Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/yearbookofagricu1914unit aaah. sre haga dis * in Pv a ty uy 5 , » ¢ ‘ i a be - 7 be ll i k ~ ‘ be = +. — ‘ rt - v jin nie a abe : ; YEARBOOK OB ori NIP ED STATES peo Nr Or Pee | GUL LEB, WASHINGTON _ GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 [CHAPTER 23, Strat. L., 1895.] * * * * * {AN ACT Providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents.] * 4 * * * * Section 73, paragraph 2: The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One, which shall contain purely business and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the President and Congress; Part Two, which shall contain such reports from the different Bureaus and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompanied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. - There shall be printed of Part One, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of Part Two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thou- sand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illus- trations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Print- ing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself. ORGANIZATION OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary of Agriculture, Davin FRANKLIN Houston. Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, CARL VROOMAN. Solicitor, Francis G. CAFFrEyY. Attorney in Charge of Forest Appeals, Taomas G. SHEARMAN. Chief Clerk, R. M. RreEse. Appointment Clerk, R. W. Roperrts. Expert on Exhibits, F. Lamson-Scrrpner. Office of Information, G. W. WHarton, Chief. Weather Bureau, Cuartes F. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry, ALonzo D. Metvin, Chief. Bureau of Plant Industry, Wu. A. Taytor, Plant Physiologist and Patholo- gist and Chief. Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester and Chief. Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief. Bureau of Chemistry, Cart L. AtsBerG, Chemist and Chief. Bureau of Soils, Mmron Wuitney, Soil Physicist and Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Hensuaw, Biologist and Chief. Division of Accounts, A. Zappone, Chief and Disbursing Clerk. Division of Publications, Jos. A. ArNotD, Editor and Chief. Bureau of Crop Estimates, Leon M. Estasroox, Chief. Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. Trur, Director. Office of Public Roads, Logan Water Pace, Director. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, CHarLes J. Brann, Chief. Librarian, CLARIBEL R. BARNETT. Insecticide and Fungicide Board, J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Federal Horticultural Board, C. L. Marnarr, Chairman. " , i... : aah i | sake ts iad ee ei sO tats ae : asta, e rihon: a . “ aaa A as LS a 7 =r ; An esr ast ' Aine ae para Bi cas Spd oaithen, sf ¥ be RES tT ae ’ . ; vient aX: mM ae, Bt aks Ht hy 88 uly re tty Aaa tai 5 ice siete A ¢ . pr ea Me icKd : he ' ‘ “2 Sete CONTENTS. Ser miimOruie SCCChCtany yates weno eee ara te ne ceo eins S554 4 2 oe The National Forests and the Farmer. By Henry S. Graves....... The Organization of a Rural Community. By T. N. Carver........ Clean Water and How to Get it on the Farm. By Robert W. Trull- EILT ED oe Sl RR aR pee gag ele eng Bal BERS ee Story of the Thermometer and Its Uses in Agriculture. By Alfred H. ELD SES IRR et PSN NE a eee Be a HemuePublic Markets By GeV vbranchs. 62) ise. bole lk. Cooperative Marketing and Financing of Marketing Associations. By C. E. Bassett, Clarence W. Moomaw, and W. H. Kerr........ State Management of Public Roads: Its Development and Trend. Neue CHUNRAe Ker fa. oul atyn Sete s keV mis gis Sladek odale Apple Sirup and Concentrated Cider: New Products for Utilizing Surplus and CulleApples. “By a. ©. Gore ee 8 22 Se et The Economy of Farm Drainage. By R. D. Marsden............... Movement from City and Town to Farms. By George K. Holmes. . Our Shorebirds and Their Future. By Wells W. Cooke ........... The Preparation of Fertilizer from Municipal Waste. By J. W. “ER ST gs A, a ae, ere eee Ae ec a The American Woman as She Sees Herself. By Edward B. Mitchell. Suggestions from Australasia to American Sheep Raisers. By F. R. os SEVSSLTED IL ted 5 iat yy rll it eb ete lle a eae © OPE em Selection of Household Equipment. By Helen W. Atwater....... The Egg and Poultry Demonstration Car Work in Reducing Our $50,000,000 Waste in Eggs. By M. E. Pennington, H. C. Pierce, EPO EPalbrs ST ACOT EMT ait ocean Meme wes (8 fe BOOS eS au New Production in the Argentine and Its Effect upon the In- dustry in the United States. By A. D. Melvin and George M. Hepa IRIN URS ete cots oun biota SR) eta A BELG Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. By Mark Alfred Carleton. .... Meat Production in Australia and New Zealand. By E. C. Joss.... The Farm Wood-Lot Problem. By Herbert A. Smith.............. Nematodes and Their Relationships. By N. A. Cobb. ............ Paibioisasile By Es Wiihitist? Seeds deed Doe ctl els Mo Appendix: Agricultural Colleges in the United States...................-- Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States, Their Beesione and wWirectots coe. co 2e anc sos sa eceg wm Hae State Officers in Charge of Agriculture.......................-- State Officers in Charge of Cooperative Agricultural Extension Rcrekene tana Prt ieee heme te ee LS AERTS ote pay iY a Statistics,o the Erineipal: Crops... tae eee Parn.Animals and heir Prod ucta.. 5 seeeeee pce os «(1c ihe Mederal:Meat Inspections. 55. sepa eek ett tnrmis = Se Agricultural Statistics from Census for 1910...................- Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products...............-- LESS <2 oe TER SGR RAS HES i ee a 157 167 185 211 227 245 257 275 295 311 319 339 363 PLATE T. XI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. 6 Riis Tilt PO Noss PLATES. Fig. 1.—A farm in the Idaho National Forest. Fig. 2.—A small bunch of cattle grazing in an open yellow pine stand on the Durango National HMorest,| COLO. = cence tiac nin cee = on ice osee cars 2 ea ae a oe . An “‘agricultural’’ claim on the St. Joe National Forest ......--.--.--.--- Another “agricultural” claim on the St. Joe National Forest..........-- . Fig. 1—Important irrigating ditch and lateral badly damaged by flood. Vig. 2.—A stream in a National Forest whose headwaters are protected. . A small timber-sale area on the Madison National Forest, Mont....-.-.--- A region for the mountain climber, camper, and sportsman.-...-..------- Some types of well surroundings... .....-...--.-------------+------------- . Some types of well and spring surroundings...........------------------- Some types of well and spring surroundings.........--------------------- . Fig. 1—Farmers’ line, Eastern Market, Washington, D.C. Fig. 2.—In- closed market building and open space in a middle western city. Fig. 3.—Portion of Haneuil Hall) Market, Boston. -<25-2- 22 2es enone eee = . Fig. 1.—Open part of Elk Street Market, Buffalo. Fig. 2.—Partial view of open market, Rochester, N.Y. Fig.3.—A section of farmers’ retail curb market ab DubuGUe WOW Ass. --.c2e ean ate eee coe oon ne eee aaa ee . Fig. 1.—An old-time municipal market at Pittsburgh. Fig. 2—One of Denver’s “neighborhood markets.”? Fig. 3.—Pearl Street Market in Cincinnati <1 2 = o.mt eee ent A eck tice tae th oan tee ee eee Fig. 1.—Cleveland’s West Side Market. Fig. 2.—Interior view of same. Fig. 3.—View of Denver’s Farmers’ Market........--.-..-------------- Partial view of cooperative canning plant in the Pacific Northwest. ..-.- . Fig. 1 —Virginia State-aid road. Fig. 2.—Michigan State-reward road. Hip.”3.— New Jersey State LOad = 22-65. ce ee ees eee aan err a ia eee Fig. 1.—Ohio State highway. Fig. 2—Maryland State highway........-.- Fig. 1.—Land needing drainage, Henderson County, Ky. Fig. 2.—Cow- peas on drained land on the same farm...........-.-------------------- Fig. 1.—Undrained land in Talbot County, Md. Fig. 2.—The same land aiter drainages. :- 3:55 senn sae eee epee eee eee ese re eee eee . Fig. 1—Undrained land, State test farm, Willard, N. C., 1910. Fig. 2.— Cowpeas and corn on the same land after tile drainage, 1913.....-.-...-- . Fig. 1—Typical crop in black prairie belt of Alabama. Fig. 2.—Tile- drained land in black prairie belt of Alabama. .........-- pet lees Golden plover ( Charadrius dominicus)......-.------------------+-+-+--++- Eskimo curlew ( Numenius boredlis) - .< .. -- 2 s-ise 25 essa = oe >= eee ea Greater yellowlegs ( Totanus melanoleucus)...---------------------------- Fig. 1.—Modern plant for rendering garbage. Fig. 2—Tanks for render- ing ‘garbage. -: .. 55.5 Steere re One ree eee eet Fig. 1—A group of merino rams. Fig. 2.—Wool room of a New South Wales shearing shed. --.-...-- ries Sv ui5d = Lele eRe anes east) Stee Fig. 1.—Baling room in an Australian shearing shed. Fig. 2—A Queens- landsshearing ‘shed. =< ..: -..' -ispe seem ee See see ee ee ira eae Designs of wall paper. < .....5 ssa cee ee eee ees ies eee An inexpensive plate and an inconvenient teapot.......----------------- Good designs of pitchers). . <- . 2020-0 eeen ene ee ee eee ene Convenient and inconvenient tables: 3. fos! se aseee eee eee ee eerie Fig. 1.—Interior of egg-demonstration car. Fig. 2.—A demonstration in the car eee ee ee ee eee er ee ee) Page. 72 72 72 72 72 72 144 144 144 176 176 176 176 192 216 216 248 248 248 248 280 280 280 304 328 328 344 344 344 344 Illustrations. 7 Page EATON Den ee-candiing Chant ms <2. fos feeca na a2 rene So seieiemsisinie elo ee = Sinn sine :- 368 XXXIII. The placard that announces the coming of the car --......-......--.- 368 ROXOKTMNE 4 SCHOOL Children, wiSihin th Cates 6.3 co - see smiis hare oye crete hea ce ease 368 XXXV. Heads of hard wheats of the United States. .......2.......--.--.---.- 400 XXXVI. Fig. 1.—View of prairie on the western Great Plains. Fig. 2.— Turkey wheat in Montana, averaging 35 bushels per acre. --.-.----- 400 XXXVII. Fig. 1.—Thrashing Turkey wheat in the Molochna district, Northern Taurida. Fig. 2—Hard-winter wheat flour mill at Sim- PELOPoOl Crime dens ssc eee aes e sacs = SSS eine cise aie cles ceeaaneees see 400 XXXVIII. Fig. 1.—Durum wheat under dry farming in Wyoming. Fig. 2.— Hard spring-wheat flour bread and durum-wheat flour bread -.-.--- 400 XXXIX. Fig. 1.—Stacks of Kubanka durum wheat near Uralsk, Russia. Fig. 2.—Self-rake reaper in western Siberia .......-..-.--------.--- 408 XL. Fig. 1—Hauling wheat to market in the Kirghiz Steppe. Fig.. 2.—Durum wheat brought to market by Kirghiz farmers at Ua SKe PRIS Lays mee is er ne Ss re ek Or ss EN 408 XLI. Fig. 1.—Kirghiz hut, Siberia. Fig. 2—Camp of native Kirghiz har- vesters. Fig. 3.—Durum-wheat flour mill at Uralsk, Russia -.... 408 XLII. Fig. 1.—A New Zealand cooperative meat-freezing plant. Fig.2.—A Queensland meat export works, showing method of drying sheep- CU ICyS #eee Gee OO Ce CERES Ee 6a See Aen eee oe Rene ee See eee eee we 432 XLIII. Views of municipal abattoir at Auckland, New Zealand......- Foss ae 432 XLIV. Fig. 1.—A municipal abattoir in a small New Zealand city. Fig. 2.— General view of the new State abattoir at Sydney, Australia... .... 432 xULAVe, CormiedaloeweHogpetsmeases esa. cet ee cacao acceso nets tot eee 432 XLVI. Where planting paid.............- De ee st Bie ota oe SS ee 448 Pel Villes Wiktite:pine plantation ini Connecticut. + ----==---s-- see en ee ee 448 XLVIII. Fig. 1.—Planting crew at work in timber which has suffered from re- peated fires. Fig. 2.—A portion of same tract rejuvenated through uNnderplantine: with wwihite pines.seeess2- - 242-5 = nies eerie see 448 XLIX. Fig. 1.—Oak and hickory stand in which larger trees were cut years ago. Fig. 2.—Practicing forestry; valuable young stand of white OR Kear een ae eee re eet ae Se rain uteeiaie quceclos Soe aSece 448 iio What pastuning does toitheiwoodlot=.2.-2--sss--5--2-ssee--2-s2- 522s 448 LI. Working up white-oak stave material in Arkansas. -....-.-..-..----- 448 AEP AY Ww OOdlota tne Conditioner een ee ee ene ee seer ea seee ee ee 448 LIII. Fig. 1.—West Virginia mill owned by three farmers. Fig. 2.—Lum- bering with portable mill on North Carolina tract.............-..-- 448 TEXT FIGURES. Fia. 1. Outline plan for the organization of a rural community ................-....--- 92 2. Comparison of annual timber cut and mineral output, with value of natural TUPELO op eter eee mete ie ete ateaete pe Ses Ss cio sle meee nic ig ae sian oc et eee mnece 99 SAuconimon type Ofeistern, and wlteneea. - Joo. 4-32-- 2528s ee ees ate 147 4, Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by hand force EMO Let Ra bRee soo sea: sod098 5.75 9 CS Se SU Soro he ISDA ans aebecsbhoodarscee 152 5. Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system. -.....-....--..-- 153 6. Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe.-.....-..------------- 154 (=O PELOLINS OL LH OLM OMOLEIS= esas eee Seite ene Sams Sale sc each tere see ck eects 159 TORMMOTHPOLAtUnG|CNALL | ree a ee ew eee sao cate Maines S a's a apaie Sas ajelele wis Basa ee 162 11. Classification of State systems of road management—construction.......-.----- 217 12. Classification of State systems of road management—maintenance.........-.-.- 218 132 Chartshowing State highway progress=....22--s2.-2¢ = nosh eee e222 ee 222 14. Liming vat, steam pump, etc., used in making apple sirup atasteam cider mill 234 15. Dumper, ice breaker, and centrifugal machine used in crushing and centrifu- PalizZineT ir OZENlaApple WWICONAs os o- ae on ee eee ee See als tae = aes ote 240 16. Distribution of the Wilson snipe (Gallinago delicata).......-..-.--------------- PARE 17. Distribution of the woodcock (Philohela minor).....-.--.--=-----------------+- 282 18. Distribution and migration of the Eskimo curlew Nwmenius borealis)....-.-.- 288 19. Plan of woolroom and section of shearing board of an Australian shearing shed. 334 8 Illustrations. Page. Fic.20; -A table with: adjustapletop 222-2522 -cecs eee ee eeane sme aie etnias aa eee 360 21 THeOPE Car STOCONd =... ~ 23s ~ see Boe ene cee oe oe ae ne ee aetna esac ett te eee 378 22. Average annual production of wheat in the United States, 1869 to 1878......-. 396 23. Average annual production of wheat in the United States, 1899 to 1908.......- 397 54)-Distnibution of Nard wheats im Kussiat 2-25-65. -c 2 ena cence ee eee 400 25. Distribution of winter wheat in the United States. -.......--..-.-.-...--.---- 401 26. Diagrammatic representation of the nematode anatomy ...........-..-------- 458 27. Diagram showing relative abundance of nematodes in each successive 2 inches GESOU Soe 32S ba rae co aoe es oe eae ee eae IO aera 459 98. Some nematode ‘parasites of theisheep \2- << obo... - hence em ewe neee nan ene 461 29: “Ar-very; remarkable wie abode seo mate ee aia me ere arene eee 462 80"The asymmetrical nematoge=- -- + -- see. see ee es ee ee 463 31. A remarkable nematode\called Heth. - - 2222. oa2 coe cane meee ee eee aes 464 32"The dragon Mematode =. - ~~ son seme init oa aa eee ee a ee ee 466 33. One of the injurious nematodes found in and on the roots of citrus trees. --..-.. 468 34: “The dagger nematod en asinine ators alate a em oa 469 $5. The banded nematode... 2-2-2 22-2 sete am tea oe ees © lal = eee 470 36. Complicated anatomy of free-living nematodes............-.....-.----.---.--- 474 375 wo parasitic Mematodes= >. on. -- 92-4 See eee ee ee ene ae 475 38° Head end of the dotible-digger - 2-2-2 sere ae eee eee te ee eee ee 476 39. Head end of a spear-bearing nematode. .........-.-.--------.--=-------------- 478 40. One of the nematodes known as Totas.- =~ soe = oe oe ee oe ee en 479 41; Six forms of orgaris known'as amphidS 27 see see seen eee eee es sae eee 482 42. Front view of a nematode monster. - = oie eee one ee ee eee ere 484 43. The devastating nematode of the onion and other bulbous crops-.-...-..---.- 485 44. Theshark nematode. 3: 222¢- oases sae eee eee eee ieee senna lteeenme 486 45. -A-beneficial nematode: : 22:35 220-se54--+ == eee ee eee as eae fi es 488 YEARBOOK OF ‘THE US.DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. R. PRESIDENT: Evidence abounds that more atten- tion and more intelligent thinking are being directed to-day to the study of the fundamental problems in agricul- ture and in rural life than ever before. The last two years have been fruitful of significant State and Federal legislative and administrative measures designed to foster agriculture, to improve the distribution of agricultural products, and to better rural life. The people of the nation, urban and rural alike, are keenly interested in efforts to increase the supply of the necessaries of life, and recognize the supreme impor- tance not only of making agriculture efficient and profitable, but also of making rural life comfortable, healthful, pleas- urable, and attractive. Agriculture has made marked prog- ress in a number of directions, but as an industry it has not kept pace with the other activities of the country. Relatively speaking, there has been a neglect of rural life by the nation. This neglect has perhaps not been conscious or willful. We have been so bent on building up great industrial centers, on rivaling the nations of the world in manufacturing and commerce, fostering these by every natural and artificial device we could think of, so busy in the race for populous municipal centers, that we have overlooked the very foun- dations of our industrial existence. It has been assumed that we have a natural monopoly in agriculture—that it could take care of itself, and for the most part we have cheerfully left it to do so. 9 10 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The direction and emphasis of the national thought is changing, and we are witnessing the marshaling of many forces in the struggle for greater prosperity and for better conditions of living in the rural districts. We are witness- ing a great increase in the expenditure of money to foster agriculture through all sorts of scientific and practical measures on the part both of the States and of the Federal Government. Material results are forthcoming, and while great civilized nations of the world are in the throes of a deadly and destructive war, the farmers of every section of the Union except one are prosperous and are enjoying their work and its fruits free from the burden of militarism and the threat of wholesale destruction of life and property. Thoughtful men can not fail to be optimistic over the agri- cultural situation and prospects, but optimism must not blind us to certain shortcomings. PRODUCTION. The progress of agricuiture reveals itself more particularly in its diversification, in the rise of minor crops to larger proportions, than in the increased production of staple products. For example, dairying in the last generation has become an exceptionally important branch of agricul- tural economy, the annual production including more than one and a half billions pounds of butter, a half billion pounds of condensed milk, and a third of a billion pounds of cheese, having a value of approximately $600,000,000. The pro- duction of orchard fruits exceeds 216,000,000 bushels a year, with a value of more than $140,000,000. The value of the annual production of vegetables is in excess of $400,000,000. The production of hay and forage approximates 100,000,000 tons, with a value in excess of $800,000,000; the poultry products of the United States have reached a point where their annual value is about one-half that of the cotton crop at normal valuations, and marked increases are noted in the quantity and value of the cereals. Report of the Secretary. 11 The following table is suggestive. Special attention is directed to the statistics of quantity no less than to those of value. Census data for later years than 1909 are not avail- able, but the indications are that the upward tendency in the production of all the commodities included in the table except corn has persisted. Comparison of acreage and production of various farm products in 1899 and Product. Cotton. ...bales.- Cereals: Corn..bushels. . doses Wheat...do.... Barley...do.... Rough rice, bushels Dairy products... Milk _-gallons.. Butter (made on farms), pounds. 22- ..: Cheese (made on farms), pounds....... Poultry and eggs. Animals slaugh- tered on farms. . JAC UES eee Gee eee |e eee Orchard bushels! + 22. - J All vegetables fruits, Potatoes, bushels} 2,938,778] 273,318, 167 Hay and forage, 1909. [Taken from the Twelfth and Thirteenth Censuses.] 61, 691, 069 79, 251, 562| 484, 254, 703/72, 280, 776 1899 1909 Production. ; Production. Acreage. Acreage. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. 24,275,101) 9, 534, 707|$323, 758, 171/32, 043,838] 10, 649, 268| $703, 619, 303 94, 913, 673/2, 666, 324, 370| 828, 192, 388 98, 382, 665) 2, 552, 189, 630/1, 438, 553, 919 29, 539, 698] 943, 389, 375] 217, 098, 584 35, 159, 441| 1,007, 142,980) 414, 697, 422 52, 588,574] 658, 534, 252| 369, 945, 320/44, 262,592] 683,379,259] 657, 656, 801 4, 470,196] 119, 634,877| 41, 631,764! 7,698,706] 173,344,212! 92, 458, 571 -| 2,054,292) 25, 568, 625] 12,290, 540| 2,195,561| 29,520,457} 20, 421, 812 342,214] 9, 002, 886] 6,329, 562! 610,175] 21,838,580] 16, 019, 607 Steet ee | Raatnse teas ATOMS |= one mieg=s | aes on eo 096,413 ABS eso dele UpZOD, 804s 304 | See ee een E Roeeemme ITD“ RTS (GOOkATAlE seen ec nee | ested Ae 1, 071, 626, 056]............]-.........| 994, 650,610; 222, 861, 440 Soneedesee HGFST2,S18| eee seeaatee|-aonese se 9, 405, 864 1, 148, 708 oes S Sane | ec ccerentors 2315 0705693 (See 22h =e see ses aese ee | 5095195232 S282 SEES os ae LSONSOO} 220 one 2 asset ease oe. |) -2t0p 208 an08, PSIR098 5.190 |e: aa 2528 or ms me Se 217, 576, 542 rice 212,365,600) 83,750,961)..........| 216,083,695) 140, 867,347 See eee eee ee ae 2358531 76l|aee se tee | ATS IOUT 98,380,110] 3,668,855] 389,194,965] 166, 423, 910 97,453,735} 824, 004, 877 ea ee 1 As reported from 16,069,298 dairy cows out of a total of 20,625,432 dairy cows. At this rate the total production of milk in 1909 would be 7,462,000,000 gallons. 12 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. We know that the wheat crop of 1914 of approximately 892,000,000 bushels is the greatest ever produced in our history, and that the crops of oats, barley, rye, potatoes, tobacco, and hay are unusually large. The cotton crop, forecast in October at 15,340,000 bales, is the second largest. The apple crop, estimated at 259,000,000 bushels, is the greatest ever harvested. The total production of six lead- ing cereals is estimated to have been nearly 5,000,000,000 bushels, or about 428,000,000 bushels in excess of the crop of 1913. For the country as a whole the crop yields per acre were 2.3 per cent better than the average for the past 10 years. The average yield per acre of all the staple crops was 9.4 per cent greater than in 1913, and, except for corn, oats, and flaxseed, greater than the 10-year average. But after all our efforts, while there is an increased diver- sification of agriculture and both a relative and absolute increase in important products, such as wheat, forage crops, fruits, dairy products, and poultry, we still note not only a relative but also an absolute decrease in a number of our important staple food products, such as corn and meats. In the former, in the last 15 years there has been no sub- stantial advance. In cattle, sheep, and hogs there has been an absolute decline—in cattle, from the census year of 1899 to that of 1909, from 50,000,000 head to 41,000,000; in sheep, from 61,000,000 to 52,000,000; in hogs, from 63,000,000 to 58,000,000. Since 1909 the tendency has been downward, and yet during the period since 1899 the population has increased over 20,000,000. This sifwation exists not in a crowded country, but in one which is still in a measure being pioneered, in one which, with 935,000,000 acres of arable land, has only 400,000,000, or 43 per cent, under cultivation, and in one in which the population per square mile does not exceed 31 and ranges from 0.7 person in Nevada to 508 in Rhode Island. Report of the Secretary. 13 Just what the trouble is no one is as yet sufficiently in- formed to say. It can scarcely be that the American farmer has not as much intelligence as the farmer of other nations. It is true that the American farmer does not produce as much per acre as the farmer in a number of civilized nations, but production per acre is not the American standard. The standard is the amount of produce for each person engaged in agriculture, and by this test the American farmer appears to be from two to six times as efficient as most of his competi- tors. Relatively speaking, extensive farming is still econom- ically the sound program in our agriculture, but now it is becoming increasingly apparent that the aim must be, while maintaining supremacy in production for each person, to establish supremacy in production for each acre. The con- tinued solution of the problem here suggested is one which now seriously engages the attention not only of the agri- cultural agencies of the several States, but also of the Fed- eral Government. Through every promising approach the Department of Agriculture is studying and attacking the problem of in- creasing production. Through breeding and selection, the improvement of cultural methods, and the control of plant diseases, experts in plant industry are lending their assist- ance. They are introducing new crops and better varieties of existing crops from other parts of the world, including drought-resistant plants for the semiarid regions of the West and better forage crops for the South; they are breeding higher yielding varieties of staple and other crops; they are indicating better cultural methods and practices, encouraging standardization, and suggesting utilization and disposal of crops in such manner as to make them yield an adequate return to the producer; they are stimulating the citrus-fruit industry; and they have produced by hybridization new and comparatively hardy types of citrus fruits which will become 14 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. important additions to the home supply of useful fruits, es- pecially in the Southern States. They have established new plant industries in various parts of the country, such as date and cotton growing in Arizona and the Imperial Valley of California. They have pointed the way to the continued successful growing of cotton in boll-weevil districts. They are protecting the farmer against seed adulteration. In cooperation with other agencies, especially the Federal Hor- ticultural Board, they are taking effective steps to safeguard the great potato industry of the nation. They have devel- oped grain and cotton standardization to the point where beneficial results can be secured not only in further pro- duction, but also in more just and efficient distribution. In like manner the experts of other bureaus have labored efficiently for the increased production of farm crops. The entomologists have pointed the way to the control or the extermination of many harmful insects. They have devel- oped means for the control of the alfalfa weevil, assisted in the protection of crops against damage by chinch bugs and the Hessian fly, developed sprays for controlling deciduous fruit insects, and lessened the injury to orchards by the apple- tree borers. They have devised protection against the to- bacco horn worm, carried on successful work in the eradica- tion of the Rocky Mountain spotted-fever tick, studied the control of insects conveying disease to human beings, and rendered other service of marked value. The experts of the Bureau of Soils have continued their studies of soils and have prosecuted their investigations into additional sources of fertilizer supply. They have extended the work of surveying and mapping the soil areas of the United States, having surveyed and mapped in detail since the inauguration of the work 329,539 square miles or 211,000,000 acres, and, in addition, have made reconnois- sance surveys of 434,000 square miles, or 278,000,000 acres. Report of the Secretary. 15 THE MEAT SUPPLY. The experts of the Bureau of Animal Industry have intel- ligently and zealously prosecuted their tasks, but it remains true that this country faces a serious situation in the matter ofitsmeatsupply. Just what factors have brought this situa- tion about no one can define with certainty, and no systematic attempt to define them has been made until recently. Realiz- ing the urgency of the problem, I have appointed a com- mittee, consisting of the best authorities I could discover, to study the subject. This committee is making a survey of the whole field and will report at the earliest practicable moment. Its study embraces an investigation of production and consumption and of the methods of producing, finishing, and marketing meat. When a conclusion is reached, such measures as may be helpful for increasing production and bettering distribution will be inaugurated. In the meantime, however, certain things are clear, and definite plans for increasing the meat supply are in operation and can be continued with promise of large results. It is evident that we have been considering the meat sup- ply of the nation too exclusively in terms of the big ranch and of beef animals. Obviously it is important that we continue to help the cattlemen and to assist in further developing the big ranch. No pains will be spared to do this. The depart- ment is now spending money to develop the live-stock in- dustry in connection with the reclamation projects and is asking for more. But unquestionably the largest hope for a considerable increase in our meat supply lies in four other directions: First, in a more satisfactory handling of the pub- lic grazing lands; second, in systematic attention to the pro- duction of beef animals in the settled farming areas of the country, particularly in the South; third, in increased atten- tion to the smaller animals, such as swine and poultry; and fourth, in the control and eradication of the cattle tick, hog cholera, tuberculosis, and other animal diseases and pests. 16 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The present methods of transforming the grasses of the public grazing lands into beef and mutton are generally conceded to be wasteful. It is estimated that under a proper system the quantity of beef and mutton produced on these lands could be increased by at least 50 per cent. The public grazing lands, in addition to 150,000,000 acres in the | National Forests, embrace about 300,000,000 acres. Under the present laws any person may graze any number of stock at any time on any part of these 300,000,000 acres of the public grazing lands or grazing lands outside of National Forests. In earlier years, when there were comparatively few cattle on the range, the treatment of the lands as com- mon worked fairly well, but the increased domestic and export demand for meat has resulted in overgrazing. Un- seasonable and excessive grazing weakens the vitality of the range plant and permanently reduces the crop. Further- more, as years have passed the area of the grazing lands has been greatly reduced through the taking up of home- steads, and in many cases the better lands were thus dis- posed of. There is no doubt that under legislation provid- ing for an intelligent system of handling grazing lands a very large increase in the meat supply of the nation can be secured. This is not mere conjecture. The opinion is based on the experience not only of the State of Texas in handling its public lands, but also on that of the Federal Government in the management of the grazing lands in the National Forests. For 10 years the United States Government has been con- ducting a successful experiment in the forests. So quietly has this experiment proceeded that few people have known even of its inauguration, recognized its importance, or ap- preciated its results. Under the Forest Service system annual grazing permits, with the necessary regulatory pro- visions, have been in force for nearly a decade. The results have been striking. In 1905, 81 acres supported but one Report of the Secretary. 17 animal; in 1913, the average was one animal for each 51 acres. This increase of 59 per cent has been due to many factors which can not be detailed here. The net results are that the grazing lands in the forests under permits to nearly 29,000 live-stock growers support 1,600,000 cattle and horses, with their calves and colts, and 7,600,000 sheep and goats and their lambs and kids. In addition, the forest ranges furnished temporary grazing to millions of other animals which passed through the forests under crossing permits. The capacity of the range has not been reached. There is room for more animals on this part of the public domain. It has been demonstrated that under systematic management the grazing value of the lands can be restored and increased, that the range can be made to produce heavier animals, even with increased numbers, and that these lands can be improved faster in use than in idleness. Even with the very moderate grazing fees charged the stockmen pay the Government over $1,000,000 annually. Their gross receipts probably exceed $30,000,000, and their invested capital is more than $100,000,000. . inefficiency resulted. It is clearly desirable, as far as possible, to differentiate and segregate each kind of work from the other, to see to it that the policing or regulatory functions do not interfere with the research work, or either of these with the educational or extension work, but that, on the other hand, they are so organized and related that each would reenforce and foster the other. A committee consisting of officers drawn from various bureaus made a careful study of the situation and submitted its report, which, after revision, was approved by the Secretary and will be reported to the Congress for its sanction. The estimates of the department have been sub- mitted in accordance with the plan, as directed by the Congress. The first important feature of the proposed change is the definite outline or segregation in each bureau of these three groups of activities—the regulatory, the research, and the extension. The conclusion was reached that it was not only not necessary to mterfere with the bureau and office organizations existing, but that it would be distinctly un- wise to do so. The suggestion of grouping the services of the department as a whole, according to the purposes in view, into regulatory, research, extension, and other groups, each with a large number of similar small units, was care- fully considered and was abandoned as unnecessary and undesirable. It was decided that better results would be secured by retaining the existing organizations, with certain modifications and rearrangements. This segregation, however, which is highly important, is a matter of internal concern and in the interests of adminis- trative efficiency, and requires no legislative action. The work will be shaped in conformity to the segregation, and the administrative officers will have a clearer view of the several activities under their direction. Pains will be taken to assign those who have research talent to the investiga- Report of the Secretary. 61 tional work, those who have administrative ability to the regulatory, and those who have special talent for the direc- tion of extension work to that entirely. The changes jn these directions can not fail to be conducive to efficiency. The second and equally important suggested change is the relocation of important lmes of work, as follows: It is proposed to remove from the Bureau of Plant In- dustry the Office of Farm Management and the farm- demonstration work for both the North and the South, and to attach the former to the Office of the Secretary and the latter to the Office of Experiment Stations, the name of which it is proposed to change to the States Relations Service. Farm Management conceives the farm as a whole. Its problem is not primarily a Plant Industry problem. It is rather a business or economic problem. It is not one for which the agronomist has necessarily the requisite training, although the service of the agronomist as well as the services of experts of other bureaus are invoked. Since its function is that of studying the farm from the business point of view im all its aspects, it seemed advisable to relate the office to that of the Secretary, so that the officers might feel conscious of no bureau limitations. Similar considerations led to the conclusion that the farm-demonstration work should not be attached to a particular bureau. Heretofore the agents in this work, attached as they have been to the Bureau of Plant Industry, have experienced some embarrassment in demonstrating things coming within the work of other bureaus.. Obviously the farm demonstrator must be pre- pared to demonstrate anything the department has of value to the farmer. He can not conceive of the farm partially. The change in the name of the Office of Experiment Stations to States Relations Service is proposed because the term “Office of Experiment Stations” is no longer indicative of that part of the department’s activities. That office has in addition to the supervision of the experiment-station funds the supervision of other funds expended by the land-grant 62 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. colleges, and has logically been charged with the adminis- tration of the new extension act. The direct farm-demon- stration work is similar to the work which will be carried on under the extension aet, and, as has been stated, arrange- ments have been made for coordinating it with the work under the extension act. ; It is proposed to change the name of the Office of Public Roads to the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, to eliminate from the Office of Experiment Stations the work in irrigation and drainage, and from the Bureau of Plant In- dustry the work in rural architecture, and to locate these three lines of work in the newly named office. There seems not to have been any logical reason for locating the work in irrigation and drainage in the Office of Experiment Stations, and that office in its higher administrative branches is not organized with a view to the direction of engineering work. The Office of Public Roads is primarily an engineering office, and irrigation and drainage, as well as architecture, natur- ally belong to it. To the new Office of Markets and Rural Organization it is proposed to transfer from the Bureau of Plant Industry the work in farm-credit and farm-insurance investigation; from the Bureau of Animal Industry the mar- ket-milk investigations, and, in part, in cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry and Bureau of Chemistry, the poultry and egg investigations. It is proposed to transfer from the Bureau of Soils to the Bureau of Plant Industry the soil-fertility investigations. The committee of experts reporting on this matter were unanimous that the work in soil-fertility investigations and that in soil bacteriology and in plant pathology in the Bureau of Plant Industry should be located in the same bureau. They are closely related, and work in one could not in all cases be carried to a satisfactory conclusion without a close and intimate coordination with the others. After a most careful consideration it seemed wise and practicable to pro- Report of the Secretary. 63 pose that the transfer be made to the Bureau of Plant In- dustry. Other less important changes include the transfer of poisonous-plant investigations from the Bureau of Plant In- dustry to the Bureau of Animal Industry, investigations of duck diseases from the Biological Survey to the Bureau of Animal Industry, and of wood-distillation work from the Bureau of Chemistry to the Forest Service. There is good reason for believing that the redirection and relocation of the work as proposed will result in a marked increase in the efficiency of the labors of the department. CONCLUSION. I have sought to bring into view in the main some of the larger constructive tasks and proposals of this department. I have not undertaken to review the work and services of certain, great offices of the department, such as the Weather Bureau, which is giving highly valuable aid not only to the farmer, to the busmess man, and to the navigator, but to all the people of the nation; the Office of Experiment Stations, which has such broad and intimate relations with the whole land-grant educational machinery of the nation; the Bureau of Chemistry, which is charged with the administration of the Food and Drugs Act; the Bureau of Biological Survey, which is intrusted with many difficult tasks, including the administration of the Migratory-Bird Law; the Bureau of Soils; the special boards, such as the Federal Horticultural Board and the Insecticide and Fungicide Board; and the Office of the Solicitor, whose activities are essential to the orderly handling of many important departmental, legisla- tive, and administrative affairs. I have not attempted to outline the activities of divisions of these or of other offices and bureaus. I should deeply regret it if my failure to do so were interpreted to indicate that their work is in any measure less valuable and helpful than that which has received more specific and elaborate mention. Where activities are so varied, the task must of necessity be one of selection and 64 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. emphasis. For a full comprehension of the undertakings, activities, and services of the department the reports of the several bureaus and offices separately published must be consulted. Through such legislation, enterprises, and labors the Fed- eral Government-is attempting to solve the problems of agriculture and of rural life. It finds valuable allies and co- workers in the great agricultural agencies of the several States. Nothing short of a comprehensive attempt to make rural life profitable, healthful, comfortable, and attractive will solve the problems. It is the only sure way of retaining in the rural districts an adequate number of efficient and con- tented people. That the thought and effort of the nation must be persistently and systematically along these lmes is clear. The urgency of the task is emphasized by the fact that while the population of the United States in the last 15 years has increased 23,000,000, the strictly rural dis- tricts have shown an increase of perhaps less than 6,000,000. While we labor to increase the supply of material things we can not neglect the higher things—the intellectual and social sides of rural life. The conservation and development of the people is the greatest problem of conservation confronting us. We must see to it that some of the finer results of civili- zation accrue to the people of the rural districts and are not the peculiar possession of urban communities. An expen- diture of effort and money in this direction can not be a burden. Through such measures wisely executed and with such protection rural life will become more efficient, and the farmers of the nation may without fear face the competition of the world. ; Respectfully, D. F. Hovsrton, Secretary of Agriculture. Wasuineton, D. C., November 14, 1914. THE NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE FARMER. By Henry 8. GRAVEs, Forester and Chief of the Forest Service. FEW years ago more than a hundred farmers in the Kootenai Valley, in Montana, petitioned against the proposed elimination of their section from the Kootenai National Forest. They wanted it to remain where it was. Its elimination they knew, from the history of adjacent land outside the Forest, would mean that it would at once be taken up by timber speculators and lumber companies, to be held for years without development. They knew also that if this came about neighbors could not be secured nor roads and schools be developed in the county anything like _ as rapidly as if the land remained in the Forest, where those portions better suited for agriculture than for forest purposes could be entered by permanent settlers under the forest homestead act. In 1911 an association of farmers in Colorado, who draw upon the North Platte River for water to irrigate their farms, sent an urgent request to the Government to restrict timber cutting on the North Platte watershed, so that as far as possible high spring freshets might be prevented and more water furnished during the summer months, when their crops were most in need of it. They relied upon the National Forest which included that watershed to insure them a steady flow of water in the stream, on which their crops depended. These two instances, taken at random from a great number of similar ones, indicate the interest which farmers take both in the existence of the National Forests and in the way they are administered. This interest does not belong only to farmers in and near the Forests; it belongs to farmers everywhere. The examples cited illustrate but two of the many ways in which the National Forests influence the wel- fare and development of agricuitural communities, an influence which extends far beyond the Forest boundaries. For one thing, the National Forests are the American farmer’s most valuable source of wood, the chief building 75922°—yBxk 1914——5 65 66 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. material for rural purposes. For another, they are his most valuable source of water, both for irrigation, as just indicated, and also for domestic use. Scarcely less impor- tant, they afford him a protected range for his stock; they are his best insurance against damage by floods to his fields, his buildings, his bridges, and his roads, and against decreas- ing soil fertility. Geographically, the National Forests cover a wide area. They comprise the higher portions of the Rocky Mountain Ranges, the Cascades, the Pacific Coast Ranges, a portion of the forested coast. of Alaska, some of the mountain and hilly regions in eastern Montana and in the Dakotas, OKa- homa, and Arkansas, and limited areas in Minnesota, Mich- igan, and Florida. Besides these, land is now being pur- chased for National Forests in the White Mountains of New Hampshire and in the Southern Appalachians. In regions so vast and widely scattered the conditions of agri- culture, and forest conditions too, necessarily vary in a great degree, which brings about corresponding differences in the way the National Forests affect agricultural interests and the extent of their influence. But wherever agriculture can be practiced the farmer is benefited by the existence of National Forests and their proper handling. Experience has amply proved that in regions where tim- ber is the most important natural resource permanent forests managed with a view to sustained timber production are not only beneficial to the farmer but absolutely essential to the continuance of agriculture. If the timber is exploited without thought of the future, lumbering presently comes to an end. The result is that the local market for farm products furnished by the presence of lumbering operations is withdrawn. Forest fires ravage the cut-over lands and in the end destroy all prospects for further lumbering. What should be productive timberland is converted into a waste. From such a region’ the farmers who may have established themselves on scattered areas of land suitable for agriculture move out. In some parts of Europe it has been found necessary, as a preventive of distress to the agricultural population and of abandonment of farm lands, to modify the cutting plans laid down for the forests in order to provide for greater continuity of operations. There The National Forests and the Farmer. 67 are parts of the United States in which cultivation of the soil has ended with the local lumbering, or shortly after- wards. The farmers have found that without the market for their meats, vegetables, hay, and grain which the lum- bermen supplied they can not make a living. There are other regions where the stability of the agricultural industry is absolutely bound up with forest protection. This is strikingly true in parts of the Appalachian Mountains. It is no less true in many of the National Forest regions in the West. FARMS IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS. In general, the National Forests occupy the higher and more rugged portions of the mountains, at elevations above the main agricultural zone. Their permanent boundaries are drawn in such a way as to exclude all large bodies of agricultural land; the lands included in the National Forests are those chiefly valuable for forest purposes. In many instances, however, there are within the Forest boundaries scattered patches and strips of land of agricultural character, but too small to be eliminated from the Forest by themselves. These lands occur along some of the valley bottoms, at the confluence of streams, and on narrow benches. Whenever such tracts are suitable for the development of agricultural homes they are opened to entry. Thus the establishment of a National Forest does not mean that agriculture within its boundaries is prohibited. On the contrary, the Department of Agriculture is classifying the lands in the Forests in order to search out the agricultural areas and to bring about their development as fast as possible. To show how the classifi- cation of forest and agricultural lands works out in putting every acre or parcel of land within the National Forests to its best use, the Kootenai Valley may be taken as an example. Here a large river winds for 150 miles through a National Forest. It is distinctly a. mountain stream. At many points steep, densely wooded hills drop down to the water’s edge, making the valley a gorge or canyon. Where tributary streams join the main river, narrow V-shaped valleys run up them for short distances, narrowing in width as the mountains close in. Here and there bars in the river have resulted in a deposit of silt to form long and narrow fertile bottoms, or 68 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. level silt islands have been thrown up in the stream itself. Part way up on the mountain slopes occasional level benches afford a few acres or a farm or two of fertile land. At first it was proposed to throw out the entire valley, a strip 3 miles in width on either side of the river. Ninety-five per cent of this belt, however, is nonagricultural land, whose cultivation should not be attempted. It can be of most use to the local community, as well as to the country at large, by growing timber. So instead of throwing the whole valley out of the National Forest, the Forest Service has pains- takingly surveyed every little river bottom, island, or bench which contains enough arable land to support ahome. Many of-these patches are small, but their soil is so fertile that a home can be maintained upon them by intensive truck or orchard farming. Much of the valley is not yet covered by the rectangular system of public land surveys, and instead of waiting for them the Forest Service has, by metes and bounds, run out the boundaries of each of these farmsteads, segregating them from the Forest and making them available for settlers. In this fashion more than 300 farms have been carved out of the Kootenai Valley. The rest of the land has been kept under Government control for continuous forest production, the economic function which it should fulfill. Another illustration might be cited from Fortine Creek, in the western portion of the Blackfeet National Forest, in northern Montana. Here conditions are somewhat different from those in the Kootenai Valley. Two high, rugged mountain ranges, one on the north along the Canadian border and one on the south, form a divide from the Flathead drainage. Between them lies a broad, level valley, not unlike many of the lower valleys in the Allegheny region. In places it is 3 miles or more in width, offering almost unbroken stretches of arable land. Here and there along its edges spurs jut out from the mountains, forming an irregular boundary with little fingers of cultivable land running up the channels of many of the small mountain streams. The problem here is not alone to determine the most valuable use for each acre of land. Outlets must be retained for the large bodies of timber back in the mountains, and mill sites for manufacturing this timber must be available. In a word, a practical boundary line must be fixed which will set off the The National Forests and the Farmer. 