officers, and until the middle of the nineteenth century
this method was considered satisfactory. But with the growing
demand for more stringent enactments for the preservation of game
and the increasing complexity of statutes for this purpose it was
found no longer practicable to include the burden of enforcing them
among the duties devolving upon general officers, and their enforce-
ment has consequently been intrusted to special officials, usually
called game wardens.

The origin of the term ‘‘ warden” in relation to game is somewhat
obscure, but it was probably adopted in analogy to church and wood
wardens in England, where the word first came into use. However
this may be, a game warden is now generally understood to be an
officer charged with the enforcement of laws for the protection of
game and fish. Several substitutes for the term are in use in a few
States and Canadian Provinces. Thus in New York all, and in New
Jersey and Pennsylvania some, game officers are styled ‘‘ protectors;”’
in New Hampshire the designation ‘‘ detectives” is employed; in
Prince Edward Island, ‘‘inspectors,’”? and in Alberta, Manitoba, and
Saskatchewan, ‘‘ game guardians.”

Wardenships for the protection of fish existed quite early in the
history of this country, and some time after the establishment of
similar offices for the protection of game the duties of the two were
united and intrusted to the same officers. Consequently to-day, in
all but a few States, the game warden is a fish warden also and per-
forms manifold duties in that capacity. The present article does
not deal with this phase of his duties, but is limited in scope to those
he performs solely as a game warden.

In the United States the establishment of a special office for the
protection of game and the enforcement of the game laws dates back
to 1852, when the legislature of Maine created the office of moose

213

P14 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

warden, directed the governor to appoint one for each of the counties
of Oxford, Franklin, Somerset, Penobscot, Piscataquis, Aroostook,
and Washington, and allowed the warden three-fourths of the fines
recovered for killing moose and deer contrary to law. This seems to
be the first game wardenship established in this country. For three
decades there was very little further activity in this direction. A
few States authorized the appointment of local wardens, but the
experiment was almost entirely a failure. During the period between
1878 and 1888, however, the urgent necessity for enforcement of
game laws became apparent, and in that decade ten States created
a State office or department charged with the enforcement of the
game laws. Other States quickly followed, and at the present time
in thirty-six States and Territories the enforcement of the game laws
is intrusted to a State board, a warden, or, as in North Carolina and
Delaware, to an incorporated association. Florida, Georgia, Ken-
tucky, Louisiana, Nevada, and South Dakota still adhere to the
county warden system, and Texas, Alabama, and Arkansas provide
no special officer for protection of game. Correlated with the estab-
lishment of these offices has been the increasing complexity of game
laws, until at the present time the modern game statute assumes the
magnitude of a criminal code, and to enforce its provisions and exer-
cise the powers thereunder requires a high degree of judgment and
skill. The necessary qualifications of an officer in this department
of the State’s service are consequently much greater to-day than
formerly. This is apparent from an examination of the one hundred
and fifty-six sections of the Colorado game law, which, it may be
noted, do not include the provisions relating to nongame birds.

THE OFFICE OF GAME WARDEN.

Since the establishment of State offices or departments for the pro-
tection of game, the position of warden, whether the jurisdiction
extends over the entire State or is confined to a small area, has
assumed an importance and dignity it did not formerly possess.
Fortified by plenary power to enforce the game laws, and with a’
consciousness of the important public service performed, the warden
of to-day stands upon an equal footing with other executive officers
of the Government, and commands like respect. The salary attached
to the position of State commissioner or warden in those States pro-
viding for a salary compares favorably with the compensation of
other State officials. In New York it is $5,000 a year, in Illinois
$2,500, and in other States it varies from $1,000 to $2,000. In the
States which intrust the administration of the game laws to a board
of commissioners, position on the board, except in Connecticut,
Massachusetts, and Maine, is honorary and without compensation.
Such is the case in Arizona, California, New Hampshire, New Jersey,

THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 215

Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island, but even under
these circumstances the States have no difficulty in securing ready and
capable men.

The compensation of deputies varies more than that of the State
officers, and the system of payment adopted by each State has fea-
tures distinct from those of any other. A few States pay their
deputies salaries. In Montana each of the eight district wardens
receives a salary of $100 a month, and in California the salary of
county warden is graduated according to the population of the county,
$50 to $125 per month, with an additional allowance of $25 for ex-
penses. Colorado allows each of her five chief wardens $900 a year
and $300 for expenses, besides a share of fines and officer’s costs. In
Illinois the ten district game wardens receive $900 a year each and
their actual and necessary expenses while under the direction of the
commissioner. Game protectors in New York, except the chief, first,
second, and third assistant protectors, who receive annual salaries of
$5,000, $2,000, $1,400,and $1,200, respectively, are paid $600 a year,
and receive one-half of the fines in actions brought upon information
furnished by them; and they are allowed also $450 a year for their
expenses. In some States the deputies receive the whole or part of
the fines, together with the usual fees of a sheriff or constable. In
Tennessee the State warden serves without compensation.

The terms of service are usually the same as those of other officers.
The State warden of Tennessee, however, is appointed for eight years,
a longer term than is usual for any State officer.

It may be of interest to note, as showing the type of men required
for this work, that the present warden of Tennessee was a former
member of the Federal House of Representatives; that one of the
Members of Congress from Michigan was the first warden of that
State; that the present game commissioner of one of the States was
formerly United States minister to Turkey; and that several promi-
nent lawyers and physicians are serving their States in the capacity
of State warden or as members of boards of game and fish commis-
sioners. The governor of Nebraska is nominally fish and game com-
missioner of that State, but the active work of the office devolves
upon his chief deputy. This somewhat anomalous condition is due to
a constitutional prohibition against the creation of any executive
State office not provided for in the constitution. Hence the law of
1901 establishing the office of game and fish commissioner provided
that the duties of the position should devolve upon the governor.

DUTIES.

The duties of a game warden are those usually performed by a
sheriff, but they differ in one important particular, and this differ-
ence inheres in the object for which the wardenship was established.

216 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A sheriff ordinarily acts only in pursuance of preliminary proceed-
ings by private persons or by a court officer and usually under a
warrant issued by a court commanding him to arrest a certain person,
summon a jury, or perform similar acts; but a warden can not await
the initiative or detection of a violation by others. He must act,
must himself search out violations, find the evidence wherewith to
convict offenders, and institute prosecutions. This is one of the
primary reasons for the existence of a special officer to enforce the
game laws.

During the open season much of the game warden’s time is spent
in examining shipments, and if his territory includes a railway cen-
ter this serv'ce is arduous and requires much night work. The
devices employed by shippers to conceal contraband trade in game
compel wardens to examine many packages the contents of which
are not exposed to view. It frequently happens that the warden
must perform detective duty in order to secure the evidence necessary
to convict suspected parties, and this means that occasionally he is
subjected to all the dangers of such service. In States prohibiting
sale or possession of game he must periodically visit and inspect
hotels, restaurants, and other resorts where it is likely to be served
to guests, and must keep a watchful eye on markets and cold-storage
plants. In a few States and in several of the Canadian Provinces
wardens issue hunting licenses, and in consequence are compelled to
keep accounts. By the passage of laws in several States prohibiting
the hounding of deer and directing the wardens to kill dogs found
chasing or molesting deer or found in the deer country, another task,
and often a disagreeable one, is added to the warden’s duty. The
secretary of the game commission of Pennsylvania, in January, 1906,
estimated that 1,500 dogs had been killed in that State during the
few months of the operation of the law. Examination of hunting
licenses issued to nonresidents requires the warden’s attention, and
it is always necessary for him to make sure that all persons found
hunting are provided with proper licenses. In many States wardens
are required to destroy traps and devices employed to capture game,
and in a few to seize guns and shooting paraphernalia used in viola-
tion of law. They often perform the duties of auctioneers in the
sale of confiscated game, guns, traps, nets, etc. Occasionally when
an offender against the game laws has escaped into another State
the warden is required to enter that State and, with proper requisi-
tion papers, apprehend and bring back the fugitive. In nearly
every State wardens are empowered to serve criminal and civil proc-
ess just as a sheriff would, and this requires knowledge of the proper
procedure.

Every statute providing for the appointment of a warden defines
his duties, some more explicitly and in greater detail than others;

THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. DAT

but the officer who would perform the greatest service to the State
must do many things not laid down in the law. As arule, the active
field work of the game department is performed by deputies under
instructions from the State warden, but the laws of Idaho and Wyo-
ming declare that the State warden shall be an active executive officer,
and when possible shall take the field in person in performance of
his duties.

An officer who realizes the responsibility of his position can do
much to bring game protection into popular favor. He may easily
become an educator, however circumscribed his field. Much of the
wanton destruction of animal life proceeds from thoughtlessness,
and few persons once impressed with the importance of preserving
wild creatures continue to destroy them. In North Carolina the
bird and game wardens, in addition to their official duties, spend a
considerable portion of their time educating the public as to the value
of birds and game to the State. During the close seasons they visit
farmers, explain and discuss the game laws and their object, and
hear complaints. Each warden is supplied with a selection of stand-
ard books on birds and is required to familiarize himself with them,
so as to be able to answer the numerous questions propounded.

A very useful and interesting feature of a warden’s duties in Illinois
is the periodical census made by him of certain species of game. In
this way the commissioner, with reasonable accuracy, can determine
the status of certain species and recommend necessary legislation.
Similar service is performed by the wardens in Pennsylvania. The
general adoption of this scheme over the entire country would greatly
facilitate the drafting of proper laws and in addition furnish very
interesting statistics.

Another valuable service performed by the Illinois wardens con-
sists in rendering aid to the farmers in enforcing the trespass laws.
Telephone connection makes it possible to quickly reach the scene
of a trespass, and ready response has greatly reduced the number of
such offenses in that State. The Illinois and Wisconsin wardens, as
part of their duties, periodically examine and check up the hunting-
license accounts of the county clerks.

The rapid decrease in the number of quail in several States, due
to starvation in severe winters with heavy snows, has awakened the
citizens of those States to a realization of the necessity of providing
food for the starving birds during such periods. The game depart-
ments in some of the States have adopted a systematic plan for pur-
chasing and distributing this food by the aid of wardens. During
the winter of 1904-5, which was very severe and protracted as far
south as North Carolina, thirty wardens in that State devoted much
of their time to distributing grain for the quail and in enlisting the
cooperation of the farmers in their behalf. During the same winter

218 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

some of the wardens of New Jersey purchased grain at their own
expense and distributed it widely in their territory, and the Indiana
wardens employed men with sleighs to distribute food for the quail.
In Illinois quail were systematically fed by the game department dur-
ing that winter. An expenditure of $25 in each county was author-
ized by the State game commissioner to be used in February, and
with the means thus supplied the wardens were able to scatter a large
amount of grain throughout the region inhabited by quail. The
mounted police on duty in the neighborhood of Washington, in the
District of Columbia, under instructions from their superintendent,
who is ex-officio game warden of the District, carry with them regu-
larly, during severe weather, bags of grain from which they scatter
food for the quail.
POWERS.

The powers exercised by the wardens of the present day are very
extensive. Indeed, were it not so, enforcement of game laws and the
consequent preservation of game would be impossible. It is the
exception now for a State to withhold from its game wardens the right
to arrest without warrant persons found in the act of violating the law,
and a number of States confer upon their wardens the right to search
summarily any place where they suspect contraband game to be con-
cealed. In New York the power of search without warrant under the
game laws is granted to game protectors, but is withheld from peace
officers, who otherwise exercise all the powers of protectors in the
enforcement of the game laws. Several States have excepted dwell-
ings from the general warrant of search, thus preserving the ancient
and time-honored sanctity of the home. While the warden may be
lawfully invested with broad powers, it behooves him to use tact and
discretion in exercising them, so as to give no just grounds for com-
plaints of oppression.

In Michigan and Wisconsin wardens are authorized to conduct
prosecutions in the courts in the same manner and with the same
authority as prosecuting attorneys, and in Oklahoma and West Vir-
ginia they may do so without the sanction of the prosecuting attorney.
In Tennessee the State warden may compromise or discontinue cases
where the violations are technical or where he believes the prosecution
or fine would be oppressive. In Maine the commissioners of inland
fisheries and game may entirely prohibit the taking of any kind of
game in any part of the State for a series of years, not exceeding four.
These are some of the extensive powers granted wardens, and they
illustrate the position of the service at the present day. In this
connection may well be quoted the instructions given the deputy and
county wardens of Michigan by the game warden of that State:

The proper observance of the fish and game laws depends almost entirely upon the

vigilance and good judgment af the county and deputy wardens. Keep your eyes and
ears open for violations, but do not be too hasty in acting upon what you hear. Be

THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 219

careful not to let the public know your plans. Be vigilant and fearless in enforcing
the laws, but try to do so without being obnoxious. Be gentlemanly at all times.
Show no favoritism, and be especially careful that all persons are treated alike. It is
important that the people should be awakened to the importance of respecting the
laws for the preservation of fish and game. Use your influence to arouse public
sentiment in this respect. (Game Warden Dept. of Mich.—Instructions to Wardens,
1903.)
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT.

The equipment of the game warden differs very little from that of
other officers who enforce criminal statutes, but on account of the
character of the territory to be patrolled several States in the past few
years have provided launches for wardens doing duty on water courses.
Massachusetts for several years has kept in service along the coast a
naphtha launch, the efficiency of which the commissioners of that
State declare to be equal to that of a hundred men. The Audubon
Society of North Carolina, an incorporated body, which, under the
terms of its charter, administers the game laws in that State, main-
tains a launch for the use of its wardens along the Atlantic coast.
This boat is used in winter for patrolling the ducking grounds in
the larger inlets along the coast of North Carolina, where wild fowl
resort in great numbers and are extensively shot for market; and in
summer it does duty in the region about Cape Hatteras and Ocracoke
Inlet and around the islands in Pamlico Sound, where large numbers
of sea birds rear their young. The game commissioner of Illinois has
recently provided a cabin cruising launch for the use of the wardens
along the Illinois River, and early in 1906 New York authorized the
purchase of a steam or electric launch for the use of the two game
protectors on Jamaica Bay and adjacent waters, and appropriated
$1,500 for the purpose.

The police department of the District of Columbia maintains a
launch for service on the Potomac River largely to enforce the game
laws on the marshes along the river.

The National Association of Audubon Societies, always desirous to
cooperate with game wardens, owns a launch with which its warden
patrols the southern coast of Florida in the interests of the nongame
birds of that State; and in Louisiana its warden, who has supervision
of the Breton Island Reservation in the Gulf of Mexico, is the owner
and captain of a schooner which he uses in his work of protection.

CIVIL-SERVICE SYSTEM FOR GAME WARDENS.

With increasing necessity for enforcement of the game laws and the
corresponding intricacy of these laws arises increased necessity for
more intelligent officers to execute them. The civil-service rules,
which have worked so well in other departments of the State govern-
ment, have recently been applied to the game departments of Massa-
chusetts and Wisconsin, and their example will, without doubt, soor

220 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be followed by other States. The system, besides insuring a higher
grade of officers, has the advantage also of eliminating politics from
the service. An examination of the questions propounded to candi-
dates for the position of game warden in Wisconsin shows that in that
State great importance is attached to ability to endure exposure and
hard physical exertion. Some account is taken of the applicant’s
familiarity with the game laws and conditions in his territory, and
enough arithmetic is required to test his ability to keep his accounts.
On the other hand, in Massachusetts less importance is attached to
physical endurance, but applicants for the position of deputy fish and
game commissioner are required to answer exhaustive questions on
their powers and jurisdiction under the game laws, and in relation
to the preliminary procedure in the courts.

Applicants should be examined upon the subjects usually included
in the common-school course. Physical fitness and such previous
experience as would be serviceable in the position sought should
have due weight. Other qualifications being equal, the applicant
who is an experienced hunter should command precedence over one
who is not.

In order to secure the largest measure of efficiency in the game
department, civil-service questions should be framed to test the
applicant’s qualifications to perform any and all services likely to
devolve upon him in the performance of his duties. They should
elicit his knowledge of the powers, duties, and jurisdiction apper-
taining to the position of warden and the methods of procedure in
case of violation of the game laws. He should have a general knowl-
edge of the object of game laws, and should show fair acquaintance
with the fauna of his territory, especially with the species classed as
game; he should be familiar with the limit of hunting seasons, with
prohibited devices and methods, limitations on amount of game per-
mitted to be killed, and restrictions on hunting by residents and
nonresidents, and on sale and transportation. If the examination is
for one of the higher positions in the service, such as chief warden,
the applicant should know something of the decisions of the higher
courts in cases involving game, at least in his own State.

ASSOCIATIONS OF WARDENS.

In the early part of December, 1892, the fish and game wardens
of the two Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois met in
convention at St. Paul, Minn., for the purpose of considering a uni-
form game law for the States mentioned. A bill providing for such
a law was agreed upon, but failed of adoption in the several States.
Since this meeting similar conventions have been held in other sec-
tions of the country, with like objects in view, but no permanent
association was organized until July 21, 1902, when the State wardens

THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 221

and commissioners of Colorado, Minnesota, Montana, Oregon, Utah,
and Wyoming, together with several other persons interested in game
protection, met at Mammoth Hot Springs in the Yellowstone National
Park, pursuant to previous agreement. A permanent organization
was effected under the name of the National Association of Game
and Fish Wardens and Commissioners. Papers were read and dis-
cussed on various phases of game protection, spring shooting, hunting
licenses, export and sale, bag limits, and the right of search. The
primary object of the association was to secure cooperation between
the States. The constitution adopted made all State and Federal
game officials eligible to membership, and fixed the entrance fee at
$10. The discussions at this meeting had a marked effect upon sub-
sequent legislation and have resulted in more stringent enforcement
of the game laws. This association was reorganized on February 11,
1904, and, with dues reduced to $5, now numbers among its mem-
bers the State game officials of most of the States where such office
exists.

A personal acquaintance with the deputy and county wardens in
the State is always of great advantage to the State officer in the
administration of his duties, and in recent years several officials have
called conventions of their deputies for this end and to discuss mat-
ters pertaining to their duties. One of the first meetings of this
character of which the writer has any knowledge occurred in Mon-
tana in 1901, shortly after the creation of the offices of State and
district game wardens, when, in compliance with the summons
of the State game and fish warden, the eight deputies met at his
office in Helena for the purpose of mutual acquaintance and instruc-
tion by him in the duties of their position.

Quite the most notable and successful of these conventions met
in the Armory Building at Springfield, Ill., on January 26, 1904, pur-
suant to a call issued by the game and fish commissioner of that
State. There were seventy-five wardens present, and after organ-
ization the commissioner stated that the object of the meeting was
to become acquainted, discuss matters of general interest in game
protection, study carefully the new game law in order that all might
understand its provisions, and outline a general policy for its
enforcement. Some very interesting and important papers touching
various phases of bird and game protection were read and discussed,
and new legislation was proposed, some of which was enacted at the
following session of the legislature. (A detailed account of this
meeting will be found in American Field, vol. 61, p. 119.)

One of the most recent meetings was that of the game protectors
of New York, who met in Albany during February, 1906, and formed
a permanent organization. Hereafter they will meet yearly for the
Durpose of discussing matters pertaining to their duties.

222, YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PERILS OF THE WARDEN’S POSITION.

The record of fatalities incident to the warden’s official life testifies
to the perils of the position. Exposure to inclement weather, with
attending discomforts, may be reasonably accounted part of the
chances a warden assumes when he entersupon the duties of the office;
but conditions should not be such as to compel the risk of surren-
dering his life to the depravity of his fellow-men. Yet such is the
fact. Several deputies and other officials have been killed within
recent years while in the discharge of their duties. In not a few cases
the culprits have received merited punishment for their crimes and
have been sentenced to prison for longer or shorter periods. In
other instances they have gone unpunished, as in the case of a
plume hunter who killed a Florida warden while he was attempting
to arrest him for shooting herons in a colony of nesting birds and
who escaped through refusal of the grand jury to indict him. In cases
of miscarriages of justice like this, however, it should be remembered
that game laws and game wardens are of comparatively recent origin
in the United States, and that only a short time ago the popular
idea respecting fish and game was that wherever found they were
almost as much the property of the individual citizen as the air we
breathe. The creation of a healthy public sentiment everywhere
in regard to the protection of game and the enforcement of game
laws is only a matter of time, and the wonder is, not that violations
of the law, followed by occasional tragedies, occur in remote districts,
but that respect for the law is so widespread, cooperation so general,
and the cause of bird and game protection so far advanced in public
estimation in so short a time.

The most serious problem the warden of to-day has to contend
with in some sections of the country is the control of certain classes
of immigrants who in increasing numbers infest the woods and fields
of some of our Northern States at all seasons intent upon the slaughter
of all kinds of birds. They set at defiance the game and trespass
laws, and to warnings not to hunt upon the farmer’s land they
sometimes respond with the use of weapons, occasionally with fatal
results. The seriousness of the situation is echoed in the following
paragraph from the report of the board of game commissioners of
Pennsylvania for 1904, page 3:

We are deeply impressed with the grave condition that surrounds the enforcement
of our game laws in communities where the foreign element * * * is in
any force, and recognize in this question the most serious one we are compelled to
meet. This class seems possessed with the same purpose throughout the State, and
is the most persistent and determined in not only violating the law, but in resisting

arrest and attempting to evade punishment after they have been arrested. Hardly
a week passes without an assault of some kind upon our officers from these people.

THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 223
REVENUE FOR THE WARDEN SERVICE.

The long delay in establishing a practical and efficient scheme for
enforcing game laws in the United States was due more to lack of
financial means than any other one cause. Only a small part of the
people in each locality hunted, and the suggestion to levy a special
tax or to appropriate funds from the general treasury for the support
of a wardenship excited strong opposition. It was argued that
citizens who, from lack of inclination or convenience, do not hunt
should not be taxed for the maintenance of the sport. So strong was
this sentiment that advocates of game preservation undertook to
find a way by which the laws could be so framed as to provide funds
for their own enforcement. A provision was inserted in the game
laws providing that the informer should be entitled to a moiety of
the fine or that the game warden should receive the whole of it.
But competent men were not readily found to work tor such uncer-
tain and inadequate compensation and the game laws were not
enforced in many localities. Finally, within the last twelve years the
hunting-license system as a means of raising revenue for game pro-
tection has proved to be more successful and more equitable than
any other, since those who hunt and are directly benefited by the
enforcement of game laws contribute the funds for the protection of
game. Since the inauguration of this method nearly every State has
established a game department, and several of them support their
departments wholly from hunting-license fees.

At first the nonresident was the only one required to take out a
license to hunt, and this is now the usual license issued; but it was
found that public sentiment in several States favored a small fee for
residents and in 16 States this additional fee is now required. In
Illinois the fund derived from this source is so large (the receipts in
1905 amounting to $127,988) that after payment of all salaries and
other expenses of administration a large surplus remains, which the
legislature has authorized the State game commissioner to use for the
purchase and propagation of quail, prairie chickens, and pheasants.
The commissioner has established a game farm near Springfield and
has stocked it with several species of game birds, foreign and native.
This project has met with marked success and bids fair to furnish the
State with game to stock depleted covers. Thus the license system,
originally adopted merely for the purpose of supporting the warden
service, has very materially broadened the scope of the State game
department.

CONCLUSION.

It will be seen from the foregoing that game wardenship in this
country has reached its present state of efficiency within a compara:
tively short time. Beginning with the very local moose wardenshi,

224 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

in Maine in 1852, the service has been gradually extended in scope
and purpose until now there is scarcely a locality in the United States
where a game warden is not in service—scarcely a wild bird or animal
which does not come under his protection.

This satisfactory condition has not been attained without a free
gle. Many obstacles have been placed in the way of progress by an
unwilling, because uninstructed, public, and these have been over-
come only by the persistence and devotion to duty of those who have
occupied the office during the formative period. The game warden
of to-day should recognize this obligation to his predecessors and
endeavor not only to maintain but to surpass the high standard estab-
lished by them.

Some of the former antagonism against game laws still persists,
and in certain parts of the country the wardenship is yet in an experi-
mental stage; but it may be safely predicted that in the near future
every State in the Union will have established its game department
on a footing with its other executive offices. In spite of its growing
importance and power, however, the office of game warden is a diffi-
cult one to fill, and it is the duty of every good citizen to lend this
important public servant every assistance and encouragement in the
discharge of his duties.

RANGE MANAGEMENT.

By J. S. Corton,

Assistant in Range Investigations, Farm Management Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry.

THE PRESENT SITUATION.

At the present time the greater part of western grazing lands is
badly overstocked. Some of the ranges are so crowded that the
stockmen are experiencing difficulty in getting sufficient grazing for
their herds. Many herds have been cut down in order to meet these
conditions, while in some instances, rather than run the risk of an
unusually hard winter or a period of drought, stockmen are going out
of business entirely.

When the first stockmen drove their herds on the western range
lands there was a great abundance of feed, and it was generally
believed that this feed would never be fully utilized. As a conse-
quence these men increased their herds as much as possible, so as to
use all of the feed they could. Others, seeing the prosperous condi-
tion of these men, began to bring in large herds, that they also might
get their share of the free grass. Thus it was only a few years until the
range was carrying more stock than it could properly support.

During the past few years there has been a heavy immigration of
settlers to several parts of these grazing lands. These settlers have
taken up large bodies of the very best grazing lands for farming pur-
poses. The men ranging their stock in these areas were for the most
part crowded back to the ranges of other stockmen, thus greatly
ageravating the already crowded condition of the range. As a neces-
sary result of all this overcrowding the range began to deteriorate.

The rate of this deterioration has been governed somewhat by
accessibility, a range that is easily accessible being much more
likely to be overstocked than one that is difficult to reach. It has,
however, been governed much more largely by climatic conditions.
In the northern range States, where the severe winters and the lia-
bility of a heavy fall of snow acted as a check, and where the rainfall
is sufficient for the growth of a good crop of grass, the deterioration
of the range has been rather slow until the past few years. In the
South, where the stock can be grazed the year round with perfect
safety, the range has been stocked to the highest number it would

3 a1906——15 225

226 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

carry during favorable seasons. When a period of drought has
occurred, with a consequent shortage of grasses and other forage
plants, the same number of animals has been still on hand to be sup-
ported. This has resulted in severe grazing of the native grasses and
other forage plants, preventing the vegetation from yielding seed
with which to reproduce itself, thus greatly lowering the carrying
capacity of the range. This carrying capacity is, of necessity, gov-
erned largely by the amount of rainfall. In years when there are
ample rains there is an abundance of vegetation for grazing, but in
the periods when the rainfall is light the growth of vegetation is much
less. Much damage has been done to the ranges through the inability
of the stockmen to reduce their herds during periods of drought.

With the exception of the western portions of Oklahoma, Kansas,
and Nebraska, the carrying capacity of the range is mite lower at
the present time than it was in the early days, or even a decade ago.
Reports from various stockmen indicate that the majority of the
ranges are not carrying one-half as many animals as formerly.
Ranges which formerly required from 8 to 12 acres to support a single
steer throughout the entire year now usually require from 20 to 35
acres. Instances are cited in Arizona where from 50 to 100 acres are
needed to support a single beef animal.* In western Nebraska the
carrying capacity of the range is considerably higher than formerly.
This is because the stockmen of that region have protected their
ranges from the ravages of prairie fires.

Overcrowding the public ranges has caused considerable tities
In many sections there have been bitter fights between the sheepmen
and the cattlemen. The majority of these fights were eventually
settled by a division of the range and the establishing of dead lines.
There have also been serious difficulties between the stockmen and
the homesteaders. In some instances the stockmen tried to keep the
settlers out; in other places the settlers have taken up the watering
places or settled on land adjoining them, and have kept the stock
from watering in their accustomed places either by building fences
or by driving them away.

The stockmen have tried in many ways to adjust themselves to
these conditions. Some have obtained virtual control of their ranges
by buying up or leasing all the watering places. Others have been
able to buy railroad land and deserted homesteads or to lease school
lands, and thus bring their ranges under direct control.

In other regions, where the land could not be brought under control
by these methods, stockmen have divided the ranges by mutual con-
sent. Later they began to build drift fences on these lines in order to
prevent their cattle sabre straying from their ranges. These drift
fences were gradu: ally extended until large tracts of Government land

——— —

a Bul. 67, Bie: au of Plant Tndastry: U.S. Dept. Agr., pp. 33 ane 34.

RANGE MANAGEMENT, 227

were inclosed. The fencing in of large pastures proved to be so con-
venient to the stockmen in the handling of their stock that it became
quite general in several of the range States.

ATTITUDE OF STOCKMEN TOWARD LEGISLATION.

Recently an Executive order was issued requiring that these fences
be removed. The results of this order have greatly emphasized the
necessity for some legislation which will effect a distribution of range
land among those having stock on the ranges, so as to secure to them
by lease, purchase, or other legal means the possibility of managing
their ranges with a view to maintaining their productiveness. The
stockmen, who in the absence of legislation had gradually developed
a system of range division among themselves, all recognize that this
division was a primitive arrangement, devoid of legal status, but
made necessary by the exigencies of the business. For the most part
they are heartily in favor of legislation which will give stockmen a
legal right to protect whatever range may be assigned to each.

A few years ago the stockmen were bitterly opposed to any form of
legislation for the division of the public domain through leasing or any
other system. They felt that if they were deprived of free feed they
would be unable to make a living from the range, for they could not
afford to lease or purchase the feed. All they wanted was that the
range should be “let alone.”

Now, with the greatly changed conditions caused by overstocking
and the taking up of large areas of the best range lands for farming
purposes, the more progressive stockmen realize fully that unless
some such step is taken the open range will soon be destroyed.

Although the majority of the stockmen now favor some form of
legislation for the future disposal of that part of the public domain
which is suitable for range purposes only, there is still a great diversity
of opinion concerning the character of the laws needed. The greater
number seem to be in favor of some system of leasing the land in indi-
vidual pastures for terms of five to ten years. Nearly all believe that
the area of land leased to a given person should be some multiple of the
area to which he holds title in the vicinity, but that there should be a
maximum limit in order to prevent any one man or company from
securing control of too much land.

RANGE IMPROVEMENT.

So long as it remains public domain, and is consequently free to all
without restriction, nothing can be done to improve the range land
of the country, for whatever improvement might be effected would
almost immediately be destroyed by the stockmen in their eagerness
to be the first to profit by it. But when the land is brought under

228 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

control by lease, purchase, or other means the problem of handling
the range is radically changed and the stockman is on an entirely
different footing. Instead of living in uncertainty as to when his
range will be a thing of the past, he will know just how much land he
can use and depend upon. Then he will not feel that he must graze this
land as hard as he can while he has the opportunity. Instead, he will
be in position to protect it and get the greatest amount of good from
it from year to year. He will then be able to fence the land and keep
off all outside stock, and to regulate the number of his own grazing
thereon.

Many stockmen are firmly convinced that stock can not be run at a
profit in pastures that are owned or leased. Numerous citations of
large cattle companies that have lost heavily in leasing grazing lands
on Indian reservations are made. It is true that many of the cattle
companies have lost large sums of money in leasing these lands.
Careful investigation, however, will usually show some special reasons
for such losses. First, the majority of these companies were handling
a very poor grade of cattle. These yielded so small a margin between
the cost of putting them into the pasture and the returns from put-
ting them on the market that they could not stand the extra expense
incurred in leasing. Then the cattle seemed to be unadapted to such
pasturage conditions. Instead of grazing contentedly in the pastures
they spent the greater part of their time wandering along the fences.
Another reason for this failure, and a very important one, is that the
number of acres allotted to an animal was usually placed too low, and
overgrazing resulted.

In other words, these stock companies did not adapt themselves to
the changed conditions. While a few men or companies have not
made a success of running stock in inclosed areas, a very large number
have succeeded. At the present time the most successful stockmen
of such States as Texas, California, and Washington, where the free
range is almost a thing of the past, run their stock in pastures.

AVOIDANCE OF OVERGRAZING.

In making the change from the open range to the inclosed pastures
stockmen must not lose sight of the fact that when they have thus
shut out all stray stock they have not changed the carrying capacity
of the land in the least. They must therefore be careful not to over-
graze the inclosed areas, which is often done from a mistaken idea
that the mere fencing of a range increases its carrying capacity. The
majority of stockmen using the public domain place a very conserva-
tive estimate on its carrying capacity. Yet when they come to
inclose an area and pasture it, they are quite inclined to put in more
stock than their estimate calls for; consequently their pastures are
badly overstocked, and in some instances are actually grazed closer

RANGE MANAGEMENT, 229

than the outside range. This means not only that the pasture has
been seriously damaged, but that the stock are in poorer condition at
the end of the season than if they had run outside. It is safe to say
that nine out of ten men changing from the outside range to pastures
will overgraze their land the first season. Many of these will change
their methods immediately and soon get their pastures on a support-
ing basis; others will take two or three years to really learn the true
carrying capacity of their pastures; and still others, who can not get
out of the rut, will continue to overgraze, with the result that their
pastures will continually run down, while their stock grows poorer in
quality from year to year.

RESTING THE LAND.

Where an area of land has been very severely overgrazed in the past
it will be absolutely necessary that it be very carefully pastured for the
first two or three years. The native grasses and forage plants must
have a chance to regain their former vigor and to go to seed. <A very
large number of stockmen advocate resting the land—that is, keeping
all stock off for a period of three or four years. That this remedy will
bring about the desired results has been definitely proved in numerous
instances. In Arizona the Department of Agriculture has a large
area of land in the Santa Rita Forest Reserve that is entirely protected
from stock. This area contains about 50 square miles, and includes
range country that varies from very poor mesa to fairly good moun-
tain range. Before it was fenced this area was in a very badly
denuded condition. In less than two years, under protection, it has
improved wonderfully. A large percentage of the new vegetation is
of little value, however, as many of the seeds present were of plants
not relished by stock. But the better kinds of grasses scattered
among this vegetation are increasing.

In the State of Washington experiments and observation of inclosed
areas covering a period of five years have shown conclusively that a
given range can be very greatly improved and in some cases brought
back to its original carrying capacity in from two to five years if it
is properly protected. The length of time required for the range to
be fully restored depends partly on how complete the overgrazing has
been and largely on the amount of rainfall.

While resting will bring about the desired results, there are very few
men who can afford to allow their land to remain idle for so long a
period, as the taxes, interest on the investment, and cost of mainte-
nance go on just the same whether the land is in use or not.. Resting
would in the end be cheaper than to continue overgrazing the land,
but it is really not necessary. There is no reason why, by judicious
management, the feed on such an area should not be utilized. If such
a pasture be grazed very lightly during the early part of the season

230 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

until the grasses can get their growth and go to seed, it will then have
a chance to improve, although this improvement may be slight. It
would be much better if the pasture could be protected until the
grasses have gone to seed and the seed has fallen to the ground. Then
the dry feed can be utilized without damage to the range.

ALTERNATION OF PASTURES.

This improvement can best be accomplished by dividing the pas-
ture into a number of smaller ones and alternating the stock from one
to another. The number of pastures will depend somewhat on the
size of the range and how it is watered. In order to secure the best
results there should be not less than three pastures, while four, or even
more, would be much better. In all parts of the country the more
successful stockmen have a fenced area that they reserve for winter
pasture, while those who run their stock entirely on their own land
nearly always subdivide to the extent of a summer and a winter pas-
ture. It isnoticeable that in nearly every instance the winter pasture
shows an excellent stand and produces much more feed than the sum-
mer pasture. This is solely because the grasses, being grazed only in
the winter, have a chance to remain in healthy condition and also to
produce a crop of seed with which to supply new plants as the old ones
give way. Again, there being a good covering of vegetation, the
ground is protected so that the wind and hot sun do not take all the
moisture out of the ground. Instead, the moisture is utilized in grow-
ing Vegetation for feed.

In Texas many of the stockmen have found that it pays them to
alternate their pastures. Some even assert that with their pastures
in the best of condition they carry more stock on a given area where
alternation of pasture is practiced than where one big field is used.*
Even in the East, where there is plenty of moisture, alternation of
pastures is being more strongly advocated each year, as the farmers
are gradually learning that their pastures can be made to carry more
stock by this method.

RESEEDING THE WORN-OUT RANGE.

The problem of reseeding the range has received much attention
from the Department of Agriculture. So far, experiments have shown
that in the extremely arid portions of the range country reseeding is
impracticable. The only method of restoring such areas is to rest the
overgrazed portions. In case such ranges are grazed the year round,
alternation of pastures is the only solution that can be offered at the
present time. Fortunately, on account of the scarcity of water, the
great majority of these areas are used only for winter pastures. In

@ Bul. 16, Division of Agrostology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 22, 1899.

RANGE MANAGEMENT, Zool

this way these areas have a chance to make a good growth and to go
to seed during the summer season. Thus they have ample oppor-
tunity to restore themselves in case they are not overgrazed.

In the semiarid regions, such as the bunch-grass hills of Washing-
ton, Oregon, and Idaho, and the grama-grass regions of Montana, the
Dakotas, and Wyoming, alternation of pastures will be equally useful.

Ordinarily, unless the overgrazing has been very severe, the restora-
tion process will not take many years, in some instances only four or
five. If, however, the overgrazing has been complete enough to
practically destroy all the native plants and has been so long in dura-
tion that no seed is left in the ground, the process will be very slow
indeed, for there is nothing left on which to base improvement.
Under such conditions weeds of almost no forage value are very likely
to take the place of the valuable forage plants that have been de-
stroyed. In order to prevent this, it might be feasible in some locali-
ties to gather seed of these native grasses and scatter it on the over-
grazed portions. Inthe State of Washington, farmers have taken seed
of the tall lime-grass (Hlymus condensatus), called rye-grass by stock-
men, and sown it on areas where it formerly grew. Instances are known
where these men are now cutting lime-grass hay from these same areas.
Experiments carried on by the Washington Agricultural College in
cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry have shown that this
could probably be done in favorable seasons with bunch-grass. In the
Dakotas and eastern Montana it is quite noticeable that wherever a
part of the prairie land is plowed up and then allowed to revert it will
in time be covered with wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale). If it is
plowed and nothing else is done the wheat-grass will take possession
of the area very quickly. This and the rapidity with which this grass
works into overgrazed places that are rested a little show very plainly
that the overgrazed areas where it grows naturally can be easily re-
stored by reseeding with this grass. Whether the grama grasses of
these regions could be restored by this process is not known. Many
of the leading stockmen are inclined to believe that they could, but
think it would be a difficult matter to procure the seed.

RESEEDING IN THE MOUNTAIN AREAS.

In the mountain areas, where the rainfall is much greater, the
problem of restoring the range is not nearly so difficult. Where the
devastation has not been too complete the range will soon restore
itself if protected. On those areas where overgrazing has left the
range in a denuded condition the restoration will take a number of
years. It can, however, usually be greatly hastened by reseeding
with some of the cultivated grasses. Experiments carried on during
the past four years in the mountain areas of Washington have thor-
oughly demonstrated that timothy can be used to excellent advantage

Qa YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the mountain meadows and in the parks of that State where the
original vegetation has been destroyed by sheep. This grass proved
to be the best of a number used in reseeding the devastated mountain
meadows (1) because it made the best growth and stood pasturage
well, and (2) because it was the cheapest and easiest to start.

According to these experiments, the cost of reseeding land is from
60 cents to $1 an acre, depending on the amount of seed used and on
the cost of getting it into the mountains. Eight pounds of seed
per acre ought to give a stand that if cut for hay would yield approx-
imately three-fourths of a ton of hay per acre. That would mean
that it would yield nearly enough forage the second season after it
was sown to pay for the reseeding. If the seed were sown in the
- autumn before snow falls it would need no further treatment, but
if sown in the spring it should be harrowed in, which would greatly
increase the cost.

These experiments have also proved that orchard grass and _ tall
fescue would do well on those areas that are a little too dry for
the successful growth of timothy, and that Bromus inermis will
be of very great value in range improvement along the drier edges
of the meadows and parks, provided the seed can be secured at a
price that does not make it prohibitive. Redtop has given good
results, but it has been very slow in establishing itself. It made
almost no showing until the third year, but by the fourth season it
had attained an excellent stand and was beginning to crowd out the
native vegetation growing in the meadow with it. It will furnish a
large amount of excellent feed in the mountain meadows.

In the Sierra Nevadas of California redtop and timothy have
shown themselves to be of great value in reseeding along the edges
of the worn-out and badly overgrazed meadows, provided they are
not sown on those areas where there is standing water throughout
the greater part of the year. Redtop seems to do especially well in
the mountain areas. Judging from the results of experiments, when
once introduced it will spread over a great part of the meadow and
will form a dense sod that will in time crowd out other vegetation.

Orchard grass also grows very well in meadows, and also will appar-
ently do well on some of the drier hillsides where there is not enough
moisture for timothy or redtop. In fact, one of the rangers of the
Sierra Forest Reserve has succeeded in growing a fair crop of orchard-
grass hay for his saddle horses just on the lower edge of the timber
belt, where the land has been cleared of chaparral and the conditions
are quite arid.

CONSERVATION OF WATER.

The water problem is of extreme importance in range improve- .
ment, for without plenty of good water stock can not be expected to
make good gains. When the land is once brought under control the

RANGE MANAGEMENT. 233

stockmen can afford to go to considerable expense to secure plenty of
water. In many instances, as in parts of Montana, Wyoming, and
the Dakotas, large reservoirs, or ‘‘ water holes,’ can be made, which,
with the local showers during summer, will insure plenty of water
throughout the year. In other sections, as in the sandhills of
Nebraska or in southern California, the water can be easily obtained
by means of wells and storage tanks, the water being pumped by
windmills or gasoline engines. In many sections of the country, as
in Washington, Oregon, and Nevada, there are numerous springs
which formerly watered a large number of cattle, but which have
gone dry through the incessant tramping of stock about them. If
these springs were dug out and fenced and the water conducted to
troughs they could again be made to furnish an abundance of water
for a considerable number of stock. The water thus stored in troughs
will be kept clean for the stock and none of it need be wasted
through seepage. In Nevada the digging out and protection of the
springs is considered to be of the greatest importance.¢

Every opportunity should be taken to increase the number of
watering places, so that the stock using them would need to travel
only comparatively short distances. In this way the range can be
improved greatly, as the stock will not need to tramp over so much
ground in traveling from the grass to the water and back. It will
also be beneficial to the stock themselves, as the time spent now in
traveling for water can be spent in resting or in feeding, and thus in
making larger gains.

PREMATURE GRAZING TO BE AVOIDED.

One of the great dangers in handling range stock is the tendency
of many of the stockmen to put their stock out on the range just
as soon as the grass begins to start in the spring and before the ground
is thoroughly settled. The vegetation, being nipped off before it
gets a fair start, or, as the stockmen say, “gets strong,’’ is greatly
retarded in its growth and does not produce as much feed that season
as it would if it had a better chance. Where the soil is clayey the
damage caused by the premature grazing is greatly increased by the
tramping of the stock, which tends to pack it into a hard layer that
is impenetrable to plant roots. This packing of the soil has been one
of the greatest factors in the destruction of the feed in many mountain
meadows.

RAISING WINTER FEED.

In order to obtain the greatest returns from his land, the stockman
of the future will need to grow enough feed to carry his stock through
the winter without danger of loss and to keep them in good growing

a Bul. 55, Nevada Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 14 and 26.

234 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

condition. With the extra cost of running his stock in pastures he
must keep them constantly gaining, or they will prove a loss. If he
can not get water for irrigation either from some stream or through
storage reservoirs, such as are common in the Dakotas, that will
catch enough surface water to insure sufficient pasture, he will need
to grow grain hay.

Of the different cereals that can be used for hay, rye will prob-
ably prove to be the surest to yield a good crop over the greatest
area of country. It will stand the hard winters of the North as well
as any of the other cereals and requires the least moisture of any of
them to mature a crop of hay. It can also be made to yield a fair
crop with as little effort as any of the other cereals, and can thus be
grown at the least cost. Many of the stockmen are greatly prejudiced
against this plant as forage. This is probably very largely due to
the fact that they have allowed it to get too ripe before cutting. If
cut when just in the milk it makes excellent hay with which to
winter stock. Beardless barley is another excellent crop to grow
for grain hay. It produces a better quality of feed than rye and
in some localities is preferred to any of the cultivated grasses for
feed. It probably could not be depended on to produce as large a
yield as rye, nor is it socertainacrop. In some sections of the coun-
try, as in the Dakotas, durum wheat will produce a considerable
amount of forage in the more favorable years. In other sections
many of the farmers seem to be well pleased with spelt. These last
two plants are not so desirable for stock as some others on account of
their heavy beards. These beards will often cause sore mouths,
especially when fed to horses, and will also cause losses among
sheep. In the more favorable localities wheat, barley, and oats
can be grown.

In the Dakotas and eastern Montana a number of stockmen raise
corn for forage and find this to be exceedingly profitable. These men
are thoroughly convinced that by feeding corn fodder to their calves
and yearlings they get enough better gains to pay them well for their
extra work. It is noticeable that the men who are doing this are
topping the markets with grass-fed cattle from their sections. This
they ascribe largely to the fact that they get better gains on their
young stock. In most instances these men are really raising a better
erade of cattle than their neighbors, which must also be taken into
consideration.

Where a little water can be stored for irrigation, brome-grass
(Bromus inermis) produces a fair crop of hay and is becoming quite
popular. This is especially true of the western half of the Dakotas.
It is quite probable that with the same amount of water alfalfa
would give a larger yield. Alfalfa will grow on much drier land than
is often supposed. In many parts of the West the stockmen have

RANGE MANAGEMENT. 235

been trying to start this plant. Some succeed, while others fail. A
large number get very poor results, as their alfalfa seems to ‘‘ winter-
kill” badly. Experiments that are being carried on at the substation
at Dickinson, N. Dak., appear to indicate that much of the winter-
killing is due to a lack of nitrogen-gathering bacteria, which are
essential for the successful growth of alfalfa.¢ Alfalfa is really worth
a considerable effort in order to get it started. In case of failure it
should be tried again on a small scale until it has been determined
whether it can be made to succeed.

AREA OF LAND NEEDED.

The area of land required to justify engaging in the stock business,
without other source of revenue, varies greatly in different sections.
In the northern range States, where stock must be fed for a period of
three or four months during the winter season, and where the rain-
fall is fairly abundant, 2,500 to 4,000 acres of land would ordinarily
be needed to make a fair living for a family. If the settler were for-
tunate in selecting a range that had not been very much overgrazed
and on which there was very little waste land, he might be able to
get along with only 2,000 acres. Such areas will, however, be diffi-
cult to find. In the more southern range States, where the rainfall
is much less and not so well distributed throughout the season, the
number of acres required for an animal will be much greater. Here
the area required to support a family will vary from 16,000 acres in
the better sections to 25,000, and in some cases as much as 40,000 acres
are required.

IMPROVING THE GRADE OF STOCK.

Improvement of the class of stock using the grazing lands is becom-
ing constantly more important. ° In the old days, when there was
plenty of free range, almost any kind of animal could be sold at a
profit. Under the present crowded conditions the cost of mainte-
nance is much higher, and the poor-grade animal, or ‘‘scrub,’’ will no
longer yield satisfactory returns.

The man who is running his stock in inclosed areas or contemplates
so doing in the future will find it necessary, if he is to be successful,
to carry that class of stock that will net him the greatest returns.
This statement holds equally true for the outside range. In fact,
there are only two methods whereby the man who expects to con-
tinue running his stock on the public domain can meet: the existing
conditions successfully. One is the raising of sufficient feed to carry
his stock through the winter safely; the other, to run a grade of stock
that shall make the largest possible returns in the shortest time.

@ For information on nitrogen-gathering bacteria see Bulletin No. 71 of the Bureau
of Plant Industry.

236 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A cattleman can no longer afford to run steers until they are 4, 5,
or 6 years old, but he will need to raise quick-maturing animals that
will be ready for market by the time they are 2 or 3 years old—4 at
the very latest. Not only must these cattle mature early, but they
must be of a quality that will dress a good percentage of beef.

This means that the cattleman will need to raise high-grade cows
and supply the very best bulls he can secure—if pure bred, so much
the better. In many instances the cattlemen are so crowded for
range that they find it difficult to produce beef because the grass is
insufficient for the steers to make rapid gains. Men in other sections
find the grass of too poor a quality to fatten steers. These men will
need to grow cattle for the eastern feed yards, to be sold to the
feeder in the autumn as calves, yearlings, 2-year-olds, or 3-year-olds.
In producing such cattle many of these men will find it necessary to
improve their herds greatly, for quality and not quantity is what the
eastern feeder wants. Many of these feeders complain bitterly
because they can not obtain the class of cattle they need. It is notice-
able that in the sales of ‘‘feeders and stockers”’ at Omaha, Chicago,
and other stock yards those of poor quality are hard sellers and
ordinarily go at very low figures.

In the South the cattlemen realize that they must cut down their
herds and instead of large ones of low-grade cattle they must raise
smaller and better herds. Many of the cattlemen are making this
change by culling out their poor-grade cows and heifers as fast as
they can.

As an example of what may be done on the open range under pres-
ent overcrowded conditions, the methods of a stockman living near
Reva, S. Dak., may be mentioned. A few years ago this man,
becoming dissatisfied with the kind of cattle that he was running,
bought a registered bull and began to grade his cattle up. By using
good registered Shorthorn bulls, which he changes every three years,
and by selecting good-grade cows, he has been grading up his herd
until now his cattle outweigh and outsell those in his immediate
neighborhood. At first his neighbors made considerable sport of
him for importing registered stock and prophesied that he would
make a failure of it. Instead of a failure his cattle are so much better
in quality that they may be distinguished a long distance away
merely by their body outline and their increased size. In order to
get the most good out of his animals this man was, of course, obliged
to do a good deal more work in taking care of them. He found
it necessary to “‘line ride” his range every day in order to keep his
stock from straying and to see that his bulls served his own cows and
not those of his neighbors. This extra work has paid him well, as
he rarely loses cattle through straying and does not need to belong —
to any of the round-up associations. The prime value of this work

Yearbook U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XII.

Fic. 1.—A STALLION USED IN IMPROVING A HERD OF RANGE Horses IN NORTH DAKOTA.

Fig. 2.—RANGE HORSES, THE PROGENY OF STALLIONS LIKE THAT SHOWN IN FIGURE 1.

on ree ee ee ee a ee

eM
t

ee

oo eee oe

owe renee -
’

Sik; shoes) pee ahs ery

RANGE MANAGEMENT, DAT

is shown in his calf crop, which averages about 95 per cent, while
that of his neighbors averages only about 60 per cent.

Now that the range is becoming so crowded that it is difficult to
get sufficient grass to fatten steers, he is preparing to increase his
breeding stock and cut down the number of his beef steers, so that
when he can no longer grow beef he will be in a position to dispose of a
high class of feeding cattle, which he will aim to sell as yearlings or
2-year-olds to eastern feeders. ‘this he can do without any sacrifice
whatever, as he has a type of cattle that is exactly such as the feeders
want but find it difficult to obtain.

What has been said of cattle holds equally true of horses. To-day
there is almost no place for the small horse or ‘‘cayuse,”’ while good
animals are in demand. That one can afford to raise good horses on
the range has been demonstrated by a stockman living in western
North Dakota. During a period of low prices for range horses this
man bought a high-priced stallion. With this animal and nine range
mares of average size and quality as a nucleus he built up a fine herd.
When the stallion died he was replaced with two registered Percherons,
which continued to build up the herd until it was one of the finest
herds of range horses in the United States. One of these stallions is
shown in Plate XII, figure 1, while some of the progeny are shown in
Plate XII, figure 2. When this man got his first horse his neighbors
believed that he had made a serious mistake in buying so expensive an
animal. For several years, while he was building up his herd, at which
time horses were of almost no value, he was considerably in debt. As
his stock began to improve and the price of horses increased he began
to realize well from this herd, and during the last two years he has sold
geldings in carload lots at $125 a head, unbroken. In the summer of
1906 he sold his entire herd, 227 head, at $85 a head straight for all
branded stock—an unusually high price for range horses. There were
two mares of his own raising in this herd for which the buyers refused
$550 unbroken. This man estimates that his first stallion made for
him many times what he paid for it.

MOVEMENT TOWARD FARMING RANGE LANDS.

With the first extension of the railroads through the Western States
large areas of land that had been previously inaccessible except for
stock were taken up for farming purposes. At first only the choice
areas that would grow good grain crops or those places that could be
easily irrigated were selected. Within the last ten or twelve years
people have learned that, by careful tillage and the use of machinery,
land that had hitherto been considered of no value except for grazing
can be made to produce paying crops of grain. This, together with
the vast extension of irrigable lands through private enterprise and
the different Government projects, has caused a heavy immigration

238 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to these regions. If the present demand for western lands continues
it will be only a short time before all of the public domain except the
mountainous portions and the extremely arid sections will be taken
up for farming purposes.

While the rapid strides that have been made in arid-land cultiva-
tion make it impossible to tell exactly what lands will produce suc-
cessful crops for a period of several years, it would seem that many
of the people who have settled in the arid regions will eventually be
compelled either to give up their places or combine stock raising
with their dry-land farming.

PROBABLE FUTURE OF RANGE STOCK INDUSTRY.

Present tendencies indicate that the range-stock industry of the
future will be confined to those regions that are too rough for culti-
vation or too arid for the successful growth of crops. Except in the
high mountain regions, where the grazing season is very short, or in
the desert areas, where, on account of the scarcity of water, grazing
can be carried on only during the winter months, the grazing will
eventually be carried on in inclosed fields or on definitely assigned
tracts. The stockmen will endeavor to get bodies of land large
enough to support their stock, either by purchase, leasing, or, in
case the homestead act should be amended to fit range conditions,
by homesteading. Many living in close proximity to forest reserves
will secure grazing permits, allowing them to run stock in these areas
during the summer season. Wherever possible these men will raise
enough feed to carry their stock safely through the winter season.

THE PREPARATION OF UNFERMENTED APPLE JUICE.

By H.C. Gore,
Of the Bureau of Chemistry.

An inexpensive method of preserving apple juice so that the product
will be free from objectionable sediment and a pronounced ‘‘cooked”’
taste, and can be kept in closed containers without the use of chem-
ical preservatives, has apparently never been devised. Experimen-
tal work was undertaken with a view to developing such a method,
and it is believed that a satisfactory procedure has been evolved.
The main problems were: (1) The clarification of the juice; (2) the
sterilization of the juice; (3) the carbonation of the juice; and (4)
the question as to the best containers for the sterilized product.

THE CLARIFICATION OF THE JUICE.

Fresh apple juice contains notable quantities of solid matter, which
will settle out on prolonged standing, forming a bulky deposit. In
the case of raw juice this consists of dirt particles, starch grains, frag-
ments of the cell walls of the apples, and, finally, albuminous matter,
yellow-brown in color and very bulky. The albuminous matter com-
poses by far the greater part of the sediment. The character of this
sediment when heated to 140° to 158° F. (60° to 70° C.) remains
about the same, except that the starch grains are no longer apparent,
the starch being wholly or partly gelatinized.

This sediment is very objectionable, since its presence seriously
detracts from the appearance of the finished juice after sterilizing
by heat. In the finished juice the albuminous matter forms slimy
particles, yellow to dark brown in color, which very readily mix with
the juice when agitated, and are slow to settle. The product looks
as though the most uncleanly methods had been used in its prepara-
tion, whereas the reverse may have been the case. The removal of
the materials which form the sediment is, therefore, one of the most
important steps in the preparation of a marketable product.

The methods at present used for this purpose are two: (1) Filtra-
tion, and (2) sedimentation of the sterilized juice in large casks.

Filtration is expensive and slow, and, while a product of great
brillancy is obtained, the cost of the plant and the operation of the |
process will undoubtedly prevent its extended use. Paper pulp is

239

240 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ordinarily employed for the filter material, and the albuminous mat-
ter in the juice quickly forms a dense layer over the surface. The
ensuing filtration is very slow, and a large filtering surface is required
for practical use.

Sedimentation by gravity of juice heated to 140° to 158° F. (60°
to 70° C.), and then allowed to cool in closed casks, is very slow.
Unheated juice can not, of course, be used, owing to the fact that
fermentation soon sets in. A period of five to seven days is required
to produce a juice relatively free from sediment. At this time as
much as possible of the supernatant juice is withdrawn from the sedi-
ment. The objections to this method lie in (1) the difficulty of keep-
ing the juice sterile during the sedimentation period; (2) the large
amount of cooperage required for any considerable output of juice,
and (3) the fact that, owing to the bulk of the sediment, considerable
quantities of juice can not be drawn off. The juice left with the
sediment is then only suitable for vinegar stock. In addition only
partial clarification is secured. These objections to sedimentation
are the result of numerous tests with barrel lots of juice.

A method of clarification which is free from the above objections,
and is also cheap and may be applied on a small or large scale, is clari-
fication by use of a cream separator. Repeated trials have shown
that a cream separator can successfully clarify the juice, leaving only
traces of sediment in the product. Absolute clearness of the juice is
not produced by use of the machine, but practically all sediment can
be removed by this process. In the experimental work to be described
a hand-power cream separator of the disk type wasemployed. The
first trial of the method indicated that a satisfactory clarification of
apple juice could readily be obtained by use of the separator, and
many further trials have confirmed these early indications. The sus-
pended matter in the juice collects in the bow! of the separator, while
the clean juice runs out through the milk and cream screws. After a
run of the juice through the machine, the heavier particles originally
present—the starch grains and any soil or dirt particles, together with
some albuminous matter—are to be found tightly packed in the lower
part of the tubular shaft in the bowl of the machine, while a heavy
layer of albuminous material is invariably packed on the inner side of
the bowl and a lighter layer on the inner side of the bowl cover. The
disks remain quite free from sediment. When the space between the
disks and the sides of the bow] is quite filled with sediment, the flow
from the milk screw ceases and the flow from the cream screw is much
increased. At this time the machine should be stopped and the bowl
cleaned. The juice from the milk screw is invariably considerably
clearer than that from the cream screw. The reason for this is not
apparent; the fact, however, was always observed. The juice from
the cream screw is, in turn, much clearer than the untreated juice.

PREPARATION OF UNFERMENTED APPLE JUICE. 241

An extended series of tests established the following facts with
regard to the method of clarifying by passing through a separator,
using unfermented juice and a machine of the size indicated:

First. The amount which may be run through the machine before
it is necessary to stop and clean the bowl is from 25 to 40 gallons,
depending on the quantity of sediment present in the juice.

Second. The rate at which the juice passes through the machine is
about 45 gallons per hour, where a delivery tube of 450 pounds per
hour (for milk) is employed. On fitting the separator with a delivery
tube of 750 pounds capacity per hour, less perfect clarification was
effected than when the smaller delivery tube was used.

Third. But very little increase in the degree of clarification or capac-
ity for sediment was secured when juice heated to 140° to 158° F. (60°
to 70° C.) was run through.

Fourth. When heated juice was allowed to stand over night and to
cool and settle before passing through the separator, the supernatant
juice contained much less sediment than the original juice and two to
three times as much could be passed through the machine before
cleaning became necessary than when unsedimented juice was used.

Fifth. Two separations are necessary when working with a sepa-
rator of the size employed. The first treatment removes the bulk of
the sediment, and the second takes out nearly all of the remainder.

Sixth. Running the juice more than twice through the separator
improves the character of the product but little, as only very small
amounts of the suspended matter in the juice are removed.

Seventh. The best conditions, as worked out by experiment, for
clarifying apple juice, are as follows, working with a hand machine
with a capacity for milk of 450 pounds per hour.

(a) The juice must be freshly expressed and, to be of high quality,
should be prepared from sound, well-ripened fall or winter apples.

(6) It should be received in a clean barrel or cask, which must not
contain any fermentation residues. This point is very important, as
experience has shown that the very fine deposit formed in fermenting
juice can not be successfully removed by the separator, and this
deposit is difficult to clean from the sides and bottoms of fermentation
casks.

(c) The juice is then passed through the separator, using the neces-
sary precautions as to oiling and starting the machine, and turning the
crank at the rate of 45 turns per minute. Twenty-five to forty gal-
lons of fresh juice can be run through before the capacity of the bowl
for sediment is reached. The juice which comes through the milk
screw is collected separately.

(dq) As soon as the milk screw becomes clogged the machine is
stopped and the bow] is cleaned.

3 a1906——16

242 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(e) The juice collected from the milk screw is passed through again
and the juice then coming from the milk screw is collected as before.

The clarification of 25 gallons of juice, using one machine of the
capacity indicated and a juice containing sediment in such quantity
that a run of that amount would fill the space between the disks and
the sides of the bowl with sediment, requires about one hour and a
quarter, the juice passing through the bow] twice.

THE STERILIZATION OF THE JUICE.

As soon as the juice is clarified by the separator, it must be stefil-
ized in closed containers. The points which have been carefully
determined in this work have been the lowest safe temperature and
the shortest period of heating for bottles and for cans.

If the juice is not to be packed and shipped, glass fruit jars, or
bottles with patent stoppers, may be employed, but to stand shipping
well, sealed cans or ccrk-stoppered bottles must be used.

STERILIZATION IN BOTTLES.

In the work with bottles, quart bottles of the champagne type were
used. These were filled with clarified juice, some air space being left
to allow for expansion of the liquid on heating. The bottles were
placed upright and entirely submerged in water in a tank which
could be heated by a jet of steam. About fifteen minutes were
required to bring the water in the tank up to the temperatures em-
ployed in the several sets of experiments, namely, 140°, 149°, and
158° F. (60°, 65°, and 70° C.). After the bottles were placed in the
tank from twenty-five to thirty minutes were required for the con-
tents of the bottles to attain the temperature used. One-half hour
was, therefore, allowed before beginning to count time in these tests—
fifteen minutes to bring the bath up to the temperature, and fifteen
minutes holding at this temperature for the juice in the bottle to
attain the bath temperature. The bottles were withdrawn at inter-
vals and set away on their sides in baskets, being kept in a warm
room whose temperature was quite constant day and night, between
70° and 75° F. The bottles were agitated and notes taken on them
from day to day.

The results show that a temperature of 149° F. (65° C.) for one
hour will give good results and that 158° F. (70° C.) for one-half
hour also gives good results. Only a very slight cooked taste is
given to the juice by heating at 158° for one hour—slightly
more, however, than is given by heating at 149° for the same period.

PREPARATION OF UNFERMENTED APPLE JUICE. 243

STERILIZING IN CANS.

One-gallon packers’ cans were employed. These were first care-.
fully rinsed with water, filled, sealed (rosin dissolved in alcohol being
used as flux), and then heated in the same manner as the bottles.
The juices employed were thoroughly typical and were clarified by
passing twice through the separator. A full half hour was found by
a careful test to be necessary for heating the contents of the can up
to the bath when the water in the bath was cold to start with, and
this period was only slightly shortened when the bath was hot at the
time the cans were placed in it.

Unfortunately, the periods of heating were not short enough nor
the temperatures used low enough to indicate unsafe conditions,
since none of the cans spoiled; but proper treatment was found to be
very readily given at low temperatures and for brief periods. It
was expected that the cans which were only heated up to 149° F.
(65° C.) in the hot water and then removed would surely spoil.
These cans remained sound, however, and thus the period of heating
indicated as sufficient for canning is unexpectedly short. When the
cans were removed, they were cooled over night and allowed to stand
in the same room as that in which the bottles were held. Owing to
the large bulk of juice in the cans of the size employed (1 gallon), it
is evident that the juice was maintained at a sterilizing temperature
longer than if bottles or small-sized cans had been used. This fact
must be kept in mind if the results here obtained are applied to other
- sizes than gallon cans.

THE CARBONATION OF THE JUICE.

In addition to experimental work on clarifying and on heating the
juice, investigations were made on carbonating it with a view to dis-
guising the slight cooked taste which it is impossible entirely to avoid.
Carbonating also increases the palatability of the juice in the opinion
of many persons. The method used consisted in carbonating the
juice under slight pressure and then heating in bottles or cans, and
no difficulty was encountered. In the simple experiments devised
and carried on in connection with this work, the carbon dioxid (car-
bonic-acid gas) was secured from a firm handling soda-water sup-
plies. It was obtained in liquid form in a steel cylinder furnished
with a reduction valve and a gauge and delivery tube, so as to
deliver at pressures up to 30 pounds.

After clarification, the juice was carbonated by pouring it into a
clean keg and running in the gas up to a pressure of 15 pounds. The
keg was provided with a thick pine bung, through the middle of
which was bored a half-inch hole, which received the rubber delivery
tube from the cylinder of compressed gas. The bung was soaked in

244 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

water for a few minutes before use, so that it could be driven in to
make a tight joint, and was so fitted that it projected beyond the
surface of the keg and could be readily loosened when carbonation
was finished. About 12 galions of juice were poured into the keg.
Carbon dioxid was admitted before driving the bung in air-tight in
order to expe! the air which fills the space in the keg not occupied
by the juice. The bung was then driven in by tapping with a ham-
mer and more gas admitted. The keg was vigorously rocked so as to
thoroughly agitate the juice and so accelerate the absorption of the
gas.

The gauge was watched, and in these experiments the pressure was
not allowed to go beyond 15 pounds per square inch. The juice
used in the carbonating work was quite cool, ranging from 48° to 68°
F. (9° to 20° C.) in the different experiments. As the carbonating of
liquids is apparently well understood, no attempts were made to cor-
relate the pressure, temperature, and amount of gas which could be
dissolved in the juice. In these experiments the juice was carbon-
ated at a pressure not exceeding 15 pounds until a sample was drawn
tasting distinctly of the gas, this being the amount of carbonation
desired. Working under these conditions in the different trials, from
fifteen minutes to one-half hour was required to carbonate 12 gallons
of juice. The stream of gas was then stopped, the bung cautiously
loosened, the contents of the keg poured out, and the juice bottled
or canned.

The gas remains for some time in the juice when under atmos-
pheric pressure and only gradually diminishes in quantity, so that
great haste in sealing the juice is not necessary. If the carbonated
juice is to be sterilized in cans they must be heated in stout frames
to prevent distortion of the can while hot and consequent bursting.
The finished canned product bulges the ends of the cans to some
extent, but not enough to cause permanent bending. The juice must
not be too highly charged with the gas nor removed from the frames
while still hot, or such bending, with consequent weakening of the
soldered joints and bursting of the can, may occur.

THE BEST CONTAINERS FOR STERILIZED JUICE.

In the work with juice treated as above described, bottles and cans
have been used as contafners. The other containers which might
have been tried were barrels or kegs, and jugs. Owing to the great
liability to leakage and consequent infection of juice when treated
in barrels and kegs, these containers are considered impracticable
when the juice is to be kept indefinitely. Jugs are considered to be
too cumbersome and at the same time too fragile to be handled
readily in comparison with cans,

PREPARATION OF UNFERMENTED APPLE JUICE. 245

For bottles, sound corks, well soaked in hot water, should be used.
These can be wired in before the bottles are heated; or tin cork hold-
ers, which may be bought on the market, may be used. The exposed
end of the cork should be dipped in hot paraffin or hot grafting wax
after heating, to prevent the cork from drying out with consequent
serious danger of infection of the bottled juice.

No trouble was experienced in sealing the cans. As previously
noted, standard 1-gallon packers’ cans were employed. These had a

;-inch opening and were filled to within about one-quarter inch of
the opening. The can was then wiped and the flux, consisting of
rosin dissolved in alcohol, was applied.
Hemmed caps were employed for seal-
ing—that is, the tin cover which fitted
over the opening in the can was fitted
with arim of solder. For sealing the gi |r Ay be || eezeer roe
can, acapping steel and soldering cop- nails
per are required, also a gasoline fur-
nace for heating the steel and copper,
and a supply of flux, solder, and sal
“ammoniac.

Barrels and kegs can be successfully
used as containers for sterilized juice
when it is desired to keep the juice
sweet for a limited period of a few
days or weeks. The cask must be
thoroughly cleaned and well steamed,
and filled with the juice heated to be-
tween 149° and 158° F. (65° and 70°
C.). The cask can then be bunged,
but considerable contraction takes
place on cooling, with resulting strain
on the cask and consequent increase in
the danger of leakage. It is a much
better procedure to close with a clean
cotton plug, and when the cask and
contents are cool to remove the plug Fig. 4.—Pasteurizer for apple juice.
and quickly insert a wooden bung which has been sterilized by soak-
ing in alcohol. Two experiments were carried on with success with
50-gallon barrels, following this procedure. This juice kept for ten
days without showing fermentation. At this time the barrels were
emptied and used for other purposes.

In the experiments with barrels, and in all other work in which
the juice was heated except in bottles and cans, a pasteurizer (fig. 4)
designed by Mr. Given, of the Bureau of Chemistry, was employed.
It proved to be a very useful machine and was capable of heating
the juice with perfect control of temperature at any desired rate up
to several hundred gallons per hour.

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INLET FOR SUICE

246 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The cost of handling apple juice when it can be obtained perfectly
fresh in clean barrels is slight. The only expense of separating the
juice is for the labor, and if a small steam generator be used in con-
nection with a turbine separator this cost can probably be lessened.
Bottles of the champagne type cost from 3 to 5 cents each, and
gallon cans cost from 4 to 5 cents each in lots of 1,000. On account
of the acid nature of apple juice, the cans employed should be made
of a high grade of tin plate and, as with other canned products, the
juice should not be allowed to stand in the can after opening. With
a view to lessening the action of the juice on the walls of the can,
lacquering the inside of the can with a vegetable gum was tried.
Considerably less action of the juice on the tin was noted when the
lacquered can was used.

Sterilizing requires a tank of water which can be heated by steam
or in any other way so that it can be easily maintained at the desired
temperature. The apparatus for carbonating is simple and cheap,
and the method is easy of application.

The chemical work in connection with the experiment has been to
determine the composition of the juices employed and the effect of
the treatment on the composition of the juice. The results of this
work show that the chemical composition is practically unchanged
by the treatment of clarifying, carbonating, and heating.

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT.

By Frank R. Rourter,
Assistant Chief, Division of Foreign Markets, Bureau of Statistics.

The preeminence of the United States in the meat supply of the
world has been attained in spite of obstacles of many kinds. By
high tariff rates, by severe restrictions, and even by direct prohibi-
tions, the markets of Europe have been made difficult of capture on
the part of our exporters. In spite of all difficulties, the United States
has come to export ina single average year a greater value of live
stock and packing-house products than its six leading competitors
combined in any two years.

To overcome obstacles in the way of trade expansion, it is of the
utmost importance to know precisely the nature of the restrictions.
To this end, at the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, the State
Department, with the aid of our diplomatic representatives abroad,
obtained and transmitted to the Department of Agriculture a valuable
collection of the laws and regulations in force in the principal foreign
countries. These enactments, supplemented by additional informa-
tion obtained by a careful search through other available sources,
form the basis of the present paper.

GROWTH OF MEAT EXPORTS.

The development of the live-stock and meat exports of the United
States is of comparatively recent origin. During the five years ending
June 30, 1870, the average exports of this class were valued at
$17,000,000 (gold) and formed 7 per cent of the total exports of agri-
cultural products. Thirty-five years later, during the five fiscal years
1901-1905, the average value of the live stock and packing-house
products annually exported from this country reached over $228,-
000,000 and represented 26 per cent of our total agricultural exports.
The increase in this line of trade since the civil war has been continu-
ous, and during the last five years for the first time the average live
stock and packing-house products exported from the United States
exceeded in value the exports of grain and grain products, ranking
second in importance only to cotton. As compared with total agri-
cultural exports, live stock and Sua agesa products reached the

highest percentage in 1896-1900.
247

IAS YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Four items—pork, lard, live cattle, and beef—comprise the bulk of
the shipments of live stock and packing-house products from the
United States, representing generally between 80 and 90 per cent of
the total. The essential feature of the progress of this line of trade is
the much earlier development of pork and lard exports than of the
exports of cattle and
beef. During the five
years ending June 30,
1875, the average ex-
ports of pork and lard
constituted over 75 per
cent of the total ex-
ports of live animals
and packing-house
products, while _ live
cattle and beef com-
prised only 7 per cent.
During the thirty years
subsequent to that pe-
riod, the exports of live
cattle and beef had
grown to 32 per cent
of the total, while pork
and lard constituted 50
per cent. The rapid
increase in the cattle
and beef exports is
illustrated in figure 5.

The sudden rise of
cattle and beef exports
into importance during
the years 1875 to 1880
is a most striking fea-
ture of the trade and
calls for special expla-

Ee ee

Fia. 5.—Value of pork, lard, cattle, and beef exported from the export of fresh beef in

United States, 1866-1906. ships pr ovided with re-
frigerating apparatus began for the first time in the fall of 1875 and in-
creased r apidliye In 1877 live cattle were exported inconsiderable num-
bers. The area of grazing land available for settlement in the West and
Northwest was enormously enlarged by the construction of the Pacific
railroads in the late sixties and early seventies, and the increased sup-
ply of cattle called for new markets. On the other side of the ocean

AVER.866-70
AVER. 876-80}

AVER./87/-75

MILL. DOLLARS
AVER./86/1-85
AVER./89/-95
AV.1896-1900
AVER./90/- 5

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aa
a
et
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E Nee
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CoPREH
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lead lat

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 9AO

the needs of the market called for new lines of supply. The
United Kingdom in 1876 imported cattle (not including calves)
from the continent of Europe to the number of 222,000. At that
time cattle were admitted freely from most European countries
and from the remainder (except Russia) on condition of immediate
slaughter. The severe outbreak of rinderpest throughout Europe
in 1877 decreased enormously the imports into the United Kingdom
from the continent. The supply from Germany and Belgium
was absolutely excluded by decree of June 27, 1877; importation
from Russia was already prohibited; and the ravages of the disease
cut down the number available for shipment. In 1877 the imports of
cattle from the continent decreased 70,000 head. This condition of
affairs warranted immediate shipments from the United States,
which rapidly increased in number and soon formed an important
part of the British supply. It is interesting to note that the first
opening for American cattle was caused in part at least by the exercise
of the power of restriction for sanitary purposes which subsequently
has affected so injuriously the exports of American animals and
animal products.

PROHIBITIONS AFFECTING PORK.

The important laws and decrees excluding United States meat and
live stock from foreign countries fall generally into two periods, the
first covering pork and the second cattle and beef.

The earliest of these regulations affecting the imports of pork,
including bacon and hams, from the United States were issved during
the decade following 1879. Swine products from the United States
had begun to reach continental Europe in large quantities and were
sold usually at prices below those charged for similar native products,
For alleged sanitary reasons, several countries provided for a total
exclusion of these products. On February 20, 1879, the Italian Gov-
ernment issued a decree prohibiting the importation of swine, pork,
and hog products from the United States. Less than three months
later this prohibition was made to apply generally to such products, no
matter from what country imported. Portugal followed the example
of Italy in March, 1879, excluding pork and other hog products used
for food when imported from the United States. Hungary issued a
similar order in September, 1879; Spain and Germany in 1880;
France, Turkey, and Roumania in 1881; Greece in 1883, and Den-
mark in 1888. In 1881 the exclusion of swine, pork (including bacon),
and sausages from the United States was made applicable to the entire
Austro-Hungarian Empire, and in 1883 the earlier German decree was
extended so as to prohibit the importation of swine and bacon and
hams, as well as other kinds of pork and sausages. The Netherlands
in 1885 excluded swine coming from the United States. The

250 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

prohibition, except possibly in Greece, Roumania, and Turkey, did
not cover rendered lard.

The restrictions of France and Germany naturally proved most
injurious to our trade. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1881, the
United States exported no less than 68,000,000 pounds of bacon and
hams to France, valued at nearly $5,000,000. ‘To Germany during the
same year the exports of bacon and hams reached nearly 42,000,000
pounds, valued at over $3,000,000. The sudden stop to these impor-
tant lines of trade, forcing the products to find new markets or else
preventing entirely their sale abroad, led this Government to make
the strongest efforts to have the restrictions removed. Special
inquiry was made as fo the health of swine in the United States as
compared with those abroad, and the German Government was
invited to name a representative on a commission appointed by the
President to report upon this subject. This invitation was not
accepted. The reason for the prohibitions given and tenaciously
maintained by the foreign governments was that the presence of
‘trichine had been discovered in American products in many cases,
and that it was not then practicable to institute a sufficiently thor-
ough microscopic inspection on importation to guarantee that no
affected meat should be passed. No prospect of a modification of the
decree was held out unless a thorough inspection should be instituted
on the part of the United States before exportation.

In 1891 the Department of Agriculture undertook the inspection,
as far as practicable, of all pork and beef for exportation: - Follow-
ing this action, Germany, Denmark, Italy, France, Austria-Hungary,
and finally Spain, modified their regulations so as to admit swine
products from the United States on presentation of an official certifi-
cate. Greece had already withdrawn its prohibition early in 1884,
so that the only countries in which the prohibition of pork was main-
tained were Portugal, Roumania, and Turkey, while swine continued
to be prohibited by Denmark, Italy, and the Netherlands.

The decade during which pork shipments from the United States
were so severely restricted witnessed not merely a temporary loss,
Exports to Germany, it is true, reached in the fiscal year 1898 a point
higher than that attained in any previous year except 1873. In no
other year, however, were the figures of 1881 equaled, and subse-
quently another decline occurred, bringing the exports of bacon
and hams from the United States to Germany down to less than
10,000,000 pounds in the fiscal year 1905, and only 15,800,000 pounds
in 1906, notwithstanding the increased shipments that took place
during the early part of the year to avoid the anticipated increase in
duties that took place on March 1.

In the case of France, the highest point reached by the bacon and
ham shipments from the United States after 1881 was in the year

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 951

ending June 30, 1900, when the exports amounted to 14,000,000
pounds, valued at about $1,000,000, only about one-fifth of the mag-
nitude of the trade before the prohibition went into effect. Moreover,
by a considerable drop since 1900, the shipments in the fiscal year
1906 fell to 133,000 pounds, valued at $13.000. The effect of the
pork restrictions is clearly seen in figure 5.

PROHIBITIONS AFFECTING CATTLE AND BEEF.

The second period of special prohibitions against American products
began in 1894. In the latter part of that year various German States
issued decrees prohibiting the importation of cattle and fresh beef
from “America.’”’ Denmark, which since 1879 had excluded cattle
from the United States, published a similar order; and Belgium pro-
hibited the importation of United States cattle. Early the following
year France likewise prohibited the importation of cattle from the
United States. The cause assigned by Germany was the prevalence
of Texas fever in this country, Belgium explained its prohibition by.
the need of preventing the introduction of contagious pleuro-pneu-
monia, while France attributed its action to the presence of diseases
not existing in France. The magnitude of the trade thus destroyed
is indicated by the fact that the exports of cattle from the United
States to Germany, Belgium, and France in the year ending June 30,
1895, during part of which the trade was prohibited, were valued at
$1,800,000.

The exclusion of United States cattle from Belgium was of com-
paratively short duration. The prohibition was withdrawn May 25,
1899, but the immediate slaughter of cattle imported from trans-
Atlantic countries was required. In June, 1899, Germany prohibited
the importation of fresh beef from Belgium.* The prohibitions of
Germany, Denmark, and France are still in force, and in the case of
Germany and Denmark cover fresh beef as well as live cattle.

RESTRICTIVE AND PROHIBITORY ENACTMENTS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

The various countries which have raised special requirements for
the admission of live stock and meat have brought about this result
in widely different ways. While it is important to bear in mind the
two special cycles of restriction—the first affecting pork products,
the second cattle—to which attention has already been directed, it
is necessary to describe separately the measures adopted by each of
the principal countries.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY’S FAR-REACHING RESTRICTIONS.

Up to the close of 1905, the great bulk of the live stock imported
into Austria-Hungary came from Servia and was entered at reduced
rates of duty under a treaty which terminated February, 1906.

@ Foreign Relations, 1900, pp. 493-495.

252 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Failure of negotiations for a new treaty was followed by restrictions
and even prohibitions that practically cut off the importation of Ser-
vian live stock.

In July, 1906, foreign supplies were further reduced by decrees pro-
hibiting in general the importation of animals and meat from coun-
tries outside of Europe, except in special cases with the permission of
the minister of the interior. This restriction afiects the United
States, except as to swine, pork, bacon, and sausages when accom-
panied by a certificate of the United States Department of Agri-
culture attesting their microscopic inspection in this country.

IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER OF CATTLE IN BELGIUM.

No direct prohibition of the importation of live stock or meat
from the United States into Belgium is at present in force. The
conditions to which the importation of live animals into Belgium
from countries across the sea are subjected require their entry at
Antwerp, Ghent, or Ostend, and their slaughter in the public abattoirs
of those cities within three days.

GENERAL EXCLUSION BY DENMARK.

The law of Denmark is very strict in regard to the animals and
animal products admitted from non-Scandinavian countries. All
animals imported from Sweden and Norway, and horses imported
also from other countries, are subjected merely to sanitary inspec-
tion at the expense of the consignee. Ruminants and swine from
the United Kingdom and Finland are liable to “limited prohibition,”
which covers the importation of animals of the kinds named, sausage
casings, unless air-dried and salted, horns and hoofs, unwashed wool,
milk, hay and straw, and manure. From all other countries the
so-called ‘general prohibition”? of ruminants and swine, together
with fresh meat and all raw products of those animals, is in force. In
consequence the imports into Denmark from the United States do
not include any live meat animals, and among the packing-house
products cover only meat (other than fresh), lard, tallow and stearin,
and oleomargarin and oleo oil. Pork and swine products not pre-
pared, including bladders and unrefined steam lard, may be imported
from the United States if accompanied by an official certificate of
inspection.

FRENCH RESTRICTIONS.

The important, restrictions on United States products are (1) the
prohibition of cattle since 1895; (2) the requirement for salted, smoked,
or pickled pork of a United States certificate of inspection, entry at
one of six ports, and on arrival reinspection at the cost of the con-
signee; (3) the inspection of sausages from the United States, for

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 253

which, however, no fee ischarged. These special restrictions, together
with discriminating tariff rates, have placed the United States at a
great disadvantage as compared with its competitors. In 1904 less
than 10 per cent of the live animals and packing-house products
imported into France came from the United States. The official
export statistics of this country show a decline during the decade
from 1895 to 1905 in the exports of packing-house products to France
from $4,700,000 to $1,500,000. In other words, this line of trade is
in value less than one-third of its magnitude ten years ago.

MEA% PROHIBITIONS OF GERMANY.

Largely because of the constantiy increasing sales of American
lard in Germany, the exports of American packing-house products to
that country show a continuous increase since 1885. In that year
$5,700,000 worth of these products was shipped to Germany; in 1895,
$13,800,000 worth; in 1905, $21,900,000. Lard alone, however, consti-
tutes over two-thirds of the aggregate value of this trade and accounts
for over $10,000,000 of the total increase of $16,000,000 in the twenty
years. It must be borne in mind, moreover, that the low figure in
1885 was reached while the prohibition against pork was in full force,
and the subsequent increase is undoubtedly due in part to the with-
drawal of that prohibition in 1891. The importation of cattle into
Germany has been totally prohibited since 1894, while the importa-
tion of other kinds of meat animals is subject to four weeks’ quaran-
tine, together with subsequent supervision on the part of the Govern-
ment for five months, if not slaughtered. No meat animals whatever
have reached Germany from the United States since 1900, and only
ten during the preceding six years.

The restrictions upon the importation of meat are much more
important than those affecting the importation of animals. A general
prohibition is in force since the passage of the meat inspection law of
1900 in regard to the importation of canned meat and sausages from
all countries. Dog meat and prepared horse meat are entirely
excluded, while fresh horse meat may be imported only when clearly
marked ‘‘ Pferdefleisch”’ (horse flesh).

While these provisions apply to all countries, the prohibition of
canned meat and sausages affects particularly imports from the United
States. In 1900, prior to October 1, when these prohibitions went into
effect, the United States alone furnished nearly $1,600,000 worth of
these products out of a total of only $2,200,000. Other restrictions
affect only meat imported from the United States. In addition to the
total exclusion of fresh beef from America since 1894, the importation
of pork of all kinds is permitted only on presentation of a certificate

- of inspection.

254 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ITALY ADMITS AMERICAN PORK AND LARD.

The ministerial decree of March 31, 1898, determines the treatment
to be accorded to imports of foreign animals and animal products.
The entry of cattle and sheep from South Africa, Australia, and cer-
tain European countries is prohibited, but not from Argentina or the
United States. Swine from the United States, Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Crete, and Denmark are prohibited, but salted
or otherwise cured pork, while excluded generally, is admitted from
the United States and from specified European countries when
accompanied by official certificates. In all cases on arrival in Italy
imports must undergo inspection, and, with the exception of lard from
the United States ona certain hanes countries, they must be
accompanied by an official certificate.

PROHIBITION AND DISPENSATION IN THE NETHERLANDS.

Meat animals from France, cattle, sheep, and goats from Belgium,
and cattle and sheep from Germany, may be imported for breeding
purposes if accompanied by a certificate of health; otherwise such
animals must undergo slaughter within twenty-four hours if imported
from France or Belgium, and within forty-eight hours if from Ger-
many. No meat animals may be imported from any other country
unless under special ministerial permit.

The importation of meat into the Netherlands is nominally pro-
hibited, but if shown not to be injurious in character it may be im-
ported under special dispensation of the authorities in the different
provinces. Apparently meat and other animal products enter the .
Netherlands freely and no doubt this form of regulation was adopted
merely to retain full control over the character of imports.

NORWAY’S RESTRICTIONS.

Only two lines of trade in live meat animals are unimpeded: (1) The
importation of reindeer, and (2) the shipment of all meat animals
from the Arctic Sea ports of Russia to Finmarken, the extreme
northern province of Norway, from which province animals will not be
received into other parts of the Kingdom. From Sweden ruminants
may be imported under numerous restrictions; from other countries
neither ruminants nor swine are admitted.

The importation of meat, unless salted or prepared, and of unren-
dered tallow is prohibited from Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Russia
(except the Arctic ports when destined to Finmarken), and all non-
European countries. Raw animal products, except hides and skins
from Sweden, are generally prohibited.

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 255

RUSSIA PROHIBITS PORK.

Russia is essentially an agricultural country, and exports much
larger quantities of animals and animal products than it imports.
Since 1873 all kinds of pork products intended for food have been
prohibited, with the exception of rendered lard. Under special per-
mission of the minister of agriculture and domains, samples of foreign
hog products are admitted when necessary to enable Russian export-
ers to compete. The ministry of the interior is authorized to prohibit
the importation of live swine whenever it seems necessary.

FEW RESTRICTIONS IN SPAIN.

The prohibitions of Spain affecting meat animals and meat are few
innumber. From the United States unrendered lard alone is prohib-
ited, and from Algeria the importation of swine and sausages is like-
wise prohibited. Pork imported from the United States with an offi-
cial certificate of inspection is admitted into Spain without any
further microscopic examination.

SWEDEN EXCLUDES AMERICAN SWINE PRODUCTS.

In Sweden animals and raw animal products from a place infected
with foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest are entirely prohibited; as
well as such imports if in transit they have touched or passed through
infected places. In the case of ruminantsimported from places infected
with other contagious diseases, a consular certificate and a veterinary
certificate are required, and on arrival at a Swedish port the animals
must be reinspected and quarantined for periods varying from 10 to
120 days. These restrictions are not enforced against the United
States, because this country has not been declared by the Swedish
Government to be infected with any of the diseases named.

Swine and swine products from the United States are, however,
subjected to stringent restrictions, owing to the fact that the govern-
ment of Sweden has declared the United States, as well as Victoria
and the principal countries of Europe, to be infected with hog cholera.
Live swine may be imported only if accompanied by a veterinary
certificate viséed by a Swedish consul, stating that before sailing all
animals on board have been inspected and found free from disease,
and on arrival must be reimspected and quarantined for 60 days.
Slaughtered swine and all swine products are also prohibited, with
the exception of lard and well-salted pork, including bacon.

SWITZERLAND REQUIRES IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER.

The situation of Switzerland, with no seaport, renders impossible
direct importation from any countries except France, Germany, Aus-
tria, and Italy. Its restrictions and prohibitions are consequently
directed primarily to animals coming from any of these countries.

256 YEARBOOK OF THE: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Immediate slaughter, within periods varying to some extent in the
different Cantons, is required. In all cases the animals and meat
imported undergo inspection.

GREAT BRITAIN OFFERS AN OPEN MARKET.

Since June 3, 1898, the importation of swine from the United States
into Great Britain has been prohibited, but no exclusion of other meat
animals has been enforced, except during the period from December
1, 1902, to September 28, 1903, when the importation of such animals
from the New England States was temporarily suspended.

Strong efforts have been made by this Government to have revoked
the requirement that cattle shall be slaughtered at the port of entry
within ten days after landing. While this restriction entirely pre-
vents the importation of cattle for fattening, and undoubtedly pre-
vents the realization of the best prices for the animals imported, it
offers no discrimination against the United States as compared with
any other foreign country or any British colony.

The United States now furnishes 74 per cent of the total value of
live meat animals imported into the United Kingdom; ten years ago
it contributed only 63 per cent. The change is due largely to the
prohibition of live animals from Argentina and Uruguay since 1900,
except for the period from February 3 to May 12, 1903, when the
British market was reopened to La Plate cattle. No restrictive
measures affect the importation of meat, and Argentina and Uruguay
now furnish large quantities of frozen beef and mutton for British
consumption. The fresh beef alone imported into the United King-
dom from Argentina in 1904 was valued at nearly twice as high a
figure as the cattle imported in any year before the restrictions of 1900
went into effect.

The continued large shipments of cattle from the United States is
a striking feature of the trade between these two countries. During
the ten years ending 1904 such shipments increased in quantity 32 per
cent, while the imports of fresh beef from the United States increased
45 per cent. The continued importation of live cattle in such large
numbers, notwithstanding the great improvement that has taken
place in refrigeration and the enormous packing-house industry of the
United States, is probably due mainly to the strong preference of the
British consumer for domestic meat. If home-grown meat can not
be obtained, home-killed meat is preferred to foreign-killed, and this
preference is doubtless rendered more possible of realization, owing
to the stringent laws prohibiting the sale of food products under any
misleading designation. A number of prosecutions have taken place
on account of the sale of foreign for domestic bacon.

The importation of meat animals into Ireland from foreign coun-
tries or British possessions is prohibited. .

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 257

FEW RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED BY NONEUROPEAN COUNTRIES.

Outside of Europe, the most important exports of live stock and
packing-house products from the United States take place to Cuba,
Canada, Mexico, and the British West Indies. During the fiscal year
1905 large shipments of canned beef were recorded to Japan, but with
the cessation of the war in the Far East a considerable decline occurred
in 1906. Of the American markets named, Canada alone restricts
seriously the imports from the United States by requiring, since
December 31, 1905, the quarantine of all swine for thirty days, thus
cutting off the entry of United States hogs for slaughter.¢

Cuba not only offers no impediments to the importation of live
stock and packing-house products from the United States, but by
special reduction in tariff offers United States animals and products
a considerable advantage over those from other countries. This
advantage amounts to 33 cents per 100 pounds on salted or pickled
pork and lard and to 65 cents per 100 pounds on hams and shoulders.

SUMMARY OF PROHIBITIONS NOW IN FORCE.

At the present time the importation of live meat animals from
the United States is prohibited by Denmark, the Netherlands, Nor-
way, and Ireland. Moreover, Austria-Hungary, France, and Ger-
many exclude cattle, Italy and Great Britain swine, and Austria-
Hungary sheep and goats, when imported from the United States.
The only European countries to which live stock are shipped from
the United States in any considerable number are Great Britain and
Belgium.

The importation from the United States of all meat, except pork
and sausages, is prohibited by Austria-Hungary. Pork is excluded
from Russia. Norway prohibits the importation of all fresh meat
from the United States; fresh pork is excluded from Sweden and
other fresh meat from Denmark; while Germany excludes American
fresh beef. Canned meat, sausages, cured horse meat, and dog meat
are prohibited by Germany, while Belgium also refuses to admit
cured horse meat.

SPECIAL REGULATIONS.

In addition to orders which absolutely prohibit the importation
of live stock and meat from the United States, many countries restrict
in various ways these lines of trade.

In regard to the trade in live animals, enforced quarantine is required
in some cases, while in others the contrary policy of enforced

slaughter is observed. The former imposes a considerable expense

a See Monthly Cons. Repts., Jan., 1906, p. 166; also Report of Canadian Min. of Agr.,
1906, p. xl.

3 A1906——17

258 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

on the importer, while the latter, by limiting the opportunity for
sale and in some cases preventing the animals from fully recovering
from the exhaustion of the sea voyage, operates disadvantageously
upon the price realized.

Restrictions affecting both live-stock and meat imports are the
requirement of a certificate, inspection on arrival, and the limitation of
the ports at which such imports are admitted. |

If fresh meat is imported, some countries require that the whole
carcass be presented. A few countries specify the preservatives that

may be used.
QUARANTINE RESTRICTIONS.

Live stock from the United States is subject to quarantine in
Sweden, Germany, Spain, and Canada. Swine imported into Sweden
from all countries except Finland and Norway must undergo quar-
antine for sixty days; Germany requires the detention of swine,
sheep, and goats from America for a period of four weeks; Spain
requires a quarantine of ten days before animals are admitted; Canada
isolates all swine for thirty days.

IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER REQUIRED.

On the other hand, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and the Neth-
erlands aim to prevent any possible danger to domestic animals
by requiring the immediate slaughter of the live stock imported.
The United a since 1879, has required that cattle, sheep, and
swine imported from the United States shall be slanglicendl at the
port at which they are landed. This requirement = now general
in its application, and meat animals, no matter from what country
imported, must be slaughtered within ten days from their arrival
without coming in contact with any British animals. Belgium
requires the sinughter of all animals imported from across the sea
within three days. The Netherlands imposes the requirement of
slaughter within twenty-four or forty-eight hours in the case of
such animals as are admitted, but live meat animals from the United
States are totally excluded.

PRESENTATION OF CERTIFICATES.

The presentation of a health certificate is a prerequisite to the
admission of live stock into Austria, France, Italy, the Netherlands,
Mexico, and Cuba, while Mexico also requires a health certificate
in the case of fresh meat imported, and Austria and Italy in the case
of all kinds of meat. Sweden requires a certificate only when the
animals are imported from countries infected with contagious dis-
eases, in order to ascertain that the animals imported haya not
been directly exposed to contagion. Canada requires the presen-
tation of a health certificate in the case of swine.

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 259

In some special cases the admission of swine and swine products
from the United States is made dependent on the presentation of
an official certificate from the Department of Agriculture. Austria
requires such a certificate on the importation of swine, pork (includ-
ing bacon), and sausage; France in the case of cured pork; Denmark
in the case of fresh pork, bladders, and unpurified steam lard, and
Spain and Germany in the case of all kinds of pork.

INSPECTION ON ARRIVAL.

Inspection of imported live animals is generally required. France
and Mexico, moreover, require the inspection of all fresh meat im-
ported; Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium the inspection of all
kinds of meat, and Italy the inspection of all animal products.
France provides especially for the inspection of cured pork and
sausages from the United States, notwithstanding the fact that the
first of these products must in all cases be accompanied by a United
States certificate of inspection. On the importation of cattle, with
the exception of those for immediate slaughter, the tuberculin test
is required by France and Denmark.

FEES IMPOSED.

In most cases fees* are charged for inspection, which constitute a
very considerable factor in raising the price at which the product may
be sold. These fees differ widely in amount. In addition to the
ordinary fees, a special charge is imposed in Germany for an exam-
ination to discover the presence of trichine, to determine whether a
shipment is horse meat, or to ascertain the presence of forbidden
preservatives. The inspection required by France on salt pork when
imported from the United States, but not from other countries,
entails a charge of 13 cents per 100 pounds. For the special inspec-
tion required in the case of sausages from the United States, however,
no fee is charged.

PORTS OF ENTRY LIMITED.

European countries in most cases restrict the importation of live
stock, and in some cases also the importation of meat to certain ports
in order apparently to facilitate inspection. This requirement is
general in its application by the United Kingdom, Denmark, Swe-
den, Germany, and Spain. Belgium, however, limits more strictly
the importation from trans-Atlantic countries than from European

@¥ee for imported cattle, per head (cents): Belgium, 19 to 39; France, 10 to 29: Italy,
39. For imported meat, per 100 pounds (cents): Belgium, 2; France, 9; Italy, 18.

In Germany fees on live stock are of local or State origin, and differ widely. For
fresh meat, per carcass (cents): Cattle, 36; calf, 12; swine, 14; sheep or goat, 10. For
prepared meat, per 100 pounds (cents): Sausage casings, 5; bacon, 1i; other, 22. These
rates superseded cn February 15, 1907, the higher rates previously in force.

260 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

countries. France restricts the importation of cured pork from the
United States (which alone is compelled to undergo inspection on
arrival) to six ports—Dunkirk, Havre, Bordeaux, Marseille, Boulogne,
and Dieppe. A larger number of ports are specified for the importa-
tion of cattle which must be subjected to the tuberculin test, while
other animals may be entered at a still larger number of custom-
houses.
CARCASSES OR SPECIFIED CUTS.

Belgium, France, and Germany prescribe minutely the form in
which fresh meat may be imported. In Belgium such meat may be
imported only as whole carcasses, halves, or forequarters with the
lungs attached. As to horses and other solipeds, all the breathing
organs, including the head, must be present. France requires in the
case of fresh beef and pork that the whole animal be presented. For
convenience of shipping, the carcass may be halved or quartered, but
in these cases the parts must fit exactly and the lungs must adhere
naturally. Internal organs must show no trace of scraping or scratch-
ing. Choice cuts of beef, such as the tenderloin or sirloin, may be
admitted separately. Fresh mutton may be imported only in quar-
ters, the pluck adhering to one of the forequarters.

Germany requires that fresh meat of all kinds shall be imported
only in whole carcasses, but carcasses of cattle (with the exception
of calves) and of swine may be cut into halves. The pleura and the
peritoneum, the lungs, the heart, the kidneys, and in case of cows the
udder, also must be attached to the carcass in natural connection.
The importation of salted meat in pieces weighing less than 9 pounds
(4 kilograms) is prohibited, but this requirement does not apply to
hams, bacon, and sausage casings.

RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF PRESERVATIVES.

In the United States, under the meat-inspection law approved
June 30, 1906, the use of drugs, chemicals, dyes, and preservatives is
restricted much more stringently than in most foreign countries.
The regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture under that.
law prohibit entirely in the preparation of meat products the use of
any drug, chemical, or dye, and of any preservative other than com-
mon salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and temporarily
saltpeter.

The requirement in regard to the use of drugs, chemicals, and
dyes affects export products equally with those intended for domestic
consumption. In regard to preservatives, a slightly wider range is
permitted in the preparation of products for export to countries in
which the requirements are less strict than those in force here. To
this end the law of June 30, 1906, provides—

That, subject to the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture, the pro-
visions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat food products for export

——— Cte

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. °61

to any foreign country and which are prepared or packed according to the specifi-
cations or directions of the foreign purchaser, when no substance is used in the prepa-
ration or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said
article is to be exported.

The United Kingdom, Austria, Italy, and Denmark prohibit in
general terms the use of any ingredient that is injurious to public
health, but do not prohibit any specific preservatives. The United
Kingdom expressly provides that food products may contain pre-
servative or coloring substances, provided that they are not used
in such quantities as to render the article dangerous to health. Italy
similarly provides that the addition of a noninjurious substance
which is necessary to fit the article for sale or transportation shall
not be deemed an adulteration. France prohibits adulterations in
general, and specifically the use of salicylic acid and formaldehyde.
Cuba by a recent law prohibits the use of all preservatives for meat
except common salt. Germany and Belgium, instead of a general
prohibition, name the preservatives the use of which is prohibited.
These are in Germany formaldehyde, alkali and alkaline earth
hydroxides and carbonates, boracic, salicylic, hydrofluoric, and sul-
phurous acids, hyposulphites, and chlorates. In Belgium the pro-
hibited substances are salicylic acid, formaldehyde, sulphurous acid,
sulphites or bisulphites, antiseptics, and in general substances injuri-
ous to health. It is to be observed that the greatest latitude is
permitted in countries such as the United Kingdom, which are com-
pelled to depend for an important part of their food supply on products
carried long distances.

TREATY LIMITATIONS.

It is universally admitted that sanitary considerations necessitate
at times the exclusion or restriction of imports from certain regions.
It is not this principle, but what are deemed unjust applications of
it, that have called forth protests in the past. A treaty provision
guaranteeing that no prohibition shall be applied to imports from
any one country unless made applicable to imports from all countries,
such as is contained in the treaties of the United States with Austria-
Uungary, Prussia, and other European countries, necessarily requires
qualifications when actual sanitary reasons exist. Yet in the guise
of sanitary needs there is undoubtedly a temptation to extend the
requirements of this kind in such a way as to constitute unfust dis-
crimination. More precise definition of the obligation imposed in
this respect by the treaty guarantee of most-favored-nation privi-
leges is urgently needed to safeguard a country against unfair treat-
ment. An unqualified guarantee that no prohibition shall be directed
against the products of an individual country is far less effective than
a careful definition of the rights retained by each.

262 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The recent treaties entered into between Germany and various
European countries have clearly stated, in the form of an exception
to the most-favored-nation clause, the right to prescribe the sanitary
measures necessary “‘to protect animals or useful plants against dis-
ease or injurious insects or parasites.” But, on the other hand,
this right is qualified by the proviso that such restrictions “shall
apply to all countries or to those countries in the same condition”’
in regard to the prevalence of disease and measures for its control.

In presenting the treaties to the Reichstag for ratification, the
imperial chancellor emphasized the advantages gained in regard to
the establishment of sanitary measures. Under the former vet-
erinary treaty with Austria-Hungary, except in the case of rinder-
pest and contagious pleuro-pneumonia, Germany could not prohibit
the importation of Austrian cattle unless a contagious disease within
its own borders had actually resulted from such importation. Under
the new treaty, prohibitions may be imposed whenever a contagious
disease is conveyed from one country to the other, or whenever such
a disease is prevalent in one of the countries, but in the case of most
diseases (not including rinderpest or foot-and-mouth disease) may
be directed only against the particular district affected, and not the
whole country. The prohibitions may in no case be maintained more
than nine months after the end of the infection as officially declared.
The importation of cattle and sheep for immediate slaughter in public
abattoirs may be prohibited only on account of the more virulent
diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease. Such prohibitions shall
apply only to the particular districts affected, and must be withdrawn
within thirty days after the districts have been officially declared
free from the contagion. Owing to the division of Austria-Hungary
and Germany into small districts in regard to contagious diseases, the
burden involved in temporary prohibitions is vastly decreased, with
no decrease in the efficacy of the measure.

With other countries, however, Germany retains much fuller liberty
of action with regard to sanitary prohibitions. By treaty with
Russia, Germany guarantees that imports from that country shall
not be subjected to stricter veterinary measures than are taken
against other countries, which, in regard to the prevalence of con-
tagious diseases and in regard to veterinary control, are in the same
situation as Russia. While Germany maintains a nominal prohibition
against the importation of hogs from Russia and Austria, a special
exemption is granted by which 80,000 animals may be imported
annually from Austria-Hungary and 130,000 animals from Russia.

DISCRIMINATING TARIFFS. .

As a rule the tariff rates imposed do not discriminate against the
United States. At the present time no country of Europe, except
France, imposes on any United States product higher rates than

FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT, 263

those applicable to the products of its most highly favored com-
petitor. Even in the case of France, the benefit of the lowest tariff
rate is accorded to the United States on several of its leading packing-
house products.

The commercial agreement of 1898 with France specified as among
the products of the United States which would be admitted at the
. Minimum rates canned meats, sausages and assimilated products,
and lard. At that time a uniform duty was imposed on imports of
meat animals and of fresh and salted meat of all kinds, with the
exception of salted beef and mutton, on which the minimum rate of
duty was very slightly below the general rate. The general rate of
duty, which was imposed on this product when imported from the
United States, was $2.63 per 100 pounds, while the rate imposed
under the minimum tariff was $2.37 per 100 pounds. With the excep-
tion of this item and one or two others of merely nominal importance
in our trade, the United States was put on an equality with its com-
petitors on the French market in respect to live meat animals and
packing-house products.

On July 31, 1903, a new law was passed by which the duties on
cattle, sheep, goats, and swine, and on fresh and salted meat, were
largely increased, while a minimum tariff rate was enacted but little
in excess of the rate previously in force. In consequence of this
change, United States meat was placed at a great competitive dis-
advantage, varying from $1.31 to $2.75 per 100 pounds.

The year 1906 witnessed the withdrawal of discriminating duties
by two European countries. Beginning January 1, 1906, United States
products were admitted into Switzerland at the lowest rates of duty
and on September 1, 1906, the same treatment was first accorded by
Spain.

The high level to which import duties on live stock and meat
have been carried is also a factor of considerable importance. Dur-
ing the year 1906 no less than twelve new tariffs were put into effect
by European countries. Three of these—the tariffs of Belgium,
France, and Sweden—while issued in the form of new tariffs, repre-
sented in fact merely a complete revision of the tariffs already in force;
two more, the Italian and Russian, left the rates on live stock and
packing-house products practically unchanged; while seven—the tar-
iffs of Austria~-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, Roumania, Servia, Spain,
and Switzerland—increased those duties very materially.

FUTURE PROSPECTS OF TRADE EXPANSION.

The present study discloses some discouraging features. Cattle
and meat from the farms and packing houses of the United States are
placed at a great disadvantage by the prohibitive and restrictive
decrees of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Denmark, and by the
differential tariff duties of France.

264 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

But there are also features of a peculiarly favorable character.
The great meat market of Europe, that of the United Kingdom, is
open wide for the admission of American meat, and places American
cattle and sheep on a footing as favorable as that enjoyed by any
other country or by any British colony, and more favorable than
that applied in the case of many of our chief competitors.

The advantage gained by the United States in obtaining for its
products admission into Switzerland and Spain at the lowest rates of
duty will undoubtedly prove of value to the meat exporters of this
country.

It was predicted in some quarters that the complaints made during
the first six months of 1906 in regard to the methods employed by
some packing houses in’ the United States would result in a serious
decline in our meat exports and in further exclusion of such products
from foreign countries. Fortunately the first part of the prediction
has not been realized and the second part only in a small measure..
The exports of meat and meat products from the United States show
an increase in the calendar year 1906 aggregating $15,000,000 over
the value for the preceding year. The only product showing a
noticeable decrease is canned meat, of which large quantities were
exported in 1905 to Japan for use as an army ration. Except in the
case of Austria-Hungary, moreover, no new restriction was decreed
affecting meat imported from the United States. The trade with
Austria-Hungary in meats other than pork (which was not affected by
the decree) was already small, amounting to only $83,000 in the year
ending June 30, 1906, and less than $22,000 the preceding year. The
actual effect will therefore be much less injurious than would be antic-
ipated from the general terms of the decree, but its potential effeet in
preventing any future expansion is far more serious.

Instead of leading to increased restriction on American products,
the events of 1906 really afford an excellent reason for the removal
or modification of the restrictions that in the past have exercised so
injurious an effect on the trade in meat and live animals. The exten-
sion of the powers of the Bureau of Animal Industry in 1891 over the
inspection of exported meat led to a considerable relaxation of the
restrictions against American swine products. There is no reason why
the stricter control now exercised over all processes of slaughtering
and preparation of meat should not induce the leading foreign govern-
ments to modify the more serious restrictions and admit American
meat on freer terms. Such action is more feasible because treaty
relations among European countries are still undergoing revision, and
within many of those countries a strong demand has sprung up for
_the freer admission of foreign cattle and meat.

METHODS OF REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING
BEET SUGAR.

By C. O. TowNsEND,

Pathologist in Charge of Sugar-Beet Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.

. The first refined beet-root sugar produced in commercial quantity
was made about one hundred years ago, at a cost of approximately 80
centsa pound. The cost of producing cane sugar was then somewhat
higher than that of beet sugar. The amount of raw sugar extracted
from the beet at that time varied from 4 to 6 per cent, and the amount
of refined sugar obtained was from 1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the
beet. The cost of producing an acre of beets was estimated at approx-
imately $35, while the yield was from 6 to 25 tons per acre. When
it is considered that upward of 15 pounds of refined sugar can be
obtained at retail to-day for the original cost of manufacturing 1 pound
of beet sugar it must be realized that many improvements have already
been made in the quality of the beet, in cultural methods, and in factory
operations, all of which have tended to reduce the cost of the finished
product.

The advances that have been made in cultural methods have been
offset to a very great extent by the increased cost of labor in this coun-
try, so that the actual reduction in the cost of producing beet sugar
has been due to the improvement of the beet or to less expensive oper-
ations in extracting and refining the product. It appears, therefore,
that there are three avenues through which the cost of producing beet
sugar may be increased or diminished. This article will deal only
with those methods for reducing the cost of beet sugar which bear
directly or indirectly upon the improvement and production of the raw
material—the sugar beet—while the questions connected with extract-
ing and refining the sugar will be left to the sugar chemist and to the
sugar engineer.

In this connection it may not be out of place to mention the possi-
bilities of utilizmmg to greater advantage the by-products of the beet-
sugarfactory. The first beet-sugar factory built (1805) manufactured
raw sugar, wine, spirits, and vinegar. After several years of successful
operation, the owner of this factory stated that if the sugar paid only
for operating the factory the enterprise would still be a success. He
further reported that the utilization of the beet leaves and pulp
enabled him to double the number of cattle on his farm, and the

265

°66 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

manure thus produced greatly increased the yield of his wheat.
Stockmen are rapidly coming to understand the value of beet pulp as
a cattle food, while the possibilities of manufacturing alcohol, fusel oil,
vinegar, fertilizers, etc., from the refuse molasses have already been
demonstrated. It may be that the ever-increasing demand for
cheaper sugar, and the constantly advancing possibilities of utilizing
the by-products, may eventually place the manufacture of sugar in that
class of industries in which the factories are operated for the sake of the’
by-products. However, that time is far distant, and if the onward prog-
ress of this new industry is to be maintained the manufacture of sugar
for sugar’s sake must be fostered.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE BEET.
INCREASING THE SIZE OF THE BEET.

One of the most promising lines along which the cost of producing
beet sugar may be reduced, so far as the question relates to the raw
material, is that of the improvement of the beet. When one examines
the wild beet and notes that the roots weigh but a few ounces each,
he can not help wondering at the large tonnage that was sometimes
produced early in the nineteenth century, when according to pub-
lished reports the yield frequently reached 25 tons of roots per acre.
It is true that the average yield was much below this point, but it
undoubtedly compared very favorably with the present average yield
of beets in this country, which according to obtainable figures is from
8 to 10 tons per acre. It would appear, therefore, that little progress
has been made along this line. That the individual roots of the culti-
vated beet are larger than those of the wild beet there is no question;
but it would seem from a study of comparative yields that the larger
the root the fewer the beets which can be produced per acre. This is
undoubtedly true within certain limits; but, after the most satisfac-
tory relation between the number of beets per acre and the size of the
beets has been determined, there are three methods by which the yield
of beets per acre may be increased without diminishing the percentage
of sugar in the beet: (1) By improved cultural methods; (2) by the
use of fertilizers; and (3) by selection.

In regard to cultural methods used with sugar beets our foremost
agriculturists do not agree. They are unanimous, however, in regard
to the importance of early thinning. Undoubtedly many tons of
beets are lost to the farmers and to the factories annually by delaying
this important operation. In the use of other culturai methods we
are constantly gaining new information through our experiments and
through the growers’ experience, which must eventually result in an
increased tonnage of beets.

Thorough cultivation can not be too strongly emphasized as a factor
in producing good sugar beets. It is a common saying among the

“REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 267

Germans that ‘‘the sugar must be hoed into'the beet.’’ While it is
true that the sunshine and the air are the principal factors in sugar pro-
duction, the cultivator and the hoe are important aids in aaa the
beet vigorous and active. Atno time in its life should a beet be allowed
to cease growing, for if it once becomes stunted it is doubtful whether it
will ever make as good a beet as it would have been under conditions
of continuous growth.

Numerous experiments have been conducted by the United States
Department of Agriculture, by the State experiment stations, and by
growers to determine the proper relation between fertilizers and the
sugar-beet crop. While there is still much to be learned in regard to
fertilizers, there can be no doubt about the benefit to be derived from
their Sedintous use with sugar beets.

The rotation of crops is an important matter in n the growing of sugar
beets, and while the rotations must necessarily vary in different locali-
ties there should always be some green crop in the rotation, preferably
a legume, that can be plowed under to furnish humus and to supply at
least a part of the nitrogen.

Having done everything possible by means of cultural methods and
by the use of fertilizers of different kinds, there are still promising
possibilities in the selectionmethod. By this process, in which experi-
ments are already under way in the Bureau of Plant Industry, it is
proposed to select for seed production large beets rich in sugar, and
by repeated selection and crossing to produce a strain of beets that
will greatly increase the yield without any decrease in the sugar con-
tent of the beets. The results should be a much larger quantity of
sugar per acre without any increase in the cost of production.

INCREASING THE SUGAR CONTENT.

Another possibility of improving the beet is to increase its sugar’
content. If this is done, even without increasing the size of the beet, a
greater yield of sugar per acre may be obtained. When the percentage
of sugar obtained from the beet a century ago is compared with the
present sugar content of our cultivated beets, it is seen that much
progress has already been made in improving the beet in this direction.
A comparison of the average percentage of sugar actually obtained
from the beet with the high sugar content of the best samples indi-
cates that there is still opportunity to greatly increase the average
sugar content of our beets.

if a largely increased yield of beets is combined with a much higher
sugar content it is entirely possible to obtain three times as much sugar
per acre as is produced on an average at the present time. For
example, the present average yield of beets per acre in the United
States is about 10 tons, and the percentage of sugar actually extracted
and refined does not exceed 12, making the average yield of sugar per

268 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘acre approximately 2,400 pounds. Yields of more than 30 tons of
beets per acre are sometimes obtained, and yields of more than 20 tons
are common. From 20 to 25 per cent of sugar in the beets has been
reported so frequently that it is safe to assume that an average sugar
content of 18 per cent is within the limits of possibility. If an average
yield of 20 tons per acre and an average sugar content of 18 per cent
could be reached, we would have an average yield of 7,200 pounds of
sugar per acre. If this could be realized without increasing the cost of
growing the beets, it should be entirely possible for the grower to
furnish the raw material to the factory at a somewhat lower cost than
is at present practicable. This is the first important step toward
reducing the cost of sugar production.
| One of the most important factors in producing a beet rich in sugar
is the proper selection of beets for seed production. This is the seeds-
man’s problem, and is, under the present methods of beet-seed produc-
tion, entirely outside the province of the grower of factory beets.
However, the sugar content of beet roots depends to a very great
extent upon the soil and climatic conditions. For example, in 1903
the Bureau of Plant Industry planted several varieties of sugar-beet
seed on the Arlington Experimental Farm, near Washington. This seed
was produced from beets that tested from 16 to 18 per cent of sugar.
The beets grown from the seed tested in no case more than 12 per cent
of sugar, and. nearly all the samples tested less than 10 per cent.
These beets were sent to Utah and planted for seed in 1904. The
beets grown in 1905 from the seed produced from these roots tested
16 to t7 per cent of sugar. It will be seen, therefore, that while the
beet still possessed the tendency to produce a high sugar content, the
soil and climatic conditions in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., in
1903 kept the sugar production too low for practical purposes. ;
If the climatic conditions in any locality appear to be unfavorable
for sugar-beet production, it is not advisable to undertake to grow
sugar beets on a commercial scale until a beet has been developed by
selection or otherwise that is adapted to that particular locality. It
has been found that clay loams and sandy loams are very satisfactory
for sugar-beet production, provided other conditions are favorable;
but more depends upon the physical condition of the soil and upon
methods of cultivation than upon the particular kind or variety of soil
used. The soil should be well supplied with humus and well drained.

COST OF GROWING BEETS.
LAND VALUES.

In considering the methods by which beet sugar may be produced
at a smaller cost so far as the raw material is concerned, there are
certain factors which tend to increase rather than to diminish the cost
of production. One of these is the increase of land values. During

REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 269

the past decade there has been a remarkable advance in the price of
farming lands, especially in those localities where beet-sugar factories
are in successful operation. These lands have become more valuable
not only because they produce large quantities of sugar beets, but
because there is a ready market for the crop and because other valu-
able crops form with the sugar beets a very satisfactory rotation.
There are thousands of acres of good farming lands where sugar beets
may be grown with profit as soon as sugar factories are constructed.

Five years ago the land in a certain valley in Utah was offered for
sale at $20 an acre. Since that time a sugar factory has been built,
and from 6,000 to 8,000 acres of sugar beets are grown in that valley
annually, bringing to the owners a return of $75 and upward per
acre. As a result, practically none of the land is for sale at the pres-
ent time. If by force of circumstances a tract of this land changes
hands, the price obtained is $100 or more per acre.

In some parts of Colorado sugar beets, potatoes, and alfalfa form a
rotation series to which small grains are sometimes added. | When it
is realized that potatoes often yield from 600 to 800 bushels per acre
and sugar beets upward of 20 tons per acre, it is not surprising that
this land is held at several hundred dollars per acre; and it may
be stated that in none of the sugar-beet areas is the price of land
decreasing.

The theory that sugar beets will ruin the land has long since been
exploded. The best crops of sugar beets and other farm products
are found on many of the farms where sugar beets have been grown
longest. This is in part due to the fact that good farmers have become
better farmers through their experience in growing beets. Proper
rotation of crops, good cultivation, and the judicious use of fertilizers
are the factors that keep the land in good condition and enable farmers
to obtain the highest possible returns for the labor and money in-
vested. The situation in regard to land values, so far as they relate
to sugar beets, may be stated as follows: Inasmuch as sugar beets
require the best quality of soil and demand that it shall be in the
highest state of cultivation to produce the best results, sugar beets
must remain a comparatively high-priced crop, and any attempt to
reduce their price must result either in producing an unsatisfactory
crop or in eliminating sugar beets from the system of crop rotation
in many localities.

COST OF LABOR.

Another factor which up to the present time has had a tendency
to increase rather than to diminish the cost of sugar-beet production
is the cost of labor. The price of farm labor, like land values, has
increased materially within the past few years. This is especially
true of hand labor for thinning, pulling, and topping beets. In view
of the greatly increased cost within the past decade of nearly all the

270 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

necessaries of life, and with every indication that the cost of living
will not be materially reduced in the near future, it can not reasonably
be expected that farm wages will be appreciably lowered within the
next few years, at least. It is clear that the increased cost of labor
thus far has had a tendency to increase rather than to decrease the

cost of beet sugar.
AMOUNT OF LABOR.

Another phase of the labor question should be considered in this
connection, and that is the amount of labor required in growing an
acre of beets in order to obtain the greatest profit from the crop. The
average cost of growing and harvesting beets at present is estimated
to be approximately $30 per acre. It would undoubtedly be poor
economy to lessen the cost of growing beets by reducing the amount
of labor per acre under the present conditions. There are some indi-
cations that a still larger expenditure of labor upon the crop would
produce a much greater return. For example, several years ago one
of the leading agricultural papers of this country offered a series of
prizes for the best crop of sugar beets to be grown under certain con-
ditions. One of the winners produced approximately 30 tons of
beets on an acre of ground. The total cost of growing this acre of
beets was nearly $60. A little reflection will show that a much
larger profit per acre was obtained in producing 30 tons of beets on a
given area at an outlay of $60 per acre than would have been made
by spending $30 in growing the present average tonnage on the same
area. From this and other examples that might be cited, the conclu-
sich is obvious that the production of sugar per acre may be increased
by increasing the amount of labor per acre in growing the beets.

SOURCES OF LABOR.

The question of obtaining a sufficient number of the right kind
of laborers to grow the sugar-beet crop has become one of the most
complex and at the same time one of the most important problems
in connection with the sugar-beet industry in nearly all the beet
areas in this country. Scarcity of labor has an important bearing
upon the cost of sugar production in several ways, but especially in
delaying the work and in leaving certain operations undone, thereby
reducing the yield of sugar per acre.

In some localities no difficulty is experienced in obtaining a suffi-
cient number of suitable laborers throughout the season, especially
in those sections where the farms are small and the country is thickly
settled with good farmers. Under these circumstances the individual
farmer is usually found growing a small acreage of beets—frequently
not more than from 3 to 10 acres—which he is able to care for with
his own family, with possibly some assistance now and then from his
neighbors. In this way beets are grown more satisfactorily as

REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 274

regards labor than in any other. In most of our sugar-beet sections,
however, it is necessary to depend to a greater or less extent upon
outside help. Just how this labor is to be secured, how it is to be
retained throughout the season, and how it can be made a permanent
factor in the sugar-beet industry are problems upon the correct
solution of which the future of the beet-sugar industry depends to
a very great extent. Efforts are being made to work out these
problems in the various localities where help is needed; and, while
the conditions in the different sections are not identical, a brief
review of some of the important methods used may be helpful.

In the Middle and Eastern States, and in some of the Western
States, a large part of the labor in connection with sugar beets
must be done during the summer, at which time a large number of
pupils and teachers from the public schools are available for the
work. Many growers take advantage of this fact, and hundreds
of school children are employed annually in thinning, weeding, and
hoeing beets. In some localities the teachers, both men and women,
spend a part of the long vacation in the beet fields, much to their
advantage physically as well as financially. When this kind of labor
can be employed it is generally satisfactory, and improves from season
to season with the experience gained. Unfortunately there is not
enough of this kind of labor to supply the demand, and in a few
localities it is reported unsatisfactory.

If the sugar-beet area is located near one or more large cities a
considerable portion of the temporary labor comes from that class
of city residents who have no permanent employment and who are
willing to go out and work in the fields. This is especially true of
certain members of the foreign population, both men and women,
who often make excellent farm hands. Most of these laborers
insist upon returning to their homes in the city at the close of the
day. Numerous instances might be cited of Polish women who
walk from 2 to 4 miles in the morning in order to do their day’s
work of thinning, hoeing, or topping beets, or other farm work
that their employer may require. (Pl. XIII, fig.1.) At the close of
the day they walk back to their homes only to repeat the same
operation the next day and each day throughout the season. Some
of the employers state that this is the best class of labor that they
are able to obtain on their farms.

Some of the laborers become very skillful at this kind of work;
others were familiar with it before coming to this country and depend
from the first upon finding employment of this kind. However,
many of these laborers are seeking permanent employment in the
factories and other enterprises in the city, so that this class of farm
labor is in constant danger of depletion. At best this kind of labor
is limited by the number of people who are willing to go out from

Dt YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the city and do work of this kind, and also by the small number of
farmers who are near enough to the city to allow the laborers to
return home at the close of the day. If some of the farmers living
farther away from the city could induce some of these families to
become permanent residents of the rural districts it would undoubt-
edly be mutually beneficial In many cases. Various methods are
being used in different places to accomplish this result. In one sec-
tion where labor is scarce the officials of the sugar company sug-
gested that each farmer build at least one tenant house for the ac-
commodation of some of the labor required. The farmers are acting
upon this suggestion, and undoubtedly within a few years this com-
munity will be well supplied with good labor.

It is well known that many families, especially those of foreign
birth, hesitate about going into the country for the reason that they
would, in a way, become practically isolated from their countrymen. ©
In order to overcome this difficulty and at the same time to solve
the labor problem for the sugar-beet industry, several sugar com-
panies have purchased large tracts of land and have offered various
inducements to laborers to settle upon the land in colonies. For
example, one sugar company divided its land into small farms of 40
acres each, which were sold at a low price on easy terms. The only
requirement was that the purchaser should grow a small acreage of
sugar beets for at least two years, upon the presumption that if beets
were grown for two years the. purchaser would be a permanent
erower. This plan, which was started four years ago, worked out
satisfactorily. All the land was sold and each year upward of 6,000
acres of sugar beets are grown for the near-by factory.

In another sugar-beet section the sugar company has divided its
land into small farms, which it has equipped with the necessary stock
and tools and on which it has built comfortable houses. These places
are rented to farmers, who are growing small areas of sugar beets.
This plan is working satisfactorily for the sugar company and, like the
preceding method, is of inestimable benefit to many families desirous
of becoming independent citizens.

Still another sugar company has set apart a portion of its land with
a view to forming a Russian colony. This land is divided into acre
tracts, and a small house is built on each tract. Figure 6 shows
four of these houses; that is, the two buildings shown consist of two
houses each, placed side by side. These houses are rented to Russian
families with the definite understanding that when a family has
worked for the company a given number of years a deed for the house
and lot will be given to that family. This plan is of comparatively
recent origin, and the effect that it will have upon the solution of the
labor question is still problematical. If there is any disadvantage in
this plan over the preceding ones it undoubtedly lies in the fact that

REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 273

the tract of land is not large enough to support a family; hence, the
workers must seek employment on other farms, necessitating the
expenditure of considerable time and energy in getting to and from
their work.

In the same community another plan has been adopted which
promises good results. The important point, the nucleus of this plan,
is a portable house. The outfit, as shown in figure 7, consists of
a farmer’s handy wagon, the wheels of which are 28 inches in diameter
and have a 5-inch tread. The construction of the house is shown in
the cut. The outfit consists of a laundry stove, cooking utensils,
woven-wire folding cots, mattresses, and blankets. Each house will
accommodate from two to five workmen, and costs about $75. The
laborers occupying one of these houses contract to do the hand work
for several beet growers at a price ranging from $18 to $21 per acre,
depending upon the number of hoeings, etc., included in the contract.

ui :
i hid 1 uiyHl sat if Ls i a
itt ‘y a Ay os ah

Fi1G. 6.—Laborers’ houses, one to each acre tract—one method of solving the labor question in grow—
ing sugar beets.

The agreement is that when they have finished one operation, such as
thinning, for one farmer, he will take his team and haul the house to
the next farm. This house is portable, not only in the sense that it is
on wheels, but also from the fact that it is capable of being taken
down and shipped on the cars. In this way it is easily shifted about
from community to community, to the place where it is most needed.

The laborers using these houses are mostly Belgians, who seem to
be very satisfactory in the beet fields in most instances. They are
tireless workers, and when employed by the acre often utilize every
moment of daylight in caring for the beets under their contract.
Their method of topping beets, as shown in Plate XIII, fig. 2, is one
that seems to be peculiar to themselves, and is very rapid. The beets
are pulled and thrown in rows, with te tops all one way, and thenina
bent position, as shown in the HGS ch the laborers go up and down
the rows, cutting off the tops and Speiie the beets into piles. The
two brothers shown in the illustration were photographed in 1904

3 A1906——18

274 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

while working on one of theircontracts. This year(i906) they rented a
40-acre farm and are growing their own beets. It is safe to predict that
within a few years they will be landowners and employers of labor.
In still other communities large numbers of Japanese are employed for
sugar-beet work. Fora given community the Japanese are usually
contracted for through their leader,who agrees under bond to furnish
so many laborers for the hand work at some stipulated price. This
price is about the same in all the sugar-beet sections—$20 per acre.
This army of laborers, often consisting of several hundred under one
contract, may be, and usually is, divided into smaller squads, which
are sent to the various fields where they are needed. They usually
form a camp in which they live by themselves. Under the direction
of a competent foreman they are capable of doing excellent work, but

Fig. 7.—A portable house used in solying the labor problem in some parts of the sugar-beet areca.

they sometimes become careless and trifling, in spite of everything
that may be said or done.

Many grewers in the West speak very highly of the Chinese as labor-
ers in the sugar-beet fields, but owing to our present immigration laws
they are necessarily very scarce, this being especially true of the
younger and more active members of the race.

REDUCING THE COST OF LABOR.

The high price of labor, as well as its scarcity, has acted as an incen-
tive to change the structure of beet seed and devise other means
whereby sugar beets may be grown with less hand labor. While
it has been shown that all the labor performed in producing a
crop of beets is necessary in order to obtain the best results under
present conditions, it may be possible to perform one or more of these
various operations in some other manner with just as good or even
better results than at present and at less expense. For example, the
production of single-germ beet seed is but a method of thinning beets
before the seed is planted.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906 PLATE XIll.

FiG. 1.—POLISH WOMEN THINNING BEETS.

Fic. 2.—BELGIAN METHOD OF TOPPING BEETS.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XIV.

;

FIG. 1.—POWER HOE THAT MAY BE UTILIZED IN BLOCKING AND HOEING SUGAR BEETS.

Fic. 2.—SILOING SUGAR BEETS FOR THE FACTORY.

REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 275

PRODUCTION OF SINGLE-GERM SEED.—Commercial beet seed con-
sists for the most part of from two to seven individual seeds welded by
nature into one mass. It is evident that plants produced from such a
mass of seeds must necessarily be very close together, and thus far no
mechanism has been devised whereby the plants can be properly
thinned. It is clear, therefore, that if we expect to do away with the
hand thinning of our sugar beets it can probably be accomplished only
by changing the construction of the seed ball, either naturally or
artificially, so that there will be but one germ ineach ball. Repeated
efforts have been made to break up the seed balls by passing them
through various forms of rollers and grinders so that each seed could
be planted by itself. The seed coats are so hard that any device that
has been tried thus far that will crush or break the seed ball breaks a
large number of the seeds and renders them useless.

An effort is being made by the Bureau of Plant Industry to produce
a single-germ beet seed by selection. The results of this work up to
the close of last season (1905) are reported in Bulletin No. 73 of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, in which it is shown that the percentage of
single-germ seeds has been increased from less than 2 to upward of 25
percent.” In the light of the advance that has already been made it is
reasonably safe to assume that this object will finally be accomplished
by this means. After a plant possessing single-germ seed balls has
been produced it will necessarily be a number of years before a suffi-
cient quantity of this seed can be produced so that it can be used
commercially.

THInninc.—Meantime, as the industry grows, there will be an ever-
increasing demand for hand labor for thinning the beets. Many
growers have not yet learned the importance of carly thinning, and
consequently they try to do the work with an insufficient force, letting
this operation, which should be done within a few days, extend over a
period of several weeks, much to the detriment of the yield and con-
sequently to the returns from the crop.

Hortne.—The number of hoeings given a crop of sugar beets varies
from two to five. A single hoeing is much less expensive than the
single operation of thinning or of harvesting, but the total number of
hoeings, if properly done, will cost more than either of the other opera-
tions. It is important, therefore, that something be done to reduce
the cost of hoeing sugar beets. As already pointed out, it would be
poor economy to reduce the cost of hoeing beets by giving them a
smaller number of hoeings or by doing the work less thoroughly. On
the other hand, there are indications that better beets could be grown

@Since this paper was written the single-germ seeds produced in 1906 have been
separated and counted, and it is found that several of the plants yielded upward of
49 per cent of single-germ seeds. A large number of the plants produced more than
30 per cent.

276 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

if more attention were given to this phase of sugar-beet culture. If
anything is to be gained over the present method of hoeing beets it
must be by means of a machine that will do the work more thor-
oughly or at a lower cost per acre. A power hoe has recently been
invented and successfully used in the cotton fields. Although not
yet tried in connection with sugar beets, it would seem from its con-
struction that it could be used to considerable advantage in the beet
fields. This hoe consists of a metal disk which may be forced into the
ground to any desired depth, and is made to rotate rapidly in a plane
parallel to the surface of; the ground. The power that causes the
disk to rotate is furnished by a gasoline engine, while the movement
around the plant is guided by the human hand, as shown in the illus-
tration. (See Pl. XIV, fig. 1.) It is claimed for this machine that
from five to six times as much work can be done per day with one
of these hoes as can be done by the same man with a hand hoe. If
this particular implement is not adapted to sugar-beet work it will
doubtless lead to something whereby artificial power may be used in
blocking and hoeing sugar beets.

CULTIVATING.—Several cuitivations are necessary in the growing
season. The number of cultivations and the depth and distance
from the beets that the teeth of the cultivator should operate are
moot questions among agriculturists. It is agreed that different
conditions require different treatments, and hence the expense of culti-
vating beets must depend somewhat upon soil and weather conditions.
However, the single cultivator has given way to a great extent to the
two-row cultivator, and recently a four-row cultivator has been
devised and put in operation, so that the cost of each cultivation is
ereatly reduced. The initial cost of the four-row cultivator is greater
than that of a single-row cultivator, but the additional outlay is soon
made up if there is a considerable acreage of beets to be cared for.

Harvestinec.—Harvesting sugar beets consists of three distinct
operations, viz, lifting, pulling,.and topping. For many years lift-
ing or loosening the beets has been done by horse power. In some
parts of the West steam power is now being used for this purpose.
Two kinds of lifters are in general use, one consisting of a side plow,
which passes along one side of the beet row and loosens each beet by
pressing slightly against it and at the same time plowing it up. The
other form might be described as a plow with two points or shoes, so
arranged that as they pass along on either side of the beet row each
individual beet is caught between the points and lifted slightly, so that
it is left perfectly loose in the ground. The beets must then be pulled
and topped by hand.

Many forms of beet harvesters have been constructed, but none
has come into general use. It is the aim of the inventor of the
beet harvester to perform the three operations at the same time.

REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 2h

Some inventors aim to top the beet and then pull it, while others
maintain that the beet must be first pulled and then topped. If the
beets are topped and afterwards pulled, there seems to be some diffi-
culty about getting all of them out of the ground. On the other
hand, if the beets are first pulled and then topped, considerable diffi-
culty is experienced in topping them correctly, owing to the variation
in the size of the beets and the difference in the length and size of the
crowns. Several new harvesters are in the field this year (1906), and
it is probably a question of only a few years when the. harvester in the
beet field will be as common as it is in the grain field. The cost of
hand work in harvesting beets is from $5 to $8 per acre. It must be
remembered that no machine annihilates the cost of any farming
operation, but that a satisfactory beet harvester would greatly reduce
the expense of harvesting the crop is evident.

TRANSPORTING TO FACTORY.—Another important factor in the cost
of producing the raw material is the expense involved in transporting
the beets from the farm to the factory. If the field is located near the
factory and the roads are level and well made the beets may be
delivered at a minimum cost. As the distance from the factory
increases, more time is consumed, and consequently the expense is
increased. The importance of good roads can not be overestimated.
It frequently happens that the fall rains begin before the beets are
delivered, and unless the roads are well made they are soon full of
holes and ruts that make it impossible to haul more than half a load
at a time, practically doubling the expense of delivering the crop.
One effect of the sugar-beet industry is the improvement of the coun-
try roads, and conversely the improvement of the country roads is an
aid to the sugar-beet industry.

Railroad facilities and rates play an important part in the cost of
delivering the sugar-beet crop. Very few factories grow all their
beets within hauling distance. The grower and sugar company are
fortunate if the railroads so radiate from the vicinity of the factory
that the beets grown in a given community can be brought in over one
line of road. It is often the case, however, that the cars must besent
over two or more roads, which necessarily increases the expense. It
too often happens that there is an insufficient supply of cars at the
time they are wanted or the cars furnished are not adapted to handling
sugar beets; consequently considerable time is lost in loading and
unloading the beets. All these things are adjusting themselves gradu-
ally to the betterment of the industry through the persistent efforts of
those interested.

DESTROYING WEEDS.—The improvement of farming methods has
been mentioned as playing a significant part in sugar-beet growing.
One point that should be emphasized in this connection is the impor-
tance of destroying weeds. This work should not be confined to the

278 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

beet fields. Adjacent fields, roadsides, fence rows, and vacant lots
should be watched and the weeds destroyed before they go to seed.
It is not uncommon to find beet fields that are in fairly good condi-
tion while the roadside just over the fence is full of weeds. Some of
the seeds of these weeds will certamly be scattered by various agencies
over the field and be ready for growth the next year. The destruc-
tion of weeds for a single season will not always produce appreciable
results, for the reason that a large number of weed seeds remain alive
in the ground fer a number of years. Persistent efforts in destroying
weeds, however, will result after a few years in greatly reducing the
labor of keeping beet fields free from these pests.

SILOING THE BEETS.—Another expense that must be reckoned
with under certain circumstances is that of silomg the beets. This
becomes necessary when the beets must be harvested faster than
they can be handled at the factory. It will be seen at once that
siloing the beets necessitates an extra handling of the crop, smce they
must be reloaded into the wagons and hauled to the factory or dump-
ing station. Inasmuch as siloing factory beets has not yet come into
general practice in all of the beet-growing localities, a fair idea of the
methods employed and labor involved may be gained by referring to
Plate XIV, figure 2. In addition to the extra expense involved, which
varies from 20 cents to $1 a ton, there is more or less shrinkage in weight
due to evaporation. To avoid the expense and loss incident to siloing
the beets an effort is being made by the Bureau of Plant Industry to
lengthen the harvesting season by producing an early-maturing beet.
It is hoped by this means to so distribute the ripening period that the
factory will be able to handle the beets as soon as they are harvested.

SUMMARY.

While the methods of cheapening the process of making beet sugar
can not be adequately treated in a short article of this kind, the
principal points to be aimed at may be summed up as follows:

(1) Inereasing the tonnage without increasing cost of production.

(2) Improving the quality of the beets without additional expense.

(3) Improving the beet in size and quality, or both, at additional
expense, but in such ratio that the gain is greater than the outlay.

(4) Providing a sufficient quantity of suitable labor at the proper
time so that the beets may be kept growing without interruption.

(5) Modifying the beet seed so as to render thinning unnecessary.

(6) Modifying the beet so that siloing for the factory will not be
necessary.

(7) Devising machinery that will do away with hand labor.

(8) Improving farming methods and operations so that less labor
will be required to produce the crop.

(9) Improving wagon roads and railroad facilities.

CORN-BREEDING WORK AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

By J. I. Scuutre,
Of the Office of Experiment Stations.

The corn produced in the United States each year is worth more
than a billion dollars—nearly twice as much as any other crop. This
immense resource has been practically created since the United States
has existed as a nation. Corn was cultivated by the Indians before
the Western World was discovered, and hence was the first of the
common cereals to be grown under the care of man on American soil.
The most rapid development in corn production, however, has taken
place during the last forty years, the annual yield for the entire coun-
try having approximately trebled during that time. The vast
increase in production is of course mainly due to the increase in the
acreage devoted to corn culture, but it may also be attributed in part
to improvement in the plant itself. Ever since corn came under the
beneficent influence of agriculture, such improvement has been in
progress, at first unconsciously and later consciously, but with the
principles of corn breeding very little understood. The earlier work,
which was of slow progress, adapted the crop to a wider range of lati-
tude and assured greater success in its culture over large areas, par-
ticularly in the northern portions of the corn belt. While we are still
far from completely understanding the principles underlying the im-
provement of the corn plant by breeding, the work of the experiment
stations has elucidated the subject to a considerable extent and has
shown the farmer how to apply the principles already demonstrated.

During recent years the improvement of our corn varieties has
become a matter of great general interest among experiment-station
men and progressive farmers. There has been a sort of agricultural
awakening, largely due to the realization of what can be accomplished
with a crop of such magnitude and one so ready to respond to intelli-
gent treatment. Experimental work in agricultural lines, especially
if its results are to be far-reaching, generally requires considerable
time for the accumulation of data, their verification, and the dis-
semination and application of the information secured, but in the
work of corn improvement the stations have been successful in inter-
esting the farmer, and even the general public, in a comparatively short

period of time.
279

280 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MOVEMENT.

An increase in yield is brought about by bettering the environment
of the plant or by improving the character of the plant itself. All
improvement within the plant is based, on the one hand, on varia-
tion or the tendency of offspring to differ in some respects from par-
ents, and, on the other, on heredity or the tendency of progeny to
possess characteristics in common with parents and other blood rela-
tives. That the corn plant has undergone a marked change since the
beginning of its culture is unquestionable. Until quite recently all
of the corn crop was harvested by hand, which gave the grower an
opportunity to observe all the larger, well-formed ears, and to select
the best appearing ones for seed. Simple selection of the ears was
the beginning of corn improvement and the only method followed
from the earliest periods of American agriculture. It is not surprising
that artificial crossing was not employed in the early improvement
work when we consider that it was only a little more than two hun-’
dred years ago that the sexuality of plants was discovered and that
the manner of manipulating the blossoms in the process of cross-
breeding was even then not so well known either inside or outside of
scientific circles as it is at present. Only during the last century has
this knowledge found a more or less large and direct application in the
improvement of cultivated crops.

It was by constant and continued selection for a long series of years
that ‘many of the common and well-known varieties, such as Reid
Yellow Dent, Golden Eagle, Iowa Silver Mine, Leaming, and Boone
County White, were brought to their present high standard of per-
fection, with their characteristics generally well fixed and uniformly
reproduced, thus showing that marked improvement in varieties
of corn may be brought about by selection without crossing. Cross-
breeding has entered into the origination of some of the standard vari-
eties, as, for instance, Riley Favorite, established a little more than
twenty years ago, which is a hybrid resulting from a cross between
Golden Yellow, a large late variety, and Pride of the North, a small
early maturing sort. In the more recent efforts to fix the character-
istics of the desired type the breeding-plat idea was adopted, the
new seed being planted by itself away from other corn and all tassels
of barren and otherwise undesirable stalks removed as soon as they
appeared, to prevent them from producing pollen and fertilizing the
future seed on the healthy and otherwise normal plants.

In animal breeding selection is comparatively easy and a pedigree
record on both the male and female sides is readily established, but in
plant breeding we meet with considerable difficulty in this connection.
We can be absolutely certain of the male parent of an ear of corn only

CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 281

when we have excluded all pollen from the mother plant and fertilized
the blossoms with the pollen from a particular plant. It is possible
to do this only with a few plants on account of the time required for
the proper performance of the work, and on a larger scale it becomes
impracticable. The only practical and the nearest possible solution
of the problem is the use of the isolated breeding plat, in which only
seed of known breeding is planted and in which all blossoms are
naturally fertilized with pollen from plants of equal breeding, although
it is impossible by this method to know the individual stalk or stalks
furnishing the pollen for any particular ear or the stalk producing the
pollen for any particular blossom or rudimentary grain. In this
connection it may be pointed out that even in the breeding plat with
its plants of equal breeding there may be three different relationships
between the pollen and the blossom which it fertilizes, or, as we may
say, three kinds of pollination are possible, namely, self-pollination,
close-pollination, and cross-pollination. In self-pollination the pollen
produced by a particular plant falls upon the silks and fertilizes the
blossoms of the same plant. In close-pollination the pollen from a
particular plant fertilizes the blossom of the plant grown from the
same seed ear, i. e., the two plants have the same mother ear. In
cross-pollination the pollen from the tassel of one plant fertilizes the
blossoms of another plant grown from a different mother ear. Recent
experiment-station work has brought forth a system of corn breeding
in which inbreeding is practically entirely prevented. By this
method self-pollination and close-pollination become impossible, and
breeding between distantly related plants becomes merely a remote
possibility.

The first lines of the experiment-station work with corn comprised
variety tests of cultural factors, such as depth and time of plowing;
time, manner, and depth of planting; distances between rows and
intervals between plants ina row; depth, frequency, and manner of
cultivation; and other problems. After considerable light had been
thrown upon many of these questions, the improvement of corn by
selection, and by breeding and selection, received more attention.
This work was inaugurated and is still continued with a view to
getting larger yields of shelled corn, rich in starch, oil, or protein, as
the purpose for which the crop is intended may require. By their
work the stations have shown the susceptibility of the corn plant to
change in location of ears, quantity of leaves, and number of suckers,
as well as to change in the composition of the grain and other char-
acters. The increase in yield has, of course, received the most
attention, and in this connection it has been shown how individual
ears may differ in productivity, although of the same variety and
produced under identical conditions.

282 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT ‘OF AGRICULTURE.
REVIEW OF THE WORK DONE.

The principal object of corn breeding at the experiment stations is
an increase in the yield of shelled corn per acre. The corn plant varies
in height from 2 to 15 feet, according to variety and climate. The
period of growth ranges from three to six and even seven months.
The ear varies in shape, size, thickness of cob, percentage of grain,
color of grain, and depth and width of kernel. The stalk varies in
strength, leafiness, number and type of ears produced, position of
ear, productivity, tendency to sucker, etc. These variations are all
turned to account in corn breeding. The problem is to indicate how
the variations may be best observed, how selection should be made,
and how favorable characteristics which appear may be fixed and
retained. .

CROSS-POLLINATION.

Experiments in the improvement of corn by cross-fertilization have
been carried on by several of the experiment stations, but this line of
investigation seems to have been more prominent some years ago
than it is now, the work in breeding béing at present largely devoted
to breeding on a larger scale, by methods applicable in a practical way -
by farmers.

Improvement by cross-pollination was carried on at the Kansas
experiment station from 1888 to 1890, and numerous crosses thus
secured were successful. The different races, such as dent, flint,
soft, sweet, and pop corn, apparently crossed readily. In a com-
paratively few cases, generally in sweet-corn varieties, the effects of
crossing were visible the first year. The second generation usually
showed ears more or less completely blended and often exactly inter-
mediate between the two parent types. More rarely the grains of a
single ear were unlike each other, resembling closely or remotely one
parent or the other. The third year the produce was generally true
to the seed planted.

In 1891 some blue kernels, found on ears whose immediate parents
were known to have shown no kernels of this color, were planted, and
one of the resulting ears was fertilized with pollen from the same stalk.
This ear contained 370 kernels, of which 206 were blue, 71 pink, 71
orange-yellow, and 22 pure white. Five other ears from the same
seed exposed to the pollen of other varieties showed the same variation
in color, with a slightly smaller percentage of blue. In studying the
prepotency of the blue corn a large number of ears on other plats
near by were examined, and it was found that about half the number
of uninclosed ears had from 1 to 5 blue kernels, while of inclosed ears
not one showed a trace of blue. This result also showed that inclosing
the ears in closely woven cloth sacks is effective in keeping out foreign
pollen.

CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 283

Observations on the effects of cross-fertilization at the Iowa station
have brought out the fact that the tassels and the silks of the upper
primary ears generally appeared about the same time, and that the’
pollen of the upper central spikes of the tassels usually falls about
twenty-four hours before that of the lateral spikes. The first silks
protruding through the husk are from the lower end or butt of the
ear, and the silks above them appear gradually until all are exposed,
the time required for this process being usually from two to five days;
but frequently the upper silks are not more than twenty-four hours
later in appearing than the lower, and sometimes they are ten days
later. It was found that usually twenty-four hours elapsed before
the silks were in the receptive condition after their first appearance.
When it takes four or five days for all the silks to appear, the lower
grains of corn start their development before those farther up on the
ear begin to grow and are, therefore, strong enough to rob the younger
and weaker grains and to cause them to die from starvation. These
conditions are considered the cause of the lack of proper filling at the
point of the ear. But when the silks all appear within twenty-four
hours or less, the ears develop simultaneously at both ends, making
a property filled ear from butt to tip. It is concluded from the obser-
vations made that the best corn for Lowa, when well grown, should
not exceed 93 feet in height, the ears being 3} feet from the ground,
and each stalk having 13 blades. In its early improvement work
this station demonstrated the value of planting the corn in an isolated
field for the purpose of carrying on breeding experiments, and the
results obtained, together with the experience at other stations, sug-
gested the idea of developing the breeding plat.

Work in corn improvement was begun at the Illinois station in 1889,
crosses being made between varieties of dent corn and varieties of
dent, sweet, and pop corn. In the crosses between varieties of dent
corn of the same color or between varieties of sweet corn of the same
color the change in the crossed ear could not with certainty be
attributed to the influence of the pollen, the variations in these ears
being apparently no greater than in those of the same variety left to
form naturally. Ears produced by crossing white sweet corn with
pollen of the yellow dent corn were nearly as dark as the male parent,
with kernels very much like flint corn in appearance and with the
taste characteristic of dent corn. Where both sweet and dent kernels
appeared on the same ear the dent kernels were always the heavier.
It was observed that color, where it is a character of the kernels and
not of the seed coat, tends very strongly to pass from one variety to
another. Crosses in which yellow dent corn was the male and sweet
corn the female, yellow sweet the male and white sweet the female,
and yellow pop corn the male and white dent the female, exhibited the
greatest degree of success. On 19 ears produced by these various

284 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

crosses only 2 kernels did not show distinctly the effects of the pollen.
Of sweet corn stalks bearing 2 ears, one crossed artificially and the
‘ other left to be naturally fertilized, there was no indication of any-
thing but sweet corn on the naturally fertilized ears. All crosses -
except the pure dent corn crosses were planted, and during the first
growing season the uniformity of the plats was very noticeable. The
number of rows of kernels on the ear seemed to be modified about
equally by each parent, and the number of ears to the stalk showed
a tendency to follow the same type as the stalk. The ears from each
of the crossed plats were as uniform as the commonest varieties of
corn, and the crosses of different varieties showed the characters of
each parent to about the same extent. The crosses between pop corn
and dent corn seem to show the effect of the male more than of the
female parent, while those of which pop corn was the male parent
were more flinty than those in which the dent corn had furnished
the pollen. The corn grown from the crossed seed was in nearly all
cases increased in size as a result of the crossing.

The second year the corn continued to be comparatively uniform
in type where the parent varieties were similar, but where they were
different, as in the crosses between sweet and dent, the progeny
tended strongly to run back to the parent forms, while at the same
time taking on other forms different from either. Nearly all the
corn grown the second year was smaller than that grown the first
year, although most of it larger than that of the parent varieties.
Some of the varieties which might be supposed to be most nearly
related, as the sweet corns, showed very little increase when grown
from crossed seed, while the two varieties of pop corn, which would
seem as nearly related to each other as the varieties of sweet corn,
gave a very decided increase in size when grown from crossed seed.
Corn from the crosses of Black Mexican and White Dent, two widely
different varieties, showed a decrease in size, while that from Flour
corn and Golden Coin, varieties apparently as widely different as
any crossed, gave ears showing the greatest proportionate gain in
size. There seemed to be a strong tendency of the progeny of the
different varieties of dent, sweet, and pop corn toward the flint type.

In 1892 in each of five cases the yield from plats of cross-bred corn
was larger than the average yield of plats planted with varieties
which had not been crossed, the average increase being more than
9 bushels per acre. In 1893 seed from cross-fertilized ears in every
instance produced a larger yield and larger stalks than seed from self-
fertilized ears, but the ears of the latter were more uniform in char-
acter. In 1893 in three out of four cases the yield from cross-bred
seed was greater by 2.3 bushels per acre than the average yield of
the parent varieties. In 1894 the seed from cross-fertilized plants
selected in 1892 and 1893 gave an average increase of 12 bushels per
acre over the parent varieties,

CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 285

Of numerous crosses made by the Wisconsin experiment station, -
Wisconsin No. 8 corn on Toole North Star has given promise of the
best results. The new variety appears to have a larger ear than the
Wisconsin No. 8 and a shorter maturing period than the Toole North
Star. In a culture test this variety was ripe for cutting September
26, 126 days after planting, while the preceding year Wisconsin No.
8 ripened in 120 days and Toole North Star in 133.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MIXING OF CORN.

At the Minnesota station Mercer Yellow flint corn in proximity to
Black Mexican sweet corn produced several black grains on some of
the ears. A dozen of these dark-colored grains were planted and
protected from pollen from other varieties. The ears produced
showed that the Black Mexican corn had fertilized dark-colored
grains on the ears of flint corn the preceding year. Besides the yellow
flint and black sweet grains, there were white sweet and white flint
grains on nearly every ear, which is taken as showing the ancestry
of this cross. It is possible that both parents had been crossed with
different varieties and that the different ancestral characteristics
reappeared, and from these results the importance of keeping seed
pure is evident.

The Rhede Island station planted Longfellow flint corn in close
proximity to sweet corn, but the resulting ears failed to show any
kernels of the sweet corn type on the ears of the flint corn, although
the yellow kernels were very numerous on the sweet corn, being
mostly found on ears taken from rows next the yellow corn.

CHANGING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE KERNEL BY BREEDING.

After cross-fertilization and its effects had been studied for a series
of years, the efforts of the stations were turned toward the improve-
ment of the chemical composition of the kernel. At the Iilinois
station this special study was begun in 1896, and the first results
indicated that kernels of the same ear are much more uniform in
chemical composition than different ears of the same variety, which
often show a wide variation in this respect. Similar work at the
Kansas station showed that in 33 varieties under inyestigation the
nitrogen content ranged from 1.56 to 2.26 per cent; in different ears
of a variety grown for thirty years it ranged from 1.53 to 2.24 per
cent, and in ears of a cross originated the previous year from 1.35 to
2.22 per cent. In these tests the nitrogen content of single kernels
from the same ear also showed variations, but not to so great an
extent as among different ears of the same variety. It was also
found that the specific gravity of kernels is too uncertain a factor for
the selection of corn rich in nitrogen. Of the original 33 varieties,

286 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

21 were selected for breeding purposes, and for three years the crosses
obtained showed remarkably high percentages of nitrogen In many
cases. In 12 cases the average was about 2.40 per cent of nitrogen,
or 15 per cent. of protein.

Subsequent to the preliminary work above referred to, the Illinois
station took up the work of breeding for high and low protem and
high and low fat content in the kernel, and developed in this connec-
tion a method for the arrangement and the maintenance of a breeding
plat. In six tests the shelled corn grown from seed selected for high
and low protein and high and low fat content showed differences
ranging in protein from 0.50 to 1.25 per cent and in fat content from
0.67 to 1.45 per cent. Investigations on the relation of the size of
the kernel to the percentage of protein or fat showed that the weight
of kernels from 24 ears high in protein averaged 0.372 gram per kernel,
from 16 ears low in protein 0.337 gram per kernel; from 12 ears high
in fat. 0.345 gram, and from 16 ears low in fat 0.42 gram per kernel.
In general, the tendency of corn high in fat content was toward small
kernels and. of corn low in fat content toward large kernels. It was
also found that a high percentage of germ is correlated with a high
fat content. These results seem to show that by proper selection
of séed the protein, fat, or carbohydrates of corn may be increased
or decreased.

Together with the chemical composition of the kernel its physical
composition was also studied. The different parts which go to make
up the physical conrposition of the kernel, as worked out by the
Illinois station, are the tip-cap, hull, loc gluten, horny starch,
white starch, and germ. The nese covers the tip or base of the
kernel, by which it is attached to the cob, and comprises about 1.5
per cent of the grain, and the hull is the very thin outer coat, consti-
tuting about 6 per cent of the kernel and containing a smaller per-
centage of protein than any other part of it. The horny gtuten, lying
immediately under the hull, comprises from 8 to 14 per cent of the
grain, and is more abundant in the kernels with high protein content.
It contains from 20 to 25 per cent of protein and is the richest in
this substance of all the parts of the kernel. The horny starch is the
chief substance in the sides and back of the kernel, making up about
45 per cent of ordinary corn. In high-protein corn the percentage
of this substance is much higher and in low-protein corn much lower
than 45 per cent. This part of the kernel is rich in starch and, while
containing only about 10 per cent of protein, it furnishes a greater
total amount than any other part, because it constitutes a larger pro-
portion of the entire grain. The white starch, occupying the center
of the crown end of the kernel and usually partially surrounding the
germ, comprises about 25 per cent of the kernel, being less in high-
protein corn and greater in low-protein corn. It contains only from

€ORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 287

5 to 8 per cent of protein. The germ conrprises about 11 per cent of
the kernel and varies according to the oil content, constituting a
higher proportion in high-oil corn and a smaller proportion in low-oil
eorn. In these investigations the oil in the germ ranged from 35 to
40 per cent and from 80 to 85 per cent of the total oil present. Corn
high in protein contains a larger proportion of horny gluten and horny
starch and a correspondingly smaller proportion of white starch. In
corn of high protein content the horny parts constitute about 60
per cent of the kernel and contain about 80 per cent of the total
protein.

Two strains of corn bred for four years for a high oe a low oil
eontent showed an average difference of 1.97 per cent in the oil con-
tent and 0.18 per cent in the protein content, or, in other words, a very
high degree of correlation between oil and protein. It is concluded
that as the percentage of protein increases the starch decréases and
the oil content remains practically unchanged, and that the selection
of high-protein seed corn should be eee ue a high proportion of
germ. In a study of four strains of pedigreed corn, the crop repre-
senting the seventh generation, the protein content of low-protein
ears. varied from 6.36 to 7.9 per cent, with an average of 6.71 per cent,
while the protein content of the high-protein ears varied from 13.98
to 15.01 per cent, with an average of 14.44 per cent. The average
oil content of the low-protein ears was 4.21 and of the high-protein
ears 4.93 per cent. In a further test of the composition of the kernels
a correlation between oil and protein was apparent only to a small
degree, the high-oil corn containing nearly three times as much. oil as
the low-oil corn, but being less than one-seventh richer in protein.
A very marked correlation between oil and germ was shown, the low-
oil ears containing an average of 2.52 per cent of oil and 7.74 per cent
of germ and the high-oil ears an average of 7 per cent of oil and 13.84
per cent of germ.

The effect of breeding in changing the composition of the different
physical parts of the kernel is shown hy the fact that the germs from
the low-oil corn contained about 25 per cent of oil and. ee from the
high-oil corn nearly 42 per cent, while the endosperms from the low-
protein ears contained less oa 6 per cent of protein and those
from the high-protein ears nearly 14 per cent. Breeding for high or
low protein produced no marked effect. upon the ash content or the
oil content of either the germs or the endosperms and only slightly
influenced the protein content of the germs. As calculated on the
basis of 100. pounds of corn, there was a maximum difference of only
0.75 pound of protein in the germs from 100 pounds of low-protein
and high-protein corn and a difference of 7.06 pounds of protein in
the endosperms.

288 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

At the North Dakota station corn selected for high nitrogen con-
tent in 1901 gave in most cases corn of high nitrogen content in 1902,
but the crop of 1903 presented some marked variations. The phys-
ical method of selecting corn of a high nitrogen content was found
quite reliable.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BREEDING PLAT.

The development of the breeding plat and its introduction into prac-
tical corn breeding, aside from experimental work, mark an important
step in the progress of corn improvement. The object of the breeding
plat is to produce highly and purely bred seed and to enable the
breeder to keep a record showing the breeding of every seed ear
secured and the productive capacity of each individual ear planted
in the plat. The principal purpose of its location, arrangement, and
management is to prevent all foreign or outside pollen, as well as the
pollen from diseased, poorly developed, or otherwise abnormal plants,
from fertilizing the blossoms of the seed plants, and also to avoid self-
pollination and close pollination within the plat. Corn, being a wind-
pollinated plant, is with difficulty kept pure in breeding, and the first
idea followed in establishing a breeding plat was to isolate it or to
locate it at such a distance from other growing corn.plats (a quarter
of a mile if possible and preferably in the direction opposite to the
prevailing winds) as to make it only a remote possibility that outside
pollen would be carried into the plat by the wind and thus blossoms
of one variety be fertilized with the pollen of another.

The fact that individual ears similar in appearance and scoring
equally high may still show great differences in yields was early
recognized, and led to establishing the performance record of each
ear and the selection of seed from only those ears showing the greatest
yielding power. The most practical, if not the only, method of com-
paring the productiveness of individual ears is the parallel-row system
advocated by the stations generally. The first recommendation for
the arranging of the breeding plat with these points in view made by
the Illinois experiment station was to the effect that 40 selected ears
be planted in 40 separate parallel rows, one ear to a row, the rows
being long enough to require each about three-fourths of an ear for
planting them. It was also advised to plant the very best seed ears in
the middle rows, grading them uniformly to either side, so that the least
desirable ears might be planted in the outside rows, and to shell the
remainder of the corn from all of the 40 ears and use it for planting
several rows entirely around the breeding plat to give additional
protection, especially from foreign pollen. In this stage of its develop-
ment the breeding plat gave a comparison of the different seed ears,
showing their individuality, and by isolation reserved the fertilization

CORN-BREEDING’ WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 289

of che blossoms to the pollen produced within the plat. This arrange-
ment, however, did not preclude either self or close pollination.

In the experience of the stations, removing the tassels from corn
plants can truly be said to be of benefit only in breeding work, where
it is applied in the prevention of self-pollination or the transfer of
pollen from the tassel to the silks of the same plant. As demon-
strated by the Illinois station, it is possible for inbreeding to take
place in the field, because the plant sheds part of its pollen at a time
when some of its own silk is already matured and in a receptive condi-
tion. In order to prevent inbreeding in connection with the parallel-
row system of planting, this institution practices and recommends
detasseling every other row before the pollen matures and selecting
seed from the detasseled rows only. This makes sires of the plants
in the tasseled rows and dams of those in the detasseled rows and
positively prevents self-pollination. It also makes close pollination
or the transfer of pollen from the tassel of one plant to the silks of
another plant in the same row of dams impossible, so that the seed
selected is entirely cross-bred. Even before the detasseling of the
entire alternate rows was practiced by the station, all abnormal—
especially barren and otherwise imperfect—plants were detasseled
before their pollen matured in order to prevent the transmission of
their undesirable characters.

The next step taken by the Illinois station in perfecting the breed-
ing plat was to devise a method of planting which would give assur-
ance that the seed of both sires and dams is cross-bred, and a practical
commercial system insuring cross-breeding to the greatest possible
extent was worked out. In studying the arrangement of the breed-
ing plat up to this stage it may be seen that there still remains the
possibility of introducing related blood, as the breeding is carried on
from year to year, because the pedigree is established only on the
female side, while it is impossible to tell just from what sire plant
the pollen came which fertilized the flowers of any particular ear.
As it is most likely that a row of dam plants is fertilized by the pollen
of the rows of sires growing nearest to it, the station concluded that
the breeding plat might be planted in such a way as to insure cross-
breeding of plants not related to each other, or, at least, very remotely
related. Based on this idea, and with this end in view, a mathemat-
ical arrangement of seed ears for planting was worked out and adopted.

SELECTION AS A FACTOR IN CORN IMPROVEMENT.

We have seen how artificial pollination may be employed in corn
improvement, but it remains very evident that it is really only a
small factor when compared with selection, upon which the great and
general progress in corn breeding must be based, because crossing

3 A1906——19

290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

without subsequent selection can accomplish but little, and for the
further reason that selection is the more generally applicable of the
two means. The farmer is already familiar with selection along a
certain line and only a wider application of the principle is necessary.
The endeavor of the experiment station and the agricultural college
is to teach him how to apply it scientifically and practically, not only
with reference to the ear, but also with reference to the kernel, the
entire plant, and even the row. ;

Experiment-station work has brought about a marked change in the
methods of selection. As already pointed out, the original method
consisted in basing the selection upon the type of ear, and great
progress in the improvement of corn has been thus accomplished,
but experiments conducted by many stations have shown that even
carefully selected seed ears, alike to all outward appearances, may
still have a wide variation in yielding capacity, amounting to even
more than 100 per cent. In fact, at the Nebraska station 10 seed
ears compared for this purpose ranged in yield from 35.6 to 81.6
bushels, or a difference of 46 bushels per acre. The Wisconsin station
in a recent test found the yields of different ears of Silver King corn
to vary from 14 to 97 bushels of shelled corn per acre, and the yields
of select seed ears from 14 pounds to 56 pounds per ear of seed corn.
The difference in productiveness is not revealed by an examination of
the ears, but must be ascertained by actual test, so that the yields may
be measured. This indeterminable factor is called the individuality
and is analogous to the individuality in animals, which also shows
itself in the progeny. :

As in the development of the breeding plat, selection has gone
through various stages. In some of the earlier work with corn the
station efforts were largely directed toward testing and comparing
varieties for the purpose of singling out those best suited to certain
localities and conditions. This was selection applied to the variety
as a whole, and as a typical instance some of the work of the Minne-
sota station may be cited. This station made a selection of varieties
grown in the State and compared them. This collection was regarded
as a foundation stock from which the best variety was to be selected.
The varietal names, if any such existed, were disregarded and the
samples received were simply indicated by a serial number. Of
these varieties and strains No. 13 proved most promising, the distin-
guishing character being a high yielding capacity. The variety was
tested for several years and selected according to scientific principles
and then disseminated under the name of Minnesota No. 13. At
present it is grown quite extensively in southern Minnesota and it
has also been distributed in South Dakota by the experiment station.
of that State. The Wisconsin station has selected a strain of this
variety, known as Wisconsin No. 8, the seed having been secured

CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 291

from the Minnesota experiment station, and has used the same as the
male parent in breeding for earlier maturity in some of the late
heavy yielding varieties of yellow dent corn, in order to make them
better suited to Wisconsin conditions. While this line of work is of
the greatest value and must be carried on continuously, selection
has been introduced to a much greater extent in procuring seed
either for the improvement of the variety itself or for the maintenance
of its desirable characters.

Formerly in seed-corn selection only the type of ear was considered,
but it is now widely recognized, and the stations are continually
dwelling upon the point, that this is not enough, but that selection
must be applied to the individual plant and to the individual ear with
reference to its productiveness. As shown by station work, it is the
performance record rather than any particular point about the ear
that forms a definite basis for the selection of its progeny for seed.
Even the size of the ear, which undoubtedly was regarded as one of
the principal and desitable features, and probably in most cases
determined the selection of seed, can not be relied upon as indicating
the best yielding qualities. In experiments to determine the relation
of size of ear to yield the Nebraska station found that the average
weight per ear of the five highest-yielding varieties under test was
0.705 pound, while the average weight per ear for all the varieties
was much higher. In some cases large-eared varieties were rather
low in yield, thus indicating that no definite relation between the size
of the ear and the yielding capacity exists. It was further brought
out by cooperative tests that the size of the yield varies with locality
and is dependent upon soil, climate, and elevation, and the data
secured showed plainly that for western and central Nebraska a
smaller-eared type of corn should be selected than for the eastern
portion of the State.

The effect and value of careful selection in corn growing are shown
by the results of numerous other experiments and are especially and
more definitely thrown into relief by cooperative work. In work
of this kind by the Wisconsin Experiment Association in 1905 with
Silver King corn, a variety which had undergone selection at the
station for several years, an average yield of 59.2 bushels per acre
was secured, while the best of all other not so long and carefully
selected varieties observed in the comparison yielded on an average
10 bushels less. 3

At the Wisconsin experiment station the results of corn breeding
in accordance with the plat system show an increase in the propor-
tions and average yields of seed corn and marketable corn in the crops
produced. In 1905 each row in the breeding plat produced on an
average 22.6 pounds of seed corn, 97 pounds of marketable corn, and
7.2 pounds of nubbins, and in 1906, 53.1 pounds of seed corn, 132.8

292 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pounds of marketable corn, and 13 pounds of nubbins. The average
yield per acre of the plats iv 1906 was at the rate of approximately
75 bushels per acre. The increase in yield was in some instances
largely due to soil and season, but the increase in seed corn was
greater in proportion than that of the nubbins, thus indicating that
a constant selection from the breeding plat will materially increase
productiveness and quality. An experiment was also made to deter-
mine to what extent the bearing qualities of different stalks would
be transmitted to the progeny. Seed corn was selected from, stalks
bearing a single large ear and from stalks bearing two ears. A greater
total yield was secured where the selection was made to increase the
-number of single ears in the plat than where it was made to increase
the number of double ears. Where two ears were borne on a stalk
generally one or both were small and poorly formed.

The Rhode Island station has pursued for several years a sonal
similar line of work with sweet corn by selecting the upper and lower
ear of stalks producing the largest number of ears. This was done
to ascertain whether the lower ear would increase lower-ear produc-
tion, together with the number of ears on the stalk, as compared with
seed from the upper ear. In 1901, 35 per cent of the plants bore more
than one ear and in 1905, 90 per cent bore more than one ear, the
highest number of ears from a single plant being 13. Although the
earlier results seemed to show that the character or the individuality
of the corn plant from which the seed is taken is of much greater
importance in corn breeding than the position of the ear on the stalk,
it was found that selecting seed from the lower ear was not so satis-
factory as selecting it from the upper ear.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE WORK.

The corn-breeding work of the experiment stations has exerted a
wide influence in all corn-growing sections of the country. Partly
through the station publications and the agriculturak press and partly
through the activities of agricultural college extension forces, in coop-
eration with station workers, the farmers’ institutes, the corn-growers’
associations, and other similar factors, the results of this work are
presented to the farmer and every effort is made to induce him to
apply the principles demonstrated as advantageous and profitable.
Every gathering at which the value of highly bred corn is discussed
reflects the interest of the farming population in the subject and indi-
cates the confidence placed in the station results and recommenda-
tions. Progress is most rapid when the individual farmer understands
all the essential features of the work, but such a degree of efficiency is
most readily reached through cooperation with the stations and such
mutual assistance as the farmers themselves are able to give to each
other.

CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS, 293

_ Associations organized for the purpose of producing highly bred
seed corn are doing good work in a number of States, prominent among
them being Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri.
In 1900, only about four years after the Illinois station inaugurated its
corn-improvement work, the first seed-corn growers’ organization,
under the name of the Illinois Seed Corn Breeders’ Association, was
formed and the methods of corn breeding advised by the station were
put into use throughout the State. As an example of different lines
of endeavor of such associations the work of the Kansas Corn Breeders’
Association may be cited. This organization endeavors to establish
improved types and strains of corn meeting the needs of different sec-
tions of the State, to stimulate and to promote the growing of pure
seed corn within the State, to furnish means by which valuable native
strains showing purity of breeding may be recognized as pure bred, to
establish a bureau of inspection with authority to give certificates of
type and breeding for corn grown by breeders, to furnish information
on seed corn to farmers and purchasers for their convenience and pro-
tection, to aid in enacting legislation protecting the grower of pure-bred
seed corn, to establish a score card or standard of perfection for each
recognized breed of corn, and to further in every way the interests of
corn culture. Corn may be recognized as pure bred by a vote of the
association when it has been bred and selected by itself for five years
or more and the proper association authorities have inspected and
examined the corn in the locality in which it is grown and have recom-
mended to the association that such corn be recognized as a pure-bred
corn. In addition to these stipulations the breeder is required to
bring a bushel of selected ears of the particular variety to the meeting
of the association in which the vote is cast and to give a detailed”
description, including the history of its breeding and its production.

Another plan of cooperation followed in some localities consists in
the production of seed corn by one of a group of neighbors whose farm
is suitably located and presents average soil conditions. This farmer
plants the best variety for the locality, as previously determined, and
grows a crop under approved methods of corn improvement and cul-
ture, with the understanding that the other parties to the agreement
will buy the seed corn produced at a stipulated price. In the work of
continuous improvement and the maintenance of a high standard of
production throughout the entire country all associations of corn
growers and corn breeders are a most important and helpful factor.

Our farm lands are steadily increasing in value, and in view of this
condition, together with the fact that American agricultural labor
should always be well paid, we must obtain greater yields from the
same areas without very materially increasing the cost of production
in order to get the proper return on the money invested in our farms.
This result may be achieved in corn culture by the use of higher

I9A YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

and better bred varieties, as no greater expense is involved in grow-
ing a variety ranking high in yield and quality than in growing an
inferior one. .,

The experiments showing the value of a full stand of healthy plants
grown from strong and vigorous seed, the inquiries into the effects of
detasseling, the observations on the mixing of different types and
varieties, the investigations in crossing, the studies of the chemical
composition of the kernel, and similar lines of work constitute the pre-
liminary measures which led to the establishment of the breeding plat,
with its superior facilities for comparing the yielding power of indi-
vidual ears, insuring cross-pollination and pure breeding, and estab-
lishing a pedigree of seed ears. The data derived from all the different
lines of-corn improvement by the experiment stations have been sys-
tematically and scientifically grouped by these same institutions and
are now presented to the farmer and the commercial seed-corn grower
as a harmonious whole in the form of a complete.and practical system
of corn breeding for the improvement of the corn plant in both yield
and quality and for the maintenance of a high standard of excellence.

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD.

By M. E. Jarra,
Assistant Professor of Nutrition, University of California.

INTRODUCTION.

The constantly increasing consumption of nuts throughout the
United States augurs well for a better appreciation of their food
value. The time when nuts were considered merely as a luxury, or
as something to be eaten out of hand at odd times, is rapidly passing
away. In earlier days the native hickories, butternuts, walnuts, chest-
nuts, and many other nuts found in the United States were to be had
in country regions for the gathering and were of no commercial impor-
tance. On the other hand, the English walnuts (to give them their
most common name), almonds, cocoanuts, etc., brought from other
countries, were relatively expensive luxuries. Conditions have mate-
rially changed and our principal native nuts are now staple market
commodities and bring good prices. At the same time, owing to
changes in market conditions, the price of the imported nuts has
dropped so that they are well within the reach of the majority.

Some nuts, like the native hazelnut and beechnut, have practically
no commercial value and, though palatable, are almost never offered
for sale, doubtless because they are so small and difficult to gather in
quantity. The chinquapin, a small nut allied to the chestnut, finds
a limited sale in southern cities, but is seldom seen in other markets.

From available statistics it appears that in 1905 the total quantity
of almonds, cocoanuts, Brazil nuts, filberts, peanuts, walnuts, and other
nuts, shelled and unshelled, imported into the United States was, in
round numbers, 86,238,000 pounds, with a value of $6,138,000. In
1905 the total almond crop in California reached 4,200,000 pounds
and the walnut crop 12,800,000 pounds. The richest yield of peanuts
was reported from the Southern States, chiefly Virginia, Georgia, and
Tennessee, and amounted to 225,000,000 pounds. ;

The total quantity of home-grown nuts, including both native and
cultivated varieties, must far exceed the quantities imported, but in
the nature of the case no estimates of the total quantities gathered
and eaten are procurable. When we consider the constantly increasing
demand for nuts and the large quantity which we import the possi-
bilities of the industry for the American nut grower are obvious.

As the use of nuts has increased, many persons have turned their
attention to the growing of native and foreign nuts on a commercial

295

296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

scale. This work has been forwarded by the Department of Agri-
culture, through the Bureau of Plant Industry, and by the Califor-
nia, Florida, Michigan, and other agricultural experiment stations.
With nuts, as with other crops, it has been found that, by selection
and breeding, improved varieties are obtainable, of larger size, bet-
ter flavor, thinner shells, or other desirable characteristi¢s. The
increased demand for nuts is due in the main to two causes, namely,
a better appreciation of their appetizing qualities and the numerous
ways in which they form a palatable addition to the diet of the
average family, and, secondly, to their use by the vegetarians and
persons of similar belief—a group small in proportion to the total
population, but still fairly large numerically—who use nuts, and
more particularly the peanut, as a substitute for meat and other
nitrogenous and fatty foods. |

Many special nut foods, such as malted nuts, meat substitutes, etc.,
have been devised and extensively advertised by the manufacturers
for general use in the diet and for the special needs of vegetarians and
fruitarians. It is said that some of these Ameyican nut products con-
tain soy beans, but apparently the peanut plays a very important part
in their composition. In either case, since the peanut, like the soy
bean, is a legume, these preparations might more properly be compared
with the bean cheese and other soy-bean products so much used in
China, Japan, and other eastern countries than with such nuts as
the.walnut, almond, or cocoanut.

DESCRIPTION OF NUTS.

The term ‘‘nut”’ is not a definite one botanically speaking, but is
applied indiscriminately to a variety of certain fruits or parts of
fruits and implies a more or less hard, woody covering surrounding a
meat or kernel. The most diverse plant groups contribute to our nut
supply, many of the nuts being the product of our beech, chestnut,
walnut, and other deciduous trees and bushes, some of pines and
tropical palms, and others, like the peanut and pistache or pistachio,
being the fruit, respectively, of a vine-like plant and a small tree,
both belonging to the family of legumes. Still another, the water
chestnut, is supplied by a water plant.

Most of the native and foreign nuts which we use are too familiar
to need description. Several, however, are not so generally known.

Pinenuts, which grow in the cones of a number of varieties of native
and foreign pines, are now fairly common in our markets. The
Indians have always known and appreciated them and have passed
on their knowledge to the white race. Then, too, many immigrants
who came to this country knew the pinenut, for it has long been much
eaten in Italy and other parts of southern Europe, where there are a
number of nut-yielding pines. The small, rather pointed white nuts

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 297

are usually marketed shelled, but as they grow are covered with a more
or less hard, woody shell. The pistache nut (now grown in California)
has long been used and is prized by confectioners for its delicate
flavor and attractive green color, yet it is by no means common.
The nuts are small, not unlike a bean in size and shape, though more
pointed, and before marketing are freed from the pods in which they
grow. ‘The individual nuts are covered with a gray or purplish skin,
and are blanched before they are used.

The so-called lichi nut, which is really a dried fruit surrounded by
a nut-like shell and not unlike a raisin in flavor, is a favorite in
China and has become quite common in this country. The ginkgo
nut, the fruit of an ornamental tree quite widely grown in the United
States and sometimes called the maidenhair tree from the shape of
the leaves, and which fruits abundantly in some regions, is seldom
eaten except by the Chinese, who gather it whenever possible. The
small, roundish, oval, thin-shelled nut is surrounded by a very acrid,
bad-smelling pulp, the whole fruit being not unlike a green damson
plum in size and appearance. In China, Korea, and other parts of
the Orient this nut is much used as a food, and, so far as can be
learned, is always cooked in some way. Roasted like a peanut, it is
palatable. The ginkgo nuts are on sale in the Chinese shops in San
Francisco and doubtless in other cities, and were studied at the Cali-
fornia experiment station some years ago, together with other Chinese
foods.

The water chestnut, or horn chestnut (T7rapa bispinosa), an aquatic
plant, produces a seed or ‘‘nut’’ which somewhat resembles two
curved horns united in one, the kernel of which is largely used as a
food by the inhabitants of Asiatic countries. This so-called nut
is also on sale in the United States, but chiefly in Chinese shops.
Another water plant (Eleocharis tuberosa) is also known as the
water chestnut, but in this case it is the corm or bulb that iseaten. It
is not unlike a chestnut in shape, and has a tough, brown skin. This
is grown in Asia, but is imported by the Chinese in this country. <A
three-cornered pointed nut or seed, the pit of the Chinese olive
(Canarium sp.), is also on sale at Chinese shops in the United States.
The kernels are oily but palatable, and are used in Java for making
a nut milk much thought of for infant feeding.

The chufa, nut grass, or earth almond is a small tuberous root of a
sedgelike plant and perhaps should be classed with the vegetables
rather than with nuts. It is not common, though sometimes eaten.

From time to time new nuts make their appearance on the market
as some nut prized locally becomes known to the trade. A nut which
seems to be growing in popularity, though still uncommon, is the Par-
adise nut of South America, which resembles a Brazil nut in appear-

-ance and flavor. Still less common is the South African cream nut,

298 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

though it is sometimes shipped to this country. The choicest member
of the Brazil-nut group is the true ‘“‘ butternut” of the Tropics, which
is very seldom found outside that region. Its flavor is very delicate
and delicious, butit does not keep well; and even if it would bear ship-
ment successfully, the available supply is at present very small. The
cashew nut of tropical regions, which many consider one of the most
delicious nuts grown, has long been known,.but has never become com-
mon. It is sold to some extent and brings high prices. This nut is
roasted before it is eaten, as the raw nut contains poisonous properties
which are readily destroyed by heat.

The oval, flat, and rather large seeds of a pumpkin-like fruit, tabe-
buia (Telfairia pedata), from Zanzibar, which has been grown in a
limited way at the Porto Rico experiment station, are roasted and
eaten like a nut. The flavor is oily and fairly palatable. This sug-
gests the use in Russia of the raw sunflower seed, which is rich in oil
and not unlike some of the common nuts in composition. The seeds
are eaten out of hand at all times and by all classes.

THE FLAVOR OF NUTS.

The flavor of nuts is very largely dependent upon the oils which
they contain, though in some there are also specific flavormg bodies.
The nut oils readily become rancid, the very disagreeable flavor of
spoiled nuts being due to this property. Some nuts, for stance, the
chestnut, have a starchy flavor as well as a ‘“‘nutty” taste. The
small native nut is much more highly flavored than the large Italian or
the Japanese chestnut. The almond possesses the cyanic-acid flavor,
which is characteristic of peach pits, plum pits, etc., and this might be
expected when it is remembered that the almond is the dried pit of an
inedible fruit somewhat resembling the peach in appearance and
closely related to it botanically. Most almonds are mild flavored,
though in the so-called bitter almonds the cyanic-acid yielding glucosid
is more abundant. In raw peanuts there is a decided flavor résem-
bling that of the closely related beans and peas, and to some persons
this is not unpalatable. In the roasted peanut, which most of us
prefer to the raw, the flavor is largely dependent upon the browned
oils and starches or other carbohydrates.

COMPOSITION OF NUTS.

The composition of nuts and nut products has been studied at a
number of the agricultural experiment stations, notably California,
Maine, and Iowa, and the table on the following page summarizes the
results of this work, the American data being supplemented im a
number of cases by the results of European analyses. For purposes
of comparison several other common food materials are also included.

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 299

Average composition of nuts and nut products.

Cocoanut, desiccated

Peanut coffee made from en-
ra kernalee 3. See

REM iN HOUL- 2 -- ease e tac eee
€aconned flour> _...---.......- Eee oe
PHaselnntimeak. <2... 5553: Sere

3,
loz]
bo

Edible portion.
| Carbohy-
drates. Fuel
Kind of food. Pro- | Fat. | @ Ash. | value per
ie sugar, | Crude | pound
starch, | fiber. }
etc. | 7 |
Nuts and nut products: Per ct. | Per et. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Calories.
3427 ee a 17. 80 34.7 | 4.4 4.7 50. 4 | 42 1.6 | 1,265
eek Geo Cee 47.00 429] 21.4) 544| 13:8 3.0 2.5 | 2,895
Dee TS ee See eee 36. 90 6.6} 21.8] 49.9 18.0 37 2,740
emai os 49. 35 4.7} 17.4} 65.0 5.7| 3.9 3.3 3,120
Loe LLY le pee ae aoa 86. 40 £5 |. 27.9[ 61,2 3.4 3.0 | 3,370
7 es ee La 6a ae] airy a€ef “2ef asxf Sem
Chestnut, fresh...........-.--- | 15.70) 43.4 64|/ 6G} 41.3 1:5 1.4 | 1,140
OS a | 23.40 6.1 10.7 7.8 | 70.1 29 2. 4 | 1,840
Horn chestnut or water chest- | |
(71) Se oa ee WE 2255: 10.6} 10.9 -7| 738 1.4 2.6 1,540
Chufa (earth almond).........|.......- 22| 35] “816 | 50.2} 105| 20 | 2,435
ee | 3466] 130! 66) 562) 137] 89] 16] 2,805
Wo tee sen | 52.08 5.4] 165] 640 | 11.7 2. 4 | 3, 100
Ginkgo nut (seeds) ............ CE 7.3; 59 Wa SE eS] 0) 940
Gio) a re 62.20 3.7| 15.4] 67.4 11.4 2.1 | 3,345
Lint a se 41.60°| 16.4 2.9 ia 78.0 1.9 | 1,510
Paradisamnt2. 2.22... 2. 2k 45.70 2.3] 22.2] 626 10.2 2.7 | 3,380
Pm oO I 3p) Si ..-| 27.04 7.4| 2.8] 43.5 | 14.7 2.4 2.2} 2,610
= Se ane | 50.10 34! wen; m7? ‘as 3.7 16! 3,300
Pignolia (shelled) .............|........ e2| a9| #2) 65) 14) as | 2,710
PERERORIO! £2 fon tos ccoes toe ee 4.2 22. 6 54.5 15.6 | 3.1 3,250
ee ee: sa0| 34] 182| @.7| 137| 23] 17] 3,075
Almond butter ................ a | 2.2) 2.7] 61.5 11.6 | 30] 5 ~- 3,340
Almond paste ................- }- [ce 24.2} 131] 239] 29.4| 78 | 1.6} 1,900
Peanat putteriss/s:2. 026.4 2[b 2S 21) 29.3] 46.5 Tepl 5.0 | 2,825
oe Cree. ee 2.6| 237] 27.6 43.9 2.2} 2,600
Meceamut candi. . = of 3.9 2.4 11.9 76.7 4.5 .6 2,000
MUM ORONDY, = = 2s = cw clonewscnc 3.0 10.3 16.6 66.9 2.1 Et | 2,115
Chestnuts, preserved (marron
1.3 5 79.7 3 1,530
eee: Seer veal in sirup, |
papeaeiel cles Stee yl RT! | 2 on : 48.6 9 2,780
Cocoanut milk. .......... ee ee Mh ks

wach), air dried... .--|.-=..-- 18. 2

i
a
=)
i
oO
8
[—]

Other foods for comparison: | | |
Meat, round Steak: . 225-2 52!-14 sees. 65.5 NOUS a Sebi eee ee ee fed 950
heede: GHeddar. -. 2028 pie 27.4 27.7 | 36. 8 4.1 Scam see a 4.0 2,145
prs). boiled: .. ese 11. 20 65.0 12.4 1027 |e ee 7 680
Wheat flour, high grade.......|........ 12.0 11.4 1.0 74.8 an) a 1,650
\ LED ROS of nett (i a 2 aes epee Os |e eee eRe 35.3 9.2 aS 5 52.6 -5 La 1,215
Beans. Uricde aie. .* Seer rh Plat. 2 hte 126) 25 ES} 55.2 4.4 3.5 1,605
erebcaliepeste 22 2 Swe 5 20. 00 78.3 yay 1 18.9 4 1.0 385
SPEDE n ee eee! OE | 25. 60 84.6 4 = 13:0 L2 3 290
US MIBEHRER Med eS. ate 10. 00 14.6 2.6 3.3 73.6 2.5 3.4 1,605

300 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Refuse, mostly shell, constitutes a considerable proportion of the
nuts as purchased, varying greatly with the different kinds. With
fresh chestnuts the proportion is nearly 16 per cent, peanuts 27 per
cent, almonds 47 per cent, and butternuts 86 per cent.

The edible portion of nuts, with few exceptions, is very concentrated
food, containing little water and much fat. In general, nuts are also
rich in protein. Those ranking highest in this nutrient, the pignolia,
a variety of pinenut imported from Spain, with 33.9 per cent, the pea-
nut with 29.8 per cent, and the butternut with 27.9 per cent protein,
surpass most ordinary animal or vegetable foods in this respect. The
almond, beechnut, and pistachio, with 21.4 per cent, 21.8 per cent, and
22.6 per cent, respectively, compare favorably with dried legumes.
The Brazil nut contains 17.4 per cent protein, the filbert 16.5 per cent,
the walnut 18.2 per cent, the hickory nut 15.4 per cent, the pinenut
14.8 per cent, the pecan 12.1 per cent, and the dry chestnut but 10.7
per cent. The dry acorn, fresh chestnut, and cocoanut, with, respec-
tively, 6.4, 6.4, and 6.6 per cent, are not as rich in protein as bread.

WATER 25 Pr

PROTEIN /66 %~

FAT 634 %—

STARCH SUGARETC 13.5 Fox
CRUDEFIBER 26 %~~

fig
ASH 149% ~uX

2 ——— 59% WATER
= — /07 % RROTEIN

\--7/.5 % STARCH SUGAR ETE.
r 227% CRUDE FIBER

WALNUT. CHESTNUT.

Fic. 8.—Percentage composition of an oily nut (walnut) and a starchy nut (chestn ).

Of the nuts here included the richest in fat is the pecan, with an
average of 70.7 per cent, but 7 other varieties—the Brazil nut, butter-
nut, candlenut, filbert, hickory nut, pinenut, and walnut—contain
upward of 60 per cent. The almond, cocoanut, and pistachio yield
between 50 and 60 per cent of this nutrient. The beechnut, peanut,
and pignolia contain about 50 per cent. In other words, in 13 of the.
varieties of nuts appearing in the foregoing table, half or more of the
edible portion is fat or oil.

Only a few of the commonly used nuts yield any notable amounts of
total carbohydrate matter, the dry chestnut, with 73 per cent, rating
highest. Beechnuts, pinenuts, and peanuts have about 18 per cent.
The quantity of starch found is, with some exceptions, quite small,
ranging from 3 per cent in the beechnut to 27 per cent in the chestnut.

Figure 8 shows in diagrammatic form the percentage composition
of an oily nut, the walnut, and a starchy nut, the chestnut.

Nuts are, comparatively speaking, well supplied with mineral mat-
ter, this constituent in the majority of nuts exceeding 2 per cent.
The ash of the walnut, almond, etc., is rich in phosphoric acid, and

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 301

in this regard compares favorably with that of cereals. It would
appear from the data on the digestibility of nuts that the mineral
matter is as well assimilated as that from other common foods.

DIGESTIBILITY OF NUTS.

With the exception, perhaps, of dried beans and cheese, no food
material has the reputation for indigestibility that has been accorded
to nuts. Discomfort from them is largely due to insufficient mastica-
tion and to the fact that nuts are often eaten when not needed, as after
a hearty meal or late at night, though it is undoubtedly true that nut
protein as ordinarily eaten is not so easily or so completely digested as

meat protein. Very likely the concentration of nuts, with but 3 to 5
“per cent water, as compared with meats containing from 50 to 70 per
cent water, is a contributing cause. If careful consideration were
given to this matter and if attention were paid to the proper use of
nuts and their correct place in the diet, there would be less unfavor-
able comment on their digestibility.

The results of investigations carried on with fruit and nut diets at
the California Agricultural Experiment Station afford tentative con-
clusions regarding thoroughness of digestion which should be of value
to those who wish to use nuts as a staple article of food rather than as
an occasional article of diet. This work has comprised 15 dietary
studies and about 100 digestion experiments with elderly men, young
men, women, and children, of whom some had been vegetarians for
years, and some had even limited their diet almost exclusively to fruit
and nuts; others had previously lived on the usual mixed diet. The
average coefficients of digestibility reported for 28 experiments with
2 men and 1 woman were: Protein, 90 per cent; fat, 85 per cent;
sugar, starch, etc., 96 per cent; crude fiber, 54 per cent; and ash, 68
per cent, with 86 per cent of the energy available. The correspond-
ing figures for three experiments with the same subjects in which no
fruit or nuts were used are: Protein, 94 per cent; fat, 92 per cent;
sugar, starch, etc., 96 per cent; crude fiber, 49 per cent, with 88 per
cent of the energy available. The latter coefficients agree very closely
with those in the average of nearly 500 experiments with different
sorts of mixed diet, namely: Protein, 92 per cent; fat, 95 per cent; and
carbohydrates, 97 percent. In view of these facts regarding compo-
sition and digestibility of their diet, it is evident that nuts must be
regarded as the main source of protein forthe fruitarians. The studies
with fruitarians have all indicated that nut protein is fairly well assimi-
lated; and that this is true with the average healthy person is well illus-
trated by an experiment with a university student, who, though en-
tirely unaccustomed to such fare, gradually changed from an ordinary
mixed diet to one of fruit and nuts, which he followed for a time with-
out apparent loss of health or strength.

302 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is somewhat difficult to arrive at definite conclusions regarding
the actual percentage of nut protein digested or assimilated. The
experimental data obtained at the California station show a range
of 75 to 82 per cent digestible protein when fruit and nuts were
eaten together, but the figure for nut protein is doubtless higher.
These coefficients were in all probability influenced by the fruit pro-
tein, which has been found to be less digestible than the nut protein.
The digestibility of protein in 28 experiments with mixed diets, to
which were added fruit and nuts, averaged 90 per cent.

As fruits, with the exception of the avocado and olive, yield only
a small amount of fat, the fat which is contained in a fruitarian diet
must be very largely obtained from the nuts. The average coefficients
of digestibility for this nutrient in 30 experiments with men on adiet
of fruit and nuts was 86 per cent, and in the 28 experiments just re-
ferred to it was 85 per cent. These figures are about 10 per cent
lower than the average coefficient for digestibility of fats in the ordi-
nary mixed diet. The digestibility of the carbohydrates in nuts, so
far as the available data show, is about equal to that of the same
ingredients in other foods.

So far as can be ascertained no experiments have been made on the
ease or rapidity of digestion of nuts. In the absence of such data it is
fair to assume that within reasonable limits the finer the state of
subdivision of the food material, the easier, the more rapid, and per-
haps the more nearly complete will be the digestion or assimilation,
presupposing, of course, that the nuts are not eaten in addition to a
hearty meal. Too much stress can not be laid on the necessity of
thorough mastication of nuts. This is emphasized by the results ob-
tained with one of the subjects at the California station, who ate
largely of nuts but did not properly masticate his food. The coeffi-
cients of digestibility of the food were far lower than for other sub-
jects who chewed their food thoroughly. The experiments with fruit
and nut diets in general indicate that nut protein is as easily, even if
not quite so completely, digested as protein from bread and milk.

The present discussion refers only to the nuts included in the
studies at the California station, viz, the almond, Brazil nut, cocoanut,
peanut, pecan, pignolia, and walnut. It is believed that these are
typical of the ordinary edible nuts, but further digestion experiments
are much needed for the purpose of testing some other nuts.

As regards the work of other investigators, both Memmo* and
Merrill’ report experiments with cooked chestnuts. Memmo’s sub-
ject was a farm laborer, 53 years old, working eight hours a day.
The experiment lasted four days. During the first two the food con-
sisted exclusively of chestnut products. This was modified during

a Ann. Inst. Ig. Sper. Univ. Roma, n. s., 4 (1894), p. 263.
b Maine Sta. Bul. 131, p. 146.

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 303

the last two days by the addition of herring and cheese. In this
exper_ment 75 per cent of the protein, 87 per cent of the fat, 97 per
cent of the total carbohydrates, and 83 per cent of the ash were assim-
ilated. The last figure is high; the others correspond to those
reported for the California experiments with a fruit and nut diet.

The subjects of Merrill’s experiments were two men aged 23 and 34
years, respectively. A mixed diet was used. Each subject consumed
daily 300 grams of cooked chestnut flour, which furnished about 20
per cent of the proteids, 50 per cent of the fat, nearly 50 per cent of the
carbohydrates, and not far from 40 per cent of the total fuel value of
the food. The average digestion coefficients obtained for chestnuts
with the two subjects were protein 56 per cent, fat 63 per cent, and
total carbohydrates 98 per cent, while 89 per cent of the energy was
available. Memmo also studied a kind of acorn bread eaten in Italy,
and found it was fairly well assimilated, though not very palatable.
Saiki® found that starch of raw Italian chestnuts was relatively
indigestible.

It would appear, then, that, while it is not. possible to state the exact
digestion coefficients for all nuts, enough has been done to indicate
their high nutritive value and digestibility.

PLACE OF NUTS IN THE DIET.

It has been shown by numerous investigations that nuts are rich in
protein and fat and that these nutrients can be fairly well assimilated.
Nuts being such a concentrated food, their proper place in the diet is
a matter for more careful consideration than is the case with many of
our ordinary food materials. It must not be forgotten that a certain
bulkiness of the diet is conducive to its normal assimilation, and that
too concentrated nutriment is often the cause of digestive disturb-
ances. It might be expected, then, that nuts could be most advan-
tageously used in connection with more bulky foods, such as fruits,
vegetables, breads, crackers, etc. Most rationally used, they should
constitute an integral part of the menu rather than supplement an
already abundant meal. Since nuts are so concentrated, eating a
considerable quantity out of hand at odd times will mean an over-
supply of food if a corresponding reduction is not made in other foods.
The distress sometimes experienced when nuts are eaten is undoubt-
edly often due to improper mastication or to overindulgence. The
investigations made at the California station indicate clearly that
considerable quantities of nuts properly eaten do not cause distress.
There is a popular belief that a little salt with nuts prevents the diges-
tive disturbance resulting from eating them. To most persons, salt
undoubtedly adds to the palatability of the nuts, but no investiga-
tions have been found on reeord which demonstrate any actual
improvement in the digestibility of nuts due to salt.

a Jour. Biol., 2 (1906), p. 251.

304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Nuts may be readily used as staple articles of diet, as an ingredient
in salads and in soups, as a stuffing for poultry, in the making of des-
serts, and in many other ways. Wild turkey stuffed with pecan nuts
is a dish popular with old Virginia cooks, just as goose stuffed with
chestnuts is prized in Germany. Salted nuts and nuts crystallized
in sugar are very common accompaniments of other foods. In general,
the nuts rich in protein and fat should be used in combination with
carbohydrate foods, as bread, fruit, green vegetables, etc., while such
nuts as the chestnut, which do not contain much protein or fat, but are
rich in carbohydrates, may be properly combined with meats, milk
and cream, eggs, and other foods containing protein and fat.

Since nuts are relished by most persons, are nutritious, and may be
readily used by themselves and in various palatable combinations as
an integral part of the diet, they have a legitimate place in the menu.
Those who, for any reason, wish to live on vegetable foods and dairy
products or any form of vegetarian or fruitarian diet will almost
inevitably look to nuts, particularly such as the peanut, for a con-
siderable proportion of their total nutritive material. A fruit and
nut diet may be arranged to furnish sufficient protein, mainly from
nuts, to satisfy the requirements of the body, but the consensus of
opinion of well-informed physiologists seems to be that such a diet is
not generally advisable nor to be recommended for the majority of
mankind in place of the more usual mixed diet. It should also be
remembered that numerous experiments have shown that the protein
from mixed diet has a higher coefficient of digestibility than nut pro-
tein, which indicates that the protein of nuts is the less economically
utilized by the body. The argument which is so often advanced that
primitive man lived on nuts and fruits exclusively and hence his
descendants should do so, is not generally accepted.

The comparatively high price of many of the edible nuts, particu-
larly when shelled, and the difficulty of cracking some varieties—
like pecans, black walnuts, and hickory nuts—and extracting the
kernels at home, greatly militate against the freer use of nuts in the
household. The consumption of peanuts and English walnuts is per-
haps increasing faster than that of some other nuts; but, whatever
sort is selected, they should, as already noted, form a part of the diet
and not supplement an already sufficient meal.

NUT BUTTERS.

Within the last few years so-called nut butters have been used in
increasingly large amounts, and at least one variety, namely, peanut
butter, is made and sold in ton lots. It has already been stated that
in order to insure the best physiological results from the dietetic use
of nuts they should be thoroughly ground up by the teeth and that,
other things being equal, the digestion coefficient will vary directly

tt LY

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 305

with the fineness of division. The nut butters, made as they are
from the finely ground nuts with or without the addition of some
water, oil, and salt, have a homogeneous consistency not unlike true
butter, and when properly made the material is so finely divided that
even if it is not thoroughly chewed it will presumably offer much less
resistance to the digestive juices than nuts hastily eaten. Nuts, and
hence nut butters, are very rich in fat which readily becomes rancid
and unpalatable. This is doubtless one of the reasons why nut but-
ters are quite commonly marketed in jars, etc., containing small
amounts which may be utilized in a short time. The nut butters
are recommended by vegetarians as a substitute for butter in culi-
nary processes and for use at the table. With persons who are not
vegetarians they are commonly used for making sandwiches and in
other ways for their agreeable flavor and for the pleasing variety
which they give the diet.

Nut butter may be easily made at home. The nuts may be
pounded in a mortar, but a mill for grinding them is much more con-
venient and may be readily procured, as there are a number of sorts
on the market. The process of making nut butters has been fre-
quently described in journals and cookery books. Either the raw
or the roasted peanut may be used for making peanut butter, but
the roasted nut is the more satisfactory. The kernels should be freed
from chaff and reduced to a paste in the grinding mill. Freshly
roasted nuts are necessary, as those which have stood for a day or so
after roasting lose in crispness, do not grind well, and tend to clog
the mill. Any sort of nut may be used, but experience has shown
that it is more difficult to make butters from the almond or Brazil
nut than from the peanut. Blanching these nuts requires consid-
erably more time and labor than is needed to free the peanut from
the skin which covers the kernel, and they are also more difficult to
grind. Nut butters will keep well if sealed in glass or earthernware
jars. Tin cans also may be used, but are not quite as desirable. As
might be expected, nut butters do not differ materially in composi-
tion from the nuts from which they are ground. (See table, p. 299.)

The nut butters just mentioned are entirely different from cocoanut
butter and from cocoa butter, which are expressed and purified fats.
These ‘‘butters” are of considerable commercial importance and are
used for culinary purposes, though perhaps they are more commonly
used in other ways.

NUT PASTES AND NUT PRESERVES.

Pastes which are used by confectioners for candy making and in
other ways are made from nuts with the addition of sugar. Some-
times water and starch are added, but such admixtures are inferior
to the nut and sugar pastes. The most common material of this

3 A1906——20

306 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sort is the almond paste, which is manufactured in large quantities
in the United States and is also imported. It is used for making
cakes, candies, etc., the highly ornamented cakes called “marzipan,”
so popular with the Germans, being one of the very well-known
almond-paste confections.

Chestnuts preserved or candied in sirup and then dried, the mar-
ron glacé of the confectioners, are esteemed a delicacy and are eaten
alone or are used in confectionery, ete. Thus prepared, they are a
common commercial article. Much less common are the English
walnut meats in sirup, which are manufactured in Europe and
exported to this country in limited quantities. In the Tropics a
thick, sweet preserve is made from cocoanut and sugar which is.
much liked locally, though those who are not familiar with it con-
sider it very sweet and insipid. As the data in the table on page 299
show, these products are rich in carbohydrates, owing to the added

sugar.
NUT FLOURS AND MEALS.

Among nut produets may be mentioned nut flours and meals.
Some of these are used in large quantities and are made on a com-
mercial scale, while others, perhaps owing to the trouble and expense
incidental to manufacture, find only a limited use. In general, meals
are made from the ordinary edible nuts by blanching, thoroughly
drying, and grinding. By usinga nut mill such meals may be ground
at home. Analyses of some products of this character will be found
in the table on page 299. Almond meal has been on the market for a
long time, being used as food for diabetics and for making cakes,
etc., as well as in a number of technical ways.

Special mention should be made of chestnut flour, which is on sale
in the United States and is used for most of the culinary purposes for
which the fresh nut is reeommended. In Italy it constitutes a con-
siderable part of the diet, in some regions being extensively used for
making a sort of bread or cake. One of the most complete studies of
the dietetic use of chestnuts has been reported by Memmo.* Accord-
ing to the author, the chestnut often serves almost as the exclusive
food of the peasants of Tuscany for a considerable part of the year.
The whole nuts are eaten in a variety of ways; for instance, boiled im
water without hulling, hulled and boiled, or roasted. From the flour
various cakes and other foods are made. Acorn meal made into a
sort of bread with the addition of about 75 per cent of flour is a
common article of diet: in several regions, notably Umbria and Tus-
cany, but the bread is black and heavy and not very palatable. :

The early travelers and explorers make mention of the extended
use of nuts by the American Indians, and the custom of using acorns

aoe. cit.; see also p..302.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906 PLATE XV.

Fic. 2.—CALIFORNIA INDIAN LEACHING ACORNS FOR FOOD.

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 307

as a staple food is still kept up. The methods of preparing acorns
followed by the Indians of northern California have been described by
P. E. Goddard® in a publication of the University of California, and
by V. K. Chesnut,® formerly of the Department of Agriculture.
Briefly speaking, the shelled nuts are split, dried, and ground with a
mortar and pestle. The sifted flour is placed in a hollow in the sand
on a convenient river bank and leached to free it from the bitter prin-
ciples present. From the leached meal a porridge or mush ismade, which
to the ordinary palate is much improved by the addition of salt. Plate
XV shows the way in which the nuts are pounded into flour, and
also shows an Indian woman leaching the meal. These typical Indian
foods, when well prepared, are relished by many persons who have
tried them, and it seems not improbable that improved methods of
removing the tannin and bitter principles present in most varieties of
acorns might result in the utilization of the acorn crop, which is
fairly large and is generally wasted.

According to Chesnut’s®¢ investigations, the California buckeye or
horse-chestnut is also used by the Indians as a food and is leached to
free it from poisonous or objectionable matters in much the same way
as the acorn. Many attempts have been made in Europe and else-
where to treat the fruit of the common horse-chestnut in some way so
that it might be made wholesome and palatable, for it undoubtedly
contains an abundance of nutritive material, particularly starch; but
none of these attempts has been really successful.

The use of partly extracted peanuts and other nut meals with
wheat and rye flour for bread making should be mentioned. Such
breads have been used for patients with diabetes, but have never
come into general use, perhaps because they are not very palatable,
since the nuts become rancid so readily.

NUT CANDIES.

One of the most extensive uses of nuts is in the manufacture of
candy of various sorts, such as sugared almonds, burnt almonds, nut
chocolates, caramels, pinoche, nut brittle, ete. While there are some
differences in the process of manufacture followed in these candies,
they all in the main consist of nuts and sugar in varying proportions,
with flavoring extracts, and in some instances butter and flour.

The table on page 299 shows the composition of common sorts of
nut candy. As may be seen, the water content is low and these can-
dies are highly concentrated foods. On account of the added sugar
the carbohydrate content is high. The proportion of nuts used in
candies varies.. By assuming that the nuts furnish the bulk of the fat

eUniv. Cal. Pubs., Amer. Arch. and Ethnol., 1 (1903), No. 1, p- 27.
bU.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Bot., Contrib. Nat. Herbarium, 7 (1902), p. 333.
¢Loc. cit., p. 366.

308 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the candy, it is estimated that nuts constituted about 50 per cent in
the specimens analyzed. It is perhaps well to suggest that nut can-
dies and other candies which sometimes cause digestive disturbances
would be more satisfactory if eaten in a rational way and at the proper
time. Since they are concentrated foods, they should naturally
replace an equivalent amount of some other food material and not be
eaten in quantity simply for their palatable flavor in addition to an
otherwise adequate daily ration.

NUT COFFEES.

A number of coffee substitutes made from nuts have been devised
and placed on the market, peanut coffee and acorn coffee being by far
the most common. The nuts are parched and sometimes otherwise
treated. Such coffee substitutes lack the stimulating properties of
true coffee, and the infusion does not have the high nutritive value
which is sometimes claimed for it.

GREEN NUTS.

A number of kinds of nuts are used before they are fully ripe, and
are esteemed a delicacy. In California in spring the markets quite
commonly offer green almonds—that is, the almond picked from the
tree while the husk is of a decided green color and easily separated
from the soft and immature shell. The kernel, after the skin is peeled
off, is eaten with or without salt, and is relished by many persons.
The price of green almonds in California markets commonly varies
from about 20 to 35 cents per pound. Green almonds are found to a
limited extent in fancy fruit shops in eastern cities and elsewhere,
and are perhaps purchased as much for their ornamental appearance
as for their palatability. They are much more commonly used in
Kurope than in the United States. Green English walnuts and green
hazelnuts are also eaten to a considerable extent in Europe and are
great favorites., The nuts are gathered when the shells are fully
matured but not thoroughly ripe. Sometimes these green nuts are
imported into the United States. Many who have grown up in the
country will recall the delicate flavor of the immature butternut and
hickory nut and the stained fingers which they caused. Such green
nuts have apparently never been marketed.

Whole green walnuts and some other nuts are also used in a quite
immature state for pickle making. They are picked when still
tender enough to be easily pierced by a large pin; then, after being
kept in brine for a number of days, they are exposed to the sun until
they turn black. Afterwards they are placed in jars and covered
with hot vinegar and spices. Sometimes they are treated with dry

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 309

salt instead of brine before pickling. It is claimed that nuts thus
treated will blacken without being exposed to sunlight. Such pickled
nuts are considered by many as a very palatable dish for use with
meats and poultry. Walnut catsup is also made from green walnuts.

NUT OILS AND OIL-CAKE MEALS.

In some parts of Europe almond oil, walnut oil, and beechnut oil
are manufactured and prized as salad oils, and in South America
Brazil-nut oil is used for table purposes. Cocoanut oil is an important
oil in the Tropics. Peanut oil finds a large technical application and
is also used in large quantities as a salad oil and for culinary purposes.
Oils are also made from the kernel or nut of the peach and apricot,
but these, like most nut oils except those mentioned, are used for
medicinal or technical purposes.

The various nut oils, which are practically pure fats, have a very
high fuel value, and, like olive oil and other oils, may constitute an
important energy-yielding constituent of the diet. It is commonly
assumed that, like olive oil, these oils are readily assimilated when
properly combined with other food materials, as in salads, as ‘‘ shorten-
ing”’ for various dishes, and in similar ways.

The oil-cake meals, as the ground products remaining after the
expression of the nut oils are called, are much used as food for live
stock and all kinds of poultry, and this is especially true of the peanut
and cocoanut oil cakes. It has been suggested that such oil-cake
meals might be valuable dietary articles if properly manipulated, as
they of course contain a higher percentage of protein than the original
nut. Some attempts have been made to thus utilize peanut-cake
meal, but the results have not been very satisfactory.

PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF NUTS.

The composition and digestibility of nuts have been discussed in the
foregoing pages, but little has been said regarding the cost of nutrients
and energy which they supply as compared with other and more com-
mon food materials. The table on page 310 shows the comparative
cost of a pound of protein and 1,000 calories of energy when furnished
_ by different nuts and nut products and some other staple foods, and
also the amounts of nutrients and energy which 10 cents’ worth of
these foods would supply, rating the foods at certain average prices
per pound.

The common nuts—though, with the exception of the peanut, they
are more expensive sources of protein and energy than meat and a
number of the common foods—may yet be considered reasonably
cheap sources of nutrients and energy, and hence may be regarded
as justifiable additions to the diet on the score of economy. For

310 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

the vegetarian or fruitarian, who looks to nuts as the chief source of ~
protein in the diet, the peanut must be considered as much the most
economical. As may be seen by a reference to the table, 10 cents
will purchase more protein and energy when expended for the flours
and meals than for any of the other foods, but it must be remembered
in this connection that these are the raw materials requiring con-
siderable preparation before they are palatable. This is not neces-
sary with fruits and nuts, except in the case of the peanut and chest-
nut, which are usually roasted before they are considered palatable
by most persons, though there are those who prefer them raw. When
considering nuts, it is readily observed that 10 cents will buy about
the same amount of nut protein as of animal protein, except in the
case of cheese and skim milk. If spent for peanuts, it will purchase
more than twice the protein and six times the energy that could be
bought for the same expenditure for porterhouse steak.

Pecuniary economy of nuts and nut products.

Amount for 10 cents.
. Price ee yee Total |
Mind of foods [patina] Pound | calories | Weise | protein.| Fat. | hy | Bucrey
; material.

Nuts and nut products: | Cents. | Dollars. Cents. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories.
NITHONGS =< -aosen cee 20 1.76 13.0 0. 50 0. 06 0.14 0.14 767
Brazil nuts......... 20 2. 26 12.6 . 50 -04 .16 o2| = 788
Chestnuts..........- 8 1. 48 8.3 1.25 .07 -06 44 1,196
Cocosmirts- <= 25- iR 1.16 2 2.00 -08 -73 29 3,662
Hickory nuts....... 9 1.55 tal aati - 06 - 28 04 1, 404
Pears: S2.teoe ee 7 .32 3.6 1. 43 on . 45 -20 2,767
PRCOMMSE 2s 5. Se aS - 15 2. 47 9.1 67 .04 23 04 1,003
PignoOliases.. 225-504 25 74 8.4 40 14 . 20 .03 1,182
Pistachios: :.205.2. 20 .88 6.1 -50 sa Gel <a - 08 1,124
Wiens ssn asec te 20 2. 66 16.0 - 50 - 04 .13 -03 633
Almond paste...... 40 3.17 21.0 25 -03 . 06 -10 475
Peanut butter...... 20 . 68 (64 56 15 23 -09 1,412
Peanut candy...... 25 2. 42 11.8 40 -04 -07 - 28 845

Other foods for ecom-

parison:
Porterhouse steak.. 25 1.31 22.5 . 40 07 i MM aed tae ee | 444
Whole.milk... 2.24: 4 1.21 12.0 2.50 - 08 -10 .13 815
Cheddar cheese..... 16 - 58 75 . 62 17 23 . 03 1,330
Wheat flour:.....2 3 - 26 1.8 3. 33 . 38 . 03 2. 50 5, 495
Beans, dried.......-. a . 22 a1 2. 00 45 -03 1.19 3,210
Potatoes. ....0c2..2 2 1.11 6.4 5.00. Sr 74 1,550

It is of more than passing interest to note that 10 cents’ worth of
peanuts will contain about 4 ounces (120 grams) of protein and
2,767 calories of energy, which is more protein and energy than is
furnished by many rations regarded as adequate fora day. Although
peanuts supply protein and energy for a smaller sum than bread, they
are outranked by dried beans, which, at 5 cents a pound, will supply

NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 311

for 10 cents over 200 grams of protein and 3,200 calories of energy.
If more peanuts and dried beans were used by fruitarians, their diet
would be enriched and the cost decreased. The almond, so much
in favor with fruitarians, furnishes for 10 cents about one-fourth
the protein and less than one-third the energy supplied by peanuts.

HANDLING AND MARKETING NUTS.

Within the last few years the trade in shelled nuts has very mark-
edly increased, and shelled walnuts, hickory nuts, almonds, English
walnuts, pecans, etc., are now very commonly found in shops. The
bulk of the nut crop is, however, marketed unshelled. Some of the
unshelled nuts, notably pecans and peanuts, are very often pol-
ished before marketing by rotating them in rapidly revolving drums
in such a way that the shells are worn down until they are more or
less smooth. This method of treatment also removes any dirt and
is supposed to make the nut more salable. It is worthy of note,
however, that the highly prized, large fancy pecans are marketed
without such treatment.

For shelling nuts on a commercial scale a number of ingenious
machines have been devised. In order to meet the market demand
for clean and uniformly colored nuts, many nut growers have resorted
to the process of bleaching their product. The first attempts in this
direction were made by sulphuring; that is, by exposing the nuts
to sulphur vapor. This treatment, though improving the color,
proved decidedly injurious to the flavor of the nuts and lessened the
Keeping qualities. At the California experiment station experi-
ments with bleaching solutions have been carried on and very satis-
factory results have been obtained with a mixture of sal soda, chlorid
of lime, and water. According to reports of the imperial department
of agriculture of the West Indies,¢ a similar process has been suecess-
fully used for bleaching peanuts. The consumer should bear in
mind that the bleaching of nuts is entirely unnecessary and in no
way increases their food value. The process is carried on solely for
the purpose of improving the appearance of the nut and thus ecom-
manding a higher price. It will doubtless be continued as long as
the public is willing to be guided by appearance rather than food
value. The term “bleaching,” as applied to nuts, must not be con-
founded with the household term ‘blanching,’ which applies to the
process of removing the skins from nut meats, as almonds, by immers-
ing them for a short time in hot water.

Vegetables and fruits exposed for sale under ordinary conditions
may be readily contaminated with bacteria, dirt, and dust. Nuts
sold in their shells are protected in large measure from such contami-
nation, yet many careful housewives wash, or at least wipe, the nuts

aImp. Dept. Agr. West Indies Pamphlet No. 43, n.s.

312 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which are to be cracked and served in the shells, as anything which
adheres to the shell would readily contaminate the nuts after crack-
ing, if all were mixed together in a dish. Shelled nuts, if exposed to
dust in shops and markets, should be washed before they are used for
salads, etc. If exposed to damp conditions, nuts mold and decay, and
even under favorable conditions the nut oils and pits become rancid
on long-continued storing. In the main, however, the keeping quali-
ties of most nuts are excellent. Nuts should be stored in such a way
that they may be free from attacks of insect enemies. When such
precautions are not taken, ‘‘wormy”’ nuts are by no means uncommon.

SUMMARY.

Summarizing the foregoing data, it may be said that nuts are a
very concentrated food, even more so than cheese, but when ration-
ally used they are well assimilated and may form a part of a well-
balanced diet. Nuts are a very valuable source of protein and fat,
these two nutrients being the characteristic constituents of the more
common nuts, of which the walnut and cocoanut, may be taken as
types. In nuts like the chestnut, carbohydrates are a characteristic
constituent. For most families it is undoubtedly wiser to use nuts
as part of the regular diet than as a condiment or supplement fo an
otherwise hearty meal.

Vegetarians and others who use nuts in place of meat should not
depend upon them as the main food supply, but should supplement
them with more bulky foods with a low content of protein and fat.
As a whole, nuts may be classed among the staple foods and not
simply as food accessories. At usual prices, nuts are reasonable
sources of protein and energy. Peanuts supply protein and energy
very cheaply, even compared with such staple foods as bread and
beans. There are a number of nut foods on the market, but it may
be stated that there is little to be gained from the standpoint of food
value or economy in their use, especially by healthy persons who
are willing to masticate their food thoroughly and to use nuts in
reasonable combinations. Unless something has been added, the
nutritive materials in such special preparations can not be greater
than the nuts from which they are made, though in the mechanical
condition or in some other way the foods may be better fitted for
ready assimilation. Furthermore, nut butters and similar foods
give a pleasant variety to the diet, and they are relished by many
who would not care for the unprepared nuts.

Though less subject to contamination than many other foods, nuts
should be handled and stored under good conditions, and especially
should be protected from dampness and insect enemies.

SOME RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL
WEEVIL.

By W. D. Hunter,
In Charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.

INTRODUCTORY.

The boll weevil problem still remains a most important one for the
cotton industry of this country. The insect continues to spread.
Climatic barriers have given it temporary checks, but they have been
successively overcome. The prediction that the pest will eventually
reach the limits of cotton culture in this country has repeatedly been
made, but an important consideration connected with the future
spread has received less attention, largely because it has more recently
become evident. This consideration is that damage in new regions
is likely to be more severe than it has been in the territory infested
up to this time. The experience of the past two years has rather
tended to obscure some of the features of the weevil problem. The
large crops produced in Texas have given an erroneous impression of
the prospects. It is true that very remarkable results have been ob-
tained in the work of the Department of Agriculture. Making due
allowance for this important work, it must be stated that the recent
large crops are largely due rather to a combination of conditions favor-
able to the growth of the plant and unfavorable to the weevil than toa
lessened capacity for damage on the part of the insect. The work of
the Bureau of Entomology has shown that in Texas, except in unusu-
ally wet seasons, a fair crop can easily be produced. The possibilities
of production in a favorable season are shown by the fact that in 1906
the infested area produced about one-third of the total crop of the
United States; but the same success will by no means necessarily
follow in other regions where the conditions are different. There-
fore future developments must be awaited with some solicitude.

THE STATUS OF THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN 1906.

The total area infested by the cotton boll weevil in 1906 is indi-
cated on the accompanying map (fig. 9). It extends over the
greater part of the cotton-producing region of Texas, much of Lou-
isiana, and comparatively small areas in Oklahoma and Arkansas.

313

The

At present

where the insect first invaded the State of Texas.

7

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

insect has also spread both to the west and to the east.

Brownsville

314
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the infested area extends a distance of 400 miles east and west.
Within the infested area the annual rainfall ranges from about 12

inches in the west to more than 50 inches in the east.

RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 315

varies from sea level to about 2,600 feet. The mean annual temper-
ature varies from 72° at Brownsville, Tex., to 62° at Paris, Tex.

During the season of 1906 the increase in the infested area con-
sisted of a belt varying in width from 20 miles in northwestern Texas
to over 60 miles in northern Louisiana and Oklahoma. Over
1,500,000 acres of cotton land became invaded. This dispersion,
however, began in August, so late in the season that no appreciable
damage was done in this area. As a matter of fact, estimates of the
damage for the year 1906 must be made upon the basis of the area
infested in 1905.

One of the most interesting features of the situation in 1906 was
the fact that a considerable advance was made directly northward
into Oklahoma and Indian Territory. The insect reached points as
far north as the Red River as early as 1904, specimens being found in
Lamar County at that time. For three successive years the advance
had been checked by winter conditions, but the season of 1906 wit-
nessed a net gain northward of about 60 miles. The causes for this
great advance after repeated checks are somewhat obscure. The
preceding winter conditions in northern Texas were not especially
favorable for the weevil. The precipitation was about normal,
although the temperature was slightly higher than usual. Some
study has been given this matter, but on the whole it does not seem
that the climatic conditions alone would account for the northward
advance. A more reasonable explanation seems to be that the weevil
has gradually acquired an ability to withstand conditions that pre-
viously checked it. We thus have apparently another ulustration
of the adaptive capacity of the insect.

LCCAL VARIATIONS AND THEIR CAUSES.

In such a large area, where the climatic and geographic variations
are so important that entirely distinct agricultural provinces have
been formed, it would naturally be supposed that the boll weevil
problem has various local aspects. It is true that there is no uni-
formity in the damage that is done throughout the affected area. In
some regions the weevil has caused great depreciation in land values,
while others have not suffered appreciably in this respect. In gen-
eral, the drier and freer from timber the less is the damage by the
weevil. The reasons for this are that dryness increases the death
rate of immature stages in the fallen squares enormously in the sum-
mer and the absence of the protection afforded by timber contributes
equally to a decrease in the number of adults in the winter. When
the foregoing conditions are combined with low winter temperatures,
as happens in northwestern Texas, there is a total of conditions most
disastrous for the weevil. The reverse of these conditions is found

316 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the timbered vaileys of eastern Texas and Louisiana, where the
precipitation is much heavier.

In addition to the variations in weevil damage due to the decided
constant differences in climate that have been mentioned, there are
also local and temporary differences of climate and other conditions.
These add to the large-area variations local modifications within the
special regions. For instance, a local severe outbreak of the leaf
worm in eastern Texas has been known to give that particular area
comparative immunity from damage for one season.

Much information about the local variations affecting the weevil
problem was gained in the spring of 1906 by a series of examinations
to determine the number of hibernated weevils present per acre and
later by a series of examinations to determine the extent of infesta-
tion by the first broods. These examinations were made practically
simultaneously at over thirty localities. At each place entomologists
made examinations of fields in different locations as regards the prox-
imity of timber and other conditions which have a bearing upon the
number of weevils which successfully pass through the winter. By
a plan of examining a certain number of groups of plants in each
cotton field it was possible to determine the average number of wee-
vils present in that particular field. By averaging the number of
weevils found in the different fields examined in any one locality the
number of weevils per acre for that region was determined. By far
the’ greatest number of hibernated weevils was found in eastern
Texas, in Rusk and Shelby counties. In that quarter an average of
more than 500 weevils per acre was found, and in some cases the
number per acre reached nearly 700. This area extended well into
Louisiana and comprised at least 500 square miles. A study of the
conditions in this quarter gives the best possible indication of the
conditions which will arise in the central and eastern portions of the
cotton belt when they are reached by the weevil. Two widely sepa-
rated regions showed an average of over 300 hibernated weevils per
acre. One of these was in northeastern Texas, another in the coast
region including Bee, Refugio, San Patricio, and Nueces counties.
These areas were separated by extensive ones wherein comparatively
few hibernating weevils were found. .

Much of the recent advance in our knowledge of the boll weevil is
the result of comparative studies of these areas of great damage and
of other areas of comparative scarcity. The study has been con-
tinued by an examination of the statistics of production as far as
available. The production by counties up to December 13, 1906, as
determined by the Census Bureau, has been used. The crop of 1904
has been used as a basis of comparison for the reason that itmay
properly be considered a normal crop. In Louisiana, in the heavily
infested portion, the percentage of increase of the crop of 1906 over

RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 317

that of 1905 was 9.7 per cent of that of 1904. Inthe lightly infested
area of Louisiana, however, the percentage of increase, determined in
the same way, was 44.6 per cent. In Texas the increase in the
heavily infested portion of the eastern part of the State was 12.9 per
cent, and in the lightly infested region in the north-central portion
of the State it was 59.9 per cent. These figures show clearly the
temporary advantage gained through the scarcity of weevils in cer-
tain restricted regions.

THE RELATION BETWEEN WEEVIL DAMAGE AND PRECIPITATION.

For a long time it has been recognized that the most important
single factor in assisting in the production of a cotton crop in a weevil-
infested region is dryness during the growing season. An excellent
illustration of this is furnished by the conditions in Victoria County,
Tex., during the spring of 1906. The crop of that year in Victoria
County is much the largest ever produced, although the acreage prob-
ably was not as large as has been planted in other seasons. The
exact records regarding production are not available at this time,
but a very conservative estimate of the crop of Victoria County for
1906 is 13,000 bales. From the accompanying table it will be seen
that May and June were abnormally dry months; in fact, the total
precipitation for April, May, and June (4.19 inches) was less than
half of the mean total for those months for the five preceding years
(9.28 inches).

Comparison of spring precipitation with the cotton crop in Victoria County, T ex,

1901-1906.

Precipitation.
: FS! Cy bel eBea Wa eceinae RE 2 Cotton crop,
rear. ota in bales of
April. May. | June. for three Monthly! 509 pounds.
| 7 months. | 2Verage: |

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.

|

ek ae Ee ee eee 2. 43 0.59 1.14 4.16 1.38 | 9,060
NP ee deg ae gh 2.85 3.23 2.03/ 811 2.70 | 9, 236
7 eee ee | 103 2.25 4.05 7.33 2. 44 | 5,355
io Reed es | 333 437|. 532| 13.02 4.34 6, 495
ns TE Rs a it ned | - 7.58 2.45} 377| 13.80 4. 60 9,016

MRNMR Ee oe one Se en a me ence atone 2.88 - 63 . 68 | 4.19 1.39 213,000

a Estimated.

While the total for April, May, and June, 1906, was only 4.19 inches,
the mean total for 1901 to 1905 was 9.28 inches.

There can be no error in estimating the effect of dryness in this
case, on account of the number of weevils present. In fact, far more
than the usual number of hibernated weevils appeared in the fields
of Victoria County up to the end of April. In one instance a total
number of about 1,500 per acre was shown to have come to a certain

318 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

field. Of course, due allowance must be made for the effect of the
work of parasites and the ant Solenopsis geminata, referred to else-
where. However, the dryness rather interfered with the work of the
ant and certainly did not facilitate greatly the work of the parasites.
Dryness, therefore, must be considered as the controlling factor.

In the facts brought out in the preceding paragraphs we have the
most exact basis at present available for an estimate regarding the
manner in which the boll weevil will affect cotton production in the
more humid regions that it is now invading. Taking Vicksburg,
Miss., as a typical location in the Mississippi Valley, we find that the
normal precipitation for April is 5.86 inches, for May 4.85 inches, and
for June 4.31 inches. This gives a mean total for these months of
15.02 inches as against 9.28 inches at Victoria, and a monthly average
for the same three months at Vicksburg of 5 inches as against 3.09
inches for Victoria. From these figures it is clear that the weevil
conditions in a region like that of Vicksburg will normally be similar
to those of the years of greatest precipitation in Texas.

FACTORS IN THE NATURAL CONTROL OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.

Valuable results have been obtained in an extensive study of the
factors in the natural control of the boll weevil. Many climatic and
other conditions are known to exert influences in reducing weevil
damage. Low summer temperatures check the insect by lengthening
the period of development, and the amount of the food supply is also
a controlling element. Aside from such general influences and cul-
tural expedients, the following are the principal factors which are now
affecting the boll weevil in the infested region:

. Heat and dryness during spring and summer.

. The ant Solenopsis geminata and other predaceous insects.
. Winter temperatures and moisture.

. Proliferation.

. Parasites.

. The cotton leaf worm.

. Determinate growth of the cotton plant.
. Birds.

ITIoourk wbd

oo

The above arrangement places these factors in the probable order
of their importance at the present time. It must be remembered
that future developments will undoubtedly necessitate a rearrange-
ment of the above list. The work of Solenopsis geminata will prob-
ably increase from year to year, and the effect brought about by the
leaf worm will give that insect greater importance as the weevil
invades the Mississippi Valley proper. The above arrangement refers
merely to the present conditions.

The importance of proliferation has been brought out forcibly by
the writer’s associate, Dr. W. E. Hinds, in Bulletin No. 59, Bureau of

RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 319

Entomology. During the year 1906 special attention has been paid
to heat and dryness, ants, and parasites, the last two of which are
factors of which practical use could more or less easily be made.

Altogether 86,982 squares and bolls were collected and examined to
learn the effects of these three factors. This material was collected
in many localities in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. In it were
found 38,883 weevil stages. Of this number 21.1 per cent had been
killed by heat and dryness, 27.1 per cent by ants, and 4.3 per cent by
parasites. The total effect of the three factors in Texas and Louisiana
was to destroy 52.3 per cent of the weevil stages; that is to say,
natural causes cut off more than one-half of the possible number of
weevils. Moreover, more than one-half of this destruction was caused
by the ant alone.

A comparison of the efficiency of these natural factors in Texas and
Louisiana is of interest in showing the probable future aspects of the
* weevil problem. The combined effect in Texas was the destruction
of 53.8 per cent and in Louisiana 44.1 per cent of the weevil stages.
The rather close approximation of these percentages is due to the
greater work of the ant in Louisiana, the two other factors being rela-
tively unimportant in that State. In the case of ants the percentage
of destruction in Louisiana was 35.7 and in Texas 31.3; in the case of
heat and dryness 5.9 in Louisiana and 27.7 in Texas; and in the case
of parasites 0.7 per cent in Louisiana and 3.5 per cent in Texas.

The work of the native ant Solenopsis geminata deserves special
attention. The insect is distributed throughout the cotton belt, and
in fact was found by Mr. E. A. Schwarz to be an important enemy of
the boll weevil in Central America. It must not be confused with the
Guatemalan ant, the importation of which has proved a failure. In
this country the native ant was quite carefully studied by Mr. Schwarz
and others in the early eighties. It has always shown an inclination
to attack insects that it encounters in its travels up and down the
cotton plant primarily for the purpose of obtaining nectar. It was
natural to suppose that it might acquire a habit of feeding upon
the boll weevil. Nevertheless, the rapidity with which the ant seems
to be acquiring this habit is surprising.

Our attention was first especially directed to this matter during an
experiment which was being made to test the effect of direct sunlight
in destroying the immature stages of the weevil. One hundred and
fifty squares believed to contain larve were divided into two lots and
placed on the bare ground in the cotton plat at the laboratory in Dal-
las, Tex. One lot was left dried while the other was moistened to
determine whether the mortality would be equally great in both cases.
The squares were placed on the ground at 4.30 p. m., September 5.
The following morning numerous ants were noticed running over and
around them, although no signs of a nest had been seen the previous

320 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

evening. Subsequent observations showed holes in several of the
squares in size and external appearance resembling weevil emergence
holes so closely that at first they were mistaken for them. A more care-
ful examination showed that the weevils had not emerged, but that the
holes were really entrance holes made by the ants to enable them to get
at the weevil within. Practically all of the squares had been opened.
In the 75 squares kept dry the ants had entered 64, destroying prob-
ably 44 larval stages and 20 pupal stages. In the lot kept wet the
ants had entered 73 of the 75 squares, destroying 50 stages probably
larval, and 23 probably pupal. A remarkable fact was that out of the
150 squares in the lot only 13 were not entered by the ants, and 9 of
these 13 were found on examination to have no weevil stages within
them. It seems reasonable to conclude that the ants have some
ability to determine from the outside whether there is some stage of
the weevil within the squares.

It was thought that conclusions from this single experiment might
be unreliable on account of artificial surroundings and the nearness of
the squares to the nest, which, however, was more than 3 feet away.
Subsequent experiments in cotton fields and the examination of
thousands of fallen squares have all led to the opinion that the work
attributed to the ants was not overestimated. The following are
some records of the work of the ant shown by examination of squares
picked at random from the ground in cotton fields in various parts of
Texas: At Beeville, Tex., August 13, out of 874 weevil stages found
684 had been destroyed by ants. In another field, also at Beeville,
on September 3, the ants had destroyed 11 out of 117 stages. At Dal-
las, on October 15, the ants had destroyed 39 out of 247 weevil stages.
The following statement shows the results of extensive observations on
the percentage of mortality in weevil stages brought about by the ant
under different conditions:

Percentages of mortality of weevil stages brought about by the ant Solenopsis geminata.

Mortality.
Weevil stages. Bigg d
n Louisi- :
San. In Texas.
Per cent. Per cent.
Int fallen Dollis a .sctecnamseescceee 9 11.8
In'fallen‘squaress. 2 2cc.452 See cee- 5.9 27.7
Imhanging bollss.aiie se. tes dass e 11.8 7.8
In hanging’squaress-. =~. 22scis.cces 20.7 18. 6

In view of the abundance of weevil food, there is certainly nothing
surprising in the present indication that the ant is rapidly becoming an
important enemy of the weevil. We have many letters from farmers
scattered throughout the infested territory informing us of observa-
tions similar to ours on the work of the ants in cotton fields.

RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 321

Some practical conclusions may be drawn from a comparison of
mortality among weevil stages in fallen squares and bolls with the
mortality found when the fruit remains attached to the plant. A
careful investigation of this matter will be detailed in a bulletin to be
issued in the near future by the Bureau of Entomology. The hanging
forms referred to are only those which are to be found in a perfectly
dead and dry condition but still attached to the plant by a thin strip of
bark. This tendency seems to be more developed in the cluster varie-
ties of cotton like the Dickson than in those that are more frequently
planted in the infested region at the present time. However, indi-
vidual plants in fields of any variety observed occasionally show the
same tendency toward holding their fruit, and certain climatic and
soil conditions seem to increase this tendency, sometimes to a con-
spicuous degree even in case of cotton of unknown pedigree.

It was early observed in the present investigation that the hanging
forms show a considerably higher percentage of parasitism of weevil
stages than the fallen ones. For instance, in a very extensive series of
observations in Texas the percentage of parasitism in fallen squares
was 3.5, but in hanging, 13.9. In Louisiana a somewhat less extensive
series of observations showed a percentage of parasitism in fallen
squares of 0.7 and in hanging squares of 8.3. At first these figures
seemed to indicate that a variety which would more or less uniformly
retain instead of dropping its infested fruit would be highly desirable
in weevil-infested regions. Further data, however, show the fallacy
of such a supposition and also incidentally indicate the danger of erro-
neous conclusions in such a complicated biological problem as the
boll weevil presents. While the hanging forms showed much higher
percentages of mortality due to parasites, the fallen forms showed a
much greater percentage due to the other factors in natural control,
namely, heat and dryness and the ant Solenopsis geminata. In
Texas the percentage of mortality due to ants, in hanging squares,
was 18.2, while in fallen squares it was 31.3; in Louisiana the hanging
squares showed 32.3 mortality. and the fallen squares 35.7 from the
same cause. In Texas heat and drying brought about a mortality of
18.6 per cent in hanging squares and 27.7 per cent in fallen squares; in
Louisiana the same factor resulted in a mortality of 5.9 per cent and
20.7 per cent, respectively. In other words, the combined effect of heat
and dryness and ants in the fallen squares was much more important
than the individual effect of parasites in the hanging squares.

From the results of the examinations made upon hanging forms it
appears that the mortality found among nearly 10,000 weevil stages
present averaged 42.6 per cent, while in the case of fallen forms,
among approximately 30,000 weevil stages, there was a mortality of
56 per cent. From this extensive series of observations, covering a
very wide range of variable conditions, it appears that the average

3 a1906——21

322 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

mortality resulting from the three natural factors under consideration
was 13.4 per cent greater in fallen than in hanging forms. The mor-
tality in hanging squares is-very nearly as great as that in fallen bolls,
but the mortality in fallen squares is nearly twice as great as in hang-
ing bolls. It is noticeable, too, that a very large majority of weevil
stages found were in the fells squares.

These results indicate that those varieties of cotton which shed
their infested squares and small bolls most readily and most com-
pletely will have an advantage by bringing the weevil stages con-
tained in those forms under the most effective action of these impor-
tant natural factors.

ADDITIONAL DATA CONCERNING IMPORTANCE OF FALL DESTRUCTION
OF COTTON STALKS.

It has been considered by many that the destruction of cotton
stalks after killing frosts was of little value in the control of the boll
weevil. All observers have agreed that this process is of paramount
value before that time. Recent data show clearly that the destruc-
tion of the stalks after several severe frosts is of great value; in fact, it
is apparently only slightly less efficacious than earlier destruction.
At Dallas, Tex., the first killing frost in the fall of 1906 occurred on
the night of November 19. On the following day a careful estimate of
the number of weevils per acre on a 60-acre experimental planta-
tion was made. In different portions of the field 35 plants were
examined and calculations were made on the basis of 8,300 plants
per acre—probably not far from the usual number in Texas. From
the 35 plants examined 29 live weevils were taken, indicating the
presence of 6,477 live weevils per acre. On November 22 another
examination gave an estimated number of 6,403 weevils per acre.
An additional examination was made on December 1 after many
heavy frosts. At this time 14 hibernating weevils were taken from
36 plants, indicating that 3,228 weevils per acre were present in the
field. Examinations of the remains of bolls on plants on Novem-
ber 21 revealed 20 adult weevils in 325 bolls; that is, 6 per cent of the
bolls selected at random in the field protected weevils. On December
8, 8 hibernating adults were found in the examination of 100 bolls.

From the above data it is evident that a farmer may control the
number of weevils to a very considerable extent by the fall destruc-
tion of the stalks even very late in the season. The advantage of
early destruction of the stalks, when possible, was shown by an exami-
nation on November 15, before the first killing frost occurred. At
this time the leaf rubbish on the ground revealed adult weevils at the
rate of 1,056 per acre. After the first killing frost a similar examina-
tion gave 2,844 weevils per acre. The frost had forced large numbers
of weevils from the plants to the protection afforded on the ground.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906, PLATE XVI.

EARLY VERSUS LATE PLANTING IN THE CONTROL OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.

[The upper illustration shows
illustration shows a fie
and treated in
three-quarters of a bale per acre. (Original).]

a cotton field planted late and yielding nothing. ‘The lower
Id on the opposite side of the turnrow on same

plantation, planted
accordance with directions of the Bureau of Entomology, and yielding

wie

1%

¢

Pics
a

RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 323

The very great advantage the farmer may obtain by removing from
the field and burning at the earliest possible date all débris which
favors the hibernation of the weevil is evident.

LATE PLANTING.

An important step in the present method of control perfected by the
Bureau of Entomology is early planting. At various times for a num-
ber of years different persons have suggested the possibility of con-
trolling the boll weevil by late planting. It has been urged that early
planting merely serves to breed myriads of weevils to injure the crop
of the farmer who has been unable to plant early. It was thought
possible that better results might be secured by lengthening the hiber-
nation period by fall destruction of the plants, followed the next
spring by late planting, and that this practice might actually result in
the complete extermination of the weevil over as large areas as it
could be applied to uniformly. (See Pl. XVI.)

Previous work (referred to in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 216, pp. 20
and 21) resulted in a very small crop and seemed to show the fallacy
of the proposed method. However, it was decided to obtain more
exact information than was possible at the time of the previous
experiment. Accordingly, at four places, representing different cli-
matic conditions, carefully planned experiments in late planting were
conducted in 1906. For these experiments fields were selected which
were completely isolated from other cotton to prevent the inflow of
weevils from other fields, which might have happened in the case of
the previous experiment. In brief, the results of this work have
amply verified previous conclusions. In not one of the four cases
was any cotton whatever produced. The plants grew well, in some
cases reaching a uniform height of about 5 feet, and the only apparent
factor in preventing the maturing of a crop of cotton was the presence
of the weevil. The most striking of the four experiments was located
on the Edwards Plateau, about 30 miles west of Kerrville, Tex. At
this place was found a field of 16 acres which had been in cotton in
1905. Very early in November of that year the owner turned a large
herd of goats into the cotton field during a drought which had reduced
his pasturage area. In a few days no traces of green portions of the
plants were visible. The goats stripped the stalks of leaves, squares,
and bolls. Cold weather following during November prevented the
growth of any sprouts from the stalks that might have furnished
sustenance for the weevils. No other cotton was planted nearer than
9 miles from this field either in 1905 or 1906. During 1906 the field
was planted on June 10. The cotton grew to a height of about 5
feet, but weevils appeared practically as soon as the plants came
up and soon multiplied sufficiently to cut off all the fruit. There
is no reason to suppose that the weevils that did this damage were
not those that passed the winter in the immediate vicinity. The

324 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

appearance of the first specimens found clearly indicated that they
were hibernated individuals. Their numbers and the time of their
appearance, together with a considerable amount of data now avail-
able as to the distance hibernated weevils can fly, show clearly that
they had survived the long period from November to July without
food.

Data obtained from weevils placed in cages in the fall of 1905 throw
considerable light upon the obscure point of the possible length of
the hibernation period. In an excellent series of experiments insti-
tuted by the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission at Keatchie under Mr.
Wilmon Newell’s direction, it was found that the weevils placed in
wire compartments in the field on November 18 did not emerge until
the 27th and 28th of the following June. In this case the arrangement
of the experiment precludes any doubt whatever as to the ability on
the part of the weevil to live in hibernation for a period of 221 or 222
days. Long before the last weevils had emerged the temperature had
approximated that of the summer season and, of course, was much
higher than that which caused weevils to seek hibernation in the fall.

An interesting point in connection with the study of the possibility
of controlling the weevil by late planting was the general occurrence
of volunteer plants coming from seeds falling to the ground in the
fall. It was found at Dallas, Tex., for instance, that volunteer plants
appeared in thesspring at the rate of over 200 per acre. The number
of such plants growing in the fields was greater in the western regions
as the climate became drier, but numbers of volunteer plants were
found in cotton fields along the roads near Memphis, Tenn., and in
the neighborhood of Vicksburg, Miss., in a region having at least 50
inches of annual precipitation. The occurrence of this volunteer cotton
of course could hardly be prevented. It would give a supply of food
for weevils which would be practically certain to carry them through
even in case planting could be deferred universally by the planters.

As the result of the work that has been mentioned we have empha-
sized the three following vital difficulties in the way of controlling
the weevil by late planting:

(1) Emergence from hibernation may be deferred until practically
the first of July. :

(2) Everywhere numbers of volunteer plants occur which would
furnish food for a certain number of weevils, regardless of how late
planting might be deferred.

(3) Testimony from a large number of planters, which has been
solicited on this point, and in fact the whole tendency of cotton plant-
ing show that to defer planting the crop until as late as the time
when the last weevils may be expected to emerge from hibernation
would prevent obtaining a crop, even if the weevils were -antinely
eliminated from the problem.

CLOUD-BURSTS, SO-CALLED.

By Epwarp L. WELLs,
Section Director, Weather Bureau.

RELATION OF PRECIPITATION TO IRRIGATION.

It is the proud boast of the irrigator that he is independent of the
elements; that it matters not to him whether his fields are wet with
refreshing showers or whether the heavens are brass above them, and
this is apparently true. But to him who takes more than a superficial
view of the question it becomes evident that the irrigator is not inde-
pendent of the forces of nature, for the streams from which he draws
the water of which he boasts are supplied primarily by precipitation,
which is subject to the same laws that govern the rain that falls in
the field. Therefore he who would make no mistake in constructing
reservoirs and canals to store the water and convey it where it is
needed should know these laws and their application to the region
from which the water is to be drawn. In making studies of climatic
conditions preparatory to inaugurating irrigation projects the mistake
is sometimes made of considering only the normal annual precipitation
as determined by the records extending over a period of years. This
might answer well enough in some instances, but in general the infor-
mation should be much more complete. As for the annual values,
in addition to the normal amount, one should know something of
abnormalities that are likely to occur, particularly the least amount
of precipitation that may be expected to occur ina year. Then there
are various types of distribution of rainfall throughout the year. On
the California coast, for instance, we find what is known as the Pacific
type, in which there is a wet season extending from October to March,
with the late spring and summer months nearly rainless. In Idaho
there is the sub-Pacific type, with heavy precipitation in the winter
and a secondary maximum for May, rendering the irrigation season
shorter and storage comparatively simple, for the May maximum
occurs at about the time of the most rapid melting of mountain snow,
resulting in a large surplus of water in the height of the growing
season; and the period of storage does not necessarily extend over
more than three or four months. In Arizona is found what is known
as the Arizona type, in which May and June are the months of least
rainfall and more than one-third of the annual amount falls in July
and August. Here the irrigating season is also shorter than in the
Pacific type, but storage is much more difficult.

Another feature of precipitation which should not be overlooked is
the intensity of the rainfall. At Phoenix, Ariz., for instance, during

325

326 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the year 1904 the average amount of precipitation for each rainy day
was 0.25 inch, while Winnemucca, Nev., with a much greater annual
total, had only 0.11 inch per day. When rain falls during the grow-
ing season the cause of irrigation may be best served by the more
intense type of precipitation, up to a certain limit, that limit itself
being extremely variable in different localities, depending on the
topography of the country, character of the soil, etc. The more rapid
the rate of rainfall the higher will be the percentage of immediate
run-off, but when the run-off reaches a sufficient magnitude it may
become destructive to irrigation works and other property, and then
any further increase in the intensity must lessen the benefits received.

APPLICATION OF THE TERM ‘‘ CLOUD-BURST.”’

That rain does sometimes fall with such intensity as to result in
great damage to property and even in the loss of human life is a matter
of history, though it is very probable that these downpours are not so
common as is generally supposed, and that their magnitude is greatly
exaggerated. It has become a common practice to apply to such a
rain storm the name of cloud-burst, though it is probable that few
people at this day associate these storms with the phenomena, real or
imaginary, to which the name was originally applied. Dr. Hugh
Robert Mill, of Edinburgh, in his book entitled ‘‘The Realm of
Nature,’ has this to say relative to cloud-bursts:

The rapid condensation of water vapor in the axis of a tornado, or in the compara-
tively harmless whirlwinds that sometimes occur in all parts of the world, produces a
dark funnel-shaped cloud tapering downward to the earth. Such a cloud occupying
the center of an ascending eddy of air is called a waterspout. When it strikes the
ground the heavy fall of rain on a very small area sometimes produces great destruc-
tion. At sea, or in passing over a lake or river, the low pressure of the whirling air
of a waterspout often sucks up a column of water and whirls it on for considerable
distances. In this way shoals of fish or swarms of frogs are sometimes raised high in the
air, carried for miles inland, and dropped as showers of fish or frogs to the wonder of
country people. It often happens that the upward rush in a tornado is strong enough
to prevent the condensed water from falling until a great quantity has been accumu-
lated; then it descends not as rain, but like a river, and the phenomenon is spoken of
as a cloud-burst. On mountain slopes cloud-bursts have been known to hollow out
deep ravines in a few minutes. Severe accidents of this description occasionally occur
in the Cordilleran district of North America. Hail as well as rain may be similarly
accumulated, and the worst hailstorms occur during the passage of a tornado.

This reads very well, but, before accepting it, it is well to remem-
ber that cloud-bursts are most often heard of in mountainous regions,
while tornadoes are largely a phenomenon of the plains.

Gen. A. W. Greely, while Chief Signal Officer of the United States
Army, in his book entitled “‘American Weather,’ wrote of cloud-
bursts as follows:

Apart from even exceedingly heavy showers or downpours may be classed the enor-
mous masses of water which now and then fall, and which are popularly known in

CLOUD-BURSTS, SO-CALLED. Sok

America as cloud-bursts or waterspouts. In such cases the amount of water that falls
in an hour or two must equal rainfalls which are otherwise deemed excessive for a day
or even a month in the region. These downpours of torrential rain are fortunately
local, and yet more frequently prevail in the less densely populated portions of the
country.

In his report on the rainfall of the Pacific coast and Western Terri-
tories, issued in 1889, General Greely speaks of cloud-bursts:

It is well known that enormous quantities of water occasionally fall in these arid
regions, the phenomena being known as cloud-bursts. These downpours of rain, while
injurious and even destructive at the time, yet, being taken up by the earth, they
serve usefully later as a water supply, through the medium of rivers, artesian wells, or
springs. The quantities which fall in a single cloud-burst can not be calculated, but
the amount can be expressed by no other word than enormous.

He follows this with an account of a number of instances of precipi-
tation considered by him worthy of mention under this head.

CONCENTRATION OF RAINFALL AS AFFECTED BY TOPOGRAPHY OF
COUNTRY.

It might seem from the foregoing that we would be justified in
putting these extremely heavy rainfalls in a class by themselves and
in applying to them the term “cloud-bursts.”’ However, since the
publication of the opinions already quoted there has been a wonder-
ful increase in the population of the Western States and Territories,
observation stations have been multiplied, and much of the mystery
that formerly surrounded the so-called ‘‘Great American Desert’’ has
been cleared away; and modern meteorologists have come to believe
that in many instances at least the damaging floods occasioned by
what are called cloud-bursts are not 80 much a result of extraor-
dinary and unexplained meteorological phenomena as they are the
result of a topography favorable to a high percentage of run-off, and
a concentration of this run-off into a comparatively narrow and swift-
moving stream. This belief is expressed by William Morris Davis,
professor of physical geography at Harvard College, in his Elemen- |
tary Meteorology, as follows:

The cloud-bursts of our arid western districts are only exaggerated thunderstorms.
They are local and short-lived, and seem to result from the sudden overturning of a
large mass of unstable atmosphere. The clouds that accompany these storms have
every feature indicative of a convectional origin, and, as with us, may be placed at
the end of a well-continued series, beginning with ordinary cumulus clouds; passing
then to moderate thundershowers, from which so little rain falls that it evaporates
on its way down through the thirsty lower air, and hardly a drop reaches the parched
ground; next to more active local thunderstorms of the usual type; and all these
culminating in the drenching fall of waters from the cloud-burst. A narrow strip of
country is inundated by such storms for a short distance; temporary streams then
rush down channels that are nearly dry at other times, gathering sand and dust, and

delivering the discharge of the storm to the main valleys in dark, muddy torrents,
many miles from the place of the rainfall.

328 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

It is a notable fact that storms to which the term “cloud-burst”
is applied do occur in mountainous districts, and that the damage
caused is nearly always confined to narrow valleys through which the
run-off from considerable areas must find its way. Stop to consider
that even 1 inch of rain represents a fall of more than 72,000 tons
of water on a single square mile, and it will become evident that it
does not require such a remarkably heavy rain storm over a catch-
ment basin of, say, 10 miles square, discharging through a narrow
canyon, to produce all the effects that we associate with a cloud-
burst. A rain of 6 inches over such a basin would represent a fall
of 43,509,832 tons of water. Among the more recent destructive
floods arising from this cause may be mentioned that which destroyed
the town of Heppner, Oreg., in June, 1903, causing the death of nearly
200 people. An investigation of the area covered by the storm and
the amount of water discharged through the valley was made almost
immediately by Mr. John T. Whistler, a representative of the United
States Geological Survey, who reported that a fall of an inch and a
half of rain over an area of 20 square miles, the probable area of the
storm, would account for all the water of the flood. To show that
this is not a phenomenally heavy downpour, the following instances
may be cited: At St. Louis, on August 15, 1848, a precipitation of
5.05 inches occurred in one hour; at Indianapolis, on July 12, 1876,
2.40 inches fell in twenty-five minutes; at Huron, S. Dak., on July
26, 1885, 1.30 inches fell in ten minutes; at Sandusky, Ohio, on July
11, 1879, 2.25 inches fell in fifteen minutes; at Madison, Wis., on
August 8, 1906, 4.45 inches fell in one hour and twenty minutes; at
Jacksonville, Fla., on May 12-13, 1903, 8.03 inches of rain fell in less
than twenty-four hours. In the records none of these rain storms
was spoken of as a cloud-burst, but had any of them occurred among
our western mountains, over such a drainage area as that discharging
through the Cottonwood at Boise, for instance, all the phenomena
usually attendant upon a cloud-burst would have been in evidence.
Commenting on Mr. Whistler’s report of the Heppner flood Mr.
Edward A. Beals, district forecaster in charge of the local office of the
Weather Bureau at Portland, says:

Scientists have never been able to account for ‘‘cloud-bursts” as anything more than
heavy thunderstorms; therefore Mr. Whistler’s conclusion that the ruggedness of the
topography rather than the quantity of the rainfall causes their great destructiveness
appears to be well taken, and, if correct, loss of life and property in such cases is not
due to the “visitation of Providence” so much as to the “‘folly of man” in building
cities and towns in such exposed localities.

It would seem, then, that one of the most important things to be
considered by engineers in planning irrigation works would be the
probable maximum intensity of the rainfall, in its relation to such
features of the topography of the country as might favor the dis-
charge of large amounts of water through narrow valleys.

-

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.?

By Herpert J. WEBBER,
Physiologist in Charge of Plant-Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.

New CITRANGES.

Of the new group of citranges or cold-resistant oranges, there have
previously been described three new varieties which were produced in
the course of experiments conducted by the Department of Agricul-
ture, namely, the Rusk, Willits, and Morton. Nursery trees of these
three varieties, budded on trifoliate orange stock, have been distrib-
uted to a limited number of interested growers in order that the varie-
ties may be thoroughly tested and become generally disseminated.
It is the object of the Department to make but a limited distribution
of any variety, striving only to secure its thorough trial and general
adoption in cultivation if the variety proves valuable. As soon as
good stock is obtainable from a number of nurserymen there is no need
for its further distribution by the Department. The first trees of the
Rusk and Willits were distributed in the spring of 1905 and the Morton
was distributed a year later. Sufficient time has not elapsed to allow
any of these trees to reach bearing age, and no further data are thus
available in regard to their adaptability to various sections, soils, etc.
In the Department’s experimental orchard the trees have been con-
tinued under trial. The Rusk has proved a very prolific variety, pro-
ducing numerous well-formed fruits. The fruits of this variety, which
are rather small, have for the last two seasons been larger than those
produced in the early fruiting of the same trees, showing a tendency
to produce somewhat larger fruit as the trees mature in age.

The Willits has in some respects proved disappointing. The fruits
of this variety, which were described as rather rough and furrowed,
have, as the trees grew older, become more irregular. Fruits are
frequently developed which have several of the segments protruding
above at the apex in free ends, similar to the so-called “fingered
citron,’’ though none of these free ends are so long as in that fruit.
When a number of the segments protrude in this way, as occurs
in some instances, the shape of the fruit reminds one strikingly of a

@JIn an article in the 1904 Yearbook entitled ‘‘New Citrus Creations of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,’’ the writer, in conjunction with Mr. Walter T. Swingle, described
two new citranges, the Rusk and Willits; one new tangelo, the Sampson; and two new
tangerines, the Weshart and Trimble. In the 1905 Yearbook, in an article entitled
“New Fruit Productions of the Department of Agriculture,’’ the writer described one
more citrange, the Morton; two limes, the Palmetto and Everglade; and five new pine-
apple hybrids, the Miami, Seminole, Eden, Matthams, and Gale. The work of the
Department in the breeding of oranges and pineapples was at first conducted jointly by
Mr. Walter T. Swingle and the writer, but since 1897 has been carried out by the writer,
who has received valuable aid from Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Dr. E. A. Bessey, and P. J.
Wester, of the Department’s Subtropical Garden, in connection with the experiments,
and from Mr. J. B. Norton and Mrs. L. H. Webber in testing the fruits and making the

necessary notes.
329

330 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

summer squash. Even in the most deformed fruits, however, the pulp
is very juicy and can be used as a substitute for the lemon or lime. This
variety shows a tendency, furthermore, to drop a considerable portion
of the fruit before it ripens, probably due to the abnormality and
imperfect development. The writer would advise that this variety be
propagated sparingly. It is, however, an interesting and curious
fruit and is well worthy of propagation as a lawn tree.

The Morton trees at the experiment station at Lake City, Fla.,
and in the Government orchard at Glen St. Mary, Fla., last season
produced a good crop of fine-shaped and fine-appearing fruit. The
variety is without doubt one of the best of the citranges. By Ridg-
way’s standards the skin color of the Morton is deep chrome to cad-
mium yellow and the pulp is between chrome and saffron yellow.
These records of color by Ridgway’s standards were not given in the
original description of the Morton.¢

The writer wishes again to emphasize the statement that the cit-
ranges must not be confounded with oranges. They are not oranges,
and are no more to be compared. to oranges than are lemons. They
are new fruits of the citrus group which are much hardier than the
orange or lemon, and which may be grown from 300 to 400 miles north
of the present orange region. They are principally of value for culi-
nary purposes and for making citrangeade. As an ade fruit they are
to be highly recommended, as the different varieties present different
and attractive flavors.

Many inquiries have reached the Department regarding the methods
of propagating the citrange varieties. The writer would advise that
they be budded on 2 or 3 year old seedlings of the Trifoliate orange.
This is a perfectly hardy stock, which can be grown successfully
anywhere in the southern United States. The ordinary method of
eye-budding which is practiced in the propagation of oranges, apples,
peaches, etc., is used. It has thus far been impossible to conduct
experiments in the manuring and cultivation of the citrange, and
in the absence of exact knowledge the writer would recommend that
in the different sections about the same manuring and cultivation
be given as is used with oranges, pears, or apples in those sections.

In this paper there will be described three new citranges—the
Colman, the Savage, and the Rustic. All of these varieties are sister
fruits of the Willits and Morton, all having developed from seeds of a
single fruit of Trifoliate orange which was crossed by Mr. W.T. Swingle
with pollen of the common sweet orange in the spring of 1897, in the
grove of Col. G. H. Norton, at Eustis, Fla. Forty seedlings were
grown from this single hybrid fruit, which, since their germination,
have been under the care of the writer. A careful study has been

«The colors referred to in this paper as Ridgway’s standards are the determination
of the colors by a careful comparison of the fruits with the standard color plates given
in A Nomenclature of Colors, by Robert Ridgway: Boston, 1886.

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. . 331

made of the 40 different seedlings and, with the publication of this
paper, 5 of them will have been named as new varieties of citranges.
While the final value of none of the citranges has yet been certainly
established, the writer feels certain that they will ultimately prove
of inestimable value and be cultivated extensively in many parts of
the world.

The hardiness of the Colman, Savage, and Rustic citranges described
in this paper has not been thoroughly determined, but the experi-
ments have shown them to be apparently as hardy as any of the
other citrange varieties. At Glen St. Mary and Lake City, Fla., and
at the Georgia and Alabama experiment stations they have several
times endured freezes without injury, when the temperature went as
low as 15° and 16°F. There would seem to be no doubt that in most
locations these trees may be successfully grown in regions from 300 to
400 miles north of the present orange belt of Florida. The writer
would recommend their thorough trial in South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and the warmer parts of Tennessee,
Arkansas, and Texas. They can certainly be grown in regions of
low altitude in New Mexico and Arizona and in the warmer sections
near the coast of Washington, Oregon, and northern California.
They may be safely recommended for any section which is only
slightly too cold for the ordinary orange.

THE COLMAN CITRANGE.
[PLATE XVII; PLATE XX, FIGURE 2.]

The Colman citrange is a hybrid of the Trifoliate orange with pollen
of the common sweet orange, and is closely related to the Morton
and Willits, having developed

from another seed of the same ¢ OLS) OOue>
O
CO O

hybrid fruit. This new citrange

has been named the Colman in sar TE.

recognition of the valuable serv- ¢ ae a
ices to agriculture and to this OO Om OSss
Department of Hon. Norman J.

Colman, under whose admin-

istration, as Commissioner of ee ae
Agricuiture, the agricultural Fig. 10.— a, Section of the skin of the Savage citrange,
work of the Government was ‘ovis stam and anansenent of the
organized as a separate Depart- showing the shape and arrangement of the oil
ment. The Colman isaremark- 92748. (Twice natural size.)

able hybrid, having fruits as large as the ordinary orange and of
fine appearance. It is very different in character from any other of
the citranges and is easily recognizable.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit compressed spherical, frequently rather
one-sided or oblique, large but rather smaller than the Morton, 2} to 2% inches high
and from 2} to 3} inches in diameter; color light orange or lemon yellow, lighter than

332 | YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Morton or Willits (by Ridgway’s standards Colman is between saffron yellow and
Indian yellow, while Morton is between deep chrome and cadmium yellow); surface
mainly very smooth, slightly roughened as in ordinary orange by slight depressions
over some of the large oil glands, covered with numerous short, stiff, colorless hairs,
occasionally with a few slight furrows near base; weight, heavy for size of fruit, from
6 to 9 ounces, usually averaging about 8 ounces, somewhat lighter than water; calyx
persistent but dried up and inconspicuous as in case of ordinary orange; rind medium
thin, one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness, adhering to fruit about as
in the ordinary Florida orange, being removed with moderate ease; in taste bitter and
disagreeable, intermediate between the ordinary and Trifoliate orange; oil glands small
and comparatively few, spherical or oblate-spherical, with major axis parallel to surface,
smaller and of different shape from those of the Morton, Savage, and other citranges,
and closer to the surface (fig. 10, b); pulp translucent, light lemon yellow (by Ridgway’s
standards wax yellow), lighter than the pulp of Morton; pulp vesicles longer and smaller
in diameter than those of the ordinary orange; tender; segments 10 to 14, separating
membranes somewhat thicker than in good ordinary oranges, with pronounced bitter-
ness derived from the Trifoliata; texture of fruit tender, very juicy; axis small, one-
fourth to one-half an inch in diameter; flavor a sprightly bitter acid, nearly as sour as
a lemon and with a peculiar stimulating bitter taste; almost totally seedless, averaging
1 seed to 6 fruits; aroma very pleasant and pronounced, differing from any other citrus
fruit, suggesting Trifoliata, but milder; tree similarto Trifoliata in shape, but with
denser foliage, evergreen or semievergreen, thorny, of medium height, and shapely;
fruit stems large and stiff, in many cases holding fruit erect; leaves in general trifoli-
olate, but frequently unifoliolate, nearly twice the size of those of the trifoliate orange;
season of maturity medium early, from middle of September to last of November.

The Colman citrange is an exceedingly interesting hybrid in its
combination of parental characters. It is the only one of the citranges
thus far secured which has inherited in any marked degree the fuzzy
fruit character of the Trifoliate orange. The fuzz on the Colman
fruit, however, in no way detracts from its good appearance and is
thus not a detrimental character. The foliage is in general slightly
larger than any of the other Trifoliata x orange hybrids which have
been secured and is nearly half unifoliolate, like the orange. In foli-
age characters, therefore, the Colman is more like the common orange
than any of the other citranges. In odor and flavor it is nearly inter-
mediate between the two parents. In shape and arrangement of oil
glands it is different from either parent or from any other citrange
which the writer has examined. While the majority of the Colman
fruits show very little indication of furrows, some fruits, as, for
instance, one shown in Plate XX, figure 2, have pronounced furrows
radiating from the base and reaching nearly to the apex of the fruit.
The tree of the Colman is very thorny, but the writer has observed
many branches having the thorns almost entirely suppressed, and it
is highly probable that the thorns may be bred out, as in the case of
varieties of the common orange, by selecting buds for propagation
from such thornless branches. The almost total seedlessness of this
variety is somewhat remarkable and greatly adds to the value of the
fruit. A record of 102 fruits examined in the last two years shows
an average of only 1 seed to 6 fruits.

The Colman is primarily recommended for use in making citrange-
ade. It makes a rich orange-colored ade of high quality, with a dash
of bitterness, which is very attractive to some palates. This quality,

like the bitter principle of the grapefruit, is doubtless stimulating

PLATE XVII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

A -HOEN & CO. BALTIMORE

NATURAL SIZE

~COLMAN CITRANGE.

of Agriculture, 1906. ; PLATE XVIII.

—— '
oo
veut Schutt = A HOENG&CO BALTIMORE

SAVAGE CITRANGE. NATURAL SIZE

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XIX.

Rustic CITRANGE. NATURAL SIZE.

=. >

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XX.

Fic. 1.—BRANCH OF THE SAVAGE CITRANGE. ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.

Fic. 2.—BRANCH OF THE COLMAN CITRANGE. ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 333

and healthful. The juiciness of this variety, its seedlessness, and its
large size specially fit it for use as an ade fruit. It also makes a very
fair marmalade, and other uses for the fruit will doubtless be found.
The tree is of fine appearance and well worthy of cultivation as a
lawn tree, aside from the value of its fruit.

THE SAVAGE CITRANGE.
[PLATE XVIII; PLATE XX, FIGURE 1.]

One of the best citranges in size, shape, and appearance which have
been secured in the course of the Department’s experiments is hybrid
No. 779, a cross of Trifoliate orange with pollen of sweet orange, and
a sister seedling of the Willits, Morton, Colman, and Rustic. This
hybrid has been named the Savage, after Mr. Frank Savage, of Eustis,
Fla., in whose orange grove many of the Department’s hybridization
experiments were started. The Savage produces a large, usually
well-shaped fruit and is apparently a valuable variety, differing con-
siderably from any of the other citrange varieties.. Following is a
technical description of the variety:

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit spherical or slightly compressed spherical,
frequently slightly oblique; of medium size, from 2 to 23 inches in height and from 2}
to 3} inches in diameter; weight from 3 to 8 ounces, average about 6 ounces, consider-
ably lighter than water, being less dense than the Colman; color light orange yellow
(by Ridgway’s standards between saffron yellow and Indian yellow), thus being almost
the same color as Colman and lighter than the Willits and Morton; surface in some
fruits smooth, in others considerably roughened by depressions; many fruits have very
pronounced furrows, running from the base to the apex, while others show only slight
furrows or none; with a few hairs on rind, but these very small and invisible without
lens; calyx persistent but inconspicuous as in ordinary orange; rind of medium thick-
ness, one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch, adhering rather closely to fruit, sug-
gests orange in taste, but with considerable bitterness from the Trifoliata parent; oil
glands spherical or ovate, similar in shape and appearance to those of ordinary orange
and being different in shape and more numerous than those of Colman (fig. 15, a); pulp
tender, translucent, light yellow (by Ridgway’s standards between wax yellow and
Naples yellow); pulp vesicles fusiform, varying in size, smaller than in ordinary orange
but much larger than in Trifoliata; segments 8 to 10; separating membranes moderately
tender, slightly bitter, texture tender and juicy; axis small, one-fourth to five six-
teenths of an inch in diameter; flavor a sprightly acid, somewhat bitter, not so sour
and bitter as Colman, more similar to the Morton; seeds few, usually averaging 3 or 4
per fruit; aroma pleasant but light, has a suggestion of apple odor; tree similar to Tri-
foliata, very vigorousand prolific; hardy, evergreen or semi-evergreen; without pruning

‘grows rather tall and slender; foliage dense; leaves mainly trifoliolate, some unifoliolate,
large; season of maturity medium early, from September 15 to last of November.

The Savage citrange is apparently the most fruitful of all of the
citrange clons, or varieties, aside*from the Rusk. The trees in the
Government test grove were last year (1906) laden with a very full
crop of nice appearing fruit, hanging on the tree in bunches. The
fruit runs uneven in size and shows some tendency toward freakish-
ness, a few cases of protruded segments having been observed. From
the fewness of these among the comparatively large number of fruits
developed, it is believed that it is not a seriously detrimental char-
acter. The fruit is not quite so sour and bitter as the Colman, being
more nearly like the Morton. By those who like a sour fruit it can
be eaten out of hand with sugar. It makes a good ade anda fair

334 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

marmalade, and can doubtless be used in many places where limes
and lemons are now used.

The tree has dense dark-green foliage and will make a fine appear-
ing lawn tree. It may make a good hedge plant when pruned, but
pruning on top would probably be necessary, as the test trees do not
seem to develop many basal branches. The Savage is one of the most
vigorous growers of any of the Trifoliata x orange hybrids, and, as it
produces a considerable number of seeds, it is worthy of careful trial
as a hardy stock on which to bud the varieties of the ordinary sweet
orange. The Trifoliate orange is used extensively at the present time,
but many orange growers object to it, owing to its tendency to dwarf
the trees. The Savage, being much more closely related to the sweet
orange, an exceptionally vigorous grower, and wholly resistant to
any degree of cold which would affect the sweet orange, would seem
to possess all of the desirable qualities of the Trifoliata as a stock and
would probably not have the same dwarfing tendencies. It might
be supposed that, being a hybrid, the seedlings would be too variable
to permit of using them in this way. While the variability of the
seedlings of the various citrange clons has not been fully determined,
a number of seedlings have been grown, and the foliage characters of
these are in all cases remarkably like those of the parent variety, show-
ing no reversions to the pure Trifoliata or pure orange, as might be
expected. While the value of the Savage as a stock is entirely prob-
lematical, it is sufficiently promising for the writer to recommend its
thorough trial.

THE RUSTIC CITRANGE.
[PLATE XIX.]

All of the cftranges which have been named have tree characters
which render them desirable for cultivation in the South as orna-
mental lawn trees or hedge plants, entirely aside from their value for
the fruit they produce. Hybrid No. 783, which, as stated previously,
is a seedling from the same hybrid fruit as the Colman and Savage
and is thus a hybrid of Trifoliata with pollen of sweet orange, does
not produce as good a fruit as those varieties, but produces a rather
more bushy, low-growing tree, which is believed to render it espe-
cially desirable for cultivation as-a lawn tree or hedge plant. This
hybrid has been given the name Rustic, which suggests the use for
which the variety is recommended.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit nearly spherical, of medium size, from 2
to 2{ inches in diameter and from 2 to 2} inches in height; weight medium, averaging
about 54 ounces per fruit; density lighter than water; color light yellow (by Ridg-
way’sstandards chrome yellow); surface covered with small inconspicuous hairs whic
are scattering and hardly visible without lens, fairly smooth, with small indentations
over some of the oil glands, as smooth as many sweet oranges, frequently with slight
furrows radiating from the stem and extending toward apex of fruit but seldom reach-
ing beyond middle of fruit; calyx persistent but inconspicuous, as in ordinary orange;
rind medium thin, one-eighth to seven thirty-seconds of an inch in thickness, adhering
rather closely to fruit, as in ordinary orange, bitter to taste; oil glands prominent,

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 335

mainly round or pear-shaped, with major axis at right angles to surface; pulp light,
translucent, greenish yellow, similar to the pulp color of ordinary lemons (by Ridgway’s
standards nearest to primrose yellow, but this color is not exactly correct); pulp
vesicles small and slender, not so juicy and melting as the Rusk, Colman, or Savage;
segments 6 to 12, separating membranes rather thicker and firmer than in Set
orange, slightly bitter; texture of fruit moderately tender; axis small, one-fourt
inch in diameter; flavor a characteristic citrange acid with some bitterness, rather
similar to the Willits; number of seeds variable; some fruits have as high as 24 seeds,
while others are seedless; aroma light but pleasant; tree similar to ordinary sweet
orange, spreading and branched below, differing in this regard from other citranges;
vigorous and cold-resistant, evergreen or semi-evergreen, of medium height and
shapely; leaves trifoliolate, dark green, larger than those of Trifoliate orange; season
of maturity medium early, from middle of September to last of November.

The tree of the Rustic budded on Trifoliate orange stock differs
considerably in shape from that of any of the other citranges, devel-
oping fairly long lower branches, which are more widely spreading
than in the Trifoliate orange or the other citranges, and giving the
tree greater breadth near the ground. The tree of the Rustic is thus
in shape much nearer to that of the ordinary sweet orange. In the
other citranges there are fewer large branches developed near the
ground, and such as there are have a tendency to grow erect and
stiff, giving the tree a shape more nearly like the Trifoliate orange.
The foliage of the Rustic is dense, dark green, and mainly evergreen,
and the twigs, as in the case of all of the citranges, are armed with
long, stiff spines. It thus possesses all of the characters which fit it
for use as a hedge plant. The Rustic fruits in the seasons of 1904
and 1905 developed numerous seeds, ranging usually from 12 to 24
seeds per fruit. In 1906, however, for some unknown reason almost
all of the fruits were nearly seedless. If the variety is to prove satis-
factory for hedge purposes seedy fruits are desired, and it is desirable
to learn what factors are conducive to seed production. The writer’s
experience at the present time is not sufficient to enable him to give
intelligent suggestions, but he believes that ordinarily a sufficient
number of seeds will be produced to use for propagation purposes.
While the seedlings will doubtless vary somewhat, the experience
with the citranges up to the present time indicates that they almost
invariably produce seedlings with foliage characters like those of the
parental variety. Cuttings from the citranges can be rooted fairly
easily in hothouses with bottom heat, and it may prove practical
to propagate trees in this way. Satisfactory stock for planting
hedges could be secured by budding on Trifoliate orange stocks,
but this would make the plants rather too expensive for hedge
purposes.

As in the case of the Savage, it is believed that the Rustic might
also prove a desirable hardy stock on which to bud the various clons
of the ordinary sweet orange, lemon, etc. If it develops sufficient
seeds from which stocks may be grown the writer would suggest its
careful trial for this purpose. |

While the fruit of the Rustic is not so large or juicy as some of the
other citranges, it is nevertheless of fairly good quality, and, as in the

336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

case of the other citranges, makes a good citrangeade and may be used
in making marmalades, pies, cakes, etc.

New Loosk-sKINNED ORANGE—THE THORNTON.

In the citrus-breeding experiments of the Department the improve-
ments which it would be desirable to obtain were carefully studied
and the combinations of parents were planned which would be most
likely to produce these improvements. The loose, easily removable
skin or ‘‘kid-glove”’ character of the tangerine and mandarin oranges
was recognized as a very valuable character, as probably the majority
of oranges are eaten by peeling and separating the segments. The
various clons of the tangerine and mandarin group of oranges, how-
ever, are sweet, rather insipid, and dry, and as a class lack the rich
juiciness and sprightly high quality of the ordinary orange. It was
thought that by hybridizing the tangerine with the common orange
hybrid varieties might be secured combining the most desirable
qualities of the two classes of fruits. With this in view many
hybrids were made of the tangerine with the common orange and
the reciprocal combination. None of these hybrids which have thus
far fruited has given the desired combination of characters. It is
surprising, however, that almost the exact fruit sought has resulted
from a hybrid of the pomelo with pollen of tangerine, the same com-
bination that gave the tangelo, though not from the same hybridized
fruit. This hybrid, Thornton No. 5, has the loose skin and easily
separable segments of the tangerine and also shows the tangerine
in the form and color of the pulp vesicles and the green color of the
cotyledons. The character of the pomelo or grapefruit, which is
supposed to be the female parent, is, however, hardly discernible
in any character. The writer, from the characters of the fruit,
would suppose ‘it to be an orange X tangerine hybrid rather than
pomeloX tangerine. The original label of this hybrid was lost, but
only pomelo x tangerine hybrids were sent to Mr. Thornton, who
grew this hybrid to fruiting, and there would thus seem to be no
doubt as to the parentage. An error may have been made, however,
and if so it will probably be discovered later in the course of the fur-
ther experiments. Regardless of the parentage, this hybrid is be-
lieved to possess valuable characters and to be worthy of general
cultivation. It has therefore been named the Thornton, in recogni-
tion of the aid which Mr. C. B. Thornton, of Orlando, Fla., has given
the Department in connection with these experiments. <A technical
description of the variety follows:

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT AND TREE.—Fruit oblate, flattened at the apex and tapering
from about the middle to the base; size medium large, 3} to 3} inches in diameter by
2% to 3} inches high; color orange, about the same shade as the ordinary Florida sweet
oranges; surface somewhat rough, similar to the King orange, but not so markedl
rough as in that variety; skin medium thick, one-eighth to one-fourth of an inc
(rarely as thick as shown in Pl. XX1I), flexible and ek being easily removable, like

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 337

the skin of the tangerine; oil glands large and conspicuous; segments 10 to 12, sepa-
rating easily like tangerine and with considerable adhering white soft membrane, as
in that fruit; separating membranes comparatively thin and tender; axis small,
except in old fruits, one-half inch in diameter, mainly hollow, as in tangerine; quality
excellent; texture tender, very juicy; flavor a mild, rich subacid, very attractive
but characteristic, not like any other citrus fruit; no indication of bitterness from
pomelo; pulp orange-colored; seeds 5 to 12 per fruit, resembling orange in shape but
with greenish cotyledons, similar to the tangerine; aroma not unlike ordinary orange
with suggestion of bitter-sweet orange, attractive; tree evergreen, having general
characters of ordinary sweet orange; leaves unifoliolate; time of ripening midseason.

It might be assumed from the supposed parentage of this hybrid
that it should be classed as a tangelo. The fruit, however, is sweet
and not bitter, and more resembles an orange than a pomelo. From
the general characters of this fruit it would be classed as a loose-
skinned common orange, while the tangelo may be described in gen-
eral as a loose-skinned pomelo. Some of the fruits of the Thornton
have been affected with the orange scab to some extent, showing the
susceptibility of the variety to this disease, as would be supposed
from its similarity to the tangerine. As the fruits grow old they
become rather large and puffy, as in the case of the tangerine, and it
is a section of such an old fruit that is shown in the lower half of
Plate XXI, whichis not characteristic of the fruit when in prime
condition. It is believed that the Thornton is a valuable fruit, and
it should be tested thoroughly.

PINEAPPLE Hyprins.

In the 1905 Yearbook of the Department five new varieties of
pineapples were described, namely, the Miami, Seminole, Eden, Mat-
thams, and Gale. Since that time a considerable number of the
fruits of these varieties have been carefully tested, and a limited dis-
tribution has been made of slips of three of the varieties. The Miami
has proven to be one of the best appearing fruits of the various
hybrids, but, while of fairly good quality, it is much inferior to many
of the hybrids in this regard. It is, however, apparently a good
shipper, and, as its quality is certainly superior to that of the ordi-
nary varieties of pineapples, it should prove a desirable sort. The
Seminole and Gale produce fruits of exceptional appearance and
very high quality; both of these varieties, however, produce but few
slips and suckers and their propagation is thus very slow. This is
the only important factor against the general cultivation of these
varieties. The Matthams has proven to be an all round good sort.
At the Graduate School of Agriculture, held at the University of
Illinois in July, 1906, the writer had the pleasure of having a large
number of these hybrids tested by the various students and instruct-
ors, fully fifty individuals taking part in the test. A vote on the
quality of the fruits tested resulted in an almost unanimous vote in
favor of Matthams for first, Eden for second, and Miami for third
place. The Seminole and Gale were not fruiting in sufficient quan-

3 A1906——22

338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tity to be entered in this test, but about forty different hybrids were
tested in comparison with Red Spanish. The Matthams is a yellow-
fleshed variety of a rich sweet flavor, which on first testing is likely
to be preferred by many people. The writer, however, believes it to
be inferior in flavor to the Eden and to the Deliciosa, which is described
later in this paper.

In the present paper 7 new varieties are described. These are all
very distinct from any of the known varieties, and 6 of them have
smooth-margined leaves; thus the experiments have resulted im
adding 9 smooth-leaved varieties to our list, where only one smooth-
leaved sort, the Smooth Cayenne, was known at the time the experi-
ments were started. Since the experiments were started, however,
a variation of the Red Spanish has gradually come into cultivation
which has nearly smooth-margined leaves. Some of the leaves of
this variation are still in parts serrate, but unquestionably a purely
smooth-leaved sort can be established by the selection of slips from
plants showing the least indication of spine development. The
writer has been unable to learn the history of this smooth-leaved
Red Spanish, but a considerable number of the fruits with smooth-
leaved crowns can be observed in the market, so that it must be
cultivated to a considerable extent. These fruits seem usually to be
mixed with the spiny-leaved Red Spanish, as though the smooth-
leaved type had not been distinguished as a distinct variety.

The writer wishes to strongly impress upon growers the desirability
of only taking slips and suckers for propagation from those plants
which have produced the finest appearing and best fruits. Several
of the hybrids which are being named and distributed produce fruits
which have certain characters that are variable, and some undesirable
fruits may be produced. Some varieties occasionally produce too
large crowns or compound crowns of undesirable shape. By propa-
gating only from plants producing fruits with good crowns this
tendency may probably be easily bred out. In the case of varietips
such as the Orlando and the Biscayne, described later, in which a
considerable number of the plants produce no slips, this tendency will
doubtless be bred out in the course of their regular propagation, as
the preponcerating number of slips will be taken from prolific plants.

THE DELICIOSA PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXII, FIGURE 1.]

Pineapple hybrid No. 90, by all of those who have assisted the
writer in testing hybrids, has come to be considered as the standard
of excellence. Mr. W. A. Taylor, of Pomological Field Investigations,
in describing this hybrid, said: ‘If any pine is entitled to the name
Deliciosa, this is it.” Following this suggestion, the writer has given
the name Deliciosa to this hybrid.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXI.

THORNTON ORANGE. NATURAL SIZE.

PLATE XXII.

riculture, 1906.

of Ag

S. Dept.

ook U.

Yearb

Fia. 1.—THE DELICIOSA PINEAPPLE. ONE-FOURTH
NATURAL SIZE.

Fic. 2.—THE DADE PINEAPPLE.
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 339

The Deliciosa is a hybrid of Enville with pollen of Porto Rico
and is one of a series of 34 hybrids developed from seeds of the
same fruit of Enville, a number of flowers of which were crossed by
Mr. Swingle in the spring of 1897. The first fruit was produced in
1901, and since that time an increasing number of fruits has been
produced each year. The Eden pineapple, described in 1905, is
also one of this series of hybrids. A considerable number of the
hybrids of this series are of remarkably high flavor. In the descrip-
tion of the Eden (No. 90) the Deliciosa was referred to as probably
the best-flavored fruit, but rendered worthless for cultivation by its
small size and very large crown. In the summer of 1906 a larger
number of fruits of the Deliciosa have been produced than in any
preceding year, and for some reason they have run considerably
larger in size, while the crowns have been smaller. The writer
interprets this change as occurring normally in the clon as it becomes
older in bud-propagated generations. In several cases, at least, such
changes in clons or bud-propagated varieties have been noted. In
sugar cane, for instance, it has been found that the normal sugar
content of a clon can not be determined until it has passed through
several bud-propagated generations. It may be that this improve-
ment in the fruits of the Deliciosa is due to better manuring and
cultivation, but, whatever the explanation, it would seem that, if
put under good conditions, the variety will produce a fruit of about
2 to. 24 pounds weight. At best, however, it is small and of poor
shape, and, as in the case of the Eden, it is only its exceptionally
high quality and flavor that justify its being named and distributed.
In the case of both the Deliciosa and the Eden, however, it is believed
that a special high-class market can be found for them, and in any
case Many growers will desire to cultivate a few of them for home use.
A technical description of the Deliciosa pineapple follows:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plant usually large and spreading; leaves
broad, recurved, rigid, dark green in color, and with a distinct central purplish stripe
linch wide; margin straight or somewhat undulate, serrate or spiny, with closely set
medium-sized reddish spines; crown of medium to large size, mainly single but some-
times compound; average crown 8 to 9 inches high, with spread of 6 to 7 inches; ap-
pearance in general rather long and slender for shape of fruit; leaves of crown serrate,
4 to 10 inches long and from 1 to 14 inches wide; fruit small, usually weighing from 2 to
23 pounds, conical in shape, being rather tall and diminishing gradually in size from
bottom to top, height 5} to 8 inches, diameter 3 to 4 inches: color of fruit in general
orange yellow (by Ridgway’s standards, fruits have been found to vary from deep
chrome to orange ochraceous), the eye bracts frequently having a tinge of coral red;
the color is often considerably hidden by a whitish scaly covering similar to the bloom
of other fruits; surface of fruits rough; aroma usually strong and attractive; eyes
small, averaging about five-eighths by five-eighths of an inch, similar to Enville in
shape and considerably protruded; eye bracts medium in size, tip five-eighths of
an inch long, with serrate margins frequently of coral or Indian red color; general
quality of fruit excellent; texture very tender and brittle; flavor a very rich sweet sub-
acid, very attractive; flesh light yellow or cream yellow, rather open; eye pits com-
paratively shallow; axis small, three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter, compara-
tively tender and brittle, in most fruits being of fair flavor and edible; slips numerous,

usually from 3 to 10, rather too close to fruit; suckers 1 to 2; shipping quality appar-
_ ently fairly good; season of ripening mainly between May 15 and July 1.

340 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Deliciosa is very different in character from either of the par-
ents and it is difficult to trace any resemblance to the parental charac-
ters. The eyes are small and considerably protruded and the fruit is
conical in shape. In these characters the Deliciosa most closely re-
sembles the Enville, which was the mother parent. The very high
flavor is also probably derived mainly from the Enville, though it is
surely superior to the Enville in this regard. In no particular charac-
ter can the influence of the Porto Rico be discerned and no one would
suspect that the Porto Rico was one of the parents.

The Deliciosa is considerably different from its sister variety, the
Eden, being smaller and of darker orange ochraceous color. The
crown is larger in comparison to the fruit, but of the same general
shape. The leaves are also more erect and not so broad as those of
the Eden, and the edges are raised, the leaves resembling a gutter.
The central stripe of the leaves is rather narrow and dark purple.
The fruit, which is elongated and tapering, is carried on a long stem.

The Deliciosa is remarkable for its exceptionally delicate and deli-
cious flavor and its tender, brittle flesh and core. It is not as juicy
as some fruits, but is sufficiently juicy to be good. Its detrimental
characters are its small size, poor shape for shipping, and rather
large crown. By selecting slips for propagation from the largest,
best-shaped fruits with small crowns, the variety can doubtless be
much improved. As in the case of the Eden, the writer would rec-
ommend that the variety be cultivated for home use and gradually
introduced into the market. If the superior quality of this fruit
and the Eden for table purposes were recognized by the market they
would be in great demand.

THE DADE PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXII, FIGURE 2]

Pineapple hybrid No. 168, which has proven to produce a fruit of
excellent quality, is believed to possess characters of merit, and for
this variety the writer proposes the name Dade. This fruit is a
hybrid of Enville with pollen of Smooth Cayenne. The cross-fertil-
ized fruit which produced the Dade gave only 3 seedlings, Nos. 166,
167, and 168. No. 166, which is a serrate-leaved seedling, has already
been discarded. No..167, which is smooth-leaved like No. 168, is a
fairly good variety and is still under trial. The Dade resembles the
Enville in eye, size, and shape, and has the smooth-margined leaves
like the Smooth Cayenne. The first fruits of this variety were pro-
duced in 1904, and since that time several fruits have been produced
yearly. Following is a technical description of this variety:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plant medium to large, mainly rather spread-
ing; leaves broad, recurved, rather rigid, green to dark green in color, and usually with
a somewhat indistinct central purplish stripe about 1 inch wide; margin undulate,
mainly smooth, but in some alternately smooth and spiny or simply with a few spines
at the apex. Crown of medium to large size, single; average crown about 8 to 10 inches
high, with spread of 6 to 8 inches, general appearance good; leaves of crown mainly

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 341

smooth, from 5 to 6 inches in length and from three-fourths to 14 inches in width,
rather flaccid, with lower leaves rather long and frequently reflexed over apex of fruit;
fruit of medium to small size, usually weighing from 24 to 34 pounds, ovate to conical in
shape, height from 5 to 7 inches, diameter from 3} to 44 inches; color of fruit light lemon
yellow or orange chrome; strface of fruit comparatively smooth; aroma attractive,
spicy, fairly strong; eyes small to medium in size, similar to Enville in shape, flat and
but slightly protruded; eye bracts small or medium in size, with slightly serrate mar-
gins; Enea utality of fruit excellent; texture tender and brittle, slightly stringy;
flavor a sweet subacid with little or no acridity; flesh yellow, attractive in color, juicy,
rather open; eye pits of medium depth; axis large, averaging about 1 inch in diam-
eter, tender and brittle and of fair edible quality; slips numerous, usually 3 to 10, not
too close to fruit; suckers 1 to 2; season late, the majority ripening in July.

The Dade pineapple is inferior to the Deliciosa in flavor, but is a
better-shaped fruit, of good appearance, having mainly smooth-mar-
gined leaves. This variety, like a number of others of the hybrids
where a spiny-leaved sort was crossed with the Smooth Cayenne,
seems to be somewhat in doubt what sort of leaves to produce; fre-
quently a leaf will be found which has scattered spines on the margin
and occasionally a leaf will be almost wholly serrate. In general,
however, it would be ranked as a smooth-leaved sort. The fruit is
rather small for the size of the crown, but it has a bright, attractive
color and good surface. It has some tendency to develop a fruit of
slightly irregular shape, being in some cases slightly constricted in the
middle. The plant. is of good, vigorous habit, and the fruit stem is
short and stout. Some fruits when received have been found to show
some eye-rot, but the variety in general would probably ship well.
On the whole the variety is probably not as promising as some others,
but is worthy of careful trial under different conditions.

THE COQUINA PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXIII, FIGURE 1.]

To this pineapple hybrid No. 169 (Green Ripley crossed with pollen
of Smooth Cayenne) has been given the name Coguina. It is the only
seedling which developed from a single hybridized fruit, but is of the
same parentage as the Gale, described in the 1905 Yearbook.

The seedling of the Coquina fruited first in 1902, and in 1905 a con-
siderable number of fruits were produced. It adds another smooth-
leaved sort to our list of promising varieties. The illustration of this
fruit shown in Plate XXIII, figure 1, shows a poor fruit of the variety.
A technical description follows:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plant large, compact or somewhat spreading;
leaves broad, recurved, rather flaccid; color light green, mainly without a distinguish-
able central band, but in some specimens with an indistinct pale green band about 1
inch wide; margins mainly straight, but in some cases slightly undulate, smooth, or
with a few serrations at the apex; crown of medium to large size, about 9 inches high
and with spread of about 7 inches, single and usually of good shape and size in compari-
son with fruit; crown leaves 5 to 10 inches long and 1 inch wide, with smooth margins;
fruit of good appearance, medium size, weighing from 3 to 4 pounds, oblong elliptical,
4{ to 5j inches in height and from 44 to 5 inches in diameter. Color of fruit orange yel-
low (by Ridgway’s standards deep chrome); eyes small to medium, somewhat irregular
in shape, about medium in degree of protrusion; eye bracts of medium size, interme-
diate between smooth and serrate; flesh rather open, moderately juicy, of rich yellow
color; texture brittle and solid, slightly stringy; lavor subacid, rich, sweet, attractive;

342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

core small, one-half inch in diameter, tough and scarcely edible; eye pits shallow;
aroma moderately strong and attractive; general appearance and quality excellent;
slips 7 to 12; suckers 1.to 4; season mainly July.

The Coquina usually produces an attractive, good-sized fruit with
good crown. The surface of some fruits has been slightly cracked and
checked, but not sufficiently to seriously injure its good appearance.
The flesh is of an attractive rich yellow color. The eyes in general
resemble those of the Ripley, the female parent, while the crown and
smooth leaves are mainly like the Smooth Cayenne. The variety
produces a large number of slips and suckers, and may thus be
rapidly propagated. In some fruits the slips are rather too close to
the fruit, but seldom so close as to seriously injure the fruit in cutting
or breaking it. While this fruit is not equal to some of the other
hybrids in quality, it is believed to possess sufficient merit to justify
its propagation.

THE JUPITER PINEAPPLE.

[PLATE XXIII, FIGURE 2.]

Pineapple hybrid No. 185 (Green Ripley crossed with pollen of
Smooth Cayenne) has proven a very desirable sort in the tests made,
and the writer has named this variety the Jupiter.

The Jupiter is one of a series of 20 hybrids developed from seed of
the same original hybrid fruit. Many of these seedlings exhibit desir-
able characters, and one of them, the Gale, was described in the 1905
Yearbook.

Following is a technical description of the variety:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plant of medium to large size, spreading;
leaves broad, recurved, rigid; margin of leaves mainly more or less undulate, and
spineless or in some cases nearly spiny; color of leaves green, in most cases without
central stripe, but occasionally showing indistinct purplish central stripe about 1 inch
wide; crown single or sometimes compound, of medium size, averaging about 8 inches
high with spread of 7 inches, of good appearance and symmetrical; crown leaves dark
green, from 1 to 7 inches long and about 1 inch in width, margins smooth or serrate,
and smooth intermingled; fruit of excellent appearance, medium in size, weighing
from 2} to 5 pounds, ovate elliptical, from 5} to 7 inches in height and from 4} to 5
inches in diameter; color of fruit dark orange (by Ridgway’s standards orange ochra-
ceous); eyes of medium size, about three-fourths by seven-eighths inch, flat, giving a
fruit of smooth surface; eye bracts small to medium in size, with smooth or slightly
serrate margins; flesh solid, very juicy, yellow, and attractive in appearance; texture
rather tough and slightly stringy, in some cases the fruits being recorded as tender, this
character seeming to vary somewhat; flavor subacid and sweet; core rather large, 1
inch in diameter, tender and edible, at least in some fruits, recorded as tough in other
fruits; eye pits shallow; aroma light but attractive; slips few, 1 to 2, sometimes none;
suckers 1 to 2; season June and July.

The Jupiter is a rather peculiar hybrid in its variability when
propagated vegetatively, and there is some possibility that it will
prove too variable to give satisfactory results. Some of the fruits are
of very excellent quality and appearance, while others are but little
above the ordinary in these regards. Some fruits have the surface
slightly cracked, but this in the fruits examined has not detracted
seriously from the appearance. The foliage presents a peculiar inter-
mixture of the spiny and smooth character of the two parental varie-

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

PLATE XXIII.

PLATE XXIV.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

Fig. 1.—THE JENSEN PINEAPPLE.

FiG. 2.—THE ORLANDO PINEAPPLE.

{All one-fourth natural size. ]

Ne

pety Bee

,

i “a
Fe i
e — ene «

SF oc

Fic. 3.—THE BISCAYNE PINEAPPLE

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 343

ties. In general the leaves have smooth margins, but some leaves are
spiny throughout, while others have scattered spines or groups of
spines irregularly arranged on the margin, still others being spiny only
at the apex.

The fruit of the Jupiter is, in general, about the same size and shape
as the Red Spanish, being thus of good market size and shape. It is
apparently a good keeper. This variety gives evidence of being a
good canning sort, as it peels economically, and the core is soft enough
in general, so that it probably can be sliced without cutting out the
core. The solidity of the flesh and the sweetness of the variety also
recommend it for this purpose. In flavor and quality the Jupiter is
certainly inferior to a number of the hybrids, but it is superior in these
respects to many of the varieties commonly cultivated.

THE JENSEN PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXIV, FIGURE 1.]

Pineapple hybrid No. 197 is a cross of Green Ripley with pollen of
Smooth Cayenne. It is one of 24 seedlings grown from a single fruit
ot Ripley which was cross-pollinated in 1898. None of the other seed-
lings of this series has thus far proved valuable, and the majority of
them have already been discarded. A few, however, are still under
test. The first fruit of the Jensen was produced in 1902, and in 1905
and 1906 a considerable number of fine fruits were produced. A
technical description of the variety follows:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plant medium to large, compact or somewhat
spreading; leaves of medium width to broad, recurved, rigid; color green or light
green, without central band or with an indistinct purplish band about 1 inch in width;
margins more or less undulate, smooth or spiny at apex; crown single, of medium size,
compact, 5 to 8 inches in height, with spread of from 4 to 8 inches, of excellent shape
and appearance; crown leaves from 4 to 6 inches in length and from three-fourths
to 1 inch in width, with smooth margins, frequently with very distinct purplish band:
basal leaves in some fruits strongly reflexed over apex of fruit; fruit of excellent appear-
ance, medium size, weighing from 2 to 4 pounds, oblong, conical, 5 to 6} inches in
height and 34 to 44 inches in diameter; color light orange yellow, by Ridgway’s
standards yellow ocher to deep chrome; eyes of medium size, seven-eighths by seven-
eighths inch, somewhat protruded or nearly flat, giving a good surface; eye bracts
small or medium in size, with smooth or slightly serrate margins; flesh solid, very
juicy, of rich yellow attractive color; texture very tender, soft, and stringless; flavor
a rich, sprightly acid, very attractive, and with very little indication of acridity; core
small, one-half to five-eighths inch in diameter, tender and edible; eye pits shallow;
aroma fairly strong and attractive; slips usually about 5 or 6, in some cases rather
too close to the fruit; suckers 1 to 2; season June and July.

The Jensen pineapple produces a very bright, finely colored,
attractive fruit of good shipping size, with symmetrical crown. The
eyes protrude but little, so that the surface is fairly smooth. In the
eye character and in shape and-size of fruit it is much like Ripley,
the female parent, but fortunately it has inherited the smooth leaves
of the male parent. While the fruits are solid and very juicy, the
majority of them have reached Washington in excellent condition,
with little sign of rotting. It is probable, therefore, that the fruits
will be found to be fairly good shippers. On some there is a pro-
nounced neck between the fruit and the crown, but this in no way

344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

detracts from the excellent appearance of the fruit. -The flavor of
the Jensen is a sprightly acid, but it is nevertheless sweet, spicy, and
of high quality. The flesh is remarkably juicy and tender and can be
eaten very close to the surface. Withal, the Jensen is believed to
be a very valuable variety, worthy of general cultivation. Because
of its shallow eyes, solid, juicy flesh, and tender core it may also prove
a good canning sort.

THE ORLANDO PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXIV, FIGURE 2.]

Pineapple hybrid No. 212, a cross of Green Ripley with pollen of
the Smooth Cayenne, is one of the best appearing and most prom-
ising of the various sorts under trial. For this variety the writer
proposes the name Orlando. The fruit of the Orlando is very dif-
ferent from either of the parental varieties or from any other of the
known varieties. It has smooth, entire-margined leaves like the
Smooth Cayenne, but differs from that variety in shape and size of
fruit and in having much smaller eyes. In eye characters the
Orlando somewhat resembles the Ripley, but could not be mistaken
for that variety. The cross which resulted in the Orlando was made
in the spring of 1898, and the first fruit was produced in 1903. Fol-
lowing is a technical description of the variety:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plants small to medium in size} compact or
somewhat spreading, light green; leaves broad, recurved, rigid, mainly without cen-
tral band, but occasionally with indistinct purplish or yellowish band about three-
fourths inch wide; margin of leaves undulate, smooth, and spineless, or at least with
only a few spines at the apex; crown single, of medium size and excellent appearance,
4 to 10 inches high, with spread of 4 to 8 inches; width of crown leaves three-fourths
to 1 inch; fruit of excellent appearance, but rather small in size, weighing from 1 to
44 pounds, and usually averaging about 24 pounds, ovate oblong, 4 to 8 inches high
and from 3 to 5 inches in diameter; color in general a bright orange (by Ridgway’s
standards between orange and orange ochraceous, with the base of the eye bracts
ochraceous buff); surface medium in smoothness and attractive in appearance; aroma
light but pleasant; eyes small to medium, three-fourths by three-fourths inch; in
general flat or intermediate in degree of protrusion; eye bracts small to medium in
size, with smooth margins; general quality of fruit excellent, very juicy, texture
usually brittle and tender, with slight stringiness; flavor a rich, sweet subacid if not
overripe, very pleasant and spicy, with very slight acridity; flesh yellow, solid; eye
pits usually very shallow; axis small, averaging about three-eighths of an inch in
diameter, usually rather tough and with little flavor, but in some fruits tender and
edible; slips rather few, in some fruits 3 to 6, in others none; not too close to the fruit;
suckers | to 4; season mainly June and July.

The fruit of the Orlando in general is very fine in symmetry, appear-
ance, and all those characters which go to make up an excellent
variety. The color is rich and attractive. In some fruits the eye
bracts are somewhat cracked at the base, but this has in no case
seriously detracted from the general good appearance. Some of the
fruits are too small in size, but they are usually large enough to suit
the market. In quality, the Orlando will rank very high if eaten
before it is overripe. When the fruit ages, it is liable to become
somewhat water-logged and too sweet to suit the majority of
tastes. It is difficult to determine the season of a pineapple until it is

NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 345

grown on a fairly large scale. The majority of the fruits of the
Orlando have ripened in June and July, but some have been har-
vested in December. There is little waste to this variety, as the
shallow eyes allow it to be peeled very thin. A feature of importance
in connection with this fruit is the possibility, owing to its small size,
of its being a desirable sort to use as the Natal variety is used in
South Africa, according to the observations of Mr. D. G. Fairchild.
There single fruits of the Natal are commonly purchased by pedes-
trians on the streets, peeled and eaten much as we eat apples in this
country. The fruit of the Orlando peels without much waste, and is
normally of small size. If the plants were grown considerably
crowded together it is probable that numerous fruits of three-
fourths to 1 pound weight could be produced, which, owing to their
excellent appearance and smooth leaves, would be well adapted to use
in this way. For such use they would probably be superior to the
Natal, primarily because of their smooth leaves.

THE BISCAYNE PINEAPPLE.

[PLATE XXIV, FIGURE 3.]

Pineapple hybrid No. 228, a cross of Pernambuco with pollen of
Porto Rico, is one of the finest appearing and best of the various
hybrids with smooth leaves which have been secured by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and has been named after the beautiful Bay Bis-
cayne, on the shores of which it has been grown. The original
crossed fruit from which the Biscayne developed gave 35 seedlings,
31 of which have fruited. Either the plants or the numbers of the
other 4 were lost. Of these 31 seedlings, 21 have entire or smooth
leaves, while 10 have serrate leaves. In this case both parents have
serrate leaves, and it is difficult to account for the preponderating
number of smooth-leaved plants among the hybrids. The proportion
is exactly what would be expected in crossing a smooth with a spiny-
leaved sort when the smooth character is dominant. It is difficult to
understand how an error could have been made in the fruits, but the
writer would be inclined to believe from the characters of the various
hybrids that the Smooth Cayenne was used as the male parent
instead of the Porto Rico. None of the other hybrids of this series
has thus far been selected for propagation, though several of them
are still under trial. The first fruit of the Biscayne was produced
in 1902, and a considerable number of the fruits have since been
grown and tested. Following is a technical description of the variety:

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND FRUIT.—Plant medium to large in size, spreading or
somewhat compact, green or green suffused with purple; leaves broad, recurved, rigid,
with purplish central band about 1 inch wide; margin straight or undulate; smooth or
entire except for few spines at apex of leaves; crown single or compound, of medium
size and usually excellent appearance, 3 to 6 inches high, with spread of from 4 to 6
inches; crown leaves usually rather narrow, from one-half to seven-eighths of an inch;

346 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

' fruit of excellent appearance and medium size, weighing usually from 1} to 4 pounds,
oblong, 4} to 7 inches high; and 3} to 5 inches in diameter; color in general, orange (by
Ridgway’s standards ocher yellow, ochraceous, or deep chrome); surface smooth, regu-
lar, and very attractive in appearance; aroma mainly strong and spicy, in some fruits
slight; eyes small to medium in size, five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch by three-
fourths to seven-eighths of an inch, flat, giving fruit very smooth appearance; eye bracts
small, one-fourth to one-half inch long, with slightly serrate margins; general qualit
of fruit excellent, juicy; texture tender, slightly stringy, flavor a rich sweet subacid,
very pleasing; acridity usually slight; flesh a cream yellow; attractive in appearance,
solid; eye pits very shallow, fruit peeling with little waste; axis one-half to 1 inch in
diameter, slightly woody, and with little flavor; slips 1 to 2, frequently none; suckers
1 to 3; season, June to July.

The Biscayne is somewhat similar in general characters and flavor
to the Orlando. It is different in shape and appearance of surface,
however, and is easily distinguishable from that variety when care-
fully compared. The crown of the Biscayne is frequently compound,
and in some cases this detracts from the appearance of the fruits,
In no case, however, has the crown been so large and compound as to
injure the character of the apex of the fruit, and the compound
nature of the crown has seldom detracted seriously from the appear-
ance of the fruit. The surface of the fruit is particularly smooth, and
even under these conditions the eyes are comparatively shallow.
Ordinarily fruits with flat eyes have deep eye pits, while if the eyes are
strongly protruded the eye pits are usually shallow. In shape the
Biscayne is rather remarkable. No variety known to the writer
retains in so marked degree its full diameter entirely to the apex. In
almost all qualities the Biscayne is an excellent pineapple, and is
believed to be worthy of general propagation.

DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN BY THE
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

By M. Dorset,
Chief of the Biochemic Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.

IMPORTANCE OF EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES.

In order to cope successfully with infectious diseases we must pos-
sess means for their early recognition, for, aside from the very great
advantages which are thus obtained in cases where treatment is to be
applied, an early diagnosis enables us to protect, by methods of quar-
antine and disinfection, healthy individuals that might otherwise be
exposed to the contagion. Indeed, the success of any struggle with
an infectious disease which is spread by contact of healthy individuals
with those that are diseased may be measured directly by the certainty
with which the disease in question can be recognized. This fact is
obvious when it is remembered that infectious diseases are each
caused by a specific micro-organism and that these micro-organisms
are, in many diseases, discharged from the infected individual in large
numbers. The longer the disease remains undiscovered the greater
is the danger of the infection of other animals, which in their turn
act as distributing agents for the virus.

Among the infectious diseases which affect cattle and horses, and
which we are forced to combat chiefly by methods of quarantine,
probably none cause greater losses in this country than tuberculosis
of cattle and glanders of horses. It happens, also, that these two
diseases are, in their early stages, among the most difficult to recog-
nize, and this is especially true of tuberculosis. The onset is fre-
quently insidious; the animal may remain apparently well when the
disease is far advanced, and the infecting organisms may be discharged
in large numbers, even though no lesion can be demonstrated by the
usual clinical examination. ‘

Under these circumstances it is indeed fortunate that for both
tuberculosis in cattle and glanders in horses we possess specific diag-
nostic agents to aid and supplement the clinical examination. These
diagnostic agents, which are known as tuberculin and mallein, are
derived from the bacteria which cause the two diseases, and are now
regarded as indispensable in any attempt to eradicate these diseases

if a successful result is to be attained.
347

348 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In order that the mode of applying these substances in dealing with
tuberculosis and glanders may be more readily understood, it may be
well to relate briefly the history of the discovery of tuberculin and
mallein, and the manner of fighting disease by their use.

TUBERCULIN AND ITS USE.

As is now quite generally known, Prof. Robert Koch, in the year
1890, first recommended the use of a solution prepared from pure
cultures of the tuberculosis bacillus for the treatment of tuberculosis.
All live bacilli in glycerinated bouillon cultures of this bacillus were
first destroyed by heat and removed by filtration. The filtrate,
evaporated to a small bulk, constituted the tuberculin and consisted
of the soluble and noncoagulable portions of the culture medium,

together with those products of the growth of the tubercle bacilli and -

those portions of the bacterial cells which were likewise soluble and
not coagulable by heat.

Professor Koch observéd that minute quantities of this tuberculin,
injected under the skin of tuberculous animals, exercised a specific
stimulating action upon the tuberculous foci and at the same time
produced a systemic reaction, which was characterized by a marked
rise in temperature a few hours after the injection. Tuberculin was
originally thought to possess unusual value as a curative agent.
Although Professor Koch’s expectations in this respect were not borne
out by numerous practical tests, his discovery had a far-reaching
influence upon the very futile struggle which had hitherto been waged
against tuberculosis in cattle; for hardly had his discovery been
announced before the specific reaction produced in tuberculous indi-
viduals by tuberculin was recognized as a possible means of diagnosis
in obscure cases of bovine tuberculosis.

Experiments to determine the value of the use of tuberculin for
this purpose were begun immediately by veterinarians in all parts of
the world, and the literature of the past fifteen years is filled with the
records of their work. Without attempting to review these experi-
ments in detail, it may be stated that while some have reported

adversely upon the use of tuberculin as a diagnostic agent, the failures -

were, in many instances, due to a faulty application of the test or to
improper interpretations of the results obtained. There appear to be
two possible sources of error in connection with the tuberculin test:
(1) Apparent reactions in healthy cattle and (2) a failure of tubercu-
lous cattle to react to the test.

In regard to the first-mentioned possibility, the best authorities are
agreed that this source of error is exceedingly small, if, indeed, it
exists at all. Nocard, the eminent French authority, has stated that
a positive tuberculin reaction is absolute proof of tuberculosis, and
if a post-mortem examination fails to reveal tuberculosis we have

DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 349

evidence not of the inexactness of tuberculin, but of its extreme deli-
cacy in revealing lesions which are too minute to be discoverable by
the ordinary methods of post-mortem examination.

On the other hand, experience has shown that a very small percent-
age of tuberculous cattle may fail to react to the test, though this is
not-a serious objection, for the reason that the failures of this kind
are usually observed in advanced cases of the disease, which can be
readily recognized by the ordinary physical examination. It is a
curious fact that cattle which are affected with tuberculosis in an
exceedingly slight degree may exhibit much more pronounced reac-
tions than others which are extensively diseased.

There can be no doubt that the tuberculin test is a remarkably
accurate means of detecting tuberculosis in cattle, and the methods
employed for ridding a herd of this disease without destroying even
the affected animals will be readily understood. In the early days of
the application of the test it was the common practice to test the
entire herd and then to destroy all reacting animals. This has been
found to be in most cases unnecessary and undesirable unless the
number of reacting cattle is small and the animals not of particular
value. The practice most generally followed is known as the ‘‘ Bang
method” of dealing with tuberculosis, so named after the originator of
the system. By this method the entire herd from which tuberculosis
is to be eradicated is subjected to the tuberculin test. All of the
animals which fail to react are immediately removed to new quarters
and kept entirely separate from the reacting animals of the herd. The
latter may be fattened and slaughtered subject to post-mortem
examination, or they may be used for breeding purposes if they are
high-grade stock. Tuberculosis is extremely rarely transmitted from
parent to offspring, and if calves of tuberculous cows are removed from
their mothers immediately after birth they may be placed with the
healthy portion of the herd and fed with boiled milk from the tubercu-
lous cows or raw milk from the healthy cows. Within six months ora
year the healthy portion of the herd should be retested and the react-
ing animals, which will probably be comparatively few, should be
immediately removed from the healthy ones as in the first instance.
If this system be carefully followed, with regular retests of the non-
reacting portion of the herd, tuberculosis can be eradicated within a
few years at comparatively small cost to the owner and with a tremen-
dous gain in the productiveness of the herd. It has been quite defi-
nitely proven that tuberculin does not injure healthy cattle, nor does
it render the milk unwholesome.

MALLEIN AND ITS USE.

The methods used for preparing mallein and the manner of applying
this test for glanders are quite similar to those used in the case of

350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tuberculin. In fact, the use of mallein was a direct outgrowth of the
experiments made with tuberculin. The bacillus of glanders (Bacillus
mallet) is grown in pure culture upon artificially prepared media and
the soluble noncoagulable portions of the bacterial growth are
extracted. This extract is preserved by means of some suitable anti-
septic and is injected subcutaneously into horses suspected of being
affected with glanders. The reaction obtained in diseased horses is of
the same general nature as that obtained by injecting tuberculin into
tuberculous cattle, though there are certain differences observed in the
form of the fever curve. In horses reacting to mallein there is also
usually a marked swelling of the tissues around the point at which the
mallein was injected. This swelling, which does not occur in tubercu-
lous cattle after a tuberculin injection, is one of the characteristic
features of the reaction of glandered horses to mallein.

-In regard to the reliability of the mallein test, it must be acknowl-
edged that, although a reaction to mallein or a failure to react is
generally a correct indication of the existence or nonexistence of
glanders, the results of this test can not be accepted with the same
assurance that follows a properly applied tuberculin test:- There have
been cases in which apparently typical reactions were obtained with
mallein, although the horses tested exhibited no symptoms whatever
of the disease; and likewise failures have been recorded in what
appeared to be undoubted cases of glanders.

It is the general opinion, however, among those who have had
experience in the practical use of mallein, that it is a very valuable
aid in the diagnosis of glanders, and it seems not unreasonable to hope
that improvements in the present technique employed in making
this test, together with a fuller knowledge of the mechanism of the
reaction, will eventually produce even more trustworthy results than
those now obtained.

In combating glanders the general practice is to destroy horses
which are positively known to be affected with the disease and to
quarantine those which are merely suspected of being affected.

MANNER OF DISTRIBUTING TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN.

In order to be in a position to enforce more effectively its quarantine
regulations, the Bureau of Animal Industry began in the year 1893 the
preparation of both tuberculin and mallein, and it was decided at the
same time to supply these substances free of charge to properly con-
stituted health officers and official veterinarians in the various States
and Territories. This distribution was undertaken for the purpose of
cooperating with State officials in their efforts to restrict and eradicate
these infectious diseases under authority conferred upon the Secretary
of Agriculture by act of Congress.

This distribution is restricted to Federal, State, county, or city
officials, who are supplied with tuberculin and mallein upon their

DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. °* 351

agreeing to furnish the Bureau of Animal Industry with records of
all tests and with the results of the autopsies on all animals that are
slaughtered, and upon the further understanding that all tests shall
be conducted under their supervision by practitioners who are skilled
in the use of tuberculin and mallein. In addition to furnishing
tuberculin to the above-mentioned officials, considerable quantities
have been sent to inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry sta-
tioned at various places along the Canadian border and at other
points where cattle are offered for importation without the required
certificates of freedom from tuberculosis. In order to carry out more
effectively the plan to exclude tuberculous cattle from this country,
an inspector of the Bureau is stationed in England, and there tests
all cattle intended for export to the United States and refuses cer-
tificates to those found to be diseased.

As was to be expected, in the first few years after the preparation
of tuberculin and mallein was undertaken by the Bureau of Animal
Industry comparatively small quantities were sent out. But the
demand for these substances has steadily increased, this increased
demand being especially noticeable during the last few years. In the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1906, somewhat more than 103,000 doses
of tuberculin and 10,000 doses of mallein were supplied to officials
in different States and Territories, as follows:

Distribution of tuberculin and mallein in the year ended June 30, 1906.

Doses. Doses.
Distributed to— ———— Distributed to—
Tuberculin.} Mallein. Tuberculin.| Mallein.

CAV ODT 2 2s See eee eee 5 eres 12° || Nebraska. 5:20 =o se Ct Seo
2 eS 24 1ote|l New Jersey. * 222.5522 520 52 Oe ee ee
CGS EES 2 Sa i eee Spee ee eee 1? ll New Mexico... sic23. 222.20. 78 75
HEC taal |e ae in 754 Doe ENG ROLE» 9.8 Sac eee 14) lel gee ee
RIGOR GR = Aor, oa cns os sts 5 2 TBS sie: oo. shee North Carolina........-<...=:- 1, 256 12
PISMMEMINU Ree ace ons oon [Oe wc inc ea sats o¢)| North Dakotaz---------—- -- 2,944 869
District of Columbia....... 619 Pra PORN seat Ee ee eee 1,300 192
nee 8. SS So GQO0e|Ss25252/- Oklshomas=t3s5s55-4252525% 60 7
STD SS ee eee 15; US (Se ame Orepons fe = 252s Sees hae 731 12
Le Oe Ce es ey pe ete 516} Pennsylvania. —.25:.. 2-2: - SON sae eer
Pd CNS OES epee ee Eee 120 Jie GLEO MICO, saeen en. soe eee eT ee” 325
Parirariase 22>. 2 oe! oo be 221 Rhode Island: 92-25" =. 2. 30 6
OEE oy.7 0 moh acta eee Sie 2, 067 272 || South Carolina............- 6 24
LSS OA eee 344 U2 eObeb er fe Vt ES se 734 68
LU 50 Se er US O9G ee aoe ee WermMontl etre soe ee 19, 674 84
1 ISS 0 eee 288 | on = oats oe Wireinia=. . 2055-5 .c eno 1D eee eo
Massachusetts.............. 19 S385 ieee ene 8 War: Doepartmentss.-2c~ sos 2o=e bc. 22 1, 612
WORN PRN. 2 Le ashes Hn 912 45 Washington. ./2c 225222 2<2 4, 502 708
Minniesagtiaces52e = sce. .5.-2 26, 582 ASTON WiISCOBSING 252... co esc = ee BO S9S6) [Peo o sa.
IMISAOHEV == sce os Soc = = 1,810 20 Rote ee ee "403,510 - 40, 105
MGHLAMING so ocen sk cccon 1,304 572

Mississippizs....:....2-.... MS Wak S554.

352 “YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The legislatures of a number of the States in the above list have
passed laws requiring that all cattle which enter these States shall
either present a proper certificate of freedom from tuberculosis or else
pass the tuberculin test at the time they enter the State; in addition,
tests of herds within the State which are suspected of being affected
with tuberculosis are also provided for. These tests are usually con-
ducted by a live-stock sanitary commission or by the State board of
health, and are compulsory in some States and made upon request
in others. In many of the States having specific laws covering this
subject the reacting cattle are slaughtered subject to post-mortem
inspection and the owner is paid a certain percentage of the appraised
value of the condemned animals. Similar regulations are in force
concerning glanders. In addition to supplying these State boards,
the Bureau furnishes a considerable quantity of tuberculin to city
officials whose duty it is to detect tuberculosis in the dairy herds
from which the city’s milk supply is derived.

RESULTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION.

The results achieved by the distribution of tuberculin by the Bureau
of Animal Industry are best appreciated by referring to the reports
of the several State boards that have had supervision over the use of
tuberculin supplied them by this Department. These officials have
received from the Department in the last ten years, in round numbers,
500,000 doses of tuberculin. This tuberculin has been used almost
exclusively for testing dairy cattle, and the reports show a percentage
of tuberculosis in these herds which varies from 1 to 80 per cent, or
even more in some instances. The average percentage of tubercu-
losis in dairy herds revealed by these tests certainly falls very little,
if any, below 5 per cent of the whole number tested. In the vast
majority of cases the diseased animals have been removed from the
herds, either by quarantine or by slaughter. It appears, therefore,
that not less than 25,000 tuberculous cattle have been removed from
our dairy herds through the agency of this governmental distribution
of tuberculin. The great gain which must ultimately result to the
owners of the herds from which these infectious individuals have been
removed is seen in reports of retests of herds which were found highly
tuberculous upon the first examination. All reports bearing upon this
subject show that the number of reacting animals in the second test
was very small—at times none—and the owners are thus being enabled
to rid their herds of the most serious menace which confronts them.

Nor are the benefits derived from this work to be measured by an
economic standard only, for an even more important object is being
attained—the protection of the public health. The consensus of
scientific opinion now is that bovine tuberculosis is transmissible to

——

DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 353

man, and it isan undoubted fact that tuberculous cattle frequently
discharge tubercle bacilli from their bodies through their milk, even
though no demonstrable lesion of the udder exists.

Any tuberculous cow may therefore be a source of real danger to
the people who partake of her milk, and in the case of large dairies,
where the milk from the whole herd is usually mixed together before
being distributed to the consumers, a few tuberculous cows may cause
the contamination of large quantities of milk. This mixing together
of milk serves to distribute the infective bacilli through all of the
dairy products, thereby increasing greatly the number of persons
exposed to the infection. The good which has been accomplished by
the removal of the 25,000 tuberculous cows from dairy herds in this
country is thus seen to be much greater than would be at first sup-
posed, for it is probable that the milk from at least five times as many
cows has been rendered wholesome by the removal of these distribu-
ters of the tuberculosis virus.

The good which has resulted from the distribution of mallein can
not be so readily determined, but it can not be doubted that the
destruction of the many glandered horses which have reacted to the
mallein test has protected many others from the infection. And in
the case of glanders the diseased horse is not only a menace to
others belonging to the same owner, but to horses that are exposed
to infection through the agency of the public drinking troughs which
are maintained in most of our cities.

Quite apart from this distribution of mallein to civilian authori-
ties must be considered the supplies which have been furnished the
War Department. The Bureau of Animal Industry has been ready
at all times to furnish mallein to that Department, and upon the
request of the Quartermaster-General has sent out many thousand
doses. During the war with Spain large quantities of mallein pre-
pared in these laboratories were used for testing the horses and mules
purchased for the use of the Army, and the facilities for preparing
mallein are such that large supplies are always available.

It is hoped and believed by the Department that, in addition to the
actual benefit derived by stock raisers from the tests which have been
carried out, the educational value of the work has been of great
advantage to stock-raising communities. For it is reasonable to sup-
pose that a dairyman who has once had his herd freed from tuber-
culosis will not knowingly again introduce the disease among his
cattle. He will insist upon a tuberculin test of all animals which are
purchased, and this demand on the part of the purchaser for healthy
cattle will force upon breeders and raisers the necessity of supplying
them.

3 a1906——23

304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It seems not unreasonable to believe that if this testing of cattle
for tuberculosis could be carried out on a sufficiently large scale, and
if it were in all cases followed up by careful and intelligent quarantine
measures with periodical retests of the herds, the percentage of tuber-
culous cattle could at least be reduced to a very small fraction of that
which is now known to exist. If tuberculosis can be eradicated from
one herd the same can be done for others. The whole question would
seem to be simply one of organization and cooperation between the
Federal and the local authorities and the stock raisers themselves.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS.

By Wiiu1am A. Taytor,
Pomologist in Charge of Field Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

The question as to what varieties of fruits and nuts to plant is one
that confronts the orchardist when he contemplates an increase of
his orchard or vineyard. Requiring a more or less permanent invest-
ment of capital in the form of land and labor, as well as cost of nursery
stock, it is essential that he choose such varieties as shall not only
be adapted to his climatic and soil conditions, but also to the markets
or uses for which their products are intended. The desires and needs
of consumers change as time rolls on, so that sorts that were once
profitable cease to be so, even though they do not deteriorate in any
way; hence continual attention by the grower to the new sorts that
come to notice is advisable. A few of the more promising new varie-
ties for cultivation in different sections of the country are described
and illustrated here in continuation of the series begun in the Year-
book for 1901 and contributed yearly since that time.

MAGNATE APPLE.

(Synonyms: Magnet of some; Stayman’s Superior; Stayman’s No. 1 of some; Stay-
man’s No. 2 of some.)

[PLATE XXV]]

This promising early winter variety is a seedling of Winesap which
originated with the late Dr. J. Stayman, at Leavenworth, Kans., in
1866.2 After the original tree came into bearing it appears to have
been considerably disseminated by the originator, in the form of
scions for testing, from about 1884 until his death, in 1903. While a
number of descriptions and outlines of the variety made by Doctor
Stayman are preserved in the extensive collection of such material
bequeathed by him to the Department of Agriculture, it is appar-
ently impossible at this time to determine under what designation
the variety was first disseminated.

It appears to have reached Mr. J. W. Kerr,’ Denton, Md., in the
winter of 1884-85 under the designation ‘‘Stayman’s No. 1” with
others of Doctor Stayman’s seedlings in the form of scions from

@ MS. notes of Dr. J. Stayman in Pomological Collections, Bureau of Plant Industry.
b Letters from J. W. Kerr, December, 1906.
355

356 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

J. Silvanus Gordon, of Sergeantsville, N. J. Mr. Gordon had received
the scions from Doctor Stayman a short time before. . About 1887
it reached the nursery of the Michigan Agricultural College,’ appar-
ently direct from Doctor Stayman, under the same designation. In
1890° Mr. Benjamin Buckman, of Farmingdale, Il., received scions
of it from the Michigan Agricultural College orchard labeled ‘‘Stay-
man’s No. 1,” and in 1893 under the designation ‘‘Stayman’s Supe-
rior” he received scions direct from Doctor Stayman. Having
fruited both and finding them identical, in 1901 he sent specimens
of the fruit to Doctor Stayman for authentication of name, and
received from him a strong expression of his conviction? that the
apple sent was in fact his’ ‘‘Stayman’s No. 2.” The original tree is
reported by Mr. George H. Black, its present owner,? to be living still,
though it was almost destroyed by a severe windstorm in September,
1905. Messrs. Stayman and Black propagated a considerable num-
ber of trees of it for their own planting in the winter of 1897-98 at
Leavenworth, Kans., where some seventy trees about 6 years old are
now in bearing.

The earliest publication of the variety appears to have been by
Prof. L. H. Bailey in 1887,/ when, as “‘Stayman’s No. 1,” it was
included with several others of Doctor Stayman’s seedlings in a list
of varieties growing at the Michigan Agricultural College. In 1896
Mr. Benjamin Buckman published the names ‘‘Stayman’s Superior”
and ‘‘No. 1 Stayman’s”’ in his “ List of Fruit Varieties,’’9 their identity
not having been discovered at that time. The first commercial
introduction of the variety appears to have been by Mr. J. W. Kerr,
who catalogued it for the fall of 1898 and spring of 1899 as “Stay-
man No. 1.”

It is evident from Doctor Stayman’s notes and correspondence
that at different times he had different names for the variety under
consideration, such as “Red Sap,” ‘‘Stayman’s Superior,” ‘ Mag-
net,’ and ‘‘Magnate,’’ and it appears strongly probable that scions
were distributed by him for testing under all these names, as well as
under the designations “No. 1” and “No. 2.” His final choice
appears to have been ‘‘Magnet,’’” but conflict of this with a previ-
ously published variety’ of Wisconsin origin causes the present

a4 Letter from J. Silvanus Gordon, December, 1906.

b Letters from Prof. L. R. Taft and Prof. L. H. Bailey, December, 1906, and January,
1907.

¢ Letters from Benjamin Buckman, December, 1906.

@ Letter of Dr. J. Stayman to Benjamin Buckman, October 3, 1901.

¢ Letter of George H. Black, January 12, 1907.

J Michigan Agricultural College Bulletin 31, 1887, p. 54.

9 List of Fruit Varieties in Private Rix penimedtal Orchard of Benj. Buckman,
Farmingdale, Ill.; fall 1896, pp. 4-5.

h Letter of Dr. J : siesenn to Benj. Buckman, December 17, 1900.

¢tMinnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1890, p. 36.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, i906. - PLATE XXV

Gg - sis

MAGNATE APPLE.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 357

adoption of his previously unpublished name ‘Magnate,’” under
which it was planted in nursery and orchard by Messrs. Stayman
and Black. The Magnet apple listed in Bulletin 56¢ of the Bureau
of Plant Industry is the Wisconsin variety, and the publication of
“Stayman Superior” as synonymous with it in the revised edition
of that bulletin’ appears to have been due to a misapprehension as
to its identity.

DESCRIPTION.

Form round to roundish conical; size medium to large; surface
smooth, but gently undulating and glossy; color rich yellow, washed
with crimson over almost the entire surface and indistinctly striped
with dark purple and covered with whitish bloom; dots variable in
size, numerous, yellow or red; cavity regular, large, deep furrowed
and but faintly russeted; stem slender, curved, short, rarely extend-
ing beyond the cavity; basin regular, of medium size and depth, and
gradual slope, furrowed, and showing traces of bloom; eye medium,
closed; calyx segments of medium size, converging, tube rather long
and narrow; skin moderately thick, tenacious; flesh yellowish, stained
with red, fine-grained, half tender, juicy; core small, conical, closed,
clasping; seeds of medium size, plump, brown, numerous; flavor rich
subacid; quality very good. Season, September to December in
eastern Kansas, about the same as Jonathan.

The tree is reported to be an upright open grower, loaded with
wiry shoots, and requiring little pruning. The variety appears to be
especially promising for the middle and northern portions of the
region where its parent, the Winesap, succeeds.

The specimen illustrated on Plate XXV was grown near Leaven-
worth, Kans., in 1906.

OLIVER RED APPLE.
(Synonyms: All-Over Red; Oliver; Oliver’s Red; Senator.)
[PLATE XXVI.]

One of the striking features of the Arkansas fruit exhibit at the
World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 and the Cotton
States Exposition at Atlanta in 1895 was a brilliantly colored red
apple conspicuously marked with large light dots. It had then been
grown for many years in certain localities in Washington County,
Ark., both in orchards and nurseries, under the name Oliver’s Red,
and according to some accounts as All-Over Red. It does not appear
to have been known outside of the Ozark region until after it was
exhibited with other Arkansas apples at Chicago.

2B. P. I. Bulletin 56, Nomenclature of the Apple, January 25, 1905, p. 189.
oB. P. I. Bulletin 56, Nomenclature of the Apple, revised July, 1905, p. 393.

358 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As nearly as can be ascertained, this variety originated early in
the nineteenth century * on the John Oliver farm, 7 miles south of
Lincoln, in Washington County, Ark. It was first propagated by
Earles Holt about the middle of the century, who grafted it on a
place 2 miles north of Lincoln, where it has been locally known
and propagated ever since that time under the name Oliver's Red.
At various times one or two other seedlings appear to have been
somewhat confused with it, but at the present time no other sort is
recognized in the locality under that name. In 1898 Prof. John T.
Stinson® described it under the shortened name Oliver, but this had
previously been published ¢ for a very different sort.

Since 1895 the variety has been quite widely disseminated by the
Stark Brothers Nurseries and Orchards Company under the name
‘Senator,’ which was registered by them in the United States Patent
Office on November 22, 1898, as a trade-mark. In view of the fact
that the earlier name had been well established for half a century in
the region where it originated and continues to be practically the
only name known for it there, that name, Oliver Red, is here accepted
as the one to which the variety is entitled under the code of nomen-
clature of the American Pomological Society.

DESCRIPTION.

Form oblate to roundish oblate; size medium to large; surface
smooth and glossy, excepting occasional russet knobs and numerous
russet dots; color deep yellow, washed over most of the surface with
bright mixed red and brokenly striped with dark crimson; dots very
conspicuous, russeted, mostly aureole; cavity large, regular, deep
russeted; stem short, rather stout; basin large, deep, regular, grad-
ual, slightly furrowed; eye large, closed; calyx segments of medium
size, converging, tube very short and broad; skin moderately thick,
tenacious; flesh yellowish, frequently stained, moderately fine grained,
breaking, juicy; core medium, conical, open, meeting the eye; seeds
medium in size, plump, brown; flavor subacid, pleasant; quality good
to very good.

The tree is a strong, upright grower, somewhat subject to sun scald
unless headed low, but coming into bearing at an early age and bearing
well. It is a choice dessert apple, well adapted to fancy trade, and
worthy of testing throughout the important apple districts of the
country.

The specimen illustrated on Plate XXVI was grown in 1906 by
G. W. Collins, Lincoln, Washington County, Ark.

a Letters of Wm. G. Vincenheller, December, 1906, and M. D. Holt and G. W. Col-
lins, Lincoln, Ark., January, 1907.

b Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 49, January, 1898, p. 16.

¢ Magazine of Horticulture, 1853, p. 165.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXVI.

A HOEN &CO BALTIMORE

OLIVER RED APPLE.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXVII.

AA Nectar

A HOEN &CO BALTIMORE

RABUN APPLE.

ee , ne i i
ye

yy
ea

: 4

a

sis
;
+

2

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 359

RABUN APPLE.

(Synonyms: Rabun Bald; Rabun Ball,2 through typographical error.)

[PLATE XXVI1.]

One of the most promising new apples for the lower Appalachian
region, comprising western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and
northern Georgia, is the Rabun. Its history as furnished by Prof.
C. C. Newman,’ of Clemson College, 8. C.,is substantially as follows:

The original tree was found about 1890 by Mr. Andy Hanby in clear-
ing land on his place on the Walhalla and Franklin wagon road, about
13 miles northeast of Clayton, Ga., where it still stands. It was
small when found, and is thought by Mr. Hanby to have been about
5 years old at that time. About 1900 Mr. Hanby dug up eight young
sprouts about the parent tree and planted them elsewhere, all of which
are now in bearing and are identical with the parent tree. Fruit from
the original tree was exhibited at the Georgia State Fair in 1904 and
1905 under the name ‘‘ Rabun Bald,’ which was suggested by the
location of the tree, which is on a spur of Bald Mountain. It has
since been locally known under this name, which is here reduced to
Rabun to conform to the code of nomenclature of the American Pomo-
logical Society. It was first described and illustrated by Prof. C. C.
Newman ¢ in 1905 in Bulletin 9 of the South Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station. Some 2,500 trees of this variety have been
planted at Clayton, Ga., but aside from this it does not appear to have
been commercially disseminated.

DESCRIPTION.

Form oblate, slightly ribbed; size large; surface smooth; color yel-
low, washed with mixed red, splashed and striped with bright crimson;
dots numerous, small, russet; cavity large, regular, deep, russeted;
stem short, stout; basin regular, large, deep, of gradual slope, fur-
rowed; eye medium to large, closed; calyx segments medium, con-
verging, reflexed at tip, tube long, flaring; skin moderately thick,
tenacious; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, breaking, juicy; core large,
oblate, open, clasping; seeds medium, plump, brown, very numerous;
flavor subacid; quality good to very good. Season, November to
March in northern Georgia.

The tree is described as a stocky, vigorous grower, of spreading
habit, requiring severe pruning when young. The bearing habit is
distinctive in that the fruit is largely borne on spurs along the older
branches, the crop being thus quite evenly distributed throughout the

@ South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 9, May, 1905, p. 24.
6 Letters of C. C. Newman, January, 1907.
¢ South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 9, p. 24.

360 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tree. The original tree is a heavy cropper in alternate years, bearing
about a half crop in the “‘off year.”’ It yielded 15 bushels in 1905.

The specimen illustrated on Plate XX VII was grown in 1905 by
Prof. C. C. Newman, at Clayton, Rabun County, Ga.

EARLY WHEELER PEACH.

(Synonyms: Wheeler Cling; Early Wheeler Cling.)

[PLATE XXVIII.]

The lengthening of the peach season through the origination of both
earlier and later varieties of good quality is a matter of much impor-
tance to peach growers, especially in the Southern States. At the
present time so large a proportion of the trees in southern orchards
consists of the one variety, Elberta, that almost the entire peach crop
of each important locality must be harvested and marketed within a
period of ten days or two weeks. This causes serious labor shortage
at the critical times, overburdens transportation facilities, and tends
to produce that most expensive menace to profitable peach growing,
aglutted market. If the weather conditions chance to be unfavorable
during this short harvest period, the evils are accentuated and most
of the returns for the year’s work are not infrequently lost through
the shortness of the marketing season. Peach growers and nursery-
men have long recognized the need of earlier market varieties, and a
large number of early sorts have been brought into notice from time
to time. Among these the Greensboro, Carman, Waddell, Mamie
Ross, and Hiley varieties have attained a more or less stable foothold
in different sections as commercial sorts.

Most of the varieties earlier than these, however, unless grown under
very favorable conditions, are of inferior flavor and deficient carrying
quality. The Early Wheeler, which was one of a large number of
seedlings of Heath Cling grown by Mr. E. W. Kirkpatrick, of McKin-
ney, Tex., and first fruited in 1900, appears to be an exception in these
respects, being as early as Alexander, as large as Mamie Ross, and of
as excellent dessert and shipping quality as Oldmixon Cling. It was
experimentally disseminated by Mr. Kirkpatrick immediately after it
first fruited, being sent out as Early Wheeler Cling. About 1903 this
was reduced to Early Wheeler, and on April 17, 1906, an arbitrary
device bearing this name and a portrait of the originator was regis-
tered in the United States Patent Office as a trade-mark by the Texas
Nursery Company, of Sherman, Tex., which introduced it commer-
cially in that year.

DESCRIPTION.

Form roundish oblong to oblong conical; size medium te large;
cavity regular, large, broad, of medium depth and slope, marked with
red; stem short, moderately stout; suture shallow except near

EEE ee

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

EARLY WHEELER PEACH.

PLATE XXVIII.

A HOEN &CO BALTIMORE.

me .

i

- = _—s a’ eee 2 “sn < | oA

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 361

cavity, from which it extends to the protruding apex; surface smooth,
covered with loose, soft, velvety down; color creamy white, marbled,
splashed and dotted with crimson; skin moderately thick, tenacious;
flesh whitish, distinctly stained with red near the skin, firm and meaty,
but juicy; stone oval, of medium size, adherent; flavor subacid;
quality good to very good. Season, very early, May 15 to June 1,
practically with Alexander in northeastern Texas. Leaf glands reni-
form; blossoms very large and red.

The variety has already been considerably planted in commercial
orchards in eastern Texas, and while less precocious than some sorts,
is considered sufficiently productive for a commercial variety.

The specimen illustrated on Plate XXVIII was grown by E. W.
Kirkpatrick, at McKinney, Tex.

BANNER GRAPE.

[PLATE XXIX]

This very promising variety for the Southwest is said by its
originator, Mr. Joseph Bachman, Altus, Ark.,¢ to have been grown
in 1898 from seed of Lindley crossed with Delaware. It would
appear from the vigor and productiveness of the vine and the large
size of the cluster, however, that some other variety, probably one
of his other seedlings that stood near by, was concerned in the cross,
and the originator appears to incline to this opinion, as he states
that the Lindley blossoms were not protected from other pollen at
the time of pollination with Delaware.

The original vine bore a crop of twelve clusters in its third year,
1901. Two of these were exhibited by the originator at the Pan-
American Exposition in that year under the name Banner, which
the late Judge Samuel Miller published for the variety in a commu-
nication in Colman’s Rural World for September 18, 1901. The
variety was first propagated in 1902, and was experimentally dis-
seminated in the spring of 1906. So far as known, it has not yet
been fruited elsewhere than on the grounds of the originator. It was
commercially introduced in 1906 by the Stark Brothers Nurseries
and Orchards Company under the name Banner, which when printed
in a certain arbitrary typographical form was registered by them as
a trade-mark in the United States Patent Office, May 1, 1906.

DESCRIPTION.

Cluster large, broad conical, heavily shouldered, very compact;
stem short; berries globular, of medium size, adhering tenaciously
to the small green peduncles; skin moderately thick, and rather
tough; amber red and glossy, but covered with a profuse bloom; flesh

@ Letters of Joseph Bachman, August and September, 1906, and January, 1907.

362 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

translucent, juicy, and rather meaty; seeds few, very small, brown;
flavor refreshing subacid to sweet and aromatic; quality good to
very good. Season, late August and early September in Franklin
County, Ark., ten days or two weeks later than Delaware.

The vine is reported by the originator to be very vigorous and
productive.

The cluster illustrated on Plate X XIX was grown by Mr. Joseph
Bachman, at Altus, Franklin County, Ark.

JOSEPHINE PERSIMMON.
(Synonyms: American Honey; Honey.)

[PLATE XXX.]

Of the varieties of this valuable native fruit that have thus far
been brought to the attention of the Department of Agriculture, the
best in dessert quality is the one here described. It was received
first from T. V. Munson & Son, of Denison, Tex., who have catalogued ¢
it since 1896 as ‘American Honey,” their dissemination consisting
chiefly of seedlings grown from a top-grafted tree standing upon their
grounds. Attention to the apparent identity of American Honey
and Josephine, a variety gratuitously disseminated by the late Judge
Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., having been called by Mr. Benjamin
Buckman,’ of Farmingdale, Ill.. recent investigation has revealed
the following interesting facts:

About 1882 or 1883 the late Judge Miller discovered a wild per-
simmon tree bearing fruit of superior quality on the farm of Mr.
Dennis Watson, about a mile east of Bluffton, Mo. The tree was
then about 3 inches in diameter, and stood close to the bank of the
Missouri River, where it was in danger of being undermined by that
unruly stream. Though a large tree of this species to transplant,
in 1883 Judge Miller, with the help of his sons, dug it up and trans-
ported it in a small boat to his home garden at Bluffton. The trans-
planted tree never thrived in its new location, but the variety was
preserved by grafting, and was gratuitously disseminated by him
among his friends and correspondents in many parts of the country.
Later he named it Josephine, in henor of a daughter of Mr. Watson,
on whose farm the original tree was found. This name Mr. Miller
published in 1894.4 Meanwhile, Prof. T. V. Munson had received from
Judge Miller, about 1883 or 1884,¢ three lots of native persimmon
scions, designated as follows: ‘‘Flat fruited,’”’ ‘‘round fruited,” and

a Letter of T. V. Munson, November, 1906.

b Benjamin Buckman in Rural New Yorker, February 20, 1904, p. 130.
¢ Letter of Samuel E. Miller, December, 1906.

@Colman’s Rural World, February 15, 1894, p. 51.

¢ Letters of T. V. Munson, November, 1906.

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 363

“oblong fruited.’”” These he grafted on native roots, getting one
tree of each to grow. Of these, the ones labeled ‘‘flat fruited’”’ and
“round fruited” bore fruit, the one labeled ‘‘oblong fruited’’ proving
to be staminate flowered, and therefore sterile. The flat one was found
to be of better quality than the other, and after fruiting both for
several years, Professor Munson, unaware that Judge Miller had mean-
while disseminated and named it Josephine, christened it ‘American
Honey” and offered it in his catalogue for 1896, as previously
mentioned.

The name Josephine having previously been applied and published
by the introducer and used on scions for grafting entitles it to accept-
ance by pomologists, and it is so accepted by Professor Munson since
the facts have become known.

The case well illustrates how easily varietal names of fruits may
become confused during their preliminary testing periods. Nothing
less than the utmost exactness and care by disseminators and propa-
gators will suffice to prevent confusion and duplication of names in
such cases.

DESCRIPTION,

Form oblate to roundish oblate, or quadrangular; size medium to
large; surface smooth, except shallow radiating grooves near the
calyx and the four sutures; color pale, translucent, yellowish, covered
with a profuse whitish bloom; cavity large, broad, of medium depth,
furrowed; stem short, moderately stout; calyx four parted, of me-
dium size, pale green; apex a slender point in a slight depression;
skin thin, tender; flesh yellowish, translucent, with yellow veins;
seeds rather numerous, rather large, short, broad, plump, brown;
flavor sweet, rich, and aromatic; quality very good. Season, early,
following Early Golden.

The tree is reported to bear regular crops, and the earliness and fine
quality of the fruit render the variety worthy of test by all persimmon
growers.

The specimens illustrated on Plate XXX were grown by: Toeve
Munson & Son, at Denison, Tex., in 1906.

CHAPPELOW AVOCADO.
[PLATE XXXI.]

Interest in the avocado as a salad fruit continues to increase. The
market demand is so strong in eastern cities during late autumn and
winter that south Florida growers are enlarging their plantings of the
later ripening sorts of the West Indian type, such as the Trapp,? in
the expectation that their culture will prove highly profitable. In
southern California quite a different condition prevails, the smaller
and more hardy Mexican type being apparently better adapted to

@ Described and illustrated in Yearbook for 1905, p. 508, Plate LX VI.

364 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF -AGRICULTURE.

conditions in the localities where avocado culture has thus far been
attempted. While no commercial plantings as large as those in south
Florida have yet been made in California, certain individual trees in
particular localities have proved productive and profitable, and, as
the local demand at all times of the year is thus far in excess of the
supply, regularity of bearing and acceptable quality of fruit in that
State outweigh all other varietal characteristics.

So far as known the only variety thus far perpetuated by bud
propagation in California is the Chappelow. The original tree of this
variety was grown by Mr. William Chappelow, Monrovia, Cal., from
seeds sent him by the Division of Pomology of the Department of
Agriculture in July, 1893. The seeds had been received shortly before
that time from Mr. F. Foex, then of Eddy, N. Mex., who had obtained
them from fruits found by him on trees near Monterey, Mexico, where
they had been subjected to a temperature of about 22° F. during
several consecutive nights when in blossom during the preceding
winter. As the other avocado trees of the vicinity had been killed or
badly damaged by the low temperature, while these had survived and
matured half a crop of fruit, it was presumed that these were especially
resistant to cold, as has since been proved true in the case of seedlings
descended from them.

Mr. Chappelow grew but a single tree from the four seeds sent him.
This was grown in a pot at first, being transplanted to the open ground
when about a foot high. The first winter, when about 4 feet high, it
was cut down to the ground by a temperature of about 24° F., but soon
recovered and developed into a fine, vigorous tree. It began bearing
in 1898, and has rarely failed to produce at least a partial crop since
that time. Scions from this tree were sent Prof. P. H. Rolfs, of the
Subtropical Laboratory, at Miami, Fla., in 1902, and fruits grown
on a tree top-worked therefrom were illustrated by him in 1904.4
The variety was named Chappelow by Professor Rolfs? and has since
been sparingly disseminated under that name. Mr. Chappelow has
not kept.a continuous record of the product of the tree, but states
that in 1905 it bore more than 1,200 fruits. The net return to
him from this tree in recent years, in addition to fruits retained for
home use, has been as follows:* 1903, $32; 1904, $54; 1905, $130;
1906, $65. The tree blossoms at Monrovia in November and Decem-
ber, and ripens its crop from July 15 until September, sometimes
continuing into early October.

DESCRIPTION,

Form oblong, slender, pyriform or ‘‘bottle necked;”’ size medium
to large for the Mexican type; cavity small, shallow, and wrinkled;

2B. P. I. Bulletin 61. The Avocado in Florida, July 7, 1904, fig. 9 B, p 26.
bB. P. I. Bulletin 97. S. P. I. Inventory No. 12934.
¢ Letters from William Chappelow, August and October, 1906.

oe

Yearbook U_ S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

AA Vecoter

JOSEPHINE PERSIMMON.

PLATE XXX.

A HCEN & CO BALTIMORE

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXXI.

A HOEN & CO -BALTIMORE

CHAPPELOW AVOCADO.

rere

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 365

stem stout; surface undulating, smooth, glossy; color dull purple,
with reddish-brown dots; apex a mere dot; skin very thin, tender,
adhering closely; flesh pale greenish-yellow, buttery; seed large in
proportion to size of fruit, roundish conical, filling internal cavity;
flavor pleasant, though less rich than the best varieties of the West
Indian type. Season, July to October at Monrovia, Cal.

The tree is a vigorous, rather diffuse grower, with slender wood. It
is productive, although being an early bloomer it is sometimes caught
by frost. It is considered worthy of testing in the thermal belts of
southern California, and for domestic use along the northern edge of
the avocado districts of Florida, where its superior hardiness is likely
to outweigh the disadvantages of relatively small size and early time
of ripening.

The specimen illustrated on Plate XX-XI was grown on the origina]
tree on the grounds of Mr. William Chappelow, Monrovia, Cal.

PECANS.

[PLATE XXXII.]

The pecan continues to engage the attention of nut growers in the
South Atlantic and Gulf States almost to the exclusion of other nut-
bearing trees. The increasing popularity of the nut, doubtless due
in part to the development of systematic methods of grading and
cracking by machinery operated by steam or electric power, which
render possible the marketing of the meats ready for use, have com-
bined to produce a market demand considerably in excess of the
present supply. Under this stimulus and the production of consid-
erable numbers of budded and grafted trees of choice varieties in
southern nurseries the planting of pecan orchards is proceeding rap-
idly in many portions of the South. Much of this planting up to the
present time has of necessity been done rather blindly as regards the
adaptability of varieties to soil and climatic conditions, very few
varieties having yet been fruited sufficiently outside of the localities
of their origin to determine their probable behavior elsewhere. As
the earlier plantings of budded and grafted trees come into bearing,
it is unfortunately becoming apparent that in the infancy of the
industry the stock of several of the leading varieties was consider-
ably mixed with other sorts. In some cases closely related seedlings
inferior to the sort whose name they bore appear to have been propa-
gated from. This confusion of identity is now giving rise to diverse
reports asto the behavior of particular varieties in different sections,
and will doubtless require some years of careful work by nurserymen
and orchardists to rectify.

Seedling orchards grown from nuts of the large varieties, such as
Centennial, Frotscher, Stuart, Van Deman, Russell, etc., that came
into public notice from 1875 to 1895, are now coming into bearing

366 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

throughout the South, and as both the trees and nuts commonly bear
a general resemblance to their parents, they are in many instances
being discussed and even labeled with the names of the parent varie-
ties. As such seedlings are likely to disclose characteristics even
more diverse from their parents if budded or grafted from and planted
elsewhere, they should never be designated otherwise than as seed-
lings until found worthy of distinctive varietal names.

The utmost care in selection of authentic stock of these earlier
varieties to bud and graft from is necessary at the present time to
insure trueness to name in the nurseries and orchards. It is not safe
to use grafting or budding wood of any of these sorts from trees that
have not borne, except where such stock can be unquestionsa traced
to bearing trees that are true to name.

Less confusion exists among the more recent introductions, aithepee
some of these have in various ways been more or less contend with
one another. A few of the more promising of the newer ones are
described and illustrated.

ALLEY PECAN.

The original tree of this variety was grown by Mrs. C. H. Alley,?
of Scranton, Miss., from a pecan of unknown variety presented to
her by the late Col. R. Seal, of Mississippi City, Miss., in 1871. This
nut she planted in a box the same fall, transplanting the young
seedling that resulted therefrom to its present location in her garden
in 1872. The tree began bearing at the age of about nine years and
has the reputation of being a steady and prolific bearer. The variety
was first propagated by Mr. F. H. Lewis, of Scranton, who set buds
and grafts of it in 1896, and since that time it has been considerably
disseminated by him and others under the name Alley. The original
tree bore about 200 pounds of nuts in 1905, and had a fair crop when
the storm of September, 1906, occurred. This destroyed a consid-

erable portion of the crop and broke several large branches from the

tree, though not enough to permanently injure it.
DESCRIPTION.

Size medium, averaging 60 to 80 nuts per pound; form, oblong to
ovate conical, with moderately sharp quadrangular apex; color,
bright yellowish brown, with rather long and conspicuous black mark-
ings; shell brittle, thin; partitions very thin; cracking quality excel-
lent; kernel plump and well filled out, though deeply grooved and
considerably undulated and irregularly indented; kernel bright,
brownish straw color; texture firm and fine grained; flavor sweet,
delicate, and free from astringence; quality very good.

The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown on the
original tree in the garden of Mrs. C. H. Alley, at Scranton, Miss.

a Letter from vee ©. re Auer, Neventian 1906.

———

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 367

The tree is a moderately strong, though rather slender, grower and
is reported to be productive in several localities where it has been
top-worked during the past five or six years.

TECHE®2. PECAN.

(Synonyms: ‘‘Frotscher No. 2;” “ Duplicate Frotscher;”’ ‘‘Fake Frotscher;” “Spuri-
ous Frotscher.’’)

Among the budded trees of the Frotscher pecan when first dissemi-
nated by Mr. William Nelson and the late Mr. Richard Frotscher,
of New Orleans, about 1885,° it has recently been discovered that
there were trees of at least one other variety quite closely resembling
it in wood and habit of growth, but yielding a smaller and more con-
ical nut. This sort, which reached a number of growers, including
Mr. J. B. Wight,’ of Cairo, Ga., and Dr. J. B. Curtis, of Orange
Heights, Fla., in this way, has proved to be of sufficient merit to
entitle it to a distinctive name. The place of its origin is not known,
but since it appears to trace to the first lot of Frotscher scions received
by Mr. Nelson“? from Mr. Frotscher for propagation, all of which
were supposed to have come from the original Frotscher tree near
Olivier, La., on the Bayou Teche, it is probable that the parent tree
of this one was somewhere in that vicinity. Acting on this suppo-
sition, the committee on nomenclature and standards of the National
Nut Growers’ Association, at its annual meeting at Scranton, Miss.,
in November, 1906, named the variety “Teche” to distinguish it
from the true Frotscher. As there appears to be good reason to sup-
pose that several other varieties closely resembling Frotscher have
been and still are mixed with that variety in many orchards and
nurseries, the name Teche should not be indiscriminately applied to
all the “spurious” Frotschers, but should be restricted in its appli-
cation to the one which is here described from specimens grown by
Mr. Wight on trees obtained from the Nelson nursery in 1895.

DESCRIPTION.

Size medium to large, averaging 55 to 65 nuts per pound; form long
oval, compressed, tapering gradually, with the smaller specimens
slightly curved near apex; color bright, light, and free from the objec-
tionable brownish veining ot the Frotscher, with few broken black
stripes; shell comparatively thin, but thicker than Frotscher, with
which it was disseminated through error; partitions thin and soft;
cracking quality excellent; kernel bright, plump and uniformly well

@ Pronounced Tésh.

6 Yearbook, 1904, p. 408.

¢ Letters from J. B. Wight, November, 1906; also The Nut Grower, June, 1906, p. 199.
@Wnm. Nelson in The Nut Grower, August, 1906, p. 18.

368 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

filled, with shallow grooves; texture of meat firm, fine grained, solid,
creamy in color; flavor delicate, rich; quality very good.

The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Mr. J. B.
Wight, Cairo, Ga.

The tree is of more slender and upright habit of growth than
Frotscher, and is reported to be fully as productive as that variety
in Georgia and Florida. It is worthy of trial wherever that variety
succeeds,

Curtis PECAN.

(Synonym: Curtis No. 2.)

The original tree of this variety was grown by Dr. J. B. Curtis, of
Orange Heights, Fla., from a nut of the “Turkey Egg” pecan obtained
from Arthur Brown, of Bagdad, Fla., in 1886. It bore about a dozen
nuts in 1893, and has borne a crop each year since then, except in
1902, when heavy rains at blooming time prevented fertilization of the
blossoms. It was first propagated by Doctor Curtis in 1896, and was
disseminated by him somewhat later. The original tree, though
heavily cut for scions, yielded 80 pounds of nuts in 1905.¢ The vari-
ety appears to have been first described and illustrated by Hume? in
1900:

DESCRIPTION.

Size medium, 60 to 70 nuts per pound; form ovate conical, com-
pressed, with a sharp pointed base and an inclination to curve near
apex; color bright, with very few black stripes, but sparsely stippled
with black over most of the surface; shell very thin and brittle; par-
titions thin; cracking quality good: kernel very plump and thick, free
from indentation other than the narrow grooves, which are of medium
depth; color bright, except certain brownish stippling that percepti-
bly darkens the tint in some specimens; texture firm, crisp; flavor
sweet and rich; quality very good.

The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Dr. J. B.
Curtis, at Orange Heights, Fla.

The tree is reported to be slender and rather pendulous in habit
of growth and regularly productive. The variety is of special prom-
ise for Florida growers, as it is one of the few sorts that have origi-
nated and been thoroughly tested in that State. It is reported to be
rather hard to propagate, the wood being slender and the buds not
numerous. Doctor Curtis reports it free from attack by the bud worm
where such sorts as Rome and Centennial are badly damaged by it.

a Dr. J. B. Curtis in the Nut Grower, June, 1906, pp. 200-201, and letter of February
11, 1907.

b Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 54, August, 1900, pp. 203-209.

q
:
|
|

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXXIl.

TECHE.

CURTIS.

DELMAS.

me aif Sch itl A HOEN 6 Co BALTIMORE

PECAN VARIETIES.

wile

iy

Ts

PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 369

GEORGIA PECAN.

(Synonym: Georgia Giant.)

The original tree of this variety is one of a large number of seedlings
grown in nursery row by Mr. G. M. Bacon,? of Dewitt, Ga., from nuts
of unknown parentage in 1885. Enough of these seedlings for a 30-
acre orchard when planted 30 feet apart were transplanted to their
present locations the following year. In 1891 this tree, which was the
first in the orchard to bear, yielded 32 nuts, which are said to have
weighed 1 pound. The following year its crop was 24 pounds, increas-
ing annually until 1902, when it yielded 43 bushels of nuts. Its bud
propagation, begun in that year, has resulted in such heavy cutting of
the young wood that the crops since then have been comparatively
light.

DESCRIPTION.

Size large to very large, averaging 40 to 50 nuts per pound; form
round ovate, with a tendency toward inequality of sides; color rather
dull and dark grayish brown, sparsely striped with black; shell rather
thick, with moderately thick and soft partitions, yet cracking well;
kernel broad, plump, rather bright and very attractive; texture
rather soft and inclined to be coarse, though of pleasant flavor and
excellent quality.

The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by the G. M.
Bacon Pecan Company, at Dewitt, Ga.

The tree is a sturdy, strong grower, precocious and productive, and
worthy of thorough test throughout Georgia and adjacent States.

DELMAS PECAN.

The original Delmas pecan tree was grown from a nut planted by
Mr. A. G. Delmas at his place at Scranton, Miss., about 1877. It
began bearing in 1884, and has been known under the name Delmas
since the following year. It was propagated in a limited way by Mr.
Delmas about 1890 by grafting both in nursery and orchard. Its gen-
eral dissemination, however, appears to have occurred in connection
with the “Schley” about 1902, mixed scions of the two varieties
received from Mr. Delmas having been grafted in the Pierson nursery,
at Monticello, Fla., and disseminated under the name Schley before
the admixture was discovered. The wood of the Delmas is so much
stouter and more erect than that of the Schley variety that little diffi-
culty is experienced in separating them even in the nursery row.

The original Delmas tree was blown down by the September storm
of 1906 before the crop was ripe, but was severely headed back soon
thereafter and righted, so that it is hoped it will survive.

@ Letter from H. C. White, Dewitt, Ga., January, 1907.
3 Aal906——24

370 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DESCRIPTION.

Size large to very large, averaging 40 to 50 nuts per pound; form
oblong ovate, rather pointed at base and rather bluntly quadrangular
at apex; and distinctly marked by four conspicuous ridges extending
from the apex nearly to the base of the nut; color grayish brownish,
sparingly marked with black; shell rather thick, with partitions soft
but corky; cracking quality good; kernel plump and well filled,
grooves rather narrow, but shallow, and surface undulating; kernel
bright straw color, very attractive; texture rather soft and open; flavor
sweet, pleasant; quality good.

The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Mr. A. G.
Delmas, Scranton, Miss.

The tree is a strong grower, of erect and roundish head, very dis-
tinct from the Schley, with which it has been somewhat mixed in
nurseries and orchards. It is productive and promising for the lower
pecan districts, such as the Gulf coast region, where it originated.

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES.

By FranK ANDREWS,
Scientific Assistant in Transportation, Division of Foreign Markets, Bureau of Statistics.

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES OF COTTON AND WHEAT.

It is well known that goods whose value is high in proportion to
their weight are likely to be charged higher freight rates than goods
of relatively low value. It is understood, however, that value is not
the only condition affecting freight charges; under some circum-
stances a higher rate may be charged for a less valuable than for a
more valuable commodity between the same points. The influence
of value and weight upon the cost of carrying is illustrated in the
case of two of the most important farm products of the United
States—cotton and wheat. And it is of noslittle interest to note tha
this rule of freight traffic applies to the cost incurred by farmers in
hauling their products from farms to shipping points.

An investigation was made by the writer, under the authority of
the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture, in Sep-
tember, 1906, to learn certain facts about hauling farm products on
country roads, and from results of this inquiry it is estimated that
it costs an average of 16 cents per 100 pounds to haul cotton from
farms to shipping points, while the cost for wheat is 9 cents. The
average distance of cotton farms from local shipping points is 11.8
miles, the average weight of a wagonload of cotton is 1,702 pounds,
and the average cost of hauling the load, $2.76; the corresponding
averages for wheat are 9.4 miles, 3,323 pounds, and $2.86. It is
plain that cotton may be profitably hauled for greater distances and
in smaller loads than wheat, since the value of an average load of
the cotton picked in 1905 was more than $170, while a load of wheat
was worth about $40.

CHARGING WHAT THE TRAFFIC WILL BEAR.

The average railway freight rate for cotton from local shipping
points to seaports is estimated at 40 cents per 100 pounds, while
the corresponding rate for wheat is about 20 cents. This difference
in railway charges between these two commodities illustrates the
tendency of value to influence transportation costs, and also shows
one of the several phases of the principle of railway rate making
which is often described as “‘charging what the traffic will bear.”

371

372 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RELATIVE VALUES AND OCEAN RATES.

On the ocean, also, freight charges for cotton are higher than
those for wheat. The rates quoted for regular lines of steamers for
carrying cotton from Galveston, New Orleans, and New York to
Liverpool averaged during the year ending June 30, 1906, about 32
cents per 100 pounds, while the corresponding rate for wheat was
only one-fourth that sum, or 8 cents per 100 pounds. A cargo of
cotton shipped from Galveston to Liverpool frequently contains as
much as 5,500,000 pounds, and the value in 1905-6 of such a cargo
at Galveston was not far from $600,000, while the same quantity of
wheat would have been worth from $70,000 to $90,000. The entire
cost of carrying this amount of cotton from the farms in the United
States to Liverpool, not including costs of transfer and terminal
charges, at the average rates estimated in this article, would be
about $50,000, while the corresponding cost for wheat would be
$24,000.

COTTON.

COST OF HAULING FROM FARMS.

The cost of hauling cotton and certain other products from farms
to shipping points has been determined with the aid of the county
correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of
Agriculture. In answer to questions sent out by the Department
in’ August, 1906, correspondents in 555 cotton-producing counties
returned, in addition to other data, information as to the number of
pounds of cotton usually hauled at one load, the time required for
the longest haul by any considerable number of farmers, and the
usual cost per day for hiring teams.

The cost of hauling a asumioad of cotton from the farm as deter-
mined here is the cost of hiring such work done, though it is usual
for a farmer to do his own hauling and not to hie such work done.
The actual cost to an individual farmer at a given time may vary
greatly from the usual cost of hiring a team, wagon, and driver; he
may haul his cotton when he has nothing else to do and when his
team would be otherwise idle, or he may be compelled to haul at a
time and under conditions that may involve no little sacrifice of
labor and expense. However, in determining an average vaiue of
the service of hauling it may be assumed that in a given community
the usual cost per day for hiring a team, wagon, and driver is a fair
measure in that community of the average outlay of capital and labor
required to perform the service in question.

TWO REGIONS COMPARED.

By this method the cost of hauling cotton from farms in the South
Atlantic States was found to be 13 cents per 100 pounds, while the

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 373

average for all the cotton regions west of Georgia and the Allegheny
Mountains was 17 cents. The difference in cost between the two
regions was due chiefly to the difference in the average distances
from farms to shipping points, the distance for the South Atlantic
States being 9.6 miles and for the South Central States and Terri-
tories 12.7 miles.

FREIGHT RATES TO SEAPORTS.

Nearly three-fourths of the cotton arriving at Galveston is carried
by railroads at a uniform rate, and comes from stations serving a
large part of the area of the State of Texas. The railroad freight
rate from Texas ‘‘common points’? to Galveston was 55 cents per
100 pounds during the year ending June 30, 1906. Of the 188
Texas counties which produced cotton in 1905, 118 were in the region
to which the ‘“‘common points”’ rate of 55 cents applied. The usual
rate for stations in 14 counties was 65 cents, for 7 counties 58 cents,
5 counties 49 cents, 4 counties 66 cents, 4 other counties 54 cents,
2 others 63 cents, while the rates to Galveston from stations in 34
counties, which were situated between the region of the ‘‘common
points” and Galveston, ranged from 6 to 48 cents per 100 pounds.
The average rate from all points in Texas, taking into account the
quantity of cotton affected by each rate quoted, was 52.9 cents per
100 pounds. The average cost of shipping cotton from Indian Ter-
ritory to Galveston during the year just mentioned is estimated
roughly at 66 cents per 100 pounds, and the average rate from Okla-
homa to Galveston is estimated at 72 cents per 100 pounds.

GALVESTON, NEW ORLEANS, AND SAVANNAH.

Taking into account the relative quantity of cotton produced in
the region affected by each rate, the average charge to Galveston
from local stations in Texas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma during
the year mentioned was 54 cents per 100 pounds.

Average rates from points of original shipment to New Orleans,
Savannah, and New York were estimated by adding the rates given
for a large number of representative local shipping points and
dividing the sum by the number of items. In this manner the mean
rate to New Orleans from 347 stations in Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Tennessee was $1.14 per bale, or about 23 cents per 100 pounds.
Cotton sent to Savannah from 738 stations in Georgia, South Caro-
lina, Florida, and eastern Alabama was charged a mean rate of 41
cents per 100 pounds.

ROUTES AND CHARGES TO NEW YORK CITY.

Consignments of cotton to New York City from local stations in
the cotton regions may be carried all the way in freight cars or may
be sent down to some southern port and there transferred to one of

374 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the lines of coasting vessels for shipment northward. The charges
on cotton to New York are from 20 to 25 cents higher than the rates
from the same stations to New Orleans and Savannah. The mean
rate per iCO pounds to New York from 298 local points in Mississippi,
by railroad routes exclusively, was 48 cents, or 25 cents more than
the rate to New Orleans as given above, and the mean rate to New
York from 402 stations in North and South Carolina, Georgia, and
eastern Alabama was 65 cents by all-rail routes and 59 cents by rail-
and-water routes. These charges, it will be seen, are from 18 to 24
cents above the rates from practically the same regions to Savannah.
The mean freight charge to New York from 700 local points among
the cotton fields in Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, and eastern Alabama is taken as 54 cents per 100 pounds,
the same as the estimated average rate from stations in Texas,
Oklahoma, and Indian Territory down to Galveston.

PRICES AT FOUR PORTS.

If the relative quantity of cotton exported from each port be taken
into account, the average of the freight rates on cotton to Galveston,
New Orleans, Savannah, and New York from local shipping points
would be 40 cents per 100 pounds. At the four cities named the
mean of the daily closing prices for Upland middling cotton for the
year ending June 30, 1906, was 11 cents per pound, which was about
the. same as the average export value of all cotton for all United
States ports during this year. The mean annual price at New
Orleans and also at Galveston was 11 cents, at Savannah 10.8, and
at New York 11.3 cents per pound. Thus it appears that in 1905-6
the value of cotton at the seaboard was twenty times the cost of
transporting that product there from the farms, the freight charges
plus the cost of hauling in wagons being 56 cents per 100 pounds.

TWO CLASSES OF OCEAN FREIGHT TRAFFIC,

Ocean freight charges are subject to more frequent changes than
are railroad rates. On the ocean competition is practically free,
for any man with a ship may compete for business. If the vessels at
a certain port have a large amount of available space for cargo and
the quantity of goods to be shipped is relatively small, freight rates
are apt to be low. Such a condition may easily occur when pass-
enger liners are in port, for their dates of sailing are fixed by a sched-
ule previously arranged, and they must start on time whether their
cargoes be large or small. Quotations of freight rates on goods
carried by steamship lines are published regularly in the leading
ports on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. The
mean of the quotations for cotton to Liverpool for the first week of
each month during the year 1905-6 was 33 cents per 100 pounds from

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 375

New Orleans and 17 cents from New York. The rates from Gal-
veston and other leading Gulf ports are regarded as practically the
same as those from New Orleans.

Besides the regular lines of vessels, there are a large number of ships
engaged in freight traffic which have no regular routes, but make
contracts frequently for a single voyage at a time. On account of
their wanderings throughout the commercial world these vessels
are sometimes called ‘tramps.’

ONE YEAR’S RECORD OF A “TRAMP” STEAMER.

An account of the first year’s work of one of these ‘‘tramps”’
appeared in a daily paper in September, 1906. The vessel in ques-
tion was built in England and on its first voyage carried a cargo of
coal from Cardiff, Wales, to Algiers. The next trip was in search of
business and the ship went in ballast from Algiers to Port Arthur,
Tex., whence a cargo of cotton and cotton seed was taken to Bremen,
Germany. Again a voyage in search of freight was made, and at
Cardiff a second load of coal was taken aboard; this time the desti-
nation was Teneriffe, in the Canary Islands. Then a second voyage
was made across the Atlantic without cargo, and this time also bus-
iness was found at Port Arthur, Tex., where corn was loaded for
Sharpness, England. Another voyage in ballast brought the ship
to Bremen and the load of kainit received there was taken to Savan-
nah. Leaving Savannah and sailing up the coast, again in ballast,
the vessel ended its first year of service as it entered the harbor of
Baltimore. Here it was to receive a full cargo of grain for the Baltic
Sea. Some ships are not so successful as this one in finding cargoes
and occasionally lie idle for months at a time waiting for employment.

AVERAGE OCEAN RATE ON COTTON.

The average ocean rate on cotton from the United States to Liver-
pool for the year 1905-6 was about 32 cents per 100 pounds, exclud-
ing terminal charges, the same as the annual mean of the quoted rates
from Savannah to the United Kingdom. It will be noted also that
the average railway rate from all local points to all ports, as estimated
above, was 40 cents, while the charge from local points to Savannah
was 41 cents per 100 pounds. In regard to both land and water
rates Savannah occupies a medium position.

VALUES IN ENGLAND.

The sum of the cost per 100 pounds for transporting cotton on
country roads, on United States railroads, and across the Atlantic,
as estimated above, is 88 cents, and, with an allowance of 2 cents for
transfer to ship at some United States ports, the entire cost of carry-
ing may be taken as 90 cents per 100 pounds.

376 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The mean price of cotton in England for the twelve months ending
June 30, 1906, was about 12 cents per pound; the annual mean of
the cash prices for Upland middling cotton at this market at the close
of each business day for the year mentioned was 12.1 cents.

The difference in price between the four leading cotton ports of
the United States and Liverpool was 1.1 cents per pound, while the
cost of carrying the cotton across the ocean was about one-third of
1 cent per pound, leaving two-thirds of 1 cent for profits and other
items, such as insurance, selling commissions, and cartage. The
total cost of transportation from United States farms to Liverpool,
including cost of transfer to ships at United States ports, was about
7.5 per cent of the value of the cotton in that city.

SUMMARY OF FREIGHT CHARGES ON COTTON.

The total cost of hauling the cotton crop of 1905 from farms to
shipping points, at the rate of 16 cents per 100 pounds, as estab-
lished by the investigation mentioned near the beginning of this
article, would be $8,000,000; and the cost of carrying that portion
of the cotton crop which was exported to Europe from farms in the
United States, at the rate of 90 cents per 100 pounds, would amount
to $33,000,000, of which the cost of hauling from farms would be
$6,000,000, freight charges to seaboard cities $15,000,000, and ocean
transportation, including transfer to ship, $12,000,000.

A summary of the transportation costs for cotton mentioned in
the preceding paragraphs is given below:

Estimated average costs of carrying cotton in the United States and to the United Kingdom
_ during the year ending June 30, 1906.

Cents per
From— 100 pounds.

Farms in 555 cotton-producing counties, by wagon, to local shipping points... 16
200 local points in Texas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma, by all-rail routes,

to. Galveston :23:2. So. come san Sethe eB eet ere ee ee ee 54
347 local points in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tennessee, by all-rail routes,
to New Orleans. :2)/.20 8 S22 0k SAAR See 23
738 local points in Georgia, South Carolina, Florida, and eastern Alabama,
by all-rail routes, to Savannah.............-.------- +--+ 222s e eee een eens 4]
298 local points in Mississippi, by all-rail routes, to New York ......-.----- 48
402 local points in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and eastern
Alabama—
By all-rail routes to New York... .......-.-.- 22-2 eee eee eee ence eee n eee 65
By rail-and-water routes to New York..........------------+e2-+----+- 59
Local shipping points to seaports, average for United States.......-.------- 40
Gulf ports and New York, by regular steamship lines, to Liverpool........... 32
Savannah, by chartered vessels, to the United Kingdom......-...---------- 32

United States to United Kingdom, average for all ports........------------ 32

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 377

WHEAT.

FROM FARMS TO LOCAL SHIPPING POINTS.

The average cost of 9 cents per hundredweight for hauling wheat
from farms to shipping points, as mentioned at the beginning of
this article, was obtained by the use of returns from 1,051 wheat-
producing counties. The cost for the North Central States is 8 cents
per 100 pounds, but in Kansas, Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan the rate
is 6 cents, and farmers in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and
Nebraska do this hauling at an average cost of 7 cents per 100
pounds. In Missouri the mean cost is 9 cents per 100 pounds, in
North Dakota 10 cents, and in South Dakota 11 cents per 100 pounds.
In the wheat region west of the Rocky Mountains the average cost
is 10 cents per 100 pounds, the relatively high rate being largely due
to the long distances over which the grain is moved.

The average farm value of wheat, as given by the Department of
Agriculture, is the price at the local shipping points, for practically
all wheat is sold by farmers at a price which includes delivery at
some local market or shipping point. The average farm value of
wheat in the United States on December 1, 1905, was 74.8 cents per
bushel, and the average cost to the farmers of delivering this wheat
at 9 cents per 100 pounds is 5.4 cents per bushel. Hence the actual
value on the farm would be 69.4 cents per bushel. As the wheat
crop of 1905, excluding seed, was about 622,000,000 bushels, the
cost of hauling the crop from farms to places of local delivery may
be given as $34,000,000, while the total value of the crop delivered
at these markets and shipping points was $465,000,000.

RAILWAY CHARGES TO INTERIOR MARKETS.

From the wheat regions east of the Rocky Mountains large quan-
tities of the grain are gathered into such interior cities as Minneapolis,
Chicago, and Kansas City. The mean of the railway freight rates
on wheat from 562 local stations in Illinois and Nebraska to Chicago
in 1905-6 was 16 cents per 100 pounds, the same as the mean rate
to Minneapolis from 311 local stations in Minnesota, North Dakota,
South Dakota, and Nebraska. In estimating the mean charge to
Chicago from all local shipping points, rates from Illinois and Nebraska
were taken as typical of low and high rates, respectively. To Kansas
City, from 456 stations in Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, the mean
rate is found to be about 14 cents per 100 pounds. Making allow-
ances for the relative quantities of wheat received at each of these
three primary markets during the year. 1905-6, the average rate on
wheat from local shipping points to primary markets in 1905-6 was
. 15.5 cents per 100 pounds, which, added to the average cost of haul-
ing wheat from farms in the North Central States, makes a total cost

378 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of transportation of 24.5 cents per 100 pounds, or 14.7 cents per
bushel from farm to primary market.

GRADES AND VALUES OF WHEAT.

No attempt is made here to obtain an average market value for
all wheat received at one or more leading markets. In the case
of cotton, it was found that the price for the Upland middling grade
at the leading United States ports and at Liverpool was approxi-
mately the average for the entire crop. But important grades of
wheat are too numerous for such a method of obtaining an average
value. At one city the principal grade may be ‘‘No. 2 red winter,”
while ‘‘ No. 1 northern” may predominate in another market. Then
the various practices and standards of grading wheat at the different
trade centers give rise to still more classes for which price quotations

are made.
MINNEAPOLIS AND CHICAGO.

The mean annual price of No. 1 northern wheat at Minneapolis
for 1905-6 was 86.3 cents, and the mean freight rate from 311 sta-
tions in Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska
was 9.6 cents per bushel. The average price of wheat at local ship-
ping points in these four States on December 1, 1905, was 68.6 cents
per bushel, so that the cost of this wheat at Minneapolis would be
78.2 cents, plus such items as elevator charges, fees for inspection
and weighing, and dealers’ profits, making a total cost of probably
not more taan 80 cents per bushel, or about 6 cents less than the
value of No. 1 northern.

At Chicago the mean price of No. 2 red winter wheat for the year
named was 86.9 cents, and the average farm price in Nebraska and
Illinois for all wheat on December 1, 1905, was 71.8 cents, including
cost of hauling from farms, while the mean freight rate to Chicago
from local stations in those two States was 9.6 cents per bushel.
According to these figures all the marketable grades of Nebraska
and Illinois wheat were worth, in the Chicago market, probably
about 83 cents per bushel, or 3.9 cents less than No. 2 red winter.

RATES AND PRICES AT KANSAS CITY.

In Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, and Oklahoma the average value
of wheat at local points December 1, 1905, was 70.8 cents, and the
mean freight charge from these stations to Kansas City was 814
cents per bushel. The cost, then, at Kansas City, would be 79.2 cents,
plus minor charges. The mean annual value of No. 2 hard. wheat
at this market for 1905-6 was 81.1 cents. In this case, the only one
of the three mentioned, there is an approximate agreement in the
prices used; the farm value and the price at the primary market
seem to apply to grades of about the same average quality.

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 379

The average of the three prices just mentioned for Chicago, Min-
neapolis, and Kansas City, allowing for the relative importance of
each price in proportion to the quantity of wheat received at each
market, is 85.1 cents per bushel, and the average farm value, includ-
ing cost of hauling, of the crop in the States and Territory named,
was 70.8 cents. The average freight rate being 9.3 cents, the average
value on December 1, 1905, at the three primary markets for all
marketable grades of the wheat of this region, would be probably
not more than 82 cents. This would make only 3.1 cents difference
between the average value of all wheat and the price of three of the
better grades.

RAIL AND WATER ROUTES TO SEABOARD.

From the interior wheat markets to the seaboard there are two
general routes, one eastward to Atlantic ports and the other leading
south to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the eastward routes the rail-
roads have to share their traffic with the waterways formed by the
Great Lakes and the connecting rivers and canals.

The Mississippi River is a potential although not always an active
competitor for the traffic from the wheat regions to New Orleans.
During 1904 and 1905 practically no wheat was carried by river
from St. Louis to New Orleans.

RATES FROM PRIMARY MARKETS.

The freight charge from Chicago to New York or Boston for wheat
intended for export was 15 cents per 100 pounds in 1905-6, by all-rail
routes. During the same year boats on the Great Lakes were chartered
to carry wheat from Chicago to Buffalo at rates ranging. from 1.25
to 3 cents per bushel, and the railway charge from Buffalo to New
York was 4.5 cents per bushel on wheat intended for export.

. The lake-and-rail rate, then, from Chicago to New York ranged
between 5.75 and 7.50 cents per bushel. Shipments by way of the
lakes and Erie Canal were sent at still lower rates. During the
calendar year 1905 the mean rate by lake and canal to New York from
Chicago was 5.53 cents per bushel, by lake and rail the rate was
6.40 cents, and the railroads charged 9.90 cents for carrying the
wheat the entire distance. The all-rail rate from Chicago to Balti-
more and Norfolk was 3 cents per 100 pounds less than the rate to
New York or Boston and 1 cent below the charge to Philadelphia, on
exported wheat. The mean all-rail rate on exported wheat from
Chicago to the Atlantic seaboard may be taken as about 13 cents per
100 pounds, or 7.8 cents per bushel. On wheat intended for domestic
consumption the rate to Boston from Chicago was 4.5 cents per 100
pounds above the export rate, and the mean rate on domestic wheat
from Chicago to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
Norfolk exceeded the mean export rate by 3 cents per 100 pounds, or

1.8 cents per bushel.

380 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIRECT SHIPMENTS AT LOWER RATES.

The average rate on wheat from local points in the interior to the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts is less than the sum of the charge from
those points to primary markets plus the charge from these markets
to the seaboard. It may be assumed that the cost of shipment to
the coast from Kansas City, Omaha, and Minneapolis is not less than
the average from local points in the wheat region surrounding those
cities and is probably greater than the rates from many important
shipping points lying near the seaports. The mean rate from local
stations in the wheat region east of the Rocky Mountains to the
Atlantic seaboard is taken as 13.4 cents per bushel, which is the
mean rate from Kansas City and Omaha to that coast, and the rate to
the Gulf as 10.8 cents, the same as from Kansas City to New Orleans
and Galveston. The average rate from local shipping points to both
coasts, allowing for the relative quantity of wheat exported from each,
would be 12.6 cents per bushel.

SHIPS CHEAPER CARRIERS THAN WAGONS.

Ocean rates were higher than usual during the year 1905-6, and
the mean charge for carrying wheat by regular steamship lines to
Liverpool from New York, a distance of about 3,100 miles, was 3.8
cents per bushel, or 1.6 cents less than it cost a farmer to haul the
wheat 9.4 miles from his farm to a neighboring railroad station. _Some-
times the rate on wheat from an Atlantic port in the United States to

Liverpool is as low as 1.5 cents per bushel, or 3.9 cents less than

the average cost of hauling from the farms. The cost of shipment
in chartered vessels from Baltimore to ports in the United Kingdom
for the year 1905-6 was about 7.8 cents per bushel on an average,
a cost much higher than the rate charged by vessels of regular lines,
and 2.4 cents more than the cost of wagon transportation. The mean
rate by regular lines from New Orleans was about 6.8 cents per bushel
and may be taken to represent the Gulf coast as the New York rate
is in general typical of the rates from Atlantic ports.

The large number of grain ships chartered at Baltimore during
1905-6 makes it fairly safe to take the cost of charters at that port
as an approximate average for the whole coast and not far removed
from charter rates from the Gulf to England. The average of the
rates on wheat to Liverpool by regular lines from New Orleans and
New York and by chartered vessels from Baltimore, not including
costs of transfer, may be taken as 4.8 cents per bushel, or 0.6 cent less
than the cost of hauling in wagons from farms to shipping points.

PRICES AT LIVERPOOL.

The mean price at Liverpool for ‘‘No. 2 red winter’’ wheat for five
months ending June 30, 1906, the season when this grade was most

frequently quoted there, was 92.6 cents per bushel, and the cost of

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 381

transportation to Liverpool from local points in the Middle West is esti-
mated at 17.4 cents per bushel. Deducting this freight charge from
the price just quoted, and allowing 1.5 cents for profits and minor
costs, the value of this quality of wheat at local shipping points in
Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas, and Oklahoma would be 73.7 cents, or only 2.9 cents per
bushel above the average value of all wheat at those points.

THE PACIFIC COAST.

The Pacific coast wheat trade has some features distinct from
the trade east of the Rocky Mountains. The wheat exported from
the Pacific coast to Europe is carried almost entirely in sailing vessels.
The rates quoted for chartering sailing ships for these long voyages
showed but little variation during the year, the average charge to
the United Kingdom from San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and
Seattle being 16.8 cents per bushel for wheat, not including costs of
transfer. Owing to the small exports of wheat from San Francisco
in 1905-6, the rates from that port have practically no effect upon
the average just mentioned.

The mean of freight charges to Tacoma, Seattle, and Portland from
459 local stations was 10.2 cents per bushel, which, added to the ocean
rate, made the total transportation cost from these local points to
Liverpool 27 cents per bushel. The mean Liverpool price for the year
ending June 30, 1906, being 96 cents for white Walla Walla wheat, the
value at shipping points near the farms in the Pacific Northwest
would be 69 cents, less minor costs of marketing the grain. These
minor costs of marketing may be estimated as between 1 and 2 cents’
per bushel, thus making the value of this grade of wheat in local
markets near the farms 67 or 68 cents per bushel, being but a slight
variation from the actual average of all wheat at these shipping
points, which on December 1, 1905, was 66.2 cents. The average local
value for the year 1905-6 was a few cents less than the price on
December 1.

APPARENT DISCREPANCIES EXPLAINED.

However, if the mean railway rate to the coast from local points in
Oregon, Washington, and Idaho be subtracted from the mean price of
Bluestem wheat at Portland, Oreg., for the year ending June 30, 1906,
which was 74.5 cents, the value of this variety at those local points
would be 64.3 cents per bushel, from which minor costs of marketing
are still to be deducted, and the net value would remain not far from
63 cents. There is an apparent discrepancy here, for the average
value of all wheat on December 1, 1905, including grades inferior to
Bluestem, was 66.2 cents per bushel, or about 3 cents higher than the
value of Bluestem. <A greater discrepancy occurs when the mean

382 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

price of ‘‘northern club” wheat at Tacoma, 71.6 cents per bushel, is
reduced to a value at local shipping points by subtracting the freight
charge of 10.2 cents per bushel.

These variations are due apparently to relatively high prices on the
Pacific coast in November, 1905, the month in which the December
farm values were actually obtained, and from this cause the farm
price for wheat in Pacific coast States for December 1, 1905, is a few
cents higher than the average for the entire year. About the Ist of
November, 1905, Bluestem wheat at Portland, Oreg., was quoted at
78 cents, and the Tacoma price for northern club was 74.5 cents per
bushel. The average value of these grades at local shipping points, -
estimated by deducting freight and other cost from the mean of the
two prices last quoted, is from 64.1 to 65.1 cents per bushel, or only
1.1 or 2.1 cents less than the average value of all wheat at those
points, as obtained for December 1.

The average cost of hauling wheat from farms in Washington,
Oregon, and Idaho is 12 cents per 100 pounds, or 7.2 cents per bushel.
The average farm price on December 1, 1905, for these three States
being 66.2 cents, the net value on farms would be 59 cents per bushel.

EXPORTS AND FARM VALUES.

The apparent increase in the consumption of wheat in the United
States in the five years ending June 30, 1906, and the accompanying
decrease in exports was attended by a rise in local prices, which, if
distributed proportionally in all parts of the country, would almost
forbid the exportation of any wheat at all. During the year ending
June 30, 1902, the exports of wheat, including flour (in terms of
grain), from the United States amounted to 235,000,000 bushels and
the average farm value, including cost of hauling, was 62.4 cents per
bushel. For the next four years the annual exports and average
farm values were, respectively, 203,000,000 bushels and 63 cents per
bushel, 121,000,000 bushels and 69.5 cents, 44,000,000 bushels and
92.4 cents, and in 1905-6 the exports were 98,000,000 bushels and the
farm value 74.8 cents per bushel. The value of wheat sent to Liver-
pool in this last-mentioned year and the freight costs along the way,
expressed in averages applying to the United States as a whole, were:

Value of wheat and cost of carrying from United States farms to United Kingdom, 1905-6.

Cents per
ushel.

Value on farms in United States before hauling. .............----.--..+------- 69. 4
Cost of hauling to local shipping poimts(../:.22. 2262.20. tee ae eee 5.4
Average farm value, including cost of hauling .......-....--.-.-----.--- 74.8
Railway freight charges from local points to seaports ...-.........--.---------- 11.6
Ocean freight charges to! United Kingdoni..J..:02. 0002052. Fades 5. ee 9.6
Minor costs of sale and shipment... 2'-les 2: di.'2s. sae es Se 1.5

Value at port in United Kingdom: /l2. 2-0-2. sk Sac een pee eee 97.5

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 383

MAXIMUM FARM VALUE OF EXPORT WHEAT.

The value in the United Kingdom as estimated upon a basis of a
farm value in the United States of 74.8 cents per bushel (including
cost of hauling) is a few cents higher than the actual prices of United
States wheat at Liverpool. The average import value of all wheat
brought into the United Kingdom from the United States during the
year 1905-6 was 95.9 cents, and the mean price at Liverpool during
that period for No. 2 red winter and Walla Walla white grades was
94.3 cents per bushel.

COST OF EXPORTING KANSAS WHEAT.

For wheat shipped from Kansas for export the values and freight
rates were as follows for the year ending June 30, 1906:

Value of wheat and cost of carrying from Kansas farms to Liverpool, 1905-6.

Cents per

eunmeereniren WeIOre HAWN. oe SS eke ce on wd ce cece eee nnicceeccece 67.4
Genie wanting to local shipping pointa.......... 2.52.6... 2. cence ne cceeeecs 3.6
Parmavaluc, including cost of hauling. .2<.2.25.2.0.. 23652 0.,.054-02220- 71.0
Paeaearerent Charpesito Gulf ports: 222225. sso. hoes 22 oes es ees ae 10.8
Dersaiewieht, Guif ports to Liverpool.2.22:..2... 20-2 2b el ode eke eel nl 6.8
Manninen mr pale and shipments. 222028. 202 P ol soe ee eee 1.5
oO FESSOR Stoo! Sa en ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ae 90. 1

The corresponding value of wheat shipped from Minnesota to
Liverpool by way of New York would be 89.7 cents per bushel. None
of these estimates of value in Liverpool include selling costs and
dealers’ profits in England, which of course are included in the prices
quoted above for specific grades. The mean price in Liverpool for
No. 2 red winter grade being 92.6 for the season 1905-6, the value
just estimated for Kansas wheat allows a margin of 2.5 cents for
minor charges in the United Kingdom and for differences between
the average price of all Kansas wheat and the price of the No. 2 red
winter grade.

. SUMMARY FOR WHEAT.

For the sake of convenience the principal transportation costs and
market values mentioned in the foregoing discussion of wheat are
collected in this statement:

Wheat—principal values and freight charges mentioned in this article.

VALUES.

Cents per
bushel.

Average value on farms in the United States before hauling, December 1, 1905 ... 69.4
Average farm value, including cost of hauling, December 1, 1905.............. 74.8

384 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Cents per
bushel.
Average price in Chicago, Minneapolis, and Kansas City, year ending June 30,
1906, for certain, graded. @.: .o shoe. tek Ao esa seer ws the eee eee 85. 1
Price of Bluestem, Portland, Oreg., November 2, 1905 ..............-.2-20000- 78
Price of northern club, Tacoma, Wash., November 1, 1905...............-.....- 74.5
Average farm value, including cost of hauling, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho,
December 1, 190522 20. ict. 2202. OE aes 66.2
Mean price No. 2 red winter, Liverpool, five months ending January, 1906... .- 92.6
Mean price Walla Walla white, Liverpool, for year 1905-6 ....................- 96
Mean price of Bluestem, Liverpool, 1905-6 ..........2-.-----2c-e-cceceeneces 97
FREIGHT COSTS FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1906.
Hauling from farm to local shipping pointes. <: 2 205 se ie « one a ae

Average rate from 1,329 local shipping points in Illinois, Minnesota, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma to Chicago, Minne-

apolis, and Kansas City oo. oat. re = anew ee sae renee ee ele ce 9.3
Mean rate on export wheat, Chicago to Atlantic ports -............-...---.-.--- 7.8
Mean rate on export wheat, Missouri River to Atlantic ports...........-....---- 13.4

Average rate on export wheat, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Paul, and Minneapolis to
New Orleans and Galveston
Average rate from all local shipping ports in above-named States to Atlantic and

Gulf ports ..2 222.222. ose ee coon bas eee breee cle are oe ee 12.6
Average rate from 459 local shipping points in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho to

Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle: ..2-.. 52.222. snces- 250 cece ee Bee eee 10. 2
Average rate from all local shipping points to all ports in the United States...... 11.6
Average ocean freight rate, Atlantic and Gulf ports to the United Kingdom.... 4.8
Average ocean freight rate, Pacific ports to the United Kingdom................ 16.8
Average ocean freight rate, all United States ports to the United Kingdom..... 9.6

OCEAN FREIGHT RATES AND BRITISH IMPORTS.

In the United Kingdom, where a large part of the wheat consumed
is imported, the cost of ocean transportation is an important matter.
During the calendar year 1905 the wheat, not including flour, im-
ported into that country amounted to 182,000,000 bushels and the
average cost of ocean freight was about 9 cents per bushel, thus
making the total cost of carrying it on sea more than $16,000,000.
The average of 9 cents per bushel was estimated from the mean
annual freight rates from eight leading regions of supply to the
United Kingdom. ‘The rates quoted for all the countries except the
United States and Canada were taken from the London Times and the
Review of the River Plate (of Buenos Aires), while the other rates
were found in commercial papers and in circulars issued by freight
brokers at various ports. The mean annual rates on wheat from
each of these regions to the United Kingdom for 1905 are given on the
next page.

aNo. 2 red winter at Chicego, No. 1 northern at Minneapolis, and No. 2 hard at
Kansas City.

FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 385

Mean annual freight rates on wheat to the United Kingdom.

Cents per
From— bushel.

EES Ass R a Se SES pe eR Bere ee ene ene ee 4
Motenn sia ailanine and Gull ports 22-2. ----- --S2e. 0-5. gates geese u ee 5
Rp EMT UTR SOA OEIS 2 on Sees tere Pe ec noe eee 7
EE ee eee ee a he eas Ce eee 7
CEL O20 aot BD yg Sela sp hee Re Be Ea od ee oe a ee 9
SNORE tarts 3) att, Sof Ato eg) oe ere Si fn) cok Ak ep ae ee eee 11
OTE 2 La AS hey 5 SE A Sts ae Coe See rel Sey eg eee freemen ae 14
SL pe) S) ABTA RE YeV EPC 070) ac Oe, en an yn ee 17
SNM Oe 2% 27 reer ere eee eee cet es tote! oo ast oases Seca see ag 9

REMOTE SOURCES OF ENGLAND'S WHEAT SUPPLY.

The effect of applying to wheat the same rates as are charged some
other articles in ocean traffic would be alarming to the British people
and to all other nations which receive an important part of their wheat
supply from over the sea; and the readjustment of prices brought
about by such changes in transportation costs might have serious
results for the agricultural interests in many countries of supply.
The bread of England is made from wheat carried over vast distances
and at rates lower than would have been dreamed of a few generations
ago. To Liverpool from the Atlantic coast of the United States and
also from the Black Sea the grain makes a journey of 3,000 miles,
while twice that distance is traversed from the River Plate and from
Bombay; large supplies are carried 10,000 miles from Australia; and
3,000,000 bushels in 1905 were taken by sailing vessels from Puget
Sound, down the west coast of America and around Cape Horn, a
voyage of 15,000 miles, or more than one-half of the distance around
the globe. From these distant ports, from 3,000 to 15,000 miles
away, the average charge for carrying wheat to England for the year
1905, as mentioned in a preceding paragraph, was 9 cents per bushel,
or only one and two-thirds times the cost of hauling over 9 miles of
country roads in the United States.

If the average cost of carrying cotton the 3,000 or 4,000 miles from
United States Atlantic and Gulf coasts to the United Kingdom were
applied to transportation of wheat over the routes mentioned above,
ranging in length from 3,000 to 15,000 miles, the rate per bushel
would be 19 cents instead of 9, and the margin between prices in
England and in countries of supply would average 10 cents per bushel
more than in 1905.

bd « Rate from Boston used here.

5 For year ending June 30, 1906. Es
: ¢ Mean rate of eight quotations.
d Weighted in proportion to imports from each region named.

1234 a1906——25*

386 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FUTURE CHANGES IN FREIGHT COSTS.

Judging from the changes during the past few generations, it is
natural to expect that costs of freight on land and water may be
lower in the future than at present. Improved methods of loading
and unloading freight, economies in the disposition of cars and vessels
so as to avoid more than at present the hauling of empty cars and the
making of voyages in ballast, and an increase in the quantity of valu-
able freight paying high rates per unit of weight would all tend to
lower the cost of transporting farm products.

In bauling products from farms in wagons there are opportunities
for a saving in cost. In many regions in the United States the
improvement of a road, or a short rough section of a road, would
allow much larger loads to be hauled than at present. If it were pos-
sible to increase the average weight of a wagonload of cotton in the
United States from 3 bales, as it now is, to 4 bales, without increasing
the cost of hauling the load, the saving on a crop equal to the one
picked in 1905 would amount to $2,000,000; and if the average load
of wheat, now 55 bushels, were increased by 20 bushels, the saving
effected in hanling a crop like that of 1905 would be more than
$8,000,000.

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES.

By A. D. SHAMEL,
Physiologist in Charge of Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.

HOW THE NEW VARIETIES WERE BRED.

The four varieties of cigar-wrapper tobacco described in this paper
have been produced by the writer in the breeding experiments of the
Department of Agriculture. These experiments were first undertaken
in the Connecticut Valley in the fall of 1903, at which time the writer
began a study of the varieties of tobacco grown in the valley, made a
large number of crosses of the native with standard foreign-grown
varieties, and selected about 400 individual seed plants growing at
that time in the fields. These hybrids and selections, together with
others made later, about 750 in all, have been tested, under the super-
vision of Dr. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Plant
Breeding Investigations, in the field, laboratory, and manufacturing
establishments during the past three seasons, the inferior and unde-
sirable types have been discarded, and the valuable types have been
used for further tests. Out of all the many selections and hybrids
made in 1903 two hybrids and two selections have proved to be
valuable not only in the Connecticut Valley but in other sections of
the United States adapted for growing cigar-wrapper varieties of
tobacco.

In the hybridization experiments considerable care and attention
were given to the selection of varieties used as parents. The object
of these experiments was to secure varieties of tobacco adapted to
the soil, climatic, and trade conditions of the valley, producing the
size, shape, and quality of leaves best suited to economical cigar-
wrapper manufacture. -The native Connecticut Valley varieties of
tobacco produce long, large, and pointed leaves, from one of which
it is possible to cut only from two to four good cigar wrappers. On
the other hand, the typical leaf of the Cuban and Sumatra varieties
of tobacco is short and round, from which the American cigar maker
cuts from six to eight and even more wrappers. The Cuban and
Sumatra varieties used as parents in these experiments were grown
under shade in the Connecticut Valley to a limited extent in 1903,
some of the plants of which bore leaves of the charaeter that is most
desirable for making cigar wrappers. These best plants were selected

387

388 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for breeding and were crossed with the best plants of the native
Connecticut Havana Seed and Broadleaf varieties. There was
usually found on each plant about a dozen flowers at the right stage
of development for crossing. All of the other flowers on the same
seed head were cut off and thrown away. The flowers used for cross-
ing were then emasculated, and a small, one-quarter pound, light
manila-paper bag was placed over each individual flower. In about
forty-eight hours the bags were removed, the pollen to be used for
pollination was dusted over the receptive stigma, and the bags
replaced. As the individual pods set from three to seven thousand
seeds each, the possibility of raising a large progeny from every cross
is apparent.

A large number of crosses were made, in one case using the Con-
necticut varieties as the mother parents and in the other instance
using the imported varieties as the mother parents. In 1904 about
one hundred plants were grown in the field from every cross-fertilized
pod of seed. The results of this test made it possible to weed out a
large number of the unprofitable hybrids at once and to save for
planting in 1905 a comparatively few plants from a few of the best
progeny rows. Two of these plants were so clearly new and distinct
types that they stood out strongly from all the rest of the plants in
the fields. The progeny of these plants have come true to seed in
the seasons of 1905 and 1906 and are recognized as of such value
that they have been named and their seed distributed to a limited
extent for commercial growing. In all cases self-fertilized seed has
been used every year for planting, and no such violent breaking up
in type has been observed at any time as is the case with hybrid vari-
eties of corn, cotton, and certain other crops.

The original selection of seed plants in the crops of the Connecticut
Valley grown from Florida Sumatra and imported Sumatra seed
were made in the season of 1903, with a view to securing improved
and uniform varieties adapted for growing under shade. In these
fields the plants varied in type to a remarkable degree. Some of
them were of a desirable type, while many were wholly worthless for
cigar-wrapper production.

In these fields the writer found individual plants of types not here-
tofore known in Connecticut or Florida or other districts where this
variety had been grown, which possessed certain characters that
were extremely important from the standpoint of cigar-wrapper
production and manufacture. The seed of many individuals of all
general types of plants growing in the fields under shade was saved
under bags to protect the flowers from cross-pollination. The seed
of these individual plants was sown in separate sections of tobacco
seed beds in 1904, and test rows of about 100 plants were raised in
the field, a row of plants from every seed plant. In the season of

a

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 389

1904 seed of the best plants in the rows producing the best tobacco
was saved under bag for planting on a more extensive scale the
following season. In these tests two types of plants, one from
Sumatra seed and the other from Cuban seed, possessing the qualities,
yield, and other characteristics necessary for a superior cigar-wrapper
variety adapted for growing under shade were observed. These
varieties have been shown to be improvements on previous varieties
adapted for growing under shade, and seed for growing them on a
commercial scale has been distributed in the Connecticut Valley,
Florida, and other tobacco-growing sections.

In the following description of four new varieties of cigar-wrapper
tobacco detailed descriptions and records of performance are omitted,
these data being reserved for publication in technical bulletins of the
Department. Short descriptions and statements of the value of
these varieties are presented with a view to calling the attention of
growers and breeders not only to their value but to the importance
of breeding new varieties for the tobacco industry. In tests of these
varieties by growers it is advisable that only a small area of any
variety be grown until it is proved by experience that the variety is
adapted to local conditions. It is also important that the growers
save the seed of these varieties under bag, free from any possibility of
cross-fertilization. The Department can not undertake to test the
adaptability of these varieties in all of the different cigar-wrapper
sections, so that it is necessary for the grower to use caution and
test them carefully before planting them extensively on a commer-
cial scale.

THE UNCLE SAM SUMATRA TOBACCO.

The original plants of this variety were found by the writer growing
in a crop of tobacco under cloth shade grown by Mr. M. L. Floyd, near
Tariffville, Conn., in the season of 1903. This crop was raised from
seed brought to Connecticut from Florida and which originally came
from the island of Sumatra. In this field of the so-called Sumatra
variety of tobacco were found, upon careful investigation, 11 very dis-
tinct general types of tobacco plants which were strongly enough dif-
ferentiated by certain characteristics of habit of growth, shape and
size of leaves, and quality to be designated as incipient varieties.
Among these types was found one which most nearly approached the
ideal of a cigar-wrapper plant, both as regards development of plant
and character of leaves, and strikingly different from every other
type found in this field or in other fields. This was designated
as ‘‘Type No. 3” for convenience in the breeding experiments, and
was so known until it was considered of sufficient importance to be
named.

The original field in which the first plants of this valuable type

390 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

were found consisted of about 40 acres, and contained a total of
about 50,000 plants. Out of all of this number only 28 plants of
the type known as No. 3 were found. It might be said here that the
writer in all his experience in studying tobacco plants in other fields
grown under shade in the Connecticut Valley, in Florida, and else-
where, has never found a single plant which could be clearly classed
with this type. On account of the few plants of this type found in
the field and their very marked characteristics it was not considered
likely that their seed would come true to type. However, on account
of their valuable characters the seed of every plant was carefully
saved under bag and
ereat care was taken to
prevent any possible
cross-fertilization or ac-
cidental injury. In a
violent storm late in the
season one seed head,
borne by one of the best
individual plants, was
broken off before the
seed had matured suffi-
» ciently to admit of its
' being saved, so that the
seed of only 27 plants
was saved for experi-
mental purposes.

In the spring of 1904
the seed of each of the
27 plants was sown sepa-
rately in the seed beds,
and about 100 of the
seedlings of every par-
ent plant were trans-
planted into test rows
in the breeding field of

Fig. 11.—Typical leaf of Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco. Mr. J S Dewey near
7 oe WD. )

Granby, Conn. To the surprise and gratification of everyone concerned
it was found in the breeding field that the progeny of every parent
plant as grown in the test rows came uniformly true to type, not a single
plant of a foreign or different type appearing in any of the test rows.
In the opinion of the many tobacco growers, plant breeders, and others
who visited this field there has never been under their observation so
striking an example of the uniformity of the progeny of individual par-
ent plants in any crop propagated by seed. The habit of growth of the
plants, the shape, size, color, and venation of the leaves, the number of

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 391

sucker branches, the arrangement and characters of the seed pods in
the seed head, and the number of leaves of the individual plants in
every progeny row were remarkably uniform and true to the type of
the parent plants. The best plants in these test rows were selected for
seed- production and the seed was saved under bag. The tobacco
produced in the test rows and by the individual seed plants was har-
vested separately in order to get an accurate laboratory test of the
. quality of the cured and fermented tobacco. After an examination
of the fermented tobacco from the test rows and tests made for
taste, burn, body, color, stretch, economy in cutting cigar wrappers,
and other qualities, the seed produced by the most desirable plants
in the five best rows was reserved for planting the following season.
In 1905 tests of the progeny of individual plants were again carried
out; seed was furnished the Bureau of Soils for a commercial field
test in the Connecticut Valley and seed was sent to Florida and
elsewhere for field tests. The results of these and other tests
have proved beyond a doubt the value of this variety for growing —
commercially, together with the fact that the seed comes true to
type year after year when saved under bag.

The name ‘‘Uncle Sam Sumatra” was given to this variety—a
section of a field of which is shown in Plate XX XIII, figure 2—from
the fact that it was found among plants grown in the United States
from seed which was brought to this country originally from Sumatra.
It is a cigar-wrapper variety of tobacco and adapted for growing under
shade in the cigar-wrapper producing regions.

The plants of the Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco reach an average
height of about 8 feet at the time of maturity. The plants bear an aver-
age of about 26 leaves before topping. The leaves are borne in a
characteristic slightly drooping position, as can be seen in the illus-
tration (Pl. XX XIII, fig. 1). The color of the flowers and the size
and arrangement of the seed pods are characteristic of this variety,
very few pods being produced by the plants. Few and small suckers
are produced, thus greatly reducing the labor of suckering the field
crops. The plants grow vigorously, are resistant to unfavorable
conditions, and are of early maturity.

The leaves are characteristically round (fig. 11) and specially
adapted for economical cigar-wrapper cutting. The cured leaves
will average about 16 inches in width by 20 inches in length,
although the size varies according to the cultivation and fertilization
of the soil, the location of the field, and other conditions. The size and
shape of the leaves are very uniform from the top to the base of the
plants. The green leaves have a deep-green color and the cured
leaves a beautiful cinnamon-brown color. The veins are small and fine
and regularly arranged in the leaves. The burn is excellent, leaving a
gray, consistent ash, and the flavor is neutral, there being no dis-
agreeable taste. On cigars the tobacco has a good life and stretch,

392 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sufficient body or strength to withstand ordinary handling without
injury, a dull gloss characteristic of the fermented tobacco, and a
rich appearance desirable in all high-class cigar wrappers.

The yield of the crops of this variety is high, being as much as 1,600
pounds of cured tobacco to the acre under favorable conditions. The
percentage of the best grades of wrapper in these crops is correspond-
ingly high and satisfactory to the grower and manufacturer alike.

THE HAZLEWOOD CUBAN TOBACCO.

The crops of tobacco grown in the Connecticut Valley undey cloth
shade from imported Cuban seed in 1903 were extremely variable
with respect to the type of
plants. This variation in
type of the plants grown
from Cuban seed was not so
marked as in the case of the
plants grown from Sumatra
seed, but there was found
in the Cuban varieties a
large proportion of worthless
plants, apparent reversions or
freaks, which were almost a
total loss to the growers.
Five distinct general types of
tobacco were found in the
crops of Cuban tobacco, and
340 plants of these types were
kept for seed production, the
seed being all saved under
bag. Two of these types,
numbered 11 and 13 tempo-
rarily for convenience in the
tobacco-breeding series, were
desirable for cigar-wrapper
-roduction, the plants of
which constituted about one-
fourth of the total number in
the field in which the selections were made. Type No. 13 was specially
desirable from a practical standpoint, the plants having the habit of
growth, with freedom from suckers, and bearing the character of leaves
necessary for producing a profitable yield of cigar wrappers. In the first
seed selection of plants of this type, 32 typical plants were found after
a careful examination of a field of about 48 acres grown under shade from
seed imported from the island of Cuba. The seed of these plants, free
from cross-fertilization, was carefully saved and tested the following
year according to the methods employed in the tests already described.

Fic. 12.—Typical leaf of Hazlewood Cuban tobacco.

PLATE XXXIIlI.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

. 1.—TyPICAL PLANT.

Fic. 2.—REPRESENTATIVE FIELD, SHOWING MARVELOUS UNIFORMITY OF TYPE.

THE UNCLE SAM SUMATRA TOBACCO,

PLATE XXXIV.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

Fic.

1.—TyPICAL PLANT.

Fic. 2.—FieLD SHOWING UNIFORMITY

THE HAZLEWOOD CUBAN TOBACCO.

OF Type, AND SEED OF BesT PLANTS SAVED UNDER BAG.

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 393

The transmitting power of the parent plants of this type was found
to be very marked, the uniformity of the plants in the progeny rows in
1904 being very remarkable. In 1905 the bagged seed from the best
plants in the best rows of 1904 was tested in a commercial field test in
the Connecticut Valley by the Bureau of Soils, in further progeny
tests, and in field tests in Florida and other cigar-wrapper tobacco
regions. The results of these tests were so satisfactory that it was
decided to give this type a varietal name and distribute limited
quantities of seed to interested tobacco growers for use in 1906.
The past season’s tests have shown conclusively that this variety is
valuable and an improvement on any of the Cuban cigar-wrapper
tobaccos heretofore grown in the United States.

This variety (Pl. XXXIV) was named the Hazlewood Cuban in
honor of Mr. William Hazlewood, who brought to the United States
the original Cuban seed from which the variety was developed. It
is‘adapted for growing under shade, and possibly to a limited extent
outside, for cigar-wrapper production in the cigar-wrapper tobacco
districts.

The plants of the Hazlewood Cuban variety when grown under
shade reach a height of about 74 feet at the time of maturity. The
leaves have a partially erect habit of growth, the seed production
is comparatively small, and the time of maturity is very early. The
plants bear but few sucker branches (see Pl. XXXIV, fig. 1), differing
in this very greatly from the ordinary Cuban varieties, in which the
tendency to sucker production is usually very marked. The average
number of leaves borne by the individual plants varies somewhat
with conditions, but is about 21 after topping. The yield of the
crops of this tobacco has been heavy for Cuban tobacco, reaching
under favorable conditions 1,400 pounds of cured tobacco to the
acre. The percentage of the best grades of tobacco in these crops
has been high.

The leaves are about 18 inches in length by about 15 inches in
breadth and are of a round shape adapted to economical cigar-
wrapper cutting (fig. 12). The color of the green leaves is a very
deep green, and of the cured leaves a velvety brown. The grain
in the leaves is very marked, being evenly distributed from the tip
to the base of the leaves. The veins are small and fine, the burn
excellent, leaving a white to gray-colored ash, and the flavor is very
good, no obnoxious taste being present. The tobacco has sufficient
body and stretch so that when wrapped on cigars it stands han-
dling without injury. When the plants are grown without shade
the tobacco has a pleasant aroma and can be used for cigar-filler
production.

THE BREWER HYBRID TOBACCO.

The Brewer Hybrid tobacco is the result of a cross of the Con-

necticut Broadleaf variety with the Cuban variety. This cross was

«

394 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

made in 1903 in the Connecticut Valley, plants of the Connecticut
Broadleaf variety grown by Mr. N.S. Brewer, of Hockanum, Conn.,
being used for the mother parents and plants of Cuban tobacco
grown in the Connecticut Valley from freshly imported Cuban seed
being used for the male parents.

The object of making this cross was to secure a hybrid combining
the characters of habit of growth, adaptability to Connecticut Valley
conditions, burn, and other qualities of the Connecticut Broadleaf
variety with the size and shape of leaves, grain, and texture of the
Cuban tobacco. Twenty-six crosses of this kind were made, every
one of which was
successful, so that
26 seed pods were
obtained. In 1904
the seed from all
these pods was
sown in separate

fas the seed bed and
memes the plants were

| transplanted — to
/ test rows in the
experimental
field. The plants
in 6 of the test
rows showed suffi-
cient uniformity
of characters to
admit of further
selection and
breeding. The
best plants of
these rows were
carefully selected
for seed produc-
tion and their seed
was saved under bag. In one of the test rows the progeny of a parent
plant numbered /c in the breeding records was found a striking plant,
different from either parent or the other hybrid plants, but clearly
approaching the ideal plant sought for. This plant was carefully
tested in 1905 and found to come true to seed. The other progeny
test rows this season showed considerable variability. Some of the
rows were very much more uniform than others, but the importa t
row was the progeny of the striking plant /c. The best plants in this

Fig. 13.—Typical leaf of Brewer Hybrid tobacco.

row were selected for seed production and the seed was saved under

compartments of °

;

—

Src

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 395

bag. In 1906 this seed was tested in a large number of localities,
some of which were adapted to the production of this type of tobacco
and others unfavorable to it. Under favorable conditions the crops
were uniform and of desirable yield, and the tobacco of improved
quality as compared with the parent Connecticut Broadleaf. While
there is opportunity for further improvement of this variety by breed-
ing and seed selection, its characteristics are sufficiently marked and
desirable and the seed comes so true to type that it can safely be
tested by tobacco growers who raise cigar-wrapper varieties of tobacco.

The name ‘‘Brewer Hybrid” was given to this variety (shown in
Pl. XXXV, fig. 2) in honor of Mr. N. S. Brewer, of Hockanum,
Conn., the grower of the parent Connecticut Broadleaf variety, who
has furnished unusual opportunities for experimental work with this
variety on his farm. It is adapted for growing in northern cigar-
wrapper districts and for the production of cigar wrappers.

The plants of the Brewer Hybrid reach about 5 feet in height at
the time of maturity, and the leaves have a slightly drooping habit
of growth. (Pl. XXXV, fiy. 1.) The plants bear about the same
number of suckers as the Connecticut Broadleaf variety, although the
character has as yet a tendency to vary under different conditions.
The plants mature in about the same length of time as the Connecti-
cut Broadleaf variety.

The leaves of the Brewer Hybrid are medium in size, averaging
about 22 inches in length by 19 in width. The shape of the leaves
is very round and especially well adapted for cigar-wrapper cutting
(fig. 13). The grain is evenly distributed from the tip to the base of
the leaves. The texture resembles that of Connecticut Broadleaf
tobacco, but this tobacco when wrapped on cigars has ‘a smooth, rich
appearance not found in the Connecticut Broadleaf variety. The burn
is good, leaving a gray ash; there is no bad flavor, and the stretch is
particularly good, so that the tobacco on cigars stands handling very
well. The color of the growing leaves is light green and of the cured
leaves a bright cinnamon-brown. The fermented tobacco has the dull
finish characteristic of Cuban tobacco. The yield of the crops is large
under favorable conditions, reaching 1,800 pounds to the acre, and the
production of high-grade wrappers in the crop is comparatively high.

THE COOLEY HYBRID TOBACCO.

The Cooley Hybrid variety of tobacco is the result of a cross
between Connecticut Havana seed as the mother parent and Sumatra
tobacco as the male parent. This cross was made in the summer of
1963, using Connecticut Havana seed plants grown by Mr. D. P.
Cooley, of Granby, Conn., as the mother parents and Sumatra plants
grown under shade in the same district for the male parents. The
object of this cross was to secure a variety adapted to the conditions

396 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the Connecticut Valley, having the habit of growth, burn, and
other characters of the Havana Seed tobacco, combined with the
improved shape of leaves, venation, and other characters of the
Sumatra tobacco. Eighteen flowers in carefully selected Havana
Seed plants were cross-fertilized with Sumatra pollen, all of which
set seed and were found to be successfully cross-fertilized. The
resulting seed produced in the 18 seed pods was tested in progeny
rows on the Cooley farm in 1904, 8 of which were determined upon
careful examination and testing to be promising for future breed-
' ing experiments.
In these 8 rows 3
plants of particular
merit were found
and reserved for a
special test in 1905,
together with many
other plants, all of
the seed of which
was saved under
bag. It wasfound —
that the progeny of ~
the 3 particular
plants saved in
1904 produced
strikingly charac-
teristic and uniform
types of tobacco in
1995. (See Plate
XXXVI, fig. 2.)
The habit of growth
of the plants, the
shape and size of
the leaves, and the
quality and other
characters of the
tobacco of these
progeny rows were so desirable that seed was saved from the best
plants in 1905 for special field tests in 1906, as well as for continued
breeding experiments. The final tests have demonstrated that under
conditions favorable for the growth of the plants the variety is a
valuable acquisition to the tobacco industry, and it was consequently
named, and preparations were made for the distribution of a limited
quantity of the seed for commercial planting.

The Cooley Hybrid plants (Pl. XXXVI, fig. 1) grow to a height
of about 6 feet, bear on the average about 21 leaves before topping,

Fig. 14.—Typical leaf of Cooley Hybrid tobacco.

PLATE XXXV.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

Fic. 1.—TyPicAL PLANT.

4

Fic. 2.—REPRESENTATIVE FiELD, JUST AFTER

THE BREWER HysBrRiD TOBACCO.

TOPPING.

PLATE XXXVI.

of Agriculture,

ok U. S. Dept.

Yearbo

Fic. 1.—Typicat PLANT.

Fic. 2.—FieELD SHOWING UNIFORMITY OF Type.

THE COOLEY HYBRID ToBacco,

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 397

have few small suckers, comparatively small seed production, and
mature about the same time as the Connecticut Havana seed variety.

The leaves (fig. 14) are about 22 inches in length by about 17
inches in width, having in the growing condition a deep-green
color and after curing a fine light-brown color. The venation is fine
and regularly arranged in the leaves; the texture is uniform from
the tip to the base of the leaves; the burn is good, leaving a white
ash, and the flavor is satisfactory, no sharp or disagreeable taste
being present in the fermented wrapper. When the Cooley Hybrid
tobacco is wrapped on cigars it stretches well and covers the cigar in
a satisfactory manner.

The yield of this variety under favorable conditions is about 1,750
pounds of cured tobacco to the acre. The yield of the best grades
of wrappers is high, and this percentage can doubtless be increased
by continued breeding and seed selection.

NECESSITY OF BREEDING EXPERIMENTS.

The object of the tobacco-breeding experiments undertaken by
the Department of Agriculture is the production of improved varie-
ties for the established tobacco-growing regions of the United States
and for new sections of this country which are found to be adapted
for tobacco culture. The great increase in the use of tobaeco for the
manufacture of cigars, smoking and plug tobaccos, and for other pur-
poses has resulted in a demand which the areas now under cultivation
adapted for the production of this crop have not been able to supply.
This condition must be met either by extending and increasing the
yield of the areas now cultivated in tobacco and developing new
sections having the proper soil and climatic conditions for its suc-
cessful culture or by depending upon increased importations of foreign-
grown varieties.

It is an established fact that there are great areas in the United
States not now growing tobacco which have the soil, climatic, and
other conditions suited for growing valuable tobaccos and which for
the welfare of American agriculture should supply the demand of the
manufacturers. One of the most important phases of the develop-
ment of these undeveloped sections is the production of varieties of
tobacco adapted to their soil and climatic conditions. The experi-
ments of the Department of Agriculture during the past four years
have demonstrated that the production and introduction of such
varieties can best be effected by the use of careful and systematic
methods of seed selection and breeding.*

@ The writer in the work of growing and testing the new varieties of tobacco described
in this paper has been materially assisted by the active help and interest of Mr.
W. W. Cobey and Dr. W. W. Garner, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and of Mr.
J. B. Stewart, of the Bureau of Soils.

398 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the old and established tobacco-growing regions of the United
‘States it is a matter of common observation that the varieties of
tobacco which have been continously cultivated in some of these sec-
tions have become more and more subject to the attack of certain
fungous diseases, insects, and other enemies. The loss to the growers
due to these injuries has become such that unless relief is obtained
the industry in these regions must be abandoned. Two typical illus-
trations of this condition are found in the injury to tobacco plants in
the Connecticut Valley by the fungous disease Thielavia basicola, or
root-rot, and the destruction of plants in many fields in Florida and
Georgia by the nematode, an enemy which threatens the success of
this important tobacco-producing section. Varieties of tobacco
resistant or immune to the attacks of some of these enemies have
been produced in the course of the breeding experiments conducted
by the Department, demonstrating the practicability of successfully
combating fungous diseases and the attacks of insects through the
origination of resistant or immune varieties by breeding and seed
selection.

The variety of manufactured tobacco products due to the individu-
ally different tastes of consumers has resulted in the demand by
manufacturers for particular varieties and grades of tobacco adapted
for use in their specialties. The great number of brands of cigars,
smoking mixtures, and plug tobaccos is sufficient evidence of the
demand for different kinds of tobacco suited to the individual wants
‘of the consumer. This demand has been met in part by the use of
varieties of tobacco grown in différent sections of the country, blend-
ing them in cigars or in smoking or plug tobaccos, and by the treat-
ment of the tobacco while growing, or when undergoing the curing,
fermenting, or manufacturing processes. The breeding experiments
of the Department have proved conclusively that varieties of tobacco,
adapted for particular purposes of manufacture by reason of their
quality or other characteristics, can be produced by breeding, and
can be propagated uniformly year after year by the use of proper
methods of seed selection.

An illustration of the practicability and value of the breeding of
varieties of tobacco for specia! purposes can be found in the varieties ~
grown in the Connecticut Valley. As the result of breeding, the
Havana Seed variety yields a high percentage of light-colored cigar
wrappers having a smooth, glossy finish, while the Broadleaf variety
produces largely medium to dark-colored wrappers with a rough and
dull finish. One of the possibilities in this very important phase of
tobacco breeding is the production of varieties of cigar-wrapper
tobacco yielding uniformly throughout the crop leaves of particular
size and shape adapted to the most economical wrapping of different
sizes of cigars. Numerous other illustrations might be given to show

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 399

the necessity and importance to growers and manufacturers alike of
producing varieties adapted for special purposes in all classes of

tobacco.
METHODS OF BREEDING.

The methods of breeding employed by the writer in the production
of new varieties of tobacco may be described under the general terms
of hybridization and selection. Hybridization has been used for the
purpose of combining in new varieties the essential and valuable
characters of two established varieties by crossing, which necessarily
has been followed by careful and rigid selection of the best individual
hybrid plants for seed production every year. The term “selection,”’
as used in these experiments, may be defined as the method of pro-
duction of new varieties by saving the seed of mutations or striking
variations in the type of plants found in the established varieties
without artificial cross-fertilization. Such mutations, or “sports,”’
may be the result of breaking up in type or of variability resulting
from their being grown under new climatic or soil conditions, methods
of cultivation, accidental cross-fertilization, peculiarity of season or
food supply, or other cause.

From the fact that these breeding experiments were first under-
taken and results secured with cigar tobaccos, the methods described
will be those used in the production of new varieties of those tobac-
cos; but the same methods are being successfully used and are appli- .
cable to the production of new varieties of all other tobaccos.

Hysrivization.—The success of hybridization as a means for the
improvement of tobaccos depends largely upon the judgment of the
breeder in the selection of parent varieties and plants for crossing.
In the first place, the crossing of widely different varieties of tobacco
has given few, if any, valuable results. For instance, the crossing
of varieties of cigar tobaccos with varieties of smoking tobaccos has
not produced, so far, at least, a single improved type for either cigar
or smoking tobacco manufacture. The crossing of different varieties
of cigar tobaccos, however, has made it possible to secure improved
varieties of this class. The varieties grown in this country may be
grouped in a general way into three great classes, viz, cigar, smoking,
and plug tobaccos. The experience of the writer is. that crosses
between the varieties in any one class may be beneficial, but that
crosses between varieties of different classes are usually followed by
failure.

It is absolutely necessary that tobacco breeders have clearly in
mind the type of plant desired before any crossing of varieties is
undertaken. Promiscuous crossing of different: varieties of tobacco
is certain to be unproductive of any valuable results. The best
results have been secured by using an established variety for one
parent and then crossing the best individual] plants of this variety

400 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

with other varieties which possess the characters lacking in the first.
It is important that a large number of crosses be made in order that
the breeder may have an opportunity to find ideal plants for propa-
gation.

In the Connecticut Valley, Broadleaf and Havana Seed are the
two varieties which have been generally grown for cigar-wrapper
production. The plants of these varieties produce large, pointed
leaves, with coarse venation, which—on account of their size, shape,
and venation—can not be economically used for cutting cigar wrap-
pers. This tobacco, however, is adapted to the soil and climatic con-
ditions of the Connecticut Valley, and has a good burn, taste, body,
elasticity, and other valuable characters. The Cuban and Sumatra
varieties of plants bear comparatively small, round leaves, with fine
veins, but are not adapted for growing under the same conditions
as the Connecticut Valley varieties. The crossing of the Connecticut
Broadleaf and Havana Seed varieties with the Cuban and Sumatra
varieties, followed by a rigid selection of seed plants for several gen-
erations, has produced several valuable and improved varieties of
tobaccos. As arule the best results have been secured by using a
native or established variety as the mother parent and a foreign-
grown variety for crossing as the male parent.

SELECTION.—Selection is the most practicable means for the pro-
duction of new varieties of tobacco and is most likely to yield profit-
able and permanent results. Many of the established varieties may
be traced to the selection of new types of plants in tobacco fields
for seed production by tobacco growers. A well-known illustration
of this method of production of new varieties is the White Burley
variety, originated by George Webb, of Brown County, Ohio, and
now grown extensively in Kentucky, Ohio, and other tobacco-
producing States. The history of the origin of this variety shows
that Mr. Webb, a successful tobacco grower, noticed in his field of
Red Burley tobacco a few plants having a characteristic light-green
color and peculiar habit of growth. These plants were saved for
seed, and upon finding that the cured leaves of these plants were
more valuable than the ordinary Burley tobacco the grower used the
seed extensively the following season. In a few years the value of
this tobacco was recognized by manufacturers and growers, and the
variety was grown on an extensive scale. It is now one of the most
important varieties grown in the United States.

The change of seed from one tobacco-growing region to different
soil and climatic conditions, particularly from the South to the North,
is likely to result in the breaking up of the type of the variety and the
appearance of plants with characteristics very different from the
established type. These new types of plants can be propagated by
using self-fertilized seed, and uniform varieties of tobacco can be

;
r]

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 401

secured by continued selection of the best individual plants for seed
production. The use of Florida-grown and imported Sumatra seed for
growing in the Connecticut Valley during the past few years is a good
illustration of the effect of a change of seed. The plants grown from
this foreign-grown seed were extremely variable, individual plants of
~ new and unknown types of tobacco appearing in the fields. Theseeds
of desirable individual plants of these types were saved under bag,
free from cross-fertilization, and several valuable new varieties have
been secured adapted to the conditions in the Connecticut Valley and
uniformly coming true to type year after year. ~

It is a matter of common observation among tobacco growers that
an occasional plant producing the ideal leaves and other characters
desired by the growers and manufacturers is found in their fields. A
lack of appreciation of the value of these plants for breeding purposes
results in their being topped and thus lost for seed production and prop-
agation. It is the belief of the writer after several years of careful
observation along this line that if tobacco growers could be interested
in carefully studying their crops from the time the plants are set out
in the field until they are topped, for the purpose. of finding these occa-
sional plants of the ideal type and saving their seed under bag, free
from accidental cross-fertilization, for planting the following season,
more progress could be made in the production of improved varie-
ties of tobacco than by any other means.

THE TESTING OF NEW VARIETIES.

The value of new varieties of tobacco must be established by care-
ful experimental tests as well as practical experience before they are
introduced for growing on a commercial scale. This feature of the
successful production of new varieties is of special importance with
this crop, because the value of varieties of tobacco depends not only
upon their quality, yield to the acre, and economical use by manufac-
turers, but also upon the reputation established by years of successful
production for a particular market requirement. The consumer of
tobacco does not easily change from one kind of tobacco to another,
after finding a satisfactory article, and consequently the manufacturer
is slow in making any change in the variety used for making particular
brands of cigars, smoking mixtures, plug tobaccos, or other manufac-
tured products. It is therefore important that the breeder make all
possible tests of the value of new varieties before distributing the seed
to tobacco growers.

The new varieties of tobacco produced by the Department of Agri-
culture are tested in the field for habit of growth and yield; in the
laboratory for the quality of the cured and fermented product; and
finally samples of the tobacco of these varieties are subjected to actual
manufacturing tests by manufacturers.

3 a1906——26

402 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Fietp tests.—The field tests must necessarily be conducted in
those sections and under those circumstances in which the variety is
to be grown. The influence of soil and climatic conditions upon the
behavior of the tobacco plant‘is such that the results obtained in one
section of the tobacco-growing regions can not be depended upon for
other sections having different conditions.