69 forest areas, together with the necessary facilities for utiliza- tion, from the arable lands to be turned over to the farmer. This is precisely what the Forest Service is doing, and in this way the greatest permanent usefulness of each resource as an economic asset of the country is secured. The fact that a farm is within the boundary of a Forest does not operate to hinder the owner in developing his prop- erty. Actually he receives many direct benefits and privi- leges from the fact that his farm is there. In some places farm values are higher because the land is in a Forest. Set- tlers are seeking such farms in order to get the advantages of protection of stock and other privileges, and it is very com- mon, as cited at the beginning of this article, for farming communities inside the Forests to protest against proposed eliminations that would put them outside the boundaries. Many thousands of farms are now being developed within the boundaries of the Forests. This does not include those occupying the wider valleys which extend into the Forests and which have been segregated by elimination, but only the individual farms and small groups which could not in prac- tice be eliminated without including large areas of nonagri- cultural timberland. During the last decade the Forest Service has classified as agricultural and opened to entry over 15,500 individual scattered tracts in the Forests, covering over 1,700,000 acres. The classification has resulted further in lessening the area held in the Forests by over 9,000,000 acres, through eliminations, which enable the unappropriated and unreserved agricultural land to be taken up under the general homestead laws. Within the last two years there has been eliminated in large blocks 2,650,426 acres. Not all of this land was agricultural, but these areas and the 1,763,867 acres under consideration for elimination -contain the bulk of the agricultural lands originally included in the Forests. The remaining agricultural land is chiefly confined to isolated tracts scattered here and there; to restricted areas requiring irrigation, but where water can not be devel- oped; and to certain river bottoms and benches which are now covered with very heavy and valuable timber. The scattered patches and strips of agricultural land will be opened to entry as fast as classified. The best of such tracts have in most cases been taken up. What remain are 70 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. as a rule not only isolated, but so high up that the seasons are short and farming is not as good as upon hundreds of thousands of acres of vacant land on the public domain out- side the Forests. Where the area is too small to constitute a practical farm unit, the small cultivable strips or patches are not opened for homesteading but are retained for forest purposes. A real injury is done the homeseeker who is in- duced to settle upon a tract of land so small and unproductive that his only escape from poverty is to abandon it. That very land, however, may be valuable for forest purposes, and an attempt to use it as a farm is an economic error for the reason that existing wealth is destroyed and no new wealth created. The aim in administering the National Forests is to establish permanent farm homes and communities of homes. Where the land can not be developed for agriculture but can be used for timber development or some other indus- trial purpose, it should be devoted to what will bring the greatest service to the localities and the country as a whole. There is also a certain amount of land in the Forests which ultimately can be farmed, but which at the present time is covered with very heavy timber. A constant pressure is brought on the Government by private individuals who want to acquire possession of these lands primarily for their timber value. Single tracts of 160 acres often have a value for the timber alone of $20,000. So it is inevitable that here and there individuals are willing to use almost any means to get possession of such a timber stake for nothing or next to noth- ing. But in spite of the fact that some of these lands have soil of an agricultural character, to throw_them open for homestead purposes would not eoaiilind in farm development. This has been proved over and over again where lands acquired in this way under the guise of the homestead law are to-day in the hands of lumber companies who promptly purchased them from the settlers as soon as title passed, and are either reserving them for later cutting or are holding the land itself after cutting for from $40 to $60 an acre, or even more—a speculative process which effectively prevents the possibility of men of small means acquiring and establishing homes there. Thus agricultural development is retarded by the specu- lator capitalizing the unearned increment and passing it on The National Forests and the Farmer. ra! as a perpetual burden on the land. Removing the timber through its sale by the Government before the land is opened to settlement removes the speculator and makes it reasonably certain that the land will be taken by a perma- nent settler and that the unearned increment will go into clearing and productive farm development. It is not meant to imply, of course, that most applicants for a timbered tract fail to show good faith. Without ques- tion, many really desire the land primarily for the agricultural value, and start with the idea of clearing it, even if the timber has to be cut and burned. The fact remains, how- ever, that in most cases the settler sells out and goes else- where. When it costs from $100 to $250 per acre to ¢lear land and requires a long time and the most arduous effort to get a tract under cultivation, while it is possible to sell that same tract for its timber at from $2,000 to $10,000, or even more, the average settler prefers to realize on the timber and move to another place where the difficulties of farming are less severe. The Government is withholding from agricultural entry such heavily timbered land until after the timber is cut off. But as soon as this is done the land is opened to entry and settlers acquire it directly from the Government for free homesteading, instead of having to pay from $40 to $60 an acre to speculative holders. This procedure is being suc- cessfully carried out in many places to-day. For example, in the Kaniksu National Forest, in Idaho and Washington, timber sales have been made to include much of the remain- ing agricultural timbered land. Within eight years fully 10,000 acres of land will be made available for settlement. Permanent homes will be established and there will be avail- ~ able for the use of the communities approximately $225,000 for roads and schools, their share of the proceeds from the sale of the timber. In the Kootenai Forest, in Montana, the Government is disposing of the timber in a way to open up the remaining acres of agricultural land in the Kootenai Valley lying within the Forest. Directly adjacent to this Government land are thousands of acres of timbered lands taken up under the homestead law before the Forests were established, and now held by timbermen and speculators without development of any kind. It is private ownership 72 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. of heavily timbered agricultural land that blocks farming development; Government ownership insures such develop- ment under conditions that give opportunities to the small settler whose only capital is his strength and courageous perseverence. There are still some lands in the Forests which have soil suitable for cultivation if water were available for irrigation. Where water can be secured such land is promptly opened to entry. In case water can not be developed the land is retained in the Forest and used for tree growth and grazing. One of the most serious agricultural problems of the North- west to-day is the development of the logged-off lands in private ownership. In Oregon and Washington alone over 3,000,000 acres of such logged-off lands are lying idle, though much of the area has fine agricultural soil and a climate to insure abundant crops and the development of thriving farming communities. Yet in this same region hundreds of settlers are seeking to find some place in the National Forests, usually remote from transportation, high in the mountains, where the climate is harsh and soil relatively inferior, because the good lands at lower elevations outside the Forests are held at prohibitive prices. The real solution of the problem of agriculture in such sections is to develop the rich logged- off private lands that lie outside the Forests and are now idle and unproductive, not to throw open the nonegriquliumal Forest lands as some are urging. SPECIAL BENEFITS TO THE FARMER. Specifically, the benefits to the farmer from the existence of National Forests may be discussed under the following heads: (a) The benefits through protection of water resources. (b) The benefits through supplies of Forest products. (c) The benefits from grazing privileges. (d) The benefits, direct and indirect, from the establish- ment and maintenance of various industries utilizing the resources of the Forests. (e) The benefits from public improvements built by the Government. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE I. Fic. 1.—A FARM IN THE IDAHO NATIONAL FOREST, TAKEN UP UNDER THE ACT OF JUNE 11, 1906. Fic. 2.—A SMALL BUNCH OF CATTLE GRAZING IN AN OPEN YELLOW PINE STAND ON THE DURANGO NATIONAL FOREST, COLO. [Of the 29,000 grazing permits issued annually on the forests, 24.000 are for small owners of stock.] Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE Il. AN “AGRICULTURAL” CLAIM ON THE ST. JOE NATIONAL FOREST. [The 60° slopes rise directly from the creek. There is practically no level land on this claim, but the white pine timber is valued ut $20,000. | Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914, PLATE III. ANOTHER “AGRICULTURAL”? CLAIM ON THE ST. JOE NATIONAL FOREST. [The ground is so steep that both hands have to be used to keep from sliding off into the creek. The photograph was taken on May 22, but snow was still on the ground. The applicant claimed that this was excellent wheat land.] Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—IMPORTANT IRRIGATING DITCH AND LATERAL LESS THAN ONE MILE FROM BUSINESS SECTION OF EPHRAIM CITY, UTAH, BADLY DAMAGED BY THE FLOOD OF AuGusT 24, 1912. [The flood overflowed the cribbing above man on left, lowered the creek bed 5 feet, and washed out the headgate. | Fia. 2.—A STREAM IN A NATIONAL FOREST WHOSE HEADWATERS ARE PROTECTED. [Quosatena Creek as it enters Rogue River, Siskiyou National Forest, Oreg.] PLATE V 1914. Iture, icu Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr q nS JO Taq unuU “LNOW Ol] PUB ‘OT RS OY] BUTT BUT JO Ysoo [BNY jornd AvUI §yUMpIsor [ROOT AYO puB S198 TAIL *LSSYO4 TWNOILVN NOSIGV|IY SHL NO GNVLS 30NYdS NNVWIS9NFZ NV NI VauV 31VS YsENI, TIVNS Vv ] Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE VI. A REGION FOR THE MOUNTAIN CLIMBER, CAMPER, AND SPORTSMAN. {In the Cascades, Snoqualmie National Forest, Wash., sometimes called the ‘‘Alps of the United States.’ The mountains here are very high and rugged, with peaks rising over 11,000 feet. The great Douglas fir stands on the west slopes are the most heavily timbered forests in the country. ] The National Forests and the Farmer. 73 WATER RESOURCES. One of the purposes underlying the establishment and maintenance of the National Forests is the protection of the sources of water supply. By their situation in the moun- tains the Forests cover the higher and more rugged portions * of the watersheds at the headwaters of various rivers and streams. The protective influence of the forest cover on sources of water supply is of importance to all industries using water from the streams rising in the National Forests. It is of special importance to the agricultural interests. In many parts of the West the water used in irrigation is derived almost entirely from streams which have their source in the National Forests. This is true of the majority of the ereat reclamation projects of the Government, which furnish water for many hundreds of thousands of acres of land. Every farmer who uses this water is, in a measure, directly dependent in the long run on the proper handling of these National Forests. In several instances National Forests are maintained primarily for the purpose of watershed protec- tion. The headwaters of the Salt and Verde Rivers in Ari- zona, on which is one of the greatest of the Federal reclama- tion projects, are comprised in the Tonto and Prescott National Forests. Considerable portions of these water- sheds are administered as National Forests in order to con- trol the grazing and so to prevent erosion. Every water user on this project realizes that overgrazing of the watershed would greatly hasten the silting up of the reservoirs and canals. On many National Forests in the Rocky Mountains and elsewhere, protection belts of forest have been established on the upper sources of important streams. In these belts all cutting will be very carefully regulated, so as to run no risk of disturbing the forest cover, which exerts a beneficial influence in holding snow and storing water during the period of heavy precipitation. Often no cutting at all is permitted, except of dead timber. In the steep mountain ranges of southern California the use of the pine forests high up on the watersheds is absolutely controlled by the necessity for conserving the water needed to irrigate the citrus-fruit farms in the valleys below. Except where it is very clear that 74 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. heavier logging will have no harmful effects upon stream flow, cutting is confined to the removal of an occasional overmature tree whose usefulness as a conserver of water is practically gone. Often Forest officers cooperate with local -water users in studying conditions of stream flow and deter- mining how they should affect the management of the For- ests. In Colorado committees representing irrigation asso- ciations have been conducted over timber sales on watersheds in National Forests, the methods of cutting explained to them, and conferences held to determine how far the Govern- ment may safely go in utilizing the timber. All told, the value of the farms whose water supply for irrigation is pro- tected by the National Forests will run into the hundreds of millions of dollars. Farmers and other water users are very jealous of the way in which the Forests are handled. On the Angeles Forest alone local citizens contribute over $15,000 a year to aid in building fire lines for the prevention of disastrous forest and brush fires. Such men see in the right handling of the Forest the source of their own prosperity, and they cooperate in every way they can to aid the Government in its forest work. A second way in which farmers are affected by the National Forests is in the use of water for domestic purposes. Not only do individual farmers get the water used in their homes and for their stock from streams rising in the Forests, but many small towns and communities are thus supplied. Alto- gether about 1,200 towns and cities depend on National For- est water. With the increased development of the country which is following the utilization of the National Forest resources, the number of communities dependent on water from the Forests is increasing, and constantly larger quan- tities are used in each locality. In the planting operations on the National Forests special attention is given to water- sheds which supply municipalities and rural communities. From 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 little pines, firs, and spruces are planted every year in the Forests, and some tons of tree seed sown. Not only is the forest cover on these watersheds being extended by the Government with the aid of local citizens, but special arrangements are made for controlling grazing and other uses of the area in order to prevent the silting of the stream or pollution of its water. The National Forests and the Farmer. ta One of the greatest handicaps which the Forest Service has already encountered in meeting this problem of guarantee- ing pure water for domestic use is the fact that certain por- tions of the watersheds have already been privately acquired and the control thus passed from public to private hands. Every year petitions are received for additions to the Na- tional Forests, in order to include under the protective sys- tem some town or community watershed. SOIL WASHING AND FLOODS. Of no less importance to the farmer and the community is the need for having the water supply under constant control and free from torrents which carry away diversion dams, headgates, bridges, and roads, and leave irrigation ditches, fields, and streets strewn with bowlders and mud. Such floods are a matter of disastrous experience in a number of mountain valleys where successful agriculture depends upon unfailing streams. In the San Pete and Castle Valleys of Utah alone the damage to cultivated fields, irrigation works, roads, water-supply systems, and power systems, as the result of erosion and floods since 1890, may be conservatively estimated as totaling in six figures. When these valleys were settled the streams flowing inte them were clear even during the high-water season. As set- tlement grew the increasing number of cattle and sheep were forced back to the headwaters of the streams for summer pasturage and the timber for domestic supply was cut where it could be secured most conveniently without thought of future protection. The herbaceous and shrub vegetation on the high untimbered slopes, which formerly broke the force of the rain, bound the soil together in its resistance to the combined force of water and gravity, and kept it sponge-like through the constant addition of vegetable matter, was re- duced or destroyed by overstocking and premature grazing with cattle and sheep. At the same time the originally mel- low soil became packed beneath, and a dust bed on top. The transformation brought about a change similar to the dif- ference between a cultivated field and an adjoining barn- yard, the former highly receptive to falling rain, the latter almost impervious. Small gullies soon formed; these in- creased in number and size, widening out into fan-shaped 76 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. drainage at the headwaters of streams and collecting as a funnel in the canyon below. The character of the run-off under such conditions of the watershed is illustrated by an observation in the San Pete Mountains of Utah. At11a.m., July 30, 1912, a light rain started; at 11.45 a. m., the roar of a flood was heard at the head of a small canyon draining approximately 1,500 acres of sparsely timbered land at 10,000 feet elevation, lying fan-shape at the head of the canyon. The natural stream, a mere driblet, was increased to a maximum front 25 feet wide and 8 feet high. The main flow lasted approximately an hour and in this time changed its course at the mouth three times. A solid section of bank approximating 5,000 cubic feet was torn out in a few minutes. It is estimated that 30,000 cubic feet of gravel and bowlders came down in this flood resulting from 0.5 inch of rain in 2 hours over a drainage area of 1,500 acres which was hard packed and gullied. A flood of this character originating at the headwaters of a single canyon on August 24, 1913, carried bowlders as large as 10 cubic feet to the settlement beyond the canyon; head- gates were washed out and the main ditch was lowered at one point 5 feet below the intake of laterals, and at another point the channel was filled up andchanged. Basements, sidewalks, lawns, and corrals were left under a sheet of mud; the city light plant and the water system were temporarily impaired, and 7 miles of a much-used timber wagon road was made impassable. To eliminate such floods it is essential to eliminate the conditions which give rise to them. With the watersheds under protection, grazing is adjusted to give nature a chance to revegitate the untimbered slopes; timber cutting is so planned as to protect areas of critical position against erosion and floods; and investigations are under way to develop feasible methods of repairing damage where erosion has pro- gressed to a degree beyond repair by nature alone. By proper management it is believed that this repair work can be done in time without interfering materially with the farmers’ need for timber and range. The Government is thus work- ing to protect the farms from disasters that in a few hours might wipe out the results of many years’ hard work. The National Forests and the Farmer. 77 Fully as important, but less noticeable, is the protection afforded both local and general soil fertility by the National Forests on our principal mountain ranges. The pioneer found rich soil on both hillside and plain; but experience has taught him, and the soil expert has demonstrated, that while the fertility of the valley is permanent, the fertility of the hillside is transitory. The humus produced by forest growth makes an exceedingly rich soil, but rainfall and gravi- tation constantly tend to carry that fertility to lower lands. So long as the slopes are well protected by tree growth, they continue to add to the fertility of the valley lands. Each year a ton or more of litter is added to each acre of forest soil in a dense forest, but the soil fertility remains practically constant, the increase being slowly contributed to lower lands through the forces of nature. The hillside lands are slowly lowered, while those of the valley are raised. So long as this continues at an imperceptible rate the valley is bene- fitted, while the hills are not injured. An analysis of Illinois soils showed that on hill land the surface 7 inches of soil con- tained an average of 2,000 pounds of nitrogen, while the next 7 inches contained only one-third as much, and the next still less. At the same time the valley land contained in many instances three times as much, and was fairly uni- form to a considerable depth. Under normal forest condi- tions the more valuable elements are slowly transported from forest to field. Cut off the forest, and the hillsides be- come a source of sterility instead of fertility. The unregu- lated rush of waters carries sand and gravel instead of valu- able plant food down into the field, destroying the soil fer- tility of both hillside and valley. This wholesale soil waste and destruction is prevented by the regulated cutting of timber and restricted grazing in the National Forests. The continuation of this protection is all that stands as a safe- guard against great injury to the soil fertility of millions of acres of very valuable and productive farm land. PROPER CONTROL OF TIMBER RESOURCES. One of the immediate benefits to the farmer comes through the public control of the timber resources. In the first place, settlers who live in and adjacent to the Forests are eranted free use of firewood and certain other material for 78 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. domestic purposes, and through a recent enactment of Con- gress there is now authority for such settlers to secure larger amounts of timber needed on their farms merely by paying the Government what it actually costs to administer the sale. This ordinarily is from 50 to 75 cents per thousand feet, which means an actual saving in money to the farmer of from 50 cents to $5 per thousand, according to the class of timber. In administering the National Forests, provision is made first of all for the needs of the farmers and other local residents. There is thus a guarantee of a permanent supply of material for local communities. The importance of this is illustrated in those regions where the National Forests constitute practically the only source of wood and timber. In certain places in the Southwest and in other places east of the Rocky Mountains, farmers sometimes travel 100 miles to a National Forest to obtain firewood. Many National Forests in sparsely timbered regions serve as community woodlots for the farmers surrounding them. Instead of cutting material for fuel and farm improvements from the woods on his place, like the average farmer east of the Mississippi, the ranchers turn to these public woodlots. The Sioux National Forest, on the Dakota-Montana line, | supplies from 1,200 to 1,500 farmers. The Wichita National Forest, in western Oklahoma, furnishes material to between 1,400 and 1,500 more, and the Cache and Minidoka National Forests, in southern Idaho, together each year furnish farm materials to 3,400.permittees. This use covers every conceiv- able requirement of the farm—cordwood, fence posts, derrick poles for stacking hay, corral poles and ven n rafters, and lum- ber for Panldieness Where timber is particularly scarce these forest woodlots are reserved entirely for the needs of locali- ties surrounding them, including mining industries, where they occur, and local towns as well as rural farm communi- ties. Sales of timber for shipment to outside regions are. only permitted where there is clearly more timber than local users require. Often the community feature of a National Forest is further emphasized by cooperative sawmills constructed and run by groups of farmers or small communities to supply their needs as a whole. Several small mills of this character are in successful operation on the National Forests in the The National Forests and the Farmer. 79 ereat farming region of central Utah. The farmers who own them go up into the mountains with their teams for a month or more after the harvesting season, cut and haul logs to the mill, saw the logs into lumber, and haul the latter down to their farms for the next year’s use. Opportunity is thus afforded to keep the farms in the vicinity of the National Forests supplied with wood for all purposes at a very slight cost, aside from the time of men and use of teams when ordi- nary farm work is slack. Not infrequently one finds timber cuttings in progress on the National Forests which are meant to supply the specialized industries of a region. Small mills in the Sierras, for example, are manufacturing National Forest timber into trays which are used in enormous quan- tities in the raisin belt and citrus-orchard districts of Cali- fornia. Other purchasers of timber from the Government are engaged in cutting fence posts in large quantities for the supply of farming communities, where the individual ranch- ers can not themselves go to the mountains to procure such material. The free-use privilege was taken advantage of during the past year by over 34,000 persons, who obtained material entirely without charge aggregating 120,500,000 board feet and with a total real value of $183,000. Through these privi- leges and through the public control of the timber, local com- munities at a distance from the general lumber markets are protected from the excessive prices which frequently obtain where the small man is unable to protect himself on account of the control of supplies by private individuals. GRAZING. One of the greatest benefits of the National Forests to the farmers is the protected range which is given to them for their stock. On about two-thirds of the area of the Forests there is more or less forage. Like other resources this is put te use, and more than 9,400,000 cattle, sheep, horses, swine, and goats graze on the Forest range. The grazing is under Government regulation, so that the forests are not injured and at the same time the ranges are not overstocked. Every farmer is to a certain extent a stockman. When his farm is remote from markets it is the live stock which yields him his income. ‘This is especially true of the farms 80 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. in and near the National Forests, most of which are at con- siderable distances from centers of population and where the transportation facilities are still very poor. If the farmer can secure suitable grazing grounds upon which his stock may remain during the summer, a period averaging through- out the West about five months, he is thereby relieved of the care and expense of maintaining them upon his own land, and the feed they would otherwise have eaten during the summer is accumulated for winter use. It is precisely at this poimt that the National Forests serve to meet his special needs, for the farmer is given preference in use of the forage on the Forests. Every man is allowed to graze 10 milch and work animals entirely free of charge. He is then preferred before all others in further grazing privileges, for which he pays a very moderate fee. The regulation of the use of the ranges gives him protection, so that he is sure of having enough forage to carry his stock through the summer. Prior to the creation of the various National Forests the small live-stock owner was practically prohibited from utilizing the ranges adjacent to his lands because they were already stocked to their utmost capacity by larger owners. If in one year there was enough feed for the farmer’s stock the next year some large outfit might sweep through and use it all. The small man could not afford to turn his few head loose among such large herds because of the danger of the animals straying to remote ranges. As a concrete example of how the present Government policy has encouraged and built up the production of live stock by farmers, the Manti Forest, in the State of Utah, may be cited. This Forest lies between two very productive valleys in central Utah, where the demand for farms is so great that the farm unit is being reduced every year, the average for 1914 being 38 acres. When the Forest was cre- ated the ranges were practically monopolized by the large herds. Now the Forest range is occupied almost wholly by the stock of the farmers living in the near-by valleys. During the season of 1914, 1,259 permits were issued for the grazing of cattle and horses and 513 permits for the grazing of sheep upon this Forest. The ownership of these animals was divided as follows: Permits for 1 to 40 cattle, 1,185 owners; 41 to 100, 61 owners; above 100 cattle, 13; from 1 to 1,000 The National Forests and the Farmer. 81 sheep, 506 owners; above 1,000, only 7. Several hundred cattle permits were for less than 10 head and dozens of the sheep permits for less than 75 head. The average number of sheep grazed per permit was 290 head, and the average number of cattle and horses was 15. This shows how the small owners are taken care of. It will be seen to what an extent the farmers in the valley surrounding the Manti Forest depend upon it as an aid to their farming operations. Every year there are applications from new settlers who desire grazing privileges for from 1 to 10 head of cattle, and the larger owners are being con- tinually reduced to make room for this class of permittees. These farmers turn their stock into the Forest in the early spring and return them to their farms in the fall, when those which are ready for market are sold, while the breeding stock is wintered upon the farm. It is an attested fact that stock sold from the Forest ranges weigh more and bring better prices per pound that the same class of stock from the open ranges outside the Forests. It is also true that these farmers could not successfully operate such small farm units without the aid of the Forest ranges. This is the sort of result that is being secured on all the National Forests where there is grazing land and near-by farms. Every year a larger number of permits are issued to small owners. In fact, out of 29,000 permits, 24,000 are for small men, chiefly farmers living in and near the Forests. The development of the dry-farming principle, which is bringing under cultivation large areas of land hitherto believed to be incapable of producing agricultural crops, can be successfully carried through only by maintaining live stock to eat the rough forage crops which are produced upon the majority of such farms. If the dry farmer can depend upon obtaining range for part or all of his surplus stock within the neighboring Forests, he will be able to add very materially to the meat production of the nation and at the same time develop his land much more rapidly. In many parts of the West the dairying industry is rapidly growing, and applications from settlers for range within the Forests upon which to graze their dairy cattle are being received in large numbers. To meet this situation certain areas have been reserved exclusively for this class of animals, 75922°—ygex 19146 82 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. and drift fences have been erected to prevent the dairy cattle from mixing with the purely beef herds around them, and also from wandering from their own ranges. Already farms in and near the Forests bring a higher price in the market by reason of the grazing privileges which the farmer has for his stock. BENEFITS FROM INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. The Government is aiming to secure a development of all the various natural resources in the National Forests. This means the establishment of new industries of all kinds; it means, further, that the industries will be permanent ones, because the resources upon which they depend are being handled conservatively; it means the development of com- munities, towns, and even cities; it means more people work- ing to create wealth and an increased demand for all the products of the farm. It means, therefore, for the farmer, a greatly increased market for his products. Every timber sale means development of the lumber industry, with the establishment of camps in the Forest to log out the timber and a sawmill established for its manufacture. There is developed immediately a market for all food products raised on the farm to supply the needs of the men employed in the work; there is also created a demand for grain and hay for the horses and mules used in the various lumbering opera- tions. Very commonly a large timber sale means a railroad, either a main line or a branch line, and all extensive railroads built under National Forest contracts must be common car- riers. In many instances this means not only. that more people are brought into the farming communities, but that still greater markets become available by shipping over the railroad. Exactly the same process follows every sub- stantial mining development. There is one industrial development going on very rapidly in the National Forests which is often overlooked as an industry, and that is the development of the recreation resources. Throughout the National Forests there are a multitude of small lakes and streams and points of special scenic attraction. Many thousands of people are going every year into the National Forests for recreation pur- poses. Probably not less than 1} million pleasure seekers The National Forests and the Farmer. 83 use the Forests in this way every year. The development of the recreation resources is being encouraged by the Government in every way possible. Not only are the points of special interest being protected from injury by forest fires or otherwise, but improvements in the way of roads and trails are very rapidly making these interesting areas available to the public. In consequence hotels and cottages are being built around the lakes and at other points, and summer communities are springing up in great numbers. Such a community establishes a market for produce from the neighboring farms. THE FARMER AS A CAMPER. In many sections the people making use of the Forests for recreation are the farmers who live in the hot valley at the foot of the mountains. Thus, for example, in California, when the fruit-canning season closes in the hot San Joaquin Valley, thousands of small farm owners load up a camp outfit on a wagon and start for the Sierra and Sequoia National Forests. Each takes his wife, children, and dogs, and while the family gain new health in the timber camp on the edge of some mountain meadow, the farmer cuts his year’s supply of cedar fence posts, and shoots the two deer which the law allows him. In addition to the farmers’ direct benefit from all develop- ment in the National Forests through increased markets for their products, there is immediately created a demand for labor and for the use of teams and other equipment. The Forest Service goes to the local ranchers, as well as fo the lumber camps, for much of its labor in building trails and other work. Many of the patrolmen are young ranchmen having homes in or near the Forests. Exactly the same market for labor follows the use of the resources. In some localities farmers work at certain seasons of the year in the National Forests cutting timber for sale, just as the New England farmer puts in time in the winter, when he has no other work for himself and his teams, getting out material from his own woodlot. The advantage to the farmer of being able to employ his time in off seasons profit- ably is self-evident. Where a local market exists the farmer can go into the National Forests, make a purchase of timber 84 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. on the stump at a reasonable price, and go to work. This is already a very valuable opportunity for many western set- tlers. The Forest officers prescribe methods of cutting which insure the maintenance of the forests and prevent unnecessary waste. As the country about the Forest becomes more fully populated the value of the opportunity thus afforded will increase. The farmer has his timber supplies taken care of by the Government without cost to him, and in consequence is often better off than the eastern farmer who must pay taxes on his woodlot, perhaps at an excessive valuation. . Of the over 8,000 small commercial timber sales involving amounts worth $500 or less, made by the Forest Service each year, a large proportion are made to farmers, who, in connection with their ranches, run wood yards, small sawmills, and local lum- ber yards, or who distribute fence posts to a considerable agricultural district. Upward of 200 small sales are made annually in the vicinity of Butte, Mont., chiefly to farmers who cut and haul cordwood, mining stulls, mine props, mine lagging, converter poles, and the like from the Forests to supply the mining market of that region. Elsewhere many small timber contracts are let to farmers who cut a few thou- sand railroad ties each winter for delivery to some local line. Other farmers take out telephone poles in small lots, shingle bolts to be sold to some local mill, or small quantities of saw timber which are sold to local manufacturers. One of the interesting results of the establishment of National Forests in the Southern Appalachians is to bring employment to many of the people living in the mountains—employment not only in public works, but also through taking small contracts in cutting and hauling logs, piling, acid wood, and fuel. Such opportunities are often a stimulus to an entire community. PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS. One of the farmer’s first needs is adequate transportation. Millions of acres of farm land are to-day undeveloped because of the lack of good roads. In opening a new country, road building constitutes a hard problem for the settlers. At first their number is small; every man is struggling to erect his home and farm buildings and to clear the land; during the period of actually establishing the farm there is little or no The National Forests and the Farmer. 85 income from it, and usually the settlers can not afford to pay high taxes. Under such circumstances the burden of road building is so great that development is slow, and in thousands of cases the settlers give it up entirely and aban- don their homesteads. The National Forests comprise the remotest and least settled localities. In many cases farm- ing in these regions is still pioneer work, under as difficult conditions as ever existed anywhere in this country. Near the Forests. are very large areas of excellent agricultural lands lying idle, lands capable of supporting many thousands of families and adding greatly to the food supply of the regions. One reason for the failure to develop this land has already been mentioned, namely, the excessive speculative prices at which it is held. That is a problem that will have to be met in large part by the communities themselves, which have the power of taxation. But one great reason also why a good deal of this land lies idle is the lack of roads. Every reason exists why the public should aid in this matter, be- cause it is of vital importance to the public to have these lands put to productive use. This problem is beng met in two ways: First, by the work of public improvements being carried on by the Govy- ernment in the Forests, and, second, by the direct contribu- tion to the counties from a share in the receipts from the For- ests. Every year the Government builds in the Forest roads, trails, bridges, telephone lines, and other improvements. The National Forests have been under administration only a decade, yet there have been already constructed 2,300 miles of roads, 21,000 miles of trails, 583 bridges, and 18,000 miles of telephone lines. Every one of these improvements bene- fits some settlers and ranchers. Many are the communities made accessible through the roads, bridges, and trails; many the ranchers who have been brought into profitable and pleasant communication with neighbors and outside places by the Forest Service telephones. Naturally the chief benefit of these improvements is to those who live within the bounda- ries of the Forests. A direct contribution to the communities for roads and schools without reference to the Forest lines is provided for by Congress. There is appropriated annually for the use of the counties in which Forests lie 25 per cent of all gross 86 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. receipts earned from the sale of timber and from other resources, this to be used in road building and for schools. Where the resources of the Forests are marketable, the returns from this source are already very considerable. In the aggregate, nearly $900,000 is obtained in this way each year from the National Forest receipts, to be used locally in public improvements and schools. Some of the individual Forests are bringing in over $100,000 a year, and the busi- ness throughout the Forests is increasing so that the direct contribution to community upbuilding will soon be a very large one. But in many of the Forests the resources are inaccessible and the greatest resource, the timber, is not salable under present conditions, except in small quantities. Under such circumstances the development of the Forest resources is slow, and there is but little direct return to the communities from Forest receipts. While ultimately these Forests will be of enormous importance to the country, the people need assistance now during the pioneer period of development. A great deal of the land in the counties in which the most heavily timbered National Forests are located is still a prac- tical wilderness. The very foundation of any development in such sections is the construction of roads and bridges, and this is in many places enormously expensive. The clearing of the land for farming, the building of the homes, the build- ing of schools, churches, and public improvements in the towns, in addition to the road aati are the burdens of a small, struggling population. In many cases the National Forests occupy from 20 to 60 per cent of the area of the counties and contain timber of vast amount. Is there any wonder that the people are protesting that the Forests, which are not subject to taxes and are not yielding much from timber sales, are not con- tributing as they should to the development of their com- munities? Often they use the phrase that the Forests are blocking development or that the resources are locked up. This is, of course, not true, because the resources are available for use: What is meant, and what is true, is that the Forests are not contributing as they should to development of the communities in the counties in which the Forests are located. The National Forests and the Farmer. 87 Various proposals have been made, from time to time, looking to a possible solution of this problem. The most common proposal has been to abolish the National Forests and distribute the land among private owners in order that it may be brought under taxation. To make clear the utterly destructive character of such a program would need only a review of the scandals that accompanied the operation of the land laws as they pertained to timber lands, prior to the establishment of the National Forests, and a review of the results of private ownership of large areas of forest land where there has been no public control or public participa- tion in the protection and handling of them. The National Forests will be one of the greatest sources of local prosperity. Publicly owned, they will be protected from destruction and their resources will be available for continuous service in building up and permanently maintaining local industries. Above all, they serve the public and their benefits can be shared by the average man instead of serving to enrich a few who might be in a position to secure control of them. The problem must be worked out in a way which will meet the immediate needs of the communities, without breaking down the integrity of the National Forests and withdrawing from the local communities the great benefits which will increasingly be derived from them. Just such a constructive solution of the present difficulties of the settlers in heavily timbered National Forest counties has been proposed by the Secretary of Agriculture in his recent annual report. Briefly, this new policy proposes that where existing resources justify it and the public need can be demonstrated, future receipts from the National Forests be anticipated and advances be made by Congress for the construction of roads, bridges, and other public works, these advances to be returned to the Treasury from the sums which later on will be received when the timber can be placed on the market to advantage. This new policy would apply exclusively in those counties where there is a considerable area of Forest land, and so located that the resources can not be marketed at the present time, but later will yield a large revenue. Such a policy would fully meet the local difficulties arising from the fact that the National Forests are not subject to taxation. It would make the 88 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Forest resources immediately realizable for public improve- ments; it would accomplish a development not possible without public aid; it would stimulate agricultural develop- ment; it would relieve the now struggling communities from a burden of taxation they would otherwise have to assume if the development of many of the National Forests com- munities is to go forward as rapidly as it should; it would hasten the development of the National Forest resources and aid in their protection; in every way it would work to help the small man. With such a plan in operation there would be removed the one barrier that now in a few places prevents the farmer from enjoying immediately the benefit of the National Forests. eo THE ORGANIZATION OF A RURAL COMMUNITY. By T. N. CARVER, Adviser in Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture. [Prepared for the Office of Markets and Rural Organization.] GENERAL OUTLINES OF THE PLAN. O single plan of organization will suit all rural com- N munities. There must be a clear and definite need for organization before any organization can hope to suc- ceed. Since the needs of different rural communities differ, it must follow that the plans of organization must differ also, at least in some of their details. The plan here pre- sented is intended only as a general guide, to be followed so far as it seems to meet the needs of any community which is studying the problem of organization. They who are on the ground and know the local conditions must deter- mine for themselves how far this plan fits the case. It is presented in the form of a general comprehensive organization of the whole community. Such an organiza- tion is desirable wherever possible. However, some parts of this plan ought to be of use to every existing organiza- ‘tion in a rural community, however narrow its scope or purpose. The Boy Scouts ought to find suggestions for useful work in some of the details of this plan, the Camp-fire Girls in others, the various church societies and committees in others, the Grange, the Farmers’ Union, and other farm- ers’ organizations in others, and the country school could become an effective agency in every part of this plan. It is not a plan for the “ uplifting” of the farmer. The farmers are quite capable of taking care of themselves, but they have not yet taken up the work of organized self- help as completely as could be desired. It is hoped that this plan may persuade more of them to study the need for and results of organization, and to act in accordance with the results of their study, than have ever done so before. It is of the utmost importance that careful study should precede action. Hasty, ill-considered action is likely to lead to mis- takes and failures. A few bad mistakes and conspicuous failures will discredit the whole movement and put it back for a generation. 