In the tests of cigar-wrapper varieties a 1-acre field i is considered
large enough to secure the necessary data as to the uniformity of the
individual plants in the field, yield, and other characters that can not
be determined by row tests in the breeding experimental fields. The
area devoted to the field test, however, must frequently be modified
by circumstances, but.less than an acre is likely to be unsatisfactory,
owing to the fact that in such cases not enough tobacco of any one
grade can be secured for entire bales or packages. The larger the area
that can be used for such tests, other things being equal, the more val-
uable and reliable the results from the practical standpoint.

In the field tests of new varieties of tobacco every phase of the cul-
ture of the crop—from the time the carefully selected seed is sown in
the seed bed until the tobacco is harvested, cured, and fermented—
should be so arranged as to give the crop the most favorable circum-
stances possible for growth. In all cases, however, the amount of
money expended for any and all operations must be governed by prac-
tical experience of growers of other varieties of tobacco in the same
class as the experimental crops. The results of these experiments, to
be of value, must show the profit under practical conditions of field
culture of the new varieties compared with the established varieties;
or, in sections where tobacco has not been grown, the profit that may
be expected by growers under normal conditions. A record of the
actual cost of all of the operations in the production and handling of
the crop, the yield, and the selling value of the product is necessary
in order to determine the comparative or actual value of the new
varieties.

LABORATORY TESTS.—The laboratory tests of new varieties of cigar
tobaccos include a study of the tobacco during the curing and fer-
menting process in the warehouse, and an examination of the color,
burn, body, elasticity or stretch, and flavor and aroma of the fer-
mented leaves. As an illustration of these tests the character of the
burn of the Department’s new varieties is tested in the smoking
machine devised by Dr. W. W. Garner, of Plant Breeding Investi-
gations, supplemented by other tests, including the ordinary tests of
the tobacco buyers. The elasticity and strength of the leaves are
determined by the aid of a specially designed apparatus for this pur-
pose, and finally representative samples are made up into cigars and

@See Bul. 100, Part IV, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, ‘‘ Methods of Testing the
Burning Quality of Cigar Tobacco.”’

NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 403

submitted to experts for a test of the flavor, aroma, and other char-
acters necessary for a desirable tobacco.

MANUFACTURING TESTS.—The manufacturing tests of new varieties
are made by sending representative samples of the fermented tobacco
to manufacturers for use in the products for which the varieties are
adapted. The final test of the value of any tobacco is its usefulness
in filling the demand of the manufacturer; therefore this test is of
supreme importance from the standpoint of securing reliable infor-
mation as to the desirability of growing a variety extensively.
Tobacco manufacturers are, as a rule, anxious to test new varieties
with a view to securing a more valuable tobacco for their established
trade or for the purpose of supplying the demand for other products
for the manufacture of which the established varieties are not adapted.
It is a common practice, therefore, for manufacturers, through their
buyers, to purchase small crops of new varieties and test them in
comparison with their regular supply of tobaccos. In this way the
tobacco breeder may get a practical test of new varieties, and if they
prove valuable the demand of the manufacturer will encourage
increased production.

THE PRESERVATION OF TYPE.

The production and introduction of new varieties of tobacco must
be followed by continued effort on the part of the growers to preserve
and improve the type, in order that the fullest and best results may
be obtained. Without selection of seed plants year after year by the
growers, the life of tobacco varieties is comparatively short. The
accidental cross-fertilization of seed saved without protection, the
use of inferior plants for seed production, and many other causes
contribute to the deterioration, breaking up of type, and so-called
running out of varieties. This fact is so well established that growers
find it necessary frequently to secure seed from some new source rather
than to use their own tobacco seed. In view of the fact that the
profitableness of a variety depends to a considerable extent on the
production of a uniform character of tobacco year after year for a
particular purpose, the importance of preserving the type of the
variety can not be overestimated.

The uniformity of varieties of tobacco can be effectually controlled |
by protecting the seed of carefully selected plants from accidental
cross-fertilization and by seed separation. The best individual plants
of the variety grown should be selected for seed production. The
variability of the individual plants in the field offers an opportunity
for the continual improvement of a variety by the intelligent selection
of seed plants having the habit of growth and bearing the character
of leaves most nearly meeting the ideal of the grower and the needs of
the manufacturer. The flowers borne by these seed plants can be

404 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

successfully protected from cross-fertilization with the plants in the
same field, or of other fields or varieties, by inclosing the flower heads
of the selected plants, before the flowers open, with a light but strong
manila-paper bag. The tobacco flowers are perfectly self-fertile, and
several years of extensive practical experience have shown that
tobacco seed saved under bag—that.is, self-fertilized seed-—is equal
if not superior to seed cross-fertilized within the variety. These
paper bags should remain over the seed heads until all of the flowers
have set seed, as shown by the development of seed pods; then they
can be removed and the seed allowed to mature under natural con-
ditions. In northern districts it has not been found necessary to
remove the bags, and they may be left over the seed heads until the
seed is shelled. In southern districts it has not only been found
advisable to remove the paper bags, but it is an advantage, before .
using the bags, to perforate them with small holes, as with a needle,
to admit of a circulation of air without danger of cross pollination.
The paper bags prevent the cross-pollination of the flowers under the
bag by wind, insects, or other agencies.

The methods of bagging the seed, seed separation, and, to a limited
extent, the row test, outlined in this paper and more fully described
in the Yearbook for 1904, have been extensively adopted by tobacco
erowers of established varieties.. The use of these methods of breed-
ing as a means of preserving the types of new varieties of tobacco is
of very great importance and should receive the attention of every
grower.

CONCLUSION.

The experience of the writer during the past four years has shown
that breeding experiments systematically carried out can be made of
great practical importance to the tobacco industry. It costs no
more to grow an improved variety of tobacco giving a higher yield
of a better quality than to grow unimproved and irregular varieties.
The tobacco plant is particularly susceptible of improvement and
satisfactory for the work of the breeder in that it is both fully self-
fertile and easily cross-fertilized. The large number of seed pro-
duced by single plants, frequently a half million or more, makes
the propagation of a valuable variety, once it is secured, particu-
‘larly easy and rapid. The active interests of the manufacturers
in the production of improved varieties adapted to their needs and
the willingness of the manufacturers to pay increased prices for better
qualities in improved varieties make tobacco breeding remunerative
to the grower.

aShamel, A. D., Yearbook of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 435,
“The Improvement of Tobacco by Breeding and Selection.’

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING.

I. GENERAL.

By Wn. Hart Dexter, Ph. D.,
Assistant Dairyman, in. Charge of Dairy Literature and Extension Work.

DEFINITION.

Strictly speaking, dairying is the business of conducting a dairy
farm. Commonly, however, we use the word to include the varied
industries which have to do directly with the production and handling
of milk and milk products. The industrial salvation of this country
depends ultimately on its agricultural resources. The profits of
agriculture depend ultimately on the intelligent cultivation of the
soil. Dairy farming is increasing in almost every section of the
country, largely because it is recognized as one of the most economical
forms of agriculture where the preservation of soil fertility is con-
sidered. Taking this broad view of dairying, we find it one of the
greatest i ealth pkoduvins industries in the land.

Opportunities for dairying are found everywhere in the United
States. The different sections of the country have characteristic
peculiarities, but all need milk and its products. Success awaits
the dairyman who fits his work to the conditions of the place in
which he lives. He should know the value of a good dairy cow and
how to treat her. He should recognize the necessity of cleanliness
from the time the milk leaves the udder until the finished product
is in the hands of the consumer. He should know and meet the
needs of his market.

OPPORTUNITIES IN VARIOUS LINES.

The equipment and practice found on the dairy farm afford great
opportunity for improvement. Better buildings as to construction
and sanitation need not be expensive. The best machinery and
utensils are available at moderate prices. Thorough and cleanly
management in the stable and milk room is simple and cheap. The
necessary refrigeration can also be provided without elaborate or
costly fittings. The indispensable silo can be erected of such material
as may be best suited to the climate.

The maintenance and increase of soil fertility praetinntas one of the
greatest opportunities for dairying. A ton of wheat, worth $22,

405

406 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

removes from the soil $7.50 worth of plant food. A ton of butter,
worth $500, takes less than 50 cents’ worth of plant food from the
soil. Land on the Pacific coast, reduced to such poverty by the con-
tinued raising of wheat that it produced only 8 or 9 bushels of wheat
per acre, has heen so restored by dairying that it now produces from
20 to 40 bushels, and the land has doubled in value.

Careful oe goes hand in hand with the most helpful rotation
of crops, encouraging especially the production of legumes. Diver-
sified farming needs dairying for its best results. The improvement
of the forage crops best suited to a given locality is the natural study
of the dairyman.

IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE.

The improvement of dairy cattle offers great opportunity. The
cows. supplying Iowa butter factories are making an average of only
140 pounds of butter per-year. By the weighing and testing of the
milk of each cow those which fail to pay their board can be detected
and rejected. The rearing of the heifer calves from the most profit-
able cows is the simplest course for the improvement of the herd at
least expense. In this selection regard must be had for dairy type
of form and function. A Gael dairy sire should be at the head
of every dairy herd. It is entirely practicable to add largely to the
wealth of every dairy farmer in this way, and every dollar added to
the average income from the dairy cow in the United States adds
$20,000,000 to the nation’s production of wealth.

To assist in this improvement of the dairy herds cooperative test
associations have been organized. They were introduced ten years
ago in Denmark, and are now found in most of the prominent dairy
sections of Europe. In Germany these associations have been the
means during the last five years of increasing the income of the dairy
farmers by an average of $14 per cow per year. Similar associations
in a few States of our own country, led by Michigan, have shown the
practicability of increasing the income from dairy farming at least
one-fourth without additional expense to the producer. Coopera-
tion in the organization and management of these test associations
is needed to promote their practical and general efficiency.

The associations of breeders of pure-bred dairy cattle have a simi-
lar opportunity to increase the value of their records of tests of dairy
cows. By agreeing upon uniform rules under which these tests
should be conducted, general standards of dairy performance would
be established, and by the registration of all such records in a national
office their general acceptance and use would be secured.

IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Opportunity for dairying appears also in the increased demand for
pure milk, especially in the larger cities. This opportunity is for

ae a

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 407

intelligence and cleanliness in the production and for reliable purity
in the product. The market-milk producer can now profit by im-
proved methods for the care, distribution, and sale of milk of the best
quality. There seems to be practically no limit to this market.

On many dairy farms near cities and places of popular resort oppor-
tunity for profit is afforded by the demand for ice cream. One great
advantage in supplying cream is the saving of the skim milk for the
feeding of farm stock and ultimately for the fertility of the soil.

Farm dairy butter of the highest quality is always in demand at
the highest prices. Uniformity of excellence must be maintained,
and this requires patient attention to details. Success in this line
will follow the use of the improved methods which have been worked
out in the creameries, with such modifications as may be required in
the smaller operations of the farm. The new rapid method for the
determination of water in butter will be of material assistance.
Taints and defects must be promptly discovered and corrected. The
farm separator must be kept clean.

The furnishing of fancy farm-made cheese offers an opportunity
for great profit. Recent investigations have shown that it is entirely
practicable to produce in this country the finest grades of cheese of
the Camembert and Roquefort types, heretofore only had by impor-
tation from Europe. Prices for such goods are high, and the farm
dairy can easily be equipped for their production.

There is large opportunity for profit in dairying by the improve-
ment and varied uses of the by-products from the manufacture of
butter and cheese, such as casein, ash, and milk sugar. While some
forms of these by-products require expensive machinery, others are
entirely within the reach of the farm dairy. Under present condi-
tions, however, the most profitable use of skim milk and whey is as
food for farm stock and poultry.

CONTROLLING MOTIVES.

In fairly estimating the advantages of dairying one should con-
sider the opportunities presented for the legitimate gratification of
the strongest and best motives to action. The best dairyman is the
one who is most effectively controlled by such motives.

The desire for profit is strong. A Connecticut dairyman makes 22
per cent net profit annually on his investment. In Georgia one acre
and one dairy cow have produced in one year, under careful manage-
ment, a net cash profit of $28.75 in addition to $20 worth of manure
contributed to the fertility of the soil. The dairyman’s income is
conveniently distributed throughout the year, enabling him to keep
out of debt. Supplying home markets keeps money at home. There
is no danger of overproduction with the world for a market.

The desire for leadership is strong. It may be gratified in the

408 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

organization and management of dairy enterprises. There is oppor-
tunity for leadership in plans of cooperation connected with cream-
eries, test associations, State experiment stations, and the improve-
ment of the condition of the rural community.

The desire for knowledge is strong. The dairyman has opportuni-
ties for the search after truth in scientific investigations concerning
the soil, the culture of forage crops, the breeding and care of live
stock, the chemistry and bacteriology of milk products, and the
principles involved in the invention and use of machinery.

The desire for pleasure is strong. The dairyman has opportunity
for pleasures of the better sort, in the enjoyment of the poetry and
beauty of rural life at its best. He may enjoy the improvement of the
farm home. Love for animals finds pleasure in their daily care.
The endeavor to supply the best of pure food gratifies love for his
fellow-men, the highest of merely human motives.

Il. NEW ENGLAND.

By Grorce M. WuitrakeEr,
Dairy Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry.

PASTURES AND GREEN FORAGE.

New England offers exceptional advantages to the dairyman.
The leading crop in the feeding of cows is grass; and the soil and
climate of New England are such that grass grows readily. The
strong, retentive clay soil of the hillsides is excellent grass land,
producing large crops of hay with ordinary care. Grass also grows
naturally; and many hills, too rough and rocky for cultivation, will
grow wild grasses if the ever-encroaching bushes are kept back. In
these pastures of low-priced land many cows and yaung stock get
their summer living at very little expense to the owner. The crop
of second importance is the corn plant, which is grown more for forage
than for the grain. It grows well in almost every section, and responds

readily to cultivation and fertilization. It is frequently fed green

from the field, as the pastures begin to dry, in order to keep up the
flow of milk. Large amounts are cut for the silo, grain and forage
both going into the pit. The geological formation in many parts of
New England is such that an abundance of pure water gushes from
thousands of mountain springs. There are likewise excellent oppor-
tunities for getting ice of the best quality, which almost every dairy-
man puts up for his summer use.

MARKETS.

New England’s second distinctive advantage is in excellent, well-
located markets. Her surface is liberally dotted with manufacturing

wR. ry ant, Pg Ce

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 409

towns and cities where reside a large part of her population. New
England, with only one-fiftieth of the area of the contiguous United
States, has one-fourteenth of the population. According to the
census of 1900, Rhode Island is the most densely populated State in
the Union, having 407 persons to the square mile. Massachusetts,
though forty-fourth in territorial rank, is seventh in amount of
population and second in density of population among the States
and Territories of contiguous United States. Connecticut ranks
fourth in density of population, while New Hampshire and Maine,
though further down the list in this respect, have a number of large
manufacturing cities and towns.

But the superiority of New England’s markets for dairy products
is not told wholly in statistics of a large population located on a
comparatively small area. The purchasing ability of this popula-
tion is large, as it is largely composed of well-to-do merchants, pro-
fessional men, and skilled mechanics. Even the unskilled common
laborers have steady employment at good wages and consume large
amounts of dairy products. .

Such markets mean a quick demand for all dairy products. Aside
from milk and cream, New England does not produce all the dairy
products she consumes. Hence there is always a good demand for
the fresher article produced near by. The New England dairyman
has an advantage as to price. Even in the wholesale market New
England butter is usually quoted at one or two cents above western.
But many dairymen are located so that they can sell milk, cream,
or butter in a near-by market or direct to consumers, thus getting
the further advantage of a retail price. And few New England
dairymen are located so far away from a center as to be out of reach
of the milk car to the city, the cream gatherer for some butter factory
or eream-shipping station, or the cheese factory. The producer of
milk and its products in New England is closer to the consumer than
in other sections.

Not a few New England dairymen aré so favorably located and
have so much skill that they get an advance above the ruling price
for an article of extra quality.

DISADVANTAGES.

The disadvantages of New England dairying are a comparatively
sterile soil, col@ winters, relatively short growing seasons, rough,
rocky topography, and high freight rates on small shipments for
short distances. But the quality of the market offsets these to a
large degree. Thorough cultivation and plenty of applied plant
food make the land under cultivation produce large crops. Four
tons of hay per acre is frequently harvested, though this is above
the average, and 6 tons is no uncommon production. High yields
of ensilage corn are common.

410 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

Dairying is the leading agricultural specialty in New England.
Market gardening receives much attention near the cities and large
towns, but many market gardeners keep a dairy herd to consume the
refuse from the truck garden and to increase the size of the manure
pile. Fruit growing is also a specialty with many, but even in those
cases dairying is often a side issue of importance. Hence dairying is
almost universal. All the leading breeds of dairy cattle are repre-
sented by pure-bred animals of high quality. Some of the famous
pure-bred dairy stock of the country is of New England ownership or
origin. All of the leading national breeders’ associations have many
New England members, two have come to New England for secreta-
ries, while prominent officers of others are New England men.

Market milk is the leading feature of New England dairying. Milk
cars for Boston every morning leave northern New Hampshire, cen-
tral Vermont, western Massachusetts, and central Connecticut. Be-
tween thirty-five and forty carloads of milk arrive at Boston daily,
almost all being of New England origin. The supply of milk for the
smaller cities is also a business of large dimensions. The increasing
use of cream makes that product of second importance. Maine
sends a carload of cream to Boston daily, while large quantities are
received from other sections along with the regular milk supply.
Much of this market cream is separated by the farmers either by the
Cooley process or the centrifugal separator, gathered by creameries,
where it is run through a separator for standardizing, and then shipped
to the city in bulk.

In northern New England much butteris made. All the butter pro-
duced in New England is consumed while it is comparatively fresh—
in many instances while it is only a week or two old. Cheese produc-
tion is no longer prominent in New England, although many factories
still exist in Maine and Vermont, and many private dairies still manu-
facture cheese.

Among methods characteristic of the section perhaps the use of the
Cooley creaming system is the chief. The Cooley system of cream
gathering was of New England origin, and the apparatus has always
been of New England manufacture, so that this particular method
gained such a strong foothold there that the separator has not yet
supplanted it, although many separators are now in use and the
number is yearly increasing.

NEEDS OF NEW ENGLAND DAIRYMEN.

The needs of New England dairymen are chiefly those common to
dairymen generally: (1) Improvement of methods; (2) elimination
of cows that do not pay their board; (3) more attention to the little

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 411

details of cleanliness; and (4) more of a spirit of cooperation and less
cutthroat competition, particularly in the selling of milk.

The needs of dairying which seem to be peculiar to New England are
four. The first is an appreciation of the good markets in this section.
People generally see at close range the hard work and perplexities of
their own business, and have a vivid realization of them; hence it
often happens that one is a poor judge of the relative advantages of
his occupation. New England dairymen are no exception to this rule,
and they lose sight of the broader and relative side of their business.
More appreciation of the advantages of the situation would lead to
better utilization of it.

A second need of New England dairying is more attention to the
pastures. Here can be obtained, at a merely nominal expense, large
_ amounts of the very best cow feed. Yet it is the common testimony
that on the whole the pastures of New England are retrograding; the
coarse weeds, bushes, and encroachment of the forest are driving out
the native nutritive grasses.

The third need is more attention to growing legumes. The New
England dairyman is to-day dependent upon the West for most of the
nitrogenous element in his cow rations, this being bought in the by-
products of the factories which handle grain either for grinding or the
manufacture of ‘‘ breakfast foods,” glucose, and other articles. If the
New England milk producer raised more clover, peas, and other
legumes, he would be more independent; his farm would be more nearly
self-sustaining; it would increase in fertility, and his dairy products
would cost less. Several dairymen have experimented with alfalfa,
which in some cases has promised well for a few years, but no permanent
successes are as yet reported. The experiment stations are doing good
work in introducing vetches, rape, and soy beans; but in the common
old-fashioned red clover farmers have a convenient and valuable
legume.

The fourth need is the doing of business, in most cases, on a larger
scale, making it possible to practice some of the economies which come
from wholesale methods of production and selling. Too many go to
market with such small amounts of butter as to be compelled to
accept whatever the village trader may offer.

THE OUTLOOK.

As long as business s prosperous and population continues to con-
centrate in the cities and towns, requiring them to reach out farther
and farther for supplies of fresh milk, the market-milk business will
crowd back the making of butter and cheese, especially of the ordi-
nary grades; and factories for their manufacture will be abandoned
in order to sell milk or cream to the city. The outlook, therefore, for
the market-milk business, as far as demand is concerned, is good. The

4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

only question is that of price. The farm-labor situation is acute, the
cost of grain feeds is high and increasing, and the awakening of health
authorities to the importance of clean, sanitary milk is adding to the
cost of production. There seems to be no danger of the overproduc-
tion of milk, cream, or fancy fresh butter.

We may conclude with the statement of Prof. W. A. Henry: “The
eastern farms, for inherent beauty, for all that goes for home-making,
for possibilities in the range of crops, and for good markets, are with-
out a rival anywhere in the world.”

III. THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES.

By B. D. Wuire,
Expert in Dairying, in Charge of Building and Management Investigations.

RECENT PROGRESS.

Wonderful progress has been made in the dairy industry during
the past decade, and many changes have taken place, especially in
the North Central States. Among the States which have become
prominent in dairying recently are Michigan, Indiana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Oklahoma, and Missouri. Northern Oklahoma and
Missouri are especially adapted to dairying.

In the last fifteen years the States of Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota have made great progress in dairying. In the last two
States thousands of farms have been taken up and put under culti-
vation, and hundreds of creameries and cheese factories have been
built and put in operation, manufacturing the milk or cream from
hundreds of thousands of cows into prime butter or cheese. There
is yet much untilled land not only in those States but in many others
in the Middle West waiting to be converted into fine farms.

FAVORABLE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

There seems to be a belt particularly favorable to the dairy industry
in the North Central States. This belt extends from Ohio west to the
Missouri River slope and to the arid region east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. Some profitable dairying, however, is carried on in all the
Western and Southern States, but thus far it has not been made a
common adjunct to general farming as it has in the North and East.

The northern climate seems to be conducive to dairying. The
farther north we go the more dairying we find, until the pine-timbered
region is reached. Even this is being converted very rapidly into
dairy farms. Silage has come to be recognized throughout this sec-
tion as the cheapest possible kind of roughage in a succulent and
palatable form. Another northern condition favorable to dairying
is the abundance of fine natural grasses and the adaptability of the

. OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING, 413

soil to clover, especially in the timbered sections of Wisconsin and
Minnesota. The coolness of the nights in summer also makes it pos-
sible to keep milk and cream easily, and this makes the work of dairy-
ing more agreeable. Even the necessity of giving stock proper
protection during the winter months tends indirectly to increase
dairying, and especially winter dairying, which the northern farmers
have found to be the most profitable.

The reasons for the greater profit in winter dairying are not hard
to find. Higher prices are paid during the winter months for milk
and cream. Cows freshening in the fall will, if properly fed, give milk
all winter, and when turned out to grass in the spring will give prac-
tically as much milk as when fresh. Farmers have more time in
winter to do the work required for dairying. Calves may be fed on
skim milk during the winter months, and when turned out to grass
in the spring need very little more care, and the skim milk may then
be fed to the spring pigs. Under the system of winter dairying, cows
go dry in July and August, at a season of the year when the farmers
have the most work to do and.the least time to give to the care of
cows and calves.

SOIL CONDITIONS.

The soil throughout the dairy districts of the North Central States
is generally good, except in a few localities which are sandy; but on
account of the large number of cows and other animals kept, the fer-
tility even of the poorer soils is kept up, and such crops as are neces-
sary for the maintenance of a dairy herd are raised. In sections
where a portion of the land is too rolling or hilly to be fit for the
growing of crops it is used for pasture, and only the lower land is
used for tillage. In other localities, where lakes abound, the land
near the shores for a certain distance is too wet for cultivation, but
makes good pasture and is used for that purpose. In such localities
also the stock is well supplied with water; hence both the high land
and the low is used to good advantage for stock raising and dairying.
Throughout the localities where dairying and stock raising are exten-
sively carried on the fertility of the soil has not only been kept up,
but in many sections it has been largely increased.

DAIRY COWS.

It is with regret that one must say that a large percentage of cows
throughout the North Central States are yielding only a trifle more
than 100 pounds of butter each per year. In some dairy States the
average yield is less than 150 pounds per cow per year, when it is
possible, under quite ordinary conditions and with grade cows of dairy
breeds, to produce twice that amount. Evidently there is plenty of
room for improvement. By proper selection, care, feeding, and
breeding of dairy cows the output of dairy products can be doubled

414 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

without increasing the number of cows now in the country. On
many farms the dairy herd could be made to produce an increased
profit simply by testing all the cows and disposing of those which are
proved to be unprofitable.

The increase in the number of cows is noteworthy. Take Minne-
sota as an example. The number of cows supplying creameries
increased from 382,356 in 1901 to 458,466 in 1904. Considering the
average cow worth $30, the assets of Minnesota dairymen were thus
increased 21 million dollars in these three years, besides the amount
obtained from the sale of young stock.

In Iowa the number of cows supplying creameries increased from
600,000 in 1905 to 650,000 in 1906.

MILE.

The center of butter production has been gradually moving west-
ward, while market milk is relatively of less importance westward
than in the East. Eastern cities are learning the value of milk and
milk products for food. The agitation by boards of health for cleaner
and purer milk seems to have stimulated the demand, and difficulty
is experienced in most of the large cities in obtaining an adequate
supply of milk and cream during the winter season, though prices are
higher to the consumer than in former years. Condensing factories
aré using large quantities of milk, which in its condensed form is
shipped to nearly every country on the globe. ‘A considerable quan-
tity of milk is being used in the manufacture of fancy brands of cheese.

It has been estimated that skim milk is worth from 15 to 25 cents
per hundred pounds for feeding purposes on the farm. It is difficult
to estimate the total feeding and fertilizing value of skim milk to the
farmer. Without it less stock will be raised on the average farm.
With less stock there will be less manure, and the fertility of the soil
will decrease year by year until the land has reached such a stage of
poverty that it will no longer produce profitable crops. Farmers
should receive at least 25 cents per hundred pounds for skim milk
sold from the farm. Even where that price is received, the average
farmer does not invest an equal amount, as he should, in commercial
fertilizers. When more stock is kept and the skim milk fed to it, the
fertility taken by the crops is replaced and the land kept in proper
condition. The farmer of the North Central States is learning this
lesson. The price obtained for milk in these States is not as high as
in the East, but the net profit seems to favor the western farmer, as
he is able to produce milk more cheaply on account of the abundance
of feed which can be raised on his fertile soil.

BUTTER.

Western methods followed in the manufacture of butter are worthy
of note. The system of delivering fresh sweet milk daily to the butter

="

ii

oo.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 415

factory, which was the common practice after the discontinuance of
the gathered-cream system, has been largely changed. The farmers
have bought separators, and they now skim the milk at home, feed
the fresh warm skim milk to the stock, and deliver only the cream to
the factory. This is the ideal system from the farmer’s standpoint,
but new. obstacles have appeared which tend to lower the quality of
the butter made. The farmers do not deliver the cream as often as
they should, because many butter factories will accept cream which
is no longer sweet.

Many factories also solicit cream shipments from farmers, either
direct to central plants or to receiving stations at points on railroads,
from which it is forwarded to the central or churning plants, in some
cases hundreds of miles from the source of supply. At these stations
or central plants cream is received in any condition, without regard
to age or quality. On account of the poor quality of butter made
from such cream and the cost of transportation, the price to the
farmer has been during the past season about 4 cents per pound
less for butter fat than is paid at the creameries where the cream or
milk is delivered sweet, so that it can be made into a first-class article
of butter. A loss of 4 cents per pound for all the butter fat delivered
to creameries for butter-making purposes in six of the largest dairy
States would mean a loss of about 13 million dollars per year, or a loss
of about 34 million dollars in such a State as Iowa, Minnesota, or
Wisconsin. .

The manufacture of butter seems to be increasing rapidly, especially
in the sections where the cooperative system prevails—in Wisconsin,
northern Iowa, and Minnesota. The creameries in Wisconsin, as
reported by the State authorities in 1900, made 60,000,000 pounds of
butter, and in 1905, 88,500,000 pounds. The increased creamery
production has not decreased the amount of butter made upon the
farms, which, according to reports, in 1900 was 25,000,000 pounds,
and in 1905, 34,500,000 pounds.

In lowa the product of butter has increased from 77,000,000 pounds
in 1900 to 91,000,000 pounds, which sold for more than $20,000,000,
in 1905.

Minnesota shows an increase from 44,000,000 pounds in 1900 to
77,000,000 pounds in 1905. In other States proportional increases
have probably been made.

There has been increase during the last year in nearly every particu-
lar. The number of smaller centralizing plants has increased, as have
the number of the dairy farmers and the size of their herds. The per
capita product of the cows has increased and with it the demand for
cattle of the dairy breeds.

From the increased production we are led to ask the question:
What effect does the increased production have upon the price? , The

416 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

census reports give the total number of pounds of creamery butter
made in the United States in 1899 as 420,126,546. The amount of
butter of all grades exported for five fiscal years ending with 1900 was
114,923,530 pounds, at an average price of 15? cents per pound. The
amount of creamery butter made in 1904 was 531,478,141 pounds, and
the amount exported for the five years ending with 1905 was only
68,931,172 pounds, at an average price of 174 cents per pound. The
average price of extra creamery butter as quoted in New York for
the five years ending with 1900 was 20.3 cents per pound, and for the
next five years 22.24 cents per pound, which indicates that the de-
mand for butter at home has increased at a greater rate than the
production, causing an advance in the price. At the present time
a large proportion of the extra creamery butter sells at a premium of
14 to 2 cents per pound above the quoted prices.

From present indications it would appear that the outlook for the
dairy industry, especially the production of butter, in the North
Central States is bright. The increased demand for milk and cream
for direct consumption, with the increase in population, will have a
great influence on the consumption of butter at home. Another
hopeful sign is the probability of increasing exports to Cuba, which
has been largely supplied by Denmark, and to European countries
which have been largely depending upon other nations for their supply
of butter.

The butter exported from the United States has heretofore been
principally of an inferior quality. The demand at home has taken all
of the better grades at good prices. It is only natural to expect that
a large percentage of the butter made in this country will hereafter

come from the North Central and Southern States and that there will
be an increasing demand for the best grades.

CHEESE.

Throughout the North Central States there has been a steady
increase during the last five years in the production of cheese, as well
as butter, but the amount of cheese made is less than the amount of
butter, except in Wisconsin, where more cheese is made. In 1900,
78,000,000 pounds, and in 1904, 109,000,000 pounds were made in fac-
tories in that State. The percentage of increase in other States has
in some cases been as large as that of Wisconsin, which is the largest
cheese-making State among the North Central States.

Recent investigations have led to the use of improved methods in
the manufacture of cheese. Many of the causes for the poor quality
of the cheese previously manufactured have been learned and cor-

rected. By the cold curing and ripening of cheese a more uniform

article is produced, and it is commanding an increased price as con-
sumption and demand increase.

a

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 417

~

In some of the North Central States which have not yet undertaken
the manufacture of cheese there are excellent opportunities for profit-
able production to supply the increasing local demand. In localities
where there is not enough milk for the profitable supply of a butter
factory a cheese factory could be operated with success. It appears
to require about 400 cows to produce the milk for a successful butter
factory, whereas cheese can be made with profit from the milk of 200
COWS.

The cheese factory can usually afford to pay more for the milk than
can the butter factory; and for the last year cheese making has been
more profitable for the dairy farmer in the North Central States than
has the manufacture of butter.

The success of the Wisconsin cheese factories has been largely due
to the fine quality of cheese made, which finds a ready market in the
West and South. The demand for cheese, as for butter, depends
chiefly upon the quality. Quality should be the watchword of every
farmer who produces the milk, as well as of the manufacturer of the
cheese. .

Another important element in the outlook for the cheese industry is
the evidently increasing appreciation of the food value of cheese.
Americans have been slow to learn that cheese is one of the most
economical, wholesome, and digestible of our concentrated foodstuffs.

IV. THE SOUTH.

By B. H. Raw,
Expert in Dairying, in Charge of Southern Dairy Investigations.

REVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY, BY STATES.

A survey of dairy conditions in the South, extending during the
last year to 103 towns in 10 States, affords the material for this
sketch.

SoutH Carotina.—In South Carolina the dairy industry is, on the
whole, developed to a very limited extent, although the northern sec-
tion of the State is especially suited to this industry. The dairies
of this section are, in the main, using very inferior stock, their build-
ings and equipment are frequently very inadequate, and they have
no system of marketing their product. In several places, however,
the dairies were found to be profitable, the animals in good health,
and such dairy farms are distinguished from others of the commu-
nity by their generally improved condition. With but two excep-
tions, none of the dairy farmers were using silage, and only a few of
them are feeding liberally enough on green feed. That part of the
State, with its especially fine climate, good lands, and abundance of

3 a1906——27

418 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cool water, will, with a proper development, eventually become a
dairy section. The southern portion of South Carolina is usually low
and in many parts very productive. Forage crops can be grown in
great variety and cheaply, but the dairymen are for the most part
confined to the towns and cities and rely principally upon commercial
foodstuffs. The cows are, as a rule, inferior to those in the northern
part of the State and, while there is an abundant water supply, fre-
quently artesian, the temperature is on an average much higher than
in the northern portion of the State. The principal menace to the
industry in the southern part of this State may be said to be the
existence of the cattle tick.

Grorcia.—In Georgia the conditions vary from the mountainous
counties of the northern part of the State to the flat, level counties
of the coast. In the northern counties there is an abundance of
land that is not utilized, with natural pastures, an abundance of cool
water, having in many cases a temperature of 54° or 55°F. This
section is above the Texas fever quarantine line, the climate is good,
and it is well suited to the production of butter and cheese. In the
southern part of the State there is very little dairying, except for the
purpose of supplying milk to the cities. Silage is not generally in
use, and the city dairymen as a rule rely largely on cotton-seed meal
and hulls for feeding; yet they are often prosperous.

Fiorwa.—In Florida little attention is given to dairying, and the
dairies in the vicinity of the places visited—Lake City and Jackson-
ville—are engaged in supplying to the towns milk at a high price
and of a rather inferior quality. Inferior scrub cattle are generally
in use, and no special provision is made for economical production of
forage crops for feeding. Owing to the attention which is usually
given to the production of fruit and vegetables, and to the large
amount of swamp lands, the outlook for dairying is limited, to say
the least.

ALABAMA.—The northern portion of Alabama is very similar to
the northern portion of Georgia, being mountainous, well supplied
with an abundance of cool water, thickly populated, and having
numerous towns and a great variety of industries. Dairy products
command a very high price and the conditions are excellent for
dairying. In the vicinity of Birmingham one dairyman visited by
the writer found his dairy very profitable; in the same vicinity, how-
ever, under exactly the same conditions, others were found to be very
unprofitable. With one exception, no silos were found in use in
that section of the State, and the buildings and stock were inferior.
In the southern portion of the State, as is the case in the southern
portion of Georgia, the milk production is confined principally to
supplying the cities. There are a few dairymen in middle Alabama

ss

Ee

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 419

that are making good profits, and have been in the business for a
number of years, but, on the whole, the dairy industry of this section
is uncertain. Feed can be raised very cheaply, however, and dairy-
ing should be made profitable.

Lovurs1aNna.—In Louisiana the principal interest in dairying is found
in the vicinity of New Orleans, the greater portion of the State being
devoted largely to the production of cotton, corn, sugar cane, and
rice. In the small towns near New Orleans, however, a considerable
dairy industry is found. The cattle in that section usually run on
the coast, where a variety of grazing is found almost the entire year.
New Orleans offers a practically unlimited demand for dairy products.
The cattle used are frequently very inferior, and while, especially
at Hammond, the dairy industry is much more advanced than it is
in any other place in the coast section, many improvements are
needed. The dairymen need silos, they need to improve their herds,
they need to produce more feed on their farms, and to abandon the
excessive use of cotton-seed hulls. Several successful dairies in this
vicinity indicate that, in spite of the disadvantages, the possibilities
for the skillful dairyman in this section are encouraging.

Mississipp1.—tIn Mississippi the pine lands of the southern part
show little agricultural development. In recent years the removal of
the timber from the lands has left what are known as the stump lands,
which are very cheap. The soil is light and rather sandy, but pro-
ductive when improved; and the development of a dairy industry
in that section which is neat New Orleans would be profitable. Fertil-
izers are needed, which dairying would supply. In the central part
of the State there are few dairymen of the better class, although
there is a large production of hay, this section being favorable to the
production of all kinds of forage crops. In the northern part of the
State, in the vicinity of Memphis, Tenn., there are a number of dairies
shipping milk to that city. The conditions there are somewhat
similar to the conditions in the vicinity of New Orleans, except that
the country is probably not quite so low. Some dairymen are mak-
ing money, but many of them are not. There are very few silos in
use, and the dairy buildings are usually inferior. The conditions in
the State of Mississippi warrant the development of a good dairy
industry.

Texas.—In Texas there is a small creamery industry in some sec-
tions. In many cases, however, the promoters of the creameries
seem to have misled the farmers, who, having been disappointed in
their venture, are not now very optimistic about the dairy industry.
The conditions that exist in Texas are very similar to those of Mis-
sissippi, and the dairy industry at present is in its infancy. There
are some excellent herds of pure-bred dairy cattle near Marshall, San
Antonio, Dallas, Fort Worth, El Paso, Houston, and other towns,

420 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

from which the equipment and practice of the dairy farms in these
localities are gradually being improved. The opportunities for dairy-
ing in Texas are almost unlimited.

ArKANSAS.—In Arkansas many different conditions exist. In the
northern part of the State magnificent pastures are seen and an
abundance of cool water, with an excellent climate for all seasons;
but there is very little dairying there, notwithstanding these favor-
able conditions. In the southern part of the State we find level
lands but a more limited supply of water, and much attention is
given to the production of sugar cane. Between Little Rock and
Memphis, however, there are a number of small towns that produce
a considerable amount of milk and cream. The section of Arkansas,
however, that offers the best opportunities for the dairy industry is
the northern portion of the State, and there are few sections where
better natural advantages may be had.

TENNESSEE.—Tennessee may probably be called the dairy State
of the South. It is above the cotton belt, and also above the Texas
fever quarantine line. Mountainous conditions prevail in the eastern
part of the State, and here the dairy industry is well developed in
the valleys. In the Sweetwater Valley are found in use many silos,
and many good herds, including some pure-bred stock of a high class.
The central part of the State, with its natural bluegrass pastures and
supply of pure water, is already the home of many herds of pure-bred
dairy cattle, and produces market milk and butter of the highest
grades. There is no State in the South in which the dairy industry
is as highly developed as in Tennessee, and the outlook here is very
favorable.

Nortu Carotina.—In the western portion of North Carolina the
conditions are very similar to those of eastern Tennessee, although
on the whole the dairy industry is not as well developed as in Tennes-
see; and in many cases very inferior dairies are found, both in equip-
ment and methods and in the kind of stock kept. In the eastern
section of North Carolina the conditions are more like those in the
coast sections of South Carolina and Georgia.

THE SOUTH AS A WHOLE.

In reference to the conditions that exist in the South as a whole,
attention should be called to the following facts: In some cases
herds are found producing as good results as are ordinarily made in
any section of America. At other places dairy products are made
as cheaply as in any of the dairy sections. Altogether there is an
enormous demand in the South for dairy products; almost all of
the butter and cheese is imported, some cream is shipped in from
States a great distance away, and a great deal of condensed milk is

— —

eer

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 421

used as a substitute for milk because of the scarcity and the poor
quality of the fresh milk put on the market. Silage is used to a very
limited extent, but in a number of the different sections, on the coast
of Florida especially, the silage is of good quality. Probably the
greatest reduction in profits is usually caused by the use of inferior
cattle, which are found in a large majority of the dairies throughout
the entire South.

On the cotton farm cotton is usually the all-absorbing crop, and
little attention is given to feed crops. In many cases no more animals
are kept upon the farm than are actually necessary to cultivate the
cotton crop, and often there is not enough feed raised to supply even
these. This system is of course exactly the reverse of dairy farming,
in which the feed crops are converted into more easily marketable and
more profitable products, and practically all the fertilizing ingredients
of the feed (the manure) are returned to oe soil, which continues to
increase in productiveness.

The labor is often irresponsible and this discourages many from
going into dairying, even though they appreciate its advantages.
The warm summers and the disorganized condition of the dairy mar-
kets have also been discouraging. However, with the use of artificial
ice, which is cheap, improved transportation facilities, and the mild
winters, the thinking man is about convinced that the seasons are not
unfavorable to the dairy industry.

The demand for dairy products in the South has become enormous,
and inasmuch as the markets have not usually been supplied with
fresh products, the trade does not demand absolutely first-class arti-
cles, although the prices are comparatively very high.

With the highly improved southern farms, the question of cheap
feed is settled, for there is probably no section of America that can pro-
duce cheaper feed. Especially is the great variety of legumes that
thrive in the South worthy of notice, and these crops, with cotton-
seed meal, settle the question of protein.

While very little attention has been given to the development of the
southern pastures, it is demonstrated on farms throughout the South
that an unexcelled pasture can be maintained for at least eight months
in the year.

The old southern plantation with its haphazard system is being
gradually transformed into a well-organized and diversified farm, and
in the transformation dairying promises to be one of the most potent
factors. It will occupy a portion of the cotton farms, and even if it is
conducted in such a way that the dairy itself is not profitable, it will
make the farm fertile and therefore profitable in other lines.

While the southern dairyman therefore will have some difficulties
that are not found in the northern sections of the country, he also has
many advantages over the northern dairyman in the milder climate,

429 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cheaper cost of buildings, the greater variety of forage crops, and good
markets. The South will always be a great cotton country, but it will
some day be also a great dairy country.

VY. THE PACIFIC COAST,

By E. A. McDonatp,
Dairy Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry.

NATURAL ADVANTAGES FOR DAIRYING.

No section of the United States offers greater returns to the intelli-
gent dairyman than the States on the Pacific coast. Owing to the
numerous streams which have their origin in the snow-clad peaks of
the Coast Range, the Cascade Range, and the Sierra Nevada Range,
there is a never-failing supply of fresh, pure water. In this equable
climate young stock and beef cattle can run out the year round, while
dairy cows require to be stabled only from two to four months, accord-
ing to the locality. The soil on the western slope of the Coast Range
includes extensive alluvial deposits, and that on the east side is com-
posed largely of volcanic ash. Owing to the productiveness of these
soils, it is stated that twice as many cows can be fed on these lands as
can be fed on the same amount of land in the East. These advantages
have not been fully appreciated. The early pioneers made their
money so easily, growing from 40 to 50 bushels of wheat to the acre
and from 80 to 120 bushels of oats, that they did not give thought to
the fact that their land would some day become impoverished. The
time has come when these farmers must recognize the value of diver-
sified farming. During the last five years there has been a strong
movement toward more intensive farming and a system of crop rota-
tion which will restore and preserve the fertility of the soil. The dairy
cow has been called upon to perform a leading part in this work, as she
has in other parts of the country.

EXTENT OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY. .

The following table shows the manufacture of creamery butter and
factory cheese in the years 1897 and 1904 on the Pacific coast. Re-
turns of farm-made products are not complete.

Manufacture of creamery butter and factory cheese on the Pacific coast, 1897 and 1904.

Butter. | Cheese.
State. eee
1897. 1904. 1897. 1904.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

WiGRDINI SOM Es cee ovo ccc ses anon semen epee 2,094, 457 7, 722,911 709, 364 921,383
Onedone Mette}. us cee ae 2, 565, 000 5,080, 599 500, 000 2,255, 592
Baliiorntiis Ab gic eke Sa ee 10,866,646 | 26,837,386 6,399, 625 3, 601, 051
To a Re Sy eA ee 15,526,103 | 39,640,896 7, 608, 989 6, 778, 026

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 423

The grade of cows on the coast has been very greatly improved
during the last ten years. Many of the prominent dairymen have
been securing pedigreed pure-bred stock; others are simply using
pure-bred bulls to head their herds and breeding up from their best
grade cows, so that the average herd shows good dairy characteristics.
Here and there are found pure-bred herds of Jerseys, Holsteins, and
_ Guernseys, and there are a few Ayrshires. The yield per cow has
been gradually increasing. Many farmers weigh and test the milk
of each cow, and in this way discover the profitable cows, so that
there is a general weeding out of the poorest cows of the herd. In
every valley on the coast may be found mixed herds, which have been
bred up in this manner, and which are now large producers.

MOVEMENTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Butter and cheese manufactured in Washington is mostly consumed
in the home markets, a small amount being shipped to Alaska. But-
ter and cheese manufactured in Oregon is only partly consumed in
the home markets, the surplus dairy products being shipped to San
Francisco and to the cities on Puget Sound. California, after supply-
ing her own markets, ships her surplus to Alaska and foreign ports,
and, during the first three months of the year, California is shipping
more and more each year to the Eastern States. Washington is the
only State on the coast which still handles a large amount of eastern
butter. One reason for the demand for eastern products in Wash-
ington is her trade with Alaska. Being nearest to Alaska and having
more regular means of transportation, she naturally secures a large
percentage of that trade.

The possibility of increasmg our trade with foreign countries
depends on our ability to produce as cheaply and to deliver the
product in as good condition as do other countries. When the coast
States have a surplus, South American countries and the Orient seem
to be the natural outlet. There is a large demand throughout the
Orient for tinned butter and condensed milk and cream and for
cheese. The markets at present are largely supplied by Australia,
Holland, Germany, and France, with a few shipments from Sweden.
Price does not seem to be so important a factor as quality, and espe-
cially uniformity. San Francisco has been making an effort to secure
this trade with fair success, using a vacuum 1-pound tin. <A Port-
land firm has also shipped some tinned butter to the Orient with
varying success.

DAIRYING IN WASHINGTON.

The State of Washington may be divided into four sections, differing
from each other in rainfall, temperature, and agricultural products.
The first division is the west side, or the section west of the Cascade

424 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Mountains, for the most part heavily timbered and characterized by
a rainfall varying in different parts from 30 to over 100 inches,
according to direction and distance from the mountain ranges. As
in all other parts of the Pacific slope, by far the largest part of-the
rainfall is confmed-to the winter months, the summer months being
comparatively free from rain. This section includes the fertile valleys
along the numerous rivers and creeks, the tide lands, and the fresh
and salt water deltas. The soil is rich in alluvial deposits. The
climate is ideal for the dairy industry. The water supply consists
of beautiful streams from the mountain sides which flow through
these valleys. On account of the mild winters and proximity to the
market centers, the west side is eminently adapted to dairying.

The upland prairies of eastern Washington constitute the ‘second
section of the State. These prairies lie east of the Columbia River,
extending to the mountains of Idaho and from the Blue Mountains
on the south to the mountains of Stevens and Okanogan counties on
the north. The Palouse and Big Bend prairies, which have a world-
wide reputation for their immense yields of wheat, are included in
this section. Except where land is far removed from the mountains
dairying is profitable. The rainfall is sufficient, as the soil is a
retentive clay loam. Since the coming of the hand separator there
has been a gradual increase in dairy products. There is a tendency
to diversified farming, making dairying an adjunct to the growing of
wheat.

The third section includes the Walla Walla, Yakima, and Wenat- |

chee valleys of central and southern Washington. These lands are
all in the drier parts of the State, and their low altitude gives them
warmer summers than are found elsewhere in the State. These are
largely sagebrush lands, and when irrigated are very productive.
This is a great fruit and dairy section. Alfalfa is the principal
forage crop, and yields under proper cultivation from 5 to 7 tons
to the acre, making this section particularly adapted to the dairy
industry. ,

The farming areas of the fourth section are scattered widely. They
are situated east of the Cascade Range, and are at a higher altitude
than the land in the third section. The Kittitas, Colville, and
Kalispel valleys are included in this section. Timothy, clover, root
crops, and all the cereals are grown. The tendency of the farmers in
this section is to diversified farming, with dairying as the leading
branch. The Kittitas Valley will lead all the others in the amount
of butter produced.

The valleys of the State are so productive that, everything else
being equal, butter and cheese can be produced at a less cost here

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 425

than in tlie Middle West or the Eastern States. Rich, succulent food,
pure water, and a temperate climate are the essentials in the manu-
facture of a ‘‘nutty,”’ high-flavored, sweet butter. Nature has been
lavish in her gifts to the State of Washington in this respect, and we
may look forward to this State becoming a large producer of butter.
There is also every reason to believe that the State will become noted
for a high grade of butter which will command the highest price.
Owing to the diversified industries of the See? of fish,
lumber, coal, and other minerals, the development of w hich mall
baalos: a Forse number of nee rapid growth of her cities, the
development of Alaska, and the growth of trade with the rican
South America, and‘the islands of the Pacific, the State can always
count on the demand for dairy products being greater than the supply.

DAIRYING IN OREGON.

The State of Oregon is in the same latitude as South Dakota and
the New England States, but the Japan Current equalizes the tem-
perature and gives Oregon an ideal climate. All kinds of forage
crops are grown without irrigation, except in a very small area in
southeastern Oregon. The State has five natural dairy divisions.

The coast section lies between the Coast Range and the Pacific
Ocean. The northern part of this section has become famous for
itssalmon. The annual value of the salmon industry is approximately
$3,000,000. The profits in this industry have been so large that very
little attention has been given to dairying, which is still in its infancy.
Tillamook County is the great cheese section of the Pacific coast.
It is an ideal dairy section. Six different streams traverse this county,
taking their rise in the Coast Range and emptying into the Pacific
Ocean, so that this valley has an abundance of pure fresh water.

The Willamette Valley includes the counties on either side of the
Willamette River, lymg between the Cascade and Coast Range of
mountains, a distance of about 100 miles. If the natural resources
of this valley had been properly utilized they would have made it
a greater butter producer than any other section on the Pacific —
coast; but the soil became so impoverished by continuous crop-
ping with wheat that where 40 bushels were once produced 13
bushels per acre is now an average crop. How shall we redeem the
land? There is but one reply: By the use of the dairy cow. This
valley can be made to produce butter to supply ten times the popu-
lation of the State. New blood, dairy literature, and farmers’
institutes are the leaven which is changing the ‘‘mossback”’ into an
intelligent dairyman. Here and there may be seen pure-bred herds
of Jerseys, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires.

496 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Southwestern Oregon has the most desirable climate in the State,
having neither excessive rainfall nor excessive heat. Two beautiful
rivers—the Umpqua and Rogue—and their tributaries traverse
this section, which has already become famous for its apples. On
the higher lands the dairy industry will flourish, and alfalfa will
be the principal forage crop. The manufacture of butter has been

increasing very rapidly. Almost every farmer has the foundation -
for a dairy herd. Creameries with modern equipments are in opera-.

tion in several places.

Northeastern Oregon constitutes the fourth section. Wheat and
beef cattle are the principal agricultural products, and dairying is
still to be introduced.

The fifth section is the undeveloped part of Oregon. It lies to the
southeast. One can travel- through this section only by stage or
private conveyance. Here are thousands of acres of rich, alluvial
loam and volcanic ash, capable of being irrigated. It is certain that
this section, which a few years ago grew only sagebrush and whose
principal inhabitants were the jack rabbit and the coyote, is des-
tined to become the home of thousands of prosperous dairymen.

Portland, the metropolis of Oregon, located near the confluence of
two great rivers—the Columbia and the Willamette—is the only city
of any commercial importance in the State. This city must find
ways and means of disposing of the vast resources of Oregon and of
providing the implements of production for the development of this

great State.
DAIRYING IN CALIFORNIA.

California has a soil and climate so varied that all fruits, both
deciduous and citrus, can be grown to perfection. All kinds of cereals
are grown with success. California has also great possibilities as a
dairy State.

The counties surrounding the bay of San Francisco comprise the
best developed dairy district of California. It is from these counties
that California is receiving one-third of its butter and San Francisco
all of its milk. The production of butter in these counties is already
up to the limit, as the city of San Francisco and the contiguous cities
draw their milk supply from these counties, so that California will
have to look to some other section of the State for her future supply
of butter.

The second section is an ideal section for the production of milk
and for converting it into butter and cheese. This section includes
all the counties north of the bay counties to the Oregon line,
between the Coast Range and the Pacific Ocean. The soil is very
rich and almost all of it is productive. The natural grasses are

a

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 427

clover and rye grass. The size of the average herd of dairy cows is
20, and the produce averages about 200 pounds of butter per cow.
This section has been the greatest butter producer in California, but
the production has apparently reached the limit.

In the third section, including the counties south of the bay coun-
ties, extending along the coast to the Mexican line, we find varied
conditions. With irrigation and proper management the section
about San Luis Obispo should become a large butter producer, as
it is better adapted to the dairy industry than to any other branch
of agriculture. The butter from this valley is shipped to Los Ange-
les and San Francisco. Los Angeles County is credited with the
manufacture of over 2,000,000 pounds of butter per year, which
would indicate that this county is especially adapted to the dairy
industry. This, however, is not the case, for, while there are some
good dairy herds in this country, a large proportion of the cream
comes from outside the county. The country along the coast from
Los Angeles to San Diego enjoys an equable climate well suited to
fruit growing with irrigation, but the small rainfall will always hin-
der this section from becoming great in dairying. The hope of
southern California is in what is known as the Imperial Valley. This
valley contains 500,000 acres of very rich land, which is being irri-
gated from the Colorado River. When irrigated, this land will grow
large crops of alfalfa. There are two drawbacks to this section, the
heat and the flies. Dairying will undoubtedly be carried on to a
considerable extent, but the difficulty of securing labor will be a seri-
ous disadvantage. This valley will probably become a great live-
stock section.

The fourth section includes the San Joaquin Valley. To this sec-
tion and the Sacramento Valley, California must look for the great
increase in dairy products. A large portion of the San Joaquin Valley
is irrigated by means of artesian and pumping wells, assisted by irriga-
tion ditches which draw their supply from the rivers near their sources
in the Sierra Range. The conditions of soil and climate are ideal for
the growth of alfalfa. Grass starts with the first fall of rain and con-
tinues through the winter, so that there is green grass throughout
the year. Near Stockton is one of the largest and best of pure-bred
dairy herds. Nature has provided all the conditions for an ideal
home for dairy cattle and the owners are utilizing these conditions in
the most practical manner. The barns are strictly modern, well ven-
tilated, and with every convenience for the comfort of the cows.

We now pass to the fifth section, the Sacramento Valley. This
entire section has been noted for its immense yields of wheat and bar-
ley, but continuous cropping with wheat has impoverished the soil

ai

428 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

so that where 30 bushels were once grown now from 8 to 10 bushels
is all the land will produce. The dairy cow will be called upon to
reclaim these impoverished lands, with the aid of irrigation, and
they will be made to blossom with the alfalfa flower. The surface
of this wonderful valley has only-been scratched. One can not esti-
mate the possibilities of the increase in the dairy industry. The
scarcity of labor is a great hindrance to the development of this valley.
If California could secure labor at a reasonable wage, the State could
easily triple its production. :

CONCLUSION.

Sufficient data have been given to show that the Pacific coast
States will become large producers of dairy products. Owing to the
unparalleled growth of the cities and the varied industries, it may
be that the supply will not increase more rapidly than the demand,
but a reasonable conclusion to be drawn is that there will be a sur-
plus within a few years. The markets of China and Japan, the coun-
tries of South America, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean are the
natural outlets, and everything should be done to secure these mar-
kets for the dairymen of the Pacific coast.

-

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR THE SAN JOSE SCALE.

By A. L. QUAINTANCE,
In Charge of Deciduous-fruit Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.

ORIGIN AND EARLY USE.

The lime-sulphur-salt or so-called California wash has been for
many years the principal treatment for the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus
perniciosus Comst.) in orchards in California and elsewhere on the
Pacific slope, and within the last five or six years it has become prac-
tically the standard treatment for this insect in the East. Originally
developed as a dip for the control of scab on sheep, it was first used
as an insecticide on fruit trees, according to Quayle,? in 1886 by a
Mr. F. Dusey, of Fresno, Cal., who experimented with a sheep dip
prepared by Mr. A. T. Covell. The wash proved very efficient, and
with modifications came quickly into favor. Lime-sulphur prepa-
rations, either dry or in the form of washes, have long been more or
less used by orchardists in the control of insects and fungi, but these
preparations are not comparable to the boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash,
and practically the usefulness of the latter as a scalecide was an inde-
pendent discovery. Since first used on fruit trees the wash has been
variously modified in formula, and it has been shown to have a con-
siderable range of usefulness, both as an insecticide and as a fungicide.

HISTORY OF USE IN THE EAST.

Upon the discovery of the San Jose scale in eastern nurseries and
orchards, attention was naturally drawn to the treatments which had
been found so effective on the Pacific coast. In the fall of 1894
Messrs. C. L. Marlatt and D. W. Coquillett,? of the Bureau of Ento-
mology, carried out an extensive test of washes in a scale-infested
orchard in Maryland, among which were the lime-sulphur-salt wash,
as used in California, and the Oregon wash, both being used at ordinary
strength and at double strength. Examination of the treated trees
about a month after applications had been made indicated that these
washes had been fatal to only a very small percentage of the scales,
and these conditions had not changed by late April of the following

2 Bul. 166, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1905).
b Bul. 3, n. s., Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept. Agr., pp. 56, 71 (1896).

429

430 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -

spring, when further observations were prevented by the application
of a soap treatment to the orchard under experiment, and. there was
thus no opportunity to observe the later action of the wash. The
negative results from these tests, attributed to the heavy rainfall in
the East as compared with the drier climate of California, discouraged
further experiment on the part of entomologists, and no further tests
in the East appear to have been made until the spring of 1900, when
the lime-sulphur-salt wash was again tested by Mr. Marlatt, he having
in the meantime assured himself by personal investigation of its
effectiveness in California, a matter which his earlier experiments had
somewhat led him to doubt. These experiments in 1900, by the
Bureau of Entomology, gave excellent results, attributed in part by
Mr. Marlatt to the favorable weather conditions following applications,
and really marked the beginning of the series of extensive experiments
with this wash by various State and experiment station entomologists
and others in the Kast.

During the fall of 1901 the wash was adopted by Dr. 8. A. Forbes?
in his scale control work in Illinois, as a result of an investigation of
its effectiveness in California and Oregon, in which latter State the
rainfall is quite as heavy as in the East. Definite experiments were
planned by Doctor Forbes in the spring of 1902, and carried out by Mr.
E. S. G. Titus, at that time his assistant. Also, in the fall of 1901
experiments with the wash were inaugurated by Prof. F. M. Webster
in Ohio® when entomologist of the Ohio agricultural experiment
station, and carried out by Messrs. A. F. Burgess and Wilmon Newell.
In the spring of 1902 experiments were begun in Connecticut by Dr.
W. E. Britton,‘ in Georgia by Mr. W. M. Scott, by the writer/
in Maryland, and possibly by others. The general results of these
tests, made in widely separated localities and under different climatic
conditions, pointed strongly to the probable effectiveness of this wash
in destroying the scale even in a climate of heavy rainfall, as in the
East. During the year or so following the entomologists of many
of the Eastern States, confronted with the scale problem, began
experiments with the wash under their respective conditions, and
the favorable results from these and previous tests led to its speedy
adoption by many orchardists in ‘preference to the mineral oils and
soap washes previously largely used. Its adoption was the more
rapid for the reason that the mineral oils, on the whole, had proved
unsatisfactory on account of frequent injury to the trees.

aAnnual Report of the Entomologist, Annual Reports, U. 8. Dept. Agr., p. 31
(1900); Bul. 30, n. s., Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept. Agr., p. 34 (1901).

b Bul. 71, Ill. Agr. Exp. Station (1902).

c Bul. 37, n. s., Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept. Agr., p. 33 (1902).

d Bul. 40, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 38.

e Bul. 37, n. s., Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept. Agr., p. 48 (1902).
/Bul. 37, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 37, and Bul. 40, p. 36.

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 431

It is of interest in this connection to note that, following the recom-
mendations of an agricultural journal, the wash had been used in the
control of the scale in the spring of 1901 by Mr. N. P. Creeley,* of Bur-
lington, N. J., who successfully treated a 14-acre peach orchard; by
Mr. C. E. Hathaway,® of Somerset, Mass.; and by Mr. S. S. Stouffer,
of Sharpsburg, Md., who treated several thousand peach and apple
trees, and had constructed an excellent steam cooking plant. An
examination of this last orchard by the writer during the summer
of 1901 proved to him that most satisfactory results had been obtained.

At the present time the general effectiveness of the wash, when
properly made and applied, in controlling the scale under eastern
conditions may be considered as established. It is especially satis-
factory on the peach, plum, and pear, and mainly so on the apple,
although some orchardists have not secured satisfactory results in
controlling the scale on apple. It is held by some that the dense
pubescence which more or less covers the terminals of apple twigs of
many varieties prevents the thorough treatment of these parts, with
the result that the “‘lice”’ from females which have thus escaped treat-
ment are forced to migrate to the young fruit, where they settle and
breed, so that at picking time apples from sprayed trees are often
badly marked with the scale. The unsatisfactory results which
have at times been reported as following the treatment of large trees,
owing especially to infestation of the fruit, are due partly to the condi-
tions above mentioned, but more especially to lack of thorough appli-
cations, as such work offers serious practical difficulties.

INGREDIENTS OF THE WASH.

As the name indicates, the wash is made of lime, sulphur, and salt
with water; the salt, however, is often omitted. These are boiled
together for a sufficient length of time, during which boiling chemical
action between the lime and sulphur takes place, producing in solution
the insecticidal properties of the wash.

LIME.

As generally understood, the word ‘“‘lime”’ refers to burned or quick-
lime, known chemically as calcium oxid (CaO), and it is this form
that is used in the preparation of the wash. The limestone, or car-
bonate of lime, from which lime is obtained varies greatly in purity,
thus affecting the purity of the resulting quicklime, which in addi-
tion may be more or less contaminated with the ashes from the fuel
used in burning it. An important impurity of limestone is magnesia
(MgO), existing as magnesium carbonate, and replacing the lime (CaQ)

@¥Farm Journal, Vol. X XVI, p. 24 (1902).
b Farm Journal, Vol. XXVI, p. 63 (1902).

432 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

up to 21.7 per cent, when the rock is said to be a dolomite. Magnesian
and dolomitic limestones are those in which magnesia occurs in smaller
proportions than just indicated. Mechanically mixed with limestone
may be varying amounts of impurities, such as sand, clayey and car-
bonaceous matter, oxids of iron, ete., giving rise to different kinds of
limestone, depending upon the proportion of the respective substances
present.

In the following table are given analyses of several samples of lime,
all from the State of Maryland, indicating the variations in the compo-
sition of lime to be found in a single State, though it should be remem-
bered that Maryland is unusually rich in limestone:

Analyses of lime (CaO) from Maryland limestones.@

[Prof. H. J. Patterson and Dr. H. B. McDonell, analysts.]

Mary- Tron and
land ae Insolu- “siumi- | Lime |Magnesia| Undeter-

ratory. Description of sample. ae nom (CaO). (MgO). muneda Total.
} Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.

1043 | Woodsboro lime..........-.---- 1.85 3.10 91.10 0. 92 3.03 100. 00
1044 | Cavetown lime............-.---. 2.75 4.83 73. 90 17. 94 - 58 100. 00
1732 | Wrightsville lime-......--...--- 15 1. 50 67.44 30: G1 ie seem 100. 00
£790); "Grovesilime. =e. 2-2: 6 eee estes 25. 00 2.40 47.10 25. 16 - 34 100. 00

| Howard County lime ....-.....- 6.02 13. 30 75.40 2.00 3. 28 100. 00

7 | Oyster shell lime, fresh burned... 5.79 2.71 84. 58 ~55 5. 92 100. 49

a Bul. 61, Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. b Mostly water and carbonic acid gas.

According to composition, limes have been classified by Gillmore as:

(1) Good or fat limes, containing as a rule less than 10 per cent
of impurities.

(2) Poor or meager limes, containing from 10 to 25 per cent of
sand or other impurities.

(3) Hydraulic limes, with from 30 to 35 per cent of various
impurities.

(4) Hydraulic cements.

The so-called fat limes slake readily with water, forming a creamy
mixture, whereas the poor or meager limes, containing considerable
magnesia, slake more slowly, forming a poor mixture. Hydraulic
limes and cements need not be here considered. In the preparation
of lime-sulphur washes the fat limes containing less than 10 per cent
of impurities should be used, giving a better wash and one more free
from sand and grit, which rapidly wears out the valves of the pump
and the caps on the nozzles. With formulas containing an excess
of lime there is little danger of an insufficient amount, even though
impure lime be used, but in a formula where equal quantities of lime
and sulphur are used, in case of very impure lime the quantity of
this ingredient may be insufficient to unite chemically with the
sulphur.

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 4383
SULPHUR.

Sulphur may be regarded as the important ingredient of the wash,
as the compounds formed by its union with the lime are the active
agents in destroying insects, and its insecticidal effect will be largely
determined by the proportion of sulphur employed.

Sulphur occurs naturally in large quantities in the form of sul-
phids, as pyrites or sulphates, as gypsum, and native in volcanic
regions in vast beds, more or less mixed with gypsum and various
earthy materials. The sulphur is separated from the ore or its
impurities by a process of fusion, and the melted sulphur thus
secured, which is caught in molds, is the ordinary brimstone of com-
merce. Brimstone is not sufficiently pure for all purposes, and is
refined by sublimation, which consists in heating the brimstone in
suitable retoris until it vaporizes. The sulphur vapor passes into
a condensing chamber, and that which first comes over is condensed
by coming in contact with the cold walls of the chamber and deposited
in a minutely divided condition. This deposit is scraped from the
walls of the chamber before the latter become hot, and constitutes
the so-called flowers of sulphur. After a few days’ continuous use
the condensing chamber becomes sufficiently hot to cause sulphur
to fuse or melt and run to the bottom of the condenser, where it
is collected and run into molds, producing stick, or roll, sulphur.
This, when finely ground, is designated flour sulphur, two grades
being commonly found on the market, light and heavy flour, depend-
ing on the grinding and bolting processes. In the process of sub-
liming, the impurities in the brimstone do not pass over into the
condensing chamber, and the flour and flowers of sulphur are equally
pure, differing practically only in fineness, though the latter may be
somewhat more acid. Either the flour or flowers of sulphur may
be used in the preparation of lime-sulphur washes, and in the writer’s
experience they are equally satisfactory. There appears to be no
basis in fact for the preference of some orchardists for flowers of
sulphur as against flour sulphur, and as the latter is somewhat
cheaper it should be preferred.

Ground brimstone has been utilized to a limited extent in lime-
sulphur washes, but exact data are lacking as to its suitability for
this purpose. When comparatively free from impurities and finely
ground and bolted, as in the preparation of flour sulphur, it would
appear to be quite as suitable as the latter, and by its use the cost
of the wash could be considerably lessened.

The so-called “crystalline” sulphur that has recently come into
limited use in some parts of the South is brimstone obtained directly
from the mines, being melted in the earth by means of superheated
water and then pumped out into bins, where it is allowed to cool.

3 a1906——28

434 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is put on the market in lumps just as it breaks under the pick,
and in this condition it is much too coarse for use in making lime-
sulphur washes, since even after prolonged boiling much free sulphur
remains in the residue and is wasted.

SALT.

Common salt, or sodium chlorid (NaCl), has been considered a
necessary ingredient of the wash, its function, however, not being
definitely ascertained. It was a constituent of the wash when used
as a sheep dip, and its usefulness seems not to have been questioned
for some years. Pierce,“ as a result of careful tests in California,
was not able to detect any advantage from its use in washes against

peachleaf-curl and recommended its omission. Recent experiments °

in various eastern States, representing a considerable range of lati-
tude, with washes made with and without salt, support the con-
clusion that its use is not at all essential. Numerous entomologists
recommend its omission, while others leave its use optional. Chem-
ical studies of washes made with and without salt show that its
presence does not affect the chemical nature of the wash. It has
been claimed that the use of salt, by raising the specific gravity of
the wash, raises its boiling-point, insuring a better union of the lime
and sulphur; also that it causes the wash to adhere to the trees
better, and that it renders the precipitate more flocculent, so that it
remains in-suspension longer. The penetrating power and causticity
of the wash may also be increased by the salt, it being a matter of
common remark among sprayers that a wash in which salt is used
is noticeably more caustic to the face and hands than one from which
it has been omitted. Notwithstanding these supposed advantages
from the use of salt, the actual tests in the majority of cases have
shown that it is not possible to distinguish between the insecticidal
effect of washes made with and those made without salt. Its use is,
therefore, not considered necessary.

VARIATIONS IN FORMULAS.

The original sheep-dip formula, namely, lime 80 pounds, sulphur
100 pounds, salt 10 pounds, sugar 20 pounds, and water 160 gallons,
first used on fruit trees, has been variously modified, often on mistaken
conceptions as to the insecticidal properties of the several constituents.
Some believed that lime was the active ingredient, and that the others
were necessary to get the lime into solution. Until recently the
necessity for the salt appears not to have been questioned, and practi-
cally nothing was known of the chemistry of the wash until the studies

4 Bul. 20, Div. Veg. Phys. and Pathol., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 155 (1900).

Oe

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 435

of Mr. J. K. Haywood,? of this Department, in 1900 and subsequently,
and of Prof. R. W. Thatcher,” begun in 1903. Definite field experi-
ments to determine the necessary quantity and proportions of ingre-
dients were first reported by Pierce in 1900,° in connection with his
studies of peachleaf-curl in California, and similar tests in the control
of the San Jose scale under eastern conditions were begun but four or
five years ago. Recently, however, a large amount of experimental
work has been done and there is at present a considerable literature on
the subject. Experiments have been made with washes containing
the usual ingredients in varying proportions; with various methods of
preparation; with self-boiled washes, etc. In general it has been
shown that all of the stronger well-boiled washes are about equally
effective in killing the scale, and it has been difficult to decide upon
one as against another. Numerous formulas have thus come to be
recommended, which, while undoubtedly effective in killing the scale,
differ more or less in the proportion of ingredients and mode of prepa-
ration, and this has had a tendency to confuse prospective users and
has not always been conducive to economy. With an insecticide and
fungicide coming so generally into use, it would appear highly desir-
able, if practicable, that a standard formula and method of prepara-
tion be adopted, based on greatest economy consistent with effective-
ness. Present recommendations of a number of State and station
entomologists and of the Bureau of Entomology are given in the table
on page 437, calculated on a uniform basis of 100 gallons of wash.

The quantity of lime per 100 gallons of wash is seen to vary from
25 to 80 pounds, ranging, in the majority of formulas, however, from
30 to 50 pounds. The variation in sulphur (the more expensive
ingredient) per 100 gallons is considerably less, namely, from 25 to
40 pounds, ranging mostly between 30 and 35 pounds, which quantity
is sufficient to insure a satisfactory wash. In numerous formulas
salt has been omitted entirely or its use left optional. When rec-
ommended, the amount varies from 10 to 334 pounds. The period of
cooking varies from thirty minutes to two hours. There is also much
diversity in details of preparation (not shown in the table) as to the
treatment of ingredients, the order of placing them in the cooking
vessel, and the use of hot or cold water in the final dilution.

During the last two years the Bureau of Entomology has devoted
some attention to field experiments with lime-sulphur washes in
order to.determine an efficient and economical formula and to secure
information on other questions pertaining to its practical use. As
a part of this investigation an extended chemical study of lime-

2 Bul. 30, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 35 (1901); Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.,
Vol. XXVII, p. 247 (1905).

6 Bul. 56, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1903); Bul. 76, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1906).

¢ Loc. cit.

436 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sulphur washes has been made by Mr. J. K. Haywood, of the Bureau
of Chemistry. Inthe field experiments the same formulas were
tested in three distinct latitudes, namely, in Georgia, at Fort Valley;
in Maryland, at Laurel, Jessups, and Patuxent; and in western
New York, at Youngstown, in 1905, and at North East, Pa., in 1906.
It was thought that by making tests of identical formulas in a north-
ern, a middle, and a southern State possible differences in resuits due
to climatic or other conditions would be more readily explained.

The experiments have included the treatment of scale-infested
apple, peach, and Japan plum trees, and unless otherwise indicated
applications of sprays were made shortly before growth of trees had
begun in spring. Peach and plum trees treated were average 5 to 7
year trees and the largest apple trees were 8 or 9 years old. In
general satisfactory results were obtained from all of the well-boiled
washes containing not less than 15 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons
of water, with a slight balance in favor of the stronger washes, espe-
cially for first treatment of badly infested trees. Washes containing
somewhat less than 15 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons of water were
not satisfactory in killing the scale. Some conclusions reached by
these tests are:

(1). An efficient and economical formula is lime 20 pounds, sulphur
15 pounds, water to make 50 gallons, and boiled for one hour.

(2) Salt is not a necessary ingredient of the wash.

(3) The self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustic-soda wash is reasonably
effective and should be used when it is not practicable to provide a
cooking plant for making the boiled wash. The self-boiled lime-
sulphur wash is much less efficient and is wasteful.

(4) Applications in late fall give good results, but not so good as
applications in spring.

From general observations careless preparation and lack of thor-
ough application are considered the principal causes of unsatisfactory
results in the use of the lime-sulphur wash.

aera: 101, Bureau of Chemistry. The Lime-Sulphur-Salt Wash and Its Substi-
tutes.

b Experiments in Maryland in cooperation with the Maryland Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE.

437

Lime-sulphur-salt wash formulas recommended in various States and by the Bureau of

Entomology.
a a reece Salt.
| sulphur.
| Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
LIS DONTE 1S Se 42 36 10
California: |
Agricultural experiment sta- 50 334 163
tion. |
State horticultural commis- 663 334 25
sion.
Connecticut:
Storrs agricultural experi- | 50 40 0
ment station.
Agricultural experiment sta- 50 35 0
tion.
MBIBWETG ss «352 hea ceeet 2 ne 80 40 | 30 0r0
Georgia:
State board of entomology... 40 32 | 20 or 0
Experiment station........-- 42 36 | 10 or 0
NOG = ae ee 30 30 0
PERM E ne s oc nce sccceus ss" 50 35 25
BERT ARMGE Ego) 2 ooo aoc enp ence 40 30 20
MAssHenMNeHtS....-...---2....2.=-- 334 334) 0
OS eee 1) ag 30 30
Missouri (agricultural experiment 30 30 30
station).
Ohio:
State department of agricul- | 334 334) 0
ture.
Agricultural experiment sta- | 30 or 40 30 0
tion.
LET aS te 3 Se en 33% 334 0
SRRTINGHBAGS © es nic os capes acadeccs 42 36 0
pennewivaAMmin os. ooo Sooo et Se 44 34 0
New York:
Agricultural experiment sta- 46 30 | 0
tion.
State entomologist.........-.- 40 30 | 0
iT Gn 3 ae ey ee 334 333 334
NermGarolnes - 20.42 Sst. .s22 - 40 34 | 20 or 0
Marpinimess ee. oh Sa Wook | 30 | CoN eee ees, aa
WERNER ON Sc 2e - «5.5 258s oe 25 25 0
Bureau of Entomology, U.S. De- 40 30 0

partment of Agriculture.

100
100

100

Time of cooking.

| 35 minutes, or until of a dirty
yellowish-green color.

1 to 2 hours.

2 hours, or until sulphuris thor-
oughly dissolved.

30 to 45 minutes.
Three-fourths to 1 hour.

30 minutes.

40 minutes to 1 hour.

35 to 40 minutes, or until mix-
ture is yellowish-green color,

1 hour.

35 minutes.

1 hour.

1} hours or longer.
1 hour or more.

2 hours.

1 hour.
45 minutes at least.

| 1 hour, or until mixture is of a
deep blood-red color.

1 hour.
| 1 hour.

| 1 hour.

30 minutes at least.

Boil until mixture becomes deep
amber color,

30 minutes.

| 40 minutes.

30 minutes to 1 hour.
| 1 hour.

CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Considerable attention has been given to the chemistry of lime-
sulphur washes, notably by J. K. Haywood,¢ of the Bureau of Chem-
istry of this Department, and by Prof. R. W. Thatcher,® of the
Washington Agricultural Experiment Station.

These investigations

aBul. 30, n. s., Div. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agr., p. 35 (1901); Jn. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol.
XXVII, p. 247; Bul. 101, Bu. Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.
> Bul. 56, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1903); Bul. 76, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1906).

438 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

have thrown light on several important questions connected with
the preparation and use of these washes, explaining results noted
in practical experimentation and indicating in precise terms the
conditions of its economical preparation.

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF BOILING.

Analyses of washes boiled for different lengths of time show that
the sulphur is not sufficiently dissolved by 15 minutes’ boiling, and
that 30 minutes is nearly but not quite long enough, while boiling.
for 45 minutes to 1 hour dissolves practically all of the sulphur pres-
ent. Analyses of the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash show that only
about one-twelfth of the sulphur present is dissolved, there being,
therefore, a great waste of sulphur. In a properly prepared self-
boiled lime-sulphur-caustic-soda wash about 80 per cent of the sul-
phur present is put in solution, whereas if such a wash in addition
be heated for 15 or 20 minutes about 95 per cent of the sulphur is
dissolved.

USE OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF SULPHUR.

Analyses of washes made with flour sulphur and flowers of sulphur
show that there is no essential difference between them as to their
solubility with a given period of boiling, practically all sulphur going
into solution with 1 hour’s boiling. In washes made with the so-called
crystalline sulphur, the amount of free sulphur remaining after 1
hour’s boiling varies widely, depending on the size of lumps of the
sulphur employed, there being, however, in all cases quite too much
waste to render its use advisable. Crystalline sulphur, when finely
ground, largely goes into solution after thoroughly boiling from 13
to 2 hours. Generally the latter period will be found preferable.

OMISSION OF SALT; EFFECT OF REHEATING.

Repeated analyses have shown that salt has no effect whatever on
the chemical composition or physical character of the wash, thus con-
firming the conclusions as to its uselessness in practical field tests. _

Reheated lime-sulphur washes do not differ chemically or physically
from freshly prepared washes of ordinary strengths. A very strong
wash, as, for example, one yet undiluted, upon cooling forms many
crystals, which, however, dissolve upon reheating.

PREPARATION OF THE WASH.

The recommendations made at the present time for the prepara-
tion of the lime-sulphur washes vary more or less as to the handling
of the ingredients preparatory to cooking, but these variations appear
to be of little if any importance as affecting the character of the
finally prepared wash. The satisfactory results obtained from the

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 439

use of washes prepared in various ways indicate that 1i is quite imma-
terial whether the lime be first slaked in whole or in part and the sul-
ohur added, or the sulphur be added to the cooking vessel followed
by the lime, or all ingredients be added together. Manifestly the
practice least troublesome should be followed. More importance,
however, must be attached to the period of cooking, concerning which
recommendations are not uniform. If cooking is insufficient, free
sulphur will remain in the wash uncombined with the lime and,
according to present belief, will be largely wasted. If cooking is
continued longer than necessary to effect a chemical combination
f sulphur and lime, there is simply a waste of labor and fuel, but
perhaps no other objectionable effect. The period of cooking will
vary somewhat, depending upon the heat maintained and the kind of
sulphur used. Practically, as chemical studies show, there will be no
difference between the flour and the flowers of sulphur in regard to
the time required to bring into solution. Sulphur in coarser par-
ticles, or lumps, as the so-called crystalline sulphur, will yield to boil-
ing much more slowly; and even after prolonged cooking there may
remain in the wash a considerable quantity of free sulphur. If salt is
to be used in the wash, evidently it should be added early during the
process of cooking, since one of its supposed functions is to increase
the specific gravity of the wash, thus raising the boiling-point.

THE METHOD RECOMMENDED.

Numerous methods of preparing the wash, as followed by practical
orchardists, have been investigated by the Bureau of Entomology, or
tested by it in the course of its experimental work. The following.
formula and method of preparation have uniformly resulted in a sat-
isfactory wash, and are quite simple:

PRs ees os ae ee 7c t ey carpe TE tye eels pounds.. 20
Bnipbur (iounormower)rcr 2 8. 8 oy, ee eee a dant. 415
MEISE STE E TINS), oo S02 ie uae ae a re Ye ee ee ee gallons.. 50

PREPARATION.—Heat in a cooking barrel or vessel about one-third
of the total quantity of water required. When the water is hot add
all the lime, and at once add all the sulphur, which should previously
have been made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has
slaked, about another third of the water should be added, preferably
hot, and the cooking should be continued for an hour, when the final
dilution may be made, using either hot or cold water as is most con-
venient. The boiling due to the slaking of the lime thoroughly
mixes the ingredients at the start, but subsequent stirring is necessary
if the wash is cooked by direct heat in kettles. If cooked by steam no
stirring will be necessary. After the wash has been prepared it must
be well strained as it is being run into the spray pump barrel, or tank.

440 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COOKING.

The ingredients of the wash, in proper proportion, are boiled to-
gether in water, by which means chemical action between the lime
and sulphur is brought about, producing in solution the insecticidal
properties of the wash, the extent of chemical action depending
directly upon the length of time cooking continues. From 45 minutes
to an hour of vigorous boiling will put practically all of the sulphur
into solution, and preference should be given to the latter period. A
properly cooked wash is a heavy, caustic, orange-yellow liquid, with
a strong sulphurous odor. Upon standing, the sediment settles to the
bottom, leaving the liquid relatively clear. Sometimes the wash is
dark green when the lime is thoroughly mixed with the liquid portion,
but when the wash is allowed to settle the supernatant liquid is the
usual orange-yellow. This is probably due to the presence of iron and
manganese sulphids in the lime. Prolonged boiling tends to produce
small quantities of other sulphur and lime compounds, but these are
of practically no importance. Aside from the waste of fuel, prolonged
cooking is much preferable to insufficient cooking. The residue or
insoluble matter left in vessels after cooking should be frequently
examined. If, with sufficient cooking, it shows up yellow, it indicates
the presence of free sulphur, and more lime is needed. The presence
in the residue of both lime and sulphur indicates that more boiling
is needed. The kind of apparatus employed in cooking is immaterial,
but it should be efficient, convenient, and economical. Scarcely any
two cooking plants are alike, and there is afforded opportunity for
the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction to best
meet individual conditions.

OUTFITS FOR COOKING ON A SMALL SCALE.

For small orchards, of 50 acres or less, it may not be considered
advisable by owners to fix up a steam cooking plant, but the writer
believes it would be economy to do so where orchards of 25 acres or
more are to be treated, especially if the trees are large ones. If but
small quantities of wash are needed, as for the treatment of a small
home orchard, an ordinary kettle or hog scalder will be satisfactory.
It may be placed on bricks on the ground and the fire built beneath, as
in the ordinary heating of water. The kettle should hold 35 to 40
gallons, and preferably more if a barrel spray pump is to be kept sup-
plied; and it will be necessary to make final dilution of the wash in the
spray-pump barrel. With some such facilities for cooking, one barrel
sprayer can be kept busy most of the time.

For larger orchards, if a steam outfit is not considered advisable,
large iron kettles holding from 60 to 80 gallons should be placed in
a brick furnace, one or more kettles being used, according to size of
orchard and the number of spray gangs which it is proposed to run.

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 44]

Witha battery of three or four large kettles and with proper water facil-
ities from 150 to 200 gallons of wash may be prepared every hour.
An important objection to this method of cooking is that the wash,
when prepared, must be dipped from the kettles and poured into
the spray barrel or tank, entailing an important loss of time; and
to prevent burning, while cooking, the wash must be constantly
stirred. Time and labor saving conveniences, however, may often
be provided which will considerably lessen these difficulties. Thus in
Plate XX XVII, figure 1, is shown a convenient single-kettle furnace.
The water is forced from a spring by means of a ram into barrels
slightly above the level of the kettle, to which it is supplied in pipes
by gravitation. From the kettle the cooked wash is poured into a
trough which delivers it directly through a strainer into the spray tank.

--

~ -
Wweewewce oe -”

Fic. 15.—Two plans for conducting steam into barrels: A, pipe entering from above, and terminating

in double T, with perforations in the arms; B, pipe entering barrel near base, and forming a circle.
(From Waite.)

STEAM COOKING OUTFITS.

In most of the larger commercial orchards which are infested
with San Jose scale steam plants have been provided for cooking
the wash, and these vary much in detail. The steam boilers used
for supplying steam vary from 3 or 4 horsepower to 12, 15, or 20
horsepower—the smaller usually of the upright type, the larger
mostly horizontal and stationary, though some portable boilers
are in use. Boilers of 3 or 4 horsepower, such as are used for feed-
cooking purposes, are suitable when but 2 or 3 barrels of wash are
to be prepared at a time, and will in addition keep 1 or 2 barrels

442 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of water hot. <A boiler of 12 or 15 horsepower will furnish sufficient
steam for cooking simultaneously 8 to 10 barrels of wash, keeping
hot the necessary amount of water, and operating the pump for
supplying the water tank with water. In general, 1 horsepower
will be required for each cooking barrel or similar vessel, but there
should be allowed an excess of power amounting to 25 or 30 per cent
for heating water, pumping, etc. The general arrangement of
three cooking plants is shown in Plate XX XVIII. An outfit such as
shown in the middle figure of Plate XX XVIII lacks much in con-
venience, as is at once apparent. The plant shown at figure 2 of
Plate XX XVII is an especially convenient one, and might well serve
as a model for persons contemplating the construction of a steam
cooking plant with a capacity of 6 or 8 barrels. ;

Fic. 16.—Top view of plant for cooking lime-sulphur wash, showing piping
plan when steam is supplied from above barrels; also water inlet and pipe
for drawing off the wash. (From Waite.)

In the construction of steam cooking plants attention should be
given to the following requisites:

(1) The platform should be strong and roomy and of sufficient
height to permit the wagons to be driven alongside and the spray
tanks to be filled directly from the cooking vessels by gravitation.

(2) The steam boiler should be of sufficient size to allow. approx-
imately 1 horsepower for each cooking barrel or equivalent, with a
25 or 30 per cent excess of power for heating water and pumping
water into the water-supply tank.

(3) The arrangement of pipes should be such that these will be
as little in the way as is consistent with their use. Valves should
be provided which will permit the operation of one or more cooking
vessels independently of the others.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXXVII.

Fic. 1.—A SINGLE KETTLE FURNACE.

[Water is supplied by a ram to barrels, from which it runs by gravity to kettle. The prepared
wash is delivered by trough to spray tank. (Original. )]

Fic. 2.—A WELL-ARRANGED PLANT FOR COOKING THE WASH ON A LARGE ScALe. (AFTER R. |. SMITH.)

PLANTS FOR COOKING LIME-SULPHUR WASH.

Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXXVIII.

PLANTS FOR COOKING LIME-SULPHUR WASH.

[Top figure.—A western New York outfit. Middle figure.—An inconvenient cooking plant,

the wash being dipped from barrels by hand. Bottom figure.—An outfit with two 1

arge
tanks for cooking, with boiler between.)

aes —O

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 443

(4) There must be an ample supply of water, preferably so situated
that water may be supplied to cooking barrels and spray tanks by
gravitation.

When barrels are used as cooking vessels one of two plans of piping
is followed. In the first the main steam pipe, which should be of the
same size as the outlet at the boiler, extends along the base of the
barrels, with a smaller steam discharge pipe leading directly into
each barrel, terminating in a single perforated coil (fig. 15, B, and
Pl. XX XVII, fig.2). In the other plan the steam is conveyed above
the barrels, to which it is supplied by smaller vertical pipes, reaching
to within a few inches of the bottom of the barrels, terminating in a
double T, with arms of perforated pipe (fig. 15, A, and fig. 16).

While the 50-gallon barrel makes a convenient unit as a cooking ves-
sel, some orchardists prefer large round or square tanks (Pl. XX XVIII,
bottom figure) in which a large amount of wash can be made up at
once, often sufficient for the day’s use. By this means it is claimed
a saving in fuel and labor is effected. In using large tanks, however,
there should be an abundance of perforated pipe along the bottom
to secure proper distribution of the steam.

In portions of the country where individual orchards are small, but
situated close together, a central cooking plant may often be used in
cooperation, or by an individual who supplies the wash during the
spraying season to the orchardists of the community. The practi-
cability of this plan has already been de nonstrated.

TIME OF APPLICATION OF THE WASH.

Lime-sulphur washes, as herein considered, are suitable only for the
treatment of trees which are in a dormant state, being much too strong
for application to trees in foliage. Experiments indicate that the
best results follow applications in spring, just before the growth of
the tree begins. These late applications insure a maximum amount of
wash on the trees when the young “‘lice’’ begin to appear later in the
season from females which may have escaped treatment. The later
effect of the wash is quite as important as its direct insecticidal
action on the insects when applied. In large commercial orchards,
however, it is necessary to begin spraying operations at the first suit-
able time in spring, or even during favorable periods in the winter, on
account of the large amount of work to be done. The unfavorable
weather conditions often prevailing during spring and the urgency
of other work have led some orchardists to spray in late fall and early
winter. The value of fall applications in killing the scale and their
effects on the trees have been investigated to some extent by ento-
mologists, principally in Maryland? and New York, and by the

@ Bul. 90, Md. Agr. Exp. Station (1903).
e OBul. 273, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Station (1905).

444 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Bureau of Entomology. In general it appears that fall treatment of
trees will keep the scale in check, though more or less of injury may
result to some fruits, as peach and plum, by the destruction of fruit
buds and terminal shoots, varying with the time of application, ripe-
ness of the wood, etc. If spring applications can not be made, late
fall or early winter applications are advised; the possible injury to
the tree will be in a measure balanced by its increased vigor in growth,
due to control of the scale.

EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING.

Spraying outfits for applying the lime-sulphur washes are those used
for spraying generally. Barrel spray pumps are much used by the
smaller orchardists, and tanks holding 100 to 300 gallons, fitted with
large hand pumps with double vertical or horizontal cylinders, are
used by the larger orchardists. (See Pl. XX XIX, fig. 1.) Less
generally, gasoline or other power outfits are employed. Whatever
the outfit used, provision should be made for keeping the wash in the
barrel or tank thoroughly agitated; the hose should be of ample
length and should be fitted with a bamboo extension rod to reach the
higher portions of the trees and to protect the sprayers as much as
possible. At the junction of the hose and extension rod a stopcock
should be provided whereby the spray may be shut off when desired,
as in passing from one tree to another. In spraying high trees some
form of elevated platform should be provided on the wagon, as shown
in Plate XX XIX, figure 2, thus facilitating thorough applications to
the tops of the trees.

The spray nozzle is one of the most important parts of the outfit,
and many of the nozzles in use by orchardists are practical handicaps
to good work. Orchardists are urged to give more attention to this
part of their spraying equipment. The Vermorel and nozzles of that
type are best, and should always be provided with a plunger for remov-
ing any temporary obstruction in the outlet orifice. In spraying the
lime-sulphur wash caps should be used with an orifice one-sixteenth
of an inch in diameter, and a supply of caps should be kept on hand
to replace the worn ones when the spray becomes too coarse. In the
operation of spraying a pressure should be maintained of not less
than 75 pounds, and preferably much higher. To maintain this
with a barrel or tank hand pump with two leads of hose, each with
two or more nozzles, requires constant hard work in pumping. The
tendency will be to allow the pressure to lighten, with a consequent
falling off in efficiency of the spraying. While there is some differ-
ence in ease of working of the different makes of hand pumps, the
danger of working with too low pressure will always be present, and
especially if careless labor is employed. Power outfits are, therefore,
advised where their operation is practicable and the orchard interest

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XXXIX.

Fic. 1.—A GEORGIA HAND-POWER TANK OUTFIT.

Fic. 2.—A GASOLINE Power OuTFIT UseD IN WESTERN NEW York. (ORIGINAL. )

OUTFITS USED FOR SPRAYING LIME-SULPHUR WASH.

LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 445

warrants their purchase. In treating the San Jose scale thorough
spraying is particularly important, and especial pains should be taken
to coat every part of the tree thoroughly, from the topmost twigs to
the ground. When quite dormant, trees may be thoroughly drenched
without danger of injury, and excessive spraying is preferable to
deficient spraying. During windy weather thorough spraying is
often impossible, and under such conditions, or if for any other reason
the first treatment has not been satisfactory, a second application is
very desirable to reach the places that have been missed during the
first treatment.

The caustic, disagreeable character of the wash is frequently com-
plained of by orchardists and orchard workers. Much may be done
to remove the objections to its use by spray gangs by supplying the
men with rubber coats and gloves. The use of vaseline on the face is
advisable in working during windy weather, and clear glass goggles
may be used to protect the eyes. Lime-sulphur wash is very hard on
the pumps, and these should be thoroughly cleaned at the close of
each day’s use.

SELF-BOILED WASHES.

The expense of establishing cooking plants and of their operation
constitutes an important objection to the lime-sulphur wash, and some
attention has been given by entomologists to the devising and testing
of washes made simply by the heat generated by the slaking of the
lime, or by the additional heat following the addition of caustic soda.

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR WASH.

This wash is prepared without direct heat by placing in a barrel or
other suitable container 40 pounds of good stone lime and adding 15
pounds of flour or flowers of sulphur which has been worked into a
paste with water. The lime is started slaking by the addition of 10
or 12 gallons of hot water, and the mixture should be stirred occa-
sionally as the slaking proceeds, the barrel or vessel being kept cov-
ered as much as possible. After the lime is all slaked, water is added
to bring up to 50 gallons of wash. In the experiments of the Bureau
of Entomology this wash has not been satisfactory. Sufficient heat
is not generated during the slaking of the lime to bring into solution a
sufficient quantity of sulphur.

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR-CAUSTIC-SODA WASH.

To prepare this wash, place in a suitable barrel or other vessel 30
pounds of good quicklime and start slaking with sufficient hot water
to prevent air-slaking. As soon as the slaking is well under way add
15 pounds of sulphur previously worked into a paste with water, and
stir thoroughly. Hot water is added from time to time in sufficient

446 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

quantity to bring the mixture up to a thin paste. After slaking has
ceased add 5 or 6 pounds of commercial caustic soda, stirring until
the soda is dissolved. To this should be added sufficient water to
bring up to 50 gallons of wash.

RANGE OF USEFULNESS OF LIME-SULPHUR WASHES.

In the foregoing discussion the wash has been considered more par-
ticularly with reference to its value in destroying the San Jose scale.
There are numerous other insects which may coexist on fruit trees
with the San Jose scale, and the wash is very useful in destroying
some of these, as well as in reducing fungous diseases. Without
doubt most of the scale insects of the subfamily to which the San Jose
scale belongs (Diaspine) will be controlled by the wash. This has
been shown to be the case for Forbes scale (Aspidiotus forbes), West
Indian peach scale (Diaspis pentagona), the scurfy scale (Chionaspis
furfura), and the oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi). Unfortu-
nately, however, it appears to be ineffective on Lecanium scales, such
as the terrapin scale (Hulecanium nigrofasciatum). Its value in
destroying the winter eggs of aphides affecting the foliage and twigs
of the apple has been demonstrated by Prof. J. M. Aldrich,? and
observations by Mr. Fred Johnson, of this Bureau, in western New
York in 1905, indicate that it is quite effective in destroying the eggs
of the pear tree Psylla (Psylla pyri). There is no doubt of its efficacy
in destroying the pear-leaf blister mite (Hriophyes pyri), which winters
in the adult condition behind the bud scales of its host plant, and also
the so-called ‘‘silvering mite” of the peach (Phyllocoptes cornutus).
In California Mr. W. T. Clark® has shown that the lime-sulphur wash
is entirely satisfactory as a remedy for the peach twig borer (Anarsia
lineatella), which on the Pacific slope is a very serious enemy of the
peach.

It has been demonstrated by Pierce and others that the lime-—
sulphur wash is practically a specific for peachleaf-curl, and recent
experiments at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station ¢
indicate that it may be substituted for Bordeaux mixture as the .
dormant-tree treatment for apple scab. Its usefulness in a similar
way for scab on pears is very probable. But few dormant-tree sprays
have a greater range of usefulness than lime-sulphur wash. In prac-
tice, one thorough application in spring shortly before the buds open is
calculated to control effectively not only the San Jose scale, but other
scales, excepting lecaniums, and to an important degree the insects
and fungous diseases above mentioned on their respective host plants.

a4 Bul. 40, Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. (1904).
b Bul. 144, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1902).
ec Bul. 262, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.

NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY.

By Tuomas H. SHEerrarpD,
Assistant Forester, Forest Service.

The problem of securing the most effective use of the land concerns
the people of the United States as never before. The readjustment
of the stock-growing industry to benefit an overcrowded range and
the new agriculture—which in the East takes expression in diversified
farming, large drainage projects, and more intensive methods and in
the West in the great movement for extended irrigation of arid lands
and in dry farming—are but phases of its solution. And inno way is
the question more urgent than in the use of our forest resources.

From pioneer days almost to the present time every energy was
bent to conquer the forest and to win homes from the wilderness.
Conversion of the forests into farms and the use of wood in building
homes was an essential part of the wonderful development of the
nation, but the spirit of destruction, which grew out of the long
battle with the forest, survived long after the reason for it was past.

The hardships and difficulties resulting from an inadequate supply
of wood and water were first encountered when settlement reached
the great treeless plains of the Middle West, and long before a timber
famine had been thought of in the East. Almost everywhere a point
has now been reached where development of the country is made, not
in the face of the forest but with its essential aid.

ECONOMIC PHASES OF THE FOREST PROBLEM.

Early legislation and the propaganda of theorists and sentimental-
ists are mainly interesting as a matter of history, for they were alike
without effect upon the action of the owners of timberland, but
certain economic conditions have now become powerful checks to
forest destruction.

The north woods of Maine and New York, once so prominent in
the lumber activity of the nation, long ago dropped out of sight as
lumber-producing regions, although the bulk of the pulpwood used
in the manufacture of paper is still drawn from them. The region of
the Lake States, which was for many years the undisputed center of
the lumber industry, gradually yielded its supremacy to the South and
West. As early as 1890 lumber companies which had cut over their
holdings in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota were compelled
either to go out of business or to turn elsewhere for available timber.
Then followed the rush to the southern pineries and the great virgin
forests of the Pacific coast. During recent years the production of

447

448 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lumber in the southern pine belt has been enormous, and so great
have been the inroads upon the available supply of southern pine
that it is a question of only a few years, hastened by the construction
of the Panama Canal, when the great production of lumber will shift
to the Pacific coast. The old process of exhausting the supply of
timber in a region and then seeking new fields is very nearly over.
Already the industry is turning back on its tracks. A quality of
timber is eagerly sought in the Lake States which a few years ago
was passed over as utterly worthless, and certain sawmills have
depended for a part of their supply upon the recovery of logs which
have sunk in the waterways in process of transportation. In the
South the whole pine region is being gone over in close search of the
old field pine. This inferior and once despised growth of timber is
now bought up at prices greatly in excess of those once paid for the
magnificent timber of the virgin forests.

Great improvement in logging and sawmill machinery, signal suc-
cess in reducing the waste in manufacture, wonderful railroad exten-
sion, concentration, and systematic organization of producers to
reach the consumer most effectively through the markets, have all
combined to cheapen the cost of production and increase the profit
in the lumber business. Yet the price of lumber has never before
been as high as in the year 1906. This increased price is in spite
of an increased production which it taxes the railroads to transport.

The price of stumpage is far more stable than that of lumber, and
responds very tardily to fluctuations in the lumber market. The
usual policy of disposing of Federal and State timber for prac-
tically nothing has acted powerfully, particularly in the West, to
keep the selling price of stumpage far below its legitimate value.
It is not surprising that it has always been impossible for the bulk of
the owners of timber to have a broad view of the lumber industry and
close acquaintance with the lumber market, for most of the cost of
producing lumber lies in logging and manufacture, and the margin
of profit has varied widely. The price of stumpage has always been
artificially depressed, and has lagged far behind the constantly
increasing value of lumber. .

ACQUIRING LUMBER UNDER LAND LAWS.

The act of June 3, 1878, generally known as the timber and stone
act, provides for the purchase of public timber land at the uniform
price of $2.50 per acre. The purpose of Congress in enacting this
law was to make it possible for settlers, miners, and other actual
users of timber to satisfy their needs. Records of the General Land
Office show that in 1904 over 55,000 entries had been made under
this act, covering an area of nearly 8,000,000 acres. Probably
10,000,000 acres of carefully selected public timberland has by this
time passed into the control of private owners under this law alone.

It is well known that most of the entries under this law have been

NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY. 449

made, indirectly, by nonresidents for speculation. And the great
bulk of the entries have almost immediately passed into the hands
of timber syndicates, with profit to the original entrymen amounting
to no more than bare wages. Thus the law has reacted greatly to
the disadvantage of the very classes whom it was intended to help,
and the bona fide settler and miner and the small sawmill man have
seen the public timber rapidly withdrawn and pass into the hands
of speculative syndicates.

The same law permits the cutting of timber for domestic purposes
from mineral lands. The area classed as mineral land in the tim-
bered portions of the public land is very great, and the construction
put by the courts upon the provision of the law that the timber
might be used for domestic purposes has been so broad as to include
practically every purpose for which timber can be used. This act
has never been repealed.

Abuses have grown up under the other laws which provide for the
disposition of public land. More jand has been disposed of under
the “homestead law’’ than under all other land laws combined.
Entries of timberland under the homestead law are common, notably
so under the commutation clause, which permits a brief period of
residence on condition of a cash payment.

Thus the land laws, while they have provided for the rapid dis-
posal of public timberlands, have tended strongly to the segregation
of large holdings of timberland for speculative purposes.

PURCHASE OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER.

The acquisition of timberland under the land laws has been cited
in order to contrast it emphatically with the purchase of timber itself
for immediate use under the National forest laws.

The act of March 1, 1891, which gave to the President the power
to set aside National Forests, did not provide for their administra-
tion, and therefore effectually locked up timber from use. That of
June 4, 1897, enlarged the powers of the Secretary and provided for
a protective force.

At first the National Forests had no appreciable effect upon the
lumber industry. The Forests largely comprised inaccessible tim-
ber, and its purchase was not encouraged. Consumers of wood and
other forest products, who were dependent upon the Forests, were
confronted with impractical and troublesome regulations. Unneces-
sary delay in the transaction of business worked added hardship
and fostered a feeling of hostility toward National Forests among those
who came into closest contact with them, and who should have been
made most sensible of their benefits. During succeeding years vast
areas of timberland were taken up under the land laws, and cheap
timber was on the market in immense quantities.

It was not until the large withdrawals of land by the creation of
new National Forests in 1903 and 1904 that bodies of timber attractive

3 «a1906——29

450 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to private enterprise were included. By these withdrawals entries
under the timber and stone act and the lieu land law were checked.
At the same time the rapid extension of railroads and the great increase
in settlement and industrial development in the West were operating
to enable the luamberman to enter regions once remote from market.

In February, 1905, the administration of the National Forests was
transferred to the Department of Agriculture, and the policy of the
greatest legitimate use of all resources of the Forests has been
definitely adopted. Under the enlarged powers of the Secretary,
regulations governing the cutting of timber have been greatly sim-
plified, and annoying delays in the transaction of business wiped out.
An especial effort is made to facilitate applications for the free use of
timber and for small purchases.

The effect upon the use of the timber of the National Forests was
instantaneous. Money receipts from the sale of timber for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1905, were $50,000. During the present
fiscal year (1907) receipts from timber sold will probably exceed half
a million dollars and contracts for the sale of timber, extending from
one to five years, will reach a value of over 14 million dollars.

The money return which the Government realizes from these sales
is in striking contrast to that received from the sale of timberland
under the land laws. Under the timber and stone act timberland
could be bought for $2.50 per acre, and under the lieu land law it could
be acquired in exchange for denuded and worthless land without
money payment. Timber from the Forests is now purchased by the
thousand board feet, and payment is made upon the actual scale of
the logs when cut. The cut varies from 5,000 to 20,000 feet per acre,
so that, at the comparatively low stumpage rate of $2.50 per thousand
feet, the Government receives from five to twenty times as much for
the timber as it received under the timber and stone act and retains
the land. To cite a single example: A sale of 12,000,000 feet of timber
was recently made on a National Forest in Wyoming, at a rate of $5
per thousand feet. The proceeds from the sale of the timber alone
will be $60,000. The timber averages 8,000 feet per acre and covers
1,500 acres. Had the sale been made under the timber and stone
law it would have yielded but $3,750 for both timber and land.

It might be argued that the Government is not in the lumber ~

business and that it should dispose of its remaining timberlands as
rapidly as possible, leaving it to private enterprise to exploit them.
But public opinion is emphatically in favor of a more conservative
use of what remains of the National Forests than would be possible
were they turned over to lumber companies, whose sole concern
would be their quick conversion into cash. 'The Government has
been forced inte the lumber business solely that a supply of forest
products may be guaranteed to future generations.

The ratio of the present yield of timber cut from the National
Forests to that of the whole country, or even to that of the Western

NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY. 451

States, is insignificant. Probably 65 per cent of the total stand of
merchantable timber within the Forests is located on the Pacific coast,
where for a long time the enormous supply of privately owned timber
will satisfy most of the demand. This more accessible private timber
surrounded the Forests as the meat of an apple surrounds the core.
But this belt of private timber has been entirely eaten away in many
places, while in others it is locked up for purposes of speculation.
The thing to remember, then, is that this immense body of public
timber is there as a great reserve against the time when private
timberlands will be depleted, and for use as a weapon against monop-
oly. Already, even on the Pacific coast, actual operators, who are
not speculating in timber, but who, if they are to meet the demands of
commerce, must have logs to supply their mills, are turning to the
National Forests.

The advantages in the purchase of timber from the National Forests
to the actual operator, and especially to the sawmill man of small
means, are many. ‘There is no large initial investment required in
acquiring timberlands and no possibilty of annoying litigation over
defective title to lands. The purchaser is entirely relieved of taxes
and the cost of protection. The Government assumes the entire risk
of loss by fire or other causes.

EFFECT ON THE PRICE OF LUMBER.

The first effect of National Forests upon prices, particularly where
there is still a great deal of available timber, is to raise the price of
stumpage toward its intrinsic value by withdrawing the excess supply
of low-priced timber from the market. On the other hand, as the
supply of timber dwindles and values are forced upward by holding
for speculation, the effect of the Forests will be to check advance in
prices and make them lower.

In the Rocky Mountain States and Territories the major part of
the small remaining supply of timber is in the National Forests, and
here their beneficial effect upon the lumber supply may be more
plainly seen than on the Pacific coast. The demand for timber from
the Forests throughout this region has come very generally from small
sawmills which supply towns and ranches located off the railroads
and from mines which use the timber for their own development.

NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT.

In the virgin forest, growth is just about balanced by decay. In
the western forests, however, natural deterioration is greatly aug-
mented by forest fires. Destruction of merchantable timber is usually
the measure of the damage done by forest fires, but, great as this
injury is, vastly more actual loss in forest wealth is caused by the
fires which year after year burn, practically unnoticed, in the grass
and undergrowth of the forest. While these ground fires do not con-
sume the large trees, seedlings are destroyed outright, growing trees
receive injuries which result in their early decay, and the forest floor,

452: YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

composed of a mold of needles, twigs, and tosses, is burned away.
Thus the wonderful recuperative power of the forest is lost. That
the damages done by fires can be reduced has been proved on the
National Forests by actually reducing them. The great need is that
there should be more men on the protective force.

From the forester’s standpoint, mature timber should be cut in
order to give the small trees more light and a chance to grow and to
make way for reproduction. From the standpoint of national econ-
omy, the mature timber on the Forests should be utilized as needed
for the development: of the West, provided the local supply is not
reduced below the point of safety. The whole weight of the moye-
ment in favor of National Forests is squarely against a reckless use of
the timber resources, but it is emphatically in favor of the legitimate
use of timber. The points of vital importance are that the remaining
supply of timber must be used with the utmost economy and that in
every case reproduction must be absolutely assured.

No live timber is cut on the Forests until it has been determined by
careful study on the ground that lumbering will not injure the forest.
In every sale of timber, rules to insure careful logging are made a con-
dition of the sale. It is often found advisable to remove only the
larger, mature trees and to leave the smaller ones, which, although
of merchantable size, can be lumbered more profitably when larger.
Seed trees are left, whenever necessary, to insure a second crop. In
fellmg timber, vigorous measures are taken to prevent the destruc-
tion of promising young trees and to prohibit their use in logging.

In order to protect cut-over areas against fire, the brush, or ‘‘slash,”’
is piled and burned, and in dry seasons, when the danger from fire
is greatest, the cutting areas are watched or, if necessary, logging is
suspended. Waste in logging is effectually prevented by rules framed
to apply to the particular class of timber to be cut, and the cut-
ting of Jow stumps and the use of all the merchantable material in
tops and partly unsound logs is enforced by close supervision. Graz-
ing is regulated so that the range is not overcrowded to the injury
ot the Forest, and if necessary to encourage reproduction it is pro-
hibited altogether. In these and in many other ways the forest is
safeguarded.

Far beyond the present influence of the National Forests upon the
lumber supply will be their importance in the future. The United
States is now facing a serious decrease in the available supply of
timber. That from the National Forests will aid greatly to bridge
over the period of inevitable lack of mature timber which will last
from the time the old trees are gone until the young trees are large
enough to take their places. The definite result, therefore, of the
sale of timber from the Forests will be to sustain the lumber business,
to maintain a steady range of timber values and thus to lessen spec-
ulation, and, far more important still, to render possible the unin-
terrupted development of the great industries dependent upon wood.

APPENDIX.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, James Wilson.

The Secretary exercises personal supervision of public business relating to the
agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Department
with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau,
who are appointed by the President, and directs the management of all the Bureaus,
Divisions, and Offices embraced in the Department. He exercises advisory super-
vision over agricultural experiment stations which receive aid from the National
Treasury, has control of the quarantine stations for imported cattle, of interstate
quarantine rendered necessary by sheep and cattle diseases, and of the inspection of
cattle-carrying vessels, and directs the inspection of domestic and imported food

roducts, under the meat inspection and pure-food laws. He is charged with the

uty of issuing rules and regulations for the protection, maintenance, and care of the
National forest reserves. He also is charged with carrying into effect the laws pro-
hibiting the transportation by interstate commerce of game killed in violation of
local laws and excluding from importation certain noxious animals, and has authority
to control the importation of other animals.

AssIsTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, Willet M. Hays.

The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be required by law or pre-
scribed by the Secretary. He also becomes Acting Secretary of Agriculture in the
absence of the Secretary.

Carer CLERK, S. R. Burch.

The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; he is
charged with the enforcement of the internal regulations of the Department; and is,
by law, superintendent of the buildings occupied by the Department of Agriculture.
He represents the Department on the Government board of the Jamestown Expo-
sition, Norfolk, Va.

APPOINTMENT CLERK, Joseph B. Bennett.

The Appointment Clerk prepares all papers involved in the making of appoint-
ments, transfers, promotions, reductions, details, furloughs, and removals, for the
entire Department, and decides all questions relating to the civil-service regulations
affecting the same. He has charge of all correspondence of the Department with the
Civil Service Commission, and of all certifications and communications issued by the
Commission to the Department; and he reports to the Commission all appointments
and other changes in the service. He keeps the personal records of all employees of
the Department, and is custodian of their oaths of office and efficiency reports. He
is also custodian of the Department seal.

Soxricrror, George P. McCabe.

The Solicitor acts as the legal adviser of the Secretary, and is charged with the
preparation and supervision of all legal papers to which the Department is a party,
and of all communications to the Department of Justice and to the various officers
thereof, including United States attorneys. He examines and approves, in advance
of issue, all orders and regulations promulgated by the Secretary under statutory
authority; represents the Department in all legal proceedings arising under the vari-
ous laws intrusted to the Department for execution, and prosecutes applications of

employees of the Department for patents. He is also a member of the Board of Food
and Drug Inspection.

@The organization of the Department here given is in accordance with the act
approved March 4, 1907, making appropriations for the fiscal year, ending June 30,
1908, and shows changes in personnel to April 1, 1907.

453

454 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CuieFr GF SuppLy Drviston, Cyrus B. Lower.

The Supply Division has charge of purchases of supplies and materials paid for
from the general funds of the Department.

WeatHerR Bureau (corner Twenty-fourth and M streets NW.).—Chief, Willis L.
Moore; Assistant Chief, Henry E. Williams; Chief Clerk, Daniel J. Carroll; Editor of
Monthly Weather Review, Cleveland Abbe; In charge of Division of Meteorological
Records, Frank H. Bigelow; In charge of Instrwment Division, Charles F. Marvin;
In charge of Forecast Division, Edward B. Garriott; In charge of Special Research and
Forecaster, Alfred J. Henry; In charge of River and Flood Service and Forecaster,
Harry C. Frankenfield; In charge of Weather Bureau accounts, Edgar B. Calvert.
Chiefs of Division: Climatological, James Berry; Publications, John P. Church;
Telegraph, Jesse H. Robinson; Ocean Meteorology, James Page; Supplies, Frank M.
Cleaver; Librarian, Herbert H. Kimball.

The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue of storm
warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture,
commerce, and navigation; the gaging and reporting of river stages; the maintenance
and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of
marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation; the reporting of tem-
perature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests; the
display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological information
in the interests of agriculture and commerce; and the taking of such meteorological
observations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic conditions of
the United States, or are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties.

BureEAv or ANIMAL INDustRY.—Chief, A. D. Melvin; Assistant Chief, A. M. Farring-
ton; Chief Clerk, E. B. Jones; Chief of Inspection Division, Rice P. Steddom; Chief
of Quarantine Division, Richard W. Hickman; Chief of Pathological Division, John
R. Mohler; Chief of Biochemie Division, M. Dorset; Chief of Dairy Division, Ed. H.
Webster; Chief of Division of Zoology, B. H. Ransom; Superintendent of Experiment
Station, E. ©. Schroeder; Animal Husbandman, George M. Rommel; Editor,
James M. Pickens.

The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of dan-
gerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their con-
trol and extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of
such diseases, and reports on the condition and the means of improving the animal
industries of the country. It supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and
inspects live stock, meats, and meat-food products intended for interstate and for-
eign commerce. It conducts feeding and breeding experiments. It has charge of
the inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels for the trans-
portation of export animals, and of the quarantine stations for imported animals. It
also has supervision of the manufacture, interstate commerce, and export of renovated
butter.

Bureau or Prant Inpustry.—Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief, Beverly T.
Galloway; Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief, Albert F. Woods; Chief
Clerk, James E. Jones; Editor, J. E. Rockwell; Pathologist in charge of Laboratory of
Plant Pathology, Erwin F. Smith; Pathologist in charge of Investigations of Diseases
of Fruits, Merton B. Waite; Physiologist in charge of Plant Life~ History Investiga-
tions, Walter T. Swingle; Physiologist in charge of Cotton and Tobacco Breeding
Investigations, Archibald D. Shamel; Physiologist in charge of Corn Breeding Investi-
gations, Charles P. Hartley; Physiologist in charge of Alkali and Drought Resistant
Plant Breeding Investigations, Thomas H. Kearney; Physiologist in charge of Soil
Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman; Bionomist in
charge of Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, Orator F. Cook;
Physiologist in charge of Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and Tea Culture
Investigations, Rodney H. True; Physicist in charge of Physical Laboratory, Lyman
J. Briggs; Expert in charge of Crop Technology Investigations, Nathan A. Cobb;
Botanist in charge of Taxonomic Investigations, Frederick V. Coville; Agriculturist
in charge of Farm Management Investigations, William J. Spillman; Cerealist in charge
of Grain Investigations, Mark A. Carleton; Horticulturist in charge of Arlington
Experimental Farm, Lee C. Corbett; Pathologist in charge of Sugar Beet Investigations,
Charles O. Townsend; Agriculturist in charge of Western Agricultural Extension
Investigations, Carl S. Scofield; Agriculturist in charge of Dry Land Agriculture
Investigations, E. Channing Chilcott; Pomologist in charge of Pomological Collections,
Gustavus B. Brackett; Pomologists in charge of Field Investigations in Pomology,
William A. Taylor and G. Harold Powell; Superintendent of Experimental Gardens

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 455

and Grounds, Edward M. Byrnes; Superintendent of Vegetable Testing Gardens, W. W.
Tracy, sr.; Agricultural Explorer in charge of Seed and Plant Introduction, David
Fairchild; Assistant in charge of Congressional Seed Distribution, Lisle Morrison;
Agrostologist in charge of Forage Crop Investigations, Charles V. Piper; Botanist in
charge of Seed Laboratory, Edgar Brown; Expert in charge of Grain Standardization,
John D. Shanahan; Pathologist in charge of Subtropical Laboratory and Garden,
Miami, Fla., Ernst A. Bessey; Expert in charge of Plant Introduction Garden, Chico,
Cal., August Mayer; Pomologist in charge of South Texas Garden, Brownsville, Tex.,
Edward ©. Green; Special Agent in charge of Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A.
Knapp, Lake Charles, La.

The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture. Its
work is classified under the general subjects of Pathological Investigations, Physiolog-
ical Investigations, Taxonomic Investigations, Agronomic Investigations, Horticul-
tural Investigations, and Seed and Plant Introduction Investigations.

Forest Service (Atlantic Building, 928-930 F street NW.).— Forester and Chief,
Gifford Pinchot; Associate Forester, Overton W. Price; Law Officer, P. P. Wells;
Editor, Herbert A. Smith; Dendrologist, George B. Sudworth; Branch of Grazing,
Assistant Forester in Charge, Albert F. Potter; Branch of Operation, Assistant For-
ester in Charge, James B. Adams; Chief, Office of Maintenance, Hermon C. Metcalf;
Fiscal Agent and Chief, Office of Accounts, George E. King; Chief, Office of Organiza-
tion, C.S. Chapman; Assistant Chief, Office of Organization, Clyde Leavitt; Chief,
Office of Engineering, W. E. Herring; Chief, Office of Lands, George F. Pollock;
Branch of Silviculture, Assistant Forester in Charge, William T. Cox; Chief, Office
of Extension, Samuel N. Spring; Chief, Office of Silvics, Raphael Zon; Chief, Office
of Management, E. E. Carter; Assistant Chief, Office of Management, W. G. Weigle;
Branch of Products—Assistant Forester in Charge, William L. Hall; Chief, Office of
Wood Utilization, R. S. Kellogg; Chief, Office of Wood Preservation, C. G. Crawford;
Chief, Office of Publication, Findley Burns.

The Forest Service has charge of the administration of the National forests, and con-
ducts examinations on the public lands to determine the propriety of making changes
in the boundaries of existing National forests and of withdrawing other areas suitable
for new forests; gives practical assistance in the conservative handling of State and pri-
vate forest lands; investigates methods of planting and kinds of trees for planting, and
gives practical assistance to tree planters; studies commercially valuable trees to deter-
mine the best means of using and reproducing them; tests the strength and durability
of construction timbers, railroad ties, and poles, and determines the best methods of
extending their life through preservative treatment; and studies forest fires, the effects
of grazing on forest land, turpentine orcharding, and other forest problems.

Bureau or Cuemistry (corner Fourteenth and B streets SW.).—Chemist and Chief,
Harvey W. Wiley; Board of Food and Drug Inspection, H. W. Wiley, F. L. Dun-
lap.and G. P. McCabe; Chief of Division of Foods, W. D. Bigelow; Chiefs of Food and
Drug Inspection Laboratories : New York, R. E. Doolittle; Philadelphia, C. S. Brin-
ton; Boston, B. H. Smith; Chicago, A. L. Winton; New Orleans, C. W. Harrison;
San Francisco, R. A. Gould; St. Paul, A. S. Mitchell; Chief of Sugar Laboratory,
C. A. Browne, jr.; Chief of Miscellaneous Laboratory, J. K. Haywood; Chief of Dairy
Laboratory, G. E. Patrick; Chief of Plant Analysis Laboratory, C. C. Moore; Chief
rf Drug Laboratory, L. F. Kebler; Chief of Contracts Laboratory, P. H. Walker;

hief of Leather and Paper Laboratory, F. P. Veitch; Chief of Micro-chemical Labora-
tory, B. J. Howard; Chief Clerk, M. T. Read.

The Bureau of Chemistry investigates methods proposed for the analysis of plants,
fertilizers, and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as pertain in general
to the interests of agriculture. The work on foods includes the analysis of adulterated
products, experiments to determine the effect of adulterants on the human organism,
the investigation of food products imported into the United States, and the examina-
tion of foods and drugs in accordance with the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906.
The Bureau does chemical work for some of the other Bureaus and Divisions of the
Department, and for other Departments of the Government which apply to the Secre-
tary of Agriculture for such assistance.

Bureau or Soms (208-214 Thirteenth street SW.).—Chief, Milton Whitney; Chief
Clerk, A. G. Rice; In charge of Soil Laboratories, Frank K. Cameron; In charge of
Soil Survey, Jay A. Bonsteel; In charge of Alkali Reclamation Investigations, Clarence
W. Dorsey; In charge of Tobacco Investigations, George T. McNess; In charge of

456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Soil Management, Frank D. Gardner; In charge of Fertility Investigations, Oswald
Schreiner.

The Bureau of Soils is intrusted with the investigation, survey, and mapping of soils;
the investigation of the cause and prevention of the rise of alkali in the soil, and the
drainage of soils; and the investigation of the methods of growing, curing, and fermen-
tation of tobacco in the different tobacco districts.

Bureau oF EntomoLocy.—Entomologist and Chief, L. 0. Howard; Entomologist and
Acting Chief in absence of Chief, C. L. Marlatt; Chief Clerk, R. 8. Clifton; In charge of
Breeding Experiments, F. H. Chittenden; In charge of Forest Insect Investigations,
A. D. Hopkins; Jn charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, W. D. Hunter; In
charge of Cereal and Forage-plant Insect Investigations, F. M. Webster; In charge of
Deciduous-fruit Insect Investigations, A. LL. Quaintance; Jn charge of Apicultural In-
vestigations, E. F. Phillips; In charge of Gipsy and Brown-tail Moth Work, D.M. Rog-
ers; Engaged in White Fly Investigations, A. W. Morrill; In charge of Gipsy Moth
Laboratory, E. S. G. Titus; Engaged in Silk Investigations, C. J. Gilliss; Assistant in
charge of Editorial Work, R. P. Currie; Librarian, Mabel Colcord.

The Bureau of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding injurious
insects affecting field crops, fruits, small fruits, truck crops, forests and forest products,
and stored products; studies insects in relation to diseases of man and other animals and
as animal parasites; experiments with the introduction of beneficial insects and with
the fungous and other diseases ot insects; and conducts experiments and tests with
insecticides and insecticide machinery. It is further charged with investigations in
apiculture and sericulture. The information gained is disseminated in the form of
general reports, bulletins, and circulars. Museum work is done in connection with the
Division of Insects of the National Museum, and insects are identified for experiment
stations and other public institutions and for private individuals.

Bureau oF BronocicaL SurvEyY.—Biologist and Chief, C. Hart Merriam; Administra-
tive Assistant and Acting Chief in absence of Chief, H. W. Henshaw; Assistant in
charge of Economic Investigations, A. K. Fisher; Assistant in-charge of Game Preserva-
tion, T. S. Palmer; Assistant in charge of Geographic Distribution, Vernon Bailey.

The Bureau of Biological Survey studies the geographic distribution of animals and
plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also investigates the economic
relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the preservation of
beneficial and the destruction of injurious species. It is charged with carrying into
effect the provisions of the Federal law for the supervision of interstate commerce in
game and the importation and protection of birds, and certain provisions of the law for
the protection of game in Alaska.

Division or Accounts AND DisBURSEMENTS.—Chief and Disbursing Clerk, A. Zap-
pone; Assistant Chief, Edgar B. Calvert; Auditor, Everett D. Yerby; Cashier,
M. E. Fagan.

The Division of Accounts and Disbursements audits, adjusts, and pays all accounts
and claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of
public funds; prepares advertisements and schedules for annual supplies and letters
of authority; writes, for the signature of the Secretary, all letters to the Treasury
Department pertaining to fiscal matters; issues requisitions for the purchase of sup-
plies and requests for passenger and for freight transportation; prepares the annual
estimates of appropriations, and transacts all other business relating to the financial
interests of the Department.

Division or Pusiications.—Editor and Chief, Geo. Wm. Hill; Editor and Assistant
Chief, Joseph A. Arnold; Associate Editor, B. D. Stallings; Assistant in charge of
Document Section, R. B. Handy; Chief Clerk, A. I. Mudd; Assistant in charge of
een, Charles H. Greathouse; Assistant in charge of Illustrations, Louis §

Jilliams.

The Division of Publications exercises general supervision of the Department print-
ing and illustrations, edits all publications of the Department (with the exception of
those of the Weather Bureau), ss charge of the printing and Farmers’ Bulletin funds,
and distributes all Department publications with the exception of those issued by the
Weather Bureau and those turned over by law to the Superintendent of Documents
for sale at the price affixed by him. It issues, in the form of press notices, official
information of interest to agriculturists, and distributes to agricultural publications

~~ aS Vacetso

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 457

and writers notices and synopses of Department publications, and has charge of all
correspondence with the Government Printing Office.

Bureau or Sratistics.—Statistician and Chief, Victor H. Olmsted; Associate Statis-
tician, C. C. Clark; Assistant Statistician, Nat C. Murray; Chief Clerk, E. J. Lundy;
Chief of Division of Foreign Markets, George K. Holmes; Chief of Division of
Domestic Crop Reports, F. J. Blair; Crop Reporting Board: Victor H. Olmsted,
Charles C. Clark, Nat C. Murray, George K. Holmes, and one member selected from
month to month from the corps of field agents and of State statistical agents.

The Statistician collects informatidn as to the condition, production, etc., of the
principal crops and the status of farm animals through State agents, each of whom
1s assisted by a corps of local reporters, through sepaiaie corps of county, township,
and cotton correspondents, through traveling agents, and through a special foreign
correspondent, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. He
records, tabulates, and coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution,
and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards
of trade, and individual experts; prepares special statistical bulletins upon domestic
and foreign agricultural subjects, and issues a monthly crop report for the information
of producers and consumers. Special bulletins are published giving information of
domestic and foreign trade and of the conditions under which foreign trade may be
extended. Investigations are made of land tenures, cost of producing farm products,
country-life education, transportation, and other lines of rural economics.

Lisrary.—Librarian, Josephine A. Clark; Assistant Librarian, Claribel R. Barnett.

The Librarian has charge of the Library and supervises the arrangement and cata-
loguing of books, the preparation of bibliographies and similar publications, and the
purchase of new books. The mailing lists for the distribution of Department publi-
cations to foreign countries are under the supervision of the Librarian.

OrricE OF EXPERIMENT StTations.—Director, A. C. True; Assistant Director and Editor
of Experiment Station Record, E. W. Allen; Chief of Editorial Division, W. H. Beal;
Chief of Division of Insular Stations, W. H. Evans; Special Agent, Alaska, C. C.
Georgeson; Special Agent, Hawaii, Jared G. Smith; Special Agent, Porto Rico, D. W.
May; Chief of Nutrition Investigations, C. F. Langworthy; Chief of Irrigation and
Drainage Investigations, Elwood Mead; Farmers’ Institute Specialist, John Hamilton;
Expert in Agricultural Education, D. J. Crosby; Chief Clerk, Mrs. C. E. Johnston.

The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relation to the
experiment stations, which are now in operation in all the States and Territories, and
directly manages the experiment stations in Alaska, Porto Rico, and Hawaii. It
seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation throughout
the United States. It collects and disseminates general information regarding agri-
cultural schools, colleges, and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural inves-
tigations at home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, aids
in the conduct of cooperative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and work,
and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote
the purposes for which they were established. In a similar way it aids in the devel-
opment of the farmers’ institutes throughout the United States. It is charged with
investigations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods. It conducts
investigations of the laws and institutions relating to irrigation in different regions,
the use of irrigatian waters, the removal of seepage and surplus waters by drainage,
and the use of different kinds of power and machinery for irrigation and other agricul-
tural purposes.

OrFiIcE oF Pusitic Roaps.—Director, Logan Waller Page; Assistant Director, Allerton
S. Cushman; Chief Engineer, Vernon M. Peirce; Chief of Records, Maurice O.
Eldridge; Testing Engineer, Philip L. Wormeley, jr.; Chief Clerk, James Edmund

- Pennybacker, jr.

The Office of Public Roads collects and disseminates information concerning sys-
tems of road management throughout the United States; conducts investigations and
experiments regarding road-building materials and methods of road construction;
makes chemical and physical tests of road materials and materials of construction
relating to agriculture; gives expert advice on road administration and road con-
struction; demonstrates the best methods of construction, and prepares publications
on these subjects.

458

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR
THE FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1905, 1906, AND 1907.

Object of appropriation.

Salaries, Department of Agriculture... .-...-..2..2.2.-.-1
Library, Department of Agriculture... .3.22.2..2.-22.-..22-
Contingent Expenses, Department of Agriculture...........
Collecting Agricultura lStatishicSssss.. so-ce2- asses aeeeee nee
Bureau of Plant Industry, General Expenses............:.- }
Botanical Investigations and Experiments..............-.- |
Entomological Investigations. —icsset tet ee sees tenes teen |
Vegetable Pathological Investigations...............-...-.-
GrainJinves tigations 71906. 26 ose ee ee ee
Rent of Quarters, Plant Bureau (deficiency act) ...........-
Biological Investigationss.cesees: eos eee. ore eee ene ee
Pomologicaluinvestigationssa. a2 oeee Peon ee nee eeeeee eee }
Laboratory, Department of Agriculture
Horestry Investigationss-— =o scene sseenette ee eee ene
National Forests, Administration, ete., 1907 and 1908........
Wichita Forest and Game Preserve..............-...-----.-
Survey and Report, Appalachian and White Mountain
Watersheds;,.1907"and "19082 oe ce ee nee ee ee noone cee
Testing Timbers, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis,
Mo.) (deficiency: aet) sas 3 ae See aan 5: eee eee oe Oe ee
Experimental Gardens and Grounds, Department of Agri-
CWUIGUTO se 2:3. CARS hoa a tena een eee Aone ere een eee
SoiLInvestigations's <.aicctiecooncniscaceeenccer oe ton eae
Grass and Forage Plant Investigations..............-....--
’ Greenhouses, Department of Agriculture, 1904-1905........-
Agricultural Experiment Stations [for stations under Hatch
iar oe acts; $810,000, 1905; $794,660, 1906; $1,056,000,
LOO TIS ole .claice Meee Mas tre See Siete oa et ere ee Ce ee
NuUtritionvinvestization ss 14 sees eee ae eee eee ee
Public Road Inquiriests... 90-scc0t asses eae er eee
Cotton Boll Investieationse sess. ne poeee cree eee eee eeeeee
Publications, Department of Agriculture...................-
Sugarsinvestigations:..esosseasnc oases aoe ae eee eeee
Purchase and Distribution of Valuable Seeds........-- Renae
Salaries and Expenses, Bureau of Animal Industry.......-.
Eradicating Cattle Ticks, 1907 and 1908.................---.-
Bureau of Animal Industry (deficiency act) ............-..--
Irnigationinvestipahousesesececeasee cere aes cone aerate
Tea; Culturetinvestiz ations =e sacs seee ss see te eee eee eee
Arline toniExperimental arm = ssp eeeoe. ee ee: ae eee eee
Building, Department of Agriculture...................:.-.-

WEATHER BUREAU.

Salaries; Weather Bureau. on = spac nanan sces oes oon ae ee sae
Fuel, Lights, and Repairs, Weather Bureau.............-...
Contingent Expenses, Weather Bureau...............-.-...-
General Expenses, Weather Bureau....-......-.<......-.<.-
Bulldings, Weather Bureaus - -\j5 a. soa ceeee eee ace
Cables and Land Lines, Weather Bureau....................
Salaries, Station Employees, Weather Bureau.............-

Total? Weather Bureal. socccc asec eesecece cease ace
Grandito tallies mnie Sec eae see eee eee ae eee

a Includes $4,900 for Foreign Markets Investigations.

5, 944, 540. 00

1905. 1906. 1907.

$482, 300.00 | $814,970.00 | $785, 850.00
10, 000. 00 8,040. 00 10, 000. 00
37,000. 00 37,000. 00 37, 000. 00
139; 500. 00 98,800.00 | 112/900. 00
egage bd leaned ph ek eee b 502) 301. 28

67, 500. 00 63, $40. 00 (¢)
70,000. 00 68, 060. 00 307, 500. 00

150,000.00 | 155,640.00 (¢)
ie eS Fe Se 25, 000. 00 15, 000. 00
2,500. 00 |...:-<- 00-605, | ae re
34; 000. 00 44, 420.00 44, 420. 00

43, 500. 00 35, 640. 00 (¢)
135,000.00 | 130,920.00 | 4395, 920. 00
388,000.00 | 793, 180. 00 902; 210. 82
Do OS IE iy ee 1, 052; 500. 00
Autre ee ee 000. 00
ia Ne ae iat tl va ie 25, 000. 00
10,000.00: |. 2.2..220.cc..| ee

25, 000. 00 20, 320. 00 (¢)
170,000.00 | 170,000. 00 185, 000. 00

42’ 500. 00 39, 660. 00 (¢)

2500000 192 oe (¢)
90, 000. 00 74,660.00} © 84,045.05
20,000. 00 20, 000. 00 20,000. 00
35, 000. 00 37, 660. 00 57, 660. 00
250,000.00 | — 190,000. 00 230, 000. 00
210,000.00 | 7132) 250.00 | 9 132) 250. 00

7, 500. 00 7,500. 00 (¢)
290,000.00 | 242; 920. 00 242, 920. 00
1, 525,000.00 | 1, 456,520.00 | 3,946, 980. 00
Ack. Saeco hl ee 107,500. 00
Bk ae me 63,000: 00: |..5. daceemmanae
67, 500. 00 74, 500. 00 122, 200. 00

10,000. 00 8,500. 00 (¢)

20, 000. 00 20, 000. 00 (c)
250,000.00 | — 950, 000. 00 780, 934, 68
4, 606, 800.00 | 5,719, 700.00 |............--
180,440.00 | 191,340. 00 194, 690. 00
8,000. 00 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00
10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00
1,064, 300.00 | 1,093, 565. 00 630, 000. 00
48, 000. 00 53, 000. 00 53, 000. 00
27;,000. 00 35,000, 00. |. 22s ene
12 Tadtee 2 ee ee 541, 550. 00
1,337, 740.00 | 1, 392,990.00 |...........-..

b Includes $11,300 for rent and repairs; $5,000 for Ozark Mountain investigations; $3,541.28 received
from sale of fruits and vegetables; also appropriations heretofore made under the names of Botanical
Investigations, Vegetable Pathological Investigations, Pomological Investigations, Experimental
Gardens and Grounds, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Sugar Investigations, Tea Culture

Investigations, and Arlington Experimental Farm.
¢ Included under Bureau of Plant Industry. ;
d Includes $300,000 for enforcement of Food and Drugs Act.

e Expenses of Office of Experiment Stations and includes $545.05 from sale of Experiment Station

card indexes in 1907.

J Does not include $300,000 for the Yearbook and $185,000 in general printing fund.

9 Does not include $300,000 in general printing fund.

INSTITUTIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 459

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.«

College instruction in agriculture is given in the colleges and universities receiving
the benefits of the acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and August 30, 1890, which are
now in operation in all the States and Territories, except Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto
Rico. The total number of these institutions is 65, of which 63 maintain courses of
instruction in agriculture. In 21 States the agricultural colleges are departments of
the State universities. In 15 States and Territories separate institutions having
courses in agriculture are maintained for the colored race. All of the agricultural
colleges for white persons and several of those for negroes offer four-year courses in
agriculture and its related sciences leading to bachelors’ degrees, and many provide
for graduate study. About 55 of these institutions also provide special, short, and
correspondence courses in the different branches of agriculture, including agronomy,
horticulture, animal husbandry, poultry raising, cheese making, dairying, sugar making,
rural engineering, farm mechanics, and other technical subjects. The officers of the
agricultural colleges engage quite largely in conducting farmers’ institutes and various
other forms of college extension. The agricultural experiment stations with very few
exceptions are departments of the agricultural colleges. The total number of persons
engaged in the work of education and research in the land-grant colleges and the
experiment stations in 1906 was 5,637; the number of students in these colleges, 63,471;
the number of students (white) in the four-year college courses in agriculture, 2,779;
in short and special courses, 4,764. There were also 1,798 students in agriculture in
the separate institutions for negroes. With a few exceptions, each of these colleges
offers free tuition to residents of the State in which it is located. In the excepted
cases scholarships are open to promising and energetic students; and, in all, opportu-
nities are found for some to earn part of their expenses by their own labor. The
expenses are from $125 to $300 for the school year.

Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture. -

State or Territory. Name of institution. Location. President.
Alabama::..7.-.... Alabama Polytechnic Institute.| Auburn.......... C. C. Thach, LL. D.
Agricultural and Mechanical | Normal........... W. H. Councill, Ph. D.
College for Negroes.
AMZONA. 5.2.5. ----- University of Arizona.........- Tucsons see. * 42322 K. C. Babcock, Ph. D.
Arkansas.......-.. University of Arkansas........ Fayetteville...... J.N. Tillman, B. LL.
California.........-. University of California........ Berkeley. ..-.....< B.1I. Wheeler, Ph. D., LL. D.
Colorado..:......- - The State Agricultural College | Fort Collins...... B. O. Aylesworth, LL. D.,
of Colorado. Litt. D.
Connecticut.......- oe ucus Agricultural Col- | Storrs............ R. W. Stimson, A. M.
ege.
Dela WBre® . 02... Delaware College............-.- Newarker2) 224 G. A. Harter, Ph. D.
wigs College for Colored Stu- | Dover............ W.C. Jason, M. A.
ents. |
MIOTIGG 5c sooo... University of Florida.......... Gainesville....... Andrew Sledd, Ph. D.,LL.D.
Florida State Normal and In- | Tallahassee....... N. B. Young, M. A.
dustrial College.
Georgia. r...--...<. Georgia State College of Agri- | Athens........... H. C. White, Ph. D., LL. D.
culture and Mechanic Arts.
Cee State Industrial Col- | Savannah......-.. R. R. Wright, LL. D.
ege.
MGAHOS .~ = 2528 5222: University of Idaho...........-. MOseOWw soe9-2e 2 ee acs Phe:
LAY Ea Vs) > See pee eee University of Illinois..........-. Urbanascestieses. E. J. James, Ph. D., LL. D.
mginna |. ssescss ce Purdue University............- Lafayette.......-. W. E. Stone, Ph. D.
OWA SS oe she ce ce Iowa State College of Agricul- | Ames............. A.B. Storms, D. D., LL. D.
ture and the Mechanic Arts.
Lin | a ee — State Agricultural Col- | Manhattan.....-- E. R. Nichols, A. M.
ege.
Kentucky:.52 0.23222 Agricultural and Mechanical | Lexington......-. Jk. Patterson, Pho Ds
College of Kentucky. LL. D.
The Kentucky Normal and In- | Frankfort.....-... J.S. Hathaway, M. A.,M.D.
dustrial Institute for Colored
Persons.
Boeuisiana i622. Louisiana State University and | Baton Rouge....- T. D. Boyd, LL. D.
Agricultural and Mechanical
College.
Southern University and Ag- | New Orleans..... H. A. Hill.
ours! and Mechanical
ege.

a Including only institutions established under the land-grant act of July 2, 1862.

460

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having courses in
agriculture—Continued.

State or Territory.

Name of institution.

Maines 2 o.ceccase

Massachusetts. ..-..
Michicans- sss

Minnesota....-----
Mississippi- --------

Nevyadalena-as-4-eee
New Hampshire. -.

New Jersey....----

Pennsylvania. ...--
Rhode Island.....-

South Carolina...-..

Texashu..s seo ere

Washington......-.
West Virginia......

Wisconsin.........
Wy Ominps ae eas as

The University of Maine.......
Maryland Agricultural College -

Princess Anne Academy, East-
ern Branch, Md. Agr. Coll.

Massachusetts Agricultural Col-

lege.
Michigan State

Agricultural
College.

The University of Minnesota...

Mississippi Agricultural and
Mechanical College.

Aleorn Agricultural and Me-
chanical College.

The University of Missouri... -.
Lincolninstitutesse-casse2 eee

The Montana College of Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts.

The University of Nebraska... .
Nevada State University......

The New Hampshire College of
Agriculture and the Mechanic
Arts.

Rutgers Scientific School, the
New Jersey State College for
the Benefit of Agriculture and
the Mechanic Arts.

The New Mexico College of Ag-
riculture and Mechanic Arts.

Cornell University............-

The North Carolina College of
Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts. .

The Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College for the Colored
Race.

North Dakota Agricultural Col-

ege.
Ohio State University..........

Oklahoma Agricultural and
Mechanical College.

Agricultural and Normal Uni-
versity.

Oregon State Agricultural Col-

lege.

The Pennsylvania State College
Rhode Island College of Agri-
eulture and Mechanic Arts.
Clemson Agricultural College of

South Carolina.

The Colored Normal, Indus-
trial, Agricultural, and Me-
chanical College of South
Carolina.

South Dakota Agricultural Col-
lege.

University of Tennessee.......-

Agricultural and Mechanical
College of Texas.

Prairie View State Normal and
Industrial College.

The Agricultural College of
Utah.
University of Vermont and
State Agricultural College.
The Virginia Agricultural and
Mechanical College and Poly-
technic Institute.

The Hampton Normal and Ag-
ricultural Institute.

The State College of Washing-
ton.

West Virginia University......

The West Virginia Colored In-
stitute.

University of Wisconsin........
University of Wyoming.......-.

Location. President.
OTOnO sce hee = setae G.E. Fellows, Ph. D., LL.D.
College Park.....| R. W. Silvester, M.S.

Princess Anne....

"Amherst. cane =

Agricultural Col-
lege.

St. Anthony Park

Agricultural Col-
lege.

WOTMATE ce ese ses

Columibia)s>-Fe.2- =
Jefferson City... -.
Bozeman's= 22 =.=

Reno. s: 2 Beate

New Brunswick ..

Agricultural Col-
lege.

Tthae@a cine ee ses =

West Raleigh...--

Greensboro.....--

Agricultural Col-
lege.
Columbus.....---
Stillwater.......-
Langston.........
Corvallis.........

State College. ....
Kingston........-.

Clemson College - -

Orangeburg... .-

Brookings. .....--

Knoxville. ......-
College Station...

Prairie View......

Hampton........
Pullman. 2.28 st

Morgantown.. ...
Institute. ........

Madison. ¢.::-=~--
Laramie stee

F. Trigg, M. A.
K. L. Butterfield, A. M.
J. L. Snyder, Ph. D.

C. Northrop, LL. D.
J.C. Hardy, LL. D._

L. J. Rowan, B.S.

R. H. Jesse, LL. D.

B. F. Allen, LL. D.
J.M. Hamilton, M.S.
E. B. Andrews, LL. D.

J. E. Stubbs, D. D., LL. D.
W. D. Gibbs, M.S.

W.H.S. Demarest.

Luther Foster, M.S. A.
J.G.Schurman, D.Se.,LL.D.
G. T. Winston, LL. D.
J.B. Dudley, LL. D.

J. H. Worst, LL. D.

W. _O. Thompson, D. D.,
LL.D.

A.C. Scott, LL. M.

I. E. Page, M. A.

T. M. Gatch, Ph. D.

J. A. Beaver.
Howard Edwards, LL. D.

P. H. Mell, Ph. D., LL. D.
T. E. Miller, LL. D.

R. L. Slagle, Ph. D.

Brown Ayres, Ph. D., LL.D.
H. H. Harrington, LL. D.

KE. L. Blackshear.
W:. J. Kerr, DS;
M.H.Buckham,D.D.,LL.D.
J.M.McBryde,Ph.D.,LL.D.

H. B. Frissell, D. D., LL. D.
E. A. Bryan, LL. D.

D.B.Purinton,Ph.D.,LL.D.
J. MceH. Jones, A. M.

C. R. Van Hise, Ph.D.
F. M. Tisdel, Ph. D.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 461

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES,
THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF

WORK.

Station, location, and director.

Principal lines of work.

Alabama (College), Auburn:

‘UN QR DY 2d 22 pe a

Alabama (Canebrake), Uniontown:
ew eCHeESON G.= ..-. 0c -2--»

Alabama (Tuskegee), Tuskegee Insti-

tute:

Arizona, Tucson:

Linus Ed QU 2 69”: eee Sa Nee ne

Arkansas, Fayetteville:

W. G. Vincenheller.............

California, Berkeley:

Howe WickSOm os. 20... 52% ot

Colorado, Fort Collins:

ir Ge carpenters: - 0... sce.

Connecticut (State), New Haven:
REG ROnIKINS =. <5. occ ccwen

Connecticut (Storrs), Storrs:

PA OUDTON = = 2<jcc 02k tcwccsae

Delaware, Newark:

Harry Hayward. ....-. 2.2...

Florida, Gainesville:

EL SAR OMIS Soca ae oon ccs escemn

Georgia, Experiment:

MMM RIVIN —. <6 cts eee ccs

Idaho, Moscow:

SISO UCT UD (le ee a eee ee

Illinois, Urbana:

JOD EQ ki 0) of 0) of eee et eee

Indiana, Lafayette:

PAU NUT CLOSN ae te os cose ae

Iowa, Ames:

2 RS Cantias a... cee ae eae

Kansas, Manhattan:

GAW > Burkett. 2.22252 secsaeee

Kentucky, Lexington:

SPAS cu Wele.....2t aoe eee

aAssistant director.

| Chemistry; botany; soils; analysis of fertilizers and food mate-
rials; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of
plants and animals; animal husbandry; entomology; dairy-
ing.

|

|
Agronomy; horticulture; floriculture; plant breeding; diseases

of plants and animals.

Agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants; animal industry;
poultry investigations; dairying.

_ Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; improvement of
ranges; animal husbandry; irrigation.

Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases
of = and animals; animal husbandry; dairying; ento-
mology; poultry experiments; nursery inspection.

Chemistry; soils; bacteriology; fertilizer control; agronomy;
horticulture, including viticulture and zymology; botany;
meteorology; entomology; animal husbandry; dairying;
poultry experiments; irrigation and drainage; silviculture;
reclamation of alkali lands; animal and plant pathology;
nutrition investigations.

Chemistry; meteorology; agronomy; horticulture; forestry;
| plant breeding; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; veter-
inary investigations; entomology; irrigation.

Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers, foods, feeding stuffs, Bab-
cock test apparatus, and nurseries; diseases of plants; plant
breeding; forestry; agronomy; entomology.

Food and nutrition of man and animals; dairy bacteriology;
ees horticulture; plant breeding; poultry culture;
airying.

Chemistry; bacteriology; mycology; agronomy; horticulture;
eat breeding; diseases of plants and animals; animal hus-
andry; dairying; entomology.

Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants; feed-
| ing experiments; veterinary science; entomology.

Chemistry; agronomy; bacteriology; horticulture; plant breed-
ing; plant diseases; entomology; animal husbandry; dairy-
ing.

Chemistry; physics; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; diseases of plants; entomology; animal husbandry;
irrigation.

Chemistry; soil physics; bacteriology; agronomy; horticulture;
forestry; plant breeding; diseases of plants and animals; ani-
mal husbandry; dairying.

| Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
animal husbandry; dairying; diseases of plants and animals;
entomology. -

Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
forestry; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; poultry
investigations; dairying; entomology; rural engineering;
good roads investigations.

Chemistry; soils; horticulture; plant breeding; agronomy;
animal husbandry; poultry experiments; diseases of ani-
mals; dairying; entomology; extermination of prairie dogs
and gophers; irrigation.

Chemistry; soils; inspection of fertilizers, foods, feeding stuffs,
orchards, and nurseries; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; animal husbandry; dairying; diseases of plants;
entomology; apiculture.

bActing director.

462

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors, and prin-
cipal lines of work—Continued.

Station, location, and director.

Principal lines of work.

Louisiana (Sugar), New Orleans:
IW: RaDodson sas. ose eeet eee
Louisiana (State), Baton Rouge:
W. R. Dodson

Louisiana (North), Calhoun:
WR: Dodson. <..--nae ct ancestor
Maine, Orono:
CG. Dis Wo00dS 2 «2cce2¢ Seep seseenseae

Maryland, College Park:
H. J. Patterson

Massachusetts, Amherst:
W. P. Brooks

Michigan, Agricultural College:
C. D. Smith

Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, St. |

Paul:
W.M. Liggett

Mississippi, Agricultural College:
W. L. Hutchinson

Missouri (College), Columbia:
H. J. Waters

Missouri (Fruit), Mountain Grove:
PAU) NV ANB a cer che keree eels cieicratate
Montana, Bozeman:
F. B. Linfield

Nebraska, Lincoln:
E. A. Burnett

Nevada, Reno:

Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; agronomy; horticulture; sugar
making; drainage; irrigation. :

Geology; botany; bacteriology; soils; inspection of fertilizers,
foods, and Paris green; agronomy; horticulture; animal hus-
bandry; diseases of animals; entomology.

Chemistry; soils; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; animal
husbandry; stock raising; poultry experiments; dairying.

Chemistry; botany; inspection of foods, fertilizers, commercial
feeding stuffs, seeds, and creamery glassware; mycology;
pathology; nutrition of man and animals; poultry raising;
entomology.

Chemistry; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; plant breed-
ing; diseases of plants and animals; breeding of plants; ani-
mal husbandry; poultry experiments; dairying; entomology.

Chemistry; meteorology; inspection of fertilizers, commercial
feeding stuffs, creamery glassware, and nurseries; agronomy;
horticulture: diseases of plants and animals; animal hus-
bandry; dairying; entomology; effect of electricity on plant
growth.

| Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers; bacteriology;

agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of plants

and animals; animal husbandry; stable hygiene; ento-
mology.
Chemistry; soils; fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; for-

estry; diseases of plants and animals; food and nutrition
investigations; plant breeding; animal husbandry; dairy-
ing; entomology; farm management; farm statistics.

Fertilizers; agronomy; horticulture; biology; plant breeding;
animal husbandry; diseases of animals; poultry culture;
dairying; entomology; agricultural engineering.

Chemistry; soil survey; botany; agronomy; horticulture; dis-
eases of plants and animals; animal husbandry; plant breed-
ing; dairying; entomology.

Horticulture; entomology; inspection of orchards and nurs-
eries.

Chemistry; meteorology; botany; agronomy; dry farming;
horticulture; animal husbandry; poultry experiments; dai-
rying; entomology; irrigation and drainage.

Chemistry; botany; meteorology; soils; agronomy; horticul-
ture; plant breeding; diseases of plants and animals; for-
estry; animal husbandry; dairying; entomology; irrigation.

Felis) SP LUD Sia crdroees esioisteeeiciare aieiects | Chemistry; botany; soils; meteorology; agronomy; horticul-

New Hampshire, Durham:
W. D. Gibbs

New Jersey (State), New Brunswick:
EBs ViOOTN ECS)... Aisters cretsaee sate arone

New Jersey (College), New Brunswick:
ie Se WOOLNCRR)...2 cummin oe aere

New Mexico, Agricultural College:
PAUP HELM OSUOI 4 asec cease e sateen

New York (State), Geneva:
W. iH. Jordan

New York (Cornell), Ithaca:
Mos ELS alloy x:5, ace ccen ea wteanteete

ture; forestry; plant breeding; animal diseases; animal hus-
bandry; entomology; irrigation. :

Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
forestry; animal husbandry; poultry experiments; dairy-
ing; entomology.

Chemistry; oyster culture; botany; analysis of fertilizers,
foods, and commercial feeding stuffs; agronomy; horticul-
ture; plant breeding; diseases of plants and animals; dairy
husbandry; entomology; soil bacteriology; irrigation.

Chemistry; botany; soils; agronomy; dry farming; horticul-
ture; animalhusbindry; dairying; entomology; irrigation.

Chemistry; bacteriology; meteorology; fertilizers; inspection
of creamery glassware, feeding stutfs, fertilizers, and Paris
green; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of
plants; animal husbandry; poultry experiments; dairying;
entomology; irrigation.

Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; diseases
of plants; animal husbandry; poultry experiments; dairy-
ing; entomology.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 463

Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors, and prin-
cipal lines of work—Continued.

» Station, location, and director. Principal lines of work.

North Carolina, Raleigh:
tN. MUPOTO. 2)... 2206 205-6 ke Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry;

diseases of animals and plants; poultry experiments; dairy-

ing; tests of farm machinery.

North Dakota, Agricultural College:
MEPCONMOLRG Sob ec catersseecscas Chemistry; soils; botany; agronomy; plant breeding; horticul-

| ture; forestry; diseases of plants and animals; animal hus-

bandry; poultry experiments; drainage; inspection and

analysis of foods, spraying materials, paints, drugs, and pro-

prietary products.

Ohio, Wooster:

Rese PEUOINIO. 2. sc Saccameccconase Chemistry; soils; agronomy; botany; horticulture; plant
breeding; forestry; diseases of plants; animal husbandry;
entomology.

Oklahoma, Stillwater:
W. L. English........-...... -....; Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; forestry;
botany; bacteriology; diseases of plants and animals; animal
= husbandry; entomology.
Oregon, Corvaltis:
SRW DUP OOIIDO: o'5. ox Sacanosecaea« Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; fertilizers; agronomy; horti-

culture; plant breeding and selection; diseases of plants;
animal husbandry; poultry experiments; dairying; ento-
mology; irrigation.

Pennsylvania State College:

PIPE ANIMA DY se. famine oasiaawee Chemistry; meteorology; fertilizers; horticulture; plant dis-
eases; agronomy; animal husbandry; animal nutrition;
dairying.

Rhode Island, Kingston:
DE DUR NLS) Si er Chemistry; meteorology; soils; inspection of fertilizers and
; feeding stuffs; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
poultry experiments.
South Carolina, Clemson College:

U5 bogs OC rr a ee Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers; soils; botany; agronomy;
horticulture; plant breeding; diseases of plants; animal hus-
bandry; dairying; veterinary science; entomology.

South Dakota, Brookings: . |

eavier WHSOR $62.U 5.5 sons saskct ee | Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
| diseases of plants and animals; animal husbandry; entomol-
| Ogy.

Tennessee, Knoxville: |
RAS MOTPAN 255. .5.5322522.ccce Chemistry; soil investigations; inspection of fertilizers; agron-
omy; horticulture; plant breeding; seeds; weeds; diseases
of plants and animals; animal husbandry; poultry investi-
gations; apiculture; dairying; entomology.
Texas, College Station:
A shew Oy 0) eee ee ee Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry;
diseases of animals; entomology; irrigation; seed testing;
feed inspection.

Utah, Logan:
ere DOO 2085 Sa 55 on oew sks ol | Chemistry; alkali soilinvestigations; agronomy; horticulture;
diseases of plants and animals; animal husbandry; dairying;
poultry experiments; entomology; irrigation; arid farming.
Vermont, Burlington:
~ APN aires 552 Ne 82 oe Chemistry; botany; bacteriology; inspection of fertilizers,

feeding stuffs, and creamery glassware; agronomy; horticul-

| ture; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; dairying.

Virginia, Blacksburg:
BONE. DOWIE] oo css aia = sans ececces = Chemistry; geology; biology; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; bacteriology; mycology; analysis of foods and soils;
inspection of orchards; animal husbandry; veterinary sci-
apes dairying; entomology; cider and vinegar making; fer-

ments.

eras Bryan sade. 5 eee: eee Chemistry; botany; bacteriology; soils; agronomy; horticul-
ture; plant breeding; diseases of plants; animal husbandry;
veterinary science; dairying; entomology; irrigation.

West Virginia, Morgantown:

UH Stewart e252 5-secseeece noes Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers, orchards, and nurseries;
soils; agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants and ani-
mals; animal husbandry; poultry experiments; entomology.

Wisconsin, Madison:

WerlerHentyel= 22-2 .:----ssee ees Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; animal husbandry; dairying; irrigation, drainage,
and agricultural engineering.

SS eee ates seca Chemistry; mycology; botany; meteorology; soils; range im-
provement; fertilizers; agronomy; plant selection; food
analysis; animal husbandry; irrigation.

@ Vice-director.

464

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS. ;

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

President, L. H. Bailey, dean of College of Agriculture and director of New York
(Cornell) Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.; secretary-treasurer, J. L. Hills, directér

Vermont Experiment Station, Burlington, Vt.

OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

Farmers’ Institute Specialist, Department of Agriculture.

|

John Hamilton, Washington, District of Columbia.

State Superintendents.

State or Territory. Name of official. Post-office.
Alabamaeanceeecas C. A. Cary, Alabama Polytechnic Institute......-..:-.-:.| Auburn. _.

G. W. Carver, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Tuskegee Institute.
PSSA ten eines C. C. Georgeson, Agricultural Experiment Station. ......- Sitka.
ATIZODE... <..5/0 0 ms5= R. H. Forbes, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Tucson.
Arkansas.......... ide G. Vincenheller, Director Agricultural Experiment.) Fayetteville.

tation.

Califormins=sce seca. E. J. Wickson, University of California.............--.-.- Berkeley.
Colorado.ss5-2eene H. M. Cottrell, Director of Farmers’ Institutes.........- Fort Collins.
Connecticut....... J. F. Brown, Secretary State Board of Agriculture. ...-.. N. Stonington.

J. G. Schwink, See’y Connecticut Dairymen’s Association.| Hartford.

H.C. C. Miles, Secretary Connecticut Pomological Society.) Milford.
Del@ wares .-.2- <1 Wesley Webb, Director of Farmers’ Institute..........-- Dover.

H. Hayward, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.| Newark.
Mlondaeeneseekee ee R. W. Clothier, University of Florida..........-:..-::2-.- Gainesville.
Georgia. = oe esac as H.C. White, President State College of Agriculture... -- *.| Athens.

Harvie Jordan, Director of Farmers’ Institutes.........- Atlanta.
Walls 2S 2s ctieme J. G. Smith, Agricultural Experiment Station......-....- Honolulu.
Tdahoreees soe cee ee H. T. French, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.| Moscow.
Iinoiss.cc2 es Frank H. Hall, Secretary Farmers’ Institutes............ Springfield.
indiana: 22s. sess. W.C: Latta, Purdue’ University oo 22 2. eee c en aceeee Lafayette.
LOWS sea 5-e acc a55- J.C. Simpson, Secretary State Board of Agriculture. -.... Des Moines.
KSnS8S soot pees ee J. H. Miller, Superintendent of Farmers’ Institutes......- Manhattan.
Kentucky........- Hubert Vreeland, Commissioner of Agriculture.........-- Frankfort. .
TuOTHSIHNA aoe Charles Schuler, Commissioner of Agriculture........----- Baton Rouge.
Maine = er ate mee A. W. Gilman, Commissioner of Agriculture.........-.--- Augusta.
Maryland ooe.-c. W.L. Amoss, Director of Farmers’ Institutes.....-.....- Benson. ¢
Massachusetts. .... J. L. Ellsworth, Secretary State Board of Agriculture....| Boston.
Michigans ae mccece L. R. Taft, Superintendent of Farmers’ Institutes. ...-..-- Agricultural College.
Minnesota......-.. O. C. Gregg, Director of Farmers’ Institutes......-.-.-.- Lynd.
MISSISSID De. ccna e E. R. Lloyd, Director of Farmers’ Institutes..........-.. Agricultural College.
MISSOUMNLS = 5. cee ee Geo. B. Ellis, Secretary State Board of Agriculture....... Columbia.
Montana ss a: samen F. B. Linfield, Director Agr. Experiment Station. .......-. Bozeman.
Nebraska. -2-- 0-2 E. A. Burnett, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.| Lincoln.
INe@Vadan anes seca J. E. Stubbs, President Nevada State University. ........ Reno.
New Hampshire...| N. J. Bachelder, Secretary State Board of Agriculture. ...| Concord.
New Jersey.......- Franklin Dye, Secretary State Board of Agriculture. ..... Trenton.
New Mexico....... John D. Tinsley, Superintendent of Farmers’ Institutes..| Agricultural College.
New YOrks-.. 25 so. F. E. Dawley, Director of Farmers’ Institutes. ..........- Fayetteville.
North Carolina....! S. L. Patterson, Commissioner of Agriculture...........- Raleigh.
North Dakota..... E. E. Kaufman, Director of Farmers’ Institutes Fargo.
Ohio 2a 259s oe T. L. Calvert, Secretary State Board of Agriculture...... Columbus.
Oklahoman sceees C. A. McNabb, Secretary Board of Agriculture........... Guthrie.
Orecone se J.Withycombe, Director Agricultural Experiment Station | Corvallis.
Pennsylvania. ...-. A. L. Martin, Deputy Secretary of Agriculture........... Harrisburg.
Porto RicOs 2. cee D. W. May, Agricultural Experiment Station...........- Mayaguez.
Rhode Island. ...-.. John J. Dunn, Secretary State Board of Agriculture...... Providence.
South Carolina. . J. N. Harper, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.| Clemson College.
South Dakota..... A. E, Chamberlain, Superintendent of Farmers’ Institutes.| Howard.
Tennessee......... -W. W. Ogilvie, Commissioner of Agriculture. ..........--- Nashville.
TLexde edie J. W. Carson, Director of Farmers’ Institutes...........- College Station.
Utah. cust a P. A. Yoder, Director Agr. Experiment Station.........-. Logan.
Vermonpe. «cae oce- Geo. Aitken, Secretary State Board of Agriculture. .-.... Woodstock.
Mireinin’s: 22. cose G. W. Koiner, Commissioner of Agriculture.............. Richmond.

A. M. Soule, Director Agricultural Experiment Station....| Blacksburg.
Washington....... E. BE. Elliott, Agricultural College............-.---------- Pullman.
West Virginia..... H. E. Williams, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture......-. Charleston.
Wisconsin......... G. B. MeKerrow, Director Farmers’ Institutes........... Madison.
Wyoming. 2.32052 B. C. Buffum, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| Laramie.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTE WORKERS.

President, E. A. Burnett, director of Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln,
Nebr.; secretary-treasurer, John Hamilton, Farmers’ Institute Specialist, U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. ©. —

et

STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE.

465

STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE.«4

Commissioners of Agriculture.

State or Territory. Name of official. Post-office.
AIBpAMA. = J). - 22-0 pA C OVATION Se bef oceM rene ta seme te. csemcue oe Montgomery.
Td Sr a ENTREE o)y8 UFO) 02 Re SO ier ae eon, SER eee Oe ae Little Rock.
lS i aS eee ees Pepa PINE Sone cee eewete me hte Sd So made coe Tallahassee.
Ded) a oe ee EOI p NANO Dai 3 een eas eee ses of. cte es acolate Atlanta.
MURA eas cnc. slo. ee Allen Miller, Com’r of Immigration, ete............... Boise.
LC ELUIBOE LN PORLAN Gee Nee eee ec sews Seve de alos ca ades Frankfort.
Louisiana............. CDA RIBR Gnu One nh hae ce Jtee SARE sang retin atte nls Baton Rouge.

HO oe os noo CONN ARTI N ho eek Meee ee ee once chicn Sc wun Augusta.
LJ a ee A sspPe Mies V 0 (270) se ee pe ee Helena.

New Mexico........... J. W. Raynolds, Secretary of State................... Santa Fe
New York....... | RSE e Set ID DENS oe enero oo ania sear anncnnzee ean cme Albany
North Carolina pis ea MMOUSOM Es eaten Sen oon aww sax ce aoubelsn ly Raleigh
North Dakota APLC YE Ul avn Cre etl ae Se ae 8 SIG EEA ge dg See Spee S Bismarck
Pennsylvania.......... N. B. Critchfield, Secretary of Agriculture............ Harrisburg
Philippine Islands. .... W.C. Welborn, Chief, Bureau of Agriculture......... Manila.
Pero ico... ..=...-.. Lawrance H. Grahame, Commissioner of the Interior.! San Juan.
South Carolina........ ee USO sce. Pee eee eo ete es oe et aes do olumbia.
SDORUOSSOO « .< == =a -%- a0 Bs fess Se, Os Lh 2 TRO EA Bn a) a een aS Nashville
MERE B cnc oes oe rai MEMOS 3c eee eee ee eee ed tS nS Austin.
MININAL CS Soe s ces eOs Wet SOINGIe mons ae ee ae eee oon Sees Leek Richmond.
Washington........... Sam H. Nichols, Secretary of State...:............... Olympia. :
Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture.

CAltOPMinen o> = -sn0-. J. A. Filcher..... Sacramento.
Colorado... . 2... A.M. Hawley... Fort Collins.
Connecticut........... Jiei SRO WHS < esses st eee ass Sedecce ta ceab-oc scabies North Stonington.
UTE Cs Wesley WEDD ien nace ice ote a a, emt oe te acs Dover.
Leno lie le Cre ONO Way coe ee cee te eee ee eats Honolulu.
UU oe Wiel GAT TANG cat ne stack ale mon alias stee So eet ce eae ute one Springfield.
NPISIA Ecc ciwi'e cs ccinss Chas: DOWNING oe ec. 5/303 Bev emessee A Seen a Indianapolis.
CS eee SU CA STV Sey 6 505) vie Ie page cs dec peli oa en a ei eet Des Moines.
INS ee BD ACOBUTMS cae most ener erent ae eis taser e jee Topeka.
LU 7 (ies ee rr Wm. T. P. Turpin, Supt. of Immigration............. Centerville.
Massachusetts......... RE CM UNS oh 1 ee ane ee a On ene ae Boston.
Wn (ae A CACENONTIEDA CeO Wate Bn ees een en ee nn om amecete Agricultural College.
MUANGEOTS. ..2.--.- 22. E. W. Randall, Sec. State Ag’! Society...............- St. Paul.
LSS GOOnseHB sielisie 50 eee SOR cae os Loee sce eaBnck oon Columbia.
INGRIAREA vies -scecc AV CPR SPQN Re create weer a eee epee ioe coe s aenton nina Lincoln.
RURSURUB Se conn cnc ocean WOMISBSOWIERS wa cete cont oanecewaacustenes ec anee core Carson City.
New Hampshire....... Iya el feed 427 21 1021 Us Ca a a Re a a ee oe eee Concord.
RG GI) 1dee iL biti Dh aie oa ee Sen Se See ee ee og Trenton.
North Carolina........ SEES ASTRO ee eas ie arti) Rois Ret es eee Raleigh.

Te Weer ACBL ONG a8 Soci see eG oeenesincae oe nana ceoee neers Columbus.
RtHnOMma...-. 222. CRB PMC NAN Decne cee os cee a Soe eee eae eee eos Guthrie.
Ore i NASP WIC oe Sat ae Son eee ean oe ene eee Salem.
Rhode Island.......... Aa) Pert Focl Dat ra ae Ra A A eS Es eel SE eee | Providence.
South Dakota......... Go NSMeilyame2)22 255205 fees caste cat base neas tan Huron.
MBDMONE 2s. so 0<..56. 5 Georre Aitken sss 22 eee ee eee ne ante Seles Woodstock.
West Virginia-........ JEVBUGATVING. <osscsecc cose soso saeesceee ee cs en eects Charleston.
Masconaiat 2.0 2 teh VORTENE SEU wee one aee te ceee eee RRR ian Madison.
Wiyomine a oo. - = C. T. Johnston, State Engineer .....................-- Cheyenne.

a Officials of Territories and island dependencies are included: So faras learned, Arizona, Missis-
sippi, and Utah have no State official charged with agricultural interests, but letters addressed to

the Secretary of State would probably receive attention.

NATIONAL DAIRY ASSOCIATIONS.

Name of organization. Secretary.

Post-oitice.

National Association of Dairy Instructors and | C. B. Lane
Investigators.

Association of State and National Food and | R.M. Allen
Dairy Departments.

National Dairy Union

Charles Y. Knight...

U. 8. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C.
Lexington,

Ky.

154 Lake street, Chicago.

National Creamery Buttermakers’ Association ..| E. Sudendorf......... 154 Washington street, Chi-
cago.

Boston Cooperative Milk Producers’ Association.| W. A. Hunter........ 10 Florence street, Worces-
ter, Mass.

Five States Milk Producers’ Association......... ES Ds GO0Re aan ssac

Homer, N. Y.

SSE EEE SS ee EE EE EE eee ee

3 A1906——30

466 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION.
President, Murdo Mackenzie, Trinidad, Colo.; secretary, W. M. Tomlinson, Denver.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF LIVE STOCK HERD BOOK
SECRETARIES.

President, C. R. Thomas, Independence, Mo.; secretary, Charles F. Mills, Spring-
field, Il.

NATIONAL WOOL GROWERS’ ASSOCIATION.

President, Francis E. Warren, Cheyenne; secretary, George S. Walker, Cheyenne.

THE CORN-BELT MEAT PRODUCERS’ ASSOCIATION.

President, A. L. Ames, Buckingham, Iowa; secretary, H. C. Wallace, Des Moines,
Iowa.

PROTECTION AGAINST CONTAGION FROM FOREIGN CATTLE.

An act of Congress of August 28, 1894, prohibits the importation of cattle and cattle
hides, but by the act of March 2, 1895, making appropriations for the Department of
Agriculture, it is provided that the prohibition may be suspended by the President
whenever the Secretary of Agriculture shall certify to the President what countries
or parts of countries are free from contagious or infectious diseases of domestic animals.
The President, by proclamation of November 8, 1895, lifted the embargo with reference
to Norway, Sweden, Holland, Great Britain, Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the
countries of North, Central, and South America so as to admit cattle under sanitary
regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture; also from all countries so as
to admit hides under regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury.

STOCK BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS.«

Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
live stock in United States, December 31, 1906.

CATTLE.
Number registered.! Number living.
Breed. Secretary. Post-oflice. =
Male. | Female. | Male. | Female.
Aberdeen Angus...| Thos. McFarlane. - Union eee Yards, 38, 188 48,604 | 27, 496 34, 994
icago, Ill.
IAVY TSDC ele isteje re) eer C. M. Winslow....- Brandon, \ieeatoee = 9, 689 20, 883 (c) (¢)
DPV ON octets L. P. Sisson. .-.--- Newark, Ohio.......- 8, 084 13, 717 3, 500 10, 000
Dutch Belted....-- sb . RIGhaTGS: = .=|) WAStOn, Iba. esse. sen. 573 1,265 (c) (¢)
Galloway......---- COW Gray eaececscs Union pes Yards, 16, 620 11,080 8, 370 6, 480
Chicago 5
Quernsey...-.-.--- Wm. H. Caldwell... Peterboro, INE eloe ane 10, 683 19, 889 5, 000 12,000
Hereford 22 -eeeace Cr Ro LhoOmasse see 225 W. 12th st., Kan- | 112,780 | 115,620} 45,000 60, 000
sas City, Mo.
Holstein Friesian..| Frederick L. | Brattleboro, Vt.....-. 46, 031 95,057 | 14,199 31, 756
Houghton.
WOISCY sec ser sce can J.J. Hemingway..| 8 W. 17th st., New 71,907 | 193,978 (¢) (¢)
York, N. Y.
Polled Durham....| Fletcher S. Hines..| Indianapolis, Ind..... 5, 403 6, 460 3,935 4, 845
Red Polled........ EAs WES DM INS renee Gotham, Wis........- 14, 601 25, 006 t 10, 500
Shorthormse. =. 22 John W. Groves...| Union So Yards, | 249,800} 391,600 | 87,480] 176,220
Chicago, Ill.
BUBSOKese es sete set Overton Lea....... Nashville, Tenn...... 78 185 50 100
Swiss, Brown...... CAD SENiXOnE et ecen OmeroyINaeNia cee one 2,159 3,150 300 1, 500

a Under the provisions of paragraph 473 of the act of July 24,1897, amended March 3, 1903, any animal
imported specially for breeding purposes shall be admitted free, provided that no such animal shall be
admitted free unless pure bred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered in the book of record estab-
lished for that breed. The Secretary of the Treasury, upon the advice of the Secretary of Agriculture,
issued, April 24, 1903, regulations for the importation of animals under this law, and designated the
recognized breeds and the books of record established for these breeds.

b Owing to a change in date of making up the books of breeders’ associations no new figures could be
obtained to show the numbers of registered stock for December 31,1906. The numbers in the table are
for reat las 31, 1905.

¢ No data.

x gatger

LIVE-STOCK ASSOCIATIONS. -

467

Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
live stock in United States, December 31, 1906—Continued.

Breed.

Cleveland Bay...--
Clydesdale........-

Coach, French.....
Coach, French.....

Coach, German....

Coach,German
(Oldenburg).

Draft, Belgian.....
Draft, French.....
PIBGIMBGY <%< 10.0 0 aus

Percheron. .......-

Saddle Horse,
American.

Trotter, American.

Jacks and Jennies.

Whaviehes. 222.2.

Hampshire Down..
Leicester..........
ainppines e228 os fc
Merino (Delaine)..
Merino (Delaine) . -

Merino (Delaine) - .
Merino (Delaine) -.

Merino (French)...
Merino (German)..
Merino (Spanish)...
Merino (Spanish). .

Merino (Spanish)..
Merino (Spanish)...

Merino (Spanish). .
Own 4.
Shropshire........

Oxford D

Southdown.

i 2017) ee i i

Secretary.

R. P. Stericker....
Ri. 3. Opitvies .-..-:.

Chas. C. Glenn.....
Duncan E. Willett.

C. E. Stubbs.....-.

H. Ta Gutis..<.<.-

Geo. W. Stubble-

field.

Charles C. Glenn...

1 Se

-| Mortimer Levering
.| Charles Burgess...
-| Alex. Galbraith....
James E. Wheeler.

Wm. H. Knight...

ie Wits ONES = ascee

F. E. Dawley.....-
F. W. Harding....

J. E. Wing

C. A. Chapman....
Wis A> Shafor2.5=.
Mortimer Levering
Frank 8. Springer.
Geo. W. Franklin. .

Comfort A. Tyler..
AS Js Lemple. << =
Bert Smith. ......-
H. G. McDowell...
George A. Henry ..

RAP Berry
J. B. Johnson.....
Dwight Lincoln...

im. M. Moore.......=.-
IN. Balllic eeu oe

HORSES.

Post-office.

80 Chestnut ave., W.

Orange, N. J.

Union Stock Yards,

Chicago, IL.

Columbus, Ohio......
Maple ave. and Har-
rison st., Oak Park,

Il

Lafayette, Shots eee
Fairfield, lowa.......

Wabash? ind =...
Fairfield, lowa.......
Tichenor Grand Bldg.

6lst and Broadway,

New York City.

Middlebury, Vt......
Union Stock Yards,

Chicago, Ill.

Columbus, Ohio......
Louisville, Ky.......-

Lafayette, Ind.....-..

Wenona, Ill......

Janesville, Wis

571 Fifth ave.,
York, N. Y.

355 Dearborn st., Chi-

eago, Ill.

Columbia, Tenn......

SHEEP.

Fayetteville, N. Y...-.
Waukesha, Wis......
Mechanicsburg, Ohio.
Nottawa, Mich.......
Cameron; Dll 2.2.52
Charlotte, Mich......
Canton, Ohio.........
R. F. D. 8, Bellefon-

taine, Ohio.

R. F. D. 3, Eighty-

four, Pa.

248 W. Pike st., Can-

onsburg, Pa.

Milford Center, Ohio. .
Orchard Lake, Mich. .
Ann Arbor, Mich.....
R. F. D.1, Delaware,

Ohio.

Skaneateles, N. Y....
R. F. D. 3, E. Bloom-

field, N. Y.
Middlebury, Vt..
Hamilton, Ohio..

Lafayette, Ind.......
Springfield, Ill........
Des Moines, Iowa. ...

Number registered.
Male. | Female.
1, 236 502
@ 12,370

130 4

1, 656 246

260 23
2,056 266
9,000 5, 000

¢5,021| ¢2,800
1, 640 1, 460
928 102
42,529 3,549
2, 300 3, 500
6, 062 2,148
159 88

@ 45, 309
42,597 | ¢ 152,700
1,000 750

|

a 10,700

a 36, 610
1,395 3,703
5,573 | 12,844
3, 538 5, 437

14, 300
©5,054 | © 11,259
6,805 | 11,599
@ 34,075
162 191
12, 550 37,700
16,691 | 33,384
7,916 | 11,912
1,275 1, 500
a 217, 850
c 32,798
100,000 | 134,000
a 19, 933

21,013

a Total of males and females.

b No data.

c Estimate for 1904.

Number living.

Male. | Female.
1,050 400
(®) (>)

125 4

1,500 225
190 14

2,055 265

(>) ()

e684} ¢1,416

c 3,765 c2,100

19, 000 12,000

913 94

(>) (>)

2 2, 500

(>) ()

a

(>) (>)

(>) (>)
750 500
575 2, 650

a 14,000

1,000 2, 800

3,000 9,000

2,972 4, 567

4, 100 5, 900

a ,

2 8,000

¢ 1,500 c 3,000
1,500 5,000
(>) ()

105 175
400 4,300

2, 842 8, 035
280 1,875
100

() (b)

() (0)

20, 000 40, 000

a 10, 200
@ 550

@ Includes geldings.

468 -

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
live stock in United States, December 31, 1906—Continued.

HOGS.
Number registered.| Number living.
Breed. Secretary. Post-office. oe
Male. | Female.| Male. | Female.
Berkshire......... Frank S. Springer.! 510 E. Monroe st., a 88,080 a 33,000
Springfield, Ill.
Cheshiresees-eoeccs id 8.B oS eee Freeville, N. Y....... 1, 225 2,115 275 575
Chester White..... Ernest Freigau....} Columbus, Ohio-..... 5, 665 8, 912 600 2,000
Chester Cam iim='))*dis | Cbiles®s esas) Cleveland, Ohio.....- 3, 403 9,000 1,800 6, 200
proved.
Duroc Jersey.....- PBs Pearson... ce Thorntown, Ind......) 8, 026 18, 450 (0) (>)
Duroc Jersey ....-.- Robert J. Evans...| Peoria, Ill...........- 21, 800 55,000 | . a 30,000
eney (Thin | E. C. Stone.......- Armstrong, Ill....... 294 540 155 387
ind).
Poland China.....| W. M. McFadden.. Wain Sto Yards, 52,331 | 130,620 | 27,000 68, 000
icago, Ill.
Poland China.....| A. M. Brown.....- peeve a Winches- 32,000 72,000 | 10,000 23,000
er, Ind.
Poland China.....| Geo. F.Woodworth| Maryville, Mo........ 39,008 93, 234 2,000 18, 000
Poland China.....| H. P. Wilson...... Gadsden, Tenn....... 691 1,030 400 600
Tamworth-<. 2.2. : HN: Ballieas es. 42 Ann Arbor, Mich..... ¢ 1,949 ¢ 1,200
Workshire aise cc Harry G. Krum... ills Bear Lake, 2, 860 3, 640 2,000 3, 200
inn.
a Total of males and females. b> No data. ec Estimate for 1904.

SANITARY OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF LIVE STOCK INTERESTS.

State or Territory. Name and post-office. Official position.
Alabama. ssccosee Ca Ay Cary, Auburnies.--sst-eoseceeees State veterinarian.
FAIZ OMS syosma wees J. DaCarteryPrescottoss 2. se eens Secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
J.C. Norton, Pnoenix-=--e-neeeee ese Veterinarian.
ATEKANSSS) 22-255 | R. R. Dinwiddie, Fayetteville ........ State veterinarian.
California......... Charles Keane, Sacramento..........- oO.
Colorado.........- L. B. Sylvester, Denver. .<-........... President State board of stock inspection
commissioners.
Charles G. Lamb, Denver....-..-...... State veterinary surgeon.
Connecticut....... Heman O. Averill, Hartford.......... Comunissioner for domestic animals.
Delaware.........- Alex. Lowber, Wilmington............ Secretary State board of health.
IEP. Wives: Newark ss. eee sooeeeeseas eres in veterinary science, Delaware
ollege.
Thomas J. Mahaffy, Jacksonville -.... Veterinarian, State board of health.
Thos. G. Hudson, Atlanta...........-. Commissioner of agriculture.
.| Victor A. Norgaard, Honolulu. .-| Territorial veterinarian.
George E. Noble, Boise...-...- State veterinarian.
H. E. Wadsworth, Springfield Secretary board of live-stock commis-
sioners.
J. M. Wright, 1827 Wabash ave., | State veterinarian.
Chicago.
Indiana. 2... 1 A. W. Bitting, Lafayette.............| Do.
OWRo-~ soeeereeeee Paul O. Koto, Forest City...........- | State veterinary surgeon.
DRATINDIS oss cee John D; Baker, Peabody. 2..2 3.2282 Live-stock sanitary commissioner.
mMentucky sees es" F. T. Kisenman, Louisville............ | State veterinarian.
Louisiana.:o.....- W. H. Dalrymple, Baton Rouge...... Veterinarian State exveriment station.
STIG ee HO Beal iis aM Gis as cassette
John M. Deering, Saco...............- |-Board of cattle commissioners.
Frank 8S. Adams, Bowdoinham.......
Maryland sss: ca: 22). G. Allen Jarman, Chestertown........ Chief veterinary inspector.
Wade H. D. Warfield, Baltimore...... Secretary live-stock sanitary board.
Massachusetts... .. | Austin Peters, Boston........-....... Chief of cattle bureau of State board of .
agriculture.
Michipanags) 22a. 28 William M. Morris, Cass City......... State veterinarian. ’
Ht. 8. Hinds; Stanton este eo eeaen President State live-stock sanitary com-
mission.
Minnesota.........| S. He Wardgst.. Paul) ic csusccse see Secretary State live-stock sanitary board.
C. E. Cotton, Minneapolis............. Veterinarian live-stock sanitary board.
Shee | Et Ms Bracken; St. Pauls... lo. oewece Secretary State board of health.
Mississippi........ | J.C. Robert, Agriculture. College..... Professor of veterinary science.
Missouri........... Dib... Duckey, Columbiss 26. span State veterinarian.
Geo. B. Ellis, Columbia............... Secretary State board of agriculture.
Montana.......... M. EH. Knowles, Helena: ..-.0o.. seen en State veterinarian.
W.:@.: Preuitt;,, Helena. 25222 esti Secretary live-stock commission.
INGDIASKA. =... one. Charles A. McKimm, Lincoln......... State veterinarian.
INGVEOG ssc s soon coe I: -W:, O’ Rourke, Reno. oc ueeeleeee ene Do.

— ee,

FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS AND SCHOOLS. 469

Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests—Continued.

State or Territory. | Name and post-office. Official position.
| |
New Hampshire...| N. J. Bachelder, Concord...........-.- Secretary board of cattle commissioners.
New Jersey ..---.-- E. B. Voorhees, New Brunswick... ...- President State board of agriculture.
New Mexico......- W./C. Bames, Las Vegas: . 2... ....<..< Secretary cattle sanitary board.
Harry F. Lee, Albuquerque. .........2| Secretary sheep sanitary board.
ge a CURD Wieting, “Albany. =. -2--.---:--<- Commissioner department of agriculture.
Wi. dewey; Albany. 22550-2253. Chief veterinarian.
North Carolina....| Tait Butler, Raleigh.................- State veterinarian.
S. L. Patterson, Raleigh-----..-...--.- Commissioner of agriculture.
North Dakota....- W. F. Crewe, Devils Lake.....-:...... State veterinarian.
ieee st. se Paul Fischer, Columbus........ igus -Ra) Do.
7, Calvert, CoMmmbpns... .. 226-250. Secretary State live-stock commission.
Oklahoma......... | C.J. Davie: Guthrie.~.. 22. 22... -.- Territorial veterinarian.
| Thomas Morris, Guthrie.............- Secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
RON nes ass William McLean, Portland..........-- State veterinarian.
| Wm. H. Lytle, Pendleton............- Sheep inspector.
Pennsylvania...... | Leonard Pearson, Philadelphia......-. State veterinarian.
POTLOURACO 2. = =.=: Thos: A. Allen, Sum Juan .....<.5..<<< Veterinary inspector, health office.
Rhode Island...... John §. Pollard, Providence.........- Veterinarian State board of agriculture.

John J Dunn, Providence............- Secretary State board of agriculture.
Louis A. Klein, Clemson College..... State veterinarian.
Thos. H. Hicks, Milbank.......

South Carolina....
South Dakota.

Do

Tennessee.........| R. H. Kittrell, Nashville... -. State live-stock commissioner.
OREN. 27 os Sco. ss J. H. Wilson, Quanah...... ..| Secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
ERED contran ss s=-'s = John Austin, Heber City-.--........--- | President State board of sheep commis-
| sioners.
Vermont. ....-<.. oS. Wilson, Axlington’: .. so. -- 2:5 - | Cattle commissioner.
ares. s.~ cs = J. G. Ferneyhough, Blacksburg. .....-. State veterinarian.
Washington....... S. B. Nelson, P eae 8s aes eee Do.
West Virginia... .. J. B. Garvin, Charleston.............. | Secretary board of agriculture.
Wisconsin......... David Roberts, Janesville...........-- | State veterinarian.
Jebn' M: ‘Trace; Madison 2.20... .-.3.2-- | Secretary State sanitary board.
VWoyoming..- ==... William F. Pflaeging, Cheyenne. .-.... | State veterinarian.
George S. Walker, Cheyenne.........-. Secretary State board of sheep commis-
| sioners.

FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

American Forestry Association.—President, Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agri-
culture; vice-presidents, Edward Everett Hale, F. E. Weyerhaeuser, James W.
Pinchot, B. E. Fernow, John L. Kaul; secretary, Thomas E. Will, Washington, D. C.

International Society of Arboriculture.—President, Gen. William J. Palmer, Col-
orado Springs, Colo.; vice-president, Henry John Elwes, F. R. 8., Colesborne, Chel-
tenham, England; secretary, J. P. Brown, Connersville, Ind.

Society of American Foresters.—President, Gifford Pinchot, Washington, D. C.;
secretary, George B. Sudworth, Washington, D. C.

SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY.

Yale University, Forest School, New Haven, Conn.—A two-years graduate course,
leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Under the direction of the officers of the
Yale Forest School, a two-months summer course, July and August, is conducted at
Milford, Pike County, Pa. Prof. Henry S. Graves, Director.

Biltmore Forest School, Biltmore, N. C.—Course covers entire year; daily lectures
in all branches of applied forestry, elements of botany, mathematics, geology, law,
and political economy; practical work, especially lumbering operations, on the
domain of the Biltmore estate; forest investigations. Dr. C. A. Schenck, Director.

University of Michigan, Forest School, part of the general Department of Literature,
Science, and the Arts, Ann Arbor, Mich.—A two-years graduate course leading to the
degree of Master of Science in Forestry. Filibert Roth, Professor of Forestry.

Harvard University, Forest School, Cambridge, Mass.—A four-years undergraduate
course, in connection with the Lawrence Scientific School. R.11. Fisher, in charge of
curriculum.

Pennsylvania State College, Forest School, State College, Pa.—A four-years under-
graduate course, in connection with the State Department of Agriculture.

Courses in forestry are now given at the University of Maine, Orono, Me., Gordon E.
Tower, in charge; the Michigan State Agricultural College, Agricultural College,

470 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Mich., E. E. Bogue, in charge; Iowa State College, Ames, lowa, H. P. Baker, in
charge; University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr., Frank G. Miller, in charge; Missis-
sippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College, Miss., George L.
Clothier, in charge; University of Georgia, Athens, Ga., Alfred Akerman, in charge;
Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo., Wm. C. Sturgis, dean; Purdue University,
Lafayette, Ind., Prof. John M. Coulter, in charge; University of Minnesota, St. Anthony
Park, Minn., Prof. Samuel B. Green, in charge; Berea College, Berea, Ky., W. L.
Flanery, in charge; North Dakota School of Forestry, Bottineau, N. Dak., J. Allen
Kemp, president. :

A course of lectures is given annually at the Massachusetts State Agricultural College,
Amherst, by Frank Wm. Rane, State Forester of Massachusetts; at the Maryland
Agricultural College, College Park, by Fred W. Besley, State Forester of Maryland;
at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, by Edward M. Griffith, State Forrester of
Wisconsin; and at the Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Collins, by Hugh P. Baker,
Professor of Forestry at the Iowa State College.

NATIONAL BEE KEEPERS’ ASSOCIATION.

President, L. A. Aspinwall, Jackson, Mich.; secretary, J. A. Green, Grand Junction,
Colo.; general manager and treasurer, N. E. France, Platteville, Wis.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS.

President, H. A. Morgan, Knoxville, Tenn.; secretary, A. F. Burgess, 20 John
street, Reading, Mass.

ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS.

President, John P. Street, New Haven, Conn.; secretary, H. W. Wiley, Chemist,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL AND KINDRED SOCIETIES.

Name of organization. Secretary. Post-office.
American Apple Growers’ Congress.......----.-- TaiCaWalsongeees-see Hannibal, Mo.
American Association of Nurserymen.........--- George C. Seager ....- Rochester, N. Y.
American Carnation Society...........----.----- Albert M. Herr....... Lancaster, Pa.
American Cranberry Growers’ Association. ..---- AR RAG ele tee ase Hammonton, N. J.
American Federation of Horticultural Societies...| Chas. E. Bassett... .- Fennville, Mich.
American Institute Farmers’ Club...........---- Wm. A. Eagleston ... ee Wiese oo street, New
a Conk. IN Wa
American Institute, Horticultural Section......- Leonard Barron.....-. Do.
American Nurserymen’s Protective Association..| Thomas B. Meehan...| Dreshertown, Pa.
American Pomological Society ....-....-.-------- John Crgie sees eee Ithaca, N. Y.
American Retail Nurserymen’s Protective As- | Guy A. Bryant......-. Princeton, Ill.
sociation. ;
American Rose Soclety. co.cc cee caces sce toes Wm. J. Stewart...... Se place, Boston,
ass.
Cider and Cider-Vinegar Makers’ Association of | George Miltenberger-..| 213 N. 2d street, St. Louis,
the Northwest. Mo.
Chrysanthemum Society of America..........-.- David Fraser........- Penn and Homewood ave.,
Pittsburg, Pa.
Eastern Nurserymen’s Association..........-..- Wiinoksylealnta bates a seer a Rochester, N. Y.
International Apple Shippers’ Association....... A. Warren Patch..... see Market street, Boston,
ass.
Mississippi Valley Apple Growers’ Association..}| James Handly.......-. Quincy, Til.
Missouri Valley Horticultural Society... -- de Sees AS Vi Will somistees soe R. F. D., Muncie, Kans.
National League of Commission Merchants of | A. Warren Patch...-.-. 17 N. Market street, Boston,
the United States. Mass.
National Nut Growers’ Association............-.. Je Bw WWilsOnewessencn. Poulan, Ga.
Northwestern Fruit Growers’ Association. ....-. C. D. Huffman....... Lagrande, Oreg.
Nurserymen’s Mutual Protection Association ...| Geo. C. Seager.......- Rochester, N. Y.
Peninsula Horticultural Society...........---.-.- Wesley Webb........- Dover, Del.
Society of American Florists and Ornamental | Wm. J. Stewart...... 11 Hamilton place, Boston,
Horticulturists. Mass.
Southwestern Nurserymen’s Association....-.-.- Jie Ace, DBT ODS reassert Wynnewood, Ind. T.
Western Association of Nurserymen..........-.- EeJd~Holman..¢.2-..< Leavenworth, Kans.

—- i... -

STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS.

STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS.

471.

State.

Delaware.........-

District of Colum- |

bia.
Lt) Sa

LO

Massachusetts. ... -

Michigan. ....:...-

Minnesota.........

New Hampshire...
New Jersey

Naw pork... 5...
North Carolina...
2G ae
Pennsylvania. .....

Wermiont..- =... .<.0'
Vein) ae

’
Name and title.

N. Ellery, commissioner department of highways...........-

| James H. MacDonald, commissioner, State highway depart-

ment.
ae A. Price, State highway commissioner for Newcastle
ounty.
C. B. Hunt, engineer of highways, District of Columbia......-

Dy isd ep ANOS; CNAITMAM: Hot cs Soot ea clden ott ucsciven cess
A. N. Johnson, highway engineer, State highway commission.
Prof. A. Marston, dean, division of engineering
T. H. McDonald, assistant in charge of public roads, State
College.
Paul D. Sargent, commissioner of highways........----------
William Bullock Clark, State geologist...........-....-----.-
Walter W. Crosby, chief engineer highway division, geolog-
ical survey.
William E. McClintock, chairman..............-.-------------
A. B. Fletcher, secretary State highway commission.......-...
Hormtio S. Marie, ‘commissioner: ..-. 2-5-5 -sosseu soe em n- Scene
Frank F. Rogers, highway engineer, State highway depart-
ment.
GHREAVOE\SeUOl eG) PYOSIGEND so non ore cane so nme el icin weisnin iain
George W. Cooley, engineer, State highway commission.......
Arthur W. Dean, State engineer, highway department.......
Elisha C. Hutchinson, chairman: -...- ---- - 6... -eenen sctseion'e
R. A. Meeker, supervisor State commission of public roads...
Frederick Skene, State engineer and surveyor...........-.-.-
Samuel L. Patterson, chairman State highway commission...
Sam Huston, commissioner State highway department.......
Josaph W. Hunter, State highway commissioner............-
R. D. Beeman, assistant commissioner...........----.--+----
Jchn H. Edwards, chairman State board of public works....
Charles W. Gates, State highway commissioner............--
P. St. Julien Wilson, State highway commissioner.........-.
Joseph M. Snow, State highway commissioner............-..--

Post-oflice.

Sacramento.

Hartford.

Wilmington.

Washington.

Springfield.
Do.

| Ames.
Do.

Augusta.
Baltimore.
Do.

Boston.
Do.

| Lansing.

Do.

Minneapolis.
Do.

Harrisburg.
Do.
Providence.

STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF PROTECTION OF GAME.4

John H. Wallace, jr., State game commissioner...............
W. L. Pinney, secretary fish and game commission...........
Chas. A. Vogelsang, chief deputy board of fish commissioners.
D. E. Farr, State game and fish commissioner ..........-.-..-
E. Hart Geer, secretary commission of fisheries and game. ...
A.D. Poole, president Delaware Game Protective Association.
W. N. Stephens, fish and game warden....................---
Dr. John A. Wheeler, State game commissioner...........---
Z. T. Sweeney, commissioner of fisheries and game.........--
G. A. Lincoln, State fish and game warden............----.--
D. W. Travis, State fish and game warden............-----.-
L. T. Carleton, chairman commissioners of inland fisheries and
game

Mamyland!s.. 2 ./<55 Oregon Milton Dennis, State game warden..........---------
Massachusetts. .... Dr. George W. Field, chairman commissioners of fisheries
and game. .
Michiran. 2c. 2s! Charles H. Chapman, game and fish warden..........--------
Minnesota. ......-.- Carlos Avery, executive agent, board of game and fish com-
missioners.
MISSOUTI ©. .c<=5 ase Joseph H. Rodes, game and fish warden..............---..--
Montana. <= a.-= 222 William F. Scott, State game and fish warden.....---......-..
Nebraska. ......-..-. George L. Carter, chief deputy game and fish commission... -
New Hampshire...| Nathaniel Wentworth, chairman board of fish and game com-
missioners.
New Jersey..---.-.-- Benjamin P. Morris, president board of fish and game com-
missioners.
New Mexico.....-.. iW. 5. Griffin; game‘and fish warden: +2 ...2=.--2-2.-06-225-525
INGWe MOtK: 253: 220< James S. Whipple, forest, fish, and game commissioner.......
North Carolina....| T. Gilbert Pearson, secretary Audubon Society.........------
North Dakota..... W.N. Smith, game warden, district No. 1...........----.-----
William McKean, game warden, district No. 2..........---.--
(OLE sete ee oe George C. Blankner, secretary commissioners of fish and game.
Oklahoma......... Eugene Watrous, Territorial game and fish warden.......---
Omerontt meee = cc J. W. Baker, game and forestry warden..........--.------+--
Pennsylvania. ....- Dr. Joseph Kalbfus, secretary board of game commissioners. .
Rhode Island. ..... John H. Flanagan, chairman commissioners of birds........-
South Carolina....| B. F. Taylor, president Audubon Society..............---.---

a Corrected to May 1, 1907.

Montgomery.
Phoenix.
San Francisco.

Cedar Rapids.
Pratt.
Augusta.

Baltimore.
Boston.

Sault Ste. Marie.
St. Paul.

Sedalia.
Helena.
Lincoln.
Hudson.

Long Branch.

Santa Fe.
Albany.
Greensboro.

Enid.

Cottage Grove.
Harrisburg.
Providence.
Columbia.

472 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

State officials in charge of protection of game—Continued.

State. Name and title. Post-oflice.

Tennessee.......-- Joseph Hi. Acklen; State wardenian. «sacsceeeadeeee eeeereeses Nashville.
RExASs = Jeee open Game, fish,and oyster commissioner..................------- Austin.

LER ee ae eae H. B. Cromar, State fish and game commissioner............- Salt Lake City.
Mermontaaae-esaac Henry G. Thomas, fish and game commissioner..............|. Stowe.
Washington.....-. R. C. Bebee, chief deputy State game warden.......--....-... Bellingham.
West Virginia... ... F. H. Merrick, chief deputy game and fish warden....-......- Huntington.
Wisconsin=. 222 2c.- Jonas Swenholt, State warden.......-.-....220s-20--cece5e-e- Madison.

Wiy Oming = 2S. as5- D.C. Nowlin, State game warden.....-.....-2s22--.c-<-2--s-- Lander.

ORGANIZATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND GAME.

Name of organization. Secretary. Post-office.
American Ornithologists’ Union, Committee on | A. K. Fisher, chair- | Department of Agriculture,
Protection of North American Birds. man. Washington, D.C.
Bird Protective Society of America.............. Edward C. Pease....- er Pog Building, Buf-
alo, N. Y.
Boone:and' Crockett; Club i252 seesnes eo een eee Madison Grant....-.- 11 Wall street, New York,
League of American Sportsmen.............-.--. G. O. Shields, presi- 1269 Broadway, New York,
ent. een
National Association of Audubon Societies....... William Dutcher, | 141 Broadway, New York,
president. ING YS
National Association of Game and Fish Wardens.| George L. Carter... .. Lincoin, Nebr.
New York Zoological Society.........-.-..------ Madison Grant....-... 1 Wal street, New York,
NoYes
North American Fish and Game Protective Asso- | E. T. D. Chambers...| Quebec, Canada.
ciation.

AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION.

President, James Wilson, Washington, D. C.; vice-president, L. H. Kerrick,@
Bloomington, Ill.; secretary, W. M. Hays, Washington, D. C.; treasurer, Oscar Ert,
Manhattan, Kans.; chairman animal section, A. P. Grout, Winchester, Ill.; secretary
animal section, C. B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.; chairman plant section,
cies, W. Ward, Queens, N. Y.; secretary plant section, N. E. Hansen, Brookings,

pedals

FARMERS’ NATIONAL CONGRESS.

President, John M. Stahl, Chicago, Ill.; first vice-president, B. Cameron, Stagville,
N. C.; second vice-president, Joshua Strange, Marion, Ind.; treasurer, W. L. Ames,
Oregon, Wis.; secretary, George M. Whitaker, Washington, D. C.; first assistant secre-
tary, Luther H. Tucker, Albany, N. Y.; second assistant secretary, John H. Kimball,
Port Deposit, Md.; executive committee, president, secretary, and treasurer, E. W.
Wickey, East Chicago, Ind.; Levi Morrison, Greenville, Pa.; A. C. Fuller, Dows, Iowa.

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.
OFFICERS OF NATIONAL GRANGE.

Master, N. J. Bachelder, Concord, N. H.; overseer, T. C. Atkeson, Morgantown,
W. Va.; lecturer, G. W. F. Gaunt, Mullica Hill, N. J.; treasurer, Mrs. E. 8. McDowell,
Rome, N. Y.; secretary, C. M. Freeman, Tippecanoe City, Ohio; executive commit-
tee, E. B. Norris, Sodus, N. Y.; C. J. Bell, East Hardwick, Vt.; F. A. Derthick,
Mantua, Ohio; N. J. Bachelder, ex officio, Concord, N. H.

a Deceased

See ee

——e

— ss” Dll ee

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 473

REVIEW OF WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING THE CROP SEASON
OF 1906.

By James Berry, Chief of Climatological Division, Weather Bureau.

The accompanying illustrations (see figs. 17 to 19 and Plates XL to XLII) and
tables (pp. 490 and 491) show how the temperature and rainfall over the United
States ageing the crop season of 1906, from week to week, compare with the normal
conditions of corresponding periods of former years. The diagrams exhibit the depar-
ture from normal by districts, and the maps show, respectively, the departures from
normal temperature, the total precipitation, and the departures from normal precipi-
tation during the crop season.

JANUARY.

January, 1906, was exceptionally mild over much the greater part of the country,
the average temperature being above the normal in all districts, with the exception
of the central portions of the middle and southern Plateau regions and extreme south-
ern Florida, where it was slightly below, and in portions of the Gulf States, where it
was about normal. The excess in temperature throughout the central and northern
portions of the country was unusually marked, ranging from 6° to 13° per day. In
the Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Red River of the North valleys, the Lake region,
and southern New England the temperature excess generally was more than 9°. On
the Pacific coast the temperature excess was slight, except in Washington and over
the interior portions of central and northern California, where it was more than 3°

er day.

: The precipitation exceeded the average in the upper Mississippi, lower Missouri,
and lower Arkansas valleys, the northern portion of the upper Lake region, the greater
part of the South Atlantic States, the western portion of the central Plateau region,
and in California, except in the vicinity of San Francisco and in the extreme southern
part of the State. Over areas extending from western Arkansas to southern Illinois
and from western Florida to southwestern Virginia the precipitation was unusually
heavy, amounts ranging from 6 to more than 9 inches being reported from these dis-
tricts. Generally throughout New England and the Middle Atlantic States, the lower
Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, eastern Tennessee, in the central and west Gulf
States, southern Plateau region, and on the north Pacific coast the precipitation was
below the average, being decidedly deficient in New England and the lower Lake
region and in portions of the central and west Gulf districts.

LITTLE SNOW ON THE GROUND.

At the close of the month the districts east of the Rocky Mountains were wholly
free from snow, with the exception of a comparatively small area extending from the
upper Missouri Valley eastward to Lake Huron, including a small part of the upper
Mississippi Valley. ‘There was practically no snow in New England, except in shel-
tered iaees in the northern portion.

FEBRUARY.

As a whole, February, 1906, averaged colder than usual in the Middle and South
Atlantic and Gulf States, Ohio Valley, and portions of the lower Lake region and the
upper Mississippi Valley. The deficiency in temperature was most marked in the
upper Ohio Valley and in the central Gulf States, where it amounted to 6° per day.
Generally throughout the South Atlantic and Gulf States and in the Ohio and central
Mississippi valleys the deficiency amounted to more than 3° per day. Over the north-
ern portion of the Lake region, along the New England coast, and over the south-
eastern Rocky Mountain slope the month averaged slightly milder than usual; it was
decidedly milder than usual throughout the Recky Mountain and Plateau regions
and in the upper Missouri Valley, where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to
12° per day, being most marked in Montana.

From the ist to the 3d the maximum temperatures on the central and southern
California coasts equaled or exceeded the records of former years for the first decade
of February; on the 19th and 20th unseasonably high maximum temperatures occurred
in central Nebraska, the upper Michigan Peninsula, and in northern New England,
and on the 23d and 24th the maximum records were broken at numerous stations in
the lower Lake region, lower Ohio Valley, and New England.

A474 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

<a] April. | May | June. | July. |August | Sept. |S)
=| Ste stats re eater ates 1s Ve ess Vs ooto7s DAA

+
S

+
S
ey

S

'
oS

Missouri Yabley,

§
B
&

Sa a p= ape
| May | Jeeme._| _Liohy.Augist
30,7 (ra ler eal [7 Va lesle [9 Ve es|s0| 6 [3 20le7|3 VOU 7 eal 1
jest a

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a
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iS
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S

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R
i
i
i

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a

North Racific Coast Region

Baa
ised Apral | Nay | June. | July |Hugust.| ope, 1S

A ae GE (a
nie Rauaiey aie tersnmn meee

iS)

\ ae ees |
Ge Ra a Sy, a
ViGl Malis lana Se ee eee A oe
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Fic. 17,—Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) and precipitation (inches) eed for the season of

1906 from the normal of many years for the Missouri Valley and the Pacific coast.

~ aha

—

475

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906.

POSTE TTT eT te
FOUTS TTT RTT ET Ts
SITS S ST NTT TTT sig) <UUNDRES ANNAN KS
SISTA TPT SUT UT Tosti eseN TTT 3
STATE eT eT bef HTT
HURRRROUACE CHO REREREDEUEE BBL TTT TTT TT Ths sis is
E SSH ATT PNT TTT TTT Sis) 18
el TEE Sel TTT Hat ats S| Is
SPLITTERS we

COC ak
A
pect cept Lf

81 | | CCEA ELCEEER
SANA AANUNAGESNNS TERTNENA CS CUMABAUURNED EO GAn RERROUEREDLS SETHE THT

TUT CUT
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STEP Ee TT
oS eeepeenes arene

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LT Pas Hus

au SeBEACT CTT DST TTT
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SMT TTT Pet ERS eee LTT NTT STN TTT
| HRS 8 Taran

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Jar. 12 Jo

Fie. 18.—Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) and precipitation (inches) departures for the season of
1906 from the normal of many years for the Middle and South Atlantic States and Gulf States

oe aes er, }! Zz meee, ee eee = Seve SC eet ee Se ee “4 as . ae ee

Fahrenheit) and precipitation (inches)
y years for the Lake region, the upper

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sissippi Valley, the Ohio

8

th

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

476

Fia. 19.—Tem

perature (degrees

1906 from the normal of man
V alley, and Tennessee.

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agricutture. 1906. PLATE XL.

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| Statute Miles

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

TOTAL PRECIPITATION FOR THE Crop SEASON OF 1906, FROM MARCH 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30.

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Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.

Shaded portions show excess (+), and un-
shaded portions deficiency (—) in rainfall.

Figures show in inches, amount of excess
or deficiency of rainfall over areas bounded
by light lines.

Stitute Miles

DEPARTURES FROM NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR THE Crop SEASON OF 1906, FROM MARCH 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30.

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@)

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 477

COLD WAVES.

The first well-defined cold wave of the winter of 1905-6 advanced from Manitoba
to the Atlantic coast States from the Ist to the 3d of February, with temperature 30°
below zero at Winnipeg, Manitoba, on the 1st and 24° below zero at Sault Ste. Marie,
Mich., on the 2d. On the morning of the 3d the temperature was below zero in the
interior of New York and New England. The line of 10° was traced through the Dis-
trict of Columbia and southwestern Virginia and the line of freezing temperature
through northwestern Florida. From the 3d to the 6th a cold wave advanced from the
Rocky Mountains over the central valleys and the Middle Atlantic and New England
States, carrying the line of zero temperature to Kansas, the Ohio River, and the
interior of New York and New England. From the 13th to the 15th a cold wave
swept from British America to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, with zero temperature in
the States of the lower Missouri Valley on the morning of the 14th and a fall in tempera-
ture of 20° to 30° in the interior of the Atlantic and east Gulf States by the morning
of the 15th. A moderate cold wave overspread the central valleys and the eastern
and southeastern States during the 26th, 27th, and 28th, attended by heavy snow
from the middle Mississippi Valley over a great part of the Ohio Valley and in southern
portions of the Middle Atlantic States, and by frost to the middle and east Gulf coasts
and northern Florida.

Generally the precipitation was below the average, the month being exceptionally
dry in the lower Lake region, Ohio Valley, and over the greater part of the interior of
the Atlantic coast and Gulf districts. From the northern portion of the central Gulf
States northeastward to the lower Lake region the deficiency in precipitation ranged
from 2 to more than 4 inches, the most marked deficiency occurring in Tennessee and
the adjacent portions of Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and
Kentucky. Over a large part of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the upper
Missouri Valley the total precipitation for the month amounted to less than one-fourth
of an inch and was decidedly below the average. In the lower Missouri Valley, por-
tions of the central Mississippi Valley, along the immediate Atlantic coast from New
Jersey to South Carolina, and in southern Florida, the precipitation exceeded the
average, the excess being quite marked in eastern North Carolina, southern Florida,
and portions of the central Missouri Valley. More than the average precipitation also
occurred over the southern portions of New Mexico, Arizona, and California, in parts
of central and northern California, and in western Oregon and southern Washington.

At the close of the month the area covered with snow was generally confined to the
extreme northern districts, although portions of the central Mississippi and Ohio val-
leys and the Middle Atlantic States were covered to considerable depths. The
amount of snow on the ground in northern New England was much less than usual
at this time of the season.

Marcu.

The prominent features of March, 1906, were abnormally low mean temperature
during the first and second decades, lack of sunshine, and generally excessive precipi-
tation, although the latter was much below the average on the north Pacific coast and
in portions of the west Gulf States, and portions of the Lake region and South Atlantic
States received less than the average. Damaging freshets occurred in California and
in portions of the northern Recky Mountain region, upper Mississippi Valley, and
east Guli States. There was very general complaint of excessive cloudiness and
moisture and of low temperatures in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Mountains.

The month averaged colder than usual throughout the country, with the exception
of a comparatively small area embracing the southern portions of California, Arizona,
and New Mexico and extreme western Texas, where the temperature was normal or
slightly above. The month was decidedly cold in the middle and northern Rocky
Mountain regions and eastward over the central valleys and the greater part of the
Lake region and Atlantic coast and Gulf districts. The region in which the greatest
deficiency occurred extends from Idaho southeastward over the middle Rocky Moun-
tain slope and the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio valleys, including
the western portion of Tennessee and the northern portion of the cenirai Gulf States,
the average daily temperature in these districts ranging from 6° to 10° below the
normal. Along the immediate coast from Florida to southern New England the tem-
perature was generally below the normal, but the departures were not marked.

FROSTS AND LOW TEMPERATURES.
The cold wave of the elosing days of February caused heavy frost in extreme north-

ern Florida on the morning of March 1. From the Ist to 5th a moderate cold wave
advanced from the British Northwest Territory to the east Gulf and South Atlantic

478 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

coasts, attended by zero temperature in the extreme Northwest, by falls in tempera-
ture of 10° to 20° in the central valleys and the Eastern States, and by heavy frost on
the East Gulf coast and at Jacksonville. The second decade of the month was excep-
tionally cold, with heavy snow, from the middle and northern Plateau and Rocky
Mountain regions over the States of the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and the
northern Lake region. During this period temperatures 20° to 30° below zero occurred
in the upper Missouri Valley; zero temperatures were reported from Wyoming, the
middle Missouri Valley, Minnesota, and upper Michigan; and at the close of the
decade the interior of Texas, the middle and east Gulf coasts, and extreme northern
Florida were visited by heavy frost. From the 21st to 23d a moderate cold ‘wave
advanced from the British Northwest Territory eastward over the northern districts.
No well-defined cold wave appeared after the 23d.

The total precipitation exceeded the average in the Middle Atlantic States, Ohio,
upper Mississippi and Missouri valleys, middle Rocky Mountain slope, middle and
southern Plateau region, California, and portions of the central and east Gulf States
and Lake region. The monthly precipitation ranged from 6 to more than 12 inches in
central and southern Mississippi, central Alabama, and northern Georgia, while the
Ohio Valley and the greater part of the Middle Atlantic States and New England
received from 4 to more than 6inches. There was much less than the average precip-
itation in the greater part of Texas and over a narrow area extending thence to south-
western Virginia. On the Pacific coast the precipitation was abnormally heavy in
California, the greater part of that State receiving from 4 to 12 inches, while Oregon
and Washington received much less than the average.

At the close of the month very little snow remained on the ground in the districts
east of the Rocky Mountains, except in the upper Michigan Peninsula along the shore
of Lake Superior, where the depth ranged from 18 inches to more than 2 feet.

THE Crop SEASON, ApRIT-SEPTEMBER, SUMMARY BY WEEKS.

By weeks, ending with Monday, from April 9 to October 1, the weather conditions
may be summarized as follows:

April 9.—Although there was much cloudiness, generally favorable weather condi-
tions prevailed, especially during the latter part of the week, in the central and
northern districts east of the Rocky Mountains. There was, however, too much rain
in portions of the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys. In the southwestern dis-
tricts, from Oklahoma and western Texas westward over the Plateau region, the week
was cold and stormy. Frosts occurred as far south as the northern portions of the
central and east Gulf districts.