89 90 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The plan is similar to that of the chambers of commerce in some of our cities. The whole membership of the organi-- zation is to be divided into committees, each member being assigned to one committee. Naturally each one should be assigned to that committee whose work interests him or her most. There is to be a central or executive committee composed of the president of the organization, its secretary, its treas- urer, and the chairmen of the various committees. This cen- tral committee should direct the general policy of the organ- ization, have charge of all property, either owned or rented, raise all funds needed, control them and their expenditure, appoint all paid officers, such as secretaries, inspectors, pack- ers, business managers, etc., if any are needed, determine their salaries, and conduct all correspondence with other organizations of a similar character, as well as with business or banking houses, railroad companies, manufacturers, etc. ORGANIZATION FOR DEFINITE PURPOSES. Not only must there be a distinct need for organization, but each committee should be constructed to deal with one specific need. The first thing to decide, therefore, is what are the principal needs of the community in question, in order that the proper committee may be constituted. As a result of considerable study of this question the author has reached the conclusion that the 10 principal needs for organization in the average rural community in the United States are as follows: The needs of rural communities. 1. Better farm production. 2. Better marketing facilities. 3. Better means of securing farm supplies. I. Business needs. .(4. Better credit facilities. 5. Better means of communica- Needsof rural com- tion: munities which A. Roads. require organiza- B. Telephones. LOW oer 1. Better educational facilities. 2. Better sanitation. 3. Better opportunities for recre- II. Social needs... - ation. 4. Beautification of the country- side. 5. Better home economics. - The Organization of a Rural Community. 91 For any rural community which this statement happens to fit, whose citizens are convinced that these are their 10 principal needs, the plan of organization shown later is recommended (fig. 1, p. 92). ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIZATION. Tt ought not to be difficult to convince the farmers of any community that they need organization. There is probably not a farming community in the United States which does not need some, at least, of the things named in the above outline. Yet none of these things can be secured by indi- vidual farmers each working alone. Some form of “team work” will be found necessary or advantageous in every case. They who can not or will not work together are always in a weak position when brought into competition with those who can and do. Team work counts as much in business competition as in athletic contests; but the team work, in either case, needs to be wisely directed according to a well-considered plan. At the very beginning let us acknowledge the excellent work already done by a number of farmers’ organizations. They have undertaken a stupendous task, and they have grappled with it courageously. There are now more than 64 million farmers in the United States; they are widely scattered; they have a great diversity of. interests, many of which are difficult to harmonize, and farmers are tem- peramentally an independent, individualistic class, and therefore difficult to organize. In view of these facts, it is not difficult to understand why the progress in organization has been slow. The recognition of the work of rural organi- zation by the Secretary of Agriculture as a legitimate part of the work of his department should be a great help, and will probably mark an epoch in the history of American agriculture. WHY AMERICAN AGRICULTURE HAS NOT BEEN WELL ORGANIZED. Since the opening up of the vast territory west of the Appalachians and the first beginnings of the public-land policy of the United States, the farming in this country has been more individualistic and less organized than that of Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 92 ‘memo ures Sateq ut eptad go ‘Buytoay ew doTeasp oy , _ *ALOUFTITU puo S90Ip JO uoTZuzt pre =puejs ey, esomord oy - *o30 *x20m Buy -"equSTT ‘sde4e Juyave Zo sueyoyty ustd og “syuyIp zowums Ar04,08F -8T9e8 pus ‘suoT Jer po souBteq *‘spooy Apnas oF *ayuotd 0391048 prloo pue *sosnoy oof ‘setio -xBQq *“goprpimst OAT -viedooo ‘A, ToT1409To “pus ae? zo ean ‘smaz -s48 Zutqumtd pus gut 3804 19349q ‘soanoy misz ut “tddns te404 aogz sustd Apnjs og *SOIvIONOOA CIOHASNOR NO ZALLUCION *Ot *pooyszoquszyeu Azeae Uy SeUutT sucyudete> Tengnw pus esnoytooyos £1909 uy auoydetez 8 Zuyasy elemoous of *spunz jueuurteaod 103 x08 03 Jou pus yuowesoad make things generally uncomfortable for the lender, will always suffer from a scarcity of loanable funds, accompanied by high interest rates, no matter how good the land may be. One of the most important duties of our committee on farm finance and accounting, therefore, will be to study to give the neighborhood a good financial reputation. In order to get capital from the outside on as favorable terms as possible it may be practicable to use both the credit union and the savings and loan association, the one for short- time credit and the other for long-time or mortgage credit. If there are not enough local deposits in the former to sat- isfy the productive needs of borrowers, the membership of the union may, on its joint note, negotiate a loan from a distance. The joint liability of all the members of the as- sociation increases the responsibility of each and correspond- ingly increases the security of the lender. With a fund of outside capital to begin with, supplemented by the savings of local depositors, the credit union should be able to meet the needs of its borrowers. This matter of a joint note or other form of unlimited liability will prove a stumblingblock to some of our farmers. They should remember, however, that where one man in- dorses another’s note, as many banks now require, the in- dorser assumes unlimited liability for the amount of the debt. Where a number of men go into a scheme which in- volves unlimited liability they virtually indorse one another’s notes, or they in some cases sign a joint note. The Organization of a Rural Community. 119 Here it must be pointed out th: t cooperative credit is not for everybody. It is only for those who are known to be trustworthy. No one will indorse the note of a man who is not known to be financially responsible. Neither should a group of men admit to a credit association anyone whose note they would not be willing to indorse. Herr Raiffeisen, the founder of the most successful system of cooperative credit in Germany, laid down as one of the fundamental rules for his credit associations that no one should be admitted who was not known to be trustworthy and that any member who was found to be untrustworthy should be expelled. Any other policy would lead directly to failure and ruin. It is not inconsistent with the highest ideals of democracy that character should be of advantage even in business. If they who possess sound moral character, which includes financial trustworthiness, have some economic advantage over those who do not, in the long run the former will pros- per and the latter will fail. The former will more and more buy out the latter, because land will be worth more to the former than to the latter. By this principle of selection the quality of the population will gradually improve and the community gain in every way. Without some such method of capitalizing character, this principle of selection will not always operate. Again, from the standpoint of the lender who lives at a distance and who must be induced to intrust his money to the community which is trying to finance itself, the fact that a number of men in that community have confidence enough in one another to indorse one another’s notes, to sign a joint note, or to go into any credit scheme which involves un- limited liability, will make a favorable impression upon him. On the other hand, if 10 or more men who know one another can not be found who are willing to trust one another to this extent, it may be difficult to convince him (the distant lender who does not know any of them) that he should trust them with his funds. The savings and loan association, while it must always limit itself to making loans to the local community, where all its members may be known to one another, where land values are well known to its officers and where the laws 120 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. under which it operates pe: mit, may sell its bonds to distant investors if they can be persuaded to buy. There are a number of private agencies operating in this field already. These are sometimes classed under the name of debenture companies. Starting with a fund of capital, such a company invests in farm mortgages, buying of some local bank or mortgage broker. When it has a certain sum in the form of farm mortgages, let us say $100,000, it de- posits them with some large financial institution, say a trust company, for safe-keeping. The trust company certifies that these mortgages are on deposit. Against these mortgages and this certificate as security the debenture company then issues bonds to an equal amount, i. e., $100,000, paying a lower rate of interest than that received on the mortgages. If the investing public has confidence, it buys these bonds and thus provides funds for the purchase of another hundred thousand dollars worth of mortgages. This operation may be repeated several times. Thus the original fund of capital owned by the debenture company is made the basis of the investment of several times its amount in mortgages. From the standpoint of the investor, these are the follow- ing elements making up the security of his investment: (1) The value of the mortgages themselves; (2) the credit of the local bank or mortgage broker, who is required to cuarantee the mortgages; (3) the certificate of the trust company, which does nothing more than to state that the mortgages are on deposit; (4) the credit of the debenture company, which hazards at least its original investment and its general credit besides. Lately certain banks have gone into this kind of business and have added the amorti- zation feature. Many of the good features of all these institutions may be combined in a special class of farm-land banks which have . been proposed for this country. ‘They are modeled in part after the Landschaften which have played such an important part in the agricultural development of Germany. They may be either cooperative or joint-stock associations, accord- ing to the character of the legislation under which they are authorized and the preference of those who promote them. In case a cooperative organization is permitted by law and preferred by its members, the essential features of its work The Organization of a Rural Community. 121 should be to secure funds by the sale of bonds, pledging the combined security of the original members for their payment and to lend these funds on the most favorable terms possible to farmers, for productive purposes only, taking mortgages as security. These mortgages may in turn be used as a basis for new issues of bonds, and the new funds thus secured used for making new loans, etc. The interest received on mort- gage loans should, of course, be enough higher than that paid on the bonds to enable the association to pay its running ex- penses out of the difference. The loans to farmers should be paid on the amortization plan. Probably no form of cooperation has been so successful for so long a time in this country as that which is known as mutual insurance. Farmers’ mutual insurance companies are spread over the entire country; but they are especially numerous in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Michi- gan, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. They are so familiar as to call for no description here. They fur- nish insurance at cost, they are cooperative, and they serve as examples of what farmers may gain by working together for their mutual interests. 5. COMMITTEE ON COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORTATION. Intercommunication is one of the primary factors of civilization. Every substantial increase in the efficiency of means of communication marks a new epoch of civilization. The railroads, the telegraph, and the telephone have often been cited as examples. It is not necessary, however, that we should confine our attention to these means of increasing long-distance communication. Important as this is, it is probably of less absolute importance than the communica- tion of neighbor with neighbor by means of the spoken word and the commoner modes of locomotion. Yet it is just at this point that the people who live in the country are at a disadvantage as compared with those who live in the city. So far as long-distance communication is concerned, there is no great difference; but in the matter of short-distance com- munication the townsmen have a great advantage. The fact that country people live so far apart is what creates the difference. There is special need, therefore, that country people should have the best possible means of overcoming 122 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. distances which separate them from one another—distances measured in miles rather than in hundreds of miles. As the characteristic evils of urban life grow out of con- gestion, so do the characteristic evils of rural life grow out of isolation. Except for a few rare souls, isolation means stagnation. The average person needs the stimulating in- fluence of association with his fellows to keep his faculties up to their maximum activity. This aspect of the question is of greater importance even than the question of economi- eal transportation of products, important as that is. Here again, the dweller in the country is at a disadvantage as com- pared with his urban fellow-citizen. In long-distance trans- portation the one is served approximately as well as the other. But it costs the average American farmer more to haul his produce from his farm to the nearest shipping point than it does to ship it by rail over a distance of 200 miles. It is fairly clear, therefore, that any farmers’ organization which aims to improve the economic and social well-being of its community must give a good deal of attention to the sub- ject of local communication and transportation, especially to roads and telephones. Few subjects lend themselves bet- ter to the purposes of a country school than that of country roads. Each school should study its own roads and should at least consider the expediency of having complete charge of a small piece of roadway. The pupils should study road management and maintenance as a part of their school work. Such an organization as we are now contemplating ought to consider the question of offering a prize to that country school which keeps its piece of road in the best condition. In this as in all other rural-organization work the keynote should be organized self-help. If as much energy were put forth in local self-help as is put forth in trying to get Gov- ernment help for various social schemes, there would be much less need for Government help. Road improvement is a case in point. Probably nothing has done more for country life than the rural telephone. Wherever it has come into general use it has overcome the isolation of farm life as nothing else could have done. But while some sections of the country are well served by this agency, there being a telephone in practically every farmhouse, there are, unfortunately, other sections The Organization of a Rural Community. 128 which have scarcely begun to realize its advantages. The trouble is not so much ignorance of methods of construction, maintenance, and operation—though there is a good deal of ignorance on these points—as inertia and unwillingness to work together, though sometimes the difficulty is increased by a lack of means. Obviously a telephone is of no use to anyone who does not wish to communicate with his neigh- bors, and unless there is neighborly feeling there will be little desire to communicate. One purpose of this committee must, therefore, be the development of this neighborly feeling. This feeling, however, grows by what it feeds on. Give the neighborhood easy means of neighborly communi- cation and the neighborly spirit will in turn be developed among all normal and right-minded people. II. SOCIAL INTERESTS. Up to this point we have been discussing the organization of the business interests of rural communities. All rural improvement must undoubtedly begin on this foundation. But it must be remembered that no building is complete when the foundation is laid. In fact, the foundation is of no use unless something is to be built upon it. We have now to consider what is to be done with the prosperity which will come to a farming community when its business interests are well organized. It is of doubtful utility to grow excel- lent grain to feed to scrub stock; it is of more than doubtful utility to grow excellent grain, meat, fruits, and vegetables to feed to scrub people. By scrub people are meant they who, whatever their financial condition, have few ambitions or interests beyond the elementary wants of hunger, thirst, sex, and amusement. There will be very little profit in making a community prosperous unless the prosperity is to be used to support life on a somewhat higher plane than this low level of animal existence. Most of us used to believe that the one thing needful for the improvement of country life was to increase the farmers’ income. We are now beginning to discover that this is only half of the problem and by no means the most difficult half. We find, for example, that the wealthy farmer is even more inclined to move to town than is the unprosperous farmer. 124 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. In fact, he frequently moves to town because he has pros- pered in the country, has accumulated a competence, and is now able to retire to the city. It does not seem to have oc- curred to many of us to ask why he does not retire in the country. Whatever the reason, the undoubted fact is that he has not generally done so, but has retired to the city instead. Those sections of the country where agriculture has been most prosperous, where land is highest and farmers have erown rich in the largest numbers, are the very sections from which farmers have retired to town in the largest numbers, where there is the largest percentage of tenancy. In some of these sections we already find the schools, churches, and other civilizing agencies as badly run down as in the poor- est sections, and we may confidently expect that they will all tend in that direction. There is no scourge or plague known to agricultural science which will more certainly destroy rural civilization and enterprise than absentee landlordism. The only thing, apparently, which will cure this situation is to make the country so attractive that even the prosperous farmer, no matter how rich he may become, will prefer to remain in the country rather than to move to town. He is not likely to remain in the country if the town provides and the country lacks everything he wants and feels that he can afford. There are five principal reasons and probably several minor reasons why the farmer who can afford to do so would like to move to town. First, town schools are generally better, or at least thought to be better, than country schools. It frequently turns out that the pupils of the country schools show more real training than those of the town schools. It is a question, however, whether they get their training in the country school or in the country home. Still, so long as people think the city school is better, farmers who have children will find in this a reason for moving to town if they are financially able to do so. Until country schools are so improved as to give to every country child as good an educational opportunity as is open to any city child we must expect that the people who appreciate education and who can afford city life will continue to move cityward. In the end this would leave in the country only those who cared little for education and those who, however much they The Organization of a Rural Community. 125 appreciated education, were not able to afford it; that is, those who were not able to live in town. A second reason is found, or will be soon, in the better sanitary conditions found in the more progressive cities and towns. The country is still somewhat more healthful than the city, though there are some perverted statistics which aim to show the contrary. But the undoubted fact is that the cities are improving very rapidly in sanitation, and the time is not far distant, unless the country districts arouse them- selves, when the cities will be more healthful than the country. Then there will be an additional reason why enlightened people should desire to move from the country to the city. This would be especially regrettable because it is so unneces- sary. With all its natural advantages the country ought always to be more healthful than the city. If it is not, it merely proves that country people are negligent and have not taken hold of the problem with the same vigor as city people. A third reason is found in the better opportunities for recreation which the city affords. Here, as in nearly every other respect, the country has a natural advantage. Recre- ation, however, is almost unthinkable without some kind of group action, and this is the very thing which country people lack and which city people possess. However, it is necessary to admit that certain kinds of recreation, so called, will be hard to supply in the country. The noise, glare, and excitement of city streets at night, which are so attractive to certain types of mind, can not well be supplied in the country. They who prefer this form of recreation, together with the products of the popular drama, where neurosis is so commonly mistaken for mentality, will probably continue to love the city, and they will be no loss to the country. But the opportunities for genuine re-creation through out- door play and sport are so much better in the country than in the city that there is no excuse for any rural community which loses sound people because of a lack of such oppor- tunities. However, most cities are trying to overcome their natural disadvantages by the establishment of parks, play- grounds, swimming pools, gymnasiums, etc. Unless the rural communities become more active than they have been, young men and women may be driven away by a lack of 126 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. recreational opportunities, or attracted to the cities by the superior advantages which they offer. The desire for beauty, or the things which please the mind through the eye, is one of the first symptoms of a desire to rise above that plane of existence where interests are con- fined to the primary wants of hunger, thirst, and sex. If there is any one particular in which any rural community ought to excel any city it is in the superior opportunities it should offer for the gratification of this desire. But many cities are making heroic efforts to overcome their natural ugliness, whereas it seems that many rural communities are making almost equal efforts to destroy their natural beauty. Where this is the case there is a fourth reason, and a very strong one, why desirable people should leave the country and go to the city. A fifth reason, and it is sometimes the strongest of all, is ~ found in the lack of household conveniences in the country. The city home may have gas and electricity, must of neces- sity have hydrant water and sewage connection, usually has both hot and cold water, a bathtub, and a convenient heat- ing system, besides a number of other conveniences to lighten the burdens of housekeeping. All these things are possible in the country as well as in the city, but they are actually less common. The chief reason is a lack of community action, which is the one advantage, here as elsewhere, of the city over the rural community. This, however, is a matter which lies within the power of any rural community to correct. It is simply a matter of working together. If these things are not done—that is, if the city should for a long period of time have the advantage over the coun- try in these five particulars—viz, in education, sanitation, recreation, beautification, and household conveniences— nothing can keep enlightened people from going to the cities, leaving the country to people who either do not care for these things or who are so inefficient as farmers that they can never accumulate enough to enable them to move to town. That is, instead of our present progressive, enlightened, self- respecting agricultural population, we shall drain off all the better elements, leaving only a “ peasant” population, igno- rant, stolid, unprogressive, and inefficient. Even the grow- ing of crops must decline under such a system. For all these ; The Organization of a Rural Community. 127 reasons, it is quite as important that our local organization shall give attention to the social as to the business interests of rural people. There should be committees on education, sanitation, recreation, beautification, and household eco- nomics, and these committees should be regarded as quite as important as those dealing with business questions. 6. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION. The key to most of the educational problems of the coun- try is the country school. There is scarcely a single phase of country life in which the country school may not become a vitalizing factor. The boys’ and girls’ clubs should begin there. The study of farm production, of marketing, of sources of supply, of farm accounts, and of road and tele- phone construction should be a part of the work of the coun- try school. But this work should be extended over the social interests of the community also. The knowledge of one’s environment should include one’s economic and social as well as one’s physical environment. The first attention of the committee on education should obviously be directed toward the country schools. There should be a distinct and persistent movement to make the country schools at least as efficient as the city schools. To accomplish this the entire school system of the State must eventually be supported and administered as a unit, as the school system of a city is now. Because one section of a city is less wealthy than another is not con- sidered as a valid reason why the children of the poorer sec- tion should have poorer schools than those of the richer sec- tion. This policy should be made to apply to the entire State. Because there is less wealth in the country than in the city ought not to be considered as a valid reason why the country children should have poorer schools than the city children. They should all have equal support out of the tax fund of the entire State, and they should all be administered as a unit. If each ward of a city were re- stricted to the taxes of that ward for school purposes, it would often happen that the most populous wards, where there were the most children needing schools, would have the least money to support their schools, because of the scarcity of taxable property, while the least populous wards, where 128 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. children were scarcest, would have the most money for schools, because of the large amounts of taxable property. This would be so obviously wasteful and inefficient that no enlightened city would tolerate it. Yet that is precisely what happens in all of our States. Schools are supported, not in proportion to the need for them, which is the only correct principle, but mainly in proportion to the amount which each community can raise. In order that the State school system can be adminis- tered as a unit there must be at the head of the State system a highly trained expert, not elected, but appointed as is the superintendent of a city school system. He should have ample power and an adequate staff of assistants and inspec- tors to enable him actually to inspect the schools of every county in the State. Again, in each county there should be an educator, not elected as are county superintendents now, but appointed as are city superintendents, with ample power and a staff of assistants which will enable him to inspect and control every school in the county. Until these things can be brought about through State legislation each community can do a great deal toward the improvement of its own schools through concerted action. The study of the broader questions of national economy may well be turned over to the higher institutions of learning, where students are more mature than they who attend the district school. But the questions of local or neighborhood economy, with which the study of economics ought always to begin, may be studied to advantage in every country school. In many States it is already possible to consolidate rural schools wherever the local communities are willing. But the country school can not possibly do everything in the way of education that is needed. At any rate, there are some things which one can learn better outside of school than inside. The committee should study to utilize other educational re- sources, such as study clubs, natural-history clubs, circulating libraries, not of cheap fiction, but of solid reading which will be of use to the community. Use should also be made of such educational agencies as the stereopticon and motion-picture outfits, and lecturers from the State colleges. The Organization of a Rural Community. 129 7. COMMITTEE ON SANITATION. No committee of our organization has a greater oppor- tunity for usefulness than the committee on sanitation. There is much to be learned by scientific research regarding sanitation, but scientific research should not be the work of this committee. Enough is already known to scientists to vastly improve the health of any rural community which will apply that knowledge. It should be the work of this committee to inform itself and the neighborhood as to what has already been discovered and demonstrated regarding the cause and prevention of the common diseases, such as malaria, typhoid fever, hookworm, tuberculosis, dysentery, etc., and to persuade the community to apply this knowledge. The application of this knowledge may sometimes require hard and persistent work; but when people realize clearly that babies can be killed with fly-infected food as well as with an ax, they ought to be willing to work as hard to ex- terminate the fly as they would to exterminate a gang of murderers who went about killing babies with axes. The reason they do not act promptly in the case of the fly and the mosquito is that they do not fully realize the danger from them. Our early pioneers acted vigorously to ex- terminate the wolf and the bear. Organized wolf hunts have been carried on in most of our States west of the Alle- ghenies within the memory of men now living. Even the rabbit has been the object of well-organized campaigns on the Pacific coast. The reason was that these pests were large enough to be seen, and the damage they did was visible to the eye. Therefore it was easy to realize the danger from them. When we realize with equal clearness the danger from insect and microscopic pests we shall probably act with equal vigor. It is not too much to hope that the time will come when the fly, the mosquito, and the hookworm, together with the germs of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, etc., will be as nearly extinct as wolves, bears, and panthers now are in the older States. It is to be hoped that there will be soon, in every county, a full-time health officer, chosen because of his special knowl- edge of sanitary science, provided with ample power to compel obedience to the fundamental laws of sanitation, and 75922°—veK 19149 130 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. assisted by a corps of trained nurses and assistants who shall inspect every school, church, and public building, ex- amine all school children, require all drains, privies, and wells to be constructed on scientific principles, and all dairy barns to be clean and wholesome, and do anything else which will improve the health and reduce the death rate of the country. Meanwhile each local organization should be active in all these directions without waiting for new legis- lation. A trained nurse may be supported in every county to do both school and district nursing in the open country. She could also give a limited amount of instruction to mothers’ clubs and school children on the questions con- nected with the health of the people. 8. COMMITTEE ON RECREATION. The young of all animals play as naturally as they eat and drink. The surest way to make one of them vicious is to suppress the instinct for play or allow it no oppor- tunity to express itself. In human societies, which are con- trolled by the grown-ups who have forgotten something of their earlier interests, the play of the young is sometimes repressed, and seldom provided with adequate opportunities. This danger is even greater in the country than in the city, for the reason that the children of the farmer usually, and rightly, help with the farm work. But the farmer, who does not himself feel the need of very much play, and sees the pressing need of farm work, is in danger of allowing himself to exploit his children for his own profit and their injury. The same man who would not overwork a colt, realizing the difference between a colt and a mature horse, will sometimes overwork his own boys and girls. In the case of these young working animals, for as such they are some- times regarded, it is not so much the strenuosity of their work which is likely to do them injury as the dull monotony of continued toil unrelieved by play or recreation. Every hard-working person will easily understand how essential a reasonable amount of recreation is to the maintenance of a high state of mental and physical efficiency. He will then appreciate the statement that a rational standard of living must include a reasonable expenditure of time or money on recreation. Just what is a reason- able expenditure for this purpose may not be easy to determine, The Organization of a Rural Community. 131 though there need be no disagreement as to the general principle that too little recreation, which produces dullness of body and mind, is as bad as too much, which is mere dissipation or waste of time, energy, or money. Nor need there be any disagreement as to the principle that the recreation should be made such as to appeal to all members of the community. While economists generally approve a division of labor in industry, there are few who will approve that kind of division of labor in which most of the men work all the time and never play, while a few loafers amuse themselves all the time and never work. Rural sports are a natural adjunct of rural festivals as a means of maintaining a wholesome and agreeable social life in the eountry. Owing to a natural excitability and tendency to excess, Americans have found it difficult to develop distinctive rural sports as a permanent and dignified institution of rural life except in a few favored localities. Fox hunting and horse racing tend, in this country, to be spoiled as rural sports by their affectation by urban magnates in the one case and livery-stable toughs in the other. Nothing is finer and more dignified than for a group of neighboring, well-to-do farmers to unite for a day’s hunting when the purpose is to rid the country of vermin; but when a group of townsmen, who have learned to ride under a roof in a professional riding school, proceed to the country and advertise their solvency by chasing a timid fox across the farmers’ fields, the sight is not calculated to inspire admiration. Nor is there any sport more fitting than for a group of horse-breeding farmers to meet for the purpose of testing their colts in a fair and open competition. It is only by such open competition that successful horse breeding is made possible. But when horse racing degenerates into a mere vaudeville “stunt,” or, as is more frequently the case, into a mere opportunity for a group of pro- fessional gamblers from the purlieus of the livery stables, who have been initiated into the mysteries of race-track management, to enrich themselves at the expense of the uninitiated, it is not too much to say that it has lost its virtue as the inspirer of a wholesome and agreeable social life in the country. In view of the well-known excitability of the American tempera- ment and its tendency to excess, it is important that rural sport in this country should be of a character which does not lend itself readily to extreme specialization; otherwise it will tend to drift into the hands of specialists who do the playing while the public looks on. This produces a spectacle rather than a sport. It is also important that there should be considerable variety in the forms of sport in order that as many as possible should be able to participate. Of par- ticular importance, however, is the requirement that these sports should fit into the seasonal character of rural work. City work is so uniform that the time for recreation can be evenly distributed throughout the year. Short hours with regular weekly, biweekly, or monthly half holidays give the city worker ample time for wholesome recreation, But since in every farming country there are rush sea- 132 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. sons, when short hours and half holidays would mean a loss of crops, it is obvious that recreation time can not be so evenly diffused. To make up for this it is desirable that during the seasons when work is slack there should be regular periods of recreation and games, which need not be crowded into a single afternoon. This suggests the need also of regular annual festival occasions suited to each section of the country and its type of agriculture, when there can be a general relaxation from the strenuous toil of the rush seasons. In anticipation of such a period of jollity, the grinding fatigue of the busy season is borne with more patience, particularly by the young people, and the work is done more vigorously because more cheerfully. Again, there is the possibility of uniting social pleasures with rural work to a somewhat greater degree than is now done. If the spirit which showed itself among our ancestors in the barn raisings, log rollings, and similar occasions could be restored, it is possible that the present generation could get a great deal of social pleasure out of the thrashing season and other occasions of a similar character. This would seem to be the natural time for the harvest- home celebration, which has been so important an event in old rural civilizations. In former days, however, as the writer can testify, thrashing was such prodigiously hard work, and a great deal or it was so dusty and disagreeable, as to stifle any spirit of jollification which might otherwise have arisen. But with the more powerful engines and more highly improved machinery of the present, the hard- est and most disagreeable part of the work of thrashing has been eliminated. Under such conditions it is at least a theoretical possi- bility that the thrashing season in any neighborhood might be made a festival occasion, to be participated in by women as well as by men—by priest, parson, and schoolma’am as well as by the farmers themselves. This, however, is only by way of suggestion.* The highest form of social amusement is choral singing. This is peculiarly adapted to the needs of rural communi- ties. In the first place, the equipment costs nothing. The human voice is not only the finest musical instrument known, but it is supplied free of charge to every human being. Training and practice under a competent instructor will, however, cost something. The money cost is usually less than the cost in time and practice. Again, as a matter of actual observation, it is found that group singing is a com- mon practice in every country or community which has a wholesome rural life. Germany, Wales, and Denmark may be cited as conspicuous examples. Especially in the last- named country, which has so much to teach the rest of the world in the way of rural organization, group Singing is one 1 Quoted from the author’s Principles of Rural Economics. The Organization of a Rural Community. 133 of the prominent features of the national life. Not only is every class in every school, from the primary school to the university, opened with a hymn, but practically every busi- ness meeting of every farmers’ organization as well. When one hears a group of hard-headed, wide-awake Danish farmers, who have met together as directors of a coopera- tive bacon factory, join in a hymn at the opening of their meeting, one begins to understand why cooperation is so suc- cessful in Denmark. Back of business cooperation there is the cooperative spirit. This spirit is the result of years of education along cooperative lines. In the city, where land is scarce, there may be some excuse for a lack of playgrounds. But in view of the fact that land is the one form of property which is abundant in the coun- try, it would seem that a suitable playground could always be possible. It should, however, always be under the control of the civil authorities or a local organization, in order that it may not be monopolized by a few to the exclusion of the many, and in order that unsuitable language and conduct may be eliminated. Aside from the recreational feature of rural sports, they have great value as socializing agencies. After people have learned to play together it is easier to learn to work together. Consistent working together will do more to increase the prosperity of the average rural community than any other single factor. 9. COMMITTEE ON BEAUTIFICATION. The committee on the beautification of the countryside will probably have the hardest work of any. Many farmers so pride themselves on their hardheadedness that their heads are in danger of becoming not only hard but impenetrable, and their hearts as well. A house tends to become for them merely a thing to furnish shelter and protection, not to please the eye; paint becomes a means of preserving wood, fences become means of restraining live stock, land a means of growing salable crops, church and school lots exist for the purpose of supporting buildings, and flowers are merely incidents to the production of fruits and seeds. Few, how- ever, are so far gone as to regard a cemetery merely as a place to bury corpses. This most serious reminder of the realities of our earthly existence stirs in even the hardest 134 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. natures the rudiments at least of a somber idealism and leads them to expend some effort at beautification. Nor are there many who are so far gone as not to prefer a handsome, well-groomed team even when an ugly, ungroomed team might do as much work. Every good workman prefers tools with a fine finish, even though they do not do any more work than those without finish or polish. In short, part of the joy of living consists in the satisfaction which we get directly out of our tools—the things with which we work— as well as that which we get out of the products of our work. One can well afford to sacrifice a dollar of money income if by so doing one can add two dollars’ worth of satisfaction to one’s work. These remarks apply as well to fences, bridges, and out- buildings as to the dwelling house, and they apply particu- larly to the general appearance of the farm itself. The man in the city does not usually live with his business—that is, he does not live in or near his factory, his store, or his shop. If he has any surplus income he will generally spend some of it in the adornment of his home surroundings, but he too frequently allows his place of business to remain unattrac- tive and even repulsive, unless he finds that it attracts cus- tomers better by being made attractive. If he were com- pelled to live with his business, that is, in or adjacent to his factory, store, shop, or mine, he would find it impossible to get the maximum satisfaction out of life if these places of business were allowed, as they usually are, to remain ugly. Just here is one of the largest differences between city and country life. Whereas in the city business and life are divorced, the place of business and the home are separated, and the source of income is considered apart from the place where the income is spent, quite the opposite is true in the country. There the farm is both place of business and home, both source of income and the place where it is spent. It would therefore be ridiculous to adorn the inside of the home and leave its surroundings ugly and repulsive. It would be an interesting digression to speculate as to what would happen in our cities if all city business men were com- pelled to live with their business. It would certainly make slums impossible and lead to a vast improvement of the factory districts—the elimination of smoke, noise, and other nuisances. However, that isa city and not a country problem. The Organization of a Rural Community. 135 In advocating a campaign for the beautification of the countryside it is not necessary to go so far as to sacrifice in any degree the productive efficiency of the farms. It is not proposed that farms shall be turned into parks. When tools are given a fine finish or polish they are not turned into toys; their working efficiency is not, or should not be, reduced in the slightest degree. Similarly, when the farm and its buildings, fences, hedges, etc., are made pleasing to the eye its productivity need not be at all diminished. Nor is it necessary that large sums of money should be spent on the beautification of the neighborhood or the individual farm. Our committee on beautification will have enough work to do in the average community if it merely develops in all the people an intelligent interest in the improvement of the gen- eral appearance of the neighborhood; first, through the im- provement of school and church grounds, cemeteries, road- sides, bridges, and other public property; second, through the improvement of farm buildings by a better regard for proportion and a more intelligent use of paint, the artistic selection and location of trees and shrubs, and the care of lawns and gardens on individual farms. 10. CommMITtTEE ON HousEHOLD Economics. As previously suggested, one of the most powerful forces driving people from the country to the city is the lack of household conveniences in the country homes. The commit- tee which can find ways of securing most of these conven- iences will do a great deal toward making country life attractive and checking the movement from country to city. Every farmer learns to be handy with tools. With very little instruction he can put into his house many of the little things which reduce the drudgery of housework in city homes. Our committee should aim to furnish as much of this in- struction as possible. Even if nothing more is done, it would be of value to collect drawings, illustrations, plans and specifications, price lists, and catalogues of all sorts of house- hold improvements. Another possibility of usefulness for such a committee is the promotion of cooperative laundries, bakeries, ice houses, or ice factories. But it must be remembered that these labor-saving im- provements seldom reduce the amount of work. They merely 136 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. enable people to accomplish more with the same effort. Many labor-saving processes have been introduced into the farm home since the days of our grandmothers, and many kinds of work which our grandmothers did have been re- moved from the farmhouse to the factory. Yet it is doubt- ful if the ambitious farm woman of to-day works any less hard than did her grandmother; she merely does more things and supplies her family with comforts and luxuries which her grandmother never dreamed of having. And it may be confidently predicted that even if a hundred new labor- saving devices are introduced into the farm homes during the present generation, unless something else is done the women of the next generation will work just as hard as those of the present. They will merely accomplish more. This increase in the results accomphshed by work is alto- gether desirable as long as the results are desirable in them- selves. But this is not always the case. Many of the things which we buy with our money, or get with our work, are not desirable for their own sakes; they are desired merely be- cause others have them and we want to keep up with our neighbors. We are suffering infinitely more from competi- tive consumption than from competitive production. One of the most destructive forms of competitive consump- tion is the effort which country people make to act and dress like city people. This desire to imitate city people indicates a feeling of inferiority on the part of country people. It will never be cured until country people organize themselves and develop a feeling of solidarity and a pride in being country people. When a class of people feel themselves to be the equals or superiors of another class they never try to imitate that other class. Then there is the rivalry among members of the same class or community to outshine one another in matters of consump- tion, display, or ostentation. ‘“ Conspicuous waste ” becomes a recognized method of advertising respectability. Where this spirit prevails, no matter how much money we have, we can never have enough to live in mental comfort, but will strive with might and main for more. Similarly, no matter how many labor-saving devices there may be in the farm home, the women can never do as much as they would like to do, but will continue to wear themselves out trying to do more. The Organization of a Rural Community. 