This week averaged warmer than usual in the Lake region, central valleys, Middle
Atlantic, and central Gulf States, and on the north and middle Pacific coasts. The
excess in temperature ranged from 3° to 5° per day in the central valleys, the greater
part of the Lake region, and along the immediate coasts of Washington, Oregon, and
northern California, the most marked departures occurring in Minnesota and North
Dakota. In northern New England and the Florida Peninsula, and over an area
embracing the central and southern Plateau regions, southern California, the south-
eastern Rocky Mountain slope, and Texas the temperature averaged below the normal.

The precipitation was much above the average over the southern Plateau region,
southeastern Rocky Mountain slope, the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys,
and over the greater part of the Lake region, amounts ranging from 1 inch to 2 inches
being reported over the greater part of these districts. In the Atlantic and Gulf coast
districts, the northern Plateau region, and on the Pacific coast the precipitation was
below the average, only light showers occurring in the Middle Atlantic States and on
the north Pacific coast, with practically no rain over a large part of the South Atlantic
and east Gulf States, in central and northern California, and over much of the northern
Plateau region.

(

SEVERE LOCAL STORMS.

April 16.—While this week averaged milder than usual throughout nearly the whole
country, the latter part was decidedly cool, with light to heavy frosts on the 15th and
16th as far south as the northern portions of the Southern States. Complaints of too
much rain were received from the Middle Atlantic States and portions of the Missouri
Valley. The mild temperatures and generally light precipitation in the Southern
States were favorable. In the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys there was much
sunshine, especially during the fore part of the week, while in the Middle Atlantic
States the duration of sunshine was below the average.

Violent and destructive storms occurred on the 12th and 13th in portions of the
Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and west Gulf States.

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 479

The precipitation was very heavy in New England and the Middle Atlantic States,
where amounts generally ranging from 1 inch to 4 inches were reported. Heavy
rains also occurred in portions of the central Missouri and Red River of the North
valleys, and more than the average fell over a large part of the Lake region, middle
Rocky Mountain slope, and local areas in the South Atlantic States and Texas. In
the Ohio Valley and portions of the upper Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley
and generally throughout the Southern States and the Plateau and Pacific coast
regions the precipitation was below the average, no appreciable amount being reported
from western Texas, southwestern New Mexico, the southern portions of Arizona and
California, northern California, the greater part of Oregon, eastern Washington, north-
ern Idaho, and western Montana.

April 28.—During this week much the greater part of the country experienced very
favorable temperatures, although some complaint of cool weather during a part of the
week was received from portions of the west Gulf and Atlantic coast districts. There
was ample sunshine, except in the central and west Gulf States, where much of the
week was cloudy or partly cloudy. There was an absence of rain over a large part of
the central valleys and east Gulf States and New England, with only light showers in
the Lake region and Middle Atlantic States, while heavy rains occurred in Texas.
The need of rain was beginning to be felt in Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida. Frosts
were of general occurrence at the beginning or close of the week in the Lake region,
_ Ohio Valley, and the interior portions of the Middle and South Atlantic States.

LOW TEMPERATURES; LOCAL DROUGHTS.

April 80.—While the temperature conditions to the eastward of the Rocky Moun-
tains were generally favorable, there was much complaint of cold nights during the
fore part of the week in the districts east of the Mississippi River, light frosts occurring
as far south as the Carolinas and the northern portions of Georgia and Alabama, with
heavy frosts and freezing temperatures in the higher portions of the more northerly
districts. Over the middle and southern Plateau regions the temperatures were
unseasonably low, especially during the middle of the week, when heavy frosts were
general. The droughty conditions reported in the previous week in Tennessee and
portions of the east Gulf States continued, the area needing rain being materially
increased, at this time embracing North Carolina and a considerable part of the upper
Mississippi and lower Ohio valleys. Severe local storms occurred in a number of the
west Gulf States, and also in Tennessee and northern Georgia, from the 26th to the
28th. Asa whole, there was ample sunshine.

May 7.—This week averaged warmer than usual in the middle and north Pacific
coast districts and over the western portions of the middle and northern Plateau regions;
it also averaged warmer than usual in the west Gulf States and in all districts east of the
Mississippi River, with the exception of the upper Mississippi Valley, the western
portion of the upper Lake region, and the interior of northern New England. In the
middle and south Atlantic coast districts and in northern California, the temperature
excess ranged from 6° to 9° per day, and it exceeded 3° per day in southern New England,
the upper Ohio Valley, eastern Tennessee, and in the central and west Gulf districts
and north Pacific coast region. In the southern Plateau region and over the eastern
Rocky Mountain slope and the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys the week aver-
aged colder than usual, the deficiency in temperature being less than 3° per day over
most of the area comprised by the districts mentioned, but ranging from 3° to 6° per
day over the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and the upper Missouri Valley. Light to
heavy frosts were general in the middle Rocky Mountain districts and throughout the
Lake region and central valleys.

HEAVY RAINS IN PORTIONS OF THE COTTON BELT.

The rainfall was above the average over the greater part of the Southern States,
being exceptionally heavy in the central and northern portionsof Alabama and Missis-
sippi and in Arkansas and northeastern Texas, where amounts ranging from 2 to more
than 8 inches fell. Moderate to heavy rains occurred in eastern Nebraska, portions of
northwestern Iowa, the central portions of IHinois and Indiana, the northern portions
of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and at some stations in southern New England and the
Middle Atlantic States. In the lower Missouri and upper Ohio valleys, the greater
part of the Lake region, the eastern portion of the Carolinas, and the Florida Peninsula,
along the immediate Gu.f coast, in western Texas, and generally throughout the Piateau
and Pacific coast regions, the precipitation was below the average, no appreciable
amounts of rain faliing in the southern Plateau and Pacific coast regions, except light
shcwers in southeastern California. Excessively heavy rains proved damaging over

480 YEARBOOK OF 'THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the northern portions of the central Gulf States. The droughty conditions in the pre-
vious week were very largely relieved. The greater part of Florida and portions of
South Carolina and Missouri, however, continued to need rain. There was much
cloudiness in the Lake region and in portions of the Gulf States. The weather condi-
tions on the Pacific coast were favorable, except cool nights in Washington and Oregon.

UNUSUAL WARMTH IN THE UPPER MISSOURI VALLEY.

May 14.—This week averaged warmer than usual on the north Pacific coast, through-
out the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, and in the Missouri and Red River of the
North valleys. The average daily excess was most marked in the more northerly of
these districts and ranged from 6° to 9° from the upper Missouri Valley westward to the
eastern portions of Oregon and Washington and northern Nevada. On the southern
California coast, in the west Gulf States, and in all districts east of the Mississippi River
the week averaged cooler than usual, being abnormally cool in the lower Lake region,
Ohio Valley, and the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf States, where the defi-
ciency in temperature generally ranged from 6° to 11° per day, beingsmost marked over
the interior portions of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and over the western por-
tion of northern New England. Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in
the upper Missouri Valtey on the 10th and 11th, when temperatures ranging from 90°
to 96° were reported.

Freezing temperatures, or temperatures below freezing, occurred in the upper Mis-
souri Valley, over the greater part of the Lake region, in the upper Ohio Valley, in the
interior portions of the Middle Atlantic States, and in northern New England. Killing
frosts were general from the 8th to the 11th throughout the central valleys and Atlantic
coast districts, and light frosts occurred as far south as the interior portions of the cen-
tral and east Gulf States.

DRY WEATHER PREVALENT.

The rainfall was below the average in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, the week being practically rainless over the greater part of the central and west
Gulf States and in Tennessee and in portions of the lower Ohio and central Mississippi
valleys. The northern portion of the upper Lake region and the interior portion of the
Middle Atlantic States received only lhght showers, and in places no appreciable
amount. There was more than the average over the southern portion of the upper Lake
region and also in the middle Plateau region and portions of California. Showers,
giving from one-fourth to 1 inch, occurred in the north Pacific coast region, but, as a
whole, the precipitation in that region was below the average. The week was much
drier than usual, being practically rainless in the central and west Gulf States, Ten-
nessee, and in portions of the Middle Atlantic States, lower Ohio and central Missis-
sippi valleys, in all of which districts rain was needed.

DECIDED TEMPERATURE EXTREMES,

May 21.—This week averaged cooler than usual in the central and northern Pacific
coast districts and over the western portions of the middle and northern Plateau
regions, the deficiency in temperature ranging from 3° to 8° per day over the interior
portions-of central and northern California and from 3° to 5° per day in western Nevada
and in Oregon and the adjacent portions of Idaho and Washington. On the immediate
west Gulf coast and in extreme southern Florida the week averaged slightly cooler than
usual, but elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains and over the southern Plateau
region the week averaged warmer than usual, being decidedly warm over the middle
Rocky Mountain slope and throughout the central valleys, Lake region, and Middle
Atlantic States, where the average daily temperature excess generally ranged from 6°
to 10°.

The maximum temperature records of former years for the second decade of May were
exceeded at a number of stations in the upper Mississippi Valley on the 17th and 18th,
and at some stations in southern New England and the Middle Atlantic States on the
18thand 19th. Freezing temperatures occurred in the middle Plateau and: northern
Rocky Mountain regions and in the extreme northern districts eastward of the upper
Missouri Valley, and light to heavy frosts occurred in the Dakotas and Minnesota and
generally throughout the Lake region and northern New England on the 19th and 20th.

As a whole, the week was drier than usual, a large part of the Atlantic coast and
east Gulf States and portions of the central valleys and the Lake region receiving no
appreciable amount of rain. There was also a general absence of rain in the southern
Plateau and south Pacific coast regions. On the north Pacific coast the rainfall was

a

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 481

considerably above the average, more than an inch being reported from the coast dis-
tricts of northern California, Oregon, and Washington. Heavy rains occurred in north-
ern Texas and portions of Oklahoma and Indian Territory. Minnesota, eastern North
Dakota, Montana, and portions of South Dakota, Iowa, and southern Florida received
more than the average. A large part of the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States
had now experienced a period of more than two weeks without appreciable rainfall,
and droughty conditions, more or less serious, prevailed over practically the whole _
territory east of the Mississippi River and also in portions of the Missouri Valley and
west Gulf States.

May 28.—On the Pacific coast and in the middle and northern Plateau and Rocky
Mountain regions the week averaged much cooler than usual and the precipitation
was exceptionally heavy for the season, especially in California, over the greater part
of which State the weekly rainfall ranged from 1 inch to nearly 4 inches, the heaviest
that had occurred during the last decade of May in more than twenty years. The week
was also unseasonably cool and wet in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, freezing
temperatures occurring in the Red River of the North and upper Missouri valleys,
with exceptionally heavy rains in southern Minnesota. In the lower Missouri, cen-
tral Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, and in the lower Lake region and Middle Atlantic
States the greater part of the week was much warmer than the average, but the last
two days were unseasonably cool, and light frosts occurred in the central Missouri and
upper Mississippi valleys and upper Lake region.

HEAVY RAINS ON THE PACIFIC COAST AND IN FLORIDA.

Throughout the Pacific coast and middle and northern Rocky Mountain regions and
also in the upper Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Red River of the North valleys the
rainfall was much above the average, and over the greater part of central and northern
California it was unusually heavy for the season, ranging from 1 to nearly 4 inches.
The total fall at San Francisco was 2.6 inches, which was the heaviest that had occurred
at that place in the third decade of May since 1884. While portions of the central
Mississippi and lower Ohio valleys and lower Lake region received very light rainfall,

ood rains fell over most of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. Depths rang-
ing from 1 to more than 3 inches fell in New England, while southern Georgia
and the greater part of Florida received from 2 to more than 4 inches, the total fall at
Jacksonville, Fla., exceeding 13 inches. Portions of central and northern Texas also
received more than the average, but in eastern Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and in
portions of Missouri, southern Illinois, and the western portions of Kentucky and
Tennessee the rainfall was very light. The drought conditions which had become
severe in the preceding week were wholly or partially relieved over the greater part
of the area affected. Drought continued, however, in portions of the central and west
a States, and in portions of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio
valleys.

ae 4.—The week ending June 4, 1906, as a whole, was unseasonably cold in the
Plateau regions and over the greater part of California, and the fore part of the week
was also unseasonably cold in the northern districts eastward of the Rocky Mountains
and in the east Gulf States. Light to heavy frosts occurred in exposed places in the
Lake region and upper Ohio Valley, and also in portions of the middle and northern
Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions.

The rainfall was below the average over a large part of the Gulf States and through-
out the Lake region, but was ample-and generally well distributed in New England,
the Middle Atlantic States, the lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, and over
the northern portion of the west Gulf States. - Throughout the northern Plateau region
and the greater part of the northern and middle Pacific coast districts the rainfall was
phenomenally heavy for the season, especially in Idaho and the eastern portions of
Oregon and Washington.

LOCAL STORMS AND DROUGHT.

Damaging local storms occurred in portions of the New England and Middle Atlantic
States on May 31 and June 1. i

Drought continued in northern Missouri, extreme southern Illinois, southern Arkan-
sas, and in portions of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, being especially severe in the
southeastern part of the last-named State.

June 11.—In the northern Rocky Mountain region, the middle and northern Plateau

_ districts, and the northern and middle Pacific coast districts, the week ending at 8a. m.,

June 11, 1906, averaged cooler than usual, and was the fourth consecutive week in
which the temperature in these districts had been abnormally low. The deficiency

3 «a1906——31 j

482 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in temperature generally ranged from 3° to 9° per day over the middle and northern
Plateau regions and the interior of northern California. Over the southeastern Rocky
Mountain slope, the Missouri Valley, west Gulf States, and in all districts eastward of
the Mississippi River, with the exception of extreme southern Florida, the week was
warmer than usual, the temperature excess ranging from 3° to 9° per day over much
the greater part of the districts named, the most marked departures occurring in the
Lake region, Ohio Valley, and portions of the Middle Atlantic States.

Unseasonably high maximum temperatures occurred on the 9th and 10th in the west
Gulf States, coast stations from New Orleans, La., to Corpus Christi, Tex., reporting
temperatures equal to or exceeding the highest previously recorded in the first decade
of June. Freezing temperatures occurred over limited areas in the Plateau region,
where, however, the minimum temperatures for the most part ranged from 34° to 40°.

CONTINUATION OF DROUGHT IN LOCALITIES.

The greater part of Nebraska and Iowa and portions of northern Illinois, north-
western Missouri, and northern Virginia needed rain, and severe drought prevailed in
southeastern Texas and in portions of the central Gulf districts, while eastern Kansas
and portions of the upper Missouri Valley and upper Lake region suffered from heavy
rains and freshets.

June 18.—This week averaged cooler than usual over the interior of northern Cali-
fornia, on the north Pacific coast, and in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. The deficiency in temperature ranged from 3° to 6° per day over the greater
part of the districts named, the most marked departures occurring in the upper Sacra-
mento, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio valleys, the southern portion of the Lake
region, and the interior portions of the Middle Atlantic States and New England.
Over the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, southern Plateau region, and southern Cali-
fornia, on the west Gulf coast, and in extreme eastern Maine, the week averaged
slightly warmer than usual, the temperature excess over the greater part of these dis-
tricts being less than 3° per day. pz

Very high maximum temperatures occurred in the Rio Grande Valley and the
southern portions of New Mexico and Arizona, where the readings ranged from 100° to
110°. Unseasonably low minimum temperatures occurred on the 12th and 13th in the
lower Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States,
and in New England, numerous stations reporting the lowest readings yet recorded
in, the second decade of June.

HEAVY RAINS IN THE ATLANTIC COAST DISTRICTS.

Generally throughout the Atlantic coast districts, including the upper Ohio Valley,
eastern Tennessee, and the greater part of the east Gulf States, the rainfall was much
above the average, exceptionally heavy rains having fallen in the Carolinas, Georgia,
Florida, and eastern Alabama, in portions of which States rainfall ranging from 4 to
more than 11 inches was reported. The western portions of Washington and Oregon,
northern California, and a narrow area extending from western Kansas northward over
the eastern portions of Nebraska and the Dakotas also received more than the average
rainfall. From the west Gulf coast northward to the Lake region the precipitation
was much below the average. Throughout the middle and southern Plateau regions
and over a large part of Texas as well as over an area extending from Arkansas north-
ward to Minnesota there was no appreciable rainfall.

Severe local storms, accompanied in places by hail, occurred in the lower Lake
region and Middle Atlantic States during the latter part of the week.

COOL WEATHER IN THE INTERIOR DISTRICTS.

June 25.—The week ending at 8 a. m.¢ June 25, 1906, averaged warmer than usual
along the South Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, in which districts the average daily
temperature excess ranged from 1° to 5°, except in the lower Sacramento Valley, where
it amounted to 7°. Over the extreme eastern portion of the lower Lake region the
average daily temperature for the week was nearly normal. Elsewhere the week
averaged cooler than usual, being decidedly cool on the northern New England coast
and from the upper Ohio Valley westward to the central and northern Plateau regions.
Throughout the central valleys and middle Rocky Mountain region the average daily
temperature deficiency amounted to 6° or more, and in the northern Rocky Mountain
region and the upper Missouri Valley it ranged from 9° to 12°, the most marked depar-
ae from the normal occurring in the Dakotas, Nebraska, Wyoming, and eastern

ontana.

\

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 483

Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in California and southern Ari-
zona on the 18th. Freezing temperatures occurred in Wyoming, and minimum tem-
peratures below 40° were reported from a large part of the Plateau region and from the
northern portion of North Dakota. In the Middle Rocky Mountain region and central
Missouri and central Mississippi valleys the minimum temperatures on the 20th, 21st,
24th, and 25th were unseasonably low, numerous stations reporting the lowest yet
recorded in the last decade of June.

The rainfall was below the average over an area embracing the southern portion of
the upper Lake region and the northern portions of Illinois, Indiana, and northwestern
Ohio. The rainfall was also below the average on the southern New England coast
and generally throughout the Southern States, although the eastern portion of the
Carolinas, southern Florida, and scattered areas of limited extent in the central and
west Gulf States received more than the average. Over a large part of the central and
west Gulf States there was no appreciable rainfall, and similar conditions prevailed
in the middle and southern Plateau and Pacific coast districts. Very heavy rains
fell in the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, Middle Atlantic
States, and over the greater part of New England, from 2 to 4 inches being reported
from the lower Missouri Valley and from 1 inch to more than 2 inches in the Ohio
Valley and the Middle Atlantic States. Considerably more than the average rainfall
occurred in the Red River of the North Valley and over the northern portion of the
upper Lake region. The droughty conditions prevailing in the previous week in the
upper Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys were largely relieved, but drought con-
tinues generally unbroken in Louisiana and southern and eastern Texas, while por-
tions of northwestern Missouri and southern Mississippi and central and western
Tennessee, Oklahoma; and western South Dakota needed rain.

Numerous local storms of considerable severity, in places accompanied by hail,
a in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States during the latter part of the
week.

July 2.—This week was warmer than usual in the Lake region, central valleys,
Atlantic coast districts, and over the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope. The aver-
age daily temperature excess was most marked over an area extending from the middle
Atlantic coast westward to the central Mississippi Valley, including a part of the upper
Lake region, where it ranged from 3° to 6°. The temperature averaged nearly normal
in the west Gulf States and on the northern California coast. The week was cooler
than usual on the north Pacific coast, over the greater part of California, throughout
the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, and in the upper Missouri Valley. The
average daily deficiency in temperature amounted to 3° or more over the greater part
of the Plateau regions and exceeded 6° in portions of California, Nevada, Utah, Wyo-
ming, and Montana.

The rainfall exceeded the average in the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and
Red River of the North valleys, southern New England, Louisiana, and eastern Texas,
and over limited areas in the South Atlantic and east Gulf States. Portions of Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa, northern Illinois, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Texas received
amounts ranging from 2 to more than 4 inches. There was also more than the average
precipitation on the extreme north Pacific coast and over a considerable part of the
northern Plateau region. Over most of the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf
States, and in the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, and central portion of the Lake
region the rainfall was below the average, no appreciable amount having fallen in
southern Florida, eastern Kentucky, and in portions of southern Illinois.

LOCAL DROUGHT RELIEVED.

The prolonged drought in Texas, Louisiana, and northwestern Missouri was largely
relieved. There was now sufficient moisture for present needs in all districts east of
the Rocky Mountains, with the exception of southern Florida, Tennessee, and portions
of the Ohio Valley, and apparently no section was suffering as a result of heavy
precipitation.

While local storms, in places accompanied by hail, occurred during the latter part
of the week in the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys, Lake region, and Middle
Atlantic States, they were not. unusually destructive.

July 9.—The week ending July 9 was abnormally cool in the middle and seuthern
Rocky Mountain regions and throughout the central valleys, Lake region, and greater
part of the middle Atlantic coast districts. Very general complaints of cool nights
were received from the central valleys, west Gulf States, and southern Rocky Moun-
tain region, and while the temperature conditions were not conducive to rapid growth
of vegetation, they were especially favorable for harvesting. On the north Pacific
coast the week was exceptionally hot and dry.

484 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HIGH TEMPERATURES IN THE PACIFIC COAST REGIONS.

July 16.—In the Lake region and upper Ohio Valley and on the west Gulf coast the
temperature averaged slightly above the normal. Elsewhere east of the Rocky
Mountains the week averaged cooler than usual, the deficiency in temperature over
the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, lower Missouri Valley, and the interior portions of
the central and east Gulf States generally ranging from 3° to 6° per day, the most
marked departures occurring over the middle Rocky Mountain slope. Over the west-
ern portions of the Plateau districts and in the Pacific coast States, except along the
central California coast, the week averaged warmer than usual, being decidedly warm
over the interior of central and northern California and in Washington and Oregon,
where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to 12° per day.

Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in the middle and north Pacific
coast regions, readings ranging from 100° to 108° occurring in central and northern
California, and from 100° to 104° in portions of Oregon and Washington. At Roseburg,
Oreg., the maximum of 102° on the 12th was 2° higher than any maximum previously
recorded at that station in the second decade of July. The minimum temperatures on
the morning of the 16th in the upper Mississippi Valley were unusually low, 52° at
Des Moines, Iowa, corresponding to the lowest minimum temperature previously
recorded at that station in the second decade of July.

HEAVY RAINS IN THE GULF STATES.

Over most of the Gulf States the rainfall exceeded the average and in many places
was excessively heavy, although scattered areas received lessthan the average. North-
ern Florida and portions of Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas received amounts
ranging from 2 to more than 6 inches, the heaviest occurring in northern Florida, where
a fall of more than 8 inches was reported. The Middle Atlantic States and portions of
the Mississippi and Central Missouri valleys and upper Lake region also received more
than the average precipitation, but, as a whole, there was less than the average in the
central valleys, Lake region, and northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States.
Light showers, giving from 0.1 to 0.5 inch, occurred on the north Pacific coast and
over the southern Plateau region.

Droughty conditions existed to a considerable extent in the southern portion of the
upper Lake region, in parts of the lower Missouri and central Mississippi valleys, and
in the northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States.

As in the preceding week, local storms were comparatively few and caused very
little damage.

July 23.—Generally throughout the Plateau districts and in the Lake region, New
England, and the Middle Atlantic States, the temperature during this week was above
the normal, the excess ranging from 3° to 6° per day in the northern Plateau region and
from 2° to 4° in the Lake region, New England, and the northern portion of the Middle
Atlantic States. In the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and the
South Atlantic States, and on the Pacific coast, the temperature was nearly normal.
In the central Missouri Valley and the central and west Gulf States the week was
cooler than usual, the average daily deficiency generally ranging from 1° to 5°.

In the Middle Atlantic States, Ohio Valley, and Tennessee, and over the greater part
of the Gulf States, the precipitation during the week was in excess of the average,
being unusually heavy in portions of the Middle and South Atlantic and Gulf States.
Kansas, eastern Nebraska, and portions of the Lake region and upper Mississippi
Valley also.received more than the average rainfall, but over the greater part of the
Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley there was less than the average.

DROUGHT IN PORTIONS OF THE CORN BELT.

Northeastern Missouri and portions of Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and the Dakotas
needed rain, drought being quite severe in northeastern Missouri and the central-
western counties of Illinois, but elsewhere in the principal agricultural States there
was ample moisture, heavy rains having occurred from the central and west Gulf
coasts northeastward to the lower Lake region, in the Middle and South Atlantic States,
and in southwestern Missouri and central Kansas.

Damaging local storms attended the heavy rainfall in the South Atlantic and east
Gulf States, and hailstorms caused considerable damage in Kansas.

The general weather conditions on the Pacific coast were favorable, although very
high temperatures occurred in central and northern California, western Idaho, and the
eastern portions of Oregon and Washington. Fe

July 80.—Throughout the central valleys and Atlantic coast districts and over the
greater part of the Lake region and Gulf States this week averaged cooler than usual,

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. _ 485

the mean temperature being considerably below the normal in the central valleys
and over the northern part of the middle and west Gulf districts. In the Rocky
Mountain and Plateau regions and in the Pacific States, except on the immediate
coast, the week was hot and generally dry.

East of the Rocky Mountains both the maximum and minimum temperatures were
lower than usual, the maximum not exceeding 80° at some stations in the Lake region
and on the New England and middle Atlantic coasts, and being below 90° elsewhere,
except in the Gulf States and at a few stations in the central Mississippi and Missouri
valleys, where they ranged from 90° to 98°. Some high maximum readings, ranging
from 100° to 112°, were reported from the northern and southern Plateau regions and
from the interior of central and northern California, the highest occurring at Phoenix,
Ariz., where the previous maximum record for the last decade of July was exceeded
by 1°.

DROUGHT IN CENTRAL VALLEYS; TOO MUCH RAIN IN GULF STATES.

Much of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and portions of the central and
west Gulf States suffered to some extent from heavy rains, while moisture was gener-
ally needed in the upper Missouri Valley and over a considerable part of the lower
Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, drought being serious in the greater
part of northern Missouri. The area now affected by drought in the central valleys
was less than in the previous week, but in the upper Missouri Valley the area needing
rain apparently was greater.

A few severe local storms occurred, mostly in the South Atlantic States and upper
Missouri Valley, but as a whole the week was comparatively free from storms of this
class.

TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS FAVORABLE.

August 6.—During the week ending August 6 the temperature averaged much above
the normal in the central valleys, Lake region, and Middle Atlantic States, in which
districts the preceding week for the most part was decidedly cool, while the tempera-
ture was generally deficient in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast districts, where
in the preceding week it was mostly above the normal. Generally the temperature
conditions throughout the country were favorable.

The Atlantic coast districts, with the exception of northern New England, suffered
from excessive moisture, while portions of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi,
and Ohio valleys continued in need of rain, drought being very severe in portions of
Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. Drought was also prevalent on the north Pacifie
coast, and forest fires were burning in Oregon.

The week was comparatively free from local storms.

Light frost occurred on July 31 and August 1 in the upper Michigan Peninsula.

DROUGHT LARGELY RELIEVED IN CENTRAL VALLEYS.

August 13.—Except in the northern Plateau and north Pacific coast regions, where
the week was very hot, the temperature conditions were very favorable.

The droughty conditions prevailing in portions of the lower Missouri, central Missis-
sippi, and Ohio valleys in the preceding week were relieved, except in northwestern

issouri. Parts of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and scattered localities in
Tennessee were beginning to need rain, while dry weather and sunshine would have
proved beneficial in the Middle Atlantic States, Ohio Valley, and portions of Texas.
Portions of the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys, upper Lake region, and
Middle Atlantic States suffered from excessive rains. Droughty conditions in Wash-
ington were relieved in part, but in Oregon drought continued, only light showers
having occurred in northeastern counties.

Notwithstanding the heavy rainfall over a large part of the country, the week was
comparatively free from storms of a damaging character.

HIGH TEMPERATURES PREVALENT.

August 20.—The States of the Missouri Valley and the northern Rocky Mountain
region experienced the warmest weather of the season during this week, and the
mean temperature was decidedly above the normal throughout the central valleys
and Lake region. Very high maximum temperatures, ranging from 95° to more than
100°, occurred in the upper Missouri Valley, some damage having been done by hot
winds in North Dakota. From the west Gulf coast to southeastern California and on
the north Pacific coast the week averaged somewhat cooler than usual.

486 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Light frost occurred in elevated districts in Utah, also in Maine and New Hampshire
on the morning of the 16th, and minimum temperatures nearly low enough for frost
were reported from the higher districts in the eastern and northern portions of New
York.

The Missouri Valley, the lower Lake region, New England, the northern part of the
Middle Atlantic States, and the greater part of the Gulf States and upper Lake region
received less than the average rainfall during the week, no appreciable amount having
occurred over the northern part of the Middle Atlantic States and southern New
England. There was also a general absence of rain over a large area extending from
western Texas northward to eastern South Dakota. Heavy rains occurred in Virginia,
North Carolina, portions of South Carolina, the interior of the central and east Gulf
States, Ohio Valley, and portions of the upper Mississippi Valley, in which districts
amounts ranging from 1 inch to more than 4 inches fell. The Plateau regions, espe-
cially the central and southern, received much more than the usual rainfall, nearly 2
inches being reported from Yuma, Ariz. There was no appreciable rainfall on the
Pacific coast, except in extreme northwest Washington.

The central Missouri Valley, northern New England, a large part of the Lake region,
and local areas in the east Gulf States needed rain; elsewhere east of the Rocky Moun-
tains there was sufficient moisture, portions of North Carolina having suffered from
excessive rains. Rain was badly needed on the north Pacific coast.

Local storms of considerable severity occurred in the Ohio and upper Mississippi
valleys.

August 27.—This week was cooler than usual in the valleys of the Red River of
the North and the upper Missouri, throughout the Rocky Mountain and Plateau
regions, and in California, and there was a slight deficiency in temperature in por-
tions of Oklahoma and north central Texas and over the greater part of the Florida
Peninsula. Generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions and in
the upper Missouri Valley the average daily temperature deficiency ranged from 3°
to more than 9°, the most marked departures occurring over portions of Montana and
Idaho. Over the western portions of Oregon and Washington the temperature aver-
aged slightly above the normal. From the lower Missouri Valley southward to the
west Gulf coast and in the districts east of the Mississippi River, with the exception
of Florida, the week was warmer than usual, being decidedly warm in the upper
Mississippi and Ohio valleys and Lake region and over the interior portions of the
Middle Atlantic States and New England, where the average daily temperature excess
ranged from 6° to 9°.

UNUSUALLY HEAVY RAINS IN MONTANA, UTAH, AND NEW MEXICO.

During the we2k there was less than the average precipitation in New England,
the lower Lake region, portions of the upper Lake region and upper Mississippi and
central Missouri valleys, and over a large part of the central and west Gulf States,
although limited areas in all these districts received good rains, the average amount
falling in some places. There was also less than the average rainfall in the upper
Ohio Valley, the eastern portions of Kentucky and Tennessee, the western portions
of Virginia and North Carolina, and on the north Pacific coast. The Middle and
South Atlantic States, lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, lower and upper
portions of the Missouri Valley, and the northern portion of the west Gulf States
received more than the average rainfall, very heavy rains having fallen in portions of
the Middle and South Atlantic States, lower Missouri Valley, and in portions of South
Dakota, Kansas, Missouri, and Arkansas. There was also more than the average pre-
cipitation throughout the States of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the
middle and northern Plateau regions, more than an inch of rain being reported from
portions of Utah, New Mexico, and western Montana, where such rainfalls are ver
unusual. Dry weather continued on the north Pacific coast; where rain was also muc
needed. Rainfalls unusually heavy for that region, ranging from one-half inch to more
than an inch, occurred over a large part of the Plateau districts.

TOO MUCH RAIN IN MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

September 3.—While the fore part of this week was unseasonably cool in the central
valleys and Lake region, as a whole the temperature conditions in the districts east
of the Rocky Mountains were favorable. Light frosts occurred in the Dakotas and
Minnesota, upper Michigan, and northern New England. Over the southern Plateau
region the temperature averaged unusually low, and light to heavy frosts occurred in
Utah and Arizona.

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 487

Excessive moisture proved unfavorable in the Middle Atlantic States, while the
central Gulf States and parts of the Missouri Valley and New England needed rain.
Elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains the rains were generally well distributed,
ample, and not harmful. Little or no rain fell on the Pacific coast and drought con-
tinued in Washington and Oregon.

The week was almost wholly free from local storms of severity.

UNUSUAL WARMTH THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY

September 10.—Throughout nearly the whole country the week ending September
10 was unusually warm, the mean temperature ranging from 6° to more than 12° above
the normal from the Lake region westward to Idaho. In California, southwestern
Texas, and northern New England the week averaged slightly cooler than usual.
Light frosts occurred during the fore part of the week in parts of the upper Lake
region and northern New England, and during the latter part of the week in the
southern Plateau region, eastern Oregon, and Idaho.

NEEDED RAINS ON NORTH PACIFIC COAST.

The week was practically rainless in most of the northern districts east of the Rocky
Mountains and also over the middle and southern Plateau regions and in California.
Heavy rains occurred in Texas, Tennessee, portions of the east Gulf States, and over
limited areas in Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Nerth Carolina, causing local damage
in portions of Texas and Alabama. Rain was much needed in northern New England,
psone of the Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley, and in the northern Rocky

ountain region. Good rains terminated the drought in western Washington and
showers afforded needed relief in Oregon.

September 17.—This week was abnormally cool in the Plateau and Rocky Mountain
regions, but in the districts to the eastward it averaged much warmer than usual,
although cool during the latter part in the more northerly districts. Light frosts
occurred on the 13th and l4th in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and upper Lake region, and
on the 15th at a few places in the lower Lake region and northern New England.
Freezing temperatures occurred over a large part of the Plateau and northern Rocky
Mountain regions.

Parts of New England, the Lake region, Ohio Valley, Tennessee, and central and
east Gulf States needed rain; elsewhere the rainfall was generally ample. Good rains
fell on the north Pacific coast and generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Moun-
tain regions, and very heavy rains occurred in Oklahoma, western Kansas, Nebraska,
eastern South Dakota, southern Minnesota, and western Iowa.

September 24.—Over most of the country this week averaged warmer than usual,
the temperature excess being very decided in the districts east of the Mississippi
River and from Minnesota westward to the north Pacific coast. The week was some-
what cooler than usual from the central Missouri Valley westward over the middle
Rocky Mountain region, including the northern portion of the southern Plateau
region. No freezing temperatures were reported from stations within the United
States, the lowest, 34°, being reported from the Yellowstone National Park, Wyo.,
and Northfield, Vt., and no frost occurred in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains,
but light to heavy frosts occurred in the higher portions of Nevada, Utah, Arizona,
and New Mexico.

Heavy rains occurred in the east Gulf States, in portions of the Carolinas, Tennessee,
and Kentucky, in southern New England, and over an area extending from Oklahoma
northward to eastern South Dakota. In these districts amounts ranging from 1 inch
to more than 3 inches are reported. There was more than the average over local areas
in the Lake region and central and west Gulf States. In the Middle Atlantic States
and Florida and generally throughout the Lake region, central valleys, and west
Gulf districts, the rainfall was below the average, areas of considerable extent in Texas
and the central Mississippi Valley receiving no appreciable amount. There was a
general absence of rain throughout the Plateau regions and in southern California.
Light showers giving from one-fourth to one-half inch occurred in the middle and
northern Pacific coast districts.

DAMAGE BY HIGH WINDS.
On the 17th the Carolinas suffered considerably from the high winds accompanying

the tropical storm off the south Atlantic coast on that date, and heavy rains and high
winds in Minnesota on the 20th caused much damage.

488 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DAMAGING STORM IN CENTRAL AND EAST GULF DISTRICTS.

October 1.—During this week the rainfall was very heavy from the central and east
Gulf coasts northward to the upper Mississippi Valley and upper Lake region, over
which region the total rainfall accompanying the tropical storm on the 27th and 28th
generally ranged from 2 to more than 8 inches, nearly 14 inches having fallen at Pen-
sacola. The central and east Gulf districts sustained severe losses as a result of high
winds and excessive rains accompanying this storm.

The temperature conditions were generally favorable, being above the normal over
nearly the whole country. Freezing temperatures occurred, however, in portions of
the Rocky Mountain and upper Lake regions and in northern New England, with
light to heavy, but generally harmless, frosts in the northern districts from the Mis-
souri Valley eastward during the latter part of the week. -

REVIEW OF THE SEASON.

The season from March 1 to October 1, 1906 (215 days), closed with a decided short-
age in precipitation in the central valleys and west Gulf States and over a large part of
the Lake region and south Atlantic coast districts. A marked deficiency also existed
on the north Pacific coast. In California and generally throughout the Plateau and
Rocky Mountain regions the seasonal precipitation was much above the normal. An
excess was also shown over the interior portions of the south Atlantic and east Gulf
districts and on the middle Atlantic coast.

For the period from March 1 to this time the seasonal temperature was above the
normal over the greater part of the country east of the Mississippi River, the high mean
temperatures during the last six weeks having overcome the seasonal deficiency exist-
ing over a large part of this region in the earlier part of the summer. The aver-
age daily excess was most marked in the upper Lake region and on the southern
New England and middle Atlantic coasts, where it ranged from 1° to 2° per day. The
seasonal temperature was also in excess of the normal on the north Pacific coast, on
the immediate coast of extreme southern California, and in the upper Missouri Valley.
It was below the normal in central and northern California and throughout the middle
and southern Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, the departures ranging from 1° to
2° over the middle Rocky Mountain slope and middle Plateau region.

OcTOBER.

The mean temperature for this month was below the normal over most of the country
from the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope to the south Atlantic coast, the defi-
ciency being most marked in the Gulf States, where it generally ranged from 3° to 5°
per day. A slight deficiency was also shown over the Ohio and lower Missouri valleys,
the western portion of the upper Lake region, and northern New England. Over the
greater part of the Lake region, however, and in the upper gma and Middle
Atlantic States the mean temperature differed but slightly from the normal. In
eastern North Carolina, southern Florida, and the upper Missouri Valley, and gen-
erally throughout the Plateau and Pacific coast regions the mean temperature was
above the normal, the average daily excess ranging from 3° to 5° over the northern
Plateau and the greater part of California.

The lowest minimum temperature, 6°, occurred at Devils Lake, N. Dak., and the
next lowest, 8°, at Flagstaff, Ariz. In the Plateau region, upper Missouri Valley, and
western portion of the upper Lake region the minimum temperatures generally ranged
from 12° to 20°; in the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and the
greater part of the Lake region and New England, from 20° to 30°; over the northern
portion of the Southern States, from 30° to 40°; and along the south Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, from 40° to 50°, except in extreme southern Florida and on the west Gulf coast,
where they were above 50°. Freezing temperatures extended as far south as the west-
ern portion of southern Texas and the northern portions of Alabama and Georgia.

The precipitation during October exceeded the normal over the middle Rocky
Mountain slope, central Missouri Valley, and the greater part of the central Gulf
States, and also in the lower Lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and portions of the
South Atlantic States and New England. The total fall was heaviest on the west Gulf
coast, where it ranged from 6 to 10 inches, while amounts ranging from 4 to more than 7
inches were reported from portions of the lower Lake region, Middle Atlantic States,
and southern New England. In the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio
valleys, in Florida, and in portions of New England and the South Atlantic States,
there was less than the normal precipitation, the deiciency being marked in the lower
Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and in Florida. There was more than the usual
amount in portions of western Washington, but elsewhere on the Pacific coast there
was a marked deficiency, as compared with the October normal.

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 489

HEAVY SNOW IN COLORADO AND WYOMING.

From the 19th to the 23d a severe storm prevailed in the Rocky Mountain region,
the snowfall in Colorado and Wyoming being exceptionally heavy.

NOVEMBER.

While the weather was unusually dry in California, the north Pacific coast experi-
enced unusually stormy weather during the greater part of the first half of the month,
the heavy rains causing damaging freshets in Oregon and Washington. Another
marked feature of the month’s weather was the stormy period from the 19th to the 21st
in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, very heavy rains occurring in eastern Arkansas,
northern Mississippi, the western portions of Tennessee and Kentucky, and the south-
ern portions of Indiana and Illinois. In the Atlantic coast and east Gulf districts
weather conditions were mild, with much less than the usual rainfall.

The mean temperature was above the normal over most of the country east of the
Rocky Mountains, the average daily excess being less than 3° per day, except over
portions of the upper Lake region and Middle Atlantic and central Gulf States, where
it ranged from 3° to 5° per day. In Tennessee and portions of the central Mississippi
and lower Missouri valleys and in the middle Rocky Mountain region and northern
California the mean temperature was nearly normal. Generally throughout the
Plateau regions and in southern California the month averaged colder than usual, the
deficiency in temperature ranging from 3° to 4° per day over an area covering portions
of California, Nevada, and Utah, and in portions of eastern Oregon and Washington.

The precipitation during this month was much below the average in the Atlantic
coast and Gulf districts, except in extreme southern Florida and on the southern Texas
coast, where it was much above the average. The total amount in the coast districts
from southern New England to central Florida was generally less than 2 inches, and
over a large part of this region there was less than 1 inch, making the deficiency range
from 1 inch to more than 2 inches. There was also less than the usual rainfall in the
lower Lake region and upper Ohio Valley, over portions of the central Missouri Valley,
and in Oklahoma and California. The precipitation was excessively heavy in the
lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, where it ranged from 6 to 18 inches, the
largest amounts being reported from eastern Arkansas, northern Mississippi, and
western Tennessee. Generally throughout the Plateau and north Pacific coast regions
the precipitation exceeded the average, a large excess being indicated over the south-
ern Rocky Mountain region and the greater part of Oregon and Washington.

At the close of the month thé upper Michigan Peninsula and portions of northern
Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana were covered with snow ranging in depth from
1 inch to 11 inches. Stations in portions of Nevada and Utah reported depths at the
close of the month ranging from 4 to 12 inches.

Average daily departures from normal temperatures (degrees Fahrenheit) season of 1906.

From For week ended—
Jan. 1
Section. poses >) Am May—
inclu- j | |
= 16. | 23. 30 7 Ae Hote 28
|
New England.......-..------ 41.4} —O.1} 41.1] +3.0] —1.1] 41.6] —4.0| 43.2] —0.7
Middle Atlantic States......- +0.6} 41.8] 43.5) 4+5.8}* 41.0] +5.8) -—5.1} +5.2| 41.4
South Atlantic States......-. —0.7 +0.4 +6.1 +1.1 +1.9 +6.5 —7.5 +3.5 —1.4
_ Florida Peninsula......-....-. —1:2] —2.7] 41.7} -—0.3] 41.3] +3.0}] —0.7] +0.7| —0.3

Eastern Gulf States......... —2.3 +1.6 +3.2 —1.1 +2.9 +3.9 —8.4 +2.5 —2.1
Western Gulf States......... —1.5] 40.6) 40.4) —2.3) 43.4] 41.7] °—4.8] +2.0] +0.8
Ohio Valley and Tennessee...| —1.2] +2.8] +3.9 0.0} +3.9] +2.3} —6.9| +5.8] 43.9
Lower Lake Region.-.-...-.--- 41.2] 41.9] +4.4}) 42.5) 40.5] 40.6] -—5.9|) +4.1] 44.4
Upper Lake Region.......... +2.0] +3.27 43.7] +5.3] +3.4) —0.1] —3.4] +6.4| —0.9
North Dakota. ...-.-.-.------ +3.6| +5.3] 41.0] 49.3] 46.3] —4.0]} 42.7) +0.7] —8.3
Upper Mississippi Valley coher +0.1] +3.9} 41.4] 43.6] +5.3| —1.6] -—1.4] +5.5] 41.3
Missouri Valley.........---.- +1.7| 42.2] 40.4] 45.5] +46] —7.3] 43.7] +7.0) 40.1
Northern Slope. ....-----.-..- 42.4] 41.3] 42.1} 49.3] 41.7] —3.0] 46.1] +3.1| —6.0
Middle /Slope.--..2----~-.<--2 +0.9} —1.7] +0.7} +4+4.2] 42.7] -—2.2] 41.5] 4+6.3| —0.5
Southern Slope.....-...--...- —0.7| —2.5] 40.5} —3.5) 44.0} -—1.5] -—1.0| 41.7] —0.7
Southern Plateau...........-. +1.2] —3.5] +0.8| 43.7] —4.7} —2.5| 40.3] +4+0.7| —5.3
Middle Plateau...-.....--.-.- +1.4] —1.2}] +1.4] 47.2] —3.8] 41.4] 43.5] -—0.3| —4.5
Northern Plateau....-...... +1.4] 42.0] +2.0] +7.8| +0.2! +2.2] +66] -—3.3| —5.2
North Pacific Coast Region..| +1.9] +3.7| +1.6| +5.3| +1.9| 42.6] 41.9] —3.4] —2.3
Middle Pacific Coast Region..| +1.7] +3.0] 42.0] +3.0|} -—3.0] 40.3] 40.3) —5.3}) —6.7
South Pacific Coast Region..| +2.0| —0.5| 41.0) +5.0} —5.0] 41.0] —1.2| -—2.2} —4.8

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

490

) season of 1906—

Continued.

Average daily departures from normal temperatures (degrees Fahrenheit

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WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906.

491

Departures from normal precipitation (inches and hundredths) season of 1906.

From For week ended—
Jan. 1
i to April— May—
Section. Apr. 2, Pp ay
=
eee 9 16. 23. 30. 7 14. 21. 28.
New England........... : E +1.22 | —0.66 | —0.37 | +0.17 | —0.49 | —0.66 | +0. 95
Middle Atlantic States. . : +1.16 | —0.58 | —0.58 +40.13 | —0.63 | —0.72 | +0.26
South Atlantic States : 5 +0.09 | —0.69 | —0.51 +0.06 | —0.52 | —0.77 | +1. 48
Florida Peninsula..........-. . ; +0.70 | —0.27 | —0.41 —0.60 | —0.25 | —0.22 | +3.20
Eastern Gulf States......... 2 —0.26 | —0.97 | —0.68 | +1.08 | —0.66 | —0.61 | +0.37
Western Gulf States : \ —0.18 | —0.31 | —0.70 +0.89 | —0.89 | —0.23 | —0. 45
Ohio Valley and Tennessee. ..| —3.40 | —0.22 | —0.16 | —0.77 | —0.52 | +0.17 | —0.86 | —0.78 | +0.22
Lower Lake Region. ......... —2.82 | +0.12 | +0.32 | —0.37 | —0.45 | —0.21 | +0.14 | —0.74 | —0. 45
Upper Lake Region.......... +0.18 | +0.12 | +0.01 | —0.38 | —0.35 | —0.05 | —0.13 | —0.52 | +0.02
— DEROte S528. ete —0. —0.11 | +0.30 | —0.50 | —0.32 | —0.05 0.00 | +0.56 | +1.28
Upper Mississippi Valley. -..- +0.65 | +0.32 | —0.27 | —0.71 | —0.53 | —0.20 | —0.28 | —0.49 | +0.76
Snr) be fC) er +0.41 | +0.13 | +0.14 | —0.65 | —0.11 | —0.02 | —0.76 | —0.64 | +0. 25
Northern Slope .............. +0.39 | —0.02 | —0.14 | —0.25 | +0.26 | —0.02 | —0.26 | —0.16 | +1.14
Middl Slope = 32202. 2.-2--2--- —0.39 | +0.59 | +0.21 | —0.28 | +0.33 | —0.40 | —0.81 | —0.48 | +0.16
Southern Slope .............. —1.22 | +0.85 | —0.28 | +0.58 | —0.48 | —0.34 | —0.32 | —0.51 0.00
Southern Plateau ..........-- +0.72 | +0.36 | —0.04 | +0.06 | 0.00 | —0.05 | —0.06 | +0.06 | —0.06
Middis PIgtean -............. +1.45 | +0.29 | +0.03 | —0.09 | —0.23 | —0.02 | +0.34 | —0.16 | +0.51
Northern Plateau .........-.-. —0.25 | —0.27 | —0.20 | —0.28 | —0.08 | —0.33 | —0.26 | +0.09 | +0.50
North Pacific Coast Region..| —5.20 | —0.66 | —0.82 | —0.73 | —0.18 | —0.73 | —0.13 | +0.48 | +0. 26
Middle Pacific Coast Region..| +5.87 | — 0.63 | —0.54 | —0.46 | +0.66 | —0.50 | —0.28 | +0.32 | +1.79
South Pacific Coast Region..| +5.08 | —0.16 | —0.28 | —0.28 | +0.31 | —0.06 | +0.17 | —0.07 | +1.69
For week ended—
Section. June— July—
4 1h He es Ee 25. 2 9. 16. 23. 30.
|
MewsenPiand -.........--.-.- +0.81 | +0.16 | +0.53 | +0.22 | +0.09 | +0.22 | —0.22 | —0.22 | +0.27
Middle Atlantic States. ...... +0.09 | +0.13 | +0.52 | +0.42 | —0.31 | +0.14 | +0.12 | +0.92 | +0.39
South Atlantic States......-. —0.41 | +0.14 | +3.56 | —0.59 —0.50 | +0.51 | +0.33 | +0.49 | +0. 42
Florida Peninsula..........- —0.76 | +1.18 | +2.07 | +0.16 | —1.41 | +0.96 | —0.13 | —0.97 | +2.36
Eastern Gulf States........- —0.61 | —0.59 | +0.63 | —1.08 | +0.02 | —0.02 | +0.85 | +1.08 | +0.01
Western Gulf States......... +0.19 | —0.81 | —0.76 | —0.12 | +0.14 | +0.04 | +0.32 | +0.34 ! +0.37
Ohio Valley and Tennessee...| —0.06 | +0.14 | —0.18 | —0.08 | —0.47 | +0.02 | —0.03 | +1.32 | —0.02
Lower Lake Region......... —0.80 | +0.54 | +0.10 | —0.29 | —0.19 | +1.03 | —0.42 | +0.31 | +0.24
LU ted Lake Region.......--. —0.52 | +0.41 | —0.59 | —0.14 | +0.36 | —0.63 | —0.09 | —0.19 | +0.37
ferte Dakota. ...-..-.------ | +0.40 | +1. 42 | —0.39 | —0.46 | +0.86 | —0.74 | —0.20 | —0.40 | —0.16
Uppers Mississippi Valley .....| —0.43 | —0.07 | —0.89 | —0.09 | +0.17 | —0.65 | —0.40 | —0.28 | —0.01
SOUT VW Alley ...=---=---.2- +0.04 | —0.66 | —0.14 | +0.34 | +0.29 | —0.80 | +0.03 | +0.19 | —0. 43
Northern Slope ............-- +0.12 | +0.23 | —0.25 | —0.02 | —0.22 | —0.36 | +0.10 | —0.27 | —0.08
BHOUGID PONG... 220.-+-5---~-- —0.32 | —0.56 | +0.10 | —0.12 | —0.05 | —0.34 | +1.00 | —0.10 | +0.36
Southern Slope ...........-... +1.41 | —0.53 | —0.50 | —0.31 | —0.56 | +0.08 | +0.41 | +0.11 | —0.22
Southern Plateau .........-.. 0.00 | —0.07 | —0.06 | —0.08 | —0.12 | +0.47 | —0.04 | —0.19 | —0.21
Middle Plateau .-....-.------ +0.18 | —0.01 | —0.04 | —0.09 | +0.12 | +0.24 | —0.02 | —0.06 | +0.16
Northern Plateau ........... +1.67 | —0.02 | —0.08 | —0.24 | +0.15 | —0.04 | —0.12 | —0.03 | —0.07
North Pacific Coast Region..| —0.03 | +0.38 | +0.61 | —0.39 | +0.20 | —0.25 | —0.08 | —0.16 | —0.16
Middle Pacific Coast Region-.| +0.08 | +0.03 | +0.22 | —0.09 | +0.07 | —0.03 0.00 0.00 0. 00
South Pacific Coast Region..| +0.10 | —0.02 —0.01 0. 00 0. 00 0.00 0.00 0. 00 0.00
!
For week ended—
Section. August— | September— Gelee
SS ee eG ae Ne 3 10. i ee it
New. England. ...:....--5..-2 +0.11 | —0.35 | —0.87 | —0.22 | +0.08 | —0.54 | —0.43 | +0.25 —0.31
Middle Atlantic States. ...... +0.35 | +1.07 | —0.12 | +0.43 | +0.46 | —0.82 | —0.34 | —0.52 —0.39
South Atlantic States....... +0.38 | —0.73 | —0.24 | +0.01 | +0.50 | —0.47 | —0.76 | +0.12 —0.26
Florida Peninsula........... +0.91 | +0.40 | —0.76 | +0.78 | —0.80 | —0.92 | —1.37 | —1.30 +1.98
Eastern Gulf States......... —0.71 | —0.26 | +0.25 0.00 | —0.31 | +0.78 | —0.36 | +0.59 +45.52
Western Gulf States......... —0.40 | +0.67 | —0.15 | —0.06 | —0.65 | +0.30 | —0.51 | —0.71 +0.32
Ohio Valléy and Tennessee...) —0.59 | +0.40 | +0.34 | —0.09 | —0.25 | —0.13 | —0.26 | +0.42 +41.63
Lower Lake Region......... —0.35 | +1.06 | —0.38 | +0.20 | —0.13 | —0.69 | —0.66 | —0.16 +0.79
Upper Lake Region...-....... —0.14 | +0.17 | —0.43 | +0.74 | —0.28 | —0.79 | +0.07 | +0.23 +0.30
MgO AKOLS . .- 22252522224 +0.53 | —0.09 | —0.05 | +0.45 | —0.32 | —0.30 | +0.42 | —0.04 —0.18
Ls Lo Mississippi Valley ....| +0.03 | +0.97 | +0.48 | +0.02 | +0.03 | —0.51 | +0.01 | —0.47 +1.02
BeOra alley |. .5 cee +1.27 | +0.67 | —0.57 | +0.54 | —0.10 | —0.49 | +1.42 | +0.39 —0.04
Northern Slope...........--- +0.55 | +0.23 | +0.02 | +0.64 | —0.08 | —0.22 | +1.09 | —0.04 —0.21
Middle/Slopes-2=- 2... ..2 38 +0.01 | +0.20 | —0.28 | +0.61 | +0.92 | —0.22 | +1.86 | +0.51 | —0.22
Southern Slope:....-.-...2..- +0. 22 | +1.85 | —0.46 | +0.65 | +0.19 | +0.10 | —0.22 | —0.35 —0.24
Southern Plateau............ +0. 48 | —0.15 | +0.24 | +0.20 | —0.19 | —0.19 | +0.12 | —0.14 | +0.12
Middl6-Piateau<. 2-5 ---22-2-- +0.05 | —0.09 | +0.18 | +0.43 | +0.14 | —0.16 | +0.66 | —0.17 —0.03
Northern Plateau.........--. +0.02 | +0.24 | +0.11 | +0.11 | —0.13 | —0.05 | +0.23 | —0 20 —0.22
North Pacific Coast Region..| —0.14 | —0.04 | —0.09 | —0.25 | —0.39 | +1.60 | +0.62 | —0.24 —0.32
Middle Pacific Coast Region...) 0.00 0.00 | —0.01 | —0.02 |, —0.05 | —0.03 | —0.03 | +0.02 —0.28
South Pacific Coast Region...| —0.02 | —0.02 0.00 | +0.02 0.00 0.00 | +0.02 | —0.04 —0.05

492 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 1906.

By A. D. Metvin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

In spite of the violent agitation which prevailed during a considerable portion of tha
year against conditions at some of the large packing houses, and which seriously affected
the trade in certain classes of meat products, it can truly be said that 1906 was in most
respects a highly successful year for the live-stock industry. The public prejudice
against the lower grades of meat products reacted in favor of the better grades, and the
prices obtained for the latter reached a very remunerative point for the producer.

INCREASE IN PRICES.

As regards the cattle trade, prices have risen all along the line. The average price
of native cattle at the Chicago stock yards for the year was $5.60, as against $5.05 in
1905. This is an increase of 55 cents on every 100 pounds of live weight, or 11 per cent.
Texas cattle rose from $4.20 to $4.45, and western cattle made the highest gain of any,
their average going from $3.80 to $4.40. Another instance of the prosperous condition
of the cattle trade may be cited in connection with the public sales of pure-bred beef
cattle in the United States during 1906, which totaled close upon 7,000 animals—an
advance of fully 10 per cent on 1905; and there was also a considerable increase in the
average price per head.

Hog growers had a phenomenally successful year. The hogs sold at Chicago during
the year, according to a good market authority, realized $15,000,000 more to the raisers
than was received in 1905, and the average price on the market was an even $1 per
hundredweight more than in 1905—an increase of 19 per cent. Sheep raisers had a good
year also, although their increases were not as great as the preceding.

INCREASE IN EXPORTS.

While the home market thus maintained a highly satisfactory condition, the export
trade in animal products reached the highest amount yet attained, the total value of
these exports for 1906 being $296 ,527,588, an advance of $23,144,694 over 1905. Previ-
ously the highest total value of animal products exported in one year had been
$286,826,152, in 1901. There wasa heavy falling off in exports of canned meats in 1906,
due, of course, to the agitation before mentioned, but it is gratifying that this decrease
was more than offset by gains in other classes of meats. The public, both foreign and
domestic, has evidently discriminated very carefully between canned meats, which
were most affected by the insanitary conditions at packing houses, and fresh meat,
the wholesomeness of which was never seriously questioned in all the discussion of
packing-house conditions.

NUMBERS AND VALUES OF FARM ANIMALS, JANUARY 1, 1907.

The prosperous condition and the vastness of the live-stock industry are well shown
by the annual estimate of the number and value of farm animals on farms and ranges
January 1, 1907, by the Bureau of Statistics of this Department, as follows:

Number and value of farm animals in the United States, January 1, 1997.

Per cent

com-
Average
Farm animals. Number. oc price per Value.
January head.
, 1, 1906
FLOTSOS 22. bei 3p Sa dems teens Mae ate aes eae 19, 747, 000 100. 9 $93.51 | $1,846, 578, 000
IMUIES. 08 woos oe chic cht orc saga ee ae etemen Gea ohne 3, 817, 000 102. 5 112. 16 428, 064, 000
Mich COWS) 5: <\05.2b sua nietede ce tenet ee one ee 20, 968, 000 102. 4 31.00 645, 497, 000
Ofher'cattle ... 2.2. -icbasce qeeeee a aaeeeen eh lee ee 51, 566, 000 98. 0 17.10 881, 557, 000
NOCD. tencisioninc cits skrec cot 6 Sten oa ne eee ae a ene 53, 240, 000 103.0 3. 84 204, 210, 000
SWAN Sela Lahie Heisei sale Deno Se ere ee ise rene eee 54, 794, 000 99. 5 7. 62 417, 791, 000

The total value reaches the stupendous sum of $4,423,697,000. The above state-
ment shows an increase during 1906 in the number of all classes of animals except
“other cattle” and swine, and the decrease in swine was insignificant. A striking
enhancement in the value of farm animals during the year is shown by comparing the

THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 1906. 493

average prices per head as estimated on January 1, 1906, and on January 1, 1907. The
increase per head in each class is as follows: Horses, $12.79; mules, $13.85; milch cows,
$1.56; other cattle, $1.25; sheep, $0.30; swine, $1.44.

LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITIONS.

Live-stock shows are an important educational factor for improvement in breeding.
and feeding. The two principal exhibitions of the year were the ‘‘ American Royal,”
at-Kansas City, in October, and the ‘‘ International,’’ at Chicago, December 1 to 8. At
each of these shows there was brought together a splendid collection of fine breeding
and fat stock. In number and high quality of exhibits and in magnitude of attend-
ance the International Exposition of 1906 surpassed all previous exhibitions. There
were on exhibition in this show 6,043 animals, as follows:

Exhibits at the International Exposition at Chicago, December, 1906.

Carload exhibits.

Individual
exhibits. | Number of | Number of
carloads. animals.

Class.

CLS EE TRE aes an SA a ek Ph i he ed le en ee 1, 067 97 1, 455
MipreereeuEDUIG T= 202 ihe cn kc cictsedecies okcoscckcm rectenea tga -fececctccstce 39 780
UTD LE |. SS 2 Se a es Seo eee See ae es ay ee oe Pa COO eee Sr scie Sealy Pa eed.
UU ERAES eS ia Al a ciniah « oc cywie sie oem a cies tan dak ence nes 897 17 877
Ree eee oe oe ein ea a se ee ae Sie ned tin eee onic nao 258 2 100

BE ee Sie Soe, cele sda tt ww be cme dus chine hah eee bee oe Soe 2,831 155 3,212

Most of the animals were in the younger classes, and the grand champion of the show
was a Hereford calf 11 months old.

CHANGE IN LAW REGARDING TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE STOCK.

The statute commonly known as the twenty-eight hour law was changed by act of
Congress approved June 29, 1906. The old law, passed in 1873, prohibited the con-
finement in cars, boats, or other vessels, fora longer period than twenty-eight consecu-
tive hours, of cattle, sheep, swine, or other animals in transit from one State to another,
without unloading the same for rest, water, and feeding for at least five hours, unless
the animals were carried in cars, boats, or vessels in which they could and did have
proper feed, water, space, and opportunity to rest. For some years there had been
many violations of this law by railroads, despite the Department’s efforts to enforce
it. While the object of the law was good, in many cases it was a greater hardship to
the animals and to the shippers to have the law complied with than to carry the ani-
mals on to destination without unloading. At length the dissatisfaction on the part
of shippers led to the enactment of the new law, which permits an extension of
the time to thirty-six hours on the written request of the owner or person in custody
of the shipment. This request must be separate and apart from any printed bill of
lading or other railroad form. Sheep, on account of their well-known objection to
moving at night, are not required to be unloaded during the night, but the time of
their confinement may not be extended beyond thirty-six hours. In most other
respects the new law is similar to the old, though occasion was taken to correct some
defects of the old law. The penalty for each violation is from $100 to $500.

THE MEAT INSPECTION.

An important event of the year was the extension of the meat-inspection service
- Se Bureau of Animal Industry, consequent upon the passage of the law of June 30,
1906.

As the conditions at the Chicago stock yards and packing houses have been so
prominently before the public, it may be well to point out certain facts regarding
the meat-inspection service as conducted by the Bureau.

Until the passage of the new meat-inspection law on the last day of the fiscal year
(June 30, 1906), the inspection was carried on under the act of March 3, 1891, as
amended by the act of March 2, 1895. That law provided for—

1. The inspection of all live cattle which were intended for export or whose car-
casses or products were intended for export.

494 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2. (a) The mandatory ante-mortem inspection of cattle, sheep, and hogs which
were subjects of interstate commerce and which were about to be slaughtered at
slaughterhouses, canning, salting, packing, or rendering establishments in any State
or Territory, the carcasses or products of which were to be transported and sold for
human consumption in any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia.

(b) The additional permissive post-mortem examination of carcasses of all cattle,
sheep, and hogs about to be prepared for human consumption at any slaughterhouse,
canning, salting, packing, or rendering establishment in any State or Territory or
the District of Columbia, and which were the subjects of interstate commerce.

In other words, the ante-mortem inspection was made mandatory, while the post-
mortem examination was only discretionary.

Some of the defects and limitations of this law should be noted to give an idea of
the disadvantages under which the inspection was conducted. In the first place,
the law required the ante-mortem inspection of all cattle, sheep, and swine slaughtered
at certain classes of establishments the carcasses or products of which were to enter
interstate commerce, but no specific provision was made for funds with which to
perform this work, and the annual appropriation had never been sufficient to enable
the Bureau to cover all establishments carrying on an interstate business. Indeed,
many establishments which applied for inspection had to be refused on aceount of
lack of money to carry on the work. ;

While the law authorized the marking of meats and products which on inspection
were found free from disease and wholesome and prohibited the interstate shipment
of meats and products found diseased and unwholesome, it made no provision and
gave no authority for marking and rendering unfit for food purposes the diseased and
unwholesome carcasses and products. As a matter of fact, however, it has long been
the practice of the Bureau to require the destruction of all condemned carcasses and
parts, though, in case of the refusal of the proprietor to comply with such orders,
there was no remedy except to withdraw inspection.

It is very doubtful whether the law gave any authority for following up meats after
they had once been inspected and passed immediately after slaughter or for con-
demning any such meat which might afterwards become unwholesome or unclean
before or during the process of canning or packing or before being placed on the mar-
ket. But whether the law gave any such authority or not is a purely academic ques-
tion, since the lack of funds made it impossible to extend the inspection to cover all
the processes of curing, canning, packing, etc. No authority whatever to control the
sanitation of the establishments or to prevent adulteration or the use of chemicals
and preservatives was given by the law.

The inspection was therefore practically confined to the ante-mortem inspection of
animals and the inspection of the carcasses immediately after slaughter. The meat
found free from disease and otherwise wholesome at the time of this post-mortem in-
spection was properly marked, and that found diseased or unwholesome was destroyed.
There is no question that this inspection was efficient as far as it went and that it went
as far as the law and the limited appropriations allowed. In all the recent agitation
the wholesomeness of the inspected fresh meat was not seriously called into question.
The disclosures of unsatisfactory conditions related almost wholly to the canned and
prepared meats, the use of preservatives, and the insanitary condition and methods
of the packing establishments—matters over which the Bureau has had no control
whatever under the law.

The new law of June 30, 1906, greatly enlarged the powers of the Secretary of Agri-
culture and made a permanent annual appropriation of $3,000,000 to pay the cost of
meat inspection. With the additional authority and money thus granted the service
has been greatly extended and strengthened.

The most important changes in the meat inspection brought about by the operation
of the new law may be summarized as follows:

(1) The number of establishments at which inspection is carried on increased from
154 on June 30 to 644 on December 31.

(2) Previously the law provided for inspection only before and at the time of slaugh-
ter. The inspection is now extended to all departments of the abattoirs and packing
houses and covers all the various stages and processes of preparation, curing, canning,
packing, etc.

(3) From no control whatever of sanitation the service has been extended to com-
plete control. As a result improvements have been made at practically all estab-
lishments, ranging from slight modifications to almost complete reconstruction.
Weekly reports on sanitation are received.

(4) The old law required inspection only at houses doing export beef business.
The new law requires inspection for all interstate as well as export business, except
in the case of farmers and retail butchers and dealers supplying their customers.

THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 1906. 495

(5) Previously there had been no control over transportation of meats and meat
food products. Under the new law there is complete control over interstate trans-
portation. Every shipment must be covered by a certificate showing either that the
meat has been inspected and passed or that it is exempt from inspection.

(6) Instead of no authority over trade labels, the Department is now empowered to
prevent fraudulent and misleading labeling of meat products.

(7) From no control over processes of preparation of meat food products and the use
of chemicals, preservatives, etc., the Department has complete control over such mat-
ters. Careful chemical examinations are made to enforce this feature of the new law.

(8) Formerly it was possible to withdraw animals that had been rejected at ante-
mortem inspection and have them slaughtered elsewhere for local use. This is no
longer permitted. All animals must be slaughtered and properly disposed of at the
establishment for which bought and where the inspection takes place.

It should be remembered, however, that the Federal jurisdiction is limited to inter-
state and foreign commerce, and that this inspection can legally be applied only to
establishments doing an interstate or foreign business. Asa matter of fact, the Depart-
ment insists upon inspecting the entire output of each establishment at which its
inspection is maintained, even though the greater part of the product is to be consumed
within the State; but the Federal inspection does not and can not reach the establish-
ments doing business exclusively within a State. Some of the worst conditions have
been found at places of the latter kind. Such places must be looked after by the State
and municipal authorities. In the absence of an efficient local inspection the con-
sumer should see that meat bears the Government label.

ERADICATION OF THE CATTLE TICK.

The year 1906 also witnessed the inauguration of systematic work by cooperation
between the United States Department of Agriculture and State authorities for the
eradication of the tick which transmits the infection of Texas fever of cattle. For
many years this tick and the infection which it spreads have been a great handicap to
the live-stock industry of the South. It is estimated that the tick 1s responsible for
about $40,000,000 of loss annually to the people in the infected country, and that it
also lowers the assets of the South by an additional $23,250,000.

On June 30, 1906, Congress appropriated $82,500 for the Department to undertake
the work of tick eradication in cooperation with State authorities. Although the time
was short for effective work during that season, the results accomplished were very
gratifying and encouraging. They indicate that the eradication of the tick is entirely
possible, though it is recognized as a large and difficult undertaking—one that will
require several years and considerable money for its accomplishment. It is believed
that, as a result of the work during 1906, forty whole counties and parts of eleven other
counties, with an area larger than the State of Virginia, can be safely released from

uarantine. In some States adequate laws are lacking, and in some no funds are avail-
able for such work. These conditions must be remedied if the work is to be continued
successfully. The eradication of the cattle tick will be of incalculable advantage to
the South and of great benefit to the entire country, and it is believed that money
wisely spent in this work will be a splendid investment for the States and the Nation.
An important conference of Federal and State representatives engaged in the work of
tick eradication was held at Nashville, Tenn., December 5 and 6, 1906.

CONTROL OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

The work of eradicating sheep scab and cattle mange in the West was continued
vigorously during the year by the Bureau of Animal Industry, with the cooperation
of State and Territorial authorities. These diseases are being gradually brought under
control. Already Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, and Arizona have been practically freed
from sheep scab, and the disease has been greatly diminished in other States. Such
satisfactory progress has not been made, however, against cattle mange on account of
the lack of the same hearty cooperation from cattle owners that is received from sheep
owners. This work consists principally of inspection and dipping on the range and
at shipping points, the object being to strike the evil at its source and thus prevent the
contamination of the channels of interstate commerce and the spread of the infection.
This work means an immense saving to the stockmen of the country. The eradica-
tion of sheep scab results in the production of a much larger amount of wool than is
possible when the disease is present. One flockmaster with 40,000 head of sheep has
stated that the dipping increased the yield of wool of his sheep 14 pounds a head,
which, at the value of 20 cents a pound, amounted to $12,000. In many flocks the
proportion of increase has been much greater.

496 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The free distribution of blackleg vaccine to stock owners by the Bureau of Animal
Industry has been continued, with the usual good results. During the year 1,279,280
doses were prepared and sent out. The losses among vaccinated calves are extremely
small, and the prevalence of the disease is being gradually reduced.

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF DISEASES.

The scientific investigation of animal diseases by the Bureau of Animal Industry
yielded results of especial importance regarding tuberculosis and hog cholera during
1906.

The urgent need to strengthen the fight against tuberculosis, especially among cattle,
is becoming more apparent every day, and it is believed that the eyes of the breeders
and feeders of animals are opening to this fact. It has been shown by the work of
the Buréau of Animal Industry that the most important factor in the dissemination of
tubercle bacilli by cattle is their feces. Heretofore it has been supposed that milk
was not likely to contain the germs of tuberculosis unless the cow’s udder was affected.
Experiments made at the Bureau Experiment Station have demonstrated, however,
that the excrement of tuberculous cattle is usually heavily charged with tubercle
bacilli, and that with the usual methods of milking the milk easily becomes contami-
nated by particles of bacilli-laden manure. In this way a single tuberculous cow may
be the means of infecting the milk of an entire herd.

It has also been demonstrated that probably the most fruitful causes of tuberculosis
in hogs are the common practices of allowing these animals to follow cattle in the feed
lot and feeding them on skimmed milk or separator refuse. The alarming increase of
tuberculosis among hogs is almost entirely traceable to their association with affected
cattle. The sterilization of all skimmed or separated milk from public creameries
before it is fed to calves or pigs is recommended.

The relative importance of dried and pulverized tuberculous material as compared
with that which is moist and fresh has received some attention, and it has been pointed
out that the danger from the latter has been undervalued, mainly because dried and
pulverized material is in better harmony with the commonly accepted respiratory
theory of infection with tuberculosis. The respiratory theory has been shown to be
unnecessary to account for the frequency with which tuberculosis is an infection of
the lung, and it has been shown that the tubercle bacilli usually reach the lung irre- ~
spective of the manner of their introduction into the body. For instance, tubercu-
losis of the lungs was produced by inoculating hogs in the tip of the tail.

The tuberculin test, with proper precautions, was proved to be about as accurate
with hogs as with cattle. Reliable results were obtained in 97 per cent of the animals
tested. It is necessary, however, to keep the hogs very quiet before and during the
test to prevent rise of temperature from causes other than the tuberculin.

The scientific investigations of the year, both by the Bureau and by outside investi-
gators, have tended to confirm the view that human and bovine tuberculosis can not
be classed as two distinct diseases, that tubercle bacilli of persons and of animals are
not distinct and separate varieties but vary only as a result of adapting themselves to
the different environments encountered in different species of animals, and that
measures to protect persons against infection with tuberculosis from animals are
necessary.

Whether regarded from the standpoint of protecting human health or of promoting
the welfare of the live-stock industry, it is highly important for our farmers, stock
raisers, and dairymen to eliminate tuberculosis from their herds.

Tor many years hog cholera has been a cause of heavy loss to the farmer and a puzzle
to the scientist. Two or three years ago the Bureau of Animal Industry discovered
that the cause of the most acute and virulent forms of the disease is a virus that can
pass through the finest filter and is invisible under the microscope. This has been
confirmed by later experiments by the Bureau and by European scientists. During
the past year the efforts of the Bureau have been directed toward developing a vaccine
or serum which will prevent and cure the disease. A successful remedy has been
worked out in an experimental way, and efforts are being made to adapt it to practical
and general use. This method has been patented by Dr. Marion Dorset, chief of the
Biochemic Division of the Bureau, in such a way as to allow anybody in the United
States the right to its use free of royalty.

Some valuable work in the investigation of internal parasites of sheep was done by
the Bureau in 1906. The prevalence of these parasites has done great damage to the
sheep industry in the eastern half of the United States, and has caused thousands of
farmers to abandon sheep raising. “By carefully studying one of the most trouble-
some of these parasites (the stomach worm, Hemonchus contortus) and establishing

THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 1906. 497

the principal facts in its life history, the Bureau has placed before sheep raisers infor-
mation (Circular No. 102, Bureau of Animal Industry) which will enable them very
largely to prevent its ravages. Experiments indicate that it is entirely feasible to
raise lambs free from this and some other injurious parasites.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.

The experiments in breeding horses in Colorado, conducted cooperatively by the
Bureau of Animal Industry and the Colorado Experiment Station, have attracted
considerable attention. The object is to develop from native stock a strain of carriage
horses. The stud is headed by the stallion Carmon 32917, American Trotting Register.
The first crop of foals came during the spring of 1906, and while it is early to pass an
opinion on them, they show the stallion to be a good investment as a sire.

Experiments in breeding Morgan horses were begun in Vermont in 1906 by coopera-
tion between the Bureau and the Vermont Experiment Station, with the object of
preventing the loss of the Morgan blood, preserving the type, and at the same time
increasing the size over that of the old Morgan. Nine mares have been purchased,
and a stallion will probably be added.

During the year experiments were also begun by the Bureau, in cooperation with
the Wyoming Experiment Station, in breeding range sheep. In spite of the great
development and prosperity of the sheep industry of the West, breeding methods are
not systematic, and most breeders are continually crossing, the result being a lack of
uniformity in the stock and, to a certain extent, a failure to attain as high a standard
as might otherwise be possible. The requirement of the range is a breed of sheep that
will yield a profitable clip of wool, produce good mutton lambs, and that will stand
flocking in large numbers. It is believed to be possible to combine these character-
istics in one breed of sheep, and this is the object of the experiments.

The Bureau being urged to undertake experiments to counteract the supposed
decline in fecundity of Poland-Cbina sows, made a careful study of the pedigree records
for several years, with the surprising result that the average litter was found to have
increased from 7.04 pigs in 1882-1886 to 7.52 in 1898-1902. Similar studies for the
Duroc-Jerseys showed the rate to be practically stationary at about 9.25.

The following cooperative experiments are also under way and are progressing satis-
factority: Animal nutrition, studied with the respiration calorimeter (Pennsylvania);
peef production in the South (Alabama); poultry breeding and management (Maine),
and turkey breeding with the object of developing resistance to the disease known
as blackhead (Rhode Island). The Maine poultry experiments have shown that
the egg-laying capacity of hens may be increased by selective breeding and proper
feeding. Several of the hens have laid more than 200 eggs in one year. The success
of this work means a substantial addition to the income of the farmers of the country.
During the year the Bureau of Animal Industry began experiments near Washington,
D. C., in feeding poultry to test the relative values of moist mash, dry mash, and
so-called self-feeding hoppers.

PEDIGREE REGISTRATION.

The regulations of the Department of Agriculture with regard to the pedigree regis-
tration of animals imported for breeding purposes were radically changed during the
year, new regulations having been issued as Bureau of Animal Industry Order No.
136, effective July 1.

The tariff laws of the United States permit a citizen to import animals free of duty
for breeding purposes if they are purebred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered
in the books of record established for the breed, the Secretary of Agriculture being
authorized ‘‘to determine and certify to the Secretary of the Treasury what are recog-
nized breeds and purebred animals.’’ To carry out these provisions the Secretary
of Agriculture certifies certain pedigree-record associations to the Secretary of the
Treasury, and only animals which are recorded in these books are entitled to free
entry. Foreign books of record are certified only as the associations controlling them
may be affiliated with American associations, except in cases where a recognized
foreign breed may hzve no book of record in the United States, in which case the
foreign book is certified direct. It follows, of course, that in practically all cases only
animals registered in American books can be imported free. The Department closely
supervises the certified American associations, requires them to submit annual reports,
and examines their books when necessary. The certification of the Secretary of Agri-
culture adds considerable prestige to an association doing business in this country,
and two States (Wisconsin and Iowa) have passed laws requiring stallions standing as
purebred to be registered in a studbook so certified.

3 «a1906——32

‘

498 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

Results of great practical value to the dairy industry were accomplished by the work
of the Dairy Division during 1906.

One experiment, begun in 1905 and concluded in 1906, consisted in making about
5,000 pounds of butter under different conditions and carrying it in storage for several
months at different temperatures. The conclusion was that light salting and low tem-
peratures and the use of sweet cream give much the best results for storage butter.
Further experiments with the storage of about 3,000 pounds of butter made in 1906 are
still in progress.

The quality and character of butter received at some of the principal markets are
studied and defects reported to the makers and creamery owners. In the beginning
this work was looked upon rather skeptically by the butter merchants, but now they
are heartily in favor of its continuance because of the consequent improvement in
butter and because it helps to establish confidence between the butter merchant and
the butter maker. Over a thousand creameries have been assisted in this way, many
of them to their material advantage.

Coating butter tubs with paraffin was found to be a good method of preventing mold,
and a simple and rapid method of determining the water content of butter was devised.
Both these methods were described in publications issued during the year. The
determination of water in butter is a matter of much interest and importance to
the butter maker and dealer, and the methods previously in use have,required expen-
sive apparatus, skill to operate it, and several hours to make a determination. By the
use of the new method, requiring apparatus costing but a few dollars, anyone of average
intelligence may make moisture determinations, the time required being from fifteen
to twenty minutes.

Investigations in cooperation with the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station regarding
the manufacture of European varieties of cheese have demonstrated that the Camem-
bert and Roquefort types of cheese can be made successfully and profitably in the
United States. Experiments in the manufacture and storage of American cheese
have shown the value of cold curing to meet the growing demand for mild cheese.

A splendid object lesson in the value of sanitary dairying was given at the Chicago
dairy show in February, 1906. Milk and cream were shipped hundreds of miles and
kept for weeks with no means of preservation other than cleanliness and cold.

Recent improvements in milking machines have led to their introduction and prac-
tical use in some of the larger dairies of the country. Over a thousand of these
machines are reported to be in use, and there are indications that they may come into
general use in the near future and become an important economical factor in the dairy
industry. The Dairy Division has made a careful study of the milking machine from
both the practical and the scientific standpoint, and a preliminary report has been
published. These investigations are being continued.

The Dairy Division has also made and is making a study of all classes of dairy build-
ings, such as creameries, cheese factories, barns, ice houses, milk houses, dairy refrig-
erating plants, etc. A limited number of plans have been drawn of these various
types of buildings for individuals in various parts of the country, with a view to study-
ing the conditions necessary to be met and fulfilled in buildings for these purposes.

The inspection of renovated butter and of the factories producing the same under
the law of May 2, 1902, has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality of this
product. The general sanitary condition of factories has improved materially from
past years, and there have been fewer violations of the law and regulations.

A careful preliminary survey of dairy conditions in the South has been made as the
first step in the direction of improving and developing the dairy industry in that
section. In some cases herds were found producing as good results as are ordinarily
expected in any section of America. At other places milk was produced as cheaply
as in any dairy section of the country. On the whole, there was an enormous demand
for dairy products. Almost all butter and cheese was obtained from other sections,
some cream being shipped a great distance. Condensed milk and cream find a great
market throughout all the southern cities. Silage is used to a very limited extent in
the South. One of the great drawbacks to dairying in the South is the inferior grade
of cattle found there. It is probable that this poor quality of dairy stock is due in
large part to the presence of the cattle tick and the infection of Texas fever. There
is great need throughout the South for education in improved methods of dairy breed-
ing and feeding and milk production. The investigations so far have shown that there
is a great desire on the part of many southern people to know more about dairying.
They are anxious for something that will enable them to get away from the one-crop
system. The action of Congress in appropriating $20,000 for the extension of this
work during the fiscal year 1907 indicates that its importance is beginning to be
realized. The prospects are very good, and there is every reason to believe that this
work will be the means of developing a splendid dairy industry in the South.

PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 499

PLANT DISEASES IN 1906.

By W. A. Orton, Plant Pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry.

This article summarizes reports on the distribution and prevalence of plant diseases
received during the year in this Department and the several State experiment stations,
whose cooperation is gratefully acknowledged. Especial assistance has been given
by the following collaborators of this Department in their respective experiment
stations: G. E. Stone, Massachusetts; H. H. Whetzel, New York; J. B.S. Norton,
Maryland; A. D. Selby, Ohio; J. L. Sheldon, West Virginia; F. L. Stevens, North
Carolina; E. Mead Wilcox, Alabama; L. H. Pammel, Iowa; F. D. Heald, Nebraska;
H. L. Bolley, North Dakota; W. Paddock, Colorado; R. Kent Beattie, Washington.

Comparisons may be made with conditions in previous years, which are recorded
in the eight preceding yearbooks. The data available does not include some sections
of the country, and the distribution of the diseases is not fully known, particularly
in the case of the less important ones.

POME FRUITS.

AppLe.—Bitter-rot (Glomerella rufomaculans (Berk.) Sp. & von Schr.) was less
destructive than last year, though it occurred generally throughout Virginia and West
Virginia and in North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky. There
was less in Maryland, Ohio, and Indiana. It was reported from Delaware, New
Jersey, and Nebraska.

Black-rot and Canker (Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.) were reported everywhere from
New Hampshire to Alabama, and from Nebraska.

Blackspot canker (Gloeosporium malicorticis Cordley) occurred about as usual west
of the Cascade Mountains in Washington and was found by Doctor Heald in western
Nebraska.

Blight (Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni) was much more severe than usual in
Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, New York, Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas. The loss in Nebraska was estimated at $10,000.
It continues to spread in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, and in the Sacramento Valley
of California. It was much less severe than last year in Alabama, Georgia, and North
Carolina, and was comparatively slight in New England.

Blotch (Phyllosticta sp.), a disease hitherto unstudied, has been described by W. M.
Scott, of this Department, in Farmers’ Bulletin 283. It occurs in Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, and Arkatrsas, and has often been confused with scab by growers there.
Spraying experiments by Mr. Scott resulted in the control of the disease.

Brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schrt.) was observed on apples in Nebraska,
Missouri, and West Virginia.

Crown-gall was increasingly serious in Colorado, Utah, and Washington, and very
common in Maryland, Kentucky, North Carolina, and neighboring States.

Fly-speck (Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) and Sooty blotch (Phyllochora
pomigena (Schw.) Sace.) were very prevalent in Connecticut, New York, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, West Virginia, and eastern Nebraska; less common this year in
Ohio and Indiana, and quite rare in northern Vermont.

Illinois canker (Nummularia discreta (Schw.) Tul.) was reported from Illinois,
Missouri, Arkansas, Nebraska, and West Virginia.

Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta spp. and other fungi) defoliated unsprayed trees six weeks
before the normal period of leaf fall in Nebraska, Missour1, Arkansas, West Virginia,
and North Carolina. Less injury was reported from Ohio, about the usual amount in
Indiana, and considerable in Illinois. There was very little in Vermont.

Physiological fruit-spot was reported to be much worse in New Hampshire.

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca mali (Duby) Burr., and Podosphaera oxycanthae
(DC.) De By, occurred in Iowa, California, Washington, and West Virginia, especi-
ally on nursery stock.

Root-rots (Clitocybe parasitica Wilcox, in part?) were reported from Arizona, Colo-
rado, Washington, southern Indiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and North Carolina.

Rot (Penicillium glaucum Lk.) was mentioned as the cause of decay of fruit in
storage in Nebraska, lowa, New Jersey, and Vermont.

Rust (Gymnosporangium macropus Lk., etc., 1) was reported as of local occurrence
near red cedar trees in Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee,
North Carolina, South Carolina, West Virginia, New Jersey, and Vermont.

Scab ( Venturia inaequalis (Cke.) Aderh.) was unusually light over the whole eastern
and central western parts ot the United States. It was almost absent in Idaho, but
was worse in the Sacramento Valley, California.

500 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PEAR.— Blight (Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni) was more prevalent in Connecti-
cut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and South Carolina. In
New York it did more damage than for fifteen years. In Iowa and in Colorado and
Idaho it was less prevalent. Spring weather conditions in California led to a large
development of the disease there. Utah and Wyoming reported increased loss.

Leaf-blight (Hntomosporium maculatum Lev.) was less prevalent in Ohio than in
1905. It was reported from New Jersey and West Virginia and was more severe in
southern Georgia, but not in northern Georgia.

Leaf-spot (Septoria piricola Desm.) was reported from New York, Ohio, Missouri,
and West Virginia, in the last two States causing much loss from defoliation.

Rust (Gymnosporangium sp. 1) was reported from New Jersey.

Scab ( Vencuria pirina Aderh.) appears to have heen less prevalent in New England,
New York, Ohio, and Indiana. It was reported from Washington and, owing to spring
rains, was in California still worse than in 1905.

QurincE.—Black-rot (Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.) was less severe than usual in Ohio,
Indiana, and West Virginia. Estimated loss, 6 to 10 per cent.

Blight (Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni) occurred as usual or somewhat less.
Reported from Indiana, Ohio West Virginia, and North Carolina.

Leaf-spot (Hntomosporium maculatum Ley.) caused serious defoliation of . quinces
in New Jersey, Ohio, West Virginia, and Missouri.

Rust (Gymnosporangium sp. 1) was observed in North Carolina.

STONE FRUITS.

Apricot.—Brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (P.) Schrt.) caused considerable damage
to young twigs of apricot in California.

CHERRY.—Black-knot (Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc.) occurred as usual in
New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, and West Virginia, and is reported to have caused the
abandonment of cnerry raising in western North Carolina.

Brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (P.) Schrt.) was less prevalent in New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Iowa; 25 per cent losses were reported from Missouri, and
as high as 50 per cent from New York, sweet cherries suffering most. It was reported
on Prunus besseyi in Nebraska.

Leaf-spot (Cylindrosporium padi Karst.) was less prevalent in Ohio, Indiana,
Nebraska, and Iowa. Serious defoliation was reported from western New York,
northwestern Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Missouri.

Powdery mildew (Podosphaera oxycanthae (DC.) De By.) was reported as occurring
on young trees in Colorado, Ohio, lowa, Nebraska, West Virginia, and Kentucky.

PracH.—Bacterial spot (Bacterium pruni Erw. Sm.) caused defoliation in some
cases in Georgia.

Black spot (Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim.) appears to have been more prevalent
this year. It was reported common in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Maryland, Indiana,
and Kentucky; destructive in West Virginia; in Ohio disfiguring 20 to 50 per cent of
the fruit, in southern Missouri 70 per cent of the Elbertas, and in Nebraska 50 per cent
of late peaches.

Brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (P.) Schrt.) was very destructive this year. In
Georgia it prevailed throughout the peach belt, causing losses of 10 to 50 per cent.
In Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New York, Ohio, southern Missouri, and northern
Arkansas it was more serious.

Crown gall was reported this year only from Alabama, Florida, and Ohio.

Frosty mildew (Cercosporella persicae Sacc.) was reported from North Carolina and
West Virginia as causing but little injury.

Gumming disease (Corynewm beyerinckit Oud.), which has been in California for
several years, has been on the increase and has caused alarming losses the past three
or four years. Early winter spraying, advised by Mr. M. B. Waite of this Department,
has been found to completely control the disease. (Science, XXV, 304).

Leaf curl (Hxoascus deformans (Berk.) Fckl.) was reported from Alabama, West Vir-
ginia, New York, Indiana, Nebraska, and Washington. It was more prevalent in
Georgia, Iowa, and New Jersey, and less so in Maryland and Ohio.

Little Peach has spread at only a moderate rate in Michigan and New York.

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev., etc.) was reported more abun-
dant in New York and in Colorado.

Acted tied spot (Helminthosporium carpophilum Lev.) was less common this year in
LO. 4 :
Rosette occurred to a considerable extent in southern Missouri and in Georgia.
Rust (Puccinia pruni P.) was reported as occurring toa slight extent in Ohio and

North Carolina.

=

PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 501

Yellows occurred from New England through New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia
to western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, and west to Indiana and southern
Illinois. The past year there has been an outbreak of unusual virulence in western
Maryland and adjacent parts of Virginia and West Virginia, almost completely destroy-
ing many orchards.

PLtuM.—Black-knot (Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacec.) occurred about as usual
everywhere, from New England to North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, and Ken-
tucky, and to Indiana and Minnesota, especially on the damson and wild plums.

Black-spot (Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim.) was more injurious in Iowa.

Brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (P.) Schrt.) occurred as usual over most of the east-
ern and central United States. It was worse than usual in West Virginia, Ohio, Indi-
ana, and Iowa, and serious in western Washington.

Leaf-spot (Cylindrosporium padi Karst.) caused early defoliation, followed in some
cases by fall blossoming in West Virginia and Missouri. It injured 20 to 80 per cent
of the crop in Ohio, but was reported less prevalent in Indiana and Iowa.

Plum-pockets (Hxoascus pruni Fckl.) was reported as occurring to an unimportant
extent in North Carolina, New Jersey, Ohio, Iowa, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and North
Dakota.

Rust (Puccinia pruni P.) was reported from Georgia and Missouri as unimportant.

SMALL FRUITS.

BLAcKBERRY.—Anthracnose (Glocosporium venetum Speg.) prevailed to the usual
extent in Ohio and Indiana.

Crown-gall was reported from one locality in Ohio.

Leaf-spot (Septoria rubi Westd.) was reported from Ohio, Indiana, Nebraska, and
West Virginia.

Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schl.) Lagh.) was common and in some cases destruc-
tive in California, Florida, Indiana, Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and West Virginia.

CRANBERRY.—Anthracnose did considerable damage in some localities in Massa-
chusetts.

Erobasidium vaccinii (Fckl.) Wor. caused serious injury in Massachusetts.

Scald was more severe in New Jersey on account of excessive rains.

CuRRANT.—Anthracnose (Gloeosporium ribis (Lib.) Mont. & Desm.) was reported
from Ohio.

Cane-blight ( Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr.) was reported from Ohio.

Leaf-spot (Cercospora angulata Wint.) was reported from West Virginia, Ohio, and
Iowa; (Septoria ribis Desm.) from Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio, and Nebraska. Con-—
siderable defoliation resulted in both cases.

Powdery mildew (Spaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) B. & C.) was reported from Ohio,
Nebraska, and Washington.

Rust (Cronartium ribicolum Dietr.) was reported for the first time from New York
by F. C. Stewart. .

GoosEBERRY.—Leaf-spot (Septoria ribis Desm.) was reported slight in Ohio, Indi-
ana, Nebraska, and West Virginia. :

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) B. & C.) was prevalent in New
Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Washington.

GRAPE.—Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum De By.) was reported from New
Hampshire, West Virginia, and Ohio.

Black-rot (Guignardia bidwellii (Ell.) V. & R.) was almost absent this year from the
Lake Erie region of New York and Pennsylvania, but in central New York and the
Sandusky region of Ohio there was great loss, as was also the case in southwestern
Michigan, where the loss was estimated at 30 to 40 per cent. It was more prevalent
in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Florida, and Indiana, and injurious in New
Jersey, North Carolina, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Nebraska.

Downy mildew (Plasmopora viticola (B. & C.) Berl. & De T.) did a slight amount of
damagé in Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, Maryland, Ohio, West Virginia,
Kentucky, Missouri, and Nebraska,

Powdery mildew (Uncinula necator (Schw.) Burr.) was very injurious in Florida,
and of occasional occurrence in Colorado, Iowa, Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.

PERSIMMON.—Anthracnose (Glocosporium diospyri E. & E.) was reported as of occa-
sional occurrence in West Virginia.

RASPBERRY.—Anthracnose (Gloeosporium venetum Speg.) was troublesome in Ohio
and New York, and reported from Indiana, Iowa, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Kentucky,
Maryland, New Hampshire, and Washington. :

PCA a was reported to be the cause of serious loss in Delaware, Ohio, and
ebraska.

502 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Leaf-spot (Septoria rubt Westd.) was common but unimportant in Ohio, Indiana,
West Virginia, Missouri, and Nebraska.

Bust (Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schl.) Lagh.) was locally injurious in Indiana, Ohio,
West Virginia, lowa, and New York. A rust due to Kiihneola allida Magn. was reported
from West Virginia.

Wilt (Leptosphaeria coniothyrium (Fckl.) Sacc.) was injurious in Connecticut, and
was reported from Ohio.

STRAWBERRY.—Leaf-spot (Sphaerella fragariae (Tul.) Sacc.) was common in the
eastern and central States and in Washington.

TROPICAL FRUITS.

Avocapo.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes Penz.) blighted 50 to 75 per
cent of the blossoms in southern Florida.

CrrrUS FRUITS.—Anthracnose or Wither-tip (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.)
caused heavy losses in Florida, the blossom blight of limes taking in some cases 75 to
100 per cent of the crop. Wither-tip has been common, though successfully controlled
by proper treatment. The same fungus has injured the fruit of oranges and pomelos.

Blight prevailed as usual in Florida. ;

Die-back has become much less prevalent on account of the more rational use of
fertilizers.

Root-rot (Fusarium limonis Briosi) was prevalent in Florida in undrained soils on
account of the heavy rainfall.

Scab (Cladosporium sp.) was much more prevalent in all sections of Florida.

Brown-rot (Pythiacystis citrophthora Sm. & Sm.), a new disease which has caused
much loss to California lemons during storage, has been worked out by R. E. and
E. H. Smith of the California Station (Bot. Gaz., xlii, 215).

GuaAvA.—Ripe-rot (Glomerella psidii (G. Del.) Sheldon), a disease hitherto unde-
scribed, has been studied by Dr. J. L. Sheldon (West Virginia Station Bulletin 104)
from material collected in a greenhouse in Washington, D.C. It occurs in Florida,
Porto Rico, and other tropical countries.

Manco.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.) occurred in Florida as
blossom blight, fruit rot, wither-tip, etc., according to the part of the plant attacked.
Heavy losses resulted, but careful spraying was found to control the trouble.

PINEAPPLE.—Pineapple disease ( Thielaviopsis ethaceticus Went.) caused considerable
injury in Hawaii.

VEGETABLE AND FIELD CROPS.

AspaRAGUS.—Rust (Puccinia asparagi DC.) now occurs in every State where aspara-
gus is grown and continues to do much damage, particularly in the Central and Western
States. During 1906 it appears to have been less prevalent than heretofore in the East.

Brean.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magn.) Bri. & Cav.)
was very serious in Florida and prevailed generally in the Atlantic States, though it was
not as bad aslast year. In New England and New York it caused exceptionally heavy
losses of beans grown for canning, but was less injurious to the later crop of dry beans.
The loss in Ohio was estimated at 20 per cent.

Bacteriosis (Bacterium phaseoli Erw. Sm.) was reported from New York, New Jersey,
Nebraska, and Vermont.

Downy mildew (Phytopthora phaseoli Thax.) was less injurious in Connecticut than
last year. It was quite prevalent in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Penn-
sylvania.

Leaf spots (Phyllosticta phaseolina Sacc. and Isariopsis griseola Sacc.) occurred in
West Virginia.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygonit DC.) was less prevaent in Ohio.

Bust (Uromyces appendiculatus (P.) Lev.) was reported from Indiana, New Jersey,
Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky and was abundant in California.

Bret.—Curly-top of sugar beets did considerable injury in local areas in California,
but was less prevalent in Colorado, Utah, and Texas.

Leaf-blight (Cercospora beticola Sacc.) appeared later than usual, but was neverthe-
less destructive to sugar beets from Nebraska eastward, particularly in fields pre-
viously planted to sugar beets. It was more noticeable in Colorado than formerly.
Phyllosticta betae Oud. was reported from Colorado and North Carolina.

Rhizoctonia root-rot occurred to a slight extent in Colorado, Iowa, and Michigan.

CaBBAGE.—Black-rot (Bacteriwm campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) appears to have
been generally prevalent, and in some cases quite injurious, according to reports
from Delaware, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, New
Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Vermont, and Washington.

oul.

PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 503

Club-root (Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.) is everywhere increasing. It was reported
this year from New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Ver-
mont, Washington, and West Virginia.

Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mul.) was sent in from Texas.

Wilt (Fusarium) continues to do injury in old gardens in North Carolina.

CANTALOUPE.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals.) pre-
vailed in Indiana, Nebraska, New Jersey, and West Virginia.

Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) injured the crop toa
slight extent in Ohio and Vermont.

Leaf-blight (Alternaria brassicae var. nigrescens Pegl.) was again the cause of marked
injury, especially in the large cantaloupe-growing sections. It was reported from
Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Indiana, Maryland, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia.

Boot-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mil.) was reported from North Carolina.

Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from Massachusetts, Ohio, and
Indiana.

Wilt (Fusarium) was reported from Arizona.

CAULIFLOWER.—Black-rot (Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) was injurious
locally in Louisiana and Ohio.

CELERY.—Leaf-blight (Cercospora apvi Fres.) occurred in Florida, where 80 per cent
of the crop was injured; also in Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, New Hampshire,
Ohio, and Nebraska.

Leaf-spot (Septoria petroselini Desm. var. apit Br. & Cav.) was reported from Dela-
ware, New York, and Ohio.

Cottarps.—In North Carolina collards were attacked by Alternaria brassicae
(Berk.) Sace., Peronospora parasita (Pers.) De By., Bacterium campestris (Pam.)
Erw. Sm., Fusarium sp. and Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.

CucuMBER.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenariwm (Pass.) Ell. & Hals.) occurred
in Ohio, where the injury is estimated at 25 to 60 per cent of the crop, and in New
Jersey, North Carolina, West Virginia, Nebraska, and Wisconsin.

Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) occurred in Florida
to a serious extent. The disease prevails through the winter there and attacks the
young plants. Some injury was reported from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New
Jersey, while in Maine, New Hampshire, and Ohio there was a serious epidemic in
August. :

Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from Massachusetts, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Norfolk, Va.

EcGrLiant.—Fruit-rot and Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta hortorum Speg.) was prevalent in
New Jersey and on Long Island.

GINSENG.—Alternaria blight has been destructive in New York as in preceding
years, causing some plantations to be abandoned. Prof. H. H. Whetzel, of Cornell
University, reports complete control through spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Root-rot. and Stem-rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) were reported by Whetzel from New York,
Virginia, and Wisconsin. Another disease of the stem due to Phytopthora cactorum

Cohn. & Leb.) Schrt. has been found by J. M. Van Hook of the Ohio station in both
hio and New York.

Lerruce.—Drop (Sclerotinia libertiana Fckl.) was very injurious in the Atlantic
States, especially in cold frames and greenhouses. Florida growers suffered losses in
many cases of 70 to 100 per cent, and the disease was severe in Georgia, North Caro-
lina, Delaware, Ohio, and Alabama.

Leaf-mold (Botrytis cinerea P.) was reported from Florida and North Carolina as of
minor importance.

5 Leaf-spot (Septoria consimilis Ell. & Mart.) was reported from New York and North
arolina.

BRoot-knet (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mul.) was the cause of complaint in Texas.

Rosette (Rhizoctonia sp.) and Tipburn were also mentioned in Ohio.

Onton.—Anthracnose ( Vermicularia circinans Berk.) did considerable injury in New
York.

Downy mildew (Peronospora schleideniana De By.) was reported from Colorado, New
York, Ohio, and Vermont. It appears to have been less prevalent than last year.

Smut (Urocystis cepulae Frost) was reported from Connecticut, Massachusetts, and
Ohio. In Ohio-the formalin soil treatment continues to prevent the disease, but some
thousands of dollars were lost on untreated fields in the Scioto Valley.

Pra.—Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygont DC.) caused injury in New Hampshire,
especially on late peas, and in Iowa, Ohio, Nebraska, and West Virginia.

Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta pist Lib.) was somewhat less injurious in Ohio but worse
in New York, injuring 50 to 80 per cent of the crop in some fields. It was also reported

504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

from New Jersey. J. M. Van Hook has shown in Bulletin 173 of the Ohio Station that
the epidemic in that State the past three years has been largely due to seed infection.

Porato.—Brown-rot (Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.) occurred to a slight extent
in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, Nebraska, and Washington.

Dry-rot (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht). Reports of local losses came from New
York, Ohio, and Vermont this year.

Early blight (Alternaria solani (E. & M.) J. & G.) was somewhat less prevalent on
the early crop in Florida and other South Atlantic States, but was more injurious
northward on the main crop. Most of the injury to potatoes this year from New Eng-
land and New York to Wisconsin was due to this disease, as the dry season favored
it. The crop in Wisconsin is estimated to have been reduced 4 to 6 million bushels
by it. Its occurrence was noted in Utah and Washington. Great loss, estimated at
50 per cent of the crop, was reported from Wyoming.

Leaf-blotch (Cercospora concors (Casp.) Sacc.), a new disease of minor importance,
has been found in Vermont for two years and is described by Prof. L. R. Jones in the
Report of the Vermont Station for 1906. ;

Late-blight (Phytophthora infestans De By.) was for the first time in six years held
in check by dry autumn weather. It was somewhat harmful in Florida in May and
developed on Long Island and in New England in June and July. Dry weather later
prevented its spread and the losses in the great potato sections were small compared
with those of previous years. All potato diseases were controlled in Maine by the
general spraying practiced there during the past few years and good results were
reported in other states. Late blight was reported injurious in western Washington.

Scab (Oospora scabies Thax.) was in most cases reported less injurious the past sea-
son. In Maine and in other States where the danger of soil infection has not been
considered, an increase has been observed. The estimated injury in Nebraska was 15

er cent.

: Rhizoctonia disease (Corticium vagum B. & C. var. solani Burt.) caused heavy
losses in portions of Colorado and Wyoming and was reported from Arizona. It was
less common this year in Florida, Ohio, and the Eastern States.

Satsiry—Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mul.) was injurious in one locality
in North Carolina.

White rust (Cystopus tragopogonis Tul.)-was reported from Nebraska.

SquasH—Bacterial wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from New
York. A Fusarium wilt occurred in Arizona.

Suear Cane—Dr. N. A. Cobb has issued from the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin No. 5 on Fungus Maladies of the Sugar Cane, an important
monograph. The prevalence of the diseases mentioned for 1906 is given by Doctor
Cobb as follows:

Eleau caused small losses, estimated at less than 1 per cent.

Pineapple disease ( Thielaviopsis ethaceticus Went.) prevailed about as usual, causing
losses varying from 1 to 10 per cent.

Rind disease (Melanconwum sp.) was less prevalent, though losses in some cases
amounted to 25 per cent.

Root disease (Jthyphallus coralloides Cobb.) destroyed 10 per cent of the crop in the
worst districts, but, following the discovery of the parasite, good results have come
from the treatment advised. Root disease (Marasmius saccharti Wak.) was somewhat
more prevalent, the loss being estimated as high as 10 per cent of the ratocn crop.

Leaf-splitting disease ( Mycosphaerella striatiformans Cobb.), aserious trouble, has been
found by Doctor Cobb to be due to the fungus named.

SwEeEtT potatoEs.—The following diseases were reported from the States named.
Their actual distribution is no doubt more general.

Black-rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata Ell. & Hals.), Alabama, Ohio, Tennessee.

Dry-rot (Phoma batatae Ell. & Hals.), Alabama, Tennessee.

Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta bataticola Ell. & Mart.), North Carolina.

Soft-rot (Rhizopus nigricans Ehrb.) Alabama, North Carolina, Maryland, very bad.

Soil-rot (Acrocystis batatas Ell. & Hals.), Alabama.

Stem-rot (Nectria ipomoeae Hals.), Ohio.

White-rot (Panicle sp.), Alabama, serious.

White-rust (Cytopus ipomocae-pouduranae (Schw.) Farl.), Georgia.

Tosacco.—Bed-rot (Rhizoctoma sp.) prevailed as usual in Ohio, the estimated loss
being 7 per cent. Dr. A. D. Selby, at the Ohio station, finds soil treatment with for-
malin to assist in its control.

Broom-rape (Orobanche ludoviciana Nutt.) occurred in very local areas in Ohio.

F los disease was troublesome in the Chemung Valley, New York, but less common
in Ohio.

Root-rot (Thielavia basicola Zopf.) was quite injurious to tobacco seedlings in Con-
necticut and to a lesser extent in Ohio.

PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 505

Wilt, bacterial—The Granville wilt in North Carolina was estimated as 40 per cent
more destructive than last year, causing a loss of $20,000.

Tomato—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum phomoides (Sacc.) Chest.) was reported from
New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and North Dakota.

Blight (Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.) was reported from New Jersey, North
Carolina, and Alabama.

Leaf-mold (Cladosporium fuluum Cke.) caused complaint in New Hampshire.

Leaf-spot (Septoria lycopersici Speg.) was prevalent in Delaware, Maine, Maryland,
Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, and West Virginia. (Alternaria solani (KE. & M.) J.
& G.) was reported as of minor importance in Maine, Ohio, and West Virginia.

Point-rot was more destructive than usual in California and in New York and Ver-
mont, but less soin Ohio. It was reported from Alabama, Maine, and West Virginia.

Root-knot (J/eterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mil.) was injurious in Arizona and Florida.

Western blight was much less prevalent in Utah this year, but was bad in Washington,
causing losses of 35 to 90 per cent, and in Colorado.

Wilt (Fusarium sp.) caused losses of 25 per cent in portions of Arizona and Louisiana.
It is widely prevalent in Florida, but losses are avoided there by rotation of crops. It
was less abundant in California.

Turnip.—Black-rot (Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) caused unimportant
injuries in Ohio.

Club-root (Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.) was this year reported on this host only
from Ohio and New Jersey.

WATERMELON.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals.) was
epidemic in the Ohio Valley, especially in West Virginia. It was reported also from
Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Rhode Island, and South Carolina.

Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) was observed in Ohio.

Leaf-spot (Cercospora citrulina Cke.) was reported to occur to a slight extent in
West Virginia.

Wilt (Neocosmospora vasinfecta var. nivea Erw. Sm.) occurred as usual in the South
Atlantic States from Florida to Virginia.

CEREALS.

BaRLEY.—Mildew (Erysiphe graminis DC.) was reported injurious to beardless
barley in one locality in New York.

Pe in (Puccinia graminis P.) was as usual widely distributed, but not injurious to

e crop.

Covered smut ( Ustilago hordei (P.) Kell. & Sw.) prevailed as usual in Iowa, Min-
nesota, North Dakota, and neighboring States.

Loose smut ( Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw.) was widely distributed and inju-
rious. The loss was estimated at 7 to 10 per cent in Wisconsin and Minnesota and
appears to be increasing.

Yellow-leaf (Helminthosporium gramineum Rbh.) was more prevalent in Iowa,
attacking probably 1 per cent of the crop.

Corn.—Leaf-blight (Helminthosporium inconspicuum C. & E.) was locally abun-
dant in Maryland, Ohio, and West Virginia.

Mold (a sterile fungus) injured 5 to 50 per cent of the mature crop in North Carolina.

Rust (Puccinia sorghi Schw.) is widely distributed, but seldom injurious. One case
of severe loss was reported from Vermont.

Smut ( Ustilago zeae (Beckm.) Unger) occurred everywhere. The average loss for
the whole country was 1 to 2 per cent of the total crop. It was especially prevalent
last year in North Dakota. The losses in Nebraska were estimated at 2 to 10 per cent.

MrmetT.—Smut ( Ustilago crameri Kérn.) was of slight occurrence in Ohio and Min-
nesota.

Oats.—Rusts (Puccinia graminis P. and P. coronata Cda.) occurred about as usual
or a little less, the late varieties as usuai suffering most.

Smut ( Ustilago avenae (P.) Jens.) occurred everywhere as usual, but appeared to
be relatively worse in the South (12 per cent in North Carolina). In the northern
Mississippi Valley seed treatment is more generally applied. The loss in Wisconsin
was estimated at 5 per cent. Reports of loss come from western Washington also.

_ Rice.—Black smut (Tilletia horrida Tak.) was reported from two localities in Lou-
isiana.

Blast was almost absent in South Carolina this year, the season being very wet.
It occurred locally in Texas.

Green smut ( Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.) Tak.) has been known to occur in this
country for five years, but only to a slight extent. It appears, however, to be on the
increase.

Rye.—Ergot (Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.) was reported from Ohio and Minnesota.

506 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURb.

Rusts (Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. and P. graminis P.), though everywhere
present, do no serious damage.

SorcHum.—Blight (Bacillus sorghi Burr.) caused losses estimated in Iowa and
Ohio at about 5 per cent. Reported from Nebraska.

Smut (Sphacelotheca sorght (Link.) Clint.) has assumed serious proportions in Kan-
sas, Oklahoma, and the Texas Panhandle and is rapidly spreading. S. reiliana
(Kiihn) Clint.) was widely distributed, but not in serious quantity.

WHEAT.—Leaf-blight (Leptosphaeria tritici Pass.) was reported from Nebraska.

Leaf-rust (Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint.) was quite destructive in the northern
Mississippi Valley and the southern Great Plains region, the injury being estimated
by Prof. H. L. Bolley at 10 per cent in North Dakota.

Stem-rust (Puccinia graminis P.) was less injurious than usual in nearly all the
wheat-growing States. ‘

Scab (Fusarium culmorum (W. G. Sm.) Sacc.) appears to have been muck less prey-
alent this year.

Loose smut ( Ustilago tritici (P.) Jens.) is widely distributed and increasing in the
Eastern and Middle Western States.

Stinking smut (7 %lletia foetans (B. & C.) Tul.) was widespread and abundant, espe-
cially where seed wheat was not treated. The estimated loss in Arizona was 5 to 15
per cent; in Indiana, 2 per cent; in Washington, 10 to 15 per cent. :

FORAGE CROPS.

ALFALFA.—Bacterial blight, a new disease, reported by Prof. W. Paddock, in Press
Bulletin 28, of the Colorado station, was first seen there in 1903, but is now more abun-
dant, and has also appeared in Utah and Kansas.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii B. & E.) was reported from Tennessee.

Dodder (Cuscuta epithymum Murr., etc.) has become quite widely distributed with
the extension of alfalfa culture, but its dangerous character is more generally recog-
nized and control measures adopted.

Leaf-spot (Pseudopeziza medicaginis (Lib.) Sacc.) was reported more injurious in
New York, New Jersey, and Wyoming. Most States where alfalfa is grown report this
disease, but not as a serious one.

Root-rot was worse than usual in northern Texas, where the injury was considerable.
but less common in Arizona.

Rust ( Uromyces striatus) was reported from Nebraska.

CLOVER.—Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii B. & E.) is generally distributed over
Tennessee and is common in West Virginia. Gloeosporium caulivorum Kirch. was
also reported from West Virginia.

Dodder (Cuscuta epithymum Murr.) occurred on clover much as on alfalfa.

Black-spot (Phyllachora trifolii (P.) Fckl.), a minor disease, was mentioned only in
reports from lowa, Kentucky, and West Virginia.

a ( Macrosporium sarcinaeforme Cav.) was injurious to young clover in West
irginia.

Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mill.) has been found by Dr. J. L. Sheldon
to be widely distributed in the Ohio valley of West Virginia.

Rust ( Uromyces trifolii (A. & S.) Wint.) was reported as a minor trouble in Indiana,
Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, and West Virginia.

CowPEA.—Root-knot and Wilt (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mill.) and (Neocos-
mospora vasinfecta var. tracheiphila Erw. Sm.) prevailed as usual in sandy soils from
North Carolina to Florida and west to Texas.

FIBER PLANTS.

Corron.—Angular leaf-spot and Blackarm (Bacterium malvacearum Erw. Sm.) was
generally distributed through the cotton belt, though less prevalent than in 1905.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gossypii Swth.) was injurious locally in several States,
especially in western Georgia.

Texas root-rot was worse in central and northern Texas than ever before, causing
very heavy losses.

Wilt (Neocosmospora vasinfecta (Atk.) Erw. Sm.) is increasing in the Coastal Plain
from North Carolina to Florida and westward to Louisiana, and has also been found
in Tennessee, Missouri, and Indian Territory.

FLax.—Wilt (Fusarium lini Bolley) and the associated troubles, Anthracnose (Col-
letotrichum sp.) and Boll disease (Alternaria sp.), prevailed as usual in Minnesota and
North Dakota, though progress is being made in securing the adoption by farmers of

methods of treatmert.

~

PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 507
NUT, FOREST, AND SHADE TREES.

The following diseases have been reported as indicated:

AsH.—Rust (Puccinia fraxinata (Lk.) Arth.) was reported from Nebraska as less
common.

Bato or GILEAD.—Leaf-spot (Septoria populicola Pk.) was reported from Nebraska.

Bust (Melampsora populina (Jcq.) Ley.) was reported from Nebraska and West
Virginia. :

BLackK WALNUT.—Leaf-spot oe juglandis (Lib.) Sace.) was reported from
West Virginia, New Jersey, and Iowa, and as much more prevalent in Nebraska.

CaTaLpa.—Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta catalpae E. & M.) was reported from West Virginia
as destructive to foliage of young trees.

Crepar.—Rust (Gymnosporangium macropus Lk.) was reported from Nebraska, New
Jersey, lowa, and West Virginia.

Cotronwoop.—Crown-gall was reported from Wyoming. (15th Report Wyoming
Expt. Sta., p. 33.)

Rust (Melampsora populina (Jcq.) Lev.) was reported from Nebraska, Iowa, and
North Dakota.

CHESTNUT.—Anthracnose (Jarsonia ochroleuca (B. & C.) Humph.) was reported
from West Virginia.

Doawoop.—Leaf-spot ah apes cornicola Desm.) was reported from Nebraska.

Eim.—Black-spot (Dothidella ulmi (Duv.) Wint.) was reported from Nebraska and
New Jersey; and Gnomonia ulmea (Sacc.) Thiim., from Nebraska.

Honey Locust.—Black-leaf (Leptostroma hypophyllum B. & Ray.) was reported
from Nebraska.

HorSE CHESTNUT.—Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta paviae Desm.) was reported from West
Virginia.

KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE.—Leaf-spot (Cercospora gymnocladi Ell. & Kell.) was
reported from Nebraska.

MapLe.—Leaf-spot (Rhytisma acerinum (P.) Fr.) was reported from Iowa, Kentucky,
New Jersey, and Nebraska.

MutBerry.—Leaf-spot (Cercospora moricola Cke.) was reported from Nebraska.

Prcan.—Powdery mildew (Microsphaera alni (Wallr.) Salmon) was reported from
Georgia and Florida as of little importance.

Rosette was reported from South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama as a seri-
ous disease.

Scab (Fusicladium effusum Wint.) was more injurious this year in South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana.

PinE.—Rust (Coleosporium senecionis (P.) Fr.) was reported from Connecticut,
Minnesota, and Georgia. 4

Seedling blight (Cladosporium herbarum (P.) Lk.) was reported from Nebraska.

PrIVET.—Anthracnose (Gloeosporium cingulatum Atk.) was reported from Ohio.

SASsAFRAS.—Red heart-rot (Fomes vibis (Schum.) Fr.) has been found by Dr. P.
Spaulding to be common around St. Louis, Mo. *

WitLtow.—Black-spot (Rhytistma salicinum Fr.) was reported from Nebraska.

Rust ( Melampsora sp.) was reported from Iowa and West Virginia; M. farinosa (P.)
Schrt. on Salix amygdaloides, from Nebraska.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTS.

AsTER.—Wilt (Fusarium sp.) was more prevalent in Massachusetts.

Yellows was more prevalent again in Vermont and Massachusetts.

CARNATION.—Rust (Uromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank.) Schrt.) occurred to a slight
extent in Iowa and North Carolina.

Spot (Alternaria sp.) has been reported from Maryland, the District of Columbia,
Pennsylvania, and Connecticut.

Stem-rot (Fusarium sp.) was reported from North Carolina and New York, and
(Rhizoctonia sp.) from Ohio.

Stigmonose was found in Indiana and Rhode Island.

CHRYSANTHEMUM.—Leaf-spot (Septoria chrysanthemi Cay.) and Rust (Puccinia chrys-
anthemi Roze.) were prevalent in North Carolina and New Jersey.

Petal-rot (Botrytis vulgaris Fr.) was found by Dr. P. Spaulding to be quite prevalent
on exhibition plants in St. Louis. The same fungus also destroyed Poinsettias in
greenhouses.

HotiynocKk.—Leaf-blight (Cercospora althaeina Sacc.) was reported from West Vir-
ginia and Nebraska.

508 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Rust (Puccinia malvacearum Mont.) was destructive in New York, Massachusetts,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia; also on Malva sp. in Colorado.

Lizvac.—Powdery mildew (Microsphaeria alni (Wallr.) Salmon) was reported from
New York, Iowa, Kentucky, and West Virginia.

Prony.—Leaf-spot (Cladosporium paeoniae Pass.) was reported from New Jersey.

RosE.—Leaf-blotch (Actinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr.) was reported from Pennsylvania,
Kentucky, West Virginia, and Nebraska. .
~ Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev.) was very prevalent through-
out the Eastern, Southern, and Central States and was reported from Colorado.

Rust (Phragmidium subcorticium (Schrank) Wint.) was reported from California,
West Virginia, and Nebraska; and P. mucronatum from Iowa.

VioLEeT.—Leaf-spot (Cercospora violae Sacc.) did some injury in North Carolina.

Marsonia violae (Pass.) Sacc.) was reported from Connecticut for the first time.

VIRGINIA CREEPER.—Leaf-spot (Cercospora ampelopsidis Peck.) was reported from
Nebraska.

Powdery mildew ( Uncinula necator (Schw.) Burr.) was reported from Nebraska.

THE PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906.

Prepared in the Bureau of Entomology.

In accordance with the plan adopted in 1905, the records of the principal injurious
insects of the year 1906 are arranged in relation to food plant or host. The reports for
the subject covered by each division or section of the Bureau have in each case been

repared by the expert in charge and cover not only the records made directly by the
De sareneute but all the records available for the year.

In connection with these annual reports it should be noted that for the great mass
of injurious insects the conditions are substantially uniform one year with another.
In the case of certain insects, however, there are notable local outbreaks here and
there which, as with some of the big grain pests, may become very widespread and
amount to a considerable disaster to the crop. Any unusual local abundance or new
form of injury, or any new pest, is very apt to be reported to this office or to the ento-
mologist of the experiment station. On the other hand, familiarity with any pest, —
and with the remedy for it, soon leads to a cessation of reports; yet this does not, neces-
sarily indicate any diminution in the numbers of the pest nor its disappearance.
The list could be very greatly extended if all the injurious insects of the year were
included, but an attempt has been made to limit it to insects which have been rather
more prominent than ordinarily.

The insects affecting the great staples, such as the Hessian fly, chinch bug, boll
weevil, corn worm, or bollworm, San Jose scale, and codling moth, must necessarily
be the cause, one year with another, of the greatest monetary loss, and no new insect,
unless it at once affects a great staple, will ever compete with these in this respect.
Such newcomers, however, are likely to appear at any time, as is illustrated by the
boll weevil. The past year has witnessed minor losses from a number of insects
which have not previously been of serious economic importance. Such are the
Mexican bean weevil, the asparagus miner, the splitworm of tobacco, an Oriental
moth attacking shade and fruit trees in Connecticut, a sawfly injurious to the leaf
stems of maple, and a related species affecting the foliage of fruit trees.

Insects InJuRIOUS TO COTTON AND OTHER SOUTHERN FIELD CROPs.

The area infested by the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis Boh.) was greatly
increased during 1906. The eastern limit of infestation was extended to within
about 20 miles of the Mississippi River, and on the north a considerable portion of
southeastern Oklahoma has become infested. While the damage inflicted was not as
heavy as during previous seasons, the resultant loss probably exceeded that of 1905
by about $2,000,000, making an estimated total of approximately $20,000,000. In
the central and southern portions of Texas unusually dry weather during the growing
season greatly reduced the number of weevils. On the whole, the season of 1906 was
one of rather abnormal freedom from weevil damage.

The total loss due to the ravages of the bollworm (Heliothis obsoleta Fab.) probably
did not exceed that of the preceding year and, as usual, was confined mainly to Texas,
Oklahoma, and Louisiana. The injury to cotton in the two northern tiers of counties
of Texas westward from Lamar and Delta to Clay and Jack counties was exceptionally
severe.

PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 509

The cotton-leaf caterpillar (Alabama argillacea Hbn.) was abundant in Louisiana
and portions of Texas. The defoliation of cotton late in the season, however, is
beneficial rather than injurious in territory infested by the boll weevil.

Thé cotton aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) appeared very generally upon cotton in the
spring, but the injury inflicted was less severe than in 1905 owing to the increase of its
natural insect enemies.

The cotton square borer ( Uranotes melinus Hbn.) seems to be increasing in numbers
from year to year. This species is distributed over the entire cotton belt, but its in-
juries have been most felt in Texas and Oklahoma, and particularly in the northern
portion of the territory infested by the boll weevil.

The garden webworm (Lozostege similalis Guen.) did considerable damage to young
cotton in certain localities in northern Texas. Replanting was necessitated in some
instances.

The cotton red spider ( Tetranychus gloveri Bks.) was reported injuring cotton in cen-
tral Alabama.

The cotton leaf-beetle (Luperodes varicornis Lec.) was reported from South Carolina
and Georgia, where it inflicted slight local injury on cotton.

The cutworm (Autographa rogationis Guen.) injured the stand of cotton in certain
localities in northeastern Texas by cutting off the young plants in the spring.

The cotton leaf-bug (Calocoris rapidus Say) was very abundant throughout Louisiana
and eastern Texas, where it probably injured cotton to some extent by sucking sap
from the cotton bolls.

The tobacco thrips (Huthrips nicotiane Hinds) did considerable injury to cigar-
wrapper tobacco grown under shade in Florida, southern Georgia, and eastern ‘Texas.
The injury was less, however, than during 1904, owing to greater precipitation during
the past season.

The budworms of tobacco (Heliothis obsoleta Fab. and Chloridea virescens Fab.) rank
with the thrips in amount of injury to cigar-wrapper tobacco in Florida.

The splitworm or leaf-miner of tobacco (Phthorimza operculella Zell.) has come to be
of economic importance during the past two years, owing to the infestation by it of
Soe Tapper tobacco. Its injuries have been confined principally to a single county
of Florida.

Insects InJuRIOUS TO CEREAL AND FORAGE CROPS.

The Hessian fly ( Mayetiola destructor Say) was not excessively abundant, except
localiy in the east, and on the Pacific coast, where it destroyed the wheat crop in some
sections. Indeed, over large areas it scarcely appeared at all. In the central Atlantic
States this was due to late seeding of wheat, made necessary by the extremely wet
weataner of August. In the spring-wheat regions of the Northwest the absence of
the pest was due to the prevalence of parasites, notably Polygnotus, one or two species
of which seem to control this pest so far as it is controlled by natural agencies. This
parasite was introduced from North Dakota to western Kentucky and Tennessee in the
spring of 1905. During 1906 it was abundant in the sections where it was introduced,
and was repeatedly observed ovipositing in the eggs of the Hessian fly. The peculiar
breeding habits of these insects render them of the utmost value, and this experiment
indicates that they may be readily introduced from one section of the country into
another perhaps thousands of miles distant.

The chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus Say) was excessively abundant in northern
Texas, southwestern Kansas, and northern Ohio. The long and short-winged forms
a aaa in the timothy meadows of northeastern Ohio and attacked grass lands
in Florida.

The slender, red seed-corn ground beetle (Clivina impressifrons Lec.) did great dam-
age in many sections in the corn belt by devouring the seed after it was planted and
before it had sprouted.

The alfalfa fields in many sections of the arid regions of the West were seriously
injured by several species of grasshoppers. In Wyoming one species ( Melanoplus
differentialis Thos.) was, in some instances, almost swept out of existence by a para-
- sitic fly (Sarcophaga georgina Wied.). This fly deposited its eggs on the bodies of the
grasshoppers and the maggots hatching from the eggs entered the bodies of the grass-
hoppers and destroyed them.

The wheat jointworm (Jsosoma tritici Riley) continued excessively abundant in
some parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan, though several parasites appeared to be
subjugating the pest. A new factor in its control was indicated by the gnawing of
the insect galls on the stems of wheat and the destruction of the larve in the field,
supposedly by the short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). It has been determined
by breeding experiments that the passing of the grain through the threshing machine

510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

results in the death of nearly all the larvee. This enables the farmer, by cutting his
grain as low as possible, to destroy great numbers of the pest and thus prevent their
breeding in his fields another year.

The corn root-aphis (Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes) was unusually and destructively
abundant in portions of Virginia and Maryland, as well as in the Middle West. In
Maryland, where the injury amounted to almost a total loss, it was found that winter
plowing offered an almost complete protection from attack.

The fall army worm (Laphygma frugiperda 8. and A.) destroyed fields of German
millet in Georgia, Kafir corn and sorghum in Texas, sugar cane in Louisiana, and
beets in Wyoming. It was abundant in some parts of North Carolina.

A species of cutworm, not yet determined, destroyed hundreds of acres of wheat
during late fall in Montana.

The sorghum webworm (Celama { Nota] sorghiella Riley) attacked sorghum in Texas,
as did also another similar insect (Batrachetra rileyi Wals.). The former species also
destroyed sorghum heads about Orange, Va., and attacked the heads of timothy at
Arlington, Va.

Two species of billbugs (Sphenophorus parvulus Gyll. and S. venatus Say) did
serious injury to timothy at Arlington, Va. lLarve of Sphenophorus were observed
attacking wheat in South Carolina and Kansas, and barley in the former State:

The wheat-head army worm (Heliophila albilinea Hbn.) attacked the heads of tim-
othy in meadows in southern Minnesota, and the true army worm (H. wnipuncta Haw.)
did serious injury in some sections of Virginia and New Jersey.

Two cutworms (Carneades tessellata Harr. and C. punctigera Walk.) attacked oats
in North Dakota, while a third (C. messoria Harr.) attacked corn, and a fourth (Hadena
devastatriz Brace) attacked young growing wheat. Carnaedes rubefactalis Grote seriously
injured grass lands in Montana.

The spring grain aphis (Toroptera grainmum Rond.) universally infested wheat
and oat fields in the grain belt of Texas and Oklahoma during the fall. Its unusual
abundance in this section rendered crop prospects for the following year very poor.
Many Texas farmers discontinued planting oats during the fall on account of the
destructiveness of this insect in those fields already planted.

The two northern grain aphides ( Macrosiphum granaria Buck. and M. cerealis Kalt.)
were excessively abundant in portions of South Dakota. ;

The common stalk borer (Papaipema nitela Guen.) attacked wheat in considerable
numbers about Lawrence, Kans., in June, and generally, but to a less degree, about
Richmond, Ind.

The smaller wheat stem-maggot (Oscinis carbonaria Loew) was excessively abundant
in stems of wheat on the earliest of the experimental sowings of this Bureau at
Marion, Pa.

Insects INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLE CROPS.

The common asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi L.) spread southward to Cincin-
nati, Ohio, and established itself in several counties of North Carolina, these repre-
senting the southernmost regions that have been invaded by the species.

The asparagus miner (Agromyza simplex Loew) was more injurious in 1906 than
hitherto observed, and is now particularly troublesome in the principal asparagus-
growing sections of New England, where it bids fair to become a pest of considerable
importance. A lesser degree of injury was observed in Virginia and in California,
and there is a probability of more or less general but unknown damage by this species
in all asparagus regions.

The Mexican bean weevil (Zabrotes [Spermophagus] pectoralis Shp.) was identified
with injury to table beans at Brownsville, Tex. The species has not hitherto been
found within our borders. There is strong likelihood of its permanent establishment
in southern Texas and elsewhere where the climate is subtropical.

The pea aphis (Macrosiphum | Nectarop.:ora] destructor Johns.) was reported inju-
rious to garden and sweet peas in single localities in New York, Virginia, and Illinois,
and in isolated localities also in the truck area of Texas. ;

Webworms were troublesome locally on beets. The beet webworm (Lovxostege
sticticalis L.) was reported destructive in sugar-beet fields in portions of Colorado.
Outbreaks of the garden webworm (Lozostege similalis Guen.) were observed in Texas,
where beets and other vegetables were injured. The southern beet webworm (Pachy-
zancla bipunctalis Fab. | Botis repetitalis Grote]) was concerned in injury to table beets
in Texas, where it occurred with the garden webworm which it resembles in the man-
ner of injury.

The beet aphis (Pemphigus betx Doane) was generally present in the beet fields of
southern California and was reported quite destructive, as was the beet leaf-miner
(Pegomya vicina Lint.); it was abundant also in Utah.

=:

PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 511

The rhubarb flea-beetle (Psylliodes punctulata Mels.) was very generally destructive
to young plants of sugar beet in California, Utah, and Colorado, its ravages extending
into British Columbia, where it caused the loss of many thousands of dollars in hop
fields. It was also injurious to hops near Sacramento, Cal.

Cutworms devastated fields of sugar beet in Michigan.

The little negro bug (Corimelaena pulicaria Germ.) was very injurious to celery in
northern Ohio. A somewhat similar species, Cosmopepla carnifex Fab., was injurious
to potato in northern Maine.

The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.) is always troublesome and
the year 1906 was normal. The western 12-spotted cucumber beetle (D. soror Lec.)
was reported the most destructive sugar-beet pest in portions of southern California.
D. balieata Lec., which was injurious to vegetables in 1905 in Texas, again did damage
in that State, particularly to horse beans and vetches. The related D. picticornis Horn
accompanied it but did less injury.

The striped cabbage flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata Fab.) was unusually troublesome
in New York State, including Long Island, extending its ravages to Maryland and
the District of Columbia’ The larva was also somewhat injurious to roots of radish
and turnip.

The water-cress sowbug ( Mancasellus brachyurus Harger) attracted very considerable
attention because of its troublesome numbers in water cress grown for market in por-
tions of Virginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.

The usual amount of damage by cabbage ‘‘worms” was reported throughout the
country. The cabbage looper (Autographa brassice Riley), which has not been gen-
erally injurious in its more northern range for a number of years, was somewhat abund-
dant about the District of Columbia, particularly in Virginia, and was the cause of
considerable damage to lettuce grown in greenhouses. The potherb butterfly (Pontia
napi L.) was destructive to cabbage, turnip}and other crucifers in Montana and Alaska.

The harlequin cabbage bug (Murgantia histrionica Hahn), always a pest in the
South, after an absence of about six years in the latitude of the District of Columbia,
reappeared in noticeable numbers in near-by points in Maryland and Virginia.

Root maggots were the subject of less complaints than in the preceding four or five
years. The seed-corn maggot (Pegomya fusciceps Zett.) was injurious to turnips in
Alaska, to cabbage in South Carolina, and to sea kale introduced from England, where
the species is also injurious. The imported cabbage maggot (Pegomya brassicx
Bouché) was the subject of considerable correspondence, but injury appears to be
considerably lessened since 1905. Great injury, however, occurred in various portions
of Alaska. Elsewhere the insect was noticeably abundant in northern Ohio and
Minnesota. The imported onion maggot (Pegomya cepetorum Meade) was also less
injurious than in the two or three previous years. The chief injury reported occurred
in Indiana. The black onion fly (Tritoxa fleca Wied.) was injurious to onions in por-
tions of Illinois and Minnesota, and was associated with the onion maggot. In portions
of Illinois also there was another maggot on onions, Lonchxa polita Say), while in Ohio
the barred onion maggot (Chextopsis xnea Wied.) was destructive.

The tarnished plant bug (Lygus pratensis L.) appeared on the whole to be only
moderately numerous, but was injurious to onions grown for seed in Indiana, to potato,
celery, ornamentals, and pear buds in Maine, and was concerned in injury to beets in
California and cabbage in Alaska.

The onion thrips ( Thrips tabaci Lind.) was injurious to onions in Texas, Massachu-
setts, and Indiana.

Injury by the melon aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) was somewhat general throughout
its range. As usual, the greatest losses were to cantaloupe, although other melons,
cucumbers, cotton, some ornamental plants, and others were badly affected. Many
complaints were received from Texas, Florida, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and
California, somewhat general injury was incurred in Ohio and Illinois, and local injury
was done in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. In portions of
southern California cantaloupes were almost completely destroyed. In Oklahoma 60
per cent was lost in some localities.

The pickle worm (Diaphania nitidalis Cram.) appeared in injurious numbers about
the District of Columbia for the first time in about ten years. It was also destructive
in Arkansas.

The common stalk borer (Papaipema nitela Guen.) was less complained of than in
the previous two or three years. Local injury, however, to a variety of vegetable
crops and ornamentals was reported in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Con-
necticut, Michigan, Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and Mississippi. Wheat was attacked
about Lawrence, Kans., and Richmond, Ind.

The variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hbn.) was destructive in California,
doing mischief in greenhouses in Minnesota, and injuring vegetable crops and berries
in Alaska and Mexico.

512 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Injury by white grubs (Lachnosterna spp.) was very general in the northern United
States from New England to Iowa and Wisconsin. The usual crops—potatoes, straw-
berry beds, beets, and other vegetables—were affected, and much complaint was
made of damage to lawns. Injury to the roots of strawberry and to young orchard
trees was reported in Oregon.

Wireworms were more injurious than in most years, complaints being most noticeable
from California. The principal injury was caused to garden vegetables and sugar corn.

Insects InNJuRIous To DEecipuous Fruits.

The codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella L.) has been for some years notably inju-
rious in orchards in the Middle West, especially in the Ozark regions.

The apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh) is apparently becoming increas-
ingly troublesome in some of the New England States, as Maine, New Hampshire,
and Vermont, and has been the subject of frequent communications during the summer
and fall. It was also quite abundant in the vicinity of Douglas, Mich., attacking
principally the summer and early fall varieties of apples.

The green fruit-worm (Xylina antennata Walk.) was reported seriously destructive
to apple orchards in southern Illinois, boring into the young fruit and destroying in
some orchards a considerable percentage of the crop.

The apple leaf-hopper (Hmpoasca mali Le B.) has been more than usually abundant
in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., and was the subject of complaint from the
proprietor of a large nursery in Pennsylvania.

The spring canker-worm (Paleacrita vernata Peck) was much complained of in
northern Virginia, central and western Pennsylvania, and eastern Ohio, where it
appears to have been even more troublesome than in 1905.

The fall canker-worm (Alsophila pometaria Harr.) was received along with the pre-
ceding species from localities in western Pennsylvania, where, in the practical absence
of remedial measures, it seems to be increasing in destructiveness.

The forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria Hbn.) and its near relative, M. plu-
vialis Dyar, were reported as very abundant and destructive in Washington State,
attacking apple, plum, cherry, and rose.

A tussock moth (Orgyia sp.) was also very destructive in Washington State, causing
serious defoliation of orchards.

The yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar (Datana ministra Dru.) became quite
abundant in ape orchards in northern Virginia, adjacent portions of West Virginia,
western Pennsylvania, and Maine.

The red-humped apple-tree caterpillar (Schizura concinna S. & A.) along with the
preceding, was very abundant in apple orchards in Maine, the two species causing
considerable alarm from their depredations.

The trumpet leaf-miner (Tischeria malifoliella Clem.), which became very abundant
in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., during the two previous years, was almost equally
numerous in 1906, though it was not the subject of as much complaint as previously
from near-by States and elsewhere.

The apple bud-borer (EZ pinotia pyricolana Murt.) was decidedly in evidence in young
apple orchards in Virginia and Maryland in the environs of Washington, D. C., doing
material injury by boring down the terminal shoots, thereby causing an undesirable
branching.

A climbing cutworm, Prodenia sp., was troublesome in apple orchards in northern
Virginia and adjacent territory in West Virginia, young trees being practically stripped
of foliage and the branches of older ones more or less denuded. Injury was most severe
in orchards which had been in sod for the past two or three years.

The pear psylla (Psylla pyri L.) was reported seriously injurious to Kieffer pears in
one locality in Virginia. This species was abundant in Virginia and Maryland in 1894,
but has not since attracted much attention.

The plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Ubst.) was the subject of a very large
amount of inquiry from various portions of the territory over which it is distributed.

The peach borer (Sanninoidea evitiosa Say) maintains its place with the plum curculio
as one of the two principal enemies of the peach. Frequent inquiries come, especially
from the South and Southwest, concerning this insect, particularly from persons who
have recently gone into peach culture.

Evippe prunifoliclla Chamb. became destructive to peach at Saugatuck, Coun., fold-
ing the leaves along the edge and also at the tip.

A new sawfly enemy of the peach (Lyda sp.) is reported to have been quite injurious
locally in Connecticut. The slugs feed on the foliage, stripping the trees more or less
completely.

PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. ; 513.

A plum aphis (Aphis setariz Thos.) became unusually abundant in the spring in parts
of the South. Numerous complaints were received from southern Louisiana, in the
vicinity of New Orleans and Lake Charles; also from Alabama, Georgia, and Ken-
tucky. om ‘insect occurred mostly on the plum, but in one instance the peach was
attacked.

An unusually serious attack on the peach by the scurfy scale (Chionaspis furfura
Fitch) was noted in Georgia in a block of three or four-year-old trees, the insect rivaling
in destructiveness the San Jose scale. Judging from the injury caused by this insect
there are doubtless two or more broods in that section each year. The species is
reported uncommonly abundant in certain orchards in the Hudson River Valley in
New York State.

The oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) continued seriously injurious in Mary-
land and Pennsylvania.

The terrapin scale (Eulecaniwm nigrofasciatum Perg.) has become very trouble-
some in a few peach orchards in western Maryland, and its occurrence in unusual
numbers was noted in New Jersey.

The San Jose scale ( Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) continued to attract much atten-
tion, especially in regions recently invaded by it. It was observed in new localities
in apple-growing regions of the Ozark Mountains, and the orchardists of that section
will undoubtedly have to contend with it in the near future.

Another scale insect became prominent as a pest of deciduous fruits, namely,
Howard’s scale (Aspidiotus howardi Ckll.). This insect was reported abundant and
destructive in orchards on the west slope in Colorado, infesting pear, prune, plum,
almond, and apple, as well as certain shade trees.

The grape root-worm (Fidia viticida Walsh) became a very serious pest in the Erie
grape belt in Pennsylvania, and was somewhat more destructive in the Chautauqua
grape belt in western New York than for the preceding year or so.

The grape berry moth (Polychrosis viteana Clem.) was seriouly destructive in the
= territory as that mentioned above for the grape root-worm, as well as in northern

hio.

The pore leaf-hopper (Typhlocyba comes Say) continued a serious grape pest
in the Erie grape belt.

The grape curculio (Craponius inequalis Say) was quite as destructive in West
Virginia as during 1905.

The rose-chafer ( Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.) is apparently again on the increase,
as indicated by the numerous complaints made. Specimens were received from many
localities in the East-Central States—for example, Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York. Serious injury or total destruction of grapes,
cherries, apples, and peaches was noted by correspondents.

Amphicerus punctipennis Lec. was received in grape canes from Miami, Fla. The
species is also recorded from Tiger Mills, Tex., and Riverside, Cal.

Insects InsJuriIous To Citrus AND OTHER TROPICAL FRUITS.

There is little change from year to year in the amount of damage from scale and
other common enemies of citrusfruits. The black scale (Saissetia olex Bern.) and the
red scale ( Aonidiella aurantii Mask.) continue to be the prominent pests in southern
California, and the white fly (Aleyrodes citri R. & H.) and the purple scale (Lepi-
dosaphes beckii Newm.) in Florida. Work under a special appropriation for the white
fly is under way in Florida, and this insect will be studied in the coming year through-
out its range on the Gulf coast.

Very good reports are still coming of the South African parasite of the black scale in
southern California, but the work of this parasite has not by any means eliminated the
black scale as an important pest.

Insects InJuRIoUs TO THE Nut INDUSTRY.

The pecan crop of Texas was reported generally short. Only two insects, however,
were especially prominent as pests. The pecan huskworm (E£narmonia caryana Fitch)
was injurious in portions of Georgia and South Carolina, and, on the authority of Mr.
F. C. Pratt, did injury also to walnuts at Boerne, Tex. Shortage in the pecan crop in
other portions of the South was attributed to this pest. The pecan weevil (Balaninus
carye Horn) was somewhat unusually abundant.

The chestnut crop in some sections also showed a shortage, but the chestnut weevils
(Balaninus rectus Say and B. proboscideus Fab.) were not complained of so frequently
as In previous years. Loss in one locality in Pennsylvania, however, was estimated

3 A1906——33

514 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

at 40 per cent, a gradual growth beginning with 5 per cent loss experienced five years
previously. A red spider, Tetranychus bicolor Bks., was the occasion of complaint
among chestnut growers in portions of Pennsylvania and Connecticut, and this pest,
together with ‘‘blight,’’ was doubtless responsible for other losses of which there was
complaint.

Insrects INJURIOUS TO SHADE AND ORNAMENTAL TREES.

The brown-tail moth (Hwproctis chrysorrhea L.) has extended its western range to the
vicinity of Amherst, Mass., and seems to be proc2eding in a westerly direction more
slowly than it has been spreading to the northeast. it is now found more than halfway
up the Maine coast and has been reported from Eastport. It occurs in the two lower
tiers of counties in New Hampshire in considerable numbers and has been collected
in the White Mountain region.

The gipsy moth (Ocneria [Porthetria] dispar L.) has been found during the year near
Stonington, Conn., and several colonies have been located in Rhode Island. It occurs
very generally in the southern tier of counties of New Hampshire, and recent scouting
in Maine has shown the establishment of the species at several points in the south-
western portion of that State. Its western limit still seems to be in that part of Massa-
chusetts which lies in the longitude of Worcester. ;

As a result of the widespread interest which the occurrence of these two species
occasioned in New England and neighboring States, certain other caterpillars were the
subject of considerable complaint. Prominent among these was the black walnut
caterpillar (Datana integerrima G. & R.), which attracted attention in New York. It
was also injurious to walnut at Bristol, Tenn., and at Rockford, Ill., and to pecans at
Staunton, Va. The hickory tussock moth (Halisidota caryx Harr.) was destructive to
elm in Massachusetts and was the subject of complaint also in New York.

The sugar maple borer (Plagionotus spectosus Say) continued to be a serious pest in
New York, and some complaints were made of its injuries in Ohio.

The white-marked tussock moth (Hemerocampa leucostigma 8. & A.) was abundant
during the year 1906, but not nearly so troublesome asin many other years. It was
particularly numerous in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, Connecticut,
Virginia, and Iowa, attracting most attention asa pest in public parks and in the streets
of cities and large towns. It was similarly abundant in the District of Columbia and
in Nova Scotia.

The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Dru.) was, on the whole, remarkably scarce,
small colonies only occurring. Among the localities infested were the District of
Columbia, Lynn, Mass., New Wilmington, Pa., and New York City.

The imported willow curculio (Cryptorhynchus lapathi L.) was destructive to willow
and poplar, especially in nurseries in various parts of New York State.

The cottony maple scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathv.), which was so abundant
in 1905 practically disappeared as a pest in New Jersey.

The false maple scale (Phenacoccus acericola King) was abundant in several cities
in New York, and especially in the vicinity of New York City.

The catalpa sphinx (Ceratomia catalpx Bdv.) was very destructive to the foliage of
catalpa, reports of defoliation having been received from New Jersey, where the pest is
generally distributed, and from portions of Ohio and Alabama. In Maryland and
Virginia the species was abundant, but not so troublesome.

The elm-tree borer (Saperda tridentata Ol.) was the cause of considerable complaint,
injuries being especially noticeable in the vicinity of St. Louis, Mo., and Evanston, Ill.

A new oriental moth (Cnidocampa flavescens Walk.), whose original home is in Asia,
was observed on a variety of shade, orchard, and wild trees in the vicinity of Dor-
chester, Mass. As its habits as thus far studied in this country show that it is capable
of subsisting on all sorts of vegetation, such as bush fruits and rose, there is danger of
the permanent introduction of this species into America as a pest.

The maple leaf stem-borer (Priophorus acericaulis McG.) was injurious to maple
shade trees in the vicinity of New Haven, Conn., and probably elsewhere. The
species has not hitherto been noted as a pest and was only recently described because
new to science.

The currant leaf-hopper (Empoasca mali Le B.) was very abundant on shade trees
in the District of Columbia, doing particular damage to the hop tree. It also attacked
violets grown in a greenhouse in Virginia.

The greenhouse red spider (Tetranychus bimaculatus Harv.) was extremely trouble-
some, both in greenhouses and fields and on shade trees, its injuries extending from
New York and the District of Columbia to Illinois. General complaint of mite injury
to shade trees was also made in New Jersey and is probably attributable to this species.

PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 515

Insects InJuri0ous TO FoRESTS AND ForEsST PRODUCTS.

The Black Hills beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosez Hopk.) continued its depredations
to such an extent in the Black Hills Forest Reserve of South Dakota that as yet it has
not been practicable, owing to the lack of sufficient funds and other facilities, to
accomplish anything of importance toward carrying out the recommendations for its
control. The radical measures adopted in the vicinity of Colorado Springs and the
Pikes Peak Forest Reserve, Colo., under the same recommendations, have, on the other
hand, apparently brought the pest under complete control in that locality.

The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus monticola Hopk.) was the direct cause of
the death of a considerable amount of lodgepole pine in the higher elevations of the
Yosemite National Park and in other localities in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in’
California. It was also reported in destructive numbers in Oregon, Idaho, and Utah.

The destructive pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm.), while continuing to be
a menace to the pine forests of the South, was not more than usually abundant in the
South Atlantic and Gulf States. For the first time since the disastrous outbreak of
1891-92 it was found as far north as Virginia. Investigations in the southeastern part
of that State indicated that it had been present in limited abundance for several years,
apparently without much, if any, increase in numbers.

The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk.) was not reported in destructive
abundance in any section of the country. It was found in small numbers attacking
spruce in New Hampshire, northern Michigan, and the Black Hills of South Dakota,
and the western form was reported as causing some injury to the Engelmann spruce
in Colorado and Wyoming.

The Douglas spruce beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsuge Hopk.) was reported as
destructive to the red fir or Douglas spruce in many widely separated localities in the
Rocky Mountain region.

The larch beetle (Dendroctonus simplex Lec.) was found attacking larch or tamarack
in small numbers in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Although not at present a
serious enemy of the tree, 1t may prove to be of importance in connection with the
depredations of the larch sawfly.

The western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis Lec.) was found attacking pine
in the Yosemite Valley and other localities in California, and reported from Oregon.
In Idaho the recommendations of this Bureau for its control have been adopted by
certain of the larger lumbering concerns.

The two-lined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus Web.) was found in Massachusetts
attacking and hastening the death of oak trees which had been defoliated by the gipsy
and brown tail moths.

The white-pine weevil (Pissodes strobi Peck) occurred in its usual abundance in the
Eastern States. It was found also in Michigan, in young white pine reproduction,
and appears to be increasing in abundance there.

Cerambycid borers (species at present unknown) were reported as injuring telephone
poles in Maryland and West Virginia. They attack the poles near the surface of the
ground, and so weaken them as to cause them to break.

Cedar heartwood borers ( Trachykele blondeli Mars. and T. opulenta Fall) were identi-
fied as the cause of serious injury to the heartwood of various western cedars. The
injury has been long known, but the insect causing it has been unknown until this
year.

Powder-post beetles (Lyctus spp.) continued to be a source of frequent complaint
from dealers and manufacturers of hardwood products. L. unipunctatus Hbst. was
the most common species infesting oak and hickory spokes, handles, etc.; LZ. plani-
collis Lec. was found attacking ash lumber in the South, and L. parallelopipedum Mels.
injuring persimmon shuttle blocks in Georgia. The red-shouldered powder-post borer
(Sinozxylon basilare Say) caused serious injury to last and shuttle blocks of persimmon
wood in Georgia and Ohio.

The larch sawfly (Holcocneme [ Nematus] erichsonit Hartig) was unusually abundant
and destructive in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Complaint of injury was received
in 1905, but it appears that the area over which the larch was defoliated was consider-
ably more extensive in 1906. Defoliation of the larger trees over a large part of the
upper peninsula was complete, but as yet none appear to be dying from this cause alone.

The fir tussock moth (Notolophus oslari Barnes) was the cause of extensive defoliation
of the tops of white fir (Abies concolor) in Mariposa County, Cal., and was also found
in considerable abundance attacking the same tree in Colorado. It is supposed that
the repetition of this injury is responsible for the dead tops common on fir throughout
a large portion of the Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada regions.

Dalcerides ingenta Hy. Edw., a species of slug caterpillar, was reported seriously
defoliating “‘live oak scrub” near Payson, Ariz. The habits of this insect were not
known previously.

516 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Insects InNJuRIOUS TO STORED PRODUCTS.

The Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella Zell.), that scourge of the flour
mill, greatly increased its range, having been reported from four times as many locali-
ties as in any previous year. Its injuries were particularly noticeable in new
localities in California, Oregon, Maryland, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York,
Wisconsin, and Illinois. It was doubtfully reported from South Dakota, Iowa, and
West Virginia.

The European grain moth (Tinea granella L.) has apparently become established
in this country, as considerable correspondence was received in regard to its occur-
rence in seed storehouses and mills in portions of Connecticut, Michigan, New York,
and Canada. It bred in corn seed and dry stalks, and in ground buckwheat.

The spider beetle (Ptinus fur L.) caused serious damage to a case of uniforms of
heavy felted cloth in an Ohio locality, and was also found in some numbers in flour
in a flour mill at Ontario, Canada.

Hadrobregmus carinatus Say, another ptinid beetle new as a household pest, made
its appearance at Toledo, Ohio, and Hamburg, Mich., working somewhat after the
manner of the powder-post beetles (Lyctus spp.), in white ash and basswood flooring,
the former wood being comparatively new and the latter very old.

The cigarette beetle (Lastoderma serricorne Fab.) appears to be increasingly destruc-
tive year by year, many complaints having been received during 1906. It affected
tobacco of all kinds, and its injuries were well distributed throughout the eastern
United States and extended westward into Arizona. It also injured herbarium
specimens at St. Louis, Mo., and was troublesome in upholstered furniture in the
District of Columbia, West Virginia, and New Jersey.

INSECTS AND Ticks aS ANIMAL PARASITES AND AS CONVEYORS OF DISEASE.

The insect and tick parasites of domestic animals and man vary but slightly as
regards abundance from year to year. The following observations, however, on some
of these pests are of interest:

The cattle tick (Boophilus annulatus Say) does not vary decidedly in numbers
from year to year. In 1906 the usual loss from Texas fever, estimated at $40,000,000
to $100,000,000, may be attributed to it.

The lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum IL.) ranks next, though its importance
is immeasurably less because it does not transmit disease. In 1906 it was very numer-
ous, especially in regions where sheep and goats are kept.

The tropical horse tick (Dermacentor nitens Aud.) was discovered in this country
for the first time by an agent of the Bureau of Entomology, and its occurrence over a
considerable area in southern Texas was determined.

The gulf ceast tick (Amblyomma maculatum Koch), which has previously attracted
no attention, was found very commonly along the coasts of Texas and Louisiana
infesting cattle, horses, dogs, and man.

The tropical tick (Amblyomma cajennense Koch) was observed in Texas as far north
as Beeville.

The dog Rhipicephalus (Rhipicephalus sp.) was found commonly over a large area
in southern Texas. Its close relationship ‘to disease-transmitting species gives it
considerable interest.

A horse fly (Tabanus opacus Coq.) caused much annoyance to horses and cattle in
Wyoming.

The screw worm (Chrysomyia macellaria Fab.), always a source of trouble in Texas,
was annoying to stock. The same is true of the horse bot (Gastrophilus equi Fab.),
which was observed in the same State everywhere as far west as Ozona.

MIscELLANEOUS OR UNCLASSIFIED INSECT PEsTs.
INSECTS INJURIOUS IN GREENHOUSES AND IN FLOWER GARDENS.

The violet gall midge (Contarinia [Diplosis] violicola Coq.) has become a very serious
pet in the extensive violet-growing industry in the Hudson River valley region of
ew York. ‘The rose leaf-beetle (Nodonota puncticollis Say) was injurious to roses in
the vicinity of the District of Columbia. The rose leaf-hopper ( Typhlocyba rosx Harr.)
was quite troublesome during the year and caused considerable complaint because of
its work on rose bushes in and about the District of Columbia, as also in New York State.
The red-banded leaf-hopper (Diedrocephala coccinea Forst.) was inyurious to ornamental
lants in Central New York and in the District of Columbia, China aster, roses, and
ibiscus being particularly injured. Lilac bushes at Stony Brook, N. Y., were
reported badly damaged by a giant scarabeeid beetle, Xyloryctes satyrus Fab. The
greenhouse leaf-tyer (Phlyctenia ferrugalis Hbn.) was a pest in greenhouses in Michigan.

SOIL AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED. 517

STRAWBERRY INSECTS.

The strawberry crown girdler (Otiorhynchus ovatus L.) was very destructive in King
County, Wash., to strawberry plants. An estimated loss of about $55,000 was made for
that county. It was observed on ornamental plants about Chicago, Ill. The straw-
berry leaf-roller (Ancylis comptana Fréhl.) was abundant in Maryland and Virginia
near the District of Columbia, and was complained of in Illinois and Missouri. The
strawberry sawfly (Harpiphorus maculatus Nort.) was injurious in Massachusetts.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The Rocky Mountain locust ( Melanoplus spretus Thos.) was very destructive in por-
tions of South Dakota. One correspondent reported the total destruction of nursery
plantings, the damage aggregating $800.

A red spider (Tetranychus sp.) was reported as causing much damage to hops in
portions of the State of Washington, one grower reporting an almost total loss.

The calloused bill-bug (Sphenophorus callosus Ol.) was destructive to chufa, and
was concerned in injury to timothy in Virginia near the District of Columbia.

Of pests related to insects, a sowbug (Porcellio levis Latr.) was injurious to mush-
rooms grown commercially in the District of Columbia and Kansas. Many complaints
were also received of slugs and their injuries to plants of various kinds. Angleworms
also were present in troublesome numbers in gardens, on lawns, on golf links, and in
some cases in large fields.

AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED BY THE BUREAU OF SOILS.

By A. G. Ricr, Chief Clerk, Bureau of Soils.

The following statement shows the location and extent of soil surveys made up to
December 31, 1906. The Bureau prepares and issues a lithograph map, drawn on a
scale of 1 mile to the inch, for each area surveyed, indicating in colors the distribution
of the various soil types. The accompanying sketch map (fig. 20) gives the location
of these areas.

Fic. 20.—Areas covered by the Soil Survey.

_ The statement gives a list of the areas surveyed with the number of square miles
in each, and the tctal area surveyed in each State and Territory. The total for the
United States is 128,198 square miles, or 82,046,720 acres.

518

Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906.

Alabama:
Blount: County.....0.-ssssesseeee=
Dallas County-.5.-i22—--sa-e 2 oe
Work) Payne aredi-.2 --sese5 22 ae
Huntsville. area... 2. -c-s4s55--
Lauderdale County........--..--
Leo County... 208 24S oe ee
Macon Countys2-o.4--o ser eee
Mobile:area.. .t s2. seh Sacer
Montgomery County......--.--
Perry; County. <2- 55-0 ceeoee
Sumter County. ose. -5 oars eee

Arizona:
Buckeye;sheet:.,..:.: 0.222 s52222 2
Phoenix sheet 25) /Nas4228 22 ee

Tempe sheet
Numa area oh. S: fassce eee te ee

Arkansas:
Fayetteville area..............-
Miller 'Countiy=t-.2- .-02-0-22--%
Prairie County 5-pest- eee eee
Stuttgart area... ...-.2.-<-.----

California:

Pmperialares 22 A fsa ee
Indio"aress 2 oe aceeeeeee eee
Los Angeles area......---------
Sacramento area..........-.---
Salings!sheetocesa sa ceeee ee aes an

Santa Andareny 20 ee eee ere
Solidadisheetse= se. 255 nae

Colorado:
Arkansas Valley area........---
Grand Junction area.......--.-
Greeley; STOR) a. = o2s5.ss 5220 0e ae
Sfraalg Lb T SY io Wes ee ae ee

Connecticut:
Connecticut Valley...........--
Delaware:
IDONEL' trea * 2.3 Fee Sex eee ne
Florida:
Escambia County.........-----
Gadsden County............-.--
Gainesville area. >... 2.22. ---5-
heon| County: ssh Sone. saan aoe

Georgia:
Bainbridge areas. -s5-----.-e <<
Cobb County sccdee sense ecce ne
Covingtonrarcamee ts ness) oe-
Dodge: County... see a se eee
Fort Valley area...............-
Spalding County. ..2.. .d.02-s55
Waycross @r6éa.-2 5.5... . eee

Idaho:

Caldwellishest. tendo cele seers
Lewiston aren: 5 2.5.2.0 paoenee

Illinois:
Clay. Countynnicd-ceddseced ace
Clinton County... 50.5. dease
Johnson County...............-
Knox Connty an eiseeenss sesane
McLean County... ot. scaecos dex
Oc Fallon areas... -Seoceceseee es
Sangamon County..............
St. Clair County 2.25. 2essess2
Tazewell County............-.-
Winnebago County............-

7,486

897

2,102

6,933

2,428
505
314

2,370

2,424

1,135

5,921

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTULE.

Square
miles
Indiana:
Boonville’ areac. .o 5-2 ee ee eee 264
Greene County 2-2. Fee 535
Madison County................ 435
Marshall County . ......-./-.-2. 445
Newton Countynne- seen oer 393
Poséy-County 520 2G. eee 387
scott Countye ss 2ssi oes ooo 197
Tippecanoe County.........- ‘gan, £499
Indian Territory:
Tishomingo area’ . J225 eee
Iowa:
Cerro Gordo County ............ 567
Dubuque area. :2...25225-5 5. ae 440
Story County)=..22) «Sse ee 576
Dama) COUNTY a. san cone ete 720
Kansas:
‘Allon County: 325.5220 )28- sso 504
Brown County <2 22s... seeeee 573
Garden City area : 2.- 2-222 -2ee 335
Parsons area. 2. Sie eae 398
Riley: Countyas( 3.2 ee 634
Russell-ares:224.. eeee 270
Wichitaares:: 4 222 eee sae 465
Kentucky:
McCracken County........----- 242
Madison County... 552--. =e ee 437
Mason County 22 oe ase- eee 225
Scott County........- Sore > 280
Union County=----e---- ee eee 361
Warren'County=- 32) =e 533
Louisiana:
Acadia Parish. 35-2)22255 eee 636
Caddo.Parish'ys: = 22522" fees 898
De. Soto, Parishsc:-<..8--- eee 825
East Baton Rouge Parish....-.- 451
Lake'Charlesrares =o. 222 = Sane
New Orleans area..........-..-
Ouachita Parish. -....-.

Tangipahoa Parish

Maryland:
Calvert County:..< -.-25--+-sseeee
Cecil Countyi22-.. 2523-2 ee
Harford! County q..s2-.s= «1-25 see
Kent County -coseaeeen none
Prince George County........-.
St. Mary County +22 5--sesee
Worcester County... -.-....-...:

Massachusetts:
Connecticut Valley............-
Michigan:
Allegan County. . 2 -...c2cSt@sen
Alma are8.3.<22?25.. 3.555 eee
Cass.County 52.0325. 35- sce ee
Munising area... 2... s<s cee
Oxfordares .. |. sicestececeeueee

Minnesota:
Blue Earth County.............
Carlton: sheet... .... S225 - 2 eee

Mississippi:
Biloxi area. scue- a5. 0deee
Crystalsprings area x
J ACKROM ATGR.ss,q. aa< ie oes eas ceees
Mayersville sheet............-..
MeNeill area....
Montgomery County......-.....
Pontotoc County: 2: - 225-45 2
SMEGEE: ATOR 2c): s:<.5<0.0jc05-<sapaese
YAZOG BH6Gt Hus. ..c acces oeRe

3,155
443

2,303

3,179

2,078

4,815

2,610

3,788

2,174

3, 803

a

SOIL AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED.

Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906—Continued.

Square
miles.
Missouri:
Crawford County -..--.---------- 747
Howell County ....------------- 919
PWal on ATER... cha eee
Putnam County ..--------------
Saline County ..-.--..-----------
Scotland County
Shelby County....-.------
Webster County
Montana:
Billings area. -..-.-..------+---- 107
Gallatin Valley area....-..---.- 325
Nebraska:
Grand Island area...-.-...------- 446
Kearney area........----------- 792
Lancaster County ....---------- 857
Sarpy County.......----------- 227
MPaTIGOD QTPR oon 5 so sanse==s5>=5 323
New Hampshire:
Merrimack County ..-.----------------
New Jersey:
Salem area........--..-------<-- 493
rn GOL OTE sens sss. -cino o see 810

New Mexico:
GPanshad snect......--.------.-- 80
Muswell alee... 6. 5.252255 5--ck ee 49

New York:

ARNT TOR... ...-=----------- 461
Bigflats area.....-..------------ 223
Binghamton area.....--.------- 229
Long Island area...-..---------- 845
gone ares. =~... .222--------- - 515
Madison County. .-.-...---------- 649
Niagara County...-.------- Be ae tf
Syracuse area..........---- ae Lal
Tompkins County 493
Vergennes area.......-.-------- 160
Westfield area... ......--..------ 260

North Carolina: :
Alamance County ..---..-------- 365
Mnhewiile ATOR. io ooa<~--55-2-556% 497
ire sheet... ----- =~ =. .---~--= 63
Chowan County. ...-.-.--..-.--- 178
@layton sheet -..2--.--..---+-2:- 214
MErPTATOS! Soo ei oa ioe wae 897
Penn COUNTY... 2 S2secoe = aes 824
iickory area... -.-------------- 988
Kinston sheet....-.-.-- 257
Mount Mitchell sheet 497
Wawberm sheet: --.-----<----.--- 46
New Hanover County-..------- 192
Haymele Bred... s-~ = c2-4-cs es 236
Perquimans and Pasquotank
POURLIOS. — 1. o'< 5 5.5 so se = 461
Princeton sheet .....------------ 248
Galan wren 2). S52 oes wocetee a 190
Statasvillearea.--.. <2. --.<.0--- 784
Transylvania County-...-.------- 372
North Dakota:
Gand ALCAN oa-= 55 25--=2 a5 eee 283
Carrington area.....-.---------- 720
Fargo area...--.-------------- 406
Grand Forks area... -----------= 3h
‘Jamestown area...------------- 496
Ransom County..-.------- ont OOO
Walliston area -.-222--5-~----- 585
Ohio:
Ashtabula Sree <2. ..-----0-——-- 340
Cleveland area. .-.--------------- 509
Columbus area. .<-=----<------- 472
Coshocton area*-=-----2 22s 551
Meigs County ---.--------------- 443
» Montgomery County...-.-------- 480
‘Toledo shed 5505.2 sae eee 403
Westerville area...-.-.--------- 476
WiOOSLAt- Sten. o-e--- seeeee = oer 469

2,645
923

1,303

129

4, 798

7, 309

3,660 | Virginia:

Square
miles
Oklahoma:
Oklahoma County. ...--..---.---------
Oregon:
aker City area.........------- 158
Galemisrea- oo... ce see se cce ene
Pennsylvania:
Adams County =. -----.--=-.s2-< 534
Chester County ...--.------ ---- 7
ancaster ares... -.-....----- 269
Mabanow aren... ---=-—-------=--- 669
Lockhaven area....------------ 278
Montgomery County ...-.-.------ 496
Porto Rico:
Aveciho to once... .-~--..ene--2~~=
Rhode Island.
SPC YS) So Sees ee SS Sener
South Carolina:
Abbeville ATCR 3. 5-.ccn- oe --socns 1, 006
Campobello area....-.---------+ 515
Charleston area......---.------- 352
@berokes County:-<.)- <--=<=-<-~- 361
Darlington area...-....--.----- 599
Lancaster County. ..-.---------- 486
Orangeburg area. ..-.--.------- 709
PY Grimeouney cece hee eee 669
South Dakota:
Brookings area......---.-------------
Tennessee:
Clarksville area: ..2%.--.--..-.-- 547
Davidson County...-.----------- 501
Grainger County....--.-------- 307
Greeneville area...-..-.---------- 664
Henderson County...-...------- 499
Lawrence County 618
Madison County. .-.-.---
Pikegiiomren.o.0.0 ones oe
Texas:
Anderson County...-.------------ 1, 069
AMSHIDU ATOR ||. 22o ee ceo cenwin-= 705
Brazoria ares.......--.--------- 845
Henderson area....-.------------ 581
Houston County -..-..----.------- 1,192
Jacksonville area....-.-.-------- 100
WaVeCR COUMLY..----2<sess sno 995
Paredo rev. sols 2t et Sse = 155
TeelGanniy ens 22 ee eee 666
Ientkin ATOR... ose aa oe nee micd= = 99
Nacogdoches area....---------- 97
Paris Artes seac cece 2s eee 548
San Antonioarea:.-=-.-----.--- 484
San Marcos area.......-..------ 515
Vernon sten-----=- -----------=- 277
Wiaito arene! so. s--2= sees ese 495
Willistares = s.5..3.5 22 tessoos 215
Woodville area...----.-.-,------ 100
Utah:
Bear River Valley --..-....------- 334
IProvolarean aoe o eee eee 313
Salt uae Sucehes-) a--5---- seem 249
Sevier Valley. -—--------------- 235
Weber Comunity. ----------------- 310
Vermont: P
Vergennes area. ..--.-----------------
Albemarle area......-------.---- 1,410
Appomattox County ------.----- 340
Bediord arevoce 4. ee- 8 ae 632
Chesterfield County..--.------- 478
Hanover County --------------- 475

eesbure area =... <9) ==.5---=-=— 419
Mowiss COunLY .-o 2-25 ---—---= 505
Nomoto wre wacescs- shen So 303
Prince Edward County. --.----- 430
WOLKLOWM ATC « o- os5-5-=-= === 598

519

3, 006
330

1, 085

4, 697

484

4,137

9, 138

1,501

227

5, 590

520 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906—Continued.

Square Square
miles miles
Washington: Wisconsin:
Teland' County: cc. 45-5 o eee 233 Janesville‘area).....-20 lessee 451
ORG 2) 1017 As yet Pa ges me ee 525 Portage County - ==. 222 see 797
Sunnysidessheet. -- -..co--5-55 224 ‘Racine County.<. 2. 222--seeeeee 326
Walla Walla ‘area ...-2225-- 23. 201 Superior area s.<. 23-222. eee 482
Walkims sheet. sec: onse cue eetees 85 Virequa area. .22ic.2 2. Sac 504
f —— 1,268 —— 2,560
West Virginia: Wyoming:
es County tiene 330 Laramie area... 2 -..9.5.-.- oie eee 309
Wheeling’arca 3342-41222 5ess 315
645 Totaless 22 S- Sosctee eee >... 128,198

PROGRESS IN FOOD AND DRUG INSPECTION AND CORRELATED
INVESTIGATIONS.

By H. W. Wirey, Chief of Bureau of Chemistry.

The passage of the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, after continuous efforts to
obtain such legislation for more than a quarter of a century, undoubtedly is the great-
est advancement in the field of investigations covered by the work of the Bureau of
Chemistry during 1906 and marks what may almost be called a reformation in many
industries connected with the production of foods and medical and pharmaceutical
preparations. Much work had been done in the Bureau in the direction of revealing
the conditions that necessitated this law, by the publication of analyses of goods
purchased in the open market, the disclosure of discrepancies between the label
and the product, the compilation of State food and drug laws showing need of uni-
formity and the difficulties and injustices suffered by dealer, consumer, and the
honest manufacturer alike when interstate commerce was conducted under such
varying conditions. Cooperation with the Post-Office Department in excluding
fraudulent medicinal preparations from the mails had revealed an evident need of
regulation of such preparations which were often harmful as well as fraudulent.

Although the law did not become operative until January 1, 1907, its effect was
noticeable soon after the passage of the act. The great majority of manufacturers
have shown that they are anxious to comply with the law and have hastened to
make the necessary changes in their products and ladels. It is apparent that as
far as most of the reputable manufacturers and dealers are concerned the law will be
largely self-operative, and as a rule the decisions of the Department are accepted
without protest. Careful inspection will, of course, be necessary, however, in order
to protect these interests from unfair competition with such dealers or manufacturers
as might, by misbranding and otherwise misrepresenting their goods, undersell the
honest merchant. To this end a number of laboratories, serving as centers of inspec-
tion in which this work will be largely conducted, are being established in addition
to the six laboratories at Chicago, Ehsladelphia, New York, Boston, New Orleans, and
San Francisco, at which ports imported foods have been inspected during the past two
years. The improvement in the labeling of imported goods, the statements made as
to colors and preservatives, etc., show continuing improvement under this inspection.

The improvement to be expected from the regulation of the sale of drugs and phar-
maceutical preparations is already evidenced by the steps taken to produce pure
products and to eliminate misrepresentations and false claims as set forth in the labels.
Other progressive activities set in operation by this law include the attention being
given to the establishment of much needed standards for the various products sub-
ject to the act and the work of the council on pharmacy and chemistry, in which this
Bureau has cooperated, which has called to account many remedies which have in
the past masqueraded under false colors.

In the same way a vast amount of research work has been inaugurated and some
phases of it completed looking to the determination of the effect of preservatives and
coloring matters on health and digestion; the effect of cold storage, especially on fowls,
birds, and eggs; and the bacteriological-chemical studies of milk, ice cream, etc., for
the better protection of public health and the establishment of requirements and regu-
lations governing such products. During the past year the study of the effect of pre-
servatives made at the hygienic table of the Bureau has been devoted to the special
investigation of certain points which the previous work indicated as being of special
significance or needing further elaboration, the same preservatives being employed as
in the more general studies, i. e., boric acid, sulphurous acid, and sulphites. The
physiological effects of formaldehyde, benzoic nei and copper sulphates have been

ROAD LAWS ENACTED IN 1906. 521

also investigated along the lines followed in the bulletins on borax and salicylic acid
(No. 84, Parts land II)alreadyissued. The results with these additional preservatives
are now almost ready for publication.

In nearly all of the laboratories of the Bureau investigations are in progress which
bear upon the subject of food and drug control, the establishment of standards, the
character of goods on the market, and methods for the improvement of processes and
products. Among these may be mentioned the following:

An investigation, in the miscellaneous laboratory, of concentrated feeding stuffs as
sold on the American market, including the analysis of approximately 400 cattle foods
to determine their composition and whether or not they are adulterated. Also the
study of the composition of mineral waters in the United States has been continued,
providing valuable data in connection with the enforcement of the food and drugs
act as affecting this class of products.. Illustrative of the efforts made to improve proc-
ae may be mentioned the investigation of materials and methods used in canning

oods.

The most striking investigation looking to the improvement of the quality of raw
materials is perhaps the experiment made with wheat grown in semiarid regions and
under irrigation, or in localities having a heavy rainfall. The work at its present stage
appears to indicate that, of all the factors influencing the composition of wheat, water
ci a predominant is the wheats grown under semiarid conditions being much

igher in nitrogen. Both pot experiments and field work have pointed toward the
same conclusion, i. e., an excess of water is accompanied by a decrease in nitrogen con-
tent, which opens up the possibility of determining the amount of irrigation which
should be practiced to produce a crop of wheat containing the maximum nitrogenous
content and making -the largest veld

In thus outlining the progress made along a few of the lines of activity opened up or
made more vital by the demands of the new law, it is important to emphasize the fact
that their complete and satisfactory accomplishment can only be effected by conserva-
tive methods; fat the effect of the institution of such work and the enactment of such a
law has been far-reaching in its practical and beneficial effects even in its initial
stages—beneficial alike to consumer, producer, and our commercial status as a Nation.

REVIEW OF ROAD LAWS ENACTED IN 1906.

By M. O. Evprmwer, Chief of Records, Office of Public Roads.

The legislatures of only about one-fourth of the States were in session during the
year 1906. Notwithstanding this fact, some very important road laws were enacted.

The legislatures of twelve States adopted 81 bills relating to road improvement and
administration. A brief synopsis of the most important of these measures is pre-
sented herewith.

Iowa.—An act approved February 14, 1906, authorizes the use of the split-log drag
in maintaining earth roads. Dragging must be done under the direction of the road
superintendents, who may allow not to exceed 50 cents per mile for each dragging or
$5 per mile for dragging the road for one year.

Another act, approved March 10, 1906, provides that all persons who use wagons on
public roads with tires not less than 3 inches in width for hauling loads exceeding 800
pounds in weight shall receive a rebate of one-fourth of their highway tax, provided
such rebate shall not exceed $5 per annum.

Kentucky.—Any county in this State owning turnpike roads is authorized by an
act approved March 21, 1906, to collect tolls on such roads, provided the same is agreed
to by a majority of the legal voters of the county. The fiscal courts are required to
appropriate to each road on which tolls are collected all the money so collected for the
purpose of keeping the road in repair. Where the capital stock of turnpike roads is
owned by the commonwealth of Kentucky and any county or counties, the share
owned by the State may be transferred to the county, according to an act approved
March 17, 1906, provided the county agrees to maintain the road and to collect no
tolls thereon.

If agreed to by a two-thirds vote of the people, a special tax of not to exceed 25 cents
on each $100 worth of assessed property may be levied for the construction and repair
of roads in the various counties of this State, according to an act approved March 21,
1906. In working out this tax the road overseer may allow $1 for each day’s work
and $2.50 per day for each two-horse team and wagon.

New Jersey.—The salary of the State commissioner of public roads is increased
by an act approved April 2, 1906, from $1,500 to $5,000 per annum; the allowance for

oan YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

his expenses is also increased from $1,500 to $4,000 per annum, and the salary of the
State supervisor, who shall be a competent civil engineer, is fixed at $2,500 per annum.

According to a law approved June 26, 1906, roads constructed by the boards of chosen
freeholders of the counties, with or without State aid, may be maintained by the
township, town, or borough in which they are located, under the direction of the State
commissioner of public roads.

Another law provides that the purchase or condemnation of toll roads which have
been permanently improved with stone or gravel may be paid for, one-third by the
State and two-thirds by the county. Ten per cent of the two-thirds may be paid by
the township or municipality in which the road is located. The county may borrow
money temporarily to pay its share for such roads.

New Yorx.—The issuance of $50,000,000 in bonds, provided for in section 12,
article 7, of the constitution, was legalized May 16, 1906. Funds realized from the
sale of those bonds are to be expended under the Higbie-Armstrong State aid law
in the permanent improvement of the public highways, the State paying one-half of
the cost, the counties 35 per cent, and the townships or property owners 15 per cent.
The bonds are to be issued in two classes, A and B. Class A bonds are to run for a
period of 50 years and bear interest at 34 per cent and be redeemable from a fund
maintained by the State. An annual tax of 0.0055 mill upon each $1 worth of property
for every million dollars worth of bonds outstanding is provided to pay the interest
and to create a sinking fund with which to redeem Class A bonds. Class B bonds
also bear interest at the rate of 34 per cent and are to be paid in 50 equal annual
installments by the county and townships wherein the proceeds have been applied
to the improvement of highways. The counties and towns which do not desire to
avail themselves of funds derived from the sale of these bonds may pay their share of
the cost of State aid roads in cash. Interest and principal on Class B bonds are paid
by a tax which is levied on a basis of 70 per cent upon the county and 30 per cent
upon the township. The sum of $5,000,000 was appropriated for 1906 out of moneys
realized from the sale of these bonds for the purpose of improving the highways accord-
ing to the State aid laws.

The town law relating to highway commissioners is amended according to an act
approved May 10, 1906, so as to provide that towns which have adopted the money
system and have more than one highway commissioner, may reduce the number-of
commissioners to one, if agreed to by a majority of the voters at a special meeting.

The highway law was amended May 10, 1906, so as to provide that supervisors and
the highway commissioner or commissioners of towns receiving State aid shall annu-
ally report to the State engineer, on forms provided for the purpose, all expenditures
for road and bridge purposes, sources of revenue, machinery and tools on hand. The
highway commissioners and supervisors are required to use, for keeping accounts of
moneys collected and expended, such forms as may be prescribed by the State
engineer.

Outo.—The ‘county commissioners are authorized by law, approved March 3, 1906,
to issue bonds for the purpose of reimbursing boards of road commissioners appointed
by the county commissioners for indebtedness in connection with road improvements
carried on by virtue of any legislative act. Such bonds may be issued for such amounts
and such length of time and for such rate of interest as the county commissioners may
determine. The commissioners are authorized to levy an annual tax on all property
within the precinct or road district out of which to pay interest and pede

Revised Statutes of Ohio in relation to the National Road were amended March 29,
1906, so as to provide that the county commissioners in any county through which the
National Road (Old Cumberland Road) passes are authorized to require township
trustees to maintain portions of the road which pass through their township.

Ruope Istanp.—An act passed February 20, 1906, provides for the issuance of
scrip or certificates of indebtedness in the name cf the State to the amount of $600,000.
They are to mature in at least thirty years and bear interest at the rate of not to exceed
3 per cent. Of these bonds, $200,000 are to be issued and sold before January 1, 1907,
and the balance on or before January 1, 1908, in such installments as the State treas-
urer may determine. The amount necessary to pay the annual interest and provide
for a sinking fund to pay off the bonds is to be included in the annual appropriation
bill for State expenses. The funds derived from the sale of these bonds are to be
expended under the direction of the State board of public roads in the construction
of a system of State roads, the State paying the whole cost, as provided by law.

Vireinta.—On March 6, 1906, a law was approved which provided for the estab-
lishment of a State highway commission, consisting of a State highway commissioner,
appointed by the governor, who shall be a civil engineer and a citizen of the State,

ROAD LAWS ENACTED IN 1906. 523

and the professors of civil engineering of the University of Virginia, the Virginia Mil-
itary Institute, and the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. The highway
commissioner is to receive a salary of $3,000 per annum and traveling expenses, and
an assistant to the commissioner is to receive $1,800 per annum and traveling expenses.
Clerks and other assistants are also provided for. The sum of $16,000 was appropriated
for the use of the commission from July 1, 1906, to February 28, 1908. The commis-
sion is to collect and disseminate useful information on road building, to prepare plans
and specifications for the improvement of roads throughout the State when requested
by local authorities to do so, and to direct the construction of such roads.

The commission is further authorized to furnish as many convicts from the State
prison as may be necessary to build the roads according to the specifications of the
commissioner and under the direction of an engineer appointed by him, provided the
local authorities agree to furnish all necessary material, tools, and teams. The State
highway commissioner is authorized to have general supervision of the construction
and repair of the main traveled roads throughout the State and to recommend to local
authorities and to the governor needed improvements in the public roads. The pro-
fessors of civil engineering at the universities and colleges mentioned are required to
aid the commissioner when not actually engaged in their academic work by inspecting
road work and giving such information as may be desired.

Another act, approved March 6, 1906, provides for the use of State convicts in the
improvement of public roads and in the preparation of road-building material through-
out the State. Such convicts when engaged in this work in any county are placed
under the direction of a civil engineer and road builder appointed for the purpose by
the State highway commissioner. The sum of $25,000 is appropriated annually out
of which to pay the transportation of the convicts to and from the penitentiary and for
guarding, clothing, and feeding them when engaged in this work.

The law relating to the establishment, construction, and permanent improvement
of public roads was amended March 17, 1906, providing among other things that the
county superintendents of roads, road district boards, road subdistrict supervisors, and
the State engineer shall have control, supervision, and management of the public
roads. The bill also provides that the regular county levy and district levy may be
used in defraying the county’s and district’s proportion of the expense of constructing
roads for which State aid has been obtained. Rules and plans for making roads in the
counties are subject to the approval of the State highway commissioner.

The boards of supervisors of the various counties, according to an act approved
March 14, 1906, are authorized to enact such loca! legislation as may be necessary for
the protection of roads and bridges.

According to an act approved March 8, 1906, bonds may be issued by any county for
the purpose of permanently improving roads and bridges, provided the same is agreed
to by a majority of the qualified voters of the county. The maximum amount of such
bond issue shall not exceed 10 per cent of the total taxable valuation, and the bonds
shall be payable in not to exceed thirty-four years. A tax of not to exceed 90 cents on
each $100 worth of property must be levied to create a sinking fund and to pay the
interest thereon. All roads built from such bond issues must be constructed according
to the directions of the State highway commissioner.

Counties in which no special road law is in force may be divided by the board of
supervisors into road subdistricts. The qualified voters of such subdistricts are author-
ized to meet and elect a chairman, secretary, treasurer, and one or more road surveyors
and to assess a subdistrict road tax of not to exceed 50 cents on each $100 of taxable
valuation. These funds are to be expended under the direction of the road surveyor
of the subdistrict and according to such instructions as he may receive from the State
highway commissioners, the county supervisors, or the subdistrict meetings. The
surveyor is also required to furnish such information to these authorities as may be
requested from time to time. The State highway commissioner is required to furnish
plans of split-log and other drags to supervisors of subdistricts and to instruct them in
their proper use.

An act relating to turnpike companies was so amended, March 17, 1906, as to provide
that when the collection of tolls on turnpikes has been suspended for a period of four
months on account of the bad condition of the same, three disinterested supervisors
shall be appointed by the circuit court to make an examination of the road, and if it is
reported by them to be in bad condition the circuit court is authorized to require the
turnpike company to forfeit its franchise and charter. :

Chapter 43 of the code of Virginia was so amended on March 19, 1906, as to provide
that taxes levied for road purposes by the boards of county supervisors shall not be
levied on property located in incorporated cities and towns which maintain their own
streets.

524 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PROGRESS IN FARM MANAGEMENT IN 1906.

By W. J. Spriman, Agriculturist in Charge of Farm Management Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry.

Progress in the development and extension of agricultural industries and efforts
looking toward the adoption of improved methods of farming have been hampered in
all sections of the United States during the past year by a lack of farm labor. The
amazing development of transportation and manufacturing industries has absorbed -
the available labor, and the farmer has been compelled to operate with an insufficient
supply. Especially in New England and in the Southern States the labor is drifting
toward the cities. The State of South Carolina has been making efforts to remedy this
difficulty by securing immigration. The State of Maryland is taking steps in the same
direction. Modification of our immigration laws has been suggested as a means of
ameliorating this condition. It is believed that the present interest in agricultural
education will lead to the development of schools of a type that will open the door of
opportunity on the farm, and thus hold a larger proportion of the rural population, to
some extent remedying the difficulty.

Because of insufficient labor many farmers have been compelled to abandon types of
farming which require much labor and to seed much of their land to grass, thus
nme | the amount of labor needed, but at the same time reducing the income from
the land.

One of the most notable movements in connection with progress in farm management
during the past year has been the tendency toward diversified farming in the cotton
belt. The primary factor in this movement is the injury done to the cotton crop by the
boll-weevil. Diversified farming in that section is taking the direction of an increase
in trucking and fruit growing, dairying, hay production, the raising of hogs, and to
some extent the production of beef. The development of trucking and fruit interests
has been greatly hampered because of difficulties connected with the marketing of
perishable farm products. On account of the absence of statistics relating to acreages
of such crops the farmer has no idea of the acreage of any particular crop it is safe for
him to plant. Because of lack of organization for marketing such products, he does not
know where to send his material when it is ready for market. The further fact that
the producer has no adequate protection against unfair treatment from consignees
has discouraged many farmers from engaging in trucking. In some sections icing
charges and high freight rates leave no profit to the producer. If these difficulties
could be remedied there would undoubtedly be an enormous increase in truck farming
throughout the South.

The present effort to eradicate the cattle tick in the South causes renewed interest in
all types of cattle farming. If the effort is successful, it will undoubtedly result in a
large extension of cattle raising just at a time when range cattle in the West are decreas-
ing rapidly, because of the occupation of range land by settlers on the one hand and
the extension of sheep grazing on the other. The elimination of the cattle tick would
also doubtless cause a large increase in the dairy industry in the South.

The increased price of wool for the past few years has caused renewed interest in
sheep raising in all sections of the country, and the number of sheep on American
farms is increasing.

There are still some sections of the country which have not yet been farmed sufli-
ciently long to deplete the original fertility of the soils, and in these sections single-crop
systems of farming, especially grain farming, prevail very generally. In at least one
notable instance this type of farming has been continued too long and has resulted in
marked deterioration of the soil. Just at the present time the owners of the vast
wheat fields in the Sacramento Valley are seriously considering a change in their
system of farming with a view to building up the fertility of the soil. In the Plains
region the change to a more diversified system of farming has made more progress,
and where formerly corn and wheat were practically the only crops, alfalfa, sorghum,
Kafir corn, and other forage crops are becoming more important, and the amount of
live stock on the farms is increasing. In the Dakotas, where grain farming has been
the rule, much interest is manifested in dairying, and that industry is beginning to
show very satisfactory development in that section.

The recent demonstration of a cheap and effective method of eradicating Johnson
grass will doubtless render it possible for that valuable hay grass to be utilized in crop
rotations in the South somewhat as timothy is now utilized in the North. Taken in
connection with the eradication of the cattle tick, which is now in progress, this fact
can not fail to have an important influence on the development of live-stock farming
in the cotton belt.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 525

Alfalfa continues to occupy an important place among those crops which are increas-
ing in area on farms in the eastern half of the United States. Its successful culture is
having an important influence in modifying cropping systems and types of farming, |
and where it has become established it has considerably increased the income from the
land.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906.
By Quincy R. Crart, Forest Service.

The fuller utilization of forest products which characterized the operations of lum-
bermen in 1906 marked the greatest gain of the year in private forestry. In the
work of the National Government and the States Sonariublh advance was made in
the creation, protection, and use of public forests. Eminent success in systematic
effort to prevent damage by fire was attained by private owners, the States, and the
Federal Service.

That forest preservation has come to be reeanded as a matter of deep concern to every
citizen is manifest. News of improved methods and their results is published widely
by the press, and commented on in wise and vigorous editorials. The reprinting of
forest reports entire by the trade journals is now common. In 16 States 30 forest asso-
ciations are engaged in active propaganda, and the General Federation of Women’s
Clubs is advancing forestry locally and giving it prominence at State and National
meetings. ;

Private forestry has grown until not only are professional foresters employed regu-
larly by a number of the larger firms, but firms of consulting and contracting foresters
supervise cutting operations and guarantee to the owners renewal of the trees desired
in the forest. Large users of forest products tend more and more to apply sound
methods to the raising of wood crops and to their careful utilization.

BUSINESS FORESTRY IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS.

Within three decades after the first Federal recognition of forestry, and sixteen years
from the date when the first ‘‘timberland reserve’’ was created, there have been estab-
lished (May 1, 1907), in the interest of the whole people, 150 million acres of National
Forests, éffectively protected against fire and trespass, and thrown open on advan-
tageous terms to the use of the public. Forests have so large a place in the national
life that in some measure every citizen shares the benefits which attend successful
effort to preserve, restore, or establish them. Yet it will always be the Western indus-
tries which will most profit from the presence of the existing National Forests, upon
whose rescurces—mainly wood, water, and range—they are largely dependent. ‘The
Government always favors settlers and home builders and prior users, both by grant-
ing free use of timber and by encouraging small sales. The business of the National
Forests must increase largely; for so vast are the resources of timber and minerals, and
the opportunities for various business enterprises and for the development of power
and irrigation, that the utilization of the Forests can be said to have only fairly begun.

Throughout the year marked progress has been made in securing the most prompt,
simple, and precise business methods, and in bringing the forest officers in the field
and, through them, the public into closer touch with the aims of the Government in
its forest policy. On January 1, 1906, the area of the National Forests was 97,773,617
acres, and on December 31, 1906, 127,154,371 acres; but the receipts increased in
greater proportion—irom $273,660 in 1905 to $1,004,185 in 1906. In addition, 15,000
permittees (near-by settlers and ranchmen) were granted timber free of charge to the
value of $75,000. The progress of National Forest administration in business matters
is indicated by the following table.

The results of business forestry.

Area of Na- E 4
Fiscal year (July 1 to tional Total gross | Total ex- Deficit ne ~| Deficit
June 30). Forests, revenue. penditure. < : RL IRs per acre.
Tune 30, 1906. Bere
——S } |
Acres.
MOOT ee emcee as cc noe = ee 59, 966, 090 $25, 431. 87 | $325,000.00 | $299,568.13 | $0. 0054 $0. 0050
1902-3oeso Soe See 62, 962, 849 45, 838. 08 300, 013. 50 254, 175. 42 . 0048 . 0040
ODS AS iee ee et ie NE 63, 027, 884 58, 436. 19 379, 150. 40 320, 714. 21 . 0060 . 0051
$4 os ee eee aoe 85, 693, 422 73, 276. 15 508, 886. 00 435, 609. 85 . 0059 . 0050

(rio ee 106,999,138 | 767,219.00} 979,519.00 | 212,300. 00 * 0091 +0020

526 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In disposing of timber on the National Forests, every effort has been made to meet
the local conditions in each Forest and in the different parts of each Forest where the
character of the timber and the market require special consideration. This has been
done not only by varying the size of the trees which are cut under the sales in accord-
ance with the kind of timber and the situation, but also by supplying the needs of the
people in each vicinity with the particular kind of timber required by them in their
industries.

The institution of a charge for grazing in the Forests, with the adoption of regula-
tions to prevent damage to the range, and with satisfactory allotments of territory,
both between the cattle owners and sheep owners and between individual owners of
the same kind of stock, were important accomplishments of the year.

Planting operations are at present centered in 8 nurseries within or near as many
different forests. There are now on hand a total of 6,000,000 seedlings, and 750 acres
will be planted in the spring of 1907. Four of the nurseries have been established long
enough to grow’ seedlings of size for planting. Three, those at Fort Stanton and near
Las Vegas, N. Mex., and near Pocatello, Idaho, have recently been established. In
addition to these many small nurseries have been placed at rangers’ headquarters,
some of which will be enlarged into planting stations.

Better facilities for communication, through public and private telephone lines now
being constructed and the improvement of roads, will be of the greatest assistance in
the conduct of forest business, and especially in the control of fires. The use of the
forests by the public will also be stimulated by the marking of roads and trails, giving
the direction and distance to the nearest town, ranch, or camping place.

The record of 1906 has confirmed the business success of the Government policy, and
thus given encouragement to the development of the technical side of forestry. When,
through studies now under way, a better knowledge of the growth and habits of our
western trees is secured and the forests have been brought, through the utilization of
ground at present unoccupied, to greatly increased productiveness, still larger benefits
may be expected.

MOVEMENT WESTWARD AND SOUTHWARD OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY.

Where lumbering methods remove only mature trees or an annual cut equal to the
aggregate growth of the forest tributary to the mill, forest products, like field crops,
must increase as operationsextend. The din ofthe lumber camp and the mill, and the
whistle of the locomotive and steamboat hurrying their product to market, will then
announce not the passing of the forest but its preservation through use. When, on the
other hand, lands are denuded and left waste, deeper penetration into the woods with
the enlarged capacity which comes of skill and invention can only hasten the exhaus-
tion of supply.

Too much wasteful exploitation has made heavy inroads in the forest which once
stretched almost unbroken from the Atlantic to the prairies. In obedience to the law
of supply and demand, lumber prices have gradually advanced in the past twenty
years, in some cases (fig. 21) as much as 108 per cent. Yet these advances have not
kept pace with those of stumpage values, and do not, therefore, fully reveal the
changed condition in the timber supply. These changes show conclusively that it is
high time for the introduction of conservative forest methods in the management of
woodlands everywhere. There are now a million acres of private woodland on which
forestry is being applied under plans prepared during the past four years by the Forest
Service; but this is only a beginning. The scope of this management must be
increased many fold.

To supplement and complete the statistics of forest products there is great need for
accurate Fnofledes of the standing timber in the country and its stumpage value. Sizes
and species are now used which formerly were left as unmerchantable, so that all former
estimates are out of date. Any future estimate of timber should leave out of consid-
eration the present merchantable value of timber, and should aim to show the actual
stand of timber regardless of size, species, or quality. The inadequacy of former esti-
mates is shown by a single instance in which the coniferous cut since 1880 has
exceeded by 80 billion feet the total estimated stumpage of those woods at that time.
And this is not only because of the scarcity of better grades and larger sizes, but also
because of the improvement of forest methods, largely brought about through the
application of forestry.

PRIVATE FOREST LANDS THE MAIN SOURCE OF SUPPLY.

The Nation can and should maintain forests in isolated and mountainous regions
where their principal value is for the protection of watersheds, the sources of streams,
and the many industries dependent upon an equable supply of water and a sufficient
range. But on private lands the practice of forestry can be expected only where it

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906.

527

insures profit in perpetuating a source of timber supply. Since four-fifths of the for-
ests of the country, and, in general, those most productive and accessible, are in the

hands of private own-
ers, ae future meine
su rests chiefly
with inom. Timber-
land owners are realiz-
ing this fact. In the
eastern part of the
country forests under
management are now
so numerous that some
one of them can be
visited for inspection
by a few hours of rail-
way travel. On the
Pacific coast the neces-
sity of protection from
fire is especially felt;
and a lumber company
in northern California
is successfully carry-
ing out a plan for fire
protection on a tract
of 70,000 acres and at
a nominal cost.

At no previous time
have the prospects for
success in private for-
estry been so good.
Depleted supply en-
courages conservative
use, and _ increased
knowledge of the less
familiar forest trees,
of improved methods
of management, of sea-
soning and kiln-drying
methods, and of mar-
kets, enables the lum-
berman or landowner
to lay his plans with a
confidence hitherto
impossible.

More and more is
the entire tree being
utilized, by cutting
the trunk nearer the
ground and higher into
the crown; by the use
of modern equipment
which secures the min-
imum of waste at the
mill; and, in the hard-
wood regions, by the
construction of char-
coal blast furnaces and
chemical plants to uti-
lize the bark, limbs,
edgings, slabs, and
even the sawdust in
the manufacture of
charcoal, wood alco-
hol,andacetateof lime.

189% 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 190! 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906
92.00

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Fig. 21.—Rise in prices per thousand feet of different kinds of lumber,
1894-1906.

MORE EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF FOREST FIRES.

The first essential at all times to successful forest management is protection from

fire.

There are reasons for believing that decided gains have been made toward solving

528 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this perplexing problem. Keports from State fire wardens, from National Forest
supervisors, and from those engaged in systematic effort to prevent fires from gaining
headway on private lands, give renewed confidence as to the effectiveness of the
measures employed. In Michigan the loss during the year was estimated at $460,000,
and in Idaho, Washington, and Oregon it was also heavy; but throughout the country
in general, loss from this cause, of timber standing and in the mill, has been com-
paratively light. Inthe National Forests the area burned over was 115,416 acres, or
0.12 of 1 per cent of the 97,000,000 acres from which reports were received. Thus,
even as compared with the excellent record of 1905, when the area burned over was
0.16 of 1 per cent, a gain in efficiency of one-fourth was made.

RAILROADS AND MINE OWNERS APPLY FORESTRY.

For four years railroads have been cooperating with the Government in investigating
the present tie supply, the possibilities of planting trees for ties, and methods for
prolonging the life of ties through mechanical devices to lessen wear and through

reservative treatment. Studies in seasoning and preservation have enabled railroads
in the Northwest to use lodgepole pine as tie timber, and have stimulated the building
of treating plants by railroads in the Mississippi Valley. Other roads, through the
advice of the Forest Service, have begun planting on a large scale. One of these, the
Pennsylvania, is the first to appoint a forester to supervise the care and planting of
the company’s forest lands. Already 500,000 trees have been planted; and 681 acres of
land near Altoona, Pa., will be stocked with chestnut and white oak in the next two
years. The Santa Fe Railway has recently purchased 8,330 acres near San Diego, Cal.,
on which to grow timber for its own use. A tract of 2,600 acres will be planted to
eucalypts. The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company will plant 378 acres in Carbon
and Schuylkill counties, Pa., with chestnut, European larch, and Scotch pine. The
Delaware and Hudson Company was led by the results of a cooperative study with
the Forest Service to appoint a forester to look after the extensive woodiands of the
company and attend to the planting work.

The Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company has been investigating how
mine props may be made to last longer through impregnating with creosote by the
‘‘open-tank”’ treatment. Mine props cost this company alone nearly a million dollars
amonth. The results of this treatment are so satisfactory that plans have been made
for the erection of a plant, with a capacity of about 800 cubic feet a day, with which to
continue the treatment on a commercial scale. This work has shown the economy of
the open-tank treatment and encouraged its wider use.

SOME PROJECTS OF THE FOREST SERVICE.

A planting plan was recently prepared for a tract of 800 acres on an island inthe
Cimarron River in Oklahoma. The owner desires a crop of posts and poles of quick-
growing and durable wood, and for this purpose in that region black locust was recom-
mended. It is designed that the tract shall eventually form a pleasure resort for the
city of Enid, from which it is 20 miles distant.

Unusual interest in forest methods has recently been manifested by companies
engaged in redwood lumbering in California. A plan prepared for a tract of 15,000 acres,
which provides for planting eucalypts on cut-over redwood lands, has been put into
execution. The eucalypts, besides growing one or more crops while the redwood is
maturing and thus hastening the returns on the investment, will in the competition
for growing space assist the redwood to form long, branchless trunks. Where the
tempering influence of the coast fogs is felt, conditions are ideal for the growing of
eucalypts suitable for lumber, and, because of the lack of other hardwood timber, a
good market is promised. The indications are that similar plans will be adopted by
other companies.

An improved system of map files has been introduced with a central equipment,
known as the Forest Atlas. By this means maps containing all available data, topo-
graphic, political, industrial, and geological, are filed flat in compact form in dust-proof
and fireproof cases, indexed for ready reference. Forest and grazing conditions are
noted in the fullest detail. At the headquarters of every forest supervisor will be filed
atlas sheets relating to the Forests under his administration.

During the year the Forest Service has made examination of 54 timber tracts, located
in 25 different States, aggregating 2,288,132 acres; and of 70 woodlots with a total of
6,255 acres.

Through an investigation of the piling used in wharf construction, data have been
secured showing the enormous loss resulting from marine borer attacks and the ineffi-
Bency of present protective measures and the possibility of cheapening and improving
them.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 529

Timber tests for several months have been chiefly concerned in determining the
strength and other physical properties of Douglas fir, western hemlock, loblolly pine,
Norway pine, and tamarack, in such forms as car sills, bridge stringers, and other
structural timbers. Tests of eucalypts indicate that they can be used as substitutes
for hickory and oak for many purposes. >

In cooperation with the Northern Pacific Railway, experimental sections of track
are being laid to study the influence of different methods of handling timbers. Tests
are to be made of the rate of seasoning of timbers cut during different months, to deter-
mine the relation between the season of cutting and rate of absorption of preservatives,
and to determine the comparative durability of seasoned, treated, and green timbers
in use in the track. The species used are Douglas fir, western tamarack, western hem-
lock, and giant arborvite.

‘Studies of the requirements and adaptability of wood for specific uses promise a
saving in the substitution of new woods. Further economy has been found possible
in the use of sound dead and down timber on the National Forests. The lumbermen
and the Forest Service have been brought into closer touch through cooperation in
compiling a report seeking to assist in the standardization of grading rules and detailed
classified statistics of forest products. Experiments in turpentining have shown that
the economy effected by the cup and gutter system may be increased by reducing the
wound made in chipping. Trees shallowly chipped according to the new method
produce at least as much resin and of better quality for a much longer period with
remarkable saving as a result.

FORESTRY IN THE STATES.

Forest work carried on by the States made greater advance during 1906 than in any
previous year. More than 20 States now have forest officers, and 10 have State forest
reservations (fig. 22). In Wisconsin the State forests, comprising 254,072 acres, are
scattered through 17 counties, situated north of a line from St. Paul to Green Bay.
Isolated lands are being sold and lands purchased contiguous to the main body on the
headwaters of the Wisconsin. Within the boundary of the Catskill Preserve in New
York there are 92,708 acres of State lands and 483,412 acres privately owned; the total
area of the Adirondack Preserve is 3,313,564 acres, of which the State now owns 1,347,280
acres. The Hawaiian reserves include an area of 300,000 acres, of which the Territory
owns nearly half, but all is managed under plans prepared by the Superintendent of
Forestry.

In rics Connecticut. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin—
the removal of mature timber from State forest lands is now permitted, a provision
which is a fundamental principle of forestry.

In Nebraska, Iowa, Maine, and Mississippi additional data concerning State forest
conditions have been secured through studies conducted by the professor of forestry
at the State college or university. It is the duty of the State forester in Maryland
and Massachusetts to give a course of lectures each year at the State agricultural college,
and in Wisconsin at the State university.

The University of Texas is still engaged, with the Forest Service, upon a study of the
State’s forest resources; in a similar cooperative study, the Missouri State Experiment
Station has just completed an investigation of the timber resources of the Ozark
region; the Kentucky legislature last March provided for a commissioner of forestry,
and appropriated $2,000 to be expended in a cooperative study of the State’s forests.

A year and a half have enabled the State forester of California to organize fire patrol
in 10 counties, as well as to interest a large number of associations and clubs in fire pro-
tection and to prepare a large planting plan for a eucalyptus plantation on cut-over
redwood land at Fort Bragg. Fire wardens to the number of 367 have been appointed,
and 30 miles of fire lines, from 30 to 60 feet wide, have been cleared, encircling the
Redwood Park.

The chief progress during the year in Connecticut was the organization under the
new law of a fire-warden service of 300 members. This service was instrumental in
extinguishing 64 fires at an average cost of $7.50 and in largely reducing the loss
through forest fires. The feeling of increased security from fire resulted in more forest
planting in Connecticut than was ever done before ina single year. Under the direc-
tion of the State forester, 150,000 trees were planted by the State and private owners.

The Delaware State Experiment Station, in cooperation with the Forest Service, is
making a study of forest conditions on which to base recommendations for a State forest
policy and plans of management for different stands of timber and different classes of

and,

3 «a1906——34

530 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

State forest lands
State forest lands broken by private holdings

(

&, [3 Scattering state forest lands

q

Fic. 22.—Map of State forest reservations.

Area and location of State Forest reservations.

F Total
State. Name and location. Area. aes,
Acres. Acres.
Connecticut .......- 1. Portland Tract, Middlesex: County---.---ee2----4s- === 1,060
2. Union Tract, Tolland County 227 =. 5-202 sa see 300
SS 1, 360
TETSU a. cata im oie 1. Kaine pari; Om bite. 3 coo o$icctens) erate ae aie ee 913 ;
Zo Bamalsia Pali, Hawai: oc. as os.ce sce eee een ee eee ete 16, 133
3.° Hilo, Bla walltd 250 352 6 oes hs ee eee 12,771
4; KoolauMani, Mai. .2. =43-2e6 cos ee coe eo eee eee 14, 300
bs Hallelea FP iCatiall seca sin cick 2 peers eo cee Seas See oe 10, 990
G. Wealia. Kieuai soe cc cok ne. ee oem pace eee eee Sees 7,385
%. Ewa; Gabi. ooo) .30 222000 25 eee eee eee 4,768
8 Honuaula,; Hawai: .....-co) seen coen Se eeeoeeeeee eee 665
9: Kau, Hagail. 2:28 sao eco ee eee oe eee ee 35, 960
10. Waianac-kai, Oahu 3, 150
1 Traalualer Oahu 5-05-2225 PR hd So ete, 3, 743
12. tens, Mari 2s. ce tees ee Ss OE oe ee eee ee 6,754
——_———| Ws82
TGS. ee Cele scat State reservation, Clark County.....-...---<-----n..--56 | s cistre mere 2,000
Maryland's er sen -< see 1. State reserve, Garrett County.....:.......-- Bee Sc | 3, 500
2. State reserve, Baltimore County......-------.-------.-- 40 aa
?
Michigan... 6... State reserve, Roscommon and Crawford counties ..--.- | ccs, eee 29, 000
Minnesota... ....-.- 1. Burntside Forest, St. Louis County -....-.----25.-2----2 20, 000
2) Pillsbury Tract; Cass'Cotinty. <2. oo hay: ieee eee ee 1, 000
3. Itaska State Park, Clearwater, Becker, and Hubbard
COUNTS o.oo acce sacemneeh tae eee ate ee eR oE ee eee eee 21, 800
———— 42, 800
New Jersey......-. 1. Mays Landing Tract, Atlantic County..........--.....- 373
2. Bass River Tract, Burlington County............-.--.- 1, 550
3. Blairstown Tract, Warren County ....--...:.--.«...--6- 551 siete
,
New York.......-: 1. Adirondack Preserve, Clinton, Essex, Franklin, Fulton,
Hamilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Oneida, St. Lawrence,
Saratoga, Warren, and Washington counties ......... 1, 347, 280
2. Catskill Preserve, Delaware, Greene, Sullivan, and Ulster
COUDTAS six). ton sed eee a ie. ce eetsane tiene een anes 92,708
————— 1, 439, 988
Pennsylvania...... State reserves, Adams, Bedford,Cameron,Center, Clearfield,
Clinton, Cumberland, Dauphin, Elk, Franklin, Fulton,
Huntingdon, Juniata, Lackawanna, Lycoming, Mifflin,
Monroe, Pike, Potter, Snyder, Tioga, Union, and Wyo-
Ming COUMHES, 2 sow eck Res Fam cmicwaty eles okt Mareln ee ae oe ea eee 820, 000
Wisconsin......... Forest resorves, Ashland, Bayfield, Burnett, Douglas,
Florence, Forest, Gates, Iron, Langlade, Lincoln, Mari-
nette, Oneida, Polk, Price, Sawyer, Vilas, and Wash-
PUIN COUNPIOS cleo Sh dies ces eee ote sub ceuee ceeitn eee ee] Sn ae eee 254,072

In the Territory of Hawaii a state nursery supplies plant material free for schools and
other public purposes and at a low price for private use. District foresters and district

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. PLATE XLIII.

Fic. 1.—TRANSPLANT BEDS OF NURSERY AT SARANAC INN, N. Y. Norway Spruce, 3 YEARS OLD, IN THE
FOREGROUND; SCOTCH PINE TO THE LEFT.

Fic. 2.—ScotcH AND WHITE PINE, 5 YEARS OLD, IN THE LAKE CLEAR PLANTATION.

SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE OF PLANTING DENUDED STATE LAND.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. ° ae

fire wardens have been appointed, who report regularly to the superintendent of
forestry.

a forest commission has been engaged on a study of the natural and
planted foresis of the State. The results, which have been published and distributed,
should greatly stimulate the practice of forestry. Trees have already been planted
on 300 acres of the State reservation, and 57,000 more trees are to be transplanted from
the State nursery this spring.

The Kansas commissioner of forestry is gathering statistics of forest planting through
annual reports from those to whom stock has been furnished.

The commissioner of forestry of Louisiana, in the enforcement of the forest law passed
in 1904, gives first attention to the suppression of fires. ie

The class in forestry in the University of Maine made a study of forest conditions in
Indian Township, Washington County, a tract of 24,072 acres of State land, securing
data for a map and an estimate of the stand of timber. Facts concerning the growth
of large-tooth and trembling aspen and gray birch were also secured. A study of wood-
lot management, now in progress, aims to learn the best methods of marking trees
and the cost of cutting and yarding logs and of piling and burning the brush.

On July 1 a forester was appointed by the newly created Maryland board of for-
estry. <A portion of the autumn was spent in making a reconnaissanee of the forest
lands of the State.

Forest work in Massachusetts is carried on along three general lines—education,
the installation of typical plans of management, and the gathering of technical data.
Effort is being made to assist landowners in transforming large areas now practically
idle on account of mismanagement into profitable woodlots. Fifty-five students
took the course in forestry at the agricultural college last year.

Marked progress was made in Michigan in improvements, surveys, fire lines, and
lanting on the State forest reserve. Torty acres were seeded to western yellow pine
ast spring and 200,000 conifers were planted. Two and a half million seedlings are

now on hand in the nursery.

Through the splendid efforts of a volunteer patrol the excellent fire law of Minne-
sota was made effective in keeping forest fires well under control. The damage for
the year is placed by the State fire warden at $10,000.

Two experimental forest nurseries and a study of actual profits in the eastern part
of the State will increase the knowledge of the possibilities in forestry in Nebraska,
the leading tree-planting State.

New Hampshire oe a unique position in that besides the State forestry com-
—— reorganized and active, it has a forest association, which maintains a State

orester.

A State fire warden and 70 township wardens have been appointed in New Jersey
under the law which became effective July 1, 1906. The fall season was remarkably
exempt from serious fires. At the beginning of the year 1907 a State forester was
appointed, who will give assistance to private landowners, give courses of instruction
to teachers and farmers, and cooperate with the State fire warden and with the Forest
Park Reservation Commission.

Under the law of 1905 the superintendent of forests of New York was able to patrol
the State preserves efficiently during the dry season at small expense. To supply
stock for planting in the preserves the State maintains 3 large nurseries for coniiers
in Franklin County and 1 for hardwoods in Ulster County, in the Catskills. The
three Adirondack nurseries combined have a capacity of a million 3-year-old trans-
plants per annum. One of these, the Saranac Inn Nursery (Pl. XLII, fig. 1), was
established by the State in 1903 and the others, Axton and Wawbeek, were first
established by the Cornell College of Forestry and were placed in charge of the State
forest commission in the spring of 1906. Five plantations, embracing an area of 1,500
acres, have been planted. (Pl. XLIII, fig. 2.) In 1905 and 1906, 50 acres of pines
and spruces were planted by the seed-spot method, with encouraging results. Broad-
east sowing last March of white pine, red spruce, and balsam was not satisfactory.
An interesting experiment is being conducted with 5 species of Siberian conifers—
pines, fir, and larch—to determine their fitness for planting in the North Woods.

In Ohio the department of forestry at the State Agricultural Experiment Station
was engaged in cooperative work in planting with the farmers of the State. Planta-
tions aggregating 500 acres were thus established.

The State nurseries of Pennsylvania were doubled in size in 1906 and now comprise
6 acres at Mont Alto, the location of the State forestry academy, and 2 acres in Hunt-
ingdon County. Last spring 160,000 white pine seedlings were set out, and 400 pounds
of white pine seed is to be planted this spring. The last legislature voted to expend
$400,000 annually for five years in purchasing additional State forest lands.

In Vermont planting of waste lands is being encouraged by the commissioner of
forestry, who estimates that there are 4,000,000 acres of land now unproductive, but

baw YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

suited to the growing of timber. - These, if rightly handled, he asserts, would give an
annual income of from $1 to $2 peracre. From the State nursery at Burlington plant
material will be supplied at cost. Through cooperation with the New York forest
commission the assistance of a trained forester is secured.

The appropriation of $25,000 by the Washington State legislature was exhausted at
the beginning of the forest-fire season of 1906. The action of the lumbermen of the
State in coming promptly to the rescue of the State fire warden with individual sub-
scriptions of funds ample to defray the expenses of patrol until the next session of the
State legislature is one of the encouraging evidences of a practical belief in forest
protection,

Over 300 fire wardens have been appointed in Wisconsin, whose services were
secured at a cost for the season of $1,530. They report 160 fires, which burned over
76,125 acres. Sixty per cent of the fires were caused by settlers in clearing and burn-
ing for pasture. With lessened danger that their investments will be swept away by
fire, lumbermen have begun to limit the diameter to which they cut, and to buy young
growth and protect it from fire. :

Since Rhode Island, during the past year, passed a forest law and appointed a for-
ester, all of the New England States—indeed, all but three of the original thirteen—
with an area equal to that of the National Forests in the Western States, are equipped
with State officers charged with the welfare of their forest interests. Westward this
chain extends, including Ohio and Indiana, and the three Lake States which for
twenty years have furnished one-third of the lumber produced in the country.