137 One of the largest results, therefore, which should come from an effective rural organization should be such a stand- ardization of consumption as to stop this form of strenuous competition. When country people stop trying to imitate city people, when they have the strength to set their own standards of consumption, and when they agree to do the things they really want to do and have the things they really want, then the introduction of labor-saving devices will really lighten work. Earlier in this discussion attention has been directed to the work which the country school may do in the organiza- tion of a rural community. Attention should also be directed to the opportunities of the country church. To those who object that the church should not concern itself with temporal matters it is only necessary to reply that it must do so or perish. It is not for us to state what the church ought to do. That is for its own leaders to deter- mine. As a mere question of cause and effect, setting aside for the moment all questions of moral obligation, the fol- lowing considerations are presented to those leaders: It is a law of rural economics that the best land of any community tends, in the long run, to pass into the hands of the best farmers. The reason is that they can afford to pay more for the land, either in the form of a purchase price or in the form of rent, than poorer farmers. The farmer who can make 100 bushels of corn grow where others can make only 50 can pay more for the land. In the long run he and others like him will outbid the poorer farmers and gradually possess the land. Now, if religious people turn out to be better farmers than irreligious people, then religious people will eventually come into possession of the land. But if, on the other hand, irreligious people should turn out to be the better farmers, then irreligious people will eventually possess the land and the country churches will die a natural death. Again, it is the experience of organizers of rural interests in every country that the great obstacle is the lack of a neighborhood spirit and mutual good will. Wherever this spirit exists organization is easy. Wherever it is lacking and mutual suspicion and antipathy exist in its stead, there organization is difficult. In this connection one may be justified in asking: If the church does not promote neigh- borly feeling and mutual good will, what does it exist for? 138 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. One of the impressive things about the rural organiza- tions of such countries as Ireland, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Germany, and Denmark is the active part which the local priest or parson has played. It is quite the common thing to find that the priest or parson is the president of the co- operative society, while the schoolmaster is its secretary and business manager. This, however, is partly due to the fact that these two men are frequently the only educated men and generally the best educated men in the community. Such is seldom the case in this country. In any prosperous farming community it will frequently, if not generally, be found that there are farmers who are better educated than the priest, parson, or school-teacher, besides having much more practical business experience. Where this is true it is better, of course, to leave the practical administration of affairs to these farmers. Nevertheless, the inspirational work of the church might well be directed toward the crea- tion of such a neighborly spirit and mutual good will as would enable the whole community to work together easily and amicably. And in those communities where the country preacher is the best educated man and where he has or can obtain information as to methods of organization, there can be no objection to his assuming leadership in the organiza- tion of the community. In closing it can not be emphasized too much that patriot- ism, like charity, begins at home—that is, in the neighbor- hood. Neighborhood loyalty, willingness to sacrifice if need be, for the good of the neighborhood, is just as important as national loyalty and willingness to sacrifice in the interest of the nation. No nation can be strong, prosperous, or progressive which does not command the loyalty and sup- port of its citizens. Neither can a neighborhood. It is as true of a neighborhood as of a nation that “a house divided against itself shall not stand.” SUGGESTED READINGS FOR THE VARIOUS COMMITTEES. Each committee is strongly advised to correspond with its own State college and with the United States Department of Agriculture, asking for specific information and for sug- gestions for further reading. A list of publications which may be helpful will be furnished upon application to the Office of Markets and Rural Organization. CLEAN WATER AND HOW TO GET IT ON THE FARM. By Ropert W. TRULLINGER, Specialist in Rural Engineering, Office of Experiment Stations. HE improvement of farm water supplies, a matter long neglected by American farmers, is now in some degree attracting the consideration it merits. It is becom- ing widely recognized that in many cases the farm water supplies are perhaps dangerously polluted. In addition, those who are so unfortunately situated as to be required to carry water from the well to the house are becoming extremely weary of this drudgery. Every farm must have a water supply, and it is safe to say that a plentiful supply of clean water, made available where most used by the mere turning of a faucet, or at the worst by pumping without carrying, is one of the main factors in making modern farm home life desirable. Securing clean water in the farm house is a somewhat different problem from that of providing a city or town supply. In the latter case the purity and availability of the water supply is taken care of by engineering and public- health officials; in the former a personal understanding of the dangers which le in a polluted water supply is neces- sary, and a great deal of resourcefulness is often required to secure an unpolluted supply and to prevent the drudgery of carrying water. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLEAN WATER AND MERELY CLEAR WATER. Perhaps the most important consideration in connection with the farm water supply is to get clean water. In the past clean water has usually meant clear water. But it is now known that water to be clean must not only be clear, but it must be pure. Water may be vilely polluted and at the same time be beautifully clear and sparkling. It may be clear and yet contain the invisible and deadly germs of typhoid fever or other intestinal disorders. It 139 140 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. may also contain considerable poisonous matter in solu- tion. A polluted water supply is evidence of the existence of bad sanitary conditions which it is of the utmost impor- tance to remedy. The main sources of water for farm use are streams, springs, cisterns, and wells. Perhaps the majority of sup- plies are derived from wells and cisterns, although springs are often used. In rarer instances, where other supplies are difficult to obtain, stream water is used. STREAM WATER UNSAFE TO USE. With the growth of population and development of industries there is progressive pollution of streams, so that in the more thickly settled regions streams not already contaminated or subject to pollution are very rare. Surface- water supplies from small streams should, therefore, never be used for household purposes unless no other supply is available. In the event that it must be used such water should be clear and should be thoroughly boiled. Other processes of purification, such as filtering, treating with chemicals, or distilling, are also sometimes used, but are generally impracticable from the farm standpoint. Under ordinary conditions surface water of any kind should be looked upon with considerable suspicion. THE FARM WELL. The well is the most commonly used source of farm water supply. It may be a shallow dug or driven well or a deep dug or bored well. It may be said, however, that the majority of shallow dug wells on farms where contamina- tion is present are contaminated. This has been abundantly proved by investigations made by this department and by other Federal and State institutions. The State of Illinois has made rather extended surveys of its farm water supplies, and the report of these surveys shows that out of a large number of typical shallow wells examined three- fourths were dangerously polluted. The boards of health of Indiana, Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, Virginia, and other States have published official statements no less startling. In a large number of cases it is stated that pol- Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 141 lution might have been prevented by proper precautionary measures. Contaminated water is, however, by no means confined to shallow wells. Contaminated surface water often gains access to deep wells at the top in the same manner that it gains access to shallow wells. Poorly protected shallow wells are sometimes polluted through the soil, although this does not occur as often as is commonly thought. Deep wells, if not cased, may be likewise polluted through the soil or through rock fissures, and if cased, surface water may follow the casing to the bottom and thus enter the well. However, deep wells are as a rule less likely to be polluted than are shallow wells. A more vivid impression of common causes of unclean farm wells can perhaps be gained from the accompanying illustrations. These represent existing conditions, most of which were photographed by the writer. Plate VII, figure 1, shows the back yard of a local’ health officer in a farming community. The rather small area shown comprised a hogpen, chicken yard, and cow lot, and contained a barn, manure pile, open privy, chicken house, and shallow dug well. The pump is of the old wooden type and is located at the foot of the stairs to the back porch. Waste water and slops are dumped into a small ditch pre- sumably intended to drain away from the house and well, but which as a matter of fact fails to drain at all. The open well shown in Plate VII, figure 2, is located much lower than, and within 25 feet of, the barn and chicken yard. The well in Plate VII, figure 3, contained water dogs, and in fact any small animal could crawl under the loose curbing and fall into the well. Plate VII, figure 4, represents a back yard as photographed by the Indiana State Board of Health. An examination of the water from the well showed it to be dangerously polluted. Plate VII, figure 5, shows an open well with old-fashioned wooden curb, pulley, and buckets which is subject to surface wash from severai sources of pollution. The well is a shallow well about 15 feet deep, loosely lined with stones. An inspection of the inside revealed moss and slime hanging down into the water, probably resulting from surface wash. | 142 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The soil in which a well is sunk may more or less affect the extent to which it is polluted. Often a shallow well in a tough clay or hardpan soil which extends to the water- bearing stratum is fairly safe from pollution if protected at the surface. Deep wells in very sandy soils, if protected at the top, are not often polluted. Perhaps the most dangerous wells are those in a limestone region. The limestone often contains open underground passages or channels. These channels frequently lead to open fissures or sinks at the surface, into which filth, sewage, garbage, and other contami- nating matter is dumped. Rain water can carry these impurities directly to wells through the channels. HOW TO KEEP THE WELL WATER CLEAN. PRELIMINARY MEASURES. Obviously the logical first step in securing a clean well- water supply is to remove all the sources of possible contami- nation. Among the worst of these are the open privy vault, the Jeaching cesspool, and barnyard filth. A well in ordinary pervious soil located lower than, and within 100 feet of, any of these is almost certain to be polluted. Even though the well is located on higher ground than these sources of con- tamination, heavy pumping or dry weather may so lower the ground-water level that it will reach the zone of contamina- tion and thus pollute the well. It is evident, therefore, that the open privy vault and leaching cesspool should be dis- carded and a sewage purification system, or at least a sani- tary privy, be used instead. Sewage, garbage, manure, or other waste should never be dumped into sinks or fissures, and most certainly never into old abandoned wells. An old well used for this purpose is very likely to communicate directly with the water-bearing stratum from which other wells in the immediate vicinity draw their supply. Slops or waste water should never be thrown out of the back door or window onto the ground. If the pigs and chickens must run at large they should at least be kept away from the well. A box built around the pump and filled with manure in winter is an extremely unsafe way to prevent the pump from freezing. Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 143 Concrete manure pits, impervious floors, and water-tight drains are desirable features for farm buildings. If these are beyond the farmer’s purse the manure pile should at least be placed a safe distance away from the well. The well itself should be located as high as possible with respect to buildings, stock pens, and chicken yards, and as far away from all sources of contamination as convenience and local surroundings will permit. FINAL MEASURES. The final safeguards to a well-water supply are to give the well an impervious lining of tile, cemented brick, iron casing, or concrete, and to provide a water-tight curb, not only to keep out surface wash, animals, and vermin, but to prevent the pump drip and dirt from shoes and buckets from entering the well. It is well here to suggest that those who use the well should attempt to remove the most of the dirt from their shoes before stepping onto the well curb. Plate VIII, figure 1, shows a well-protected dug well. Itis located on, high ground and has an impervious lining of 30- inch vitrified tile with tightly cemented jomts. The top tile extends a foot above the ground and is capped with concrete. The barns, pens, etc., are located at a safe distance and on lower ground, the farmer preferring to pipe or carry the water to these places. Concrete makes a good lining for a dug well, owing to the fact that if a mixture of mushy consistency is used an almost water-tight bond can be effected between the soil and the concrete, thus preventing in a measure the entrance of surface water to the well by this route. A concrete well curb, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 2, can always be used with ad- vantage. Concrete drains to carry away the pump drip and surface wash, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 4, are desirable. Note the clean-looking surroundings of this well. Deep wells are usually lined with smaller tile or with iron casing. Small tile casings, however, where the joints are not cemented, allow contaminated surface and soil water to enter the well. The iron casing is more frequently used in deep bored or punched wells of smaller diameter, being usually driven into place. With such a casing the well can be polluted only at the bottom. 144 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Ordinarily for shallow water supplies a driven well is safest and the most satisfactory, particularly if the soil is sandy. It consists mainly of a point and screen attached to~ a pipe which is driven until the water-bearing stratum is encountered. The screen on the point prevents coarse matter from being pumped up. From what has been said regarding wells it may be con- cluded that the watchword should be ‘‘Keep the surround- ings clean and protect the well from surface wash and soil drainage.” For further safety it is a good idea to have the water tested occasionally for signs of pollution. HOW SPRINGS ARE POLLUTED AND HOW TO KEEP THEM CLEAN. The farmer who has a good spring which can be piped to the house is fortunate indeed. Springs are, however, subject to contamination from the same sources as wells, although more often contaminated by surface wash and because ani- mals have access to them. The water from springs which are open and unprotected from surface wash and from stock is often used for drinking purposes. Plate IX, figure 1, shows a spring the water from which is commonly used for drinking, especially by picnickers and wayfarers. This spring, as can be seen, is located directly under a very popular roadway, and although waled in, has inadequate protection from the filth which during rains will wash from the roadway. Plate VIII, figure 3, is ahistoric farm spring which is carefully walled in but forms an excellent catch basin for the surface wash from the surrounding hog- pens, chicken yards, barns, etc., located on higher ground. The proper location for a spring is the same as for a well. If it occurs in a good location it should first be fenced off from stock and then walled in with tile or concrete to form a reser- voir, which should be well covered. Plate IX, figure 4, is an example of a well-protected small spring which is located just above the foot of ahill. A 36-inch vitrified tile was placed around the spring so as to form a reservoir, and it was then covered as isshown. Owing to the location and manner of protection there is little chance for this spring to become polluted from surface wash. Small Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE VII. SOME TYPES OF WELL SURROUNDINGS. Fig. 1.—The back yard of a local health officer’s residence. Fig. 2.—A well which the surface wash from the barn during rains will pollute. Fig. 3.—A_ loose curbing which permits small animals and vermin to fall into the well. Fig. 4.—Well in which the water was badly polluted. Fig. 5.—An old-fashioned open well subject to surface wash. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE VIII. SOME TYPES OF WELL AND SPRING SURROUNDINGS. Fig. 1.—A good protection for a dug well. Fig. 2.—Curb good and tight, with pump frame lightly fastened to it. Fig. 3.—Catch-basin type of spring, which one should usually avoid, regardless of its history or popularity. Fig. 4.—A nicely kept well with concrete drains and clean surroundings. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE IX SOME TYPES OF WELL AND SPRING SURROUNDINGS. Fig. 1.—Spring inadequately protected from surface wash from the road; should be looked on with suspicion. Fig. 2.—An excellent outside elevated tank system. Fig. 3.—Small gas engine directly connected to the pump. Fig. 4.—Spring well protected, and can be tightly covered. Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 145 springs can frequently be protected in this way, and if so treated are often the best of water supplies. Springs, especially those occurring in limestone regions, should be kept under close observation and should be par- ticularly noticed after rains for any signs of turbidity, which may indicate pollution from near or distant surface sources. Frequent examinations for pollution may prevent trouble, and if there is any doubt whatever about the purity of the spring, the water should be boiled carefully before drinking. RAIN WATER AND CISTERNS. In many cases rain water is used for laundry purposes and sometimes for drinking and cooking. It is often the only available source of soft water. If rain water is to be used, a cistern for storage purposes and usually a filter for par- tially purifying the water are necessary. Roofs, particularly shingled roofs, collect much dust and dirt from the roads, and gutters and eave troughs are often filled with leaves, dirt, and bird droppings. It is well to keep the gutters clean, even though the rain water is not used, but if it is used the importance of clean gutters is vastly increased. However careful one may be, the roof is certain to be dirty when dry. It is therefore extremely important that a switch and by-pass be provided on the rain-water pipe, so that at the beginning of rains the filth from the roof may be washed to the outside before any rain water is admitted to the cistern. The necessary size of the cistern will depend on the amount of water used daily by the family, the annual rainfall in the locality, and the size of the contributing roof area. If the rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, the capacity of the cistern may be only sufficient for one or two weeks’ supply. In localities where long intervals often occur be- tween periods of rainfall, and where much dependence is placed on the rain water, it is advisable to provide a cistern of sufficient capacity to hold half or three-fourths of the rain which falls annually on the average roof area. The amount available in gallons may be computed appreximately by multiplying the roof area in square inches by the rainfall in inches and dividing the product by 231. To take greater 75922°—yYBkK 1914——10 146 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. advantage of rains, the contributing roof area may be ex- tended by means of proper piping to include roofs of other buildings besides the house. The cistern may be built of concrete or cemented brick, but in any event if placed underground it should be water- tight, not only to prevent the loss of the stored water, but to prevent the entrance of ground water. If the cistern is constructed of concrete and the surrounding soil is loose and exerts a decided pressure on the walls, the latter should be es close to the inside surface. A mixture of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel or broken stone may be ae in cistern construction. The concrete mixture may be made more waterproof by adding 10 per cent of petroleum residuum oil based on the weight of the cement, or by replacing about 15 per cent of the cement with hydrated lime. Whatever the type of construction, one or two coatings of a strong cement grout, preferably containing about 3 per cent oil, will aid in waterproofing the walls. An overflow pipe, well screened, should be provided in the side, and the cover should be water-tight. The filtering arrangement may either be in a pC pray chamber or wets the cistern. In the first case, a filter bed of sand and gravel is placed in a brick or concrete tank or in a good barrel located pref- erably close to the cistern. The rain water should be made to spread over the surface of the filter and come in contact with all parts of it, passing completely through before enter- ing the cistern. Figure 3 shows a common type of filter connected with an underground concrete cistern. Such a filter should, in a large measure, purify rain water which passes through it. The filtering material should be renewed at intervals and the collected sediment cleaned out fre- -quently. The cistern shown has a capacity of about 3,800 gallons. In the second case, the filter usually consists of two walls of brick, 8 to 10 inches apart, the intervening space being filled with coarse sand, fine gravel, or both. Only the ver- tical joints between the bricks are cemented. A number of loose bricks are placed at several points at the base to permit the removal of the sand or gravel when it becomes clogged. The filter wall should be built in an arch shape to give it Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 147 strength. The raw-water compartment should be made much larger than the filtered-water compartment to obtain the benefit of sedimentation before filtration. Sometimes the filter wall in a cistern consists merely of a wall of porous brick with vertical cemented joints. This type of filter is apt to become clogged and ineffective in time, as far as purification is concerned. In some localities it is necessary, owing to the height of ground-water level, to build the cistern above ground. In Fic. 3.—A common type of cistern and filter. such cases the cistern should be well protected to prevent the entrance of filth and the breeding of mosquitoes. The method of having the filter separate from the cistern, although usually the more expensive, is perhaps the more efficient. There are other simpler and perhaps less expen- sive cistern arrangements which serve the purpose. The main idea is, however, to purify the water as much as pos- sible before it is used, and to provide effective storage. HOW TO GET RUNNING WATER IN THE HOUSE. From the standpoint of convenience, comfort, and refine- ment, the most important consideration in connection with the farm water-supply problem is to have the water under 148 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. pressure in an elevated tank or in a hydropneumatic tank and available at the turning of a faucet, or at least available by merely pumping. The method of hoisting water from the well or spring, pouring it into buckets, and carrying it up porch steps and through doors into the kitchen and to other parts of the house is tiresome and wasteful of energy, and is cruelly and in most cases inexcusably primitive, especially as the task of obtaining the water generally falls in such cases upon the women of the household. It is desirable, therefore, that running water be available at least in the kitchen, and in a bathroom if possible. THE SIMPLEST WAY. Almost any system of obtaining running water in the kitchen is better than none at all. If the well or cistern is located within a short distance of the house, about the sim- plest and perhaps the cheapest method is to place a pitcher or other pump over a sink in the kitchen. The suction pipe of the pump may be extended to the well and water be obtained when desired merely by pumping; that is, provided the dis- tance to water in the well is not too great. Under ordinary circumstances a pump will lift water only to a height of about 20 feet. One should be careful, therefore, not to place the pump in such a position that the suction lift will exceed 20 feet, for in that event the pump will not operate satisfactorily and likely not at all. It should also be remembered that water flowing through a pipe meets with considerable resist- ance due to friction, which increases as the velocity of the water and the length of the pipe increase and as the diameter of the pipe decreases. Elbows and bends in the pipe also increase the friction. Pump manufacturers give information in regard to this frictional loss which should always be con- sidered in arranging a pumping system in the kitchen or elsewhere. The allowable distance from the well to the pump for this arrangement will vary with local conditions. The writer has seen cases in which this distance was as high as 150 to 200 feet. When the housewife is unusually busy in the kitchen it is a waste of time and energy, and perhaps a strain on patience, Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 149 to stop to pump water. Also the most water is usually needed when she is the busiest. For this reason a water supply under pressure is a great convenience, as it makes it possible to obtain the needed water merely by turning a faucet. The simplest, and usually the cheapest, method of securing a water supply under pressure is to have an elevated supply tank located at some point 8 or 10 feet higher than the highest faucet. THE ELEVATED-TANK SYSTEM. An elevated water-supply tank may be placed in the attic, on the roof, on the windmill tower, on a special tower, or on the silo. It must be high enough to give the desired pressure at points where the water is used. The tank may be of wood or galvanized metal. Its size will depend on the amount of water used daily in the house. A 250 to 500 gallon tank is sufficient for the average family, although some have a much larger tank, so that a supply sufficient to last several days may be maintained. A larger tank is also necessary where water is supplied to the house and barns. The simplest system of this kind is one with the tank in the attic or on the roof supplying water to the kitchen only. When the expense can be afforded a hot-water tank may be placed in the kitchen and the water plumbing be extended to a bathroom. The pump for this system must be a force pump, which not only raises water to its own level by suction but forces it to greater heights, according to the power applied. The pump may be placed over the well or in any other convenient spot as long as the suction lift does not exceed 20 feet. A three- way valve on such a pump permits the operator te direct the water to the tank or through the pump spout, as desired. The pump may be operated by hand, but where much water is to be pumped to a considerable height a windmill, a small gas engine, or an electric motor will save much time and exertion. Plate IX, figure 2, shows an excellent outside elevated- tank system supplied by a steel windmill. This tank.is of about 2,500 gallons capatity and supplies water to the house 150 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. and barns. It is often possible to supply such a tank with a small gas-engine pumping plant, which may be situated in a shed constructed around the foot of the tower. The great objection to an elevated-tank system is that in the colder climates there is danger of the water in the tank freezing. This is particularly objectionable when the tank is located in the attic, where considerable damage may be caused if it should burst. It is also necessary to provide an especially strong support for the tank. Another objection is that if located in the attic the tank is likely to catch con- siderable filth. It should, in such cases, be easily accessible for more or less frequent cleaning. It is well also to cover the tank to prevent, as far as possible, the entrance of dirt and vermin, and when placed on a tower outside it should be covered to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes. The great advantages of this system are its cheapness and simplicity. All that is needed are a force pump, a storage tank, a pipe from the pump to the tank, a pipe from the tank to the point at which water is used, and accompanying fix- tures. The tank should have an overflow pipe, particularly if located in the attic. A number of such systems are in successful use. If well constructed and maintained, they afford a satisfactory, con- venient, and comparatively cheap farm water supply. Although more generally successful in the warmer climates, such systems may with proper protection and attention be often used with success in colder climates. An improvement over the elevated-tank system is the hydropneumatic system, which does away with the dangers of freezing and filth accumulation. THE HYDROPNEUMATIC SYSTEM. In the hydropneumatic system a water and air tight tank is placed in the basement or almost anywhere in the imme- diate vicinity of the house where there is no danger from freezing. This tank is usually connected by a 14-inch pipe to the three-way valve of a force pump for the well or cistern. The pump preferably is so equipped as to pump a little air at each stroke in addition to the water. At the start of pump- ing the tank is full of air, but as pumping continues this air Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 151 is gradually compressed by the entering water until the required pressure, usually 25 to 40 pounds, is indicated on a pressure gauge. One pound of pressure will force the water approximately 2 feet high in the house, so that for the ordimary house a pressure greater than 40 pounds is not necessary. For the average family a tank at least 30 inches in diame- ter and 6 feet long, with a capacity of 220 gallons, is required. At 40 pounds’ pressure this tank will be nearly three-fourths full of water and will deliver about 130 gallons to the second story and a greater proportion of the total capacity to the kitchen. Tanks of larger or smaller capacity may be secured if desired. Figure 4 shows the main features in the installation of such a system with the tank in the house basement. The hot-water pipes are shown in black. The pump may be over the well as shown, or in the cellar next to the tank if the well is not too deep nor too far from the house. The equipment necessary for an installation of this kind consists of a steel tank of the desired size, with pressure gauge and gauge glass, an air and water force pump, pipes, and con- nections, a 30 to 40 gallon hot-water tank, and the desired fixtures. A system of this kind, if well installed, affords a satisfactory and convenient water supply available at the turning of a faucet. It is perhaps more expensive than the elevated-tank system, but also does not have many of the objectionable features connected with that system. Water may be pumped for this system by hand, but, as in the elevated-tank system, where the desired pressure is above 20 to 25 pounds, a windmill, small gas engine, or small electric motor is necessary. POWER FOR PUMPING. A gas engine rated at from 4 to 14 horsepower should be of sufficient power for ordinary farm pumping. It may be con- nected with the pump directly or by a belt. In the first case, the engine is usually used for pumping only and may be arranged about as shown in Plate IX, figure 3. It is usually desirable in such a case to provide a shelter for the engine, at least. 152 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. In the second case the engine is more likely used for several purposes about the farm and may be a portable engine, or it may be located in a shednear the pump. In either event, if the pump is equipped with a pumping jack and belt wheel it may be operated by the engine by means of a belt. 4£00R- [ores FT rey ee ‘ (eee 1 a | ——— SSS = CLUINGT Py Ya" PIPE a a) "| — [) ia jal PL PEE s =F) FECHA LH tH feed + 4 [eee] Ba i) Bs Sa Is: ae ie “Ae Rae Te is: ea (| rT e, 4 EI ts FA Fic. 4.—Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by hand force pump. A good windmill is a cheap source of pumping power if well taken care of. A steel windmill is usually preferable to the wooden type. The mill itself costs considerable, it is true, but wind power thereafter costs nothing, while gasoline is a constant expense. The gas engine will, on the other hand, pump water whether the wind blows or not. On the whole, however, in localities where the wind is steadily fairly strong a windmill should be a satisfactory pumping power. Where Clean Water and How to Get Tt on the Farm. 153 electricity is available an electric motor rated at 4 to ? horsepower is usually sufficient for ordinary farm pumping. If spring water is used the hydraulic ram is usually the best method of pumping water to the house if the spring is so located that the water can not be piped directly by gravity. THE HYDRAULIC RAM. The hydraulic ram is a simple, though rather wasteful, machine which utilizes the momentum of a stream of water falling a small height to elevate a small part of that water to a greater height. In this way a spring if properly connected DRIVE FANR LUFT, Hi, WILL VARY WITH READING ON PRESSURE GAUGE. ONE POUND Ea TTS a FOUAL Q 70 2.3 FEET OF 7. Fig. 5.—Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system, showing usual rela- tive positions of spring, ram, and storage tank. with a hydraulic ram will do double duty, supplying the water and also the power for pumping. Certain conditions are necessary, however, for the proper operation of such asystem. The ram must be located lower than the spring and at the proper distance away. The fall from spring to ram must not be less than 2 feet, and the spring must supply not less than one-half gallon of water per minute. Most rams are, however, guaranteed to operate on not less than 2 gallons per minute. Figure 5 shows the usual rela- tive positions of spring, ram, and storage tank. The drive pipe is usually twice the size of the delivery pipe and the size of each depends on the size of the ram used. The length-of the drive pipe is usually about seven times the height of fall, although this may vary between five and ten, depending on the height and distance to which water is to be 154 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. delivered. Its length must ordinarily be equal to the vertical height to which the water is lifted and must never be less than three-fourths this height. It is well to add on the aver- age about 2 feet to the length of the drive pipe for every 100 feet the water is carried horizontally. Where the grade is small and it is therefore necessary to bring the water a long distance in order to get the desired fall a standpipe or reservoir may be placed in the line of the supply pipe at the proper distance from the ram, as shown in figure 6, and thus bring the effective pressure nearer the ram and prevent waste of pressure by friction in an unneces- sarily long drive pipe. SUPPLY TAN DRIVE TANG AS WETS. eee eee eee x= H Fic. 6.—T wo methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe. Manufacturers of hydraulic rams make certain guarantees as to what their particular type of ram will accomplish under certain conditions. If one knows the quantity of flow of his spring, the elevation above the spring to which it is desired to deliver water, and the distance from the approximate location of the ram to the point of delivery, he can, by con- sulting the tables which manufacturers usually furnish, easily determine the size of ram, length and size of drive pipe, and usually the minimum permissible fall in the drive pipe to suit his particular case. Thus the smallest sizes of some makes of hydraulic ram are guaranteed to operate under a minimum fall of 3 feet with a supply of 2 to 3 gallons of water per minute and lift 10 to 15 gallons of water per hour to a height of about 20 feet. The larger sizes will deliver 150 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 155 to 300 gallons per hour to a height of 100 to 120 feet under proper working conditions. The proportion of water sup- plied to the ram which is elevated to the point of use will vary according to operating conditions from about two-sevenths for the lower lifts to one-twentieth for the higher lifts. In order to secure their guarantee it is well to follow closely the directions for installation given out by the manufacturers of the ram. It is always well to house the ram in to protect it from freezing and to prevent the entrance of sand and grit to the drive pipe by screening the open end. Sand and grit will soon prevent the proper action of the valves. The pipes should also be placed below the frost line. In setting a ram the foundation should be firm and level. The drive pipe should be laid on a perfectly straight incline with- out bends or curves except where the pipe enters the ram, and this should be made by bending the pipe. Fittings should be used only where absolutely necessary. The upper end of the drive pipe should be sufficiently below the sur- face of the water to prevent air suction—at least a foot. Above all things the drive pipe should be air-tight. The delivery pipe may be laid with the necessary bends, according to the usual practice in laying water pipes, but all pipes should be connected before starting the ram and they should be left uncovered until all leaks are stopped. There should be as few bends and elbows in the delivery pipe as possible in order to reduce friction. Taken as a whole, the hydraulic-ram pumping system is a very convenient one. Of course it requires a certain amount of watching and care, but the ram is so simple that if properly installed it is easily kept in working order. It operates day and night, winter and summer, whether the wind blows or not, and regardless of the price of gasoline or electricity, and its operation is continuous until stopped. In some respects, therefore, it has the advantage over the windmill and gas engine. CONCLUSION. Methods for safeguarding the purity of farm water sup- plies are being given more and more attention by progressive - farmers, and the value of clean water from the standpoint of 156 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. health is now recognized. The rural inhabitant, therefore, realizing his obligation to his family and to himself in this respect, should see to it that clean and wholesome water is provided for household uses. This necessitates in the main the use of effective measures for protecting wells, springs, and other sources of farm water supplies from surface and subsurface pollution and that, above all things else, clean well surroundings be maintained. Further, to avoid trouble in the future, a spirit of constant watchfulness and care with reference to maintaining the purity of the water supply may well be developed. In addition, simple, economical, and practical means of obtaining running water in the house have been found which, when properly and carefully installed, do away with much of the drudgery formerly borne largely by the farm housewife. The farmer of average means can not afford to overlook the advantages offered by these more modern methods and arrangements for securing running water in the house; and when the expenditure in time and energy for carrying water is compared with the actual cost of installing the cheaper and simpler means of providing a convenient water supply © in the house, it is believed a step in this direction by even the less well-to-do farmer would be, in the long run, a decided saving and advantage. STORY OF THE THERMOMETER AND ITS USES IN AGRICULTURE. By Atrrep H. THIESSEN, Section Director, Weather Bureau. HAT common but useful little instrument, the ther- mometer, may be employed in various ways on the farm to the farmer’s benefit. It will give exact information regarding temperature, which is important to the farmer, and thereby increase exact methods on the farm at little cost. In all departments of industry exact methods are superseding inexact methods, and the accurate ways of the manufacturer or the city merchant are as applicable to the operations on the farm as to the factory or store. IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING THE TEMPERATURE. How much depends on the temperature! It is the most important element of the weather for us to know accurately. Our comfort depends more upon how the thermometer stands than upon any other single factor. Chemical changes are going on about us at all times, and, as a rule, take place more rapidly the warmer substances are. Note, for instance, the rapid rotting of fruit, the souring of milk, and decomposition in general when temperatures are high. Note the health and vigor one has in cool, crisp weather. Cold air has a tonic effect, and all should learn the right temperature of the air for work, study, or play to get the most out of all three. THE THERMOMETER. Let us examine the thermometer, learn how it was devel- oped, and how it is made. We shall then become better acquainted with it, and handle and use it with greater assurance; afterwards we shall show how it may be used on the farm. EARLY HISTORY. The earliest form of a “heat measure,’”’ which is a literal translation of the Greek word ‘‘thermometer,’’ was made about 1592 by Galileo and was an air thermometer (see fig 7). 157 158 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. It consisted of a glass tube B opening into a glass globe A. Some water was first poured into the globe, and the tube was then inverted with its open end submerged in a vessel of water, as shown in the figure. This instrument was not con- structed for the purpose of showing exact degrees of heat, but was used by physicians (Sanctorius, about 1624) to indi- cate the higher temperature of fever patients over that of persons in normal health. The operation of the instrument is as follows: When the bulb is grasped, the top of the liquid at D is depressed, and the more according to the intensity of the fever. The warmth of the hand is communicated to the air in the bulb, which, expanding, forces the liquid out of the tube B into the vessel C. This first form of a thermometer has the great objection in that it is not easily handled, and that it is subject to changes due to differences in air pressure which are con- stantly occurring, and to the diminishing volume of water due to evaporation. The next important form in the evolution of the ther- mometer is shown in figure 8. It is like the thermometer in present use, except that the stem is open at the top. This form has a great advantage over the first form in that it is less affected by air pressure, but, of course, has other decided defects. The first thermometer was made by Galileo in 1592; he and his students and others improved upon his first two forms, shown in figures 7 and 8, until finally, in 1641, the instrument used by the Florentines had attained a form in all its essentials like the modern thermometer (see. fig. 9). PRINCIPLE OF THE THERMOMETER. All ordinary thermometers work upon the principle of the expansion of substances with heat, and gases, liquids, or solids may be used. In the ordinary instruments, ac- curately described as liquid-in-glass thermometers, the dif- ferences of heat indicated depend upon the condition that the glass container and the liquid used expand differently with the application of the same amount of heat to both. If glass expanded with heat and contracted with cold to. the same degree as the liquid, then the latter would always The Thermometer and Its Uses in Agriculture. 159 stay at the same level, no matter how the temperature changed. Glass, however, expands to a lesser degree than do the liquids used; hence the fall of the liquid column when the air becomes cooler and the rise when warmer. MAKING A THERMOMETER. The best of the earliest thermometers were made by expert glass blowers of Florence, Italy, and were much Fia. 7. BiGSSs i Fia. 9. superior to those made in England, where unsealed ther- mometers, or those similar to figure 8, were im common use previous to 1740, when they were replaced by the Fahrenheit instrument. The making of the best modern thermometers is an in- teresting process. The glass is specially selected and blown _by an expert workman, who first makes the tube and, after examining its bore to determine its size, attaches the bulb. The determination of the size of the bore is very necessary, as the size of the bulb must bear a certain relation to it. 160 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The tubes are then filled with a thermometric substance, usually mercury or alcohol, both of which must be chem- ically pure. After the thermometers are filled and sealed, they are laid away to season; for it has been found that glass, after being subject to high temperatures, shrinks somewhat. The shrmking process continues about two years, although most of it takes place in one year. After the seasoning process they are ready to receive the degree marks. SOME FACTS REGARDING THERMOMETERS. There are four essential parts to a thermometer—tube, bulb, liquid, and scale. The tube should have as uniform a bore as possible; other- wise the degree marks would not indicate the correct tem- peratures, except at the test. points. The size of the bulb should bear a certain fixed relation to that of the tube, and must be large enough to produce a scale of sufficient size. To illustrate this: Suppose we consider two thermometers with bulbs of different sizes, but with tubes of the same size. It is evident that when subjecting both thermometers to the same additional amount of heat the mercury will rise higher in the tube having the larger bulb. The workman makes his bulb of such size as will fit the stem. A good length of thermometer for ordinary use is 10 or’ 12 inches. The selection of a suitable liquid is very important. Hither mercury or alcohol is generally used. It may be observed that the liquid in some thermometers is wine color; in such cases the liquid used is alcohol colored with a dye, which after long use may settle to the bulb end, leaving the top of the column quite colorless. The essentials in the choice of liquids are that the expansion of the liquid be much greater than glass, that it shall not distil in the upper part of the stem, that its surface tension be small, and that it shall have low specific gravity. THE THERMOMETER SCALE. In the construction of a thermometer the scale is made last and after the seasoning process. In the best thermome- ters the scale is etched on the glass stem; for if a separate The Thermometer and Its Uses in Agriculture. 161 metal scale is used errors may occur by the slipping of the metal scale in reference to the glass stem. There are three scales in common use: the Fahrenheit, the centigrade, and the Réaumur. The freezing point on the Fahrenheit scale is at 32° and boiling point at 212°; there are, then, 180 whole steps between freezing and the boiling point on this scale. A scale of 100 parts was invented by Celsius, but the order of numeration, 0-100, which is the present centi- grade scale, was adopted and recommended by another; its zero is at the freezing point, and the boiling point is marked 100°. The third scale, that of Réaumur, has its freezing point at 0° and the boiling point at 80°. The centigrade scale is used the world over for scientific purposes. The Réaumur is still employed for domestic uses in several countries. The Fahrenheit scale is used quite generally by English-speaking people. HOW TO EXPOSE A THERMOMETER. Now that we understand to some extent the theory of thermometers and how they are made, let us turn our atten- tion to how they should be exposed. In the first place, no matter how exposed, a thermometer simply tells its own temperature. It will indicate the tem- perature of gases, liquids, and solids by being immersed in them, but with varying degrees of error, depending on how well the instrument is exposed and on other factors. In most cases a thermometer hung in the free air will not give the actual temperature of the air, because it is subject to the direct rays of the sun, and because radiation from the ther- mometer can take place unimpeded. Probably the best way to expose a thermometer in order to determine the temperature of the air is to hang it in a shelter so made that air may blow freely through it, and then whirl the instru- ment before a reading is taken. The same conditions may be obtained by rapidly whirling the thermometer in any outdoor shade. It is especially difficult to obtain the exact temperature of gases, even though their temperatures remain stationary. Another difficulty comes in when the tempera- ture of the medium to be measured is constantly varying, as does that of the air. 75922°—yBK—1914—11 162 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. It is obvious that it will take a certain length of time be- fore a thermometer will indicate the temperature of a me- dium to within a degree, and still longer to indicate the tem- perature to within a tenth, when the temperature of the medium is constant. When the temperature of the me- dium is continually changing, the thermometer seldom indi- cates the correct temperature; but it may be reasonably close, depending on the sensibility of the instrument, the exposure, and the rapidity with which the temperature is changing. If exposed in the air the thermometer will endeavor to follow changes in the air temperature, but it can not record such changes instantly. The heavy line in figure 10 indi- oro SEeregmera eae ea i M7 Pa Sao bolo] ea ee Utada lala 2A FZ Ce o 10 12NOOV 2BPSAF 6 o 70 Fig. 10. cates the real temperature of the air, the broken line the indication of the thermometer. It is seen that the ther- mometer is always lagging behind the air temperature, ex- cept that when the temperature changes abruptly there may be a crossing, as at X, when the thermometer indicates the temperature of the air at that instant. Everyone has noticed the great difference between the temperatures of stones in the sun and others in the shade. Those in the sun seem much hotter than the air, while those in the shade seem much colder. Now, a thermometer, like the stones, is constantly receiving heat by radiation from surrounding objects and emitting heat by radiation from itself. The correct way, then, to measure the temperature of the air is to employ some means by which these radi- The Thermometer and lis Uses in Agriculture. 163 ating effects may be overcome, and that is by hanging the thermometer in a shelter, as explained above. USES OF THERMOMETER ON THE FARM. In the farm home this instrument will often tell a very important story. In the first place, it should be exposed correctly. If placed on a wall, it is subject to all kinds of currents of air that may be rising or falling at that place, and may indicate something quite different than the aver- age temperature of the room. When practicable it should be hung in the middle of the room, from the ceiling, about 4 or 5 feet from the floor. If one were to explore one’s living room with a thermometer, many unlooked-for differ- ences in temperature would be found. The air near the floor would be much cooler than that near the ceiling, and the temperature would also vary at the same level in the various parts of a room. In a sick room, where greater ac- curacy may be required, it may be necessary to hang the thermometer on a level with the patient’s head. Testing the bath water is another important use in the home, especially in the case of children or invalids. For a cool bath the water should be from 60° to 70°, tepid bath from 84° to 88°, a normal bath about 98°, and a hot bath should be over 100° F. Knowledge of the temperature of the pantry and cellar is important, for by investigating them one may make im- provements in conditions. Putrefaction will start at 50°, so that a pantry or closet where food is kept should have a ‘temperature at least as low as that. Cellars where canned goods are stored should have a temperature of 32° or over. Apples are frequently stored in outside cellars, where the temperature should be kept at 31° or 32°; but apples may be kept satisfactorily at 34° or 36°. When stored at the higher temperatures, the fruit should be placed there soon after being picked. CANDY MAKING AND COOKING. A favorite pastime with the young women on the farm is candy making. There is no branch of cooking in which temperatures are more important than in making candy. 164 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. For this purpose special instruments are made. No one can follow a good recipe for any kind of candy and ignore the temperature. Thermometers are also made so that the bulb may be permanently inserted in stove ovens and the scale read con- veniently on the outside. With the use of such a thermome- ter the housewife may be sure of the temperature; and since cooking is a chemical process which quickens with the in- crease of heat, it is highly important for successful and uni- form cooking to know and to have the oven at the right temperature. IN THE DAIRY. A thermometer should be the constant companion of the dairyman. There is probably no other department of the farm in which a thermometer can be used to greater advan- tage than in connection with dairy operations. The tem- peratures at which milk, cream, and butter are kept, and at which the various operations of butter making are carried on, are very important. When milk is to be sold as such, it should be immediately cooled. The reason for this is to stop the imcrease of bac- teria as much as possible. It has been found that an in- crease of 14° in the temperature of milk will increase the bacteria 600 per cent, and that bacteria will reproduce themselves every half hour if the temperatures are favorable. If milk is to be separated by a centrifugal process, it should have a temperature of 90° or 92°, and should be sepa- rated preferably right after milking, and then cooled. If. milk is to be separated by gravity methods, it should be cooled to 50° very soon after milking. The temperature at which cream is churned is another important item, and success depends largely on this factor; 52° to 62° Fahrenheit is considered about right. And, lastly, butter should be stored. in a cool place to insure its remaining sweet. IN THE INCUBATOR. The incubator is now frequently found on farms, and the importance of maintaining correct temperatures in them need not be emphasized. The correct temperature is 103° The Thermometer and Its Uses in Agriculture. 165 and should not go lower than that, especially during the first six days. To insure almost absolute success, in so far as maintaming the correct temperature, one may use the electric alarm which rings a bell when the temperature reaches 105° or falls lower than 103°. This instrument will not only aid greatly in attaming success with the hatch, but also diminish the worry and attention. OUTSIDE USES. It is sometimes desirable before planting to test the tem- perature of the ground. The experience of every farmer has taught him that every species of seed has a minimum temperature below which it will not germinate. There also appears to be an upper limit. One may plant in too high a temperature, but success under this condition is de- pendable largely on the moisture content of the soil. IN THE ORCHARD. Much has been written regarding the uses of thermometers in the orchard at frost time, but they may be applied to all crops that are injured by early or late frosts, such as toma- toes and late onions. Some means of protection may be applied to them all. The farmer should first know his farm. He should know what places are colder than others. He may not wish, nor is it necessary, to have a thermometer for every little hill and hollow, but he should by actual test find out the cold and the more favorable places. A knowledge of this kind will help the farmer not only in protecting his fruit and other crops, but also in planting. There should be a regular sta- tion somewhere convenient on the outside where a ther- mometer can be exposed. Knowing how other places on the farm compare with the regular station, the farmer may, by reading his station thermometer, estimate the temperature at any place on his land fairly accurately. OCCASIONAL USES. The clinical or fever thermometer may be found very use- fulon thefarm. The condition of a patient may be the more intelligently reported by telephone or messenger to the 166 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. attending physician. The temperature of a person in normal health is 98.6°. The following are the normal temperatures of farm ani- mals: Swine, 104°; goats or sheep, 102° to 103°; cows, 101° to 102°; horses, 99° to 99.6°; dogs, 99° to 100°. A rise of one or two degrees is unimportant if temporary; but if per- manent it indicates a serious condition which needs atten- tion. A rise of 10° to 12° in animals is usually fatal. One may wish to report the temperature of a sick animal to- gether with other symptoms to a veterinary, and the exact fever condition can only be obtained with the use of a good clinical thermometer, which should be used in accordance with veterinary methods. THERMOMETER SUGGESTIONS. When buying a thermometer, select one which bears the name of the maker and with the scale etched on the glass stem, although one so made is usually more expensive than one with a metal scale. Further, in choosing a thermometer one should have in mind the use for which it is intended. There are thermometers for all uses—cooking, dairying, for outside, and so on. With constant use one becomes acquainted with the instru- ment, so that dependence will be placed upon it; and with constant use uniform success in operations conditioned on temperature will be the reward. RETAIL PUBLIC MARKETS. By G. V. Brancu, Investigator in City Marketing, Office of Markets and Rural Organization. T intervals of a few years marked changes occur in the nature of the questions which engage the attention of municipal officials and civic organizations the country over. At one time political reform will be the paramount issue, then an antivice crusade. Another year may see efforts concentrated on the reduction of infant mortality, the upbuilding of the public park and playground system, the construction of boulevards, or the installation of improved street-lighting systems. The fact that these agitations are prompted by the most apparent economic or social needs of that particular period is quite self-evident. : Just now the question of cheaper and more efficient methods of distributing and marketing food products, particularly fresh farm produce, is probably receiving as much general attention and investigation as any other. Inasmuch as asuccessful solution will redound to the financial advantage of both the rural and urban populations, the reason for such widespread interest is a matter of easy determination, and especially so when the upward tendency of food prices is considered. The problem of securing good products more cheaply, thus making an appreciable reduction in the average ,budget which the housewife must set aside for food, is proving a baffling one to every agency concerned in the quest. Cities, in an attempt to aid their populations, are awaking to the fact that they have been very lax in assuming proper obliga- tions in relation to their food supply. Their first impulse is to see what other cities are doing, and in most cases their investigations end in a demand for a public market. They call for a place where the near-by producer can market his wares direct to the people. More often, however, and especially in the larger cities, the outcome is a farmers’ wholesale market, or a retail market where the speculative dealers are in the majority. Unfortunately, city officials, 167 168 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. chambers of commerce, and civic-improvemert leagues usu- ally do not keep in close touch with the economic develop- ments surrounding the marketing of farm products, so they find it hard to understand why there should be any trouble in establishing just the kind of market they want, and, along with it, securing the exact results for which they are seeking. There are, however, some very difficult problems to work out in the successful establishment of even such an old- fashioned and apparently simple institution as a public market. Although a century ago the task was simple, the present complexity of the marketing system and the extraordinary demands in the way of service which are evidenced on all sides have greatly increased the difficulty of suiting an old-time project of this kind to more modern life. The attempt is met with disappointing results in a great many cases, due, however, to no fault of the principle itself. Public retail markets—old, dilapidated, mismanaged, and filthy—are numerous. Well-equipped, sanitary markets, of modern construction, efficiently conducted, are scarce. This is in reality no reflection on the possibilities of municipal retail markets, but only on the treatment that has been accorded them by most city governments. Being usually left to run themselves, they have done so, quite naturally selecting the path of least resistance, which, unfortunately, is down grade. Given a fair start aU continued good business manage- ment, a municipal retail public eet should be a success in any ‘average city that is large enough to support such a project. This statement is made with due regard to the fact that the success of an institution of this kind means more than simply fair patronage. The municipal retail market has certain functions to perform for the community, and unless it responds in a satisfactory way, after being given a fair trial, there is little excuse for its existence. ‘There are many who condemn a market unless, from the beginning, it affords lower prices. While this is a result that can reasonably be expected in well-directed institutions, nevertheless, plenty of time must be given for the balancing of the many factors that enter into price establishment. When a market is once firmly on its feet it would seem that a city could legitimately ask from it the following service: Retail Public Markets. 169 It should give to patrons who will pay cash for their pur- chases and carry them home a dollar’s worth of actual products for a dollar. In other words, when a buyer does not demand or use credit and delivery service he should not be charged for it. Municipal market prices should also reflect to the con- sumer the saving which is made possible to the dealer through low rent for his stall and equipment, as well as any other reductions in overhead expense. Patrons should be able to find at a market a larger and fresher assortment of food products than the average private establishment offers. Due to the possibility of closer official inspection, the consumer has a right to look for increased protection in the matters of quality, weight, and measure. When once a city has committed itself to a municipal market system, it is immediately confronted with innumer- able problems. So little information is available on the subject that it usually must become a matter of experimenta- tion. A serious mistake generally is made at this point. Instead of having a competent engineer or architect carefully study the problem and report, it is usually the custom to send a delegation of city officials on a junketing tour, some of whom may incidentally observe the municipal markets in the places visited. This would not be so detri- mental if only the cities inspected were possessed of even semimodel marketing institutions. More often they are of a mediocre type, and, although possibly giving fair service, are far from fit to serve as patterns when the possibilities of a modern municipal retail market are considered. It is to offer some suggestions to interested cities which may possibly help them in solving the difficulties confronting the successful establishment of a retail market, that the various questions which naturally come up at such a time are treated herewith in some detail. LOCAL NEED AND DEMAND FOR A MARKET. Inasmuch as the usefulness of a market depends on the support given it by the consumers, the tributary producers, and the local dealers, it is well worth while, before expending 170 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. time and money on the project, to determine the attitude of these people toward it. In meetings, or through the press, it is possible to ascertain the general sentiment. Ti all are apathetic and there is no definitely expressed desire for a market, then a city’s energies might be turned more profitably to other lines of improvement. Certain types of population lend themselves more readily to the municipal-market idea than others. Cities having a large foreign element and a well-developed middle class usually give most loyal support to such a project. Strange as it may seem, it is not always the very poor sections of a city that afford best patronage to a retail market. This is probably explained largely by the fact that the indigent class, as a rule, is quite dependent on the credit system. Lack of education in economic marketing and, to some extent, improvidence, are also contributing factors. The size of a city and the efficiency of its marketing facili- ties have a direct bearing on the need for a public market. While a few small places could be named which have useful farmers’ markets, still it is generally found that in the case of cities below 25,000 population or thereabouts such a large proportion of the homes are satisfactorily served by the ‘grocer and the door-to-door peddling of the farmer and huckster that there is not sufficient patronage left to sup- port a city market of any consequence. This statement is not to be construed as asserting that a profitable city market- ing system could not be worked out for these smaller places. In such cities it should be quite possible, when conditions warrant, at least to furnish the near-by producers a desig- nated place to assemble once or twice a week and sell their products at retail. However, those cities which reach the 25,000 to 50,000 class may well consider the advantages of a municipal market, particularly if the charges of their established retail agencies are unduly high or the service inefficient. Many cities com- plain that they suffer from a dearth of fresh produce, espe- cially farm and orchard products, or that there appears to be a lack of competition among local dealers resulting in abnormally high prices. In such places a skillfully managed city market should be of great value. Retail Public Markets. £74 The success of a public market often depends upon the size and character of its ‘‘farmers’ line’ (Pl. X, fig. 1). There seems to be an innate desire on the part of house- wives to buy from the producer and in the open. Conse- quently it behooves a city to study the tributary rural population. If a good truck-growing section is already developed within driving distance, there should be no trouble about lack of supplies for the market, unless the growers produce their crops in such large quantities that they are forced to sell at wholesale. If there is little truck growing in the region, however, methods of encouraging the farmers to take up that work should be employed. Such an outlet for products as a good public market creates is, in itself, an incentive to growers to engage in truck-crop production and usually aids greatly in developing a near-by food supply. TYPE OF MARKET. The form of market which seems to be meeting with most favor at present is a combination of an inclosed building (for the sale of meat, fish, butter, and other products that should be protected) and an open space where the market wagons of farmers and hucksters can be accommodated (Pl. X, figs. 2 and 3). The street curb adjacent to the market hall is often used for the latter purpose, but a loca- tion inside of the property line is better as a rule. This open, section (Pl. XI, fig. 1) should be equipped with sheds, if possible, for the protection of both buyer and seller, as is shown in Plate XI, figure 2. As previously suggested, some cities that are not in position to equip and give proper support to an inclosed market house can often secure valuable service from open markets for farmers, or for farmers, hucksters, and pushcart men. This type of market can be located along the curb of a suitable street (Pl. XI, fig. 3) or on some convenient vacant plot. The main defects of such a market are that it affords little or no protection, sanitary or otherwise, to the products offered for sale, nor does it shelter the seller or his patrons from the elements. Good sheds perform this service to a certain extent but are often inadequate. A greater weakness, however, lies in the fact that this style 172 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. of market, if supplied largely by local growers, affords, as a rule, satisfactory service only during the months of pro- duction. If the municipal public-market idea is good, it should be applied all the year around and to as many food products as is logically possible. The open market, however, has some advantages, par- ticularly for the city that is just launching a municipal market policy. It can be started with little expense of time and money; it can be moved easily, providing the first location is found to be faulty; and it can be used as a means to determine the degree of support which will be given the project as a whole by both producer and con- sumer. The factors of demand, location, and cost are all important in a new venture of this kind, and the open market serves cheaply and well as a demonstration project. It should also promote interest and enthusiasm in a com- munity for this form of more direct dealing. An inclosed market building with no provision for pro- ducers’ or hucksters’ wagons usually finds favor only in the larger cities, where open space is not available. LOCATION OF THE MARKET. If there is one consideration more important than another, when. the possibilities of success of a public market are being weighed, that one is location. Many a city has invested a goodly sum in a retail market only to find that they had foredoomed it to failure by having selected an out- of-the-way place. An example of such misfortune is evi- denced in Plate X, figure 2. The factors to be considered in choosing a site vary with the size of the city. The first question to be decided is whether the market should be located in a residential sec- tion or at a more central point. Both plans have their advocates. Theoretically, small public markets placed in the more densely populated residential sections of a city and within walking distance of a large number of house- wives, would be best situated to give the service expected of such institutions. Under certain conditions this system may be advisable, but unfortunately it does not seem to be practicable in the majority of places. Most large cities Retail Public Markets. 173 owning public markets have at least one, centrally located in the business section, which is larger and better equipped than the rest. To show the effect of such a market on the smaller markets in residential districts, it is only necessary to cite an incident which recently took place in one of the large middle-western cities. After prolonged consideration, an official committee sub- mitted a plan to the mayor covering an extension of the municipal market system. It contained a map of the city, with markets indicated at several points in the residential sections, where the population was fairly dense. The recom- mendation appeared very logical. The mayor submitted the plan for criticism to the superintendent of city markets, who in this case happened to be a student of the municipai- market subject. He agreed that on paper the plan looked good, but asserted that in practice it stood small chance of being successful. To explain his stand, he took the mayor and committee in the municipal automobile to the corner where the city’s one residential market was then situated. It was originally a well-equipped, inviting little market, but now trade was dull and the place appeared unthrifty. On the same corner, awaiting a street car to take them to the large central market down town, stood six housewives with marketing baskets on their arms. That roughly tells the story of why small markets in resi- dential centers do not, as a rule, prove satisfactory. Farmers drive past them with their loads to sell on the larger markets where their trade is assured. Patrons go to the same places to get the advantage of a larger assortment of produce, and also because they usually have to go to the business district to shop anyway. It should be noted, too, that the value of a residential market is more subject to depreciation from shiftmg population (Pl. XIT, fig. 1), than is that of a market more centrally located. There are, without doubt, several examples of what might be termed residential markets that are now giving just the ‘ service desired of them. Possibly in the future such a plan will demonstrate its merits more conclusively and become an effective factor in city marketing systems. There is reason to believe that in some places ‘‘neighbor- hood farmers’ markets’? may operate satisfactorily during 174 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. the growing season. With a curb or a vacant lot costing nothing as a site, and a few farmers who are willing to sell in this manner, there is everything to gain and very little risk in making the experiment. Denver is testing it out, and the development of the plan will be watched with interest (Pl. XII, fig. 2). The experience of the majority of cities, then, and espe- cially in the case of larger municipal markets, seems to favor central locations. In a city of small or medium size, where only one retail market is contemplated, this market doubtless should be placed as near the business center as it is possi- ble to secure the necessary land. Rather than remove it far from the most accessible point, it would probably be advis- able to use a section of a wide street, as has been the plan in Cincinnati (Pl. XII, fig. 3) and as in the case of the old Lex- ington Market in Baltimore. Inasmuch as the demands of traffic must be heeded, when a street is to be used for either an inclosed or a curb market it is sometimes better to choose one immediately adjacent to a main thoroughfare than to cause undue congestion, but the site chosen must be very accessible. If a retail market is to be combined in any way with a wholesale project, then entirely new factors, not dis- cussed here, enter to influence the decision. In the case of a large city that is developing a series of re- tail market buildings the best plan seems to be to locate them in the subsidiary business centers. Nearly every such city is divided into several more or less localized sections, as the north, south, east, or west side, each of which has its principal business district. There is much less danger of these centers changing so as to leave the market stranded than there is in the case of a residential section, and they usually have sufficient tributary trade to give proper support to such an institution. In judging the accessibility of a market site two factors are of prime importance: the number of patrons who will walk to the market, and the street-car facilities. A market with a large tributary population within walking distance may - save hundreds of dollars a day to these buyers in car fares. On the other hand, the patron from a distance should be able to ride very near the market entrance with as few trans- fers as possible. Retail Public Markets. 175 In the case of retail markets which will be used extensively as an outlet by producers, a city should consider carefully the possibilities of trolley freight service in connection with various locations. Growers who live at some distance can often use this method for the transportation of their goods to great advantage, providing cars can be switched to the receiving platform of the market. Interurban lines are bound steadily to become more important factors in the han- dling of farm products, and it is advisable that full provision be made to develop the service. In selecting a retail-market location, the demands of the future should always be kept in mind. Provision for expan- sion of the market plan as the city grows has been too often overlooked by municipalities—a fact which applies with equal truth to other civic projects. CONSTRUCTION OF THE MARKET. Other conditions being equal, a market house which has good breadth (Pl. XIII, fig. 1) is preferable to the long, narrow structure that it is necessary to build when erected in a street. The broader market lends itself to « more desirable arrange- ment of stalls and general equipment, while the handling of products is facilitated. The object which every city should strive to attain in the construction of a municipal market is the highest degree of convenient and sanitary equipment at the minimum of cost. Ornate public buildings may be expedient as a rule, but, in the case of municipal markets, beauty and expensive con- struction should be strictly subservient to utility and econo- my. The mission of a market is to increase the efficiency and decrease the cost of food distribution; consequently, needless expenditure of money is out of harmony with the purpose to be fulfilled. The use of wood in market construction is inexpedient in most cases. The constant application of water in cleaning makes woodwork very unsatisfactory. Tile, concrete, brick, steel, marble, and glass are the type of substances which answer best the demands of durability and sanitation. ‘It is not intended in this article to go into detail regarding the interior equipment of a municipal retail market. How- 176 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. ever, some suggestions as to matters often overlooked, and — of desirable features now being used in the more modern establishments (Pl. XIII, fig. 2) will serve to show what points should receive special study and attention. All counters should be raised far enough from the floor to permit of thorough scraping and washing underneath. Floors should be of nonabsorbent material and so laid that they will drain thoroughly. Ample arrangements for flush- ing are necessary. Inside walls should be of nonabsorbent material to the height of about 6 feet. Meat, poultry, fish, oyster, and butter counters, at least, should be constructed of some of the more impervious ma- terials, such as glass, marble, tile, soapstone, or slate. It is very desirable that such counters be provided with refrigerating equipment that will keep the products cool and free from flies. These results can be obtained even in semi- open counters by installing a refrigerating coil in back, on a level with the products displayed, while plate glass is placed vertically in front and horizontally over a section of the top. Such an arrangement not only exhibits meats and similar foodstuffs to advantage, but it also performs the exceedingly important service of preventing patrons from handling the fresh cuts of meat and testing the tenderness thereof with a punch of the finger or thumb, an insanitary practice which has become very common in markets. Stalls for the sale of fish and other sea food should be segregated from the others in a separate room, in order that the characteristic odors attending them will not permeate the market hall proper, and so that the handling of these ~ products can be accomplished without bringing them in con- tact with other parts of the building. The typhoid fiy, the rat, and the mouse are the chief pests which infest a market. Every possible means should be employed to minimize their numbers. Good light and ventilation are not only important from a sanitary point of view, but add greatly to the attractiveness of a market. Somewhere on the market property, preferably outside of the inclosed market hall, a suitable comfort station should be constructed. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE X. Fia. 1.—VIEW OF “FARMERS? LINE’? ALONG THE CURB OF EASTERN MARKET, ONE OF WASHINGTON’S SIX MUNICIPAL RETAIL MARKETS. Fig. 2.—VIEW SHOWING THE INCLOSED BUILDING AND OPEN SPACE CONSTITUTING A $55,000 RETAIL MARKET OF A MIDDLE WESTERN CITY. [This market is a comparative failure, due to its poor location. ] Fi@. 3.—PORTION OF FANEUIL HALL MARKET IN BOSTON, SHOWING BUILDING FOR SALE OF MEATS, BUTTER, FISH, ETC., AND THE OPEN SPACE FOR PRODUCERS?’ WAGONS. [One of the oldest market places in the country. which still remains a thriving trade center.) Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XI. Fia. 1.—OPEN PART OF THE ELK STREET MARKET, BUFFALO, SHOWING INCLOSED BUILDING IN THE DISTANCE. [Farmers and hucksters sell at both wholesale and retail along the curbs. ] Fia. 2.—PARTIAL VIEW OF THE 10-ACRE OPEN MARKET AT ROCHESTER, N. Y. [Note steel sheds and brick pavement. While originally a wholesale market.it now caters to the consumer as well. ] SUS Fee cer 7 Fia. 3.—A SECTION OF THE FARMERS’ RETAIL CURB MARKET AT DUBUQUE, IOWA. [On Saturdays there have been as many as sixteen blocks like this. Photograph by J. H. Spencer, Dubuque, Iowa. } Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLate XII. Fic. 1.—AN OLD-TIME MUNICIPAL RETAIL MARKET IN PITTSBURGH LONG AGO DISCARDED BECAUSE THE SHIFTING OF POPULATION REDUCED THE TRADE. Fic. 2.—ONE OF DENVER’S “ NEIGHBORHOOD MARKETS,” WHERE FARMERS SELL TO THE HOUSEWIVES IN THE RESIDENTIAL DISTRICTS. FN es ris «ml pall, Fic. 3.—PEARL STREET MARKET IN CINCINNATI, AN EXAMPLE OF THE LONG, NARROW TYPE OF MARKET HALL LOCATED IN THE MIDDLE OF THE STREET. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XIII. Fic. 1.—CLEVELAND’S NEW WEST SIDE MARKET, A BEAUTIFUL BUT NEEDLESSLY EXPENSIVE INSTITUTION. [A type of the broader construction in market buildings. ] Fic. 2.—INTERIOR VIEW OF SAME. [Note sanitary equipment and 13-inch double-dial scales hung in plain view of customers. ] Fia. 3.—A VIEW OF DENVER’S BIG WHOLESALE AND RETAIL FARMERS’ MARKET, SHOWING Four OF THE NINE STEEL SHEDS. Retail Public Markets. WZ7 There is no doubt that modern sanitary equipment com- bined with refrigeration service is an expensive item in the construction of a market. However, the day of filthy, un- attractive, and poorly equipped markets is passing. If the municipal retail market is to compete successfully with progressive private establishments, then it must assume a high standard. In fact, it should be a model of efficiency and sanitation, so that other retail agencies will be influenced toward improvement in these directions. The increased possibilities of mechanical refrigeration in connection with a retail market are being demonstrated con- tinually. It not only furnishes the most convenient and sanitary method of cooling small storage compartments and counters in the market hall proper, but cold-storage rooms in the basement or on the second floor can be made of great value. Some of these rooms should be subdivided into a number of individual slat lockers, to be rented to dealers who wish to keep their surplus stock in good condition from day to day. If desired, other rooms can be used for commercial storage, a feature which should be very attractive, especially in those places that lack privately owned facilities of this nature. In every large city there is much complaint from residents who have no storage space available, regarding the impossi- bility of renting cold-storage facilities in units small enough for family use. Commercial storage plants have not found it profitable, as yet, to cater to such small consignments, the bother more than offsetting any charges which this class of business will stand. However, there is a distinct need for just this kind of service. Many private homes, boarding houses, small restaurants, and other similar institutions in the community can not deal in large enough quantities to make practical the use of present commercial storage facili- ties. What they desire is a place, not too far distant, where they may store a case of eggs or barrel of fruit with the privi- lege of withdrawing small quantities once or twice a week. There are many problems of detail to be worked out before such service can be made efficient and satisfactory, but no better medium of experiment and demonstration is needed than the cold-storage equipment of a municipal market. 75922°—ypBK 1914-12 178 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Such an institution should be dedicated to the service of the community, and consequently the matter of trouble or lack of profit from such business ought not to prohibit a sincere effort to give the people the storage facilities in question. The construction of the open part of a retail market de- voted to the accommodation of producers’ wagons, huck- sters’ wagons, and pushearts, depends to a great extent on the space available. Many cities, especially the larger ones, have no place other than the middle of the street or the street curb to use for this purpose. Under these conditions it is difficult to arrange for any satisfactory protective agen- cies overhead except the simple canvas coverings of varied construction furnished by the dealers themselves. In cases where there is a suitable site for an open market inside of the property line, certain very desirable improve- ments can be made profitably. For sanitary reasons, as well as for convenience, the space should be paved with brick or some other suitable material (Pl. XI, fig. 2), and proper facili- ties installed for flushing and drainage. Steel sheds (Pl. XI, fig. 2) to protect both the seller’s load of products and the buyer should be erected. _ In retail markets these sheds are usually provided with a raised concrete walk running length- wise through the center, on which the displaying, buying, and selling of products are carried on. If the open retail market is to be used as a wholesale market as well (Pl. XIII, fig. 3) then the size of the sheds and stall arrangement often needs to be varied to suit local conditions and customs prevalent among the wholesale trade. FINANCING THE MARKET. When funds of any considerable amount are needed, the ordinary bond issue is used most commonly to provide for the establishment of city markets. When curb or other unimproved open markets are used, the small expense in- curred can be met from the funds of some established department of the city government. Many cities measure the success of their markets by the revenue which they derive therefrom. In so far as revenues are an indication of the amount of business transacted, the practice is not especially subject to criticism, but when municipal markets are prized mainly for the high returns Retail Public Markets. 179 which they make from excessive stall rent, then it is very evident that the primary purpose of the market is being defeated by the city itself. In building a retail public market it should be the aim to furnish first-class equipment for the handling of food products at just as low a rental as is possible, considering the running expenses, investment, interest, and depreciation. A reduction of overhead expense is essential if retail quotations are to be lowered materially. A public market should perform this function of lessening the high operating charges of the retailer, and then measures should be taken which will cause this saving to be evidenced in cheaper prices to the consumer. Considering the financial management of a successful market, there are, very evidently, three methods of opera- tion—at a loss, at cost, or at a profit. Any deficiency resulting from the first method must needs be made up by funds derived from some form of tax. It could be justified from a practical point of view only in case the low stall rents charged were responsible for reduced retail prices and marked communal benefits which might result from the effect of the market as a retail-price governor. However, on account of the fact that under average administration the savings effected by such low rentals do not accrue always to the benefit of the consumer, and inasmuch as the policy of con- ducting such an institution at a loss is apt to engender a great amount of opposition, it is no doubt wise to use some other system. As the matter of large net profits to be gained from a market is incompatible with the whole municipal-market idea, it remains for one to dwell on the advantages of the second method named, that of conducting the market at cost, with the possible addition of a reserve fund to be used in retiring a certain percentage of the bonds at stated inter- vals. This idea seems to be the most satisfactory when viewed from all angles. It contemplates making the market self-sustaining, a good feature in any business proposition. It makes for very nominal stall fees, thus lowering the over- head costs to the renter. It placates to a great extent that class of citizens who oppose every civic improvement that calls for an expenditure of money. 180 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Whatever the system employed, it is very essential that in leasing market stalls the city retain full control, making the duration of the lease short, and tenure subject to full compliance with all the rules and regulations of the market. In order to vary rentals when necessary, eradicate dishon- esty in all forms, enforce sanitary measures, and apply desirable ideas for the general improvement of the municipal market service, it is necessary that the occupancy of a market stall be subject to speedy termination on the part of the management when conditions warrant. One of the large eastern cities, owner of 11 municipal markets, recently faced a crisis in the conduct of this phase of city activity, due to lack of foresight in the financial policy employed when the various markets were built. In order to recover quickly the amount expended for a market, it was the habit to sell the stalls at public auction. Under this system, by the payment of an annual license and rental, the stall practically became the property of the purchaser. It could be rented, traded, or sold the same as any other pos- session. As a result, when changed conditions necessitated higher stall charges in order to provide a surplus for much needed market repairs, this move on the part of the city was met by a suit, instituted by the dealers, denying the city’s right to increase the rent specified in the original bill of sale. It required about two years’ strenuous work on the part of the municipality’s legal department to secure from the courts a sustaining verdict, and in the meantime the markets suffered sreatly through depreciation. Under such a system the value of public property accrues to the benefit of an individual, as is shown by the fact that in this city some of the market stalls are appraised as high as $3,000, although their purchase price was not more than half that much. Many are subrented for a sum that wiil bring 10 per cent on their present value and up to 20 per ceat on the original investment. Instances are related of Italian lessees who are now living in their native country mainly on the revenue which they derive from subrenting the stalls which they hold in the markets of the city mentioned. The privileges of subletting space in a municipal market and transferring a lease to another party are freely offered Retail Public Markets. 181 by many cities to stall renters. A little thought should make it evident that either concession is detrimental to the best interests of the market enterprise. By keeping in mind the fact that one of the chief functions of a municipal mar- ket is to lower food costs by reducing the overhead expenses of the dealer, it can be seen plainly that the sub- letting or transfer of a stand, for a substantial money con- sideration, adds an unnecessary financial burden, the amount of which the new occupant must needs try to recover from the buying public. It is also manifestly unfair to other citizens not so favored for a municipality to furnish low-priced facilities to certain individuals, namely, the stall renters, by the manipulation of which these individuals can realize substantial unearned increment. However, this is exactly what happens when a city leases a desirable municipal market stall for $72 a year and the renter transfers his lease to a third party for a $1,200 cash consideration, or sublets the stall at the rate of $300 per annum. While this is a hypothetical case, its parallel in market transactions can often be found. Inasmuch as a public market is a community institution, paid for and sustained out of public funds, all values which it creates should be returned to the municipality, except a fair remuneration which necessarily must be paid the stall renters in the shape of profits for the service which they perform. In order that this condition may prevail, one of the requisites is that there be no subletting or trans- fer of stalls unless, perchance, unusual conditions seem to justify such action. The original renter of a stand should be the user, and when his occupancy is terminated, the space should be given to the first applicant on the waiting list or drawn for by lot. MARKET REGULATIONS AND MANAGEMENT. Probably the average municipal market suffers as much from the lack of proper business management as from any other one thing. The larger proportion of markets are left to manage themselves, and then the cities possessing them condemn the lack of satisfactory service. Is it a cause of wonder that in such markets dealers are in control, prices 182 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. are fixed, patronage dwindles, and the expected benefits do not materialize? Considering average conditions, how can a city treasurer’s office, a board of public works, or a caretaker at $40 per month be expected to conduct such an institution successfully when acquainted with neither the problems of a retail public market nor the service which it should render the people? A competent managing official, therefore, can be reckoned among the chief needs of any city that inaugurates a municipal-market system, and such an official should have not only understanding but vision. After a market is opened to the public, there are two annoying problems which are of almost constant recurrence. To secure healthy competition among sellers, thus doing away with price fixing, and to eliminate dishonesty in all its © forms, are tasks beset with difficulties. Most cities give up the attempt, but one of the middle-western municipalities has solved the proposition to its satisfaction. The city retains absolute control of the market. Full rein is given the superintendent of markets, and all responsibility is placed upon him. When he rents either the outside or inside stalls it is expressly stipulated that the prospective occupant can sell there only as long as he deals fairly with the public and so conducts his business that it does not become detrimental to the best interests of the market. It required the elimina- tion of only three or four undesirables to impress upon all the other dealers the fact that competition and fair dealing must prevail on that market. As a result, not a single complaint of dishonesty has been made by patrons for nearly two years. Better still, no suggestion of fixed prices is apparent, all deal- ers working on the principle of a large volume of business at a small margin of profit, rather than the opposite method so often apparent in the present retail system. The efficiency of many municipal markets is greatly re- duced by their subserviency to political influence. Often market stalls are made awards for party service, as are also the offices and positions which a market affords. It is hardly necessary to comment on the destructive effect which such a condition exerts both on the market itself and on the benefits which it should render the community. There are many who consider the matter of a credit and delivery service in connection with a public market as a > Retail Public Markets. 