FOREST LEGISLATION.

Only a few of the State legislative assemblies were in session during the winter of
1905-6, and in consequence there was but little additional legislation enacted. ‘The
laws passed are briefly summarized as follows: ,

Unirep Srates.—Agricultural settlement was permitted in restricted portion of
Yellowstone Reserve (34 Stat., 62). Appropriations for agricultural experiment sta-
tions in the States and Territories were increased to $30,000 each, the added income
to be used at discretion in forest experiments (34 Stat., 63). A grant was made to
Edison Electric Company of easement to occupy land in San Bernardino, Sierra, and
San Gabriel National Forests for power plants (34 Stat., 163). Cutting, chipping, and
boxing trees on public lands was prohibited (34 Stat., 208). Appropriation or destruc-
tion of American antiquities was prohibited, except under certain conditions (34
Stat., 225). The Secretary of Agriculture was empowered to list lands within National
Forests as agricultural for entry under homestead laws (34 Stat., 233). Recession
by California of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove was accepted (34
Stat., 831). Lands were granted to Wisconsin for forest reserves (34 Stat., 517). The
President was empowered to set aside game preserves in Grand Canyon (34 Stat.,
607).

Iowa.—Taxes on “‘private reserves,” under certain conditions, were fixed at $1
per acre, fruit-tree reserves included. Secretary of the State horticultural society
was designated to be State forester, and authorized to have deputies (Ch. 52, addi-
tional to code, Ch. 1, tit. 7).

Kentucky.—The State board of agriculture, forestry, and immigration was em-
powered to act as forestry commission. This board is permitted to expend $2,000
to further forest interests, this money to be spent in cooperation with the Federal Goy-
ernment, if the latter provides a like sum (Ch. 90, repealing 8. 37 and 38, Ch. 4,
Ky. Stat.).

MaryLanp.—The State board of forestry was created; the appointment of a forester
was provided for; this official was authorized to have general protective power 6ver
parks and forest reserves, to cooperate with corporations and individuals, and to
appoint fire wardens, the latter to force service from inhabitants, when necessary, to
fight fire. An appropriation was made of $3,500 annually for 1907 and 1908, and pen-
alties are to be paid to the forest-reserve fund. Counties are empowered to spend
money in forest protection and to recover from land owners for expenses in fire fight-
ing. Fire warnings are to be posted; criminal and civil liability was provided for
unlawful fire building; offenders are also to be liable to the State and county for fire-
fighting expenses; locomotives not burning oil are to be equipped with fire-prevent-
ing appliances, under penalty (Ch, 294).

New Jersry.—State board of forestry was authorized to cooperate with munici-
palities, corporations, and individuals for control of forest land, for establishment of

GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 533

an arboretum, and for experiments in forest culture (Ch. 25). The commissioners
are to fix price and contract for the purchase of forest reserve land. Municipalities
are empowered to use their land for forest purposes, to sell timber, to contract with
State board of forest park commissioners for control and management of land, lands
so used being declared devoted to public use (Ch. 146). The State fire warden is to
be appointed by the State board, and the fire warden system was established. Com-

ulsory service of male inhabitants and property, with remuneration, was authorized.
Syseicion was made for, and allotment was made of, fire-fighting expenses; fire warn-
ings are to be posted; large fires are to be reported to the State warden; the season
for brush burning was limited; fires must be watched; back firing is allowed under
certain conditions. Process, appeal, and execution in fire cases were provided.
Money was appropriated (Ch. 39, acts 1902) to be used solely for fire fighting (Ch. 123,
repealing or amending a number of former acts).

New Yorx.—State forester is authorized to appoint a secretary. Salaries of sub-
ordinate officers are fixed (Ch. 206, amending S. 154, 172, and 224a, Ch. 20, laws 1900).
Commissioners are empowered to appoint a chief fire warden and five inspectors (Ch.
519, amending S. 224a, Ch. 20, laws 1900).

Onto.—A department of forestry at the agricultural experiment station was created,
to cooperate with the Federal Government. The State forestry bureau connected
with the State University was abolished (P. 54).

RuopeE Istanp.—Office of State forester was created, forester to publish informa-
tion and to recommend legislation (Ch. 32).

GAME PROTECTION IN 1906.
By T.S. Paumer, Assistant, Biological Survey.

The record of game protection in 1906 is noteworthy in several respects. New leg-
islation, while small in volume as compared with that of 1905, included several impor-
tant measures. The question of Federal control of the protection of migratory game
birds again attracted widespread attention and was the subject of much discussion.
More than the average number of cases based on game laws were decided by courts of
last resort. In the establishment of game preserves under private, State, and Federal
auspices notable progress was made. The destruction of quail by the severity of the
two preceding winters resulted in large shipments of these birds from Alabama and
the Southwest in the effort to restock some of the Northern and Eastern States.
Experiments were continued also in introducing new game birds, and English pheas-
ant eggs and gray partridges were imported from Europe in unusually large numbers.

LEGISLATION.

Game legislation in 1906 was remarkable for the unusual number of bills under con-
sideration by Congress and the small number of changes in State laws. The Federal
laws enacted comprised acts authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to lease 3,500
acres of land in South Dakota as a buffalo preserve, prohibiting trapping-or trespass
on bird refuges, establishing a game refuge on the Grand Canyon National Forest in
Arizona, and prohibiting hunting in the greater part of the District of Columbia. An
appropriation of $15,000 was made for the erection of a fence for a buffalo inclosure
on the Wichita Game Preserve in Oklahoma. :

Only 15 States and 8 provinces held regular legislative sessions during the year,
and the number of new laws enacted was about 60, including 7 in Canada, while the
total number of bills introduced in the United States and Canada exceeded 150. The
most important Measures adopted were entire new game laws in Mississippi, laws pro-
tecting nongame birds in Iowa, and radical amendments to the sale laws in Massachu-
setts. The failure of all general game bills and the passage of 18 local measures in
Maryland showed that the system of county laws is still preferred, but the local acts
passed tended in general toward greater uniformity in seasons. The only changes in
hunting license fees were the establishment of a $25 nonresident license in South
Carolina and a $20 nonresident license in Mississippi, both good only in the county of
issue. In Vermont the nonresident license was extended to include birds, and in
Maryland minor changes were made in the license laws of the counties bordering the
Patuxent River and of Somerset County. Important sale restrictions were adopted
in Mississippi and Massachusetts. In the former State the sale of all protected game
was prohibited and in Massachusetts sale of imported quail was prohibited except in
November and December, sale of imported ducks except during the open season, and

534 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the sale at_any time of prairie chickens and sharp-tailed grouse. For the first time in
Mississippi a game-warden service was installed by providing for the appointment of
county wardens to look after the enforcement of game laws in place of sheriffs and
local peace officers.

Among the numerous bills which failed to pass were some measures of special inter-
est. ‘Ten of the 11 bills introduced in Kentucky failed to receive favorable considera-
tion, and in Massachusetts only 10 of the 30 bills introduced became laws. Bills to
prohibit the use of automatic shotguns in hunting game in the District of Columbia,
Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island,
and Virginia were introduced, but none received favorable action. The general game
bill in Maryland contained a provision making it lawful to kill cats found searching
for birds. Three special cat bills were introduced also in Massachusetts. One ‘of
these declared a cat to be property if it wears a collar with the name and residence of
the owner, another provided a penalty for abandoning cats, and a third made it an
offense to harbor cats known to kill game or wild birds. Among the 10 bills which
failed in Virginia were two to create the office of State game commissioner and others
providing for a $100 nonresident license and a $1 resident license.

DECISIONS OF THE COURTS.

The decisions rendered by courts of last resort in cases affecting game were more
numerous than in 1905, and although none of the questions decided were especially
novel, several, affecting sale, duties of common carriers, and rights of hunting and
fishing clubs, were of considerable interest. Probably the most important decision of
the year was that rendered in February by the court of appeals of New York (People
ex rel. Silz v. Hesterberg, 76 N. E., 1032) involving the sale during the close season
of certain game birds imported from Europe. In this case the contention of the State,
first maintained in 1875, that imported birds were subject to the restrictions of the
local laws to the same extent as birds captured in the State was upheld. The decision
is important also in being the first construction of a higher court of section 5 of the Lacey
Act relative to imported game. In line with the same decision was one rendered by
the supreme court of New York in October in the case of People v. Waldorf-Astoria
Hotel Co. (“‘ Forest. and Stream,’’ LX VII, p. 687). In Arkansas the supreme court
of the State held (Wells-Fargo Express Co. v. State, 96 8. W., 189) that the fact that an
express company did not know the contents of a package containing game was no
defense in a prosecution for transporting game out of the State, particularly as com-
mon carriers were authorized by the law of that State to open and examine any pack-
age suspected to contain game. An important decision confirming the rights of the
Big Lake Shooting Club, at Big Lake, Arkansas, was rendered by the United States
circuit court of appeals (Harrison v. Fite, 148 Fed., 781). This club, controlling a
preserve of some 25,000 acres in Mississippi County, Ark., obtained from the United
States circuit court an injunction, which was sustained by the circuit court of appeals,
preventing one Harrison and 36 others from shooting on the club’s preserve In Colo-
rado, a decision in a suit by the State for the possession of deer hides, following Horn- ~
beke v. White (76 Pac., 926), held that a person having them must establish affirma-
tively that his possession is lawful (People v. Johnson, 88 Pac., 184). In Louisiana a
decision of interest to club members was rendered in the case of Burns v. Crescent
Gun and Rod Club (41 So., 249), in which it was held that the club owning land bor-
dering a navigable stream could be enjoined from preventing persons not members of
the club from fishing in such stream. The comprehensive game law enacted in Mis-
souri in 1905 was the subject*of more or less litigation and at least three cases were
carried to the higher courts. In one of these, State ex rel. Rodes v. Warner (94 8. W.,
962), it was held that the provision directing fines to be paid into the State game fund
was in conflict with the constitutional provision that all fines be paid into the county
school fund and to this extent was void. In the others the provisions relating to
resident licenses gave rise to two opposite constructions, the St. Louis court of appeals
holding that a person was not required to obtain a license to hunt in the county of
residence (Ex parte Helton, 93 S. W., 913) and the Kansas City court of appeals hold-
ing that such a license was necessary (State v. Koock, 96 S. W., 721). In North
Dakota the marking provision of the Lacey Act was construed by the Federal court in
United States ». Thompson (147 Fed., 637). In Oklahoma one of the first decisions
affecting game rendered by the supreme court sustained the right of the Territory to
impose fines on any carrier, or its agents, for reception and possession of game for trans-
portation (Cameron v. Territory, 86 Pac., 68).

Among the numerous cases in the lower courts are three worthy of mention. One
was a decision of the circuit court of Muskingum County, Ohio, based on technical
errors, but indicating the opinion of the court that the game law, prescribing an open

GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. Ra

season for quail “from the 15th day of November to the 5th day of December,” should
be construed as excluding November 15 and including December 5. The other two
were Pennsylvania cases in which juries acquitted a defendant charged with killing
a bear in close season on the ground that his action was required by self-defense,
and also a game warden charged with homicide for killing a game-law violator who
resisted arrest.

ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS.

Officials. —Changes occurred in the personnel of several of the State game commis-
sions, including the State warden of Maryland and the warden of the first district of
North Dakota, the secretary of the Delaware Game Protective Association, and the
president of the North Carolina Audubon Society. The board of game commissioners
of New Jersey lost one of its members through death. In Canada the office of game
inspector was established in Prince Edward Island.

‘hanges among the deputy wardens were numerous, but whether or not the total
force of officers on duty was increased is uncertain through lack of statistics of former
years for comparison. A census of 30 States and Territories showed that about 20
States maintained regular salaried wardens, the number of deputies varving from one
in Iowa to 65 in New York and 88 in Wisconsin. The number of deputies serving
without salary varied from 3 in Wyoming to 800 in Colorado. The total number of
wardens on duty in these States during the latter part of the year, as shown in the fol-
lowing table, was 370 under salary, 489 paid per diem, and 4,914 serving without salary;
in all, a total of 5,773.

Table showing number of game wardens on duty in 80 States in 1906.

With- | |

/ With-
Sala- Per Sala- | Per
State. snail alow aes Total. | State. tied. | diem. ae Total.

b = ee | 2S es a Bee
Arizona 63 | 63 || New Jersey....-.| 28 |i oe = 167 191
California 350 | 368 hiNew Mexteo...2 3 22). .-.3 Se hest sak 67 67
Colorado 800 | 806 || New York....-... (sp | Se ee 450 515
RaMnMprbicdie- 2 |= .ceee | | REN oe 142 || North Carolina.. 8 | Raa see 52
Delaware 6 | 7 fh INOeeM aE 52222-4222 1S. 78 7
Florida a) ie See eee eel lh p- Olehomen. -<3022)- 2. 2. sen ae2 26 26
Illinois. - . isp eeees 160 || Pennsylvania. . 2 leseee Ae 165 173
Indiana... 75 100 || Rhode Island....|........ 4 40 44

oon eee / 250 251 ae atest SS 7 eee 132 14
Kansas 292 200 t} Mermonet. sac cisles.chen< 16 463 479
LUTE ERS pcan (Ea ea [CR ae 19) Sa 40 || Washington..... 34 | a 200 235
Maryland 229 SSP West Wineinitas |) 225. loon os = 38 38
Massachusetts. . . 244 269 || Wisconsin. ...... oe) See en ee eae ee &8
Minnesota 2 56 119 || Wyoming.....-.. 3 | 25 3 3l
Montana......-- Sb fia eos 210 218 - |
Nebraska........ fal ph en eae | 510 514 | Totals... =- 370 | 439 4,914 Sie

‘ | | } ! e

a County wardens; there are many deputies not listed as the information was not cbtained in time.

Convictions.—Convictions resulting in heavy fines were reported in at least 10 States.
The following cases illustrate the character of offenses for which fines of $100 or more
were imposed: In Colorado, for killing a mountain sheep $300 fine and $140 costs;
in Illinois, possession of game in close season $100, killing 4 quail in close season $100
and costs, two nonresidents hunting on resident licenses $100 and costs, illegal shipment
of quail $200; m Michigan, for illegal shipment of venison $100 and costs and 60 days
in jail; in Minnesota, illegal possession of 2 saddles of venison $115 and costs, shipping
deer from the State in excess of limit two fines of $100 and $147; in New Jersey, for
possession of 4 blue jays $100 and costs, possession of 5 robins $100 and costs, possession
of 4 robins and 1 thrush $100 and costs, pessession of 5 birds $100 and costs; possession
of 6 birds $120 and costs; in New York, for violation of the anti-hounding law $200 and
costs, illegal possession of 4 deer $200, illegal possession of quail $110 and costs or total
of $290, possession of grouse and quail out of season $600; in five cases, offenses not
specified, fines of from $100 to $550: in Oklahoma, for shipping 30,000 quail $350 and
costs; in Oregon, for serving birds out of season $100; killing deer contrary to law two
fines of $100 each, three of $125, and one of $250; in Pennsylvania, for removing wild
turkey chicks from the nest $250; in Vermont, for killing deer contrary to law seven
fines ranging from $100 to $177 each.

In a number of cases the defendants were committed to jail in default of payment
and in a few instances received a jail sentence in addition to a fine. Among the cases
resulting in imprisonment were the following: In Illinois two defendants each of whom
had killed a prairie chicken were committed to jail for 10 days for failure to pay fines,

536 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

one defendant was committed to jail for killing a pheasant, three for hunting without
a license, one for hunting before sunrise, and another for killing quail out of season.
In Michigan two defendants received a sentence of 60 days in jail and $100 fine each
for attempting to ship venison out of the State, and another for shipping venison to
market. In New Jersey one defendant was sentenced for 10 days for illegal possession
of a blue jay, and another 10 days for killing one partridge; in North Carolina one
defendant was imprisoned 30 days for hunting on land without permission in David-
son County; in Oregon one offender received a sentence of 124 days for trapping beaver,
and two other defendants were committed to jail in default of payment of fines for kill-
ing deer out of season; in Pennsylvania two aliens were sentenced for 370 and 400
days, respectively, for hunting without licenses and killing song birds; andin Texas
two men were sentenced to jail, one for 10 days and the other for 30 days, for illegally
trapping and shipping quail.

Aliens.—The violation of the game laws by aliens was the subject of special comment
in the reports of several State game commissions, particularly those of Maine, Penn-
sylvania, and West Virginia. In Pennsylvania the commission reported that they had
14 officers shot at during the year, 7 shot, 3 of whom were killed, 3 very seriously
wounded, and one other although not serving under a commission of the board was
killed while in performance of game protective duty. All of this work was done, so
far as could be determined, by unnaturalized foreigners. As a result of these condi-
tions the commission recommended the adoption of a law similar to that passed in New
York in 1905 prohibiting aliens from carrying firearms, as a matter of greater protection
to the game and also as a measure of public safety.

Indians.—An invasion of Wyoming by Indians from Colorado during the summer
resulted in serious consequences to the game. Two bands of Utes, each about 500
in number, entered the State in the latter part of July and the first week in August
and penetrated some distance northward in Converse, Weston, and Crook counties.
The Indians were well armed and stripped the country of game wherever they trav-
eled, slaughtering hundreds of sage hens, scores of antelope, and many deer. The
game wardens and local authorities were utterly powerless to prevent these depre-
dations, and it was only by the aid of Federal troops that the Indians were finally
rounded up and returned to their reservation.

Tusk hunters.—The demand for elk tusks was responsible, as in former years, for
the destruction of many elk. In Washington a few Indians from the Quinault Reser-
vation were engaged in killing elk for tusks in the Olympic Mountains, but through
the efforts of the Indian agent the practice was promptly stopped. On November
20 an'important seizure was made at Los Angeles, Cal., of a carload cf trophies, com-
prisiag the heads, skins, scalps, and horns of many elk killed in Wyoming and on the
border of the Yellowstone National Park, and shipped from Idaho to a taxidermist
in Los Angeles. ~ Two of the shippers were arrested while unloading the car. At the
preliminary hearing it was shown that they belonged to a party of four notorious
tusk hunters who had been operating in western Wyoming, north of Jackson Hole,
and along the southern border of the park. In default of bail they were committed
to jail to await the action of the Federal grand jury in April, 1907.

ORGANIZATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF GAME.

The year 1906 was notable in the concerted efforts made by game protective asso-
ciations and other organizations. New State associations were formed in Alabama,
Idaho, Texas, and West Virginia. In January the National Association of State Com-
missioners and Wardens held a meeting at St. Paul, Minn., at which official repre-
sentatives from 14 States were present. This meeting gave opportunity for conference
and interchange of views, and proved an important factor toward securing greater
uniformity of action on the part of State officials. The widespread interest in bird
protection was strongly exemplified by a bequest made to the National Association
of Audubon Societies which became available during the year through the death of
Albert D. Wilcox. Mr. Wilcox had become deeply interested in the work of bird
protection and left the association a specific bequest of $100,000, at the same time
giving it one-half of a much larger residuary legacy. The total amount of the bequest
to the association was $322,770, the income of which is to be devoted to educational
work, promotion of legislation for the protection of birds and game, maintenance of
warden service, and cooperation with State officials and local organizations in efforts
to secure better enforcement of laws,

HUNTING ACCIDENTS.

The number of persons killed each year in hunting accidents is apparently increas-
ing, and the unnecessary loss of life from this cause in 1906 was appalling. An effort
was made by the Department to collect reports of such fatal accidents for the purpose

GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 5SE

of ascertaining not only the number and the causes, but also the possibility of devis-
ing a method of reducing the number of similar accidents in the future. The reports
showed that more than 100 persons lost their lives: during the year, and of these at
least eight were women and a dozen or more children under 15 years of age. These
accidents occurred in 25 States and the District of Columbia, but were most frequent
in Michigan and Wisconsin. Contrary to expectation, comparatively few were caused
by persons being mistaken for deer or other big game. Several were caused by .22-
caliber rifles and a number of others by ordinary shotguns.

Many of the accidents were due simply to gross carelessness in the use of firearms,
such as pulling a gun out of the boat by the muzzle, or looking down the barrel of a
loaded weapon; others to handling of firearms by boys who had not been taught or
who failed to observe the most elementary precautions. In a few instances these
accidents were attributable directly to violation of the game laws. It is worthy of note
that in States which prohibit the killing of does, or of deer with horns less than 3
inches in length, accidents were comparatively few, while in Michigan and Wisconsin,
where there are no restrictions of this kind, more than the usual number of accidents
occurred. It seems, therefore, that certain classes of accidents may be reached by
legislation requiring a hunter to pause long enough to make sure that an object mov-
ing in the undergrowth is a deer with horns of sufficient length to come within the
law. This delay is oftentimes sufficient to prevent the fatal mistake of wounding or
killing a man for a deer. Legislation providing severe penalties for shooting persons
by mistake has not thus far accomplished the desired object. Although such laws
have been on the statute books of Maine, Michigan, and Minnesota for several years,
apparently no conviction has thus far been obtained. Action was begun in at least
one case in each State this year, but these cases are apparently still pending. The
experience of the year seems to indicate that restrictions on the use of the .22 caliber
rifle and the more general adoption of measures prohibiting killing deer with horns
below a certain limit promise better results in preventing accidents than in declaring
such accidents homicide, punishable by severe penalties.

CONDITION OF GAME.

Big game.—Statistics of the number of big game annually killed are now obtain-
able from several States, and form a fairly satisfactory basis for estimating increase or
decrease from year to year. In Maine the number of moose shipped through Bangor
was 185, a slight falling off from the record of 216 in 1905. The deer shipments, how-
ever, showed a decrease of about 20 per cent, 3,572, as compared with 4,791 during the
previous year. In Vermont the commissioner reported that 634 deer were killed, an
increase of about 125 over the number shot in 1905. In New York about 60 deer were
killed on Long Island during the four days of open season, and in the Adirondacks,
notwithstanding the fact that the season was shortened a month, the number of deer
carried by the transportation companies increased about 200. These shipments com-
prised 2,413 carcasses, 108 saddles, and 102 heads, as compared with 2,196 carcasses,
108 saddles, and 180 heads transported in 1905. In Pennsylvania the number of deer
killed was estimated at 600 to 650. In Michigan estimates placed the number cap-
tured at 12,000. In Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Texas deer were reported plentiful.
In Wyoming the State warden estimated the number of head of big game killed at 4,798.
Detailed reports showed that about 20 per cent of this number (1,011) comprised 598
elk, 182 deer, 184 antelope, and 47 mountain sheep. Reports from two of the Canadian
Provinces indicated that 99 deer were killed under license in Manitoba, and the total
number killed in Ontario approximated 10,000.

Quail.—Quail suffered less during the winter than in previous years, but several
States found it necessary to increase their supply by importing birds from the South
and West. Most of these birds seem to have done well, and in many sections quail were
reported in normal abundance.

Grouse and woodcock.—Ruffed grouse were reported plentiful in New England
(except Vermont) and in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North
Carolina, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Prairie chickens continued to increase
in Ilinois and Nebraska, but in other parts of their range seemed to be decreasing. In
the Rocky Mountain region, particularly in Montana, Utah, and Idaho, the grouse ©
seemed to have suffered from the wet spring. In Wyoming and Colorado, however,
sage hens were reported plentiful. Woodcock were fairly common in Vermont, Con-
ec and New York, but comparatively scarce in Pennsylvania and the Middle

Jest.

Wild fowl.—The fall flight of ducks proved a disappointment in nearly all parts of
the country, and the number of birds seemed to be much less than in either 1904 or
1905. Only a few places reported ducks in their usual abundance. In some instances,

538 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

no doubt, the apparent decrease was due to unfavorable weather conditions, which
caused the birds to hasten on their way south without stopping as Jong as usual,
but whether the flight of 1906 was actually or apparently much smaller than those of
the two previous years can only be determined by future observations.

GAME FOR PROPAGATION.

Restocking with both big game and certain game birds attracted much attention in
several of the Eastern States. The restocking of the Adirondacks with elk, which
began in 1901, chiefly by private efforts, has now progressed beyond the experimental
stage. A number of animals were liberated during the year and the total number of
elk is now estimated at more than 300. The effort to reestablish beaver also progressed
satisfactorily. Under the appropriation of $1,000 made by the legislature several were
obtained and arrangements were made to secure additional animals from the Yellow-
stone National Park. The total number in the State park now exceeds 40. The
experiments with moose have not been so successful, but an appropriation of $2,150
was made to continue the work in the hope of ultimately establishing the species in
its former haunts. In New Jersey the deer liberated in former years have increased
steadily, and are now found in at least one-half the counties of the State. Only 8
additional animals were liberated during the year. In addition to the deer 60 rabbits
and 50 Canadian hares were distributed in various parts of the State. In Pennsylva-
nia 30 female deer were purchased by the game commission for stocking the State game
preserve. The State warden of Tennessee, through private subscription, purchased
a herd of about 400 deer belonging to the Belle Meade Farm and liberated them in the
vicinity of Nashville. Under the provision of the State law affording complete pro-
tection for two years, it is hoped that these deer may be able to establish themselves
and form a nucleus for restocking other sections of the State.

Owing to the severity of previous winters, quail were in great demand for restocking
depleted covers, particularly in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Indiana, and Illinois. The demand was greatly in excess of the supply, and several
of the States failed to secure birds in adequate numbers. The Massachusetts Fish and
Game Protective Association, however, liberated 4,416; the fish and game commission
of New Jersey 7,208, the game commission of Pennsylvania about 3,700, and the game
commissioner of Illinois secured several thousand. Most of these birds were trapped
in Alabama and the Southwest, and the manner of their capture caused much criticism
by residents in the States where the trapping was done, and some complaints on the
part of consignees. More than 60,000 birds were shipped from a few points in Alabama,
where the birds were trapped in such wholesale numbers as to deplete the local stock,
and were shipped without the attention to details necessary to insure their safe arrival.
In consequence an undue proportion of the birds perished in transit or died soon after
arrival. In Texas the wholesale trapping led to several arrests and the imprisonment
for several weeks of three of the principal trappers. Attempts to secure a supply of birds
from Mexico met with indifferent success. The important experiment inaugurated by
the game commissioner of Illinois in 1905 of establishing a State game propagating farm
made substantial progress. One hundred and sixty acres of land have been leased 23
miles south of Springfield, Ill., where pheasants, quail, and other birds are raised in
large numbers for distribution in the State. In July, 1906, the commissioner reported
that 3,000 healthy pheasant chicks had been hatched from a consignment of 5,500
eggs imported from England, and there were then on the farm about 8,000 young
Enelish and ring-necked pheasants besides a number of blue quail, a few wild tur-
keys, and prairie chickens.

Experiments in rearing quail in captivity were made by a number of individuals.
In some cases, particularly in Kansas and Oregon, a number of birds were reared, but
elsewhere failures were frequent. The American Breeders’ Association appointed a
special committee on breeding wild birds for the purpose of coordinating the efforts
now being made by individuals and State authorities to encourage the propagation of
game birds. This same line of work received recognition from the Carnegie Institu-
tion, of Washington, which made a grant of $500 to Prof. C. F. Hodge, of Clark Univer-
sity, Massachusetts, to enable him to continue his experiments in propagating ruffed
grouse and other game birds in captivity.

IMPORTATIONS OF LIVE ANIMALS AND BIRDS.

During the calendar year 489 mammals, 381,324 birds, and 5,604 eggs of game birds
were imported into the United States under permit. Among the mammals were 3
beaver and 234 squirrels; and of the birds 326,990 were canaries, 9,774 game birds, and
44,560 miscellaneous species. In comparison with the importations of 1905 these

GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 539

figures show a decrease of about 800 mammals and increases of about 65,000 birds and
3,274 eggs. Among the game birds were 3,772 pheasants, 2,644 partridges, 113 caper-
cailzie, 122 black game, 28 willow grouse, 19 hazel grouse, 2,359 quail, 340 ducks, and
377 miscellaneous birds. Among the rarer game birds were 4 Manchurian, 4 black-
backed kalege, 3 Setchuan, 3 Mongolian, and 12 Prince of Wales pheasants, 4 brush
turkeys, and 4 rufous tinamous. The Mongolian and Prince of Wales pheasants com-
prised the second importation of these species ever brought to the United States.
Among the rarer miscellaneous birds worthy of mention were 4 keas, 6 weka rails, and
4 kiwis from New Zealand, 6 black-footed penguins, and 49 shama thrushes. The
opening of the new bird house of the New York Zoological Society was occasion for
the importation of a large number of European birds and a number of rare species from
other parts of the world.

The most notable features of the importations of game birds were the unusually
large number of European partridges brought over in the attempt to introduce the
species in several localities, the importation of 5,500 eggs of pheasants by the State
game commissioner of Illinois for propagation on the State farm near Springfield, and
the continued imports of capercailzie and black game. In the consignment of pheasant
eggs only 18 were broken in fransit and unpacking, 1,809 proved unfertile, and over
3,000 healthy chicks were hatched, Capercailzie and black game have been imported
in steadily increasing numbers during the past four years. In 1903, 65 capercailzie
were imported for the Algonquin Park in Ontario; in 1904 about 100 capercailzie
and 25 black game were liberated on the preserve of the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company,
on Grand Island, Mich.; and in 1905, 117 capercailzie and 74 black game were imported,
many of them intended for the same preserve. In 1906, the total number of the two
species imported increased to 235, and these birds were consigned chiefly to preserves
in the Adirondacks. In addition to the birds brought to the United States, 22 capercail-
zie and 35 black game, imported direct from Copenhagen to British Columbia, were
liberated at various points in that province. Seventy-six birds were purchased in
Copenhagen and 74 reached Vancouver safely in October, but 17 died from the effects of
thelong journey. Of the 57 surviving the trip, 22 were capercailzie and 35 were black
game. Of these, 19 black game were liberated on Vancouver Island, 16 black game
near Nicomen, on the Fraser River, and 8 capercailzie on the North Arm of Burrard
Inlet, 14 miles from Vancouver. The total cost of the experiment was $1,695. The
black game have apparently not done as well as the capercailzie, but it is hoped that
the latter species at least will ultimately become acclimated. ,

So far as known, no injurious species were introduced into the United States, but
the English sparrow, still extending its range in the Southwest, was reported for the
first time from Southern California at Newhall, in Los Angeles County.

PRIVATE AND STATE PRESERVES.

The private preserve promises to become the most satisfactory means of providing
ood hunting and at the same time one of the most effective means of preserving and
increasing the supply of game in the region in which it is situated. Private preserves
owned or leased by individuals or associations continue to be established wherever
conditions are favorable and suitable land can be obtained. Statistics of the indi-
vidual preserves created in 1906 are incomplete, but reports show that such preserves
were established in at least 20 different States.

In North Carolina the Audobon Society purchased Royal Shoal Islands and the
islands known as the Legged Lump, in Pamlico Sound, asa refuge and breeding
ground for gulls and terns.

In Pennsylvania definite and satisfactory progress was made in the creation of State
game preserves under the provisions of the act of 1905. Three parks, each containing
from 3,000 to 4,000 acres, were located in the forest reserves in Clearfield, Clinton, and
Franklin counties. Each park is to be surrounded by a fire line or path 8 to 10 feet
in width, and along this path a single wire is stretched from tree to tree,on which are
fastened notices calling attention to the purposes of the inclosure and prohibiting
trespass within its limits for any purpose. The work on the preserves in Clearfield
and Clinton counties was completed, and the corners of the preserve in Franklin County
were located and the cutting of the fire line begun.

Reference should be made also to two provincial game preserves established in
Canada. One of these, comprising 16 sections, was set apart in Alberta, about 30
miles northeast of Edmonton; the other, known as the Gaspesian Preserve, was estab-
lished by the Province of Quebec, on the Gaspé Peninsula. The latter preserve com-
prises about 2,500 square miles, and is comparable with the largest preserves on the

a Condor, IX, p. 28, 1907.

040 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

continent, such as the Laurentides National Park in Quebec, the Algonquin Park in
Ontario, the Canadian National Park in Alberta, and the Yellowstone National Park.

NATIONAL PARKS, REFUGES, AND RESERVATIONS.

More progress was made in the establishment of refuges for birds and game than
during any previous year. By Executive order dated February 10, 1906, Indian Key,
an island of 90 acres at the mouth of Tampa Bay, Florida, was set aside under the
charge of the Department of Agriculture as a preserve and breeding ground for native
birds. An item of $15,000 included in the agricultural bill provided for erecting a
fence for a buffalo inclosure on the Wichita Game Reserve in Oklahoma. The con-
tract has been let, and the work of constructing the fence is now in progress. Congress
authorized the-lease of a tract of not more than 3,500 acres of public land in Stanley
County, near Pierre, 8. Dak., for the benefit of the Phillips herd of buffalo, and on
June 29 authorized the establishment of a second game refuge in the Grand Canyon
National Forest, in northern Arizona. This game refuge, as created by proclamation of
November 28, comprises 2,267,300 acres. In this connection may also be mentioned
the act of June 30 prohibiting upland hunting in the District of Columbia, which
practically renders the District a game and bird refuge.

Reports from all of the preserves previously established showed satisfactory progress.
The results were especially noteworthy on the Pelican Island Reservation, in Florida,
and on the Breton Island Reservation, off the mouth of the Mississippi River. On
Pelican Island nesting began unusually early, 600 nests having been constructed by
November 18, 1905, and many young hatched before the close of the year. In Feb-
ruary, during a period of cold and inclement weather, 600 or 700 of the young birds
perished, but about 150 young survived. On April 15 the old birds again began to
nest, and succeeded in raising about 400 young, so that the total number of birds reared
on the island exceeded that of any previous year since the reservation was established.
The Breton Island Reservation comprises some 8 islands, and near by, along the Lou-
isiana coast, are 17 islands included in the Audubon Reservation, the latter controlled
and maintained by the State Audubon Society of Louisiana. These two reservations
together make up one of the greatest sea-bird breeding areas in the world. Here an
immense number of laughing gulls, Forster terns, black skimmers, and royal terns
were raised, estimated at 100,000 in all. The severe hurricane which passed over the
reservations in September killed some of the birds, and materially changed the con-
ditions on certain of the islands. Grand Cochére, one of the best breeding grounds,
was reported submerged and waves broke over Breton Island, carrying away the house
of refuge, but at the same time causing the destruction of the raccoons and other
animals which infested the island and interfered with the nesting of the birds.

In the Yellowstone National Park, as shown by the report of the superintendent,
the buffalo herd has steadily increased from the 2 bulls and 18 cows purchased in 1902
until it now numbers 57. Arrangements were completed during the summer for
moving all the young buffalo of this herd to the mouth of the Lamar River, at the
mouth of Rose Creek, where hay will be raised and the animals gradually turned loose
under conditions where they can readily obtain feed at all times. The old buffalo
will be kept as heretofore at Mammoth Hot Springs, and this division of the herd will
act as a safeguard against the spreac_of disease which might break out in either band.
About 1,500 antelope came down to the feeding grounds near the haystacks in the
vicinity of Gardiner, and at the same point 1,200 elk were seen and counted one
evening during the latter part of the winter. In spite of the heavy fall of snow, the
percentage of loss of big game was very small, and the animals came through the season
in good condition,

FARMERS’. INSTITUTES.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

041

Farmers’ institutes were held during the year ended June 30, 1906, in all of the
States and Territories excepting Alaska, Florida, Nevada, New Mexico, and Wash-

ington.

The following table gives a summary of the work for the year:

Statistics of farmers’ institutes for season ended June 30, 1906.

Meetings.
Speak-
Total
State or | ers on
Territory. Total Two Num-| attend- | ‘state
One | days} ber of} ance.
nae day.| or | ses- force.
cue ‘more.| sions.
Alabama......... 35| 27] 8| 85| 8,500| 13
Aviz0nS.- =~: ~-=-. 21 71 ee 21 1,307 3
Arkansas. ........ 31 28 | 3 42 7,150 6
California. ........ | 8& 55 28 272 22,861 37
Colorndo=- 2 25<.: | 40 24 16 123 16,675 23
Connecticut...... ji, 24 72 Gl eee $83 4,895 60
Delaware......... 15h « 1S\Gese ns 40} 7,200} 11
GBOrPIAS..<.--.-.. | 21 17 4 42 4,500 34
awali..--......- i 4 ay 28 8 | 300 9
TaHHOW So. 2 222. - 21 5 16 105 7,875 13
MMIpOIS 22. 5.22 5. ADS sok 108 667 79,428 109
ae pes cleee s 250 118 132 918 129, 894 46
Me ie pe 22 =< al Rec 69 402 66,959 5
Kansas..........- 155 | 128| 27| 522| 27,300 21
Kentucky. ....-.- 25 1 24 iO? RE Ser saree
Louisiana........ mn PAS Eee es 44 2,657 20
OO ee ie DOP oere ae 102 6, 967 27
Maryland........ | 49| 37| 12] 125| 10,762 8
Massachusetts....| 125 AB Wee asa 153 19,125 69
Michigan......... | 335] 259] 76] 934] 122,573 42
Minnesota........| 105 oe ee A 238 51,211 105
Mississippi....... | 110} 108 2} 220} 10,000 21
Missouri@........ Hed ee) naka ect naric Bee
Montana......... 71 64 7 133 7,890 25
Nebraska......... 160 71 89 515 72,894 38
New Hampshire..| 16 15 1 34 3,000 12
New Jersey ....... 40 33 7 116 11,611 14
New York.......- 259 114 145 | 1,062 134, 989 64
North Carolina...) 96 95 if 195 25,950 21
rot ia Dakota. ... oe 17 26 162 20,310 47
ie ae 5) ee 245 | 1,225 81,816 27
Oklahoma........ 31/2 | 29| 149] 7,460 9
Oreron.- 35-2 5--- 44 40 4 109 16,350 8
a as 22 226 63 | 163 987 | 165,553 56
lerto Rico. .-:.-. 1 CE ae 1 50 3
Rhode Island. .... 3) eae Ait 2 300 4
South Carolina...) 54 ay Ol ee 74 11,149 15
South Dakota.... 59 17 42; 119 10, 000 | 14
Tennessee. ...,.-- 35} 5 30/ 68 6,900 11
1 27 25 Z 35 4,500 39
Wo lr 45 40 5 7. 6, 680 17
bse ee 38 S883 76 eh > 962 26
LY DoT a ee) (aeaegeeee (e eee 65 500 11
West Virginia... 81| 50| 31/ 224 4, 480 29
Wisconsin... 22. - 81 ra (Peers 243 32,200 24
Wyoming: -..253: 11 4 i( 64 3,401 1
orale. s2 3,365 |1,998 hea '10,999 Pte | 1,197

Funds for institutes. | eae aa
|
Appropri- | Appropri- |

ated for ated for | pyp. | Num-
|yearended | yearended | j;.,6q, | ber of

June 30, June 30, copies

1906. 1907.

$600. 00 $600: 00" |ANoL Ate <0 soe
ICRC ee eee Noses? |Eeesaces
AGON OO! sesso = INO. coe] 2G ase,3
9,000. 00 6,000.00 | Yes. 12,500
PR CUS US ate eee See Yes...) 10,000
ACROSS See NOs nee
725.00 600.00 | Yes...| 5,000
2,500. 27500! 00)| “Noss s|o4- 2224"
BOWAD We wecacces aoe Yes. 1,000
1,000. 00 1/5000: 00' |) Noss-2)2--===2
30,281.55 | 17,150.00 | Yes...| 20,000
22500500):|'7 10500000: | No: 2s. )-- 55. .--
8,096. 06 Lie PAN Ul geen ae See
2,000. 00 2° 500200 "| aNGe= 2 eas sete
£7501 00i' |) 15; OOO200\| Hae fs)| bees
2,000. 00 2,000.00 | Yes. 2,500
5,000. 00 500050024 cst es
6,000. 00 6,000: 00-}22. ste |sc kta
3,000. 00 3,000.00 | Yes. 15,000
15,000.00 7,500.00 | Yes. §,500
20,238.40 | 18,990.00 | Yes. 35,000
3,000. 00 3,000.00 | No. -:]-:2-.-43
5,000. 00 4,009.00 | Yes. 5,000
8,607.00 | 6,000.00 | No..-.].......:
2,100.00 1,600.00 | Yes. 2,000
3,000. 00 35000) 00% | NO: = clns2-meen
20,000.00 | 20,000.00 | Yes...) 15,000
5,500. 00 3,500.00 | Yes...| 30,000
6,379.07 6,000.00 | Yes...) 10,000.
17,629.89 | 22,000.00 | Yes...| 15,000
660500 [Eo 02. c= 5.8 INO! | aaa 2
2,500. 00 2° 50000) || NOL esclos2-2- 2
20,500.00 | 20,560.00 ey --| 50,000
Boe Se Seal tsniera atone Oe aeRee seed
HOGSOO Wie oaks: Yes 2,000
4,524. 40 5000500 | NOsasleoosee2~
6,500. 00 5,000.00 | Yes. 600
2,500. 00 2,500.00 | Yes. 5,000
FADS OD es <2 25-~- Bist s\n
2,000. 00 1,500.00 | Yes. 7,000
SS NODLNOie 2353-2, Yes. 3,000
5,000. 00 5000300) |p Notes | eosaee
3,956. 12 45000200!) Yes=. 21223222
2,000.00 | 12,000.00 | Yes. 60,000
1,107.59 1:000200)) (Noo2 = 13-2
264,672.38 | 232,375.00 |.--.::-- 315, 100

@ No report received.

542

STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

[Figures furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, except where otherwise
eredited. All prices on gold basis.]

CORN.

Corn crop of countries named, 1901-1905.

Country.

NORTH AMERICA.

Mexico
Total North America.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Ghiloce 4 402s oP ee

Total South America...
EUROPE.

Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper........
Croatia-Slavonia

Bulgaria
France

Russia:
Russia proper
Poland
Northern Caucasia@....

Total Russia (Euro-
pean)

Spain

Algeria
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Cape of Good Hope
BEV OG wc Uitcbows nena aac
Watall’.- 4: tng ce sore eee

Total Africa

AUSTRALASIA.

Australian Common-
Wes lO. ee. Se ce oem eee
New: Zealand).ocn5.2 2e-ee008

Total Australasia... ..

Grand total... .:.... 2.

[Substantially the crop of the world.]

we eee eee nent ee!

2 Includes government of Chernomorsk.

1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

1, 522, 520,000 | 2,523, 648,000 | 2,244,177,000 | 2,467,481,000 | 2,707, $94, 600
25, 621, 000 21, 159, 000 30, 211, 000 20, 880, 000 21, 582, C00
93, 459, 000 78, 099, 000 90, 879, 000 88, 131, 000 89, 000, 000

1, 641, 600, 000 | 2, 622,906,000 | 2,365, 267,000 | 2,576, 492, 000 2, 818, 576, 000
98, 842, 000 84, 018, 000 148, 948, 000 175, 189, 000 140, 708, 000

, 800, 866, 000 1,118, 000 1,477, 000 , 000, 000
5, 576, 000 5, 060, 000 5, 289, 000 3, 035, 000 4,417,000
105, 918, 000 89, 944, 000 155, 355, 000 179,701,000 -| 146,125,000
17, 535, 000 13, 462, 000 16, 056, 000 12, 529, 000 17, 293, 000
127, 389, 000 104, 546, 000 135, 751, 000 59, 400, 000 94,042, C00
20, 469, 000 15, 255, 000 23,776, 000 11, 364, 000 18, 385, 000
9, 800, 000 5, 863, 000 8,411,000 6, 464, 000 9,584, 000
175, 193, 000 139, 126, 000 183, 994, 000 89, 757, 000 139, 304, 000
25, 000, 000 18, 109, 000 22, 836, 000 12, 758, 000 19, 649, 000
26, 393, 000 24, 928, 000 25, 360, 000 19, 482, 000 24, 030, 000
100, 455, 000 71, 028, 000 88, 990, 000 93, 640, 000 97, 859, 000
15, 000, 000 16, 000, 000 14, 000, 000 15, 000, 600 16, 000, 000
116, 945, 000 68, 447, 000 80, 272, 000 19, 598, 000 59, 275, 000
60, 771, 000 40, 377, 000 40, 397, 000 18, se a 22, 533, 000
es na erates <jniata-ay ote les clapal nvel asap pat c= (2) 3 eee ete eae ee 13, <a ae See
7, 623, 000 8, 270, 000 10, 335, 000 7, 063, 000 11, 018, 000
68, 394, 000 48, 647, 000 50, 782, 000 26, 032, 060 33, 551, 000
18, 849, 000 18, 396, 000 19, 479, 000 9, 498, 000 21,431, 000
25, 759, 000 25, 272, 000 18, 759, 000 21, 300, 060 31, 900, 000
571, 988, 000 429, 953, 600 504, 422, 000 307, 065, 000 442, 999, 000
529, 000 556, 000 435, 000 391, 000 400, 000
200, 000 200, 000 184, 000 189, 000 232, 000
2, 000, 000 2,000, 000 38, 502, 000 3, 000, 000 8, 000, 000
30, 000, 000 30, 000, 000 80, 000, 000 30, 000, 000 30, 000, 000
4,479, 000 4,143, 000 1, 997, 000 5, 282, 000 4,822, 000
37, 208, 000 36, 899, 000 36, 118, 000 38, 862, 000 38, 454, 000
9, 650, 000 7, 256, 000 4, 988, 000 9, 972, 000 8, 374, 000
519, 000 590, 000 627, 000 547,000 506,
10, 169, 000 7, 846, 000 5, 615, 000 10, 519, 000 8, 880, 000
2, 366, 883,000 | 3, 187, 548, 000 3, 066, 777, 000 : 3,112, 639,000 | 3,455, 034, 000

STATISTICS OF CORN. 543

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of corn of the United States, 1866-1906.

| Aver- Chicago cash price per | Domestic
re ey age bushel, exports,
= — farm se : ae including
: price | Farm value, ay o corn meal,
Acreage. ss Production. per Dee. 1. December. | following fiscal
He bush- year. year be-
acre. el, fee © ee ee nning
Dee. 1. Low.|High.| Low.|High. uly 1.
Acres. B Bushels. Cents.| Dollars. Cis. | Cts. | -Cis- | Cts. Bushels.

867,946,295 | 47.4] 411,450,830 | 53 62 64 7 16, 026, 947
768,320,000 | 57.0 | 437,769,763 | 61 65 61 71 12, 493, 522
906,527,000 | 46.8 | 424,056,649 | 38 58 44 51 8, 286, 665
874,320,000 | 59.8] 522,550,509 | 56 67 73 85 2, 140, 487
1,094, 255,000 | 49.4] 540, 520, 456 | 41 59 46 52 10, 676, 873
991, 898,000 | 43.4 430, 355, 910 | 36 39 38 43 35, 727, 010

34, 887,246
37, 103, 245
33, 646,977
34, 091, 137

ush.

25.3

23.6

26.0

23.6

28.3

29.1
35,526,836 | 30.8 | 1,092,719,000 | 35.3 385, 736, 210 | 27 28 34 39 40, 154, 374
39,197,148 | 23.8 932,274,000 | 44.2 411,961, 151 40 49 49 59 35, 985, 834
41,036,918 | 20.7 850,148,500 | 58.4] 496,271,255 | 64 76 53 67 30, 025, 036
44, 841, 371 29.5 | 1,321,069,000 | 36.7] 484,674,804} 40 47 41 45 50, 910, 532
49, 033, 364 | 26.2 | 1,283,827,500 | 34.0] 436,108,521 40 43 43 56 72,652, 611
50, 369, 113 | 26.7] 1,242,558,000 |} 34.8 | 467,635,230 |) 41 49 35 41 87,192,110
ol, 585, 000 | 26.9 | 1,388,218,759 | 31.7} 440,280,517 30 32 33 36 87, 884, 892
53,085,450 | 29.2 | 1,547,901,790 | 37.5 | 580,486,217 | 39 434 | 323 364 99, 572, 329
62,317,842 | 27.6 | 1,717,434,543 | 39.6 679, 714, 499 33f 42 414 45 93, 648, 147
64,262,025 | 18.6 | 1,194,916,000 | 63.6| 759,482,170] 53%| 633| 69 | 76% | 44,340,683
65,659,545 | 24.6 | 1,617 025, 100 | 48.5] 783,867,175 | 493 61 534 | 56% 41, 655, 653
68, 301,889 | 22.7 1. 551,066,895 | 42.4] 658,051,485 | 544 63} 524 | 57 46, 258, 606
4 683,780 | 25.8 | 1,795,528,432 | 35.7] 640,735,859 | 344 404} 443 | 49 52, 876, 456
2,130,150 | 26.5 | 1,936,176,000 | 32.8] 635,674,630 | 36 423 344) 36 64, 829, 617
i 694,208 | 22.0 | 1,665,441,000 | 36.6 | 610,311,000 | 353) 38 365 393 41, 368, 584
72, 392, 720 | 20.1 | 1,456,161,000 | 44.4 646,106,770 | 47 514 | 54 60 25.360, 869
75,672,763 | 26.3 | 1,987,790,000 | 34.1 677,561,580 | 334 | 35% 33k | 35% 70, 841, 673
73,319,651 | 27.0 | 2,112,892,000| 28.3] 597,918,829] 29% | 35 | 32%] 35 | 103,418,709
71,970,763 | 20.7 | 1,489,970,000] 50.6] 754,433,451) 472 | 53 |.55 | 693] 32,041,529
76, 204,515 | 27.0 | 2,069,154,000 | 40.6 | 835,439,228} 393! 59 402 'a100 76, 602, 285
70,626,658 | 23.1 | 1,628,464,000 | 39.4] 642,146,630] 49 | 427} 303 | 442 | — 47,121,894
72,036, 465 | 22.5 | 1,619,496,131 | 36.5] 591,625,627 | 344| 363] 36% | 384 | 66,489,529
62, 582, 269 19.4 | 1,212,770,052 | 45.7 | 554,719,162 | 44%] 474) 472) 55% 28, 585, 405
82,075,830 | 26.2 | 2,151,138,580] 25.3] 544,985,534) 25 | 263| 274] 29% | 101,100,375
81, 027,156 | 28.2 | 2,283,875,165 | 21.5 | 491,006,967 | 224] 23% | 23 | 258 178,817,417
89,095,051 | 23.8 | 1,902, 967,933 | 26.3) 501,072,952] 25 | 27) | 328 | 37 | 212,055,543
77,721, 781 | 24.8 | 1,924,184,660 | 28.7] 552,023,428] 332] 38 | 324] 348] 177,255,046
82, 108, 587 25.3 | 2,078, 143,933 | 30.3] 629,210,110; 30 314 | 36 40$ | 213, 123, 412
83, 320,872 | 25.3 | 2,105,102,516 | 35.7 | 151,220,034} 353.) 40} | 428) 58h) 181,405,473
91, 349, 928 16.7 | 1,522, 519, 891 60.5 | 921,555,768 | 624 G74 | 59 643 28, 028, G88
94,043,613 | 26.8 | 2,523, 648,312 | 40.3 |1, ot, 017,349 | 433 | 572] 44 | 46 76, 639, 261
88,091,993 | 25.5 | 2,244,176,925 | 42.5 2, 868, 801 41 433 474 | 50 58, 222, 061
$2, 231, 581 26.8 | 2,467,480,934 | 44.1 |1, 087, 461,440 | 434 | 49 48 644 90, 293, 483
94,011,369 | 28.8 | 2,707,993,540 | 41.2 1, 116, 696, 738 | 42 504 | 473) 50 119, 893, 833
96, 737, 581 30.3 | 2; 927) 416, 091 39.9 |1, 166,626,479 | 40 =P) Eee eee oe See oe ere

4 Coincident with ‘‘corner.”’

Visible supply of cornin the United Statesand Canada, first of each month for ten years.a

1897-98 1898-99. | 1899-1900 1900-1901. | 1901-2.

Month. | F | 900. 9
ea SE ci
Bushels. Bushels. Busheis. Bushels. Bushels.

SLT ana eels ep a a ae a 21, 501,000 | 32,983,000 | 21,551,000 | 19,087,000 | 21,522,000
oT 3 pe ASR = 7 RRS baled es ap res SE 20,018,000 | 25,420,000 | 17,687,060 | 18,613,000 | 19, 648,600
Reptemiger.- os: - 2.52 saegenessennekescep eee 37, 528, 000 | 24,043,000 | 11,970,000 | 8,766,000 | 19,476,000
NEON = c= ts cm ee ee ee et See 45, 412,000 | 30,132,000 | 16,662,000 | 11,196,000 | 21,215,000
MAP MOCTIDET < <i. 5.2 = Soins oan Wane ee 52, 980, 000 | 33,198,000 | 18,738,000 | 11,061,000 | 19,137,000
WIDOT 5 =a) Po one ee ee oe oe 49, 559,000 | 25,870,000 | 17,555,000 | 12,791,000 | 16,599,000
SLE Ty ee oe Be tn es eee ea 48, 292,000 | 26,936,000 | 19,024,000 | 14,313,000 | 16,825,000
LOE ne orl aes sae cb Gee gee ea 2 53, 522,000 | 36,726,000 | 20,110,000 | 21,950,000 | 17,197,000
MMGRTIE ot dc ee eee ee eee 52,457,000 | 44,792,060 | 28,340,000 | 27,538,000 | 15, 270.000
PINAR oN on. o ee ee 52, 228,000 | 43,618,000 | 31,883,000 | 28,947,000 | 13,540,000
UE SO ene a 34, 734,000 | 34,236,000 | 30,416,000 | 24,544,000 9, 093, 000
erne's = S == fo nia win ow winnie nn on emma n a eninieint aan 28, 282,000 | 19,070,000 | 18,289,000 | 21,904, 000 6, 317, 000

@ These figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Sei aa stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by
radstreet’s.

a

544 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Visible supply of corn in the United States and Canada, etc.—Continued.

Month. 1902-3. 1903-4. 1904-5. 1905-6.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Afvth;S aaeee BE IE SR i Ce ESE 8,541,000 | 13,410,000 | 12,362,000 9,571, 000
DAC OUTS Toys 3 l= 2 eee eee 9,013, 000 | 11,715,090 | 10,073,000 } 10, 101, 000
September.......-- Nea Bhs PHL aa 3, 823,000 | 9,487,000 | 8,014,600 | 8,080, 000
October: . fe Pesan aes 4,607, 000 | 15,063,000 | 10,703,000 | 8-796, 000
November 4,229,000 | 12,147,000 | 5,119,090 | 5,183, 000
December. .--- 4,552,000 | 9,817,000 | 5,445,000 | 10,236, 000
January...-.- -| 9,345,000 | 9,547,000 | 15,351,000 | 17,830, 000
Hebruary -...25- 11,535,000 | 12,807,000 | 19,721,000 | 22,010, 000
Marche o2 8a sonen seh eae eee ce oe, Ee 15,180,000 | 16,669,000 | 16,752,000 | 24,531, 000
Apprilinrnecsc ds Sinectaen eee ee ae 16, 901, 000 | 16,571,000 | 16,124,000 | 17,653, 000
BU CI feet CIOR OES Haaarp ocurticee Ganaoe 9,454,000 | 13,253,000 | 14, 661, 000 7,674, 000
June si6ss52 = Seabees See weceeee eeloee sae 7,039,000 | 7,572,000 | 8,374,000 | 7,366,000

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of corn in the United States in 1906, by

States.
Crop of 1906. : : Shipped out
State or Territory. gare she ene of county
Acreage. Production. Value. are y where grown.
Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. | Per cent.| Bushels.
Maine. 22n.sscaeeee 12, 350 456, 950 292, 448 86, 820
New Hampshire.... 26, 234 983,775 629, 616 245, 944 25
Vermont. ../..5...: 56, 491 2,005, 430 1, 183, 204 501, 358 25
Massachusetts. ....- 44,799 1,778, 520 1, 067, 112 O15; 701 29
Rhode Island....... 10,011 331, 364 212,073 112, 664 34
Connecticut.:..-.-- 55, 595 2, 223, 800 1, 334, 280 644, 302 29
New York. .s..----. 650, 000 22,685, 000 13, 384, 150 7, 939, 750 35
New Jersey......--: 277, 749 10, 082, 289 5, 343, 613 4,234, 561 42
Pennsylvania......-. 1, 441, 797 7, 960, 239 30, 139, 324 26, 082, 108 45
Delaware. ...:....-- 196, 472 5, 894, 160 2, 475, 547 2,947, 080 50
Maryland.......---- 628, 795 22, 007, 825 9,903,521 | 10,343,678 47
Wine imiae ee: ness. © 1, 859, 610 45, 188, 523 24, 853, 688 19, 882, 950 44
West Virginia.....-. 750, 000 22,725, 000 12, 498, 750 8, 181, 000 36
North Carolina....- 2,731, 820 41, 796, 846 28, 421,855 | 18,390, 612 44
South Carolina....- 1, 935, 347 23, 611, 233 17, 236, 200 11, 097, 280 47
Georgians. sacs 4, 338, 883 52, 066, 596 34, 884, 619 24, 471, 300 47
625, 000 6, 875, 000 4, 262, 500 2, 543, 750 37
3, 325, 000 141, 645, 000 55, 241, 550 60, 907, 350 43
4, 643, 782 183, 893, 767 66, 201, 756 80, 913, 257 44
9, 616, 886 347, 169, 585 124, 981,051 166, 641, 401 48
Michivan: <- ec 2-55 1, 475, 000 54, 575, 000 24, 013, 000 21, 830, 000 40
Wisconsin....:.::-- 1, 458, 877 60, 105, 732 24, 643, 350 23, 441, 235 39
Minnesota -.cc-2 2.2 1, 492, 538 50, 149, 277 17,050, 754 18, 053, 740 36
LOW Gas ce acsticiemcta 9, 450, 000 373, 275, 000 119, 448, 000 182, 904, 750 49
MISSOURI. 22S osccccce 7,075,000 228, 522, 500 86, 838, 550 98, 264, 675 43
North Dakota...... 150, 000 4,170,000 1, 626, 300 1,042, 500 25
South Dakota.....- 1,875,000 62,812, 500 18, 215, 625 32, 034, 375 51
IN@DIASKH oe oc cee 7, 325, 000 249, 782, 500 72, 436, 925 119, 895, 600 48
Kansas sccjceeiseinsic 6, 750, 000 195, 075, 000 62, 424,000 76, 079, 250 39
Kentucky -.-......- _ 8,195,072 105, 487, 376 44, 283, 698 47, 446, 819 45
Tennessee.........- 3, 075, 762 86, 428, 912 40, 621, 589 39, 757, 300 46
Alagbams 0. osmece 2,990, 587 47, 849, 392 30, 623, 611 21, 532, 226 45
Mississippi.......-- 2, 204, 822 40,789, 207 24, 881, 416 17, 947, 251 44
Lowisiana oe eensee 1, 524, 281 26, 217, 633 15, 730, 580 9,176,172 35
Texas.) \e* Mae 6, 924, 657 155, 804, 782 77, 902, 391 56, 089, 722 36
Indian Territory...| 2,038, 490 68, 493, 264 21,917, 844 29, 452, 104 43
Oklahoma.......... 1, 998, 095 65, 737, 326 19,721, 198 30, 896, 543 47
Arkansas... Jssaeeone 2, 237, 397 52, 802, 569 24, 817, 207 23, 761, 156 45
Montana: .-cacascee 3, 980 93, 132 60, 536 13,970 Lo
Wiyoming. . 2.225.256 2, 528 68, 256 40, 271 13, 651 20
Colorado... seseces 113, 159 3, 157, 136 1, 578, 568 757,713 24
New Mexico........ 40, 211 1, 182, 203 851, 186 295, 551 25
ATIZONG . -0/s'55 7, 462 220, 129 187,110 66, 039 30
Ubalites.;. <2 E 11,126 356, 032 263, 464 71, 206 20
Tdanos se. 2.3 5, 231 148, 037 82, 901 29, 607 20
Washington........ 11, 444 288, 389 158, 614 43, 258 15
Orepotiees: 2. seer 18, 083 499, 091 324, 409 59, 891 12
California........... 57, 158 1,994, 814 1, 336, 525 339, 118 17

United States....| 96,737,581 | 2,927, 416,091 | 1,166, 626, 479 |1,297, 978, 958 44.3 | 679,543,770

STATISTICS OF CORN. 545

Average yield per acre of corn in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.

| |
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. Bush. | Bush.
LDL Se eee | 37.0] 40.0} 360] 360); 30.4] 21.7) 302 34.3 37.0
New Hampshire... --..-..-.- 340) 41.0) 39.0) 37.0) 385) 23.3) 21.0 37.0 37.5
OH ee SS eS 35.0} 43.0] 360) 40.0) 40.0) 21.8) 23.4 34.7 35.5
Massachusetts..............- 32.5 40.0] 36.0) 380) 40.5 | 31.3] 240 25 39.7
CSTR SEG a ee 31.0} 340] 310] 32.0] 32.1) 28.4) 30.1 32.5 33. 1
Wonmeawinut. =... 2.5.8... 31.5 | 37.0} 39.0) 3880) 39.0) 315)| 224/ 389] 42.7 40.0
MERWE 2 ee |} 31.0] 33.0) 310) 320/] 330] 250] 250] 27.3] 31.5 34.9
MGWHMRESOY. <2: 05-0. oon one | 315] 37.0] 39.0] 330] 369] 345] 240] 380] 358] 363
Pennsylvania........ 2a eee | 360) 37.0] 320] 250] 350| 361] 312] 340] 389 40. 2
UF ey 29.0} 25.0}; 22.0] 240] 30.G/ 280] 27.5] 30.4] 30.4 30. 0
ee Se ee 33.0| 31.0] 320| 260] 342] 32.4) 287] 334] 369 35.0
. OT re 180] 220] 20.0 16.0 | 22.2 22.0 21.8 23.3 23. 4 24.3
LS ac er | 24.5'| 29°01 26:0:} 27.0) 220] 26.5 | 22:6) 25.3'] 20:8 30.3
North Carolina ..............- 13.07] 214: OFFS SS Or) 322 OL 205k 213,95) 2 18 7°) 15.2 39 15.3
9.0} 10.0 9.0 7.0 69] 10.4] 103] 124] 10.9 12-2
11.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 11.7 11.9 11.0 12.0
80; 9.0 10.0 8.0 9.0 8.6 9.9 10.7 10.1 11.0
Se Or Oi! SOs Ol sated Se Of 205G: | 32°5| SRS 42.6
30.0] 360] 380] 380] 19.8] 37.9| 33.2] 31.5] 40.7 39. 6
Se SOLO. SOO Seat cote CSR OT ea SRR | BOCs 36. 1
31.5} 340] 25.0] 360] 345] 264] 335] 286] 340 37.0
33.0 | 35.0)| .35:0:/- 400%) 27-4") 282°) 29.3) | 29:7] 3726 41.2
26.0] 320] 33.0] 33.0} 26.3) 228) 28.3] 269] 325 33. 6
29:0 | 35.0)| 9320') -38 0°)" 980) 32.0 |'-28:0'] 32:6 | 348 39.5
26. 0 26.0 | 26.0 28.0 10.1 39. 0 32. 4 26. 2 33.8 32.3
| 17.0} 19.0] 23.0) 160) 226] 194] 252] 212) 27.5 27.8
24:0 :} 280") D605 a0 Oi 8 101 Ors | agers a1 8 33.5
Ti SS ae 1780.0.) 1210} <2ROU 2G One aa tel 9231) 960:| Sa8841' “328 34.1
Ree Be / 180) 160 27.0 19.0 7.8 29.9 25.6 | 20.9 27.7 28.9
Setrinieee Wee es Se | 230] 310 21.0 26. 0 15.6 27.0 26. 6 26.9 29.7 33.0
Asif | 21.0 26. 0 20.0} 20.0 14.2 21.9 23.5.1 25-0 24.6 28.1
YOO ST Serene ee, 12.0 15.0 12.0 11.0); 10.9 8.4 14.8 15.0 14.8 16.0
Lith 1 Th 14.5 18.0 16.0 11.0 10.9} 11.5 18.4 19.1 14.3 18.5
ea) iu ee er a 17.0 18.0 18.0 17.0 13.7 12.5} 20.6 19.9 7 17.2
Th aes | 18.5 25. 0 j 18.0 185! 116 &1 24.2 22. 6 21.3 22..5
Indian Territory............. eke Sal RES SER i Sein bcd ae 120| 249] 27.7] 32.4 | SOUT ae
icinnoma ses oe to eS ee oe eee Sen 19.0} 26.0 Ze |. 2020) 28.3) 2B} 62553: 32.9
1 UI TTIG TEES ee a oe nae | 16.0 20.0 | 20.0 19.0 &1 21.3 20.9 21.6 17.3 23.6
WSS. 8 ek bl |} 180] 280} 230] 150] 250] 220] 241] 222] 19.4 23.4
NTIS eo es hn hs oe | 12.0 16.0 22.0 340) 39.5 19.8 19.4] 32.5] 269 27.0
LCS as 19.0 18.0 17.0 19.0 uly Ga 16.5 19.8} 20.5] 23.8 27.9
MIWEMERIOG 8. ck scene |} 27.0) 21.0] 20.0 22.0 31.6 22.0 240] 22.7 25.3 29.4
20 OL ee PERE SSA mee ee ey eee 180) 20.2} 22.4) 23.8) 27.0 29. 5
JLT ie } 220} 21.0) 20.0] 20.0) 19.4] 20.14 214] 33.2] 362 32.0
LSD. A So. See BEST s Sol ERY ee eee (eee av ON 24570 (2 SE 529.36 |b 2702 28.3
Wrenn a 92. 2526-25258. } 5180) 12.0) 23.0.| 20:0 )> 17.5 | 23.0] 23:1] 247 | 242 25. 2
Lob 2 ae 25.0 | 240] 220] 23.0] 20.8] 23.4] 258] 288] 23.0 27.6
OPMENINSIE Syme Se ke fs 1 OF 26. 0 27.0 25.0 31.0} 30.5 30.7 28.6 | 32.0 34.9
General average......_- | 23.8) 248] 253] 253) 167] 268 25.5] 26.8 - 28.8} 30.3
i I

Average value per acre of corn in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States.

1
|

| | | l
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
| ! |
5 |

TT ee ee $17. 39 |$19. 20 $18. 00 sie. 80 |$29.94 $16. 06 19. 93 |$32.16 |$23. 67 | $23. 68
New Hampshire.............. 15. 30 | 18-86 | 19.11 | 20.72 | 30.03 | 17.01 | 13.23 | 19.66 | 25.53 | 24.00
Ream Ont Sa. See ' 15.05 | 18.92 | 16.92 | 20.00 | 29.20 | 14.82 | 14.51 | 26.21 | 23.60 | 20.95
Massachusetts. .........-. | 15.28 | 19.60 | 18.36 | 20.52 | 30.78 | 23.16 | 15.84 | 25.92 | 26.25 | 23. 82
Rhode Island. ......-. 16.74 | 21.76 | 16. 43 | 21.44 | 24 40 | 22.15 | 24 38 | 28.64 | 23.08] 21.18
Connecticut.......... 15. 43 | 19.24 | 19. 50 | 20.90 | 29.25 | 23.31 | 15.01 | 28.40 | 30.32 | 24 00
Mwy DUK. [2.222 12.40 | 14.19 | 13.95 | 15.04 | 23.76 | 16.75 | 15.00 | 17.47 | 19.21 | 20.59
Mew Jersey. 25-..2.--22- --| 11.97 | 14.80 | 15.60 | 14.85 | 24.35 | 19.32 | 13.68 | 22.04 | 19.69 | 19.24
Fepunylyania. ........-----+-- 22. 24 | 14.80 | 13.12 | 11.25 | 21. 70-| 20.94 | 17.78 | 20.06 | 21.01 | 20.96
PIR aEED os <2 = c\.2/>- >= = 8.70 | 7.75) 7.48 | 9.12} 17.10 | 13.72 | 13.48 | 14.90 | 1429} 1260
LUTE eee 9.90 | 10.85 | 11.52 | 10.66 | 19.84 | 16.52 | 14.64 | 16.70 | 17.71 | 15.75
Ph See eee eee 6.84] 7.70] 7.60] 7.84 | 13.10 | 11.44] 11.55 | 13.75 | 12.40] 13.37
MY Gsb varrinia 2 A522. 2 226 9.80 | 10.73 | 11.70 | 13.50 | 14.95 | 14.31 | 14 46 | 16.19 | 15.7 16. 66
North Carolina... --..-:-.... 5.59} 6.02) 611]) 684) 876] 834] 897] 9.42} 890] 10.40
South Carolina............... 441) 460) 450] 448] 5.80] 7.18] 7.11] 868] 807 8. 91
egreia. ote ooo 5.2 2 ee 5.28 | 432] 5.00] 5.70] 820] 657| 807| 845| 7.70 8. 04
1G Ce eee See mee wee | 440) 450) 5.30) 480] 7.65! 662} 7.23} 802] 667 6, 82
ies en oso ; 812) 9.99 | 10.80 | 12.58 | 14.88 | 15.96 13.91 | 14.95 | 16.25 | 16. 61
US EE ena See 6.30 | 9.00 | 10.26 | 12.16 | 10.89 | 13.64 11. 95 | 12.91 | 15.47 | 14 26
BMINGIs! 58 oe ee ee ' 683! 7.50! 9.36 ! 11.84! 12.20! 13.93! 11.59! 14.93! 15.12! 13 00

3 al1906——35

546 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of corn in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States—Continued.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
[iS ren Bier ct a Deeaen| [enmemenaees Ee)
MaCHIG An © oon coe eae eee $8. 50 |$11. 56 $9. 00 |$13.32 $17.94 |$13.73 |$15. 41 |$14. 87 |$15. 64 | $16. 28
Wiisconsin. ><. 7) 245-2) ee 8.25 | 9.80 | 10.50 | 13.20 | 14.25 | 1410 | 12.60 | 13.66 | 15.79 | 16.89
Manmesota: cascee sac: see 7.68 | 792) 9.57] 11.83] 9.12 é 11. 42
Tawa 5 oh ee eee | 8.05 7.13 | 10.26 | 13.00 | 10. 56 12. 64
MESSER. oe) eee noe eae 7.02; 7.80] 896} 677 | 12.87 12. 27
North Dakota.......-. 6.84} 7.59 | 672] 10.40] 873 10. 84
South Dakota.... 6.44] 6.76] 7.83} 9.45] 7.75 9. 72
Nebraska, ... ... seas. 4. 62 | 6.44] 806] 7.61] 9.69 9. 89
HE coo ee re ak remy Bie 416} 675} 608] 491 | 10.17 9. 25
IRB GIC ye oa. ot oe hoe aoe &37 | 7.77 | 1040} 9.52 | 11.34 13. 86
TWEUOSAPG. oe ewes Veen 7.54 | 7.80; 9.80} 9.23 | 10.29 13. 21
IPRS TG 5 meee! aoe toe ees 6.15 | 5.64] 638) &39] 5.63 10. 24
MISSISSIP[iee: oho. cae e see 7202)1 To80t GBS | SOT hE 02 11. 28
LAO MINTED. he SS age oe eee 7.38) .7.92') &50 | 1027 | -&25 10. 32
bh 22°; Caen Op aie Rage yee ce 850] 6.48) 846] 9.28} 5.35 ny Bes
Pani T GERPOLYs cncos 2am ces AIRE ee sed eee ec ete Sete ee 9.12 | 10.71 10. 75
GREER OM Bia ey see Ue pee INS, Se NSE 3.80 | 6.76] 5.55 | 10.06 9. 87
ANAS ee ee ee | 640] 5.80] 7.60] 817] 656) 10.44 11. 09
INGE STD Cone te a tse aes eee 11.70 | 18 48 | 11.96 | 885 | 22.50 | 15.84 15. 21
Vik yori oe re ee es a ee ne | 600! 880] 9.46 | 20.40 | 28 44 | 11. 68 15. 93
Cplaradea 33s ae ees | Meee E20 Ps ol | 9632 A265.) S73 13. 95
News Mexaeos.. 4052. LL ee 15.66 | 11.76 | 11.60 | 14.08 | 24. 33 | 17.16 21. 17
DsS2) CAUSE) Seine ap eae ee eed Ne le, Ae ie Se | ae Sate 16. 20 | 20. 40 25. 0S
Li a EN Se Se eA | 12.10 | 12.60 | 11.80 | 12.60 | 17. 46 | 13. 47 23. 68
1: C7 a a ge SI head a (| re ek 13. 80 | 15. 31 15. 85
Washington..........- rey | 9,90} 5.04] 12.65 | 11.80 | 10.15 | 1495 13. 86
Orespos.S 2.1: gio ee | 13.25 | 14.40 | 14.08 | 13.11 | 11.86 | 15. 44 17. 94
Calivorning 9-250 tsa pee 17. 64 | 16.12 | 16.20 | 15.25 | 21.08 | 23. 49 23. 38

General average-.-.....-. | 626] 7.10] 7.66| 9.02 | 10.09 | 10.81 12. 06

} |

International trade in corn, including corn meal, 1901-1906.

GENERAL NotEe.—Substantially the international trade of the world. It should not be expected
that the world’s export and import totals for any year will agree. Among sources of disagreement
are these: (1) Different periods of time covered in the ‘‘year’’ of the various countries; (2) imports
received in year subsequent to year of export; (3) want of uniformity in classification of goods among
countries; (4) different practices and varying degrees of failure in recording countries of origin and
ultimate destination; (5) different practices of recording reexported goods; (6) opposite methods of
treating free ports; (7) clerical errors, which, it may be assumed, are not infrequent.

The exports given are domestie exports and the imports given are imports for consumption, as far
as it is feasible and consistent so to express the facts; no statement is for net exports or net imports.
While there are some inevitable omissions from such a table as this, on the other hand, there are some
duplications because of reshipments that do not appear as such in official reports.

¢ EXPORTS.
Country 1902. 1903. 1905.
|
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

Avpentinas c2cnsoh52 vac c ewe se Jan. 1 | 43,788,911 | 46, 959, 5! 82,845,915 | 97,221,783 | 87,487, 629
Austria-Hungary......-.-...-- Jan. ~1 511,697 | 3,010,624 310, 804 174, 342 63, 218
NS OPSVEREE. Ae Sects ce names coe mae Jan. 1{| 4,657,132 | 4,346,609 | 6,579,655 | 6,287, 688 8,078, 215
42d T2 i en ee ae ae tee Jane. 3 9,883,070 | 7,883,279 | 5,089,114 | 9,762, 657 3, 870, 090
NGineriartds ss. [02.6 [oe re Jan. 1{ 5,606,350 | 4,726,324 | 5,373,194 | 4,449,009 4, 278, 515
Fee ESS shakes canes eee Jan. 1 | 45,724,258 | 43,013,192 | 31,080,198 | 18,042, 377 1, 441, 437
PRIS So's, eae ee epee Jan. 1 | 19,159,516 | 44, 148-590 | 25,349,683 | 18, 633,663 | @7,371, 525
rin Ft > 2 ee eee a Jan. 1] 1,789,593 , 091, 171, 767 130, 225 806, 115
Manited States.» 3a. 2555225 525.8 July 1 | 28,028, 688 | 76,639,261 | 58,222,061 | 90,293,483 | 119,893, 833
an 2 2b SS Seen July 1 928, 881 703,770 | 1,004,063 | 2,002,250 | 51,159,736
GHHOT COUNtHIES\o. So Sot 2 aad ok ae ae ee 1,021, 000 1, 528, 000 1,086,000 | 1,009,000 1, 235,000
Rotel i. J.c Usman seater ate eee ioe 099,096 (234,050,827 |217, 112,454 |248, 006, 457 | 235, 685, 313

|

a Preliminary figures. b Average, 1901-1904.

STATISTICS OF CORN. 547

International trade in corn, including corn meal, 1901-1906—Continued.

IMPORTS.
| Year be-| | a
Country. leinnin aa 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. | 1905.
| | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bvushels. Bushels. | Bushels.

ArNtrian-Hunpary......>------s | Jan. 1| 8,647,130 | 9, 874,971 | 11,130,274 | 14,090, 377 18, 511, 369
BEPECUINES foe Ce oe cecaetacaee | Jan. 1 | 14,954,812 | 14,583,008 | 20,323,863 | 19,474,330 | 24, 169,780
Cape of Good Hope..........-.. | Jan. 1] 2,833,220 | 1,943,896} 3,471,281 | 1,236,927 2,171, 601
RIMES eee cee se an ae | 1} 1,486,138 | 1,150,176 619, 326 696, 517 2988, 039
LL 0) ee 5 ep eer 1 | 11,988, 644 | 12,355,050 | 8,772,022 | 9,284,777 | 10,859,257
ID SeT hs = one a Rane e's 5 1 426, 907 55, 266 142, 537 53,017 | 1,279,749
Lp eee ee 1 | 11,611, 509 8, 674,931 | 11,347,114 | 10,124,353 | 11,121,806
Germany 5 1 | 46,978,877 | 35,454,243 | 37,527,343 | 30,450,853 | 36, 538, 366
. 2) 7.5 aes pe 1 | 9,985,324 | 8,216,902 | 15,092,527 | 8,365,123 5, 904, 844
ET eee ae ears 1 963, 047 142, 102 496, 028 ©476,182 | ¢1,454,327
Netherlands 1 | 18,635,890 | 15,817,237 | 20,160,078 | 16,547,198 16, 234, 785
. DD eee ee 1 743, 642 637, 387 765, 246 555, 991 SAL, 949
Pesto... .....-.-..--- 1 424,416 759, 967 366, 605 531,889 | 2, 607, 130
OLS 1 | 351, 786 135, 822 457,715 625, 526 161, 218
eae eae ee 1 | 2,637,703 993,272 | 1,484,490 | 2,761,426 1,904, 186
eee ne 1| '585,747| 191,958 | '180,357| 234/986 491, 035
Switzerland 1 2,130,011 | 2,404, 644 2, 611, 202 2, 704, 457 2, 498, 380
Transvaal - 1 |41,642,166 | 1,306,038 2) 197,476 1,422,985 | 21,642,166
United Minedomi------------.-- Jan. 1 105,819,438 | 89,371,445 101, 284,919 | 86,076,697 | 84,156,490
0 DS) SR Se eee eee ere ' 6,939,000 | 10, 415, 000 | 18,652,000 | 15,313,000 | 17,852,000

a conan cae et < hae enone 249, 785, 407 (210, 483, 315 257, 091, 403 221,026, 611 241, 088, 477

@ Average, 1901-1904. % Not including free ports. c¢ Preliminary figures. 4 Average, 1902-1904.
Average farm price of corn per bushelin the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by States.

|
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
————E—EE——SSS Sl SSS ESS |

Spa eae Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents. | Cents. | Cents.

OT ee a re 48 50 55 76 74 | 66 | 81 69 | 64
New Hampshire .............- 4 46 49 56 7 7 63 | 72 69 64
2 0 ee a ae 43 } 44 47 ft) 73 68 62 | 73 68 59
Massachusetts-..-........... aol ol as ae 741 66| 721 | @
Hone taland = = 2-25-2252... 54 64 53 7 76 78 81 84 71 64
ODT OT a ee 49 | 52 50 55 75 74 67 73 71 60
Vt). aa 40 | 43 45 47 7 67 60 64 61 59
J ee 38 40 40 45 66 56 57 58 55 53
RPBOLVATIA. . Wo . . 5c cl. 34 40 41 45 62 58 57 59 | 54 52
2 ee ee eee 30 31 34 38 57 49 49 49 | 47 42
. 7 DT ae 30 |, 35 36 41 58 51 51 50 48 45
Virginia... ... — 38 35 38 49 59 52 53 59 53 55
West Virginia. ........... 40 37 45 50 65 | 54 64 | 64 53 55
Worth Carolina ; .....-:..1... 43 43 47 57 7 60 61 62 | 64 68
South Carolina............-.- 49 46 50; 64 84 69 69 70 74 73
LTO Sa a eee. 48 48 50 7 82 73 69 71 | 7 67
2 Re ee 55 50 53 60 85 77 7 75| 66 62
ioe Ci ne ee 25 27 30 34 57 42 47 46 43 39
Lou See eae 21 25 27 32 55 36 | 36 4i'| 38 36
0 LG gS seen [at 25 26 32 57 36 36 39 38 36
| GRE) aes 2 eee 27 34 36 37 52 52 46 52 |} 46 44
- PCT TT ee 25 28 30 33 52 50 43 46 42 41
. TTS pee ee ee 24 24 24 29 45 40 38 36 33 34
OTS See ee 17 23 23 27 52 33 38 33 34 32
_ Tiny ee ee eee 24 27 30 32 67 33 34 44 37 38
Warn Dakota. .2....-. ..cs.-- 32 36 33 42 46 45 42 | 40 36 39
Rerun inkote> o..... =. 225-8 21 23 26 29 45 41 | 35 | 36 31 29
bE eee eee 17 22 23 31 54 30 28 | 33 32 29
Lop iE cae a ae ee 22 26 25 32 63 34 36 | 41 33 32
_ TTEALAT (et a ge See eer 35 27 37 40 61 42 56 | 49 43 42
BRESINIOSBED | os Se. 36 29 39 49 65 47 49 50 50 47 -
BDEIENUIS «oo non Se cme codons 46 41 47 58 77 67 57 | 60 64 64
PSHESITIDI a. 2 coe oP eee 45 39 46 58 74 61 | 54 56 65 61
a 45 41 44| 50 75 66} 58| 57 61 60
_. DD ee ee ee 41 34 36 47 80 | 66 48 52 49 50
2 ULE Nc at 2 a | COS ed eae (aeSmenaee ape ee 76 43 | 39 40 i 32
EEE a re Ge Slee ae 20 26 76 39 38 39 32 30
LS ee rr eae ss 2 40 29 38 43 81 49 51 53 55 47
WPRSTSAISD cca as we os 65 66 52 59 90 72 62 68 68 65
rset on 50 55 42 60 72 59 58 57 ff 59
DIO os = a eee 38 40 43 48 7 59 54 54 47 50
Mepemexibnn 265.8205). cee 58 56 58 64 77 7 75 78 69 72
PAPABDERE Boeck = 52s Sk cx. a cae oe ch es oe SEs 2 90 101 90 91 97 85
Pane heres 5 ely aoe 55 | 60 59 63 9!| 67 7 72 70 74
BRO pet on os ere ea eee oe oo ornare = oes 60 | 62 57 70 66 56
Washington=<---2.22-. see | 55 42 55 59 58 | 65 55 66 60 55
Orerorines. 3-2-2 ice ot | eeea3 60 64 57 57 66 67 61 59 65
Galiiornin © 2-= 2d aR eens ai) DN ee <a 78| 76 67
Seer Tl eh a oe nine Loh

General average-..-..-- 26.3 | 28.7 | 30.3 | 35.7 | 60.5 40.3 | 42.5] 44.1) 41.2 39.9

548 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Wholesale prices of corn per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

New York. | Baltimore. | Cincinnati.| Chicago. |. Detroit. | St. Louis. een
Date. | No.2. Mixed. No. 2. No. 2. No. 2. No. 2. pera
| | a
| Low.|High.| Low. |High.| Low.|High.| Low.| High.| Low. |High.| Low. |High.| Low. High.
1902 Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Ct ax
January ....-- 66 721; 583) 693] 62 683} 56%} 644) 57 673) 59 694/$1. 30 |$1. 45
February....- 663} 712 603] 684| 61 | 643} 568} 613) 59| 62| 582 1.35 | 1.45
March........ 65| 713, 63| 68| 62) 64] 56] 613, 59] 613] 59| 631] 1.35 | 1.42%
Lr 653! 73 | 633| 69] 603] 674] 563] 643] 59%] 6 593} 67 | 1.40 | 1.45
yeas. eon 662, 73 6 70 64 673} 594] 643) 633! 654) 624) 66! 1.55 1.60}
Fuse. Se 683, 713] 674| 72] 633] 663| 61 | 7141 634| 663! 62| 67 | 1.55 | 1.65
Bily ee: c 653} 73| 67| 77{| 634) 69] 56] 88| 66] .67| 61] 66] 1.523) 1.60
August. -..... 633} 693! 59 67 58 64 54 60 66 67 54 614) 1.45 | 1.60
September....| 673] 723! 64| 69] 60] 633 57 | 623/ 553; 59%) 56%] 604/ 1.45 | 1.65 °
October...... 673} 703, 65] 69] 60) 623! 55] 613 574] GO| 56| 584] 1.45 | 1.60
November.... 614; 67 47 68 45 60 523} 58 60 663) 444 49 | 1. 423| 1.60
December....| 57| 64| 438] 554! 44] 50| 433| 573| 664) 703! 403) 493] 1.473] 1.65
1903. ;
January.....- 55 | 68%| 513/ 60] 434] 483) 433] 481) 47| 49!/ 40 1.30 | 1.40
February....- 553} 59 | 523) 55] 46| 48| 4231 45 | 47! 48] 41] 443] 1.30] 1.373
March........ 502} 562) 473| 523) 413] 47] 418) 458] 4031 473, 439 45 | 1.174] 1.35
pre. eo 1) 533} 483] 523) 40| 46| 418) 454! 413| 452] 393] 4231 1,172) 1.272
Maiyaete ss 523} 55 | 51 | 554) 458] 473} 44| 46| 463) 48| 414] 474! 1.173) 1.273
Myxiewes 5... He 56 608, 543 59 483) 54 472, 52 493) 55 48 55 | 1.20 | 1.30
WU Yee oe 562 60 583 61 50 53 49 53 51 554 48 513} 1.25 | 1.572
August......- 581} 603) 58) 60] 523| 543} 503} 53) 543) 554| 48) 514! 1.55 | 1.574
September....| 531} 593} 56| 60| 48] 53| 453| 523] 51] 5 45 1. 473| 1.574
October...... 513 54] 53]. 55| 453) 49] 4331. 46| 472! 514| 412] 45 | 1.30] 1.50
November. 491} 523) 463/543] 454/46 | 412) 442) 463] 483! 414) 434) 1.25 | 1.35
December....| 493| 533| 463] 493! 443} 46 | 41 | 433] 44| 483) 413! 45 | 1.25 | 1.35
1904 No. 3 .
January 513} 56 491; 508) 453! 462) 423) 473) 42 44 433} 454) 1.274) 1.32%
February 53| 63) 4921 5431 453] 473} 46 | 543| 434) 46| 443/ 483! 1.25 | 1.35
March. ....... 5411 57 | 504] 528] 46| 51| 49] 568) 4431 463! 44| 492| 1.30] 1.45
pris -- e 523} 56 | 503| 523! 503! 54] 463] 562 3/513; 48} 514! 1.373] 1.45
Beco mer ota 553) 60 513 54 514} 564] 473) 50 51 523} 48 54 | 1, 423) 1.45
Jue. cee ees 471| 503/503] 533) 48 | 51] 533) 593] 483| 52] 47] 504] 1.40 | 1.47%
Ch ae 53 553/ 503! 53} 48] 533] 474! 50| 49| 513| 483) 523! 1.40 | 1.55
August......- 553} 624) 534 58%} 523] 573! 514] 553) 513! 574, 513] 55 | 1.40 | 1.55
September....| 56% 604] 564, 583) 55] 57| 51] 543] 533) 5431 51 | 54] 1.50] 1.55
October.....- BEM G04. cceea|. sees 553} 59] 50| 573 521 584! 514! 543! 1.40 | 1.55
November....| 542, 69] 53| 55| 563} 583) 50] 582| 473) 60| 483! 57 | 1.373) 1.55
December....; 53 | 543) 493} 523) 453/52) 433] 49) 443) 472) - 42%) 49) 1.25 | 1.55
1905.
January...... 514] 523} 4421 503} 453} 46| 42] 433) 45 433) 45 | 1.25 | 1.55
February..... 51| 543) 44| 503) 46| 4831 423) 454 483} 44| 47 | 1.324) 1.45
March........ 52| 5431 453! 54] 48| 52] 454| 483] 4841 513] 46] 49 | 1.324) 1.40
Aprile le 51 | 523} 48| 523} 473| 503) 46] 493) 493! 50] 464) 493] 1/324) 1.40
ae ee 52| 581| 481} 563] 49 | 543} 48 |. 643] 4931 54] 48| 653 | 1.324! 1.50
isin ap aoe 573| 623} 503] 64| 54] 57] 513| 563} 54| 573} 50%! 56 | 1.40) 1.45
A | eee ee 593; 634) 58 65 57 593} 533) 59 573; 58 51 584) 1. 40 tat
August....... 60 | 623) 56] 633] 54] 5731 53 | 57] 5531 57] 5i%| 548) 1.40] 1.
September....| 59] 61] 56] 63| 543} 563] 513] 543) 544| 55%] 514) 544] 1.324] 1.40
October...... 581} 623} 51| 63] 534| 564! 50] 54%| 554] 59 | 50] 53a} 1.30 | 1.32%
November....| 523] 623} 42| 61] 453| 53 454] 514] 443| 553) 418) 51a) 1.30 if
December....| 503} 534] 42| 513} 443} 47) 42 | 503! 448/453] 415) 463) 1.323) 1.375
1906.
January...... 494; 514) 473} 49%) 44 46 41 43 443 452 41}
February ..... 47 |, 493) 4581 488) 42 443| 413} 454) 43 | 463! 393)
Maren 2... 474} 52 46 493, 43 48 39 44 43} 47 40}
April. - -.| 52 | 564 498] 5431 47] 523! 433! 48] 48h! 52] 4
ay. 553} 58| 55 | 573| 513) 534| 473| 50 | 503 533] 49 |
June. ..| 581 613! 55] 58 | 514| 54] 50| 543] 52] 55] 48
PRS ae es 563] 60 | 553| 573] 534! 553! 493} 583i} 53] 55] 50h
August....... 55 | 58| 544/ 559] 504] 544! 488! 51] 52) 54] 4681
September.... 564 58% 534 543, 48 904 47 50 49 52 46
October...... 544] 56% 51a] 548] 48| “50 | 443] 473) 481) 4 44
November....| 523) 66] 49| 52| 474) 483) 44| 473] 483] 49 41
December....| 5 53 50 514} 43 48 40 46 433) 494) 394
!

STATISTICS OF WHEAT.

+

>

*
id

—

Condition of the corn crop of the United States, monthly, 1892-1906.

Year. | July.| Aug.| Sept.| Oct. Year. aly. Aug. sept, Oct. || Year. | July.| Aug. sept.| Oct.
PCE WP ct. | Pict. iP. ct. Ch E.Cl Crs | Cr: Pret. | Po Cho EV Ct.|-P Cte
Lo 2 81.1 | 82.5 | 79.6 | 79.8 || 1897....| 82.9 | 84.2 | 79.3 | 77.1 || 1902...} 87.5 | 86.5 | 84.3] 79.6
ae 93.2 | 87.0 | 76.7 | 75.1 || 1898....| 90.5 | 87.0 | 84.1 | 82.0 || 1903...| 79.4 | 78.7 | 80.1 80.8
1894... 2. 95.0 | 69.1 | 63.4 | 64.2 || 1899....) 86.5 | 89.9 | 85.2 | 82.7 || 1904...| 86.4 | 87.3 | 84.6] 83.9
1805-.. =. 99.3 |102.5 | 96.4 | 95.5 || 1900... 89.5 7.5 | 80.6 | 78.2 || 1905...| 87.3 | 89.0 | 89.5} 89.2
1896... .. 92.4 | 96.0 | 91.0 | 90.5 || 1901....| 81.3 | 54.0 | 51.7 | 52.1 || 1906...) 87.5 | 88.1 | 90.2] 90.1
| |
WHEAT.
Wheat crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially the crop of the world.] »
Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.
NORTH AMERICA. |
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Muted States... ...........0.2 670,063,000 | 637,822,000 | 552, 400, 000 692, 979, 000 735, 261, 000
Canada:
New Brunswick............ 468, 000 418, 000
J 26, 904, 060 22, 195, 000
a ee 54, 750, 000 57, 519, 000
Saskatchewan.............. 13, 524, 000 26, 930, 000
EL en tite ogee nk se ac 877,000 2,379, 000
QUA: ee 4,000, 000 4,000, 000
Potal Canada... .-......- 100, 523, 000 | 113, 441, 000 132.510, 000
OA ee | 8, 477, 000 | 5,000, 000 5,000, 000
Total North America. .... | 779, 063. 000 | 733, 586,000 | 637,006,000 | 811, 420,000 872,771,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentina a eh ee 56, 380, 000 103,759,000 | 129,672,000 150, 745, 000 134, 931, 000
Oia a a 10, 641, 000 10, 114, 000 17, 948, 000 20,000, 000 15, 800, 000
LUE CoS aes ae 7,604, 000 5, 240, 000 7, 565, OUU 6, 000, 000 4, 606, 000
Total South America...... 74, 625, 000 119,113,000 | 155,185,000 176, 745, 000 155, 337, 000
EUROPE. i,
Austria-Hungary:
JSS eS es eee 49, 655, 000 46, 198, 000 53, 734, 000 54, 531, 000 58, 255, 000
Hungary proper...........- 170, 884,000 | 161,958,000 | 137,078,000 | 157,512,000 197, 408, 000
Croatia-Slavonia........... ~ 12,017,000 14, 664, 000 9,841,000 13, 077, 000 10, 343, 000
Bosnia-Herzegovina.......- 2, 384, 000 3,901, 000 3,753, 000 3,016, 000 , 693, 000
Total Austria-Hungary...| 234,940,000 | 226,721,000 | 204, 406.000 228, 136, 600 268, 699, 000
a ee er 14,521,000 | 12,350,000 13,817,000 | 12,401,000} 13,000, 000
WRteisee geee. ac. eek wk 35, 000, 000 35, 551, 000 42,242,000 40, 736, 000 55, 076, 000
ST Sees ie eee 4.528, 000 4, 461, 000 4, 302, 000 4, 083, 000 4, 400, 000
Repieumithweees | score 79, 000 130, 000 133, 000 130, 000 130, 000
WErRIIROE ce oe et Sts re one 327,841,000 | 364,320,000 | 298,826,000 | 335, 453,000 324, 725, 000
Germany....... SS2ias eet Se. 143, 315, 600 130, 626,000 | 139.803,000 | 133,947,000 144,754, 000
LO NSS ee eee ieee 8, 000, 000 8, 000, 000 , 000, 8, 060, 000 8, 000. 000
COLD LATE Ty Sara eda irae lige aig 136, 210,000 | 184,451,000 | 167,635,000 | 160, 504,000 168, 000, 000
Worisenerre 2k. 22 sek 200, 000 200, 000 200, 200. 000 200, 080
Netherlands 000 4, 258, 000 4, 423, 000 5, 109, 000 4,700, 000
. 000 307, 000 212,000 32, 000 3090, 000
st 8, 000, 000 6, 500, 000 5, 000, 000 8,000, 000
73, 700, 000 53,738,000 | 103,328,000 113, 867, 000

550 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Wheat crop of countries named, 1902-1906—Continued¢

fs

Country. | 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.
EUROPE—Continued
Russia: Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Resis proper..2-----ss-=-- 463,258,000 | 454,596,000 | 519,964,000 | 451,327,000 358, 000, 000
Palsngl o. o2os ee er 349 19, 255, 000 21, 241, 000 20, 239, 000 19,000, 000
77,941, 000 81, 132, 000 $6, 817, 000 73,000, 000
551,792,000 | 622,337,000 450, 000, 000
10, 885, 000 11, 676, 000 13, 211,000
128, 979, 000 95, 377, 000 154, 090, 000
5, 538. 000 5,135, 000 6, 227, 000
4, 000, 000 4, 000, 000 4,000, 000
26, 000, 000 23, 000, 000 22, 000, 000
United Kingdom: =
Great Britain—
me lands i.< 55. nen cons 55, 216, 000 46, 524, 000 35, 624, 000 57, 424, 000 57, 583, 000
Scotiand 2452... ceceee see 1, 856, 000 1, 528, 00C 1, 499, 000 2, 180, 000 2, 063, 000
WW Mes oo. <2. 50 el | 1,391,000 1,093, 000 919, 000 1, 204, 000 1, 308, 000
iirelanid soe eee ee 1, 602, 000 1, 176, 000 | 1,040, 000 1, 430,000. 1, 400, 000
pe | ee
Total United Kingdom...} 60,065,000 | 50,321,000 | 39,082,000} 62,188,000 ; #2, 354, 000
Total Europe......------- 1,796, 254,000 |1, 830, 590,000 |1,744, 844,000 |1, 802, 772, 000 | 1, 325, 733, 000
ASIA.
British India, including native
states where reporting..------ 227, 380, 000 359, 936,000 | 283,063,000 319, 586, 000
Gypensss lee ees 897, 000 2,176, 000 2,000, 000 2,000,

Japanese Empire:
TLS 2Y 4 lee oe Se oe eS 20, 243, 000
OTHIOSH). 6G. se .csvense bees 107, 000

19,754, 000
190, 000

18, 437, 000 18, 000, 000
200. 000 200, 000

18,637,000 | 18,200,000

wy

Total Japanese Empire...! 20,350,600 19, 944, 000
Tet cire 1 ooh Seah Re epee pede Sie 13, 600, 000 16, 000, 000 16, 000, 000
Russia: r
Central Asin. (20.5. .2..c2cne 15, 897,000 25, 491, 000
Ste at) eee oe Se eee Be 30, 796, 000 42, 411, 000
Total Russia (Asiatic)... 67, 902, 0008
Turkey (Asiatic).............-- | 33, 000,000
LOue! ASiM owen .acea cose ee , 9% 475, 468,000 | 420, 602,000 444, 786, 000
AFRICA
ME 2) UE 2 Be SR ee ey Se 20, 000, 0C0 28, 000, 000
Cape of Good Hope............. 2,000, 000 2,000, 000
MPU so ets Boa he cass 12, 000. 000 2, ae
1 GET I at 7 al Se SSR IRN 4,000 4,
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian) ....... 483, 000 400, 000
imieeee. So en ee eo 5,729, 000 4,409,000
Total minGw 2. 2. ec. se 40. 216, 000 46, 813, 000
AUSTRALASIA.
Australia:
Queensland oe «ceased coe 1,746, 000 2,514, 000 2,217, 000 1, 173, 000
New South Wales.......... 15, 275, 000 28, 196, 000 16, 983, 000 21, 391, 000
BMCLOM Cc oe © Senic eral Coe 12, 510, 600 29, 425, 000 21, 666, 000 24, 156, 000
South Australia............ 8, 265, 000 13, 626, 000 12, 454, 000 20, 779, 000
Western Australia.......... 963, 000 , 1,935,000 2,077, 000 2,381, 000
SEA UD aoe acon s ose! 994, 000 92, 000 818, 000 801, 000

Total Australian Com-

monwealth=.......,..... 39, 753, 000 12, 768, 000

76, 488, 000

New Zealand......... wee 4,174,000 | 7,693,000 | 8,140,000} —_—-9, 411, 000 7,013, 000
Tota: Australasia......... 43,927,000 | 20,461,000 | 84,628,000 | 65,626,000 | 77, 694, 000
Grand total .............. [3.090 116, 000 3, 186, 883, 000 '3, 147, 627,000 |3, 317, 381, 000 | 3, 423, 134, 000

i

2 Tneludes government oi Chernomorsk.

STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 5DE

International trade in wheat, 1901-1906.4

EXPORTS. » 4
Country Year be-} 1901 1902 1903 1905
aye ginning— : a 7 a
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

tine Jan. 1 | 33,226,924 | 23,696,306 | 61,778,175 | 84,684,087 | 105, 391, 255
. ORT eee Jan. 1 | 20,260,058 | 8,999,282 | 1,172,838 | 33,071, 653 24) 648, 182
Austria-Hungary..........-...- Jan. « t 781, 810 518, 528 603, 379 117, 282 49, 321
PRINT a hee Os) ote done 1 | 13,167,736 | 12, 467,375 | 11,751, 205 | 14,803,681 | 14, 629, 453
iy ot 1 | 13,773, 674 | 19, 542, 525 | 48, 600, 335 | 80, 475, 855 35, 171, 21
CONS ARS ee ae eee 1} 4,901,652 | 8,624,508 | 12,234,810 | 19, 240,949 16, 542, 61
Ca: Pee cS. Lc eae cl 1 | 26,117, 530 | 32,985,745 | 16,779, 028 14, 700, 315 | 40,399, 402,
0 a). 5) a ee eee ee 1 57, 350 918,661 | 1,979,146} 2,718, 470 294, 201
(oT A Ss a 1} 3,410,976 | 3,019,553 | 6,626, 109 = 864, 229 6, 050, 111
MretHemandg. —... 2:2... 5-2---+-- 1 | 37, 427,119 | 36,979, 823 | 39,740, 530 40; 681, 553 | _ 53,052, 451
PRGUNIAUIAs =... eee eon 1 | 20, 889, 627 33, 750,616 | 30, 611, 933 26, 107, 148 63, 066, 299
oh 2S aa aaah a ee 1 | 83, 408, 574 |111, 977, 478 |153, 448, 855 |169, 058, 193 176, 789, 611
Do Se ne eee 1} 2,186,913] 1, 855, 771 1,841,636 | 3,056, 539 ss 422° 554
United States..... y 1 |154,856, 102 1147 181, 420 | 44,220,169 | 4,394, 402 34, 973, 291
Other countries Pot ee 9,593,611 | 9,054,989 | 4,547,909 | 5,294,121 3, 608, 398

2 CU 5 2 es eee 424,059, 656 /418, 572, 590 /425, 946,057 |504, 268, 487 | 578,098, 363

IMPORTS. x

/

LL TL a a i a | Jan. 1 | 54,934,824 | 57,062,144 | 59, 497,821 | 63,979,307 | 64,789,991
SS) Sn ere | Jan. 1 4 209,246 | 5,501,214 6, 200, 299 cs 112; 13 7, 873, 514
MinnenAe ieee. ae we | Jan. 1] 5,070,715 | 4,329,013 | 3,686,313 | 3,861, 67 3, 447, 368
CLEC" Jan. 2 1, 504 11, 118 3, 759 6, 87: 4,215
Oo tire ke ae Jan. 1 5, 816, 851 | 9,029,614 | 17,365,172 | 7,580,618 6, 713, 342
Germntry bo... 2c eee ioe ove uids Jan. 1 | 78,418, 416 | 76,225,923 | 70,882, 595 | 74,263,743 | 84,054, 403
GREE RST TS eS ee ae Jan:< & 6 389, 060 | 6,275,321 | 6,109,789 | 5,132,775 5, 733, 503
Ll) SS eae Jan. 1 503 | 43,274,048 | 43,115,829 | 29,617,847 | 38,687,589
(6 Ee ae ee Jon, 1 190, 833 192,298 | 2,812, 509 888, 558 9 281; 022
VS OG Jan. 1 | 48,145, 253 | 47,293, 883 49, 668, 874 | 50,510,097 | 61, 992, 589
TR 121 a Jan. 1] 3,392,048 336,955 | 2,748,269 | 3.282908 | 4,672,573

Ren ear osc Sécu cee Jan. 1] 5,273,168 | 2,556,504 | 3,336,229] 8/19 y
ST ee ee ae Jan. 1} 6,321,228 | 7,510,655 | 8,238,201 | 8,082, 561 7, 255, 222
Co ET ees Jan. 1 | 14,253, 502 | 15, 226, 501 | 16, 324, 627 | 17,220,243 | 16,158, 558
United PEREGO: -- 2 -- 2-8. an Jan. 1 |129, 557,082 |150, 893; 534 |164, 206, 362 |181, 984,062 | 181, 579, 837
Other countries................ re 13, 693, 372 15, 741, 532 | 23, 589, 694 | 21, 296, 518 9, 409, 508
oh Se eeaeeenees cette 414,111,705 a, 460,347 |477, 786, 292 |483, 011, 732 | 527, 170, 814

a See ‘‘General note”’ p. 546. b Not including free ports.

International trade in wheat flour, 1901-1906.
. EXPORTS.
Country Year be-] i991 1902 1903 1904 1905
ginning— As 2. : : -
t
3 Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels.

I ae ee Sar gan, 1 806, 959 439, 125 809, 636 1, 206, 896 1, 628, 271
GAUL Pee) = So ce wa Jan. 1; 987, 898 336, 949 62,214 | 1,052, 500 1, 573, 663
Austria-Hungary .............. Jan. 1 978,543 | 1,114,607 | 1,095, 357 859, 446 795, 853
S| e oT ee ee ea Sane Jan. 1 208, 906 316, 272 358, 132 758, 648 $57, 017
Peaitisd indideo- :< =.2.2. 56-20 ve Apr. 1 302, 473 |. 410, 330 463, 098 589, 426 512, 329
PMO ATAY. oo sim So22. 2. seeeeee Jan. 1 146, 246 154, 697 211, 311 232, 315 214, 587
Ritaities 2-2 ce ge ae Jan. 11} 1,086,648 | 1,287,766 | 1,587,600 | 1,321,469! 1,532,014
RS ee 2 Le nn 2 a ee Jan... 2 3,959 27, 827 64, 796 95,099 83, 673
Parianiy? < S225 co tote Se Sean Jan. 1 325, 498 227, 802 295, 698 616, 939 991, 701
MeLiemanas:. 26-42 esas ee Jan. 1 80, 566 82, 218 106, 207 130, 372 199,777
Roumania........... eee! Jan. 1 269, 970 214, 505 277, 557 135, 900 484, 511
REIN ooo aya oe oes eee cena Jan. 1 728, 631 643,285 | 1,025,773 | 1,172, 442 970, 808
ROO eos od Se cee cee ete Jan. I , 849 4, 402 38, 827 9, 286 21,798
Winieuetates. oc coe July 1 | 17,759,203 | 19,716, 484 | 16,999; 432 | 8,826,335 | 13,919,048
Oiherennivips. =. s22....-slccchtues neces 1,105,783 | 1,209,786 | 1,058,533 | 1,258,028} 5, 169, 334

24,454,171 | 18,265,101 | 28,954, 384

@See ‘‘ General note”’ p. 546. > Not including free ports.

552

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Internaticnal trade in wheat flour, 1901-1906—Continued.

1905.

Barrels.

18, ae 085

1905.

Bushels.
112, 718, 476
31, 729, 666

10, 512; 765
53, 951, 447
65,246, 599
181, 158, 247

3, 520, 645
97, 609, 007
26, 870, 401

708, 393, 090

813
5, 935, 769 ~

47, 898, 240
212) 080, 144
26, 287, 282

IMPORTS.
Year be- : |
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. | 1904.
Barrels. Barrels | Barrels. Barrels.
eleram 1552: ee ces Geese sere eee Jans we 232, 909 99, 022 66, 507 40, 255
Birrazilens 5 — tek oe aby eee aoe Jan. 1] 1,592,173 | 1,187,695 | 1,317,531 | 1,474,049
Denmarks! oterew eo: scoee ae Jann ol 350, 992 379, 836 467, 774 416, 460
Minlangeo a mec enh cue Shela Janet 574, 505 670, 193 764, 152 757, 085
SR a6 7 Sse ee 20 ga are Jan. ‘1 282, 625 328, 927 255,777 232, 150
Germany Gaels cc. Ee eC eanr rns Jan. -1 432,713 354, 818 359, 704 260, 600
Greece ae eee. «Fo ace Seis eee Jans oh 23, 088 26, 866 21, 762 16, 584
TREK ots Se ee eee arr ee vane 14, 637 12, 476 13, 085 11, 700
Jiamamibes. Me tes ceric cee Jan. 1 425, 002 496,633 | 1,411,611 | 1,291, 886
Weimaerland ss 20 = fos sneak ae ae Jan. 11] 2,030,724] 1,879,773 | 1,974,151 | 1,868,040
Dale tea coten eae seca hares Jan. 1 33, 930 14,178 6, 062 13, 694
Sweden.) -..2 Ac ceeenetcr seasons ahaa a 86,527 98, 375 93, 494 80, 852
Balt zerland “se cere seen cece s Jan. 1 481, 506 406, 907 379, 004 411, 596
United Kingdom: <2 9-2-2 ac3. 222 Jan. 1 | 12,714,516 | 11,040,771 | 11,754,350 | 8, 384) 319
OTHER COUNUTIES bees cece pee eal Seems 5, 684,613 | 6,170,616 | 7,775,502} 5, 906, 077
NoOtalisces ot vsinanstaca ec | see Baines 24, 960, 460 | 23, 167,086 | 26, 660, 406 | 21,165, 347
a Not including free ports.
International trade in wheat, including flour, 1901-1906 .4
EXPORTS.
Year be- 5
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
|
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Arventilides oo secrete seen Jan. 1 | 36,858,240 | 25,672,368 | 65,421,537 | 90,115,119
Australian ses Me eles Jan. 1 | 24,705,599 | 10,515,552 | 1,452,801 | 37,807,903
Austria-Hungary..........--.-- Jan. 1] 5,185,254| 5,534,270] 5,532,485 | 3,984,789
Beloiimecss cee 5. eae Meee Jan. 1 | 14,107,813 | 13,890,599 | 13,362,799 | 18, 217, 597
Britishindites: 2-25 eee = seen Apr. 1 | 15,134,802 | 21,389,010 | 50,684,276 | 83, 128, 272
BWP Sta ae eee. enn cone eiee Jan. 11] 5,559,759 | 9,320,644 | 13,185,710 200,

Canhiamcetsn: sxc cee cces eee Jan. 1 | 31,007,446 | 38,780,692 | 23,923,228 | 20,646 925
OHMS e eh scoe sa seietes se baces os Jano 75,166 | 1,043,883 | 2,270,728 | 3,146, 416
AS OTT EO sae oak aoe oe tee omer ee Jan. 1) 4,875,717 | 4,044,662 | 7,956,750 | 8,640, 465
Wethenlandsso2.: 22 cecmeeees el: Jan. 1 | 87,789,666 | 37,349,804 | 40,218, 462 | 41,268, 227
UOMMOTIG Seicincc aes a eee ee Jan. 1! 22,104, 492 | 34,715,888 | 31,860,939 | 26,718, 698
FEU IINS Aes see ecco nc sees mere Jan. 1 | 86,687,414 |114,872, 260 |158, 064, 833 |174, 334, 182
(Sten or See ete Se re Jan. 1] 2,226,733 | 1,875,580 | 2,016,358 | 3,098,326
United States......... July 1 234,772,516 |202,905, 598 |120,727,613 | 44,112,910
WPEHEMCOUNUIES sai. oc sae wd aeee nels oeoe Seman 14, 569,635 | 14,499,026 | 9,311,307 | 10,955, 247
COGAN crises sizcadtes ais jooemetaeer |535, 660, 252 |536, 409, 836 |545, 989,826 |586, 461, 444

IMPORTS.
(IBelS UI. se sodas eee a ae Jan. 1 | 55,982,914 | 57,507,743 | 59,797,103 | 64, 160, 455
Brag. seo a eee eee Jan. 1 | 11,374,024 | 10,845,842 | 12,129,189 | 13,745, 350
1| 6,650,179 | 6,038,275 | 5,791,296 | 5,735,740
1 | 2,586,776 | 3,026,986 | 3,442,444 | 3,413,760
1| 7,088,663 | 10,569,786 | 18,516,168 | 8,625, 293
1 | 80,365, 624 | 77,822,604 | 72,501,263 | 75, 436, 443
1} 6,492,956 | 6,396,218 | 6,207,668 | 5,207,403
1 | 38,510, 469 | 43,330,190 | 43,174,711 | 29, 670, 497
1| 2,103,342 | 2,427,146 | 9,164,759 | 6,702,045
} 1 | 57,283, 511 | 55,752,861 | 58,552, 554 | 58,916,277
d 1] 3,393, 200 336,955 | 2,748,269 | 3,282,298
Lf Sa UE ae SUT SE ey ah Jan. 1] 5,425,853 | 2,620,395 3,363,238 | 8, 253, 950
DP WEMOUier neti.) nts ona es wc Jan. 1 6, 710, 600 7, 953,343 | 8,658,924 | 8, 446,395
NWineOblande so... weenie ccs PAD. 16, 420, 279 17, 057, 583 | 18,080,145 | 19,072, 525
Umitedawanesd om... ip eeses Jan. 1 186, 772, 404 |200, 577,004 |217, 100, 937 219, 713, 498
Other RIIUILGA tees aiscicc ciate. | Aeee ear ene 39, 272, 978 | 43, 509, 304 | 58, 579, 453 47, 873, 864
OUaL pais cashes fan costae memctees |526, 433, 772 1545, 712,285 |597, 758, 121 |578, 255, 793

a See ‘‘ General note,’’ p. 546,

b Not including free ports.

*

Pf

608, 787, 697

STATISTICS OF WHEAT. a5

World’s visible supply of wheat, first of each month, for ten years. @

Month. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900. | 1900-1901. | 1901-2.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

~ gke B 88, 378, 000 86,773, 000 140, 299, 000 149, 839, 000 135, 692, 000
PEPIN Se ae ok Soa ew wc eae 77, 590, 000 70, 101, 000 134, 525, 000 150, 193, 000 132, 379, 000
ESE ih ae eee 87,075, 000 66, 511, 000 142, 595, 000 164, 629, 000 141,071,000
7 7 CTE ae ee ee 119, 162, 000 83,090, 000 162,877,000 | 188, 200,000 159, 465, 000
LTT ee ee 139, 321, 000 106, 886, 000 191,189,000 200, 892, 000 169, 854, 000
LiL ST aie eee yee 156, 016, 000 135, 846,000 | 203,477,000 | 203,237,000 202, 108, 000
To ee ee eee 157, 008, 000 147,197,000 | 200,388, 000 200, 534, 000 200, 990, 000
NIENEEREN, oo soe coh n ch os canes 151,717,000 146, 458, 000 190, 535, 000 197, 851, 000 202, 278, 000
[2 SS SS ere 140, 571, 000 151, 124, 000 181, 527,000 192,749, 000 191, 877, 000
ye a ae eee. 132, 037, 000 144, 950, 000 184, 141, 000 187, 817, 000 179, 789, 000
ee ee 111, 233,000 139, 521,000 175, 776, 000 171, 753, 000 155, 486, 000
<) 0. 2 Sa ageeraptase 109, 845,000 | 136,952,000 | 159,405,000 | 152,518,000 | 131,255,000

Month. 1902-3. 1903-4, 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7.

Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels.
95,820,000 | 118,073,000 | 114,302,000 124, 081, 000
87,566,000 | 103,740, 106; S38 0003). 32 seer
96,907,000 | 115, 183, 113,511,000 | 141, 459, 000
132,972,000 | 144, 400, 138, 759, 000 170, 474,000
145,618,000 | 170,240, 7

161,891,000 | 186,891,
167,712,000 178,7
159, 464, 000 171,12
152,035,000 | 165,37
147,859,000 | 155,744,
145, 840, 000 141,734
133, 190, 000 123,770,

15D; 406,000 Fic oa. ocaeee
| "130, 164,000. |-. 525. aoe

@ From Broomhall’s Corn Trade News.

Visible supply of wheat in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.
EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

Month. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. | 1901-2.

Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels

_) DLS ee ee 27,090,000 | 18,069,000 46, 544, 000 59, 063, 000 37, 819, 000
Loli 25S eg a eee 23,793,000 | 11, 430,000 49, 155, 000 60, 398, 000 40, 924, 000
Pemuener.... (2222-22 +. 20,362,000 | 10,499,000 48, 087, 000 69, 003, 000 42,242,000
OT a ee eee 31,508,000 | 22,857,000 60, 040, 000 76, 071, 000 53,790, 000
Mawermper: ... toe: 2: ..--| 42,609,000 | 33,930,000 77,195, 000 82, 238, 000 64, 616, 000
Mareusper: ...-2isgecee 2. 49,859,000 | 45,914, 000 84, 687, 000 89, 591, 000 85, 631, 000
(USS ae 54,173,000 | 51,057,000 89, 252, 000 88, 456, 090 94, 900, 000
CS oe 2 eee 51, 105, 000 51, 648, 000 87, 473, 000 86, 324, 000 88, 800, 000
LTP 10. ee ee Ee See 45,021,000 51, 085, 000 83, 935, 000 79, 300, 000 82,790, 000
RRR DSR Bd 40, 577, 000 51,747,000 77,113, 000 73, 879, 000 73, 576, 000

TS a ee 31, 039, 000 47, 258, 000 70, 764, 000 60, 298, 000 54, 610, 000
pene 5 SUR oe ne mS 27, 479, 000 42,092, 000 57, 617, 000 47, 109, 000 | 37, 676, 000

| | |
Month. ~ 1902-3. 1903-4. 1904-5. | 1905-6. 1906-7
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels.

Up Be ee ert” aS 26, 786, 000 24, 142, 000 21,131, 000 20, 476, 000 33, 810, 000
PAPERS Ss Soau ese ee 31, 436, 000 21, 480, 000 19,508,000 | 21,314, 000 39, 633, 000
NEMBRHIDOr: 2.22. costs cco ee 33, 579, 000 22, 824, 000 20, 905, 000 21, 705, 000 43,611,000
ita bene oo 22. oo 4 oe 44, 217,000 33, 043, 060 29, 230, 000 28, 894, 000 56, 967, 060
ROMBRMNET. 5.5.0.2: 5 Looe 67, 490, 000 49, 269, 000 41, 252, 000 53,745, 000 45, 694, 000
LODE STE Dey aa i ee 78, 352, 000 59, 050, G00 54, 387, 000 62, 402, 000 51, 862, 000
ALE EC Tea Gee me pei ange ee Re 80, 769, 000 55, 961, 000 56, 892, 000 71, 634, 000 56, 137, GOO
OPTPEN eee ee on fee 81, 348, G00 55, 818, 000 , 597, 009 73, 151, 000 54, 344, 000
p ES ISE liege ae ae Oe” ie eee 76, 336, 600 , 459, 000 52, 907, 000 70, 530,000 51,338, 000
wt Els (ON 2) pags ee a 67, 954, 000 49, 639, 000 46, 865, 000 66, 599, 000 49,813,000
(Ch See conn aCe AER eee ae, oie 52, 585, 000 45, 307, 000 40, 158, 000 54, 856, 000 52, 482, 000
eaMe se 8 2: See eee, 36, 040, 000 29, 685, 000 28, 532, 000 405347; 000: |,.'-s2.-5 2 aeeeee

@The figures for stocks east of the Rocky Mountains represent 62 principal points of accumulation,
including Manitoba elevators and stocks afioat on lakes and canals, as reported by Bradstreet’s.

554 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Visible supply of wheat in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten
years—Continued.

PACIFIC COAST.

Month. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

B03 eee Sp oe ee sesae ooce 1, 112, 060 2, 935, 000 3, 409, 000 5, 903, 000- 3, 228, 000
FS, ee Se en ae EEE TTS 2, 247, 000 2, 608, 000 4, 188, 000 5, 770, 000 3, 935, 000
September. -222.- oc ee 4,651, 000 3,065, 000 6, 282, 000 7,483, 000 4, 266, 000:
Oerobenrn os. 2. SSSR ote eee 6, 251, G00 4,671, 060 8, 858, 000 10, 208, 000 6, 235, 000
INGWERMADER.o = oes oess-k oc ps2e 7, 391, 000 5, 621, 000 11, 085, 000 9, 983, 000 7, 262, 000
IGOR GE sof 2a So oe toners 6, 944, 000 6, 269, 060 10, 678, 660 10, 057, 000 7, 378, 000
PRAIAL YE 2 2. on Seen ee ose eee 6, 661, 000 5, 923, 000 9, 022, 000 8, 686, 0600 7, 186, 000
IBGDEUGEY 2) 2. Saseeeeae-ee ose od 5, 318, 000 5, 030, 000 8, 923, 000 8, 717, 000 6, 521, 000
i! i ee RS ee che 4, 424, 000 5, 104, 000 7,814, G00 6, 972, 000 5, 542, 000
POTN a. sce cot eae es ance ate S 3, 466, 000 4, 321, 000 7, 207, 000 6, 325, 000 5, 428, 000
LULA eh as re aOR op GR I eS 3,051, 000 4, 455, 000 7,050, C00 5, 084, 000 3, 685, 000
DUG arcs 2 eo eee ose = = 3, 236, 000 3, 635, 000 6, 866, 000 4, 672, 000 3, 139, 000
Month. 1902-3. 1903-4 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

oe pee ee 2, 725, 000 1, 75, 000 1, 668, 000 839, 000 2, 586, 000
August........-.- 2, 345, 000 1, 400, 000 1, 351, 000 581, 1, 898, 000
September 3, 024, 1, 798, 000 1, 582, 000 1, 130, 000 1, 943, 000
ee Pa eee Ee 4, 737, 000 3, 227, 000 4, 106, 000 3, 156, 3, 431, 000
WaGuier.. ccs. ce8 ee 4, 719, 000 3, 47, 000 3, 874, 000 4, 486, 000 3, 459, 000
Mieeapie hae ee ae 5, 361, 000 3, 591, 000 3, 733, 000 5, 866, 000 2, 689, 000
Tanase 2 ee ee 4,992, 000 3, 282, 000 3, 458, 000 5, 511, 000 2, 647, 000
Bobigny en) k beige Ae cee 4, 373, 000 2, 689, 000 3,051, 000 5, 295, 060 2, 059, 000
Mirra e... South cose. 5. os 3, 435, 000 2, 930, 000 1, 673, 000 4, 898, 000 1, 744, 000
Apr R oo cPa ci eke 3, 810, 000 2, 472, 000 2, 486, 000 4, 621, 000 1, 661, 000
Mey eee teen ee ee 3, 683, 000 2,078, 000 1, 860, 000 3, 917, 000 1,731, 000
Fee, ENE aa ane EE wy 2, 546, 000 2, 078, 000 1, 461, 3, 349, 000 |... seme

Statement showing the amount of wheat in farmers’ hands, the visible supply of the United
States and-Canada, and of the world, on March 1, 1892-1907.

Stocks in Visible supply
Wear farmers’ hands| of the United | Visible supply
3 in United States and of the world.
States.. Canada.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
LUCE ASE ae ee eR near eel eS mem eae hag ey 171, 070, 881 68, 007, 000 181, 400, 000
BRS sae es eee. eS ae at ses oe eee eee 135, 205, 430 110, 693, 000 229, 300, 000
Ry See et eta cin tiers de aoe ee na ane eerie 114, 059, 560 105, 863, 000 222, 400, 000°
RB oe os 2 MRS A ch SLR eens eons o Seeee 74, 999, 790 110, 546, 060 212, 400, 060
RR ee eek SURE Se a oie eh eS ane: eee ee Ree ese , 123, 045, 290 98, 834, 000 0191, 900, 60
ER A eet ee OO eee oe eae cee 88, 149, 072 63, 521, 000 155, 500, 000
1 Soa ey Orde Se ete CaP eee cermeie. oaM Oe Le 121, 320, 500 49, 445, 000 140, 600, C60
1 2 OS eR RO 2 eR OY ne: MoS et 198, 056, 496 56, 189, 600 151, 100, 000
i (| OR SEE A Me Pa es cee eaten ee A mies Ie, 158, 745, 595 91, 749, 090 181, 500, C00:
OY nS SS Oe 2 SM Ss Ee es Se ee eee 128, 098, 074 86, 272, 000 192, 700, 000
eT IE ERO Tis Sy CS rte tr ae omc alors ns OE A SSC 173, 702, 583 88, 332, 000 191, 900, 000
10S: stichose e's n= chee See eohes olan ee ee ee Cees 164, 047, 106 79, 7715 000 163, 700, 600
TOGA 5; stb seater RE ae REE es re pe a ea SN 132, 608, 382 58, 389, 000 152, 000, 600
BOOBS i wonis. do cisoetciaiiters DUR Iee gn eater eich ae 1a ae eee 411, 054, 959 54, 580, 000 165, 400, 600
1 Se ene ES Ca oS SBT RUE, On esky Soho 3 158, 403, 478 75, 428, 000 193, 520, 000
DORs sek 3 <0s esol sat. See ee ee on 2 See ee 206, 641, 798 53, 082, 000 198, 026, GOO

STATISTICS OF WHEAT.

550

Condition of the wheat crop of the United States, monthly, 1888-1907.

Winter wheat. Spring wheat.
Pecom- inter eat pring t
Year. ee When When
2 perk ar April. | May. | June. | July. | har- | June. | July. | August.| har-
ae vested. ; vested.
Pict: Pe Chee ce ee SE OER Re IER aaa alae interna |) Jebtay Pct:

95.9 82.0 73.1 73.3 75.6 77.4 92.8 95.9 87.3 77.2

96. 8 94.0 96.0 93. 1 92.0 89. 4 94. 4 83.3 81.2 83.8
95.3 81.0 80.0 78.1 76. 2 73.5 91.3 94. 4 83.2 79.8

98. 4 96.9 97.9 96.6 96. 2 96. 7 92. 6 94.1 95.5 97.2
85.3 81.2 84.0 88.3 89. 6 87.6 92.3 90.9 87.3 81. 2
87.4 77.4 75.3 75.5 77.7 | 274.0 86. 4 74.1 67.02 5555-5:
91.5 86.7 81.4 83. 2 83.9 | 483.7 88. 0 68. 4 Lay (52 ie eee oe
89.0 81.4] 82.9 (flee 65.8 | @75.4 97.8 | 102.2 iste 1 eee
81.4 rf ea 82.7 77.9 75.6 | 274.6 99.9 93.3 7h: Oe) Peete
99.5 81.4 80. 2 78.5 81.2 | @85.7 89. 6 91. 2 OSs Roeser ae
= ee eee ee 86.7 86.5 90.8 85.7 | 286.7] 100.9 95.0 OG) A Sosa
92.6 77.9 76. 2 67.3 65.6 | @70.9 91.4 91.7 SOM eee ae

97.1 2.1 88.9 82.7 80.8 | 269.6 87.3 55. 2 DOR ees ae
97.1 Oty) seabed 87.8 88.3 | 282.8 92.0 95. 6 BOSS eS acememe

86.7 78. 7 76.4 76.1 77.0 | 280.0 95. 4 92. 4 8907 dsctssmei

99. 7 97.3 92.6 82. 2 78.8 | 474.7 95.9 82.5 Lite IS SSS Sas
86.6 76.5 76.5 Ct se a he eens 93. 4 93. 7 87.5 66. 2
82.9 91.6 92.5 85.5 Ay jel eee 93.7 91.0 89. 2 87.3

94.1 89.1}; 90.9 82.7 ia eae 93. 4 91. 4 86.9 83.4
94.1 89.9 ON Eee) |oeene ies 5 eens fas cerned Meee cro (ts epleie PSremt

@Includes both winter and spring.

‘Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of wheat in the United States, 1866-1906.

Aver-
ae age
eater farm
Year. Acreage. | yield | Production. ee Fan ame
~ pe ec. 1.
wu bush-
acre.
el,
Dec. 1
Acres. Bush. Bushels. | Cents Dollars.
15, 424, 496 9.9 | 151,999,906 | 152.7 | 232, 109, 630
18,321,561 | 11.6] 212,441,400 | 145.2} 308,387,146
18,460,132 | 12.1 | 224,036,600 | 108.5 | 243,032,746
19,181,004] 13.6] 260,146,900 | 76.5] 199,024,996
18,992,591 | 12.4] 235,884,700 | 94.4] 222,766,969
19,943,893 | 11.6 | 230,722,400 | 114.5 | 264,075, 851
20,858,359 | 11.9] 249,997,100 | 111.4] 278,522,068
22,171,676 | 12.7] 281,254,700 | 106.9 | 300,669,528
24,967,027 | 12.3} 308,102,700] 86.3 265,881,167
26,381,512 | 11.1] 292,136,000} 89.5] 261,396,926
27,627,021 | 10.5 | 289,356,500 | 96.3 | - 278,697, 238
-| 26,277,546 | 13.9} 364,194,146 | 105.7 | 385,089, 444
--| 32,108,560 |} 13.1] 420,122,400 | 77.6] 325,814,119
32,545,950 | 13.8 | 448,756,630} 110.8; 497,030, 142
37, 986, 717 13.1 498, 549, 868 95. 1 474, 201, 850
37,709,020} 10.2] 383,280,090 | 119.2 456,880, 427
37,067,194 | 13.6 504,185,470] 88.4] 445,602,125
36, 455,593 | 11.6 | 421,086,160] 91.1] 383,649,272
39, 475,885 | 13.0] 512,765,000] 64.5 330,862,260
34, 189,246 | 10.4] 357,112,000 | 77.1] 275,320, 390
36,806,184 | 12.4} 457,218,000] 68.7 | 314,226,020
37,641,783 | 12.1] 456,329,000] 68.1] 310,612,960
37,336,138 | 11.1] 415,868,000 | 92.6] 385,248,030
38, 123,859 | 12.9 490,560,000} 69.8) 342, 491,707
36,087,154 | 11.1 399,262,000] 83.8] 334,773,678
39,916,897 | 15.3 611,780,000 | 83.9] 513, 472,711
38,554,430 | 13.4] 515,949,000] 62.4] 322,111,881
34, 629,418 | 11.4] 396,131,725 | 53.8] 213,171,381
34, 882, 436 13.2 460, 267, 416 49.1 225, 902, 025
34,047,332 | 13.7 | 467,102,947 | 50.9] 237,938,998
34, 618,646 | 12.4 | 427,684,346 | 72.6] 310,602,539
39, 465,066 | 13.4] 530,149,168 | 80.8] 428,547,121
44, 055, 278 15.3 675, 148, 705 58. 2 392,770, 320
44, 592, 516 12.3 | 547,303, 846 58.4 | 319,545, 259
42,495,385 | 12.3 | 522,229,505 | 61.9] 323,515,177
49,895,514 | 15.0] 748,460,218 | 62.4/| 467,350, 156
46,202,424 | 14.5] 670,063,008 | 63:0] 422,224 117
49, 464,967 | 12.9] 637,821,835] 69.5] 443,024,826
44,074,875 | 12.5 | 552,399,517] 92.4} 510, 489,874
47, 854, 079 14. ~ 692, 979, 489 74.8 518, 372, 727
47,305,829 | 15.5 775,260,970 | 66.7] 490,332,760

Chicago cash price per

bushel.
May of
December. | following
year.
Low. High.| Low. | High.
Cis, | Ciso) CisnaCts-
129 145 185 211
126] 140} 134] 161
80 88 87 96
63 76 79 92
91 98 | 113} 120
107 111 120 143
97 108 112 122
96 | 106| 105) 114
78 83 78 94
82 91 89; 100
104 117 130 172
103 | 108 98} 113
81 84 91 102
122 | 1334] 1123) 119
933} 109%) 101 1128
1242) 129 123 140
914) 94%) 108] 1133
948] 991! 85| 943
694] 763] 853 3
827} 89 7234; 79
75%| 793) 803) 883
753} 794) 813) 892
968} 1053] 774) 954
763; 804) 893! 100
873); 92%] 982) 108
892) 934! 80 85?
693) 73 684} 76}
592) 643} 524) 603
523! 63! 60%] 852
533, 643| 573] 678
748| 933) 6831 97%
92} 109} 117| 185
623; 70 682} 79%
64 693} 638] 67 i
693} 748) 70 75
73 794) 723} 764
713] «773, = 743) = 808)
773| 87 872; 1013)
115 122 893) 1132
82 90 803! 874
72 WOM Oy ee

tC

L.

Domestic
exports, in-
cluding
flour, fiscal
year be-
ginning
July 1.

Bushels.
12, 646,941
25, 284, 803
29,717, 201
53, 900, 780
52, 580, 111
38, 995, 755
52,014,715
91, 510, 398
72,912, 817
74, 750, 682
57, 043, 936
92, 071, 726
150, 502, 506
180, 304, 180
186, 321,514
121, 892, 389
147, 811, 316
111, 534, 182
132, 570, 366
94, 565, 793
153, 804, 969
119, 625, 344
88, 600, 742
109, 430, 467
106, 181, 316
225, 665, 812
191, 912, 635
164, 283, 129
144, 812,718
126, 443, 968
145, 124, 972
217, 306, 005
222, 618, 420
186, 096, 762
215, 990, 073
234, 772,516
202, 905, 598
120, 727, 613
44,112,910
97, 609, 007

556

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of wheat in the United States in 1906, by-
States.

State or Territory.

Crop of 1906.

New Jerseyeejcea-cese-
Pennsylvania

Maryland.....
WATE INI. ec cease =
West Virginia....-.-..-
North Carolina.-.-:-...--
South Carolina. .-.-.-.---

Tndigna S222. 3... baceee
Tlimoiset sce es ese ee
Michigans... i.cs2cc26-4
Wisconsine 2 42225.
Minnesotsen «<2 -cemes
WOW ASee ule cGencesce eee
Missouri
North Dakotas =... =.
South Dakota......-..-
INGDTasSkases ies ses fe et!
Wai Sa Sse ee a cee cece
Kentucky: oe. sce-<e2-
Tennessee... 4 saad s
Alabame. - ssi. 52 esas
Mississippi......------
Texastc:. Sates see:
Indian Territory.....-
Okiahoma:s--eeceese.

Wyoming: eenice-se
Colorado....

Ores t/a 1 1 een Ae a

United States . .-.

Acreage.

806,401
744, 546
384, 241
582) 091
318, 281
316, 107

47, 305, 829

Production.

Bushels.
199,342
30, 952
9, 350, 180
2,033, 002
29, 073, 188
1, 947, 920
12,902, 416
9, 306, 825
4,879, 861
5, 297, 028
2,960, 041
3, 161, 070
43, 202, 100
48, 080, 925
38, 535, 900
13, 644, 960
4, 690, 816
55, 801, 591
9, 212, 218
31, 734, 900
77, 896, 000
41, 955, 400
52, 288, 692
81, 830, 611
11, 542, 598
10, 892, 725
1,085, 029
17, 610
14, 126, 186
2,890, 188
18, 663, 862
1,915, 250
3, 297, 336
871, 102
8, 266, 538
1, 120, 650
391, 658
4, 888, 626
869, 526
8, 231, 631
25, 075, 258
14, 215, 597
26, 883, 662

735, 260, 970

Shipped out
Stock in farmers’ of county
Wishes hands March 1, 1907. where
; grown.

Dollars. Bushels. | Per cent.| Bushels.
201, 335 69,770 35 0
26, 619 9, 595 31 0
7, 667, 148 3, 646, 570 39 2, 898, 556
1, 626, 402 609, 801 30 406, 600
22,095, 623 11, 629, 275 40 7, 268, 297
1, 383, 023 681, 772 35 1,051, 877
9,160, 715 3, 483, 652 27 7,870,474
7, 538, 528 2,978, 184 32 2, 512, 843
3, 952, 687 1, 610, 354 33 683, 181
4,926, 236 1,748, 019 33 370, 792
3, 256, 045 651, 209 22 59, 201
3, 224, 291 727, 046 23 94, 832
30, 673, 491 15, 120, 735 35 22,465, 092
33, 656, 648 12, 501,040 26 25, 002, 081
26, 589, 771 9, 633, 975 25 19, 267, 950
9,824,371 | - 3,820,589 28 4,775, 736
3, 377, 387 1,735, 602 37 422,173
36, 271, 034 16, 740,477 30 39, 619, 130
5, 895, 820 3, 132, 154 34 2, 303, 054
21, 262, 383 7, 299, 027 23 15, 550, 101
49, 074, 480 24, 926,720 32 66, 211, 600
25, 592, 794 12, 167, 066 29 32,725, 212
29, 804, 554 16, 732, 381 32 35, 556, 311
47,461,754 21, 275, 959 26 63, 009, 570
8, 426, 097 2, 308, 520 20 3, 347, 353
8, 496, 326 3, 049, 963 28 3, 049, 963
1,019, 927 217, 006 20 10, 850

15, 321 0 0 07

10, 877, 163 1, 836, 404 13 3, 672, 808
1,791,917 462, 430 16 1,416, 192
10, 265, 124 4, 665, 966 25 12, 318, 149
1,436, 438 497, 965 26 114, 915
2,110, 295 1, 220, 014 37 857, 307
635, 904 348, 441 40 43, 555
5, 373, 250 2,479, 961 30 4,133, 269
930, 140 280, 162 25 44, 826
403, 408 86, 165 22 15, 666
3, 177, 607 1, 955, 450 40 1, 564, 360
739, 097 260, 858 30 34, 781
4,938, 979 2, 634, 122 32 4, 609, 713
15, 546, 660 4,262,794 17 19, 558, 701
9, 443, 222 2,843, 119 20 7, 818, 578
20, 162, 746 4, 301, 386 16 14, 517,177
490, 332,760 | 206, 641,798 28.1 | 427,252,826

Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1 of winter and spring wheat in the
United States in 1906.

Winter wheat.

Spring wheat.

‘S| ld
ov Lo
State or Terri- Be Ko
tory. Acreage. | & 3 1S Raabe | &R
hy 10n. 8 a
|38 se
> al le B
< << &
Acres. | Bu.| Bushels. | Cts
MRP cas papel ates wicl| Crain claleis mers latoetetel| renee a a metettere |e
NVIDIA ONE atta ww eine feiaits vials, avai] Sraie afell Gee pee ete) omer
AWGN ONS. es wold 467,509) 20.0) 9,350,180) 82
New Jersey....... 111,093] 18.3] 2,033,002]. 80
Pennsylvania ....| 1,642,553) 17.7) 29,073,188) 76
Delaware......... 121,745) 16.0) 1,947,920) 71
Maryland........ 806, 401) 16.0) 12,902,416) 71
Virginia .........- 744,546] 12.5} 9,306,825] 81
West Virginia....| 384,241| 12.7] 4,879,861) 81
North Carolina...| 582,091] 9.1) 5,297,028) 93
South Carolina. 318,284) 9.3) 2,960,041) 110
GeOreia «ies ec 316,107) 10.0; 3,161,070) 162
(ON th (ee eee oe 2,117,750} 20. 4| 43,202,100} 71

3] 22,095, 623

He Ba
‘a a 3
oO
Farm me “ Farm
Oo ri =
value, | Acreage. | So apt &R| value,
Dee. 1. a " 18s) Deowl
oO oe.
> p'B
4 4

7, 667, 148
1, 626, 402

1,383,023
9, 160, 715
7, 538, 528
3, 952, 687
4, 926, 236
3, 256, 045
3, 224) 291
30, 673, 491

STATISTICS OF WHEAT.

507

Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1 of winter and spring wheat in the
United States in 1906—Continued.

Winter wheat. Spring wheat.
@ ke E4|
State or Terri- Be F lng Ss
B arm ©| Farm
tory. Acreage. Hs value, | Acreage. | OS Ereae SA value,
et Dee. 1. Sk = |S oS pecsd
og og, on
> > Pe
4 |< rae
|
Acres. | Bu.| Bushels. |Cts.| Dollars. | Acres. | Bu.| Bushels. |Cts.| Dollars.
Turflane. 2.2.2 2,322,750) 20.7; 48,080,925] 70) 33,656,648).......... fae blll ee ets. Al 2 ee
Ub) LOMO AOU LOrol aGsaa0, 000! OO] 26 080 77h e. . <2 es |lcce | oes ccececlececfelee oeeeee
Michigan......... LOH O00 iso lit 1s G44, 080), ca) (OsS24 Sree We Note cos eccc.dl nace | Meo ceee sme
Wisconsin. ....... 62,440) 18.4) 1,148,896) 72 827,205; 225,600; 15.7| 3,541,920) 72) 2,550,182
roel ail Sia Gy" i] PHO 1 ESO SR
LL eee 5, 2.3) 1,464, 5 7, 520, : , 748,
Missouri.......... | 2,144, 250] 14.8) 31,734,900] 67} 21,262,383'... 2... .|.... |e... ee See
Beet Dakota... fea et pie? [oveeeeesese|eeee|eeeeeeenens 5, 992, 000 a3. 77,896, 000 SS Hla nos
GREIMDBIOth)..-:|<2-.5.22-.]-5~-- aoe Oar Pes ee eee , 131,000 13.4! 41,955 1! 25,592, 794
Nebraska......... 2,041,560) 23. 2) 47,364,192) 57) 26,997,589 "335,000| 14.7) 4}924)500| 57| 2) 806, 965
Kansas. ee 5, 131, 800) ab. 3 78,516, 540 58 45, 539, 693 290,708) 11.4) 3,314,071) 58) 1,922,161
Sentueky.......: 18, 624 -1) 11,542,598) 7 , 426, Reet a4 GS a4 Bnoe oa eeeee noch eaaoocesiee
Serinannce ae 871, 418) 12.5) 10,892,725] 78) 8,496,326 .......... | Semele. cade aetevauss|s ae] Sameer wore
Adapama......... 985689) Ss) GO8s; 020) O94" A OIG Gas 2 ee an eee OSE iL eee ee Saas
Mississippi....... 1,761) 10.0) ~ 17,610) 87 1S PS ee Becca eee eee el cre Pere ne Seer ree
RH eK So osss: dl 2287804)" 1. Oh) 145126, 180| "27 NO Sols 0d oss cece see oe eee laser ccenes bere leeetereness
Indian Territory -| 240,849) 12. 0) 2 SOOO) Gel aeRO LIS ann Shee | ae bal eee ete eee 7 Se
Okisnonia........| 1,333,133) 14.0) 18,663,862) 55) 10,265,924 w|i oe occa ccc ws] s rae enn BG ee
AMEANAGS.....=.°- | 177,338) 10.8 1,915,250! 75] 1,436,438 .......... lene ae ae ea Bel Post econse,
Montana......... aaa oe 137,389} 24.0] 3,297,336) 64] 2,110,295
Wyoming........ Peo eet. 30,352) 28.7| 871,102} 73] 635,904
orange 3.0 e5s|-. 3.6 cases 254,355] 32.5) 8, 266,538) 65] 5,373, 250
New Mexico 44,826) 25.0! 1,120,650) 83 930, 140
Tio ee 15,542) 25.2 391, 658) 103) 403, 408
tl he ri ee ies 178, 417| 27.4} 4,888,626] 65| 3,177,607
LUST G | a Ae eR 27,604) 31.5 869,526] 85 739, 097
TMHOS.2 2-520 2,553,386) 169,191) 23.5] 3,975,988) 60) 2,385,593
a 811221797] 66) 5,361,046) 348° 160) 17.5| 0,092,800] 67| "470821176
REPO. des... 2. < : 2 lee, 7 66} 5,361, ; 7.5 , 092, 4,082,1
California. ....... | 1,572,144) 17.1) 26,883,662 75) 20, 162, 746|....-..--- = ig erp es apse RST?
| } |
United States. 29, 599, 961 16. Hai, B88, O04 6x 3 806, 485, O81)17, 705, 88 13. 7/242, 372, 966|63. 5|153, 897, 679
|

Average yield of wheat in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.

Year.

ee | United
treed Russia. | ae Austria. | Hungary. France. ae
/
| | |
(a) Oye (2) (5) | () (2) (2)
12.4 9.0 26. 4 15.9 19. 4 20.0 34.7
13.4 7.3 25.3 13.2 roe 15.1 30.0
15.3 9.8 7.2 18.0 iva 21.1 35.8
12.3 9.1 28. 4 18.9 7.8 Dee 33.8
12.3 8.1 27.9 15.5 16.9 19.2 29.5
15.0 7.9 23.5 16.7 15.1 18.5 31.9
14.5 11.1 30.3 19.0 20.7 20.2 33.9-
12.9 10.6 29.3 17.7 19.0 22.8 31.1
12.5 11.5 29. 4 19.5 16.3 19.3 27.8
14.5 10.2 28.6 19.6 18. 4 20.8 33.9
13.5 9.5 27.6 17.4 17.2 19.8 | 32.2

e Winchester bushels.

|

b Bushels of 60 pounds.

508

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield per acre of wheat in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.

Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.

NES MO Serer. ee ce oe ee 16.5; || 1955. || 22.5 |. 3955 || 23:19) || Bord ue 625.55) S23: 23.0 24.8
New Hampshire.........-.-.- 16:0 | 1920") 17.2) | B603: |. 2.0 Jc seee boa nce8|"og. -oe rr
WGIMOIID, ; sasct aces eee pene 17.0.) .2255.). 22.10) || 2355 | 18.7 | 188}. 209°) 25.1) Deas 22.3
COnneChCHb. Sck- seen eon 20/0] (200) |. TB.) | (2058) |. oats ce ee OE ed
IN Gy On Kee Wen Sa epee 21.4) 2b2' | 18.5.) eT) 18.0 | ESP Sul TS sere 20.0
ING WiJerseyee ee tc Seer 8 18.5 | 17.4) 145) 19.1 | -16.8) 36-0) 140) i823) W164 18.3
PennsylyaMineense see sess cmeee 19ST}. V5 3| 3.6.) | VSS) LT) beet doson|: alee letra Were
i DELIA WATR De acererinccten 2 cent 21.5 |- 13.3] 12.8) 20.3 |) 18:5) M65 | Ora") W4aon eas 16.0
Visine mn Cae ee om ae See 19.2.4 153 941 | WS jy d7.25) D4aTP Ise b Ws.4 | Wess 16.0
VATU ae ess 2 en 12.0] 141 8.4] 11.9] 10.9 5.7 B27 Wah ae 12.5
West/ Virginia: . 2.22... 2-<5-<2 13.4] 13.8 9.3 9.8} 10.9 Tat f BOD) TOS eS 12.7
North Carolina. <2... <<. 2c4nc 8.0 9.2 6.7 9.6 8.7 bes Th 8.6 6.7 9.1
South Carolina 8.7 10.6 6.5 9.0 8.8 5.6 6.5 8.1 6.1 9.3
GQOORSIA Se ceo neiee asim dee es 9.4} 10.0 6.8 9.1 8.2 6.0 6.2 8.8 6.9 10.0
Ohio... 16.9] 16.9] 14.2 6.0) 25.3), Da) Bs7.| acaba 20. 4
Indiana 13.0 | 15.6 9.8 Dio LoKSi W6eO sb SOs 9.2} 18.3 20.7
Illinois... . eae LEO) LOXO | TSsO AEs) eg 8.4] 13.8] 16.0 19.5
Michigan 15.6} 20.8 8.4 Ce) (as Be Ts TN fai Ey rk i 9.8 | 18.5 13.1
Wiseonsin+.5-see- ere cece #25) 18.0) 5) 15.57) S262) TREC e36) 9 15.5 1 eae 16.3
Minnesota). etc eaae 2. oe oe 1304 15.84) 1344) DOa 91200 2320 Paessbs| 1S 8) ete 10.9
1 C072), ae ce Ee 13.0)|- 16.7} 13.0) 15.6] 36:2) P27 e416 | TAs 15.7
INITSS OU ce oe etree sae 9.0 9.8 9.9 | 12.5) 35.9 ts 19:'9 B.7 LT dee 14.8
North Dakota. ...'.--....se52¢ 10.3) 14.4] 12.8 4.9) 33.1} Bo09) gas7 | Dos ase 13.0
SOUGD MD AOLa= = .6n cau ce tees 8.0] 12.4) 10.7 6.9) 12.94 a2) 18 9.6 | Toon 13. 4
INGDISIS KA ee icchac Ponce see 14:5 | 16.4} 4103)) F2.0}) 27.1) 20:9 | abara Tene) pose 22.0
eamagiet Sire ¢ paws ome eone 15.5) 14.2 98| W.7} 185) 10.4) P40) 12.4), dae 15.1
Kentuekyrose ost San ee uses 13.6] 15.4 90 | T3504). el 9.3 8.4) Tes Tis 14.1
SNEMNESSCO = ysicceee eae AIS 2 | S32 8.7 9.9] 10.8 7.2 (ae ||, TSS Tom 12.5
Ala Dane, 322.3 seer ace ee aces 10.0} 12.0 7.6 9.5 8.7 6.0 12 ea Ua a 003) 9.6 11.0
WASSISALP Plo. 2 hace so eseee 10.0} 13.9 ist 9.6 8.8 8.0 8.0 8.8! 10.8 10.0
ORC RISE fe cans RS See ee 15.8] 148] 111) 18.4 8.9 SO taxa 8.9 11.5
PiGiamC DT CrribO Des Sees 2s SSA ee salle ere ae eal oe eee 12.2) 12.3; 12,0) 241 | 1080 12.0
inh Ma ca ccee ees. tee BOO D4s9r T83) | TORO |, 1654 Wh SAkOe Sine 8.2 14.0
ASE SMSBS occas eae eom nie ce, CRON OAL dao) 8.6] LON 8.8 9.1 7.0.) IO 7.9 10.8
WEGIMESTIN, © spe sen emreee 6 «eae BAiOM 20ND} 2oudell 26! 6s) 26.5 | 26.0] 28.2] 23.9] 23.8 24.0
WhyiOmmne seis. Gack Sete ae Soe 25.08) 23.2 1): 18.8 | 27.6). 24:54 23.5 | 209s 235d) aaa 28.7
Goloradoe =e ede one sce 24.0} 26.3) 23.7) 22.6) 241) 28:0} 26.6%) 22.8 | 2508 32.5
NEW MORICO:.2 . cine tosen san. 24.0:| 23.8) 13.3 | 21.0) 2h54 07.0 | 28.4) 128) Spee 25.0
UNIT OTe eee a eres 18.0 | 31.7.) 05.3) 24060) 21.8 jb W821 2558) “Dab aaa 25.2
U2] SOA re ee ee 21.0}, 28:0). 20-7.) 20.9) 20:5} 21.2) 26.)| “26sGql oat 27.4
INCI Sho: Sees ok A es 24:3:{ 29.0.) 180! 245° 25.0) 27.1 | 2736) S05 Bee 31.5
1 iro iso} ./37 38 See oe Se ae 22.0 31.0 24. 2 20.8 212 22.1 21.1 22.9 28. 2 24.4
Washington 2: 0225. tes.22e 3 Pt) 24,2 22.7 Za. 29. 1 22.2 20. 3 22.2 | 24.6 20.8
OPER OT ee a eee ee esa ee 170)| 20-5.) 19.24) 13858) 922 2Ol0N + WSs25| Stos0n ee 20.0
Californians =<, saceekcn essence 10.0 9.1] 141) 10.3) 1305) 10.9)! 21.2) 4008 9.3 Vio
General average.......- 13.45) 15.35] T2385) 12.3) V5.0) S04 Sa 2229")" TaN n aes 15.5

Average value per acre of wheat in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,

State or Territory. | 1897.

NI GEHIO Socios se Sc ee oe $17. 49
New Hampshire x
Vermont 3
Connecticut
Ie ViOTIC. oo Sec.8 chee ome aee “
INGW: JOLSON wos. ueukceke oe 5
PennsylVAMIb..s)os4.20cnoe ee ‘
ID GIR WATOR: . dene. couseeeeeee I
MITT IANO. ..... 2 ccje meee cote - 86
MATSUDA cy. . .'. => seen eee :
WYESE Vineinia:....2 a sees See 11.93
NOTED CATOlNa: .'.\.semeeees ace a 0e
Houth Caroling. ..2c- ecole. 10.27
APO ORE Ae atahe pie tie atetslares eterno 9. 68
COREE Sache nimi TEe Succ done Meee 14. 87
Las W iat: he ae a 2 ee TSG
TMV aXe) Re 7.03
Lb EE hale 2k ee eo o ae 13. 57
WHSCONS Manan. an sa counsel. 10. 50
Minnesota ace thstssscec0 ace cece 10.01
TOW seein ak Geis wht a coon 9.75
MiISSOUT eset wa te eaiaain aro oad 7.65
INOTth Dakotas. aaunte<. - 7.62
South Dakope cir... ceeees: 5.52
10.00

1897-1906, by States.

1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903.
$17.36 |$20.47 |$17.55 |$23.18 |$23.28 ($24.99
17. 88; G34 EB 200) 5 sos e se nel ferent
20.25 | 18.70 | 18.33 | 17.58 | 20.49 | 19.85
DAO? 7.39", ECD | no cen Seem ee acer
15.26 | 14.80 | 13.63 | 10.74 | 18.27 | 14.42
12.70 | 10.88 | 14.13 | 12.10 | 12.16 | 11.48
11.90 | 8.98 | 9.72 | 12.31 | 11.53 | 12.32
9.18 | 8.70 | 14.21 | 13.13 | 12.38 | 7.96
10.71 | 9.59 | 13.84 | 12.21 | 10.58 | 9.88
9.31 | 5.80 | 80571) 97-96.) ASSOu 7. Si
9.80 | 6.60 | 7.55] 8.39) 6.31 | 8.67
7.18) 5.49 | 7.87 | 7.18) 4.88] 4.95
9.96 | 6.44} 9.09 | 8.62] 5.71] 6.56
9.80 | 6.66] 8.64] 7.71] 5.88] 5.95
11.15 | 9.09} 4.26} 10.86 | 12.14 | 10.96
9.83 | 6.27] 3.71 | 11.06 | 10.88 | 7.80
6.60 | 6.30 | 8.32 | 12.14 | 10.56 | 6.30
13.31 | 5.46] 5.24] 7.88) 12,21 | 11.94
10:62 | 9.46 | 9.92) 10.48 | 11.61 | 11.22
8.53 | 7.387 | 6.62 | 7.74] 8.48} 9.04
8.68 | 7.15 | 9.20] 9.75) 6.96) 7.69
5.78 | 6.14] 7.88 | 10.97 | 11.54] 6.18
7.34 | 6.53 | 2.84] 7.07 | 9.22] 8.00
6.20 | 5.385 | 4.00] 6.84] 6.95 | 8.56
7.71! 5.05! 6.3861 9.23 110.23! 8.47

1904. | 1905. | 1906.
$24.23 |$24.38 | $25.05
28.36 | 16.92 | 19.18
12.32 | 18.06 | 16.40
14.63 | 14.43 | 14.64
15.23 | 14.88 | 13.45
16.09 | 11.382 | 11.36
14.20 | 13.37 | 11.36
11.12 | 10.03 | 10.12
11.01 | 10.95 | 10.29
10.23 | 6.83 8. 46
10.21 | 6.77} 10.23
11.09 | 7.38] 10.20
12.65 | 14.02 | 14.48
9.75 | 15.01 | 14.49
13.94 | 12.96 | 13.46
10.58 | 14.61 9. 43
15.18 | 12.65 | 11.73
11.14] 9.44 7.08
10.48 | 10.08 | 10.07
11.23 | 9.80 9.92
9.56 | 9.66 8.19
7.58 | 9.18 8.17
11.83 | 12.81 | 12.54

STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 559

Average value per acre of wheat in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States—Continued.

State or Territory. 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Cet: eee $5.73 | $8.33 |$11.06 | $9.88 | $8.75
WOGIURRAR or mao <= caaangetscene 6.88 | 6.80 | 12.43 | 9.83) 10.29
SPETINIGDRED oo os 0 ous onc elu ete 5.47 | 5.96 | 12.77 | 6.55 9.75
RAR © oo oc oases 5.58 | 8.65 | 11.85 | 9.70] 10.34
DESMAN PT~ =... .- <-~-/5->-/5--" 6.80 | 7.44] 8.89 | 10.26 8.70

ND as ee ee 6.93 | 10.45 | 11.77 | 7.83 8.85"
acini Mermthorye= se S* aon fos ooccs 7.50 | 8.28 | 13-82 | 7.70 7.44
RIAN 5. 555 2 oc ot aoe 6.44 | 9.39! 10.88 | 5.66 7.70
Arkansas....- Rates aaa aoe 5 ee b ; 6.10 | 5.46 | 10.20 | 7.11 8.10
(oo eee i 5 : - 16.12 | 18.61 | 21.28 | 16.90 | 15.36
WEIRTON wate e win scence s : 19.04 | 15.47 | 19.89 | 18.29 | 20.95
CT i r S 5 . 13.50 | 17.56 | 22.75 | 17.50 21.13
Ley Su ard eer : ' : : 14.71 | 13.80 | 13.57 | 19.98 | 20.75
RRRPUIERT Se oie) ore n= one ce eee 19.64 | 23.53 | 28.82 | 26.21 | 25.96

JC 1 eee aa 16.11 | 18.08 | 22.88 | 17.69 | 17.81
TUPI R Be oe ee 25.56 | 27.32 | 24.10 | 20.79 | 26.77
Lil eee eee eee ane . ° a a2. 15.44 | 15.86 | 18.34 | 18.49 14. 66
MRS RINE LOM. wos suisse sso oan Ml 5 s “ 14.44 | 14.04 | 17.77 } 16.13 12.91
PRT eek Ee oa cca e i ; ‘ . 13.37 | 13.98 | 15.37 | 12.68 13.26
JS eee ee ae . : : 8.72 | 9.74] 9.50| 7.63 | 12.82

General average 9.14| 8.96 | 11.58 | 10.83 | 10.37
\

Average farm price of wheat per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by

States.
|
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
WON fais cal icicle aces ect $1.06 /$0.89 |$0.91 leo 90 {$0.97 |$0.92 \s0. 98 ($1.04 {$1.06 | $1.01
New Hampshire.......:.....- 1.10 92 .95 Yh eee! (SS eer (Se ete sl Rae ey. Cees
ERE OMI Se ere a 1.04 -90 85 78 94 | 1.09 95 | L138 90 86
Cannnctinn& 2s... 2.2260. 1.00 . 88 95 Boral aaa sp cates seems de Sew oaaasc eee ee
bt ik | - 90 a2 - 80 AY it) - 82 .7Y -81 | 1.09 - 86 - 82
Te OMG. =~ 5555.0... - 93 «73 <t0 74 Pf . 76 -82 | 1.30 - 88 - 80
Penusyivania........-..-.--- -91 . 68 - 66 ate 12 ALE 79 | 1.08 . 87 76
iS EE -94 . 69 . 68 ma | Patil ae 78 | 1.08 - 82 71
LU 2 a -93 70 . 68 7 = OL BR 79 | 1.06 «82 71
V0 3 ee -92 66 - 69 72 ae: .79 84 | 1.09 . 88 81
Wrest Vireinia......-...-..... . 89 7 71 77 steed . 82 8 | 1.09 . 89 81
North Carolina............- oan Pre -78 82 -82 . 82 .92 OF | E19 | Le -93
South Cazolina................ 1.18 94 99 | 1.01 Osage | TOE. 126) Lie 1.10
MEd ah cam = san sene Soc 1.03 98 98 95 .94 .98 $6. | 1.26 } 1.07 1.02
UL i eee . 88 66 64 71 By sl By Al 80 | 1.10 - 82 Ayal
Indinwme 262.525. «| 289 . 63 . 64 Sih .70 . 68 78 | 1.06 - 82 fi
Ghimaigsts <2 5 2 =|), 18e . 60 - 63 . 64 . 69 . 59 75 | 1.01 81 . 69
Michigan... ... Be are . 64 -65 . 69 ay | . 69 77 | 1.08 .79 waa
Wisconsin... atacl. 4.84 - 59 . 61 . 64 . 65 . 64 72 -98 . 76 72
MERUPSOGR, aio cc ictas ee Ane< cack. ai} .54 a05 - 63 . 60 . 61 69 -87 71 - 65
LL ae Se = — a a te age 55 59 . 60 Bras) 62 - 90 ar Al . 64
UES a eee cee ee . 85 - 59 62 63 . 69 - 58 71 -96 3.79 . 67
Merth Wrdrete. 2058S _ .74 -51 ool - 58 . 54 58 63 8 . 69 . 63
South Dakotas c.f. 5... - . 69 - 50 . 50 58 203 By f 62 -79 . 67 61
iL ol Seo) a ae . 69 -47 - 49 ~5o 54 - 49 54 . 87 . 66 On
iperisen ae. 3.4 eee. .74 - 50 «52 05 59 - 09 59 . 89 Bi fl 58
ROMERO oe oa on a anit oe Sass . 89 - 62 . 66 69 172 .74 -81 | 1.09 87 te
SDOMMGSSOG 25.2826 Ske be 8c -95 . 67 -78 79 74 . 76 o£. i Ue 91 18
(UCU OC Ti a ne aed 1.01 .90 89 89 88 -93 Somes. peor -94
LASS ES 0] 0) Le ue -99 - 83 78 84 86 85 -93 | 1.01 -95 Biv
To TS eg See eee eae se . 89 - 68 . 68 64 -78 Bit okey pO - 88 Sts
ieee MOT RnONy .. oc: 6 Se SS aera: mes do 69 . 61 . 69 -98 ali . 62
MEMOS 25 2c2- 5 .< oboe -76 82 <53 ao - 63 . 58 63 -93 . 69 oe
AUEANI SIS saa cia oc's cscs as = ee . 84 - 58 64 - 65 78 . 67 78 | 1.01 . 90 ate
LCS oo - 68 .58 61 61 67 - 62 66 . 89 my . 64
Vi BLN a eae e - 70 . 69 67 76 . 69 81 74 - 90 By aye
(Or a ele -70 - 56 57 59 .67 ao 66 -91 -70 . 65
INES? ES 7 rr «05 -62 61 68 AY . 86 Ton) 206 . 90 - 83
LS re re .74 - 92 64 79 . 85 1.05 93 vat Lae 1.03
ppetternee 5 es 5 en ee - 68 - 54 53 55 70 . 76 . 80 . 86 . 67 . 65
Nein es Se ee - 90 95 76 -70 . 88 .98 .99 . 92 ae ~ 85
iy i co ee ee he tse ew 4, .51 . 50 . 46 . 61 .70 75 . 80 . 66 co
BVAShing tom. 0 4-2 2-7 eeeee - 68 54 -51 ol 47 65 . 69 . 80 65 62
ONEROUS ones eee a ose ee 12 - 62 .53 355) 54 67 Sau 81 68 66
Califormige- ise ot ee - 83 | «12 . 62 - 58 . 60 80 . 87 . 88 82 75

560

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Wholesale prices of wheat per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1901-1906.

Date.

1901.

1902.

August
October

July....
August

September....

October

1904.

August
October

November....
December ....

August =<.2225
September. ...
October... 535. >
November. ..-
December ....

November...
December . . .

September. %E
November. €
December ....

New York. | Baltimore. | Chicago. Detroit. | St. Louis. | aT
|
No. 2, red | Southern, |No.1,north- Woyol abd No. 2, red ‘No.1, north-
winter. | No. 2, red. | ern spring. AEE 3 winter. ern.
: =
Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.
$0. 794/30. 834/$0. 733/30. 78 |$0. 713|$0. 763/30. 78 |$0.823/$0.72 |$0.77 |$0.73 |$0.77%
-793| .813! .76 | .783| .724| .743) .784| 803) .733) .753) .73 | .742
-803} .824| .773)| .81j .732| .763) .783| .80| .7 -754| .73 | .748
784} .843| .763/ .814] .693| .742] .74| .78| .71] .763| .702) .744
-813| .842) .78%) .804) .70 753] .743| .774) .733| .76 | .70%) .744
753, .854| .72 | .793! .653] .773| .673| .774| .634| .753| .622| .743
-723| .793| .693) .75%| .634| .712| .664) .74 | .614) .703| .604) .69%
-76 | .803} .72 | .78| .662) .77 | .684) .764| .663) .73%) .66| .714
.753| .773| .78%| .75%| .684| .71 | ~704) .733) .703) .724| .663) .692
.748| .808! .703| .75| .663| .713| .70| .74 | .704| .734| .66| .6
- 803} .834] .744) .78) .70 | .732) .73 | .793) .723! .80|] .683] .71
. 843) .893| .784 53) -73 793) .79 } .903| .81 |} .8RS! .713). 277
-853| .944! .813) .874| .74 | .804| .86| .934)--.863; .923] .738| .794
.85$| .934] .80] .858| .72%) .764| .844! .874) .832|) /89 | .724) .752
.82 |} .902} .76| .85 | .693) .76 | .774| .853) .76%| .863) .703| .754
-82 | .923| .75 | .854) .70| .763| .774| .874) .774| .833| .708| .773
-884| .933} .81 | .874| .723| .763) .80]| .88]| .763| .844| .74| .78
-872| .933} .76 | .83 | .714| .753| .79| .814) .76} .80| .732) 77
. 763 924 LOS) SLES otis) OP SQ. S20) 2 Gbal wee, -763| . 803
742] ..783| .664) .741) .684) .76 | .684] .73 | .63| .683| .743) .793
WBA cd, | GS. 2e 2 704| 2205 703| .74] .66| .684| .663|) .713
734) --79 | .69} 2753) .674] 753] .72 | ©2762} .673| 720: 2680) (ose
76| .79%| .713| .773| .69%| .772| .754| .803| .69| .71| .713| .743
763} .808) .713| .77| .71g| .773| .773| .83| .69| .743| .723| 74%
}
|
- 784} .848) .772! .83 | .703| .794| .773| .833) .734) .763) 73k) . 78%
=819|" .84] 801 .8L |... 732h0 808 2794 S81 |. Bab. eae 7a ee
.783| 833] .773| 81 | .703| .753| .744| .79| .70| .75a| .748 ee
-79 | .864| .784). .83| .718] .79 | .753| .773| .693| .738| .74%| .77
-81$] .898) .79 | .824| .743). .808) .76 | .794) .72] .764| .76| .802
-85 | .87 | .784| .82| .744] -.85g| .773) .82] .76]| .83%} .793) .88%
-803} .893) .763} .81 | .75] .84] .763| .80] .774] .82} .833) .892
- 833] .89%) .79 |. .834| .773! .90%) .784) .84] .794) .85] .833) 1.00
813] .894| .783] .834| .793) .93| .79| .843] .84] .88] .82] .912
- 82 - ool -803| .86 763) .88 -823| .874| .85 .89 -783) .86
833/923) .824| .87) .753| .864) .84] .90] .854] .903! .77%] 82K
- 893} .992| .853| .883] .773] .87] .893] .94] .90] .94] .803] .83%
.923| 1.01 | .883] .94] .813} .93%) .92 | .954%) .8904) .97 | .843| .912
94 | 1.15 -94 | 1.12 -86 | 1.10 -944) 1.12 -94 | 1.12 -90 | 1.05
1.01 | 1.11 | .99 | 1.053] .883} .982) .973] 1.044) .98 | 1.083] . .944) 1.014
1.04 | 1.103) .984/ 1.05 | .853} .964; .98 | 1.05 | .97] 1.08] .903) .983
1.06 | 1.20} .994) 1.08 | .873] 1.014] 1.023] 1.124) .98] 1.10] .933 ‘o
1.04 | 1.153} .82 | 1.033] .92 | 1.00 | 1.01 | 1.13 | 1.00 | 1.103} .933) .97
1.00 | 1.16 82 -89 - 944) 1 064) .97 | 1.07 $91) tl2 - 942) 1.02
1.00 | 1.203} .883} 1.093) 1.02 | 1.20] .98] 1.16] .91 | 1.144] 1.034) 1.24%)
1.08 | 1.253) 1.034] 1.14 | 1.16 | 1.22 | 1.114] 1.23 | 1.084] 1.21 | 1.12 | 1.24%
1.133} 1.264] 1.13 | 1.183] 1.15 | 1.22 | 1.16 | 1.21 | 1.134) 1.21 O6e 1,22
1.173} 1.25%) 1.083] 1.153] 1.15 | 1.20 | 1.16 | 1.22 | 1.124) 1.18 | 1.06 cid
1.16 | 1.244] 1.082) 1.15 | 1.15 | 1.22 | 1.15 | 1.20 | 1.13 | 1.18}, 1.063) 1.14
1.18%] 1.253) 1.013) 1.193] 1.18 | 1.21 | 1.19 | 1.233] 1.14 | 1.20 | 1.08%) 1.134
1.204) 1.254) 1.014] 1.174] 1.15 | 1.24 |.1.173] 1.24 | 1.163} 1.193) 1.073) 1.123
1.144] 1.213) .98 | 1.144] 1.12 | 1.183] 1.074] 1.21 | 1.114] 1.17 | 1.05 | 1.11%
-914] 1.15 | .83 | 1.094} .88%) 1.18] .96 | 1.073} .98} 1.12] .918) 1.08%
- 914} 1.114] .834) 1.073] .894) 1.133] .97 | 1.08 -95 | 1.134) .95§) 1.24%
1.033) 1.143) .73 | 1.033} 1.073] 1.20 | 1.00 | 1.09 | .92 | 1.06 | 1.04 | 1.093
-90 | 1.093} .75 | .92] 1.12] 1.20] .86] 1.05 | .834) .954) 1.013) 1.094
.843) .912| .76 | .843/ 1.03] 1.15] .81] .84] .823] .88] .83%| 1.11
-858| .918) .759) .843] .88] .95 | .823) .853] .82] .90 7 -80
881, .99 | .763| .863! .86] .923] .80-| .908| .88] .95] .78 87}
-90 | .983} .76 | .853! .85]} .92]) .873} .908! .89] .95] .79]| .848
-9231 1.01 | .78| .87 | .8231 .90! .86] .89! .9231 1.01) .77Z! .81¥

San Fran-
cisco.

No.1, Cali-
fornia
(per ewt.).

Low.|High.

$0.973)$1. 014
“195 |. .9

~

fh bet hed et ea pet et
| Ot top eo

Mea S ee

~
i}
od

SesseuRe

36

oe te

Fee bt bt ek pd et fet et et het
Sor WRRQRatis is

SaaS

eee al

Pt hk pk ek et Rt ek ek et
CUS SS es paiwen syst x

S&

5

Beseensess

ae}
Po
oo
ahead

Pe et et
aa On et eene aT We oe
Hee P Hee
wos

RSSSSSSRRSSR FRSA SSNSRS

1.45 | 1.52}
1.50] 1.55,
1.50 | 1.55
1.45 | 1.55
1.45 | 1.55
1.50 | 1.55
1.50 | 1.55
1.45 | 1.55
1.40 | 1.55
1.40 | 1.45
1.40 | 1.45
1.35 | 1.45

STATISTICS OF OATS.

561

Wholesale prices of wheat per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1901-1906—

Continued.
. 3 : 2 Minnea; San Fran-
New York.} Baltimore.| Chicago. | Defroit. | St. Louis. ee pas
Date. No. 2, red | Southern, No.1, north- No.2, red. | No: 2, red |No.1,north- sl
winter. | No. 2, red. | ern spring. winter. ern. (per ewt.).
Low.|High. Low. ‘High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High.| Low High.
1906.
January .....- 894} .97 | .84] .863] .813) .854) .85
February ...-. .902) .964] .844) . 863) .794) .834| .84
March........ .85 | .8931 .81| .843] .7441 .798 .81
ee... - -884] .9231 .83| .883] .773] .83| .854
ys. 2S: ... -93 | .95 | .863/ .894) .803) .874) .89}
JHBGs. 5. -<c-<% -91Z; .97 | .873) .91 ~818) .859) .86
Se 255... 81 | .928) .753] 1813] .758| .84| .743
August....... 773) 818] 271 | .75-|° 27381 77%). 724
September....| .77 | .81] .68 ae oT ae 72
October...... 18h] 833] .74.| 2758] o.71 | 0.733) .7
November....| .903] .843] .733] .754| @.71§| @.74)) .774
December ....| .80}} .83 | .738! .75 | @.7281 4.75 | .763
aNo. 2, red.
OATS.
= .
at crop of countries name 2- ¢
Oat crop t d, 1902-1906
ubstantially the crop of the world.
[Substantially th fth 1d]
Country. | i902. | 1908. 1904. 1905. 1906.
TS
NORTH AMERICA. |
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
VOcinir ogi) 00:7 2c ea ee ro a 987,843,000 | 784,094,000 I 894, 596,000 | 953,216,000 964, 905. 00@
Canada: fe
5, 481, 000 5, 974, 000 5, 316, 000 5, 659, 000 5, 875, v00
109,786,000 | 113,337,000 | 105,393,000} 108,890,000 111) 756, 000
35, 565, 000 34, 077,000 37, 434, 000 46,917,000 52, 291,000
7,196, 000 9, 453, 000 11, 095, 000 19, 819, 000 24° 721,006
3, 896, 000 5, 351, 000 5, 786, 000 9,814, 0co 14, 209, 006
43, 000, 000 43, 000, 000 43,000, 000 43, 000, 000 43, 000, 006
Total Canada............. 204,924,000 | 211,192,000 208,024,000 | 234,099,000 | 251,852,000
ee er 13,000 000 | 13,000 | 18, 000 17,000 17, 000
Total North America... _- 1, 192,780, 000 000 | 995, 299, 000 |1, 102, 638, 000 |1, 187,332,000 | 1,216, 774,000
EUROPE. eu
Austria-Hungary: |
MRBHGEIR son 2- Shae... : . GaS: 125, 473,000 | 128,330,000 | 109,611,000 | 123,880,000 154, 551, 000
Hungary proper............ 82, 807, 000 87,334, 000 62,775, 000 78, 009, 000 87,733, 006
Croatia-Slavonia..........- 6, 301, 000 cs 330, 000 4, 907, 000 6,075, 000 6, 200, 000
Bosnia-Herzegovina........ 3.001, 000 5, 612,000 a $29,000 2,935, 000 2 836, 006
Total Austria-Hungary...) 217,582,000 228, 606,000 | 181, 122, 000 | 210,899,000 | 252,320,000
ls SR ee Anemone Ser 45,588,000 | 48,345,000 | 37,499,000 | 33,786,000 | 40,000,000
iol ee eae ee 16,000, 000 11, 389, 000 11, 175,000 10, 263, 000 18, 793, 008
Denmark Rare ane ey Rte 40, 822,000 41,176,000 38, 183, 000 32, 659, 000 38, 000, CO@
LOT US De ee 15, 190, 060 17, 046, 000 16,995, 000 15, 000, 000 16, 000, 606
UTS eS eee ee 276,948,000 | 300,366,000 | 257,811,000 269, 581, 000 258, 454, 000
St | eS | ess | es | Ss ee
Y ---------------------------- ) ? ? 2 , 08
oS ae Er pe pepe a
Roumania...222222222.2...21.1.] 21,905,000 | 33,108,000 | 12,608,000 | 18,974,000 | 26, 165, 000
Russia: : 4
fos ee ee "ez 167,000 | segae'oun |? ae ae ono | ecessious | astase oon
NOC ee ee ee ; : 933, , 424,
Northern Caucasia.......-.- 16,112,000 | 18,939,000 | 14,593,000 | 22, 228" 000 21,68. 008
887,167,000 | 728,089,000 4, 065, O88, Oo | 851,711,000 633. 265, 006

Total Russia (European).

562

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Oat crop of countries named, 1902-1906—Continued.

EUROPE—continued.

Spain

United Kingdom:
Great Britain—
England
Seotland
Wales
Ireland

Total United Kingdom...
Total Europe

ASIA.

Russia.
Central Asia
Siberia

Total Russia (Asiatic) -...

Total Asia

AFRICA.

NP CTIA Oo. <cicisemaste ns one ee eee
Cape of Good Hope

AUSTRALASIA.

Australia:
@ncenslsind see os. acco 5 aaee
New South Wales
Victoria

Mmnania. See oe... ceed
Total Australian Com-
monwealth

New Zealand

Total Australasia

Grand total

1902.

Bushels.
4,044, 000

23,349, 000

57, 323,000

89, 809, 000
36, 760,000

7,924,000
65,570,000

200, 063, 000
2, 353, 348, 000

1904.

Bushels. Bushels.

4,398, 000 3, 167, 000
22, 942,000 18, 500, 000
59,641,000 | 51,578,000
85, 400,000 | 86,728,000
36, 379, 000 37,034, 000

, 832, 009 7, 661,000
58, 816, 000

187, 427, 000
2, 270, 168, 000

60, 142) 000
191, 565, 000

2, 402, 661,000

417,000

1905. 1906.

Bushels. Bushels.
3, 549, 000 4, 642,000
22, 305, 000 45, 632, 000
, 488, 000 68, 631, 000
76, 453, 000 84, 102, 000
36, 350, 000 35, 107, 060
7, 264, 000 8, 063, 000
60,754, 000 60, 600, 060
180,861,000 | 187,272,000

2,201, 006,000 | 2,214,049, 600

236, 000 481,000 | 400, 000 400, 000
9,433,000 | 11,342,000} 8,014,000 | 14,279, 000 9, 806, 000
34,078,000 | 60,352,000 | 51,101,000 | 70,672,000} 69,872, 000
43,511,000 | 71,694,000 | 59,115,000} 84,951,000} — 79,678,000
43,747,000 | 72,175,000 | 59,532,000 | 85,351,000 | 80,078,000
8,732,000 | 7,976,000} 6,631,000 | 6, 000, 000 8,000,000
1,750,000 | 27503,0c0| 2,000,000] 2,000,000 2) 060, 660
9,000 6,000 43,000 9,000 9,000
324,000} 1,631,000 | 4,635,000 | —-2, 082000 2,411,000
10,315,000 | 12,116,000 | 13,309,000 | 10,041,000} — 12,420,000
| a

44, 000 1,000 73,000 16,000 6,000

709, 000 363,000} —_ 1,292/000 673,000 911,000
6,937,000 | 4,542/000 | 13,858,000] 6,353,000 7, 460,000
484,000 640, 000 931, 000 573, 000 897,000
164, 000 173,000 267, 000 233, 000 293, 000
1,756,000} 1,803,000} 1,673,000} 1,216, 000 1,238,000
10,094,000} 7,527,000} 18,094,000 | 9,0¢4,000| — 10,805, 000
15,519,000 | 22,452,000 | 15,583,000 | 15,012,000| 18, 108,000
25,613,000 | 29,979,000 | 33,677,000 | 24,076,000 | 23,913,000
3, 626, 303, 000 |3, 379,737, 000 |3, 611, 817, 000 |3, 507,806,000 | 3, 547, 234, 000

Visible supply of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.

Month. 1897-98.
Bushels.
DULY swoon ss 20s cee eee eee 12, 912, 000
RUST ers os adh Sheed eeeen cere 9, 604, 000
SBptember .. stock eee coce 13, 784, 000
OetOper: . <2 ossh assem eee ee 15, 573, 000
INOVEIRbOD. . 2.00 2. Sc chee tou 20, 096, 000
[Oo lin], oe ee, Sir al 19, 768, 000
DMEM CES ons wa cot euthven tee 16, 148, 000
Pee orchn Sp cone cee wcita' sane '20, 245, 000
RURCUNGED Wrens crypt cai chowa hae acne 17, 925, 000
Foc Bec ccteie oR eae ee 15, 609, 000
1 CARE hoe ics 50 oe ea eCS EE Ere 14, 402, 000
Bo. (ey See ee ee 10, 421, 000

1898-99. 1899-1800.
Bushels. Bushels.
8,716,000 | 10, 262, 000
4, 971, 000 6, 885, 000
7, 360, C00 10, 973, 0CO
9,286,000 | 13, 127,000
11, 352, 000 13, 254, 000
9, 460, 000 11, 789, 0GO
10,893,000 | 12,004,000
18, 231, 000 11, 876, 000
14,782,000 | 12, 449, 000
15, 725, 000 14, t76, 000
13,971,000 | 13, 845,000
13,661,000 | 12, 301, 000

1900-1901. 1901-2.
Bushels. Bushels.
12, 716, 000 15, 275, 000

9, 364, 000 7 808,
13, 853, 000 10, 603, 000
17, 140, 000 14, 445, 000
, 528, 12, 899, 000
18, 136, 000 10, 109, 000
15, 861, 000 8, 680, 000
16, 175, 000 8, 537, 000
16, 800, 000 8, 207, 000
15, 823, 000 6, 606, 0009,
16, 824, 000 5, 010, 000
14, 989, 000 4, 571,000

a These figures represent stocks avai
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba e

Bradstreet’s.

lable at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
levators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by

STATISTICS OF OATS.

563

Visible supply of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years—

Continued.
1903-4. 1504-5. 1905-6. 1906-7.
Bushels Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
6, 686, 000 6,766,000 | 11,174,000 10, 020, 000
8, 623, 000 4,044, 000 8, 007, 000 7, 607, 000
11, 714, 000 19, 607, 000 20, 597, 000 13, 241, 000
10,876,000 | 31,553,000 | 28,018, 000 15, 969, 000
13, 332, 000 33, 693, 000 37, 526, 000 17, 275, 000
13, 995, 000 34, 103, 000 40, 206, 000. 20, 011, 000
13,785,000 | 31,343,000] 39,301,000 19, 766, 000
14, 774, 000 26, 095, 000 35, 791, 000 18, 034, 000
15, 241, 000 22, 570, 000 31, 726, 000 15, 664, 000
15, 377, 000 22, 667, 000 28, 006, 000 14, 435, 000
12, 955, 000 19, 395, 000 22, 033, 000. 14, 815, 000
8,296,000 | 11,325,000] 12,785,000 |...........-..
Condition of the oat crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1906. .
Hi u H
o oO (>)
¥y ¢|\alz | eB iy. il gl
rear. 2 a a ear.
| 2 SESE Bel sea e: a/ehet
Blois | 8 S/3)58 | & Ee cn
5 = Ss, a cy 5 <4 na 5 5 < n
| ee |
|
rah. Ect... ch. | cb. PVC Ps Cheese Che pe. Ct. IP ebs WOE Cle |p CLs) | Pas Cke
1889..../ 93.8 | 94.1 | 92.3 | 90.0 |] 1895....) 84.3 | 83.2 | 84.5 | 86.0 |] 1901....| 85.3 | 83.7 | 73.6 | 72.1
1890....| 89.8 | 81.6 | 70.1 | 64.4-]| 1896....] 98.8 | 96.3 | 77.3 | 74.0 |] 1902....| 90.6 | 92.1 | 89.4 87.2
1891....| 85.1 | 87.6 | 89.5 | 90:7 || 1897....| 89.0 | 87.5 | 86.0 | 84.6 || 1903....! 85.5 | 84.3 | 79.5 | 75.7
1892....| 88.5 | 87.2 | 86.2 | 78.9 || 1898....| 98.0 | 92.8 | 84.2 | 79.0 || 1904....| 89.2 | 89.8 | 86.6 | 85.6
1893....| 88.9 | 88.8 | 78.3 | 74.9 || 1899....| 88.7 | 90.0 | 90.8 | 87.2 || 1905....) 92.9 | 92.1 | 90.8 | 90.3
1894....] 87.0 | 77.7 | 76.5 | 77.8 || 1900....| 91.7 | 85.5 | 85.0 | 82.9 || 1906. 85.9 | 84.0 | 82.8] 81.9
Acreage, production, value, prices, cxports, etc., of oats of the United States, 1866-1906.
Av- Chicago cash price per | Domestic
: erage bushel, No. 2. exports, pe
aes Prod farm Farm M f inc nding Geek
: roduc- | price ay 0 oatmeal,
Year. | Acreage. i: tion. per Se December. } following | fiscal | ,oah
an bush- ee year. year be- a
: el, pees Se ST ginning Falyt 3
Dee.1 Low.|High.| Low. |High.| July 1.
Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. Cts. | Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels.
tS 8,864,219} 30.2) 268,141,077; 35.1) 94,057,945} 36 43 59 78 825,895] 778,198
CC: 10,746,416) 25.9] 278,698,000} 44.5) 123,902,556) 52 Life | ate eel (Ree ee 122,554) 780,798
1868... 9,665,736) 26.4) 254,960,800) 41.7) 106,355,976] 43 493} 563) 62 481,871) 326,659
1869_.... 9,461,441) 30.5) 288,334,000] 38.0} 109,521,734) 40 | 443) 463) 533] 121, 517/2,266,785
7 8,792,395] 28.1) 247,277,400| 39.0) 96,443,637] 373 41 474) 51 147,572) 599,514
i ee , 365,809! 30. 6} 255,743,000) 36.2) 92,591,359/ 309] 331] 343! 423) 262,975] 535,250
tie 9,000,769) 30.2) 271,747,000) 29.9) 81,303,518} 234! 253! 30 34 714,072} 225,555
1873 .-=....= 9,751,700) 27.7} 270,340,000) 34.6) 93,474,161) 34 403; 44 483 812,873} 191,802
1874... 10,897,412} 22.1) 240,369,000] 47.1) 113,133,934) 513) 544| 573/ 643| — 504,770/1,500,040
19756 11,915,075] 29.7] 354,317,500] 32.0) 113,441,491} 294 304/ 288) 314) 1,466,228] 191,547
1876... .. 13,358,908] 24.0) 320,884,000} 32.4) 103,844,896) 313) 343| 371 453| 2,854,128} 41,597
Lh 12,826,148) 31.7) 406,394,000; 28.4) 115,546,194) 24} 27 23 27 | 3,715,479) 21,391
TSA o... - 13,176,500) 31.4) 413,578,560) 24.6) 101,752,468! 198 203) 248) 304 5,452,136 13,395
1879... .. 12,683,500) 28.7) 363,761,320} 33.1; 120,533,294, 323) 363} 293! 34% 766,366) 489,576
iC — 16,187,977] 25.8) 417,885,380} 36.0) 150,243,565, 298| 334] 363] 303 402,904) 64,412
US 16,831,600) 24.7) 416,481,000; 46.4) 193,198,970} 434! 463) 48%! 563 625, 690)1, 850,983
1}: 7 18,494,691) 26.4] 488,250,610) 37.5) 182,978,022) 343| 413) 38% 423 461,496) 815,017
a 20,324,962} 28.1) 571,302,400] 32.7] 187,040,264} 293] 364| 303] 343| 3,274,629] 191,069
1. ae 21,300,917; 27.4) 583,628,000, 27.7) 161,528,470) 223) 253; 343) 37] 6,203,104; 94,310
1885. ...-- 22,783,630} 27.6) 629,409,000) 28.5] 179,631,860} 27 29 26} 293) 7,311,306) 149,480
188Ge 25. 23,658,474) 26.4) 624,134,000) 29.8} 186,137,980} 253) 273) 254) 274! 1,374,635) 139,575
18822. ... 25,920,906, 25. 4) 659,618,000) 30.4) 200,699,790 | 30% 324] 38 573,680; 123,817
a 26,998,282) 26.0) 701,735,000) 27.8 195,424,240} 25 264, 218 33, 1,191,471) 131,501
1889. .... 27,462,316) 27.4) 751,515,000} 22.9) 171,781,008} 20 21 242) 30 | 15,107,238) 153,232
1890. ..... . 26,431,369) 19.8) 523,621,000} 42. 4) 222,048,486) 303 433} 451] - 54] 1,382,836 41,848
180%... 25,581,861) 28.9] 738,394,000} 31.5} 232,312,267} 314] 338! 281/ 333] 10,586,644] - 47,782
1892. ....| 27,063,835) 24. 4) 661,035,000) 31.7/ 209,253,611 53} 314) 282 321| 2,700,793) 49,433
1893. 27,273,033] 23. 4) 638,854,850) 29.4) 187,576,092} 274| 293! 323) 361] 6,290,229) 31,759
Lbs 2 re 27,028,553) 24. 5| 662,06,928} 32.4) 214,816,920} 28% 293) 274; 303) 1,708,824) 330,318
1805. .... 27,878, 406; 29, 6| 824,443,537] 19.9] 163,655,068; 168 173] 18| 193] 15,156,618) 66,602
a In years 1866 to 1882, inclusive, oatmeal is not included.

564

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of oats of the United States, 1866-1906—

Continued.
Av- Chicago cash price per | Domesti
rn erage pushel, No. 2. eae Imports
pect ise farm! parm including during
ORR Anceaca tat or Produc- |price} +4) May of | oatmeal, af
ear. Be: 5) WA e. tion. per | ec 4, | December. | following | _ fiscal ees
Pp bush : year. year be- | 0°8i0-
se el, inning Jule ;
Dee.1 G Low.| High.| Low. |High. Suly 1. ne
Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. | Cts. | Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels, | Bushels.
1896....- 27,565,985| 25.7] 707,346,404) 18.7] 132,485,033] 163] 183] 162! 183] 37,725,083] 131,204
189722252 25,730,375| 27.2} 698,767,809} 21.2) 147,974,719) 21 23§| 26 32 | 73,880,307) 25,093
1898. ..:- 25,777,110) 28.4) 780,906,643) 25.5) 186,405,364) 26 273| 24 273| 33,534,362) 28,098
1899... 26,341,380} 30.2) 796,177,713] 24.9) 198,167,975} 223) 23 213) 233) 45,048,857, 54,576
1900 .\.'. = 2 27,364,795) 29.6) 809,125,989} 25.8] 208,669,233} 213) 223 27%| 31 | 42,268,931; 32,107
1901..... 98,541,476| 25.8) 736,808,724| 39.9] 293,658,777, 42 | 484 41 | 493] 13,277,612] 38,978
1902s oc 28,653,144) 34.5) 987,842,712) 30.7) 303,584,852) 294) 32 333] 384] 8,381,805] 150,065
1903. .--- 27,638,126) 28. 4| 784,094,199) 34.1) 267,661,665) 344) 38 398; 44%| 1,960,740) 183,983
190425022 27,842,669 22.1) 894,595,552| 31.3] 279,900,013; 284) 32] 288] 32]| 8,304,692] . 55,699
Ut Ue oe 28,046,746) 34.0) 953,216,197} 29.1) 277,047,537) 293) 32%) 323) 343) 48,434,541) 40,025
190625834 30,958,768} 31.2) 964,904,522) 31.7) 306,292,978) 33 BO. = aie oc] Denice] ees oe ee eee

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of oats in the United States in 1906, by States.

Crop of 1906.
State or Territory.
Acreage. Production. Value.
Acres. Bushels. Dollars.

Maineg.t 2. Jk oe eee 112, 817 4,038, 849 1,777,094
New Hampshire-.-...- 12) 296 424, 212 186, 653
Mennont. 3.52 --4-- 2 76, 955 2, 862, 726 1, 230, 972
Massachusetts.....-. 6, 308 214, 472 94, 368
Rhode Island.....-.-- 1, 604 46, 997 21,149
Connecticut.....----- 9, 976 341,179 148, 295
INGW py Orks 562-3... 1, 245, 628 40, 233, 784 16, 093, 514
New. JETSCY. <---> 2550 62, 512 1, 662, 819 631, 871
Pennsylvania......-- 1, 161, 186 31, 816, 496 12, 090, 268
DelswaTre. soe eeeeseas 3, 918 95, 991 36,477
Maryland 22s ees 31, 834 808, 584 307, 262
Witt pinta noses 158, 813 2, 858, 634 1, 229, 213
West Virginia.......- 102, 000 2,101, 200 840, 480
North Carolina....... 195, 662 3, 169, 724 1, 553, 165
South Carolina....... 191, 259 3, 538, 292 2,016, 826
Georriage-- 3c. 216, 922 38, 362, 291 1, 882, 883
OMCs asics secctas = 28, 160 394, 240 268, 083
ORIG Ayes acctecri-seee 1, 475, 000 48, 380, 000 15, 965, 400
Linch eee saeoueeee 1, 780, 000 50, 196, 000 16, 062, 720
Tinos s)4- Bee eee 3, 653, 000 107, 763, 500 33, 406, 685
MIGHIFED - Sccleccce s< kis 1, 425, 000 43,747, 500 14, 436, 675
Wiscorisin - <i 26-2)... 2,450, 000 91, 630, 000 28, 405, 300
Minniesotn 2.se se. =. -s 2,215, 728 72,011, 160 19, 443,013
TOWS 222 cee sea 3 4,165,000 ! 140,777,000 38, 009, 790
Missoni. sasco522.--2< 644, 101 14, 685, 503 4, 846, 216
North Dakota...-..... | 1, 245, 711 40, 485, 608 10, 931, 114
South Dakota.....-..-.| 1, 275, 000 46, 410, 000 11, 602, 500
Nebraska 7.2: esau ae 2,450, 000 72, 275, 000 18, 791, 500
Kansas’. bts sake esos 1, 050, 000 24,780, 000 7, 681, 800
Mentuecky.ccic> <seutes 206, 063 4,430, 354 1, 683, 585
TPeNnNESHEO aiai2 bjcisae. se we 146, 573 3, 151, 320 1, 292, 041
UE oF ent: apes ey Pee 184,179 3, 167, 879 1,615, 618
Mississippi-....--...-. 90, 374 1, 626, 732 797, 099
IOUISISDA sos ente ses - 28,269 486, 227 218, 802
TESRSSS ). Hee eer e 914, 440 31, 822, 512 13, 047, 230
Indian Territory..... 217,736 7,446, 571 2, 382, 903
Oklgbomse ssscnec.. 012 350, 000 12,040, 000 3, 371. 200
IATICA TIS EIS Sala dente de es 184, 571 3,783, 706 1, 589, 157
Montana ole oot cee 2 196, 802 8, 501, 846 3, 740, 812
Wivomineehes .j265...3 50, 103 1, 979, 068 791, 627
COLOTHOO: aah ahs.» 147, 584 5, 962, 394 2, 683, 077
New Mexico.......... 12, 269 424, 507 220,744
IRINAOMA eis otawee Sete «2 914 31,442 20, 437
Utah. .)...< 47,000 2,053, 900 924, 255
Nevada..... 6, 518 252, 898 161, 855
IanO. ee 107, 864 4,390, 065 1, 887, 728
Washington. ... 172, 767 7, 463, 534 3,060, 049
Oregonieess sizsecre=- 284, 660 9, 621, 508 , 4,137, 248
Califomiait-.s2otee- 163, 692 5, 156, 298 2, 681, 275

United States...... 30,958,768 | 964,904,522 | 306,292,978

‘Stock in farmers’ hands

March 1, 1907.

Bushels. Per cent.
1,494, 374 37
118, 779 28
1, 173, 718 41
77, 210 36
14, 569 31
95, 5380 28
19,714, 554 49
798, 153 48
13, 999, 258 44
32, 637 34
283, 004 35
914, 763 32
819, 468 39
665, 642 21
566, 127 16
504, 344 15
39, 424 10
18, 384, 400 38
15, 058, 800 30
37,717, 225 35
17, 499, 000 40
39, 400, 300 43
30, 964, 799 43
60, 534, 110 43
5, 580, 491 38
24, 457, 372 53
22,740, 300 49 |,
32, 523, 750 45
9, 664, 200 39
1,329, 106 30
882, 370 28
538, 539 17
292, 812 18
72,934 15
6, 364, 502 20
2,233,971 30
4, 334, 400 36
945, 926 25
3,230, 701 38
514, 558 26
2, 384, 058 40
106, 127 25
8,175 26
718, 865 35
63, 224 25
1, 756, 026 40
2,089, 790 28
2; 982; 667 31
773, 445 15
384, 460, 597 39.8

Shipped out
of county
where grown.

Bushels.
80, tes

0
2,145
0
3,412

49, 571, 210
* 10,499; 400
14, 660, 800
25, 203, 906
45, 048, 640
1,468, 550

7, 692, 266
13, 923, 000
29, 632, 750
3,717, 000
265, 821

315, 132

STATISTICS OF OATS. 565

Average yield of oats in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.

: | ] 5
Year. easy Russia ae Aust ria. Hungary.| France. Landon.
; |
(2) (°) (>) Cy a tO) @ | @
LE ee ee ene ae 25.7 19.2 41.8 23.1 | 21.4 27.0 39.2
Tel Oh seh pas aS ee ee 27.2 15.7 39.9 21.5 24.3 23.1 40.1
Pees reo otiese ce weber L 28.4 16.5 47.1 27.3 30.2 29.0 43.6
SPN Ses Are eco 30.2 23.6 48.0 30.2 33.3 27.8 41.8
PORE ete enews cbse 29.6 19.5 48.0 25.2 | 28.1 25.7 41.2
Cot oS ae Se ee ae eee 25.8 14.0 44.5 25.6 28.1 23.5 40.6
2 SE 2 ae er ee 34.5 21.8 50.2 27.6 34.0 29.2 45.9
Pee een Sos oak dow eles 28.4 17.7 51.3 28.4 34.5 31.6 44.2
ES eee tac Sok ewes weet ese 32.1 | 25.7 46.3 24.3 25.6 27.2 42.1
Jos Se ee Se 34.0 20.7 43.8 27.6 | 30.7 28.6 41.7
aperie £5 ac jee 29.6 19.4 | 46.1 | 26.1 30.0 | 27.3 42.0
@ Winchester bushels. > Bushels of 32 pounds.
Average yield per acre of oats in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. 1906.
Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.
LTO = ee 31.0} 36.0) 35.0 | 37.5] 35.0] 39.0] 29.5] 36.6] 39.5 35.8
New Hampshire.............. 35.0} 33.0] 35.0] 32.6] 29.5) 35.0] 31.1] 33.2] 32.8 34.5
a 33.0} 38.0] 37.0} 34.9] 33.0] 40.0] 38.2] 37.9] 39.4 37.2
Massachusetts..... ae eee 32.0 | 32.0] 33.0] 36.8] 31.0] 32.2] 31.7] 34.0] 32.0 34.0
Rhode Island 32.0 7.0} 26.0} 30.9] 29.4] 36.2} 28.1] 25.4) 29.4 29.3
Gannecvicut = - ~~ =... +... s2s<-- 29.0 | 28.2} 28.0] 31.0) 28.7] 34.5] 31.2] 33.5] 34.5 34.2
New York... 31.0} 27.5}] 31.0] 27.9] 21.6] 40.0] 34.0] 34.1] 34.2 32.3
New Jersey... 25: 001s 19: 6517 2% On) © 29.691. 46:0)) .32-9'| 25.4) 32-55] 3256 26.6
Pennsylvania 28: 2)| 23:3 | 33.0) Bie 1 18.9} 36.5] 28.6] 33.9] 34.0 27.4
Delaware. ..-.-. 22.0 | 22.0) 20.0) 21.0} 98.5). 22.6] 22.2 | 28.2] 31.2 24.5
WMarviand... 22 ness ses sec. 24.0] 19.5] 23.0] 24.0) 18.8} 26.7] 20.6] 29.7) 27.7 25.4
Aer tn Ce ee ee 12.0} 16.1 14.0} 14.8] 14.9] 17.5] 13.8) 21.1 17.8 18.0
Wiese witeinia$. st.>. =. 2025.- = 20.0} 19:5] 23:0] 21.0) 18/7] 28.6) 21.7] 26.4] 24.1 20.6
North Carolina..--:.-...-...- 13.0} 14.3] 12.0] 13.9} 14.4] 12.7] 11.4] 15.8] 15.3 16.2
South Carolina. .........-...- 15.5 17.2 12.0} 15.5 15.8} 13.1 14.0 17.1 16.3 18.5
IG ESE ES Sea 14.0 | 16.6 9.0} 15.0] 14.8] 11.1 13.6 | 14.8] 15.1 eyes
LOE 2 ae 9.0 15.4 9.0} 11.3 13.1 13.6 13.2 12.9 12.0 14.0
cas [eee 32.0} 30.9] 36.0; 38.0] 31.5]; 41.1 30.6 | 40.9} 35.8 32.8
too eee 30.2} 29.2] 32.0] 32.7] 28.6] 35.4] 24.4] 33.1] 35.3 28.2
Wu See 32.0} 29.0] 38.0} 38.0] 282] 37.7] 26.6] 32.0] 35.5 29.5
COs Oo a 26.0] 32.8) 34.0] 36.7] 29.0] 39.9] 30.5] 32.5] 35.6 30.7
VEE es eee 34.0] 36.1] 36.0] 32.0] 29.1] 39.9] 32.8] 35.0] 39.0 37.4
MENMEROGH. P= 555-55. .s 2s =~ 26.0} 36.3 | 32.0] 25.2] 32.1] 39.0 | 32.3} 39.2] 37.5 32.5
Lor A ee ee 30.0 | 34.0] 33.0] 34.0] 29.8] 30.7] 24.0} 32.0] 35.0 33.8
(oS ih, ae ae a ee eles LLC een oS 2 oe ed Be 27.2 22.8
Norah Dakoba-..-- 2. ..-<.- 23.0] 30.7} 30.0] 10.3] 32.6] 38.4] 27.4] 37.4] 38.9 32.5
South Dakota. <....=..-.-2..- 22.0 | 26.8] 26.0] 21.5] 28.8] 24.8] 38.6] 39.0] 39.0 36.4
INGRTRSHAR © 2. - nea coe 31:0] 32.1 SOG fis SU Behen 1928) 163486) 29"50) 302 7"1 = 31.0 29.5
LST ee ee See ac ae 24.0} 18.0| 29.0] 31.6 18.6; 33.5] 26.2 8) are 23.6
(CET eee eae oe Sar SO 2254 RO) ® 2053) 1h SET | 6222208 4 | 24-0 255: 21.5
(Je Se Sencar 10.0} 18.7 14.0 16567) AUS | lid 18.5 | 21.1} 20:2 21.5
SEU EEGe ormileeaiere = 2 a a 13.0} 16.8 10.0 14.4 14.5| 10.9} 15.8] 14.9] 16.5 PS
Mississippi Soe Wiese Sah 14.0} 18.5 10.0} 14.0] 15.2 15.4 15.0 19.2 18.5 18.0
i Deis CHR SRA eee aS eee 18.0} 18.1 | 18.0} 18.0] 13.4] 15.2] 15.9] 18.4] 16-0 17.2
2) Po tobe 8S Rt ee SEE 20.0 | 29.7] 25.0] 38.0] 16.3] 23.2] 35.5] 32.0] 31.4 34.8
Tin POEMS ETE do a ee = SRR eR | ee eee meee. 25.0 | 32.6 | 30.0] 32.2] 36.0 34.2
WZ LETTE eee seen ee is iN oe =| pe aa ae! (ieee eae (len eats 4 eee ee 20.7 | 47.8 | 26.4] 21.2] 33.0 34.4
CUA ofa a esas Sn ate ee } lO] 22°80 |219:0']) 2252 12.3 | 20.0 18°26. | 22.7 |) 20:3: 20.5
Maminnan. = 655. 6.2. 42.0} 40.6] 38.0] 39.0] 42.0) 41.9} 46.4] 37.7] 41.3 43.2
Cinna Se eae ee 35.0} 31.2] 30.0] 34.2] 41.0] 36.0] 29.4] 30.2] 39.9 39.5
Mabsrader nso 256. 2c... oe 34.0} 35.8] 27.0] 32.8] 33.8] 26.8| 33.3| 35.4] 35.0 40.4
35.5} 38.8] 24.0] 30.1] 31.6] 19.1] 22.6] 19.6] 29.5 34.6
Ee ee eae oe ee! (ere ae 35.0] 31.7 | 35.5] 30:1 | 31.2 34.4
35.0} 39.7] 34.0} 35.9] 33.0] 35.5] 36.4| 37.6] 39.8 43.7
ne Shae ee peop Ses seacel (o- toeee} E52 -| FP -Sae 5.) bee: 43.0} 34.8] 28.6] 37.0] 37.2] - 38.8
36.3 | 43.6 | 34.0] 36.6] 38.3] 42.1] 41.5] 39.3] 39.4 40.7
48.0} 41.9] 37.0] 34.4] 47.5] 46.2] 47.9| 44.9] 50.0 43.2
32.0} 27.0] 30.0] 18.5] 31.5] 28.7] 33.8] 23.1] 24.1 33.8
18.0} 33.0] 31.0] 24.6} 30.4] 30.5] 34.8] 34.1] 28.0 31.5
27.2 | 28.41 30.2] 29.6| 25.8] 34.5] 28.4] 32.1] 34.0 31.2

566 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of oats in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Maine =... 4. 2eceeet ccs zs ¢ $12. 24 |$13. 30 |$14. 25 |$17. 50 [$17.55 |$17. 77 |$16. 47 |$16.55 | $15. 75
New Hampshire.... 12. 54 | 13.65 | 12.39 | 15.34 | 15.40 | 14.93 | 15.60 | 1410} 15.18
Wenrmont -.. Joes j- secs neeee eae I 13. 30 | 13. 69 | 12.56 | 16.50 | 17.20 | 16.81 | 16.68 | 15.76 | 16.00
Massachusetts... .--j-~---.55% ‘ 11. 84 | 12.54 | 13.98 | 17.05 | 14.49 | 15.53 | 15.30 | 13.76 | 1496
Rhode Islands... -.2::-=2---- 4 9.99 | 9.62 | 11.74 | 15.88 | 15.57 | 12.65 | 11.94 | 12.35 | 13.19
Gonnecticut2-2e . 5... s-2-e=--c2 10.15 | 10.36 | 10.85 | 15.50 | 14.14 | 1404 |1474/]1449) 1436
New York: 2224-245. 8.53 | 10.23 | 8.93] 10.37 | 14.40 | 13.94 | 12.96 | 12.65 | 12.92
New: Jersey acco -- 325-5526 5 6.08 | 7.92] 9.18] 7.52} 12.56 | 10.92 | 13.00 | 11.84} 10.15
Pennsylvania. —- daso-s-—e= 6.99 | 9.57 | 9.33] 850} 12.41 | 10.58 | 12.88 | 12.24) 10.41
Delaware. ..-c- o-.-isesee-sss 6.60} 5.00} 630] 833} 9.49 | 8 88 | 11 56 | 12.48 9. 31
Maryland. 2<. <5 .se0s << stems 5.65 | 690} 7.44] 7.71 | 10.15 | 824] 10.69] 9.97 9. 65
Wireinie= 22 525-252. £0 4.67| 462] 5.48} 626} 7.35| 5.93} 9.07] 694 7. 74
West Virginia.......22.:.-.-.- 5.85 | 805] 7.14] 804) 11.73] 9.98} 11.62] 9.40 8. 24
INerth Carotwad---.- sass. s5-ee 5.29 | 492] 6.26] 7.34] 648) 5.93] 822] 7.19 7. 94
South) Caroling. 2.22-4-2s--= 7.74| 5.64] 7.44] 9.80} 7.73] 826] 10.26} 896) 10.54
Georgia .\.c< sth: Seeds eee 7.97 | 4.32] 7.35] 9.92) 5.88] 7.48] 814] 800 8. 68
HIOTIGR = socn5 sae ost oan ed 832| 450! 5.65) 9.43] 830) 7.92] 7.74] 624 9. 52
Qhio- sc. 5 Se oie Bee ce eee 7.42 | 9.00] 9.88 | 12.28 | 13.15 | 11.02 | 13.09 | 11.10] 10.82
Indians =~ a. 85. Gs sea se cess 6,72 | 736 | 7521 TO\87 | 998s) 7 SL) So 9onoees 9. 02
Lithoiss. see 6.67 | 836] 874] 11.28] 10.56} 851; 9.60) 9.94 9.14
Michigan) a n'ss - saaeticeiee aapast 886] 9.52} 9.54] 11.89 | 13.17 | 10.98 | 10.72 | 10.68] 10.13
Wiseensine.sseeo oe eee cee ne 8.66 | 8.28] 7.36} 11.35 | 11.97 ]1115] 9.80] 10.53] 11.59
MinIneSO bial osco2~ a eae 7.62 | 7.04] 6.05] 10.91 | 10.53 | 9.69} 10.19} 9.00 8.77
TOW ae hac cise aos. sseetepss ae 8.16] 6.27} 6.80] 10.73] 7.67| 696) 800] 8 40 9.13
Missouri-....- 3.91 | 6.00) 630] 482] 9.10] 7.07] 7.72} 816 7.52
North Dakota. 7.98 | 8.10] 3.30] 10.76 | 10.37} 849} 898} 895 8.78
South Dakota 5.63 | 5.98} 5.16] 9.79 | 10.09 | 11.19] 975] 8&97 9.10
Nebraska 2. 2) 2c2 2220 cssc5-4 6.42 | 660] 5.23] 7.33} 865 | 7.97| 7.67] 7.44 7. 67
Wearsag: oes eet ewe 3.96 | 6.38] 7.27] 800] 10.05} 7.86] 5.87} 7.59 7. 32
fentucky = se «52253: oso. 5ceee 6.05 | 5.76] 660] 808] 7.99] 824) 9.60; 8& 58 8.17
"RORMEBHEO So oo dee eco anton 5.24! 448] 5.81! 7.87] 7.27} 7.77) 7.80) 7.88 8. 82
Hlabama= Ss ~ 2) 5.22 eee 6.89 | 430] 6.34] 9.28] 600] 853) 805] 8 42 8.77
Mississippi-.-.-.-.-. Reece 7.77; 5.60} 644] 9.58] 7.85 | 7.65 | 9.98 | 25 8. 82
HOWSIANS So: acess. ee cee 6.88 | 7.20] 7.20} 804) 7.60} 7.31) 828} 7.20 7. 74
EKAG. c= oko Seceee tees 832] 7.50111.40| 9.78 | 11.37 | 15.62 | 1408 | 12.56 | 1427
Inrenin Perrttory ses ssc sere aha eee aie ee lean solemn 11.50 | 12.06 | 10.50 | 12.24 | 11.88 | 10.94
Oldahomal.. 255s ee Aes ae ee he eee 10.35 |-16.25 | 898] 7.63) 9.57 9. 63
ERANSAG. 6” coon ae eee 6.61 | 646] 7.77) 7.01} 820} 818}; 9.76} 853 8. 61
Morvange = S5888. 22 2 Sn se 14.21 | 14.82 | 16.38 | 15.12 | 15.08 | 16.24 | 17.34] 17.76] 19.01
Wyoming... jobs sssce-6 ase : 12. 48 | 12.00 | 16.07 | 19.68 | 18.00 | 14.70} 11.78 | 16.36) 15.80
Coldrados 2% = 2. cs2S-cke-steos . 14. 68 | 11.34 | 14.10 | 16.90 | 13.67 | 13.65 | 16.28 | 14.35 | 1818
New -Mexieo: <2 2 = <S.<50-52-24 § | 15.91 | 10.56 | 14.45 | 18.96 | 12.99 | 14.01 | 1L.17 | 17.11 17. 99
U Sac; See eae me ace cone ee Sere | se eis 21. 00 | 23.78 | 21.65 | 22.27 | 19.97 | 22. 36
Whtmeoe: 222-2 Sass. cnaceces - 15.09 | 13.60 | 15.80 | 16.83 | 16.68 | 17.84 | 17.67 | 17.51 | 19. 66
INeraat <2 28. 2228 seh. cc ceinsto ete ece bee See eee -el eeeeee 30.10 | 24.36 | 19.45 | 23.31 | 19.34 | 2483
WASROS os tet cca. - see tee ee 4 15.70 | 12.92 | 14.64 | 16.85 | 20.21 | 18.68 | 19.65 | 16.55 | 17.50
Wrashinptom=.22.20.-.207 205-4 . 16.76 | 14.06 | 13.76 | 16.63 | 22.64 | 18.20 | 19.31 | 20.50] 17. 71
Qreépon v2 sc 52-56 0s- 225 eee = s 10.80 | 12.30 | 7.59 | 10.71 | 11.77 | 14.87 | 10.86 | 10.36} 1453
Galiornisis 25.5232... ce ee - . 16. 50 | 14.57 | 11.32 | 13.38 | 15.55 | 18.79 | 19.44 | 1428 | 16.38

General average......-.- |} 5.75 |) 7.23 | 7.52 | 7.63 | 10.29 | 10.60 | 9.68} 10.05} 9.88 9. 89

Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by

States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Centis.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.

WMGinG: cs soe 2 oc sede bene 32 34 38 38 50 45 45 45 43 44
New Hampshire............-- 38 38 39 38 52 44 48 47 43 44
Vermontys<. 32) he one eee 32 35 37 36 50 43 44 44 40 43
Massachusetts ...3 22.26 82.6.5 33 37 38 38 55 45 49 45 43 44
Bode Island: 5.2 22 sales ees 34 37 37 38 54 43 45 47 42 45
COMMECHIOUES . os ocd. nt eoeee 34 36 37 35 54 41 45 44 42 42
iNew YO Bse S.-J ade. de cece 27 31 33 32 48 36 41 38 37 40
INeW JensOy st. SA. odes 30 31 33 31 47 39 43 40 37 38
Pennsylvania. 5.2. ..22o..+.- 2 380 29 30 45 34 37 38 36 38
ISOMOWAERL doe 6 oa dcce cnceec seu 23 30 25 30 45 42 40 41 40 38
iitrs (ENG ee eee: see eee aes 26 29 30 31 41 38 40 36 36 38
il g iii: (ot nay See eae 29 29 33 37 42 42 43 43 39 43
Wiest Varcinig 5 oJ55 0.2 ve... 30 30 35 34 43 41 46 44 39 40
NortiCsrolng. ..225.--<s=5- 37 37 41 45 51 51 52 52 47 49
SouwthiCarolina |. 201.2. << -s5-- 45 45 47 48 62 59- 59 60 55 57
Georgia seir. 322 ee eee ee 42 48 48 49 67 53 55 55 53 56
loridae ees. acco eee ee 53 54 50 50 72 61 60 60 52 68
OPO 2 aren Cae Cote eee 20 24 25 26 39 32 36 32 31 33

STATISTICS OF OATS. 567

Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by
States—Continued.