183 debatable question. This would seem to depend on what are to be considered the logical functions of such a market. If a reduction of food prices through lessened overhead expense to the dealer is one, then credit and delivery at his expense should be discountenanced. To afford any considerable economy, all goods on a municipal retail market should be sold for cash, and carried home unless a common delivery system is available, the charges of which are paid by the purchaser. The equipment for such a system could be fur- nished by private enterprise, if that prove satisfactory, or, if expedient, by the city itself. Such a method of delivery in connection with a market is very desirable and can be made practical. Many markets have found it advisable to rule out tele- phones on the ground that a telephone order calls for delivery, and, in turn, establishes a credit charge, if, for any reason, collection can not be made when the goods are delivered. This rule finds further justification in the fact that ordering by telephone prevents the housewife from personally inspect- ing, before buying, the quality and assortment of products which the market offers. PUBLICITY OF MARKET NEWS. The possibilities for good of a rationally conducted market news service in connection with a municipal market system are just being realized. The average housewife suffers an almost daily loss through her ignorance of what products the market most liberally affords and current quotations on foodstuffs in general. Intelligent publicity of reliable infor- mation of this nature should prove to many cities a service rivaling in value any other feature of public-market activity. The city of Berlin has worked out this idea very satis- factorily in connection with its municipal wholesale markets. Several municipal sales agents who sell in the central market, either at auction or private sale, report their transactions to the city authorities, and they, in conjunction with the state market police, publish the prices obtained in the whole- sale market each day in the Official Market Bulletin. This practice has proved a meritorious one and is indorsed alike by dealers, trade papers, consumers, and others interested in the distribution of food products. 184 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. IN CONCLUSION. Let it be said that this discussion does not aim to cover fully the field of municipal retail markets. Only some of the more salient points which face a city interested in this problem are treated. Numberless questions of a more incidental nature demand careful consideration when the actual con- struction and management of a market are attempted. Nor is it thought that all of the conclusions reached herein can be applied successfully to every city. Unusual local con- ditions or prejudices might render advisable an entirely different treatment than is here set forth. While the municipal retail market surely has its place in the present system of food distribution, its introduction should be accompanied with even more mature judgment than would attend the establishment of business institutions by private agencies, for, in committing itself to the retail- market policy, a city is departing somewhat from the con- servative path. The public market is not a panacea for the weaknesses of the retail system, nor is it advocated that its use should displace the old established agencies of retail marketing. Rather, its service should supplement, co- operate with, and to some extent regulate that which they give. COOPERATIVE MARKETING, AND FINANCING OF MARKETING ASSOCIATIONS. By C. E. Bassretr and CLiarence W. Moomaw, Specialists in Cooperative Organization, and W. H. Kerr, Investigator in Market Business Practice, Office of Markets and Rural Organization. ARMING should be not only a scientific occupation but a successful business. Every branch of the industry should be founded on well-established, economic business principles. Numerous educational agencies have been at work to raise farming to the rank of a science, to teach the farmer how to make the proper use of the forces of nature, and to work in harmony with natural laws. But conditions are now such that both producers and consumers feel there is some- thing radically wrong with the business of marketing farm products. For many decades in this country cheap virgin soils made cheap production possible, so that farmers have felt only the need of concerning themselves with matters of large production. But higher land values, higher paid labor, the call for expensive fertilizers, and the increased expense of fighting diseases and insect and fungus pests, together with decreased yields in some cases, have emphasized the need of a radical change in business methods. One class contends that the land is not being properly farmed and that what is needed is to make the land produce more to the acre. While it is desirable to increase produc- tion, the mere doubling of production will not necessarily greatly improve the conditions of the farmer or relieve the burden of high prices to the consumer. It is a matter of record that the largest apple crop, the largest corn crop, and the largest cotton crop in the history of the Nation have yielded the producers of those crops a less amount of profit than has been obtained in certain years of less production; and it is also known that in these years of enormous crops the prices paid by consumers in most sections have not 185 186 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. reflected, in a proper degree, the low prices paid to the farmers. With this knowledge of the facts, what farmer will be encouraged to grow “‘two blades of grass’? when he fails to realize a fair return for the ‘“‘one blade” which he now grows? It can not be made clear to him that better returns wait on increased production until he feels that present production is fairly remunerative. To the careful student of the problem it seems evident that it is the lack of an efficient system of distribution and marketing that causes much of the trouble, and it is because of the lack of a marketing plan that the present-day average farming can not claim to be a business, but simply an occupation. This country has innumerable examples of success in manufacturing, but where can be found one in which all the thought is given to production and no attention is given to the distribution and selling of the products? The farmer is himself a manufacturer, but when the manner of selling his products is observed the conclusion is formed that his marketing methods are not worthy of the name, as they consist chiefly of “dumping” rather than of marketing. Many a case of so-called ‘‘overproduction”’ is only a failure to distribute properly the products to the points where they are desired. While one market suffers from congestion, caused by an oversupply, another may be suffering for want of a sufficient amount, and at the same time tons of food products may be wasting in fields and orchards for want of a profitable market. The remedy les in a more uniform distribution. Many reformers attribute marketing difficulties to the presence of so many speculators and middlemen; but it must be remembered that these intermediary agents have come into existence to perform services that the farmer fails to perform for himself. If the farmer will not or can not arrange to finance his business, he must expect to pay others to do it for him. If he will not or can not store his crops and hold them until the markets are ready to use them, he calls into existence a class of speculators who demand and receive a liberal price for taking the chance and performing Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 187 these services. If he is unable personally to distribute his crops and deal direct with the consumer, he must employ agents or commission men to do this work for him. All of these agents must be paid, and most of them are in a posi- tion to collect their charge, whether or not the consignor realizes anything at all. Successful farming operations are largely concerned with the elimination of waste—the waste caused by diseases and pests, the waste caused by the neglect of natural resources, and the waste of misapplied labor. [If it appears that these present-day methods of distributing and marketing farm crops are wasteful, then it is the business of the farmer to evolve a plan whereby he can do some of that work which he now pays others to perform. But the individual grower frequently discovers that he is unable to do certain things which are economically essential. The average grower is not competent to grade and inspect his own products, and, even if he were, he does not produce enough to create a reputation beyond the limits of his own private trade. Not being able to ship full carloads, his products are transported to market under more expensive freight or express rates. The extent of his business does not warrant any great expense in securing reliable informa- tion as to market conditions and prices. This lack of infor- mation puts him at a disadvantage when dealing with well- informed buyers. It might seem wise to attempt to increase consumption of a certain product by a campaign of educa- tional advertising, but the individual producer can not afford to finance such an undertaking, as other producers would profit equally with himself in any resultant benefits. If all are benefited, all should contribute. Working alone, the average farmer is practically helpless to develop an effi- cient marketing system. COOPERATION AS A REMEDY. A new faith has developed on the part of the farmers themselves that the cooperative plan of doing farm business is the most satisfactory method. Like the European farmer, the American farmer is being driven to cooperation by neces- sity. In the United States the necessity arises chiefly from 188 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. the costly, clumsy, and unbusinesslike methods of distrib- uting food products, resulting in an abnormal discrepancy between the price paid to the producer and the cost to the consumer. American farmers are beginning to realize that by selling cooperatively they not only will be able to offer a stand- ardized product and reduce the cost of marketing, but they will be able to furnish this better article to the consumer at the same or even a lower price, thus stimulating consump- tion. In fact, any system of marketing that does not hope to give better service or better prices to the consumer, and, at the same time, secure for the producer a greater net return, is founded on improper principles. The producers of perishable products that are grown at a great distance from the consuming markets have been the first class to be driven to a system of cooperative marketing. This accounts for the fact that the best organized coopera- tive marketing associations in America are found among the California citrus-fruit and nut growers and the deciduous- fruit growers of the Pacific Northwest. The perishable nature of the products and the heavy transportation expense have compelled the growers to organize and stay organized, so that they might grow the best, grade and pack honestly, distribute evenly, and market economically. The work of the marketing associations includes the establishing of grades and standards; the adoption of brands and trade-marks; the securing of capital and credit; proper advertising to encourage consumption of a meritorious but little-known product; discovery of new and extension of old markets; securing information as to crop and market conditions; the equitable division of profits; adapting pro- duction to meet market requirements; the use of by-prod- ucts; securing cold and common storage facilities; the coop- erative buying and manufacturing of supplies; cooperative use of expensive farm machinery; securing of lower freight rates, more equitable refrigeration charges, and more efli- cient transportation service; the securing of more and better labor; and the general cultivation of a spirit of cooperation in all community affairs. A cooperative enterprise is not automatic. Joining such an organization is but a start. The benefits come from mak- Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 189 ing use of the system. Several farmers might unite in pur- chasing a thrashing machine, but no benefits would follow unless the members make use of the machine. If they continue to patronize other thrashing outfits with part of their grain, the success from their purchase will be incom- plete and the venture may even result in a loss. No coop- erative marketing association should be attempted unless the prospective members feel that it will do the work better or at a less cost than any existing plan. The object must be to eliminate or reduce waste. Farmers must be willing to furnish their products, invest their share of the necessary capital, and at all times give their enthusiasm and most loyal support to the cooperative enterprise undertaken. Frequently a member offers to “let” the association handle a part of his products, forgetting that the favor is to himself rather than to the organization and that the part of his crops which he holds back furnishes the most difficult competition for the cooperative effort to face. The person who lacks sufficient faith in the coopera- tive plan to “go in all over” will prove an element of weak- ness rather than of strength. Strange as it may seem, there are many who prefer to ship their products to a distant market, of which they know practically nothing, to be handled by some firm, of whom they know less, rather than to have their property marketed by a competent manager of their own selection, acting under surety bonds, and who is directly answerable to themselves. A person who prefers to patronize a market lottery, when he knows from experience that his prospect of drawing a prize is very improbable, is not ready for a united effort with his neighbors. Farming communities cooperate to secure better churches, better local government, and better schools. If they are willing to leave their religion, their politics, and the education of their children to cooperation, why should they hesitate to leave the marketing of their farm crops to a cooperative system that has passed the experimental stage? It seems to be largely due to their training along individual lines—to their spirit of ‘‘ going it alone.” 190 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. BASIC PRINCIPLES. Cooperation is the act of working with others for a com- mon benefit. This means that all must work and all should share in the benefits in proportion to the support given by each to the enterprise. In a cooperative purchasing and marketing association a certain amount of capital may be necessary and those who furnish it must be paid for its use—usually the legal rate of interest. But the profits of the business come from the patronage, either on goods bought or sold or services rendered. Profits are therefore divided on this basis rather than on the amount of capital invested. In this respect cooperative associations differ from ordinary business investments. As in the Nation each citizen is entitled to one vote, so in a cooperative association members usually stand on a voting equality. To avoid the danger of cumulative voting, proxies should not be allowed. Members should be bona fide’ producers. The development of the enterprise should be from within outward, as a natural growth, and every ap- proach of the professional promoter should be scanned with caution. Small local organizations are safest at the outset, but these should learn to federate for greater efficiency. A section which makes a specialty of producing a few standard varieties of some one crop offers the most promising field for cooperation, as it gives the association the advantage of a large amount of one commodity. One of the hardest problems in marketing is to build up a trade in small quanti- ties of practically everything that is raised on the general farm and maturing in small quantities at different times. Cooperation, therefore, lends itself more successfully to the marketing of highly specialized and localized crops. NECESSITY. Many students of rural economics assert that cooperation as applied to the distribution and marketing of farm products is not very successful unless it is founded upon dire necessity. When the records of the organizations of the country are analyzed it becomes almost necessary to accept that state- ment. So long as farmers do fairly well in their own way they are not inclined to cooperate. This attitude is based Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 191 largely on the independence they have enjoyed for so many years. They are slow to delegate to another the control of anything that concerns them personally. Furthermore, as a class they are exceedingly suspicious of efforts made by others to improve their conditions. This is not true of all communities, because in parts of the country the agricul- turists are specialists in certain lines that require great intelli- gence and judgment. Generally speaking, however, farmers will not successfully cooperate until their condition becomes unbearable. FORM OF ORGANIZATION. The form of organization should embody the basic princi- ples and the association should be incorporated under the laws of the State in which it will operate. This is to protect the members and the association by limiting their respective powers, duties, and responsibilities. The plan of association must be suited to the local conditions. Simply because a certain plan has been successfully applied in one section does not warrant the conclusion that it can be copied for some other section, for the conditions may be very different. It is far more practicable to mold the organization to fit the circumstances than to try to fit the circumstances to the organization. For instance, whether the association shall take the form of a capital stock or nonstock organization will depend greatly on the attitude of local bankers and the ability to borrow funds necessary for the proper conduct of the business. Furthermore, the products to be handled, the location of the markets, the functions to be performed, and the character of the farmers to be organized are important determining factors that must have serious consideration in the plan adopted. The ‘‘tight and fast bind all” arrangement which secures good results in a community of freeholders might prove to be ineffective when dealing with a shifting tenant element. In organizing, common sense must be mixed abund- antly with the usual enthusiasm attendant upon such an undertaking if a practical plan is to be secured. The corporation laws of the various States have had much to do with the form of organizations effected in the past. There is great diversity among these laws. Several 192 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. progressive States have adopted special laws fixing the simple standards of cooperation and fostering the development of cooperative organizations. In the majority of States the regular corporation laws must be applied, and these cor- poration laws are generally poorly adapted to this purpose. CAPABLE MANAGEMENT. There are a number of things that must be embodied in the form of organization and the method of handling the business, each of which is absolutely essential to success. First of all, capable management is required. The man in charge must be not only experienced, but he must be intelli- gent, diligent, and of good judgment, with tact and ability for keeping alive the enthusiasm, interest, and cooperation of the members. Excepting the disloyalty of members, ineffi- cient management has been responsible more than any other factor for failures of cooperative organizations. This inefficiency is due to lack of sound judgment in selecting a manager, to poor salaries paid, and to the disrepute in which the position may be held because of conditions that may have come to surround it. From a lack of knowledge as to the things required of an organization manager in the way of special qualifications for the position, selection of men to serve in this capacity for the most part has not been attended by sound judgment. Frequently failure has been the result. It is to be remem- bered that the successful distribution and marketing of perishable products in a large way requires ability of a fine order. A community adopts cooperative methods because it is beyond the capacity of the individual to perform suc- cessfully certain functions. It follows, therefore, that a man is required whose experience and capacity for management are superior to the standard of the farm community. Too frequently the producers select one of their own number for the position. Such a manager is primarily a producer and not a marketing agent. Furthermore, his activities neces- sarily are divided between private and public interest and it is to be admitted that such a division is not wholesome for either interest. In order to secure a person expert in handling the affairs of an association, there assuredly must be a willingness to PLATE XIV. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. "JONGOYd GNV LINN SNTdYNG SL] HOS AYVO OL NOILVIOOSSY ONILSMYVI, SAILVYSdOOD V Ad G3dOTSATG ‘LSIMHLYON O1SIOWd SHL NI SLNVId ONINNVO SAILVYSdOOD ATLOINLG OML 4O JNO JO M3IA AVILYVe SaENLIN Ya'1O[ 7 Sal iaans———= a ra NOLLY UIdISNOD Lela y NIVINNON Wa SaluuzessOue a ea ita ie “ ae “= "7 tt a eae — | es aa MN vas io me a Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 193 pay him for his ability. A disinclination on the part of the farmers to remunerate properly the managers of cooperative enterprises has undoubtedly caused many failures. The position of manager in a cooperative marketing organ- ization is difficult to fill properly, because it is undesirable. It requires the soul of patience and self-sacrifice to stand by the job in the face of the nagging to which the man who occupies such a position is usually subjected by the member- ship. In some quarters it really seems the farmers think to secure better results by discouraging the manager. Fre- quently they make of him the proverbial goat—the recipient of kicks and knocks which apparently are administered for the purpose of forcing him to jerk along the cooperative machine more effectively. The fact that the manager can not possibly do his best under such treatment does not, as a rule, seem to occur to the members. The manager should be employed by the board of directors and should have large powers. He should employ and dis- charge all labor; he should secure information as to crop and market conditions and furnish same to the members on request. He should encourage the production of the best varieties of products demanded by the trade. He should conduct packing schools, in order that growers may become trained in the best methods of grading, packing, and labeling their products. He should have charge of the grading, packing, and inspection of all association products, and should have control of the brands and labels and their use on the association packages, in accordance with the rules of the association. He should enter into contracts for the sale of the association goods. He should have entire charge of the marketing of all association goods, subject only to the action of the board of directors and the by-laws and rules of the association. He can not be held responsible if he is to be dictated to at will by each member or the officers are constantly to meddle with his work. This does not imply that the manager should be a dictator. He takes the sug- gestions of the officers and members and, from those of his own experience, he constructs a business plan. Whenever a manager loses the confidence of the members, it is better to replace him with a manager who possesses that confidence. 75922°—yBx 1914——13 194 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. EXPENSES AND PAYMENTS. The expenses of operating the association may be met by a percentage on returns for produce sold by the association or by a fixed price per package, the amount of such charge to be fixed by the directors. While many large organizations furnish supplies to members on credit, with ample security in most cases, all merchandise purchased by the association for the use of its members should be paid for in cash by each member in advance or on delivery, for any system of extend- ing unprotected credit requires large capital and often results in considerable loss. MEMBERSHIP AGREEMENT. A farmers’ organization must be conducted strictly upon business lines. There should be an agreement setting forth the terms of the relationship between the member and the association, for without such an agreement an organization lacks stability and rarely succeeds. This agreement is some- times provided by signatures to a by-law as a contract be- tween the members, or it is secured by a written contract between the members, or by a written contract between each member and the organization. The special advantages of such a provision will be mentioned later. A member should have the right to give away or retain for his own use such of his farm products as he may wish, but he should not make sale of crops, promised to the asso- ciation, to any outside parties, except any product not accepted by the association. GRADES AND STANDARDS. Farm products should be graded in accordance with speci- fied standards. An effort should be made to secure greater uniformity in quality and to provide for the enforcement of standards that will furnish a common language between grower and purchaser and thus tend to place farm products upon a staple basis in the markets. This applies particu- larly to perishables. It has been stated that farmers as a class are not com- petent to pack their own products. It is human nature that a man have great pride in that which he produces. He is Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 195 blind to defects in his own that he may condemn in the product of his neighbor. As a rule farmers have neither the facilities nor the time to prepare their products properly for market, and the conclusion is that cooperation is necessary to bring about uniformity in grade and pack. Such uni- formity is exceedingly necessary for successful cooperation. It is very certain, as a general rule, that the successful farmers’ associations are those that prepare the products for market or rigidly inspect the farmers’ handling to see that it is done strictly in accordance with certain standards. In cooperative marketing all goods produced for sale by the members should be delivered to the association as di- rected by the manager, in prime condition for grading, packing, and shipping. All grading and packing done on the grower’s premises must be in accordance with the rules of the association and subject to such inspection as may be established by the directors. All produce should be in- spected before shipment, and if any is not of good quality and in good condition for shipping, such produce should be sorted or otherwise prepared for shipment at the expense of the party to whom it belongs. Products packed on the grower’s premises should be inspected by an association inspector as they are being packed. The grower may be charged for his services as a head packer, but he must be held accountable alone to the association for his inspection work. The inspector’s own private mark should be placed upon each package he inspects and he should be held jointly responsible with the grower for the pack, as it may be disclosed in the final market, ordinary deterioration excepted. All brands, labels, and trade marks should be registered and become the property of the association and they should be attached only to such grades as shall be ordered by the board of directors. BONDING. All officers who may handle any of the funds or other property of the association should give a surety bond in excess of the value of the property which they are liable to handle at any one time. The cost of such bonds may be paid for by the association. 196 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. DIVIDENDS AND DAMAGES. If the organization is a stock company and operated for profit, after the season’s expenses are paid, and the proper sum set aside as a reserve for the depreciation of the associa- tion property, the balance of the season’s profits may be divided as follows: (1) The stockholders should receive a reasonable rate of interest on the par value of their stock; (2) one-half of the balance may be set aside as a surplus fund, to increase the working capital, or to finance future improve- ments, until the surplus shall equal the capital stock; or, if the members so decide, it may be made greater; (3) the balance may be divided among the patrons, both members and nonmembers, in proportion to the value of their ship- ments and purchases made through the association during that season, the dividend to nonmembers being 50 per cent of the uniform rate to members. The nonmember should have the option of receiving his half dividend in cash or hay- ing it apply on the purchase of a share of stock, to make him a full member. If the organization is nonstock, the interest on the capital stock is eliminated, but the other features of profit distribution may be applied. Some provision should be made that when any member has failed to live up to his agreements, by failing to ship exclusively through the association, or by any other breach of his contract, and provided further, that his failure has resulted in a loss or damage to the association, then the de- faulting member should forfeit to the association such a sum as would reimburse the association for the loss or damages thus sustained, in lieu of liquidated damages. Some courts have held that to require a member to pay his association a fee for the privilege of selling contracted products to an outside dealer is in restraint of trade, therefore illegal. While it may not be legal for an association to penalize its members, it may be found that an association can legally provide, as in the above plan, to collect damages from a de- faulting member, when losses or damages have actually resulted from the failure of the member to live up to his agreement. Some form of binding contract is essential to hold the members of an association together. Many an organization has failed because members were only bound Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 197 by a ‘‘gentleman’s agreement.’ Such a membership is totally inadequate for a stable and long-enduring organiza- tion. The laws of the State should be studied so that this by-law for holding the members may be drawn legally. POOLING INTERESTS. Thoroughgoing agricultural cooperation naturally sug- gests the pooling of interests. Growers who ship like grades of the same products during a given time should receive like returns as a matter of justice, although the shipment of one may have sold at a high price because of the good fortune of arriving in a good market, whereas the shipment of another may have suffered great loss from conditions over which the grower and the organization had no con- trol. Pooling of interests practically eliminates the ele- ment of chance in so far as the individual is concerned and tends to secure the satisfaction of all. However, without uniform grades it is not just to pool the shipments. To pool shipments without requiring that all grades and packs be alike would penalize the man who produces and packs the best, while, on the other hand, it would place a premium upon careless or dishonest methods. Where the growers pack their own products each member should have a number or mark, which should be stamped permanently on every package shipped by him through the association. Any loss occasioned by improper packing or grading should be charged to the member whose mark is found on the package. AUDITING. The books and business of the association should be audited frequently by auditors selected from the member- ship. An annual audit should be made by a qualified ac- countant previous to the date of the annual meeting, at which meeting the report should be presented in full. Special audits should be made upon order of the board or upon a vote of the members at any legally called meeting. While smali associations may not feel the need of such a strict system of investigating the accounts, it will pay to have this work done often and most thoroughly. If the association business is being done carelessly, frequent audits 198 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. will make it known and better methods may be adopted before any great loss occurs. The cost of an expert account- ant is more than balanced by the confidence which it gives the members and because of its effectually stopping the criticism of faultfinders. UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. It should be the purpose of a cooperative marketing organi- zation to work out all possible economies in the industry of which it is a part. This suggests the utilization of by- products. Under the very best cultural methods there is always a percentage of the crop that will not grade sufli- ciently high to justify shipment. The cottonseed indus- tries are founded upon a by-product. The preservation of dropped and culled fruits has come to be an industry within itself. The saving to the farmers from canneries, preserv- ing houses, pickle factories, cider mills, and evaporators is very great, but, considering the fact that in a recent year, according to estimates, 100,000 carloads of agricultural products went to waste in the United States, the conclu- sion is inevitable that the utilization of the by-products of the farm has been accomplished to an exceedingly limited extent. (See Plate XIV.) COOPERATION OF MEMBERS. Of all things necessary to the success of a cooperative en- terprise, the cooperation of members is the most essential. The most capable of officers, managers, and agents can not be expected to succeed in handling the affairs of organiza- _ tions unless they receive the full strength of the members’ patronage and their complete moral support. The disloyal member is the chief element of failure in cooperative circles. It would appear that owing to the very fine principle of mutual help involved, those forming a cooperative organiza- tion would be consistently loyal in their mutual relationship. But, on the other hand, unless exceptional care be exercised by the leaders, an organization from the beginning will be burdened with drones, cheats, deadbeats, and traitors. When a grower joins a cooperative organization and then refuses to patronize it, he is a drone. He can not excuse Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 199 himself even on the ground of bad management, for it is his duty to help secure proper conduct of the business. If in selling through his organization a producer endeavors to pass off shoddy, poor-grade products, which injure the reputation of the body of which he is a member, he is a cheat. The member who uses the special and private information of the association in making sales outside, without contrib- uting to its support, is a deadbeat. The man who joins a cooperative enterprise and then through subtle ways endeavors to obstruct its progress and defeat its purposes is a traitor. Those experienced with cooperative organizations have known, all these types. They are to be found in practically every community. They are the greatest enemies of agri- culture and agricultural cooperation. If allowed to domi- nate with their dishonest practices, they will sap the energy, brains, and spirit of the officers, exhaust the moral and financial strength of the undertaking, and reduce the whole to a state of miserable failure and ruin. There are certain safeguards that may be devised to pro- tect the cooperative organization from these difficulties. The purpose of such an, undertaking, of course, should be to secure harmony within the community and to work for its moral advancement as well as for its prosperity. Naturally, discrimination against any class of producers is not con- sistent with the spirit of cooperation, but if the presence of the above-mentioned types endangers prospects for success and it is impossible to arrange for their control within the organization, then the members or directors in meeting should make impossible the admission of such persons. It is possible, however, under a fostering statute, so to construct the by-laws as practically to eliminate undesirables. Membership should be made dependent upon cooperation. If a grower does not propose to cooperate, he is not likely to joi when he knows that by doing so he binds himself legally to deliver his output to the association in compliance with its rules and regulations, or to pay certain sums in lieu of liquidated damages and forfeit his interest in the enterprise for failure to do so. 200 Yearbook of the Depariment of Agriculture. OUTSIDE INTERFERENCE. In case any member is offered a price in excess of the price then obtainable by the association, the member may be required to turn this bid over to the association for filling from this member’s goods. Some such provision is neces- sary to prevent an outside disgruntled dealer from making a false bid, to test the member’s loyalty, and arouse dissen- sion, with the idea of disrupting the organization. Allowing the organization to handle this bid compels the bidder to pay up or back down; the grower gets the boosted price, if the bidder does not back down, and the organization handles the deal and so is strengthened rather than injured. One or two such experiences have usually discouraged this very common form of outside interference. MORAL ERRORS. There are many difficulties for which the cooperating members themselves are responsible. Such difficulties have been defined as ‘moral errors that endanger the permanence of cooperative societies.” The purely business phases of cooperation have been thoroughly investigated and con- sidered for more than two generations, but little attention has been paid to these moral errors which have caused such great disaster in cooperative circles. Such errors arise from the difficulty of tolerating and acting in harmony with those who may not be liked personally, of viewing the acts and rights of others in a liberal way and avoiding offensive imputations, and of aiding personally the advancement and erowing prosperity of those who appear to be personally offensive and undeserving. Those experienced in handling farmers’ cooperative organi- zations know full well the tedious and trying situations that arise from the members. There have been times when mem- bers, laboring under false impressions or failing in a liberal broad-minded attitude and appreciation for efforts expended in their behalf, have tried to tear down and destroy that which was being built solely for their benefit. Farmers are urged to view their cooperative enterprises with better spirit and to stand by their associations as the best way to solve the large and difficult problems that are common to all. Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 201 FINANCING OF COOPERATIVE MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. In starting a cooperative marketing enterprise one of the most serious problems is that of financing its operations. Organization and promotion work is costly, and comparatively large sums of money are needed to meet the expenses of marketing the members’ products and in many cases for making advances to the growers. Much of the work each year must be done before the shipping season begins, and until that time no revenue is available. Very few of these organi- zations have a paid-in capital stock and surplus, or other assets which are liquid, sufficient to meet the expenses of the business during the heavy marketing season. It is therefore necessary to secure funds from outside sources for these purposes. Practically none have the security which is generally required by bankers in making loans to business enterprises, and as a result until recently it has been practi- cally impossible for cooperative marketing associations to secure loans without certain of the directors and members assuming a personal liability. Perishable products marketed through an efficient organi- zation are now considered good security by many bankers in making loans to cooperative marketing associations. Only a few years ago it was impossible to secure loans from a bank with a perishable product as collateral. In spite of this, many of the smaller organizations have little idea as to possibilities for developing credit by conducting their busi- ness along approved and efficient lines. The amount of money required by marketing organiza- tions will vary according to the size of the business and the methods of conducting it. Some which conduct merely a consignment business and do not make advances to the growers need but a small amount with which to meet general running expenses, and this in many cases is provided by the issuance of stock, collection of membership fees, or the accumulation of a surplus, a sufficient part of which is in such shape as to be quickly convertible into cash. Others have developed a large f. 0. b. business which allows the drawing of drafts against shipments, these drafts being dis- counted and placed to the association’s credit at the bank. 202 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. This gives funds for immediate use and decreases the amount of outside help needed in financing. Associations doing a marketing business in which returns from shipments may not be received for several weeks after the products have been delivered by the grower to the association will generally make liberal adyances to meet harvesting and packing ex- penses. In event pools are made, advances are absolutely necessary, as the pool may not be entirely closed until months after the first receipts come in. However, after the first advances, returns from shipments will take care of the amounts advanced to growers. In some organizations the product is purchased outright and paid for at the time of delivery. Under these plans of operation large sums of money, ranging from $1,000 to $500,000 per season, are required. These funds are secured usually from one or more of three sources, namely, banks, commission houses, and individual members of the associations. BANK LOANS. In practically all cases where bank loans are secured they are obtained from or through the local banks. Owing to the limit of a certain percentage of capital and surplus which banks can loan to one individual, it often happens that all the money required by the association can not be secured from the local bank. This is especially true of the organiza- tions located in small towns. In such cases it has been found to be of great, advantage to use the local bank as a medium through which loans are obtained, either from surrounding country banks or from banks in the financial centers. A great many of the most successful associations have some member upon the board of directors who is connected with the local bank with which the association’s banking business is done. Sometimes he is a member of the loan committee of the local bank and at the same time treasurer of the association. This has a great many advantages in that the bank has a representative upon the board who will naturally look after its interests as well as those of the association. Thus, many organizations have been fostered by local banks, where it would have been much more difficult Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 203 to secure the bank’s aid if its officers had no voice in the affairs of the association. Another advantage to the associa- tion of such an arrangement is in having as its financial officer a man with banking experience, thus securing the services of a person much better qualified to administer the banking affairs of the business than the average director who has had no such experience. COMMISSION-HOUSE LOANS. The financing of cooperative marketing organizations by commission houses is most common among the farmers’ elevators in the Northwest. By agreeing to consign a certain portion of its business, ranging from three-fourths to all of it, to the commission house, credit will be extended to the elevator. The general plan is that the elevator draws upon the commission firm from time to time as funds are needed, all shipments of grain to be made to the firm and credited upon receipt to this open account. It is estimated that over 51 per cent of the farmers’ elevators in the Northwestern States are financed wholly or in part in this way. In other grain sections practically none of the elevators are carried by the commission houses, they being financed by the local banks or having sufficient working capital of their own to carry on the business. As a rule an elevator which is financed by a commission firm is handicapped in that it is impossible to take advantage of other markets which may from time to time offer better prices than can be obtained in the one in which the commis- sion firm, through which it must sell, is located. Elevators not dependent in any way upon commission houses can ship first to one and then another, and in this way promote competition among the commission men in securing the best prices possible. The commission houses have served a useful purpose in the financing of the farmers’ elevators, in that sometimes they gave financial aid when it was impossible to secure it elsewhere. Elevators are turning more and more each year to local sources for their funds, which no doubt is a better arrangement than being dependent upon commission firms. A relatively small number of the produce and fruit organizations are financed by commission men. 204 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. MEMBERS’ LOANS TO ASSOCIATIONS. Several associations meet the expenses incident to market- ing by borrowing money from their own membership. Under this plan demand notes are issued bearing a rate of interest higher than that paid by the local savings bank. Sums ranging from $10 to as high as $4,000 have been se- cured from individual members in this way. This also en- courages the habit of saving and fosters the feeling of individual interest in the organization among the members. Of a somewhat similar nature is the method used by several fruit associations whereby certain percentages of the returns from the members’ products are held back from distribution to meet general expenses until the next season’s business starts, at which time the entire amount due for the previous season is distributed. This simply means a holding back from the growers sums sufficient to carry the business during the season of the year when no products are being marketed. This plan has worked with success in the marketing of citrus fruits, as the season for shipping is a long one, and there are few months when returns do not come in fast enough to take care of all advances and expenses. SECURITY FOR BANK LOANS. Cooperative marketing organizations which require a plant and equipment, such as farmers’ elevators, creameries, cheese factories, canneries, cotton gins, packing houses, warehouses, etc., experience considerable difficulty in raising the funds required to fully equip themselves for. operation. Various methods have been used, the most common of which has been the issuance of stock and the collection of membership fees. In addition to the funds thus required it is very often necessary to borrow from the local banks upon notes based upon the personal credit of members. After a few years these notes are taken up, and the organiza- tions which have plants and equipment free from incum- brances have a basis for securing credit from bankers. After one or several years of successful operation the asso- ciation is in a position to command credit on the basis of the past success. The first years are the hardest, as one of Cooperative Marketing and Financing. 205 the most difficult things in connection with the launching of a strictly cooperative organization is in getting enough money to conduct the business properly from the start. Plans for raising funds to build the necessary plants and pur- chase equipment must take local conditions into account. In the case of properly organized, well-supported, and efficiently managed organizations with a record for past success, bankers require merely the signature of the financial officers on the paper of the association given to the bank for short-time loans, which are used for marketing purposes. Organizations that make advances to the growers usually enter into contracts with the banker in which it is agreed to deliver, as payment upon loans made, certain. percentages of the returns as they are received from the sale of the members’ products. The organizations which have high credit ratings are pro- tected by contracts in which the grower agrees to deliver all of a given product to be marketed through the associa- tion. These contracts are considered by the banker in making loans, and it is certain that it would be most dif- ficult to obtain money from a bank to meet the operating expenses where there was the probability of the members not living up to their contracts by marketing outside. There is no doubt that loyal and regular support of the members plays an important part in building up the credit of the association. Most of the money required from outside sources is secured late in the growing season, when the crop is well matured. At this time a loan basis can be figured with reasonable certainty that the actual amount marketed will approximate the estimate of shipments. A central selling association in the Pacific Northwest, with no capital stock and no surplus, has secured as high as $500,000 from the northwestern banks for one season’s operations. This money was used in meeting the general marketing ex- penses of the central and for the operating expenses of the affilated subcentrals and the growers’ associations. A large part of the money secured for the latter was used for ad- _ vances to individual growers. The only security given by the central for these loans was a note signed by the treasurer, 206 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. the understanding with the banks being that as soon as returns were received from the products shipped appropriate amounts therefrom would be deposited with the bank to reduce the loans. western walnut-zrowers’ association. During 1912 over 300,000 pounds of walnuts were warehoused and carried over by the association for one year. Upon the warehouse re- ceipts and a note of the association as collateral thirteen-fif- teenths of the market value of the nuts was advanced by bankers. The note was required as additional security so that in case the price dropped below thirteen-fifteenths of the Cooperatwe Marketing and Financing. 