.

1904. | 1905. | 1906.

Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.

- 9 § Sn ee See 18 22 30 8 31

Re ion 3 see 23 27 28 26 : 33 30 33

2S ee 19 24 23 23 28 27 31

Ee ae. See 19 21 22 24 26 24 27

ee ciate ee ais waa Sawee Seeks 16 24 19 20 25 24 27
eae: Os 2a ee 19 23 24 23 34 30 33

marsh Pakete_........<--ss< - 26 26 27 32 24 23 27
Seuth Dakota... ............. 18 21 23 24 25 23 25
LoL oS ee eee ae 15 20 22 24 25 24 26
2 See ee oe eae 18 22 22 23 33 28 31
Loli = Eas See ae 27 27 32 31 40 35 38
MRMEEBROD Sq 36 5.522228. 28 28 32 35 37 39 41
Lo Si ee eee eee ee 43 41 43 44 54 51 51
WEMRIGAI WI. =. 2% 2 5.55.52 Se. 44 42 50 46 52 50 49
pet a ee ee 38 38 40 40 45 45 45
28 30 44 40 41

38 33 32

36 29 28

43 42 42

46 43 44

39 41 40

46 41 45

57 58 52

74 64 65

47 44 45

%63 52 64

50 42 43

43 41 41

47 43 43

57 51 52

Milwau- Duluth. Detroit. San Fran-

kee. cisco.

Date. No. 2, No. 2, No. 2, No.2 No. 2, No.2 No.2, |No.1, white
mixed. mixed. mixed. >a white. a white. (per cwt.).
SSS Se ae De ES ee SE © | SS y peel Se =e (eee PSS,
| Low| High | Low High |Low {High | Low| High Low High | Low High | Low High| Low | High

|

1902. | Cfs.| Cts. | Cts.| Cis. Cts.| Cts. Cis:| Cts. | Cts.| Cts. | Cis.| Cis..| Cts.) Cts.
464 52 46 50 38} 464) 444 49 403 47h, 45 503'$1. 25 |$1. 40
493) 46 403 444, 423 47 383 431) 46 474) 1.273) 1. 42
49 | 453 47 | 404 5 47 | 40 43 | 46 481) 1.25 | 1.40
49 44 463) 41 443! 433 474; 40 461) 46 483) 1.274) 1.45
483, 44 46) 41 494; 441 46 | 423) 453) 46 484] 1.35 | 1.50
55 | 43 52 | 39 483) 43 54 | 283 34! 463) 57 | 1.35 | 1.50
60 | 323) 57] 30] 56| 5141 58| 304 343! 57| 61 | 1.20 | 1.35
59 | 27 31} 25 31 | 334, 58 | 274; 30) 343) 60/ 1.15 | 1.30
32 | 283] 3131 263) 273 313] 35 | 291 314! 364] 393) 1.174) 1.30
32| 274 30 | 32] 34] 293] 32] 388 424) 1.15 | 1.323
354) 203] 34] 273] 2031 303] 34 | 283) 32] 4131 48 | 1.20 | 1.35
“4 33 | 39) 208 32 | 323] 34] 31) 32] 49§/ 51 |-1.25 | 1.40
| | j

493 35 39] 312] 343| 334| 362, 323; 3431 36] 38 | 1.223] 1.35
41 | 374 308) 33H 36) 36} 364) 34) 354 38) 40 | 1.224) 1.373
413} 37| 39} 313] 342 36/ 36/ 31| 343] 38 1. 223] 1.323
413) 37 | 324 358 36 | 363) 324) 334) 363) * 384] 1.20 | 1.324
39| 33] 374 33%) 384) 36] 38 | 33 354] 37] 39 | 1.20 | 1.30
44| 36| 43% 354| 434] 363! 4031 35 | 40 | 39| 45 | 1.173) 1.274
44| 314) 414 338) 45) 363) 41) 328) 374) 36. | 414) 1.173) 1.50
39 | 33 | 353) 333] 363) 37| 383 34| 354! 353) 3681 1. 173) 1.324
414 35! 39| 354) 38) 37 | 40) 353, 384) 374] 40 | 1. 174} 1.32
41 | 363! 39 384 3734; 39) 35 373} 383} 393) 1.20 | 1.322
403| 353, 373/333] 383| 363] 383} 328) 354) 364 38h 1.25 | 1.32
403) 37]. 391 344 381 3731 381 344! 35g! 3741 301 1.25 | 1.32

568 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘

Wholesale prices of oats per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906—

Continued.
- Cincin- ° Milwau- . San Fran-
New York.|Baltimore. aan Chicago. ent Duluth. | Detroit. in.
Date. No. 2, No. 2, No. 2, No. 2 No. 2; Nous No. 3, |No.1, white
mixed. mixed. mixed. 4% white. ay: white. (per ewt.).
| Low} High | Low) High | Low, High |Low | High | Low] High| Low|High | Low, High Low | High
1904. Cis.| Cts..| Cts.| Cts. | Cts.|, Cis. | Cts.| Cts. | Cts.|* Cts: | Cts:| Gis. \\Cis. | Cts. |
Diane any 423} 453) 41 433) 38 423| 364! 413) 35 41 | 353) 393] 39 423/31. 25 |$1.374
Feb..... 46 553] 43 48 | 41%) 443) 393) 46] 40 443) 382| 422) 422) 482) 1.25 | 1.373
Max so" 46 553} 453) 473) 41 443 423) 39 44} 381] 402) 44 463| 1.273) 1.374
Apr 433} 47 | 48 463 43 | 364) 413] 37 433] 373} 41] 423) 452) 1.274) 1.40
May. 454} 47 | 433) 453) 413) 423%) 398] 443) 41 45 | 40 43 | 45 |- 452) 1.323) 1.50
June. 443} 46 | 433) 453) 41 44} 393) . 421) 38 44 | 40 423| 423! 464] 1.40 | 1.50
SUL eae a 45 | 433! 453) 40 413) 383} 45] 37 41} 36 38 | 413) 44] 1.30) 1.50"
Aug... 353} 43) 343) 45] 324) 404) 314/ 40] 312) 42] 324} 38] 33 433] 1.30 | 1.50
Sept. . 343} 36 | 33 35 | "33 344] 298) 334) 294) 333] 30 323) 32 333| 1.40 | 1.524
OVGESA ase 343] 36] 33 34} 314) 334] 283! 314) 284) 33) 273) 308! 312) 34 | 1.40) 1.55
Nov. 35 35 | 33 353 31 334! 29 323) 294; 32 293) 32 323] 1.45 | 1.60
Dees. 52 | 343) 363) 353) 36 323) 333) 283) 32) 29 32 | 284, 298! 323%) 334) 1.45 | 1.60
1905. | (a) ‘
Uae 354] 374) 364) 37] 323) 334] 292) 31 314] 323] 282) 293) 334) 343! 1.45 | 1.60
HeDiee-2 | 36 By) as 363] 323) 334] 294) 321) 32 33 | 288) 304) 334! 344) 1.45 | 1.60
Mare 2: 353} 373) 35 3 312} 344) 293) 333! 32 344] 28%] 314] 334) 343) 1.45 | 1.60
Apr..--| 343) 36 | 33%) 353! 303) 323) 288) 32) 32 334] 283) 293) 33 344| 1.45 | 1.60
May ....-| 343] 354) 334] 344) 304) 323 288) 32] 312) 34] 288 3132] 33 342| 1.45 | 1.674
June.. 343] 36} 333) 364] 324) 334; 303 333] 33 343] 303) 323] 332) 343; 1.65 | 1.80
Jilye 2 el aoal, Boost vos: 363) 28 34 | 27 341] 33 354] 274) 323
ATI S = eo) 33°" 2748| > 32%) = 25 32 | 254] 293) 272) 34] 254) 288
Sept.. 334] 28 323} 26 30 | 25 30 | 28 30 | 254, 282
Octe 222 323] 352] 32 35 32 |. 273| 303) 29 32 | 26%) 29%
Nov....| 344, 36] 34 343) 314; 334) 29 313} 31 32 | 282) 30
Decee.-= 36 37 | 34 364] 33 354] 293| 323) 314) 333) 29 302
1906 No3,white
Amines 36 373| 344] 37] 323} 34]! 203| 32] 30 3 29 30
Reb. ee 34 36.| 34 353| 32 334] 29 303 29 314] 284 293
Marsss.- 343] 363| 342/ 353] 32] 333] 282! 2093) 29] 323! 28%] 293
ADT 364, 37 | 354) 38) 33 35 | 30%} 323) 303) 332; 29%) 314
Maye ss| var Soot) woos ape 37 | 324] - 343) 32 353} 314) 344
June. 39 45 383 453) 37 43 332 423| 333 43 334 41
July .. 40 433} 384) 423) 34 41 | 304} 394) 33 40 | 313) 38
Age: = 2 343! 39] 333) 394) 30 34} 29%) 32] 29 353) 30 31
Sept 344) 373) +34 37 | 314/ 36] 30 344) 29 34 | 293) 33
Oc = 374] 383] 37 372; 3 363! 323) 34%] 32 244} 314) 33
Nov....| 374] 303] 37 384) 35 364) 33 354] 32 343) 32 32
IDEGEE ee = 38 39 | 38 Sil 36 38 | 33 353] 324} 353) 313] 34

a No grade of oats in Duluth for 1905.

BARLEY.

Barley crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially the crop of the world.]

Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.

NORTH AMERICA.

i Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Wintedistates i...) de eee 134, 954, 000 131, 861, 000 139, 749, 000 136, 651, 000 178, 916, 000
Canada: ie

New Brunswick............ 110. 000 108, 000 96, 000 100, 000 102, 000

OSSUANKORE cet <a eee cae 22,580, 000 25, 147,000 25, 342, 000 25,030, 000 26,049, 000

MEAT GODEE ecco ne donee! 12, 222, 000 8,982,000 | 11,530,000} 14,507,000 18, 085, 000

Saskatchewan.............. 308, 000 687, 000 617, 000 922, 000 1, 358, 000

TAU CS) SER at es a 488, 000 1,111,000 1, 659, 000 1, 830, 000 2, 242, 000

(Oia as 2 eS eee 3,000, 000 3,000, 000 3, 000, 000 3,000, 000 , ,

Total Canada... -.....-.. 38,708,000 | 39,035,000 | 42,244,000 | 45, 389, 000 50, 836, 000
Maxivow., -deeelotssh wees 6,045,000 | 9,061,000 | 7,355,000 | 6, 000, 000 ~~ 6,000, 000
Total North America..... 179, 707,000 | 179, 957, 000 | 189,348, 000 188, 040, 000 235, 752, 000

STATISTICS OF BARLEY.

Barley crop of countries named, 1902-1906—Continued.

Country.

EUROPE,

Austria-Hungary:
(VTC eee ae
Hungary proper..-.........
Croatia-Slavonia . ¥

Russia:

Russia proper.............- |

Poland

HHI 2S en oo See
LDS ees ae See

United Kingdom:
Great Britain—
England
Scotland

Total United Kingdom...
Total BHurope-...... 22.2...

Total Japanese Empire...

Russia:
Central Asige. 2-2-2 a0.
SHOE (: Sainte sea Se ae

| aa eens
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. . 2
Cape of Good Hope.........

Natal

REINS rn cn othe aa fal Sas ae

Total Afriea:.0° 2225 |

AUSTRALASIA.
Australia:
Queensland. .
New South Wales. -
Wictoria... =~. isovzenee2s

Total Australian Com- |

mouwealth. 2-22.25...

NG AORIAT os Se. SS 2

569

‘1, 229, 132, 000 1, 235, 786, 000 |1, 176,915,000 ‘1, 190, 337, 000

1902. 1903. 1904. | 1905.
|
Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels.
73,788,000 | 73,873,000} 66,815,000 | 70, 469, 000
"350,000 | 64,577,000 | 49,915,000 | 62, 452,000
3, 259, 000 3, 839; 000 2° 285, 000 2) 864, 000
3, 208, 000 4) 145,000 3, 496, 000 3, 236, 000
...| 142,605,000 | 146,434,000 | 122,511,000 | 139,021,000
4,974, 000 3,923, 000 5, 003, 000 4,518, 000
11,000,000 | 12,773,000 | 12,911,000 | 12,080,000
23,287,000 "340,000 | 227708000 | 21, 146, 000
3, 628,000 5, 233, 000 4,916, 000 5,000, 000
41,948,000 | 43,345,000 | 38,338,000 | 40,841,000
142,392,000 | 152)653,000 | 135,409,000 | 134, 204,000
6,000, 000 8,000, 000 7,000, 000 8, 000, 000
4, 652,000 3, 823,000 3, 606, 000 4,013, 000
2) 143,000 3, 255, 000 2) 496, 000 3, 464, 000
24,586,000 | 29,716,000} 11,567,000 | 26,383,000
| |
274, 899,000 | 289,699,000 | 290,766,000 | 272, 694,000
| 92'185,000 | 20,819,000 | 17,705,000 | — 22,732 000
35,530,000 | 39,980,000 | 31,254,000 | 43) 430,000 37,319, 600
| 332,614,000 | 350,498,000 | 339,725,000 | - 338,856,000 | 304,290,000
3,495,000 | 3, 424,000 3,162,000 | 3,670,000 4, 848, 000
81,279,000 64,359,000 | 53,800,000 | 45,974,000 91. 185, 000
12; 283,000 13,570,000 | 13,452,000 |: 12, 858,000 14,952,000
56,679,000 50,628,000 | 48,511,000 | 48,778, 000 51, 543, 000
8,394,000 | 7,739,000 7,408,000 | 8,257,000 7, 803, 000
3,518,000 | 2,981,000 3,077,000 | 2,906,000 3, 116, 000
8,273,000 | 6,076,000! 5,478,000} 7,181,000 7,000, 000
76,864,000 | 67,424,000 | 64,474,000 | 67, 122, 000 69, 462, 000
913,750,000 | 931,770,000 | 841,078,000 867,150,000 | 910, 447,000
1,374,000 | 3, 969, 000 3, 122, 000 3, 000, 000 3, 000, 000
Bees | ES
| 74,078,000 59,737,000, 80,795,000 | 77,436,000 73, 000, 600
13,000. | 38,000 58, 000 50, 000 50, 000
| 74,091,000 | 59,775,000 | 80,853,000 | 77, 486,000 73,050, 000
|
3, 608, 000 2,759,000 | 2, 262, 000 3, 145, 000 5, 136, 000
2) 628, 000 4,213,000 4,965,000 2614, 000
_.| 5,636,000 6, 972, 000 8, 110,000 | 7,750, 000
81, 101, 000 0, 716, 000 88,596,600 | 83, 800, 600
47,912, 000 35, 000, 000 40, 000, 000
200; 000 327, 000 300, 000
$00; 900 850, 000 850, 000
8,000 7, 6, 000
3,201,000 7,119,000 7, 863, 600
52,121,000 | 43,303,000 | 49,019, 000
286, 000 342, 000 64, 000
107,000 275,000 115, 000
716, 000 902. 000 1,096, 000
251,000 358,000 522, 400
37,000 39,000 51.000
| 173, 000 168, 000 97, 000
1,570, 000 | 1, 184, 000 2,740, 000 | 2,084, 000 1,945, 000
883,000 | 1,172,000 | 1, 197, 000 | 1, 164, 000 1, 056, 000
2, 453, 000 | 2, 356, 000 3,937,000 | 3,248, 000 3, 001, 000
1, 282, 019, 000

570

Visible supply of barley in the United States and Canada, first of cach month, for ten

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

years.
Month. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Bf | by ae ee ear et EE 1, 574, 000 587, 000 1, 059, 000 1, 038, 000 528, 000
PATIBUIBG! 292 Sone aes See 1,051, 000 584, 000 694, 000 702, 000 335, 000
September: .-n25-cs-cges- esas 1,578, 000 548, 000 1,055, 000 1, 158, 000 956, 000
OCEODEE= 2 ~ case ce eae eee 2,630, 000 2, 125, 000 1,739, 000 2, 779, 600 3, 610, 000
November. 4, 267, 000 3, 777, 000 3, 925, 000 5, 396, 000 4, 813, 000
December. , 318, 000 4, 406, 000 4, 695, 000 6, 053, 000 5, 416, 000
PANGAN San chee eecreran ae see ane 5, 115, 000 4, 372, 000 3, 122, 000 5, 395, 000 4,580, 000
fie) Sob Ts t a fae eee ee ee a 3, 455, 000 4, 017, 000 2, 303, 000 4, 331, 000 5, 244, 000
ges ol are ee See aS are | ache 2,571, 000 3, 067, 000 2, 138, 000 3, 903, 000 5, 065, 000
Aor eee aioe ce eee 1, 492, 000 2, 626, 000 1, 712, 600 2, 879, 000 4,075, 000
Eye eer: Sees ee 2 eee 1, 159, 000 1, 913, 000 1, 720, C00 1, 761, 000 2, 146.000
ETE. 8 ener eens at re 815, 000 1,555, 000 1, 267, 000 1,351, 000 1, 836, 000
Month. 1902-3. 19034. 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Sly tees £5. 1 es 847,000 602, 000 2, 046, 000 2,557, 000 1, 620, 000
IATIONISE Mee. 5. kt scee aoe ee aan 217, 000 471, 000 1, 656, 1, 031, 000 1, 814, 000
September: 4.20545 os. eee 419, 000 1,024, 000 1, 694, 000 1, 358, 000 1, 244, 000
October LoL. = eee 2, 460, 000 5, 047, 000 6,551, 000 5, 524, 000 3, 520, 000
INOVENT Der. Cee 5a oe eee 5, 064, 000 7, 313, 000 , 329, 000 8, 509, 000 4, 476, 000
Hecenhere as. ee eee 5, 680, 000 7,975, 000 9, 620, 000 10, 217, 000 5, 156, 600
PBA sees nee ee 4, 389, G00 6, 907, 000 10, 403, 000 10, 657, 000 4, 698, 000
IEDTUALYs<. ese aoe = eee 3, 843, 000 6, 338, 000 8, 801, 000 8, 526, 000 4, 137, 000
WraTeln? Seo Sone: Sa ee 3, 107, 000 5, 441, 000 6, 952, 000 7, 686, 000 3, 934, 000
3a OV digi Sine ok a SO cess pa 2, 426, 000 4, 975, 000 4, 674, 000 6, 567, 000 3,708, 000
Miiy: 225. Sear eee eet 1, 493, 000 3, 969, 000 3,354, 000 4, 251, 000 3, 441, 000
CNG = cee oo ee 1, 133, 000 3, 105, 000 2, 053; 000 |. 5 Sees eee

2,231, 000

a These figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
ety Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals as reported by
radstreet’s. ‘

Condition of the barley crop of the United States, monthly, 1891-1906.

Sep- | Sep-
r Au- Au-
Year. June. | July gust = Year. June. | July. | gust. | ae
BP Cha CeCe ese Cool) tanks PCk..\ Chon ante Pek
BROOD SS one oC eee 90.3) 1} ONG be S8SSil. Gah ROG Ls soe conane 91.4] 92.0] 93.6 86.7
UE Sea eee 92.1 92.0} 91.1 CNG OGL ees eee ee 86.2 | 76:31 76 70.7
1 eee a 68:5: (S8sSrt ISIsG+t ses Oa) tables sconces vanes 98.8 | 91.3] 86.9 85.8
PN SOE RL SPREE 83. 2))078.8'b -G0/Sihy Moped’ 100A s 2 ap, Joke 93.6 | 93.7| 90.2| 89.7
5 Ge ee Meee 90.3 91.9 7.2 bat |W LE Oe a Ee a 91.5 86.8 83.4 $2.1
i East een eS, Se a ORO0)) SBOP) USA etek lr ORE: eee 90.5 | 88.5] 88-1] 87.4
LEO Rees ot eee ee 87.4 88.5 87.5 ee S| eG ee eS 93.7 91.5 89.5 | 87.8
TROR Ss Sek tore es ae 73.8 85.7 79.3 1921), DONG. 5g Sree See 93.5 92.5 90.3) 89.4

*

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1906.

Av- | Chicago cash price per

rie erage bushel, No. 2. Domestie | Imports,

rates farm eri exports, fiscal

Year. | Acreage. yield BE so ae a ' December. | rots mare fies

pa ush- SS | year. beginning ning

j_ el, SS ee July 1

; Dee.1. Low.|High. Low.|High.

Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. | Cts. | Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels.
1866.... 492,532} 22.9) 11,283,807; 70.2 7,916, 342 59 70 85 DOO) | oo42 5: eee 3, 247, 250
1h | 1,131,217} 22.7) 25,727,000} 70.1} 18,027,746 150 180 |; 227 250 9,810) 3,783, 966
1868 937,498} 24.4) 22,896, 100) 109.0 24,948,127; 140 170 149 175 59,077, 5, 069, 880
1869 1,025,795} 27.9} 28,652,200) 70.8! 20,298, 164 74! 85 50 62 255, 490! 6, 727, 5Y7
1870. ...] 1,108,924! 23.7) 26,295, 400) 79. I|' 20,792, 213 68 / 80 72 95 340,093) 4,866, 700
1871 -| 1,113,735] 24,0) 26,718,500) 75.8} 20,264,015 55} 64 55 71 86, sui 5, 565, 591
1872....| 1,397,082} 19.2} 26,846,400) 68.6) 18,415,839 60 70 71 85 482, 410) 4,244, 751
1873... .! 1,387,106! 23.1) 32,044,491! 86.7) 27,794,220 132! 158| 1301 155 320,399. 4,891, 189

~

STATISTICS OF BARLEY. 571

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1906—
Continued.

Av- Chicago cash price per

A erage bushel, No. 2.¢ Domestic | Imports,

eos : farm| parm Se exports, fiscal

= Produc- rice | ay o sca. year

Year. | Acreage. | yield! “tion, oe ae | December. | following year begin-
Pee mh ee year. |-beginning| ning
— el, oie ee Sully tes, | bates
Dec.1. | Low.|High.| Low./High.
| }
Acres. \|Bush.| Bushels Cts. |s Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels.

1874....| 1,580,626’ 20.6| 32,552,500 86.0, 27,997,824] 120| 1293] 115| 137 91, 118| 6,255, 063
1875...-.| 1,789,902 20.6} 36,908,600) 74.1) 27,367, 81 88 2 724 317, 781)10, 285, 957
1876... .| 1,766,511) 21.9} 38,710,500) 63.0) 24, 402,691 63} 683 80 85 1, 186, 129}. 6, 702, 965.
4877. ..-| 1,614,654 21.3} 34,441,400) 62.8) 21,629, 130 56} 64 464 524 3,921, 501) 6, 764, 228
1878... .| 1,790, 400) 23.6} 42,245,630) 57.9) 24, 454,301 91 100 64 73 715, 536) 5,720,979
1879... .| 1,680,700) 240} 40, 283,1 58. 23,714, 444; 86 92 P aa 80 1, 128, 923) 7, 135, 258
1880....) 1,843,329, 24.5) 45,165,346) 66.6) 30,090,742) 100 120 95 105 , 246) 9, 528, 616
1881... .| 1,967/510| 20.9] 41,161, 82.3] 33,862, 101 | 107} 100] 100 205, 930112’ 182" 722
1882... .| 2°2727103| 21.5] 48,953,926 62.9] 30,768,015} 79| s82| 80| 80 433, 005|10, 050, 687
1883... .| 2,379,009, 21.1] 50,136,097/ 58.7} 29) 420, ez} 67| 65| 74 724, 955| 8, 596, 122
1884... .| 2,608, 81 23.5) 61,203,000) 48.7) 29,779,170) 53 58 65 65 629, 130) 9, 986, 507
1885... .| 2,729, 21.4) 58,360,000) 56.3) 32,867, 696 62 65 58 60 252, 183)10, 197, 115
1886... .| 2,652, 22.4; 59,428,000) 53.6) 31,840, 510 51 54 57 57 1,305, 10, 355, 594
1887_...| 2,901, 19.6| 56,812,000, 51.9 29,464'390| s0| 80| 69| 77 550, 884 10, 831, 461
1888... .| 2,996, 21.3] 63,884,000) 59.0} 37, 672,032)......[......]......]...--- 1, 440, 321/11, 568, 414
1889. ...] 3,220, 24.3] 78,332,976 41.6) 32,614,271 58 [el oe ee & Spa 1, 408, 311,11, 332, 545
1990... .| 3,135, 21.4) 67,168,344) 62. 7| a WC 1 |. See) Se | See) oe 973, 062) 5,078, 733
S08. ...1 3,352, 25.9} 86,839,153} 52.4) 45,470,342). ....}....--|-.....[...... 2,800,075} 3,146,328
1892... .| 3, 400, 23.6) 80,096, 762) 47. 5) 38, 026, 062 65 67 65 65 3,035, 267) 1,970,129
1893... .| 3,220, 21.7| 69, 869, a 41. 4 28, 729, 386 §2 54 55 60 5, 219, 405 791, 061
1894....| 3,170, 19.4) 61,400,465) 44.2) 27,134,127 533 554 51 52 1, 563,754) 2,116, 816
1895. -_-| 3,299,973) 26.4) 87,072,744 33.7) 29,312,413, 33 | 40| 25} 36 | _7,680,331| "837,384
1896. ...| 2,950, 23.6} 69,695,223) 32.3) 22, 491,241 22 37 244 35 | 20,030,301) 1,271,787
1897... -| 2,719, 24. 5) 66, 685,127} 37. 7) 25, 142,139} + 254 42 36 53 105 237, 077 124, 804
1898... .| 2,583, 21.6 55,792,257; 41.3) 23,064,359 40 504 36 42 2, 267, 403 110, 475
1899... .| 2.878) 25.5| 73,381,563} 40.3, 29,504.54) 35| 45| 36| 44| 23,661/662| 189,757
1900... .| 2,894, 20.4) 58,925,833} 40.8 24,075,271 37 61 37 57 6, 293, 207 171,004
1901 ....| 4,295, 25. 6 109,932,924! 45.2) 49,705,163 56 63 64 72 8, 714, 268 57, 406
1902. ...| 4.661, 29.0} 134,954,023/ 45.9 61,808,634, 36] 70| 48] 56| 8,429,141) 56, 462
1903... .| 4,993, 26. 4 131, 861,391, 45.6 60,166,313) . 42 613 38 59 | 10,881, 627 90, 708
1904....| 5,145, 27. 2! 139,748,958) 42.0) 58,651,807 38 52 40 50 | 10,661,655 81,020
1905... .| 5,095, 26. 8) 136, 651, 020) 40.3 55,047, 166 37 53 42 553| 17,729,360 18, 049
1906... .| 6,323,757} 28.3) 178,916, cg 41. 5) 74, 235, 997 44 TS Se Pogue apes cs - panos

a Prices from 1895 on are for No. 3 grade.

Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1906, by States.

Average oe Farm
State or Territory. Acreage. | yield per| Production. mis value
acre. | fe 1 Dee. 1.
| | |

| Acres Bushels.| Bushels. Cents. Dollars.
te RE Ee a ee ee 7, 661 31.5 241, 322 65 156, 859
LEC Te ee oe r -.. S.58y 21.4 32, 250 64 20, 640
STD SE ES I ee ee 12,810 32.8 420, 168 62 260, 504
UE ee ee a ee ere | 86, 193 26. 3 2, 266, 876 55 1, 246, 782
ppereciuhyetiss 2, eon ee ee | 8, 518 25.0 212, 950 55 117, 122
Dust Sip ee eae ea eee | 1, 436 31.0 44, 516 7 20, 923
prterettei ee a Sens eee eee ee 2, 398 28.6 68, 583 56 38, 406
RUB = Sone eek sees ea ee eee 21,775 30.0 653, 250 45 300, 495
Man Se Ed Se Fae oe Sets ee 8, 486 29.4 249, 483 52 129, 734
PNR N NEES me an oat = Ie ee | 25, 298 30.0 758, 940 42 318, 755
SREP AN we SA = aen e e te 70, 000 26.1 1, 827, 000 49 895, 230
OG DE Baar ES Stepeseetorne Hoe an ao eeee eee 728, 000 30.7 22,349, 600 45 | 10,057,320
UTI) 2 a es meant Sore 1, 128, 265 28.0 31, 591, 420 35 | 11,056, 997
oes Soca ees eee ewe ee. te 556, 000 28. 3 15, 734, 800 35 5, 507, 180
MSSERR AS SS S22 25 5-3 ee 1, 648 24.2 39, 882 48 19, 143
eee PHLR OES | 8 Se eae ee eee 613, 000 25.8 15, 815, 400 33 5, 219, 082
pieanely Mees... se be TAs ee 720, 000 29.0 22,910, 000 32 7, 331, 200
EER ee ae ere eae } 120, 000 28.0 3, 360,000 al 1,041, 600
BURBEESE Selec ot a ae ee ee ee ee | 359, 000 23.5 8, 436, 500 33 2,784, 045
Sreniyeeye = obo a ee ee eee | 673 26.0 17, 498 55: 9, 624
Sb T Tn Ss See See eee eee Se gw e 5° 1,045 23.0 24, 035 co 14, 421
fg o>, 1s OE ee ee ee ee ae ae Oe ae 4. €01 24.5 112, 724 61 68, 762
Olmisma 2 200s 2. So. 35. Ms 15, 666 29.8 466, 847 33 154, 060
RD. 9 PS asin I EE 14, 313 33.0 472, 329 56 264, 504

VOIR 5 Sore df hrs Se ee 3 31.4 94, 200 64 Pe
MOlOTADON 33-095. as os Bese cle 18, 531 41.0 759, 771 54 410, 276

O12

Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1906, by States—Con.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average sp ieee Farm
State or Territory. Acreage. | yield per} Production. Stites value
acre. gut Dec. 1.
Dee. 1
Acres Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.
NG Mexico seem see ceric ein atsoe tee ote 556 27.0 15, 012 63 9, 4
ATIZONG-22cbs oat eceeectha ce scseeeee ees 13, 404 42.2 565, 649 76 429, 893
Uitala. 23 7 soa ees a eee ee eae eee eee ene 12, 000 44.0 528, 000 54 285, 120
N@VE0 86 cceican scien teC scien <n asdeaesees 7,089 36.8 260, 875 69 180, 004
Wdahos: Fes soe face ceo a eee 47, 028 41.0 1, 928, 148 50 964, 074
Wiashinetontee ics. c.2cce me een oases eee 158, 994 36. 5 5, 803, 281 49 2, 843, 608
Oregons jah cee acess dace teas se see ee 59, 862 35.0 2,095, 170 52 1,089, 488
Calitormigi ey. 25. : 225 Whee hs stece sacar 1, 425, 000 27.2 38, 760, 000 54 | 20,930, 400
United StatesSen. < ashes. sao. a eee 6, 323, 757 28.3 | 178,916, 484 41.5 | 74,235, 997

Average yield per acre of barley in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898..| 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Bush.| Bush.| Bush. |Bush. |Bush. |Bush. |Bush. |Bush. |Bush. |Bush.

Wari Tie erence nse cece cmos Peo. 0 27.0 29.0 27.4 27.5 29.4 29.9 | 32.7 29.0 al.D
New Hiampshire.....2....-.2- 22.5 | 23.5) 25.0 | 22.7] 21.5 : : b
WeETMOnGee oc osacee sees oe ee 28.5 | 30.0 | 31.0 | 29.1) 29.6
IMASSACHUSEUES -.0\5- se seme cee S465) 2425) 30505 |e 2058 lesa =e
mode tsland \.-sesceesees sae 282 ON 2820" 929-05) 28h Onr mesos
ING Wa WOTK. noms tece coer acces 25.0) “2522 | 24.0. |) 2220") 14.07) 285 |) 26260) 26se80le eae 26.3
POMS YUVA <a laieiac orale wie cee 24.5)) 1904 | 210) ) 19507). 7.2) | 21:0) |) 212 Su) S2oG il aea0 25.0
Maryland - ciciaanet oe serene ane ieceela ae = eee eee eens 18:0 |“ 27,05)" 25.93)" 218s iecsieo 31.0
MITEINIG soem se ascneassaceeserele ee cace Lteses soeceel sete 24.9 | 18.3} 24.4] 24.7] 28.0 28.6
OhiOns ote eo see coe eee 28:5 | 28.7 | 28:0) 27.0)" 24.9))| 32:35 23.35) Qiep e2ose 30.0
Lo Yo Nts ot: Meee ee epee arte Send Ae ad 19:0.) 23.4 | 25.0.) 24.6.) 25.4). 28.0)\]" 9258) 29:97) s28%0 29.4
TUM 018 |. Geeecamcacaeeceecess 25.0.) 27.3 | 29.0 | 25.6 | 24.5 | 28:6) 28:25) 2751) 3030 30.0
IND CRN Paes 2. ee menu seers ce 21.5) 25.2) 24.0 | 23.9 | 22.8) 28.6 | 25.2): 241 |) org 26.1
WISCONSIN a ean Sass shee eee s 28.0} 29.1 | 30.0.) 25.5.) 27.2) ..33.81- 27.7% | SOLO me2on9 30.7
MINTICS OUR ns fan mcmciew meeisete ae 25.5 | 2854) 25.0 | 22.4 | 25.8)| 28.6 | .25.35|' 28.45 oO 28.0
WOW co 3 Sotelo eee emer ole arse 24.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | -26.4]| 23.6] 26.3 | 23.4] 27.8) 26.0 28.3
MISSOUTI a5 Scene eset see 19:0) -2050')) 1820) 20.8) 16.55)" 2550"), -1873:) 20 35|heas0 24.2
Worth Dakotdasccesseseesccne 22.5 | 26.4] 24.0 8.2 | 28.2) 31.6 | 21.6 | 28:1 I; 28.0 25.8
South Dakotaccasseeseeecenns 20.0 | 23.0 | 28:0) 14.3.) 22.45). 229.3' || S14 |) 28200) S0s0 29.0
INGDIASKa: 2.) cc eiaetecieeeectece 22:0) |) 27.14} 226:0)) 176") 16300)) SL |) 26360" 2745) ere 28.0
Kansas. act aesoee aaemeneeens 1755 | (28.0°)) Os! 205.) 15.90!) 16:0)|/ Sion) 21Gnleeaene 23.5
MGnibuakey:< sic cicecicetitecke cine 20.0 | 16.0) 21.0) 28.6) 19.4) 25.9| 21.4] 20.6] 240 26.0
MENIMESIEC =.= crtesemisicie cceismaee 18.0.) 18:00) DUO) W470) 16S, 6s0 | 20. Ge lie22500) meena 23.0
Moa Sie hs kee See oe aa 25.0) | 20.0)| 18.0%) 2456 |) 13855) 2L.3 |) 44a) SiO oa 24.5
Oklahoma Gees felons aoe cleee sees lame ee oe aoe erences 22.0 | 36.0! 26.9] 30.1! 26.0 29.8
IMOnBAN a =) oiiacicncewiemaceceties 38.0 | 36.0] 35.0] 38.8] 39.0] 37.0.| 40.2] 29.9} 33.0 33.0
Wi OMe tei aves = -fmaede |Scese er lese nsec | se emeeettaeeeee 32.5 | 24.4] 21.3 | 30:1) 317 31.4
Colorado....... 28.0 30.5 28.0 24.8 28.7 26.3 38.3 BY Bah 33.0 41.0
New Mexico. 32:;5°| (33.8 | 32:0'| 29:0) 31.7" 16.10) 23.50 236mm 27.0
PATI Z ON ara carers ein tragae wie mae eehoarel SS cea cles ote laa eee 2 oeeerae 28.7 | 25.2)| 32.8 | 33:6") ©4450 42.2
Uta Bye cen cae mepceheceise 31.0 | 37.0'|. 33:0'| 36.5) 35.0) | 32.04) 8775) s8S5leree 44.0
INGVEiGE sc odio h cleveaciceraacbtsciedleteestesle ane since e seal eee 33.0 | 34.3] 34.6] 35.9 | 34.0 36.8
Adahos . oe caeeeie esc c ctetaes 35.0 | 35.0] 35.0] 32.8] 40.2] 46.3] 34.4] 37.4] 40.0 41.0
Wiashingtonee.st2c2.2- seeemee 45.0} 39.8 | 35.0] 33.4] 43.5] 43.7-| 37.9 | 34.8 |-4050 36.5
Oregons... {Ras ceca $2.5:)). 29.1 | 28:0'] 28:9) 30.6 |, 31.9 | °33::2))]) (2857iadeo 35.0
Calizormia: (eo nee eee 23.0)! 910.5. |) 260%). 1627.1. 26305). 260) y2bae |) s2edaleeions 27.2

General average.......-. 24.5 | 21.6 | 25.5] 20.4)].25.6 | 29.0) 26.4) 27.2] 26.8 28.3

. Average value per acre of barley in the United States, based wpon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States.

1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905.

$17.11
16.25

VLAINIG 2 in cro ato a mareraie a silat ee re
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts..............-
Rhode Island

$15.12 $16.99

15. 21

$19.99
15.90
18, 12

$23. 22
15. 53
21.85

Pennsylvania
Maryland
Virginia
Ohio

STATISTICS OF BARLEY.

Average value per acre of barley in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States—Continued.

State or territory. 1897.
LE TE EE 3 $8. 36
MAIOIS= ee =~ <= nck cu eects 9.50
LUICST (0s re 8. 60
MIREONBIH oa = =.= 0 eet e nia 8.96
WATER. sico'ss.-a-os Scis csi sc 6.12
Coy Se eee a ee 5.76
LT a ri ee 7.60
IMGFGn DSKOGR. 25.5. ccccceees 6.07
Sogen Dakota .......-.22..<.< 4.40
WIG) PETS Te. Sa ere 5.28
LS =e eee see 4.38
PCERUES EUs oS ws isa <n wee 8.00
RPI os os ois ole ae 10. 62
(jie LS 2 a ae 10.75
UN ere Tp eee | (Ee
MONTANE = soo ce na oar locteecee 19.00
ONC. soe oe Sse ce a a | aw ees
Walornnoee ss 283265 alee | 14.28
INE WEMBIICOn eo. a. 2 oon cases sn 7.88
OMIM te toe anys Sewce acco ste lnaeeeue
LOO ee 13.95
Lp CS ee Aerie
USS ee es 14.7
Weasmnpton- —.. 72.2.5 -...- 19.35
Cle Soe 5 er 14.63
oi 12. 42

General average........

1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
$10.30 $11.25 |$11.56 [$12.95 $12.88 /$11.40 |$14.02 |s12.60 | $15.29
10.65 | 13.63 | 12.03 | 12.99 | 12.58 | 12.41 | 11.65 | 12.60 | 12.60
11.09 | 11.52 | 11.23 | 12.31 | 14.87 | 13.10 | 13.25 | 12.69 | 12.79
11.64 | 12.00 | 11.22 | 13.87 | 15.55 | 13.30 | 12.90 | 12.26 | 13.82
9.37 | 7.75| 8.51 | 11.61 | 10.58| 9.36| 9.09] 8.64| 9.80
8.84] 8.06| 9.77 | 11.09| 9.47| 8.42| 10.01] 7.80] 9.90
7.20 | 7.56| 9.36-| 9.08 | 13.75 | 9.88 | 12.59 | 10.12] 11.62
7.66 | 7.92| 2.87 | 11.28 | 11.38] 7.78| 7.87| 8.40] 8.51
6.21| 6.67| 4.43| 9.41 | 11.10 | 10.36| 8.96] 8.70| 9.28
6.78| 7.80| 5.81} 6.56 | 10.26, 8.78| 8.49; 8.52] 8.68
7.56 | 4.59| 7.10| 7.15| 6.08|10.85| 7.99| 7.04.| 7.76
6.40 | 9.03 | 15.73 | 13.77 | 14.50 | 13.48 | 13.39 | 10.56] 14.30
10.08 | 7.04] 9.11 | 11.76 | 9.76 | 13.39 | 14.08 | 12.31} 13.80
10.00 | 11.88 | 17.71 | 11.88 | 15.34 | 17.08 | 22.63 | 15.84] 14.95
ee |_.....|....-.-| 10.78 | 15.12 | 11.84 | 12.04 | 10.40| 9.83
20.52 | 17.85 | 18.62°| 22.93 | 18.87 | 23.32 | 18.54 18.48] 18.48
mS ENE |__.....| 21.12 | 18.30 | 15.34 | 17.16 | 18.70 | 20.10
14:03 | 15.40 | 12/40'| 18,08 | 15.78 | 23.36 | 21.15 | 17.49 | 22.14
18.59 | 19.52 | 17.98 | 20.61 | 11.43 | 14.78 | 21.24 | 14.49 | 17.01
Bes | eae again 19.52 | 22.93 | 23.62 | 31.25 | 35.64 | 32.07
17.39 | 17.16 | 20.07 | 18.55 | 18.94 | 22.13 | 21.83 |.19.61 | 23.76
Be | Rt 23.19 | 27.44 | 29.41 | 25.85 | 23.80 | 25.39
16.80 | 16.10 | 16.40 | 21.31 | 24.54 | 17.89 | 23.56 | 19.20 | 20.50
17.91 | 15.40 | 13.03 | 17.83 | 20.10 | 18.95 | 17.05 | 18.80 | 17.89
14.26 | 14.00 | 12.14 | 14.99 | 16.59 19.59 | 16.93 | 16.12 | 18.20
6.82 | 13.00 | 7.18 | 10.66 | 16.38 | 15.68 | 13.62 | 12.68 | 14.69
8.93 | 10.28 | 8.32 | 11.57 | 13.28 | 12.05 11.40 | 10.80 | 11.74

Average farm price of barley per bushel in the United States December 1, 1897-1906, by

States.

l
State or Territory. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.

| | |
| Cents. Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.) Cents., Cents.| Cents.| Cents.
UO i ee ee 55 56 59 62 67 68 71 71 68 65
New Hampshire..............| 60 58 | 65 67 80 75 84 7 73 64
0 eri a | 52 66 61 60 66 54 62
Massachusetts 69) | eee eee eee esl. ee [ees lSenaete
Rhode Island } ci Al ee Ses) Se el eae ee Sas Leaense
Lea Se 51 56 55 55 57 54 55
Pennsylvania 50 59 | 54 56 56 55 55
WLP EY to 6 Se Oe Pee Cees Sees een 52 | 49 50 64 48 47
2 UTE TD ee 2s ee epee 2 ees eee es eens eee 47 54 57 61 55 56
ro Like So Bie ene oe SO Sa 43 il) 49 50 GH 45 46
paling cine <1 52 ere 47 51 46 50 48 45 52
MMO eon) a ee 47 53 | 44 44 43 42 42
DRIP RTT co a caler a o's ewok 47 54 52 52 55 47 49
Mikisconnina > 2 Us oo eee 44 51 46 48 43 41 45
INEIES OGG 2 os sen aa 38 ! 45 37 37 32 32 35
(Po Es: Roe ae bio Ree ae 37 47 36 36 36 30 35
i IEC Te See ae ee 45 55 55 54 62 44 48
North Dakota 35 40 36 36 28 30 33
South Dakota 31 42 38 33 32 29 32
PSMA Se wo) cone teen 33 41 33 33 31 31 31
Lig DEAE ee Se 33 45 38 34 37 32 33
inl Se i ee 55 71 56 63 65 44 55
SREHREESSEG t o-oo. ae 62 7 61 65 64 57 60
GEAR sc os 5 sc: 72 88 72 7 73 66 61
wr ay GEG I a aa om a Nb ie ee 49 42 44 40 40 33
Montana... 48 52 51 58 62 56 56
PUR ORMIE ES So 2 a at OL ELE ee Sed ene | aim 65 75 72 57 59 64
Colorado..... 50 63 60 61 57 53 54
New Mexico 62 65 71 64 90 69 63
JTRS 2 a eR ate Re [Ae — eal | NR | aaa 68 91 72 93 81 76
Mp es eh Seo Saab eck 55 53 59 59 57 53 54
ITEC ehh eo ee nc py Me Mase he ee a) ae ee lie a 70 80 85 72 70 69
icine se ee eS eee 42 48 46 50 53 53 52 63 48 50
Wrshinrton ao) -. 2.22. 5~ 43 45 44 39 41 46 50 49 47 49
OTOP ONN ER 2 2e ss ence eee 45 49 50 42 49 52 59 59 52 52
Galtomiar = 22 2825. gae5-- oe 54 65 50 43 41 63 61 60 59 54
General average.......- 37.7| 41.3 | 40.3] 40.8| 45.2] 45.9] 45.6] 42.0] 40.3 41.5

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield of barley in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.

Ger-
many.

(®)

9 oo bp Go
PEEEEt a

NEwWRONON

ww
9 $8
won

Year. any Russia.
(2) (>)
UROG..2. oa oe ee Sete abe 23.6 12.8
PaO iat. oc Fes cei qa hears Sees cake 24.5 11.8
RDS. oc csc sake wm seek eae skis 21.6 14.9
DOO: . kas ee Queens seis ose 25.5 11.1
WOOO: i stick Abc eek eee a ssh 20. 4 11.4
OL ois oe rs: Rare ata arte trate atthe le otote 25.6 11.2
MDD hac Pee dee he eee ee ee aie 29.0 15.6
TODD eS on Sate he Sekine ance a ah 26.4 15.5
Df ee pe a ae ee ee ee 27.2 14.4
PIO oe ae aes Soe Sinton Saloni e De 26.8 14.3
AN BE APD & ors diva em ees 25.1 | 13.3
a Winchester bushels.

33.1

Austria. |Hungary. | France. Kingdom,
(>) (>) (2) (a)
19.3 24.0 21.8 35.2
17.6 17.6 19.4 33.9
22.0 23. 6. 23.3 37.4
24.9 24.0 22.7 35. 7
20. 2 20. 9 21.8 32.7
22.5 20. 0 21.1 32.7
24.5 24.7 24.5 36.9
24.7 25.1 25.2 33.4
22.9 19.8 22.0 32.2
24.0 24.2 23 4 35.9
22.3 22.4 22.5 | 34.6

+ Bushels of 48 pounds.

Wholesale prices of barley per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

Cincinnati.

Extra No. 3
spring.

Low.

High.

Sepibamiber_.......0.. 22.2... 55 65
GPloberen eee peewee ee 55 65
Movember . 55-0. cacegses. oat 55 65
DECOMPETE. .esee caters Loree 55 65
1903.
HS TOE 98 eee eee Sees 55 65
BD TURT is. foe wees ss ae 56 65
MUSIC Dyer eee asia ioe o-le seine oe 56 65
PRU TUE te Sore tow tn coe teneaoces 55 62
BVioe neers cep Re se emeese ne 55 62
HS ee eee ae 55 62
WHEL Yess sao spas te os Lemons oine safeeaccualeee aces
PA UGU san, « nag Sam ie noe oe eae at ete Taleo SRL
September... ..........0222- 62 71
GOBLO UCL Fre. cit cer was jemeace 61 69
Nivemben 2525 fos occceenee 62 69
PPCCMIVGIS es ok es canons nee 60 69
1904.
Sama ty Ske ea: see eee €0 69
Mean ys. 22 2e-he tage eee 62 69
Ma TCh4 2 52.2 cate on eee Lee 62 69
PNP TI < aim Soon oc See ee ee 62 69
BY traicrceve ose SOB bce eR hee ae 62 69
ORIG ye Be. oh ee cs ete cece 62 69
DRELY, cistateseieierrc ase meme cc atel eee celeste
14] a a Bie pe AS EEE
MP TONUDOE. o. wih = aia aoean ache eatomedel aeeie ee
Getober fs; sc etee ore eee oe ae 55 62
NOVEM WAL. -Panccc pe eecnee 55 60
OCODUBOT S. oo Sk eon eee eae 55 €0
1905.
UDO I @ han Sea a5 See eee 52 58
OD UUAT Yievis sud cals .u siecle een 52 58
ene Ba eae ob siee ae 52 58
aha Reiman e ae cic 52 58
May nioiata sapere sera eee ates ee eee 54 58
GUUS oj. ccac cena < eaeeoe dene 54 58

Chicago.
No. 3
Low. | High.
38 63
35 60
35 58
36 70
45 58
47 56
46 55
46 55
48 56
49 54 |.
47 53 |.
47 Yee
inl 63
46 62
43 ate
42 61
37 61
40 61
40 54
38 60
38 59 |.
35 59 |.
36 55 |.
3 55
38 55
37 54
38 53
38 52
38 50
37 48
40 48
40 494
40 50 |.
43 50 |.

: San Fran-
St. Louis. ices
Malting, | Minneapolis. | No 1 prew-
medium to ing (per
choice. ewt.).
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
$0. 95
1.025
1.023
1.025
1.074
1.014
1.00
933} 1.014
52 67 35 62] .964| 1.15
50 62 32 69 1.124, 1.25
48 61 30 60 1.183 1.30
48 61 30 60 | 1.224} 1.323
No. 1 feed.
50 61 35 62] 1.15] 1.214
50 61 42 60 | 1.15] 1.224
50 61 40 58) 41.114) 1.20
48 57 40 52 | 1.05 1.164
48 57 40 52] 1.05] 1.123
Bre aleraieitetetstericig 40 521) .90) 1.124
B- Sacaleeeceee 34 57] .974| 1.10
Bessie Ube eens 34 55 | 1.024] 1.13}
55 67 40 57 1.16}
54 65 35 55 | 1.083] 1.163
50 64 33 57 1. on 1.15
49 63 30 55 | 1.074) 1.15
48 65 32 57 | 1.20) Waae
50 65 36 55 | 1.074] 1.15
48 64 34 54} 1.06 ge 3
49 62 33 52 1. 07. 1.15
feces 33 52] 1.033] 1.10
oodesallacoewie 32 52 ~95 1. 06}
B24 eee 28 50} .95| 1.038
42 48 30 53 | 1.03%] 1.10
50 59 33 56 1.05 1.124
45 59 32 47 ion 1 134
45 54 32 46 1.07 1.13:
44 54 33 48} 1.10) 1.15
44 53 33 45 | 1.16 1. 233
45 53 36 45 1.2 1.25
45 51 37 Ad 1.2 1.30
47 48 36 44 1.223) 1.30
i dBc line ce oe 37 46 1.224) 1.35
ee 2 eRe Sa 39 46 1.2741 1.35

STATISTICS OF

RYE,

578

‘Wholesale prices of barley per bushel in leading cities of the United States. 1902-1906—

Continued.
ae Fi : San Fran- _
Cincinnati. Chicago. St. Louis. eae
5 Minneapolis.
Extra No.3.| 0.3 Bes cig No. 1, feed
spring toad BAe (per cwt.).
Low. | High.| Low. | High.} Low. | High.| Low. | High.) Low. | High
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents
54 58 40 oh ee eee ee 35 $1.10 | $1.20
54 58 373 Sit eae Se Meee 30 48 | 1.02%) 1.10
54 58 374 52 48 55 32 47} 1.05] 1.133
54 58 363 53 43 55 32 48 | 1.10] 1.30
54 58 374 55 43 56 34 48 | 1.223) 1.273
54 58 37 53 45 54 34 48 | 1.223] 1.274
53 58 384) 55 46
53 58 38 51 45
53 58 39 53 45
55 60 39 53 | 414
55 €0 42 553, 2 46
55 60 43 58 | 447
55 co 40 54) @4l
— nies as See eee ere Ges ce | sata 38 53 | 236
Ribpeu fife) 0c) ee i 52 61 38 55 46
ee wees = | 52) 61 40| 56 45
Luly: ful 02g | 56 62 42 56 46
WSORETDOT: -- <- on ecce +--+ - =e | 57 62 44 56 49

Country.

NORTH AMERICA.
United States

Canada:

EUROPE.

Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper
Croatia-Slavonia

a Feed barley.

RYE.
Rye crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially the crop of the world.]
1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.
—!
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
| 33,631,000 29, 363,000 | 27,242,000 28, 486, 000 33, 375, 000
3, 620, 000 3, 064, 000 2,085, 000 1, 769, 000 1, 269, 000
51,000 51,000 | 130, 000 179, 000 104, 000
800, 000 800, 0CO 800, 000 800, 000 800, 000
4, 471, 000 3,915,000 | 2, 995, 000 2,748, 000 2, 273, 000
100,000 136, 000 | 67,000 | 60,000 60, 000
| 88,202,000 | 33,414,000 | 30,304,000 | 31,294,000 35, 708, 000
82,482,000 | 81,130,000 | 91,685,000} 98, 192,000 99, 246, 060
47,355,000 | 43,880,000 | 54,039,000 51, 962, 000
3, 386,000 | 2,038, 000 2,537, 000 2, 409, 000
“396, 000 360, 000 374,000 | 395, 000
132, 267,000 | 137,963,000 | 155,192,000] 154,012, 000
21,756,000 | 21,988,000 | 21, 349, 000 22, 000, 000
7, 750, 000 7, 772, 000 7,541, 000 10, 818, 000
19, 305, 000 16, 546, 000 19, 245, 000 19,000, 000
10, 598, 000 10, 362, 000 9, 000, 000 10, 000, 000
57, 951, 000 52, 141,000 58, 116, 000 51,095, 000
389,923,000 | 396,075,000 | 378,204,000 378, 948, 000
4,000, 000 3,000, , 000, 000 , 900, 000
13, 973, 000 13,517,000 13, 742, 000 14,000, 9060
857, 000 717,000 982, 000 800,

7, 145, 000 2, 201, 060 7, 344, 000 8, 900, 000

SSS SS

576

Rye crop of countries named, 1902-1906—Continued.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1906.

Country. 1902. 1903. } 1904. 1905.
|
EUROPE—continued.

Russia: Bushels Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels.
Rissia Properiv.jccencse eee 810,537,000 | 803,296,000 | 893,205,000 | 629,671,000
Poland <> ose eee eee 75, 257, 000 69, 100, 000 76, 606, 000 69, 088, 000
Northern Caucasia.......-..- 8, 654, 000 7, 498, 000 | 8,179, 000 9, 950, 000

Total Russia (European).| 894, 448,000 | 879, 894, 000 977,990,000 | 708,709,000

Serwia. <5 eae 1,084,000 | 1,091,000} 1,031,000) —_1, 103, 000

Spairl. coceeceueeses sacs ene 26, 187, 000 22,511,000 14, 185, 000 26, 500, 000

Swedens- s2e oo see reece ase eee 22, 293, 000 23, 360, 000 20, 708, 000 24, 393, 000

United Kingdom............---- 000,000 — 2,000,000 2,000, 000 2,000, 000

Total Hurope:..---=--5-56 1,584, 976,000 |1,594, 381,000 1,678, 196,000 ‘1, 437, 420, 000
ASIA.
Russia:
Central Asia 1, 489, 000 1, 066, 006 1, 088, 000 680, 000
Siberia. .2 ees ee eS 23, 080, 000 30, 982, 000 29, 360, 000 28, 043, 000
Total Russia (Asiatic)....| 24,569,000 32,048, 000 30, 448, 000 28, 733, 000
Total Aside-cs-=+ Je ee 24, 569, 000 32,048, 000 30, 448, 000
AUSTRALASIA. |
Australia:
Queensland «3-32. Selene sae eee 7,000 2,000 1,000
New South Wales........... 39, 000 35, 000 83, 000 35, 000
Victoria... 22 ee oe 15,000 22, 000 31, 000 32,000
Western Australia........-. 3,000 5, 000 4,000 5,000
TPasmamnigincs couneseen weer ee 13, 000 9,000 11,000 12,000 |
Total Australian Com-
monwealths.--sc--. ose 70,000 78,000 | 131, 000 85, 000
New Zealand: --- 22 see cee 28, 000 40,000 | 21,000 | 33, 000
Total Australasia......... 98, 000 | 118, 000 | 152, 000 118, 000 |
Grand total.......--------| 1, 647, 845,000 1, 659, 961,000 1,739, 100, 000 11, 497, 565, 000

~ 30,500, 000°

1, 439, 980, 000

Visible supply of rye in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.

Month. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1800. 1900-1901
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

Tal vane eee ee Se Sees ee 2, 464, 000 988, 000 904, 000 806, 000
TN ial Pee Le Tea RESET © 1, 946, 000 365, 000 638, 000 725, 000
Sentember (se sieheiseesesc ee 2, 499, 000 721, 000 647,000 1,056, 000
October 3,064, 000 894, 000 962, 000 1, 216, 000
November 3, 832, 000 1, 260, 000 1, 906, 000 1, 513,000
December. . 3, 932, 000 1, 212, 000 1, 892, 000 1,754, 000
January 4, 436, 000 1, 573, 000 1, 806, 000 1, 651, 000
February 4,291, 000 1,576, 000 1,734, 000 1, 530, 000
Mareeba 5.22 etwas 4,099, 000 1,724, 000 1, 951, 000 1, 532, 000
‘Asprils 2.7. st eee: ee 3, 682, 000 1, 658, 000 1, 566, 000 1, 333, 000
May... . 2. ieee ee eee eee 3,039, 000 1, 335, 000 1, 441, 000 1,112,000
i fra CEN BEDE Sta h eBay. 5 2 1, 526, 000 975,000 1, 206, 060 938, 000

— i

Month 1$02-3. 1903-4 1904-5. 1905-6.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

DULY a ccs oc eke eee eee one 442,000 926, 000 938, 000 . 920,000 1,544, 000
URUSGS A20\. sch ovat Cee ee ee eae 328, 000 867, 000 968, 000 823, 000 1, 480, 000
Bepienbers ~<o2cne cece een enone 903, 000 866, 000 1, 233, 000 1,081,000 1, 629, 000
OOTODares... ..: 5 eee ee 1, 362, 000 1, 259, 000 1, 686,000 1, 627, 000 1,793, 000
INEIVRILDER o's o acu nc Sanne aceeet 1, 828, 000 1, 509, 000 2,055,000 2, 251,000 1, 906, 000
DIRE DEE soon aces owe cere eee 2,159, 000 1,744, 000 2,525, 000 2,703,000 1,891,000
angers Ll Le ee 2, 454, 000 1, 833, 000 2,504, 000 2,990, 000 2,038, 000
Tif) pols Ea ee Gee 2, 354, 000 1,746, 000 2,259, 000 2, 857, 000 2,001, 000
Maroiesen. ©.. 8M oo oe 2, 273, 000 1,717,000 1, 961, 000 2,723, 000 1, 871, 000
yy pd RRL AE Ae gy 1, 688, 000 1, 483, 000 1, 554, 000 2, 452, 000 1, 637, 000
Mayes.) cere oh 8 kU 1,879, 000 1, 554, 000 1, 336, 000 1, 954, 000 1, 416, 000
Pane ee. kM ae SS 2,027, 000 1, 186, 000 1,064,000 1,734, 000 ||: Love seaaeee

a These figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by

Bradstreet’s. :

1]

STATISTICS OF RYE.

577

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exporis of rye of the United States, 1866-1906.

Chicago cash price per
bushel, No. 2.

Farm value, May of
Year. Dec. 1 December. } following
Acres Bush. Bushels. Cents.| Dollars. Cts. | Cts: | Cts. | Cis.
IRSB.°..== - 1, 548, 033 13.5 20,864,944 | 82.2 ATO LAON TAG) fee. sel as. 142 | 150
Te 1,689,175 | 13.7 23,184,000 | 100.4 23, 280, 584 132 | 157) 173 | 185
a Soe | 1, 651, 321 13.6 22,504,800 | 94.9 21,349,190 | 1064 118 | 100} 1154
it. ae 1; 657, 584 13.6 22,527,900 | 77.0 17, 341, 861 66 773| «78 834
jere.-..-- 1, 176, 137 13.2 15, 473,600 | 73.2 11, 326, 967 67 74 81 91
pe ae 1,069, 531 14.4 15, 365,500 | 71.1 10, 927, 623 62 633 75 93
Seno. > 1,048, 654 14.2 14, 888,600 | 67.6 10, 071, 061 574, 70 684; 70
SRO. Ss .:s;- / 1,150,355 | 138.2 15, 142,000 | 70.3 10, 638, 258 7 81 91 102
icy 1,116,716 | 13.4 14,990,900 | 77.4 11, 610, 339 93 993; 103 | 1074
hee 1,359,788 | 13.0 17,722,100 | 67.1 11, 894, 223 67 683) 614 704
ty a 1, 468, 374 13.9 20,374,800 | 61.4 12, 504, 970 654) 73 70 924
Cl Ser 1,412,902 | 15.0 21,170,100 | 57.6 12, 201, 759 554 563) = 54 60
i Ny eae 1,622,700 | 15.9 25,842,790 | 52.5 13, 566, 002 44 444) 47 52
ity, ae | 1,625,450} 14.5 23,639,460 | 65.6 15, 507, 431 733, = 81 734| 85
cbc: | ee 1,767,619 | 13.9 24,540,829 | 75.6 18, 564, 560 82 914; 115 | 118
|: 1,789,100 | 11.6 20,704,950 | 93.3 19, 327,415 964' 98 77 83
1882...... , 227, 894 13.4 29,960,037 | 61.5 18, 439, 194 57 584, 62 67
1s ee 2,314,754 | 12.1 28,058,582 | 58.1} 16,300,503} 563} 60| 604) 624
cro) Se , 343, 12.2 28,640,000 | 51.9 14, 857, 040 51 52 68 73
1885... .. 2,129, 301 10.2 21,756,000 | 57.9 12, 594, 820 583} 61 58 61
Co 2,129,918 | 11.5 24,489,000 | 53.8 13, 181, 330 53 543} 544) 39564
a 2,053, 447 10.1 20,693,000 | 54.5 11, 283, 140 554] 614) 3963 68
1888...... 2,364,805 | 12.0 28,415,000 | 58.8 16, 721, 869 50 52 39 414
1889...... 2,171,493 | 13.1 28,420,299 | 42.3 12, 009, 752 44 453, 493! 54
1800... 2c... ,141,853 | 12.0 25,807,472 | 62.9 16, 229, 992 644; 683) 83 92
LC 2,176,466 | 14.6 31,751,868 | 77.4 24, 589, 217 86 92 70+ 79
1892. =... | 2,163, 657 12.9 27,894,037 | 54.2 15, 103, 901 46) 51 5034; 62
i | 2,038,485 | 13.0 26,555,446 | 51.3 13, 612, 222 45 | 474) 44%) 48
i 1,944,780 | 13.7 26,727,615 | 50.1 13, 395, 476 474, 49 623 67
ISAb> <5. 1,890,345 | 14.4 27,210,070 | 44.0 11, 964, 826 32 353 33 364
1896...... 1, 831, 201 13.3 24,369,047 | 40.9 9, 960, 769 37 | 421} 323) 353
Oi 1,703, 561 16.1 27,363,324 | 44.7 | 12,233,647 “453) 47 48 75
ct 1,643,207 | 15.6 25,657,522 | 46.3 11,875,350] 523) 553] 563/62
1899...... , 659, 14.4 23,961,741 | 51.0) 12,214,118 49 | 52 53 56}
JON oc 1,591,362 | 15.1 23,995,927 | 51.2 | 12,295,417 | 453) 493) 514] 54
s00t 5. 1,987,505 | 15.3 30, 344, 55.7 | 16,909,742 | 59| 653] 543 58
fae. 1,978,548 | 17.0 33,630,592 | 50.8| 17,080,793| 48| 493 48 | 50%
15 eae , 906,894 | 15.4 29,363,416 | 54.5 | 15,993,871 | 503 524! 693 78
1904...... 1,792,673 |} 15.2 27,241,515 | 68.8 | 18,748,323 73 | 75 70 84
005 c-. 1,730,159 | 16.5 28,485,952 | 61.1 17, 414, 138 64 68 58 62
1906.< -... 001,904 | 16.7 33,374,833 | 58.9 | 19, 671, 243 61 Gils o 5-82 lee leases eee
Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1906, by States.
]
Average
Average
State or Territory. Acreage. | yield ae Production.| ft™m | F soe value
eee: price eerie
; | Dee. 1.
| |
: Acres. | Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.
eRCERISIG ee eae ee ree. Ft Se ae 1,754 | 17.4 , 520 62 18, 922
Massachusetts. 222... 2-222. obs ae. . 3,977 15.0 59, 655 65 38, 776
erPpeRICHG. - 80 ee seu ee eee 10, 569 18.0 190, 242 66 125, 560
New-—yY Ox ..: -..2-- misje taoseesekied tes Jes 138, 081 17.6 2, 430, 226 65 1, 579, 647
RIE WRI SESE Y eo ae eee eae eee eee 78, 363 17.2 1, 347, 844 61 22, 185
Petey vans 2 92 3 5S ee 88 346, 265 17.4 6,025,011 64 3, 856, 007
CATES ooo os Sn oo So See oe ee 1,037 15.0 15, 555 64 9,953
2S Se ees, SAS ae 19, 704 14.7 289, 649 60 173, 789
Witpamtt <5. S25 222225258 16, 407 13.4 219, 854 70 153, 898
West Virginia 11, 336 12:2 138, 299 70 96, 80
North Carolina 15, 427 11.0 169, 697 85 144, 242
South Carolina. 4,015 8.5 34, 128 125 42, 660
Qi sb Le eee 14, 206 * 8.3 117,910 105 123, 806
lesen ose = 25-152 52,000 19.5 1,014, 000 57 577, 988
Evian Ae Tes a2 a. 222-2 65, 000 17.6 1, 105, 000 58 , 906
(Go Bosc Ge aoe aeneeaeeserceeaaaas ee 64, 324 17.0 1,093, 508 56 612, 364
(TCG TT oie cane ne aes sue ee kano as Soe ae , 000 14.5 5, 800, 000 59 3, 422,
Wisconsin Soe Secu ecb tote See etee eae 267, 427 17.0 4, 546, 259 58 2, 536, 836
Mives@bay. = 2 o5 055 we one ok oeeee eee , 448 19.3} 1,707,046 50 853,
OO Ses SS SSE Sa S eS SSeS Skee - 5 Sse 52,711 18.6 980, 425 50 490, 212
enone 25 eee SS ee eee 18, 000 15.8 284, 400 60 170, 64@

3 A1906——37

578 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1906, by States—Continued.

State or Territory.

North Dakota...-.... Pa ee Be eC
South Dakotassten. Wet ee eee
Nebraska. S28 essa aaoe a oat an cel seeiecae
IOAN SAS... to = ee ee 8 ee et eee
Kona choy 23. 3 ess Mee Ss eee eee
TepRERSCR 2 eee 2 Re es Nee ees

SIDES S'S RE Pee ah ees ito, Sia tT
Awisame d's 5.2 ne ais yn diaries coe ee sere Sisco

Hi Cri 312d] 2 eae ces Sep = SU hg ne mR REEL, SRN ee
Wavyonmmne. 2 0) eee: ce ee oaeiee seine

Colorado

Washington.
Oregons /2. 2... 522
California

Average '

Average

yield per | Production. farm F ate value

acre. eed ec. 1.
Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.

18.7 433, 840 47 203, 905
18.8 621,979 45 279, 891
21.0 1,995, 000 44 877, 800
16.0 1,026, 272 50 513, 136
L552: 62, 260 7 113, 582
13.0 130, 468 74 5
12.5 20, 912 105 21,958
14.6 69, 029 85 58, 675
13.9 41,074 57 23, 412
12.0 23, 652 83 19, 631
20.5 41, 430 66 27,
19.0 8, 132 72 5, 855
20.0 43, 580 56 24, 405
24.0 t 65 58, 890
25.2 39, 690 60 23, 814
19.6 52, 489 *\ 0 IB: 34, 118
17.2 172, 843 74 127, 904
12.8 802, 355 71 569, 672
16.7 33, 374, 833 58.9 19, 671, 243

Condition of the rye crop of the United States, monthly, 1888-1907.

(ote
a ber o

Year. previous
. year.

Per cent.

TGR. antes ae heme to creeeet ins be aa 96. 0

EROS ee ss Ree Sep re en ereme oe 97.2

SOO) 2 snis ass Sent ce ao caw See 96. 4

SB Sk aio Rt oa ae oe 99. 0

SDD oie Sean cee nin ceecetameer 88.8

ISOS = es ehe 2 Se of coe 2 ee es 89. 4

1b eee eet eae ae 94.6

NSO EE crt secs actin Snead oe 96. 2

SORE Bien o's «uct er Se eee eae 94.9

SO Sie 5S EE hemes geet oS 99. 8

98. 9

98. 2

99. 1

89. 9

98. 1

92.7

90. 5

95. 4

96. 2

BESRBRRSASSLS

eo}

{DD G0 © I © 000060
os

Bs
NONNANGW EP RNONN RON ON wt
CORrPWO Rr WOOF

(ool)
SoCe
oo

When
June. July. | August. har-
vested.

Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.
92.9 93.9 95.1 91.4 92.8
96. 5 95.2 96. 7 95. 4 91.6
93. 5 92.3 92.0 86.8 85. 4
97.2 95. 4 93.9 89. 6 95. 1
9 91.0 92.8 89.8 | ° 88.5

if 84.6 85.3 78. 5 82.0

7 93. 2 87.0 79.8 86.9

7 85.7 80.7 84.0 83. 7

7 85. 2 83.8 88. 0 82.0

0 89.9 93. 4 89.8 90. 1

5 97.1 94.6 93.7 89. 4

2 84.5 84.9 89.0 82.0

5 87.6 84.0 76.0 84.2

1 93.9 93. 5 83.6 84.9

4 88. 1 90. 8 90. 5 90. 2

3 90. 6 89.3 87.2 84.1

2 86.3 89.1 91.8 86.9

5 95.3 92.9 92.6 90. 8
89.9 91.3 90. 8 90.5

|

Average yield of rye in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.

ro United
Year, States.

Fades
No Ne osm nroiaiaccin (ate er ae sta (ates ateatale 13.3
1 ) Ree, Rei a SOS 16. 1
RR ngs 35 Sch s aera ee 15. 6
1 ie) aga i ie ease ih ate 14. 4
ODS aretchd ciate a's detagucls cece eae 15.1
LI ee Se aicic =o :n eats soo be plate 15.3
Re cic .n.«.<, sag iniie oer alae 17.0
ODA eames = deen ecccchebemee 15.4
igi Ct Oa ae ee eee Seed 15.2
Se beet ote fala x ie genin cin t oin/o'nlageme 16. 5
UCT ae eee 15. 4

a Winchester bushels.

i
SHRNNBNNOLS
BPNINWOOMDmAwWwo

a
=
oo

many.

(0) (>)
22.7 16. 3
21.8 13.9
24. 2 iy Hs
23. 6 18. 7
22.9 13.0
22. 4 16.9
24.5 18. 2
26.3 18. 2
26.3 19.3
24.9 20. 2
24.0 bi er

Austria. | Hungary.| France. | Ireland.

) ‘@ | @
18.2 18.7 25.4
13.5 13. 4 21.6
16.9 18.3 25.8
a We An 18. 2 25.8
seis 16.9 25.6
15.8 16.7 27.4
19.1 14.3 28.0
18.2 18.1 26.9
ny Pe 16.6 26.0
19.2 18.5 27.0
ny Gul 17.0 26.0

» Bushels of 56 pounds.

STATISTICS OF RYE.

579

Average yield per acre of rye in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.

1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903.
.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.
1S 2Ock aioe) se

1904.

———'

Pt et et
SUR £0 £0 80 1 S00 69 SG DO I SY) C8 NI > OO I BO

OPONOCRUOCR PRE PANN DOU RNNNNOARWOOon

nt
a
bo

1905. | 1906.

.| Bush. | Bush.
15.0 17.4
ies 15.0
18.0 18.0
16.0 17.6
18.0 Lior
17.0 17.4
10.0 | P50
14.5 14.7
11.8 13.4
11.8 12.2

9.5 11.0

8.1 8.5

Rot 8.3
18.0 19.5
15.4 17.0
18.0 17.0
16.0 14.5
16.5 17.0
18.2 19.3
Lg (St 18.6
15.5 15.8
19.5 18.7
19.0 18.8
18.0 21.0
Tce 16.0
15.0 15.2
12.1 13.0
HEY 12.8
14.0 14.6
1271 13.9
12.0 12.0
20.0 20.5
23.0 19.0
19.0 20.0
18.0 24.0
25.0 25.2
18.5 19.6
15.0 17.2
13.0 12.8

e |
17-0 } 16.6} 18.3 | 16.9} 19.4
16.0 16.9 15.9 es 13.7
OG 270| ISO} TY IO
16.0 | 15.2 | 149] 17.5] 15.2
15.0 15.9 15.0 16.4 | 13.8
15.0} 35.3] 15.9} 16.0] 15.6
Se [ee 15.3 | 13.5 | 148
Retin wine) a, aera mice mts Sears 17.0 2 14.0 16.5 14.4 14.0 Tae
SE eRe ee) oe 11.0 1.2 9.0} 10.5} 11.1 Gh ako
Weese Vv tremnia... .-. 25 ss. acne 11.5 1.2 10.0 10.5 12.0 8.1 11.5
North Carolina 8.8 9.1 7.0 8.9 8.5 8.2 8.8
South Carolina. - 6.6 8.5 5.0 ree Tat 7.6 7.6
COBOTR ie ga a ws a os 5ceue ances 7.4 8.0 6.0 7.0 7.6 6.3 7.9
ER fa hi Soaps ce ee 18.0 17.4 16.0 16.6 16.9 IZ5 15.3
TET ee pai a lO 15.5) 30, bh 145} 14:5) 1x6
MURS 2h SC oe nt cat 15.5} 44.8} 15.0} 27.2} 17.0} 19.1) 16.5
MUGHIER. oosten aces oe ca 15.0} 15.3 | 14.0] 14.6] 14.0) 17.9] 15.5
WRC RR SS 6k ee cacess 16.0 15.3 15.0 15.8 15.9 18.9 16.6
i STI 5.21 00" a ne coe aa Bice}. eae 18.0 19.5 19.3 | 22.3 18.4
Lo er ee 16.0 | 19.0] 18.0] 180] 18.4] 17.4] 16.9
LOC i aie ieee 1250) [1323 1320" 1420)! 9409" 1822.) 12:18
Worth Dakota. .......- 2.0.0... 14.5 15.0 15.0 5.2 13.8 | 20.2 pee
Sonn Pekots................. 16.5 16.6 15.0 10.6 14.4 18.8 } 20.2
RININEDY a oe eee Senco os 17.0] 18.8| 16.0] 14.2] 15.0] 20.3] 14.2
US) eS re 14.0 15.6 11.0 15.2 14.3 12.0 16.2
PRET oom wan own nile oe 130} 180} 10:01F ISP) 140 F 13:4) 1156
bin NS ee 10.0 | 10.5 0) Fe HS | ate |) 13.4
JA DO ee So 9.6 2 8.0 7.8 8.0 10.0 10.6
Loci 5 ee See 3220: | 12:0} 30:0 16.5] 21.1 9.9 | 14.2
(0 Sv) ie ae Se eee Senile ey Ae a ee eee 14.8| 16.0} 17.9
che: 11.0 OE 4 Patt 0) pF 1. 5) | eS. P8238 P17
PIN roe ose aes ee eee So eco Pe oe 2657 25:0) | 246
\ it a aes eee Mero eee | See Se Be ees 24.0 18.0 18.0
MUGOFROG. = \-..0 cher =a aveeenos $5.0 | 38:05) 24.0') 26.8} 3650 5 25.9). 18.3
UC eS oe ae: See #20, f 39:5 f 2750) A775) 94.2) 84 |, 16-1
Th CYS Se OPS SS ee ee Fee Pe eee Deen 2 15-0){ 20:25 18.5
Weeshinwhen.-5.2 ~~~... toss 19.5 18.0 16.0 16.3 47.5 17.8} 21.0
SERRE D TI oo. bcee cine 05.0} 22.4] 21.0] 36:1) 35.7} 13.4} 14.2
(Cea oe a a $252 \b S050) 85.0: | °28)0/1 432) 8°F 192703] 12.3
General average........ 16.1 | 15.6 | 14.4 | 15.1} 15.3 | 17.0 | 15.4

_
lor)
or
Lal

| =
~

Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value, December 1,

1897-1906, by States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903.

1904. | 1905. | 1906.

LP ee ee et eat OF (ere, totes OO SPA IONS. Sl oce acct tan cewelmaacemd|anaspmcpeenesee
New Hampshire.......-...... LS al = nh ba Ce i eed eee et Meee ee (ee ee
= 000 ee ee = 9. 60 11.08 | 10.54 | 10.13 ($14. 64 {$13.01 [$12.61 |$12.51 | $9.75 | $10.79
Massachusetts. ........-.--..- 11.90 | 10.52 | 12.64 | 12.68 | 12.56 | 12.16 | 10.00 | 13.94 | 12.25 9. 75
Crmmoechiewis. =. 520.4. sepe os 31. 21 | 10.80 | 11.52 | 11.05 | 12.96 | 13.05 | 12.07 | 13.35 | 13.32 | 11.88
ea Ones 2, See ee 8. 88 8 75 8. 96 8. 46 9.24 | 10.15 9.27 | 10.80 | 10. 72 11. 44
IN@wid CIs@y 6255-5. 65st s2e 850] 7.75) 8251 874] &851|10.00] 883 12.25 | 11.88] 10.49
Pennsylvania. 2-2. ke ae Sif) 57 | oe 655} S10 7-98.54 0 18 48") 9.67 | TLOr ) E05 | Bee
LS 2 PA De ee = Sk epi S Ce De oe Petes 2 eee el Se 8.87 | 837] 9.03] 861] 660 9. 60
Le TENTS Se Boe Grane : 7.83 | 7.98} 8&58/} 806] 812) 808] 1125) 943} 882
PIA. oo oe ee eee . §.15 | 477| 609} 677/| 634] 805|1162| 838 9. 38
WeesbeV lreinia Ul... eseee . Sam 16:20)! 96.072)t 80) 1S.51 - 8 17 | 9.63 |) 8.26 8. 54
feet Garetine 325 ..5eesece 5 Dy 82) 5.25) ~Gs76)| G63). G97, Z39)[ Si6L'| “S17 9. 35
South Carolina..............- 8.67 | 545] 7.87] 855| 859] 813] 9.45] 9.64) 1063
GOO: Cae ee ee eee 7.84} 672} 7.21] 806} 693] 901] 847] 839 8. 72

LD. ee eee 7.83! 880] 9.13! 9.30] 9.27! 887] 11.91! 11.16] 1112
ne ee ee ee ae 6.67 | 6.24] 7.55| 7.68} 6.67] 6.68] 10.07] 9.24 9. 86
LS eee ee ee 6.51} 7.05} 808} 9.69] 9.55] 858 | 12.32 | 10.80 9. 52
LS eee? 6.58 | 7.28] 7.01] 7.28] &77| 7.90] 950] $44] 856
WRG ORS Sao = 3352 -mnee 6.58 | 7.20] 7.74) 827] 9.45] 830] 11.18] 9.73 9. 86
MMMESObA S22... 3 eee 7.79 | 7.56) 819] 9.46] 9.59] 828} 11.33] 9.65 9. 65
NOWAA Reece anos. ene 7.60 | 7.20} 7.38] 9.20] 7.31] 7.44) 10.32} 9.27 9. 30
MISSOUN ees coon ccece oo ae 6.16 | 650] 7.14) 951] 874] 7.04) 9.22] 9.61 9. 48
North Dakota........ 5.40} 5.55 | -2.13'} 5.937] &/69)) 6:75 | 11.10 |- 9.75 8. 79
South Dakota... 5.64] 5.55) 413] 6419] 7.71|.808] 9.41] 9.31 8. 46
NWepragica 9 Stoo 2: 6. 39 6. 08 5. 68 6. 90 7. 3 5. 25 8. 69 8. 64 9. 24
(RGUTISAS \ cSememes set So eae 5.77 | 4.62! 6.541 7.87] 5.40! 7.13] 858] 8 48 8. 00

580 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value, December 1,
1897-1906, by States—Continued.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
INGEN EUICIY;. -(-73- ae eee : é f : : . . 00 |$10. 96 |$10. 65 | $10. 64
Tennessee «wis. 2-eckes eee - E 3 3 4 5 ; 9.24] 9.32 9. 62
INADA = sio5 oo Sete ee sere 12. 48 | 13.34] 13.12
TOXAS.. oct ssok acess casera 11. 27 | 11090") Seae
Ok¥ahomaie = 2cseane es eee 5. 83 | 7.50 7. 92
Arkansas\.+ 2252 )325e55 esas é . a O70 (2G 9. 96
Mont amare eee ee eer . is . 15. 32 | 13.00} 13.53
Wyoming. 2... 52:-ne<cece Be i i - 7.80 | 14.26 | 13.68
Coloradoe= s5-2 5-6 2e 3 4 9. Bei? : : 3 2 12. 41 | 10.64 | 11.20
Utah: sasee-eae ey sal gas lL : k 10.72 | 11.70} 15.60
Adaho! J teas. 2 ee essa 14.77 | 14.00] 15.12
Washington : b : ; 5 ; 15.01 | 12.95 | 12.74
Orepontieases see seee sree oe i ¥ a i; i ps . 12.82 | 12.15 | 12.73
California: 9. seta eee oe 5 . 3 i H . 3 5.93 | 10.01 9. 09

General average f i F : : . . 10. 46 | 10.07 9. 83

Average farm price of rye per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by

States.
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904 | 1905. | 1906.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.

MalnG . .i:Sed dace aoace on eee 82 84 84 82 |b Skee Se. oe Lf ek ee ee cee eee
New Hampshire.............. 84 75 81 82) Senet Sieen |e omens |S eee ee : x=,-| SSS
MErMmoniceces ot sece eee 60 58 62 61 80 77 65 74 65 62
Massachusetts: 220 0302-2. 2 61 63 79 75 79 80 73 82 7 65
Connecticut. ee ses 59 60 64 65 72 7 71 79 74 66
New! Morkseese semen eee. 48 50 56 56 62 58 61 73 67 65
INGwiJiersOyeccoecte ee nue. 50 50 55 55 59 61 64 70 66 61
Pennsylvanian seen ne eae 43 47 51 53 60 53 62 71 65 64
Delaware: tes. 2osee se een lee eee. eee eee eee oe Ree 58 62 61 73 66 64
Marnyland> so ieee. oe eee es 46 54 57 52 56 58 59 76 65 60
Wireinia ee 22) eae a eee 50 46 53 58 61 66 66 74 71 70
West Virginia....- eS ee 51 52 62 64 65 68 71 77 70 70
NorthCarolinas=*2 52 295-22 60 64 75 76 78 85 84 87 86 85
SouthiCarolinass.c5-.seeeecce 86 102 109 105 111 113 107 126 119 125
GeOrgiads= 2222 onesie semeise ne 92 98 112 103 106 110 114 102 109 105
ORO Se se oe i eee eee 44 45 55 55 55 53 58 74 62 57
WNGHAN SRS. nics tee sens ee 42 43 48 50 53 46 53 69 60 58
WMiMmoisteere. eo celse score cee 44 44 47 47 57 50 52 70 60 56
Michi Pama. sos. a 2 28 42 43 52 48 52 49 51 72 59 59
WiitsConsinie a. smc on. d 41 43 48 49 52 50 50 69 59 58
MinniesOtaiin).co~2seeesus J 37 38 42 42 49 43 45 64 ae 50
HO Wie ent ois Sos 36 40 40 41 50 42 44 60 53 50
MINSK 2 es hac os sarees 44 47 50 51 67 48 55 64 62 60
North Dakotacecescca-ce=l 36 36 37 41 43 43 43 60 50 47
South: Daikotai.is....-s22-<--= 35 34 37 39 43 41 40 57 49
INGDIASKae Sse seceeeeseree sets 32 34 38 40 46 36 37 55 48 44
[Kansas tede cscs saceeinne sees 40 37 42 43 55: |b ue 44 65 54 50
Keentutky sacce: gee sooesceeene 53 55 70 63 67 62 69 80 71 70
Tennessees'o 5. seeeee acomeeee 58 53 67 68 74 73 74 79 77 74
‘ATabamig oo. a ees 118 105 104 103 104 105 108 120 114 105
Texan 5 sosce. stem meee 72 71 82 67 93 76 74 86 85 85
Oklahoma .2 2.2 sor eae oles bal ae ccan tee certs enemas 70 47 50 62 62 57
Arkansas? ch see eeceeeeeee 86 |. 65 74 72 89 73 84 88 93 83
Montana: 2 oe cece erected Lee ESS en Sanne sl cee 60 64 63 77 65 66
WY Oming 2... oboe eee eee | eee ae | pees |eeter tice aaa ae 80 50 69 40 62 72
Colorado.2 28. -taa cece aes 52 50 48 54 62 56 61 65 56 56
ian... 2.22 EES: 60 46 48 52 65 61 65 67 65 65
MOSH Osc o.c. oc cite epoch see ard ee | | ee ee eee 67 60 65 75 56 60
Wisshingeton. 522i sescee eon << 32 58 60 58 62 64 72 79 70 65
Operon 5 fe.c) sole eee eee 59 72 a 61 66 73 97 89 81 74
Galitornian yt. Seka) eee 65 70 78 58 57 75 77 78 77 71

General average........ 44.7| 46.3| 51.0] 51.2] 557] 508] 545) 688) 61.1 58.9

STATISTICS OF RYE.

581

Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

PRBIUARY. =. 2--2- Seen =. =

NEEDY =. 2 ae Bon oon

UTE 7 a ar
Webruatye-=.2--2-.-<-,.
i eS ee eee

Lo Sr Se
September. .....-....--.-
CIBUONOE. .< o5 =~ 5 328 se5

| .
Philadelphia.| Cineinnati. | Chicago. Duluth. ay rae
}
No. 2. } No. 2.
Low. | High. 7 Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Low | High. | Low. | High.
| .
Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cent.| Cents.
| 69 71 66 714} 56 673} 54 64 773| . 90
68 7 64 67 | 56} 604) 53 573] 8731 90
| 65 69 63 65 | 543] 58 52 5431 873]. 95
| 643! 67 62 64 5441-574] 52 56 923} 95
64 66 60 634; 544! 58 54 57 923] 95
ee eee 54 59 |} 569] .58 553] 564] = 928] 95
58) 59 554} «58 52k} 61a} ~~ «514] S58 85 95
56 58} 51 56| 48 54 46 51 85 90
574] 59 523} 55} 49 503] — ° 474 49 85 | 105
553|- 584 52 | 53 48 504] 47 49 | 1024) . 110
56 583) 51) 054) = 484) 514) 49 493} 105} 110
| 54 58h} 51 56| 48 493} 48 493} 105} 115
57 613} 553] 59 48 504 48 49 | 1123) 115
61 654 573] 584, 483) 1a] 48 49} 1123) 117
61 63 56 58h 483, 514} 49 493} 110] 1174
59 603} 55 58 48 51 49 503} 110] 115
58 60 54 58 48 503} 493 «3950 | 110] 115
56 58 57 58 49 533} 50 52] 110] 116%
5831 60%] 56 574} 493) «=-514| 483] -- 508} «115 | ~=—-120
Ree ES 5 55 60 503} 533/503] 524) 1174) 125
62 653 593! 63 53 60 503} 554} 120 | 130
64 66 61 63 53 563} 52 54} 125] 130
633| 68 58 62 513} 58k) = i552 54] 125] 130
674} 684] «= «59 62 503} 524] 5 523! 1295] 130
69 72 61 64 51 57 544) 57] 125] 130
73 74 63 81 56 77 58 73) (Peder | 185
epee Pe ea 7 80 663, 76 63 71} 130] 135
eae Pe 74 78 66 72 64 683} 130] 135
Be RATS oe 75 80 693} 78) 65 69 | 130] 135
i. us 80 7 80 633, 75] 55 67 130 135
65 7 7 78 63 75 55 80-| 125] 130
beg lie) [ya Lae 7 763; 62 76 62 75) 125 | 1322
85 87475 83 693 75 72 77} 1273| 140
883} 96 81 87 75 | 794) 77 791| 1373] 140
89 91 83 8715 _ 76 81 74 80 | 1373] 145
803} 873) 81 8) 7. 75 71 74] 140] 1474
} | |

81 874} 80 86 743, 754] 723} «= 75 | 14241 150
eet 901; 813} 86 7 ei 73 75) 145| 160
| 80 833! 84 87 75 784 7331 78} 150] 4160
| 79%! 83 80 86 73 783| 74 77| 150] 165
patel ener 80 83 7 84 7 7 155 | 165
72 75 80 83 75 79 70 7 160 | 175
63 66 60 83 58 75 574, 72) 140} 150
653} 693) 56 60 5731 60| 553) 58] 14731 1524
7 763, 56 66 60 72| 59 64] 150} 152%
73° 16 67 74 67 733| 68 65} 145] 152%
68 7 70 743| 66 723| «62 663} 145] 147%
664 73 7 72 64 68 62 60! 145 150
65 67 68 703} «65 68 60 60) [2a
63 65 65 7 63 65 60 iN eer aes
58k) «63 66 7 5831 63 56 160ml ee [a a 8)

58 6241 66 70 58 623,56

58 62 66 69 58 62 57

| Gp: ela] - ee | 209) ep. | = 92: |< 57

| 56 60 58 64 56 60 53

| BBR 5 58 62 553] 568/58

55 62 60 66 5531 63 53

62 623 65 683 60 623 56

60 65 663| 72 60 65 58

61 65 69 7231 = 61 65 60

582

BUCKWHEAT.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Condition of the buckwheat crop of the United States, monthly, 1887-1906.

Year. Aug. | Sept.
PEC IPGL.

1887... -: 93.3 89.1
TERS eae 92.5 93.7
EROS sce 95.2 92.1
1 eae 90.1 90.5
1e0th eee 97.3 96.6
1900 <2 92.9 89.0
1393's 88.8 77.5

When
har-

vested.
pat ties

ete
76.6

SRRSSS
aAoONNOH

Year.

When |;
Aug. | Sept. | har-
vested
Pet) CeraCte |B Cbe
82.3 69.2 72.0
85. 2 87.5 84.8
96.0 93.2 86.0
94.9 95.1 90.8
87.2 88.8 76.2
93. 2 75.2 70.2
87.9 80.5 72.8

When

Year. | Aug. | Sept. | har-

f vested
Pct. Betts peer
1901. 91.1 90.9 90.5
1902... 91.4 86.4 80.5
1903. . 93.9 91.0 83.0
1904....| 92:8 91.5 88.7
1905. . 92.6 91.8 91.6
1906. 93.2 91.2 84.9

Acreage, production, value, and prices of buckwheat in the United States, 1866-1906.

Year,

Acreage.

Acres.
1,045, 624
1, 227, 826
1, 113, 993
1, 028, 693
536, 992
413, 915
448, 497
454, 152
452, 590
575, 530
666, 441
649, 923
673, 100
639, 900
822, 802
828, 815
847, 112
857, 349
879, 403
914, 394
917,915
910, 506
912, 630
837, 162
844, 579
849, 364
861, 451
815, 614
789, 232
763, 277
754, 898
717, 836
678, 332
670, 148
637, 930
811, 164
804, 889
804, 393
793, 625
760, 118
789, 208

Average
Average farm

yield per | Production. | price per
acre, bushel,

Dec. 1.

Bushels.| Bushels. Cents.
21.8 22,791, 839 67.6
17.4 21, 359, 000 78.7
17.8 19, 863, 700 78.0
16.9 17, 431, 100 71.9
18.3 9, 841, 500 70.5
20.1 8, 328, 700 74.5
18.1 8, 133, 500 73.5
17.3 7, 837, 700 75.0
LT 7 8,016, 600 72.9
17.5 10, 082, 100 62.0
14.5 9, 668, 800 66. 6
15.7 10, 177, 000 66.9
18.2 12, 246, 820 52.6
20.5 13, 140, 000 59.8
17.8 14, 617, 535 59.4
11.4 9, 486, 200 86.5
13.0 11,019, 353 73.0
8.9 7, 668, 954 82.2
12.6 11, 116, 000 58.9
13.8 12, 626, 000 55.9
12.9 11, 869, 000 54.5
11.9 10, 544, 000 56.5
13.2 12, 050, 000 63.3
14.5 12, 110, 329 50.5
14.7 12, 432, 831 57.4
15.0 12, 760, $32 57.0
14.1 12, 143, 185 51.8
14.9 12, 122, 311 58.4
16.1 12, 668, 200 55.6
20.1 15, 341, 399 45.2
18.7 14, 089, 783 39.2
20.9 14, 997, 451 42.1
17.3 11, 721, 927 45.0
16.6 11. 094, 473 55.7
15.0 9, 566, 966 55.8
18.6 15, 125, 939 56.3
18.1 14, 529,770 59.6
17.7 14, 243, 644 60.7
18.9 15, 008, 336 62.2
19.2 14, 585, 082 58.7
18.6 14, 641, 937 59.6

Farm value,
Dee, 1.

Dollars.
15, 413, 160
16, 812,070
15, 490, 426
12, 534, 851

6,937, 471
6, 208, 165
5, 979, 222

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STATISTICS OF BUCKWHEAT.

583

Acreage, production, and value of buckwheat in the United States in 1906, by States.

Maine

State.

PE AIADSRITG «ooo. oo oS se ee eee

Vermont

Connecticut
New York.
- New Jersey

Pennsyivania
MMONTERR TS > S0) oee e P e eeaee ae eres eee

Ss ee lee seiiae e
North Caruiina
Ohio

Average
Average -
yield per! Production. farm wae value
Sera price [20s Us
: Dec. 1
k Bush. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.
22, 783 28.0 637, 924 59 376, 375
1, 874 22.0 41, 228 73 , 086
7,706 21.0 161, 826 58 93, 859
2, 359 20.0 47, 180 68 32, 082
3, 350 17.0 56, 950 75 42,712
321, 552 19.0 6, 109, 488 61 3, 726, 788
11, 598 18.0 208, 7 69 125,
252, 000 19.0 4,788, 000 57 2,729, 160
1,331 17.0 22, 627 61 13. 802
8, 124 18.0 146, 232 60 87,7
18, 078 19.0 343, 482 58 199, 220
21, 131 18.0 380, 358 65 247, 233
5, 603 14.0 78, 442 64 50, 203
13, 000 19.0 247, 000 57 140, 790
4,315 16.0 69, 040 64 44,186
3, 787 19.0 71, 953 75 53, 965
52, 000 13.0 676, 000 55 371, 800
20, 842 15.0 312, 630 62 193, 831
4, 538 14.0 63, 532 54 34, 307
9,000 12.0 108, 000 76 82, 080
1,501 18.0 27,018 74 19, 993
861 6.0 | 12,915 62 | 8, 007
1, 348 17.0 22,916 74 16, 958
527 16.0 8, 432 83 6,999
789, 208 18.6 | 14,641,937 59.6 8, 727, 443
|

Average yield per acre of buckwheat in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.

| | }
State. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
e Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. Bush. | Bush.
Meee oe 35.0] 26.5] 22.0] 30.0] 31.7] 30.4| 29.8] 32.5] 30.0] 28.0
New Hampshire..............| 27.0 | 20.0} 20.0} 22.0] 21.0} 20.0] 19.6] 25.1] 23.0| 22.0
“loin 24.0 | 21.4] 23.0] 25.0] 25.1] 25.0] 24.0} 26.3] 19.0| . 21.0
Peessachusetts.—-_-.._..5.... 19.0 | 20.0) 20.0 17.0 18.9 14.4] 13.7 16.2} 20.0 20.0
Mennecticut....-2-2.--.2...-. 17.0] 19.0] 19.0} 16.0] 18.0] 18.4] 17.5| 16.3] 16.0] 17.0
Miwetaric. 2.222. 22.0} 16.8] -13.0| 140] 18.8] 17-7 18.3| 18-8] 19.0] 19:0
MemGrsy. 2 16.0 | 21.0} 21.0] 16.0] 19.0} 22.5] 18.1] 20.8] 21.0] 180
Pennsylvania................. | 21.0| 17.2] 20.0] 140] 19.5| 18.1] 16.5] 18.8] 20.0] 19.0
pla wane ok ke 1950) | AGSH ot 8.0) 1) 1300 pate Salat se) oh 2) TOT | iO. eazeo
bar iste 2 et PotO 08) 1924 aSKOH TSAO: Zo5t lint! 16S.) 1882 | htc) o18'o
eireRe Baws) oo. | 14.0} 17.3}| 14.0] 13.0] 15.9| 16.6] 18.6] 17.0] 18.0| 19.0
West Virginia................ | 29.0! 20:5] 17.0} 17.0) 20.6| 22.5| 17.2| 19.1] 19.0] 18.0
North Carolina............... 11.0] 19.5] 17.0| 13.0] 15.6] 14.5] ~12.1| 14.7] 15.0] 140
CSG gS ae eae, ee ae 18.0} 20.0] 16.0] 16.0] 16.1] 13.9] 16.6| 16.9| 17.0] 19.0
aelinita, sc. eee he 8 14.0] 18.4] 16.0] 14.0] 13.1] 17.6] 16.8] 16.1] 17.0] 16.0
MRHOISS i: > 22 Aes 1 13.0| 14.0! 15.0] 15.0! 11.0] 15.5! 15.3] 17.9! 16.0] 19.0
Weep am< - toot oo | 17.0] 14.2] 11.0] 14.0] 14.1 13.0 | 15.5) 15.4) 16.0| 13.0
SWISCONBIN:. =. 25.585. 5 be 18.0] 15.5] 15.0| 14.0] 12.4] 16.0] 15.6| 17.7] 15.0] 15.0
MENNGSOLE oct ee a 17.0'| 15:0} 17.0] 15.0} 14.5:| 13.9] 15.2| 15.1] 140) 720
[oS eee 17.0} 16.0] 16.0] 15.0] 13.5] 16.0] 15.1} 14.8] 13.0] 19.0
Massourie. 5) eee ee! | 15.0] 15.8] 14.0] 18.0] 6.0] 16.0] 14.8] 13.5] 36.0] 180
Worth Dakota... ...s2:...2 (peat! [a panee Baba | eee ae AICS TOM On|, S207al| Seale ee ee
ipelirngke ican As | 14501) 12585) 1162081) 16.03) 10.5!|, 14)7:| 19.0)). 44.7 ual 15.0
TTS a A eco pita Sarg ly | [eRe Pg Mee |e IE 7.9| 12.0] 18.4] 14.0] 11.0 17.0
WPONENSCR Se Sac ee | 18.0] 18.0] 12.0] 14.0| 14.2 18.0 | 14.7] 15.5] 16.0} 16.0
peer ee Se ae ee 18.0} 14.0] 17.0] 13.0 ]....... ee ee ame PRE SERS, SF SS 8
General average.......- | 20.9 | 17.3 | 16.6 | 15.0 | 18.6 | 18.1] 17.7 | 18.9 19.2 | 18.6

584

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of buckwheat in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States.

State. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.

MSI eS oa). 2 jcc cis ees $15.40 |$10.34 | $9.68 /$14. 70 |$15.22 /$15.81 |$15.20 [$16.90 |$19.50 | $16.52
New Hampshire-.:....5:--..-. 14.85 | 9.40 | 10.00 | 11.44 | 11.55 | 13.00 | 11.56 | 17.07 | 16.33 | 16.06
Wermont: = 2. o555 -2 eeeee se 11.04 | 9.84 | 11.96 | 12.50 | 14.81 | 14.00 | 18.20 | 14.73 | 9.69 | 12.18
Massachusetts: 22a. sseeese as 12.54 | 12.20 | 14.00 | 12.24 | 11.53 | 10.66 | 9.32 | 11.66 | 14.20! 13.60
Connecticut soa eee 9.69 | 10.64 | 11.97 | 10.40 | 11.70 | 13.06 | 12.42 | 11.90 | 11.68 | 12.75
New: York. .<s2s5--osseeeenene 8.80 | 7.56 | 7.67 | 7.98 | 10.72 | 10.44 | 10.80 | 11.47 | 11.21] 11.59
NeW: Jersey .ceen-te-seceemee = 7.84 | 11.34 | 11.76 | 9.444 9.88 | 14.40 | 11.58 | 13.73 | 13.23 | 10.80
onnsylivanigice seo sees aces 8.82 | 7.57 | 10.80 | 7.70 | 10.92 | 11.04 | 10.56 | 11.84 | 11.20 | 10.83
Delaware. .s see eee na 6.84 | 6.60 | 8.82 | 6.76 | 9.79 | 9.12| 8.36] 7.50| 9.69 | 10.37
Maryland. 9.69 | 6.47 | 7.28] 8.55 | 10.50 | 10.37 | 10.27 | 11.47 | 11.97] 10.80
MING IIR a. ok cone eto -eecene 7.00 |} 7.79} 7.56] 7.15 | 8.90 | 9.96 | 11.35 | 10.88 | 11.16 | 11.02
Wrest: Virginia... 0... ot-peoee 9.31 | 10.05 | 9.52 | 9.52 | 12.15 | 13.95 | 11.70 | 13.75 | 12.54 | 11.70
North Carolina: .....5-2--4.- 5.39 | 9.36 | 8.33 | 7.28 | 9.67 | 8.99 | 7.86 | 10:44] 9.90 8.96
ONIOF: 22 5b su Sees pee eee 9.00 | 10.20 | 9.28 | 9.28 | 9.66] 8.48 | 10.79 | 12.17 | 10.54} 10.83
MOT sen Secs secec nea 6.86 | 9.38 | 9.44] 8.54] 7.99 | 10.21 | 11.76 | 11.27 | 11.05} 10.24
MOIS =.2 cacti see ene ats eee | 7.41 | 7.28) 8.70 | 9.75 | 7.70 | 11.01 | 11,17 | 13.96 | 10.88 | 14.25
Michiran- 3.2. ose cece cee |} 6.46] 5.96] 6.05] 7.14) 7.19 | 6.89] 8.37] 9.39] 8.48 (odo
Wirtseonsin -.c >. cose eeeeeenee | 6.84] 6.20) 9.45 | 8.26] 7.32 | 9.44} 9.52] 11.15 | 8.40 §.30
MInNeSOba .-* *. eke some cere | 7.65 | 7.35 | 8.84] 8.55] 8.99] 7.92] 8:06] 9.06] 7.98 7.56
TOWRA ce schc gene eee ees --| 8.33] 7.69 | 9.28 | 9.60] 9.45 | 11.20 | 10.72] 9.92] 9.10 9.12
Missouri. 3. ee tsn cee ayeeeers 9.00 | 9.48 | 8.54] 8.97] 4.56] 9.34 | 11.10 | 11.48 | 13.12] 18,32
INOTth Dakota: - escccemee soeleeteeias | eepeine teers loneeae 6.90 | 5.40.) 6.73) |= 9:45 ee eee
Nebraskaii¢ 3. <csce ete eeea see 7.14.) 7.8L) || 9592911052421" “6567 7-79") 13211" |) asses) see 9.30
WamSaS)siae eas csieae ete neuer Hepotarn sisal Gt arate ial | Ae ees lote eee 5.92 | 9.00 | 14.35 | 11.20} 7.59] 12.58
Tennessee. Shier sess teeters 10.26 | 9.36 | 6.84] 8.26] 8.38 | 13.68 | 9.70 | 11.01 | 10.88 | 13.28
OTe OD. cag se- sees ese nse) 9900] (8.12) T2589) TOKOL ooo. fae ele eee aera ee

General average.....-.- | 8.80 | 7.77] 9.23 | 8.37 | 10.51 | 10.75 | 10.75 | 11.76 | 11.27] 11.06

Average farm price of buckwheat per bushel in the United States

December 1, 1897-1906,

by States.
State. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
;

Cents.) Cents.| Cents.| Cents.) Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.) Cents.| Cents.

Maing os05 sien ae eer ceee= ate 44 39 | 44 49 48 le 52 51 52 65 59
New Hampshire.........-.--- 55 | AT earo0 52 55 65 59 68 71 73
Wermionte si.) 2-2 eae 2s se eee 46 46 | 52 50 59 56 55 56 51 58
IMSISSACHUSELLS = ses clas. cone cs 66 61 7 72 61 74 68 72 71 68
Connectieuts- a2] 25--sacee-.- 4 57 56 | 63 65 65 71 71 73 73 75
New Y Onesee 2 eee. 3 - eee 40 45 59 57 57 59 59 61 59 61
New, Jersey: =i: 22-1 eens 49 54 56 59 52 64 64 66 63 60
Pennsylvania =: s-n~ <a cecc 42 44 | 54 55 56 61 64 63 56 57
Walawarevees-. 32s. soe a 36 40 49 52 55 60 55 62 57 61
Maryland! ss. ens. so. 5 Seren 51 53 56 57 60 61 63 63 63 60
ily hae ee Sea eee eee ae 50 45 54 55 56 60 61 64 62 58
WHESte VNR ae na Cees 49 49 | 56 56 59 62 68 72 66 65
NOt Caroung. a=). Jase. 49 48 49 56 62 62 65 71 66 64
OOF woe ctiea scans eee ees 50 51 58 58 60 61 65 72 62 57
Indiana Sc. oso eon as 49 51 | 59 61 61 58 70 70 65 64
WNinOiss ss. so eee ce meee 57 52 ! 58 65 70 71 73 78 68 75
Michigan. se secetnmc ees aes 38 42 55 51 51 53 54 61 53 55
Wisconsines.- 2.) ee eee 38 40 63 59 59 59 61 63 56 62
Minnesotan. so tsercce ee oe 45 49 52 YY 62 57 53 60 57 54
TOMO ss cic an ee eee oe 49 48 58 64 70 70 71 67 70 76
MISSOUTI Ye eee eee ee eee 60 60 61 69 76 58 75 85 82 74
North Dakotas ot- 2. 0 eee cance oe selec serene | Cee See 60 54 53 10% ok os Sse
INGO TASH Ja.) cee canons 51 61 62 64 58 53 69 91 63 62
WCaviSais'- 5312 SSS ee cea | Sore roel ree aa | oe eee eters 75 75 78 80 69 74
IRONNGSSES. .- 5c ecb ee eon enoe 57 52 57 59 59 76 66 71 68 83
Oregon 2. seas Sees 55 58 74 1 | SERRE MS eo Seis) Scien
General average.......- 42.1 | 45.0 | 55.7 | 55.8] 56.3] 59.6] 60.7] 62.2] 58.7 59.6

STATISTICS OF POTATOES.

POTATOES.

Potato crop of countries named, 1901-1905.

585

[No statistics for Switzerland, Portugal, Argentina, Transvaal, Egypt, and some other less important
potato-growing countries. ]

Country.

NORTH AMERICA.
Wixihed States... <<... s0.s.245.08

Canada:
Ontario

Mexico

EUROPE.

Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper.
Croatia-Slavonia. - . .
Bosnia-Herzegovina

Total Austria-Hungary...

a .
ussia proper
Poland a

“1 RRS Seca ae
Sweden

United Kingdom:
Great Britain

Total United Kingdom...|

Total Europe-

ASIA.
Japan

Alger
Sane t of Good Hope
Natal

1903. 1904. | 1905.

Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels.
247,128,000 | 332,830,000 260, 741, 000
17, 202, 000 15, 967,000 | 14,819, 000
4, 907, 000 3, 919, 000 4,910, 000
4,835, 000 5, 550, 000 5, 693. 000
30, 000, 000 30, 000, 000 30, 000, 000
51, 206, 000 |__ 56,944,000. 56, | 55, 436, 000 55, 422, 000
539, 000 | 527, 000 6 400, 000
1, 350, 000 up 350, 000 1, 350, 000
247,127,000 | 337,536,000 |_ 305, 961, 000_ 305, 961, 000 |__390, 143, 000_ 390, 143, 000. 317, 913, 000
10, 000, 000 11, 616, 000 a 10, 349, 000 6, 131, 000 | 6, 532, 000

; |
437,110,000 | 428,229,000 | 357,121,000 | 398, 298, 000 581, 822, 000
158,494,000 | 141,538,000 | 165,386,000 | 110,402,000 —_168, 221, 000
17, 512, 000 13, 059, 000 19, 337, 000 9,311,000 | %15, 000,000
, 893, 000 1,793, 000 2, 322, 000 2,450, 000 2,485, 000
616,009,000 | 584,619,000 | 544,166,000 | 520,461,000 767, 528, 000
101, 082, 000 83, 198, 000 86, 580, 000 | 91, 632, 000 57, 159, 000
, 002, 27, 168, 000 25, 256, 000 24, 214,000 29, 953, 009
16, 325, 000 15, 298, 000 19, 212, 000 15, 465, 000 16, 500, 000
411,055,000 | 441,534,000 | 450,262,000 | 451,039,000 | % 438, 000,000
/1, 788, 950,000 |1, 596,969, 000 |1, 576, 361,000 |1, 333, 326,000 | 1,775, 579, 000
29, 000, 000 29, 000, 000 29; 000; 000 , 000, 000 '9, 000, 000
264, 000 361, 000 628, 000 733, 000 387, 000
94, 910, 000 94, 756, 000 73, 394, 000 94,421, 000 87,043, 000
24, 320, 000 17,735, 000 22,851, 000 17, 253, 000 25, 832, 000
3, 819, 000 4, 659, 000 5, 246, 000 3,001, 000 3, 733, 000
566,926,000 | 723,435,000 | 675,330,000 | 705,170,000 686, 502, 000
287,712,000 | 288,447,000 | 194,829,000 | 179,997,000 331, 529, 000
10, 801, 000 16,154,000 | 17,441,000 8, 741, 000 14, 857, 000
| 865,439,000 1,028, 036,000 | 887,600,000 | 893,908,000 | 1,032, 888, 000
1, 237, 000 1,402, 000 | 1, 527,000 718, 000 1, 232, 000
84, 000, 000 84, 000, 000 84,000, 000 84, 000, 000 84; 000, 000
43,793, 000 51, 377, 000 59, 317, 000 51, 314, 000 74,819, 000
| j | | =
137,060,000 | 119,250,000 | 108,779,000 | 133,961,000 140, 474, 000
125, 896,000 | 101,761,000 88, 227, 000 , 635, 127, 793, 000
262,956,000 | 221,011,000 197,006,000 | 232, 596,000 268, 267, 000
——— | ——_—__——
4, 365, 161,000 |4, 281,123,000 4, 062,406,000 3,843, 081,000 | 4,691,920, 000
10, 153, 000 7,418, 000 9, 824, 000 11, 274, 000 5 10,000,000
14, 273, 000 13, 142, 000 19, 364, 000 18, 800, 000 18, 865, 000
24, 426, 000 20, 560, 000 29, 188, 000 30, 074, 000 28, 865, 000
ao —<—<-— Mie a See

1, 673, 000 1,851,000 1, 596, 000 1, 655, 000 + 1,700, 000
21,600,000 | 41,600,000 | 41,600,000 1, 942, 000 a 2,000, 000
316, 000 433, 000 345, 000 451, 000 466, 000
3, 884, 000 3,541,000 | 4,048, 000 4,166,000

a Estimated from returns for census year.

> Average production.

c Average, 1896-1900.

d Estimated from statistics for 1899 and 1904.

586

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Potato crop of countries named, 1901-1905—Continued.

Country. s 1903. 1904. 1905.
aT | = ——
AUSTRALASIA. .

Australia: Bushels. Bushels. “Bushels.
Queensland: 25-3 2522 122, 000 659, 000 718, 000
New South Wales..........-. 1, 147, 000 2,118,000 1, 820, 000
WActOrin= asaee te ee eee 200, 000 6, 262, 000 3, 467, 000
South Australia. = Siss2.c. 1, 057, 000 1, 173, 000 729, 000
Western Australia.......... | 242, 000 0, 000 210, 000
Ma srmmnin:. Sees a. eee. Aa 6, 105, 000 6, 395, 000 4,127,000

Total Australian Com-

mon WealtN 22-25-05 ee 11, 934, 000 12,039, 000 14, 973, 000 16, 777, 000 11,071, 000
New Zealand . 223. fsa: -aec- Bee 7,721, 000 7, 215, 000 7,795, 000 5,025,000 5,025, 000
Total Australasia......... 19,655,000 | 19,254,000 | 22,768,000 21, 802, 000 16, 096, 000
Grand total............-.. '4, 669, 958, 000 |4, 673, 973, 000 |4, 434, 213, 000 4,285 279,000 | 5,065, 492,000

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of potatoes of the United States, 1866-1906.

Aver-
. age

ma farm

Year. | Acreage. | yield | Production. [Dales
per push

acre al

Dec.1

Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. Cts.

1866... .| 1,069,381 |100.2 | 107,200,976 | 47.3
1867...-| 1,192,195 | 82.0 | 97,783,000 | 65.9
1868... -.| 1,151,552 | 93.8 | 106,090,000 | 59.3
1869....| 1,222,190 |109.5 | 133,886,000 | 42.9
1870... -.} 1,325,119 | 86.6 | 114,775,000 | 65.0
1871. ...] 1,220,912 | 98.7 | 120,461,700 | 53.9
1872...-| 1,331,331 | 85.3 | 113,516,000 | 53.5
1873. ..-| 1,295,139 | 81.9 | 106,089,000 | 65.2
1874...-| 1,310,041 | 80.9 | 105,981,000 | 61.5
1875...-)} 1,510,041 |110.5 | 166,877,000 | 34.4
1876....| 1,741,$83 | 71.7 | 124,827,000 | 61.9
1877....| 1,792,287 | $4.9 | 170,092,000 | 43.7
1878....| 1,776,800 | 69.9 | 124, 126.650 | 58.7
1879... .| 1,836,800 | 98.9 | 181,626,400 | 43.6
1880... -| 1,842,510 | 91.0 | 157,659,570 | 48.3
1881, ..-| 2,041,670 | 53.5 | 109,145,494 | 91.0
1882. - 2,171,636 | 78.7 | 170,972, 508 | 55.7
1883... .| 2,289,275 | 90.9 | 208,164,425 | 42.2
1884....| 2,220,980 | 85.8 | 130,642,000 | 39.6
1885....| 2,265,823 | 77.2 | 175,029,000 | 44.7
1886... .| 2,287,136 | 73.5 | 168,051,000 | 46.7
1887 ....| 2,357,322 | 56.9 | 134,103,000 | 68.2
1888... .| 2,533,280 | 79.9 | 202,365,000 | 40.2
1889...-| 2,647,989 | 77.4 | 204,881,441 | 35.4
1890. ...| 2,651,579 | 55.9 | 148,289,696 | 75.8
1881...-.| 2,714,770 | 93.7 | 254,423,607 | 35.8
1892....| 2,547,962 | 61.5 | 156,654,819 | 66.1
1893... -.| 2, 605,186 | 70.3 | 183,034,203 | 59.4
1894 - 2,737,973 | 62.4 | 170,787,338 | 53.6
1895....| 2,954,952 |100.6 | 297,237,370 | 26.6
1896... .! 2,767,465 | 91.1 | 252,234,540 | 28.6
1897. . 2,534,577 | 64.7 | 164,015,964 | 54.7
1898....| 2,557,729 | 75.2 | 192,306, 338 | 41.4
1899... -.| 2,581,353 | 88.6 | 228, 783,232 | 39.0
1900...-| 2,611,054 | 80.8 | 210,926, 897.| 43.1
1901. . 2,864,335 | 65.5 | 187,598,087 | 76.7
1902. 2,965, 587 | 96.0 | 284, 632,787 | 47.1
1903. . 2,916, 855 | 84.7 | 247,127,880 | 61.4
1904....| 3,015,675 |110.4 | 332,830,300 | 45.3
1905. ..-| 2,996, 757 | 87.0 | 260,741, 294 | 61.7
1906. ...] 3,013,150 |102.2 | 308,038,382 | 51.1

Chicago price per

bushel, Burbank. Domestic pec

exports, uring

Varin May offol-| fiscal fiscal

Pen Decempher. lowing | year be-| year be-
aS. year. ginning | ginning

July l. | July l.

Low.| High.) Low. High.

Doilars. Bushels.
50, 722, 553 198, 265
64, 462, 486 f
62, 918, 660 138, 470
57, 481, 362 75, 336
74, 621, 01s 458, 758
64, 905, 189 96, 259
60, 692, 129 346, 840
69, 153, 709 549, 073
65, 223, 314 64 188,757
Bi,a00, 010 j= 22 (oases a lscowen secre 104, 379 92,148
77,319, 541 252528 Seen eerie errs, 529, 650 | 3,205, 555
74272, 500'4-..224 eee, DRCIen [ee ener 744, 409 528, 584
72,9235 515) | on aoe me lore sel oee ses 625, 342 | 2,624,149
POMS, O18 lessee aetess aes [Eseece 696, 080 721, 868
8150625214 |) 2222) 25252. lepeee- IL oes 638,840 | 2,170, 372
Oe ee ee ees ere) eee 408, 286 | 8,789,860
95; S04 B44 tes Scefc- oe ts. csscleeone 439,443 | 2,362, 362
S72848 000 SP Sel eee trian ,613'| 425,408
75,524,200 |. =. os Se eee eee , 868 658, 633
78,5863; 403 |5 Ss olson oo 33 50 | 494,948 | 1,937,416
78, 441, 940 44 47 65 90 | 434,864 | 1,432,490
91, 506, 740 70 83 65 85 | 403,880 | 8, 259, 538
81,4138, 589 30 37 24 45.| 471,955 883, 380
72, 610, 934 33 45; 30 60 | 406,618 | 3,415,578

112, 341,708 82 93 95 | 110 | 341,189 | 5,401,912
91, 012, 962 30 40 30 50 | 557,022 186, 871
103, 567, 520 60 72 70 98 | 845,720 | 4,317,021
108, 661, 801 51 60 64 88 | 803,111 | 3,002,578
91, 526, 787 43 58 40 70 | 572,957 | 1,341, 533
73, 984, 901 18 24 10 23 , 049 175, 240
72, 182, 350 18 26 19 26 | 926,646 246,178
89, 643, 059 50 62 60 87 | 605,187 | 1,171,378
79, 574, 772 30 36 33 52 | 579,833 530, 420
89, 328, 832 35 46 27 39 | 809,472 155, 861
90, 811, 167 40 48 35 60 | 741,483 371, 911
143, 979, 470 75 82 58 | 100 | 528,484 | 7,656, 162
134, 111, 436 42 48 42 60 | 843,075 358, 505
151, 638, 094 60 66 95 | 116 | 484,042 | 3,166,581
150, 673, 392 32 38 20 25 {1, 163,270 181, 199
160, 821, 080 55 66 48 73 |1,000,326 | 1,948, 160
157,647,302 | ° 40:| 43 -|:...:.|_...2.|Senge- seca eee

STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 587

Condition of the potato crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1906.

.

y | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Year. July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct.
| |

Pat, | Pct, | Pic P.ct. | P. ct. | P. ct.

94.3 81.7 77.9 83.9} 77.7 72.5

77.4 65.7 61.7 93.0 | 86.3 81.7

96.5 94.8 91.3 88.2 80.0 74.4

86.8 74.8 67.7 62.3 52.2 54.0

86.0 71.8 wa.2 94.8 §9.1 82.5

74.0 62.4 64.3 87.2 84.3 74.6

89.7 90.8 87.4 94.1 91.6 89.5

94.8 83.2 81.7 87.2 80.9 74.3

77.9 66.7 61.6 89.0 85.3 82.2

Acreage, production, and value of potatoes in the United States in 1906, by States.

Average
‘\ Average
State or Territory. Acreage. | yield per) Production. ae ee
|" acre. Pp =
| Dec. 1.
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.
MIE Soc 8 nk oe ee hd 109, 516 210 22, 998, 360 50 } - 11, 499, 180
MPMEEPROSETE ooo eee 19, 329 2 2, 164, 848 60 1, 298, 909
i i re a ee eee 26, 300 101 2, 656, 300 55 1, 460, 965
. {iol io Th ee ee 29, 149 114 3, 322, 986 65 2,159, 941
emioeisanuG se. 3. 2. oe eee 6, 360 108 686, 880 80 549, 504
GE? 1 i Fer Renee 31,931 98 3, 129, 238 72 2, 253, 051
RITE 11 are a a nei te Be = Sac Dee 420, 406 105 44, 142, 630 49 | 21,629,889
ON CSS eee sae se Pee 67, 353 120 8, 082, 360 66 5, 334, 358
MURR ek Pe 253, 797 94 23, 856, 918 57 | 13,598, 443
POST +e Se es Se ee 7, 600 97 | 737, 200 59 434, 948
28,751 93 2,673, 843 56 1, 497, 352
55, 656 75 4, 174, 200 67 2, 796, 714
34, 376 97 3, 334, 472 61 2; 034, 028
23, 812 75 1, 785, 900 74} 1,321,566
9, 065 82 743, 330 105 780, 496
8, 627 77 664, 279 110 730, 707
3, 946 85 335, 410 110 368, 951
157, 072 110 17, 277, 920 48 8, 293,
75, 483 so 6, 717, 987 57 | 3,829,253
150, 638 97 14, 611, 886 62 9, 059, 369
285, 000 95} 27,075,000 34| 9,205,500
245, 000 97 23, 765, 000 30 7, 129, 500
131, 782 92| 12,123,944 37| 4,485,850
140, 000 95 13, 300, 000 43 5, 719, 009
eaten ete 85, 228 84 7, 159, 152 57 | 4,080,717
Lo WER EL eee eer ae ee 25,171 98 2, 466, 758 46 1, 134, 709
Prmininkntat = 5 35, 422 100 3,542, 200 35 | 1,239,770
IwUSTH ah oe RS ae ee eae 84, 530 87 7, 354, 110 52 3, 824, 137
LoS) be SS ee ee 85, 000 79 6,715, 000 70 =4, 700,500
LST a eee a ee Se 34, 736 82 2, 848, 352 61 1, 737, 495
BeABBOSSDO 6 ee oS 22, 420 80 1,793, 600 62; 1,112,032
ESS Rg 2 ee 9, 258 75 | 694, 350 93 645, 746
TiS Ty Oe lee ena 5, 628 85 | 478, 380 87 416, 191
RRPIA aL See eee ee 12,000 62 | 744,000 75 558,
Texas. ...-- Se ee een ae 31, 097 77} 2,394, 469 87} 2,083,188
emrauet POPEILOE Yo) = See ee 12, 247 7 930, 772 75 698, 079
Sa _. ae er ee 10, 498 85 | 892, 330 80
20, 837 | 1, 666, 960 67 1, 116, 863
14,099 152 | 2,143,048 61 | 1,307,259
4,202 115 483, 230 65 314, 100
46, 968 125 ‘5,871, 000 45 641, 950
1, 426 121 | 172, 546 90 155, 291
11, 987 165 | 1,977,855 50 988, 928
2,974 175 | 520, 450 70 364, 315
11, $00 175 2, 082, 500 41 853, 825
34, 199 129 4, 411, 671 56| 2,470,536
40, 083 101 4, 048, 383 56 | 2,267,094
50,291 125| 6, 286, 375 74| 4,651,918
3, 013, 150 102.2 | 308,088, 382 5L 1 | 157,547, 392
|

588

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield per acre of potatoes in the United States, 1897-1906, by States. .

State or territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900.
(Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush

Mane a5 Ps oe ee aoe ee 59 130 139 126
New Hampshire............-- él 90 127 101
Mermonts: sindas apes ede 70 105 132 134
Massachusetts: -e ses. .sca6 25 62 97 134 79
inhoOdey i slamdi: =e ae eee 110 123 142 94
Connecticutse-eesee. =e aoe 54 100 130 96
ING@w: Miork.s282 535 pees aoe 62 73 88 81
New WJierseyaue isa see ek 5432 68 75 83 69
Pennsylvanian ceeesees eee ne 63 54 85 58
Delawanre=-sececsesuesse cece 60 49 52 48
Marylandent sena-6o2- eee 74 58 64 Do
Winemaker 61 68 66 58
West Mirgimiat 3 4-c0 cea o. 56 62 72 80
North Carolinas 22--5c.---605 66 67 57 61
SouthrCarolina seen ae eee 65 65 56 78
Georeiay...oce cate seb semacee 52 54 46 68
Hlorid ge. See ey aha es 75 64 69 60
ONTO seen tence eee eee 42 61 71 76
Gnidia: sere cee ene eee 31 71 76 83
MUN GIS... 5 oe eeeemeece eae 38 70 96 92
Michiana cee. eso oeeoseese 72 79 66 97
WAISCOnsin 2 caer eee, 99 98 103 103
Minnesota) .2-f25 5.2 6h oe eeee 106 85 96 81
TO Waa eats ots a8 eters 60 80 100 72
Missaninis access scat cece ae 42 66 82 93
INorbiheDakatas-s: 2.55 -ee oe 99 87 103 52
South Dakotus-...-co-cee ser 94 72 78 73
Nebraska csesssaen ec caer ee 69 65 94 66
WaNsas 75. tig 6 os eee 48 70 95 72
Ientuchy scactees <0. sae ete 47 64 51 70
TeNnWeSSEO -iaseetece oe eee 40 52 44 54
AVR DSIND). Uo ae ase och ene eneee 55 74 56 69
MiSsissippics soca ances ceae cee j
ILOUISIA Na 2 a: cocaier semis
IROXASe ae Soares eee eee
Indian Territory
Oklahoma
Arkansas...
Montana ta sie ses neces ae
Wiyommne 352825 oS" Se eee oe
Color dOne eee omeee comes eee
News Mexico a elote. Uber es
(OR CW as. 3 ee ee ee Se eae
Nevada: to so.5 states 2
dahores Sees c ese kn eeee cee
Washing tom ioe 2 ose seeeer so.
ORePOME ek. ose ceeocen
Calitorniaae 2 Sete s. 2 ee eee

General average.......-. 64.7} 75.2] 88.6] 80.8

1901 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.
150 130 196 215 175 210
108 120 98 135 120 112
90 94 138 128 98 101
77 109 96 119 97 114
98 164 125 137 125 108
81 92 96 96 92 98
78 66 89 93 70 105
59 132 99 115 93 120
62 83 91 106 90 94
55 7 84 84 93 97
60 80 70 99 95 93
71 75 84 &3 84 75
52 96 80 101 88 97
64 64 67 78 77 75
70 69 81 88 83 82
64 58 73 70 65 77
62 90 82 102 75 85
54 94 83 98 78 110
31 101 76 93 80 89
35 118 72 108 75 97
81 72 78 121 67 95
75 115 58 126 68 97
68 98 64 102 ~ 82 92
32 98 56 136 80 95
17 128 66 96 82 &
110 105 84 sail 95 98
45 74 89 96 96 100
33 137 64 120 93 87
26 138 58 80 81 79
35 80 73 83 85 82
46 62 66 71 80 80
67 50 67 61 80 75
65.5 | 96.0 84.7 | 110.4} 87.0 102.2

Average value of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December 1, 1897—
1906, by States.

| 5

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. 1904.
Maine- 2 oscar cece see '$52.51 |$59. 80 |$58.38 |$61.74 |$100.50 $84.50 Nae 76 $103.20
New Hampshire.......... 45.90 | 44.10 | 58.42 | 53.53 | 85.32 | 82.80 | 638.70] 75.60
WMermont).<.. 2. ..e6 sce 49.00 | 44.10 | 47.52 | 53.60 | 57.60 | 54.52 | 69.00 | 60.16
Massachusetts............ 55.80 | 61.11 | 76.38 | 52.14] 69.380 | 88.29 | 68.16 | 84.49
Rhode Island: 2. sscee cee 106.70 | 78.72 | 71.00 | 65.80 | 91.14 |123.00 | 102.50 | 104.12
Connecticut aces eens 48.60 | 55.00 | 59.80 | 67.20 | 76.14 | 67.16 | 74.88] 69.12
ING WW Ork 32. co eee 41.54 | 30.66 | 35.20 | 36.45 | 55.38 | 38.94] 49.84] 50.22
INewiJersey aisle ie ese 53.04 | 45.75 | 42.33 | 41.40] 50.15 | 80.52] 68.31 | 70.15
Pennsylvania............- 41.58 | 31.32 | 36.55 | 30.74 | 47.12 | 47.31 | 56.42 | 57.24
Delaware dicccoheceateee 39.00 | 33.81 | 26.52 | 28.80 | 42.90 | 40.29 | 47.04] 44.52
Marylavid tic ace oe ace eee 50.32 | 30.74 | 32.64 | 29.70 | 46.20 | 41.60 | 42.00 | 50.49
WARPING Woon sc ccocase aoe oe 42.70 | 37.40 | 36.96 | 34.22 | 52.54 | 43.50] 53.76 | 45.65
West Virginia= 22.2202. 36.40 | 33.48 | 37,44 | 40.80 | 44.20 | 48.96 | 52.80 | 54.54
North) Caroling iss. cs. 42.24 | 41.54 | 37.62 | 39.65 | 46.08 | 42.88 | 49.58] 54.60
SowshiCarolinag. &s.2.---:- 68.25 | 65.00 | 58.24 | 78.00 | 77.00 | 66.24] 84.24] 88.88
GeOreigeeeet seuss. Soed 52.00 | 40.50 | 38.18 | 52.36 | 67.84 | 52.20] 68.62 | 74.90
OMICS fee ee ee wae 90.00 | 76.80 | 85.56 | 63.60 | 79.98 |109.80 |. 103.32 | 131.58
ODLOS ae eee eet cicce 26.04 | 25.01 | 30.53 | 30.40] 45.90 | 41.36] 50.63} 46.06
Tudisnaye sees se neebees csc. 19.22 | 29.11 | 32.68 | 31.54 | 27.90 | 41.41 | 50.16} 41.85
Tiinois. 2.50 op aeeeees ae 23.56 | 32.20 | 39.36 | 37.72 | 32.55 | 49.56 | 51.84] 50.76

1905. | 1906.

$106. 2 $105.00

86. 4 67.20
69.58 | 55.55
81.48 | 74.10
111.25 | 86.40
83.72 | 70.56
49.00 | 51.45
69.75 | 79.20
58.50 | 53.58
54.87 | 57.23
55.10 | 52.08
47.04 | . 50.25
51.04 | 59.17
52.36 | 55.50
85.49 | 86.10
72.80 | 84.70
90.00 | 93.50
49.14 | 52.80
46.40 | 50.73
50.25 | 60.14

STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 589

Average value of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December 1, 1897-
1906, by States Continued.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. 1991 19992 1993. 1904. 1905. | 1906.
Michigan..............-..|$30.96 |$21.33 Wet 12 ae 22 | $55.08 |$29.52 | $38.22 | $35.09 | $37.52 | $32.30
WHBMORAIUWE§ 5.52. 522.20- 37.62 | 23.52 6.78 | 28.84 | 50.25 | 37.95 | 33.64] 35.28] 42. 6 29.10
MimnesOb@a>.. = .----55.-- 32.86 | 21.25 34.00 24.30 | 45.56 | 30.38 | 39.04] 29.58] 41.00] 34.04
PiGWel ee on so ce en eck nc 28.20 | 24.00 | 23.00 | 26.64} 30.08 | 33.32 | 42.00 | 38.08} 39.20] 40.85
Nias!) Fic |, ee ae an 26. 46 | 29.04 | 33.20 | 32.55-| 18.02 | 44.80} 50.16 | 46.08] 45.10 | 47.88
North Dakota...........- 32.67 | 29.58 | 27.81 | 25.48 | 53.90 | 34.65 | 40.32 | 35.52 | 36.10 | 45.08
South Dakota.....-.-...- 30.08 | 20.16 | 21.06 } 26.28 | 38.25 | 32.56 | 48.06 | 28.80) 36.48] 35.00
IVER AEG cae S = a:s os see) 3 ; 23. 32.34 | 34.65 | 36.99 | 41.60 | 31.20 | 34.41 | 45.24
INR Be ce a (niai-tS 2 Sis acne ; : ‘ 34.56 | 27.04} 62.10 | 49.30) 44.80 | 55.89] 55.30
St 0) ; : ; 35.00 | 30.45 | 42.40 | 49.64) 45.65 | 45.05] 50.02
WHEMNEASAA =... <<. seo : 8. 31.32 | 39.56 | 39.68 | 42.24| 44.02 | 46.40 | 49.60
Lt : ‘ : 56.58 | 73.03 | 46.50 | 64.32 | 60.39 | 70.40] 69.75
L250) ; i 2. 54.7 71.30 | 63.48 | 72.16 | 69.70) 93.5 73.95
Momisiana..--..--.2<-..5 : : - 55.30 | 60.60 | 53.30 | 45.50 | 63.70 | 58.24] 46.50
LNT pS ee ee a me ap ‘ , : 54.56 | 67.50 | 56.10 | 58.96 | 66.96 | 59.52] 66.99
gin ePaNrivGry =<5cs-2- 2| beer oole ce eee ee eee oe 78.12 | 54.40 | 60.20 | 51.75 | 62.32] 57.00
Gan oo oe ee ees er ee HR Sa a a 69.30 | 74.69 | 76.44 | 65.45 | 67.76} 68.00
AURANIERE..o 30. 5.0205-- 505 5. 5 .73 | 41.04 | 57.96 | 48.96 | 55.30 | 57.75 | 47.45 | 53.60
DR ORNGITIH Sat eas sors rs oi : : 74. 71.02 | 114.61 | 76.50 | 77.44 | 87.23] 70.80 | 92.72
Wimormiines 2.520. ee : ; ; 67.32 | 112.40 | 65.27 | 95.19 | 99.82 | 95.20) 74.75
(Coloragges. 2.22... 2s : : : 45.92 | 108.00 | 51.00 | 87.00 | 58.83] 91.20] 56.25
New Mexico -20 | 45. , 21.66 | 59.00 | 58.32 | 73.08 | 48.36 | 66.75 | 108.90
ONO SS er - 40 : f 56.64 | 68.40 | 70.65 | 83.19 | 65.76 | 56.76 | 82.50
Nevada..... ls eee 98. : : 87.36 | 128.31 |153.56 | 81.90 | 85.15 | 98.40 | 122.50
(ot ---| 44.80 | 64. E 63.92 | 90.72 | 55.13 | 78.60 | 87.57 | 67.20 | 71.75
Washington a ; 64.52) 71.37 | 51.68 } 52.20 | 67.20)! 65:32 | ‘72.24
UMS SE ee foes 5-0). wie A 49.50 | 63.00 | 56.65 | 53.50 | 51.383] 66.00 | 56.56
CMON GS! 8. = =2..40%.<~<. os : 55.12 | 77.77 | 68.44] 85.80 | 86.43 | 110.55 | 92.50

General average. . . iG 35.37 | 31.11 | 34.60 | 34.78 | 50.27 | 45.22 | 51.99| 49.96] 53.67 | 52.29

Average farm price of potatoes per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906,

by States.
| |
State or Territory. . 1897. | 1898. | 1899. 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
UD Sones $0. 89 | $0. 46 | $0.42 | $0.49 | $0.67 | $0.65 | $0.56 | $0.48 | $0.61 | £0.50
New Hampshire.............. -90; .49 - 46 .53 219 . 69 - 65 - 56 12 - 60
ACT, <a s7ON 542 . 36 40 64 58 50 47 71 | 55
MHASBCbURELUS....--.-.-..-.- 90; .63 aleve 66 90 . 81 71 71 84 65
Rhode Island Pewee cor cen 97 | eae 64 - 50 70 93 75 82 76 89 80
Maounecicnte=-. 2.2. ..52 5.252: 90} -.55 - 46 -70 . 94 .73 .78 AY (3 - 91 mae
Ie piyph god Ae oe a . 67 . 42 . 40 . 45 te .59 - 56 .54 . 70 ~ 49
UNG WHVOEROWo soccer scents . 78 22 .51 . 60 . 85 . 61 . 69 . 61 - 79 . 66
Pennsylvania . 66 .58 - 43 -53 . 76 .57 . 62 . 04 . 65 nti
Delaware... -.': 5.2. -. . 65 . 69 - ol . 60 Ee - 51 . 56 - 53 +59 . 59
Maryland........ -68} .53) .51 204 | 77 -62| .60| .51 - 58 56
NAGS ee ene - 70 55 - 56 59 74 58 -64| .55 -56 | - .67
When Witeinin= 922 eae on . 65 54 ~ 52 .51 . 85 - 51 -66 | .54 . 58 - 61
North Carolina -...222..5..52. - 64 - 62 - 66 - 65 72 Oi}, 2 04 -70| .68 74
Bowman Carolina: —.25te: 52 oe) 1.05; 1.00) 104] 1.00] 1.10 ~ 90) | 91,04), 1.01) | 21.03 1.05
Wt ee core os ree ae 1.00 ais 83 77 | 1.06 SOF) PDA Oral teat 1.10
STAG cc ce ep. RY ee 1. 20 1. 20 1. 24 1. 06 1. 29 122) 21026 1. 29 1. 20 1.10
I eee eee. Seana 62 .41 43 - 40 85 44 . 61 - 47 . 63 48
SHARIA eo 2G AR cee Lee: 62 41 43 . 38 90 41 66 45 | 58 57
MMBMOIG = 355 2252 See Lb 2S. . 62 - 46 41 -41 - 93 . 42 cof .47 . 67 . 62
Magbivan —. oso 25. 2-28 - 43 wae . 32 . 26 . 68 -4l - 49 . 29 . 56 . 34
Wistonsin< --£. 2.22222... . eae . 38 .24 . 26 - 28 . 67 -33 . 58 . 28 . 62 . 30
MAME O LA ot ose eee . 31 . 25 - 25 . 30 . 67 ~ol . 61 . 29 . 90 ny
Iowa Bee tet chy acde bw Pe cr -47 . 30 .23 ae yA - 94 . 34 td <20'| (49) 43
LVS Ve i ee ee eee Len 63 44 - 40 . 35 1. 06 35 76 . 48 55 57
North Dakota 33 34 aril . 49 49 33 48 32 38 46
South Dakota 32 28 Bea) . 36 85 44 54 30 38 35
2 OS) ae - 46 Bore . 25 -49 | 1.05 27 . 65 . 26 ay tie
Ln Gi re - 55 51 . 45 -48 | 1.04 . 45 as . 56 . 69 .70
Kentucky = Gn 46 61 50 87 53 68 55 53 61
Tennessee ate .o7 . 65 . 58 86 64 . 64 . 62 58 62
JSD at a - 94 - 83 . 87 .82 | 1.09 934 .96 . 99 88 93
IMGRSISRIP pias = 225s... =. 358 - 82 ~f2|. 1.02 ~-83 | 1.15 92 88 . 85 85 87
Wenigiana sao oe see sus - 85 Aas) - 81 Oe tOL . 82 -91 .91 91 bio
PERG eee Sale... oA 95 . 86 91 -88.| 1.25 . 85 . 88 . 93 . 93 . 87
dnidian Tenitory = Josc2- soa eee (to eee acre else sc ee 1,24 64 . 86 719 82 75
0) SLE UGT TS i pee ate ey ese) (eee | pee dS ay nei 1. 26 77 . 98 BEATS 88 80
ORRIN ee 2 Sees a anes . 84 . 55 H(i Baye) MibP. a . 68 .79 15 STB: . 67
Mantana~sasccsee Soceeee: . 40 . 59 - 93 .53 13 - 50 . 44 . 61 59 . 61

590

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Avcrage farm price of potatoes per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906,

by States—Continued.

! {
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1908. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
+

Wig OURime. 3.25.2. ote ayes ee $0.55 | $0.65 $0.61 | $0.68 | $1.00 | $0.61 | $0.57 | $0.62 | $0.56 | $0.65
Colored Onn. sensor seas eee - 56 -54| .55 . 82 - 90 - 51 - 60 37 . o7 45
New Meniee-c522228¢-52 5554 -78 -78 68} 1.14} 1.18 - 81 . 84 - 78 . 89 - $0
Wbalbicn:: 2232 soe bt aoe tee Spee 30 - 31 55} .48 - 60 - 45 - 47 48 - 43 ~50
Nevada....-. <i -90| .90} .56 91 . 63 -70 - 65 . 82 - 70
Idaho.....- - 32 - 54 SGU Gite $f . 84 - 37 - 46 - 63 - 48 ~4L
Washington. - 28 - 39 -50 | .47 - 61 38 - 36 - 56 - 46 - 56
Omg en i oe ees Soe - 40 47 - 49 - 45 .70 -55 - 50 . 59 . 0 - 56
Caisiomiauetas . eee ano-oee - 49 - 55 -63| .53 Wit 4 - 58 - 66 . 67 . 67 -74
General average...-..-- 047] 41.4) 39.0) 43.1 | 76.7 | 47.1|) 61.4] 45.3 | 61.7 51.1

t

Wholesale prices of potatoes in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

J Se aty foe ee seks oe So Ae
Hebrugry 22s r2 5 sise acers aoe cea

October. Boyce nena eee aeease

August.....
sle}o, 423001012) <9 See ee Ore Pro Bere aes ee
OERRDEL Hn 23 <3 peer, eee ao
ING@arerm Danes so seee . - Senet er See
Degem ber'as.....}-toa. donee age ceeee

AWOUSE. : Se on eee ee eee
Heplem bers. 52. ee
Oekaher.2 5: eet eee ee eee

September.
October... .
Newer benst. 21 evoe se age ys eee
Desamibarte. . see ae oe ee

Cincinnati. Chicago. Milwaukee. St. Louis.
Burbank, Burbank,
Per barrel. per bushel. Per bushel. per bushel.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
$2.20 | $2.40 70 80 72 87 73 83
2.10 2. 40 68 76 72 85 78 84
2.10 2. €0 68 80 7 85 76 90
2. 45 3. 00 72 100 7 103 81 105
22 3. 00 58 100 50 103 90 105
2. 10 2. 40 47 60 40 90 72 | 80
- 90 2. S0c\|sne ace eee 30 8512. s2eaee basses othe
-90 ENG, see es ee 28 6: |. - See
.95 1. 35 30 38 28 40' |. eS
1.25 1.35 30 44 30 40 41 44
1.50 1. 60 42 48 34 43 50 54
135) 1.50 42 48 35 43 51 55
1.65 1.80 45 48 40
1.50 1. 60 45 47 38
1.50 1.70 43 47 35
1.35 1. 65 38 46 35
1. 65 1.50 42 60 35
1. 50 3. 00 50 85 46
tL. 75 Bi IsScs se peas cee 35
1.75 | Oy ee ese 40
1. 50 DS S0b ewacn es Mes 35
1. 20 1. 80 54 60 45
1. 20 2.10 50 7 50
1.80 2.10 60 66 55
1.95 2.55 62 95 50 85 69 73
2.70 2.85 85 91 78 85 90 96
2. 80 4. 50 86 102 83 95 94 97
8.13 4. 80 89 122 $0 120 115 125
3. 30 4. 80 95 116 7 118 105 115
2.70 4.50 115 118 To 120 =. ~.cie eee
2.00 BOO) tee a ciate ee 40 90. |eks oe2dcl a eee
1.50 A SOS ccc rane ue cen 30 60 |.....-6.) seen
3.35 1 ot ee ae | eee 28 78 47 52
1.20 1. 50 31 40 25 33 42 45
1. 20 1. 50 32 42 20 30 36 43
1. 20 1,3) 32 38 20 30 364 45
Per bushel.
. 38 . 42 32 38 22 32 35 42
a) - 43 33 37 22 32 40 50
By 5 . 40 25 37 20 30 31 38
a 8 20 29 18 25 27 40
sao . 30 20 25 15 26 65 175 -°
25 . 60 18 25 10 21 35 70
45 weed Beeracte coral eerie 10 52 35 45
. 45 OOLMess Dats aeeeeae 35 55 30 |, 48
45 55 43 48 35 50 40 60
. 50 By (5) 43 72 38 65 52 73
. 60 «15 64 70 50 70 62 80
.55 . 80 55 66 40 62 58 66.

STATISTICS OF HAY. 591°

Wholesale prices of potatoes in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906—Con.

Cincinnati.

Chicago. | Milwaukee. St. Louis.

Burbank, Burbank,
Per bushel. per bushel. Per bushel. per bushel.
Lew. | High. Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents Cents. | Cents.
55 66 58 82
47 57 53 61
43 68 51 70
57 63 65. . 68
48 73 60 88
60 87 65 125
: a) SESS SS eer 35 7
_ . : =. = SSeS = 3 Se < 4 y < Seong AR Sees 37 60
September : - 45 58 43 62
0 a ae eee 40 47 48 56
November 41 48 45 55
INS So oo Oe 40 43 40 46
HAY.
Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of hay of the United States, 1866-1906.
j : 2 5
_ Aver- Chicago prices No. 1 timo- -
| eS thy per ton, by carload lots. poamreay
farm ———————— ?
, j Farm value seal
Production.| price May of follow-
- Dee. 1. December. ing year. | Year be-

| ton — Soo ; =
| Dec. 1. Low. | High. | Low. | High. sai

‘ons. Tons. Dolls. Dollars. Dolls. | Dolls.| Dolls. | Dolls.\| Tons.
Te ee Sa a Wes os ney /A a Sa Rieta 5,028
R38, 26,277,080. t 10.21 | 268,300,623. |_| tf ce kag 5,645.
1.21 | 26,141,900 | 10.08 | 263,589, 235 RS ee |e eee (Comer FU a Sk
142, 26, 420,008 | 10.18 | 268,933,048. |_......|........]......- eee 6, 723
1.23 | 24,525,000 | 12.47| 305,743,224 |__| _.....|_-_-...|....... 4) 581
JES? 22, 239° ee 14-38 be BUF 9389. 700: po aad ff , 266
GEE P23: S12 See f 12 04° Sa Go8 BIg fee ee ee 4, 557
£36. |: 25,085,198 | 12°53) 324241, gan | | 4, 889
1.15 | 25,133,900 | 11.94] 300,222, 454 [0 -- hee 2 eee eae 7, 183
A 28 878 OB) 1078 PaO B77, B89 Ls ee 7, 528
1. 22 | ~30,867,100 | 8.97] 276,991,422 |__.____|_...._.| 9.00 | 10.00 7, 287
1.25} 31,629,300 | 8.37] 264,879,796 | 9.50 | 10.50| 9.75 | 10.75 9,514
1.47 | 39,608,296 | 7.20 | 285,015,625] 8.00| 850) 9.00| 11.50 8, 127
1.29} 35,493,000 | 9.32 | 330,804,494 | 14.00 | 14.50 | 14.00.| 15.00 13, 739
123 | 31,925,233 | 11.65 | 371,811,084 | 15.00 | 15.50 | 17.00 | 19.00 12, 662
1.14 | 35,135,064 | 11.82 | 415,131,366 | 16.00 | 16.50 | 15.00 | 16.50 10, 570
1.18 | 38,138,049 | 9.70 | 371,170,326 | 11.50 | 12.25 | 12.00 | 13.00 13, 509
1.32 | 46,864,009] 8.19 | 383,834,451 | 9.00 | 10.00 | 12.50 | 17.00 16, 908
1.26 | 48,470,460] 8.17] 396,139,309 | 10.00 | 11.50 | 15.50 | 17.50 11, 142
1.12; 44,731,550 | 8.71] 389,752,873 | 11.00 | 12.00 | 10.00.] 12.00 13, 390
1.15 | 41,796,499 | §.46| 353,437,699 | 9.50 | 10.50 | 11.00 | 12.50 13, 873
1.10 | 41,454,458 | 9.97] 413, 440,283 | 13.50 | 14.50 | 17.00 | 21.00 18, 198
121} 46,643,094} 8.76) 408,499,565 | 11.00 | 11.50} 10.50 | 11.09 21, 928
1.26 | 66,829,612 | 7.04] 470,374,948 | 9.00! 10.00!) 9.00 | 1400 36, 274
1.19 | 60,197,589} 7.87] 473,569,972] 9.00 | 10.50 | 12.50| 15.50 , 066
1.19 | 60,817,771 8.12 | 494,113,616 | 12.450 ! 15.00 | 13.50 | 14.00 35, 201
1.18 | 59,823,735 | 8.20 | 490,427,798 | 11.00] 11.50 | 12.00 | 13.50 33, 084
1.33 | 65,766,158} 8.68} 570,882,872 |} 10.00] 10:50 | 10.00 | 10.50 54, 446
1.14] 54,874,408 | 8.54] 468,578,321 | 10.00 | 11.00 | 10.00 | 10.25 47, 117
1.06 | 47,078,541 } 8.35 | 398,185,615 | 12.00 | 12.50 | 11.50 | 12:00 59, 052
1.37 | 59,282,158 | 6.55} 388,145,614] 800} 850] 850] 9.00 61, 658
1.43 | 60,664,876 |} 6.62 | 401,390,728} 800] 8.50] 9.50} 10.50 81, 827
1.55 | 66,376,920 | 6.00] 398,060,647/ 800| 8.25/| 9.50] 10.50 916
1.35 | 56,650,756 | 7.27 | 411,926,187 | 10.50] 11.50°| 10.50 | 12.50 72,716
1.28} 50,110,906 } 8.89] 445,538,870 | 11.50 | 14.00 | 12.50 | 13.50 89, 364
rh eee | 39,390,508 | 1.28 | 50,590,377 | 10.01 | 506,191,533 | 13.00 | 13.50 | 12.50 | 13.50| 153) 431
1992... | 89,825,227 | 1.50] 59,857,576 | 9.06} 542,036,364] 12.00] 12:50 | 13.50 | 15.00 50, 970
i Gee 39, 933, 75! 1.54} 61,305,940 | 9. 556,376, 880 | 10.00 | 12.00 | 12.00 | 15.00 60, 730:
1904. _._.. 39,998,602 | 1.52 60,696,028} 8.72} 529,107,625 | 10.50} 11.50| 11.00 | 12.00 66, 557
eo 2 39,361,960 | 1.54] 60,531,611 | 8.52} 515, 959, 784 | 10.00 | 12.00) 11.50 | 12.50 70,172
1 ee 42, 476,224 | 1.36) 57,145,959 | 10.37 | 592,539,671 | 15.50| 18.00 |.......|_......|.....-.-..

592 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, and value of hay in the United States in 1906, by States.

State or Territory.

NEBING 22/2 ea oe eae ae Ce eee
New. Hampshire: sie ae. Sore ee et ee
Vermont: 55.2.2 sees ace ceeeeee oe ae
Massachusetts. = tocse os See eee ee eae eee
Rhode tslamd. 2 $3 neces eee eee eee
Connecti¢uie 22 ares as een ae a ee
ING W'YOT Ke or cea ire Synee se oee
ING WJ OLSOYe i e.s Sect osciesecene eee
Pennsylvania =e sn si Satay ee See
Delaware cas 2 step Sas eh ee een,
Many lam dips Superters ay ae, ve eae ee ee
a pit fa] ah a eee eee SO ee mS Se Eph ate 5 |
WieShViirsinig: Saree See ees eens
INGrob Caroline. seese) eee eae ene ae
South Caroling py. cee aoe eee
Georgia.) saageecenah sm aceer ere, tee eee
EM op yO 2 Bedarra ene tyes eRe VNR Se
ORIO)s £22 eae ee ee ae eae Lore eee

Michigan. 2c ssac pe cee ek dee eee eee

Wisconsin toy tee er te eee eee :

MINNOAS OPES Beane tere ete ee
LOWiise on seee core Meat semiasineictse Eee eee oO

IRSA TISOISE ees ee ee POE
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama. 235. eee Bee ieee se ae eee ee
MISSISSID DIS. 2 a= eee eee nae ee ee
Touisiana.. . chs eae Ree a ek ee, Bae
NOKASS 2.2 eke 5 Be eae ee ee ee ee Ree
Indian Terniforyss225-.56 Bivac: aiken eae
Oklah omg). 4.2 aoe eee ee st rele ee
IAP BTISAS ite co ce eee ey ns erence ee ae

Way OMling = Si. ce ome s. a eee Reece
Colorado, 525.122 seer iteesc Fs id eae ee

Washington
Omer Onna ns toe 32s a Sec. - See ee
Calitiomnia 283 Been ee eet eee acee

= Average

Average Farm

Acreage. yield | Production. ae value

per acre. : hes 1 Dec. 1.

Acres Tons. Tons. Dollars.| Dollars.
1, 329, 835 1.20 1, 595, 802 10.25 | 16,356,970
625, 725 1.15 719, 584 12.50 8,994, 800
870, 530 1.20 1,044, 636 10.00 | 10, 446, 360
582, 832 1.31 763, 510 17.00 | 12,979,670
61, 980 1.06 65, 699 17. 40 1, 143, 163
489, 599 1.17 572, 831 15.00} 8,592, 465
4,717, 641 1. 28 6, 038, 580 12.10 | 73,066, 818
424, 525 1.32 560, 373 15.95 8, 937, 949
3, 072, 021 1.30 3,993, 627 13.40 | 53; 514, 602
74, 038 1.25 92, 548 15.00 1, 388, 222
280, 291 1. 26 353, 167 13.50 4, 767, 754
427, 253 1525 534, 066 15. 50 8, 278, 023
517, 384 1. 40 724, 338 14.00 | 10,140,732
125, 633 1.54 193, 475 15.00 2, 902, 125
60, 682 1.46 88, 596 15.25 1, 351, 089
88, 054 1.65 145, 289 15.75 2, 288, 302
20, 000 1.50 30, 15.00 450, 000
2, 850, 000 1.22 3, 477, 000 12.00 | 41,724,000
2, 375, 000 1.10 2,612, 500 12.50 | 32,656, 250
2, 638, 035 -98 2, 585, 274 12.50 | 32,315,925
2, 650, 000 1.28 3, 392, 000 10.35 | 35,107, 200
2, 300, 000 1.35 3, 105, 000 9.00 | 27,945,000
858, 465 1.70 1, 459, 390 5. 50 8, 026, 645 _

1.35 4, 725, 000 7.00 | 33,075,000
.78 2,128, 112 10.00 | 21,281, 120
1.45 257, 184 4.50 | 1,157,328
1.50 332, 133 4.50 1, 494, 598
1.40 1, 890, 000 5.60 | 10,584,000
1.28 2, 206, 917 6.25 | 13,793, 231
1.35 603, 723 13.25 7,999, 330
1.51 512, 563 13. 45 6, 893, 972
1.95 109, 882 13. 30 1, 461, 431
43, 873 1.90 83, 359 11.45 954, 461
21, 488 1.93 41, 472 11.50 476, 928
379, 836 1.80 683, 705 8.50} 5,811, 492
46, 140 1. 40 64, 596 5. 50 355, 278
298, 969 1. 40 418, 557 5. 75 2, 406, 703
70, 932 1.60 113, 491 9.99 | | 1,123, 561
373, 827 1.85 691, 580 8.90 6, 155, 062
188, 327 2.25 423, 736 7.75 3, 283, 954
638, 617 2.50 1, 596, 542 9.50 | 15,167,149
76, 714 , 2.50 191, 785 10.75 2,061, 689
63, 685 3.50 222, 898 12.00 2, 674, 776
351, 272 4.00 1, 405, 088 7.50 | 10,538, 160
170,175 1.50 255, 262 8.06 42, 096
413, 064 2.95 1, 218, 539 8.00 9.748, 312
348, 830 2.38 830, 215 11.00 9, 132, 365
393, 977 2.18 858, 870 7.85 6, 742, 130
612, 684 1.85 1, 133, 465 11.25 12, 751, 481
42, 476, 224 | 1.35 | 57,145,959 10.37 | 592, 539, 671

Average yield per acre of hay in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.

|
State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901 1902. | 19038. | 1904. 1905. | 1906

Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons.| Tons.| Tons.
MAING S).,.. 22644225 s ee ee 1.10 1.20 | 0.90] 0.90 1.05 1.07 | 0.98 1.10 1.08 1.20
New Hampshire.............. 1.15 | 1.25 . 89 PA Gal nee peso Pmt EC 92} 1.02) 126 1.15
(VELMOITE 22.28% se cee eee 1(30'|) 1.455). 2.04) 15240)" 1.865) 227) 80 SS ae 1.20
Massachusetts .62 .. acces sues 1.40 | 1.42] 1.13 SOR sled 1.60'|' 1.86) |) {1=23 0 dees 1.31
Rhodelsland 2 eee eee 12 16.)|\"alets . 89 . 92 92} 1.03] 1.07) 116) 1509 1.06
Connecticut ...7.8 eee 13:20:82 94 .89 | 1:01 |- 1.85 | 210) 106s) eee 1.17
INBW. MOLK.« ck. .nin sehen 1.35] 1.40] 1.04 ~81 | 1.80.) © 1.34) ©1526) SS6uieoo 1. 28
ING JierSey..00 A eee 1s 7p) 1.42 ~83°) 1:26 |) 1.82) 2.22) | 1528) | saeg0n dae 1.32
JECioval halivg:h alt eee aes oe we J 1. 40 1. 45 1.20 1.10 1.19 1.19 127 1.45 1.50 1.30
CLE Web stow es ec on ree 1.35 1.38 1.04 . 98 1.12 1.09 1.64 1.59 1.55 1.25
AS Esivayd Eh aCe Ea Ce eee 1.850}°1220:)) e180) TO0si) 1220/01) | Sala) SiGe een 1. 26
SUA ifs Tea) | Ma 8 SS ps i a 1.08 1. 32 1.10 1.16 1. 20 1. 06 1.30 1.39 1.30 1.25
Wiest Virpinid....2o22.css5. hae 1,35)) Seba 20s 1 TS esr 1.13!) 40.385) 14 eas 1.40
NorthiGaroling.. ..-soosceceece 1. 25 1.70 1.50 1.41 1. 66 1. 44 1. 60 1.72 1. 60 1.54
South Caroling...3.2..Joccieess0 1.00 1. 60 1. 22 1, 32 1. 46 1. 22 1. 46 1.53 1. 42 1. 46
Goorklatie esis. Coos octcods 1.35 Lis 1.45 1.69 1. 46 1.36 1. 53 1.52 1:50 1.65
BlOnia tba Rac cese cence 1.00 1.60 1. 46 1.20 1.48 1. 24 1.47 1.36 1.48 1.50

STATISTICS OF HAY. 593

Average yield per acre of hay in the United States, 1897-1906, by States—Continued.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. ] 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.

Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.

(O11, | rn oe 1.44; 1.39] 1.80) 1.06] 1.36] 1.43] 1.42; 1.43] 1.49 1.22
Ue NT ol ie a ee eee 1.43 1.45 1.34 1.21 Beal 1. 46 1. 47 1.37 1. 48 1.10
TUG) en ee eek Sais W290") 56 0.200) 127 08 150.) D548) 15364) «1035 .98
MIGHIP EM oo 2 op See arene 4G 1 S60) E522) )) 20M) 0260) 45) eekS? 4) 12 25-1 1546 1.28
Wistonsin .- .2)-22.n55.6.2. 2 1.35 1, 2.50] 2.47 ||. 2.15 } 1.29) 1-590) )' 1.89} 4.67-| 1:80 1.35
WLC e; te ie ee a LBY¢ 1.80 1.70 1.16 1.55 1.76 1.84 1.74 Nts 1.70
meee es oe ee ho See 1.50 | 1.75} 1.34) 1.42) 1.25) 1.68] 1.78) 1.62] 1.70 1.35
Lo DT ihe Aas Se eee el tees 1.15} 1.60] 1.37] 1.29 AAS) at 27 Na EG y fa i UB” fF a £3) as
Prarus Dakota... 322.62. 8 1.60 1.50 1.58 - 92 1. 60 1. 66 1.18 LEGS 155: 1. 45
Sento Oakota . .-2:..2.04e2..- 2a sce os454) GLAS) TIS ee 23st 4b) 1243.15 T1260 1.50
RRETENE CO... 62 ue eeeeeee pesG0"} SE60r N66") IS SShi e125) E74 D685) 45 764 S75 1. 40
| DE as or ee | 1.30 1. 46 LEY 1,32 91 1.70 1.58 1.67 1555 1.28
HEONLUGICY -\— <.2'525c araese oes Be ee Sad 1. 45 1.29 1. 40 1.34 1. 44 1. 46 1. 44 1.30 1.35
INEFHIORERO = 2. 6 2 oe 1.45 1.50 1.31 1. 40 1.52 1.44 1.58 1. 66 1.60 ist
MED: 1107: ee ge Oe Cee Pa Tabi 90") £266) ) So E750 050 Bz ee | 90 1.95
MINRIGSUD Dl axc(=)2 5s seen teoe ne 1.48 1.90 1. 44 175 1.69 1.40 1.74 1.72 1.75 1.90
TSO AIAN A oe ac dasewsaack.ce cas 1.90} 2.10] 1.95} 2.00] 1.85] 1.80] 2.04] 2.06] 2.30 1.93
LUCE ODS (Nes eee 1.40] 1.50} 1.43] 1.80 a on en i: a ee 1H

FGETIUDLY So) coer o Soe eee eels reac ele osteo alte meee 5 é : R é

ee aa , Se Ne Bete oes CE eee See se ey ye! Lees a fia Bs 9 ee a I Ae De 1. 40
BAGLESS eee 1.30 1.54 1. 48 1.63 1.10 1.60 1. 60 1.72 1.75 1. 60
LAST PET) el a eee oe 1.50} 1.45.) 1.42] 1.60] 1.79 | 1.68} 2.08] 1.92] 1.60 1.85
MRM REIT ER ok so lac ecto 1.65 1. 96 1. 47 1. 68 1.76 1.65 2.14 P| 2. 50 2.25
Ree ee ce 2. 25 2. 20 2.10 2. 23 2.08 1. 92 2. 56 1.85 2.65 2. 50
LL tc a 3.50 | 3.75} 1.70| 2.06] 2.31 | 2.40} 2.36) 2.581} 2.'70 2.50
Jovi! 700) fe ee ee Sn ee 3.00] 3.50} 2.63 | 2.31) 2.85] 2.34] 3.46]. 2.71] 3.75 3.50
j0i RS Ae Se 2.95} 3.25] 2.50] 2.65] 2.45 | 2.62] 2.95| 3.54] 3.25 4.00
Lil) ee ee 2.50] 2.60] 1.87| 2.43] 2.50] 2.91] 3.12] 3.04] 2.50 1.50
UGINI nn): = 5 Sees re ee ZeSO eas 0Oul) BBO 280, 25S WD 678] 2689, A507") a0 2.95
WanninP tones: <2... 2s. ASS HQ zor M75) (2.020 2016) 230) 209901 2) 4% |) -2:98:-) “265 2. 38
UNS re oe Se ee ey eee ee 1.90 1.90 1.97 2. 35 2.07 2.04 2.07 2.04 2. 30 2.18
RIMMED Ss < See, See Sey ae 1. 60 1. 60 1.63 1.51 1.82 | 1.81 2.08 2.03 2. 40 1.85
General average. ....... 1.43] 1.55] 1.35 | 1.28 | 1.28] 1.50 | 1.54] 1.52] 1.54 1.35

Average value per acre of hay in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
WU Wee $10.73 | $9.12 | $9.09 |$11. 66 $10.96 |$10.74 [$10.00 |$10. 69 |$10. 69 | $12. 30
New Hampshire.............. 13.23 | 11.56 | 10.46 | 13.48 | 15.87 | 14.36 | 12.20 | 13.76 | 15.08 14. 38
WETMORE ane tes .csGs-S- 2a. 12.26 | 12.84 | 11.85 | 12.73 | 12.00
Massachusetts 26. 64 | 22.74 | 19.38 | 20.24] 22.97
Rhode Island 19. 46 | 20.28 | 20.16 ; 17.73 18. 44
Conmechiot. 222222) 022s. cas: . 6 , é E 21.19 | 16.86 | 15.78 | 16.35] 17.55
Wew Y OL... ..22.2.- aaa ee so - ‘ B e : 14.11 | 13.81-| 14.20 | 13. 49 15. 49
Maw alOrsey =. -s0-)-n eee we ; : : 19.08 | 19.70 | 20.39 | 16.74] 21.05
Pennsylvania E 16.66 | 17.15 | 17.14 | 17.90 | 17. 42
Delaware 15.73 | 24.32 | 22.09 | 21.19] 18.75
Maryland. . vas ts : : 5 14.19 | 17.38 | 16.97 | 15. 50 17. 01
Wireinis oS 25. 252555 ae eae P : : 15. 43 | 14.41 | 14.39 | 17.85 | 17. 44 | 16. 41 19. 37
MVest) Vireinia, 5. .25-° en. 8 11.95 | 12.94 | 12.19 | 15.81 | 18.91 | 16.05 | 19.04 | 18.24 | 17.24] 19.60
Werth Carolinas. 22. -.....i.% 12.19 | 15.81 | 15.15 | 15.79 | 17.93 | 17.64 ; 21.47 | 25.04 | 20.48] 23.10
South ‘Carolina. 22-32... ... 11.50 | 15.20 | 12.56 | 15.18 | 16.03 | 18.72 | 17.11 | 18.64 | 18.97 | 22.97
GANIPIE Rano ese ees tlk Se 17. 55 | 20. 56 | 19.07 | 21.55 | 20.92 | 18.22 | 23.18 | 23.01 | 23.63 | 25.99
lords etant et 258 eens 14.25 | 22.56 | 22.41 | 16.44 | 22.72 | 19.02 | 27.67 | 22.67 | 24.05 | 29 50
Omir 2 Ss ose ae eee it 9.00 | 7.99 | 11.63 | 11.71 | 11.86 | 14.59 | 14.20 | 13.23 | 11.92] 14 64
] 2X2 2120) ee ge pea 8.44 | 8.12 | 10.45 | 11.80 | 11.79 | 12.66 | 12.58 | 11.75 | 11.16 | 13.75
Mima G ls SH 2 eee ec ed 7.93 } 9.20 | 10.00 | 10.67 | 12.10 | 13.31 | 12.83 | 11.78 | 11.16] 19.25
Mupiear 52755 lee ee 11.55} 9.72 | 10.37 | 12.19 | 10.85 | 12.03 | 12.23 | 11.36 | 11,24 13. 25
yacoMEin eS = 542) ee Sele 8.44) 8.62 | 10.07 | 11.10 | 13.58 | 15.03 | 14.17 | 13.18 | 13.05 | 12.15
Mraneso ta! . 28.222 ee eS 7.06 | 6.66] 7.40] 8.06] 8.65] 9.43 | 12.16] 9.59 | 10.15 9. 35
La OSS Oe SI er 5. 6.37] 7.09} 7.10} 9.66] 9.69] 10.92] 9.72] 8.68] 8.67 9. 45
IMBRRO Misa 22:22:52 25s ee 7.07 | 9.28} 8.56] 8.97} 8.99 | 10.96 | 10.49] 9.73] 8 62 7. 80
Neri Dakota... .-.-222-824 5.201 4.87] 5.21} 5.20] 5.84! 6.09! 5.48! 661] 671 6. 52
Semis akota ss... 2: aes 3.69] 4.14] 4.43] 466] 5.16] 5.10] 6.71] 6.06] 6,43 6.75
Nebraska 5.28} 6.14] 7.11] 7.71 | 7.59) 7.53] 6.72| 7.24 7. 84
Kansas... Badan ie ADM AIG. Olaleet. 25) | ve 33 | 17260) TSI. || 7-87 8. 00
Kentucky 13.19 | 13. 42 | 15.89 | 16.25 | 16.27 | 17.62 | 16.57 | 13. 32 17. 89
Tennessee : 14.25 | 14.74 | 16.52 | 18.71 | 16.99 | 19.42 | 19.94 | 18.43 | 90. 31
PUD ANB oe ne 2 Sau ea ee : 17. 57 | 18.92 | 19.52 | 21.12 | 17. 42 | 21.93 | 20.74 | 23.79 | 25.93
MISSISSIPPI coco ene eee. 14.06 | 15.96 | 13.32 | 17.41 | 17.62 | 14.35 | 20.18 | 18.66 19.55 | 21.76
ouisiits sos. 0- 2k eh 16, 62 | 19.74 | 18.92 | 18.80 | 20.50 | 21.10 | 23.15 | 25.13 | 26. 45 | 22.20
TEXAS: 2: 5 be oc ee eae 10.15 | 8.77 | 10.15 | 12.24 | 13.27 | 12.04 | 15.09 | 14. 37 15.43 | 15.30
PniGianieL erritory |< Pesce eee oa ee eee a 11.01} 6.57! 886] 6.88] 6.79 7.70

3 A1906——38

594 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of hay in the United States, based wpon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States—Continued. ;

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
Oklahoma). . ise ts hos S eee ecble as ee eepeeetalsee 2oe $6. 59 | $6.68 | $7.52 | $7.40 | $7.03 | $8.05
ATICGNSRS 3: 24S eb ost ceed eeee $11. 25 |$10. 39 |$12. 80 $14. 43 | 12.89 | 15.04 | 15.17 | 16.89 | 16.80 | 15.84
iMontangd >= 24 o.ees2-e oe SER 11.63 | 9.86 | 10.93 | 13.92 | 14.60 | 12.67 | 18.32 | 16.70 | 12.32 | 16.46
IWiyoming’= .-)2e:ti ces ence 9.90 | 11.40 | 9.70 | 12.26 | 12.64 | 12.01 | 14.27 | 13.05 | 15.52 | 17.44
Colorado. 25-6058 ee see 12. 38 | 11.88 | 15.43 | 16.95 | 18.80 | 18.99 | 19.15 | 12.41 | 21.73 | 23.75
Néw Mexico 3-55 .22-) Sh... 2-2 24. 50 | 27.56 | 18.02 | 20.39 | 23.89 | 26.83 | 26.24 | 29.46 | 29.03 | 26.88
ATIZODRE (bs sone ee he ee oe 15.00 | 42.00 | 27.22 | 26.10 | 26.16 | 28.62 | 35.78 | 40.22 | 46.39 | 42.00
Oita 2 no ee ee er 14.01 | 14.62 | 17.75 | 21.07 | 20.70 | 19.18 | 20.18 | 22.34 | 21.68 | 30.00
ING VEG Bic see tie See sey et 12. 50 | 18.20 | 14.31 | 18.71 | 19.80 | 29.73 | 31.11 | 23.10 | 21.25 | 12.00
Tdahoy exes ecoeee Soe se aod ae 12.08 | 18.37 | 15.75 | 18.20 | 15.25 | 14.69 | 19.64 | 18.67 | 18.29 | 23.60°
Washington]: Ss. 2s<estea-- 2-5 20.25 | 13.30 | 17.98 | 20.52 | 19.60 | 20.45 | 30.78 | 24.72 | 25.63 | 26.18
Orexones fe = Sots esp ee eaeee 14.73 | 13.78 | 13.49 | 15.98 | 14.82 | 15.26 | 21.07 | 20.77 | 17.80] 17.11
California: <= as.hase ates se 14. 40 | 22.80 | 13.04 | 12.31 | 14.41 | 17.03 | 24.25 | 21.13 | 24.12] 20.81

General average.....-... 9.46} 9.30} 9.97 | 11.39 | 12.85 | 13.61 | 13.93 | 13.23 | 13.11 | 13.95

Average farm price of hay per ton in the United States December 1, 1897-1906, by States.

State or Territory. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900? | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. . | 1905. | 1906.

Maines 29 ha od} en ee ae : $7.60 |$10.10 |$12.95 |$10. 44 |$10.04 |$10. 20 90 | $10.25
New Hampshire. . 3 9.25 | 11.75 | 15.50 | 12.40 | 13.55 | 13.26 13.00 | 12.50
Vermontet ese se. eer een ee LE 6.35 | 9.25] 11.05 | 9.82} 9.65 | 10.88 9.43 | 10.00
Massachusetts o.-: 2 ceeses ee : 12.10 | 15.50 | 17.40 | 17.49 | 16.65 | 16.72 15.22 |) D700
Rihodewislandesvess sete cee 4 12.65 | 17.25 | 18.70 | 19.06 | 18.89 | 18.95 16.27 | 17.40
Connecticut) }aee ese4 ee : 11.15 | 14.50 | 16.73 | 14.62 | 15.70 | 15.19 14.60 | 15.00
New Monks: Hees eee : 5.75 | 10.45 | 14.05 | 10.58 | 10.53 | 10.96 10.38 | 12.10
New. Jerseye cent meee cteceee ! 9.60 | 15.35 | 16.05 | 14.29 | 15.64 | 15.39 14.81 | 15.95
iPennsylvaniacssesscosee eee ee L 7.90 | 11.50 } 13.90 | 13.64 | 14.00 | 13. 50 : 11.93 | 13.40
Delaware: ci e2 oo sceeeceeceee I 8.45 | 14.65 | 13.95 | 12.36 | 14. 43 | 14.83 13.67 toe
Mary ain ses at Set ee anes 10.50 | 9.30 | 12.15 | 14.05 | 13.17 | 14.05 | 14.02 i 10.920 2Ss50
Mirginiae ein sass a seer. 10.25 | 8.50 | 10.25 }' 13.30 | 12.01 | 13.58 | 13073 A 12.62) | 1650
WestiVirginigssss2: sce cc see 8.85) 8.40] 9.45 | 13.40 | 13.80 | 14.33 | 13.80 E 11,65 | 14.00
North Carolinazeeeese = ease 9.75 | 9.30 | 10.10 | 11.20 | 10.80 | 12.25 | 13. 42 : 12.80 | 15.00
South Carolina 9.50 | 10.30 | 11.50 | 10.98 | 11.25 | 11.72 13.36: | 15225
GeOTsige sok es saceneeee ee VL..75,|-43.15. |. 12. 75 |. 14.33) 13.40 | 15.15 7 Taio,
Mlondaeiese os cucee sere eee aa. 14.10 | 15.35 | 18.70 | 15.35 | 15.34 | 18.82 16.25 | 15.00
Ohio ss" atk eRe Saree 5.75 | 8.95] 11.05] 8.72 | 10.20 | 10.00 8.00 | 12.00
iindiana=22 24-2. Sacre” Pe 5. 60°} T80"} 9.75: | 29528 || S675) Se56 7.54 | -12. 50
INT NOIS ee Sas Choe Lee 5.90 | 7.75} 8.40] 11.20] 8.87] 8.33 8.27 | 12.50
MICH seni s2 ee) ae eee tees 7.15} 8.50} 9.45] 8.61] 8.30] 8.93 7.70 | 10.35
WASCOnSIN= S. = fone scescee cs 5.75 | 6.85 | 9.65 | 10.53-| 7.91 | 7.50 t25 9. 00
MInneSGOUR. 42h. haa. eee tee 3.70} 4.35} 6.95] 5.58] 5.36] 6.61 80 5. 50
WOW: = = nclrck oe ese oe eee eee oad 4.05] 5.30] 6.80] 7.67] 6.50] 5.46 10} 7.00
IMISSOUDUE 8. 2 a5. cs eeeneme le 5.80 | 6.25] 6.95] 11.99 | 6.89] 6.68 84 | 10.00
North Dakota 3.25 | 3.30} 5.65) 3.65] 3:67} 4.64 33 4. 50
South Dakota 3.00} 3.10] 3.95} 4.49] 4.15] 4.63 . 02 4. 50
Nebraska cae-Vac.teeatesceeons 3:30.) 8.70)) S050) Gil7 |) 4:36), anaes .14 5. 60
Kansas....-.- S225 i" 3: Sup. 4255. |b ae Ogeeasolaleaaen 5.08 6.25
Kentucky... 9.10 | 10.40 } 11.35 } 12.13 | 11.30 | 12.07 10.63 | 13.25
Tennessee. - : 9.50 | 11.25 | 11.80 | 12.31 | 11.80 | 12.29 L152) |) 88.45
BIS DANG. sere ae see oe ee As 9.25 | 11.40 | 10.55 | 12.07 | 11.61 | 12.39 12.52 } 13.30
Mississipplacocc: cen 2-26 ae 8.40 | 9.25] 9.95 | 10.51 | 10.25 | 11.60 11.17} 11.45
LOUISIDNS ee, ee ete Set ee 9.40 | 9.70} 9.40 | 11.08 | 11.72 | 11.35 2 11.50; 11.50
TERGS). So cak. 2 ieee ee sessed 5.85 {| 7.10} 6.80 | 10.62] 8.60] 8.20 ; 8.12 8. 50
Gndian Rermtory sos a: 22 a2 ses a SIR ee ee ae ed 7.54 | 4.981 5.91 6 5. 35 5. 50
Oklahoma 252. steve: ass. Sent ae eee ee ee ee ee ee 6.86} 5.30] 5.61 : 4.91 5.75
ATKOnSaS 3 40 Sateen Me oes 8.65} 6.75 { 8.65] 8.85] 11.72} 9.40] 9.48] 9.82) 9.60 9. 90
IMONTSAR = Js acen ee coer 7.75 | 6.80} 7.70] 8 70| 8.18] 7.54] 8.81 8.70 | 7.70 8. 90
Wi Onn 535.2 eee enee 6.00 | 5.90} 6.60} 7.30] 7.18} 7.28] 6.67} 5.75) 6.21 7.75
Golorados 22.2 etree tees 5.50 | 5.40] 7.35] 7.60] 9.04] 9.89] 7.48] 6.71 | 8.20 9. 50
New Me@xiCO.2 -.coesseeseeeees 7.00 | 7.35} 10.60} 9.90 | 10.34 | 11.18 | 11.12 | 11.42 | 10.75 | 10.75
INTUZOUSa. 72's eee oe eee 5.00 | 12.00 | 10.35 | 11.30 9.18 | 12.23 | 10.34 | 14.84 | 12.37 12.00
Gai ee. obods aside emeaeeee 4.75 | 4.50| 7.10] 7.95] 845] 7.32] 6.84] 6.31] 6.67 7. 50
IN6Vad Sas. 00:5 22 son eee 5.00 | 7.00] 7.65] 7.70] 7.92] 9.05] 9.97} 7.60| 8.50 8.00
IOS Sere otek etn cree cee eee ae 5.251] 4.90] 6.30] 6.50] 5.91} 5.50] 6.86} 6.08] 5.90 8. 00
WiTSHIN ETON. oe. cee a ee eee 9.00 | 7.60:| 890] 9.50] 8.52} 8.93] 12.77 | 11.34] 9.67] 11.00
(Dhl 20) 01 ee Ee soe Te EP 7.75 | 7.25| 6.85] 6.80] 7.16] 7.48 | 10.18} 10.18) 7.74 7. 85
Oalitommia.. 3. 22 <es.s 22. eee oe 9.00 | 14.25] 8.00] 8.15] 7.92] 9.41 | 11.66 | 10.41 | 10.05} 11.25

General average........ 6.62 | 6.00] 7.27] 8.89] 10.01) 9.06] 9.08 | 8.72] 852] 10.37

STATISTICS OF HAY.

595

Wholesale prices of hay (baled) per ton in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

UCT i ee
ROATHATY)= = 2c sca

UU
eS ( UC ee
Peptember-.........:
Oetopers: os..2. 0.02:

IRBCRIIPOD = <.ce/55.455 08

ASIN Ei gs Seta eee
Pepltery =o 3.5...
UT eee a eee

Deremherevs asc... --

WRNIRT YS ea oe 2A wae

February...
March....-.

September..........-
OTE 3) 22) eee

MGWTHAIY so. csccee

UNG Sos
INES els
September..........-
Meteper-- -.. 22... -

PRUPTIBGS cia5snc-0 oesae
September...........
Ochober~: =~ ..2--%.

Cincinnati.

St. Louis.

New York.

Chicago.

No. 1 timothy.
SS SSE ee

Low. | High.
$12.50 | $13.00
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.50 | 13.00
12.50 | 13.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.00; 12.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 13.00
12.00 | 13.00
12.00 | 13.50
13.00 | 15.00
13.50 | 15.00
13.00 | 15.00
13.00 | 13.50
11.00 | 13.50
10.00 | 12.00
10.00 | 11.50
10.00 | 11.50
10.00 | 12.00
10.50 | 12.50
10.50 | 12.50
10.50 | 13.00
11.50 | 14.50
12.00 | 15.00
12.00 | 15.00
10.00 | 14.00
10.00 | 15.00
9.00 | 12.00
10.00 | 12.50
10.00 | 12.50
10.50 | 11.50
10.50 | 12.00
11.00 | 12.00
11.00 | 12.00
11.00 | 12.00
11.00 | 12.00
10.00 | 12.00
10.00 | 12.00
11.00 | 12.50
10.00 | 12.50
10.00 | 11.50
11.00 | 12.00
10.00 | 12.00
10.00 | 11.00
9.50 | 10.50
9.80 | 12.00
10.00 | 12.50
11.50 12. 50
11.50 13.00
12.00 | 16.00
13.00 | 16.00
13.50 | 16.00
13.50 | 15.50
15.00 | 17.00
15.50 | 18.00

No. 1 timothy.

No. 1 timothy.

No. 1 timothy.

$12.50 | $13.75
12.50 | 13.25
12.75 | 18.25
12.75 | 18.25
13.00 | 13.50
12.75 | 13.00
13.75 | 15.50
12.00 | 15.50
11.00 | 13.00
13.00 | 14.00
13.00 } 14.00
13.75 | 16.50
15.50 | 17.25
16.00 | 16.75
16.00 | 17.50
16.25 | 18.00
15.25 | 18.00
17.50 {| 19.50
16.50 | 18.00
11.50 | 17.00
11.50 | 13.50
12.50 | 13.25
12.25 | 12.75
12.50 | 13.00
12.50 | 13.25
12.50 | 13.50
12.50 | 14.00
13.75 | 14.00
14.00 | 15.50
13.00 | 14.00
12.00 | 13.75
11.50 | 14.00
11.00 | 12.25
11.50 | 12.50
11.25 | 12.00
12.00 | 12.50
12.00 | 12.75
11.75 | 12.25
11.75 | 13.00
12.00 ; 12.50
11.50 | 12.50
10.25 | 11.75
10.50 | 12.50
10.00 | 12.50
11.50 | 12.50
12.25 | 12.50
12.00 | 13.50
12.25 | 13.50
12.00 | 13.00
11.00 | 12.50
12.50 | 13.50
13.50 | 14.75
14.50 | 16.25
15.00 | 16.00
15.50 | 18.00
15.25 | 16.00
15.00 | 16.25
16.00 | 18.25
17.75 | 19.00
19.00 | 19.50

Low. | High. | Low. | High.
$13.50 | $15.50 | $17.00 | $18.00
13.00 | 14.50 | 17.00 19. 00
13.00 | 14.50 | 17.00 19.00
13.00 | 15.25 | 17.00 19.00
13.00 | 15.50} 17.00 19.00
12.00 | 15.00} 18.00 19.00
13.00 | 16.00 | 18.00 21.00
10.00 | 15.00 | 18.00 22.00
9.50 | 12.00| 17.00 18. 50
11.00 | 13.00} 17.50 20.00
11.00 | 13.50} 18.00 20.00
13.50 | 15.50 | 18.00 20.00
13.50 | 15.50 | 18.00 21.00
13.50 | 15.00 | 18.50 21.00
14.00 | 16.00] 18.00 20.00
13.50 | 16.00] 18.50 23.00
13.00 | 16.00} 19.00 23.00
14.50 | 25.00} 20.00 26.00
9.50 | 16.50 | 20.00 23.00
10.00 | 15.00} 18.00 20.00
10.00 | 12.00 | 16.00 18.50
10.00 | 12.50 | 16.00 18.00
10.00 | 12.50] 17.00 18.00
10.00 | 13.50 | 16.00 18.00
10.00 | 11.50} 16.00 18.00
10.50 | 11.50] 16.50 19.00
10.50 | 12.00 | 17.00 19.00
11.00 | 13.00} 18.00 19.00
12.50 | 13.00 | 18.00 19. 00
12.00} 13.50 | 17.00 19.00
12.00 | 13.00} 17.00 18.00
11.50 | 13.50 | 17.00 18. 00
10.50 | 12.50} 15.00 18. 00
10.50 | 12.50} 15.00 16. 00
11.00 | 11.50} 15.50 17.00
10.50 | 11.50 | 15.00 16.00
11.00 | 12.75] 15.50 17.00
10.50 | 12.50} 15.50 16.00
10.50 | 12.50} 15.00 17.50
11.00 | 13.00} 15.00 16.00
10.50 | 13.00} 15.00 16. 00
10.50 | 12.50] 15.00 16.00
10.00 | 14.00 | 14.00 15. 00
9.00 | 13.50] 15.00 19. 00
10.00 | 13.00 | 14.50 16.00
10.50 | 13.50] 15.00 16.00
12.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 16. 50
12.50 | 15.50} 14.00 15.00
12.00 | 14.00} 16.00 17.00
11.50 | 14.00 | 15.00 16. 50
12.00 | 15.00] 15.50 16. 00
13.50 | 17.00 |. 15.50 19.00
14.50 | 18.00} 17.50 19. 50
14.00 | 17.00} 18.00 19. 00
11.00 | 17.50] 18.00 20.00
12.00 | 16.50] 18.00 20.00
13.50 | 15.50 | 17.50 19.00
14.50 | 16.50] 17.50 21.00
15.00 | 18.50 | 19.00 23.00
17.50 | 20.00} 20.00 22.

596 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COTTON.
Cotton crop of countries named, 1901-1905.

[No statistics for Siam and some other less important cotton-growing countries. Bales of 500 pounds,

gross weight, or 478 pounds of lint, net.]
Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
NORTH AMERICA.

United States: Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales.
Contizuoisas.-seo eee oe 9, 509, 745 10, 630, 945 9, 851, 129 18, 438, 012 10, 575, 017
Noncontiguous— Porto -

Ricoole. Fee. 2s tees EG Soc Seer eee 265 | 1,076 1,881
Total United States (ex- | |
ce pt Philippine Islands) . 9, 509, 748 10, 630, 945 9,851,394 | 13, 489,088 | 10, 576, 898

Guatemala sage. ae 22 - eee | ¢147 © 147 147 c147 ©147

MGxICO .. PESx aan eesses tees 103, 147 103,910 168, 998 253, 271 d 290, 000

INICATa 219 Uwe Pe eee €507 €507 €507 507 806

Salvadorc. 65 soe seee ee ee 2 f2 f2 | 2 2

West Indies: |
British—

Bahamas uss eee | 2 | 3 13 18 14
Barbadoses2 ot .< 332 RE 1 ahs Aero ses steal Scere ee 11 402 720
Grenadabh ee at = 527 | 518 630 658 445
Jamaica Ot. 22... tSo2.0. dee ous eee staat 6 30 184
heeward Uslands 6. 22 . . 2) Shi chance ssl no ose see eels 133 243 822
Ste Euciat) 2 232 ste Sl ee ee eee ae [Sse cceree aaee 5 3
Sti Vincent bl. 22582228 ©: | 53 | 113°} 91 264 288
Trinidad and Tobago...|.....--.------ bh gota sate Eat eweaceeee 33 b31
Turks and Caicos Is-
lands } Sp ees ees 1 | 2254: ..245285-]2320==
CUD ae. a asae ae oases se ene Bene ete ase ed atata raster cine er 77 b61 e61
French—
Guadeloupe b........... 5 (9) | 1 1 el
Martinique 02220 50.25... 4 See eee fi dae ee oe Mle 5 ok anes 12 | e12
SCN A ee ee ee, ee ee | h 4,200 | 4,200 | 6, 821 6, 312 6,878
Total North America....- 9,618,343 | 10,740,345 10,028,832 | 13,701,054 10, 877, 306
SOUTH AMERICA. -
| }

ATPONTINAIO .. ste sten coset eel eee eee ae ye 26 142 495

IBTAZIL si en aek seb ses teen eee 210, 000 305, 000 285, 000 220, 000 270, 000

British Guigna0 i. 58 eS 2 esheets lee eee aoe (9) 4 2

@hilebh ee 33 See be a ee 948 860 | 837 634 815

Colombia and Venezuela ?...... 5,000 5,000 | 5,000 5,000 5,000

CWUAGOK Os joo 58 coe seen e eee 32 Ol id (is ne See 22 47

IBGLU cero a. are eee tee 2 44,300 | 38, 200 43,776 | 45, 672 @ 65, 000

WaTasiayers fo cheese see ees « 200 200 200 200

Total South America..... 260, 480 349, 305 334, 839 271,674 341, 559
EUROPE.

Bilparlare cso thes Siac closes 3765 3765 3765 3765 765

Grete ts 222 seed aod coc oe nesses 700 700 700 700 700

Greece Fre oe ass eee ae 8, 200 8, 200 8, 200 8, 200 8, 200

tally: toe cep acne cases cue ite os 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Malta 3 oie ee estas aeian Saini ee se 236 231 285 345 340

Torkey@ose. ceeecctec vet wweress o 9, 800 | 8,000 | 7,000 6,000 | 7,000

Totalseuropes. o==.45-e" 2- 22, 401 | 20,596 | 19, 650 18,710 | 19, 705

ASIA.

British India, including native
Bieter... usc .Srcpagecct ose. 2,770, 819 38, 138, 910 2,995, 875 3, 028, 000 3,546, 090

CeplonWins ican 485 428 317 | 324

China tr is vlan begiade eeagesneee 1, 200, 000 1, 200, 000 1, 200, 000 | 1, 200, 000 1, 200, 000

CYPIUBs 35. cas erated jone aes 1, 628 ! 817 692 1,118 1, 637

a‘‘Linters,”’ a by-product obtained in the oil mills, not included. Quantity of linters produced as
follows: Running bales, 166,026 in 1901, 196,223 in 1902; 500-pound bales, 194,486 in 1903, 241,942 in 1904,

and 229,539 in 1905.
b Exports.
c Official estimate for 1903.
d Unofficial estimate.
e Exports, 1904.
f Exports, 1905.
9 Less than one-half bale.
h Exports, 1902.

i Average production as unofficially estimated.

j Official estimate for 1905.

k Exports and mill consumption.

STATISTICS OF COTTON.

Cotton crop of countries named, 1901-1905—Continued.

> Unofficial estimate.
ec Exports, 1904.

d Average production as unofficially estimated.

597

e Average exports, 1903-1904.

g Less than one-half bale.
h Imports from Angola into Portugal.

i Statistics for 1903.

Country. . 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
AsIA—continued.
Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales.
Dutch East Indies@.._.........- 9, 160 8, 267 12, 632 15, 367 13, 280
Medaersaean Malay States... ...<-|- cos. s9aseecs| oc ceccactece es il Ul
rr: Gi = 2 oe ee eae ae eee sacs estes ore tesesedos soos 14 c14
French Indo-China¢............ 7,815 11,139 13, 693 15, 255 ¢ 15, 255
SATA 25, 762 19, 152 17,012 16, 262 12, 370
PSTD 2 a ict a ee ey acl 70, 000 70, 000 70, 000 70, 000 70, 000
PEE ae 5 este ee ice ene €64, 000 € 64, 000 56, 282 71, 509 b 72,000
Philippine Islands..........---- 76,098 6,098 76,098 7 6,098 f 6,098
Russia, Asiatic: }
POHULAL A Sig) ooo ear eae 426, 000 370,000 476,000 | 506, 000 567, 000
Wranscaucasia > ...0. 2.5.52. 56, 56, 000 53, 000 49, 000 , 000
Total Asiatic Russia... -.- 482, 000 426, 000 529,000 | 555, 060 612, 000
Turkey. ASi@tiCd. — Mocs cn.osnoe 60, 000 60, 000 60, 000 60, 000 60, 000
UT OCN EUS ENS Regen tel ea 4,697, 767 5,004, 811 4,961, 604 5, 038, 995 5, 608, 979
AFRICA.
British Africa:

; PCR OUNICHEs Ww cose deee cae ctnes 1 119 449 1, 658
A TTAGE, oS. 5. 2 = 2 ace one wee emt eee te Sonic Pepe toe 609 208
SIE) ote a eee eS (9) (9) 3 125 5
PREMIGOARGS =. 22... acageee Oe eee eS | 22 121 61
ARR cee eS |. CR er ene ce ce ge Saat ee! 3 b31
Nigeria—

Southern, Colony (in-
cluding Lagos) @4.....- 16 26 606 1, 805 2, 680
NOWSERBEAE TOLRGEOTHUGG |=) ce? Cee Pee ee ee oe. oo oe a ee 598 201
Northern, Protecto-
re a m= Re | ie, Se eee | Res, aoe eS Se See 601 258
POUT: LOOBR Geo. o slinsteanaleatemees wee lot cep encn eae 2 59 144
AUER EO ee a Pe Ie SE SOS LEE tS. ee oot Ce bes Scakeeee ol 45 201
Total British Africa... ... 22 27 752 4,415 5, 447
EME Pee ee coe wanes oe alta 1, 320, 307 1, 209, 746 | 1, 348, 759 1,316, 212 1, 250, 173
French Africa:¢ 4
LO EES oan eee SA Mil LESS ee RE SD! | Ee ko ON 289 ¢ 289
CEL DIG PEGS C Rees 2 aap cher |e Seeley eee Deere ae (9) 8 | c8
ices teae aes ea is SIE ae [ee Sees AR a's be, Serta ete et 2 ee
Rarer: eee As 1d Ais ee ee ease 2 8 a}
EITC GE ae ee | ae ee ee (2), «~ Rees en 41 c 41
eraiemrcnmreAired=— —- lo: oo: 227s ns 3 346 € 346
German Africa:¢@
SS ATTICA (oe eer eae oe 1 2 43 872 871
GEO occ ee ea tee cee oe SMS See a SN 148 499 618
Total German Africa... .- i 2 H 191 | 137i 1, 489
Rarer erce SCALA ma eeree memes see eee Ee ey he EE te 1
Portuguese Africa—Angola hk... 100 61 6 76 i6
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian).....__. 76,517 76,517 6,517 15, 097 19, 441
MotalAmried 22 ss-202- 5. 22 1, 326, 947 1, 216, 353 1, 356, 228 1, 337, 447 1, 276, 903
OCEANIA.
British—Queensland.-.......... feces. ee 1 1 18 79
French: 4
New Caledonia.............. tna Sahn Arel Rae Mey ers ancora 2 gaat ol 1 b1
MBS Glos oe = go Stee | 110 79 (pl 48 b 48
German— Bismarck Archi-

[ESL Sea tee Seco Sc ta Samana Aone 13 240 56 b56
Total Oceania .=-..-..--.- 110 93 312 123 184
Grand total............... 15,926, 048 | 17,331,503 | 16,701,465 | 20,368,003 | _18, 124, 636
a Exports. 7 Census, 1902.

598 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

International trade in cotton, 1901-1906.4

[Bales of 500 pounds, gross weight, or 478 pounds of lint, net.]

‘

EXPORTS.
Country. | 1903. 1904. 1905.
Bales. Bales. Bales.
IB EOI L a< cee eee 1 130, 229 61,170 6 111, 069
IBTitishindiae a=. ee oe 1 1,865, 791 1,334, 111 1, 741, 096
DY Dibenwce eee | il 1, 158, 029 1, 225, 259 1,352, 517
aT C Ole: ate ee ee 1 152, 127 150, 462 164, 814
Germany/¢: 2 ese il 286, 743 319, 732 293, 838
Netherlands. ........- | 1 110, 568 104, 182 98, 851
POPU... ->-eer eee ees 1 5 35, 289 34, 741 53, 040
United States........ July 1 7, 382, 792 7, 466, 824 6, 464, 134 9,078, 080 7, 602, 605
Othericountriess=2.- 55-5 seen 168, 300 304, 900 391, 000 581, 500 262, 900
Total. Sess soe lciconaeeas 10, 704, 280 11, 215, 803 10, 593, 910 12, 889, 237 11, 680, 730
IMPORTS.
Year
begin- 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904, 1905.
ning—
Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales.
1 617, 908 664, 313 688, 041 700, 062 752, 110
1 152, 334 206, 087 246, 879 186, 228 220, 252
1 134, 364 142,138 101, 800 118, 583 142, 262
oe veel 980, 936 985, 068 1, 167, 740 967, 710 1, 104, 696
Gormanyuce sot aenecs- ere! 1, 723,038 1, 805, 305 1, 992, 090 2, 082, 693 2,112, 481
Italy Sasseee eee. 3 Cio a al 623, 206 679, 641 711, 035 713, 733 b 761, 328
Wap aMiscces -4e- sees Jan. 1 697, 024 946, 919 816, 657 733, 849 1, 184, 213
IM@xICOs- 52 cee nate duly 29, 028 77,590 64, 680 b 86, 198 b 31, 525
Netherlands. ......... densely il 193, 982 182, 427 199, 729 203, 091 210, 026
IRUSSIaK <5 52a eee Janae 783, 865 820, 955 1,061, 822 908, 232 b 994, 386
Spaitizesstececessotace Uehog wl 360, 966 392, 993 368, 653 325, 157 » 0365, 907
Sweden a.22 2 senses eee Ueno al 76, 496 83, 166 83, 194 80, 325 89, 154
United Kingdom... aTiey 3, 395, 697 3, 225, 052 3,113, 890 3,559, 028 4,017, 610
United States.......- July 1 206, 518 156, 641 102,177 126, 587 148, 459
Ofhericountriese4-4|eeeeceseee 433, 500 441, 200 389, 700 459, 100 325, 200
To tall wee sealers. eae 10, 408,862 | 10,809,495 | 11,108,087 | 11,250,576 12, 459, 609

a See ‘‘ General note,”’ p. 546.
> Preliminary figures.
¢ Not including the free ports.

Condition of the cotton crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1906.

Sep- Sep-
- Au- Octo- Au- Octo-
Year. June.| July. gust elt ne Year. June. | July. gust ir ners
TEPACE A cleo Chieu eles Ots1| even Ceey lieth P. ch. | Pv ch. | PAvChe)| PiCha ees
VSS se ans iatae 86.4 | 87.6] 89.3 86.6 | 81.5 89.0} 91.2] 91.2] 79.8 75. 4
1890. <2 ce. Jae 88.8 | 91.4] 89.5] 85.5] 80.0 85.7] 87.8} 840] 68.5 62.4
1 aire ete: ae 85. 7 88.6 | 88.9] 82.7 | 75.7 82.5] 75.8) 76.0] 68.2 67.0
BOD ecm cers 85.9} 86.9 | 82.3] 76.8] 73.3 81.5] 81.1 77.2) 71.4 61.4
LSD rate iee meee 85.6 | 82.7] 80.4] 73.4] 70.7 95. 1 84.7} 81.9] 640 58. 3
89435 sss Seismie 88.3 | 89.6} 91.8| 85.9} 82.7 74.1 tank 79.7 | 81.2 65.1
TS90 5 coats creisteta 81.0 | 82.3| 77.9] 70.8| 65.1 83.0 | 88.0] 91.6] 84.1 75.8
TRG GEsG “2.5: oe 97.2] 92.5] 80.1] 642] 60.7 1052) 2730" || STas0l ieadeaen 71.2
BO ais ac alra = ayaiare 83.5 | 86.0] 86.9] 78.3 70. 0 84.6] 83.3] 82.9] 77.3 71.6

STATISTICS OF COTTON. 599

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of cotton of the United States, 1899-1906.

New York closing prices per

Production. pound on middling upland.

Domestic
exports,

fiscal
moar: Acreage. lm, ousands |Bales of 500 Value. @ December. peel of ane, year be-
: pounds 8 y
of pounds. gross eenaie
(2) weight. Low. | High. | Low. | High. sta
Bales of
Acres. Dollars. Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | 500 lbs.
1899-1900. . . .}24, 275, 101 370,708,746 | 74 72 9 95 6, 201, 166
1900-1901....| 25,758,139 | 4,846,471 | 10,123,027 |.........-..-. 9f 1035 825 6,661,781
1901-1902... .| 27,220,414 | 4,550,950 | 9,509,745 |.............. 8 5 93 93 7,001, 558
1902-1903... .) 27,114,103 421,687,941 | 8} 8 10. 75 | 12.15 | 7,086,086

1903-1904... .| 28/016, 893
1904-1905... .| 30)053, 739
1905-1906... .| 26,117) 153
1906-1907... . .| 32,049; 000

576, 499,824 | 11.95 | 14.10 | 12.75 | 13.90 | 6, 1267396
561,100,386 | 6.85 | 9.00] 7.85] 8.85] 8,609,698
556,833,818 | 11.65 | 12.60 | 11.25 | 12.00 | 7,268) 090
G0 Sib bie") to. ab (isoy: (6 Ne et a

10,575,017
13, 273, 809

a As reported by U.S. Census Bureau.

» According to Report of Twelfth Census; the acreages for subsequent years are as estimated by the
Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture.

¢ As revised in June, 1907.

Prices of middling upland cotton in New Orleans, monthly, 1890-1906.

[In cents per pound.]

January. | February. March. April. | May. June.

Year. SSS SS SSS ae SS SS
Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.| Low.|High.

9§ 1033; 10% 1033} 1034) 11 11 11}3} 118) 113 117} 11%

Sig) 9x} St} 9 83 | Sys) 8t3) Sis] 83 | 7h] 8%

643] 78;| 64 64 63 63 df 7 7 7 7%

93 | 93 | 88} 92) Sys} 9 TYe| 8x5) 72) 7 Tis] 7h

Ts) 72 | Ts] Tye] 78] Te 7 Tys| 653) 7y5 73

5 53} 5 535 oe 52 68) 7 63 7

el al fal a al oo ad a Sa

6t 16 ts *s 5

Sys) 53] 654] SH) OO Py fo] 92 | Sis ts] Og 675

oys| OF 6 513, Gy) 5: St | Ste} 5g] 53] 5%
CE a er ea) 9 Qf} 93 | 94) 8i8) 92) 813) 948
9 943) Ors] Ors} 748} Ors] | 8 ar 7¥5| 8 73 | 8y5
7 8 7té 8i| 8) 88) 9 9% | 9F | Ste] 975

8% 83 8% 9 98) 98 92 103) 10 1144) 1144) 133

13 1538} 134 167,| 14 16 13¢ 157;| 12 132 10% 124
6§] 7 i 73] 7h) 7t8) 78 | Tye 74) Bye! 8h] 95%

11 113 10| 10 104 114 114 117/11 1174; 1033) 113

July. August. | September.| October. | November. | December.

Year. rar | ‘au ax alia ake, | aaa eel

Low. High. Low | High, ell ace Low. High. Low.|High.; Low.|High.

USD Baa ee eae Sepa iyi ene 117; 113} 10%} 112 9% | 104 934) 1075 fal 93 +e] OF
EES Ce Sareea “| 7} 8 | 8 | ss) 7 sf] 2) wil a
BS a oe on = ee on 7 Tis} 848] 7] GER] 7x] | S748 ie} 9% 9fs| 918
LES i Se ogee eee T¥5| 72 131 (78 15 73 8% Tz5| 74 7 eX
US ee eee eee 63 | 6 | Gye} 63) Sts} 62) S| SE] 46] Sk] SA] See
ie cee dae cisenoe a sces2oee 63) Gf) GR) Ti] Tes] 82] S8i5| 98] Sre] 88] 72) 8%
ii anes ae te een ee 64 | Gig] Gis} 8 7 a eee a 7#;| 7k} 612) 73
Se SES een ees see TH x8 Tys| 743 ts] Ts] 5S 63 | - 54 53 54 53
Bee en Sane ee eee 58 5g 5g Ste 433) 5 43 575, 5 54
ibs)! ree eee) eee 53 5# 53 548] 5 6 63 18; 63 Tze| T#s| 74
PURE Wigs P52 et ee 9% | 104 93} 104 9 114 +3} 103;} 9 9% 94 +3
NE Bo oe Sean pa eas 8} 835| 8 8ig; 748) 88 TZs Ps} 74 7zZs| 7% 825

LE ies el ts See a er 83 ys] 8 83 84 73 8 +3] 8

LD a ere ca 123 | 138} 12 134 92 | 12 9%} 104] 10 113;| 114 | 138
WON Ret csisetas Sie actin ees 104 | 1175} 104} 11 10 il 94 | 103) 8% gt 64 3,
Pree ee ere ice wcimsiiccs oboe | 114 | 108] 1 104 | 10%) 9 1043; 102 | 11%, 11] 123,
[os he Rae peaeie= 10§ | 114 935) 1 9% 9s 933) 113 93} 11%) 103] 112

600 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COTTON CROP OF THE UNITED STATES, 1790-1906.

Intelligent use of the following table depends upon observing these explanations:

Year.—The year mentioned is, for production, that of planting and growth; but
ginning continues into the following calendar year. When, in want of figures for
production, a commercial crop is taken, this represents the trade movement beginning
September 1 of the growth year and ending August 31 of the following year. -The
year for exports and imports begins October 1 of the growth year for the period 1790-
1842 (1842 is a nine-meaths year); July 1 for 1843-1866 (1866 is a fourteen-months year):
and September 1 for 1867-1905; except that the average price of exports per pound
given for the years 1791-1800 (average for following and nearly coincident calendar
years adopted) is derived irom a report of Secretary of Treasury Woodbury (Ex. Doc.
No. 146, 24th Cong., 1st sess.).

Production—number of running bales.—1790-1834 and 1839, production, total net
weight in pounds divided by net weight per bale; 1835-1838, 1840-1848, 1850-1858,
1860, 1865-1868, 1870-1878, 1880-1888, 1890-1898, commercial crop, Latham, Alexan-
der & Company’s Cotton Movement and Fluctuation; 1849, 1859, 1869, 1879, 1889,
1899-1906, production, Census; 1861-1864, commercial crop, Production and Price of
Cotton for One Hundred Years, by James L. Watkins, Bulletin No. 9, Bureau of
Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture. Linters included, 1899-1906.
Number of running bales of linters, 1899, 114,544; 1900, 143,500; 1901, 166,026; 1902,
196,223; 1903, 195,752; 1904, 245,973; 1905, 230,497; 1906, 322,064.

Production—500-pound bales.—Linters included, 1899-1906, with same number of
bales as above for 1899-1902; 500-pound bales in 1903, 194,486; 1904, 241,942; 1905,
229,539; 1906, 321,689.

Production—net weight per bale-—1790-1898, Bulletin No. 9, above, and Latham,
Alexander & Company, above; 1899-1906, Census. Linters not included.

Production—total net weight.—1790-1834, production, report of Secretary Woodbury,
above; 1839, production, Census; 1835-1838, 1840-1848, 1850-1858, 1860-1868, 1870-
1878, 1880-1888, 1890-1898, commercial crop, and 1849, 1859, 1869, 1879, 1889, 1899-
1906, production, number of bales multiplied by average net weight per bale. Linters
not included. ;

Price per pound of lint.—1869-1898, farm price, December 1, Bureau of Statistics,
Department of Agriculture, specific inquiry; 1899, Census, total farm value divided
by total net weight; 1900-1901, no information; 1902-1906, Census, New Orleans
Cotton Exchange value for upland cotton, computed by multiplying total net weight
by mean exchange price for estimated average grade, and Charleston and Savannah
Cotton Exchange value for sea-island cotton. Linters not included.

Total value of lint.—Total net weight multiplied by price per pound, except for 1899.
Linters not included, because included in value of seed, which was in total as follows
for the only years for which ascertainable: At the farm, 1899, $46,950,575; at the
mill, 1902, $80,209,194; 1903, $84,049,406; 1904, $90,931,250; 1905, $75,464,515; 1906,
» $81,335,699.

Consumption.—Linters included, 1899-1905. No account taken of stocks at begin-
ning and end of year. The figures are from the formula of production plus net
imports minus domestic exports, and do not stand for actual consumption for any
certain year, concerning which see Bul. No. 63, Bureau of the Census.

Domestic exports.—Including reexports, 1790-1800, not including reexports, 1801-
1819, American State Papers; 1820-1905, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Com-
merce and Labor. Linters included, 1897-1905; uncertain whether included before
1897 and after this class of cotton first appeared in trade, soon after 1870.

Net imports.—Imports, including reexports, 1790-1800, not including reexports,
1801-1818, American State Papers; 1819, Report of Secretary Woodbury, above; 1820-
1905, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor; except that the
imports given for the years 1791-1793 are for the following calendar years, being nearly
coincident with the commercial crop years.

Linters.—1899-1906, included in production of running bales and equivalent 500-
pound bales, and in consumption. Included in domestic exports, as explained above.

Gold values.—All values have been reduced to gold for 1862-1878.

Bureau of the Census.—In the preparation of the following table the Bureau of Sta-
tistics of the Department of Agriculture has been favored with the cooperation of the
Bureau of the Census of the Department of Commerce and Labor.

601

STATISTICS OF COTTON.

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603

STATISTICS OF COTTON.

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604
YEARBOOK
OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULT
URE.

es,

1902-1906.
New York New
Date. ‘| Orlea Memphis. ges
| ns. phis. | Galveston. Savannah.) Charles- | Wilmi
Low] Hi |. to ilming-| x
igh |Low| High |Low| High |Low| High, 2 ton. «fee
1902 Cts C pe! High Low High | Low | High |Low |Hi —
Jan! at ae Cts. Cts. | Cts.| Cts. \C Low | igh |Low| High
Bobs | SH] th) 83) 7 A de erg meat ie pe
Apr rpen Ofc | 8 3° al 8] 71) Si ae s 7s Tk oF C8. a eae
aoe 4 ge | 8 5 748) 85) 7h | TE] 72] Ta 8
May 93 9% 88,| 98] 8 vs| Se | 835 16, 4s 85,| 72 8
WAceecr 3 93 i 4 by 9! 8 | | 82 | 82 St ot 81 738) 8
Venere Bel cul oad see oe) Sey Se) Sie axe oe | eet ge a] Sta
ee es ar 04 tg Re ae a si fe) Ee ae o | ofl oat of
OZ FS 5 6 is| 83 3 ; FH
doe) | ae | Ba] at) a) ae | a al ala) sl et a
eee oe :s gis 83 t
oe ape: a a Sy Stel Sel i ot) Sel | S| eae Oi
ae: al’| st | Tle 7 3 | Stl Tel i a] ft | ee) gedoee 9
8 6) -r 718) 78 8
1a aa) ae eae Rar a] a)
Jan......| 8.85) 9.05) Sj) 8% | Sb] 8b | oh
Mar. . 9.90) 10 z & 3 8} 92 aF ie 83 gs | gt 8 :
Ape | Sa 1048) | dey SE) a0! oF oe | | al st] st ot] 9 | a
Jacks I 12. 15! 10 i Z % | OF 93 4 10
June.....{11.50 1133} 10 | 11 103 | 98 | 10 | 9 z| 92) 92 | 9%
Ful. {60 13.35, 1134] 138°| 11 1g | 08 | 11) 10} 14 ai | 10°| 94| 93 | 10° 10
cost 10 rag 1
Aug.... .|12. 75 13, 50| 12§°| 138 | 1274 13,5 l1ye| 128) 114 | 123 11 | 10 | 10 03
== -|12. 75 12.75] 12 vs| 13;%| 12 z | 123 )...-- 11 | 10$ |} 11
Sept... .-|11.25 75| 128 | 134 | 12¥6| 1238 gon Waot T1355 (oo eee ee 104 | 11 3
Oat: .llosse 13.00} 92 | 123 92° 2i¢6) 12 123 12h DR [-2---|------|----- s| 13
cree: . 10.60} 9% 4 12%' 10 133 | 12} 12 ------| 2 13
wey ---- 10. 50| 11.65) 10° uy 93 | 10: | 9%, i te| 123) 9 iit “Os | - 113 nee
Bossche ieeddacaia | ae or ise We) anelar hs ae 10-4 ae tae oth
3 16 1 gi
a pa) Say De | Beye | Ba a
Janes--..1310 16.79 13, | asiglas | 9p aa | 8 | ee
BRB ee ee ea Parra
o22ee 75} 15. | 1548 eater 4 3" 16
May .....|12 ee 15.45] 13%] 15;8;| 132 tee 14 1515) 143 153 | 1 16408 154 | 13
Many «= <<< 2e| deel ape lean gee Slee eee: 133 148 44 | 153) 14 | 152 | 14 16}
meee ae ie cele re ARERR AEE Sie 1 | 1 ee
IANer hace 10. 45\ 11. 25) 103 114;| 103 ii | 103 12% | 103 123 [+ =+n2) debedfeenne| cones 13 153
Sept..--- 10.70 11.65| 103 | 11,;,| 108 | 11 103 | 10:8 102 | Tie een oaaee 10 =
Oct. ak 9. 90 11.30) 10 113. 102 | 103 113 102 B lsccce cree cloone- | el Fa 12
teeee -90, 10. 65 16 ral ae 101 a Dag (eas Bee ey |e uh
Wey Gz: eeu ae eal ee tS 1Ofe) oe | ae 98 el sbte aaah te 10.4| 10,4| 103, ats iL
eC see 6.85, 9.00 6h aie a ax! gis 943 22 | 48 92 gis Oye| 10,5) 10 ll
F |: 8y5| 62 | 83 | 6 t| 9 9 gel ge aes 93) 10
a ae : Sita) 62 |. Se) ee ate ye Ss 63 a
Een , 35} 63 | 7 Pel ee p poate ‘
Mar..... 7.35) 8.90) 7 742 a its 6% 77s| 68 | 7
TX 7.75| 8.30, 74 71y & Tx¥5| 7% 743| 7 | 68 63
May’ = = i ss Ss 15) 7 725 iu Ts 7% Tye 72 ie Oe 7k i “62 ea “—h a | a
June... 8. 40 85) 7 Sv 78 gh" as 748| 7 78 us Ce apare: 7 | z
= We ; 7 5 & 78 8
July... ../10.00 10.15} 8i| 91 88] 938 73 | She) 74 8h 1 7fs| 74 | Th| 7a]
Aug. ....\10.50 11.40} 93 1ii'| 94g We. St] Oye] SF | 98 | 72 8} | 72) SS2e aaa i
Sort [to @3l dial 108 | wel 10f tral spe | oaaktl aek | a lao" sel se | at | of
Orr. & 0.82 11.10] 10% | 10,7, 10% td 104 | 1034: 103 1022, 108 | eee ; 9
owe ‘8 5 101 -;---] 9% | ll
Now 2 27Zin6c80] 12.00) 108 | 113 A ga Ge at Mr fers 103 | 10
Dees ols 11. 65 el - yy) | 1a i 10¥5| Oy 107, of Me 10 | 103 104 a
. $| 12a 114] 128 '| 113 1ir6| 103°] 114) 103 | 11 Be 103 | .9§ | 10
me : : Nb) Te at | an ait) ang jane] a
Feb...... - a 12.25) 113 1144) 114 1 $ | 11¢| 12
Mar. -..)10.95 11.45 105 | 1044) 104 PE era erie OMetr ier ea ae Ae
Poni ee uk (ane ane Pea eT ttl aee | qd’ we) a ees 04 1
Ca balgdag CC eros Baty el ag | eel aie | el a REM BC AMET PME especie = :
Daly 2. ne liege 10; | 11a) 103] 11~ lig | 11) 11 | Us 108 11g 11 | 11%] 113 i
Aug... 0. 80} 11.00, 108.) 114 | 104) 1 lif | i1ys| 103 | 113") | it | inal ae | a
Sept.....| 9.60 10.90, 92] 10%) 9 1 | 10g | 1174} 103 10§ | 108, 103] 10 ] lly
tees : 10. 00. 18 103 | 9 AGS o | ane PE 11 11
MRE S| a) a a ea
Novi) 1:4) of) aie) at) an | a) ne 8 am a) att hath) Sl ae
-|10. 45] 11. 25) 104 11)'| 101 | 114, at 11? of 1018 af th | 94} 11 ae
4 | 118 | 93 | 10y4] 94 108 9 | 10%%| 10 | 114
fs 98 | 10g | 105 | 113

=

STATISTICS OF TOBACCO. 605

International trade in cotton-seed oil, 1901-1906.4

EXPORTS.
. |
Country. aac el 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
| |
Gallons Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.
IS CIS th) oS ie See ae aes Ss 878, 907 877,851 670, 655 714,319 | 1,252,803
Ee er re err eayae : 197,013 479,155 426,148 397, 446 249, 843
12a 2) ane eae : 495, 296 375,361 394, 169 213,087 511,743
MALBAEIAUOS =) 2 5 aan ee roses : 37, 450 44,328 230, 762 168, 425 168, 686
United Kingdom 5 5,206,109 | 8,299,636 | 6,725,236 | 4,865,745 5,323, 636
OTe LCOS ~~... .--.25.....- 33,042,848 | 35,642,994 | 29,013,743 | 51,535,580 | 43,793,519
fier countries... .2:2..--.5 5. 131,000 | 72,000 11,000 1,000 42,000
NG is a yee VAS A ee | 39,988,623 | 45,791,325 | 37,471,713 | 57,895,602 | 51,342, 230
IMPORTS.