207 market value the bankers would be protected. In some cases bankers have made short loans upon warehouse receipts for apples, dairy products, and other highly perishable com- modities placed in cold storage. Examples of extensive borrowing on warehouse biti are common in the cotton States this year, owing to the condition of the market on account of the European war. Many banks are being taxed to their capacity in meeting the demands for loans on warehoused cotton. The great difficulty encountered by the individual small producer, compared with that of large planters and cotton merchants in securing loans upon warehoused cotton, indi- cates the dire need of closer organization among cotton producers. The farmer with a few bales has a compara- tively hard time in securing loans on his cotton. Pooled or large lots of cotton will command support in the way of loans from bankers in preference to hundreds of smaller loans. INTEREST. The rates of interest paid naturally vary from one section of the country to another. Several of the larger organiza- tions borrowing large sums have been able to secure loans at a much lower rate than that generally charged in the community. METHODS OF CREATING A SURPLUS FUND. Many organizations have provided a means of building up a surplus fund with which to meet the expenses of the business and serve as a general working fund. The most common method and the one which is extensively used by elevators, creameries, and cheese factories, is to set aside a percentage of each year’s profits into a fund which shall be used as working capital. In this way, as the business develops and profits allow, in the course of a few years a working fund of considerable size can be obtained. If associations organized as stock companies would discon- tinue paying out the entire profits of each year’s business and set aside at least a part of the earnings into a surplus fund, it would only be a matter of a few years in many cases until a sufficient amount could be secured to carry the business without outside help. 208 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Another method of obtaining a surplus which is used among fruit and produce exchanges is that of an assessment per package on all deliveries by the members to the associa- tion. Under this plan amounts levied against each member are returnable in case of withdrawal from the association. Several associations have a 1-cent per package levy for this purpose. The amount of the levy per package will vary with the volume of business transacted and the sum desired for a surplus. Another plan which has proved successful is to make a reduction of a certain sum for each package from the returns of all products shinped through the association. These deductions are considered as a loan to the association and are covered by notes due two, three, or four years after date of issue, with interest coupons attached. By this method the surplus can be held at the desired figure, except as it fluctuates with the increase and decrease in the volume of business. This provides a sufficient working capital furnished by and belonging to the growers in exact propor- tion in which they from year to year make use of the privi- leges of the association. In case they for any reason sever their connection the amounts contributed by them are returned as the notes mature. A surplus serves as a basis of credit and gives a cash account with which to pay the general running expenses before returns are received from shipments. One thing must be considered in determining the advisabil- ity of the creation of a working fund or surplus. In some cases it is not necessary to have a surplus. This is true. if the organization can secure outside help to carry on the business. A great many of the most successful marketing agencies have no surplus and no capital stock, but, on the other hand, there are cases in which a surplus is absolutely necessary, as loans from outside sources are not obtainable except by personal collateral of the members and directors. That the bank depends upon the reliability and responsi- bility of the persons who conduct the business is clearly shown by a condition which is found in a comparatively large produce exchange. The banker that loans something over $65,000 each year to this organization will not enter into eny arrangement for credit until after the annual Cooperatwe Marketing and Financing. 209 election of officers has been held. The banker in this case has confidence in the present personnel of the management and is reasonably sure from the record of the past that the business will be conducted in an efficient and conservative way. Ifa new management were secured, the personnel of which was unknown to the bankers, it would be difficult to secure funds until a demonstration had been made of the ability of the management to conduct the business properly. There is no one factor of greater importance to an asso- ciation in securing credit than that of capable management. Credit based upon character, ability, and a record of past successes is an element which a capable management gives an association. One of the biggest bankers in this country made a statement as to credit for cooperative marketing agencies that ‘‘The management of an organization has more to do with the securing of money from outside sources than any other one feature. Where you have the right kind of management you generally have a strong organization.” The fundamental requirements of bankers in making loans to an association with a perishable product as collateral may be summarized as follows: An equitable plan of pooling like varieties and grades; good inspection; competent assembling and selling facilities, allowing efficient distribution which en- ables the sellmg in markets where the demand is greatest; contracts with growers which will be lived up to; the keeping of good accounting records; frequent audits; a management which is capable of holding the absolute confidence of mem- bers and others; also one in which the integrity, honesty, and business ability are unquestionable. PARTICIPATION OF BUSINESS MEN. A new phase in the development and operation of cooper- ative organizations has been held for last consideration. This is found in a new kind of relationship between business men and farmers. In many districts thoughtful men begin to realize their responsibility to the community in the way of aiding farmers with the solution of their problems. Espe- cially in the organization of cooperative institutions for the distribution and marketing of farm products, the business men of the country have an opportunity to perform a dis- 75922°—yBkK 1914——_14 210 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. tinct service for the good of agriculture. Certain commu- nities in the far West present striking examples of what can be accomplished in this way. The cooperation of the business men with the farmers in this respect seems to have its inception in the realization that agriculture is the primary industry of the Nation and that anything affecting its economic status seriously involves the entire community; eonsequently, the participation of the © business men in solving the farmers’ problems is but natural and proper. From lack of training and experience in the trade of barter and sale, farmers are not always able to cope with the serious problems that confront them in securing and maintaining effective organization. However, the business men of the community may be well equipped to assist by supplying the lacking elements. Unfortunately the past has shown too often a lack of sympathetic relationship be- tween farming and ‘‘big business.’ This is probably due to the isolation of producers, as well as to their belief that they have been exploited from time to time. They are generally suspicious of outside help, and because of this the business men of the community necessarily must be discreet in the matter of just how far they can go in this respect. CONCLUSION. Cooperation as an economic principle is receiving the serious consideration of practically all industrial classes. Its application to special lines of agricultural distribution and marketing is entirely feasible and offers a solution of problems and difficulties that are practically hopeless in so far as the individual is concerned. In the United States Department of Agriculture cooperative organization is con- sidered to be a primary and fundamental project, for it is be- lieved that cooperation in agriculture is a corrective measure that will place the industry upon a solid basis and do much to insure the future happiness and prosperity of the Nation. STATE MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC ROADS: ITS DEVELOPMENT AND TREND. By J. E. PENNYBACKER, Chief of Road Economics, O ffice of Public Roads. INTRODUCTORY. DEQUATE transportation facilities are a vital factor in the prosperity and civilization of any country. They are essential to the development of its agriculture and manufactures, to the working of its forests and mines, and to the spread of education and enlightenment among its citizens. This necessity has been recognized by the fore- most nations of every age and steps taken to meet it by improving the methods of transportation then current. In the United States a movement for internal improve- ments was projected almost contemporaneously with the establishment of the Federal Government. This first took the form of highway improvement through the construction of toll roads by private corporations and the building of national highways by appropriations from the National Government. These appropriations for National highways were continued by Congress for a period of nearly half a century, and a total of about $14,000,000 was thus appro- priated. About 1832, however, the steam locomotive was first used in this country, and an era of railroad development followed. It was believed by many that the railroads would obviate the necessity for highway improvement, and, consequently, efforts at improving the public highways of the country were largely abandoned. During this period of activity in railroad construction many thousands of miles of railroads were built. The success attending this movement is evidenced by the fact that to-day we have practically 244,000 miles of railroad, costing about $16,000,000,000, including equipment. This mileage car- ries annually more than 1,000,000,000 passengers and over 2,000,000,000 tons of freight. Railroad freight rates have fallen from 74 cents per ton-mile in about 1837 to 74 211 212 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. mills per ton-mile at the present time, or about one-tenth the original rate, and yet, even at this low rate, the annual gross receipts of the railroads amount to about $3,000,000,000. The cost of ocean transportation has been reduced even more phenomenally than railroad transpor- tation. It costs under normal conditions only 44 cents per bushel to carry wheat from New York to Liverpool, a dis- tance of 3,000 miles, which would be at the rate of one-half mill per ton-mile. These rates have remained practically unchanged for a number of years, indicating that we can not hope for much further reduction in cost by these methods of transportation. PRESENT COST OF PUBLIC ROAD TRANSPORTATION. It should not be assumed, however, that all of our trans- portation problems have been solved, nor that there can be no further saving in our cost of hauling. The public roads throughout the country, which constitute the primary means of transportation for all agricultural products, for many millions of tons of forest, mine, and manufactured products, and which for a large percentage of farmers are the only avenues of transportation leading from the point of production to the point of consumption or rail shipment, have been improved to only a slight extent. By reason of this fact, the prevailing cost of hauling over these roads is about 23 cents per ton per mile. More than 350,000,000 tons are hauled over these roads each year, and the average haul is about 8 miles, from which it can readily be seen that our annual bill for hauling over the public roads is nearly $650,000,000. The cost per ton-mile for hauling on hard- surfaced roads should not exceed 13 cents. It is therefore evident that if our roads were adequately improved a large annual saving in the cost of hauling would result. REASONS FOR STATE AID TO PUBLIC ROADS. Under the system of local management which succeeded the toll systems and the road-building activities of the Federal Government, tax burdens for road purposes rested almost entirely upon farm property. Since the cities gener- ally escaped these responsibilities and burdens, this condi- tion was inequitable, produced inadequate revenue, and State Management of Public Roads. 213 resulted in a very widespread stagnation in the building of improved roads. A further inequity resulted from the fact that traffic in its development took no account of county and township boundaries, so that frequently the traffic from one county destroyed the roads of another county, which in turn found itself unable to obtain redress. Modern traffic gave rise to new and difficult problems of construction, which the limited skill of local officials was unable to solve. Road taxes were, to a great extent, worked out by un- trained, undisciplined road hands; most of the road work consisted in patching from year to year, and little tangible progress could be shown for the money and labor expended. These conditions rendered State action ultimately imperative, and New Jersey in 1891 was the first State to take definite action through legislative enactment. The law, which be- came operative in 1892, provided a State appropriation of $75,000 to aid road building in the counties, and placed the administration of the law in the State board of agriculture. In 1894 the administration of the law was placed in the hands of a State commissioner of public roads. Other States rapidly followed the precedent set by New Jersey, and this progress was greatly accelerated by the advent of the auto- mobile. This new traflic soon became a source of revenue for road purposes through the payment of registration fees. It subjected stone-surfaced roads to exceptionally de- structive wear, and thus emphasized the need for skilled management of construction and maintenance; caused a persistent demand and agitation by automobile owners for an efficient system of highways; and for these several reasons materially seconded the primary causes already cited as responsible for State action. The 1,800,000 auto- mobiles now registered in the United States are paying more than $12,000,000 annually in registration fees. PROGRESS OF STATE ROAD MANAGEMENT. Of the progress of State road management it may be said that 42 States have thus far established highway departments for educational or administrative work, and of these 30 have made actual appropriations in aid of road construction or maintenance. In all, $208,000,000 had been appropriated from State funds between 1891 and 214 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. January 1, 1915, for construction, maintenance, admin- istration, and educational road work, and a total of about 31,000 miles of improved roads is the evidence to show that. this expenditure was not in vain. These roads were built for the most part as a joint State and local undertaking, so that a large local outlay not included in the State total was involved. It is most gratifying, however, that within a period of 22 years a policy, begun on a small scale and cautiously extended, has produced a mileage of improved roads greater in extent than the entire ‘‘Routes Nationale” of France, and that in 1913 alone a total of 5,060 miles of State-aided roads were completed. HISTORY OF THE STATE-AID POLICY. The rapid and widespread acceptance of the policy of State participation in road improvement may be under- stood by a hasty chronological narrative. Following the action of New Jersey in 1891, similar legislation was enacted by Massachusetts and Vermont in 1892, Connecticut and California in 1895, Maryland and New York in 1898, Maine in 1901, Rhode Island in 1902, New Hampshire and Penn- sylvania in 1903, Ohio in 1904, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, and Washington in 1905, Virginia in 1906, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and West Virginia in 1909, Louisiana in 1910, Alabama and Wisconsin in 1911, and Oregon in 1913. North Carolina in 1901 authorized the State geo- logical survey to conduct educational and research work as a State highway department, and has continued on this basis up to the present time, except for the authorizing of a por- tion of its State convict force to be used on roads under the direction of the State geological survey. Delaware in 1903 provided for State aid, but only one county out of the three utilized the aid granted. Iowa established a highway de- partment in the State agricultural and mechanical college at Ames in 1904 for educational and research work, and in 1913 the law was very much broadened by the creation of a State highway commission having control over all road work in the State. Illinois established a highway department in 1905, which was restricted to educational and investigative work and the distribution of crushed stone prepared by State con- State Management of Public Roads. 215 victs. In 1913 the Illinois law was greatly broadened and actual State aid in the form of a State road levy was granted. Missouri established in 1907 a highway department for edu- cational and investigative work, but the State has distrib- uted considerable sums of money to the various counties for road purposes, from a war debt paid to the State, auto- mobile license taxes, and corporation taxes. Georgia in 1908 provided for the granting of State convict labor to road improvement, with the actual work under local super- vision. North Dakota established an educational highway department in 1909, but has made no appropriation for actual aid. Kansas and Oklahoma established State high- way departments for educational purposes in 1911, and Oklahoma gave authority for the use of State convicts on public roads. In the same year Nebraska provided aid for bridges and later required that bridges costing over $500 shall be designed and built from plans and specifications prepared by the State engineer. Legislation was also enacted provid- ing for an advisory State highway commission. Nevada and Wyoming in 1911 made appropriations for the use of con- victs in road construction under the direction of the respect- ive State engineers. Kentucky established a highway de- partment for educational work in 1912, and the law was amended in 1913 to provide State aid by a one-half mill tax levy. Arkansas established a highway department for educational work in 1913. At the present time only the States of Florida, Indiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, Ten- nessee, and Texas have no provision for any sort of State participation in road work. CLASSES OF STATE-AID SYSTEMS. The systems of road management now prevailing in the various States may be grouped in six general classes. The first class comprises those States in which the construction of all roads is more or less under State control. In the sec- ond class are comprised those States in which State control of road construction is limited to those roads on which State funds are expended. In the third class are included the States which grant aid in the form of State funds, but allow the expenditure to be made under local control. In the 216 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. fourth class are those States which have established high- way departments for educational and advisory work. The fifth class is composed of the States which devote the labor of State convicts to road improvement, and the sixth class comprises those States in which the control of all road con- struction is entirely local. The accompanying chart (fig. 11) graphically illustrates this classification of the States. In the matter of road maintenance, the States may be con- veniently classified in four groups. In the first group are comprised those in which the control of the maintenance of all roads rests with the State. In the second class are those in which the State control of road maintenance is restricted to the roads on which State funds are expended for construc- tion. In the third class the State requires that roads on which State funds have been expended shall be maintained, but leaves the actual maintenance to be performed under local control and with local funds. In the fourth class are included the States which make no specific provision for the maintenance of roads on which State funds have been expended. The remainder of the States are those in which maintenance is an entirely local matter and under local con- trol. These classes are illustrated by a graphic chart (fig. 12). STATES LEADING IN STATE-AID WORK. Of the States which, for magnitude of expenditures, mile- age of roads constructed, and comprehensiveness of system, stand out most prominently, several have been selected for individual mention, so that the reader may obtain a more intimate knowledge of the operation of the policy of State management. Massachusetts, which established its highway department in 1892, had expended out of State appropriations to January 1, 1914, about $14,000,000, had completed more than 1,000 miles of State highway, and had aided in the improvement of more than 350 miles of small-town highways. The State obtains its funds for road work through the issuance of State bonds and the levying of automobile license taxes. In constructing the system of State highways the entire cost is borne in the first instance by the State, but the counties are required to repay to the State 25 per cent of the cost. The Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XV. Fila. 3.—NEwW JERSEY STATE ROAD, BITUMINOUS MACADAM. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XVI. he Fia. 2,—MARYLAND STATE HIGHWAY, CONCRETE. State Management of Public Roads. 217 motor-vehicle fees are applied entirely to the maintenance of State highways and improvement of small town roads. Connecticut, which established its highway department in 1895, had expended to January 1, 1914, about $11,500,000, Fia. 11.—Classification of State systems of road management. Construction. ffl] {] < re if idl 2 My Mf a ee a portion of which was derived from the sale of State bonds. The aid granted by the State varies according to the taxable valuation of the towns, but has been usually from three- 218 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. fourths to seven-eighths of the cost of the roads on which the State has granted aid. Like Massachusetts, the Con- necticut system provides for the application of automobile revenues to road maintenance. °, Fig. 12.—Classification of State systems of road management. Maintenance. LEGEND TROL OF THE MAINTENANCE OF ALL A STAT ON ONLY ROA) MAI f 4 i) « bE z i) ze up oq ur o Sa by da S Iu u 09 e5 9 oe 5, Seren Py u oo Pe y fe z ro) =p of oq Oc yr zu a2 Qu ppemmels Qi > hy oo 4 do oe ou z «ff 55) 85 o Oo zu oe of of ot F ok o z gu < 62 Fu a i CWrsiiassn- Jc 2: 6 6 Fleece, ewes, short, Locks, ewe hoggets....-- 2 6 heavy, yellow-.....-.-- 6 17s UGGCKS \THINS 3-22-55. ~ 1 5 Fleece, ewe hoggets.... 4 17 AMlamps 2a ve: owes 2 1 19 WMIsecenraAmS. 2... 2250. -< 2 165° || PAAMamss.. ase -eS-- 5 11.5 Broken fleece, ewes....- 21 18.5 | AAA amMDS- bee ssn = 6 7 In the above clip there was an extra number of bales of broken fleece because of an unusual amount of burs in the ewe paddocks that season. This lot, consisting largely of necks, shrinks lightly and contains some good wool, as the price shows. It requires special handling, and the buyer who secured the bodies of the fleeces would probably have been unable to bid on them at all had the burry parts not been separated. ACTUAL RESULT OF LACK OF SYSTEM IN PREPARATION OF AMERICAN-GROWN WOOLS. The most that any American wool grower attempts in the preparation of his clip for market is the separate sacking of black fleeces and of fleeces from ewes, wethers, lambs, and rams. A few separate some of the larger tag locks. A can- vass made by the Animal Husbandry Division elicited 383 replies summarized in the table below. Since persons in a 330 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. position to give an affirmative answer to the questions were most likely to reply, the percentages shown are undoubtedly above what would be found correct for the area canvassed as a whole. Western methods in putting up wool for market. Number Nisheep o Number of ea Seed ae Number Number State. Sys persons |ewe,lamb,| sacked who used who 1913 by reporting. | and buck blacks Bape sacked tags persons Soul separately. twine. separately. Re paeae separately. VATIZ0NA -.1 15"... 134, 422 18 9 6 2 9 California. .-....- 125, 302 26 10 5 8 4 Colorado. ......-- 109, 695 13 6 8 8 3 Idaho -2ces55: 22-2 336, 249 62 32 48 49 45 Montana......... 518,049 82 46 28 44 51 New Mexico. ...- 92,011 13 6 10 3 5 Orepon:. 2-2a5.-<2 195, 246 37 25 23 34 26 LU ri es eee Se 309, 583 7 17 58 61 24 Washington...... 77,419 13 ibs ase so Sea 11 3 Wyoming........ 371,029 48 32 40 39 33 Total.....-] 2,269,005 383 190 226 259 203 Per cent of COALS ison ao a seae canes seer eoos 49.3 59 67.6 53 An American manufacturer has stated that because of their poor preparation American wools bring less per pound than imported wools of similar character. He substantiates this statement by showing the results of sorting and scouring two lots of wool, one grown in Idaho, the other imported. What remained of the Idaho wool after sorting and scouring was considered fully equal to the clean imported wool and was mixed with the imported lot for manufacturing. Idaho Australian wool. wool. Idaho Soda Springs, cost in grease............--.. eee Lah S: cents. . 184 28 GOSS I WElPDE Sco. cos accents lone ae cocee erase animate sc per cent... 1.96 87 Strings; ‘clips; low, 6te:s- 225. $242 J a2 Feces. Stee sotnsee tas dois - 8.188) (22.2 86S-.<2 Shor te (2/4 tee Ty L eS = | PECE | -—————4 { BINS | gee a Fic. 19.—Plan of wool room and section of shearing board of an Australian shearing shed. The sweating pens, filling race, and catching pens are built sufficiently high from the ground to permit shorn sheep discharged through the chutes to pass underneath to the counting pens, which are outside the building. SHEEP FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND. So far as attention to breeding, flock management, and preparation of wool are concerned, there are no important distinctions between the flockmasters in Australia and those in New Zealand. An American studying New Zealand Suggestions from Australasia to Sheep Raisers. 335 sheep husbandry is chiefly impressed with the fact that our Middle and Eastern States farmers have not begun to realize the possibilities and advantages of keeping sheep on high- priced land. The total area of occupied land in New Zealand is under 45,000,000 acres. Of this, 5,000,000 acres have been plowed and sown to artificial grasses for grazing, while over 9,000,000 acres have been surface sown to artificial grasses without plowing. The first-mentioned lands support from 1 to 8 sheep per acre for the year, while the latter carry from one- half to 2 sheep per acre. Grass is the principal crop. With a growing season of 10 months and a well-distributed rainfall it is found profitable to keep in grass, for stock alone, lands valued as high as $150 per acre. Nearly one-half the occu- pied land is in holdings of over 5,000 acres, mainly used for sheep, there being 90 holdings of over 50,000 acres each against 18,694 holdings of from 50 to 200 acres. The number of sheep kept has advanced from about 19,000,000 in 1896 to 24,595,405 in April, 1914. The enu- meration for April corresponds to November in the United States, coming after a large proportion of lambs have been marketed and corresponding quite closely to the numbers of the shearing season to follow. Wethers, rams, and ewes under breeding age comprise about one-half of the sheep. The number of sheep slaughtered for food purposes for 12 months ending March 31, 1914, was 4,019,831 and of lambs 4,338,181. New Zealand’s flocks number 21,527, and the average size of flock has increased from 1,081 in 1896 to 1,124 in 1913. About one-half the sheep are in flocks numbering less than 2,500 head, and seven-eighths of them are owned in flocks numbering over 500 head each. A contrast of these figures with others for the leading farm-sheep State and the leading range-sheep State in this country is of interest: Number of | Number of Number of = : ; Total land Engen Tor! holdings | holdings Averee State. in : e of area. over 100 having State.l sores? sheep. flock. NewoZexiand:- 2-225 ot-c5 see 66, 292, 232 | 24, 595, 405 35, 702 21, 527 1,124 OWig et oe ace, nde ewes 26,073,600 | 3,263,000 94, 754 71, 556 45 Way OUTTA ELD Fe 2 62, 459,160 | 4,472,000 9, 584 1,643 2,938 a a 8 re a el ee, vill ee a a 1 January 1, 1914. 2 Tn 1910. 336 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. It is partly because of necessity that New Zealand lands are so largely devoted to sheep raising. A good quality of mutton and of wool can be produced without the feeding of grain, the production of which is not favored either by the soil or by labor conditions. On the other hand, the place occu- pied by sheep is evidence of the profits obtainable when valu- able lands are devoted to well-managed flocks of sufficient size to insure for them the lively interest and careful tending essential to their well-being and which in our farming States is the exception rather than the rule. It is true that New Zealand flockmasters have no preda- tory wild animals to contend with. The problem of the domestic dog is not absent, but is held in check because of the general and predominating interest giving support to well-enforced laws. While it is true that the values of other commodities do not call for other uses of land, as in our farming States, this fact is offset by the lower prices paid for mutton and lamb in New Zealand. The advantage enjoyed there in the price of wool is quite largely due to the exercise of superior skill in getting the clips upon the market. Our farming States have experienced a decline in sheep raising on account of unequal competition from. cheap western lands. The force of that competition no longer exists, and the agriculture of the Middle and Eastern States will not again exhibit its most profitable status until flocks of sheep are larger and much more numerous than at present. There are difficulties in the way, but the main one is the lack of appreciation and examples of results obtainable from carefully tended flocks. The prosperity of New Zealand farmers and the improvement in their farms abundantly attest the practicability of devoting valuable lands to intensive sheep husbandry. PROBABLE EXTENT OF FUTURE IMPORTATIONS OF MUTTON AND WOOL FROM AUSTRALIA. In the minds of many American farmers there exists an uncertainty regarding the influence upon the future course of prices of importations of mutton and wool. Australia and New Zealand are regarded as likely to increase greatly their production to supply our markets and thus to depress the price of the home-grown products. Suggestions from Australasia to Sheep Raisers. 337 Those countries can and doubtless will increase their pro- duction to a considerable extent. Such an increase can not be a sudden one, and it is doubtful if an additional output can be produced at a lower cost than is possible by the use of the best methods in the United States. None of the land now unoccupied in New Zealand is capable of producing really high-class mutton or wool. An increase in the number of sheep in that country is to be looked for chiefly through more seeding of natural pastures and the cultivation of forage crops on present natural or artificial grass areas. With the cost of labor ruling in that country and the com- paratively slow rate of increase in population, the advance toward any system requiring an increase of labor is likely to be gradual. In Australia there is a great deal of territory available for new flocks. Much of it issubject to rather frequent droughts, while labor conditions and restricted construction of railroads render improbable any rapid development. Much of this newer country requires around 3 acres to support a sheep. Those competent to judge state that the present rate of increase in the number of sheep in the interior no more than balances the loss in moister coastal areas that have sup- ported 3 sheep per acre and which are now being used more largely for dairying. Even with favorable seasons and aggressive development in Australia it is improbable that the proportion of the increase reaching the United States would seriously affect our market values. The United States is now one of the small importers of Australasian meats. It may be desirable for shipping companies to divert larger supplies to our ports to furnish eastbound cargo for vessels carrying back American manufactures. With an even greater meat shortage in the other countries receiving Australasian meats than exists here, prices are not likely to divert large amounts from Kuropean destinations into our markets. The United States has for some time been a buyer of the better Australian wools. With no barrier against importing any or all classes of wools an increase of such imports might be expected. To secure such, however, American buyers must compete in Australia and New Zealand with buyers from several other nations, and supplies indicated from wool- 75922°—yBx 191422 338 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. exporting countries in the next few years rather strengthen the position of the producer. The chief concern of the American farmer and ranchman from now on should be to work steadily along definitely worked out plans of breeding and flock management, and to adopt modern and economical methods of preparing his wool for market. SELECTION OF HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT. By Heien W. Atwater, Assistant in Nutrition, Office of Experiment Stations. HEN one considers the variety of things which must be put into a house to furnish it even simply, the question of household equipment appears a complicated one. The variety 1s necessary because a house serves many different purposes. Considered merely in its material aspect, it is the place where the family eat and sleep and take their ease, and it is also a workshop in which a great many different things are made, and each of these purposes must be recognized in furnishing it. Considered as a workshop, it is sometimes a bakery, some- times a clothing factory, sometimes a cleaning establishment, and so on. The list of tasks which are performed in the household is by no means as long as it was in the days when cloth was spun and candles made at home, and almost every decade sees more work removed from the home to the com- mercial factory. Nevertheless, a great many tasks still remain and are likely to remain in the home, for which pro- vision must be made in furnishing it. In equipping her home the housekeeper should be guided by the same principles that would be followed in the selection of equipment for any other workshop, and should choose furnishings and tools which will make it possible for her to carry on her various household tasks with the least waste of time, work, and materials. In other words, a house should be equipped for efficiency in carrying on housework just as carefully as a modern shoe factory is equipped for making shoes. In such a factory lighting, heating, ventilation, sanitation, etc., are as carefully considered as the machinery, and these matters of hygiene are even more important in the home, which is not merely a workshop, but also a place in which to rest and recuperate. Since a home is even more than that, and serves also as the material setting for the life of the family, other pomts must be considered which have 339 340 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. little or nothing to do with efficiency in a factory. . It is certainly as important in a home to provide for comfort and wholesome enjoyment as for cooking and cleaning, eating and sleeping. PLANNING BEFORE BUYING. Sometimes when a woman takes up the problem of house furnishing she has to buy everything new from the beginning, and sometimes she already has a more or less complete equip- ment which she hopes to improve gradually, that is (to con- tinue the comparison with the factory), she has to do with a ‘“ooing concern.”’ In either case she must study the situation carefully and make sure of what she most wants before she begins to buy. It is impossible for her to select to the best advantage unless she has all the principal needs in mind to begin with and goes at the task systematically. Haphazard buying is always extravagant and nowhere more so than in connection with house furnishings. There is such a bewilder- ing variety of things to be used in a house that, unless the housekeeper keeps a clear idea of what she wishes most and plans her buying carefully, she will find herself getting things which, though useful, are not the most useful, or are not the best adapted to her particular needs. Two dining tables may be equally good of their kind, but one may be much better adapted to a particular house and family than the other. If it is a case of furnishing a house entirely with new things, it is wise to go slowly and learn from experience what will best suit the special conditions, even if this prevents putting the whole house completely in order at once... For example, it might be well to see how one’s belongings fit into the built-in cupboards before deciding whether to buy a sideboard or a china closet. If only a limited amount of money can be spent at one time, it would probably be better to leave an extra bedroom unfurnished or do without an extra rug than to ‘‘skimp’”’ on the quality of the necessary things. When it is merely a question of renewing or increasing old equipment, the thoughtful housekeeper considers the value of each article in connection with what she has or expects to have as well as by itself. If she has no convenient cup- board for her ironing supplies, an ironing table of the settle type with a box under the seat may be more serviceable than the ordinary kind; and if she expects to get a new Selection of Household Equipment. 341 set of table dishes soon and can then use some of the old ones in the kitchen, it is poor policy to stock up unneces- sarily with kitchen ware. In order to buy in accordance with a definite plan she must often steel herself against the allurements of bargain counters or of beguiling salesmen, not because the wares they offer are not intrinsically good or cheap, but because in spite of being good or cheap they may not be what she really needs most. It is poor economy for her to buy sheets which will not be used for several years instead of napkins which are needed at once, simply because the sheets happen to be a few cents cheaper than usual, or to be persuaded to take an omelet pan when what she had meant to get next was a new coffee pot. CHOOSING FOR NECESSITY, CONVENIENCE, AND PLEASURE. In equipping any workshop, whether it be a factory, a dairy, or a house, the two chief elements which govern choice are necessity and convenience. Very often one article answers both these demands, and if possible those should be chosen which not only fill a need but fill it in a way which is economical of labor and material. For example, a kitchen stove is usually considered a necessity, not a convenience, but in selecting it a model which is convenient to work at and to care for is what a good housekeeper looks for. In choosing labor-saving devices it is a good rule to give the preference to those which save heavy work and which lighten tasks most frequently performed. A machine for washing clothes saves more bodily energy than a patent roasting pan, and a meat chopper is used more often than a device for stoning cherries. The third element of choice in the case of many articles of household equipment is that of pleasure or beauty. As has already been pointed out, this marks the difference between furnishing the house and furnishing other workshops. Whereas the output of a factory consists of the particular line of goods which it makes, and the output of a dairy, of milk, butter, and cheese, the output of a home includes not only such material things as food and clothing and even general comfort, but also such immaterial things as the mental, moral, and spiritual welfare of its occupants. We some- 342 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. times assume that these less material factors of home life are independent of the furniture and equipment of the house and can be trusted to take care of themselves if they are not actually discouraged. But if a family really wishes its home to be more than a place to eat and sleep in, it ought to plan as deliberately for increasing the production of comfortable and profitable leisure, pleasant social intercourse, and an intelligent interest in things outside of its material needs as for mere food, clothing, and shelter. Fortunately, this does not always mean buying more costly furniture and more elaborate equipment, but rather choosing things which not only are necessary and convenient, but which at the same time give pleasure. Since we must have dishes to eat from, we might as well have them in attractive shapes and patterns and color, especially as good-looking ones do not necessarily cost more than others. The more any article that is used in the home includes all three elements of necessity, conven- ience, and beauty, the more efficiently will it serve its purpose. FITTING EQUIPMENT TO PARTICULAR CONDITIONS. It is impossible to lay down hard and fast rules as to exactly what articles or materials are best for use in the household, because conditions vary so greatly. No two homes are exactly alike as regards house and occupants and income, and what is suitable and economical in one may be inconvenient and extravagant in another. In a new house stained and varnished woodwork may be easiest to take care of, but when the woodwork is old and worn paint may make a more satisfactory finish; in fact, if the wood has already been painted, it may be difficult to use any other finish. It would be as poor economy for a family in easy circumstances to hesitate at the price of such household improvements as a screened porch or a good kitchen floor as it would be for people who can hardly pay for keeping their everyday neces- sary equipment in proper condition to buy a charcoal broiler for steaks and chops or a collection of expensive brushes intended for cleaning special kinds of furniture. The housekeeper must plan her household equipment with reference to the amount of labor there will be to run it. Hf she is to do everything herself she must not only arrange Selection of Household Equipment. 343 her work and her implements so as to avoid all unnecessary work, but she must also avoid many other things, such as bric-a-brac which is difficult to dust, polished surfaces which have to be frequently rubbed, and elaborate linen which it takes much time and skill to launder. On the other hand, if she does the work herself, she may be justified in buying things of better quality than if they were to be used by a careless helper. The question of space must also be considered. In a large house with plenty of storage room one can perhaps afford to have special equipment for this, that, or the other kind of work, but where space is strictly limited one must concen- trate. For example, one must choose one’s pots and pans so that each will serve several purposes, and arrange the closets and cupboards so that all the space in them will be used to the best advantage. It is questionable whether un- necessary utensils and scattered, half-filled closets are ever worth the extra work they occasion, but where space is limited it is certainly poor economy to keep superfluous things about. WHAT MAKES A WELL-FURNISHED HOUSE. The well-furnished house is not one which is cluttered up with things which may be useful or attractive in themselves, but which nobody uses or enjoys, but one which contains those things which are necessary for convenience in working and for comfort and satisfaction in living, and no more. It need not on that account be strictly utilitarian; on the con- trary, if it were well planned, perfectly convenient, and per- fectly comfortable, it would also be beautiful, because beauty does not lhe so much in the ornaments which are put on a thing as in the perfect adaptation of that thing to the use for which it is intended. In a collection of historical furni- ture the most beautiful pieces of each period are not those which are most elaborately decorated, but those in which material and shape and workmanship best answer the needs they were designed to meet. If there is ornament, it does not interfere with usefulness or comfort, and is so applied that it brings out the inherent beauty of the lines and mate- rial. The reason why some of the plain old tables and chairs which we have inherited from earlier times look better than 344 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. many of the elaborate and showy ones which have just left the factory is that their makers were more interested to make them strong and comfortable than simply to pro- duce novelties the chief merit of which. is to catch the eye. The same principle holds in all household furnishings—in fact, in everything. If a woman tries sincerely to arrange her house according to this idea of adaptation to use, she need not worry about its being “‘pretty.’”’ She may not be rich enough to have expensive things, but if she uses har- monious colors for her walls, floors, and upholstery, and chooses furniture for its good design and comfort rather than for its ornamentation, her house can hardly fail to be restful and attractive. . It sometimes seems difficult for a person who can not pa- tronize expensive shops to find furniture with strong and yet graceful lines, wall papers and upholstery materials in simple designs and good, soft colors, or china and glass with plain but good shapes and decorations. Nevertheless, they do come in inexpensive grades, and the more people demand them the more dealers will carry them. Undoubtedly it is easier to take what is offered and to be satisfied with the assurance that ‘‘it is positively the latest,’’ even when one’s own better judgment says that it is neither suitable nor beautiful. If women would insist on getting what they want instead of what the dealer may want to sell, their houses would be better furnished, and they would do much toward im- proving public taste. It is possible to carry the idea of simplicity too far. For ex- ample, a chair is not necessarily beautiful, comfortable, or easy to take care of merely because it is made up of straight lines. On the contrary, such severely plain furniture is often both awkward looking and uncomfortable. ‘Too many useless orna- ments in a room undoubtedly give it an overcrowded, restless look, and have a further disadvantage in making unneces- sary workin cleaning. On the other hand,no ornaments at all would make it seem bare and unfriendly. Thesensible woman steers between the two extremes and uses a few ornaments, chosen because they are useful things in especially beautiful form, or because they represent the artistic interests of the family, or have the intangible but none the less real value of personal association. A usable vase of handsome glass or Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. B PLATE XXVII. A STRIKING DESIGN, GOOD OF ITS KIND AND SUIT- ABLE FOR CERTAIN TYPES OF LARGE, SPECIALLY FURNISHED ROOMS, BUT OUT OF PLACE IN AN ORDINARY PRIVATE HOUSE. B. 4. A Good DESIGN OF WALL PAPER IN TWO TONES OF THE SAME COLOR AND WITH THE FIGURE NEARLY COVERING THE BACKGROUND. PLATE XXVIII. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. "LUIG Q1IOH] GNv LOo31709 OL GNA] HOINA\ JIGNVH] NO SSILIUVINOSYY] GNV dO] LV ONINSdO TIVWS SALON ‘NVA1O OL LNSINSANOON| LOdVAL ‘g “SANIT L115 Ag 440 15S YO109 40 GNVg ATdNIS NI NOlLvuooag 4O AdAJ GOOD HLIM ALV1d AAISNAdXA3N] We PLATE XXIX. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. "NVA19 OL ASVZ GNV NDISAQ GNV 3dVHS NI GOOD ‘YAHOLId JLIHM GNV 3N1g G10 XL "NV319 OL ASV] ANV AdVHG NI GOOS) LNG NiIV1d ‘YSHOLIq ssv15 2D PLATE XXX. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. "NOILISOd AISVLYOSWOON() ‘LNAg NI GNVLG OL YSNHOM ONININDOAY ‘MO COOL A1avVi—'s ‘IJ ‘NOILISOd IWUNLVN ‘ASV NI GNVLS OL YaNYOM ONIMOTIY ‘LHOISH LOSYYOO 4JO 318V 1 YYOAA—"| ‘DIF Selection of Household Equipment. 