1 ERS) Fs gee a ee Jan. 1 459, 831 395,948 358, 204 625,340 1,163, 468
Fut Poy LAS a ee ee ee 8 Nae Jan, 1 122,041 64, 252 75,799 105, 630 178, 797
1| 4,025,182 | 3,367,889 | 4,253,976 | 4,505,589 | 5,499,759
1| 2,138,236 | 2,473,051 | 1,450,415 | 1,591,592] 3,037,884
1| 1,224,666 | 1,174,250 923, 463 840, 327 b 759, 879
1} 1,326,638 | 1,112,940 905,169 | 1,082,099 1,337,763
1 325,779 115, 782 256, 211 149, 587 416,962
1 | 11,221,447 | 7,464,358 | 5,691,156 | 6,130,298 | 11,082,265
1 | 14,831,666 | 15,889,198 | 11,420,314 | 11,347,562 | 16,767,840
1 | 2,279, 493 777,430 | 1,051,462 | 1,225,569 | 03,429,991
1 238, 800 254, 803 364, 105 285, 903 d 281, 422
ed 402,324 166,981 285,034 277,114 d 282, 863
[NA2Y G17 Ss, 2 Sl gee a 2 July 1] 3,405,398 | 3,559,783 | 4,066,361 | 3,158,044 | 03,794,244
LS TELAE 2 2 Ce Jan. 1] 5,398,204 | 5,769,104 | 3,271,886 | 3,183,920 4,764,653
ION Se a ae eee Jan. 1 395, 224 412,946 * 351,119 294,713 d 363,500
Wied Winedom. os. 2... sce xe Jan. 1 337,774 337,774 337,774 270, 662 404, 887
REMAY 5. ~ oc oe ee July 1 339, 155 297, 602 | 352,063 b 329, 607 d 329, 607
THURBER COONLTION= o4.oc sete eoceces|boe ace ose 535,000 463,000 541,000 699, 000 @ 560, 000
AM ey nin le ne we ee eee ee ee Pee ea 49,006,858 | 44,097,091 | 35,955,511 | 36, 102,556 | 54, 455, 784

}

aSee ‘General note,’’ p. 546. ¢ Not including free ports.
> Preliminary figures. d Average, 1901-1904.
TOBACCO.

Tobacco crop of countries named, 1901-1905.

[Production for South America (especially Brazil) largely understated, because domestic consumption
is unknown. No statistics for China, Persia, Central America (except Guatemala), West Indies
(except Cuba and Porto Rico), and several less important tobacco-growing countries. ]

Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
NORTH AMERICA.

United States: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Contiguous. ......-...... ---| 818,953,000 | 821,824,000 | 815,972,000 | 660, 461,000 633, 034, 000
Noncontiguous—Porto Rico 000, 000 , 000, 000 5, 000, 000 5, 000, 000 6, 000, 000

Total United States (ex-
cept Philippine Islands) .| 826,953,000 | 829,824,000 | 820,972,000 | 665, 461,000 639, 034, 000

Canada: |
Ontanio ....:-2es-s3s.225- 02% 3,114,000 | 3,071,000 3,035, 000 @ 6,275,000
Stehec. 25.5 .5.<—--eeaes 55,000,000 | 5,000,000 5 5,000, 000 23,100,000

Total Canada............- 8,114, 000 8,071,000 7, 423, 000 8,035, 000, 9,375, 000

STURN eS ooo on 2) eee 45, 892, 000 57,177,000 | 238,731,000 | @ 42,421,000 | 4 48,783,000

Guatemala. ---.---..-2 oo eee 1,051, 000 1,063, 000 1,065, 000 1,983, 000 ¢1,300, 000

UIC TTtES) 1-22 Sees oc Sccaone 26,256,000 | @ 20,000,000 29, 156, 000 28,880,000 | 423,000,000

Total North America.....| 908,266,000 | 916,135,000 | 897,347,000 | 746,780,000 | 721, 492, 000

@ Unoflicial estimate.

> Estimated from census statistics for 1900 and unofticial estimate for 1905.
¢ Average production.

606 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tobacco crop of countries named, 1901-1905—Continued.

Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds Pounds Pounds.
Areenting/@! Gio ge oe eeeceee 28,000,000 | 31,000,000 | 22,000,000 | 31, 000, 000 43, 000, 000
Bolivia 2. - ios ee taceiae 3,000,000} 3,000,000} —_3}000,000 | —_ 3.000; 000 3,000,000
BEATIN CS. <2) cea ee a eee 73,791,000 | 99,473,000 | 51,583,000 | 52,8327 000 44,953, 000
Cle pe pet Fhe RL Te. Se | 6,000, 000 6,000, 000 6,000, 000 6, 000, 000 6, 000, 000
HiCua@or ce: steers fecha eee 42,000 179, 000 399, 000 89, 000 122,000
Paripuay )cooe hehe eee > 10,000, 000 8,510,000 | 10,296,000 | 413,228,000 | 10,000,000
2 rat a agin ak 3 iN oD 1, 500, 000 1, 500, 000 1, 500, 000 , 500, 000 1, 500, 000
Total South America..... 122,333,000 | 149,662,000 | 94,778,000 | 107,649,000 | 108,575,000
EUROPE. |
Austria-Hungary:
NGG at ees eae. oA ek 9,689,000 | 12,938,000} 15,895,000 | 14,047,000 15,644,000
ELUNE Aye nee a1 cic eee ieee 125, 934, 000 99,228,000 | 134,567,000 38, 768, 000 | % 112,000, 000
Bosnia-Herzegovina........ 9,000,000 | 9,000,000 | 9,000,000 | 9,000,000| 8,753,000
Total Austria-Hungary...) 144,623,000 | 121,166,000 | 159,462,000 | 111,815,000 | 136,397,000
BelSiuM ..)= Sama sakes eee ee 10, 647,000 11, 266, 000 9,685, 000 13, 983, 000 16, 646, 000
Bolearia.. 4 rcs fe. aeboet tee 5, 590, 000 6, 423,000 | —19;060}000 8,914, 000 8,080, 000
Denmak. -pase-sees 24 eee eee 293, 000 363, 000 ”342’ 000 b 340,000 b 340, 000
Mamet ts Ske ea. cae eee 55,905,000 | 54,610,000 | 57,466,000 | 37,767,000 | 51,000,000
000
* 500, 000
, 999, 000
, 000, 000
, 380, 000
1, 636, 000 ae 000° 000 , 713,000
Murkey fede sas sees co eee eee b 100, 000. 000 | 2 71,000, 000_ d 110; 000} 000 @ 100, 000, 000
TMotalehounopessseseeeeeeee 581, 305, 000 618,059,000 693, 977, 000 =a 578, 077,000 630, 133, 000
ASIA.
British indigds= yaesee: | See 450,000,000 | 450,000, 000 450, 000 450, 000, 000 450, 000, 000
Dutch East Indies ii oer a
IB OTMECO Me ss eee ee eee es 736, 000 336, 000 163, 000 56, 000 b 300, 000
ViOVG cease ee sees e sj accle 31, 414” 000 57, 958, 000 59, 274, 000 44, 991} 000 b 50, 000; 000
Suimartraes sees emo a 447512,000 | 46,850,000 | 50,721)000 | 45,134/000 | 8 45,000, 000

Total Dutch East Indies..| 76,662,000 | 105,144,000 | 110,158,000 90, 181, 000 95, 300, 000

Japanese Empire:

JPRS ooo < oie Se aa 2 oo arom ree 64, 652, 000 69, 029, 000 95,151,000 | 105,853,000 | 9g 105,853,000
IR OFTHOSS Breen ieee sea ee ee 904, 000 1,095, 000 1,010, 000 222,000 > 808, 000
Total Japanese Empire...| 65,556,000 70, 124,000 96,161,000 | 106,075,000 106, 661, 000
Philippine Islandse. 22-2 - ees. - h 38, 600, 000 37,499,000 | 235,900,000 | 233,100,000 | 388,200,000
TOUSEN SI ai ete weeae/= tees - 630,818,000 | 662,767,000 | 692,219, 000 | 679, 356, 000 690, 161, 000
AFRICA
Algorigtes 2 epeeaon where sta 16,657,000 | 18,863,000} 13,013,000 b 15,000, 000
British Central Africa.........- e€ 60, 000 € 60,000 e 60; 000 60,
Cape of Good Hope h 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 h 5,000, 000
Mauritius’. J sco ee steers an ee 6,000 26, 000 28, 000 13,
Natale. :e..c..2.s5e sore ee 4,271, 000 3, 479, 000 4, 418) 000 2,623, 000
Orange River Colony BS eee 9 750,000 g 750, 000 9 750, 000 650, 000
MotaleAtricas =. sass 26,744,000 | 28,178,000 | 23,269,000 | 21, 547,000 23, 346, 000
a Estimated from official data of acreage. e Official estimate for 1905.
b Average production. / Including Asiatic Turkey.
c Exports. 9 Official estimate for 1904.

2 Unofficial estimate. + Estimated from returns for census year.

STATISTICS OF TOBACCO.

Tobacco crop of countries named, 1901-1905—Continued.

607

Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
OCEANIA.

Australia: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Queensland............- 452, 000 655, 000 204, 000 69, 000 798, 000
New South Wales.....- 213, 000 2217 000 292, 000 596, 000 562, 000
Wanbarines. -.s62e0<.-252 35, 000 39, 000 87,000 95, 000 125,000

Total Australian Com- | 700, 000 915, 000 583, 000 760, 000 1, 485, 000
monwealth. ) |

Mire. 2... 5.2.20 Be 47,000 56,000 | 74,000 58, 000 | 1,000

Total Oceania........ 747,000 971,000 | 657, 000 818, 000 | 1, 486, 000
Grand totale. 22. -2e-ee- 2,270, 213,000 |2,375, 772,000 2, 402,247,000 2, 134, 227,000 | 2,175, 193, 000

Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in the United States in 1906, by States.

State or Territory.

New Hampshire..........--
enmume st ee te 2S

ewer kk. ae See hs 2 ee

West: Virginia... .....-...-
North Carolina............-

MASRISAUD DIS. fo oc 8 2 soc = -
URC DOD ee
Whi 3 A ee a

Average average Farm
Acreage. | yield per | Production. price value,
,
acre. iDen il Dec. 1
Pounds. Pounds Cents. Dollars.

ee eee noes 1,785 224,910 17.0 38, 235
Ri LE AOE aA 1,700 338, 300 17.0 57,511
ee ee ae 1,750 8,246, 000 18.5 1,525, 510
BA ee ee 1,735 24, 532, 900 18.0 4,415, 922
Sn 8 See re aE a 1,250 8,842, 500 13.8 1, 220, 265
HE 8. ose eased 1,375 35, 750, 000 13.7 4,897, 750
ohh soe tonesesene 600 17,724, 000 6.8 1,205, 232
pe en ee 675 73,555, 425 8.2 6,031, 545
eee ee ety deck. ak 780 3,123,900 9.2 287,399
Ee Air Sa eee 580 69, 807, 640 10.0 6, 980, 764
Si eS Se 670 8, 978, 000 10.5 942, 690
Ree Re eee Ses 675 2,025, 000 30.0 607, 500
Re es Se 8 875 4,725,000 35.0 1,653, 750
Se ess eens ae 1,060 74, 200, 000 11.5 8, 533,000
See eee 915 10,980, 000 6.8 746,640
Re a5 -bes esses os 820 881, 500 7.0 61,705
Seas saeasoeese 1,275 49,725,000 1355 6,712, 875
SSE HES Saas 730 1,093, 540 9.0 98, 419
BSL, win seen dese 870 | 252,300,000 7.7 | 19,427,100
Borneo eee oe eas 785 34, 069, 000 a5 2,555,175
Bee OS Ae 510 if 22.0 57,334
ee ee ae 440 ; 28.8 19,008
En 475 i 2.5 7,968
Ee eae 550 24.0 70,620
Ste tei sees = 695 12.0 78, 730
857. 2 10.0 68, 232, 647

Average
Average farm

Year. Acreage. yield Production. | price per

per acre. ound

| ec. 1.

Acres. Pounds. Pounds. Cents.
TNs S = oS2 = -cSSSeeeee eee PE eeemnse 1,046, 427 778.0 | 814,345, 341 6.6
BER Cee ie oo 0'= esis abo eee ce eee sees: aoe 1,039, 199 788.0 | 818, 953, 373 el
PMD SES 2 wire 8 oe See Se CEE oe 1, 030, 734 797.3 | 821,823, 963 7.0
oe ee eet a eee 1,037, 735 786.3 | 815,972, 425 6.8
ENE aaa Sars ae ctecis AS lee ore aoe 806, 409 819.0 | 660, 460, 739 8.1
LO eee cea é ajamis.« SR SEA P Ree Se eee Seee 776, 112 815.6 | 633,033,719 8.5
NGOG HA ese coc ssis scaisecssensseeeesescsin-csce 796, 099 857.2 | 682, 428, 530 10.0

Farm value
Dec. 1.

Dollars.
53, 661, 132
58, 283, 108
57, 563, 510
55,514, 627
53, 382. 959
53, 519, 068
68, 232, 647

608 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

International trade in unmanufactured tobacco, 1901-1906.0

EXPORTS.
Year be-
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
AIS OTIO. ox c.nceee sens as 2e- as anee Jan. 1] 11,212,917] 7,601,206 | 8,346,919 | 7,524,375
Austria-Hungary-............-.- Jan. 1 | 17,601,923 | 20,846,465 | 18,967,906 | 21,628,003
Brazil. .= csssseoaeasse sane eee Jan. 1 | 73,791,238 | 99,473,274 | 51,583,095 | 52,832, 124
British: India? 229.252 22-2eee Apr. 1 | 30,701,163 | 23,999,313 | 23,375,964 | 25,000, 133
Bulgaria. :c:22ss+s sete es ae ee Jan. 1] 2,397,108 | 4,087,076 | 3,763,682 | 1,323,732
Ceylon. 2 Sear e ase eee Jan. 11] 3,167,756 , 925, 4,151,994 | 4,321,624
Cubat: cess eee. ete Jan. 1 | 29,864,881 | 34,321,335 | 41,576,034 | 28, 191,707
Dutch Hast dndiesss2: 2-- 2. Jan. 1 | 92,411,619 |104, 152,759 |113, 201,709 |123, 004, 373
Greece sae ee Jan. 11] 9,408,706 | 10,461,326 | 12,776,805 | 9,689,636
IMGxICO 5 «225s vase ee ese eee ee | July 1) 2,451,593 | 2,669,310 | 3,534,917 | > 4,648, 986
Netherlands 24 223222 Jan. 11] 4,864,567 | 4,785,081 | 4,751,225 , 855, 896
Philippine Islands..........-..- Jan. 1 | 17,391,595 | 20,196,283 | 19,249,094 | 18,640,377
UISSIQ Sek ae sc 2 ae ep ee Jan. 1 | 12,712,031 | 7,267,304 | 11,203,599 | 12,810, 474
Purkeyiee nese c sesso seeder oe oe Mar. 1 | 39,267,984 | 39,267,984 | 39,267,984 | 39,267,984
United: States. =: 2-22 5522 22sec July 1 |301, 007, 365 |368, 184,084 |311, 971,831 |334, 302,091 ,
Other'countries S522 5 ce Hessel eee 4,217,000 | 3,897,000 | 8,737,000 | 4,011,000
Potabocwucosstee es). cesta eeaeeenie 652, 469, 446 |756, 135,796 |676, 459, 758 \692, 052, 515
IMPORTS.
Avfenting.s ine ase eee Jan. 1) 3,574,030 | 3,808,839 | 4,420,679 | 6,704,152
‘Australia t tora = woes ae Sees Jan. 1] 5,951,230 | 5,544,080 | 5,156,793 | 6,629,793
Austria-Hungary. ....--.---.-- Jan. 1 | 48,697,895 | 47,650,259 | 51,576,911 | 51,898, 125
Beleium o. 2 feos. fee eee Jan. 1 | 20,194,983 | 19,424,223 | 20,982,344 | 24,053, 826
British india. oss ee ae Apr. 11] 4,838,835 | 3,666,148 | 4,963,937 | 4, 181, 826
Canada... = 2 oo. ye eae July 1 | 11,329,674 | 13,380,504 | 14,248,303 | 13,859, 152
Denmagric soe eee ee Jan. 11| 9,475,465 | 9, 442, 396 , 900, 957 | 10, 210, 707
Wey ptics-.0Se8 cen asses eaases Jan. 1 | 13,997,116 | 14,805,935 | 15,013,414 | 17,043, 686
inland s S258 aca ce eee | Jan. 1] 5,479,491 |} 7,380,691 | 9,093,316 | 9,437,932
Branee 3.2 5.4.5. 226 sees eee | Jan. 1 | 58,438,116 | 48,619,010 | 56,402,809 | 57,368, 125
Germany ¢ sac secset eee acces. Jan. 1 |134, 362,451 |133, 982,375 |137,773, 884 |143; 445, 274
tall ye 22 io sotto oa cee eee Jan. 1 | 46,256,497 | 40,718,486 | 40,488,103 | 33, 480, 447
Netherlands: 32:22. 452---554-< Jan. 1 | 45,795,081 | 47,201,281 | 52,690,827 | 50,279,873
NOrWayiz.3 sone euc eee eke secs Jan. 11] 4,033,069 | 4,064,155 | 3,857,030 | 2,854,897
FOMUS Is {ose 2s 22-eae sense ese Jan. 11] 5,654,648 | 5,327,533 | 7,970,542 | 8,825,499
BDA. so. FS eee teers ee Jan. 1 | 50,870,200 | 42,488,042 | 42,999,521 | 55,741,625
Sweden sees -6 20 ee al Jan. 1) 8,390,417 | 8,579,174 | 8,585,455 | 11,714,014
United kingdom. .2e4s-- ce] Jan. 1 | 79,481,331 |119, 459,961 | 78,424,398 102, 227, 367
United States: .2.s.2-225 55-5552 July 1 | 29, 428,837 | 34,016,956 | 31,162,636 | 33, 288, 378
Other countries. 5-2 eeees ce see eteeeeees 41,214,000 | 49,228,000 | 53,185,000 | 54, 436,000
|
MOGaL SS Se 2st eee ol ts eee 627, 463, 366 |658, 788,048 648, 896,859 |697, 630, 698

1905.

Pounds.
4,950, 479
18, 687, 91S
b 44, 953, 473
26, 289, 275
5, 749, 096
4,617, 760
¢ 33, 488, 489
108, 081, 973
© 12, 765, 055
6 3,579, 960

662, 505, 163

NSE SURSSSEREES

Soe a ee
me
bo

a See ‘‘ General note,’’ p. 546.
b Preliminary figures.

c Average, 1901-1904.

e Not including free ports.

d Exports for 1900, latest available data.

HOPS.

Hop crop of countries named, 1902-1906.

{Excluding Canada, for which the census of 1901 shows a production during the preceding year of 1,001,203
pounds. Other omitted countries are of very small production.]

Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. ~
NORTH AMERICA.

United States: @ Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
New York 5, 850, 000 9,000, 000 11, 880, 000 9, 360, 000
California........ 10, 335, 000 10, 920, 000 12, 285, 000- 14, 235, 000
RIVEZON ein cc oon 16, 965, 000 17, 550, 000 17, 550, 000 22, 191, 000
Washington 5, 850, 000 6, 825, 000 7,410, 000 9, 750, 000

Total United States...... | 39, 000, 000 44, 295, 000 49, 125, 000 55, 536, 000

1906.

Pounds.
12, 060, 000
20, 475, 000

8,775,000

65, 295, 000

a Estimate based upon reports to California Fruit Grower and American Agriculturist.

STATISTICS OF HOPS.

Hop crop of countries named, 1902-1906—Continued.

609

Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Jo FE ag IE ao SORE RS mae 19, 829, 000 9,010, 000 19, 598, 000 39, 305,000 | @17,100,000
IRB ATU Senco cee ee one 631, 000 808, 000 631, 000 » 700, 000 21,600,000
Total Austria-Hungary...) 20, 460, 000 9, 818, 000 20, 229, 000 40,005,000 | @18,700,000
Sho nes Sees Ae eee 7, 360, 000 4, 786, 000 9, 830, 000 11, 281, 000 a 5,000, 000
Cea eee 5, 251, 000 7,311, 000 7,753, 000 10, 970, 000 2 6,000, 000
Germany 50, 185, 000 46, 562, 000 49, 136, 000 64, 500, 000 46, 384, 000
Netherlands 137, 000 100, 000 @ 158, 000 b 158, 000 6 158, 000
MMMM 2 =. 5 26 ose eee 11,000, 000 12, 500, 000 8, 700, 000 14, 500, 000 10, 800, 000
United Kingdom: England..... 34, 837, 000 47, 160, 000 31, 621, 000 77, 946, 000 27,517, 000
Total Hurope..<.-2ce-e." | 129,230,000 | 128,237,000 | 127,427,000 | 219,360,000 114, 559, G00
OCEANIA. has
Australian Commonwealth:
MINDING Croc ss ca acm ee eneee 252,000 176,000 274,000 162, 000 ¢ 216,000
JUSS ir) 71 eS a 651, 000 809, 000 865, 000 912, 000 ¢ 809, 000
MGWEMPRIRNG (ote. ow otene 930, 000 940, 000 1, 150, 000 1, 120, 000 €1,035,000 .
Motel Oceania... .. .<-..o00 1, 833, 000 1, 925, 000 2, 289, 000 2, 194, 000 2, 060, 000
ITA GOGH. «Se a aces scee 170,063,000 | 174,457,000 | 178,841,000 | 277,090,000 181,914, 000
a Estimate of Giitermann Sons, Saaz, Bohemia, Aug. 28, 1906.
b Average, 1900-1903.
“Average, 1902-1905.
International trade in hops, 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Year be-
Country. gin- 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
ning— -
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
AUStTIO-MUNgATY .......-2.--.- Jan. 1 | 22,397,416 | 11,497,765 | 5,900,230 | 10,037,424 | 18,777,206
[DL BlE Git. Sa eee AS Be 259, 211 | 3,659,302 | 3,438,251 | 9,665,294 2, 582, 318
LS init S22) See | 1 230, 650 541, 964 442,521 784, 610 606, 364
RICE ae ee oo ace 1 | 14,528, 459 | 22,702,756 | 22,003,671 | 24,358,207 | 22,855,096
INGUMIE a eee eee oe 2S 1 961, 927 | 1,920,942 | 1,235,779 | 2,104,063 1, 256, 989
Now cemland2eyee oe: ok 1 481, 376 482, 832 433, 776 644, 336 ¢ 369, 712
RUBS eee ee ce tN. 1 2, 128, 597 1, 400, 129 1, 744, 212 1,117,294 | ¢1,083, 384
United Kingdom ] 2, 037, 504 . 767, 920 2,499, 504 1, 554, 336 1, 820, 448
WineG States. 4 soocscc clue oe ck. 1 | 10,715, 151 if 794,705 | 10,985, 988 14, 858, 612 13, 026, 904
Other countries. ==. ...2222....- 91,681 78, 206 107, 526 136, 805 ©74, 133
LLo 8 Eh 9 eo 55, 831,972 | 51,846,521 | 48,791,458 | 65, 260,981 62, 452, 554
IMPORTS.
MIBURALHE eee seo oan SS Jan. 1] 1,230,459] 1,140,388 975, 658 913,830 | 1,279, 362
AUStTiA-HUngary -.. << o-02---5- Uericy al 608, 476 1,025,811 | 4,481,556 | 2,109, 162 1, 187, 18y
eS D toy Og Soe espa tee Jan. 1] 3,814,620] 4,427,816 | 6,478,233 | 4,826,301 | 6,617,221
Battishy India 2522 20 te ee Apr. 460, 208 495, 824 517, 328 469, 728 448, 224
MORE oe ita tain os Se ee July 1 789, 598 623, 403 781, 822 737, 054 1, 020, 265
Cape of Good Hope...........- Jan. 1 4 797,700 848, 960 555, 856 487, 424 308, 112
12) STs 0 Pea aa epee oo Se 1 | 1,308,994} 1,300,617 | 1,401,037 | 1,359,149 1, 378, 660
1S Ce See eS | cca 1] 4,779,155 | 4,312,256 | 5,945,432 | 4, 428, 343 3, 879, 328
PRPURGLTRY Own 5 the sec p ree 1 | 15,390,025 | 6,004,068 | 2,992,995 | 5,346, 208 9,047, 989
Memenands......-s.secee seen. 1] 2,822,020 | 2,996,258 | 2,742,861 | 4,020,148 3, 368, 742
IBAA Pye 5, 2 wd 2 = <n eee i 872, 016 945, 289 807,085 | 1,363, 547 1, 191, 722
SOC ees oe 1} 1,536,240 | 1,461,443 | 1,436,809 | 1,298,174 1, 662, 563
Piyduveninnd.----. Jes 5 ee 1 938,949 | 1,003,764 | 1,012,142 | 1,168,891 1, 347, 685
United Kingdom 1 | 12, 447, 232 | 20, 593, 888 | 11,876,032 | 34,437,312 11, 147, 584
tinited States... ..c.<2:2525 1 2, 805, 293 6,012, 510 2,758,163 | 4,339,379 10, 113, 989
Other Countries. =... osce eee eee ee 3, 123, 698 2) 920, 344 | 3,247,109 | 2,453,778 | ¢1,755, 691
WORM beers sd Seo ce acl A ce 53, 724, 683+} 56,112,539 | 47,110,118 | 69,758,428 | 55,754,326

8

a See ‘General note,” p. 546.
3 al1906 39

+ Not including free ports.

c Preliminary.

d Estimated.

610 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~

Wholesale prices of hops per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

Up Ca ee ean ies aansssce see dgantoeebacscors25
Me@DTUalY 2o2e= n= ~ -Socr e eee ei eerie olla Seay ete eee

September
OCcbODeRe: See. oboe eee ee
November
December... .--- Talat ae aS Sk ee ORS eee oe eee eee eee

AERA i ge A er op eens tae ee Ree SASSO SSS
(NG) WIA ese We nome oca eo ee ose SoS e oe os scat esto oe

WNGb ad RB een eae seme ae soe ta aoe mob Os ee AL aeeee anes
September; 2-2 ces sees ee ok eee ease eee
October =. 252. 265 Saree ee oe nee eee

Ua a Sees seo ae Hasan sno nscocMunasscssdcasese
R@DQLUALY = <.25 <o/s:sse oe enn Se nanan ee ane eae eee eee

TAUB Ys oe erste shies ators oe a ea a ees letietesis Sapien a Aas
TET ee Saeoe San aee coke name ose ce do soa cbs sae
March. . 2. 222-225 naa sn onsen ae ee ae enna nme

PANUIPETTS botete a ected ae Sate ee ape nian es af emt ete
DE DUSINDEIs amiss sae eeie asia wees iors cae er To
October sess eee ere is ie eee a eae is eae

DANUELY:« 5c tate een ss cae ee ree eae ainenle ne ce meen
February oto. = ar ateich eae oe ane ae ee ae eee

Ae OSHC cots Beek es 2 eee eee

OCtODer «20 sc. cee wt ce < Soe eae Peers cb eee

Cincinnati. Chicago.

New York.
Pacific coast,
Choice State. Choice. common to
choice.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
14 16 143 143) _ 124 14
14 18 153 153) 15 16
17 19 174 174} 13 16}
18 20 183 184 15 18
19 22 194 193 15 20
: 204 24 214 213 15 20
22 26 23 23 20 22
243 28 25 25 22 25
26 28 263 264) 25 26
32 37 293 26 29
35 38 30 30 26 30
35 38 30 30 » 29 31
Good to choice
35 37 29 29 27
33 37 29 29 27 31
30 35 293 293 25 29
23 30 25 25 20 25
23 24 25 25 20 24
2234! 24 24 24 22 24
204 234 24 24 19 22
203 26 24 24 21 25
24h 30 25 25 26 28
30 33 26 26 20 27
30 32 26 26 24 26
30 35 27 27 24 Or
34 37 28 31 284 34
36 38 31 34 30 35
34 38 30 32 32 34
33 36 30 32 30 34
33 35 29 31 30 35
32 35 29 30 30 32
32 34 29 30 30 31
32 35 29 29 30 34
33 37 29 31 284 31
35 41 31 36 30 354
36 41 36 37 32 37
35 38 34 36 33 37
34 37 33 33 30 34
30 36 314 313 26 30
21 31 30 30 26 30
27 29 29 29 26 29
27 29 29 29 26 28
26 29 28 28 21 25
25 27 24 24 20 24
22 26 22 22 18 23
20 23 183 184 15 18
19 23 17 17 10 15
13 22 14} 144 12 15
16 21 134 134 10 14
15 19 13 144 12 14
14 17 13 143 10 14
13 16 12 14 9 14
12 15 12 17 10 17
il 15 12 15 9 15
11 14 12 15 9 14
12 17 12 174 10 17
15 17 17 18 12 18
15 17 14 18 12 22
22 25 17 8 14 18
23 25 17} 184 13 18
21 24 174 184 12 18

STATISTICS OF FLAXSEED. 611

FLAXSEED.

Flax crop of countries named, 1903-1905.
[Substantially the crop of the world.]

Seed. Fiber.

Country.

1903. 1905. 1904 1905
gt Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. Pounds Pounds
United States........-- 27 SOIR? a S01 ODO ton. Aza O0ONl 2 54 = ees s ee feoc k kc eee

Canada: i = St ee ee a eae
Manitoba.......-.-- 605, 000 479, 000 SS7ALLUN epinees -aetieete 4 heap Sma Wag Sha ot 5
Saskatchewan. ..-.-- 295, 000 171, 000 EE QOD Eis. a. fe: AE SRE eee 1 A eee
BIDETEA .. «=<. == === 8, 000 5,000 A Li Ree ean (oe Ee ade O88 en eee

Total Canada..... ce att Ad ee De Pe

eee

MECIOO sota< =o: 525252 === 49,000 | 188,000 TD O00 te a ene. ee eee

Total North

America. .-.--..-- PART Te ee Ser At as ad or i ee Mone meena [nen tere rey ee

SOUTH AMERICA. ;

PRR === ==] 30, 0167000) 50,912,000 1 29) 133000 | oes = = 2 non] oe ee ce nese) en eee ee

Uruguay .---..--.------ | 8,176,000 | 5,530,000 | 6,000,000 |........--.---|.---.---------[---+-+-+--2+--

Total South

MIROTICH .~...---<|| SS Anas pee 44a 000 || o> TOSeOOU, | 22 oe oee- bee hae ee

EUROPE.

Austria-Hungary:

MAUEIRS So osc ocean 103,848,000 | 105,850,000 123, 127,000
Hungary proper.... 30, 348, 000 19,777, 000 19, 000, 000
Croatia-Slavonia - - - 13, 205, 000 9, 214, 000 9,000, 000
Bosnia-Herzegovina 1, 896, 000 1,727,000 1, 428, 000

Total Austria-

Hungary..... ” 149,297,000 | 136,568,000 | 152, 555,000
Belgium................| 272,000 | 300,000 | 280,000} 24,790,000 | 27,385,000] 25, 534, 000
Lol on > 350, 000 36, 000 2,000 | 220,000,000 | «2,000,000 173, 000
Ln a Sere 544,000 608, 000 575, 000 43, 587,000 52, 445, 000 45, 515, 000
Dou Vil. 2h SERS es es eee eee ete 19, 327, 000 20, 924, 000 24, 353, 000
2 ADD... ee Pe ee ee ee oe 41,917,000 41,917,000 41,917,000
WeEnerignds..........--. 362, 000 459, 000 437, 000 18, 497, 000 22,348, 000 18, 440, 000
HOuUMAMS..<.....:..--. 2,064, 000 335, 000 12, 267, 000 2,905, 000
Russia:

Russia proper. ....-. 17, 269, 000 957, 207, 000 1,000, 000,
ete 5G eR 728, 000 46, 434, 000 37, 867, 000 35, 000,
Northern Caucasia ¢ i 104, 800, 000

000
000
33, 331, 000 60, 000,
Total Russia
000

(European)... -. 19, 404,000 | 18,100,000 |1, 108, 441,000 |1, 166,804,000 | 1,095,000,
(PIRUT CA aS et seseasas he aaa ee Se See, Sere 1,032, 000 1, 209, 000 905, 000
Bperion @y 525. 25 So 2,241, 000 2,070, 000 2,000, 000
Total Europe. .... 22,393,000 | 21,358,000 |1, 441,396,000 |1, 476,963,000 | 1, 409, 297, 000
ASIA.
British India, including
native States where
reporting. 20 Se 28 2: 2. 22S8T S000) 15 1a 8062 QUO) |! ae 2 ee eA OE ee ee lo
Russia: if
Central Asia........ 9,071, 000 9,000, 000
PiINeris. = 2) Fost 5. 33, 111, 000 35, 000, 000
Total Russia
(Asiatic)S.2-< = _ 42,182,000 44,000, 000
Total Asia-: =.=... 42,182,000 44, 000, 000
AFRICA Psi hoa ee, ke a ee.
Bp Grts se 2 one Sas oe 36, 000 SOU NES 1: eats nh ele ea EN || 5 ee eel
Grand Sotal::...- 112, 774,000 |100, 607,000 |1, 492, 383, 000 1, 519, 145,000 | 1, 453,297, 000
ee ES ee ee a ee ae ee ee ee ee
a Estimated. ¢ Includes government of Chernomorsk.
b Average 1892-1895. ~ @ Includes small quantity of hemp.

612

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, and value of flaxseed in the United States in 1906, by States.

Average
Average
State or Territory. Acreage. | yield per| Production. | ft™ Baru value,
acre. Boe eG us
ech
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.

Wisconsin... 7422 Saeco ea eee eee 39, 000 14.0 546, 000 104 567, 840
Minnesota ssc jesse cto eee eee 431, 048 11.0 4,741, 528 103 4, 888, 774
HOWE = cs oceicaeneh once he eatre ee eee 20, 000 11.4 228, 000 95 216, 600
MUssoumtl aeoo5 sc aeee kre Oat er eee 35, 894 7.3 262, 026 93 243, 684
INOTth Dakota secmck caterer op oeeeece nee 1, 465, 745 9.9 14, 510, 876 102 14, 801, 094
South Dakota Gos eee a ae ee eee 379, 000 10.5 3, 979, 500 100 3,979, 500
Nebraska sasacaun ane se se ecece eet AF 16, 590 8.5 141,015 95 133, 964
ign sasinaircuce ances sae ACen eee 65, 000 8.2 533, 000 88 469,040
fridian Territory cciceeces se eee ese aee eee 6, 284 8.0 50, 272 95 47, 758
Montana c= so-ccecosic tote Cee eee 24, 855 12.0 298, 260 100 298, 260
MBIT ORS ihe oe Bre et teen siemens es, Nee eee es 19, 421 12.8 248, 589 85 211, 301
Orecons naan sates a eee aero een ee 2,048 12.0 24, 576 125 30, 720
Calitomiae- oo" for. renee eee 1,042 12.0 12, 504 125 15, 630

UmitediStatese- «ee eae ee eee 2, 505, 927 10.2 25, 576, 146 101.3 25, 899 165

Wholesale prices of flaxseed per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

1902.
FONUATY 22 = aes

IVE NA fee oe ne pe oe ites

AUGUST Ss a2-n5o2s08

Octobete. 2252 362
November. ........-
December.........-

1903.

September. .--....2.
October: tececseee

1904.

lye ha. Sete ees
ANSUSTEE kecees count
September..........
October i528 sea
November... ..22.222
December. == eae:

1905.
DINU SG is soa ee nee a
WGDMUETY snes tele
IMUBITON veiera canoviccewics

DU Vitae Acehaiseee sees
AUG MSGi ace Cosine
September. .........
Octoberseceras.--n.
November..........
December... ......:

St. Louis.

Cincinnati. Chicago. Milwaukee. Duluth.
Prime. No. 1.
—| Low. | High. Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Low. | High. Low. | High.
Se eeeee: $1.30 | $1.40] $1.5 $1.73 | $1.61 | $1.73] $1.564) $1.714
Sl ae 1.30 1.40 1.63 1.74 1.66 ney: 1.65 ie
oh eae oe 1.30 1.40 1.63 1.74 1.68 1.74 1.65 1.74
Ben ree 1.30 1.40 1.65 1.80 1.74 1.80 Le 1.78
$1.50 | $1.65 1.20 1.40 1.58 1.79 1.76 1.79 1.70 Lord
1.50 1.50 1.25 1.35 1.54 1.76 Nee 1.76 1.60 1.763
1.41 1.50 1.30 1.40 1.36 1.74 1.43 1.74 1.35 1.66
1.324) 1.45 1.25 1.30 IBS YS Ist 1400s Lop 1.35 1.50
1.22 1.38 1555 1.25 1.253] 1.46 1.25 1.45 1.244] 1.47
1.12 1.25 1.25 1.25 iil) 1.28 1.19 1.28 1.154) 1.273
eral 1,143) 1.25 iets 1.13 1.23 1.18 1.23 1.154) 1.20
1.11 1.14 125 1.25 1.14 125 1.20 1.25 1.16 1.214
1.12 ately 1.30 1.30 1.14 1.24 121 1.24 1.143] 1.20
1.10 1.14 1.30 1.30 1.42 122 1.16 1.22 1.113) 1.163
1.05 1.12 1.30 1.30 1.06 ley 1.00 1.17 1.07%) 1.13%
1.05 1.08 1.10 1.30 1.06 eae) 1.09 1.113) 1.08%) 1.11
1.07 1.47 1.00 1.10 1.08 ages eal Sain 1.174} 1.104) 1.16
95 1.08 1.00 1.00 98 1.14 1.014} 1.14 -993) 1.13
91 - 96 1.00 1.00 -90 1.024 -953|. 1.02% -95 1. 00%
91 1.00 1.00 1.00 93 1.05 .97 1.95 -963/ 1.014
92 1.00 1.00 1.00 94 1.09 .99 1.09 .99 1.09
. 86 -93 1.00 1.00 .89 1.034 -944) 1.04 92 1.023
86 . 89 1.00 1.00 90 1.00 94 1.00 -934} 1.00
874 .9034) 1.00 1.00 -904} 1.024 .974} 1.013 . 959; +=1.00
.923} 1.07 1.00 1.00 .97 1.19 1.034%) -1.19 1.013] 1.17
1.06 1.084] 1.00 1.00 1.09 1.184) 1.16 1.184)... 1.134) 1.17
1.04 1.06 1.00 1.00 1.074} 1.164) 1.13 1.164) 1.14 1.153
- 96 1.06 1.00 1.00 .984| 1.16 1.06 1.144) 1.053) 1.15%
- 96 .983} 1.00 1.00 -994) 1.093} 1.063} 1.10 1.05%; 1.08
.97 98 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.08 1.064} 1.083%] 1.073) 1.092
.98 1;153} 1.00 1.00 1.02 1.24 1.073} 1.24 1.094) 1.24
1.13} LS: |S as eee 1.153) 1.264] 1.23 1.264) 1.23 1.264
1.08 UeVBdlsac uated comes 1.09 1.28 1.244] 1.28 1.164) 1.28
1.06 LOM aoe uate |eeipenteres 1.07 1.18 1.144) 1.184) 1.134) 1.173
1.07 1A Ti | es ca Sel ee 1.08 1.193} 1.154] 1.193] 1.14 1.188
1 TWLGWG 2c stslbeeoaoe hl 1.26 1.19 1.26 1.18 1.253
(2) (2)
1.14 SD ea | eases brates | tetemcegt a 1.15 1.23 1.21 1.23 1.23 1.24
1.14 1 AOE ol repeal cate Uid5 1.35 1522 1.234) 1.243) 1.384
1.22 TU ZGR oat gs shee ae 1.23 1.394] 1.354) 1.39% 1.35 1.4043
22 ZOMG cate en |e aeaeaire 1.23 1.40 1.37 1.40 1.39 1.42
1.22 120) | Seeeece| sewers 1.25 1.47 1.39 1.47 1.40 1.48
1.24 1590): 264 oa oale dee 1.25 1.47 1.43 1.47 1.474} 1.50
1.20 UeO0) [aes Ree PR ask 1.22% 1.44 1.34 1.44 1.48 1.48
1.04 L330 | Sestek are ois 1.01 1.35 1.12 1.35 1.30 1.48
90 1.06 1.10 1.10 . 92 1.12 98 1.12 -974|, 1.30
94 .97 1.10 1.10 .92 1.03 -98 1.03 -963; 1.00
.94 95 1.10 1.10 .93 1.00 .99 1.00 -983} 1. 003
~95 1.10 1.10 1.10 ~94 1.13 1.00 106 -98 1.16

a No. 1 Northwestern.

Wholesale prices of flaxseed per bushel in leading cities of the

STATISTICS OF RICE.

613

United States, 1902-1906—

Continued.
St. Louis. Cincinnati. Chicago. Milwaukee. Duluth.
Date. Prime. eee ee gern as
Low. | High. Low. | High.
Low. | High. Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1906.
USNUGTY ~~. 22. Ssec50 $1506) |" S116.) SP. 10 [5222 55- $1.06 | $1.25 | $1.123] $1.25 | $1.113} $1.24
EEITIALY.<.. 55.5. 2 1.06 fee ta Ss | ee 1.06 1.164 1.10 DLT 1.103 1.16}
2ST ee 1.05 1.09 MONE <5. 1.043 1.14 vee ol 1.14 1.102 1.17}
LTS, el rr 1.08 1.11 1.10] $1.12 1.06 VOIGHS ETD 1.18 1.144) 1.20
>) 1.05 1.08 Dab cos ceo 1.063 1G tye 1.123 1.153 1.123 1.18
Mes nae aneas 1.05 1.063 be bs eee OS Geis ph! 1.134 1.113 1.14%
Li 3 1.03 1.07 1 a LO eee 1.05 1.124} 1.05 1.123} 1.113} 1.142
PREIOTER Gosia c cra 'aeimaiw' 1.02 1.05 i LSM i Sree 1.054 1.14 1.10 1.14 1.12 1.172
September.......... -98 1.023 Sb) Eee oe 1.03 1.13 1.08 1.143 1.094 1.17%
Mewroberins ooo ccaes se 1.03 1.07 Net: (ena. See LOS re aS 1.004} 1.183} 1.114) 1.158
November.......... 1.08 1.17 13) Dh eee 1.074) 1.22 1.13 1.203} 1.144) 1.258
DecompPeres 6 2.10. 1.15 1.19 0A Do ae 181.8] =-2.233) 1.17%) 1.22 1.18%, 1.223
RICE.

Rice crop of countries named, 1901-1905.

[Mostly cleaned rice.
60,000,000,000 pounds.
ated Malay

China, which is omitted, has a roughly-estimated crop of 50,000,000,000 to
Other omitted countries are ‘Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, Feder-
tates, Madagascar, Persia, Russia (Asiatic), Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey (Asiatic

and European), Venezuela, and a few other countries of small production.]

Country.

NORTH AMERICA.

United States:
MEHUIPNOUS. 25. -ose05.
Noncontiguous—Hawaii

Total United States
(except Philippine
Palas) Sc cece ss

Central America:

Guatemala... -.5.02:-2::
Honduras
Mexico

Total North America.
SOUTH AMERICA.

Argentina......
British Guiana
Dutch Guiana
Peru

Total South America .-

EUROPE.

ASIA.

British India: 9
British Provinces
Native States

Total British India...

aCommercial movement.
6 Census 1899.

1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
@ 388,000,000) @319,400,000 4560, 800,000 586, 000, 000: 378, 000, 000
6 33, 400, 000: b 33, 400, 000 b 33, 400, 000 b 33, 400, 000 6 33, 400, 000
| ee eS a ee aed
421, 400, 000) 352, 800, 000) 594, 200, 000 619, 400, 000, 411, 400, 000
300, 000 700, 000 1,000, 1, 300, 000) ¢1, 300, 000
8, 100, 000 28, 100, 000 28,100,000 @ 8, 100, 000 28, 100, 000
41, 800, 000 40, 000, 000 48, 700, 000 62, 000, 000) ¢ 62, 000, 000
I ——E=—EE—
471, 600, 000 401, 600, 000 652, 000, 000 690, 800, 000; 482, 800, 000
e 2,000, 000 € 2,000, 000 e 2,000, 000 € 2,000, 000 € 2,000, 000
29; 300, 000 22, 800, 000 24, 500, 000 31, 200, 000 32, 800, 000
800, 000 800, 000 1, 000, 000 1, 900, 000: ¢1,960, 000
60, 000, 000 60, 000, 000 60, 000, C00 60, 000, 000 60, 000, 000
92, 100, 000 85, 600, 000 87, 500, 000 95, 100, 000, 95, 700, 000
600, 000 700, 000 600, 000; 700, 000: 800, 000
79,900, 000 f9, 900, 000 9, 800, 000 12, 200, 000: 10, 800, 000
670, 300, 000 668, 400, 060 761, 400, 000 760, 500, 000 676, 600,
382, 900, 000 359, 800, 000) 417, 100, 000: 394, 600, 000 478, 600, 000
1,063, 400,000} 1,038,800,000, 1,188,900,000) 1, 168,000,000, 1, 166, 800, 000
62, 153, 000, 000) 72, 688,000,000) 68, 580,000,000) 71,561,000, 000 69, 927, 000, 000
h 711, 000, 000 799,000,000) *% 838, , 000 h 764, 000, 000 © 764, 000, 000
62, 864,000,000) 73, 487,000,000) 69, 418,000,000, 72, 325,000,000] 70, 691, 000, 000

¢ Figures for previous year used.

41901 figures used.
¢ Unofficial estimate.

J 1899 figures used.

g Figures for British India refer to crop years
beginning in the spring of the calendar years men-

tioned in this table.

h Estimated from official returns for acreage.

614

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Rice crop of countries named, 1901-1905.—Continued.

Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
AstA—continued.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Ceylon. +4) 322: eee sees 2526, 300,000} 550,100,000} 2558, 800,000; 558,500,000} 5 558, 500, 000
French Indo-China......... ¢5, 000, 000, 000) ¢ 5, 000, 000, 000) @ 5, 000, 000, 000) ¢ 5,000, 000, 000} 55, 000, 000, 000
Japanese Empire:
Bor Wee ee oeSscereenacce 14, 650, 400, 000, 11,533, 200,000) 14, 512,600,000} 16,060, 600, 000} 11, 940, 000, 000
MOTMOSHS. ..-.~.= s255c5ciee 1,914,800,000, 1,762,100,000; 2,296,600,000) 2,598, 100,000) 52, 598, 100, 000
Total Japanese Em- |
Pile 22 Jes nok neehoee 16, 565, 200,000, 13, 295, 300,000) 16, 809, 200,000} 18, 658, 700,000} 14, 538, 100, 000
Java and Madura “5, 681,000,000! 5, 373,000,000] 6, 229,000,000] 6, 431, 000, 000| © 6, 431, 000, 000
Korea 43, 400, 000, 000) 2 3, 300, 000, 000) @ 3, 300, 000, 000) 2 3, 200, 000, 000} 4 3, 200, 000, 000
Philippine Islands € 677, 800,000, 677,800,000} 677,800,000} 544,000,000] > 544, 000, 000
Siam 43, 000, 000, 000, @ 3, 300, 000, 000) 4 2, 800, 000, 000) 4 3, 400, 000, 000} 4 3, 300, 000, 000
Straits Settlements 280,000,000) 292,000,000 295,000, 000 2 95, 000, 000 b 95, 000, 000
TotallAsia sacs. 2 eee 97, 794, 300, 000 105, 075, 200, 000|104, 887, 800, 000 110, 212, 200, 000|104, 357, 600, 000
AFRICA. :
British Central Africa...... Ff 2, 200, 000, F 2, 200, 000 f 2,200, 000 2, 200, 000 Ff 2, 200, 000
TEA OLS oat EAS een ae € 20,000,000) © 20,000,000! © 20,000,000 © 20,000,000] «20,000, 000
Total Africa.........- 22, 200, 000 22, 200, 000 22, 200, 000 22, 200, 000 22, 200, 000
OCEANIA.
Wille see eek an eee ae 21,900,000, 23,500,000; 23,000,000; «3, 000, 000 b 3, 000, 000
Queensland's ce eceeeeet soa _ 100,000 (9) (9) (9) (9)
Total Oceaniae- oes 2,000, 000, 3,500, 000 3,000, 000 3, 000, 000 3, 000, 000
Grandi totaleese-eeee ee {99, 445, 600,000 106, 626, 900, 000 106, 841, 400, 000 112, 191, 300, 000/106, 129, 100, 000

a Estimated from official returns for acreage.

b Figures for previous years used.

c Unofiicial estimate.

d Estimated from official returns of exports of
this country, and from per capita consumption of
tice in Japan, including food, seed and waste but
not including rice used for sake, for 1894-1903 (270
pounds per annum),

e Census, 1902.
f 1904 figures used.
g Less than 50,000 pounds.

Acreage, production, and value of rice in the United States in 1906, by States.

Average
Average
State. Acreage. | yield per| Production. me tag ee
acre. a os
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.
NorthiCaroling ces sees. 8 <..csteceeeeet ies <i 668 28.9 19, 305 95 18, 340
SouthiCarolinas eo cst fos o5 ee eeceee eee = 19, 036 22.0 418, 792 100 418, 792
Georgia.s oc... ceca ncesvoreaee ee ee thee eee 3, 745 23.0 86, 135 95 81, 828
WUOTIONS As. foo ccteedsee eet else Cee ees 2, 363 35.0 82, 705 100 82, 705
‘Ala DRM a= ies scoeseenls 2 ee ees eee 1, 373 23.0 31, 579 100 31,579
MUSSISSIDDL = «ctr o > cee ceive Raeilee eetetelooe aici 1, 086 20.0 21,720 90 19, 548
Louisiana). ..ccc-asase- = eae eee eeeeee 308, 377 28.0 &, 634, 556 90 7, 771, 100
POXGR so. oo ce conten auetms aeoteae reese eras 234, 126 36.0 8, 428, 536 90 7, 585, 682
STEARNS w=-c.2 sin de cece ner eosin aetna 4, 240 31.0 131, 440 85 M11, 724
United: Btatess:. 2. cs ace se eeesaceine os 575, 014 31.1 17, 854, 768 90.3 16, 121, 298

STATISTICS OF RICE. 615

Wholesale prices of rice per pound, 1902-1906.

New York. | Cincinnati. | Lake Charles.| New Orleans.| Houston.

Domestic Hondures, | (Head rice.)
Date. (good). Prime. Rough. cleaned. cleaned.
Low. | High.| Low. | High.| Low. | High.| Low. | HWigh.| Low. | High.
1902 Cents.| Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Dolls.| Dolls.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents.| Cents.
APTS OC ae eee en eA 43 4} 53 63} 1.75 | 3.00 23 53 3h 54
LOCC SED a a PES a 4f 43 53 63) 1.75] 3.00 2 6 3? 5
SS ee eee aero 4} 4} 54 Gi) ae 22a Se 2 6 4 5}
iets) 3 Ae eRe 4} 43 54 2 seal Pee ar 2 5% 4 54
= a A 4} 5 5} fi el | Ae ae 2 54 4 53
TV, a I RO 43 5} 54 oe ee Da oe 1} 6 4 54
1 Dips a ae ae Fae se SESS 45 5} 53 oi sone] Ra 13 63 4 53
NET ee ES 43 4g 54 io Hose! Beene | 18 5g 4 53
Meereciber ...°-2* eo ones 2 4 4 5h 63} 2.00] 3.40| 13 53 4h 53
RRC cn ee oan SN 4j 45 54) 53] 1.90] 3.25 i} 55 4h 53
INVADER. coos te ee cons ance 4g 4g 5} 53] 2.00} 3.20 13 63 43 53
MOGCEMIDOE acne cso 2 nese a= ae 5 5 54) 53] 1.75] 3.30 13 6} 43 5}
1903.
OS 22 ga eee 4 5 4353} 1.75 | 3.40 1} 64 4} 53
LCD CLT 9 {nee ae eae 5 5 4g 54] 1.75 | 3.40 1} 6} 4h 6
5S See ees S28 5} 5} 43 53| 1.75 | 3.40 13 63 4h 6
Loo DT Lhe SES ee 54 5} 48 Ty Pee Sno 1 64 44 53
| ie a eRe 5h 5h 43 cy Aaa ney 24 6k 4 54
TOES a 5} 5} 4} 7 | Sea [eae Se 24 6} 4h 6
VS oe rr 5} 5} 43 ST Bena Sed ee ee 24 64 4% 64
I 2 ee 5k 5} 43 ree eS eee 24 6 43 6t
Beniemper.5.2> 2 .2tc.-5 soko a 5k 4g 54; 2.00} 3.60 23 5g 43 61
ROSES a ales nc is eis awe 4 45 4g 54] 1.75 | 3.60 it 2 4} 64
MOGOMAMDPY. <5 o.oo 8 es keen 4} 43 4g 54] 1.60] 3.25 1 5 41 54
Meceri horeecewe ie hk 6 ee 4} 4} 48 54/ 1.50 | 3.00 1} 5 4 5
1904.
Seay 5. oS ce 4} 4} 43 53} 1.50] 3.00 1} 43 33 43
abriary . sso es ee! | 330 4 4 43 53] 1.50 | 2.75 14 Al 3h 44
MGT Ae ko SNCS: on dp 4 4 4} 5 | 1.25 | 2.50 1k 4 3h 43
(pelle dod See oe ie ee 4 4 43 43) 1.25 | 2.25 14 44 3} 4h
Rete ene ee ew a Oe 33 4 4} 43) 1.25] 2.00 1z 43 3} 4
UMPIRE RE Soo Se cna kk a oot tees ad 33 3} 44 43| 1.25] 2.00 ly 4 3} 4
DNS <a Se 33 38 33 44) 1.25] 2.00 1 44 3 4
C2 i a ee 3 3 3} 44] 1.25] 2.00 1g 5} 3 4
Mepeemiper.—--- = oSh so... 528: 3 3 33 43} 1.25] 2.00 11 43 3 4
i. eee SSS Bee ee 33 32 33 41) 1.10] 2.00 1} 5 3 33
Lin Dit } Tis See See 33 33 33 43) 1.10] 2.00 1} 54 3 33
BOR TT RAE se at As ao 32 3% 3} 44) 1.00] 2.00 ly 5} 3 3t
1905.
PREIS eS ces wince 'c 33 33 33 41; 1.00] 2.00 1} 5} 3 3}
NEES freee 8 eos. cas 33 32 3} 41} 1.00] 2.00 1 43 3 33
IMR ee SSSA. . 33 33 3 4] 1.00] 2.35 1a; 48 3 33
SSA roe SE iS 33 33 3 4] 1.00] - 2.25 1} 43 3 33
RE ee 33 33 3h 44° 1.00] 2.50 13 4h 3 3h
1 ae ees eee eee 3k 33 4 Bile LOOM 2250 23 5 3 3t
il yaetee =. 2 Se Seegrnees: ae| 33 33 4 5| 1.00] 2.50 24 43 3 4
EE a ee i ee a ae 3 33 4 5| 1.25] 3.00 13 5} 3 4}
Heptember.. 4 ae 33 4 4 5| 2.00] 3.25 13 58 3 4}
OMG QE aS pose eaceceecbh sone 4} 4t 4 5 | 2.00] 3.25 2 53 3 43
November...-.----.-......... 4 4h 43 53) 2.00] 3.75 23 53 3 5
Merampece.--- cet ee 43 4} 43 54| 2.00] 3.85 2 | 5h 33/- 5
1906.
TEST CTS eee a ea 5 5} 43 53) 2.25 | 3.85 2 53 4 53
MEBTURTY Wo o8s xc -kaesee 5 54 43 53] 2.25] 3.85 3 53 4 53
UP REDS sh ochetosgsscegaas=0-5- 5 5 43 54) 2.25 | 3.85 2 53 4 53
ees eee eee ee 4 5 43 Oe, ee ee 2 53 3h 5
BY -------22-22-- 2222-22 e eee 45 5 43 oF RES n sl arse 14 6 33 5
JOG. on oo ee 5 5h 43 Bl lacocon 4) beaks ae 2% 53 33 5}
Licino one ee 53} - 53 42 iy Bocmene| bona ed 23 53 33 5i
1 SCL een seeecaeeo as 55a 43] Sa 2.50] 3.85] 2 64 33} BA
September. ...---_.----------- 2 53 43 53| 2.50 | 3.85 23 5g 33 5i
GIG pete a sheseesseansossscc 5 53 43 53] 2.25 | 3.85 2h 5} 43 53
Mee Mere DOG ae ae aoe eee 53 53 43 53| 2.25 | 3.50 2 5 43 5}
December..........--=.------ 5 53 43 53} 2.00] 3.25 13 53 4 5
@ Per barrel of 162 pounds.

616

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

International trade in rice, 1901-1906. 4

[Mostly cleaned rice.]

EXPORTS.
Year be- ;
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

IBEIMUMe aoe see ee nee Pamiee ed 37, 833, 573 40, 836, 811 51, 066, 830 62, 594, 036 43, 764, 979
Britishyindige seo. see Apr. 1 | 3,820,729, 248) 5,331,694, 928) 5,054, 477,904) 5, 546,790,144) 4,839, 327,360
Dutch East Indies Vane 1 85, 186, 473 96, 676, 733 85, 391, 653] 105,792, 310 98, 682, 964
GEM OSa socon eee e eee Jan) sol 84,073, 252| 133,500,436) 184,676,337) 197,154,447) 221, 566,374
INTANCEsn 4550s Jams eel 108, 863, 995 55, 235, 338 58, 770, 569 52,021, 579 54, 091,776
French Indo-China...| Jan. 1 | 2,014,099, 266) 2,459, 480,031) 1, 490, 364, 515) 2,128,799, 044) 1,371, 356, 455
Germany 02 si cc ees Jan 1 212, 871, 686 227, 755, 531 227, 661,173 181, 073, 762 222,773, 526
Netherlands. ........- Jane 4 197,376, 644| 246,932,274) 256,578,864) 298,075,104) 282,611,808
Penang a. os ck eee eats van oi 228, 693, 333} 315,152,667) 229,739,333) 154,148,400) ¢231, 933, 433
cS) b:iga Ne ee ee oe See Jan. 1 | 1,534,231, 467| 1,785, 261,733) 1,310, 950, 400) 1,892, 988, 933) 1,838, 736, 800
AINSa pO. = -seeescee- vane, a 786,173,600} 819,742,133) 687,836,400) 702,571,733) ¢749, 080, 966
Ophercountiwyese.-- cl. +. ssens 563,477,000) 521,922,000) 587,795,000) 585,125,000); 262,615,000

Total: so eee lea aces 9, 668, 609, 537/12, 034, 191, 615/10, 225, 308, alba 907, 134, 492)10, 216, 541, 441

IMPORTS.

Austria-Hungary..... phi <i) 165,785,811} 171,421,706) 162,532,230) 189,403,926) 234,525,043
Belpitimineoseee ese. a. Sate 142, 662, 657 154, 653, 404 164, 358, 287 166, 709, 664 168, 801, 762
Brazil Sess icesse vent ne A ieiilg peat 197,038,775) 222,632,829) 162,235,816) 134,043,452) @129, 413, 516
British India......... ‘Apres fal! 302, 487,248) 339,482,752) 381,136,672) 377,021,680} 461,312,992
Ceylonte te ae Jan. 1 654, 883,936) 641,730,096} 687,640,128) 699,259,008} 745, 446,016
Ghimacthe. eee ae Jan. 1 588, 214, 533) 1,297, 420,533! 373,585,867} 447,577,333) 297,055, 467
Cubase eee ceeee ee Jan. 1 195,053,948) 169,841,863) 149,574,339} 196, 439, 462) ¢177, 727, 403
Dutch East Indies Jan. 1 | 1,339, 493,984) 819,659,758) 440,099,790) 678,382,754) 661, 764, 477
PPy Piss scessensacens jeyiee al 97, 567, 921 89, 927, 953 84,159,745) 104, 163, 198) 89, 979, 896
Mranceicsscecusee ices dinhajy al 286, 667.938] 445,326,924) 236,359,026) 466,328,330) 414,854,789
Germany }........... UeNoR es al 56Y, 962,028; 806,702,495) 642,295,455) 602,833,603) 627,278,011
UPN eeeensaeaeds Jan. 1 414,925,067} 601,209, 600) 1, 621,654,000) 1,964, 238, 000) 1, 546, 121, 733
WICH Re oe Semen eece Jan. 1 142,291,685) 138,228,382) 141,143,562} 159,853,482} 114,012,080
Netherlands. ........- Jan. 1 411,543,370} 495,572,167) 495,788,960} 523,497,732} 493,955,916
iPenane neo ee ee Jan. 1 170, 852,267) 162,345,333) 153,461,067| 252,778, 533) ¢184, 859, 300
Philippine Islands....| Jan. 1 376,211,389; 639,460,077) 737,083,174; 585,880,567! 483, 411,974
FUSS Sear ee toa Jans Ol 156, 543, 174 138, 453, 658 162, 267, 811 157, 232, 062; @ 160, 521, 396
Singapore: 2 seese ae Jan. 1 | 1,019,341, 867| 1,040, 446,667; 849,067,467) 900,587,600) ¢952, 360, 900
United Kingdom..... Jango 474,888,176} 762,437,536} 607,701,584) 620,591,664) 685,939,744
United States........ July 1 157, 658, 894 169, 656, 284 154, 221,772 106, 483, 515 166, 547, 957
OPhHencountiiess =. oselsnease ieee 925, 445,000} 970,693,000) 1,074, 569,000) 1, 206,744,000) 624,916,000

otalsess 5. Saale eee sete 8, 789, 519, 668/10, 277, 303, 017| 9, 480, 935,*752|10, 540, 04Y, 565) 9, 420, 806, 372

a See -‘General note,’’ p. 546.

¢ Average, 1901-1904.
> Not including free ports.

d Preliminary figures.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR.

SUGAR.

Sugar production of countries named, 1902-3 to 1906-7.

617

{European beet sugar, as estimated by Licht; United States beet sugar, from reports of Department of
Agriculture on the Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United States; production of British
India, from official statistics; other data, from Willett & Gray. The estimates of Willett & Gray do
not include the production of China, Formosa, Natal, and some other less important sugar-producing

countries.]
Country. 1902-3. 1903-4. | 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7.
CANE SUGAR.
NORTH AMERICA.
United States:
Contiguous— Tons. @ Tons. a Tons. @ Tons. @ Tons. @
WOWISIaMS sates case = 329, 226 215, 000 335, 000 330, 000 230, 000
MOKAS eee rss cca ae cet (>) 19, 800 15, 000 12,000 13,000
Noncontiguous—
12 eee ee 391, 062 328, 103 380, 576 383, 225 390, 000
IPOLEO ICOM S 2 asin a= 85, 000 130, 000 145, 000 213, 000 255, 000
Total United States
rice Philippine
slamds))~...<.2 22 auee 805, 288 692, 903 875, 576 938, 225 888, 000
Central America: yt
Guatemala........ oneal 8,000 7,640 7,640 6,795 7,000
RIL ON a ns oictaicn in = winin, ope eee 6,000 6, 300 5, 588 5,944 6, 000
NDGA MAPS. 2.5.5.0. ack be wees 4, 500 4, 235 4, 235 4, 400 © 4, 000
ROGET PICA chs a5c.cscesbeune 3,000 3,275 2, 305 1,377 2, 000
1.5 311210) 95 ee a ee ee de 112, 679 107, 547 107,038 107, 529 115, 000
West Indies:
British—
Antigua and St. Kitts.. 18, 000 19, 000 24, 000 24, 000 24, 000
IBATDAGOS S265 <acc 5. cea 38,179 58, 081 41, 600 49, 864 40, 000
PAWAICA aes cnn. ees 18, 772 14, 255 11, 251 12, 523 15, 000
A bngter Gs his ee ae 42, 679 44,058 31, 000 55, 000 50, 000
[led of: eS SS eae ere cere Aer 998, 878 1, 040, 228 1, 163, 258 1,178,749 1, 250, 000
Danish—St. Croix ......-... 13, 000 13, 000 ll, 12, 000 13, 000
French—
Guadeloupe..-...-..2..: 38, 498 35,976 36, 000 36, 000 36, 000
Martinique. -.......:...- 29,035 23, 936 29, 986 42,231 40, 000
Haiti and Santo Domingo... 50, 000 47, 000 47, 000 55, 000 60, 000
MOSHER AMTINES: . nk w ae 12, 000 13, 000 13, 000 13, 000 13, 000
Total North America.| 2, 198, 508 2, 130, 434 2,410,477 | 2,543, 637 2, 563, 000
SOUTH AMERICA. |
Argentina ee eieiteraraai Staite = x's = <n i<ia 130, 000 142,895 128, 104 137, 308 120, 000
Brazil....- Been eee es 2 187, 500 197, 000 195, 000 275, 000 260, 000
British Guiana................. 121,570 113, 282 101, 278 121, 693 118, 000
Ditch Gwiavs 255s... ..c5 13, 046 13, 000 13, 000 13, 000 13, 000
BOR Es So cos Seco eee nes sencow cass 123, 906 131,957 150, 000 150, 000 140, 000
RWerortelas §= Saag een 3, 000 3,000 , 000 3, 000 3,000
Total South America. . 579, 022 601, 134 590, 382 | 700, GOL 654, 000
EUROPE. |
Brattle fares foe nas ioe os sie 28, 000 28, 000 18, 592 14, 512 15, 000
ASIA.
British India ¢ 1, 906, 784 1, 871, 986 2, 169, 000 1,725, 300 2, 223, 400
Java... 842, 812 885, 561 1,008, 900 990, 994 1,011, 546
Philippine Islands 90, 000 84, 000 106, 875 145, 525 150, 5CO
Total Asia............| 2,839,596 2, 841, 547 3,284,775 2, 861, 819 3,385, 446

a Tons of 2,240 pounds, except beet sugar in Europe, which is in metric tons of 2,204.622 pounds.

b Not estimated.

¢ Official estimates for such parts of British India as return statistics of production.

618 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sugar production of countries named, 1902-3 to 1906—7—Continued.

Country. 1902-3. 1903-4. 1904-5. 1905-6, 1906-7.
INEGI: Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons Tons.
Mpy pelos Se ee eee 87, 500 60, 000 60, 000 65, 000 60, 000
MOUTItLUS Shoes eee ene 150, 349 220, 589 142,101 188, 364 205, 000
PRGUNIOM Sor) Soe cei ee eee 39, 624 41,117 30, 000 30, 000 30, 000
Total Ainiens. <= <4 or 277, 473 321,706 232,101 283, 364 295, 000
OCEANIA.
Australian Commonwealth:
Queensitnderes. 295. Se 76, 626 91, 828 147, 688 170, 000 182, 000
New South Wales.......... 21,000 21, 500 21,525) | 20, 000 24, 000
i thee tain een aes A Oe ee eae 35, 500 50, 000 47,000 40, 000 43, 000
Total Oceania........ 133, 126 163, 328 216, 213 230, 000 249, 000
Total cane-sugar pro-
Quchiones- sa costes 6, 055, 725 6, 086, 149 6, 752, 540 6, 633,333 |° 7,161, 446
BEET SUGAR.
NORTH AMERICA.
UmitediStatess.2- sce. eee 194, 782 214, 825 216,173 279, 393 * 431,796
Canada sae fannie saa ee eer 6, 696 6,710 8,034 11, 419 11, 367
Total North America. 201, 478 221,535 224, 207 290, 812 443,163
EUROPE.
Austria-Hunpary -.-2-..-s2s¢+o- 1,057,692 |. 1,167,959 889, 373 1, 509, 870 1, 335, 000
Belsipim). f2ecee ee aeene aeoeee 224, 090 209, 811 176, 466 328, 770 280, 000
Le ie ee ONE. ae 833, 210 804, 308 622, 422 1,089, 684 755, 000
(Germany: Se 2 vate eee seen 1, 762, 461 1,927, 681 1,598, 164 2,415, 136 2, 250, 000
Netherlands. sac. s3-co52e00 see 102, 411 123, 551 136, 551 207, 189 190, 000
IRAISS1 8's 33 >< eae eee eee 1, 256, 311 1, 206, 907 953, 626 968, 000 1, 450, 000
Other countries..........- ees 325, 082 441,116 332, 098 415, 000 _ 440, 000
Total Europe......... 5,561, 257 5, 881, 333 4,708, 700 6,933,649 | ~ 6,700,000
Total beet-sugar pro-
Guchione case sees 5, 762, 735 6, 102, 868 4,932,907 7, 224, 461 7,148, 163
Total cane and beet -
RUGSAT oe aoe er castenes 11, 818, 460 12, 189, 017 11, 685, 447 13, 857, 794 14, 304, 609

STATISTICS OF SUGAR. : 619

Quantity and value of sugar imported into the United States from the principal sources
of supply, 1902-1906.

QUANTITY.

Imports for year ending June 30—

Country from which imported.

1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.
|
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Austria-Hungary. ...........-.- 111, 818, 771 40, 857, 724 3, 525,512 2, 764, 206 1, 676, 257
i: Tile brs: aaa ei ee ek ees ATO ROO lean a nias Sone o late tatae cess 20, 820. 667 784, 000
Pe EMeee Stee. Oe mene Gaceae 349, 794, 460 74, 159, 889 14, 186, 540 49, 968, 032 28, 877, 781
PeTIINITNGUIATIA§ 2 oo 35-2. ndaancn 181, 237, 759 172. 361, 345 73, 295, 689 56,015, 487 50, 930, 124
British West Indies............ 194, 969, 474 191, 924, 220 65, 850, 114 80, 553, 082 37, 367, 355
(DCT Les eae oi oP 2, 436, 647 6, 285, 045 4, 034, 551 2,153,019 51, 246, 131
Chinese Empire. ......--...--.-- 2,397, 107 752, 285 4, 602,045 8. 351, 757 785, 422
LENE ee ae coe 984, 216,925 |2,396, 497,779 |2,819, 558, 402 |2, 057, 684) 169 | 2,781,901, 380
Danish West Indies: 52s 16, 037, 682 41, 205, 950 20, 837, 461 12, 851, 640 17, 233, 750
Patent Widies--\----- ko 636, 710,315 | 891,758,090 | 440,370,139 | 899, 304) 575 781, 891, 724
iD js) rele] 11h: 11: Sepia ee ee 16, 861, 587 15, 722, 225 6, 994, 546 11) 407, 700 2, 427, 536
aereorsber en oe es Sn te 59, 55/, 384 62, 348, 580 22, 222, 552 2, 000,200 Ie nop eee
ronmanyr. 2225 8 sen a se 217, 872, 627 91, 745, 860 5, 480,349 | 205, 084, 302 12, 480, 459
PRUE Nein Sete Se ee Ar a 338, 368 2) 414, 373 1, 250, 252 24, 049, 489 3,540, 984
LC ADT ch Ys Ee ea ae eh ee 8, 967, 942 200, OO ee ars Seca Steers orn eee ne | te ere eee ee
ree ate ne St es 102, 647, 624 88, 848, 044 48, 671,777 47, 789, 588 36, 371. 943
Zooeanne Nalanda 2 = ee ese 11, 424, 000 18, 773, 333 61, 570, 614 77,997, 424 69, 373, 602
BennaePomings —..--....<-.2--- 111, 580, 425 | 112, 988,775 95,790,189 | 109,111, 269 96, 845, 109
ripe BIN OOM)... ... sone ee 11, 125, 336 119, 739 70 1,541, 724 2, 880, 490
Opuner countries ..--.. 2.2... cce. 11, 241, 787 7, 144, 850 12, 382, 811 10, 798, 632 2, 717, 383
PROnAIe cos Sec. S. See 3, 031, 915, 875 4,216, 108,106 3,700, 623,613 3, 680,932,998 | 3,979, 331, 430
VALUE.
Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.

Austria-Hungary....... ....... 2, 288, 547 677, 836 80, 393 79, 403 44, 606
UPI. samen ose wos eee IE 1) Cee ea 2 =| ee ee ees 473,749 19, 672
La] ooo ee ee ee 4,908, 735 1,176,049 200, 102 1, 266, 275 398, 153
Psa) MMS 2 oo 5s - = <cee 3, 372, 104 3, 333, 032 1, 428, 433 1, 460, 969 988, 730
British West Indies............ 3, 226, 575 3, 136, 172 1,092, 663 1, 626, 078 641, 489
OO i ee eee ee 123, 441 256, 894 196, 633 146, 644 149, 809
Chinese Empire................. 63, 429 4 13, 640 123, 900 227, 260 19, 849
5... ae 18, 205, 411 42,714,079 56, 547, 403 64, 366, 104 60, 208, 148
Danish West Indies............ | 377, 581 705, 587 396, 384 382, 861 345, 972
Dutch East Indies..........._.. 12, 325, 518 13, 251, 816 7, 409, 996 15, 611, 568 16, 941, 593
Jr On hor a a 349, 242 301, 235 134, 902 317, 837 293) 629
IND. ee oe 1,351, 038 1,014, 831 415, 551 Gy ha Chl Eee a See 2
JOSE OU G6 =a ee 3, 597, 234 1, 370, 305 117, 410 4, 403, 237 1, 100, 567
Livi as za 9, 408 103, 439 35, 998 933, 284 121, 926
So. emg ene 232, 963 A SER easter in el oo cs So SRE ee cece
IV CEiT coe Sul sa ae 1,910, 311 1,517,514 860, 605 1,018, 208 757, 356
ogee LES Cee 188, 159 270, 729 884, 160 1, 498, 399 1, 424, 167
Hasco Wominron Fr... 2,061, 977 2,107, 428 1, 750, 145 3, 490,933 1, 871, 608
United Kingdom Sea) See 192,945 2,241 4 41,724 62,974
PiRner COUNTTIGN=-"o-=-— 5 oe). 264, 872 131, 258 241,071 243,726 69, 840

Roth Se eenceececeee enna 55, 061, 097 | 72, 088, 973 | 71, 915, 753 97, 645, 449 85, 460, 088

620

International trade in sugar 1901-1906.a

EXPORTS.
. Year be-|
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

Austria-Hungary... | Jan. 1 | 1,544,326,467) 1,500,882, 186] 1,564, 437,691] 1,125, 102,823) 1,265,587,951
Areentinia= 4s eaes oe Jan. 108, 936, 987 91,919,510 6, 888, 231 368, 4,847,964
Beleiimens cs ene Jan. 1 514,235,840} 296,287,771) 257,180,695) 406,944,665) 304,193,682
Birazilees eae ees Jan. 1 412,630,577! 301,498,062 48 , 256, 967 17,331,526) _> 83,216,786
British Guiana....--- Apr 1 269,084,480} 280,284,480) 282,125,760! 239,043,840) 269,606, 400
British india oes.) Apr. 21 51, 417, 856 55,645, 520 57, 474, 592 57,211,504 64, 546,944
hina. osc geome eee Jan. 1 110, 759, 733 89,945, 867 39,890, 000 48 , 787 , 467 55, 894, 800
Onba eae? eet tee Jan. 1 | 1,319,796,470) 1,781,561, 643) 2,118,279,646} 2,459, 166,945/d1, 919. 701, 176
Dutch East Indies....| Jan. 1 | 1,595,413,931) 1,904,371,591) 1,907, 867,945) 2,318, 243, 282|b2, 315, 723, 926
| OFA 0) apenas pete ta Jan: 1 108, 769 , 976 98,521,149 86, 469, 803 50, 620, 531 67, 821,136
Rormosa. {eso os eee Jan. 1 80,758,599} 100,873,254 54,128,545 79,518, 816 93, 931, 629
tance ei ee ee Jan. 1 | 1,460,958,265) 804,993,320) 469,129,814) 636,360,461 637,313,530
Germany cs 22 252-8 Jan. 1 | 2,399,611,997| 2,367,596, 256) 2,249,141,034) 1,720,574,091| 1,636, 803,746
Mauri tis sae = aoe ence Jan: 1 345,999,192) 331,172,713) 375,505,049) 485,923,559) 6361,988,9%
Netherlands.......-.. Aja «ai 342,808,840} 310,694,069) 287,238,939] 403,476,558) | 213,047,853
Berto. 2. eee Ash ce 251,230,174; 258,738,790) 281,482,880) 290,928,960} 295,935,805
Philippine Islands....| Jan. 1 125,799,930} 217,486,869} 188,114,307} 191,917,567) 239,196,273
Reunion Island. .....- Apcnepay ih 91, 493, 105 50,077,330) 107,862,584 80, 432, 029} 482,466,262
RUSSIae ne Cee ee hale 282,752,715, 288,610,934; 540,418,988 398,854,898 b221, 154, 787
Trinidad and Tobago.| Apr. 1 101,369,968, 105,861,392 90,460,944) 106,573,936 b81, 179. 056
United Kingdom..... Js 62, 306, 608 80,193,232; 115,269,728 65,906, 736 72,508, 128
Otherieountress. lose. 4-222" 492,073,000 617,792,000, 609,680,000) 569,646,000, 320,347,000

NO tallies aaah ioe ees 112,072, 534,710 11,935,007 ,$38/11, 797,304, 142/11, 742,935, 027 10, 607, 013, 753

IMPORTS.

Atisiralian.- asessseoe Aignak «it 220,738,896} 208,551,056, 205,026,640, 85, 198, 624 55,851,040
British India.......-- Apr. 1 617,565,424 549,868,704 672,147,168 724,262,224) 841,857,744
Ganadaac ee eo ier; are 370,075,447| 388,370,832 390,544,660, 346,752,590} 449,014,520 -
Cape of Good Hope...| Jan. 1 95,304,081] 120,365,406! 104,629,048 101,468,941 82, 805,094
WinlOes<- ='sa a eee Jan. 1 82,274,551 97,002,936; 115,467,959, 124,139,619 74, 345, 795
Denmark. -- -254-00oe Jarier 66,770, 702 42/051, 621 ets 374) 516, 82,865, 127 76,080,072
Py pts -awck eeee eee Jams al 16, 367, 852 22,844, 441 16, 920; 099 45, 843,510 86, 880, 895
Minldnd 2. ohh See. Jia 65,933,044 61, 752,745 72) 691, 465, 71, 263,531 73,772,007
BiraneG. 92 ashe Sass Jan. 1 222,415,841) 220,187,363 288, 073, 883. 179, 849,557 179, 458, 147
tayo tee. ee ee. Tsuna a 84,760, 441 47,355, 501 14, 477, 532) 4,928, 873 bil, 251,729
UTE rp Seems emcee Jan: ~ 1 657,076,667} 351,750,533 523,131,067, 547,300, 400 289) 129; 733
Netherlands. .......-.- Jant » i 197, 218, 665 248) 799,655; 203,061, 092, 210,706,915) 156,162,492
New Zealand.......-- Jans 1 79,369,066 84,878,074 88, 197, 686) 91,841,944) 589,439,230
NODA Yass teen cee ell 81,335,913 82,791,956 83, 524, 155, 76,703,054 77,993,596
Persinece ne =e . 21 | €167,114,080} ¢167,114,080| 179,412, 238) 154,815,921; ¢ 167,114,080
Portugal... Lies! 63,251,615 63,630,016 68, 765, 610, 72,490, 231 70,011,389
Singapore..-.. Seed 95,559, 467 93, 271; 733 102369, 867, 114,407,600) @101, 402, 167
Switzerland Hea 159,432,311) 180,272,161; 192,015, 742 175,444,701) 192,011,994
Turkey fer: ie. seee val} 273,612,826) 273,612,826) 273, 612) 826) 273,612,826] 273,612,826
United Kingdom..... Jan. 1 | 3,858,476,048) 3,522,549,520) 3,487,111,376 3,602, 455,248) 3, 272) 697; 024
United States........ uly 1 | 3,031,915,875) 4,216, 108,106) 3, 700, 623, 613 3; 680,932,998 Pp 979, 331, 430
Unsiiady s-.. cose July 1 41,221,991 43 , 235, 210 39 934,265 49,809; 414 443, 572, 720
Other countries sseeee|-=--2- 22> 591,358,000} 920, 497,000 797,274,000 893,821,000 834,851,000

Totals eee een pce mcecece 11, 139, 148, 803)12, 006, 861, 475 11, 478,046,724

a See ‘* General note,’’ p. 546.
b Preliminary figures.

¢ Not including free

ports.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

d Average, 1901-1904.
e Average, 1903-1904.
f Imports for 1899, latest available returns.

11, 696,386, 507 11,711,004, 848

STATISTICS OF SUGAR.

621

Production of sugar in the United States and possessions, 1854-5 to 1906-7.

[Census data, as far as available, are given in talics.
Report of Department of Agriculture; for 1901-2 to 1906-7 from Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in
the United States; for other years from Willett & Gray. Production of cane sugar in Louisiana for
1904-5 to 1906-7, and of Texas for 1903-4 to 1906-7, from Willett & Gray; earlier statistics for Louisiana
and other Southern States from Bouchereau, in part taken directly from his reports and in part from

the Statistical Abstract.

Beet-sugar production for 1897-98 from Special

Porto Rican production of cane sugar for 1854-55 to 1884-85 from Rueb & Co.;

for later years from Willett & Gray. Statistics for Hawaii, 1874-75 to 1880-81, represent exports, from
Bureau of Statistics Bul. 30; for 1881-82 to 1884-85 from Ruehb & Co.; for later years from Willett & Gray.
Statistics for Philippine Islands for 1854-55 to 1857-58, 1859-60 to 1866-67, 1872-73 to 1894-95 represent
exports as officially returned, taken from the Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903; for 1858-59, 1867-68
to 1871-72 from Foreign Markets Bul. 14, representing commercial estimates of exports; for later years
from Willett & Gray, the statistics for 1895-96 to 1903-4 representing exports, for 1904-5 to 1906-7, pro-
duction. Tons of 2,240 pounds are used throughout.]

Year.

1889-90 ( Census) .
1890-91

sus)

1902-3

Gt |
MOA ess ose He =

Beet
sugar.

Long tons.

72,978

76, 859
164) 427
194, 782

214, 825
216,172
226° 715
279, 393
431) 796

Cane sugar.
Other ee Total.

Louisiana. | Southern te Hawaii. eee

Si dtedl ico. slands.

Long tons. | Long tons. | Long tons. | Long tons. | Long tons. | Long tons.
171,976 , 169 58, 3 35, 008 278, 530
113, 647 9, 821 47, 397 252, 865

36, 327 2,673 36, 066 160, 066
137, 351 6,385 26, 858 240, 038
185,177 8, 169 50,095 301, 441
113, 891 5,149 49,013 225, 053
118, 332 4,313 45,316 234, 961
235, 858 5, 138 60, 957 369, 953

43, 232 2,768 51, 240 160, 240

37, 723 250 44,325 144, 288

4,821 179 63,375 46, 092 114, 867
8, 884 348 eee 7G en ene 40, 636 114, 685

19, 152 3,348 6852290 | esa Soa. 3 55, 195 146, 324

18, 482 4,518 Ie sGa0 a eee ee 74, O81 171, 416

42, 434 2,567 BU SOO ee estas 68, 818 195, 719

44,399 2, 402 LOZ UIO) a ee 78,214 227, 525

75, 292 4,208 ERE 2 aes 87, 465 270, 769

65, 583 4,217 BORDON ce Sse 50 95, 526 255, 285

55, 958 4,235 BUGS [bev aecece ccc 83, 865 232, 197

46,090 2,410 CUATICT bene 99,770 220, 725

60,047 8, 454 72,128 11, 197 126, 089 273,015

72,954 4,046 70, 016 11, 639 128, 485 287, 240

85, 122 3,879 62,340 11, 418 121,052 283, 911

65, o71 5,330 84,347 17,157 120, 096 292, 701
106, 908 5,090 76, 411 21, 884 129,777 340, 270

88, 822 3,980 57, 057 28, 386 178, 329 357, 774
121, 867 5,500 61,715 41,870 205, 508 436, 960

71,373 5, 000 80, 066 50, 972 148, 047 355, 958
135, 297 7,000 77, 632 51,705 193, 726 465, 860
128, 443 6, 800 98, 665 63, 948 120, 199 418, 590

94, 376 6, 500 70, 000 76, 496 200, 997 449, 322
127, 958 7,200 64, 000 96, 500 182,019 478, 277

80, 859 4,535 86, 000 95, 000 169, 040 436, 234
157, 971 9,843 60, 000 100, 000 158, 445 486, 514
144, 878 9,031 62,000 120,000 224, 861 562, 631
124, 772 8,159 55, 000 120,000 142, 554 452, 688
130, 413 ROG hae ee ae icine eee ee se aS we tele ee See
215, 844 6,107 50, 000 125,000 136,035 536, 445
1v0, 937 4,500 70, 000 115, 598 248, 806 605, 197
217, 025 5, 000 50, 000 140, 000 257, 392 681, 935
205. 856 6, 854 60, 000 136, 689 207,319 696, 648
317, 334 8, 288 52, 500 131, 698 336, 076 865, 988
237,721 4,973 50, 600 201, 632 230, 000 753, 546
282, 009 5, 570 58, 000 224, 218 202, 000 809, 333
310, 447 5, 737 54, 000 204, 833 178,000 793, 415
245, 512 3, 442 53, 826 252, 507 93, 000 680, 758
248, 658 COs COO | ake eins 52th | Sau eee son ees Hee ee Raye = Mee A ge
147,164 2,027 35, 000 258, 521 62,785 578, 441
142, 485 TEFIOD | este een SEP KOORS| wt ote EAI kareena
270, 358 2,891 80, 000 321, 461 55, 400 806, 949
321, 676 3,614 85, 000 317, 509 78, 637 971, 263
329, 226 3, 722 85, 000 391, 062 Ba 090 1,093, 792

Bs eI PO ae ea Co ces [Stee ee Ue rn OU |sames Serene os
228, 477 ¢ 19, 800 130, 000 328, 103 84, 000 1,005, 205

335, 000 ¢ 15,000 145, 000 380, 576 106, 875 1,198, 624

330, 000 ¢ 12,000 213, 000 383, 225 145, 525 1,363, 143

230, 000 ¢ 13,000 255, 000 390, 000 150, 500 1, 470, 296

a Mean annual production; quantity varied from year to year between 300 and 500 tons.
> Production uncertain; not exceeding quantity stated.

c Texas.

622 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sugar-beet acreage and beet-sugar production in the United States, 1901-2 to 1906-7.

[From reports of Department of Agriculture on Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United
States. Full explanations of the table are given in the report for 1906.]

Aver-
Facto-
saat Sugar age
State and year. earn Pus manu- extrac-
tion. ‘ factured. | tion of
sugar.
1906-7. Short Per
No. tons. Pounds. cent.
Califtomiacees.oeee 8 671,571 | 185,480,000 | 13.81
Coloradon-222-545- 15 1, 487, 383 | 334,386,000 | 11.24
Ndahowete eee 4 229,023 | 56,798,000 | 12.40
Michigan......-..- 16 805, 309 | 177,214,000 | 11.00
Nebraska, cseenee 2 133,387 | 30,754,000 | 11.53
LOA Sree eels oe 5 382,769 | 80,848,000 | 10.56
Wisconsin. ........ 4 158,600 | 35,220,000 | 11.10
Nine States hav-
ing one factory
COACH ts se eceete 9 368,070 | 66,524, 000 9.04
Total or aver-
age, 1906-7... ..- 63 | 376,074 | 11.26 | 4,286,112 | 967, 224, 000
1905=Gs es eras sre 52 | 307,364 8.67 | 2,665,913 | 625, 841, 228
1904 =5P Ss eee es: 48 | 197,784 | 10.47 | 2,071,539 | 484, 226, 430
LOO B= deo oe eee ee 49 | 242,576 8.56 | 2,076, 494 | 481, 209, 087
190223 Sci etiseenres 41 | 216,400 8.76 | 1,895, 812 | 436, 811, 685
1901 =2 = co kee 36 | 175,083 9.63 | 1,685,689 | 369, 211, 733
aNo data.
CACAO.

Cacao crop of countries named, 1902-1906.

[This table, taken from the Gordian, Hamburg, purports to cover the entire production of the world.]

Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.@
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

St. Thomas (Portuguese). .....- 39, 615, 000 47, 291, 000 45, 252, 000 55, 952, 000 51, 800, 000
WCWaAgd On. th. een ae eee cae 55, 040, 000 51, 232, 000 62, 685, 000 46, 579, 000 54, 900, 000
1 eh AT ned A oh SOR ee 44, 910, 000 45, 720, 000 51, 059, 000 46, 496, 000 60, 400, 000
ATG Welt ae Sts es ee es ee coe 35, 176, 000 32, 818, 000 40, 949, 000 44, 133, 000 35, 100, 000
Santo Domingo. -2e. 2 2-ses-ce- 19, 786, 000 17, 251, 000 29, 890, 000 28, 185, 000 30, 200, 000
ViCTIOZ TAL So). ss: 2 slats Meeaat eeel= 21, 881, 000 27, 670, 000 28, 768, 000 25, 795, 000 24, 300, 000
Gold Coast (Lagos). --.-...-.--- 5, 372, 000 5, 064, 000 12, 540, 000 12, 491, 000 13, 400, 000
Grenada 13, 558, 000 13, 727, 000 12, 028, 000 10, 400, 000
Ceylon ee tinea ete deeeconee. 6, 780, 000 7, 176, 000 7, 810, 000 8, 400, 000
Cuba and Porto Rico 5, 787, 000 7, 201, 000 6, 614, 000 6, 600, 000
FUSES Ge eee tae cee Renesas 4,795, 000 5, 581, 000 5, 166, 000 5, 500, 000
Dutch Giuiane-seress-ceteecees: 5, 192, 000 4,905, 000 1, 883, 000 38, 553, 000 4, 400, 000
Dutch Hast Indies--...-c.s-.-.- 1, 962, 000 3, 215, 000 2, 513, 000 3, 289, 000 38, 700, 000
WIQTIA GLC Role tee ae anja ctenee 3, 362, 000 3, 638, 000 3, 638, 000 3, 273, 000 4, 900, 000
French West Indies. .......-.--. 2,039, 000 2, 535, 000 2, 678, 000 2, 646, 000 3, 100, 000
eamMerun, (Satna se cos eneee seen 1, 429, 000 1, 764, 000 2,445, 000 2,613, 000 3, 500, 000
Sit; domela: (Cet ese cepa seee 1, 731, 000 1, 764, 000 1, 764, 000 1, 543, 000 1, 800, 000
DOMINICA .< ccee soe ewianic se aaeneal|s aoc tae een | Seen oe ieee 1, 070, 000 1, 315, 000 1, 300, 000
Kongo Pree Stwte:aocc eee co cod atau see c aeeale eee nae cena 510, 000 429, 000 400, 000
Other Countriest-s.--oeseee nee. 1, 543, 000 1, 764, 000 1, 764, 000 1, 764, 000 2, 200, 000

Motel. (oo Hoseese seer ..--| 266, 625, 000 277, 551, 000 823, 093, 000 311, 674, 000 326, 300, 000

a Preliminary estimate.

STATISTICS OF TEA. 623

( Cacao consumption of countries named, 1902-1906.

[From the Gordian, Hamburg.]

1903. 1904. 1905. 1906.4

g 38,550,000 | 45,311,000} 46,531,000 46, 960, 000
Netherlands (net imports) ..... 20, 222, 000 23, 657, 000 26, 862, 000 23, 672,000 24, 690, 000
ian aa tld ein 20; 415,000 | 13,242,000] 12,370,000 | 13, 452,000 13, 670, 000
PB MAnBOHIANIG $< <.2c san scke wesec cen 12, 582, 000 12,911,000 15, 078, 000 11, 505, 000 14, 110, 000
IMRT oo eee Hoa 5, 021, 000 6, 102, 000 6, 155, 000 6, 656, 000 7,060, 000
Se MeUa-ELUNP ATTY... ..- << -2m= =i 4,013, 000 4, 485, 000 5, 534, 000 5, 883, 000 6, 610, 000
La: i ii ees 528 ee 4,008, 000 4,190, 000 4, 532,000 4,917,000 5, 510, 000
MORIAH ATE. os iiss ca ape one 1, 768, 000 2, 535, 000 2,196, 000 2, 480, 000 2, 650, 000
LRA ney, SR Meee peas eta 1,028, 000 1, 032, 000 1,057,000 2,142,000 2, 430, 000
BEVOROT oy oe cea wate 1, 304. 000 1, 708, 000 1,920, 000 1,984, 000 2,210, 000
Carriage nce foc knee 689, 000 1, 291, 000 1, 433, 000 1,543,000 1, 650, 000
BOCAS 00 a lee eae eS 1, 223, 000 979, 000 1, 213, 000 1, 323, 000 1, 430, 000
COLE VG) 7 ahah ane le iT AR, 904, 000 970, 000 1,041, 000 1,089, 000 1,210, 000
Bec Sate ne a mciaiae 248, 000 301, 000 397, 000 304, 000 330, 000
171 vant UTE gel 104, 000 135, 000 139, 000 132, 000 140, 000

TRL PTE es a Ba 257,508,000 | 267,818,000 | 306,150,000 | 313,958,000 | 335, 800, 000
a Preliminary estimate.
THA.
International trade in tea, 1901-1906.4
EXPORTS.
Year
Country. begin- 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
ning—
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Dovin tim bol Apr. 1 | 182,997,444 | 183,985, 406 | 209,599,041 | 215,681,204 | 229,147,998
Olle Jan. 1 | 144,275,608 | 150,829,707 | 149,227,236 | 157,929,342 | 170,183, 572
OTS ee ee Jan. 1 | 154,399,067 | 202,561, 467 | 223,670,667 | 193,499,887 | 182,573,067
Dutch East Indies......... Jan. “2 17, 298, 690 15, 637, 322 21,333,166 | 26,011, 407 26, 143, 823
IIOUITIOND os oo Sef one waa ce Jano 1 19,926,072 | 21,892,865 | 23,949,974 | 21,735,627 | 23,779, 542
UST hints <A Jan. 1 43, 981, 077 43,334,372 | 47,858,393 | 47,108,802 | 38, 566, 526
RinPapeNe 25.6. 5c... 2.2... Vana vt 2, 222, 667 1,903, 867 1, 955, 067 2,752,933 | 62,208, 633
Othereomtrioss 2k e222 |s 222 see 3,891,000 | 4,437,000 | 4,692,000} 5,428,000 | 54,612,000
Notalar reece 8 AL 568, 991, 625 | 624,582,006 | 682,285,544 | 670,147,182 | 677,215,161
IMPORTS.
A FPOUEINA .3 Sem ceeaee ee Jan. 1 1, 648, 156 1, 652, 823 1,798, 310 2, 418, 217 2,314, 238
BASSE TMA! oe ee van: 1 27,018,196 | 24,822,544 | 24,716, 426 28, 688,974 | 28,353,903
Austria-Hungary.........-. Jan. 1 2, 257, 092 2,258, 194 2,364, 457 2,662,742 2,755, 998
British india <2. <2 22-33 Apr. 1 3, 386, 557 3,921, 563 4,817,821 5, 135, 126 5, 520, 643
Ghrindawees see 2 Meet: = July 1] 19,530,654} 23,969,371 | 31,360,014} 26,314,242 | 25,632, 627
ergs cr coed Meme clam t| faaen) teeee) Sara] casey] Sates
Dutch East Indies....-....| Jan. 1] 4,060,900] 4)218/013| 4, 458/883 | 4,044,820 | 0 4’ 195) 654
MERC. 252 ach cer sek sorne Jan, 1 1, 899, 974 2, 084, 587 2,249, 722 2, 446, 200 2, 348, 152
French Indo-China. ...._... ap ha hea | 2,785, 335 2,968, 707 2,947, 659 3, 436, 080 3,034, 445
Rena Co. aoe ee Jan. 1 7,275, 253 7,501, 667 6, 805, 889 7,168, 769 6, 900, 908
Netherlands....-.-.:..-.- S-\rets al 7,956, 562 7, 989, 226 7,926, 262 8,794, 208 9,090, 607
Now Zealand. = ...5: 222 2ecs8 Jan. 1 5, 508, 610 5, 088, 581 5, 232, 721 5, 225, 668 5,906, 653
IR TSS 28 SoG seo cnosasssecone Mar. 1| @6,353,224 | 46,353,224 6,922,170 5,784,277 | a6, 353, 224
Se fae 1 | Bete as | ag |S | 8 a a ea
as PR ee ls Sa * ? » > : , ’ ” ’ , , ’ 6:
United Kangdom: 2.--=-- «.| Jan. 1 | 252,603,527 | 247,876,714 | 260,627,026 | 270,514, 472 | 267, 997, aay
United States Soe = eco July 1 75, 579, 125 | 108, 574,905 | 112,905,541 |} 102,706, 599 93, 621, 750
Otherieountries. 22-20 --f s|eece see 12,365,000 | 17,169,000 | 15,884,000 11,025, 000 | 14, 111, 000
Es ieee ea ees 565, 425,050 | 612,654, 879 | 633, 701, 638 | 617, 699, 936 | 600, 710, 016
@ See * General note,’’ p. 546. d Average, 1903-1904.
b Average, 1901-1904. e Preliminary figures.

¢ Not including free ports.

624 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COFFEE.

International trade in coffee, 1901-1906.4

EXPORTS.
| Year |
Country. begin- 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.

| ning—

Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Brazil.......-.--..-.-| Jam. 1 |1,952, 404,204 |1, 740,434,770 |1,709,984, 152 |1,326,027,795 | 1, 431,328,038
British India....-...-. Apr. 1 28,564,704 | 30,146,480 32,620, 448 36,920, 464 40,340,384
Colombiaio: 22> Jans so 55,000,000 60,000,000 | 100,000,000 | 130,000,000 ~ 70,000,000
Casta Ries <5 eer ee: jeSept. 1 36,539, 460 30,311,568 38, 211, 860 27,730,672 39,788,002
Dutch East Indies....| Jan. 1 72,185, 647 115, 448, 887 116,334, 830 77,168,254 72, 864, 649
Guatemala. 2 see. 9 Jane 75, 414, 600 85,674, 400 63, 150, 500 71,653,700 81,081, 600
Rigitic 2s... apse cOct. 1 58, 123, 824 64, 428,104 47,853,529 81, 407,346 45, 244 , 232
Reh ant: hc: eee or eee Apr. 1 11,551,557 12,079,872 8,966, 832 5,781, 440 9,046, 464
Mexicoets, <<. eer ose July 1 48,949,705 41, 837, 859 40,698,861 | @ 41,855,368 | 442,456,491
Netherlands.........- Jan. 11] 164,050,182 | 168,524,286 | 181,196,786 | 166,468,567 148,744,186
Nicaraguass-. o22225: Jan. 1 12,963 , 920 19,628,876 18, 431, 643 21,661,621 |, 18,171,515
Salvador. oan eee July 1 50,101,756 41,619,090 58,097, 158 75,314,003 61, 822, 223
Sinsa pore. eee eee Jan. 1 9,621,067 | 12,355,333 | 15,125,067 | 10,638,667 | € 11,935,034
United States.....-.. July 1 27 , 532,353 29,768,945 32,614,390 16,109, 251 29,184,504
Venezuela.....-.-..-- July 1 | 610,000,000 71,206,846 | 125,582,423 | 6 128,000,000 94,370,090
Other countries.c% 228:)|5.225- ses. 30, 107,000 41,723,000 35,375,000 61, 609, 000 € 42, 204, 000

Totak= 2222-23-22 jeep ee h roe 2,741, 109,979 |2,565,188,316 |2,624,243,479 |2,278, 346,148 | 2, 238, 581, 412
IMPORTS.
Argentina. 25.2 -seeeee | Janse 13, 684,999 12,117,621 18,502,868 | 16,931,049 18,516,812
Austria-Hungary. --.- (van. 1 89,056, 753 99, 434, 846 104, 200, 357 108, 701,092 107, 106,048
Beleiime ss eee Vewee al 71,971, 468 69, 660 , 936 51,859,425 | 154,387,057 100, 032,285
1 18,060,924 25,818,323 20,979, 803 19, 448,590 21,136,170
1 20,611,122 21,133,898 17,218,114 20,716,876 €19, 920, 002
1 20,873,361 23,381,119 24,369, 892 25,552,671 25,348, 744
il 10,694,613 13,991,788 13, 196, 168 12,789,537 13,996, 858
1 19,565,782 22,130, 291 25,598,739 23,291,871 25,743, 433
1} 185,780,736 | 189,253,397 | 246,122,708 | 168,198,472 200, 594, 621
1] 380,935,533 | 379,945,878 | 403,070,820 | 398,486,529 398, 491,379
1| 35,059,001 | 35,846,933 | 38,934,065 | 39,087,728 | 441,285,969
1 261,942,004 | 291,984,983 259, 525, 128 193, 836, 257 206, 246, 193
1 27, 441,922 28,340, 658 27,996, 473 23,699,731 25, 298,346
1 20,553, 961 21,483,649 21,320, 455 20,976, 264 d 21,559,342
1 9, 624, 533 13,046, 800 14,958, 400 9,174, 666 11,701, 100
if 22,995, 484 20, 419, 436 21,851, 660 22,000,781 € 21, 816, 840
1 68, 455,098 57,555, 152 68,349,071 60, 623,344 66, 417,080
Erol 20,712,644 22,313,200 23, 671,026 22,562,322 20,958, 680
United Kingdom..... Jan ol 31,568, 658 62,344,279 51,017,884 39,508, 156 493 , 275
United States........ July 1 |1,091,004,252 | 915,086,380 | 995,043,284 |1,047,792,984 851, 668, 933
Othericountrics Geese ses see 48, 660, 000 61,248,000 78, 221,000 51, 137, 000 € 59,816, 000
Dovel | Seer ice sae tee (2 479,252,848 |2,386,537,567 |2,526,007,340 |2, 478, 902,977 | 2, 258, 148, 110
a See ‘“‘ General note,’’ p. 546. d Preliminary figures.
b Estimated. e Average, 1901-1904.

¢ Year preceding. f Not including free ports.

TRADE IN

OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL.

OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL.

International trade in oil cake and oil-cake meal, 1901-1906.a

625

EXPORTS.
Year
Country begin- 190%, Sehw 4902 feo 190s; || 1904. 1905.
nng— | | |
=
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds.
Argentina............ Jan. 1] 20,518,417 | 18,984,000 | 19,989,308 | 29,019, 439 29,277,380
Austria-Hungary. .-.- Jan. 1 59,327,039 64,246,433 | 88,614,781 92,352,938 77,134, 433
Baigiem...........-.- | Jan. 1] 132,103,005 | 128,843,692 | 137,066,773 | 145,834,669 | 160,163,061
Canada ae July 1 20,74, 648 28,830,032 | 29,002,624 | 10,115,392 26, 227,376
aS |Jan. 1] 89,67 89,672,067 | 89,672,067 | 83,999, 467 95,344, 667
Denmark............. | Jan. 1 7,522, 545 4,045,586 | 8,682,295 4,417,928 5,676,571
SRS ae Jan. 1) 107,812,630 | 130,544,487 | 156,944,836 | 160,794,106 | 147,961,001
WEHOROS 5.0522 2ccks Jan. 1| 242,983,580 | 325,867,127 | 314,693,035 | 351,628,964 | 339,529,396
Germany ARE Sy Jan 1 290, 988,939 828, 769,326 375,254,222 | 436,964,238 | 397,800,450
5 a aa toe an ; 24,908,481 | 19,627,750 | 24,696,396 | 24) 425,298
Netherlands. ......... Jan. 1] 154,833,546 | 139,814,583 | 136,734,208 | 154,525,289 | 143,290,470
Russia... Pete poe Jan 1 ee apes 1,028,500,994 1,084,331,094 | ¢977,465,158
ni ingdom....- an 146,240 | 53,146,240 | 48,462, 400 57,830,080
United States... . 2... July 1 |1,648,093,619 |1,679,394,359 |1,503,232,680 |1,894/577,648 | 1,918,171,984
Other countries... .... pit eae 7,298,000 | ’ 11,491,000 | ’ 14,337,000” 26,149/000 | <26, 149, 000
SS gees eee oe 3,721, 424, 183 3, 878, 652,617 8» 975,498,813 4, 547, 868,968 | 4, 426, 446, 255
IMPORTS.
Austria-Hungary..... | Jan. 1] 16,879,909 7,656,432 | 21,750,580 | 27,340,840 | _ 26,469,794
i. 5 eat | Jan. 1) 322,948,926 | 353,641,510 | 421,696,899 | 445,202,134 | 448,216, 564
Ganafa.............. July 1 7,683, 200 3,521,616 3,808, 224 3,953,376 2,308, 432
Denmark............. | Jan. 1| 524,195,732| 654,111,347 | 776,875,723 | 757,481,664 | 840,119 715
Dutch East Indies...) Jan. 1] 17,963,013 | 15,691,801} 15,977,041 | 31,004,951 20, 159, 201
Finland.............- Jan. 1/| 10,405,942 | 12/5947155 7,205,192 | 13,948,954 11,179, 475
(RE 22 | Jan. 1} 255,172,170 | 238,507,681 | 279,980,299 | 292/015,079 | 323,719,234
Germany ?..........- Jan. 1 1,180,863, 666 |1,074, 490,655 |1, 108,355,853 |1,231,409,255 | 1,285,529, 859
SS Fg i i a Jan. 1| 12,593,462 7,909, 522 9,645,221 | 6,525,902 | ” ¢5,209/963
CS ae | Jan. 1] 78,582,800! 55,550,267 | 71,402,800 | 73,540,133 | 101,574,267
aeeeieds.. 2. | Jan. 1] 429,765,565 | 461,479,090 | 476,967,295 | 495,921,130 | 510,951,427
Sweden.......... -.-| Jan. 1] 119,861,354 | 142,046,653 | 163,933,913 | 219,913/686 | 226,374,498
United Kingdom.....| Jan. 1 | 842,437,120 | 861,678,720 | 811,798,400 | 823.934720 | 797,368,320
Other countries.......).......... 18,751,000 | 21,898,000 | 25,702,000 | 54,076,000 | 454,076,000
| Sxl Tl SSS
Bi zee PN. eS '3, 838,033,859 |3,910,777, 449 [1395,000, 440 4, 476,267,824 | 4,653, 256, 749
a See ‘‘ General note’’ p. 546. ¢ Preliminary figures.
> Not including free ports. @ Figures for 1904 used.
RESIN.
International trade in resin, 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Year be-
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. | 1905.
|
} Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. P.
Austria-Hungary..... 1} Janse) 3, 621, 312 3; 378, 583 3, 397, 436 Sto a8 aoa
Germany b..........- Jan. 1| 42,257,533 | 33,756,511 | 44,552°765 | 45,617,597 46, 370, 255
Netherlands......._-- Jan. 1] 65,473,834 | 74,856,747 | 63,038,801 | 83,943) 295 58,544) 509
United States........ July 1 | 710,069,360 | 671,019, 440 | 723,830,240 | 646,877,000 | 682’795. 680
Other countries... --- Pees See 252, 000 988) 000 373, 000 338, 000 ¢ 177,000
Wotal..:.72: eee ee | 821,674,039 | 783, 299, 281 | 835,122,242 | 780,403,307 | 791, 259, 854
— } |
@ See ‘‘General note,’’ p. 546. b Not including free ports. ¢ Preliminary figures.

3 «a1906——40

626 YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

International trade in resin, 1901-1906—Continued.

IMPORTS.
Country Year be-| i991. 1902 1903 1904 1905
: eee : ‘ ; :
Ponnds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

Argentina...........- Jan. 1| 20,218,335] 18,292,214| 19,761,229 27,846,666 | 20, 409, 438
Austria-Hungary... Jan. 1| 79,556,651 | 58,450,261 | 72)122'004| 64)824'926 | _ 62, 4827994
Braille oelerk ae Jan. 1] 22)966,365| 23,552)810 | 26,729,827 | 26,297,077 | a 27) 491/636
Gamadiac’.....2 oFioer July 1] 14)830,480| 17,988)880 | 29'337;280 | 19,116,972 | 23, 027)744
Chiletok sc ee eed Jan. 1| 1,576,585| 2)348'919 | 3)344/971 | ‘1935, 923 2) 045,007
Guliah o.-5. Kok ihe Jan. 1| 2,369,649] 3,076,821 | 2,963,173 | 2/184, 454 | 2° 648) 504
Denmark. ............ Jan. 1] 274147061] 2)398,002| 1,630,318 | 2; 135,176 2) 033, 764
Minland..... 2c. uke Jan. 1] 3,619,520| 3,071,429| 4)397/180| 3,389, 950 5, 133, 632
Hiraneete alee Meee. Jan. 1| — 1,023,414| — 1,007)975 903) 121 793, 596 693, 940
Germany d@.......... Jan. 1| 235,125,141 | 197,538,981 | 236,486,054 | 233,541/561 | 208, 295,553
Mpegs hs: eae ee Jan. 1| 30,976,262| 29,474'694 | 25,020,035 | 32,527,875 | 27,539, 477
duper sis... ka em, Jan. 1| 3,500,264| 5,011,866 | 3,275,449 | 5, 463,167 6,378,919
Netherlands.......... Jan. 1| 73,173,408| 94,202,927 | 68,258,334} 89,756,661 | 78,666,949
aes fe aes me Jan. 1] 66,196,279| 65,531,334 | 67,526,025 | 65,493,001 | 59, 405, 556
Barwin +... ane. aes Jan. 1| 8,157,342| 1,626,832 | 6,751,840 | 4 887)332 7,894, 169
Spinal sooo dead Jan. 1| 6,228'048| 5,399'144| 47823/960 | 3,983,117 |. 65, 108, 567
Beier: .....Aee aed Jan. 1] 8,831,696 | 11,123,176 | 9,940,220 | 13,440,652 | 11, 443, 057
Switzerland.......... Jan. 1] 5,292/636| 5,127,510 | 6,297,062 | 6,640,101 5, 736, 867
United Kingdom..... Jan. 1] 194,034,400 | 202/016, 416 | 183,607,872 | 199,577,952 | 177,010,624
Uruguay........-.... July 1] 5,920,953} 5, 494; 359 4, 390,394 | ¢5,268/569| ¢5,268, 569
Other countries......|....1....- 3,367,000 | 4,316,000 | 2821000 | 9,868,000 | @7, 418,000

MGtals <2 0 ee ee 789, 378, 489 | 756,990,550 | 780,887,348 | 818,972,118 | 746, 132, 286

a Preliminary figures.
b Average, 1901-1904.

¢ Not including free ports. e Average, 1901-1903.
d Including turpentine.

SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE.

International trade in spirits of turpentine, 1901-1906.4

EXPORTS.
Country. Year be-| 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
J ginning— ; 5 : _ f
Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.

WANG: seeeecee aoee Jan. i 833, 927 925, 794 1,975, 963 1, 459, 297 3,179, 105
Germany0-. 5. 2-2ae5-e Jan. 1 565, 179 502, 439 612, 058 569, 650 520, 750
Netherlands. ......... Jan. 1 941, 527 1, 288, 879 988, 059 876, 929 972,714
USS Aes a see eee eee Jan. 1 1, 483, 439 1, 516, 096 1, 887, 430 2,163, 759 2,507, 833
United States........ July 1 19,177, 788 16, 378, 787 17, 202, 808 15, 894, 813 15, 981, 253
Other countries.2-- 4); -20- o<ese 60, 318 60, 266 71,979 112, 536 ¢ 76, 275

Motel! .32 eee ssseanecae 23, 062, 178 20, 672, 261 22, 738, 297 21,076, 984 23, 237, 930

IMPORTS.

Areentingies.- sae Jan. 1 254, 235 252, 938 276, 360 344, 877 290, 192
Australia: <2 tt cece cece Jans, 557, 314 213, 099 226, 272 437, 032 291, 809
Cana dat siete eee July 1 875, 061 941, 003 817, 020 963, 138 1,077, 989
Chile 2. 2 2-2 Sa eee Jan. 1 78, 874 69, 044 163, 911 85, 896 134, 191
Germany ol secs esee Jan. wo 8, 435, 772 8,077, 490 8, 300, 249 8, 438, 956 8, 539, 910
Ey eset See saber se Jan. 1 658, 416 663, 193 771, 465 816, 629 687, 291
Rath onianda Eh ie ee Jan. 1 1,895, 567 ~ 3,245, 616 2,729, 815 2, 220, 156 2,248, 055
New Zealand......... Jan. 1 129, 130, 881 69, 596 285, 631 153, 999
UTISSIS Sys. sa eee Jan. oct 217, 028 142, 746 201, 133 204, 734 190, 595
Sweden.......... SSeoe|| Uehie al 140, 774 124, 723 126, 194 138, 884 115, 383
Switzerland....:..... Jan. 322, 457 313, 363 360, 803 372, 367 346, 279
United Kingdom..... Jan. 1 9,701, 051 7,942, 324 8,012, 184 7,907, 418 7, 693, 933
Other countries. ..:..|....-....- 515, 546 407,711 493, 579 584, 669 ¢ 500, 376

ROUAl 22 cctcwcleee cee eee 23, 781, 983 22, 524, 131 22, 548, 081 22, 800, 387 22, 270, 002

a See ‘‘ General note,”’ p. 546.

b Not including free ports. ¢ Preliminary figures.

TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS. 627
INDIA RUBBER.
‘
International trade in india rubber, 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Country arene 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds Pounds.
eS Jan. 1 5, 600, 000 3, 600, 000 6,000, 000 6, 000, 000 5, 200, 000
CS eee ee Janko 14,194,324 | 13,016,353 14, 088, 566 16,335,876 | 14,997, 420
a Jan. 1 7, 639, 154 4,195,380 2,912,381 | _ 4,915,638 | 3, 728, 726
eee | Jan. 1| 66,669,848 | 63,122,428 | 69,923,121 | 70,251,499 | 78,027,329
Dutch East Indies....| Jan. 1 504, 466 426, 848 1, 475, 551 3, 590, 489 € 3. 590, 489
PenAGOr. ....-..- 22 | Jan. 1 710,713 5 Re 405 eng bre yee aa iz 286, 4
BOG Ss <2 2255 ceks8 Janie 6, 000, 038 11,956 i 2, 62 766, 37
French Guinea... .... Jan. 1| 01,455,000 | 2) 426,000 3, 280,045 2) 952) 245 2? 5287 322
French Kongo .....-. Jan. 1 1, 443, 450 1,518, 469 1,857, 491 2,753,778 4 1,893, 297
Germany ¢............ | Jan. 1| 11,050,668 | 13,748,023 | 11,237,840 | 10,073, 138 17,307, 605
Gold Coast Colony....| Jan. 1 1, 520, 009 1,599, 974 2, 258, 981 4,013, 837 3,687, 778
Ivory Coast.........- : an: - 1 argh 2,011, vif 4 eae, 379 3, Ea d 2, ie
Kamerun..-.-.----... an. 1 1,115 935. 22,144 92 7
Kongo Free State..... Jan. 1| 13,277,850} 11,795,724 | ® 13/350;000 | 10,040,000 10, 718, 358
Netherlands. ........- Jan. 1 2,979, 044 3,544, 851 3, 231, 008 3,998, 671 5, 760, 814
Peru........ eA ikea Al 3,866, 240 3,749, 760 4, 648, 000 4,896, 640 4,290, 160
Senegal..... Jan. 1 796, 812 1, 212, 262 1, 801, 957 2,208, 623 1,504,914
Singapore............ Jan. 1 1, 139, 867 920, 533 1, 441, 200 3,026,133 | 41,631,933
Southern Nigeria Pro-
tectorate........... an. 1 1,740, 156 865, 834 1,177, 803 2, 408, 926 2,842, 831
Venezuela............ | July 1] £1,673,308 1,673,308 1,794,626 | 9 2,335,368 2, 876, 110
Other countries......!.......... / , 763, 000 4, 664, 000 5,970, 000 8,921,000 | 43,525, 000
Ti) 5 SO A NOE SPS es 150, 693,054 | 141,909,020 | 158,324,182 | 171,806,688 | 180, 686,594
IMPORTS.
;
Austria-Hungary..... Jan. 1 2,649, 294 2,640, 476 2,789, 508 2,935, 675 3,021, 875
Belgium 1| 15,388,376 | 15,908,530 | 16,977,346 | 17;983' 033 18, 744, 433
Canada 1 2,903, 080 2,858,778 3,213,277 2,810, 238 2, 490, 756
France.. Jan. 1| 11,795,693 | 12,061,674| 12,708,795 | 14,611,040 19, 693, 018
Germany ¢. Jan. 1]| 28,709,470 | 33,132,823 | 34,362,782 | 38,375,855 47, 163, 478
Italy Eves 1 1,405,447 | 1, 556,022 1, 470, 042 1,474,451 | 1,690,725
Netherlands - 3,718,457 | 4,159,714 4, 422,234 5,371,310 6, 645, 498
ussia... . Jan. 1] 12,119,275 | 10,960,379 | 14,388,134} 13,064,7 h 13,072, 834
United Kingdom. .... Jan. 1] 19,340,384 | 14,203,888 | 16,784,992 | 22) 140,048 29, 000, 832
United States.......- July 1} 50,413,481 | 55,010,571 | 59,015,551 | 67, 234/256 57, 844, 345
Other countries......!.......... 3,446,000 | 3,026,000 | 3, 926, 000 8,091,000 | 6,926 000
LN eee ke 151,888,957 | 155,608,855 | 170,058, 661 194, 091, 686 | 206,293,794
? ? ? ? 7 | 2 ,
a See “‘General note,” p. 546. d Average, 1901-1904. g Average, 1903-1905.
> Estimated. ‘ ¢ Not including free ports. h Preliminary figures.

¢ Exports in 1904.

7 Exports in 1902.

WOOD PULP.

International trade in wood pulp, 1901-1906.a

EXPORTS.

et ee

@ See ‘‘ General note,” p.

1902.

Pounds.

1903.

Pounds.

1904.

1905.

Pounds.
166, 252, 529
54, 872, 925
361, 870, 000
133, 477, 320
153, 651, 351
975, 136, 454
846, 213, 585
14, 004, 420
29, 482, 434
5, 199, 000

546. b Estimated.

2, 740, 159, 968

¢Not including free ports.

628

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

International trade in wood pulp, 1901-1906—Continued.

IMPORTS.
Year be-
Country. ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
Pounds. Pounds Pounds. Pounds.
IAreentinigice saesa ease iste! 13, 491, 861 14, 967, 598 26, 578, 411 35, 123,171
Austria-Hungary-...-..| Jan. 1 12’ 361) 316 7, 271, 725 4 981; 343 5, 342) 681
Beloit: 2225-aeeeee 5 a0 147, 848) 801 | 183, 481,383 159; 206° 350 17 288) 153
Denmark: <s22e2 ess Senet 53) 337, 522 60, 458, 958 61) 638, 806 64) 605, 345
Frances. ss eee eee eee Eel 360, 857, 395 | 487, 465, 059 420° 541, 812 465, 941) 055
Germany ¢2-2=2e225-- m. 1 | 132,496, 459 63, 259, 203 91) 195, 732 155, 961; 354
Mtalyc8 (2° 2 osSeeseee se oon 59, 077, 256 58, 479, 583 67,924) 624 85, 246, 119
Japants. ee eee Beal 3,978, 974 7 292'550 | 16,039,691 | 22 7267 098
RUSSIO.- <2 eee os oeee ee | 69) 780, 583 68, 889, 680 57, 929, 301 49, 107; 233
Spas. 35 - 1| 57474979 | 73,125;213 | 597570,926 | 62;5997 816
Sweden: .. 2.523 ste Janse 6, 446, 121 5, 464, 912 5, 657, 726 6,918, 148
Switzerland Janse 6, 3297 911 6,943,016 10, 344, 527 i4, 929° 512
United Kingdom. ....- Jan. 1} 994,591,360 |1, 170,881,600 |1,281, 295, 680 1, 263, 0287 480
United States........ July 1] 151,011,840 | 261,813, 440 | 324,343,040 | 375, 208, 960
Other/countriess. S222|-— 2 22ee 999, 000 5, 999, 000 12, 693, 000 2,753, 000
Totals eo. sees 2,069, 782,678 |2, 426,792,920 |2, 599,940, 969 |2, 786,079, 125
a Not including free ports. > Preliminary figures.
SILK.
Raw silk production of countries named, 1901-1905.
[Estimate of the Silk Manufacturers’ Association of Lyons.]
Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1°04.
Western Europe: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
NGA Se Se oe sete ee et 9, 458, 000 9, 870, 000 7,774, 000 10, 803, 000
1p ghana 1, 442,000 1, 257, 000 1,045, 000 1, 378, 000
Spain ae ie h ee Ba se ees 176, 000 172, 000 190, 000 170, 000
Austria-Hungary ..-..----...- 717, 000 688, 000 606, 000 694, 000
TOhAli: gate thee coe coe 11,793,000 | 11,987,000 9,615,000 | 13,045,000
Levant and Central Asia
ATA LOUA esse tae ees 922, 000 1, 109, 000 1, 160, 000 1, 096, 000
Syria and Cyprus..-......-.- 937, 000 1, 190, 000 1, 124, 000 1, 036, 000
Salonica and Adrianople.- 441, 000 419, 000 547, 000 564, 000
Balkan States... 2.26: -se<- 212, 000 287, 000 300, 000 337, 000
Greece and Crete.........-.- 132, 000 143, 000 132, 000 143, 000
Caucasus... meen cee 2 -<5 970, 000 1,025, 000 882, 000 794, 000
Persia and Turkestan (ex-
POUUS) | Bocowtoesces sakes 562, 000 1, 213, 000 1, 433, 000 939, 000
TOUS fee menis ce ets aos 4, 176, 000 5, 386, 000 5, 578, 0CO 4, 909, COO
Far East:
China—
Exports from Shanghai. 11, 164, 000 7, 937, 000 9, 356, 000
Exports from Canton... 4, 722, 000 4, 892, 000 4, 733, 000
Japan—
Exports from Yoko-
DAIS) oo ccc oe oe eee 9, 921, 000 10, 516, 000 10, 159, 000
British India— 2
Exports from Calcutta
and Bombaya@........ 617, 000 650, 000 540, 000
Toto so. tu, ce bees 26, 424, 000 23, 995, 000 24, 788, 000 27, 241, 000
Grand totals 7. -. <= 42, 393, 000 41, 368,000 39,981,000 | _ 45, 195,000

a Exports from Bombay included for the first time in 1905.

1905.

Pounds.
30, 886, 404
4 702; 018
174 530, 060
67, 310, 417
490, 998) 886
109; 748, 067
b 93; 766, 762

"352; 181; 760
947,000

| 2, 758, 835, 049

24, 050, 000
41, 513, 000

629

a
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|

STATISTICS OF BEANS.

Boston.
Pea.

Wholesale prices of beans per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

—:

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630 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CLOVER AND TIMOTHY SEED.

Wholesale prices of clover seed (60 pounds to the bushel), 1902-1906.

Cincinnati. Chicago. Toledo. Detroit.
; - Poor to choice -
Prime (per Prime (per
Date. 100 pounds). Sere bushel). Per bushel.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1902. y
JAWUATY Oh Serco e ee eles oo reas eee $8.65 | $9.60] $7.00 | $10.00 | $4.25) $6.15] $5.70 $6.10
February 8.65 9.20 6.50 9.70 4.95 5.80 5.55 5.80
March: 3353522 cet auc oa ene ce eae 8.00 y.20 6.00 9.00 4.30 5.65 5.10 5.55
i yah ee ee a 12S 7.10 8.35 4.00 8.35 3.90 5.30 4.90 5.20
May enin- teens 6.85 7.50 5.50 8.35 3.90 5.223] 5.00 5.20
HONE. 3-2 se acee eee 6.85 7.30 6.00 8.35 4.00 5.25 Not quoted.
DMILY 2 2 aslo eens Aine a eee eee 6.85 7.50 6.00 8.40 4.10 5.30 Not quoted.
MUS USt = Si seccsuete tec Loe wee eee 7.10 8.35 6.00 9.10 4.20 5.60 | Not quoted.
Seprember ea. =. seco see ces 7.10 8.35 7.00 9.50 4.25 5.65 5.15 5.90
Octohersei so ae ee eee es 7.50 8.75 7.00 | 11.35 4.70 7.00 5b 5.60
November<.2 2 eee eee eee 7.50 9.20 8.00 | 11.15 4.75 7.10 5.35 5.65.
December's..is5n US: esses cee ese seats 8.35 9.20 8.00 | 10.90 5.50 6.85 5.60 5.90
1903. Per bushel.
Tea a ys Ae = sees oe te eo eee 5.25 6.50 8.50 | 11.90 4.40 1423) Tene 7.30
Webruanr yates esse Se ket ate oe ees 6.00 6.50 9.25 | 11.90 5.25 7.25 7.00 7.10
March...) 20 ee oe eee 6.25 GelOR|Re 2 j..-| 12.50 4.00 7.423} 6.95 7.40
April - a. Fie 2 a). See sar ck eee en ee 6.00 6.90 5.00 | 12.25 3.60 7.623} 6.60 7.25
Moyo 2so! 355) Spero eee ee see 5.40 7.00 8.00 | 12.50 4.00 7.70 7.50 7.50
MUNG. 2-22 a: ooo Poco ee CORRE eee 5.40 6.00 8.00 | 11.75 6.00 6.75 Not quoted.
Jialys, .2 S525. 3 OUR SS ee ee eer ee 8.00 | 12.50 6.40 7.10 | Not quoted.
A BUSt 2 22 22 ack Be Le ee creas lee eeeee 8.50 | 12.50 4.85 7.10 | Not quoted.
Septembers:. (s.. 5: Sc toe ee eee 5.00 5.70 5.00 | 11.00 4.00 6.65 | Not quoted.
Oetobers 22 5522s oc mae sete 5.25 5.70 6.00 | 11.50 3.75 6.80 6. 6.90
November. 2c. 2052 A eee ee cee 5.25 5.60 4.00 | 11.00 3.40 6.823} 6.50 6.60
DACOMNETa = coe ee ee eee ee 5.25 6.00 6.00 | 11.25 3.05 7.05 6.80 6.95
SATU Dhyne ot oe esas cerca eae cee Deho) 6.25 6.00 | 11.50 3.10 7.074), , Ger 7.00
February 5.75 6.25 6.00 | 11.25 4.00 7.024, 6.75 6.90
Marehe-eecceas 5.75 6.90 6.00 | 11.65 2.50 7.1L5%\|/etOn2o 7.10
ASD Til Tee ee 5.50 6.50 7.50 | 11.00 3.00 6.623} 6.20 6.55
MISE 2a tence nitewiaree sie ieee eae etna 4.80 5.00 6.00 | 10.75 3.00 6.35 6.30 6.35
PUTO. oS ee eee ces See ae ee 4.80 5.00 6.00 10.75 2.50 6.25 | on. h acl eeeenee
SUL So Savas SP mreataeioee Sen tee witoroets 4.80 5.00 7.00} 11.25 3.00 6.60 6.25 6.50
SIONS ee eee eeas Sekee cee eee 4.80 6.50 8.00 | 12.75 5.70 7.60 6.50 7.50
Septemberes oss. 2 oc seach eee 6.00 6.50 9.00 12.50 3.60 7.45 7.05 7.45
Opto bers ees eas ee eee 5.50 6.75 7.00 | 12.25 3.00 7.524 7.30 7.55
WOVEMIDOR AS. coo sans nebeska wnane se 5.50 6.50 7.00} 12.25 3.30 7.70 7.35 7.65
WECOMPOT ame cee nce ae cop eames 5.50 7.50 7.00 | 13.00 3.624, 7.95 7.70 7.95
1905. (a)
STUUR 9s ert- ee tat ae sepa lomieteteieia <= 6.40 7.00 8.00 | 13.00 3.25 8.00 7.45 7.90
Weabruanvie sine seas. scsteingeimaeee ss 6.40 7.00 9.00 | 12.50 4.00 7.60 7.40 7.55
MATION terre t sacts ones eee cc aekowe 6.40 7.00 9.00 13.75 3.00 8.20 7.55 8.15
IRS aS See seiko ace osteitis atioas 6.40 7.75 8.00 | 14.40 3.00 8.85 8.00 8.75
MBY 5. Sia hiesntcig ees alee bale nies seems 6.25 Wako 8.00 | 13.50 5.50 8.00 7.00 8.00
JUNG Ae eee - oe ae oe oe ee cose eines §.25 6.75 8.00 | 13.00 5.50 140°) 2» Soe
Seilges Stine: SON k kt Sa 42a 6.25] 6.75| 9.00| 13.00! 5.75| 7-5Oc-com |; omen
RVI TINU Soe tos.m eee ana tere iene iatoio cho oa oe |e eit eee ae 8.50 | 13.00 4.00 7.50, |.c-. asec eames
September si.cd: 2osssee see en See 5.70 6.00 9:00 , 12.25 3.00 7.45 6.30 7.40
Octoherse tee once sess. sbeecan. caomees 5.70 7.00 9.50 | 13.25 3.00 8.223} 7.50 8.25
November. 2288. 2e2 se cacmeneoceeas 6.50 7.00 | 10.00} 13.25 4.00 8.124} 7.95 8.10
1D -/of-enl 372) Ea eh Se Bee Ee 2 Oe 6.50 7.50'|° 10.00 | 13.25 4.00 8.30 8.00 8.15
VANUBTY: opts eeer tee eee 6.50 7.50} 10.00| 138.25 5.00 8.35 8.10 8.30
February.... 6.50, 7.50 | 10.00 | 14.15 4.00 8.723} 8.20 8.70
March. icc: 6.50 7.50 9.50} 14.00 3.30 8.40 7.30 8.35
ATU er teases 6.00 7.50 7.00 | 13.50 3.25 7.85 6.25 7.80
[ge Ee ORY iA ice ear 6.00 6.50 6.50 11.50 3.00 6.80 6.25 6.75
DUNG co Rane tnee cae ne dra oe Ramee 4.50 5.50 7.00 11.25 5.00 6.90 6.65 6.75
DULY 2S ae chive rede cece cet ee te nee aren 4.50 6.00 7.00 11.25 5.25 7.10 6.65 6.95
MMIC UBU( Vocmost stare eee 4.50 7.00 7.00 | 12.50 4.50 7.35 7.00 7.50
Beniem bers.5- 2-25-06 eee eens 5.00 7.00 8.00 | 12.75 3.50 8.10 7.30 7.90
WOPTO RATS oe tts eee ene eee 5.00 7.25 8.00 | 13.00 3.60 8.50 7.95 8.30
Nowembers oo toot soe: ee eecd anes 7.00 7.50 8.00 | 13.40 3.50 8.30 8.00 8.25
DSCC DED. sit. lab ee wocaemeeeee 7.00 7.50 8.50 | 14.00 3.00 8.473} 8.20 8.40

a Poor to prime.

a

631

STATISTICS OF TIMOTHY AND CLOVER SEED.

.

Wholesale prices of timothy seed (45 pounds to the bushel), 1902-1906.

Chicago. Milwaukee. St. Louis.@

Cincinnati.

\

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BSS S15 wii ov 06 09

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Per 100 pounds.

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January.
March

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September. ....
October

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@ Poor to prime.

632

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS.

[Figures furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, except where otherwise
credited. All prices on gold basis.]

Live stock of countries named.

[Africa incompletely represented, through lack of statistics for large areas.
China, Persia, Afghanistan, Korea, Bolivia, Ecuador, Salvador, and several less important countries

unknown.

For Brazil number of cattle alone estimated, but roughly.

Number of animals in

In general, statistics of cattle,

horses, sheep, and swine much morecomplete than those of other animals, as statements for the world.]

Cattle.
Year. : Horses. Mules. Sheep. Swine.
pene Dairy
Total. Gone
NORTH AMERICA.
United States:
Contiguous— :
On farms.....-.: 1907 | 72,534,000 | 20,968,000 | 19,747,000 | 3,817,000 | 53,240,000 | 54,794, 000
Not on farms. .-.} 1900 | 1,616, 422 973,033 | 2,936, 881 173, 908 231,301 | 1,818,114
Noncontiguous—
Alaska i@s,- 5-2-5 1900 18 13 0 | lp ae a es 10
Hawaiia.......- 1900 102, 908 4,028 12, 982 6, 506 102, 098 8, 057
PortowRieo: =: 2 2 1899 260, 225 73, 3872 58, 664 6, 985 6, 363 66, 180
Total United
States (ex-
cept Philip-
pine Islands)}------ 74, 513,573 | 22,018,446 | 22,755,532 | 4,004,399 | 53,579,762 | 56, 686, 361
POLMNNIAy.- 2 cees oa 19054) bse aces pie eee 01,246: |....... 5 oes eee
Canada:
New Brunswick. ....| 1905 230, 000 111,084 62\000) oo senceeee 183, 000 55, 000
Onigno.: =s22s- sse8 1906 | 2,963,618 | 1,129,047 GSS IAT oc. ceeeene 1,304,809 | 1,819,778
Manitobs,..:-=:..--. 1906 521, 112 170, 143 QU SILOM Ss oesoees 28,975 200, 509
Saskatchewan. ..... 1906 472, 854 112, 618 ZANT SOU litte see geee 121, 290 123, S16
Allberttier 2 <= 3553522 1906 950, 632 101, 245 226; ote! ost sees 154, 266 114, 623
Othersee ss sos Bee 1901 | 2,123,932 | 1,033, 295 Oo; 24002 2 Saas 1,178,872 | 561, 866
Total Canada .|.....- 7,262,148 | 2,657, 432 | 19640 Slee - eres 2,971,212 | 2,875,692
Central America:
Guatemala.......... 1898 LOG} 7688 reo ceees eee BO aaon |. 2. 3. ceed 77, 593 29, 784
EOnGuTasee se. oe 1904 569 SUN eee ees 43, 107 14, 064 11, 806 111, 581
Nicataguasce se soos 3 )tae2e- 1,200, 000 |). : =| cen) Meee. colle. coco.) <|Sol. aoe
Panama ates 2252 1906 156; 560) |S: > oe toe 30, 863 1,500: |. . 3o-ceteee 28, 000
Costa. Riedess-....: 1905 308, 160 ¢ 93,155 54, 974 2, 987 250 79,730
MexiC0msc. Stas iho ace ee LOO2%| seb 42 aby, |B steerer ene 859, 217 334, 435 3, 424, 480 616, 189
Newfoundland.........- 1901 CPA A ET Ue eee ae SB, Sdls |e texiecteen 78, 052 34, 679
West Indies:
British—
Barbados....... TOO ete rc SOP et! Ob ler ahs 2,388 ju... -enn sen san aisles eee
Dominiea.... =. 2 1905 Bile (| Seana 2 Sa ee 650 41, O88: bie cantons
Grenada........ 1901 1 O08) th Sa eed 1,074 1,975" |noosegeuees
Jamaica soe. - oe 1905 af li (0F fy ere Sree a 72, 847 16, 976 28, 500
Montserrat. .-..- LOOD lark 286 2 5-5 |b sees wee 246 |. 222 -- 2-2 a |e ce eep re see rr
Turks and Cai-
cos Islands....| 1905 SOO sche eeeeee TOSS arse teers 125 "le aeeweeee
Virgin Islands. .| 1904 PAD UO al knee oie 20D: | see acne 300 |...ceceeeee
CUbaccrn tae shoe /€1906 | 2,176,178 | £1,053, 847 342, 568 45, 559 99, 982 9 358, 868
Ditehiew ne = awe o see 1904 AsOAR HE a= sees 905 177 26, 582 3, 596
Guadeloupe......... (h) BON SO) ecm ccerste dates 8,819 6, 311 11,731 32, 656
Total North
ANeriGd = st alaense OT n7L0; Seales eee 26,198,305 | 4,409,482 | 60,211,864 | 60, 885, 586
SOUTH AMERICA.
1 Gr exc rel We Mi atte tee 1901 | 30,000,000 | 2,500,000 | 5,600,000 300,000 | 120,000,000 800, 000
SUZ Pepsi tpswic's ski viele SEP o oes 80,000,000 |... 5. se cone fe te tee cee bee ee ow alee ae
British Guiana......... 1905 A= On a a eo eS: eBid dou. ais «ange 21, 160 13, 350
Chile: Sree) SSS 1906 | 2,477,064 ¢ 124, 657 698, 880 $27, 936 2, 405, 584 287, 612

aOn farms.

b Including mules and asses.

¢ Cows in 1904.
d@ Data for 1903.

¢On December 31 of preceding year.

f Cows.

g Census for 1899.
hLatest official estimate furnished by the
French embassy to the United States, under date
of May 4, 1906.
i Data for 1904.
J Data for 1902.

STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK. 633
Live stock of countries named—Continued.
Cattle.
Year. ) ; | Horses. Mules. Sheep. Swine.
Dairy |
Total. owe |
nian = |
SOUTH AMERICA—cont’d.
Miolumbines.. 6.52... <<. ae waist 2 R00°O00i|2.s-8cees ce: 341,000 | 257,000 746,000 | 2,300,000
Dutch Guiana.........- | 1904 Senge woes ee cess 209 74 153 2,879
Falkland Islands.....-- | 1905 BONO He Sone acces SASL T 10 eee eae 700, 894 100
WTA OUAY o\.- 2 -- 2c a nae 1900 | 2,283,089 |....--.-...- 182,789 3, 490 214, 058 23, 887
iil eee 00> 6, S275 425) 2252 5-5-2 22 561, 408 22, 992 18, 608, 717 93, 923
(0 re | 1899 2004 257i le ws cons oseen 191,079 89,186 | 176, 668 i 618, 214
oe aE Pere sess
Total South |
DWT a (OS a | ZOstbsl Goes. le cae eens ee 7,579,936 700,678 | 142,873, 234 5, 139,965
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
CAN Ss } 1900 | 9,511, 170 | a 4,749, 152 1,716, 488 20, 323 2,621,026 4, 682, 654
Hanpary...........- 1895 | 6,605,365 | 3,499,724 | 2,308, 457 1,911 | 8,122,682 | 7,330,343
Bosnia-Herzegovina| 1895 | ¢1, 417,341 |.......-..-.| BISO G26 le cece ase 3, 230, 720 662, 242
Total Austria- | }
ungary....|...... Me ESC SIDY |< secede 4,264, 571 2,234 | 13,974, 428 } 12, 675, 239
Se €1906 | 1,788, 328 889, 125 245,212*| £6,915 9 235,722 | 1,046,519
eieatia icc) 2. ..... 1905 |4 1,596,267 | 1 442, 866 536, 616 11,828 | 8,081, 816 463, 241
Lone 1903 1, 840, 466 | 41,089,073 ARG OS5 HL Oe Soc eee 876, 830 1, 456, 699
arose Islands... -.-.--- 1903 Fa aS al een aes (7S ie) pees = 91, 034 15
Co | 1904 1, 450,914 | @1,066, 251 815,050: [noc c0== sate 936, 333 215, 910
oe i oe €1906 | 14,315,552 | 47,515,564 | 3,169,224. 98, 865 17, 783,209 | 7,558,779
oe 1904 | 19,331,568 |@10, 456, 137 4 ST AOS = 3c soe 7,907,173 18, 920, G66
ah iS, Gates Seale [et ee 400"). 2-4-3. cclbke weet ees eae
Oi. a 1902 OB 144 ee ee 159, 068 88, 869 4, 568, 158 79,716
Wo oh ee | 1904 90, 4085 | Dseeee ee Cait | Cee ee f405 5170" |= 2 sees
<i). Se See 1900 |% 5,000,000 |_..........- 741,739 | 327,276 | 6,900, 1, 800, 000
Luxemburg............. | 1901 ris ieee 19, 777 110 16, 611 91,799
te 1906 Apt Nossa. anaes ee 3, 879 2, 968 18, 574 5,390
Montenegro..........--- Vee 60,000 | «20,000 S000 ht seon 2 400, 000 8, 000
wz Netherlands............ 1904 | 1,690,463 | m973,098 DOS OUT: | ie. eaees Se 606, 785 861, 840
(tn) ie 1900 950, 201 a 689, 563 72090 8) 22 es 998, 819 165, 348
Lb: Ue Ses eee Beene RUF ODO: 32 een 90, 000 59, 100 3,064,100 | 1,200,000
a OUIMMMI Se: 2 5222. ....- 1900 2s 545, 051 380, 720 864, 324 515 5, 655, 444 i‘ 709, 205
Russia: a
Pad Russia proper......- 1906 | 31,994,849 |. ........... 2A 2602061 le eee 2)_ss 3 | n 49,114,500 | 10,372, 036
land 52. —. ~~... .-- 1 1006; | 2 Al4 (B18) | 2. ccc oe 1, 3008640 Seo 552 | n 2,817,000 800, 470
Northern Caucasia..| 1906 | 3,157,358 |..:......... 1 SBS INO | 2k eee SS 0 6, 957, 954 698, 335
Total Russia, | |
European...) 1906 | 37,566,825 |...........- 23,834,801 |..-..------| 58, 889, 454 | 11,870,841
Servia Mach ete Meee amin a €1906 943,967 | 153,359 172, 278 130 3, 066, 444 875, 517
Bereink-.. oak sateen io AGG" |- 32075 142, os... 498,157 | 767,570 | 13,025,512 | 1,743, 863
a ee ee 1905 | 2,549,928 | a 1,763, 857 55ASQ00)]- bier 1, 074, 386 829, 888
Switzerland......-...... | 1906 | 1,497,904 | 4@785,577 135, 091 3, 136 209, 243 548, 355
LL <2) Pee eee 1 ceeee | 1,000, 000 a 300, 000 60! 00s cesses. | 10,000,000 |--.--------
United Kingdom: |
Great Britain....... 1906 | 7,010,856 | 72,738,411 | 1,568,681 |........... 25, 420,360 | 2,323, 461
BeclandiG tees 2 1906 | 4,638,924 | p1, 496,284} 531,858 |_.......... 3,714,832 | 1,244,193
Isle of Man and j
“ig Channel Islands...| 1906 | 42,175 P 17,591 PO CARS\ |. a eee 74, 843 13, 086
., J/ ‘Total United | |
Kingdom .. 2 Sogee | 11,691,955 | p 4,252, 286 | 2,110, 024 | eb ase ere | 29,210,035 3, 580, 740
Total Europe .|...... Hoamse 377 |. 5. ate 43,589, 486 | 1, 489,416 | 188, 085, 280 | 67, 707,570
a Cows. j Excluding lambs.

6 Cows over 1 year old, including buffalo cows.

c Including buffaloes.
d@ {including mules and asses.

¢€On December 31 of preceding year.

J Including asses; data for 1895.

k Data for 1890.

t Including asses.
m Including cows kept for breeding purposes.

n Data for 1905.

o Including goats.

9 Data for 1895.
h Census data, December 31, 1900.
i Cows, census data, December 31, 1900.

Pp Cows and heifers in milk and with calf.
@ Used for agriculture, and also unbroken.

634 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Live stock of countries named—Continued.
Cattle.
Year. ‘ Horses. Mules. Sheep.
Dairy
Total. eon
ASIA.

British Indigia ss-e--2-. 1905 |b88, 920,714 |¢26,052,025 | 1, 433, 458 54, 787 | 421, 266, 729
Ceylon’..2.25. 8. 2s se ceees L905 719 1 4897 S82. stenoses Be a Be eeae ; H
Cochini@hinge see sase. 1903 109000" |22 sees 11243) | ences 2 alee
(Ng og bicietnes Reps tos eee | 1906 024016" ae- eee €:59), 160 |eetesees see f 253, 138
One KON ps oe eases ee = 1905 al ees LOB cermsscewe 3
Japanese Empire:

AUP AMS eeiesiersewieste's 91906 | 1,171,074 88,1540) Dare 7422) |i goes eens 3,590

MONMOsSRE ee eceeeee = 91905 98, 528 ¢ 39, 295 68: ices. cesccst| 20.
Total Japa-
nese Empire.|.....- 12695602 ale cones ae IeY PAC) ee aera = 3, 590
WANG, . sia fasjsacien aac 19005)|> 25654, 8095|0. oceeeceee= 418, 400
abuan. see ere see cee 1905 OOO N= Ssenecees - 3 :
Philippine Islands.....- 1903 PT SO ec oa aneecee 144,171 290 30, 428
Russia:
Central Asia (4 prov-

POCES) pene se enone U90G6)!|, Ay S13 )6535 . ae. esa 1909 soo lin | eye ees h 9,113,000
Siberia (4provinces) | 1906 | 3,798,010 |..........-- 3) 032000) [er sates h 3,773,000
Transcaucasia... --- 1902) || (25304, O77. |: <2 enna OSG? |eicts memes 6, 302, 258
OthensSscsd ses os eee 190Sa|" 925343" 000! 52 ss eeec eee 16245 G000 [ote eer 5, 443, 000

Total Russia,
PASIS TICS eo ea ere = 10}:2595\640) |e ooo cee 651955 190" | acre = 24, 631, 258
ER Oe Se EenaBeacsenc canaecec 1,104,751 Shy al RES Ieeeeeer|-edoscesesase||-
Straits Settlements..... 1904 25,379 |... Te eae 7 43, 920
Turkey; -A'sigiti@e--cses-5| sees 3, 000, 000 800, 000 45,000, 000
DotaleA signee pessee 1093017 228) |S eneee ana 11, 235, 666 55,077 | 91,324,613
AFRICA.
PRIS OT Ge ctawie cc Se ceeectie 1905 1, 066, 404 221, 140 174, 234 9, 062, 636
Basutoland...---..-2..- 1904 213, 361 64, 621 J 26 J 2,794
British Central Africa. .| 1906 29, 203 14 18 11, 566
British East Africa... .. 1905 297, 000 RSG. Reeve 2, 100, 000
Cape of Good Hope....- 1904 | 1,954,390 255, 060 64, 433 | 11,818, 829
Bey taeeaspece aster 1900 350, 000 80, 000 10,000")* .2see— ocean
German East Africa. ...| 1905 523, 052 73 79 1, 560, 000
German Southwest Af-

MICA cates ates cece 1903 1 90, 385 c 32, 804 5, 265 88 1 186, 742
Madagascarm .........- 1905 | 2,867,612 | ¢1,118, 162 1,074 464 333, 454
Mauritius? <.2---2<<-2 1905 7,715 577 0 143 828
Mayottes.io.05 acess: (P) 47, 894 21 15 124
Natalee: ease! 1905 783, 887 54, 637 2,578 769, 601
Orange River Colony... .| 1905 525, 372 93,984 |). 2 ance 4,194, 247
RGU OM ee. 220s oe sete aoe (P) 4,720 1,780 4, 534 4, 583
St NEelenae Se ccc wt oes 1901 1,014 120i)...» eee 2,094
Seychellessaese fos oe 1905 1,000 160!) Ssteere 200
Sierra Leone.........--- 1902 984 23). remit 741
Southern Nigeria Col-

Olly: (CUazOs) eres. wee 1902 | Sb 22h ae errors 108 | scenes 1,610
Sudan (Anglo-Egyp- |

Cia) o% See tee: 1905 S14 O06. sabes ONS 144 nena 1, 421, 721
Trans veal sees oe 1905 800, 000 350, 000 752,159 | 744,153} 1,200,000
UNIS =)! ene c lee eee 91905 TSB S748) |e eerie te 35, 596 15,995 1,094, 761

Total Africa ..|...... | 10,064,259 |..........--| 875,902 | 316,760 | 33,766,531

@Including Native States, as far as officially
Statistics cover only six districts of Ben-

shown.

gal, collected between 1890 and 1900.
» Ineluding buffalo calves.

cCows.

d Of which 373,003 in Alwar include goats.

¢Including mules and asses.

/ Not less than 1 year old; 30 per cent may be

added for those less than 1 year old.
9 On December 31 of preceding year.

h Data for 1903.
iIncluding goats.

j Excluding animals owned by natives.

Swine.

228, 204

976, 327

1, 204, 531

1,179, 371

87, $42
767, 079
309, 479

186, 400

400, 000
15, 357

1,635, 139

k Excluding the Province of Jubaland.
1 Excluding the Windhuk district, in which

the cattle were estimated at 1,774 and the sheep
and goats at 2,630. >
m Not including animals in the public service.
n On sugar estates only.
o Including asses; data for 1904.

pLatest official estimate furnished by the

French embassy to the United States, under date

of May 4, 1906.

. q Animals assessed for tribute and tax.
r Data for 1904.

1s

STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK.

Live stock of countries named—Continued.

635

Cattle. }
Year. . Horses. | Mules. Sheep. Swine.
Dairy
Total. aan
OCEANIA.
Australia:
Queensland........- 21906 | 2,963,695 |.....-.....- 12, 535, 231 164, 087
E New South Wales...|21906 | 2,337,973 644, 164 39, 506, 764 310, 702
WIGEONIA. 22... cinv-=+- 1905 | 1,737,690 649, 100 11, 455, 115 273, 682
South Australia... .} 1906 647,631 b 93, 069 6, 202, 330 119,00’,
Western Australia. ./21906 631, 825 € 27,724 3, 120, 603 74, 567
MAATIANIG...3--2-2-- 1906 DOG BE | coe see a | 1,583, 561 72,810
Total Australian
Commonwealth.|.....- | 8,525,025 |..........-- 1, 673, 805 | 840 | 74,403,604 | 1,014,853
British New Guinea ....} 1905 BOD) ease e ee TD ee eee | Sacre Seer sm ars ere tare
Hema ee PEs... 1905 ced eran ee Bui sean. eae | 1, 417 2,778
New Caledonia.........-. (¢) 7 law 7-1 ee ap 2, 938 12 9, 442 2, 438
wv New Zealand /.........- 1905 | 1,810,936 574, 794 326, 537 9 429 | 19,130,875 249, 727
Total Oceania.|...... 10, 438, 858 Rt eee 2,007, 108 | 1,281 | 93,545,338 | 1,269,796
Grand total...|.....- 424, 499, 238 | ee ee 91,486,403 | 6,972,644 | 609,806,860 |141, 327, 595
Country. | Year.) Asses. Buffaloes. | Camels. Goats. Reindeer.
|
NORTH AMERICA.
United States: |
Contiguous—
Oo 1900 OA TGR po oan ee 2 eee I° 37051699 lisa
i (tng: 0): 1900 LG B8F| a 2ee cece t= [2 Sas sc acs OOS: || he chains Ses
Noncontiguous—
Oy ae eee 1900 pe Ni ae ede 8 (Se ee Ce oe Bee ae
Rorbo nico 4... c2o-.-.. 5. 1899 IRL: G5. ae ee es ee TOGO) 2 ae seers oe
Total United States (ex-
cept Philippine Islands). ....-. ADD: Boshi 2 a5 O28 oS eee eee 1,965, 596 |...---...-.-
Central America:
OCs Oe 1905 1 A ee oes” 3 A eee 906.\| 5. ates eee
LE 1906 AT lt 2a 2 ao: noepeses Ge TNOSO eee aaa sos
LUE TS a eee 1902 69 GALE A ee a ae 45206; Ollaiea ss eee 2
INE WAOMITGIANG . 2. wos... secon ONE Bs Sie eee Ae eee iW Re ssi| Bae See
West Indies:
British—Jamaica.............-.- DO Sree oe ail aio esa oe | ie ae eo TASO00 paar ss2ecee
COL Sa ee 21906 DBO aan = cose sake aac oe £18; 564+). cee.
Lb ne OS ee 1904 DOO Ses Sees. |Seeeeem ates Bi B00 wee ieee = Be
Guadeloupes<...- .:+2:2--.-.-... (¢) A B04 aeons sees ole oo ee te 13,902: eskcesel:
Total North America.....|...... By en eee | ete ae 6329651021) eee eS
SOUTH AMERICA.
Sea USU eta eae mie in o> 3,100; 000) |. = sceeee
British Guiana Li JO0a|so-= Aa ae
ON See ee aa coset ls aan see 461, 908 |o-. 2255208
Colombia: . 2. -2..2. = | DOL O00! 2 eee
TLSEVP LED CUBES G 3 es pat ee Nn C1: (Re 1) |e ee mi ET 7 (hl ee = ee
RAE VE ee See acca EOOOW A ORY Shek Soc. NR | Be OA ccna eee
(IIE See ee a a DOE ADB Amd arse
"CODEC ES ESE ea a py 2 a BES Le ee See) ee ee (EL GON S22: aoe eee
Total South America..... ...... Bak P OG) | eS Se. | pee eo ONDO2209 tase cee
EUROPE. | |
Austria-Hungary: |
LACS rer a 1900 AGRORA? | 2 £2 kee eters ito ener AV OUG G64) | ea es eee =
nnpary. —--.- -~ mae eee sate 1895 23, 855 133*000|=25 a= 25s -22 SOS T8104 | ees eee
Bosnia-Herzegovina........... TROBG S55. as S| Ss Foe hs | ee See ee (AST S049) (See ee
Total Austria-Hungary ..|..._.. mon ig |r 1s3-0O ake ee tee aot eres me

aQn December 31 of preceding year.
+ Not including northern territory.
¢ Data for 1905.

d Including asses; data for 1905.

eLatest official estimate furnished by the
French embassy to the United States, under date

of May 4, 1906.

f Including animals owned by Maoris.
g Including asses.

h On farms.

7 Census for 1899.

J Data for 1902.

636

Live stock of countries named—Continued.

Year. Asses.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Goats. -| Reindeer.

Country. Buffaloes. | Camels.
EUROPE—continued.
Belginimn: 32 < 522 ces acesse Sac ae 2 ante | OL DOD eee pee oe Le ee ae 257, 669 || 5252s
Bulgaria sco. GX oes ccenuseeee} LOO h zoI Elo lS SoA ST ag 7 eee ee ee eee 1,370, 20) | =o
Denmarkes 2S secBes oe eee
HATO slangds asc e ences eee ieee
Win land) cranes a ee eae ee ers
BTANCOs 2 saat asset oe 2 tee e eee
Genny © Sas sae ee Ee ee se
GTRBC8 So AS tot Sone Sey ere
eelsald 2s see aa oe eee
Dtaly! 250 2c 22. eee eee Cees ee
LUXeMDUELP So a255- 55st e se a eee
Manta yee San Soe i eee
Montenegro
Netherlands
INOTWRYise secon seen e se
Portugal v.52..--5e e225
Roumania
Russia:
USSR PTOMAN = wets eee cee 1h) al ee es Shas hs 1, 100, 500 347,000
Poland's sce eee see LOUD eee 13, SOON eae ee
Total Russia, European..| 1905 |............ 1, 114, 000 i 347,900
Servis. 2.6 a. coset ae ee ee 1906 1,271 495; 95542 2255, See
Spans Stee eke ee ee ee eee 1905 | 663, 004- 2, 385, 664) [2-22 eee
Sweden: — 2.227522 ees eS eos ae iY 0 Lh egies eS A fee Be SR Ee el toe ee Pe 66, 560) |o- See eee
Switzerland 5225 ere eee 1906 | 1,652 359,910 |5. 2228 aes
| / AeA Heat
Total Hurope..-Ss2ss225-26 |e ee 2,524, 186 | 615, 672 | 227,300 | 20, 563,198 595, 888
ASIA.
British: Lridiatem..... $2252. 2e--eee 1905 | 41,329,057 | 14,849,189 | 424,747 | 28, 287,635
Geyloms5. 20 pe. che cee as eee TODA: | eee eee. | age ee Merete ce a 153, 542
Cochin Ching. |... -22 ie sececde cee SSO Si Soest eee PAL S750") 3s ea) eae
Gy prises oboe. sonst eee ence 1905 | 5 oe = Ss Oo RR | 1,157 | e 250,306
Hons kOng sa. chase oe! See ce See 10048 ees] Ce ee ee 3 164
Japanese Empire:
Se SJE Ofc 5 0 te (en ee a Se 2g JORLOUG | Sore rr oe, ee se ee 72; 121. |: 3A
IOMULOR A Hae se eee. oe 1905 |S DEGNG20" | 6 eae 117, 212 |-_ Sa
Total Japanese Empire. ..|__....].....-.----- 226, 620 poceenasaoe2 189,335" }22 eee eee
Jiavaeen tia Rents cot hee eee kee 1900: Se 2 eS 2, 436-0380 |J2t- 2 -2=c-[2 | eee
Philippine [slands:.....2.5.--22-..sue 1903: 25 Sa See 7 O40 872 2.22 ee 124, 334° |. o> Soe
Russia: |
Central Asia (4 provinces).....- 10030) Se wee eee ste eee 365, 000 77530000. Uae
Siberia (4 provinces) ..........- TODS Sasa eee | ae an aeed 500 230, 000 38, 700
Pranseaucaniae.scseee ee ee oe 1902 122, 312 338, 042 17, 122 745 0860 22.252 sae
Gheris... tole sestvedaw Seeese secc 1903 582 500s ese ec cemce 296, 000 802, 000 20, 000
Total Russia, Asiatic. ....)...-.- 180, 812 338, 042 678,622 | 2,552,086 | 58, 700
Siam: ¢. 2: tes eke. . oe. eee 1,144,478". . eee ee ots | ee | ee
Turkey; :AsratiCe= s4> yo2 Ses. 3 2 Soe ee 2. 5002000! |to re Se eee eee 9,000; 000 "| ==> aeeeeean
Total Asia: +... Soe. sses. | eee ees 4,009, 869 | 19,876,981 | 1,104,526 | 40,557,402 | 58, 700
AFRICA.
AISGTIA W.- wiscs. Sta oso ee 1905 DH Ai ay-S 1" paratiae Se 199,715 | 4,030,208 |uooeeeemeers
IBaSUtolamd. oo. oc. nes see aeons | 1904 WIQ 2S oe el Ce eee 41,625 |. soa
British Central Africa.............- 1906 86 124) 2S Rae 30, 288. eee ee
British East Africa.-.......0......- TOO AG onthe OS eee ul See ee 1, 150, 000) |Uaaeeseeetaiee
Cape of Good Hope................. 1904 100/470) 6 Sees ee Se ec eere 7, 162;,463;| 25 seeeeeeeee
HYP ts seks as Js ae eee aaa 1900 120, 000 300, 000 40,000 |\.... -.....3 <<<] Seen
German East Africa................ 1905 Bill) zh aecte ees 24) 1,820; 000) |222=--eee--
German Southwest Africa.......... 1903 800). 22 eee 3 $160, VAS be skews
Madapascar Jo... :..s 2a eee 1905 All: |); .2 2 eet Ree he 66; 74aieloec Oe oes
MAUTIHUS B52 o. 52 seen ee po 0c ee Se ee ee Me Sie 0) 228 in ow eee ee
aQOn December 31 of preceding year. / Carabaos.

+ Census data, December 31, 1900.

cIncluding Native States, as far as officially

shown. Statistics cover only six districts of Ben-

gal, collected between 1890 and 1900.

@Of which, 62,652 in Bengal, Alwar, Gwalior,

and Marwar include mules.

¢ Not less than 1 year old; 30 per cent may be

added for those less than 1 year old.

g Numbe: of domesticated elephants returned

as 2,036.

h Exeluding animals owned by natives.
i Excluding the Windhuk district, in which

the cattle were estimated at 1,774 and the sheep
and goats at 2,630. ~

j Not including animals in the public service.
k On sugar estates only.

637

STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK.

Live stock of countries named—Continued.

See —————————————D

Country. \Year.| Asses. | Buffaloes.| Camels. Goats. | Reindeer.
| |
|
AFRICA—continued.
UTES: Bs Seana: ech eee
LoS BE See eee cece
Orange River Colony....-...------- |
iio CoS See eee
im RD Ee a
Southern Nigeria Colony (Lagos) ..- 5
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian)>.........-. 1905
“op: i 013 sent
J a eee }€1905 OT900) lot Ss 147, 229 GY SY 25 I OS era
Cee eS Se a S|
RGA ADICR. ota nae s}oasces 739, 087 300, 012 | 1, 468,963 | 17,557,590 |.-.-.-----2-
OCEANIA.
}
Australia: te
New South: Wales. ...........-- IONS hs toe See Soe Seon oe 853
Sogn Australia ......-......... Loe Bees eee eases Se a —
Western Australia............- 1905 Fee cc ca sene-leseeecc2-oes 1,953
JD Do a ee 0 pl fe ee ea [Bk © nae te so ee eee
Total Atstralian Com-
TODA GA eS) Weecc secs 2, 806
get ase iene 1G FR aan GR aia AaaaeneRNa
Ney @mlenoniae.. 2. ....22......-... (ayo hee es > oe ROR SIMs Oke e
Dp SS oe fe) See ee eh SRE eae A
DOS DST ea ae Se ene ee eee een 2, 806
Remertetotal 0. 22 )..2.<<| 5-2-2: 8,221,072 | 20,792,665 | 2,803, 595

¢ Including mules.
d On December 31 of preceding year.
eIncluding animals owned by Maoris.

aLatest official estimate furnished by the
French embassy to the United States, under date
of May 4, 1906.

+ Animals assessed for tribute and tax.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTS. |
MEAT.

Value of imports of meat animals and packing-house products into thirteen European
countries and Cuba in 1904, and percentages derived from the United States.

ee " Packing- Poulisy,
: three fol- ive meat = | game, rab-

Importing country. lowing col- | animals. zens 5. | bits, pig-

umns. Pp " | eons, etc.

Imported from all countries by— Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Doliars.
(nited Kanpdom 2-252. ches 525-82 -2n <5 s 5 283, 158,215 50, 263,256 | 223,171,623} 9,723,336
Germany @ (for consumption) ............... 83, 600, 900 28, 558, 800 43, 472.200 | 11,569,900
Netherlands (for consumption) ..........--- 28, 609, 544 253, 266 28, 280, 364 75, 964
France (for consumption). -...........-...--- 19, 675, 069 7,008, 413 9, 842, 335 2,824, 321
Belgium (for consumption) ................. 15, 938, 990 5,739, 069 9, 698, 218 501, 703
Switzerland (for consumption) ...........-- 15, 881, 517 10, 352. 595 3, 864, 307 1, 664, 615
Austria-Hungary (for consumption) .......- 13, 685, 042 7,819, 808 4,712, 938 1,152, 296
oMiee ee sere ee Reese 13,011, 989 6, 639, 536 6, 368, 058 4, 395
Denmark (for consumption) .........----.-- 5, 507 , 000 304, 100 5, 135, 300 67, 600
co) ) ER eS a ee eee ee 2 ae 7, 944, 076 3, 264, 763 4,028, 803 650, 510
itary (for consumption) =.......-.. = -=..--2---<- 6, 959, 073 1, 244, 792 5, 646, 532 67,749
Russia (for consumption) (1903) 4,784, 578 2, 266, 604 2, 461, 257 56, 717
PUTRI $= 2) sere se cee eee 4,099, 100 468, 100 3,577, 500 53, 500
Sweden (1903) 3, 860, 369 130, 646 3, 637, 540 92,183
UGE ES See Sane 2 oe See eee e, _Panera se 506,715,512 | 124,313,748 28, 504.789

353, 896, 975

638

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Value of imports of meat animals and packing-house products into thirteen European
countries and Cuba in 1904, and percentages derived from the United States—Con.

Importing country.

Imported from the United States by—
United, Kangdont.s oe. See oe ae ee eee eee
Germany @ (for consumption) ......-.......-
Netherlands (for consumption) ....-......--
Hrance (Gorconsumption) =~ -sseuee-cse eee

Belgium (for consumption) ..........-.....-
Switzerland (for consumption) ............. |

Austria-Hungary (for consumption)......-.
Cube nese seca cerace ccs orce tee pee ee
Denmark (for consumption) ............----
SAN a ascee coos sees ae as ceep ate eee
Ktaly.(@oriconsumptiom)c- 3. > aeecasce see eee
Russia (for consumption) (1903)

Total of . Poultry,
three fol- Live meat a game, ah
lowing col- | animals. conan bits, pig-
umns. P “| eons, etc.
Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.
er eae 37, 066, 568 | ~ pe 1,072, 645
5, 207, 25,2 1, 400
16, 236, 441 16, 236, 433 ‘
) b b)
ate ee ae le
, 42
1, 683, 826 1, 683, $26 |: 0. ee
6, Oy” 668 4, in O11 4,197
)
486, 757 486, 732
1,764, 965 1,764, 965
122, 268 122, 268
821,000 |... 821, 000
194, 463, 457 39, 956, 136 153, 429, 026 1,078, 295

United singed ome peecisseeenae sete eee eceoe
Germany Gs sce i<asewtkk eas See Reece
Netherlands

BPance a =o2eeress

Belgium.......
Switzerland
Mustrig-HNINgary sc. ae see accesories
CUDA - s22.<Se%25~ cas cee oot ee ne

FRULIS SI St LOO S) fasoccn nse sca tee eee ets
Norway

————— ose m —- i

Percentage from the United States.

Per cent.
81

Per cent.
73. 74

Per cent. Per cent.
43. 58 11.03
57. 98.-| 2. kee
57241) |e eee

() ()

50. 92 (b)
17202|: Sea
35. atlas coe eee
66. 96 95. 49

(>) )
12. 087) use cee ees
31.263 eee
A397) | Ss cua eee

22. 95 (0)
¢ 45, 27 d 4.30

a Not including free ports.
b Not stated.

c Omitting France and Denmark.
@ Omitting France, Belgium, Denmark, and Norway.

: TRADE IN WOOL. 639
WOOL.

International trade in wool,4 1901-1906.

EXPORTS.

ee 634,557 | 16,689,429 | 21,519,315 | 22,492,990

Argentina...........- 436,374,060 | 425,467,795 | 371,697,065 | 421,098,234
Dc 335,953,936 | 324,563,030 | 395,130,825 437, 167,965
Co 5 ee 48, 566, 645 51, 456,971 46, 947,529 45, 433,183
British India......... 28,038,050 33,326, 503 38, 602, 768 42,723, 826
Cape of Good Hope... 96,957, 471 79,698,393 78,411,050 74, 311, 616
2 ie 138,081, 466 117, 425,271 130,119, 445 116, 405, 477
Netherlands.......... 36, 231,009 42,214, 830 33, 032, 572 31,837, 603
New Zealand......... 160, 419,023 155, 128, 381 126, 834, 850 139,912,737
PRR ree Sota we 8,182, 423 9, 257,920 7,952,000 9,944,067
RRs es fate cee 29,354,903 30,071,056 35, 298, 276 €31,851, 490
260 A APR Se 25,835,165 25,096, 103 28,808, 285 ¢ 25,096, 103
st. Se fo eee 40, 621, 737 40,621,737 40, 621,737 40,621,737
United Kingdom..... 37, 204, 800 35,950, 200 37,858,500 35, 251,500
yr a 95, 637, 488 92? 124° 262 99,148, 465 e97, 394) 381
Other countries...... 179; 655,000 | 193,824,000 170, 398, 000
Migpale se -.c..--- | 1,658,746,881 | 1,685,806,682 1,741,670, 909

1 72,179,986 85,970,337 79,549,817 83, 296, 792 79, 440, 467
1| 118,479,056 | 122,180,634 | 119,472,000 | 117,205,945 140,786,550
1 ,784, 739 7,452,021 7,431,310 8,807 926 13,741,761
1 10,360,738 7,994,702 7,389,369 7,617,211 6,311,837
1 | 547,568,307 | 519,152,812 | 523,823 309 | 465,475,496 479, 886,724
1| 370,476,806 | 416,038,627 | 425,726,618 | 413,781,976 | 4227380,883
1 6, 652, 876 5,505, 283 7,282,080 | 21;2817995 14,085,397
1| 43,732,352 | 45,481,019 | 49,996,876 | 42,618,842 37, 692, 892
1 58, 087, 872 65,114, 737 71, 607 ,060 50, 207,084 ¢ 41,601,946
1 8,499, 894 9,809,111 10,164,381 10, 471, 454 10,349,336
Swat 12) 4627949 | 13,305,114 | 13,465,390 | 14,139,564 12,951,713
United Kingdom..... Jan. 1 421,520,875 | 392,752,036 | 351,928,151 | 344,758,631 | 371,364,280
United States........ July 1 66,576,966 | 177, 137, 796 | 173,742,834 | 249,135,746 201, 688, 668
Other countries....../.......... 537000,000 | 586927000 | 63,556,000 | 60,020,000 26,156,000
SE eee OS ee | 1,899,383,416 | 1,926,586,229 | 1,905,085,195 | 1,888,818,662 | 1,858,438, 454
a Including wool combed, carded, and dyed. d Exports for 1899, a latest available data.
bSee “General note,” p. 546. e Average, 1901-190:
¢ Preliminary figures. 7 Not including race ports.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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645

TRADE IN HIDES AND SKINS.

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646

BUTTER.

International trade in butter, 1901-1906.a

EXPORTS.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Year
Country. begin- 1901.
ning—
5 Pounds.
Argentina. ...-...-.- Jan. 3,329,372
IAIStTA aoe ee Jan. 1 34,536, 277
E 1 16, 479,108
1 5,929,084
1 27,855,978
1| 147,360,596
1 19,780,321
1 43,108,795
1 5, 437, 480
1 13,340, 609
1 48,719,904
1 22,578,192
1 3,077,278
1 71,064, 718
1| 41,356,568
1 16,002, 169
2,534,000
522, 490, 449
Australia ccssccns aces Jans, 2 1,342,338
Belen |2-2. ce Sasori evils Ue 7, 833 , 342
BPazill eee aes deisiss 1! 6,058, 288
Cape of Good Hope...| Jan. 1 5,361, 680
Denmark: 52 vee ss sce yan: wt 13,032, 623
Dutch East Indies...| Jan. 1 2,748,381
1 OFAN PSE CO Oe eee enn a! 2,511,060
WPRDCCH Ae ce sak visas ee Jan. 1 13, 470,750
Germany/0-=-=--.--2- Jans 39, 700, 613
Natale tse eeseseccte sc Jan. 1 1,613,004
Netherlands.......... Jan 2,413,938
Russia. sc emssece- eee Jan. 1 1,168, 863
Swedensc:ossseeeseese Jan. 1 1,662, 236
Switzerland....2..... Jan. 1 8,165, 479
Trans vaaleso-Pese seme Janey e4,301,174
United Kingdom..... Jan. 11] 409,128,608
Oper so. soca ce eee pool eee ser 15,104,000
Motalisc : sees eee 535,616,377

aSee *‘ General note,”’ p. 546.

1902. 1903. 1904.

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
9,094,269 | 11,750,944] 11,672,157
7,777,971 30,901,910 64,788,542
15,589,764 13,728,181 11, 233, 431
5,643,178 4,492,080 4,340,012
34, 128,944 24,568,001 31,764,303
153,808,614 | 176,664,571 | 179,745,595
21,315,888 | 22,700,563} 26,891,790
53,879, 727 59,714,579 49 , 842,670
4,849,727 2,796,343 1,766, 564
13,420,636 | 14,176,381 | 12,375,425
50, 413, 634 51,659,135 52,053,041
28,447,776 31,931, 872 35, 208,320
3,015,570 2,717,219 3,367,075
83, 463 , 073 90, 863, 488 87,705,713
44,213,494 44,248,776 43, 144, 662
8,896,166 | 10,717,824] 10,071,487
2,911,000 2,982,000 2, 457, 000
540,869,431 | 596,613,867 | 628, 427, 787

IMPORTS.

6,901,773 1,887,148 43 , 873
7,375,362 9,788,817 9,727,714
6,270,893 5, 496, 134 5,642,179
6,341, 566 6,055,075 5,294,516
15, 432,354 12,786,808 13,007,270
2,788,108 2,945,909 3,021,377
2,199, 657 2,366,386 3,126,945
12,042,518 10, 260,344 10,067, 424
36,794,039 53,558, 205 75,705, 838
1,662,002 2,121,121 3,171,875
1,514, 533 2,665,917 5,858,391
856,054 838, 214 1,158,390
1,148,959 919,839 1,305,925
9,705, 187 10,970,199 10,889, 289
3,269, 411 5,119, 642 4,514, 468
440 , 221, 264 447 , 684, 496 465, 285,968
13,984,000 14,563,000 12, 295, 000
568,507,686 | 590,027,254 | 630,116, 442

b Not including free ports.
¢ Preliminary figures.

d Average, 1901-1904.
e Average, 1902-1904.

213, 986, 000

628, 256, 219

—

TRADE IN CHEESE. 647
CHEESE.
International trade in cheese, 1901—1906.a
EXPORTS.
° Countr Year be-| 4901 1902 1903 1904 1905,
ve ginning— : 4 - - z
| Pounds. Pounds. Pounds Pounds. Pounds.
hn a Jansen 6, 449, 020 5, 651, 335 7,064, 385 6,624,517 7, 227, 816
BUGS = 2 o5cco. te July 1) 200,946,401 | 229,099,925 | 233,980,716 | 215,733,259 215, 834, 543
[OLN 7 it Jan, J 17, 795, 274 20, 545, 803 23,119,970 20,711, 480 22, 125, 152
pemiany >. 252.52... - Jan. 1 3, 211, 693 3,119, 981 2, 813, 539 2,597, 927 2,650, 397
TAT a i Jan. 1 24, 104, 455 28, 841, 967 33, 158, 617 , 299, 443 ¢ 37, 694, 647
Netherlands.........- pans <1 104, 269,090 | 104,785,152 | 109,025,968 | 103,069,081 98, 438, 575
New Zealand......... Jan. 1 11, 680, 928 8, 371, 552 8,375, 360 9, 466, 912 9,918, 944
oS oe a Jan; 1 1,610, 414 1,655, 230 1, 406, 557 1,396, 951 €1,119, 497
Switzerland ....<..... an. 1); 60,075,729 54, 491, 422 53, 642, 863 56, 688, 989 61, 383, 731
United States........ July 1) 27,203,184 18, 987,178 23, 335, 172 10, 134, 424 16, 562, 451
@thereountries.< ....|------<-~. 7,924, 000 9, 469, 000 8, 833, 000 : A ¢ 5,092,000
TE ie I eee 465,270,188 | 485,018,545 | 504,756,147 | 463,772,983 | 478, 047,753
IMPORTS.
Argentina .......<-.--.- Jan. 1 3, 265,535 3,614, 879 2, 489, 821 4,069, 223 4, 234,616
Lin Se Jan. 2,777, 464 2,318,110 | 1, 141,300 375, 642 384, 718
Austria-Hungary. .... Jan. 1 7, 267, 316 7, 263, 348 7,527,020 8, 213, 540 9,358,179
BIBT Ook at a = pan. 1 23,695,315 25,776,099 27,994, 030 26, 304, 868 28, , 857
i | a Jan; - 1 2,583,396 3,062,639 2, 903, 536 3,043,516 €3,119,540
oe of Good Hope. ..| Jan. 1 3, 268, 640 3, 689, 735 4,251, 460 3, 994, 730 3, 249, 035
Eo ae Jan. 1 3, 256,525 3,119, 2,900, 902 3,333, 992 43,152, 814
(on 2 Janu I 2,140, 688 2,085, 131 2,052, 503 2,033, 764 7,472,566
- See Jan. 1 6, 702, 653 6, 947, 708 6, 947, 710 8, 495, 738 9,512,371
Loiid Se Jan. 1 42,034, 436 42,362,780 48, 434, 148 40, 683,327 43, 254, 168
Germany ?... Jan. 1 36, 750, 387 35, 067, 820 35, 859, 059 39, 750, 657 44,698, 270
a Jan. 1 10, 797,577 8, 859, 053 9, 474, 363 9, 568, 500 ¢9,921,901
Russia. ..... Jan... t 2,852, 694 2, 829, 871 3,191, 252 3,302, 985 ¢ 2,744,573
SPRIN gas .s<a5 Jan. 1 4,129,100 4, 220, 926 4,033, 4, 338, 306 ¢ 4,033, 420
Switzerland.......... Jan. 1 4,248, 748 5,710, 853 5, 879, 065 6, 567, 789 5,530,515
United Kingdom..... Jan. 1] 283,558,016 | 279,367,088 | 296,012,528 | 280,125,104 267, 722, 560
United States........ Joly. 2 17,067,714 20, 671,384 22, 707, 103 23,095, 705 27, 286, 866
Other countries. ...../.......... 11,092, 000 14, 598, 000 14, 549, 000 18, 785, 000 ¢12, 413, 000
7 ES Sa EY serene 467,488,204 | 471,625,259 | 498,348,220 | 486,082,386 | 486,577,969
a See ‘‘ General note,” p 546, ¢ Preliminary figures.

> Not including free ports.

d Average, 1901-1904.

648

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES,

HORSES AND MULES.

Number and farm value of horses and mules, 1867-1907.

Horses. Mules.
January 1— . ;

Number. Epes per Farm value. | Number. P wiped se Farm value.

TSB Tene So) Be eee eee cee 5, 401, 263 $59.05 | $318, 924,C8* 822, 386 $66. 94 $55, 048, 257
} 54. 27 312) 416, 04 855, 685 56.04 47, 953, 624
62. 57 396, 222’ 359 921, 662 79. 23 73, 026, 906

67.49 556, 250, 529 | 1,179,500 90. 42 106, 654, 015

71.14 619, 038) 564 1, 242, 300 91.98 us, 272, 194

67.41 606, 111, 449 1, 276, 300 87.14 1117 221; 919

66. 39 612, 273,159 | 1,310,000 85.15 111) 546, 171

65.15 608,072,797 | 1,339,350 81.35 108, 952, 659

61.10 580, 707,854 | 1,393, 750 71.89 100, 197, 044

57. 29 557, 746,731 | 1,414,500 66.46 |, 94 000; 976

55. 83 567,016,871 | 1,443,500 64.07 92) 481,931

56. 63 584,998,503 ' 1,637,500 62.03 101, 579, 278
52. 36 572,712,085 | 1,713,100 56. 00 95, 941, 589
54.75 613,296,611 | 1,729,500 61. 26 105, 948, 319

i SoS Ysa eel hee. rte he tina lee nb nea 11, 429, 626 58. 44 667,954,325 | 1,720,731 69.79 120, 096, 164
TSS oe eee. S eee cae ee ye en 10, 521, 554 58. 53 615, 824, 914 1, 835, 169 (less 130, 945, 37&
1 ptosis ie a reeds ok ob ee ate 10, 838) 111 70. 59 765,041,308 | 1,871,079 79. 49 148, 732, 390
TSR 4S ce bo Behan alee eee oes 11, 169, 683 74. 64 833,734,400 | 1,914,126 84, 22 161, 214, 976
1885. Sap: ooo seein Sean eae 11, 564, 572 73. 70 852, 282,947 | 1,972,569 82. 38 162, 497, 097
TSRG oe cc Sach Ree ee eRe 12,077, 657 71.27 860, 823,208 | 2,052,593 79. 60 163, 381, 096
US8% ais cece c asset oe oe Oe eee 12, 496, 744 W205 901,685,755 | 2,117,141 78.91 167,057,538
1S88i8- 2 accesses See eon eeee 13, 172, 936 71. 82 946,096,154 | 2,191,727 79.78 174, 853, 563
( U1 (2 nae ERM ds tg 4 ee ES Thon 13, 663, 294 71. 89 982,194,827 | 2,257,574 79. 49 179, 444, 481
1SG0 So 5- 52 ok nee ee aster 14, 213, 837 68. 84 978,516,562 | 2,331,027 78.25 182, 394, 099
ASOT eee oe 5ck ee eee ee ee 14, 056, 750 67.00 941,823,222 | 2,296,532 77. 88 178, 847,370
WSO2% 29 39 Cine ey ree pee 1s 498, 140 65.01 | 1,007,593,636 | 2,314,699 75. 55 174, 882, 070
NSOB Scions as Sores cease cee ee 16, 206, 802 61. 22 992,225,185 | 2,331,128 70. 68 164, 763, 751
5 SIO lee ce ie es pr 16, 0st; 139 47.83 769, 224,799 | 2,352, 231 62.17 146, 232, 811
USO5R te a. os oe tae eek Sac 15, 893, 318 36. 29 576,730,580 | 2,333,108 47.55 110, 927, 834
ASGO Ree sae ie Sete Scie hore 15, 124,057 33.07 500,140,186 | 2,278,946 45. 29 103, 204, 457
CY eee Se nee ie mek 14, 364, 667 31.51 452,649,396-| 2,215,654 41.66 92, 302, 090
1 ROR Ie eat eae ecee Sete aero 13, 960, 911 34. 26 478,362,407 | 2,190,282 43.88 96, 109, 516
13, 665, 307 37. 40 511,074,813 | 2,134,213 44. 96 95, 963, 261
13, 537, 524 44.61 | 603,969, 442 | 2,086,027 53.55 | 111,717,092
16, 744, 723 52. 86 885, 200, 168 2, 864, 458 63. 97 183, 232, 209
16, 531, 224 58.61 968, 935, 178 2,757,017 67.61 186, 411, 704

16, 557, 373 62.25 | 1,030, 705,959 | 2,728,088 72. 49 197, 753, 327
16, 736, 059 67.93 | 1,136,940, 298 | 2,757,916 78.88 | 217,532,832

17,057, 702 70. 37 | 1,200,310,020 | 2,888,710 87.18 251, 840, 378

18, 718, 578 80.72 | 1,510,889,906 | 3,404,361 98.31 | 334,680, 520
19, 746, 583 93.51 | 1,846,578, 412 | 3,816,692 | 112.16] 428,063,613

Imports and exports of horses and mules, with average prices, 1892-1906.

Average
price.

$121. 42
128. 69
116. 80

74.14
68. 63
72. 97
82. 09
76. 52
90. 3&
93. 31
97. 60
121. 47
112. 90
110. 79

Imports of horses. Exports of horses. Exports of mules.
ole nde = => te s i i
une 30— um- verage um- verage um-
ber. Value. | “price. ber. Value. pees ber. Value.

W8Q2 rs Gece e 14,074 |$2, 455,868 | $174. 50 3, 226 $611,188 | $189.46 | 1,965 | $238, 591
DROS Fea oe 15, 451 | 2,388, 267 154. 57 2, 967 718, 607 242. 20 1, 634 210, 278
UC ey ete epee 6, 166 | 1,319, 572 214. 01 5,246 | 1,108,995 211.40 | 2,063 | . 240,961
USGS > 22) eae 13,098 | 1,055,191 80.56 | 13,984 | 2,209, 298 157.99 | 2,515 186, 452
B96 SS ccc 9,991 662, 591 66.32 | 25,126 | 3,530,703 140.52 | 5,918 406, 161
1SOfiecctescue 6, 998 464, 808 66.42 | 39,532 4,769, 265 120.64 | 7,473 545, 331
USOBSisa cexiess 3,085 414, 899 134.49 | 51,150 | 6,176, 569 120.75 | 8,098 664, 789
SOO s ese ee 3, 042 551, 050 181.15 | 45,778 | 5,444, 342 118.93 | 6,755 516, 908
1900 5 oe oxteo-< 3, 102 596, 592 192.32 | 64,722 7,612, 616 117. 62 | 43,369 | 3,919, 478
AGO Me pete. 3,785 985, 738 260. 43 | 82,250 | 8,873, 845 107.89 | 34,405 | 3,210, 267
OU Ziyata.cptela's 4,832 | 1,577,234 326. 41 | 103,020 | 10,048, 046 97. 53 | 27,586 | 2,692, 298
ROUSUe.cco' 4,999 | 1, 536, 296 307.32 | 34,007 3, 152, 159 92.69 | 4,294 521, 725
1 eee 4,726 | 1, 460, 287 308. 99 42,001 3, 189, 100 75.93 | 3,658 412, 971
DOOD sicte!se =: 5,180 | 1,591,083 307.16 | 34,822 3,175, 259 91.19 | 5,826 645, 464
TO0Gsfoc ioc smi 6,021 | 1,716, 675 285. 11 40, 087 4, 365, 981 108. 91 7,167 989, 639

138. 08

STATISTICS OF HORSES AND MULES.

649

Number, average price, and farm value of horses and mules in the United States January 1,

1907, by States.

State or Territory.

DVS at be

Lid ae
Wid GUGOY.=2-2ne m2 ena ssn0
PENNAVIVANIG. .- =~ 50-2. econ
IGIRWENOS ota wicle oon oe ew ees. we

WVCRLAVEICINIA...-.....-..-.-.
Morin CATOuUNs -—.....-.--..--
South Carolina...............

US! 530 SS See ee eee
MONIT a
WRISMIGHOLA eno kc 5 ace cee
he G21 ee
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MOTGH ID REOEA.. 2c. s-55--5--|

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tear be eee
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BARESRERSRRSRSSSSASSSASSSSASESSHSH:
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS

8
on

10, 437, 182
16, 827,065

5, 138,044
105, 893, 580
87,735, 367
171, 990, 000
77, 369, 224
68, 340, 000
70, 260, 365
139, 178, 490
87, 937, 525
55, 689, 001
45, 909, 244
86, 362, 944
96, 848, 928
37, 679, 162
31, 338, 495
13,767, 307
20, 418, 951
15,550, 875
79, 456, 496
18,720, 624
33, 598, 782
20, 304, 966
18, 379, 534

6, 528, 928
17,216, 910

1 |1, 846, 578, 412

Farm value.

Dollars.

32) 893; 203
869, 324
685,574

7, 063, 749

14, 468, 598

21 628, 928

30,776, 994

28, 139, 085

31, 409, 335,

19,055, 981

58, 763, 376

6, 549, 660
9) 242’ 067

19, 270, 625
314) 939
124) 717
942) 176
393, 537
309, 849
219, 657
268, 758
212) 155
418, 560
639, 379

8, 599, 875

428, 063, 613

“650

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Range of prices for horses in Omaha, monthly, 1902-1906.

General pur- : Carriage
Drafts. poses. Southern. Western. Drivers. Agia
Date.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High
1902.
JANUSLy = =. --5- $90 | $175 $55 $85 $35 $80 $10 $50 $95 | $225 | $200 $350
February .....- 95 185 60 100 35 80 10 50 95 225 200 350
Marchiaeeesree 100 200 60 100 35 80 10 50 95 225 200 350
ADU ee -sestaae 100 225 60 110 30 65 10 50 100 250 200 500
Mayiescecosceee 100 250 65 105 25 60 12 60 90 325 300 500
DUNES ose ssceme 90 200 60 90 20 45 12 60 90 325 300 450
Joly cmeccecr ee 90 175 40 80 15 45 10 65 75 200 200 400
AUgUst sac .ce= 90 175 40 80 15 45 10 80 75 220 210 420
September..... 90 175 40 80 15 45 10 100 85 175 215 360
October. 3. <= 100 175 40 80 20 45 10 100 90 215 175 435
November....- 90 160 40 80 20 65 10 80 90 325 230 370
December....- 100 185 45 85 20 70 12 60 90 300 200 375
1903.
VaNUaACy = oe 90 175 50 80 35 70 10 50 95 225 200 350
95 185 60 100 35 a5 10 50 95 225 | . 200 350
100 200 60 110 35 70 10 50 100 230 200 400
100 250 60 110 30 65 10 50 100 250 200 500
110 250 65 105 20 55 12 60 100 350 250 550
90 200 65 100 15 40 12 65 100 375 300 450
90 175 50 80 15 45 10 65 75 275 200 400
ANISUS ties <jo< eis 90 175 45 80 15 45 10 90 75 220 210 420
September..... 90 175 40 80 15 45 10 100 95 200 215 360
October. - ===. 100 180 40 80 20 45 10 100 90 215 200 435
November....- 90 160 45 85 20 60 10 80 100 325 225 370
December... .. 100 185 45 85 20 60 12 60 100 300 200 375
1904.
January -<-<c-- 120 175 65 90 45 90 10 50 7 150 300 400
February.....- 120 175 70 90 40 80 10 50 75 150 300 400
Mancha acest ee 120 175 75 95 35 70 10 50 75 150 300 400
Uprileas. smccee 125 200 75 100 30 65 10 50 90 175 300 400
IMS noe t nies a2 140 275 90 125 30 65 15 35 125 300 300 750
JU) soemeeeeaee 135 250 75 110 30 60 15 40 125 300 300 700
Wily ee cenit ae 125 200 65 100 30 60 15 65 120 175 300 400
AUISUSTS 2 oe oe 120 175 50 90 30 60 15 90 100 175 300 400
September... - 120 175 60 100 30 60 15 110 100 175 300 400
October----)-- 125 200 65 100 40 75 15 100 125 200 300 450
November...-.- 130 235 70 100 40 90 10 35 125 200 300 450
December... ..- 130 225 7 100 45 75 ip 60 125 200 300 400
1905.
VaANUaye ess ase 150 200 75 110 40 90 10 50 75 150 300 400
February -....- 150 200 85 125 40 90 10 50 75 150 300 400
150 200 90 135 35 90 10 50 75 150 300 400
150 225 75 120 35 80 10 50 90 175 300 400
150 295 60 90 30 80 15 40 90 300 300 750
135 225 60 90 30 75 15 50 90 300 300 750
125 200 60 100 30 70 15 75 100 150 300 400
130 200 60 100 30 70 15 117 100 150 300 400
130 200 65 100 35 75 15 110 100 150 300 400
October=.----- 140 200 70 110 45 85 15 95 100 175 300 450
November. ...- 150 250 80 125 30 100 15 70 125 200 300 450
December... .- 150 250 80 120 50 95 10 65 125 200 300 400
1906.
January....... 140 225 85 135 40 90 10 50 100 175 300 400
February ...... 140 225 85 135 35 90 10 50 100 175 300 450
Merchl-.ci.-cerece 140 250 85 135 35 80 10 50 100 175 300 450
April J5.<ceces 140 275 80 130 30 75 10 50 100 175 300 500
Maye is esectoe 140 335 75 110 30 85 15 50 100 350 300 750
WANG S52 creas eee 135 275 75 150 30 75 15 115 100 300 300 750
UU Vise cca sce 125 225 75 150_ 40 90 15 120 100 150 300 400
AUgUst 2 act. eee 130 225 75 150 40 90 15 120 100 200 300 400
September..... 130 225 75 150 40 90 15 122 100 225 300 500
October. .2: 52 - 140 250 75 150 40 90 15 80 100 200 300 450
November..... 150 250 85 150 35 90 15 75 125 200 300 450
December... . . 150 250 85 150 35 90 10 65 125 200 300 400

STATISTICS OF CATTLE.

CATTLE,

Number and value of milch cows and other cattle, 1867-1907.

651

Milch cows Other cattle.
January 1— 4 == |

Number. | Paap Farm value. | Number. | sa | Farm value.
8, 348, 773 $28.74 | $239, 946,612 | 11,730,952 $15.79 | $185,253, 850
8, 691, 568 26.56 | 230,816,717 1, 942, 484 15.06 179, 887, 797

9, 247,714 29.15 | 269,610,021 | 12,185,385 18.7 228, 183,001
10, 095, 600 32.70 | 330,175,234 | 15,388,500 18. 87 290, 400, 588
10, 023,000 33.89 | 339,700,528 | 16, 212) 200 20.78 336, 859, 617
10, 303, 500 29.45 | 303,438,398 | 16,389, 800 18.12 296, 931, 664
10,575, 900 26.72 | 282,559,051 16, 413, 800 18. 06 296, 448, 036
10, 705, 300 25.63 | 274,325,680 | 16,218, 100 17.55 284, 705, 983
10,906,800 | 25.74 | 280,700,645 | 16,313, 400 16.91 | 275,871,664
11,085, 400 25.61 | 283,878, 869 | 16, 785, 300 17.00 285, 387, 123
11, 260, 800 25.47 | 286,778,030 | 17,956, 100 15.99 287, 155, 528
11, 300, 100 25.74 | 290,897,809 | 19,223,300 16.72 321, 345, 691
11, 826, 400 21.71 | 256,720,779 | 21, 408, 100 15.38 329, 253, 631
12'027,000 | 23.27 | 279,899, 420 | 217231,000| 16.10 | 341,761,154
12, 368, 653 23.95 296, 277,060 | 20,938, 710 17.33 362, 861, 509
12, 611, 632 25.89 | 326, 489, 310 | 23, 280, 238 19.89 463, 069, 501
13, 125, 685 30.21 | 396,575,405 | 28,046,077 21.81 | 611,549, 109
13, 501, 206 31.37 | 423, 486, 649 | 29,046, 101 23. 52 683, 229, 054
13, 904, 722 29.7 412,903,093 | 29, 866, 573 23.25 694, 382, 913
14, 235, 388 27.40 | 389,985,523 | 31,275, 242 21.17 661, 956, 274
14, 522, 083 26.08 | 378,789,589 | 33,511,750 19.7! 663, 137, 926
14, 856, 414 24.65 | 366,252,173 | 34,378,363 LT 611, 750, 520
15, 298, 625 23.94 | 366,226,376 | 35,032, 417 17.05 597, 236, 812
15, 952, 883 22.14 | 353,152,133 | 36, 849,024 15.21 560, 625, 137
et 16,019, 591 21.62 | 346,397,900 | 36,875, 648 14.76 | 544, 127,908
7) 0 et Soe atts sees 16, 416,351 21.40 | 351,378,132 | 37,651, 239 15.16 | 570,749,155
Sa See 16, 424, 087 21.75 | 357,299,785 | 35,954, 196 15.24 | 547,882) 204
woo Lo Se 16, 487, 400 21.77 | 358,998, 661 | 36, 608, 168 14. 66 536, 789, 747
_ 0. eee 16, 504, 629 21.97 | 362,601,729 | 34, 364, 216 14.06 482,999, 129
363,955, 545 | 32,085, 409 15. 86 508, 928, 416
+ 369,239,993 | 30, 508, 408 16. 65 507, 929, 421
434,813, 826 | 29,264,197 | 20.92 | 612, 296, 634
47 re 233, 925 | 27,994, 225 22.79 637, 931, 135
514, 812, 106 | 27,610,054 24.97 689, 486, 260
505,093,077 | 45,500,213 19.93 | 906, 644, 003
488, 130,324 | 44, 727,797 18.76 839, 126, 073
516, 711,914 | 44, 659, 206 18. 45 824, 054, 902

508, 841, 489 | 43, 629, 498 16. 32 712, 178, 134

482,272, 203 | 43, 669, 443 15.15 | 661,571,308

582, 788, 592 | 47,067, 656 15.85 | 746,171,709

645, 496,980 | 51,565, 731 17.10 881, 557, 398

Imports and exvorts of live cattle, with average prices, 1892-1906.
eS Imports. | Exports.
Year ended June 30— Poe ae fi ix
verage verage
Number | Value | price. | Number. Value. mae

$47, 466 $21.89 | 394,607 | $35,099,095 $88.95

45, 682 13.87 | 287,094 26, 032, 428 90. 68

18, 704 31.75 | 359,278 33, 461, 922 93.14

765, 853 5.11 | 331,722 | 30,603,7 92. 26

1,509, 856 6.93 | 372,461 | 34,560, 672 92.7

2, 589, 857 7.87 | 392,190 36, 357, 451 92.70

2, 913, 223 9.99 | 439, 255 37, 827, 500 86.12

2) 320, 362 11.62 | 389,490 | 30,516,833 78.35

2, 257, 694 12.47 | 397,286 30, 635, 153 77.11

1,931, 433 13.23 | 459, 218 37, 566, 980 81.81

1, 608, 722 16.75 | 392, 884 29, 902, 212 76.11

1, 161, 548 17.55 | 402,178 29, 848, 936 74.22

310, 737 19.35 | 593, 409 , 206, 291 71.21

458, 572 16.46 | 567,806 40, 598, 048 71.50

548, 430 18.90 | 584,239 42,081, 170 72 03

652 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Number, average price, and farm value of cattle in the United States on January 1, 1907.

STATE OR TERRITORY.

Maing 22sec ceeste eee

Vermont as-8 cteds jean 3 eee
Maissachisetise. Bia. .sseeee
Rhodeisland= 8 2522) ae
Connecticut: 25.22.22. 2 tee
New Xi00kK 2.2 aeso-anccaeeeee
Newid CIsey <2 20-c0-s5-csans a
Pennsylvania iss = 4--2 a2 se
Delaware's a5. 285-25 - sce
Marylondhn i 2ja28aeccesteeee
Mirpinigies ~~ 222-622 .s-24see ee
West Virginia--. ae
North: Caroling. 2222+. 525s. 22
South Caroling] 22 525_p2ssese
Georgia. 2-2 2.52-25.9..% eee

Michivam® 52.85.8222. ease

ROW ists ota neta’ Ueck Skee

North Dakotat: 4222. -b eee
South Dakotasat. 2... cemeae
INebraskas S254 25 eee Seen
Kansas oc... tee ae Ses Se
Kentucky 22222 Sesto
Moennessee- -2/25. b=. santas
IN Pyof ate Se epee sess ue =
IMississippies Joh o4- seo eee
WouIsiana = 228. ness eee
MOXaS IS. 5. sens ves eoenc sees
Indian Territory. .-..-.2:..2.<
OkipWomasts ee Sees AG Sasa

Washington. 2: 2Scs2p-cecsen =
Oreronecs.. at. pecoeeee aoa
Califormmige <= oc nate aoe

United States -ca-.s-es -

Average
Number. |? ben Se Farm value.
Jan. 1.

185, 286 $31.00 $5, 743, 866
132, 498 33.00 4,372, 434
293, 931 28.00 8, 230, 068
200, 273 42.00 8, 411, 466
25,721 42.00 1,080, 282
137, 485 37.00 5, 086, 945

1, 826, 211 36.00 65, 743, 596
190, 193 44.00 8, 368, 492
1,141, 494 36.00 41,093, 784
36, 905 35.00 1,291, 675
153, 364 31.00 4, 754, 284
290, 7 28.60 8, 139, 609
244, 800 31.00 7, 588, 800
282, 600 24.00 6, 782, 400
136, 911 28.00 3, 833, 508
305, 469 30.00 9, 164,070
89, 638 30.00 2, 689, 140
919, 100 34.00 31, 249, 400
652, 610 33.00 | 21,536, 103
1, 161, 500 35.00 40, 652, 500
832, 000 34.00 28, 288, 000
1,365, 000 31.00 42,315,000
1,019, 700 29.00 29, 571, 300
1, 555, 300 32.00 49, 769, 600
975, 100 27.00 26, 327, 700
220, 178 27.00 5, 944, 806
605, 768 28.00 16, 961, 504
870, 135 29.00 25, 233, 915
729, 274 28.00 20, 419, 672
402, 000 28.00 11, 256, 000
328, 250 23.00 7,549, 750
282, 800 21.00 5, $38, 800
329, 669 21.00 6, 923, 049
188, 141 24.09 4, 515, 384
993, 122 24.75 24,579, 770
111, 547 24.00 2,677, 128
198, 102 24.00 4,754, 448
400, 000 17.50 7,000, 000
65, 948 35.00 2, 308, 180
21, 813 40.00 872, 520
136, 712 36.00 4,921, 632
21, 820 37.00 807, 340
21,791 40.00 871, 640

75, 919 30.00 2,277, 570

16, 988 36.00 611, 568

66, 345 32.00 2, 123, 040
173, 724 34.00 5, 906, 616
148, 814 32.00 4, 762, 048
405, 616 35.00 14, 196, 560

20, 968, 265 31.00

Milch cows.

156, C05
106, 350
225, 870
93, 371
10, 443
84,028
944,734
82, 003
984, 750
22, 455
140, 732
566, 560
559, 980
445, 954
218, 502
679, 911
656, 600
1, 105, 380
1, 141, 778
2,231,000
1,045, 000
1, 148, 124
1, 305, 060
3,960,900
2, 397,000
682, 880
1, 485, 000
3, 366, 000
3, 764, 700
736, 250
601,000
561,000
600, 950
479, 750
8, 236, 549
503, 000
1,387, 151
739, 000
916, 350
855,000
1, 425,000
948, 240
597,078
306, 000
386, 120
351, 086
409, 050
750, 000
1, 167, 107

645, 496, 980 | 51,565, 731

Other cattle.

Average
heat Farm value.
dine ils

$16.00 $2, 511, 677

17.00 1,772, 860
15.00 3,376, 751
18.00 1, 676. 937
20.00 210, 433
20.00 1, 695, 680
18.00 17, 307, 526
20.00 1, 658, 107
18.00 17, 479, 308
19.60 436,075
18.00 2, 576, 808

18.00 10, 253, 650
21.00 11, 703, 574

12.00 5, 199, 826
12.00| . 2,619,840
11.00 7, 451, 822
11.C0 7,045, 318

22.00 23, 787, 780
21.00 24, 080,090
22.00 49, 238, 170
17.00 17,326, 160
15.00 16, 785, 580
13.00 17, 460, 900
23.00 90, 288, 000
19.00 45,950, 490
18.00 12; 360, 128
19.00 28; 823, 850
19.00 65, 367, 720
20.00 73, 844, 591
18.00 12,972,716

12.00 7, 212,000
9.00 4,908, 750
9.00 5, 468, 644

10.00 4,965, 414

12.00 | 100,856,544

13.00 6, 782, 955

16.00 22, 867, 179
7.00 5, 512, 940

20.00 18, 134, 570
22.00 19, 023, 750
20. 60 28, 172, 250

18.00 » 661, 000
18.00 6,925, 451
17.00 5, 856, 118
17.00 6,850,

15.00 11, 428, 125
18.00 21, 474, 767
17.10 | 881,557,398

653

STATISTICS OF CATTLE.

Wholesale prices of cattle per 100 pounds, 1902-1906.

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654 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUTTER.

Wholesale prices of butter per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

New York.

Creamery
SoaRe: extra.

y
AU PUSt es c2% os emis ase ecece a= eee
Septemiberzs. sataes sac ss Cec ceeeee
October sy taec icons scssseece sche nese
November. 222222 js555aissesecmencee
Decemberes< =i 2435-223 batece
1903.

VANUaTyS sees Sees Sek ee Le ee
MODIUBLY son sk heen ass. Poses eee
IMarehic se assee stn caste sat we te
JAD TI Sas sien dees es es
May sien: .cceeAe eae ee
VUNCs 22) 5. ce ede: sae Bes eee 204 224
uly ss Sa ee ae ee ee 19 204
IAUIBUSGS ots ce sheet em et eee tee eee 19 193
Septemberasee- eee sass ee eee 193 212
Octobersa~isecesesscaossess = see 20 223
November: ote aceasta 223 254
IWC eM eR eee eee eee 23 254
January 22 244)
February 23 264
Mareht-4.22.. 9.520225 - Saco cesceae 24 264
IAT TI ee eee oO s_ 205-- 2 ies . 2n ee 22 243

BY Se tce = sae eee = oo wees ne eee 18 243
Wi ers eee since even sha. eee 173 183
UN isis ob oer e coo DOAn see ceo Sepabeors 4 el 18
WNUSUSb Es 22 cae = nate aca oo shee 173 194
Septembers.-- ca ss cases Jaen oes 19 21
Octobers= see B= ie - os ee ooo 20 234
INOVGINDOLA sc ee tenkiecaniocsinias actamiee 23 264
Dec embers sce see ace ee eee see 26 28

1905.

ANUATY sos. = Rete ao eer Secs oe nisieicee 28 303
Webruary == .< 5.29 AL ae eset= se cae 294 354
MiaTCh: 28s deco tetiiin a's 6 Sere Sons eee 25 314
Aprils. Pesaran pee ae ee eee 27 32
May oo ceesees cc seeks se eee eens 20% 27
JUNG 25 SNe oe win bee sepa ee es ou bees 193 214
DULY .-3 chien octane rs aerate cos Secale 204 214
NUD 9 | pM Sie © os See See mens 203 22
September: ; 5.2. 25s---2s2c255~ <1. Scere 204 213
Octoher-naccce= nee ose seer eee 20 22
November 174 243
December 24 26
PANUATY swe ss ase es 2 cele 25 274
February = 26 274
March. S-Ge. 32-08 eon ee 27 274
AYU See Sei 2n 2 ods toes some te eiae 21 254
MAY. s 282 5: cau. Debs. oe ato ees 194 22
DUNC 4 Bes Soa u uO oele 5 So dee Geena eee 19} 21
DULL Yong Rote c oa wel hateta wc eee ee Anca ean 204 214
NIG US tere Ss. = aicts a side's oe Bee eae Sete 21 244
Heptemper....... esi ssc cee eee Mean = 24 254
GOLGUBES «js = .5.5-necauenmeneesamee se 254 27
INOVEILDOL 2s ..<2 - =n athe capnee ms tameres 27 304
DBC ON Ol o arcia.0.c.00 «cuisine eee 304 33

Low.

Cincinnati.

Creamery.

Cents.

High.

Chicago.

Low.

Creamery
firsts.

Cents.

Cents.

Cents.
2

. High. | Low.

Elgin.
Creamery
extra.
High.
Cents. | Cents.
24 244
254 29
26 28
22 30
22 22
21 22
20 21
19 20
19 224
223) 244
244 27
28 29
25 29
25 27
273 284
224 284
20 224
20 22
183 20
18} 193
193 214
204 214
22 24
24 25
22 24
23 26
244 26
‘23 244
174 23
174 174
17 174
17 19
19 20
20 23
23 25
25 28
28 293
29 34
25 33
27 314
21 25
193 204
20 20
20 21
204 21
21 223
224 24
24 25
26 27
27 284
27 284
21 26
19 21
194 20
20 214
214 23
24 244
244 26
26 30
30 31h

STATISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

CHEESE.

655

Wholesale prices of cheese per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Date.

IPRs cose = <isvew wees ncit< ais s <
RUTH Se Pe Sh. arsine cuts laces =
LSTA AD DUS

UO RSs eee
IVD Rin a eee
STATA 86 Se ee ae eee
J/g thll Skee 3S See eee oe

UE OS (5 38 2 eee
DP oo 65 ae

Lol ILS. 45a eee
lah 7 UC eee Bee Sess

TLS 0 2 a ee
Jos PIS) SAG SOS Loe SS ee
US) 02) ee eS er
DOT ETT le =e ee oe

ADTs 5 356i os 5 Os ee

UTR a Ss ee ee os =e ee
LUE ee - e
SLUGS) ea
Peron eo eee OES eee 8

September. .

Si Ctr — ei a hear seer
Bremrcnren cc. a) o5 Se te, a8 Se
INET 12 ee ee Soe Oe — ee ian

New York. Cincinnati. Chicago.
September, Young
colored. Factory. Americas.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
11} 113 10 aa 104 11}
114 123 104 114 103. 123
12} 13} ll 114 113; 123
13 13} ll 123 13 13
10} 13 113 124 12} 134
93 93 104 12 104 123
93 10} 104 104 104 103
94 104 103 103 104 ll
103 12 104 104 104 11}
12 123 1l 123 11} 113
123 13 12 123 114 12
13 134 12 13 114 131
14 14 124 12} 13 134
144 14} 124 124 123} 13
144 15 123 12} 123 13}
15 15 123 123 124 134
114, 124 12% 123 103 133
103 103 11 11} 104 104
10 104 104 103 10 103
104 104 104 104 9 11
103 12 108 104 94 11
114 124 103} 103 10 11
114 12 103) 103 10 104
12 12 103) 103 10 10
12 12 103 104 10 10
12 12 103 104 94 104
12 12 103 104 10 103
103 12 104 104 9 10
7 8 94 10 8 9
7 9 8 94 rey 8}
8 9 8 83 7} 8?
8 9 8 9 72 83
8} 10 83 9 8 8
10 103 84 9 84 103
10} 113 84 104 10 114
113 12 10 104 ll 113
114 113 124 13 113 12
11} 133 124 13 113 134
13% 144 12% ee eee 134
133 143 14 14} 133 14
144 143 14 143 10 14
9 93 10 12} 10 104
94 114 10 103 10} 11}
104 12 11 11}! 11 113
113 12 11 123 113 113
114 13} 12 123 113 12}
13} 133 134 14. 13 133
12 14 133 14 » 13 133
(
14 144 13
14 143 13
14 144 13
141 14} 12
93 143 113
93 11 113
ll 113 113
114 123 123
123 13 12
13} 134 131
131 14 133
14 143 14

St. Louis.

Full cream.
Low. | High
Cents. | Cents.

103) 113
123 13
13 14
133 144
123) 14
ll 114
114 114
114 113
114 12
113 124
123 134
13} 14
14 144
144 144
144 144
134 144
123 14%
114 11}
113 12
113 12
113 124
113 124
114 114
114 114
113 114
114 113
12 12
9 113
104 104
93 104
94 93
9} 10
10 103
11 114
11} 134
134 134
134 133
132 144
144 15
14 154
114 154
114 114
113 124
12 124
123 123
124 134
14 14
134 133
134 131
133 134
13 134
121 13
114 124
118 123
123 122
123 14
133 14
14 144
141 154

656

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SHEEP AND WOOL.

Number and farm value of sheep, 1867-1907.

Sheep.
January 1— :
Number. Bs os Farm value.
39, 385, 386 $2.50 | $98,643, 878
38, 991, 912 1.82 71, 052, 570
37, 724, 279 1. 64 62,036, 752
40, 853, 000 1.96 79, 875, 996
31, 851, 000 2.14] 68,310, 110
31, 679, 300 2.61 82, 767, 741
33, 002, 400 Pag il 89, 426, 606
33, 938, 200 2.43 |- 82,352,976
33, 783, 600 2.55 86, 278, 163
35, 935, 300 2.37 85, 120, 646
35, 804, 200 2.13 76, 361, 698
35, 740, 500 2.21 78, 897, 594
38, 123, 800 2.07 78, 964, 563
40, 765, 900 2.21 90, 230, 537
43, 569, 899 2.39 | 104,070, 861
45, 016, 224 2.37 | 106, 595, 954
ARSS Sesser 49, 237, 291 2.53 | 124, 365, 835
ESSALS 2 ee state 50, 626, 626 2.37 | 119,902, 706
ERSdtessaeeees 50, 360, 243 2.14] 107,960, 650
SSG 25 Soe es sae 48, 322, 331 1.91 92, 443, 867
TSS jacemere ese 44,759, 314 2.01 89, 872, 839

|

January 1—

Number.

43, 544, 755
42, 599,079
44, 336, 072
43, 431, 136
44, 938, 365
47, 273, 553
45, 048, 017
42,294; 064
28, 298, 783
36, 818, 643
37, 656, 960
29, 114, 453
41, 883, 065
-| 59, 756, 718
62, 039, 091
chris eee 63, 964, 876
i eas 51, 620, 144

45, 170, 423
50, 631, 619
53, 240, 282

Price
per head.

na

WONNNNNNNNEEEENNNNNN
NEO

SSNGE

~ on
PESTRASRTERIERS

He He bo

Fazm value.

$89, 279, 92u
90, 640, 369
100, 659, 761
108, 397, 447
116, 121; 290

107, 697, 530
122, 665, 913
178, 072, 476
164, 446,091
168, 315, 750
133, 530, 099
127, 331, 850
179, 056, 144
204; 210, 129

_ Number, average price, and farm value of sheep in the United States on January 1, 1907.

|

Aver-

age |

State or Territory. | Number. gor
head

Jan. 1. |
Mame es cet es 267,325 | $4.02
New Hampshire-..- 78, 292 3. 81
WWeETMOnGsesn 6.22 es 223, 087 4.10
Massachusetts... -- 44, 573 4. 45
Rhode Island-...--. 8, 050 3. 92
Connecticut.....-- 33, 566 4.74
New York >. 3822. 1, 120, 000 5. 06
New Jersey...--.-..- 44,198 4.81
Pennsylvania.-.....| 1,102,058 4. 86
Delaware...s.2---- 12, 104 3.95
Maryland......-..- 164, 873 4. 51
MiteiTige |. 22h Bed 512, 261 3. 88
West Virginia... ... 675, 000 4. 32
North Carolina....| 223,965 2. 44
South Carolina. --. 2.31
Georpidissessc acess 1.99
Wloridas- =. 2S eee. 2. 23
Ohios ee sos Se 4.81
indidns ses. 5. 33
In Oist ee a eee 5. 20
Michigan 4. 89
Wisconsing 22 seen. 1,023, 933 4, 21
Minnesotas... 22%. 436, 593 4.00
LOWRi es ae ae conenaes 703, 902 5. 32
Missouri. .0. 7 se 7, 500 4. 35
North Dakota..... 674, 409 3. 67

Farm
value.

$1, 075, 181
298, 606
915, 326
198, 439

31, 572
158, 969
5, 666, 080
212) 592
5, 353, 799
47, 846
744, 072
1, 989, 621
2) 917, 350
545, 691
138, 429
550,775
226, 103
15, 119, 427
6, 344, 731
4,041, 293
10, 314, 117
4, 308, 710
1,744, 626
3,747, 574
4, 343, 115
2) 476, 429

State or Territory. | Number.

South Dakota....| 863, 980
Nebraska........-. 457, 834
KANSHSe snc. cocce 232, 581
Kentucky.......- 1, 060, 000
Tennessee.......- 344, 954
YUEN of: a1 ee ae 189, 729
Mississippi....... 183, 280
Louisiana........ 189, 142
TexaSe = wn Boece 1, 665, 963
Indian Territory - 30, 977
Oklahoma.......- 58, 385
Arkansas. .....-.- 295, 740
Montans .-o-'eoces 5, 636, 711
Wyoming: . 522 - a5 4, 986, 796
Colorado

New Mexico

Arizona

Utah. ...

Nevada. a

Tdahoy =. 5.s<eeeee
Washington.....-. 824, 129
Oregon). 5<ssse= 2, 688, 000
California... 2, 422, 423

United States .'53, 240, 282

go | pegogogo go gogo Ny pogo DOWN EE tom me
SSRALSEERSSRSASSSSLNSSS

co
~

Farm
value.

$3, 360, 019

8, 006, 107

204, 210, 129

SLATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL.

Imports and exports of sheep, with average prices, 1892-1906.

Year ended June 30—

Imports. Exports.
Average Average
Value price. Number. Value. price.
$1, 440, 530 $3. 78 46, 960 $161, 105 $3. 43
1, 682, 977 3.66 | 37,260 126, 394 3.39
788, 181 3.25 | 132,370 832, 763 6. 29
682, 618 2.34 | 405,748 | 2,630, 686 6. 48
853, 530 2.65 | 491,565 | 3,076,384 6. 26
1,019, 668 2. 51 244, 120 1, 531, 645 6. 27
1, 106, 322 2.82 | 199,690 | 1,213,886 6.08
1, 200, 081 3.47 | 148, 286 853, 555 5. 96
1, 365, 026 3 58 | 125,772 733, 477 5. 83
1, 236, 277 3.73°| 297,925 | 1,933,000 6. 49
956, 711 3.58 | 358,720 | 1,940,060 5. 41
1, 036, 934 3.44] 176,961 | 1,067,860 6.03
815, 289 3.42 | 301,313 | 1,954, 604 6. 49
704, 721 3.77 268, 365 1, 687, 321 6. 29
1, 020, 359 4.24 | 142,690 804, 090 5. 64

240, 747

Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Chicago. | Cincinnati. St. Louis. Omaha.
Inferior to < Good to :
Date. mhoice: Goo ..toextra. cholbhnatived! Native.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1902.
JOIST oho ett eee $2.00 | $4.75 | $3.00] $4.25 | $4.25] $5.00] $4.00 $5.15
LS). 8 i 2.00 5.50 3.50 5.50 4.75 5. 60 4.20 5. 85
WUD ODS 2S S20 ee ere 3.00 iy a 4.25 5.50 5.50 ete 4. 40 5.90
LSC liad Jee ee 2.50 6.50 3.75 5.50 5. 50 6. 25 4.75 6.25
Obi ag, Jo jk eee 225 6. 50 4.35 | 5.75 6.00 6.35 5.40 6.00
Ut: .. 00S a 1.50 6.25 3.50 4. 60 3.70 5. 60 4.50 6.00
JUDE = Jee Os a 1.75 5.00 3.10 4.00 4.00 4. 60 3.80 4.50
BERIT R ee ne cn kom = sour es cae 1.50 4.25 2.25 4.00 3.85 7s Gy Beeps! Heese ss
Oriel ce es eo ee 1.50 4.50 2.00 3. 40 3.65 4.00 2.00 3.40
ori i 5 eo es oar nee 1.50 4.25 2.65 3. 40 3.90 4.00 3.00 4.10
SOD SS oot on 1.50 4.25 2.50 3.35 sone 4.00 3.40 4.25
MRED MST arsine oe en Songs Scene 1.25 4.75 215 4.00 3.80 4.50 3.50 4.75
1903. |
RII te so. en bce ncices teen 1.50 5.25 3.25 4.50 4.50 5.00 3. 60 5. 40
lijecti 2 el elie 2.00 5.79 Sale 5.00 D.20 5.25 4.50 5. 80
Ltn Tes ee ae 2.00 7.00 4.25 6.00 5. 50 6.15 4. 60 6.75
1. 0st A ml 2525 7.00 4.10 6.25 6.00 6.25 4.50 6.75
JAS Shoe eee 1.60 6.25 3.60 4.75 4.50 5.25 4.00 5. 50
UNTER i De ee 2.00 6.00 3.00 4.50 4.50 4.75 3. 80 5.50
Ulivi S= 23 Ss er 1.50 5.25 2.90 4.00 3.75 4.75 3.00 4.50
LACUS IS 9 Ae Bia ee ee 1.50 4.25 2.75 abet 3.50 3.85 3.00 4.00
SUSE FOTEGR ooo ee Sa aes eee eee 1.50 4.25 2. 60 3. 40 3.65 4.00 3.50 | 3.50
SE ee See ee 1.50 4.25 2010 3.50 3. 65 4.00 3.55 305:
MIATA DET i= coe me eee eta en 1.25 4.35 2.60 3.35 3.60 3.65 3.25 4.00
LDPC Tito] 15 a ee ee 1.50 4.25 2.60 3.75 3.65 3.85 3.25 4.40
1904.
MEANT Yee etc e st tA Les! 2.00 4.75 3.25 4.00 S3k0 4.75 2.25 5.10
US NInTE g ae | e eee 2.00 4.75 3.40 4.60 4.75 4.75 2.60 5.25
LDE USS pp Saeee sea ae ae 2.00 5.50 3.65 4.50 4.75 4.90 2.50 D2
Ll 5) eS Sa eS ae ee 2.50 6.00 4.00 4.50 5. 40 5. 60 Bae 5. 65
Ol ave SOS Snes 2.00 6.00 3.75 4.55 5.50 5.65 4.00 5.90
WE oleae ee ED 5.50 3.00 4.40 4.60 5.50 4.00 5.25
DULY. Jo aot S26 san See 1.50 5.50 PAIS) 4.00 4.00 4.25 3.75 5.00
LE ee ao 2.00 4.25 Quis 4.00 oe) 4.00 3. 40 4.35
PERRHCE See an eo 3 8 a5 St Lip 4.50 27h 3.50 3.75 BUSOU cares cysts le ex state
IGS 1 Se Ss aa a 1.50 4.75 eke 3.50 4.10 BOOB ie cmc ooeccets
La PEETGTER Oe RI Oe Sa 1.75 5.00 2.75 4.00 4.25 4.75 3.75 4.50
IDS Cairn] cs ak eR eet ae ee eee 2.50 5. 65 3.50 4.50 4.75 4.90 4.00 5.50
1905.
ULE ocr See ey ae eee 4.50 5.85 4.10 5.25 5.15 6.35 3.25 6.25
TRE C0) oe ie ane eS ene, 4.50 6.25 4.50 5.50 5. 50 6.15 3.00 6.90
March eee Soares ee ae See ee 4.75 6.25 4.75 5.50 5. 85 6.25 3.00 6.75
I(c 02 Se Re ey es SE 4.50 6.30 4.50 5.25 5.25 5.90 Zato 6.75
Ce Cee Beet SRS se ae ee 4.00 5.50 3.85 5.00 5.00 5.40 2. 50 6.00
<LI E TF aca peearepe e et szars Se a SR 4.00 §.25 3. 60 4.35 4.80 5.00 2.50 5.70
* ICE SRS ee i ne ene os < ee ees 4.00 5.90 3. 60 4.75 5.00 5.50 4.75 6. 00
(US Rete ee aoe eae een 4.00 5. 65 Ber Ay 4.50 4.60 |~ 5.20 4.00 5.30
Benpembete.. ass he eee ance cee 3.80 5. 40 4.00 4.75 5.00 5.00 3210 5.25
MRTODER'5: acc wane sete ssh ec cae ne 4.00 5.70 4.00 5.25 5. 25 5. 60 4.00 6.00
4,25 6.10 4.10 5.00 5.25 5.75 4.25 6.00
4,25 6.25 4.10 DelD 5. 50 6.00 4.50 6.25

3 als06——42

658 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906—Cont’d.

Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. Omaha.
Inferior to Good to A
Date. aaa Good to extra. choice 2ntven Native.
| Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
1906. .
FANUATY: -.. et Fee eee eee ees $3.75 | $6.25 | $4.50] $5.50] $5.75 | -$6.25 | $4.00 $4. 60
Hebruary sass Sse Ss cee see wee eee 3.50 6.25 4.35 5.50 5. 50 6.2. 3.50 6.25
March.. 329s Sere i Se Ee 3 ae 3.50 6.50 5.00 5.75 5.50 6. 45 2.75 6.00
Aprils |.25 kee Se ee eee 5 ae 3.50 6.50 4.00 5.75 5. 50 6.00 3.25 6.15
(Ch a ee a Sey es ees, 3:40 6.50 4.10 4.75 6.00 6.25 4.50 6. 40
DUNE) 32 eats Seen oes Pee eee oe 3.50 6.25 4. 40 5.25 6.00 6.10 3.80 6.50
Yuurly:3 2)... 25 ee See ee ees ee 3.00 6.25 4.10 4.75 5.25 5.75 4.00 6.25
Ausust |) foes eek SS ee aes 3.00 5. 60 4.10 4.75 5.00 5,50 4.50 5. 85
Septemperlek.. ees ce see eee ee 3.50 5.75 4.10 4.75 5.35 5.75 4.25 5.85
October. ie eee ee eee 3.50 5.05 3.85 4.75 5.35 5.50 4.75 5. 65
Woyamber. fe. 326s eee ees BRAS aya 4.00 4.60 5.50 5. 60 4.50 6.10
December. hx2 o2408 cee eee 3.00 7.00 4.00 4.75 5.50 6.00 4.75 6.35

Wool product of the United States for 1906, by States.

[Estimate of National Association of Wool Manufacturers. ]

Per cent Wool,
State or Territory. sheep Apr. Ai aes of shrink-| washed and Wool,
1, 1906. 1906 ? | age, 1906.) unwashed. scoured.

Pounds. | Per cent. Pounds. Pounds.

200,000 6 40 1,200, 000 720,000
New Hampshires<as0 0. aoe soe eee 63,000 6.2 50 390, 600 195,300
Vermont eS es co ee ere eee 160,000 6 51 960,000 470, 400
Massachusetts t. 2e.cn.< de aasnce eee 26, 000 5.8 42 150, 800 87, 464
Rhode island. ae | ees. eee 6, 500 5.5 42 35,750 20,735
COnnechiCnt. sf oo eee en oe Dee ee eee 26,000 5.5 42 143, 000 82,940
ING WY ODK oes. 6 een cee steer eee ere 725,000 6 50 4,350,000 2,175,000
INGW: J BESOYi nc. ccc cee eee et aera 32,000 D0 50 176,000
PONS IV GIN. Gone. cet pee eee eee 850,000 6 50 5, 100, 000 2,550, 000
DD GUS WE OL Sse oo Cnet es Li ae er no ee 6, 500 6 50 39,000 9, 500
Miatrylan dies tee oe. <. eenoe oboe ae aoe 100, 000 5 45 500, 000 275,000
Wir oania See een 8)... Seen. nee 350,000 iD 38 1,750,000 1,085, 000
Wiest. Varcininaee mt 5. =. cae. cc eceer ea seee 480, 000 5.5 48 2,640,000 1,372,800
Orth Caroling ease ..2 Serer cee ee eee 205, 000 4.25 42 871, 250 505,325
South Carolina 50, 000 4 42 200, 000 116,000
GOT RIB See cae nce Sane oe see 250, 000 3.8 40 950, 000 570,000
HOVICaS eee eee. 105, 534 3 40 316, 602 189, 961
O07 sae ee ..-| 1,850,000 6.25 50 11, 562, 500 5,781, 250
hats bins eee, - : 800, 000 6.25 45 5,000, 000 2,750,
J NUN TGV) Fp opel 2 i a eR a Daa Oa ' 550,000 6.5 48 3,575, 000 1, 859, 000
Michigan 1,500, 000 6.3 50 9, 450, 000 4,725,000
SWAISCONSINIS Et ciate ees oe eee ae een se ee 800, 000 6.75 48 5, 400, 000 2,808, 000
Minnesa ines .> sae: 2 See eae oe ee 350, 000 ih 52 2, 450, 000 1,176,000
WE sR Renee vs Moen eh eee eee eee 500, 000 6.5 50 3, 250, 000 1,625,000
MASSOUED See ete ence Ree tee eee hee 6. 45 48 4, 607, 003 2,395, 642
orth Daicauae . Ca. eee cee ees 6.5 61 2, 437, 500 50, 625
South Dakotar see 5 enero cs oe ee cee 6.5 60 3, 737, 500 1, 495, 000
INGDTasikdenns. ( eemeene emer snan mote a tacee 7.5 67 1,875,000 618, 750
Kansas oS. 5.2 Gakee meee tt Sate a Tb 67 1,275,000 420,
Ren tucleyec: etessect se betacs owe ce 4.75 38 2,731, 250 1, 693,375
APONNnOSSCGE se. | eee ee ee ee eee 4.25 40 1,116, 875 670, 125
ATA DATOS. 2 Ree ae tee ee ae cee ae eee 3.25 40 568, 750 341, 250
MISSISBID DLE (=: Reb, oe bene Seen yee 4 42 660, 000 , 800
OWISIANE le =: sc see. Sens ae ee aed 42 573, 500 332, 630
ROXAS = \S= te hccnch one ess eee ee eee 6.5 66 9, 360, 000 3, 182, 400
Taian Derritory lop} = cones seme ce tee cece
Oklahoma..... : ee A iy Hehe Se ret ho M3 - ° 67 360,000 Boe
IATICANIORAY soccer 4.5 41 900, 000 531, 000
Montane. 0.) line. aca we ee ce ceee aie meen eee 7.25 65 35,815,000 ; 12,535,250
MW ivOmino> Los Set. ee eee eee 7.20 68 32,849,750 | 10,511,920
COloTad Ose rs cites teens ae eee 6.75 67 9, 450, 000 3,118, 500
INE WAMexXICOW. 4. sossc cs cee are ee Cone 5.5 62 15,950,000 | 6,061,000
PATIOS ciao clo cls evactw nia etrar oe ree pelea mene 6.5 66 4, 420, 000 1,502, 800
LONE | ae eee eee ae ae Se 6.5 65 12,350, 000 4,322, 500
Mevaderee 22... coe woe ee ee 8 69 5,200, 000 1,612,000
Tao ewes. ee eee se ns oe 7.35 67 16,905,000 | 5,578, 650
WSHINO LOM ot occu. Nese. see een ae 8.5 70 4, 887, 500 1, 466, 250
CO SiS oy a Wa ee ies By Alene ey et agi, Sinton e em 8.5 70 15, 300, 000 4, 590, 000
Galiformian ce... c eee > ee 7.5 67 13, 125,000 4,331, 250
United States 6. 66 61.08 | 256,915,130 | 100,010,942
Pulled. WOO sdk sees sabes ae beck Savers cera lia Sere et ere ae | aoe 30 42,000,000 | 29,400,000

Total products 1908 cece. co) noc acts.s ance nec tance sel ieee enete | erate em tare 298,915,130 | 129, 410,942

4 gel

STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL. 659

Wholesale prices of wool per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

Boston. New York. Philadelphia. St. Louis.
XX Ohio, . Best tub-
Date. washed. XX Ohio. washed.
Low. | High. Low. | High.
1902. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents. | Cents.
(ONT Aa 5 ee 27 27 26 27 26 27 24 244
JT Oe Se ee ee ee 27 27 26 27 26 27 243 244
CLL ee rr 27 27 26 274 26 27 24 24
Lio! a. SS ees ae 27 27 263 274 26 27 24 24
C7 not SS eR eee en 27 27 263 274 26 27 24 25
_ 5 ~~ RS ee eee ee 27 274 263 274 26 27 24 25
Sa re ee ee 27 28 264 274 264 274 24 254
Lo Eh ee ee eee | 28 28 264 274 274 28 254 263
EVD PiLD. Tn eee. aed ee 29 29 263 274 27 29 26 264
US Be ee ee 30 5 Lt] RAs ane 27 29 26 27
29 31 28 29 29 30 273 28}
32 32 30 32 31 32 28 29
32 323 31 | 32 31 32 29 29
31 33 31 32 31 32 29 29
31 32 31 32 31 32 28 29
31 32 31 | 32 31 32 27 284
30 32 30 | 33 31 32 27 284
31 34 30 | 31 30 31 28 29
33 34 30 5 31 | 32 33 29 294
33 35 31 33 | 32 33 29 294
34 35 28 | 32 32 33 30 30
34 35 28 32 | 33 34 30 305
34 3 28 32 33 34 304 3L
34 35 28 | 32 | 33 34 304 305
|
333 34 28 | 32 33 33 304 304
33 34 28 | 32 33 33 303 31
33 34 28 32 | 33 33 303 31
32 34 28 32 33 33 303 31
32 33 28 | 32 324 324 304 32
32 34 28 | 32 | 314 314 32 33
34 35 28 | 35 | 314 33 33 34}
34 35 a2] ,3/} 33 33 35 35
34 35 34 | 35 33 33 35 36
34 35 2) si) 3 33 343) 364
35 36 32 | 35 / 33 334 37 40
34 36 32 | 35 | 332) 334 40 | 41
i
34 35 32/35 34 36 40 41
34 35 32 | 35 | 34 35 39 41
34 35 31 | 34 | 34 35 37 38
34! 35 31 36 | 34} 35 37 394
34 | 36 32 36 | 34 36 39 43
a 32 36} 34 36 41 424
35 | 37 32 39 35 36] 41 42
36 | 37 35 39 35 36 41} 414
36 37 35 38 35 36 42 42
36 37 35 38 34 35 42 424
35 36 34 38 34 35 41 42
35 36 35 38} = 34 35 41 41}
XX washed. |
34 36 35 38 | 34 35 33 35
34 343 35 38 34 35 31 35
34 343 35 38 34 35 36 - 38
34 343 35 38 | 34 35 36 38
34 343 35 38 | 34 35 38 40
34 34h 35 38 | 34 344 38 39
34 35 35 38 333 34 38 384
34 35 35 38 333 34 37 384
34 343 35 38 334 34 37 38
333 344 35 38 333 34 37 38
334 34 35 38 33 34 37 374
34 345 35 38 33 34 38 38

660 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Range of prices per pound of wool in Boston, monthly, 1902-1906.4

Indiana Ohio
Ohio fine, quarter- | Ohio XX, | Ohio, No.1,| Delaine, Michigan
unwashed. blood, washed. washed. washed. |X, washed.b
Date unwashed.
Low. |High.| Low. |High.) Low. |High.| Low. |High.| Low. |High.| Low. |High.
1902. Cts..| .Cts>| Cts. | Cts. | Cis.) Ciss| Cts. | Cts. | @fs.\-Crsh| (@issmerse
DAMUALY: Pesce resioe cs cenee 193) 20 22 22 27 27 27 27 28 29 21 ral
Hebruanyeas A wea sanes 20 20 22 22 27 27 27 27 28 29 21 21
ane he ABest ce bop sce aoe 193}, 193] 213) 22 27 27 264] 27 28 29 21 21
UM oyu pene) Oo Eanes her eee oe 193) 194) 214) 214) 27 27 263| 264| 28 284! 20%]; 21
Misty, abe a Chee c ee 19 194} 204) 204) 27 27 26 26 28 283/21 22
TENC S35 eee ee eee 19 20 203} 21 27 273| 26 26 28 29 22 22
Bln hies ews Sees Oh ees 20 20 21 22 27 28 26 27 28 31 22 22
AUIBUISH ES oe oc bee eee 20 21 22 23 28 28 28 29 30 33 22 23
September. ....... -.25:-..- See (QE SIA) 22. 23 29 29 29 30 313} 32 23 23
October! Ws=. ce ee 213} 213! 23 23 30 30 30 30 314] 32 23 24
INGVEMMETSS- ...sodeeince ene 213} 22 23 23 29 31 30 31 314} 33 24 25
Decemibersys cc. seco 23 23 24 24 32 32 31 31 33 35 26 27
22 23 233} 24 32 323] 31 32 34 35 27 274
22 23 24 25 31 33 31 33 34 35 27 274
22 23 22 24 31 32 31 32 33h 34 26 27
20 22 22 233} 31 32 30 31 334] 34 26 264
20 22 22 233} 30 32 29 31 334] 35 25 26
21 24 22 25 31 34 30 33 34 37 25 26
23 24 23 25 33 34 32 33 36 37 21 22
23 25 24 25 33 35 32 33 36 | - 37 213), 22
September... 2.28. 22-222 24 25 24 25 34 35 32 33 36 37 21 22
October 3) 5S sees 24 25 24 25 34 35 32 34 36 37 21 22
INOVeniberes sae ses0. 2 eas 24 25 24 25 34 35 33 34 35 37 21 22
Decem ber’......2.5-48-2-2- 288 24 25 24 25 34 35 33 34 35 36 21 22
1904.
Gannaryeees. - ee cn ee 23 24 24 25 333] 34 32 33 35 36 21 22
Hebrdaryees ..0-ceese seas 22 24 244} 254) = 33 34 32 33 3 36 20 22
Marche Apa aos) fern Ore 22 24 244} 253) 33 34 32 33 35 36 20 21
Aries er tate 5538 es 22 23 25 54] 32 34 30 32 34 35 19 21
Miaiviar sites oo ook. ae 22 23 24 25 32 33 30 32 34 35 19 20
UNIO see PAS oc ce 22 23 24 27 32 34 30 33 34 36 19 22
eae See OSA ee ccc 21 24 27 30 34 35 33 34 35 36 21 22
INSUISt = See te = 2 caee 24.) 25 28 30 34 35 33 34 3 36 21 22
Septembersiss 2 Mee =: se 24) |e 25 || 928 29) 34] 35 33 34| 3531 36] 21 22
October:eese tee... ces 23 25 28 30 34 35 33 35 354] 36 21 22
INOWEMIDerE 2 eee... -. es 23 25 30 32 35 36 35 38 3531 38 21 22
Mecemberi7..- sees. = = ane 24 25 31 33 34 36 37 40 37 38 21 22
1905.
Manu ary sey. fem etee so sete 24 25 31 33 34 35 38 39 37 38 21 22
ebMIp Nye <i = see senses 24 25 31 32 34 35 38 39 36 38 21 22
March 23 25 30 32 34 35 36 37 36 37 20 22
La Eee a 23 24 30 31 34 35 36 37 36 37 20 21
Maye. 5-8 es eos cee 23 27 30 35 34 36 36 38 36 39 20 25
MUNG H2 4-280 2c: ees sees 26 30 34 36 36 37 37 42 39 40 25 27
Ditty 3s = =7 eres 8 ee eee 27 28 33 37 35 37 39 43 38 40 25 26
TAURUS tAoth= - Peas Uae 27 28 34 36 36 3t 40 42 39 40 25 27
September: =..2 Miscsceces ia vee 28 34 35 36 37 40 42 39 40 25 26
Octoberick-.. 235 worocse ee 27 28 34 35 36 37 41 42 37 39 25 26
INoOVeMmper. 22.05 20. 27 28 34 35 35 36 41 42 364 37 25 26
Mecempben-..: . hee. seas 27 28 33 34 35 36 39 42 364 37 25 26
1906.
DV ANUATY:s vieeic «oc detes sate gee 26 28 33 34 34 36 39 40 363] 37 25 et
MODLUTY <2 5 ooeno cao 26 263] 32 34 34 344} = 39 40 364, 37 26 26
Math 3 oe Si... bens ee 24 26 32 323} 34 343] 39 40 363, 37 24 25
PEND IE a is 20 onc A alee 24 25 32 324) 34 344] 39 40 363] 37 24 25
1. EN ee Oey ae eater we 24 26 32 323 34 343 37 40 364 37 24 25
MIN Ss RSs ca ites cneeeae 24 25 32 324) 34 343] 37 38 363} 37 24 25
(Eh een gee eee re! os 24 25 32 34 34 35 37 38 363} 37 24 25
PTUPTISG i oe. ce aeees So veeee 24 26 33 34 34 35 40 41 36 37 24 26
HepvemiPer.....=-2.'. . sa sanee 25 26 33 34 34 343} 40 41 36 37 25 26
(O1e 110) 51) ee eer ee Rete 24 26 30 34 334} 343) 40 41 354] 37 24 26
INOVEMDEr....v gsc access 24 25 30 314} 334) 934 40 41 354] 364) 24 25
I BCEUIDEY ox :0<.0.5 oo. ce meee 24 25 31 32 34 344} 40 41 363| 374! 24 25

a Furnished by Commercial Bulletin, Boston. eet
b Since June 12, 1903, the standard quotation has been Michigan fine unwashed.

iota

STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL. 661

Range of prices per pound of wool in Boston, monthly, 1902—1906—Continued.

| = a : :
| Fine select- | Fine medi- Texas, 12 Fine free Pulled, A | Pulled, B

| ed Tern- | um Terri- fall, Texas

ths, : super, super,
tory, staple | tory, cloth- wee or Califor-
Date. scoured. ‘ing scoured.| S°°UTCd- | nia scoured.| SCoUred. | scoured.
Low. High.) Low. | High.| Low. | High.) Low. | High.) Low. | High.| Low.| High.
55 44 47 48 50 40 42 38 42 34 36
55 46 47 48 55 40 45 38 42 36 36
55 45 46 52 55 40 45 38 |s 42 35 36
52 44 44 52 53 40 42 38 42 33 33
2 42 45 48 52 38 40 38 41 33 34
52; 42 ad 50 55 38 40 38 42 34 35
55 45 47 52 57 38 40 38; 45 36 38
57 47 49 55 57 40 40 42 45 39 39
57 49 49 55 57 40 40 40 45 37 38
57 | 49 49 55 57 40 45 40 45 37 37
58 49 50 55 60 44 48 40 44 37 39
59°). 50 50 57 60 46 48 44 46 40 40
|
| |
60 54 58 57 60 46 48 44 46 40 42
58 52 56 55 58 45 48 43 46 40 43
56 52 54 55 57 45 46 42 45 39 42
55 52 53 55 57 45 46 40 44 39 41
55} 50 53 53 57 45 46 40 45 39 42
55] SO|- 588 53 57 45 48 42 46 40 42
55 52 53 55 57 46 48 43 47 40 44
56 52 53 55 57 46 48 45 47 43 44
56 52) 88 55 57 46 48 44 47 42 44
BH EES BB) 87 46.) 48") Ae are 43
56 51} 53 55 56 45 48 44 47 40 43
55 51 | 52 55 56 44 46 43 45 40 42
52 50 | 52 55 56 45 46 43 47 40 43
55 50; 52 55 56 45 46 44 47 41 43
55 50; 52 54 56 45 46 a4 47 41 43
55 50 52 53 55 44 46 44 47 42 43
53 50 51 52 53 44 45 45 47 42 44
58 | 50 52 52 60 44 45 45 48 43 45
62 53 60 58 60 44 45 46 |. 49 43 46
63 58 60 58 60 44 45 48 50 45 48
65 58 | 62 58 63 44 47 48 52 47 50
65 60 62 62 63 45 50 50 54 48 50
70 60 65 62 63 48 53 54 57 50 53
70 65 68 62 68 52 56 58 60 52 55
| |
70| 62) 63| 65| 68| 55] 56| 58| 6O| 53 55
70 60 63 63 68 54 56 57 60 52 55
68 60 62 63 65 54 56 55 60 52 54
70 60 63 63 68 54 56 55 60 52 54
(Exe 62 67 67 72 54 56 58 65 52 58
| 76 65 70 70 75 54 60 58 62 55 58
78 67 70 74 76 57 63 58 62 55 58
| 78 67 72 74 76 62 63 60 63 56 60
| 78 68 72 74 76 62 63 62 63 58 60
78 68 72 74 76 62 63 62 63 57 60
te 66 70 74 76 62 63 62 63 55 57
aes 66 70 74 76 62 63 62 63 54 56
is 65 68 74 76 62 63 62 63 53 56
76 66 68 74 76 62 63 60 63 52 55
| 7% 66 68 72 73 62 63 60 62 52 55
Retire 66 68 72 73 62 63 60 62 52 55
73 66 68 72 73 62 63 60 64 52 55
iy is 66 70 72 73 62 63 60 64 52 55
75 68 70 72 73 62 63 60 64 52 55
(ET A eee eee 73) 75 68 70 72 73 62 63 60 64 51 55
Bepiemper. 2. -.-- 2.225 222 ‘tl. wb 68 70 72 73 58 63 60 64 50 55
SaEMAE <5 5a os 28S ve 70| 75| 65| 69| 72| 73| 58| 60| 57| 64| 49| 55
Hawenther r < 5.52.25 oe 70| 77 65 67 72 73 58 60 56 60 47 53
Prepem ber 222. eee ae 70 73 66 68 72 73 58 62 53 59 47 53

662

SWINE.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Number and farm value of swine, with exports, 1867-1907.

Year.

On farms January 1.

Number. p ee a. Farm value.
24, 693, 534 $4. 03 $99, 637, 016
3.29 79, 975, 643
4.65 108, 430, 534
5.80 155, 108, 222
5.61 165,311, 698
4.01 127, 453, 285
3.67 119, 631, 880
3.98 122, 695, 085
4.80 134, 581, 364
6.00 154, 251, 110
5.66 158, 873, 410
4.85 156, 577, 228
3.18 110, 507, 788
4.28 145, 781, 515
4.70 170, 535, 435
5.97 263, 543, 195
6.75 291,951, 221
5.57 246, 301, 139
5.02 226, 401, 683
4.26 196, 569, 894
4.48 200, 043, 291
4.98 220, 811, 082
50, 301, 592 5.79 291, 307, 193
51, 602, 780 4.72 243, 418, 336
50, 625, 106 4.15 210, 193, 923
52, 398, 019 4.60 241, 031, 415
46, 094, 807 6. 41 295, 426, 492
45, 206, 498 5.98 270, 384, 626
44, 165, 716 4.97 219, 501, 267
42, 842, 759 4.35 186, 529, 745
40, 600, 276 4.10 166, 272, 770
39, 759, 993 4.39 174, 351, 409
38, 651, 631 4.40 170, 109, 743
37,079, 356 5.00 185, 472, 321
56, 982, 142 6.20 | 353,012, 143
48, 698, 890 7.03 | 342,120, 780
46, 922, 624 7.78 | 364,973, 688
47, 009, 367 6.15 289, 224, 627
47, 320, 511 5.99 | 283,254, 978
52, 102, 847 6.18 | 321,802,571
54, 794, 439 7.62 417, 791,321

Exports for year ended June 30.

Average
Number.|} Value. price.

3,577 $40, 092 $11.21
1,399 18, 447 13.19
12, 058 189, 753 15.4
8,770 61,390 7.00
56,110 548, 153 9.77
99, 720 787, 402 7.90
158,581 | 1,625,837 10.25
64, 979 739, 215 11.38
68, 044 670, 042 9.85
65, 107 699, 180 10.74
29, 284 267, 259 9.13
75,129 700, 262 9.32
83, 434 421,089. 5.05
77, 456 572, 138 7.39
36, 368 509, 651 14.01
16,129 272,516 16.90
46, 382 627, 480 13.53
55, 025 579, 183 10.53
74, 187 674, 297 9.09
75,383 564, 753 7.49
23, 755 193,017 8.13
45,128 356, 764 7.91
91,148 909, 042 9.97
95,654 | 1,146,630 11.99
31, 963 364, 081 11.39
27,375 397, 162 14.51
1,553 14, 753 9.50
7,130 72, 424 10.16
21,049 227, 297 10. 80
28, 751 295, 998 10.30
14, 411 110, 487 7.67
33, 031 227, 241 6.88
51,180 394, 813 (ertil
22,318 238, 465 10. 68
8, 368 88, 330 10. 56
4,031 40, 923 10.15
6,345 53, 780 8. 48
44, 496 416, 692 9.36
59,170 630, 998 10. 66

Number, average price, and farm value of swine in the United States on January 1, 1907.

Stateor Territory.

Maine roe. seececae
New Hampshire...
Wermont: 22555. -25
Massachusetts. ...
Rhode Island. ....
Connecticut......
New Mork. 25 522
New Jersey.......
Pennsylvania. ....
Delaware.........
Maryland........
Witginign.: 2...
West Virginia....
North Carolina...
South Carolina...

Michigan.....
Wisconsin. . oe
Minnesota........
LOWA setae coke acm

North Dakota....

Number.

Average 2 Average a
rice arm A price ‘arm
me head,| value, ||Stateor Territory.| Number. par head? | Senne
Jan. 1. Jan. 1

$9.70 | $643,915 || South Dakota...| 992,250 $8.90 | $8,831,625

10.00 517,070 || Nebraska. ......- 4, 080, 000 8.70 | 35, 496, 000
9.00 862, 866 || Kansas.......... 2,561, 200 8.20 | 21,001, 840

10. 00 711,570 || Kentucky......- 1, 213, 380 6.00 | 7,280, 280
9.90 126, 829 || Tennessee....... 1, 502, 500 5.50 | 8, 263, 750

10. 25 486,024 |} Alabama........ 1, 251, 251 4.70 | 5,880,880
9.25 | 6,248, 791 || Mississippi. .-.... 1,316, 214 4.75 | 6,252,016

11.00 | 1,726, 472 || Louisiana....... 68, 786 4.75 | 3,176,734
9.40 | 9,308,039 || Texas........... 2, 860, 879 5.60 | 16,020, 922
8.00 371,928 || Indian Territory 788, 920 6.40 | 5,049, 088
7.70 | 2,280,201 |} Oklahoma....... ,173 7.40 | 4,848, 280
5.25 | 4,189,920 || Arkansas........ 1,174, 200 4.15 | 4,872,930
6.60 | 2,499,750 || Montana........ 62, 891 9. 20 578, 597
5.30 | 6,846, 455 || Wyoming. ....... 16,777 8.30 139, 249
5.60 | 3,797,948 || Colorado.......- 124, 545 8.80 , 095, 996
6.00 | 9, 496, 278 || New Mexico..... , 291 7.00 163, 037
8.80 | 1,317,376 |) Arizona........% 18, 355 7.70 141,334
8.25 |20, 103,575 || Utah............ 58, 984 7.50 442,380
8.00 |23, 399, 032 || Nevada.......... 15, 006 8.00 120, 048
8.40 |37,377, 522 || Idaho..........- 122, 936 8.00 983, 488
8.45 |11, 277,776 || Washington..... 172, 178 9.00 | 1,549, 602
8.45 |15, 828, 591 |} Oregon.........- 258, 283 6.90 | 1,782, 153
9.00 |12, 393,000 |} California....... 550, 581 7.10 | 8,909,125
9.50 |81, 552, 750 —_—-—- qx“ ~ycqqcr
7.10 |24, 530, 145 United States. |54, 794, 439 7.62 |417, 791,321
8.75 | 2,023, 744

663

STATISTICS OF HOGS.
Wholesale prices of live hogs per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States,

1902-1906.

FOR Sroor ROS
SON NNSNNNSS

Omaha.

SRSRBRZBSSSE
Bs sSSSSSNS SM

Zor errr Arsrss

Chicago.

SSSSSSZRERBR3S
Basis id sidid aia

| BESSA SSL V99

Ssaszassieese
ZrsrrrdAddrss

AZZSZLABERSSS
ZdSBSSSrSrSSW

Mixed packers.

BSASRARSLRZRSS
gssrrnrérnnrss

SALSRAGSRZS
ZISSSSrI SSDS

Cincinnati.
Packing, fair
to good.

BRBSSRBZSBRe SSShEhSessss seseSseesSse eeSeseonseks
Sorrerdsdididcdidis ai 13 ud acd ud tad adi cdidid <i sth ad ud ad ad ad ad dad id idid WMBSSHSSSSSSSSS

a re na nis
SSRSSSSSSRZA5 RSSSZRARSSSBR BASSSSSSRLSS BRBesSeResdse
SESSBGaMsas edad daididdddsddstst WidsSSGsidisididid

——oooeeeeooeeeee_eee_ eee een sn se eee
AO

SRBSBBRVBBZS RSBSSSesshek sosNsessegne egeiSeceseucs
Perr erddédddiiei 13 15.05 a5 th ad ud id ed did <i 13 a5 cd acd a5 ud oS od od ad ad ad WS SSS sddded
eee ee ti ©: SC Ee
SSSSSRSSBSLZ Bsseesesesss gexeeagseeseez segvessonses
1 ud oS Sach ad i i i ti od od Bod at od od Ht tl i tl lod od OD et th th et th ti ad ct i tH sth ad ud ad a ad ad ad ad ad ad ad

aw ret “wo Pals
SSSSSRGSRARS ASSESSRRARAS SRERESRRSBAR WRABELSSSLAB
SIEKKSHGSSSA Bssddsssssst wWssdsssssssss wWSSSSSCSSISS
ee
MASERBZRRABSSR BRARLBHAASSSA KSERSSALSSRS ARSAARBSASSS
SESSHAAAAGAA asdddsididdd Helis sddsdsddd wWsddsscsdccsd

SRRBASSAABH ALSSSBSRZRGRS SBRBSSBRBRLG SRLSZIRZAZRB
SLENSSESSSEA Bssssssssssd Wsssssssssss wWHSSCSSSSIIS

ARSESESSZASA CRZRSRBRARBSRR SSSRRRGSRSSRZ VsBSeRaesseeas
SENSES Aeiddtdtdidddddt deHssdssdsdtdst wWdsSSSSCSCESS

am a see Oe Ve Co Te el Oy ee te OT Ue Vesa a ee ee mR OT oy OT CM oO agit UN Be Peter) nT iyo pie the oti

Wont sf eeal

AS Gg gd GUD gg
Beciilivezes Peciiiivewes Geciiiivgged poii:i gees
ciczestece) ifigsasici) Eigugogllh] iefecesbeal)
Sasease<kozQ Seees2Sagezq SSSeS252g52A See sesteeSe

664 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EGGS.

Wholesale prices of eggs per dozen in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.

New York. Chicago. St. Louis.
Cincinnati
Average best : Average best
Date. preahi Fresh. freh.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
26 34 22 30 18 28 22 26
27 37 21 32 233 334 21 32
154 30 133 23 13% 264 134 263
153 18 14 15 14 16 133 154
16 173 14 15 14} 154 134 15
iy) 20 14 143 143 tbs 13 154
18 203 14 143 17 18 11} 144
18 21 14 16 16 18 13 16
20 24 163 183 17 203 15 20 .
OGtOber.soseecs-2 0. ee ee ee 21 25 18 21 20 22 17 18}
INO VEMID Cree: saa te car ee eres 22 26 19 23 213 24 194 224
Weeent hers eae = acter eee eee ea as 24 29 21 23 20 25 203 224
1903.
January. = oe Sek cee eee eee 24 28 20 26 21 263 173 224
Us) os C/o ee eee Ro ae ee ee 16 25 12 20 14 20 123 18
A 09) a ee ne eee te ey eee kee, 143 21 12 163 124 20 11 16%
DAG rile eee ee bh ak oy Meee cee 15 174 12 14 123) 153 11 144
May... Sat R ee ah See eee 16 19 133 14 13 15 124 14
DUNG or ct acco ee come eee 173 193 134 14 123 153 123) 15
DULY = sheet e cc eee oe eee ete eee 183 23 12 14 11 16 11 124
ANI USt int aicS heehee eae eee 153) 26 124 18 10 19 14 19
NepLem Del. -=-eeena- ee ee eee 19 28 18 19 16 20 183 19
October... 2... 4-2 ete caeeeeee meee 21 33 19 22 17 23 19 213
INOVEMD EN. 2 5.2 acne enone 22 45 20 28 18 28 213 26
MeCembers = « s.. nue cecb setae 28 45 20 26 22 30 24 284
1904.
PANEL a0 ois. ce se Se occ toeenet one ee 27 47 23 32 22 344 28 29
Webroary. .-ce set do. ae eee nee 20 40 19 29 18 333 173 29
16 25 143 20 143 20 13} 16
17 21 154 17 153 184 143 154
17 21 15 17 14 18 13 154
173 21 153 16 13 173 143 154
174 24 153 16 1i 20 13 173
19 26 15 18 11 203 16 194
20 30 16 19 13 22 174 204
WAL Sei. eRe Eee. 20 30 18 20 13 233 19 204
ee EN Foren eons a ake 21 38 21 26 17 28 214 27
Rest Sch ateerdals betes eee eee 20 40 22 27 16 30 24 27
QMTIATY ty oe 22 ot ee Sere es te sre 22 40 22 27 18 31 22 29
WebrUary ost. 22 = Wastes ge nee renee 24 40 24 30 20 36 28 34
March) 28h a tens Sh cee sees neeee 17 40 143 23 144 31 14 223
PAtO TI. je 8 aes Abc he Oe aes 174 21 15 16 143 19 143 154
May. a ducer ceacst tee sea ease ees 173 21 15 16 14 18% 124 164
Mine.» 1.02 22) ae 2 See eee 163 22 144 15 12 174 14 155
11 ea eee Cee sy Aico Be ae Pete 163 25 14 143 12 203 103 14
Aust. ESA eens eee cee oe 18 28 14 17 124 22 14 164
September-s-.:.45-2-. eee eons 20 30 17 19 13 224 164 164
Octoberss 52 bats case es sees 21 35 184 23 15 25 1643 19
November........-- hae soe see 25 40 23 28 16 30 19 24
IDECOMD EDS) 2-7 2c is ee one eaten ate 26 40 24 27 18 31 224 24
1906.
MAMMAL Y = Anes aie e le tea eres 174 34 16 24 16 27 14 22
IO DIUTAT Ys .coc:5 ciao wt ono ee sa eee 154 27 13 17 11 214). 114 17
143 22 13 13} 12 i 12 15
17 22 14 164 14 194 134, 16
16 21 14 144 12 18} 13 14
17 23 14 143 12 19 15 17
17 25 14 153 12 18} 124 13
18 28 143 18 12 204 13 15
21 33 19 21 12 244 15 174
20 35 22 24 15 27 18 22
20 42 28 29 20 32 20 26

TRANSPORTATION

RATES.

TRANSPORTATION RATES.

665

Quotations of ocean freight rates on corn, wheat, cotton, and lard from United States
ports to Liverpool during 1906.

Article and port.

Mean for month.

Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May.| June.| July.| Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | year.
Corn and wheat (per
bs.): ents.|Cents.|Cents.|\Cents.|Cents.|Cents.|Cents.|Cents.| Cents. Cents.|Cents.|Cenis.|Cents.
BIGRTOE™ . << ~-- 5.25) -4:07|. 8.36] 3.15) 3.15) 3.15) 3.15) 3.15} 3.15) 3:15) 3.15) 3.15) 3:42
New York....-. 4.72) 4.07) 3.26} 2.89} 2.76) 2.20) 2.43) 3.15] 3.04) 3.28) 2.63] 2.84) 3.11
Baltimore......- 5.51] 3.94! 3.68) 3.41] 3.41) 2.10) 3.68} 4.33) 6.17) 3.41) 3.94) 4.73) 4.03
New Orleans....| 7.75| 6.82] 6.30) 6.30) 6.30) 6.30) 6.30) 6.51) 7.22) 7.35) 7.74| 7.48) 6.86
Galveston......- 6.75} 6.38) 6.00) 6.00} 6.00} 6.00} 6.00) 6.00) 7.50) 7.62) 7.62) 7.31) 6.60
Cotton(per 1001bs.): ,
WIOSUOH 2s osc cs 17.00) 14. 75) 12.80) 11.00} 11.00) 10.25) 10.25) 13.60} 15.00) 14.00} 12.80} 12.00} 12.87
New York......- 19.00} 18.00} 18.00) 16.00) 15.00) 14.60) 13.50) 16.00) 18.40) 22.50) 18.00) 17.80) 17.23
Baltimore......- 25.00) 21.50] 15.20) 18.00) 12.00) 12.00} 12.00} 16.00) 21.00) 22.00) 22.00) 22.00} 17.98
New Orleans....| 35.50} 33.00) 32.00) 30.00) 29.20] 28.00) 26.00) 30.00} 34.33) 39.40) 40.00) 37.50} 32.91
Galveston....... 35. 65} 30.58} 30.00) 29.12) 28.25) 27.00) 25.92) 29.67] 35.00) 38.64) 40.69) 38.71) 32.44
Lard, small pack-
ages (per 100 lbs.) :
OSLO. (<= 200-7. « 19.69) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 17.11
New York...... 18. 98} 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88) 16.88] 16.88; 16.88) 16.88) 16.88} 17.06
Baltimore...... 21.09) 19.69} 19.69} 19.69} 18.28} 18.28] 18.28) 18.28] 18.28) 18.28) 18.28] 18.28] 18.87
New Orleans.... 27.00) 27.00} 25.67) 23.00) 23.00) 23.00} 23.00) 23.40) 25.00) 25.00} 25.00} 25.00) 24.59
Galveston....-..| 20.00) 18.00) 18.00) 18.00) 18.00) 17.00} 17.00) 17.00} 19.00) 21.50) 21.50) 20.00) 18.75
Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per
100 pounds.
g Dressed | 3g Dressed
3 hogs. F hogs.
“ uw | oI wu
cl oO ° a 3) ts) r=}
Year. 8 3 | eco Year. z 2 Sk.
: .|a & aye lets pS ei 4S aes |) ee
OT | Gah eS 2 | Oe las © 2 | a S
~ to (3) ei) oe hee — a n fais) BS
RON | aes Ol [ees yale ° ° ep al aed °
O;/H|/a\}/H|/ A |R Jo H|A lfm Oo
eee. =. 36 | 29 | 53 | 60 Li 1 |S Uh oo ee 60 | 45 45 45
Ss ee ee 40 | 32 | 50 | 60 ih) eee a See 60 | 45 45 45
a 31 | 28 | 44 | 60 3 See Renee 60 | 45 45 45
i fs 7s ae ee 31 | 26 | 43 | 60 LT A eee ae 60 | 45 45 45
iS TE Be Sen 33 | 30 | 42 | 60 61 53 48 60 | 40 40 40
US ERs == 33 | 32 | 40 | 60 62 59 54 60 | 45 45 45
hes Dates See 22 | 26 | 31 | 60 46 46 44 60 | 42.9 | 42.9] 42.9
ik ee 25 | 30 | 30 | 60 47 47 45 60 | 41.2 | 41.2 41.2
US ee eee 23 | 28 | 30] 60 39 39 39 60 | 45 45 45
ee es 27 | 30 | 30 | 60 45 45 45 60 | 45 45 45
Uae eee 28 | 28 | 30 | 60 45 45 45 60 | 45 45 45
CSS eee 28 | 20 | 30 | 60 45 45 45 60 | 45 45 45
eae 28 | 30 | 30 | 60 45 45 45

Mean
for

-@ Rates did not go into effect until February 1, 1899. Until that time the 1898 rates governed.

ben

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Meats, packed, Cincinnati to New York by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.

Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept.) Oct. | Nov. | Dec. ein
39 34.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 31.5 | 35 33. 41
35 30.5 | 30.5 | 25.7 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 |) 2175 | 21 Ss Oia
24.3 | 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 30.5 | 25.85
30.5 | 29.2 | 26 26 26 26 26 26 26.7 | 30.5 | 27.83
23.3 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 18.4 | 23 26 26 26 26 26 24, 22
20 20:6 | 18.5 | 1765.) 17.5 | 21.5 /°200 5.) 21 bs 2ongn ioe 21. 10
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27.7 | 26.14
30.5 | 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27.12
26.3 | 26 26 26 19.9 | 17.3 | 15.5 | 18.8 | 21.5 | 23.6 | 23.11
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 24.8 | 20 20 20 20 23. 89
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25. 36
26 26 26 25.7 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 215°) 2i55 e23570
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25. 43
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 ||. 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 24.23
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 23 21.5 | 21.5 | 25
26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
Compressed cotton, by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.
From New Orleans@ |From Mem- From New Orleans@ |From Mem-
to — phis to— to — phis to—
E 3
Year. 4 poe) oo | Year. a} a | 3g |
: ) ) iS) : : ) a ) CS) ;
BA bs iate.t| Set ee aes s > | 9) Soe
Sales fe ate abe ce: S22 | oe
{aa A _ Q a (oa isa) A AY faa] a ~Q
T8836 22s 60 55 53 52.| 72 77 DSO5 3. 2 se) 53 48 48 48 | 50.5 | 55.5
1884 55.5: FO. 60 55 53 52 | 54 59 SOG 5 piece 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5
it: eee a ae 60 55 53 52 | 56 58 1 ty ee 55 50 50 50 | 50 55
1 ee pate ae 52 47 45 44 | 53 58 TOS. see 55 50 50 50 | 47 52
UCAS eae ee 50 45 43 42 | 53 58 1BQ0 rs be cee 52 47 47 47 | 48 53
USSS'5<)02 98:3. 50 45 43 [ 42 | 47 52 NOOO See .= 5k 55 50 50 50} 50.5 | 55.5
1880 cco cise 2 52 47 45 44 | 50.5 | 55 POOLS ees 5 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5
18007 Pes S 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55 1002 At 2. 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5
1801 22 S358 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55 1903 S558 Se oe 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5
18920 % reso 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55 1004.5. 85 ses 55 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 50.5
18032 oa 55 50 50 50 | 47 52 1905/5. hee ae 55 50 50 50 | 40.5 | 45.5
1804 oS oR 51 50 50 50 | 50.5 | 55.5 |] 1906.....-..- 50 50 50 50 | 40.5 | 45.5

a These rates are mainly used for basing purposes.

TRANSPORTATION RATES. : 667

Corn and wheat: Mean proportional export freight rates per 100 pounds from Kansas City
and Omaha to leading Gulf and Atlantic ports during the calendar years 1905 and 1906.

From Kansas ea Tae

Destination and article.

1905. 1906
New Orleans: Cents. | Cents.
15.8 a17.5
@17.1)| 617.4 a18.1
16.5 15.8 17.5
ATL | (DVR 18.1
22:2 23.4 22.2 23.4
Ree ee ere oe ee ey a eee ees ees 425.0 | €21.5] 425.0 e21.5
New York: ¢
D+. 2B Rr See Se es 2 ee ee 22. 2 23. 4 22,2 23. 4
ES tan ee ee ee ee Soe ee Se ee €25.0 | ¢€21.5]| 425.0 e21.5
Philadelphia: ¢
ee rts «SE LS es Se ec eons vente veee eases 21.2 22. 4 21.2 22.4
ees ee, Fe ae eae Le eee 424.0 | €20.5| 424.0 €20.5
Baltimore: ¢
oS a eo SE Se eee ee Se oe 20.7 21.9 20.7 21.9
eS Ee SETS as a ae ee ne ee Se, ME ce 423.5 | €20.0] 423.5 €20.0

a¥From April 25 to August 10, 1906, inclusive, rates used in computing this average include delivery
on board ship. :

6 For July 25 to December 31, 1905, inclusive.

¢ Rates include delivery on board ship.

d@ For second half of 1905 only.

¢ Average based upon rates in force for two periods, amounting together to about 30 days.

Corn and wheat: Mean rates, in cents, per bushel, Chicago to New York.

Wheat.

By lake By lake By lake By lake

andcanal.a| and rail. | BY ll rail-| sndcanal.a| and rail. | BY all rail.
eee See eo hence ce slateaecasmnae 11. 34 aaah a RS 12. 09 20. 89
8 75 9. 68 9. 82 10.19 15.12
9. 59 13. 42 11. 09 14.75 19. 56
8. 83 10. 45 9. 96 11.99 17. 56
10. 49 12.2 11. 87 13.13 17.74
13. 41 14. 43 13.13 15.8 19.8
ews 9. 42 8 67 10. 49 14.4
6.72 10. 28 7.23 10. 91 14. 47
8.03 il 9.01 11. 63 16. 2
6. 55 8.5 7 10 13.2
6.3 8.01 6. 54 9. 02 13.2
8. 45 11.2 9.10 12 15
8.5. 11.2 9.5 12 15.75
6.71 10. 26 7.05 11.14 14.5
6. 32 8.19 6. 92 8. 97 15
5. 93 7.32 6.76 8. 52 14.3
6. 32 7.53 6.95 8. 57 15
5.95 7.21 6. 45 7. 59 13.8
7.18 7.97 E 7. 66 8. 48 14. 63
4.93 6.5 12. 32 5.11 7 13.2
4.50 6.4 10. 29 4.86 6. 96 11. 89
5.75 6.15 10.5 6.19 6. 61 12
4.53 6. 92 11. 43 5. 22 7. 42 12.5
53.81 4.41 9.8 b 4.45 4.91 12
55.08 5. 83 10. 08 b5. 81 6. 63 11.6
64.07 4.72 9.19 b 4,49 5.1 9. 96
04.61 5. 16 9. 21 b5.11 5. 54 9. 88
64.83 5. 51 9.94 b5. 26 5. 89 10. 62
b4.85 5. 78 10. 54 b5.4 6. 37 11. 29
53.63 4. 82 10. 38 b 4.73 5. 50 11.12
b4.76 5.19 9. 40 05. 53 6. 40 9. 90
b5. 51 5. 72 9. 52 56.03 6. 35 10. 20
2 Including Buffalo charges and tolls. b> Excluding Buffalo charges.

668 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average freight rates, in cents, per ton per mile.

bm lee vet eS ete ine) 5 jad O 2.)a8 . u
EES ee | be |e | 3 led |Se/2 | 218 18,
aig se 2/8 |o lob] g Re [Be )s |e eel ae
. S Bs = be]
dé lod [ye go.| 2 (dele | = |-2 |82 |) 26) Slee
Yearc} » | a. ay a Sel = ls lBlec| & los ae ae S |e Bry
5] SS 19S | MS me) & loge) ae] O lo 1o:| Mm! a [as | Es
2/8 [com] @ | gal # lobe so] 2 |ssb) 2 |" | a | er lee
~ . 1 . =“ ZF -
2 |8 |BSel 2 85] ¢ Hess | § eelsele | a |B ier
eS | 14 Aa A Oo me 1D SAS P IH <
1875... .| 3.624] 1.346} 1.119) 1.061) 0.887) @.989) 0.970) 1.299} 1.691) 1.688) 1.833) 1.649] 2.164) 1.687) 1. 421
1876... .} 2.218) 1.139} .929) .972| .722) .841) .827) 1.062) 1.587] 1.693) 1.798) 1. 438} 2.211) 1. 638} 1.217
1877... .| 1.955, 1.136) .954) .898) .813; .954) 1.024) 1.035) 1.719) 1. 563) 1.949; 1.361} 2.135) 1.382] 1.286
1878. 1. 582) 1.113) .919) .960) .724) .914) .867| .985) 1.616) 1.539) 1.762) 1.354] 2.236) 1.635) 1.296
1879. 1.299} 1.100) .793| .779| .641) .823) .754) .860) 1.523) 1.429) 1.704! 1.054] 1.991) 1.528) 1.153
1880. - 1.36 | 1.207 879) 836)5 750) O18] See . 866] 1. 543) 1.209) 1.749) 1.206)...... 1. 594} 1.232
1881. . 1.26 | 1.038 783} .805| . 617| 857| .745) . 892) 1.522) 1.220) 1.702) 1.241] 2.178) 1. 503) 1.188
S82 SS dT |) 13064 738) .749| .628) .874| .752) .753] 1.417] 1.281) 1. 481) 1.253} 2.102) 1.349) 1.102
1883... .| 1.19 | 1.197 915 786| .728) .881) .787| .722| 1.433] 1.170) 1.391) 1.128] 1.913) 1.323} 1.205
1884... .) 1.09 | 1.093 834 719| .652) .804) .673) . 672) 1.368] 1.097) 1.293) 1.008] 1. 557| 1.344] 1.136
1885... .| 1.06 944) .688) .656| .553) .695) .577) .550) 1.307) 1.043) 1.278) 1.009] 1. 420) 1.159) 1.011
1886....| 1.07 | 1.101 765 659). 639) 785, .692) .541) 1.157) 1.071) 1.168} .961) 1.266) 1.079) .999
1887...-] 1.13 | 1.107] .782) .687| .670; .730) .717} .537| 1.087| 1.012] 1.089] .946} 1.213] 1.075) .984
1888. ...| 1.116] 1.099] .753) .716|] .861 723) .660) .541} 1.068) .954) 1.020) .973)} 1.170) 1.049) 1.00
1889... .| 1.015} 1.030] .712) .644) .632) .685) .69] .538) .839) .971) 1.067) .525) 1.166) .998) .922
1890....| .995} 1.105} .730) .665) .644) .661) .69] .561) .942| .995) .995) .898) 1.138) .972) .941
1891. - 991) 1.089) .740) .636} .630) .656) .70 | .525) .934) 1.039] 1.003) .980} 1.131] .968] .895
1892... - 925) 1. 057 699 614; .602) .647| .67 . 518) .908) 1.055) 1.026) .973/ 1.080) .948) .898
1893. . - 923) 1.006} .701) .631| .599) -.620) .68] .511} . 845] 1.039) 1.026, .949) 1.033) .917| .878
1894... 895, .944| .733) .621) .587) .606) .65 | . 478) .839) .989) 1.037) .974) .970| .876) .860
1895. 878) .969| .726) .604| .567| .565) .64] . 425) .808) 1.084) 1.075) .994) .971) .831) ~839
1896. 864; .942 668) .606) .551 563). 66 . 425 745) 1.017} 1.003 925) .957| .806) .806
1SG7 a... 870; .918) .679| .610) .538) .561) .60| .419) .671 958} 1.008) .891} .962) .791) .798
1898... 844) .839) .606) .575) .530) .521) .57] .369) .€95| .966) .972) .866) .950) .743) .753
1899... 771 778) .586| .539) . 481 469) .50] .362) .€88) .996) .937) .800) 1.016; .727| .724
1900. . 798; .824| .558) .588} .490) .504 .58] .343) .650) .987| .930| .794) 1.050) .752) .729
1901....} (0) - 831) .575) .615| . 489) .862) .56| .388) .619] 1.000} .861) .723) 1.042) .772) .750
1902....} (2) (¢) .632| .664) .503) .590) .61 | .402) .622) 1.034) .840) .678| .979| .744) .757
1903-...- =| (8) (¢) - 634) 2637) . 519| . 598) .62 | . 475} .591) 1.013) .865) .599) .973] .781| .763
1904....| (0) (¢) 664) .652) . 523) . 606} .60 - 470) .607) .944) .891) .677| .982) .791 7380
1905...-.| (6) (¢) - 638) .645 me -604/ .61 | .427| .587) .931) .881) .689| .897| .793) .766

- @ Beginning with 1888, the years mentioned end cn June 30; prior td 1888 they cover different periods
for different railways.
b Leased by the Boston and Maine Railroad.
c Leased by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.

669

TRANSPORTATION RATES.

Average rates, in cents, per passenger per mile.

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SEN RR SESS SEAS SSAA SERRE MCCOS
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ne Fe, 6.8 0 ee! Reels Ae ee he ee oe Oe ee Ie Oe 18 ee

SRARSENSRESRES SSS CSS
a So

n and Maine Railroad.

rent railways.

inning with 1888, the years mentioned end on June 30; prior to 1888 they cover different periods
b Excludes ferry earnings at Jersey City, N. J., at least since 1891.

¢ Leased by the Bosto
d Leased by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.

a
for

ca
5S
qn
re
$5
>
Sous
S &
-s
vs
S%
QS

rovisions, in cents per 100
rail to seaboard and thence

Chicago to European ports, by a

Mean rates on grain, flour, and R
l
to 1906.

1906.

75
50
00
25
60
63
25
50
26
61
00
00
00
00
50
00
00

SRRARRAINSSSSSSBSB
3 SSASSRRSRZELABSISS
= | SXSANSRASSSRSAESE
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= | SRSARFANSRSIIVSSSB
i | StaRnBgrsesssenza
= | NSHARSRRSSSIIGASE
j | 8q8BRSESS.8888888
mH | RASANSRASSSSSISIG
i | $88,888 qeRessenes
m | ARSAASRAIPSSSSSSRS
g | $o%8kaSRSSSSe0Rk
A | RASSSBRSBESBRRBSRS
G | RASBAZ ont eSSskanr
A | S8SSR FRB 559555853
GB | BEASSo SRS nsanrase
A | S53SSR2R8ERS3SS838S83
x | oeahSasitesssauas
=| BSSABSBASSRGABESES
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b= Maer We fe sth ogee nara
B A Be ey | te ae
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5 SAR HRATAGE EES SSEs
F Pers aAse 2o
2/5 5 4 <H4edaaa

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

670

SEOoLery (trem aereninee et CPA SAS || POR IRE RS ae =e QO CUSSEs geet SRDS LLG oe (i wee $69°900\'C. sommes oT
898 ‘OT ee AE ae glee am VEG Gee eee em OOO de ln Mein te | Lop ‘ee per ny ere
oss ‘sds’ | 998‘98z‘2z | 009 “62e"E | SOL ‘S60 ‘Es TI8 ‘F82‘8 | E0T ‘LOL “Ze PCG ‘EST‘E | P88 ‘TLI‘OZ 998 ‘Teo ‘% | PIL‘290°LT
G96 ‘LS G9 ‘961 9€I ‘FT POT ‘869 POL ‘FE L&p ‘6ST £99 ‘TS 200 ‘202 GZL ‘08 816 ‘ES
OF ‘ES 400 ‘TTT 918 ‘98 GEE ‘F8 OF ‘F9 G98 ‘ZOT GIG ‘6G PIL “ZIT G98 “FG 128 ‘SET
FI0 ‘S91 119 ‘18S T@I ‘TOT 69¢ ‘ELE 818 ‘OTT 891 “Sar 026 ‘LZT OLS ‘88h 186 ‘SIT 90L “S0F
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889 ‘6FF FF9'S GLO‘Coh | LEE 'S 169 ‘698 | 260% G89 ‘FE | 961% 129808 | 888'T
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688

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690 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL.
[From Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor.]

Legal weights (in pounds) per bushel.

Apples. Beans : < Corn. gil
oS = r=) |
= a 3 2 ; s
2 8 : j i *, =
State or a Be a : 3 3 3 B ala 38
Territory.| *. a x [eo S Sliala|a 2} °o|/o/ 8 les
a Bs | a eo 4 to | *, g E Pie aa uo] Aig 2
aisle} iss18)/sei4q/s Fisla|s g
= = al 3 lam ro) 3 cS) cS ba a | B £3) 3 g E
alHia|! so {1g “ay a] ee a | a | Sis | S| o | 'o | 6 | capommome
< A;A!A |oO isa) isa) AIASASOSOSOJO] oO a lo}]o jo
Seen Ge cise) | ES Eee bi Vee Bees fer oy (Ss Se

60 |.

60

60

60

60

60

60
64 |.
60 |.

Lae. tee eee 45) Seals. 2. lh ee ee DOaeee |) 60
eee 48 "| [600s 2] SEO ae AD Neel GO}

Eee et BOOs wes | 481] sOOrIGe- ..2]. Simla pees .| 50 60 |
BS Sal ea ee | ASH GON te. a1 GON eae 42 |....| 60
hes 2| AD oli 28" <AB ceeded Sal ics | ESS 21542 ee KOO

Maes arin el Bee A Peso PCL Gece | eee oesel ee eer sacas -| 48 |....| 60

elie seecets| 2480| 2brl ASA EC Gon 46 noone ae .| 48 60
S80 GS RS 0 Ul | Pn I eel |e ered
BS: Dak. 3322-632. 5 ART I60i|o2--¢ CONE rens 20 | 30 | 42 |....| 60
LOD J. = 25. b50| 24) 48|p60| 46] 50] 14] 20] 42 50] 50 |960
POX. wi. see 45.) 28 480/e'6O [seco sce lec oe 20 -| 42 |-..2] 60
Wt. ostece AGH oe AST Gen |Seeee CO Se .| 48 | 50 | 60
eg eae |e 25445: | 2100 )|- Soe) sthece Ue al ee Re =e |e eee eho!
Weashi. ooo. b 45 28" | 4B Gores) a lane cel esse) seesaleaente poe rae ese | 60
Wisi Vidiew so leeoee 25 | 48 60) ee aloee alo censors -| 52 |....| 60
NWiliSiestess so 50. | 255) 487) 60 js. 22 SS ope 20 -| 50 | 50 | 60

* Not defined.

a@Small white beans, 60 pounds.

b Green apples.

cSugar beets and mangel-wurzels.

@ Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet beans, 78 pounds.

e White beans.

f Wheat bran.

g Corn in ear, 70 pounds until Dec. 1 next after growth; 68 pounds thereafter.
h paplish blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-grass seed, 14 pounds.

7 Rice corn.

j Corn in ear from Novy. 1 to May 1 following, 70 pounds; 68 pounds from May 1 to Nov. 1.
k Soy beans, 58 pounds.

’Cracked corn, 50 pounds.
m Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.

nm Cannel coal, 70 pounds.

o Standard weight in borough of Greensburg, 75 pounds,

? Dried beans; green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.

q Red and white.

— —

tt

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL.

Legal weights (in pounds) per bushel—Continued.

Cotton se : ;

ea = 3 Onions. sie Peaches.

3 : = 2/8 :

= 2l|.i3 3 Ca (es 5 ll nate

State or | 3 a/4/s/a].} a] . | & | & 3/3
Territory.| 3) Gg /2/[l/E] *IS]3|8 oN ct Oa erg ao Pre

Lo] 5 o| & |] ow * ‘) Hl] a - ®

eiaeile(siai/e|2) es mode So Fo ESS eal Ae A Os 5
m D 3 oO = ~

e/a laleleleheiel® B/E/ZiS|E/ Elz z
BSis|/eis/si ai o|3 A ot Book a lies) SS seals
Selameo Pee o A VET eo} Ol © 1° [a | & | Abra
ie: cuore eel US ie BE a ea Ua pa Ao | Se
oe Ee ee ee ee 38 | 33
57 | Sabdelaeaka|soe.c|sccel seek 33 33
3 17 i BREA Fae 8 ee WR a ir eee eebe-
-| 55 |. SYP Ni ae Se | be ARETE 33 33
2 6 237 Re VV I (ee ey 17) ee ee ee ea @ 540/33 ion ae
wn EEN eS PR FE Se FC) ee I Be Bioleckcedecses|eces|[oeenlaecer 38 33
oe TES eS a SR PS eS Ee ee a eee ES Ss oe ee Bees Sees mae) eves memati oecUa ceo.
cE ri a (a De Pl Ve | ae Pe I ee [el ae Raat heh IR a |e a 28
JS eee ee Li (el ee lat eS bee ie 4 Ses Sa 33
cons a= 64 ee ees fie <0 ees ey Ree LON A 1 se (aly (ee ee = 33
Lis Se es ee ee | ee 1G Beeoe poser Ue |oace|: 246) |S -crs 33
OT | eke olceewleces cekelaceee locos 33
Ky. lay ddl Kost) a ee pha eel ese 30 | eee
Me.. pes Liv eel (es A) Nc: (ie) [eee eae ee
oT 2 dl ANE RS Wee) (a Prey (ee) sees atc) Seal en Ne ee Jee celeste oo [fae staees| Saeee leecee beeee
Mass. PW koan4||aconel|so-4]ese-]bsas- Sou|eeees
Pian. -|..--.) 40 | OO }...-]...-- 7 ee alc Sh Ds 3 th a ee 28) oom
Dees a eee Of fenace 14 ADE yl
Meelis)... --|-...| 56']...-|..--- STalvsece Pinel Pape | ee BB esne -
Uo a ee Cfo Bae Bae 57 |}428 | 14] 36] 44] 48] 33 |-.----
Mont.....- ee: by 5) |S eee heals Se crake = |p0O" 2. cas eee
- a | = 57 25 | eaasd ne ened | eee Oo Peete
i. aa 46.4) DO wee ke wale ec lees] e G7 Ol Bae eg ed ed 333 ile
| alee OF Fi) Pee Se ee Lyf Rs nt eae ee EP ll BE doo laces
goer SL ea (eae Heer a Ve 2 Ua a Pe Pa i ee ees ett | oe
N. Dak....| Bal |v sy Sal a ees Be Fe ie AE Be esl "|B = to ae |
Ohio..-.2. me) i Be ee Gao [er ad Pe = 48 | 33 ]....-
Oklasse. Bee hy SR ee ee 57} ee ae Re ee Be Bes eee oer moose
Orer- =: .-- Ane oleae saceelbcoclons clases icone pee beeeeiges.<|-coce sedlecentoece 25) Pee
Lee ie aR ee 2 eal Nel pees FT| ae Ep Be eed peed ee sc —
a ee Bek (Ws ip See ee 15h a a 221 °50E) 485) S33" sree
5 oe | |e) Game TA AN Waa os Ea ee bm | Patan | See || ae Lae SF Bs eee eel cane
Beak a..t-5-s-|--.-- Poe DO ose ecen alee ecle eos “pei Reed Bere Se Bee ee eal beeyiea5 5
Renn 2.'-.< pe ee ---| 56 56 ['¢28) 14] 33 | 50/750) 26 |-----
LY 1 ee eel |i. ip) el eae 17 (oll a Vg cel P| 3 50} 28 ]-.-.-
ae So- | Se eee eee ec claee | aD enoeieece Gah |e al ae ee a Be ee eee
Wa... case 37S eae eee 56 |. ty fal 33) fs Ke Gh se | ee 40 32
\ WAP CUSB A set 6 Jae Se a 15 Phy) (Bw | Fo GS RV | Co 3 Ee ill RS Ue [Se | Pate pee
EE ee ee ee eee Fl ew ill ie eed ler 4 Re ee BO ed ee aes) ier (Sie es ve eS te ee
WS. <- 22. 30 | 44 |....| 56 sy (iu Ee Ess55 p55 443225 Sonleeee.

* Not defined.
a Green.

+’ Unwashed plastering hair, 8 pounds; washed plastering hair, 4 pounds.

¢ Bottom onion sets.
d Top onion sets.

e Button onion sets, 32 pounds.

Z Matured.

692 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Legal weights (in pounds) per bushel—Continued.

Pease.

a
oO 4 :
2 Saas 3 3
B 3 oh ee ay Wee es ce ae ee
Stateor | |; se Sen Weta eae ere te «= [oH 1 Soa
Territory.| & | x | ad 5 Boer seta sia a) 8 | 2) hehe
Ble lsa4le¢13138/2}3)4) 8 olele) 4) eee
a BS }]oq/ a] © Ks) = 2 fe ° H | =|
o o B 0) ° = 7) ° =| al me is) 4
elalo"lalatlelelealel|ele) a) |e ie eee
Wis ecalestins| See sickens GO GON SL Ssealee sera] t eee Sete law ai 56. |. - cel oe ale nen | eee eee 60
Ans oc) a) ea ec ee Fe co eed eee I rl ee A SR 55| 60

* Not defined. c Including split peas..
a Green. d Dried pears, 26 pounds.
b Sorghum saccharatum seed. e India wheat, 46 pounds.

~~

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL.

692

Commodities for which legal weights per bushel have been fixed in but one or two States.

[From Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor.]

Article.

NSO etna wos = as own cae edn
JpEn os Ge) ee ee
Le LOSS ee er
Blueberries. -:-..-
Bromus inermis...

UE Eth case 5 Se a
PEPINUC REGU 5 Gio m occa s siccic abet eases coe
PeEEIONA WGlON!S] 0. . 22. SocSeu. ak
IE. aos oa ae wei Gane veces auc eeuweu

DMO > o>. = = ooo), sek Dae foe ee celee oe
Cotton seed, staple................- ae ree
eae ee bee ae
OMI AE See eee ee gett

ONO noah Sc a a aes se
UT En
ESS ee em eee

Staliam rye-prass seed ...........2..20--0ees
MONIT yo os eo Ns an a aisinn eee anee
SD DU Ee ee
cs ee oe ee, 5
(0) LS a Se Oe ee ese seen
TS ee
Millet, Japanese barnyard.................
EE Ret 2S nos dc cao cocanhens

2h TEES LT ete oe ihe
Rn (obi. 23.8 a oe re een ware

Rape seed

RVR TT 7c NUD gS 2 ee ae

UDR. 33 5S eee ee
Ss

SOROIGMRIURUGE se on aoe cca nk oan vene's sce
(STUERAT FL, = Sg Se aS ae eee

SUES PD See
Welvet-prass'seed = 5. - cc cas ence ee
CT ELBT ES Ls aise cue oe An pee ee

Weight. States.
Pounds.
40 | Rhode Island and Tennessee.
62 | Florida.
32 | Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds; dried, 28 pounds.
42 | Minnesota.
14 | North Dakota.
50 | Tennessee.
60 Do.
50 Do.
80 Do. <
40 | lowa. Tennessee, with stems, 56 pounds; with-
out stems, 64 pounds.
50 | Tennessee. Virginia, 57 pounds.
54 | Florida.
42 | South Carolina.
48 | Missouriand Tennessee. Wisconsin, 50 pounds.
40 | Iowa and Minnesota.
50 | Massachusetts.
40 | Iowa. Tennessee, with stems, 48 pounds; with-
out stems, 60 pounds.
54 | Florida.
50 | Tennessee.
60 | Ohio. Tennessee, 62 pounds.
50 | Tennessee.
20 Do.
28 | Arkansas.
56 | Kansas.
30 | Tennessee.
100 Do.
40 | Indiana; coarse, 30 pounds.
35 | Massachusetts.
30 | Tennessee.
40 | Florida. Tennessee, 64 pounds.
28 | Michigan.
70 | Indiana and Tennessee. Ohio, in the ear, 42
pounds.
28 | Idaho; green, 45 pounds.
48 | Florida, lowa, and Tennessee.
50 | Wisconsin.
32 | Kansas. Tennessee, 48 pounds.
50 | Tennessee.
4 Do.
30 Do
130 | Iowa.
40 | North Dakota. South Dakota, 45 pounds.
30 | Tennessee.
32 | Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds.
57 | New Jersey.
7 | Tennessee.
50 Do.

INDEX.

Page
Accounts Division, organization and work .........-.-------------------- 456
Acorn, food use, note-.....--........---.----------- - 22-20-22 e eee ones 306
Acredula caudata, usefulness against scale insects ......------------------- 191
Adams Act, aid of experiment stations, remarks.-.......------------------ 102
Henry Cullen, importance of work for agriculture -..-....--------- 102, 103
Agricultural associations, officers .....--.------------------------ 464-468, 470-472
colleges and schools, discussion.......-.---------------------- 104-105
list with. presidents, ete . -.=......<..<- 525 snes 459-460, 464
education, consideration by Massachusetts commission....---. 153-154
experiment stations, directors, work, etc..-...----------- 461-463, 464
products, statistics, imports and exports, 1902-1906 .....------ 670-689
pchools, OFPANIZAMUORS. —-oo< << a2 w 22-04 sn 5 nb ananeaa net omnis 160-161
Agriculture, Assistant Secretary, duties...........------------------ Leaee 453
Department, appropriations, 1905, 1906, and 1907......------- 458
cooperation with Post-Office Department in road
balding os. 222. cen wns ome oad see ieee 117
expenditures and employees.........----------- 118
STOUundS, NOC. <3. 9 ew nsn Voce scamnes ahsee me 57
new bulldiny *. 2 eae ches same weenie ereeeetn = 119-120
OrpaniZatlon. .5-. see ae ee eae ae ee eens wena = 453-457
education, legislation, and formulation of courses........----- 155-158
elementary, consideration by National Educational Association. 155
introduction into schools, article by A. C. True... 151-164
production, review . . .=.<<u2--'22s<%/. nck Sees setae teem an 10-23
Pocsretery,, duties occ no oMet eae an cnn ne occ en cee ee = teenie 453
recommendationss.2282 c2- 6k s sone seneesosseense , 93)
94, 96, 98, 99, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 120
TCPOLL . = oo ee ow eee ae ee oe ee Se eee oe eee eas —120
SrateOmelgisvlistia.. So. naccceoeeen ees asa niene Ce eeeeme Seema 465
teaching, State conferences: ..-....--.<sccc-.--ceces~ans----- 154-155
Agropyron occidentale, reseeding on range. .-..---.------------------------- 231
Perma elialia crowing, Notes .....=--.5...s0csccs—--a-senaeeuee-escas 55
GeieRANGOELY Y= = =~ 502 2222 caccc tse waS~ ese ee as sce nee nome oon 418
Pine -lessnn ORG ~seccc2 lade. cssscs ee oeee aon skenceecesesee 149
CO SUPSECCRTTE (cl rite 12007: eae ries 258 Seabee tage Smee eae 78
Alaska, experiment stations, remarks... .-.--------------cceceessse----s 106
BEIT NPORIOB econ Deb ch nt Poa wasnt cu SedcaSs oeeese ocsees 94
Alcohol, denatured, investigation, remarks. .......--...-------+.--------- 69
UNISITE, GHSSD TOS TG TG eS Re ee 506
growinean Alabama and Mississippi .....--.---22-.---..-...2.-.. 59
HSE) ONWANG CS ee ee cere weee cece sie ccc cee ewes wee cecee es coces 234
mMiaias. new, remarks or Secretary. <=. .s.s3~-ss- soc c esse ce eee eceswiwcccs 39
Seemmands, Grainage, TeMarks a... 202s kos eee sew te ee tou coe ee see 112
reclamation, GIscHEsion. 2...) oes. 20o2 J bese ot ecco sect 75-78
menistant Cropa. < 224 neh tesek tue at ace oe see tt eees ume omen smaeee 52
[Pwenecan. Oricin, Gescripiion, CiG"-_<).<- cae soc > sean see ce venee na een = 366
memes .ereen, ise a8 foods. Gi. EO Ue ee coe cewenaeecce 308
Ampelis cedrorum, usefulness against scale insects ........-.-.---.---.----- 197
ANDREWS, FRANK, article on ‘‘ Freight costs and market values’’....<.....- 371-386
Animal breeding and feeding experiments, 1906 .........-...-----------.- 497
Industry Bureau, distribution of tuberculin and mallein, article by
Mim Orsety see see cc eter mecit caecnoe cece ee 347-354
orranizationandsworkoore + sec esesec cc csce~ - se 454
: work, feview by Secretary. 22.6. uccees ost t ess 25-38
Wa Gers TOO I OG wa eet or ee oe we ckeweceee coos 670-672
TNtritseny Gene hIMeN Ap soe ee oe So ew cee oo ce cae ele 35
parasites damages: 90G 45a eee ee omic cine sees cone 516
producis, farm;statisties; prices, ef: -..-..-..2..22-.5-.. 637-647, 654-664
mevimals, diseases. spread byuinsects, €b¢ 25. 2.-=..-<.-..s22-c2-5--2-2 5226 87, 496
domestic, pedigree Pecistration .. 2... 22.<-.s.-.----+--------=-- 497

See also Farm animals.

696 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Anthonomus grandis. See Boll weevil, cotton.....-.-.---.----------=-.--- 508
Ants, use against boll weevil ..--o:..2..204.2) 522 2c cep eee ee eee 84, 318-322
Aphides, eggs, destruction by lime-sulphur wash --......---...----.--.-.-- 446
Apple, bitter rot, Ozark Mountain region...........------ es Sos - 41
diseases, W906. ooo on en eae ee eg 499
Insect injuries, L906 = 25 S542 ao ncn Shee eee eee eee eee 512
juice, unfermented, carbonation and sterilization........-.------.- 242-243
clarifieati@ne: 2 ele tees. pat eee 239-242
packages ‘for keeping = 22.0. 2c.Us22 6 ee 244-246
preparation, article by H. C. Gore.........-.--- 239-246
new varieties, descriptions, nomenclature, ete..........-.-.---.--- 355-360
Apples, statistics, exports, 1902-1906_ .. 22s. = aos et. eee 685
Appointment clerk, Guties:. 21-6 now ee Oo Ue ee ee 453
Appropriations, Agriculture Department, 1905, 1906, and 1907.----....-... 458
Apricot, diseases, 1906 . . ..-...525 .5-cceamees de Ooh ete eae = se. 500
scale, destruction by prosbeak22seeste- 420-2255 sos. 4- eee eee 192
Arid’ regions, cloud-bursia. ..- ....-..< =-sos0¢ sod ede a 327
Arizona; alkali lands, reclamation 2-222 2245-esees=-—5e su sastuete eee tif
Arkansas, dairy industry 7..-..6... 2-022. .c0uSes. Ses eee 420
Arlington ExperimentalWarm, remarks: -2. 22 <3. 2.45925 -.<t5-552 eee 58
Army worm, damage, 1906... . ....2<<.0cd- 25. 550s- 266 -b0=5 Ree 510
Asparagus, diseases, 1906. ..2.S2220l i280. Jo20 SOS 502
Aspidiotus forbesit, control, note... -..-.--- .=0252 25.05 522S- <9. - =e 446
perniciosus. See San Jose scale.
rapax, destruction by birds. ....-..2-- 2.232520! --. eee 194
zonatus, destruction by birds... 2... 2scns/cntsseaeeen coeeeeee 192
Asses, statistics, mum bers) eds oe Seles oe 635-637
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, duties: -22i-3¢22e22S222-— icone eee 453
Asterolecanium variolosum, destruction by birds ..............-.----------- 191
Atmosphere, upper, study. .. . 2. /2.i--se2c ene ssebeeaeeee)--b Use ceeeeeee 121-123
Austria-Hungary, restriction of American meat imports........-.-.------- 251
‘Avocado, ‘diseases, 1906! 25.82 F. Pe acca ik choo eceee ee ene eee 502
new variety, origin, description, etc......-.-259-0..5-5seseeeee 363-365
resistance of cold. - -..5.s.c62-s8s--ee0sces ses Jeet eee 364
Azotobacter, relation to nitrogen fixation ... 2. 2222.52: 5¢555._ 58 e eee 131
Bacillus, spp., relation to soil nitrification 2... .. 2252 0e% sees ee eee 128, 129, re
Bacon,. exports; 1902-1906. 2... ose 5 eee oe ose ee

prohibitions, foreign, against imports ....------------------------- 249-951
Bacteria, nitrogen-fixing, distribution. -........-...ce.c6<~enocns==seeeeee 54
two: classes... 5 sees sane oe ee eee 130
relation to nitrogen supply for soil_..-.....-.--.. --<<-==s.ssaneee 126
root-nodule, nitrogen fixation - ... 2... .--6s-66s+5.505- nie 132-135
varieties and efficiency ..........----.-<s=:-aeeme 133
soil, chemical functions: ..... 52.25. .0.06 foccsecoeee = Jee 128
conditions for growth... ........-s0=..2552 55) see 127
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen .....:.---<2-<<2<es-ee sees 130-132
Bexolophus, spp., usefulness against scale insects..........----------+------ 194, 197
Balloon, rubber, use in atmosphere study...-...-..00----s0ecsesecensccee 122
Bananas, imports, 1902-1906 ..-...-. 0 .- s2 262-22 == once ae see 675
Banner grape, origin, description, etc.....-...- -ds-<ce400eeeee= see 361-362
Bark-louse, oy ster- shell, destruction by birds’ ..-..- 5--2psesseeeee==ee eee 196
Barley, beardless, forage TSC w:2 wna w Goan wees bored S22 tie eee ee 234
diseases, 1906... 2s nicisenta Lets Sarvs cca we ese eee een 505
exports, 1902-19063: 2 Cae ee PP foe see 685
production, note... cide sfdas vais ys becuse melee cep aes Senne 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc .......-....---- 568-575
winter, introduction and QTOWING fs sein wie wide au ako cele Cee 43
Bean, diseases, 1906 . - . - dt. om «arena sreaie ole Smeinnitn aie Ree aeee 502
Beans, insect. injuries; 1906. <2... 32.55. cet. oc cee e eee see eee 510
statistics, Prices. - cass cceccecct coecee crac ec uie beeen eee se een 629

Bee culture, study... cows oc shies sec bone ae ome a eee ele air 88 .
Keepers, National Association, Officers<.. io.<.< soceuuiee cesie ee eeeemae 470
Beef, :exports, 1902=1906 2st c bs. 2 2 Lae ates ee re re 682
PTOWED 20k Poe a os 5 he Oo nee am ete See eee oe 248
prohibitions, foreign, against imports .......<susesse=-seec=nsueeene 251

INDEX. 697

’ Page.
a emcn atid NaTvyesters ... 2... ...--=22 225-2220. 2 2ce 5 face 277
EE ERPIEICE! emer a Ss SS st Ss a ESR 510, 511, 512
emnentG- Cer. PrOGNCUOR. + ..'22 5220. Ss tess 2. ce atec cc et 275
rie aI0e GRIN 5. ks e Stee az ass eee 266, 275
TL Se ie eee ee PERE eon 266-268
ee ee eae ee eee ae 277
OEE TE A ER ok eee 277
Mork eevlew, Dy PCClOlary? .. 56. Sess ts te ke esse eee 47-48

Beet-sugar. See Sugar, beet.
EE ee a ee 86
ern be TONenES, L006... So. Sse S2c Ss ceelectrs ss. . se. Sct L ll 515
EE = eee ee 268-278
LL SR A i SR ae a ne bee ee oa 278
Sep AMNGE tit SOU CUIEN © ooo ee ek asus eb. Lue eee 269-274
rotation= with Owner crops, HOtes=s 2s S- < 2. as. 3 269
lapping. method ot Belmianses 2242222 Zoos shee 2. ss. csc 273
meld: por Acre, Meany Of Inaresae.- 2. os 2 ences ees 2c cke 266
Belgium, imports of meat animals, regulation ......................--1-.. 252
Ser Inwvestigation . 22... c6s~ tuceosseues ene es ewes 88
JAMEs, review of weather conditions, crop season, 1906 ............. 473491
PEREMEETE POMARES |. oo as in to nln oe rere ae ok se 94
Biological Survey, Bureau, organization and work ......--.........-..-.-. 456
: work, review by Secretary... ........2.-....2 88-95
PEM eM TCIMIATES ... .. . - occ emua SBR Gans Sa ene e ee ee eee 93
Seeeemennimiports and prices ..<2. sock ek wens -o2 ans = ieee et ee 178
Pees. Teipors-and prices osc -c92.0 LoS, kes ee 178
PCE NED eRLrUCction ....... oc. socsc eee ek eee ee 91
cage, traffic in United States, article by Henry Oldys. .............. 165-180
SC IRCDORRE 2... ee er ee ee oe eee 179
methods of procuring and shipping. .......-.-...-2-.... 22. 169-171
meee, fareare use, trate oo. esos i ee LS ce ss ete 166-168
foe: mn ports and procs. 3. oS See Lec ee oles Uses 176
NNN NLENIES <9 20 ee ar Sos eee. be See. ee 168
pIMNENASIRNOSEL ERA OIS 8 oe et ten oe ee hee ee ie 92
mumper smpoertend.....2 = 2. 22h > Sees? SES etc Se 168
North American, destruction of scale insects ...........-.-.------2- 192-198
eae nen nud pieced. ~~~... 52 a Soe ee ee 4 ee 176-177
ET plas aS Ry Eten Se eens Sey ene ee Reg 533-540
Seer weanrine eeeereuresy. gratin 2 ek Se eR ay NS Ch 472
raising for market, American opportunity............---..-...---.. 180
OFT TET SNC ETT gc lp i AR LD lg 9D Sa oa oe Pe et ee 171
enn Hamimary of facts le o> 2. ef oss ake ola ect sce cod 198
Pe erettULion arid Mipration —_.......-2--..-----ss<ceece- cee 89
polby Jie) pi Alo ee ee eee 179
ee CEE LEAS ea ee nce ae ee eed a 167
South America, Mexico, and Cuba, imports and prices ............- 179
PIN Trap ereeme: Come mn oot 3 ae Te = ee ae een ee She ee on hg 171-179
usefulness against scale insects, article by W. L. McAtee....-...2... 189-198
Biscayne pineapple, origin, description, etc ................-------2----e- 345-346
mieerrot, apple, Ozark Mountain region.....-22.-222.222---.-.-2-..---e- 41
fume. -Cincines, 1906) sJeneo) (22227 oes ee 2 Fae: eine 501
Seeckter vaccine, distribution, notes. _.......2<..---2-.2<<22---220-282-. 83, 496
pemmemicanterns, Gamage: SIG: \ es ie Sa od be se, Sones Shey Sek 509
Bluebird, Western, usefulness against scale insects..............-2---2.2-2. 194
Boll weevil, climatic conditions as factor in control....................... 317-322
cation, conte scent ese a ae EES ee Cee ed ee 56-57, 324
effect of late planting of cotton -............... 323
Entomology Bureau work...............-....- 81-83
Bea ruchininl yen se 5 ee le 91
hibernation, details of observations...............-... 316
pee eenirks ee 82
recent studies, article by W. D. Hunter.......--22222. 313-324
SSN Le a Se Leelee aE ae Sa ae ee 313-315
rae tem rere ne eh TE. aise 508
Sema TE is Cheer ena ee ee ee ee Er 83
BonstEEL, J. A., article on ‘‘ The use of soil BHEVEYR-, i Soma eo seas. saeeoe 181-188

6938 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Brazil-nut, ‘butter. nut,’’ description. 22. s2.2=. < . <2 eae eee 298
Bread; nutrition studies. ...2.. 2.ssese 5-2 2 oct 3 eee 5 ee 107
Breeders’ Association, American, officials...........-..-.------+-----0--0 472
Breeders, stock, associations and officers....-...--.------.--------.------ 466-468
Breeding, animal, experiments, 1906 ---2..-2-.<-222- s<aces 2-52 497
corn, changes i in.composition of kernel. ..- --..3---52> -seeeeeee 285-288
work at experiment stations, article by J. I. sense afc 279-294
development of newserops: <- <<. -22se aes sae eee eee 50-52
experiments, necessity <2 2. 2 522. se he eee 397-399
horse, Investigations... . 522.222. Le ees ae 34
live stock, pedigree ‘associations, ete ..5..22 21 ..25-. 2 <2 eeeeee 34
plat, development. 2529 #: 22222 3222. -42 266205255. 0. ee 288-289
poultry, Temarks 2 stee1 eee Sess = eesevasocedaseu ee 35
tobacco; methods... faites. Sec. 3. 2 ee eee 399-401
necessity of experiments 2: 5o2.2/s.5..0-2 2 ee 397-399
production of new tobacco varieties .-...-..--..--..--- 387-404
remarks 22. ./52.328. 2 eee eee eee 52
success, illustration ssJsi2se2 See os eee eee a 398
Brewer Hybrid tobacco, origin, description, etc .............-.--.-.------ 3938-395
Bright ‘tobacco, Virginia) experiments:.:- 22-2. lsc. 52 Se2 2S. ee 80
Broadleaf tobacco, ‘use in breeding... 2: /25.-.522.-220-.25 52022 eee eee 388, 393, 400
Brome grass, ‘use on western ranges s-.. 22-502: Sass aoe 232-234
Bromus inermis, use‘on western ranges- <2. 2422.42. 2c225- <22 22 232-234
Brown-tail moth. (See Moth.)
Buckeye, food: use; note 225. 2. chs sand otecdsceccoteeeen ee eee eee 806
Buckwheat, statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc.........-.- 582-584
exports, 1902-1906. .2 0252... <2 S222 SSRs eee 685
Buifaloes, statisties, numbers. 5 323 L223 o Seat et bos Ree eee 635-637
Bulbul, remarks 25222 Peco ys Loe eee et eee a ee eee eee eee yi
Bureau, Animal Industry, etc. (See Animal Industry, Biological Survey,
Chemistry, Entomology, Plant Industry, Soils, Statistics, Weather. )
Bushel, legal weights, table by States and commodities ..............----- 690-693
Bush- tit, remarks. 22, 328 Leta eee eee eee 195
Butter, farm dairy, remarks. ....2-0acsctesccneccuscecbeddeteue aaa 407
industry, NorthCentral! Statesis225 222-5 ose ssee- een eee eee eee eee 414-416
investigations, remarks of Secretary -.+.5-22-2--- 22. 22525 eeeeneee 36, 38
New England, industry...-...i2-...-2--o82 522-5 oee oe 410
nut-mantutacture. a. . ..22 Sessesi Se etocs pete se ee eee eee 305
preservation from mold, use of parafiin .. 20.522. .2220ss2- se eee 498
prices, remarks and statistics: .2.c.22223.2'.-'5--0-- Ci. soc ee 416, 654
production at Los! Angeles, Cal:., note:..-.--..- 2 S2s2 22 ase eee 427
statistics, exports and imports of world, etc......--------- 646, 654, 670, 681
Butters, nut, Ciscussiom joo. osccneoccececoceases sees fe seleteee ee 304
Cabbage, diseases, 1906 .. 2. ..--2 0 ecco oe cece scntaacte-ee een 502
insect injuries, 1906... J. ..<4 bu. 2.22 St ence eee ee 511
Cacao, production and consumption ....-.......-.+.0--.-.-ce=s== see 622-623
Cactus, feeding experiments: ... 2... <..s0.6sesecus- cee ee eee eeee oe 56
California, agricultural education, consideration .........----------------- 154
investigations ......25i.2+ si Sfcueee eee ee 44, 76, 91
dairying... 5222 -st.-<cos-seeesusesceeccee ee tee 426-428
forestry .. if ..ci2c2occccSenuu ences adie bce Ceeee ee ae an 529
fruit marketing, remarks: -<2.2.-52.-- ~~ eee eee eee
nutrition experiments. o.u2-2 cen s Uee- eee ee 107, 108
ranges, reseeding in Sierra Nevadas .....-..------------------- 232
Camels; statistics, numbers... .<..2-2 ot cocessesea-s> = Seneca eee 635-637
Camphor, growing of trees and production of drug in Florida.........----- 54
Canaries, breeding -... .. .....veUsicauesee- tas WS eeee tes es eS ee 166, 173
kinds, singing, prices, historic notes, etc......-....------------- 172-174
shipment _....0...cessUCi ellis went ede Pelee See eee 170
test of singing... ........cencnsncc cee beakers eee oe ee 173
traffic in United. States 1 ui ..0.c oborces eis cee eee 165
Canarviam @p.. nut, se ..5...-. oc. scecen scetbs ce aceon eens cee 297
Candies, nut, discussion ......0....2520c-~scne se ckeemeeenee =) eam ae 307
Cantaloupe, diseases, 1906 Woo. oun ceo bee cee eh oe eee eee eee 503
Cardinal birds, captive, traffic... <2 A ee ee 166, 167

redbird, usefulness against scale insects .........-----------seeee 192

INDEX. 699

Page.
SS eS a ee ect 298
0 SES EL ee eee ee oe ae 106
BERL Ae AShOCAbONAS £26 oa. cic scene cco cs incor ows ese cuneate 466
Migeanes Scenic INVestigation ...-.--- 4 -<nn0-eanconcnccenaees 32
ny RP eee Seen ne ala ee ee 248
RIESE HRN Or oe a aie Soe Se oem ese eae 71
forgien. contagion, protective law .....---=:-------<--+--=+-<-<s+- 466
pS Se Ss SS BE ee oe eee ee eee agsne os 28
open market in Great Britain ...........--...-----------+---+---- 256
prohibitions, foreign, against imports.......-..-.----------------- 251
Taising on western plains, problems........-:..-..----------.----- 228
range, improvement of grade a necessity ...........--------------- 235-237
ranges, Western United States, overcrowded condition.....-..------ 225
piatistics, Imporis, exports, 1902-1906... -.-.=<2 = snas=5e 670, 681
NUMPCTS ANG UCC Sere cena oae eee ee cleo A 632-635, 651-653
“LBM ECCS tess Ree =o I ET ee 495
relawon to, dairy; INGUBLLY, NOLES... === ae oe eee 418
“ETRE HT Gp ee iy ER <a ree eS ee ee Ae 87
SS MOTCARS Til, DICER. cA. ce sae ee ae a sae action oes Ree ae 492
tuberculosis certificates, State laws, note .----..---.--------------- 352
diaenosis with tuberculinsess.-—-2 -ssee teen eee 348
investigation, 1906 23 sccn8opeeninnenasen Semen 496
aC er em IneASeN, 1906-2 — — . athe coo Sreeps ste ecie e een een eee aes 503
asinnicesoda wash, self-boiled . .<.... cs -cusase ace cocmusSecencesee sceeee 445
Bee ineares, LONG . 8. . ans ona cee ec a sean Sees ea <= am enema = eine oe 503
Pere eCode Crit ON. ALUGICRs «= <.2.<:-.cain,2.- See ee RIO eee Sere caine Seieeeae 107, 108
SPGHe, COCMICAL . - -...--.sn<.-cenneendelenemantae saab ae nena ee 69
IEICE FU oo aoa ais won a in as nan eee eee eee 505-506
influences affecting quality and quantity..............---..-...--- 200
pee ADT OLOns, 1906)... . 00. ste cabs sac te Rese ea ae eiatiaee one ae 509-510
BEPRAMCHIONL, NOUS joo ein aln nin css eae oe eae oe = RE ce 11-13
Certhia familiaris americana, usefulness against scale insects.-.....----.---- 197
Chamea fasciata, usefulness against scale insects .....-....---------------- 194
Chappelow avocado, origin, description, etc............--.--.------------ 363-365
herrea Maden EMATKS)- <n eeo sc eee ss ence Ss cine < oss 407
munsiey, Norio Wontral States. - =... <n csaeee ne bass eee. enn 416-417
investigations, remarks of Secretary ...........---.-------------<. 36
“ELDON SEU 2 oR ee el ee 108
statistics, exports and imports of world ...-.......-..-.--..--.- 647, 670, 681
PRICE WTLOICRBNG 6 Sarin = 3 mae ete Sees 655
Mhemisiry Bureau, organization and work. ._...-.---...--------s0-00--se=000 455
Wonk amevile Wilby. SCCLOUMRY = 3-2)- = ee ie ae aes eee 69-72
considerations in lime-sulphur wash ......-.---.-------------- 437-438
1 nS SU Se 2S C0 NB ORS ee Spe nee 500
hester, bo. sol pacteniaisiudy, table: 222... 25: 2 Sess ed-2 ce. 128
Mipsinit, watersGcseripionva.- 4-40 2 oss a wosmcn rec eee cence scene 297
Mens, COOKCU MOISES IDM ys see nos: SERS Hos SD onis ae nee rece ee 302
Chickadee, usefulness against scale insects ....--..--.---.---------------- 194, 197
Chief clerk, Agriculture Department, duties.-....--.--.-..-- Be eres 453
iumreh bur, damage; (906.22. 2) ao se gem oes ec ie ee ee e eeeee 509
Pemmgenis juryura, control mote s._ 2. oo Seee << RS MEE eat 55 PE eee 446
fee Hor, investigation, 1006 422296222 boston: had t Mee 5 ees ee 496
Breet, “GAESCT PON. ae ee eine he Pe 297
Sider. sweet, prevention of fermentation... ....2....=<.=--.-sse2b--2505s 239-246
See also Apple juice.
Citrange, new varieties, discussion -.......-.--..--.------- el eS 50, 329-336
PLO PAC AION ASUS COS ULON Sas pers aa ne ee tata ace es 330
SATUS ITIL CX PEnlMen ts seasons ace MNS a ewer Ae, Freaks Lees cs 49, 50
GISEASES aL G06 te 2 os dee = =e Rees epee eens Spee ey geet kee Se See 502
LOREGCtS AT IOUS, 2 ery- ae ae te cre at kee | Ee Seno So — ale 513
productions, new, Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert J.

We Wee eee tats sk ean ey te Se Mers cree oo. et ae aes) Oe aeares 329-346
Civil-service system, application to game-warden service ....-.-.-.-------- 219
Climate, effect on composition of durum wheat, article by J. A. Le Clerc... 199-212
Climatic conditions, relation to cotton boll weevil control..........------- 317-322
Cloud-bursts, so-called, article by Edward L. Wells.......-----------.---- 325-328

RV Gr, Cidenses: sl Mi Mente = ston o Sin ge Sass Leis lattiae enc aap eae 506

700 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page

Clover, nitrogen fixation,:-remarks............2.2222-224¢ 40.0.2 133

seed, statistics, prices... 2.2 2024).-.0so.4 ote as woe oe ae 630-631

Coal ‘tar,-use on: roads. 2.2 so. oss So ee ee eee 114

Cockateels,, remarks: 5.025502 505252252006 2 oeloe ne 176

Cocoa, statistics, imports, 1902-1906.—. 2202 c oo ees 672

Coffee, Porte Rico experiments, note... .-..2.42.2.2.-.2c28 Peper tc. 107

statistics, exports and. imports... 3... i202. Siac. ae eee 624, 672

use Of Nuts, MOGs. 0s echt fa Second weal te er 308

Gold waves,,1906; remarks J. -- cece eee coos 2a eee ee 477

Colleges, agricaltural, discussion <2... sj2).2a. Lk -. cee ete ee 104-105

list, with presidents, ete. ...-4 522... 25652 eae 459-460, 464

Colman .-citrange, origin, description, use, ete... -..2t.2...2s.tss2. Seen 331-333

Columbia University, nutrition studies... ..:.0...-./2252264.324 22 See 109

Conerete, uses, remarks... 5. 2 tend oe aa ees chk ee See ee ee 116

Gonfections, use ef nuts. 2). ..0s son. oeeimens Hone ea due rn 305, 307

Congressional publications, printing regulation changes... .... .6<.6.22egeeee 96

Connecticut, forestry and forest Teservations . 4c, Fu. 4 sled. bk Os Lene 529, 530

NULTVLOD :StudleSkn a) can ccositen Mae eee eee 107, 108

tobacco, shade grown, experiments............-.-..--------- 80

Valley tobacco, use in producing new tobacco varieties. ...... 287

wrapper tobaccos, improvement.....-......2--..-1-s-----sce 52-53

Contagious diseases, control. .2 25.5... <8 foes Sao 28, 495

Cookery, 16.0f MUGS oo - it Sim aie mic cy oe amie Sie cakes mn) ee 304

Cooley Hybrid tobacco, origin, description, ete.......-..-. 22224. eee 395-397

Copper sulphate, use in water purification.........2.--2.+.sascssee eee 5d
Coquina pineapple, origin, description, etc ....2 ..2... 222. Js. eee 341-342 ©

Corn belt, drought, 1906.7... .joc.- tei o one se ee ee 484

breeders, associations, remarks... -. 22.20) cca nee eae oe 293

breeding at experiment stations, article by J. I. Schulte - Liens 279-294

changes in composition of kernel i)... ..ie es 285-288

meal, exports, 1902-1906. - <5. -.-< <n.ccecucmnm Sen... Sa 686

mixing, ODSEEVATIODS 35844020 240 se ee eens 285

new. varieties, remarks.t2024.2/25_2 ct eee ee 52

results of crossing, details/9. 122 see ens. ee eee 283, 284

review of work... =. 000 2 cc ode cuca 282-288

selection as factor —..2.<2..<,.- 0205 Joueee eee ee 289-292

diseases, 1906) 252 -c<.oe sis woo cco ee See ee 505

FOTAPFOMISE ais .n<) cisorwire sie coinlo ee see ete eae aoe ee 234

insectumyuries;. 1906. 222... uc Soc Heke etaetse eae clay eee eee 509, 510

nutrition studies _....- Frisina Vera lo akc Ten chat er Sp oe 107, 108

production, NOtE.32 |. Soc. oc). apa nee eee SU ae rr 12

need,. betuer. prages.2 ooo tee ued es Bul ion SOc eee ee 47

statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, ete ......-.........-- 542-549

export rates, Kansas City and Omaha, to seaboard -.......- 667

nexports, 1902—L90G6is,., oS Sesh ek Jae se 685

freight rates, Chicago-New, York........5.s.26.--255 eee 667

OCEAN, 2.0. c ans ccewi te cine |e eee ee eee 665

sweet, sugar content, study..........--- » wn dele Sek Lideee See er 69

Cotton belt, diversified farming aro cicreataie eels Laid nig SL re ee Se ee 524

heavy rains, 19062 <n 2:05.21 case mci once ace eee 479

boll weevil. See Boll weevil, cotton.

compressed, rail rates, Cincinnati-New York ..........-----....--. 666

diseases, 1906 i. cid ce od ec mace octeye c wie Steere eloreeie eae Ee 506

exports, temarks...2 2 ceoscinc sc es oe eee Vidal eee 14

freight costs, relation to wheat freights ~......siccseeeseue- eee eee 371

VEACOS) ay cn aiid, cyamin gre tava cial orev etoyen ayelelal oleate ent Seat = ne ee 372-376

insects injurious, 1906 2c soso nwdine cole cleieiele amc Se eee 508-510

other than boll weevil and bollworm, remarks....--......--- 83

J. 8., article on ‘‘ Range management”’ .._......<.2222.2seeeeuee 225-238

late planting, relation to boll-weevil control........--..-++-s0++-ee 323

new early variety, remarks |/i2.cs¢. Jo. -2he eee. eee cee 51

prices at four ports: 2 6.00 01 ee 374

production, mote sis il s rcia Sea ee ete 12

stalks, fall destruction, importance in boll-weevil control .......... 322

statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, ete -.......-.....-- 596-605

exports, 1902-1906) 2c6;-u. Ce atescieen oe cee ae cn eae mene 683

freight rates, OCCAN. ... 0,6: <.j¢wen am eamelone eee eee 665

INDEX. 701

Page.
SE Es ce 375
volunteer plants, relation to boll-weevil control .........----.----- 324
Re ereMai Hb EVATICULES q << .2.cc<i05s so55c6s = o- See eee eee 42
eed nrooucw, teed. for hogs... ..----.-- 22. -282=-aeheeen yb eeesee 35
emonwood lumber, prices, rise, 1894-1906... ......-.----..2sss2eseees-s 526, 527
Cattony maple scale, destruction by birds...-_......-....-.<:.:--<--2---- 195
aN re 222i Jt oe ae naa = eee 506
Sees orth Central States... .-...--.----<-..50ssen-assaseeeeeane 413
BinnSLiGs numbers, Cte... asses tekeemeceee eeeeee 632-637, 651-653
Crarr, Quincy R., review of progress in forestry, 1906..........-.--.----- 525-533
ESSE TA CR et se en Se 501
Geeamenit South African, note. .....-... = -..-...-+s2s-sssssesss J -eeee eae 298
separator, use in clarification of apple juice..-.........-222-----5-<- 240-242
Creeper, tree, usefulness against scale insects. ..........-.---------------- 191, 197
Crop reporting, Statistics Bureau work..............-.2..2-----s---5)--:- 99
season, 1906, weather conditions, article by James Berry.-....-.------ 473-491
PPA SOY TOUALKR tes Swe isin iin can't os 2s oa Noe Cea ee oe eee 88
Se en aMOn te OMA. Aotci<2 so edocs Sauswek gee eee ee 184-185
seat and drought resistant:...:.. 225.2222. s.v2sec Le bee cee Ae eee 52
Guee by scale InseCIs <0=.' <<. <n. sess s-5ekecenen Sec eee etek 189
principal, statisties..........--.~- Segond Ug nea eee SEE Se 542-631
Cross-fertilization, tobacco, relation to preservation of type......---------- 403, 404
Geer poauimation, use in corn breeding. -..... <- . i62 os eescncceccecceass 282-285
Cuban tobacco, Hazlewood, new variety, origin, description, etc.........-- 392-393
use in producing new tobacco varieties..........---.------ 287
sete rs \GIseases. 1906 2:2 u's w)2 ae we eS Ss SS a ee 503
PIER RMI (ayi02) 35's Cie d «wo sae Se Re Se ee 86
Semeprerciseases.. 1906 =~ 20... ~ 6 -- J. sence senseseeeeane see a eee eee 501
Currants, statistics, imports, 1902-1906..-.....-- A Sie ee Sele. eS ee caters 675
eencsn. Origin, description, ete Ai -2svac2o= fc eee Se Ze Sse Sonat oe 368
ferpormimcamare:; LOG 7 - sscccm ccs Soo en oe SE SEE ceis ees 510, 511, 512
PRnRNEENE HAOPIN NG 236 = 5 sn csc oe wren Sneela nea Meee es 298
Cyanocitta cristata, usefulness against scale insects..........-..--------.--- 197
Dadespimespple;origin, description, etc. ...-222ssscasss 2222s eee eee see 340-341
Bren snciWons..tiamonal, listsss: ss. 2 hia sas oc Heese eae ta oe 2 sae clones 465
Rate improvement... 22... .'2 5 25.55 Jee See ans sis tele wees 2 esses 406
PorareNoninoontral Otatesse. Jacs52 225 7 sees aaa. 250522555 413
Pen AMOTISMOI fon. oo 2 Sess aS 5 es ae ee ed we 36-38
extention vr aciiic: codstvs.2452 255s tances chests eee 28 422-493
News Pneland. 1mportancessi55 425-5 - oS -n beeeseke oe 410
PE MIE WaRlOUia sees s eae LS ee Tae Seis mye 498
SARUM ETURCONGIMONS 2 Jo ok Son 2 Se Re eee SSE 420-422
prodacis, enemical. examination: 2: ~ ho20- = facic22k osene 25 Ses eee 69
LEA pPOris ANGIE XMOLts, 1902-1906.22 - 3266 caesecs -2< esi --- sce 670, 681
PEM CUCON PELLET Gee eee ete eet 5 eee ea eet ee 406-407
Reine cosdiamoyementass=s-s5-' seems see. 423
statistics, cows, products, ete...... 632-635, 646-647, 651-652, 654-655, 670, 681
Dairying, New England, advantages and disadvantages -..............--.- 408-409
opportunities, articles by Wm. Hart Dexter, George M. Whitaker,
BD. WhiteB. oH. Raw), andshy As McDonaldms- 22-42 e-= 405-428
Paciiic. coast. 2ee SaaS er ye ee erty eae ak 422-428
protits .... aise eee ee ee eaeecete ease pees alas S- 407
southern, difficulitessetepeen ep eer as a eee ee ee 417-422
Pearymens New Eneoland:needss4-- 42: 22s -aee ee. Sess os See eet 410-411
Pakotas, winter [oravewn ote os sae sere Seen ee eee oe ee ee Ses 234
atecultare;: California~Aviz0nas- So. Sete a eine et 40
Davis, William Morris, remarks on cloud-bursts in arid regions.........--. 327
Meer. krling 19062222 oan a eee ere ee ie el isa wa 537
RIAL OTLOTCSERY 5 at ene ie Mie een ee be Spee yn diss 529
Deliciosa pineapple, origin, description, etc............-....-.-.--------+- 338-340
mieimas pecan, oripim, Weseription ete s--2) oesco: 5. ba. shoe dpe ese cessce 369-370
Dendroica spp., usefulness against scale insects..............-..-.--.------ 194
Mendroloery, studies! <A = hee ee sir a te. ee oe 68
Department of Agriculture. See Agriculture, Department.
Dexter, Wo. Harr, article on ‘‘ Opportunities in dairying—general’’....-.. 405-408

itis pienianani COMA, NObE 2 22% =. oe oo fam maces nw icbadelancesemeec 446

702 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Diet, nats... Foseonree eli ess scsessd sods 303-304
Dipping, sheep, increase in value of wool :2..:22..\2iLdo 2 0S eee 495
Disbursements. See Accounts.
Disease, spread by insects, remarks...-......s2s2/20dcace. e066 eee 87
Division, Accounts; Publications. See Accounts; Publications.
Documents, Superintendent, sale of Department publications .............- 97
Dorset, M., article on ‘‘ Distribution of tuberculin and mallein by the Bureau
of Animal Industry.” 2.2252 33330ccsoqeic tassios eee eee 347-354
Drainage investigations, experiment station ............222----scesccee--- 111-112
Dressed meats. See Meats.
Drought, danger.in irrigated:sections: --2.2-..--<-scsce2e. idee 6 eee Lan
Tesistant CLOPS ../-scwoigssou cose 5h Suto SS 52
seasons, 1906) 252. se seen ee setae = a eee 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 487
Drug inspection, -1906,- review. by» H. W- Wiley .--2: 22-22 2uci2. 22 oe 520-521
plant inwestightions; remarks 424-2524 2sees hee 2t.ee eee 54
Drugs, examination, for purity, remarkg)>:2 3252202 Sse sdl 26 eee 70
Dry-land farming, remarks. 235/222... .2se24- ss seweus Jae ee 46
Dryobates, spp., usefulness against scale insects ...........-.----.--------. 194
Ducks, distribution and migration .2::..5..2. 22.22.2228 eee 89
Wild, 1906)... Jes ss tie sees sevese noche es Se 538
Durum wheat. See Wheat.
Dustless roads, experiments, remarks: 222/222 eee 114
Early Wheeler peach, origin, description, ete............222212-.---ccence 360
Eden ‘pineapple, remarks . . 22-2222 Sees 2a ee ee 337, 338
Education, agricultural. See Agricultural and Agriculture.
Educational institutions, demand for Department publications ..........-- 98
Begcplant, diseases 1906.2 5. 2.522 Mee ced eee te oe ee 503
Eggs, statistics, prices, imports and exports ....--......<--.2..-.-2--- 664, 671, 681
ELprinGe, M. O., review of road laws passed in 1906................--.--- 521-523
Klectric methods, nitrogen fixation ...< 2.5 2. 22.22.20 5202. ee 136
Eleocharis duberosa,, nut, USC=-.5=...-sccesoo. 00 a0 eee ee 297
Elymus condensatus, reseeding on ranges. .2 20. Lb 2s. see ee eee 231
Engineers, road, demand, mote. =. 2... 2.2 eee tne ae 115
England, wheat supply, remote sources............-.---0-t2-n-ceescaueee 385
Entomology Bureau, lime-sulphur wash, recommendation -_........-.---- 437
organization. and work.......-.2..-206225eees-eee 456
review of injuriousimsects, 1906222222222 44- 62 eee 508-517
work, review by, Secretary .-- a.---- ee eee eee 81-88
Eriophyes pyri, control, use of lime-sulphur wash..-........--.-----------. 446
Eucalypts; planting, plan.os2. 20sec tse eee le ee 528
Eulecanium spp. See Scale.
Exhibitions; live stock, -19062. 2.5... .oscc. o20. 22d ee 493
Experiment stations, agricultural, directors, work, etc...........----- 461-463, 464
classes of work 22.2.2 200. 22s... 2 Jee 103
Federal, in Hawaii, Alaska, and Porto Rico........-.- 106-107
Office, organization and works. 2222es2- eee eee 457
work, review by Secretary -..--..-.- -D=.. 505 102-112
Export animals,- inspection, remarks |. 02... u.. 020.2 ostee eee eee 28
tobacco, experiments: . 2.2.0. 2... Lo. 2 Se 80
Exports, acricultural,-statistics, 1902-19062 22-2 Sac. 52 see eee ae 681-689
American meat, growthicett.cecocec seeeu ee Soe ne vce Sutce URemEre 247-249
animal producte << cinncecbeeces eek eee Lee ee eee Eee eee 492
fruit; shipments << <...24.<ckketuces cot Oe ee eee 50
wheat, relation to farm, valliesic- os © ce kn te sees Sine ee ne ree 382
Farm animal products, statistics, prices, etc..........--..--.-.... 637-647, 654-664
animals, statistics, numbers, prices, etc ...........-----.--- 632-637, 648-653
January 1, 1907 ssa see 492
hauling to market;:costi io. < Gece eecreae cece ee) eee eee 371, 372, 377
labor, sugar beet, cost and sources....-......-------- ik eed oeheii 269-274
management investicabions, remarks oe cece este eee oe etem tees eran 55-56
progress in 1906, review by W. J. Spillman........-.-.-- 524-525
production, future, discussion S.22.--b seen eee eeeee eee eee eee 18-21
products, exports and importsiil o/c JUL 8 Jods Secs eek ee ee 13-15
values, wheat, relation to exporta.......0..-. deed oes Svebe bee 382-384

Farmer, advance of welfare..0c ce cocks Lcd Gace cee cctbeee eeee ee ee eee 21-23

INDEX. 703

Page.
SE OMIMEe MUSLTIDULION: . ..<. <= - = = -s<.n0 po eon eee ee wencees seeeeos 95
PEACH tes OnICIAIS: list. =.=. ~\..0= 3. S onan ee ee eee eee eee 464
BURUIBIAGS Sc ois os os US ee eee 541
mors of Department... .;.1 stesso cee eee ee 106
Methods tomald. to:schools =. s.. 5 .0 ese se tee eee ee eree 162-164
meranizaisons, interest in education... ...252..7-ea-e~se=cn-- =e 152
Farming, advantage of new forest-reserve management. ......------------- 60
RURIAIAINCR PMO Ss occ oo os 3 oe oo on ss Be eee eee 15-16
Pr GRE. INMOSMPALIONG. « .... .- 25.60 -005suke see eee eee eee 46
IATA OD MNALCUCKON - 2. = <<< <-<.0-.<5cc0 ene ee ee ee eee eee 158
Farms, experimental, use against boll weevil.............-----.---------- 81
REE IEPA TOPORTED 5... 62-2 2 ooo ac ee eee eee ee 56, 110
Fassie, O. L., Witiis L. Moorr, and W. J. Humpureys, article on ‘‘ New
Pnmmnge ue WeALNCr’?............2.5..5-.55s08loeseeeeeeee= oe eee 121-124
Neen ner, cve.o1 cotton-seed. products ........-2-2).Jiel seeeoecensscnan< 35
lee eieply for range live stock ... ....<''2--scee- ses eee eee 233-235
becca, euunal,-experiments, 1906. .........----.0--..csceceneass Semen 497
Biaiis; chemical investigations, 190622222252 et. esseee eee se eer eae 521
Haw alian:deticiency-of lime - .2s.<= sa.-eeeeee eee ea 106
Hence posis, use of concrete, remarks.......... 2.2. cicesescnn--4-cesenen= 116
PROM PMOMMORS SOUCY... css--+s--casseseuseuasa-eeeeaenas = 116
Fences, range, on western plains, remarks ................--------------- 226
Fermentation, tobacco, Ohio experiments. ....- . 2.25. 5002252262 etecee cece ah)
Menulizer, potash, use of ground rock, note... ..2.2.-2-..c0bele athe eskees 116
Fertilizers, influence on composition of wheat........-.----- eres. eee 205
Fescue, fall, usefulness in reseeding western ranges -......---------------- 232
eee acaa eLady. of cattle tick... .--<s6ses vomemper-tnneeedeebesoue 87, 495
Serum iscases. 1906... .-. =. =<26sscccuea cascades Jose eee tea eens 506
mumeenenmnnects, GtUGY . ..... <2 = os- occu scales eee ce ss apanen een na seeeete 86
Peencanersed, 1906 . _.- -.-21<s 2 Sa se te on eae a ae Dee eee ee emaeene 502
southern, «insects injurious, 906) 22... -ssssee- sete seer esate 508-509
Bimeewronests control, ,Temarks = Jas ssoc cone ssecedancsscc sone gee 63, 527
danger ane grotechlonicc <<< ce.< oc sceSaack. [oreo ete tea 451, 452
laxedineaser ty 9UG 2. 3 Asoc noo ts Sno ho hSac cece sro nes ews. sae ee eee te ee 506
Rissceerenroducwon: notes s- 23-1221. 200s abs Se seen Se eee eee eee 13
statistics, acreage, production, prices, etc--...-------------- 611-6138, 688
remianaGalnyatn GUSLEY: =: 25 fart soc co. ssa 5 le Ss See ee Nee se SER Sete 418
BIMCGtl CSSODNPORUS 52-55 sns5o Sa55 23 4s se ee sia ee ees 148
RPUIPEARINOMUCR IS a ooice = occ con < wok cee odo sme ee aoe eee lacs cers 44
PTECHMMOMINUBOTES 2. oo. 3 oS 3c ato ds Qaeeene oesanose st 551-552, 576, 686
freight rates, Chicago to European ports..-....-----------------+-- 669
LT 2 Shope ee eon a eee ee hs 5 eee S205 iS oe Saas 306
Mlowereardenss insects injurious; 1906.....=.-=--2<<-2<6--s.20s8iei Ss -88 516
PR Wet RCUIRCHNON BS LOUG =n ees SS nh ha senna cee mea teeelansk 507
Fly, Hessian. See Hessian.
hose, spreadiolitypRoid fovers.< 25/2 Clete: LA don lbe Selec. see 87
Headrash, constituents. Studies |.c2asceu. 2 ioe = = kb eoe ets Boe Seek ee 109
inspection and studies, Chemistry Bureau, discussion .............-- 772
progress in 1906, review by H. W. Wiley ........----.---- 520-521
mse OL nuts; article: pyei. Hin Jiatia: =. cence cee eee mee 7 (seek OB 295-312
feererops, diseases, LOOG cto a. oles cheba peers Oo Sean tanec 506
insects injuRingkileOe 2a ace Soc ee ee cE 2d 509-510
erecn,-use in New Englandidairying!s2 225 222) 2. Jeli $2220. 20es<2 408
Mssonrye, wheat, barleyaispelt. eteu. sa. ccc eee es = Sey 234.
Forbes, 8. A., adoption of lime-sulphur washes.............-..-.----.---- 430
Forbush, E. N., statement regarding nuthatch...............-...-.----... 197
Foreign markets, compilation of information ..................----------- 100
Bigrest eXLension:, GISCUSSIO ME p, cep ee te rn ee re ee 8 66-67
fires. See Fires.
insebte; damages esc. =o weet een Ae ao oes RE Ty bl SO 85, 515
management, timber cutting on reserves. - --- BES SEE eee ae eae 63-65
planting on reserves and elsewhere...._........-..------------- 66, 526, 528
products, exports and imports, 1902-1906. ...............------ 673-674, 684
POR CIPOMIBAC cs hie eae AEN ge AOD ete ww ee dedia 15

SUSE TANNIUMPOUEP LOO es Ko Saeko Su eee ge cio. nu ce Se 515

704 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

: Page,

Forest products, utilization of wood. ..:.-<-=...2.-sasiu-.ss5 eee 68-69

range, improvement under fence... ..:....2<~U-2- eee eee 229

reservations, State, table with) map- 5. 2252-22222 522228-)- =o 530

reserves, National, discussion... -2-i22d022 525-52 eee eee 59-63

Service, organization and work =... <2 22.00- seed ete eee 455

some plang. .2. 2525.22. she sce bee eee 528-529

work, review by Secretary... 2.- 3 25.2 29-eepeso4es See 59-69

studies; cooperative; notes... =. 222. ta Ss< Jae eee 65

trees: diseases L906 < 252 3 Sa eee oe niseeecer sac. eee eee 507

Forestry, associations and schools ..-.........----.-- Retcl bed is ole 469-470

progress, 1906, review by Quincy R. Craft.........-.------------ 525-533

State: work, dIsCcussION S4- ne sse nel ek. .. see See ee 529

Forests, National, and the lumber supply, article by Thomas H. Sherrard... 447-452

management: . 2. Nee ee eee oe oo ao eee 451-452, 525-526

sales of timber, effect on prices, etc........---.--.-- 448, 449-451

Formulas, lime-sulphur wash, variations...--o2 2.244. 2<2scel sooo eee 434-437

France, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions ..-....-.---.------ 252

Freight costs and market values, article by Frank Andrews. ..---..------- . 371-386

future changes’. ! 22.2 s2.<<easa: ose Se ee ee eee 386

rates, comparison of ships with wagons. -_-..--...-..-+-------.---- 380

OCESN, 5 [2 Se see aoe act SE ee 372, 384, 665

per. ton: per mile, 1875-1900 222-2.2 4. 32 eee 668

seaport from interior <2. « -a2!2s2see-teeec 373, 667

Frost, effecton:- boll weevill:... =. 22523 2s Se Ss ee ieee eee 322

Frosts, spring, 1906.2 oa... - 32 Sea ee ee eee 477

Fruit, marketing, transportation and storage, investigations -........------ 48

new subtropical. 2s. 522. 2.5. Se ee eee eee ee 40

nutrition studies, remarks, .-.2--. 22.225. --- 6. -5- eee 107, 108

orchards; California, bird’imjuties ..=.2. 252... 2:-- 2253 ee 91

trees, insects: InjuTioUS -2. 5222225... 2225 oe oso eee 86

Fruits,’ citrus, new, development''=. 2: .- 2232 2225226 be = ee eee 50

diseases, 1906.2. 035.2 2as25<2 Sse eese2i4s 56 35.23 ee eee 499-502

imports and exports). -7. 2-2 se-.<- 2-s-505 = 50, 675, 685

insect Injuries, 1906.2-5=- .. jeoc sas sess se sae ee eee 512-513

new, promising, article by William A. Taylor.......-.---.-------- 305-370

nomenclature, with synonyms, remarks ....-- 355-357, 358, 361, 362, 363, bee
Fungi, relation to nitrogen supply for soil..---.---- eases eateeee ee

Fungous diseases, plant, 1906, notes 222-22 22... 255 ---=55-— = =e 490-508

Fungus, peach injuries, remarks .. 222222282. 245-5 222+ chee oe ae 42

Gale pineapple, remarks.....-....-<-05ss2<02.202. 4.22.22 So 337

Galveston, freight rates’on.cotton..-:-..:.--.-...:+-------5-se0=555 nee Bis

Game, census, Dllinois ..- 2-22 ..223 0.22425... 0s 2+ ns 2 dae oe ee 217

conditions, 1906-222. << 6.5. 2 scn. 2. 5-0 e523 e ce 537-538

interstate commerce 2... 52s..2552<25.2.5-5¢ +525. 8 eee 93

laws, administration and enforcement. ......------------------ 218, 5385-536

preserves, State‘and private -.......-2-.J...--2.5os55= === Sees 539-640

propagation . .. <<<). desc e. 5254920 ae ee 538

protection and introduction << -: 222 <0..¢ 22.2005 .05 See eee 92-94

officials, lists.:-..-....--.2icl. 26.94. 32 ee 471-472

organizations. ......-.-----------------22 eee seen e ee eee- 536

1906, review by T. 8.. Palmer. -:=2.<.-:.-3eeeeeeeeeeee 533-540

reserves, parks, "and refuges; national 22.25). S26. cee epee eee eee 94, 540

wardens, associations =... .222¢<.. see.c cee ee ee eee ee ee 220 222

early appointments and: pay .<---. 5. -.6<5-s.ch esee4ee eee 214, 223

duties, powers, and dangerss.<- 2.5 52.s.-Us-seseewase 215-219, 222

instructions in’ Michiganie.s2222 2.6. .s. se eee ee 218

of to-day, article by R. W. Williams, jr.......-.---------- 213-224

requirements for fitness.......-.--------+--------+--+----- 220

special equipment in several States): Jickiacosesiee eee 219

Gardens, flower, insects injurious, 1906 ..........-.--------------------<- 516

testing and field laboratories, remarks ..J..1-------+<.--<<5- .--- 58-59

vegetable, diseases of plants, 1906 ........---------------------- 502

insects injurious, 1906. . ..2..~...0ssnee~ceeeeet eee 510

Geologists, State, cooperation with Roads Office, note. ....-..------------- 115

INDEX. . 705

Page
Georgia, agricultural high schools -......-------------------------------- 156
dairy industry... -.-..-22025----.+----------------------------: 418
pecan, origin, description, etc ..-.------------------------------ 369
Geothlypis t. arizela, usefulness against scale insects... -.---.---------------- 194
Germany, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions -..-.--.--------- 253
Gingko nut, description. ........-.-.----------------------+--+-+---++----- 297
Ginseng, diseases, 1906. -....---....--------------------2 +2222 222-222 -- 503
Gipsy, moth. See Moth.

Glanders, diagnosis by use of mallein.......-.-...----------------------- 350
Gnatcatcher, black-tailed, usefulness against scale insects -....------------ 194
Goats, statistics, numbers -..-.:.-..-.....----<2+-----------------22---- 635-637
Goosaberry, diseases, 1906... .-.--.....-<22-2222--56-2---5----5 eee 501
Gore, H. C., article on ‘‘The preparation of unfermented apple juice”’ - -- -- 239-246
Grain, chemical analyses for feeding -......------------------------------ 44
grading, standardization........-.-.-------- PIR. brag NAS tee 45

of corn. See Kernel.
quality, factors of influence. ..........-..------------------------- 200
statistics, exports and imports, 1902-1906.-......------------------ 676, 685
freight rates, Chicago to European ports -....------------ 669
Grains, overirrigated, illustrations. .........---------------.4------+--+---- 211
Grange, National, officers.............--.------------+-<+----+-=--5---=- 472
Grape, Banner, new variety, origin, description, etc...-...-.------------- 361-362
UR aM Ogee Ss). k.< 2.5. 23 so ee eee eee 501
amet waguries, 1906 2. .....:---...--..- 252 ime ne nore ees eee 512, 513
Sea GnnEOUontrol . ..-. --- 2-2. 22 et - ee ee ene eee ane 56
orchard, usefulness on western ranges ....-.----..==.--------+----- 232
Pam neGrtiNenS, TOMATKS. .- -..- 222 .202-52' Sse esceeeee ens ee 39
Grasses, management for improvement of public ranges -....-.------------- 229-232
Grazing, advantages of new forest-reserve management ....-...-.---------- 60-61
National forest, remarks: 3i< S25 22 See ee eet ee econ ee 525, 526
meter plains, overgrazing. 022.--.<-.--2222.-<205-<2-cs-es5==-= 228
Great Britain, imports of meat and meat products, regulation...........--- 256
Greely, Gen. A. W., remarks on cloud-bursts.........---.--.------------- 326, 327
PireqnhiQnscnsinsects. ij uriOUs) L906. 22 - <2 == hoe come cteaeeces eee 516
Grosbeak, usefulness against scale insects -.......--.----------------- 192, 194, 195
PrieeenntaaIa | WON <2 = a sa we Bo Se seine es a eee: otis 537
EIEN PMNS oo es a i es Se eee Se ee eae Se 502.
NICMOS, TIERED oo. SL cso ow wie nin ne ates ls See ec cee ace 42
NET NOAA's 2 oe an 3 ie 5 ~via eae Shee eee 674
EINES, SOMOS 0 on be scenic s Hock Habe ons ee owes Osea lela 496
ams, prohibitions, foreign, against imports .......-.-2---<----<.2.--5--- 249-251
SERENE OUIG | G0 2—LO0G 2 ease ees Rae Oe sees eee ese 682
Pair vonty nupamneet? -<- 2 oa. 5-4 so SK He Boke ere elena t aes Ae ot te es ee S 276
time and manner, effect on composition of grain..........-------- 208
amine. farm: tO qmankebens +5 .. ee oe coke oes actin Se citcwiete ss = 371, 372, 377, 382
awa experiment statlousremarksioosee sae sos took ae Soe se ale tee eens 106
forestry. and torest TeservallONsa- 4-8. 2. 2= season ee eee 529, 530, 531
mUNtTritIOn Cx pPenmienty ees a. o-~ ens oe a2 55 eee 109
Hawthorne scale, destruction by sparrow. .-.---.-------+22-22-4---.--Us---- 191
Seeeeemnnction, note... ..osshencebec ts cee sh So a ae Se eee 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc..--........-..---- 591-595
exports, 1902-1OQGi se | Sa 5c res reese oe era ee ee 686
Peeemnrerreen, use as food. a2. neste nas snste nes eta a 308
Hazlewood Cuban tobacco, origin, description, etc...................----- 392-393
Prealtn centiticates,. live stock, presentationa.--c.<.=.... 2595s --s- 226 = 258
public, protection from tuberculosis, note.............-.-.---.---- 352
Heleodytes brunneicapillus, usefulness against scale insects .......--.-------- 194
OHSU CURMIELE, SOUCY. <2) ei eee nen alas ns SS lk 83
Helminthophila c. lutescens, usefulness against scale insects........-.-.-.----- 194
2 ERED ASSES CRIS tec mee 0 Re I AE NS ee a 509
; SUL s at eho ee ee ee Re a Pel RSS EE o's 86
Hickory scale, destruction by grosbeak .._.........-.-------------0------ 192
Hides, statistics, exports and imports of world .......-.---.-.---- 640-645, 671, 681
Bnighwoy aiietals,. State ain, ee settee i em ec eclo cance ccqcoe 471

3 al906——45

706 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Hog, breeding.experiments, 1901 .....-.. s2.- - <2 .-bec lua eee 497
cholera; investigations - -.<.-~.. 2... -<-se0.<02 =.0=- 6 yee 33, 496
products, American, Swedish prohibition of imports .-.......--..---- 255
Hogs, breeders’ associations... - 2s ecs-sece ne scene nce or = 2a 468
feed, use of cotton-seed products. -<.<.---=---J--+----222 = = 35
prohibitions, foreign, against imports-.-..._-..-.-..-----3-.55eeee 249-255
statistics; numbers, ebes 2 5 2~ 2. 2 oe noe eet ee 632-637, 662-663
tuberctilosis. . 2 5362 etebnse oc - ot nite eck ees ee ee er 32
Hops; production, note+. 222i. sacen- 6. <occapigtee ete eee 13
statistics, production» prices, Cte. <<... -..2%cheeeus -55555- See 608-610
Horsé-chesinut,:food use; note’<.2--. ot. .<c.- - -ccecaseeeeeee eee eee eee 307
Horses; breeders’ associations)25< <5 i.-<65 5 o--45-c5-o0- = eee 467
breeding investigationss.- 62... dscse soccce. oe 5. 34, 497
range, improvement of grade a necessity -...--------------------- 237
statistics, exports, 1902-1906... 02a. o ee Seen oe 681
imparts,-1902-1906 23a 2 ts sos se acne ee 670
numipers;, prices; etes-< aes ea ee eee 632-635, 648-650
Horticultural societies; national, efficersis22 22 sssessose] 2. ase- eee eee 470-471
House fly, spread of typhoid fever. ...-=2--: 2525-65 -2-5ee =e ee 87
portable, kind in use in sugar-beet work -.=-.---.25+-.--5--s=Seeee 273
Human disease spread by insects ....--- 5. ---s-caene sce ose eke 87
nutrition, Investigation... ~.. cee. sec-smaseey eee 107-109
Humpureys, W. J., Wiis L. Moors, and O. L. Fassie, article on ‘‘ New
problems of the weather” .. 2... --<d--0--2< 0<s-2n's -se = ose 121-124
Hunter, W. D., article on ‘‘Some recent studies of the Mexican cotton boll
WeOVIL? ec peces coe wete suki s cee tee aeteees Cece eee eae a eee 313-324
Hunting, accidents... 22. .2.222s 5 casa ot ween coe eee oe 536
licenses, Notes «.<scswisece ede Jeon cook hoes SSeS sae 216, 217
origin of system, feed... ..2occc mais aks a2eeces oe 223
Hybrid, pomelo-tangerine, development as Thornton orange -.--.--------- 336-337
Hybridization, tobacc0's 0.2... -c.ss2625--- 22 seen =e 5 = 26 399
Hybrids, orange, trifoliate with sweet, development ......--...----------- 329-336
tobacco, new varieties, origin, description, etc --..--.2..---- 387, 393-397
Hydrogen; use in atmosphere study .......~~ << swede one sec ae ao 122
' Icterus spp., usefulness against scale insects. ......---.-------------------- 194, 197
Illinois, agriculture course in schools ..---..--22--------2--++> === 158
lime-sulphur wash, early use: .--\------=- -------- ssa) =e 430
nutritiomstudies: ... oo. 2S. sew ee ace os eee eee ee ee 108
station, corn breeding 2252-25. -= 42 - <6 a= a= ee 286, 288, 289
Imported animals, inspection and quarantine-.....---.-------------------- 28
Imports, agricultural, statistics, 1902-1906......-...----.----------------. 670-680
British, relation of ocean freight rates.......-.--<./..--=-sss8—=e 384
India rubber, statistics, exports and imports -............--.---.s--256ee- 627
Indiana, forestry and forest reservation .......-.--------------------<--=- 530, 531
Infectious diseases, importance of early diagnosis. .....------------------- 347
Inoculation, soil, for introduction of nitrogen-fixing bacteria ....---------- 134-136
Insecticides, scale insect work......TS.....----2<2.+.-- sess s== 6+ eae 87
. study 2... < cueckencccne'seeabesch¢. ote = ose er 70
Insects, beneficial, introduction, etc ...-..------------------------------- 83-85
berry, investigation... -- oa. <0 .<0d=.ne sens = =e 88
cotton, study . 2.22 ode ded eee ein ee ae 81-83
disease-carrying, remarks ......-...-.-----2----ee0ee-ssn--sese 87
field crop, study. ..c- 00. cnc de Sen cew ce bb ae bee eae ee 86, 515
forest, damage: ./.<misnu0d caus des: ses akon a eee 85
fruit tree, damage ... 2. 2. +2. ice dd aac a Se 86
injurious, 1906, review by Bureau of Entomology.-.-.------------- . 508-517
scale, destruction by birds, article by W. L. McAtee...-.--.------ 189-198
insecticide work (22 osc chen wdoce sceees cna oa 87
nattral enemies: 2: 22sce Seaten seat ee eS ee 190--192
stored products ...0. 2.0 .00.-.0cecere nnewcehncens Sele ese 87
usefulness against boll weevil........--------------------+++----- 318
vegetable crop, remarks. ........---------------- 2222-2222 ee eneee 87
Inspection, food, Chemistry Bureau, discussion.-.-....------- ------------ Wi
drug, etc., 1906, review by H. W. Wiley ..-------------- 520-821

foreign, of meat animals, fees, etc ..-----..------------------- 259

INDEX. “HOT

Page
Inspection, meat, 1906..........-.------------------- +--+ +--+ 2202-2 0--- 493-495
Moxasifever, 1906, FesUNA S225. 22 = acoso Ft Pls a SSS RESs 31
iee, butter making, remarks_...5..2.:22.---22-2-25-225-5----<se-5-- 55) 415
MEEEV aes ois so ee ees eae ea eee = ee nese se oce reer ee 529, 532
Paaelawsr | OUGGs23— << sae Soe acemeetee tee oee me coe seen eee eee ee aes 521
Biman Corl: HNCCGINE |. 2s ssnsnsesaeoee aes Sse aes = eee eee 283
Irrigation, effect on durum wheat .........------------------+-----++---- 203
wheatin dry regions-jssse5 sashes cao eee eee 204
experiments, effect on wheat. i.[2..2 28222022 s 22-2 5-22 ese 211
investigations, experiment station.......-..------------------- 109-111
salatron of precipitation 2.222. 2.si22ts= Sep eee = ee eeeeen =< ee one 325-326
Italy, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions -.---- Eee ae oe teens 254
Jarra, M. E., article on ‘‘ Nuts and their uses as food”’ .......-...-.------ 295-312
Seen HAeIUiness, NOL ...:.....-2-.-cscnesnce-peceee tenes ones Seee= 197
California, usefulness against scale insects -...-..-..----------------- 194
Jensen pineapple, origin, description, ete -......--------.---------------- 343-344
Sommeenormeas, Gradication, remariss ......-.- 5520. 5.0 we dees == se ceceses 524
EINE TIM Moa Sr. 22S. ob oes Se eer eee ee eee 86
miheatrdamare, 19062. =. 222 Se ee eee cee eee 509
Josephine persimmon, origin, description, etc............---------------- 362-363
Juice, apple. See Apple juice.
Jupiter pineapple, origin, description, etc.......-.--.-------------------- 342-343
fameeaity, woeat rates and prices ...- 2. 025.2 ss5e<2h==--ssneae one 378
222 a re eee ee a ee 531
Sal Grn DTCCMING . ....<...0..sonc~ sense cceeeeee se aeee es eee eee = 282
MeexnOrin? Cost ...5.. qoseec see coon ee eee ae eee 383
Kelep, boll weevil enemy, uselessness in Texas............-.------------- 84
Kentucky, agricultural education, consideration......-...---.------------ 155
moad,laws;(1906 .... Jsdcuecten cens Shee ee ee 521
Kernel, corn, changes in composition by breeding.........--------------- 285-288
[ele Fie Bee SOA soe 6 HeSenn ct ec Oba aS He DADO EGg 48oS4 Aco 555eR6 286
Kinglet, usefulness against scale insects ........ - ----.225- 2. ses cesses ee eeee 197
Mite, Gaeaetmosphere study. - 255.22 nc she ea ee Sek Cees. sea 122
Labor, cost, reduction in sugar-beet growing ....------------------------- 274-278 |
sources, etc., in sugar-beet production -...-....-.----..------- 269-274
Fanta GOOMMEMAN CS of: voc scat ju cckeseteeeee -eteseesc coat ees 525
Rararapeei. Sources OL SUPPLY =). 2 Joos Jos Soaee ee te ee oe oe es 270-274
Laboratories, plant industry, and testing gardens -........---.---.-------- 58-59
SPMMOVALCSIS: TODACCO a2 5 occ 2 scccuseane ce celsscccccsses cecées sos ese 402
hacymras, sew. importation from: Pmrope..:-....--.:-.-..--2----s2255-5 84
usoun cenuruction of scale insects. ° 2.2 2:22225)2.-2c2sc-- 5.222 191
mand Jaws relation tlumber industry ©... 2... .--...--2.2.-----------242 448
Buca Deel eValies ee een ens te eid ey VOTRE Re Soe as cee 268
United States, proportion under cultivation...........------.------- 181
emreivht Tates, OGeANe sana se oe ee aoe coe ee oo Ss pace eee eeee es 665
Biatistics: exports O02 —190G Maas ce aaa ee oe ene cee ae eee re eee 682
ETO WUE te ee eee ee ee ee ee ee 248
aw ransportation, for live stock, changes ...<-=22.-. 45-22-2242... ..e55- 493
PeEIeU tural education... .5- 024 ech ste eee eet ea tae Bee 155-157
MGPOBLEY =e ao = = renee tere rae ee ae eee eee eee 532-533
game, legislation and court decisions, etc ..............------------ 533-536
new.) Department: worKo35. tos aura ee sere ee tesa 9
read, 1906, review. by Mi. 0. “mldmipes: 2552 soo 8 oases 2 521-523
Siate, tuberculosis requirements notelsa. sees eee See ee oe cee 352
Ler Cuerc, J. A., article on ‘‘ The effect of climatic conditions on the com-
Position Oltluram: wheats so. Seeee ns a eee ier ee: SS eS oes 199-212
Lecanium scales, control, use of lime-sulphur wash........--------------- 446
seoislation,.acticulturalieducationtssa-se,seetasoo ae wee anes nee baee 155-157
BAIRIC PUGIPEHON, SOUS 4 a4 Se eta oh os ee a 2 Se 533
MEAL MapeemtOl. GISEUBHION coasters 2o Se Sl sre ee ee ek Se 27-28
public range, attitude of stockmen - - 2c: ...2T.i22--20.-2252 227
Becdines<nirosen fixation, memiarks. 922 8) 5. yoo 22 222 Pht Bel ee dete 133

Use iNew ene land dairying) $2 S2sSrs4 es A ds a. 411

708 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Lemons, statistics, imports, 1902-1906 ....-.- 3. 52225-40282 eee 675
Lepidosaphes ulmi, control, note .... =... 4 =). -eeanessse es 2S eee 446
Lettuce, diseases, 1906.....-.- eine en cincice sn clen Ue os eye Rea 503
Library, Department, work, review by Secretary...........-----s---s---- 101-102
organization and Work 32-1 \e.ci. nce qomiaccinio ea ae 457
Ihichi nut, deseription . 225.2542 oo. Se~baeseseeseeeiaae ee Vie eS 297
Licorice root, imports, 1902-1906... ..... 2... .<-.-.-.4a.c88s a5 2 ee 676
Life zones, BtUEY ...< .<--j-35-. 20-1055 sie sca olen. utes AUR Aaa 88
Lime, composition, variations and their relation to lime-sulphur wash -..-- 431-432
. Lime-grass, reseeding on ranges..-.....------ J Ssiew tte eet loco eee 231
Lime-sulphur wash, boiling, effect of different periods ....-.....-..-..---- 438
chemical considerations:......¢..0d2..0-ss.6. joes eee eee 437-438
cooking; and cooking outiits2- 23-222 eee 440-443
formulas, variations, and recommendations. .....--.-- 434-437
INGTEDICNIS Soe 3.0 ee.cjen ain ape ieee ees rr 431-434
preparation 52). 5eaect)-c esp thee. ete ee 438-443
time and outfit, for use on San Jose scale..--.....---- 443-445
usefulness... .2eth.. nc. cess eet bee 446
washes, field experiments and conclusions.............--.-. 485-487
San Jose scale, article by A. L. Quaintance ........- 429-446
Liquid air, use in atmosphere study ~~) .c25< 026. 4-00 a 123
Liquors, alcoholic, statistics, exports and imports, 1902-1906 ..........---- 677, 686
Little.peach, control... ojoc.c6. .cccee ie Fe ade poe eases = See 41
Live stock associations, officers, ete... ....sssc-<2 ss-ee se eee ee eee 466-468
industry, 1906, review ......-2.%-..28.2eh.0. 202.086 eee 492-498
interests, sanitary. officers ...-.--<..-c-ces-- 06 see oe 468-469
pedigree associations.....-.-- 2 --mes-2<-6 2 22S eee 34-466
raising, area of range land necessary for success ......---------- 235
range, improving grade, discussion. ....- =i... aeeeseseneeeee 235-237
industry, future. ..2sss2 shee See eee Bee ee - 238
ranges, oyercrowded condition../.. ...2........2. 50s eee 225
restrictions on imports by various countries.......----.-------- 251-257
statistics, imports; 1902-1906. -22.422ee.- 225-06 670
numibers:and pricesss.--ssse-e eae eee ee 632-637, 648-653
railirates, Chicago-New York: ....2\...-.2 220 ca Jase eee eee 665
transportationlaw, change 222-22. -2-5 4-2) eee ee 493

See also Stock.
Locust, Rocky Mountain, damage, 1906.........-...-- hone ale ee eee 517
Louisiana crop pest commission, cooperation of Department-..-....-..---- 82
dairy industry.2-2.<..- scence’ ao ee shee n'a 419
Lowe, V. H., statement regarding scale-eating birds .......-...-.---.-- aie 197
Lumber industry, advantage of new forest-reserve management...-...---.-- 61
movement westward and southward........--+-.------- 447, 526
relation of land laws ....5. 22... <--+-e<ssis5)3 5 eee 448
price, effect of government sales. .-..... ..-.-2<-=-2)s-n-= =e eee 451
prices, rise, 1894-1906 2. g202 2 soc e ee coe oo eer 526, 527
sales, government, extent and growth .......-.....------------s5 450-451
statistics, imports, exports, 1902-1906. -.......-. 0.6 ons aoe 675, 684
supply and national forests, article by Thomas H. Sherrard....--. 447-452
private forest. lands, remarks\-< --.<-<22scemeae <== ==eeeee 526-627
Macaws, notes . s.c....ceeen cen cbetedccemmene == << en ee = 6 176
Magnate apple, origin, description, ete.......---.--.-------6------s0-8= 355-357
Magnetism, terrestrial, relation of sum. ...:.2.%..-.2.<--/-52-5ee eee 123
Mail routes, rural, improvement (......- ..2..5...--5-..— sues ene 149-150
Maine, forestry. ... .....2ckis2 acide miaenh Siesta ele eee a aes oe 531
nutrition experiments 23 22S 0se esi cis 5 See ek ee 107, 108
Maladie du coit; horse disease, eradication s:---5-s------25)4--2 29 seee eee 29
Mallein, distribution by Bureau of Animal Industry, article by M. Dorset .. 347-354
MANNe?r = 2. 2 Lee eee es SRS ae Scere 350-352
preparation, use, ete .. 0... 2 sndsesnnn = ees eenlees See aera 349-350
Mammalogy, economic, study). . one. .csenees seas dee ae ee cee Ueno eee 89-92
Mango, diseases, 1906 s,oc2% sietdnset acne eee ets ee a 502
fiberless, Florida ripening = 2.20. S2e%2% - feo een 40
Market, hauling from farm, cOst:2<..55.<22 5: .weustem- ats eenen eee 371, 372, 377
values, relation of freight costs, article by Frank Andrews .....--- 371-386
Marketing, fruit, remarks... 2.006.056. ..cnene eens een yee ete 48-50

NUS «oven Sade cca dace cece eae Se Te ee eee 311-312

pied 2

INDEX, 709
Page.
nary. anunew Mmnpiine: so. 250 locos) SoS ed eco nee. 408-409
Maryland, forestry and forest reservations ........----....----------- 530, 531, 532
magking TODRCCOS, HNpPrOVEMeN® = 22s 0.32 2 22s ke 53
Massachusetts, agricultural education, commission study -.......---------. 153
MOORING: oro So Sos es So a es Seca Sta sae ae eee 531
Mermremnnenincanple. Temarks — so cana ete aaes ae ee eee es ee ee 337, 338
memmnnciry, Oncouravement. -_. 2.25. .s25252 2225525220 Sec 40
Mayetolia destructor. See Hessian fly.
McArter, W. L., article on ‘‘ Birds that eat scale insects”’ ....--...- a eee 189-198
McDonatp, E. A., article on ‘‘Opportunities in Dairying, on the Pacific
SE eS SR Sow wo i ce a cl a oe ee 422-428
et ais aso on nisi Sole Re ee See eee 306
BM EIORGECINATES = m2. ccc ae SSS Be ee Se 309
Meat, American, foreign restrictions, article by Frank R. Rutter........... 247-264
Sean Of ex ports... << - .- 22255 ee 247-249
restrictions on imports by various countries..........-.-.-- 251-257
mace.erowth, prospects... .--~ 22. sees sae ee eee 264
animals, immediate slaughter requirements ................-------- 258
imports, prohibitions and regulations.-.....-.....-.. ...... 257-261
open market in Great Britain.............-....-.-- roa 256
ES ADO a wine aw ne nese 5 ee ee ee 493-495
dinctission of changes, etc. < . wise: Seba set ete ece 25
maerease of inspectors -....~-<--Shasauo ee ee on 9
aeuneusnon by Secretary .. =...’ ssa se ee eee 16-18
Meats, dressed, rail rates, Chicago-New York............--........------- 665
DER MEEEEALIONA. -_..... .. 2.249. cadeeee eee eer ee 260
sacney limitations. . 2.23... 33S eee ee 261-262
aeees imports and exports. 2232150 ss4 eases es 637-638, 672, 682
earlerates, Oimcinnati-New : Y ork.:24<'2e2 see ee a ee 666
Melanerpes f. bairdi, usefulness against scale insects .........-...---------- 194
euemreus. damace, 1906... . 8. =. onus ence lee eee ees 517
Sennen TOG 2 2: 2 Ontos seagate. eee dee a he ee 504; 505
PL rosisrant, SHUG to .. 5504 sacse 2550 oe ek oe 42
Mrnvin, A. D., review of live-stock industry .-.:..........0.0.-2cb--.-.22 492
Meteorologic observations, upper atmosphere, recent developments .......- 121-123
Mexican cotton boll weevil. See Boll weevil.
EIR SECtEI 5 Hie 2 ot i aie, oe a 2 to 337
Michigan, agricultural education, consideration.............22-222---.---- 154
pareniey. and. forest, seservaliones. <4 5-<- Sesh: . pu es oe es J 530, 531
Pa rardOn ANAL COne 2) 5<~ 3 = 2 Sees JR. es Se 218
OES... TODA 303009 She ond tala ty ce RS ee hkl 72
m@igrawon, duck and shore birds, remarks.......... .-.-..-2-.-..--2.-.-.- 89
Se MRD COULOOK...- . 3- <i 6... Sa Steed 2 LSBs eee ek 411
meine. Norin. Gentral States...) -.. .... cd02-8ee.csese. 414
oS ae Ds CE ee ee ea ee eee 410
production and handling, remarks of Secretary..........-.-.-.-..-- 37
skim, value to farm in North Central States .................--.---- 414
eee TAACISICH, ISG 5-2 28 Ae oe eee eo ee hee Se kee eps 498
Mill, Dr. Hugh Robert, remarks on cloud-bursts...............-....------ 326
Miller, Judge Samuel, discovery of new fruits ..............-..2--2--..-.. 361, 362
Beescones, 1906... fae ee as te ee Ae eee a a art 505
PEE? NOC . ... .... sepeeer ane = set eee ek ener Meee ears 177
Mining, advantages of new forest-reserve management ........_.....-._.-- 60, 528
ear accicniture in ethnics) ss... 0 ssh a tn aay ae 156, 158
butter making memnr es Me one joey sil hae Be seer ee ca a 415
forestry and forest, reservations, ~~ 2 2. <.2205.¢s5. 2452 suSoes 530, 531
NULMEON, Qe peRineminns A90e aye de ok Se oes eh 107, 108
SCLACO IMME GD oJ] Dia e'e¢ 101 seaman gee OR Amp e See 5 hg Ot a Be eee sees a 285, 290
GSS ROSE LEE 150), gh gaa mg I cg a en a 55
CUT Ae TET ELT TSI ge i Se a RA ey PNP Sa es Pole ede RN 419
River, freight route, factor in prices, note ................-.-- 379
Walley lnmoratory. remarka* 2. 2.2.2. 2 ye ag 58
Missouri, agricultural education, consideration ...................---.---- 154
Serice Mme Source ae KenOla 2! ssn es ks oe ae 157
mocking hints breediarin capiivity ©. 8-2... << cee oe a ne ess 167
Benth ePermerrerHt WAGE k ee al Oe a testy 498

710 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page
Montana, alkali lands, reclamation. .-.--........-..-Us.sse,e-6 =e ee 77
winter forage, note-.-. .--. -.<..cm<cecdeense ee eee 234

Moore, Wis L., W. J. HUMPHREYS, and O. L. Fassia, article on ‘‘New
problems of the weather’ ...:.--6.0-_-.. a5 2 al 121-124
Moose, killing, 1906 ... 2 = 2-22 oc cose cetera en oe 537
Morgan horse, preservation of breed, remarks. ..-..-..5....----+.- see 34
Morton citrange, remarks - 2. .<<- --.-..--<-<-- +: - deen aee3s545 een 330
Mosquito, yellow fever, study ..-.-...-...--.- «ch -ste geet aes ee 87
Moth, brown-tail, parasites: ..5..2¢--.=. 455-52e, oer eae eet Se ee 83-84
PIPSY, PARABLES, «a. epee cece eee eee. ae, ake 83-84
Moths, gipsy and brown-tail; damage, 1906... -: 22-2. 2.5222.) 9 eee 514
Mount Weather research observatory.......-....-.---~--5-.----2.5-—=ee 121
Mountain areas, ranges, reseeding ....-....--~.--4+=------45-5 eee 231-232
Mules, exports, 1902-1906. .2- ssc. 2 ao = too soos co eee 681
statistics, numbers: 666... <<) 532 3-2— =5 oo Sea ea ee 632-635, 648-650
Mytilaspis pomorum, destruction. by, birds. +.----.</----245-4-seeseee 191, 196, 197
Nebraska, forest y.. i263 25so-0+ 5 See ee sR ELE See ee 529, 531
object-lesson. road == 2225 22ss2 Base ee eee see 149
Negro, education, proposed agricultural instruction ---.-.--..-------------- 105
Nevada, springs as water supply -.. .--...----<4--.<0-<-<sss4-5—500 eee 233
New England, dairying opportunities, article by canis M. Whitaker.....- 408-412
Hampshire, £0rest?y,<,«.-.0<-=-<-=-qaes252e 50.05 oe eee 531
Jersey, forestry and forest reservations................---------- 529, 530, A

road laws, 1906.2... 22....3cekec eee ost Lee
Orleans, freight rates on cotton, remarks -..-..:----22--22 2/2252 373
York, agricultural education, consideration............---.---------- 154
city, freight routes and rates for cotton ....-....- re ee 373
forestry and forest reservations=- 222. 22-22-2252] eee 529, 530
State reserves and legislation............--------- 530, 531, 533
road laws,.1906... <2 sacs -25..0< 2-3 + Joaeeee ee eee 522
Newstead, R., observations on scale insect destruction by birds...--------- 191-192
Nighthawk, eating of boll weevil -.:........-..3..2--.¢¢ 3.430202 eee 91
Niphtingale, motes. .~ 2.256. =... 2.6 Se See ee ee i 176, 177
Nitrate, production by use:of electricity. ..=-2-- +... 2b) 2222232 ee 136
relation to soil fertility, noted eessss- ses. -e- aoe a 127
Nitrogen, atmospheric, fixation by soil bacteria ...-.........--.---.------ 130-132
content of corn kernels, changes by breeding -.---.-.------------ 285-288
determination, durum wheat, remarks-.-.-..------.--------------- 200
fixation, electrical methods, discussion .....-..----------------- 136
problem, present status, article by A. F. Woods .......--.------ 125-136

See also Protein.

Witrogen-fixing bacteria, distribution ......:......--.:.4.--+.-:=2=s==—ee 54
INUPOMONGS.CUTOPH; NOG so se. cocwice cis she ee oe ws Soe soe ee er 127
North Carolina, dairy industry< <2. 2-:....+- ==. «.25.-/2s hee 420
Dakota, alfalfa experiments... =-,....---\22.< +405. 3 seer 235
Nurseries, national forest, remarks ~---.=......-2%2+--42 -6205-2-==ee eee 526
Nut butters, discussion .....20-2---.c2e0 26 de. seGecqseo ace =e 304-305
candies, discussion .....-.---- tects etee.. Seueese ee 307
coffees, remarks. . ..< 25.2020 2c0s dee o3 est unc Sees eee ee 308
flours and meals « 2.0. so o-<e0 oe ceoeee eo ose. eee er 306-307
milk, infant feeding, note. ......- <«<2<<-.<<-<+-50~s0seu=e sean 297
oils, remarks. ....- «icici sade oclkie oa ebb thee oe Cee ee = ee 309
pastes, discussion .«.. -ce0nscecnserecasenss ss ces net o> en een a 305
pistache, investigation, description....-.----.2.-sl<.:sceeeneee eee 40, 297
preserves, GiscussiON. .......sewe0wee-oSeceles sce ndwe ede see eee 305
trees, diseases, 1906 .... 22.12 asedensececesses vb ieyl ec sued eee 507
insects injurious, 1906.. <s.ccm2e-000c--0- 5s sess is Use eee 513
Nuthatch, usefulness against scale insects ...........------------2+-0--2-- 194, 197
Nutrition, animal, experiments » ono. wa were ale ed a ara'n) = ate are 35
investigations, PIOPTOSS ... cove sevbe le teed SEE ee 107-109
value Of nue... o<ceeu-cges eee Uae CU eee = een 298-303
Nuts, bleaching, remarks. o7-<..<<scuccacdstewess secudwecs au lelaunuen 311
COMPOBItION . . ... oe sceuea cc sec cease Meee n Semi e ea ene alee ee 298-301
deseriptions . . - wu... ccucneeemeneceedae set eenaes deen ee aan en 296-298
digestibility .......0.0cceccscenen cee mast insiupes 4ee=ha aes seen 301-303

economy Of USC... . seeoccaseneenadesn>x=ce46senes ao) ane ene 309-311

INDEX. fal

Page
MIEN: PERIRERM 822. Soe = Scie 3s nek eee eRe oteen.cses 298
peeves, article by iM. E. Jafia 2.222 2 es 5: SUS eR eee 295-312
Seneee, HMME ONS 62 se ae. So oe CSS mae at Soace, eons 308
marketing and handling. ......-.--- Sie Ses JIS ne Soe ee ae 311-312
Bape. NOCHHSIDYS.. 3-28 fs a oe ae oe eee ee awet ee 302
pecs OL USE In. ,O1ebis.2 2. Se eee ae eee See ae a ee ee eee 303, 304
PP IBtATe, SYNONYMS. «2. os. - one ee eee oe 2 Groen 367, 368, 369
MEMMTIAOTN BUUGICS 2 5 o2:s. Sc aera ee ee eee ee eee 107, 108
PS CIBCDIRES . on Ui~ vss c ore hee ene Oa e ieee aie amare 311
fee eviporis, 1902-1906 . 724 Jo ase ees. Be Sees Sees 677
eeeeceissction by birds. ..-.....----2-=<2o..5-8=-sqeensss oa emee 195
Peee AMITOOUCION . . . . = 23.) eee eee kee een eee aoe 44
Ete te —1906_ . . . 2.5 = 22 cas ee ee eee 686
NEERING So. =. ow aso oo 2 Sk oe ee ee ee 505
RMI oS os oe 2 Se Se ee ee Ce Oe
IERIE oo oS 2 oe 3 3 ee ee ee 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc. ...--.-------- 561-568, 685
Ocean freight rates, relation to British imports; statistics............-.----- 384, 665
value of goodsjeo22ss5 ee Se ee ee 372
EWONICISSHCS - «ooo. c oc cn os so ocd sc eee eee ee eee ee 374

Office, Experiment Stations; Roads. See Experiment Stations; Roads.
of. io oy A es oS oR N se 531, 533
SM POG oo oo nn oo a one wo weeded Lae ee ts ee eee 522
fabaceasermentation and selection». 2c252sss4s22Ss-ca5-84 see oe ease 79
Oil cake and oil-cake meal, statistics, exports and imports. ....--.-.------- 625
eotton seed, exports, 1902-19062 2..2s2252 tee eee oe eee 687
mit meals remarks... .. ...c.2s5<sesssssousne ee. tee aie sees eee 309
corn, content in kernel, changes by breeding -..-.----.--.------------ 285-287
cotton-seed statistics, exports and imports..........-.---------------- 605, 687
psp aeainsy: dustion roads... 2.254222 sssaccac sesso ce acee ee= 114
Remon PeEMGTKS 5): 2-2. oh eae eed a ews ce teow ee 309
Oupys, Henry, article on ‘‘Cage-bird traffic of the United States’’........- 165-180
AGLIEMETIRI ROM. 255.5 22 Soa. noha cats aoa more NSS SS Sa 297
pee mreni reaction ty Pirds:. 25.22 eto se tess cee dst eps Set ee 193
list oi bird enemies !-2— - = ern oes 194
iver ed apple, origin, description, etc. .......---.-.----2--20---- sss... 357-358
Orange hybrids, trifoliate with sweet, development. ...-......-.---------- 329-336
new loose-skinned, Thornton, production........----------------- 336-337
eames: transportation investigations .....-..'..2se.2-- 6 s22.-25-00- 5-22 49
Orchard grass, usefulness in reseeding western ranges. ----...---..-------- 232
MEE eLOLeCON irom: TaD Dita! s)sn ck SS oe Soe sen So ee eS 91
Orepae mieying . >... 25... .<. 2. Ti Sate Nip eir 5 ENT Sa 425-426
Origtoveamucombholleweevll: —- 22a. those. Sok Sees dl bee SS 91
species, usefulness against scale insects..........-..--------------- 194, 197
Orlando pineapple, origin, description, etc ........-...-----.-------------- 344-345
Remamertal plants diseases! 190620. 202. oo. oo cS: 22S. os 5 See 507
trees ansecis in UnlOUssLOUGIs @ 2 22 5-2 ies eae 514
Wnron, W.-A., review OL, plant diseases in 19062... :+- 222. 52522en22 J2scelec 499-508
Ozark mountain region; apple bitter rot.........-.. .2l 225.22. 22522222 nskk 41
Pacific coast, dairying opportunities, article by E. A. McDonald........... 422-428
freight ratestonawheat esas se oe eS Bee ee ee ee 381
Packine-nouse inspection; Chicago's. = 222 Sse es: eek «ee ee 493
products; exports: imports sete... oe-- 2. eters 14, 671, 681
Pace, LoGan WALLER, article on ‘‘Object-lesson roads”? ............------ 137-150
Pitmer, T.8., review of game protection, 1906_-. 22. ....222.. crt linee 533-540
Peper chemical Bays sorte eee ae ooo OS ASE os ELE Re okie 71
ard rast Ubcrainess, remarks: eo. 2). 22ers! ok Te ee ee eee 39
eeeeagliner TURE. MOLE =. 2D lore Sue Meee Sab So Aree ees oy So ee eae 297
Parafiin, use in coating butter to prevent mold...................-..------ 498
Parasites “MOMeweevil sa455 Se Wee a kee Meee ele ee eee 82
POBCCEATCINARCG 8 cts ces Se ee ae ee ee See 190
moth, of sipsy and. brown-tall moths: ........<T.<. seo. eee se 83
BNCED Poman man Meer ee SO os See ewe ce See 3s SES 33
May Ol MOMBEh WORMS) ~ o=o. 22 = 2s 2. aus os Ce a 496
usefulness in control of cotton boll weevil .............---.----- 318-322

(ait: YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Parrakeeta, kinds, qualities; etc. -.-..2..25. --s4-2.<s2-- 42-055 oe 174, 175
Parrots, capture‘and supply -22:-_ 2.2: -- <2. ee eee 169
kinds, prices, historic notes, ete... +2... ..4226-.-2.5 eee 174-176
Parus, spp., usefulness against scale insects... .....<-sj-4 22525 te 191, 192, 194, 197
Passenger rates, Tallway )) 20s o420 en Jee 669
Pastures, New England, remarks. See.also Range... 222... 2-t slo eee 408, 411
Pathology, vegetable, investigations... .....-...-:/. 23235222 See 41
Pea, diseases, 19062: 2 22252. 2082 a ee 503
Tangier; usefulness, remarks/- 2s = 4-2 S2 522 2 Se 39
Peach, early. Wheeler, new variety, origin, etc.../..2..<i5..22+:22--s8eeee 360
enemies, control, use of lime-sulphur wash..........-------------- 446
insect. injuries, 1906. > 22.22 322 al. eee eee 512, 513
leaf curl, control, use of lime-sulphur wash........---....--.------ 446
yellows, destructiveness .. <--s 23.52 ss Jis0 325.25 2o tee Se 4]
Peaches, transportation,. remarks <2. 2222.20: -2-s<.<0.-3-2.- 452562 cee 48
Pear“blight, ‘control methods. 2-22: 25. ---ss-25---/--- 4. so-so - eee 41
diseases, - 1906.22.23. 25-3226. Ss see ee se ee eee eee 500
insect injuries, 1906. 2¢2:2 es a eee ee eee 512
Peaty soils, note:.423 2c Ace 2 ee eee eee cae 127
Pecans, new varieties, origin, description, ete ...--------.-------------sss 365-370
Pedigree, live stock, associations. . .. 2.2. 2.- 2+. 26 -2>2=5655 34
registration, 19062 20. S. J2uu ied See aL 497
Pennsylvania, forestry and forest reserves......-.----- ae SGeooceeleeees 529, 530, 531
Peptones, relation to nitrogen supply in soil.......-.------;-------------- 126
Persimmon, new variety, origin, description, etc.....-..-.----.-----..--- 362-363
Phyllocoptes cornutus, control, use of lime-sulphur wash)).i 4522. 26=43e3ee 446
Physics, experimental, Mount Weather; Vasv2 s2.22 i .2leesek eee 124
solar, problems for study ....-..22.12 22.0. 2 ceGee See ee 123
Pickles, nut, remarks: -...2f251-t246231 222 eee 308
Picoides arcticus, usefulness against scale insects........--.---------------- 197
Pine, prices, rise, 1894-1906. .. .......-t-«.esse-2 4.225 Se eee 526, 527
Pineapple, diseases, 1906... -.. 2.22.2 RRR ee 502
hybrids, discussion’ -.22/22.< 320 25) $2 5-825. 0) ese eee 337-346
new. varieties, remarks - 2s... .cccccnueeee ees ee eee eee “et
productions, new, Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert
J. Webber 223..5.2. 2.6) Joc ee ee eee 329-346
Pine- bark beetle, study . 222. .+-..2 2 sects Sane ee 86
Pinenut, description = .--.22: . .. ees eee See eee ee ee ee 296
Pipilo spp., usefulness against scale insects .....-------------------------- 194
Pistache nut, investigation; description ......-.-.------------------------- 40, 297
Plant diseases, 1906, review by W. A. Orton ......-..-------------------- 499-508
Industry, Bureau, organizatiOn and work .......2..-.-..-<22ese=eee 454
Ww ork, review. by Secretary .....-.--.----25.505ae 38-59
introduction garden, Chico, Cal., remarks. ..... --2:cs0 ee 59
Plum curéalion;stady: . 222.2 92-2. =... chee 20s os ae ae 86
diseases, 190622. 25. Se eS Ree bic ete be ees ee 501
scale, damape: 2.2 Ss.202 122202 5.2 Lt ee 190
Plums, transportation, remarks ....-.-----------------------------++-+-- 48
Poisonous plant investigations, remarks. -..........---.----<--------se--- 54
Pole sweat, tobacco, prevention ---......-=80¢0------ 202. eee es ee 81
Polioptila californica, usefulness against scale insects -........-=-------e.8 194
Pollination, cross, use in.corn breeding ........----.--..<- 22 seceneee 281, 282-285
Pome fruits, diseases, 1906 - ceca chew oh bec hace ele at eee 499-500
Poplar lumber, prices, rise, 1894-1906... .. 2.22. 6 oe sie. see 526, 527
Pork, exports, growth ..--...--.-------------+------ 22+ ++ 220s eee eee e eee 248
imports Russian prohibition......-.-------------------------++--- 255
prohibitions, foreign, against imports...-.-.------------------------ 249-255
statistics, exports, 1 190221906. .u scu ies uuelcuudeaccue senuae aie 682
Porto Rico, experiment station, remarks. ......------------------+-+-+--+-- 107
Post-Office Department, cooperation in road building :........-.+--.--sse- 117
Post-roads, improvement, cooperative work..-...-----.------------------ 117
Potato, diseases, 1906. 2s cos ane cmtcetcueemclan: Gone nee neko er 504
Potatoes, disease-resistunt...2+). .ca.ccaslocdes «dunes wana eeeeeeeu neuen 42
production, note ....----.--i--+2-+-+-22- 22-2 secrete cece tenes 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc...-.-.- ein tia 584-591
Poultry-breeding experiments. ........0.-.e-e-ececeeueesceeeeeeeee scenes 497

remarks, . ooccnveoeb cleue Shots aoee eee ee ae eee 35

ae

—?

INDEX. 713
Page.
Precipitation, departures from normal, 1906...........---..-------- Nie see 491
January, February, March, and April, 1906-.......- 473, 477, 478, 479
relation to cotton boll weevil damage ....-.......--..-.---- 317-318
ATTICS GION Aye 2 eee ee: ee rs SA 325-326

See also Rainfall and Rains.
Preservatives, meat, foreign restrictions of use ..............--.-.-------- 260
MrT meena TCINATKGS.< <2 - 32 2s as 5S 1 Was Soe Renee cee eee asa aee 305
a sppropriation, limitation ....-.<<cco.<ssi<.sesess seeds Reacees 96
Proliferation, relation to cotton boli weevil control.............---...----- 318
Protein, content of corn kernels, changes by breeding ...............-..-- 285-288
memncontant in wheat, remarks: 22222) 22eeee Sees. at Seen 2 esas 212
me nmmmeantaty, note. ....2.- «sce edese ano ee ee 302
wheat, effect of time and manner of harvest ........-......------ -209
influence of length of growing season.......-.-......---.- 206
Provisions, freight rates, Chicago to European ports ......-.....-.-------- 669
Psaltriparus minimus, usefulness against scale insects..........---....---.- 194
Psylla, pear tree, use of lime-sulphur wash.............<...-...+--------- 446
Eupue toads, Office, work and organization. .-..---.2s..-2s22s22.8e- 112-118, 457
ed nawinory COMmMittes............ oti. Loeeteeee eke seeeeee 96
momen, Increase... . .... = 2 s202 ae eee ee ee 96
Department, educational demand... ......2--2%-2--.2.-220-- 98
Drvision, organization and work:<< = S22 esses oe eee wee 456
work, review by Secretary indigo 42sec s Se ee 95-99
feb COriens and reprints ...2522= 3.4. Se eee ee eee 97
Pulvinaria innumerabilis, destruction by birds. -....-........-------------- 195
Pure-culture inoculation, soil improvement ................-..--.-------- 135
DP UMORGPHINE WATGCNA . --..- <= <60c--sn6 snceck cee ceenseres o~eeuec 217
eendition And propagation, 1906 ..........2---~-<s.<--2--455~ siseete 537, 538
QuarntTance, A. L., article on ‘‘ Lime-sulphur washes for San Jose scale’? .. 429-446
ne smmorted animals, romarks. ... «0 .= = c= senachennccatesag tacts 28
restrictions, foreign meatanimals -.: 2... .< 5. 2¢-0c~Heuen <5 cx 258
Texas TeVer State la we lebCise cose ene oe Ne eee os 29-30
ee SEE SETAE EL a ee aes ste” nn en 500
eM CLIEMARNE Sot... ane aes = Sa uR Men es so awe 90
eued apple. origin, description, etc =... ...-....---<-----scssn0-------- 359-360
ESOS EES TER TS) Ra egg a ap Pee ee a 528
Railway, freight rates on wheat to interior points.._........-........----. 377
EBERRON 5s nes oi oa Sale ee See a ee 665-668
GOsts: \GISCUSMONN so Gee tee oe .... 371-386
POTS SE OES gee Sg RSE = aye eee ee apie Re ia 669
Rainfall, concentration, relation of topography.................-....----- 327
western, relation to ranges for live stock ...........-...........- 226

See also Precipitation.

eat enue aaa aem@ONG, LOUG 5-220. 2.2 oe 2 oc ne oc 482
i Mite RTR IS ee ree ee ee ee ee ee 484
IN} COLO MOS lial OMe ete eek Sarees Ur AS i ee ee 479
Montana, Utah, and New Mexico, 1906..........-_-....- 486
Pacitic cospiqand Mloriga: 1906c0 22 ee eee ee eee 481
Range cattle, improvement of grade a necessity.........-.....-...-------- 235-237
horses, improvement of grade a necessity...........-....---------- ry
exiproverient, CiseqeelGn soc oes tee en en ee 227-233
mands, cultivation mew movement... .2.-0o...2-o.2-- eo neo 237-238
manacement, areieie y J. S. WotOl.. o.oo. non ook ee es "225-238
Shacie JNGUELTY Mune. Pemarky 2.2 ok et ee 238
NOU. T CACRIIIN ern a ne ee ee en en en eee 230, 232
Benne anvary py prematuce crane. 0. ee eee! ee a 233
Western, Carrying enpidine TeMared 8-2 ew Ts 226
weiner teen. eer On itininee ne AN 233-235
REPRE Si INCRE a Lng eek: Sree ey ares See Oe ee Te 501
Raw1, B. H., article on ‘‘Opportunities in dairying—the South”’.......... 417-422
Recommendations, Secretary.......... 34, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 120
Bedbird, usefulness agaist scale insects ..__-...........--..._t.------... 192
Redtop, usefulness in reseeding western ranges.............-------------- 232
Saeed aM EDI GNIS PRI ee es 528
Regulus calendula, usefulness against scale insects ...........------------. 2 197
PRpeneet Manner MEME Eee 2 635-637

714 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page
Renovated butier, inspection. ._....... 224 -22e8- 2 <bsu) fae ee 38
Resin, statistics, exports and imports /2< 2.2228. 22.2ede See 625-626
Rhode Island, forestry and forest legislation ..................-..-.-----. 533
road laws, 1906s. 22: .s22.45 2-55.62 828s ee 522
station, corn breeding ..... 26222. 20s.- 66-2 2) ee 285, 292
Rice, A. G., statement of soil areas surveyed to December 31, 1906_......-- 517-520
diseases, 1906... ssedses52h0 5-5-0 Ld wee kode a 505
growing in Porto Rico... = ...222.-..-2.-- 3s232.esi 107
investigations, remarks ct 22 fs 2eeS.0. oun Lik eee % 45
production, notes.s. 22226-22022). Sak ee a ee eee 13
statistics, acreage, production, prices, etc. ..... 0202. 2-22 ..-t seen 613-616
Road construction, expert advice, etc., remarks ............---.-.-.-- 113-115, 117
laws, 1906, review by M. ©. Eldridge:.2: 22. 1.2»... bs 2 eee 521-523
making outfit, articles 223242 3: 2 84-525: 12.0 See eee 141
materials, investigation of properties. .....:.......2255-4.3-3eueoes 115-118
kinds and.cost, tables. -...-.---L--2..4220 0: -. ==.
PeStS) satchino eee oe ee eee 140-141
work, object-leason, purpose > 223-42 5st dae ee cee beset. eee 142
Roads, country, improvement as post routes, remarks................--1-- my
making, cost, remarks)... .2.2 2. e504 ee eee 143, 146
object-lesson, article by Logan Waller Page ..............-...----- 137-150
construction, remarks: 25. - 52.2220. 2252 see eee 114
extent of construction... -. 223.222.2222... 2280 eee 144-145
lectures . W22 ...2ad.. eee o e 150
reports oo... ont 28. 2S eee eee 139-140
post, improvement... =. 2. 022s.e ese Mee se 149-150
Public, Office, organization and work. .W......:/-G20---.2 eee 457
work, review by Secretary <2. .:.202:_ 5). Soe 112-118
Robins, Japanese, description and prices..: ~~: -: 2252 52--2eee 177
Rock; fertilizer use; nolésas. sss nee eeeee Mieres SSeS 116
Rocks, binding power, study 22:25-:.c2220s 2-2 A eee eee 116
Root-nodule bacteria, relation to nitrogen fixation..............----.----- 132-135
varieties and efficiency -: 2. 2. .2) 2.21 Je eee 133
Rot, bitter, apple in Ozark mountain region. - ~~ 222 <=. 15-<.8ee. epee 41
plant disease, 1906, notes......- Recor tieuss ti ee 499-508
.Rotch, A. L., study of upper atmosphere ............¢..2-. 2-0 122
Rubber, india, statistics, exports and imports. ._..4..5...-2_....-5. 2. 627
Rush, matting, introduction, remarks... -2.. .22222 32222) 222. aoe eee = 40
Rusk citrange, retaarks +22: . . 2. 2s. 32 ee ns ee ae eee oe 329
Russia, imports of hogs and hog products, restrictions. ...............-.--- 255
Rust, plant disease, 1906; notes. 2522522022222 oo eee 499-508
Rustic citrange, origin, description, use, etc -.:...i.........-.....2eeeeeee 334-336
Rorrter, Franx R., article on ‘‘ Foreign restrictions on American meat’’... 247-264
bye, diseases; 1906 282 Joo ae bo ook 2 Se chs Sood ces eee 505
exports, 1902-1906... 22.222 22.2 22s c2 cs cee sen 01 oe 685
forage use On Tanged .:.2.is5.2--.-2...2..206esls. asso 234
production; note. <-.2..-362 5252. soe<2s 208220 cae eee 13
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, ete.............------ 575-581
Rye-grass, reseeding on ranges <... <=... 2-sen-cecbeneleeee eee conn 231
Salsify,. disease, 1906... . i 2sas.csc ee eee 504
Salt, value in lime-sulphur wash, discussion..............---------------- 434, 438
San Jose scale, control, time of application of wash...........-.---------- 443
lime-sulphur washes, article by A. L. Quaintance .........- 429-446
Sanitary dairying, notes... 2<6.s.ieecenns anc ce ss eee een 498
officers, live-stock, ‘list 2... 2 is cc. t ene cee ee 468-469
Santa Rita Forest Reserve, range improvement...........---.---.-------- 229
Savage citrange, origin, description, use, etc.............---.------.ssceue 333-334
Savannah, freight rates.on cotton. < 2560... 2. 2.cuss seeeeeeeee =o. > ae 373
Scab, plant disease. See Plant diseases.
sheep, control . 250.005. 2clesck Sole UL eee etre ae 28
Scale, cottony maple, destruction by birds ...................------------ 195
greedy, destruction by-birds. 2... .c.ccll cues eeeeemen cee fee eee 194
hawthorn, destruction. by sparrow......--.-.-.0escee-sesnecccecees 191
insects, control, birds benefitial..-.. 55.0..3.0h aco eene un cue 91
use of lime-sulphur wash)... .....5.--. Se se eoeeee 446

INDEX. 715

\

Page
Scale, insects, destruction by birds, article by W. L. McAtee....-....----- 189-198
North-American birds... 22. 522.24..6.-202.5 192
ERSCRICIOO WORK. ono os ese ore Sew ose ee ee 87
matriral GRONUCH 5-55 55k hea nae atk See esas 190-192
Memes £6 SPS 2 22. J 2skSciewn cea woe Pon cee ee ote sisa ics Seah 190
San Jose. See San Jose scale.
School officers, attitude toward elementary agriculture.........-..-..----- 152-155
eeermmersctiliniral, GISCUBSION . ....- -..c< ccinesence venesse beer steweeences 104-105
organization... 35.32 eee ne eee a eee 160
agriculture as study, introduction, article by A. C. True .......... 151-164
farmers’ help, gnethods..o.. <0. ee ee 162-164
RII oi wi oo ocr ios ox oo sw ew ncicine Ree ee neee been oe ear 469
relation to labor supply for sugar-beet growing. ........--...----- 271
Scuuttes, J.I., article on ‘‘ Corn breeding at the experiment stations” ..... 279-294
‘Seaboard, wheat ROULER Tall and water. \.5<* see eee BIRR Fae ee 379
Seaports, one trOM Interior 2. . .....- <csasbaeresscuenens censuses 373, 667
PAIL, PUIGICN, NOLS: .... -... 25-22 ds ds cbedee cane weet ecu’ 2 68
Secretary of Agriculture. See Agriculture, Secretary.
Seed, beet, relation to sugar content of beets -.......2-..---..- Pete See 268
Ree ermn. POUUCHION. .... = <== s-sSsen eee a eee 48, 275
Ge SEAGIRMICH, DMICCS... ......- ob ance sent ee ek eh pak eee tae
aistribpuation, Congressional, remarks... 2.22. sce<-cecece ce ceunccsces 58
good, for farmer, RGPOARGS « - 2... ncn ocsmc ee ee nari 47
influence on composition of grain.-....-..---+.--------------------- 208
PanOpnyASLAGAtICS DIICGS. « ..< <o/ss.cscb ss Sune occur eeeeeee tee eee. 630-631
ee ert OF COANGCS . ....<~ ~ 225. 2scnen none eke eee e eee 400
relation to preservation of type........-------..--ee cece cece 403-404
Penmeneed. tse in corn. breeding... : .. 2. sijexsdene seeccseeus eosce cece 289-292
tobacco breeding ntinceetesee see ee scene ease eaes 400-401
PRODI. TOMAS. . . ..< . 5 = cna once ecusec sons dn poe eee ee 337
BAO ILeRHWeINCASCH: LONG = 2. s+ << eases oscccan un cee ears Se cee aeeee 507
snOcted nj UMOuss 906: 2 22123 eee ee nee ee eee eames 514
SHamEtz, A. D., article on ‘‘New tobacco varieties’’...............--.-.--- 387-404
SHRP eeeemnnnrn -SASOCISLIONS <4... =... 20525 sce oOeSey od ee oe ae 467
Rape, increase of value. of wool --..... 22-4 44- + 2c2eb oc. ~ 055 e25e 495
Ribera aArasiLes dl ONG) ..1.5- sate Jesus ee meee ee oso ea eewe oes oe 496
SeMCHIesteROtIRERT ure foot ec aR ton wade cae == eee a 33
name Dreedane experiments } 2 -. JcaJoess tees. Leseiecceeue seeks 497
PR SERIOD 2 fot bid os oa watt SRC ee wan rece ca tae sees 28
MaMIRMCN LOK DOTA, 10021 O0G) sus ~ sen Oe aoe Sale See he ee ee 681
Bumpers, am ports .ete. 5 eee oee ee 632-635, 656-658, 670
SHERRARD, THomas H., article on ‘‘ National forests and the lumber supply”. 9 AAT—-452
Ships, freight rates, comparison with qwapon- Fates? 2. <<< oo. 24s. Sees. 380
ST 0 SESS Ao a ee oT YS eee eee ne eae re ee oe 42
Sialia m. occidentalis, usefulness against scale insects .............--------- 194
Deen SEH PIR INEM Re ee See Sr og SF SE Geka eed hee ae 55
Silk culture, - REPCH INGORE aa 2S eee ks ee ok cae Jk las eee 88
MiShistiCd; CXPOLis and sMPORBat se e+ occ Soe e ee Seek Sess 628
pene PONG oe ie ce cece cin het eee cee ee 671
paeeawitly wupar Demis eis 8 etek Pee its See tegen ce Se 278
Evieg need in dairy sections of the South ...--...-....-5s.deuse 22.252. 418, 419
Sitta c. aculeata, usefulness against scale insects .............-------------- 194
Skins, statistics, exports and imports of world................-.-- 640-645, 671, 681
Smut. See Plant diseases, 1906.
Eremernpydeason, 1906.) taser Sab smes Se thes! ey Ra ee yes 473
heavy, Colorado‘andew yamine 1906-6222. s2 212 S2an Se asc ose 489
Sou acidity. relation, to bacteria, remarks=-— 22. 25605. 5-232. 22-0 ccc cee 127
IbactemaNchemicalifunehons pecs eo ss ee -128
fixation-of atmospheric nitrogen 2-22.22. .5-i---scesced 130-132
conditions, dairy districts, North Central States, remarks..........-.- 413
fertility, relation of dairy farming Shah See Se ee a Sw a PL A EL 405
inoculation, distribution of inoculated soil.........-2--2-2.-2---2222--- 134-135
HGS pHTS CUliired = 5 2. hus boas nn daek tec uwke 135-136
TEPOnts-y PReEseniGUNed a == ee eee ot aes os Stee. Seu ee 186-187
resources, United States, possibility of increase ..................---- 181-182
Ser 2 2 See a ee Sn ae Ee ni tet oe 74

716 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Soil, survey, areas surveyed, 1906, statement by A. G. Rice............-.-- 517-520
surveys, use, article by J..A. Bonsteelo:-2 + ..-2.25..+0se..enqesneeeee 181-188
types, series, and. provinee. .......- -<e0.<0-505--2= 53> Oe ee 183-184
Soils; adaptation of Crops... « .-- ----<-ne-0. mnt seo Se coe ees Gee ee 184-185
Bureau, organization and work..........0..cne<<----t05.4- 44 e6= eee 455
work, review by Secretary ........ 22 s3.0.<2.4s2-.0ese cee 72-81
influence on composition of wheat. - 2. 2c o2uc sexn eee Ss ee 205
nitrogen content, availability .-.....-..<...-.0sscsda0 sensase eee 125
USES, TEPOLIUS ss <2 nc cen dyn= cen pine Se cto se ee a3 eee 185
Solenopsis genuinata, usefulness against boll weevil..............---.------- 821
Solicitor, Agriculture Department .....-......- = -s002-60cneee ob Ue ee 453
South Carolina, dairy industry ...-.....:-.~-.2+-s-5---5=s05c~<55 eee 417
dairy improvement, remarks of Secretary -..2.....-s<-.<<-5-o0eeme 37
dairying; extension, appropriation... 2. <= 5... ss... eae oe eee eee 498
opportunities, article by B. H. Rawl.......-:.-2-<s<saseue 417-422
Sows, fecundity. o-oo cc cl aoe he cic wi Ser ei 34
Spain, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions. ..........-.---..--- 255
Sparrow, species, usefulness against scale insects .......-......------------ 194, 196
Sparrows, Java, description and prices ..j<)- 320-2 oce. shes -55~ cue sa Lig
Spelt, forage Use q - ais wna nn eS woe Sas ce cme oo Se 234
Sphyrapicus varius, usefulness against scale insects.......-.-.-------------- 197
SprttMan, W. J., review of farm-management study, 1906.-....------.- ‘..-- 524-525
Spizella s. arizone, usefulness against scale insects .....--.-..-.------------ 194
Spraying, equipment for lime-sulphur wash .--........-.-----.----------- 444
Springs, use as water supply on western ranges.........-.---------------- 233
Squash; disease, 1906. .:-- << - oc... asscocisdocnwcqe se Saeko eee eee 504
Stars, meteorolopical relations, note . -2222as-c22e42se552 oon 65 se eee 124
Statistics, Bureau, organization-and work -.°2 2222) 5e25-=05s-- eee 457
work, review by. Secretary. 222.02 2-225 eee 99-101
crop, 1906... 2 5. saceclos sae toceescae os-05 ee eee 542-631
farmers’ institute. ......2.<...s00-cssesseenass ce ees 541
Stayman, Dr. J., apple propagation... ....-..---o-- 6662 =e 300-356
Stock, live. See Live stock.
Stockmen, attitude on public-range legislation............---------------- 227
Stomach worm, sheep, study, 1906....... .-<.c2<.cs-6<-—es.seesseus = ee 496
Stone. fruits, diseases, 1906)..........<-..csscscncuecec scene. eee ee 501
Storage, fruit, studies: ...... ~~. 0.5.cecs>aueecoeeceS--Seees eer 48, 50
insects injurious to agricultural products.-......-.---------------. 87
Stored products, insects injurious, 1906 5. -. . << cccen seen nse 516
Storm, damaging, Gulf districts, 1906... 2. .c..0csses<s- neice = == eee 488
Storms, #1906; NOtes = 2. o— 5 cscs 5 cnn cece emacsniee os eSeiee = eee re 478
Strawberry, diseases, 1906 .! <5. - cones ccs cess -- ee entice. ss ee 502
insecis injurious; 1906. 2s. ceo 2102 sSee 1cccese3e-6->ee 517
Streptothrix spp., relation to soil nitrification.......--...---..--------- 128, 129, 130
Students, Roads Office, notes... csc: 2. s.acses0sse0<20s50sce=— 55 115, 117
Subtropieal laboratory, remarks .........------»---20-=-=-s==s=05=eeeee 59
Sugar, beet; content in beet, relation of climate and soil_-............----- 268
cost of production, methods of reducing, article by C. O. Town-
SONG... - sc ccic ccc cn coc cece dee cine see es SURE eee 265-278
increase of content in beet ......c<<-.-ss+<-=5e5E === =n eee 267
labor colonies . -.-.<.2..-.s2ebeeceeucste=2-3ee ee ee 272
production, historical notes... << <.<-.0<-s-.neeer=aes ae 265
NOt... fo sleeds ob Ss boesic ee eee eee 12
statistics, production, acreage, prices, etc........-------------- 617-622, 679
Sulphur, grades, effect of variation on lime-sulphur wash .....-.---------- 438
occurrence, preparation, and use in lime-sulphur wash ....-..-.-- 433-434
Sumatra tobacco, use in producing new tobacco varieties......-.---------- 287
Sun, relations of weather .<....-..< -<.-cssscce+capeua ene k eese ses eee 123
Sunflower seed, use. ...-- 0 - acco 0sdsesbadclucce Sac eaeee apy eee dee 298
Supplies, Government, chemical, examination..........-.---------------- 7
Supply Division, Chief, duties........-:...-u<csseueseeee eeamsesecee meee 454
Surveys, soil, extent, problems, and demands (see also Soil).-.------------- 73-75
Swamp lands, drainage,.remarks ........- ..---d5dseeee see -ehenet ooo eee 112
Sweden, imports of American swine products, prohibition. ....-....------- 255
Sweet potatoes, diseases, 1906 ..... 2. ..--.--- psn nuda -secaee twenes amueee 503

Swine. See Hogs.
Switzerland, imports of meat animals, regulation .............------------ 255

INDEX. TAT

Page

ETA ee re). Se eee e cach on aeecmseewacsseecaeescens 298

Tangier pea, usefulness, remarks. ..<.......:-.-------+------------------- 39

Pra ANE <= 1 2 2. 2 Sct wor Soages ome ae euace we saeez eee anos 71

ENE Te ee ee re, By en ae a etic 114

Tariffs, discrimination against American meats and meat animals.......--- 262-263

Taytor, WiLi1aM A., article on ‘‘ Promising new fruits’’...........------- 355-370

Pere AMCTICANS PTOPTES . ...<< 2.2225 So--ac seaeeasosenean soe 54

ere oorin and imports .. 2... o- soot ee ao eee enece sceee ones 623, 679

Teachers, attitude toward elementary agriculture in schools ......--------- 152-155

MN OMMOVIEION 2.002.222 5.2222 Joss eee ee eee eeoeeeeeen se 159-160

aesn, Oripin, Gescription, Cte. ....--...-25- Sqsse- ceo oeecnaeecas=== 367

ESS RET a a 298

Temperature influence on composition of plants ............-------------- 206

eerie. Crop season, 19002. - 2s. .-- 2. --ssseeeneeem etree =cut esas -— 473-491

: departures from normal, 1906, table ............-..-------- 489-490

emir SHOISLrY. | 22 Salas oo ces eee enn ew ewes ose ae 420

MELEtION ex periment. . os J aol. eee ree ecs eae es eee 107, 108

mnect-lecson TOadN... oS. 2s sc5eh so see Soe ee eee 148

CE MIMMMUELEY. 22. f5cc50T sl occa tke co ers ceeceese eee a= ss ce= seo 419

TeVGF, Cradication ==. «2242s ss55ssc8 ac Sos oses ssh ee soe ses ese scss 29-32, 495

liek, damage, 1906... 225222 228sercazedsiese Si seee esas cn 516

rg Ses oie oo coe alae a Se a le a er 529

MAPatEALeT ON COON = 2 sos 2S ois See cee eee aan eloe seco ease 373

range improvement, alternation of pasture ..............-.-..-.-:- 230

Pronk perments...-.. 2225. 2 aged ewes tes Sete seecee eee sees 78

maseravig basicola, tobacco disease, note ...s2sc2ss2sc0 <2 scssccee~cicesccccs 398

Thornton orange, origin, description, use, ete ...............-..---------- 336-337

Thrush, varied, usefulness against scale insects ..........--..5...-..------ 197

Thryomanes b. spilurus, usefulness against scale insects .............------- 194

eS CTACICAGON = — 22% =). - =~ ~-2,500 6 ss pete see Sees ae eee 29-32, 495

relation to-dairy.industry#netess 5-5 ee oe oe ease eee eae 418

Pere ne OG S39 Soe sas. Sst at ce case eet ee eee eo noes 516

PeeIonal Forest. Cisposal 2. os. .5. 326. nosso ese eee eee es aee ese 525, 526

purchasers. oe no sae eee eee eaee cette 449

panne. dispasalander land laws ..-=-.=.<~- 5... =. 28s2=+----2..2 448

purchase, advantages in dealing with Government.-.........------ 451

sales, forest reserve, extent and character................-....---- 64

supply, conservation by Government effort ................-.-.-- 447-452

me Sorest reserve, management -=2-. 222. -22 22-6. 22 sacs 61

syndicates; acquisition:of public Jands2=< 222-222 3 eel eee ec 85 3t 449

VESTED, Se etn gers gl co See ee ee eee eee Se es Se ern ee 529

PermOrvemnBeC injures. 1906s... 5 2. 522s Sod eee SS Se ea eee eee 509

LERUL GUS RCS 2 Cos] eee ee Se. TA eh eo eee 630-631

usefulness in reseeding western ranges ............----.-------- 231

Tit, species, usefulness against scale insects. ............ ...-..-------- 191, 192, 194

Titmouse, species, usefulness against scale insects...............---------- 194, 197

@obacco breeding, necessity and methods. -........2.22<.5.2..02 22 Je.ck 399-401

diseases: emiarksser Joe es oe. 2 Pe De hg ee 398, 504

hybrid ‘varieties: and -hybridization=2.2222.22 2.c26 05.0. 23k 52, 53, 399

insects Injuridgsd, 61906 Be <a eee Se 509

apvestigations; Haus, Bureaa) 4. = 5522 .<c. Poe ee SR 78-81

pole-sweat, preyeningnuccas55 2S eee a ee eek 81

preservation. Of TypecaetS.2. oo oe o e ees eee 403-404

production, note =aeestleens sees sea see eee ere kw a ctecnes 12

. Statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc..........---.- 605-608

exports and-dmiports; 1902-1906 2 ke et (ces eee 679, 689

Budy and breeding. qprosress-<) 99. Sees see. ate 52-54

Sumatra, Uncle Sam variety, origin, description, etc...........-- 389-392

TESHNS NOW VATICWMER ssn as Ss Sc ween dae ee 401-403

varieties, new, aruele:by A.D: Shamel.--22--- 2... -..2-. boc ex 387-404

means, Caneanes. 1906 oe ss el es igh eet Or ee eae 505

Loumeyolla, Gestricuen: by Card@imal e525 8). Pec. En 192
TownsEnD, C. O., article on ‘‘Methods of reducing the cost of producing

Bech caret a tan ee ee o. o ts eeee: 8 el le eee Sot ee 265-278

reterpee geen ores, trite So) 2 Bee eer a0 .ess ee 375

Transportation;-citrus fruit, experiments... .....-....---<22-.cececdencecee 49

718 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.

Transportation, freight cost, relation to market values, article by Frank
ANnGYOWS. « 2... see So ee ne c5 5 eee ee 371-386
fruit, remarks. -......- ss<esc0scsstec-. ene eee eee 48
GAME oa. <. cae ce nc sceet esc cs ede se sees + ose eee 93
rates, statistics.. coo. cccce.sec qk sde ss dees eee eee 665-669
sugar-beet 2 .c20sb cdcews eouere seas, 2636 she oe 277
Tropa bispinosa, nut, USC. -2<- $2 52+ acne sac sec~ <2 tes seers cee See 297
Treaty limitations, relation to meat importation ......-.-.-------.---.--.- 261-262
Tree planting, forest-reserve and cooperative. ........---.s-0-cs-caccecses 66-67
Trees, damage by scale insects «4. .\. se sc ech m aces ence ees ers eee roe 189
Trifoliate orange, hybrids with sweet, development..............-.-------- 329-336

Triticum spp. See Wheat.

Tropical food products, ‘studies. 2. -.1<s.----2s<53<. Sse cee So cee 509
fruits, diseases, 1906... ....----s--2--—-+-> 5205-4 5ccuiee- eee 502
insects injurious, 1906.255.- -. oce.a+ sess smeseee eee 513

True, A. C., article on ‘‘ Introduction of elementary agriculture into schools”’. 151-164
Tuberculin, ‘distribution by Bureau of Animal Industry, article ony M. Dorset. 347-354

MANNED 2s SserseeS ss oh aw on seriee eee eee 350, 352

TOSUNA,. 5 si ioan woo eden a Sac. eee ee .-- 352-354

preparation, U&8e, Ci. i ...ccmceqeeececs-ae sa cee ae 348-349

test, ACCUTACY 3: 526.22 sesso ssccecmesccetc co jeeeeeeee eee 348-349
Tuberculosis, bovine, danger to man, remarks............--..------------ 352-353
hogs, remarks... 2.05. ssn asecin tone sos Geass ee 32
investigation, 1906. . cs... 525+.scseeedes- 02 esoess eee 496

Tulip seale, destruction by grosbeak - .:. 2.2 2--.-.-<-\-<<sececueee2-1 eee 192
Turnip; diseases, 1906. - 5... <<c55e< cascscc- ee cence eee 505
Turpentine, composition, study --. .. << =.-2-<-28-sa--en===== === ee 71
spirits, statistics, exports and imports ..-...2-<<-s-soseseeeeee 626, 684

Typhoid fever, spread. by house fly... 26 scn< 20sec. acct ese eee eee 87
Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco, origin, description, ete ........---.---------- 389-392
Utah, alkali lands, experiments 2+ 5.35 2 o.oo aes ee oe 75
Vaccine, blackléec, distribution ...° 2556.22. seeseeeee eee see eee 33, 496
Vegetable crops;. damage, 1906... ...5..si00sccccducsseuceeuee= epee eee 510
InseCtS \osicu~ .!- -a cS gah cose cee eens Seen eee 87

matter, imports, 1902-1906: ... 2... -- Ssebet sos so see eee ee 672-680
Vegetables, diseases, 1906... ....c. accdenecoscees. ohare ae ae ee 502
Vermont, forestry=-.---.2-.--~------ ebe-sss2eNe= Sao = eee 531
Vireo species, usefulness against scale Insects. .< cS2 sc LS keh ee eee 194, 195
Virginia, agricultural education, consideration: ..<........2..23So.eee eee 155
high schools, NOE, aioe sow ce ews Joe ee eee 157

road Jaws; 1906- os W...o<<cimas cclioccse acct tect eck eee ee 522

tobacco, experiments with export and bright kinds......-.---.--- 79
University, meteorologic study .... ....-..--..-..cecececee eee 124

Wagons, freight rates, comparison with ship rates.......-..-.-.---------- 380
Walnuts, green, use as food .....-.----------------------- 222-202-2222: 308
Warbler species, usefulness against scale insects .......------------------- 194, 195
Warden, game, of to-day, article by R. W.. Williams; jr. .s22cs 220. sae 213-224
Wash, lime- -sulphur, cooking and cooking outfits......--..--........22... 440-443
formulas, Variations... <<< :..dsceseeene: aoe 434-437

preparation .....-.-.----2---0 +222 een ee ene e ee eee ee 438-443

time and outfit for use on San Jose scale .......------ 443-445
usefulness... sic. see cadea Salo. Coes oe ee 446

Washes, lime-sulphur, for San Jose scale, article by A. L. Quaintance. -.... 429-446
self-boiling .. 20. <...2d 55-2 eee oe 445

Washington, alkali lands, reclamation s\..2.+-. ..2s2< eee oeee oe see 76
AairyIN gy - 2g n.ncine.cncendieanuctens<—a—caeeeeee Ue. lon 423-425

forestry ~.. Fo. onc ec ecw ubdies eeebe ak cece eeeeeeene ne. Joe 532

ranges, improvement under fence.._...--------------------- 229

Teseeding . ..oca Sec cccw sade cee rE wee se emne ae 231

Water, anslysis, remarks’... ....2..2. ccc. cane eeceeeoneae 70
chestnut, description..3 .......c.ccocvesceeheseeeeenaeou=ocae ean 297
conservation on western TANGES ....-. - -2 ne cetuseed a Lee 232
contamination, stidy........ .....2.00ss Geet eee 55

Watermelons, diseases, 1906. occ ooce eel ee eee es ee a 505

INDEX. 719°

Page
Waxwing, usefulness against scale insects ------.--- so: Rate eee 197
Weather Bureau, organization and work -......-.. .-.----.--------------- 454
wom .eoview by Secretary... .--...:-c0.5.de ea sseese ae 23-25
Beer eemserins 1900, CONGILIONS - -...<..-290<-cn Seas ee eee eee 473-491
new problems, article by Willis L. Moore, W. J. Humphreys, and
Pee ARDIRS OS o-oo se ao oc set eee ee eee 121-124
REIGNS OF SUNS S222 ous 522 -~ Sous on Sacks eae e ee eee eee 123
Bemvace- increase, remarks .......2s=25<5 32s fe ceee eee 24
IPL, SOIMSEIR) © oe. ne enna Selceen been eRe eee eee cee 178
Webb, George, originator of White Burley tobacco ....-.-.------.--------- 400
Wesser, Hersert J., article on ‘‘ New citrus and pineapple productions of
Postmen, Of AGricgltore’’ ..:......<. ---sss.ctacsneaseeee nna oem 329-346
mepworms, damage, 1906..........-..-.-------. oa ceeeke SERRE eeoeeee ese 510
Weeds, destruction in sugar-beet growing -.............------------------ 277
Weevil, boll. See Boll weevil.
Weights, legal, per bushel, table by States and commodities............--- 690-693
WE ts, Epwarp L., article on ‘‘Cloud-bursts, so called’’ ......-....-.---- 325-328
Wheat, California, decline in yield in Sacramento Valley........-.-------- 428
composition, effect of time and manner of harvest...-.........---- 208-210
influence of length of growing season .........------- 206
seed and previous crop..-...-....-------- 208
HEHETIOTAMON: ALUGY soot =~ nccn- endear cee eee ae eee eres 45
PRRERBES 9 11 900 252 8 oe oo aie we ck ce ees ee eee oe ene ee eee 506
Mamet, chemical determinations. ...... - 222252222 52-2-ssceenece= 200
composition, effect of climate, article by J. A. Le Clerc.... 199-212
description and importance’. ==: 5:22eeeeesee eee eee 199
elfect of excessive MOIsUre) +22 32 eee eee eee eee 202
inrape USE... .2...92 2. ..2 lee ae ee eee eons 234
improvement and production: 422.252 clues «anncu ns eecens 43
Gneity, factors... 2.0.2. .scpeeseenee pene s ee esate 200
exponapreaton Of farm: valuess Soo eesae nc nee = besa eee eae ee 382-384
mauneemronnecy reiterated |... 5 lv cesseec 2 ol oec seeeee es eee 126
freight costs, relation to cotton freights...........-..---.-.-.---- 371
Tales }Grech Ghipmenthe=s.. = sees sere oes ae wees ees 380
PREP ERD oh cence 9 Ene oe SRI at aoEe 377-384
TUTE STS ae Ae a IE Se LEN SAR eres 381
grades and values, relation to freight rates...............--..----- 378
0 LL Sig oT Oe es eae ee Oe a Fe ee ee 509
Peet etiock in Gry regions = 2.22.22 -2.-o-aoteeusscclsnteese 204
Bereeom content. Investigation 22.2. cc isc 1s. asst wh cock eee 521
Oregon, decline in Willamette Valley .......-..--------.--------- 425
Pacific.coast, prices and freights, discrepancies explained..-..-.-.-- 381
CE INENINGE TERM ys ee ok oe bo ce oe Sao bose 380
EE TE CTS SRS Sa Eo aa nr re eee OEE 12
statistics, acreage, production, supplies, etc.............--...--..- 549-561
export rates, Kansas City and Omaha to seaboard ....... 665
CORSA tare s setae ale eeiouriw Sank occas atitons 685
freight rates, Chicago-New York .............----.--... 667
Gresn Vos. s5Le6 Bageetd CO ER a. FR ieee 665
supply, British; remote sources <_-.2..52-20... 22.8. o.oo. codes 385
Mjnesi-prass, renecding on ranees.-- =<. oc dsee Shc ccs lance doko nee 231
Wheats, comparison for arid and humid regions................-.---.---- 202
farum,. Mexico;compuarbon 0227-2. cet eee soni ee 203
high-protein, necessity of producing ....:2......-...---..- ..---. 22
Peeecunarig, 1902-1906. ca Be. 5 ewe th ee ae 686
beet GrorceE M., article on ‘‘Opportunities in dairying—New Eng-
eG < oo 5 Se aC Sas 5 ae ae eis See iia i as ae ae a 408-412
Waite, B. D., article on ‘‘ Opportunities in dairying—North Central States’’. 412-417
tite teemmnacco, Origin. Wie: co ot22o~ coe = dace wnedocecnce 400
White-eye, usefulness against scale insects ...-.--- 2. eee ween nen nen nee 192
Witey, H. W., review of food and drug inspection, etc., 1906...........--. 520-521
Willamette Valley, dairying prospects ..._.....-:.<-0---.---ceee-dd---- 2 425
Witt1ams, R. W., Jr., article on ‘‘The game warden of lO-UR ye So 5550 eck 213-224
WERNER ee mAR ES Rete oe ices oo ee obo eoae 329
Witson, JAMEs, report as Secretary of Agriculture ................---..... 9-120

720 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page.
Wilt diseases; 1906, notes - .. 2.245 ssss5. stools ooh ee 506 |
Wilt-resistant cottons and melons, remarks.................----2-22.----- 42
Winds, damage, -1906 .....2...024 0025 JOR UIee Cee 487
Wines, imports, 1902-1906 . 2.2.20. .5 55 6tnd Seb et Se 677
Wire, fence, study. 22U2 3. 2.22203 So. She A 116 %
Wisconsin, agriculture course in schools’t...Js..2...... <2. Soe 158
butter making, remarks... .J..25... 4... scusa seg set ea 415
cheese industry) sa22 5 2~. deavanscuws eke eee Ct. See 416-417
forestry and forest reserves. 2.2. 274. 1: ae 529, 530, 532
station, corn breeding = 7325433923.) ese Se eee eee 285, 291
Wolves, depredations, investigations. ..2..2....4-s000062..5.45.- 550500 an
Wood pulp, statistics, exports and imports. ..............----2.202.esee-- 627
utilization, note! 5-8 oee 222 wk el ee eee 68
Woodcock, condition, 1907. J. -'.20222.225 223052. eS eee 537
Woodland, management by private owners, assistance by Forest Service...
Woodpeckers, species, usefulness against scale insects...........---.. - 193,194, 197

Woops, A. F., article on ‘‘The present status of the nitrogen problem’’.... 125-136

Wool statistics, exports and imports; production and prices..........- 639, 658-661
Wren, species, usefulness against scale insects -.-.....-.------2--.-+. core 194
Wren-tit, usefulness against scale insects. -.......2..2.22..-2.-2c--cccence 195
Yellow-fever mosquito, study.....<.c.....0...csteite.e Sees eee eee 87
Yellowthroat, Pacific, usefulness against scale insects..........-.---------. 194
Zamelodea spp., usefulness against scale insects ./2<2<s2-9..2 02 194
Zonotrichia spp., usefulness against insects... .2-.25.----22 2. 322e- eee 194
Zosterops capensis, usefulness against scale insects......-.------------------ 192

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