345 pottery, a good-looking box for matches, a graceful lamp with a shade which not only throws a good light but is beau- tiful in shape, color, and design by day as well as by night, a candlestick which is a family heirloom, and a few good photographs or prints of famous places or pictures in which the family is interested are examples of ornaments which are suitable, because there is some reason for using them. ECONOMY IN COST AND CARE. When it comes to the point of deciding between several forms of the same article, price is perhaps the first thing the majority of us must consider. So far as possible, the house- keeper should have a definite idea of how much she ought to pay for each part of her equipment and not let her choice run much above or below that. It is not true economy to pay more than one can afford for a thing, no matter how useful or how desirable it may be. On the other hand, the cheapest is not always the most economical. Other factors besides price enter into consideration, foremost among them being suit- ability and durability or wearing quality. Itis evident that if dish-toweling at 18 cents a yard wears twice as long as that at 12 cents, the more expensive is cheaper in the end. Very often the wearing quality influences not only the price but also the convenience of an article. In the case of wall paper, curtains, furniture coverings, and other things on which con- siderable labor must be spent before they go into use, it is a satisfaction to have them durable, so that the full value of the work as well as of the materials may be obtained. Moreover, after one has put care and thought into the selection of such furnishings and they prove successful in use, it is discouraging to have them wear out quickly and leave the whole task to be done over again. Some families get tired of their belongings so soon that they prefer them not to be very durable, and argue that two cheap things give more pleasure than one ex- pensive one. ‘This is evidently a question of taste, but it is worth noting in this connection that in household furnishings styles change much less rapidly in articles of good quality than in the cheaper grades, and that among people of culti- vated taste whose means allow them to choose what they like, furnishings are kept in use for many years and are 346 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. admired not for their novelty or fashion but for their intrinsic beauty. Moreover, in such things as furniture, upholstery materials, linens, etc., durability and beauty frequently go together, because both depend upon good quality in the materials and workmanship, and if one gets good-looking things, they often turn out to be durable. The size and cir- cumstances of a family sometimes change faster than its good furniture wears out, and unless this possibility is borne in mind when the furniture is bought, the family may find itself stocked with things which still have a great deal of wear in them but are not suited to existing circumstances. Another important element in the choice of furnishings is the amount of labor required to care for them and keep them in good condition. There is a greater range of choice here than many women realize, and it is a question which is worth more consideration than is often given to it. Rough surfaces like those on cheap earthenware, and worn, rough, and un- painted wood catch and hold dirt and are much harder to clean than smooth ones. Carving on furniture, elaborate castings on stoves, elaborate metal fixtures, fancy-shaped handles on dishes, etc., are things which make cleaning un- necessarily difficult. Polished metal usually takes much rubbing to keep it in condition, and for this reason dull finishes are often preferred on door handles, etc. Sharp angles in moldings also collect dirt and are hard to clean. Rounded moldings where the wall and floor meet have been introduced in hospitals and might well be imitated in private houses, as they make it much easier to remove dirt. GENERAL AND PERMANENT EQUIPMENT. The articles which go to furnish a house are so many and so various that it is impossible to enumerate them in a brief article or even to mention all of the more important groups. All that can be done is to discuss some of the latter in a gen- eral way which will show how to apply the principles of choice which have already ‘been described. Some of the articles of household equipment are installed permanently, and some of them are changeable. Many of the permanent ones are built in when the house is constructed and come within the province of the builders. Nevertheless, the woman for whom the house is being built, or who is Selection of Household Equipment. 347 choosing one already built, has aright to pass judgment on them, since it is she who uses them and keeps them in order. If the house is provided with a water and drainage system she should try to get fixtures which are convenient to use and easy to care for. Open plumbing is now generally accepted as more sanitary than inclosed and is not harder to take care of, particularly if the pipes are smooth, symmetri- cally arranged, and so placed that they are easy to get at. Porcelain-lined fixtures are in common use in kitchens and bathrooms now, and if the interior surface is smooth and unbroken, they are easy to clean, but if the enamel has rough spots in it these will hold the dirt most obstinately. If possible, the kitchen sink, washtubs, bathtub, closet, and washbasin should be so placed that it is easy to clean around and behind them. There is a considerable choice of material for kitchen sinks, each having its disadvantages and advantages. For ex- ample, the porcelain sinks show at once whether they are really clean or not and can be kept tidy easily, provided they are smooth, but they are rather expensive; enamel is easy to clean and not expensive but chips easily; soapstone is durable, but difficult to clean; iron is also durable and is not especially hard to clean, but it does not show dirt and so invites carelessness. Whatever material is chosen, the sink should be placed where the light is good and should be set at the height most convenient for working. This question of height applies also to worktables, washtubs, etc., and will be discussed later. If a house has neither plumbing nor a drainage system, it should at least have a kitchen sink of good size and height and, if possible, made of material which can be kept clean easily. A suitable pipe should be provided for carrying away waste water, either to a bucket from which it may be emptied or to a drain outside. The latter must be constructed so that it will be sanitary and should not be merely an open trench, which is not only disagreeable but which often becomes dangerous to health. If the house is to be heated by stoves, plain substantial ones should be selected. It is difficult to see why garlands of leaves and flowers in polished metal or bronze dogs should ever be considered appropriate decorations for stoves, yet 348 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. such designs have often been chosen in preference to models which owe their good looks to good proportions and con- struction. Not only can the latter be more easily kept clean, but they are more in accord with the requirements of good taste than those which are awkward in shape or laden with useless ornaments, so-called. If the house is heated with steam or hot water, radiators should be selected which are of suitable size and shape and which have plain surfaces without raised designs to catch and hold dirt. Smee their main purpose is to heat the room, their size and location depend chiefly on this, but as far as possible they should be arranged so that they will not inter- fere with the placing of furniture in the room and so that it will be easy to clean around and behind them. Whatever means of lighting is used—oil, gas, or electric- ity—simple lamps or fixtures are usually preferable, because they are easier to keep clean than fancy ones, and, if they are made of good materials and good designs, are better look- ing than very elaborate ones. Light is often used more economically if there are several fixtures in different parts of a room, and if these are planned for in the beginning they can be obtained with little extra expense. In the room where the family sit to read and sew a good lamp or a drop-light on the table or fairly low side lights on the wall are better for the eyes than high central lights. A good light should be provided in the kitchen, especially in the places where the work is chiefly done, such as over the sink and the work table. Screens for windows and doors are sometimes considered part of the permanent and sometimes part of the changeable equipment of a house, but in any case the house should be well supplied with them, not so much because flies and mos- quitoes are disagreeable as because they actually carry dis- ease and are very dangerous pests. The screens which are made to fit the individual windows and do not need to be removed each time the latter are opened are undoubtedly the most convenient, but if they are too expensive, cheaper kinds can be used satisfactorily. If the ready-made adjust- able ones are chosen care must be taken to have them fit tightly. If there are any cracks, flies and mosquitoes will find their way in but not out. Door screens should be pro- vided with springs so that they will be sure to close tightly. Selection of Household Equipment. 349 Bronze wire mesh which will not rust is perhaps the most durable material for screens. Cheaper wire carefully painted lasts fairly well, and cotton netting is equally efficient as long as it is whole. It is better to have a house thoroughly screened with netting than badly screened with wire, but the netting will have to be carefully watched and frequently renewed to keep it fly proof. In cold climates double windows are often used in winter, and soon pay for themselves by the saving in coal. Built-in closets or cupboards are other features of perma- nent equipment which are most important to the house- keeper. If she has anything to do with planning her house, she should try to locate them where it takes the least possible number of steps to get at or put away their contents. A small closet, provided with shelves and drawers especially adapted to the things kept there, is more satisfactory than a larger closet poorly arranged. In planning drawers it is well to remember that a larger number of shallow ones are usually preferable to a few deep ones, because all of the space in them can be used without piling things on top of each other. Similarly, narrow shelves, preferably not more than a foot wide, are usually more convenient than wider ones and are easier to keep clean. Many housekeepers prefer the movable kitchen cabinets to built-in cupboards for kitchen supplies, because they have a convenient place for all the necessary things and no waste space. WOODWORK AND WALLS. The finish of the woodwork and walls of the house is part of its permanent equipment which plays an important réle in its general attractiveness and the ease with which it can be taken care of. Woodwork of the baseboards, doors, win- dow casings, etc., should be easy to dust and wash. This means round corners and no elaborate moldings. Whether or not such surfaces should be painted or stained and var- nished depends partly upon how good the wood is and partly upon personal taste. As a general rule, varnished woodwork is easier to keep in order than painted, but paint covers up poor wood better and can be used in lighter colors, a point which is often in its favor in rooms where there is insufficient light or where a “light” treatment in color and furnishings 350 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. is desired. Good enamel mixed with the last coat of paint prolongs its life and makes it easier to clean. For floors, paint is less durable and harder to clean than well-finished waxed varnish, but if the boards are old and rough it would probably be better to paint them. Carpets or mattings tacked down close around the baseboard may be warmer in winter than rugs which do not cover the whole floor, but they are less desirable, because it is so difficult to take them up and clean them. Not only must the tacks be removed from the carpet, but their larger size makes them more difficult to handle than rugs. For months they remain full of dust and dirt which flies into the air when they are walked on, and for this reason they are very insanitary. If a floor is too bad for ordinary rugs, it is better to paint it and then lay down a carpet rug large enough to cover all but the edges than to tack a carpet over the whole floor. For the floors of kitchens, bathrooms, and passageways which must be washed frequently some material less absorbent than wood is de- sirable. Cement is sometimes used for back entries, pan- tries, etc., but it is hard and cold underfoot for the kitchen. Good, heavy linoleum is perhaps as satisfactory as anything for kitchen, laundry, and bathroom, as it is comfortable underfoot, easy to clean, and very durable. Oilcloth is cheaper, but not so durable. Walls may be painted with any of the good water or oil paints or covered with paper. For rooms where the walls need frequent cleaning or where water is likely to be splashed on them, as in kitchens and bathrooms, a paint which will not be injured by moisture or some varnished paper or other waterproof material is preferable. In other parts of the house the ordinary wall papers are most common because they can be obtained at almost any price and in a great va- riety of styles and colors. Fashions in wall papers vary from time to time, taste inclining sometimes toward darker tints or larger figures, sometimes toward lghter colors or incon- spicuous designs. Such changes in style are not important, however, and the selection of paper suitable for the room is always more satisfactory in the long run. In wall papers, as in furniture, many of the best designs now on the market have been adapted from old ones of different periods. | Tapestry effects, for example, are suggested by the real Selection of Household Equipment. 351 tapestries which covered the rough walls and broke the drafts in medieval houses, and some of the floral designs come from the silks and velvets with which the luxurious palaces of Italy and France were hung. These have stood the test of time because they are in accordance with the fundamental principles of decorative art. One of the reasons why the wall papers seen in so many rooms are unsatisfac- tory is that designs good in themselves are used in places where they do not belong. Because a bold floral design carried out in rich brocade looked well on the walls of a Venetian palace, it does not follow that a similar design im- perfectly reproduced on paper would look well in a small room of a simple frame house in this country. Extreme designs are always rather difficult to adapt successfully, and it is usu- ally safer to choose simple effects which are sure to prove satisfactory. It is usually better to consider the wall covering of a living room as a background than as a decoration. This is espe- cially true if pictures are to be hung against it. In wall papers, as in dress, inconspicuous designs and neutral colors are more satisfactory for ‘“‘steady wear’ than the reverse, particularly if one is limited as to cost, for ‘‘showy”’ material of poor quality soon reveals its cheapness. The exposure of a room and the amount of light in it should be considered in choosing the color for the walls. It is well- known that cream, yellow, and yellow-brown shades on the walls of a room with northern exposure “warm them up”’ and that soft greens and grays temper the light in sunnier rooms. As a rule large, striking designs should not be used in small rooms. Stripes also should be used cautiously, especially where the rooms are high. The most satisfactory designs are often those in which the figure almost covers the background or in which the color contrast between the two is not very striking. Some of the best ones combine different tones of the same colors in the background and the figures. Pl. XXVII, A, shows an example of a paper with an incon- spicuous design in two tones of soft brown, in contrast to Pl. XXVII, B, which though well designed is unsuited to a moderate-sized room in an ordinary house on account of the strong color contrast between figures and background, and the size of the pattern, the largest flower being some 12 inches in 352 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. diameter. A plain paper, such as cartridge or the various so- called “‘textile”’ or ‘‘oatmeal”’ papers, can be obtained in good colors and at low cost and is always safe to use. There has been a great improvement in the designs of inexpensive papers in recent years, and attractive ones can be found at almost any price. The color of the walls usually determines the color of the other furnishings of the room, and really good and pleasing effects in house decoration depend more on such color combinations than on any other single factor. If wall and floor coverings, curtains, and upholstery all blend, the effect will be much more pleasing and harmonious to the eye than if each stands out from the others distinct and hard. A single spot of rich color against such a blended background, say, a table cover, or a sofa pillow, will do more to brighten a room than brilliant colors spread indiscriminately over the walls and furniture. Just as the principal objects in one room should harmonize in color, so adjoining rooms should show in harmonious colors. A hall, for instance, shouid usually be in neutral tones, so that its color will not clash with the rooms opening from it. : TEXTILES FOR HOUSEHOLD USE. Textiles of one kind or another make an important part of the changeable equipment of a house. Carpets, rugs, cur- tains, furniture covering, household linen, blankets, ete., all eome under this heading. A general knowledge of the different fibers—cotton, wool, silk, linen, etc.—of which these materials are made, the effect and durability of different dyes, the values of the different methods of cleaning, etc., would evidently be a help to the practical housekeeper. Much has been written regarding color, design, and other matters pertaining to household textiles from the standpoint of the fine arts, but many of the other questions, especially regarding durability, strength, etc., have not as yet been systematically studied. Some of those which bear most directly on everyday household processes are being investi- gated in this department by laboratory methods, and it is hoped that as useful results may be obtained as have been gained from the scientific investigations of food materials. In the meanwhile, general practical experience is a great help in selecting such furnishings. Selection of Household Equipment. 353 As has been pointed out, tacked-down carpets and mat- tings mean too much work in cleaning to be recommended, and movable rugs of some kind are much to be preferred. Rugs large enough to cover the whole floor are not as easy to handle, but stay in place better than small ones. In choos- ing rugs, one should select those which are firmly woven and which lie flat. If they are too thin or loosely woven they will work up into wrinkles or ridges, especially if they are large. Good oriental rugs are very beautiful and wear a long time, but they are too expensive to be generally used in the majority of homes. Carpet rugs are now manufac- tured in a great variety of shapes, sizes, materials, and designs, and are very satisfactory. Some of the best are those adapted from oriental ones. Good Brussels and some of the firmer of the pile carpetings are excellent, as are also those which resemble the heavy, old-fashioned ‘‘three-ply”’ ingrains. Old-fashioned rag rugs and their modern imita- tions have an attractive, pleasing style of their own. They are especially appropriate for bedrooms and bathrooms, but are often too thin for places where there is constant passing. Matting rugs, which now come in good tones of the standard colors, often prove useful, though they are not so durable as good wool. They are particularly suitable for warm climates. What was said of color and design in relation to wall paper applies also to carpets and rugs. Soft colors and inconspic- uous figures wear better to the eye and harmonize better with the other furnishings than gaudy figures on a bright back- ground. The rugs should tone in with the coloring of the walls and should ordinarily be darker in shade than the latter, not only because they show soil less, but also because they seem to bring the room. and its furniture into their proper relations. Window curtains serve the double purpose of regulating the light and of breaking the hard, straight lines of the cas- ings. Window shades of Holland or similar material are more satisfactory than draperies for shutting out strong sunshine by day and securing privacy by night, but they do not soften the general light of the room as do draperies. The latter, if they come next to the glass, should be light in color and texture and should be easy to launder. If a little 75922 °—yex 1914——23 354 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. color is desired around the windows, the fashion of hanging straight curtains of some thicker colored material inside thin white ones of lace or muslin is an excellent one. Some housekeepers use only the thin ones in summer when coolness and air are wanted, and put up the heavier, darker ones when cold weather makes the effect of warmth desirable. In choosing bed coverings the principal thing to remember is that one wants as much warmth with as little weight as possible. For this reason wool is preferable to cotton or to wool and cotton mixed for blankets, comforters, ete. Linen sheets and pillowcases have almost disappeared from general use because of their high price. Cotton ones are, for all practical purposes, quite as satisfactory. All bed coverings should be large enough to tuck in firmly all around the mattress, a point especially to be remembered in buying ready-made sheets, which are sometimes too short for ordinary beds. It is generally agreed that some material which can be easily laundered is the best for tablecloths, napkins, ete. Real linen is preferable to cotton or cotton and linen mixtures, because it lies flatter, does not look ‘‘mussy”’ so soon, does not leave lint on the clothing, and takes a better luster in laundering. As in almost all textiles, a firm weave is more durable than a sleazy one. Provided the threads are smoothly twisted, coarse table linen is as durable as fine, but it is not as handsome. White is usually preferred to colored material, both because it stands more washing and because it shows at once whether it is clean or not. If neatness is desirable anywhere it must be at the table where we eat, and though white tablecloths mean much washing for the busy housekeeper, she should think twice before she substitutes dark-colored cloths which may be dirty before they have to be changed ‘‘for appearance’s sake.” Linen is usually considered more satisfactory than cotton for toweling, because it absorbs water fully as easily and dries more quickly. Too firm a weave or too heavy a thread is not desirable, in spite of greater durability, for these make it less absorbent. For hand towels many persons prefer a rough weave like huckaback to a smooth one like damask, not only because it is more absorbent, but also because it gives a better friction to the skin. Selection of Household Equipment. 355 There is such an infinite variety of materials for furniture covering that it is almost impossible to include all types in a brief discussion. Leather, wool, silk, linen, and cotton are allused. Leather is dignified looking, and the good qualities are durable, but in the cheaper grades the surface tends to wear off and crack, and it is often rather stiff and uncomfort- able. Silk materials are appropriate in certain places, but are too expensive for common use, except perhaps for cushion covers, hangings, and possibly for the covering of a choice piece of furniture. Cotton is inexpensive and does not wear through quickly, but often it does not hold its color well and also catches dirt easily. Nevertheless it is frequently used in cretonnes, chintzes, and similar printed goods and in low-priced velours, tapestries, etc. It is worth noting that mercerizing and some of the other new methods of treating cotton during its manufacture have improved its appearance and also its wearing qualities. Linen is occasionally used in materials similar to chintzes, but its most common use in furniture covering and draperies is in velour, a sort of heavy velvet material which is also made in cotton, but which is more durable in linen. Except for the fact that moths and buffalo beetles are so likely to damage it, wool is probably the most satisfactory fiber for upholstery. It is more durable than silk or cotton, does not catch the dirt as easily as the latter, and holds its color excellently. It is made into a great variety of materials—damasks, tapestries, plushes, ete. The use to which the room is to be put influences the selection of materials in furniture coverings and draperies. Gay, light chintzes or cretonnes are appropriate for a bed- room, which one wishes to have clean and airy looking, whereas for a living-room substantial looking material like velour or tapestry would be more suitable. FURNITURE. In furniture itself, good quality depends on well-chosen materials, good design, and good workmanship. Wood is the most common material, but metal is sometimes substi- tuted for bedsteads, and wicker or rattan for chairs, couches, and small tables. Soft wood, especially pine, is used for cheap painted chairs, kitchen tables, etc., but harder yarie- 356 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. ties are preferable for general use. The important qualities in furniture wood are strength and beauty of grain, though color is also a consideration. Oak is probably the most common kind now used in standard-grade furniture, and mahogany is always in demand for handsome pieces. Bird’s-eye maple, cherry, rosewood, etc., are also occasionally seen. Black walnut is another beautiful wood for furniture, but it is seldom seen in new pieces now, partly because the supply has run short and partly because it is chiefly asso- ciated in our minds with the heavy, overornamented style of furniture for which it was used some 50 years ago and which has now fallen into disfavor. Some of the more expensive woods are imitated by staining cheaper kinds. The advantages of wicker furniture should not be over- looked. It is light, comfortable, and durable; some of the simpler designs are very good and combine well with other kinds of furniture, especially when the wicker is stained a harmonious color. Any piece of furniture should be and should look strong enough for the use to which it is to be put. Chairs and couches should be selected for the comfort of the persons who use them, and a living room should be provided with a sufficient variety to suit all the members of the family. As regards design, those which suggest comfort and strength should be chosen rather than ‘“‘gimcracky”’ types, and if there is any ornamentation it should be placed where it brings out the important lines of the piece rather than seem to be put on for its own sake. The number and size of the pieces of furniture in a room should bear some relation to the size of the room. - Though crowded tables, insufficient bookshelves, or too few chairs are inconvenient, having a room so full of furniture that one bumps into it at every turn is even worse. It should not be forgotten that well-distributed empty spaces add to the beauty of a house. In cities where extra space means extra cost, small, overcrowded rooms are some- times unavoidable, but women who are so fortunate as to live in roomy country houses ought to make the most of their privileges and give their families the pleasure of ample space, even if this means banishing to the attic a few superfluous pieces of furniture. Selection of Household Equipment. 357 TABLE AND KITCHEN UTENSILS. Table and kitchen utensils make up another important group of furnishings. Very often the same kind of articles in different qualities are found in both sets. Table plates (PI. XXVIII, A), for example, differ from kitchen plates more in their attractiveness than in any other way. Real china or porcelain, which is always translucent and of which the choice tablewares are usually made, is more suitable for occasional than general use because it is rather fragile, but its light weight, fine color, and smooth surface are unde- niably beautiful. Earthenware with a good glaze usually ranks next to porcelain and is very satisfactory for general use. The old blue and white Staffordshire wares, which were so highly prized in colonial days in this country, belonged to this type, and similar ware (see Pl. XXIX, D) is still to be obtained in many satisfactory designs, one of the common ones being the well-known willow pattern. Large and conspicuous designs usually become tiresome on things which are used as frequently as table dishes and it is safer to select plain white or some all- over pattern or inconspicuous bands of flowers, color, or gilt. It is usually wiser to buy tableware from an open- stock design than to take the regular sets, which often in- clude unnecessary pieces and can not always be replaced when broken. Good, plain shapes are ordinarily to be pre- ferred to more fancy ones, because they are better adapted to their purposes and are easier to clean than those which have irregular surfaces and ‘‘nubbles’’ which catch and hold the dust. Pitchers, teapots, and other dishes with openings so small that the hand can not be inserted to wash and wipethemaretobeavoided. Plate XXVIII, B, illustrates a teapot which is hard to clean on account of both the elabo- rate handle and the small opening. Kitchen crockery, like tableware, should have a good, smooth-finished glaze which will clean easily and not chip. Glassware is to be obtained in almost any grade, from the most expensive cut glass to the coarse kind used in jelly tumblers. The choice depends chiefly on the pocketbook, but it should not be forgotten that plain glass or glass cut in a simple pattern is easier to keep shining and is usually 358 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. more beautiful than any except possibly the very expensive types of elaborately ornamented glass. Plate X XIX, C,shows a pitcher of plain inexpensive glass and a shape which is both graceful and easy to care for. Knives, forks, and spoons are made in several kinds of metal. Silver is the most durable and always has an intrinsic value. Plated silver is made so well and so cheaply nowadays that almost every family can have at least a supply of forks and spoons. Many prefer steel-bladed to silver knives for the main course at a meal because they cut better, but they are harder to care for than silver or plated ones. Tea sets, pitchers, and other serving dishes come in good designs in plated as well as solid silver. If the family happens to own handsome ones, they make appropriate side- board ornaments; but they require frequent rubbing up to keep them bright, and unless they are needed every day on the table it is better to put them away and reserve them for special occasions than to let them stand about tarnished. There is much discussion as to the best material for cook- ing utensils. The truth is that no material is best for all, and the work is most easily and satisfactorily done if dif- ferent kinds are chosen for different needs. Earthenware is excellent for certain purposes, as it holds the heat evenly, and baking dishes or casseroles in which the food can be served as well as cooked save dish washing. Such wares are not adapted to all kinds of cooking, however. The great heat of fat in frying, for example, especially when the hot fat spatters up against the cooler parts of the dish, is likely to crack it. Enameled ware is light in weight, easy to clean, and is little affected by acids; it is excellent for mixing dishes and for keeping food in, but the cheaper grades do not always stand the heat of cooking well and soon chip. The enamel should be free from bubbles and have smooth, evenly finished edges which will not chip readily. Aluminum heats quickly and so economizes fuel, comes in very good shapes, is ight to handle, and very durable; it is affected by alkalies, discolors easily, and is rather hard to clean. Nevertheless, since it does not rust, it is especially desirable for teakettles, double boilers, kettle covers, etc. Cast iron is still common ware for kitchen utensils, but it is being replaced in many homes by materials which are lighter in weight and less Selection of Household Equipment. 359 expensive. Good iron pans and skillets are excellent for some kinds of cooking, however, because they heat more evenly than those of other materials, and they last for gen- erations. Iron rusts easily and is affected by acids as aluminum is by alkalies. Itis because of this action of acids that iron dishes sometimes injure the color and flavor of food, and for this reason food, especially acid food, is usually not allowed to stand in them. ‘Tin and sheet iron plated with tin are in common use in most kitchens because they are rather inexpensive, but they are not entirely satisfactory. Unless they are unusually heavy, they lose their shape quickly. In thinly plated kinds the tin wears off and the iron beneath rusts easily. The shape of kettles has much to do with the quickness with which their contents heat. The smaller the surface which comes in contact with the heat, the longer it will take the contents to become warm, and vice versa. This means that in a kettle with a broad base the contents heat more quickly than in one with a small base. This point should be especially considered where gas stoves are employed and fuel must be carefully used. Because a thing is to be used in the kitchen is no reason why it should be ugly to look at, and if the housekeeper can find mixing bowls and kettles which are attractive in shape, color, and finish, as well as convenient and easy to clean, they will give her a sense of pleasure every time they are used. ARRANGEMENT OF KITCHEN FURNITURE. Since the kitchen and laundry are the rooms where the hardest part of the household labor is performed, the ques- tion of efficiency in their equipment is especially important. This efficiency depends not only on having the most con- venient devices for dog the work, but also on having them placed where they can be most conveniently used. If a woman has to go to a distant closet or pantry every time she wants a dish or a little flour, or even if she has to cross a large room as she moves between the stove and the worktable, the sink and the cupboard, she will waste a considerable amount of energy in the course of a day’s work. It cer- tainly is worth her while to study her movements as she works and see if by changing the place in which some things 360 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. are kept or by moving the worktable or the kitchen cabinet she can not reduce this waste of energy. As has been already suggested, the height of worktables, sinks, and laundry tubs has much to do with the ease of working. Different kinds of work, of course, call for tables of different heights. Ironing, for example, which consists of pressing down hard, is easier on a lower table than would be chosen for general work. The height of the worker also makes a difference. From 32 to 36 inches from the ground is the usual height for general worktables, and the bottom of the sink should usually be 30 or 31 inches from the floor; but it is better for each housekeeper to test out the matter for herself before she buys a new table or has a new sink set up than to trust to gen- eral rules. These and other points in kitchen equipment have been discussed in a recent Farmers’ Bulletin! Plate XXX shows a woman working at a table of correct height and at one which is too low, and makes clear how much discomfort and unnecessary effort comes from bend- ing over the latter. An attempt is being made in the calo- rimeter laboratory of the Department of Agriculture to meas- ure exactly how much energy is expended at tables of different heights, and it is hoped to extend the work to include the expenditure of energy during various household tasks per- formed under favorable and unfavorable conditions, so that questions of efficiency in housework can be placed on as accurate a basis in the dairy or the factory. A table (see fig. 20) with an adjustable top which permits the working height to be easily changed has been made for experimental use in the calorimeter laboratory, and the same principle might be applied for use in the home. Fig. 20. 1The Farm Kitchen asa Workshop. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 607 (1914). Selection of Household Equipment. 361 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONS. A generation ago such subjects might have been thought beneath the dignity of scientific investigation, but the last few years have seen a great change in this respect. The way in which our homes are run, or, in more technical terms, the science of home economics, 1s now in much the position that scientific agriculture was in 20 or 30 years ago. The leaders had shown that science can improve crops and some of the more progressive farmers were giving the new ideas a prac- tical test, but many of the rank and file were still doubtful whether it was worth while. Few farmers of to-day, how- ever, would care to go back to the days before experiment stations, fertilizer control, etc. The fact that the problem of making the home as efficient as possible includes so many different kinds of questions will make necessary a great deal of study along many different lines, just as agriculture has included problems as different as those of insect pests and cheese making. In solving these every intelligent farmer who has studied them on his own farm has done his part as well as the special investigators in the laboratories. In the same way, every intelligent housekeeper who studies the household problems of cooking, cleaning, and furnishing and tries to solve them with the help of both practical experience and scientific information hastens the day when household management can be as accurately planned as that of the factory and the farm. Planning and equipping a home in an accurate and syste- matic way does not mean that it should not have any indi- viduality. On the contrary, while the principles which govern a wise choice of furnishings are the same for all kinds and conditions of houses and families, the articles actually chosen in accordance with these principles would vary just as much as the house and the families for which they are mtended. Whether one’s house is large or small, things should be chosen to fill actual needs, and to fill them in the way most economical of money, labor, and materials, and, as far as possible, to give pleasure as well. If the house or the family is large, different things will seem necessary, con- venient, economical, and suitable, from those which would answer the requirements if there were less space or fewer persons to be provided for. The size of the income also 362 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. influences choice, but the fact that one can not pay high prices does not mean that one must always put up with > inconvenient or unattractive things. A table of easy work- ing height probably costs no more than one too high or too low, nor would making wooden blocks to set under the legs of a low one be an impossible expense; yet a difference of a few inches may mean the difference between working easily and getting tired every day. Increasing the convenience of working by such simple means as moving a table or stove or rearranging the kitchen cupboards or kitchen cabinet may make a noticeable difference in the number of movements necessary for the daily work, and this saving of energy not only lessens the labor, but also prevents the irritation which an intelligent person naturally feels at wasting effort. As far as the element of pleasure or beauty is concerned, it is the necessary things rather than special ornaments which make the greatest difference in the attractiveness of a home. Comfortable furniture of good plain design and harmonious colors on the walls and floors are more necessary to make a house restful and pleasant than many pictures and much bric-a-brac. Fortunately, it need not cost any more to get these necessary things in satisfactory forms than in poor ones, though it may mean choosing more slowly and carefully. If the best equipped house is the one which in all its features and furnishings are most completely suited to the needs of its occupants, the standard for every family must be adapted to such individual peculiarities as the location of the house, the amount of the family income, the size of the family, and their different occupations and interests. Judged by this standard, a woman who, with limited means, has made a convenient, comfortable, and attractive home out of an unpromising, inconvenient farmhouse has shown greater ability than one who, with the help of an expensive deco- rator, has obtained a good effect in a house equipped with all modern improvements. 7 THE EGG AND POULTRY DEMONSTRATION CAR WORK IN REDUCING OUR $50,000,000 WASTE IN EGGS. By M. E. Pennineton, H. C. Prerce, and H. L. SHraper, Bureau of Chemistry. LARGE refrigerator car, painted white, and bearing on its sides the inscription ‘‘U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Poultry and Egg Demonstration Car,’’ was backed down a railway siding in a typical southwestern town and came to a stop about two blocks from the station. There it remained while the heterogeneous mass of freight cars to which it had been attached rumbled slowly away to disap- pear in the north. Two men carrying sweaters that seemed strangely out of place with a temperature that particular morning in the neighborhood of 105 degrees in the shade came toward it from the station, unlocked the door, let down a flight of steps, and entered. A moment later came the regular throbbing of a gasoline engine, the whir of large fans could be heard, and incandescent bulbs began to flood the interior with light. The men put on their sweaters, for it was suddenly getting cold. The Department of Agriculture’s demonstration car was now ready to begin its daily business of trying to reduce the $50,000,000 annual waste in eggs. Part of this loss can be debited to needless breakage of eggs in transit from the nest to the retailer. The balance represents the unnecessary addling, spoiling, and deterioration of good eggs that comes from bad handling on the farm, on the way from the farm to the town, in the town, in transit from town to city, and in all stages of progress from the carload lot to the breakfast table. The importance of the loss of eggs which has occurred by the time the product reaches even the country shipping cen- ters can be seen from reports of 20 prominent shippers in a single egg-collecting point. ‘These men reported that one year the percentage of eggs which arrived in a state so bad that they were an absolute loss rose to 8.33 per cent in November, with 363 364 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. a mean loss for the year of 4.36 per cent for the 32,730 dozen eggs, or over 1,000 cases, which were specially examined. The loss in eggs between the time the hen lays a fresh egg and the time when that egg is traded or sold to the country mer- chant may be judged also from the fact that a special inquiry conducted among country storekeepers in October showed that only 25 per cent of the eggs they secured from the farmers would rank as ‘‘firsts”” and that 60 per cent were ‘‘seconds,’’ due to long holding on the farm; that 5 per cent were cracked; and that 4 per cent were rotten or stuck to the shell. Some of the farmers, it was found, had held eggs for four weeks before turning them in at the village store. These two inquiries indicate clearly the cause of the huge number of eggs which merely add to the crematory and dump-heap bills of our great cities or reach the markets in a condition in which they can be endured only by unusually strong palates, or used for tanning leather. This vast quan- tity of spoiled eggs is an unpleasant monument to needless American waste of good food in the face of increasing popu- lation and lowered food production. Reports had reached the Department of Agriculture that the shipments of eggs at this particular time from the south- west were showing far more than the normal number of “floaters,” ‘blood rings,” “‘white rots,’ and ‘black rots,” which are terms employed in the egg-handling trade to rep- resent the different stages of descent from a good egg into a very badegg. These reports came from near-by egg-collect- ing centers, and some of them came even from distant New York, where the housewife was complaining about trouble with her egg supply. A preliminary investigation in the district showed that unusually hot, dry weather was leading to a loss from spoilage of over 30 per cent of eggs in this particular county. This meant that for want of a little extra care the farmers of the county were throwing away fully $1,000, or the price of an automobile, every week. Instructions began to go out from Washington: ‘‘Send the egg car to central Texas and travel north during May.” In response to these orders the car was delivered at this partic- ular station on a hot May morning, and thus was added an- other fraction to the 7,000 miles the car has traveled during the last two egg-laying seasons on its egg-saving mission in Eqg and Poultry Demonstration Car.. 365 Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri, the corn States which produce a vast proportion of the eggs con- sumed in the great cities of the East. In all these States the car has been helped on its way by the hearty cooperation of the railroad authorities, who were among its earliest con- verts, for they were quick to see that spoiled eggs spell profit for nobody. The demonstration car (Pl. XXXI, fig. 1), while looking like an ordinary refrigerator car on the outside, is fitted up inside to be an egg packing and chilling establishment on wheels. In one end is a huge ice bunker holding over 3 tons of ice, and at the other end is a good-sized gasoline engine for running the cold-air fans and driving the dynamo which supplies light. By means of false walls running from the ice chamber, the fans are able to drive chilled air to all parts of the car and thus make possible the proper precooling of eggs for shipment and the testing, packing, and handling of eggs at temperatures which prevent or delay spoiling. The chilling of eggs is almost the beginning and end of keeping New York and other great cities supplied. Heat is the great enemy, for once a good egg has stood for any time at a temperature of over 68° F. it begins to incubate, if it is a fertile egg, or to spoil, if it 1s an infertile egg. For this reason the car is equipped to give each railroad town it visits a practical demonstration of the advantage of keeping eggs cold and chilling them thoroughly before starting them in refrigerator cars on the long haul from the corn belt to the great egg-consuming centers. In another section of the car are two egg-candling rooms (Pl. XXXI, fig. 2), supplied with electric lights, some of which are equipped for candling eggs by being inclosed with dark coverings in which there is a single hole the size of a half dollar. In these dark rooms the experts hold the egg before the candling light, and its condition is instantly revealed with almost photographic clearness. The purpose of candling eggs at home, of course, is to decide which of the housewife’s dozen is in perfect condition for breakfast or cookery. On the commercial scale, the testing is to determine not merely whether the egg at the moment is good for immediate con- sumption, but whether, if properly chilled, packed, and han- dled, it will survive a long shaking up on a 1,000-mile railroad 366 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. trip and remain good in transit, storage, and the retail store until it reaches a distant home. For unless an egg starts on its journey in absolutely good condition, no amount of refrig- eration or careful handling will restore it to goodness. And the egg that has begun to deteriorate, that shows the first sign of the incubation of its germ, spoils rapidly every hour that it is subjected to ordinary summer temperatures—in fact, every minute that the fresh-laid egg spends in the nest or else- where exposed to more than 68° F. starts it on a downward career. As the temperature mounts, the egg approaches hatching conditions. At 102° F. it might as well be in an incubator or under a hen. Direct exposure in the farmer’s wagon, or in a case at the depot, to the rays of the summer sun and heat of 105° to 110°, hastens incubation and the development of bacteria and chemical changes that make the egg impossible to keep and unfit for food. The one way to tell about the contents of an unbroken egg is to hold it before the light. Testing millions of eggs in this way has enabled the testers to tell just how each grade looks. To assist those who are not experienced candlers, the Government has printed carefully colored lithographed charts which show the exact appearance of different grades of eggs before the light. With this chart the egg dealer and even the housewife is enabled to candle eggs with sufficient accuracy. The absolutely fresh egg held against the light shows a distinctive pinkish glow of goodness. Let that egg, how- ever, remain out in the sun or in the summer heat for a little time, and within a day or two it begins to show “blood,” a tiny series of little blood vessels forming around the embryo of the chick; or the heat may cause the yolk to go toward the top and shift easily, which characterizes it as a “light floater.” Again, the yolk may mix with the white and make a “white rot,’’ a condition also revealed by the candle. The final stage is the “‘black rot,” where no light at all can be seen through the egg. The egg has now reached the explo- sive stage, which makes it such a favorite missile of the aver- age boy. There is, however, another type of bad egg which most people would think good for food. The yolk is a firm golden ball and the white a clear liquid. But the white has a greenish color—and the green indicates that the egg is full of bacteria—it is a “green white egg.” Egg and Poultry Demonstration Car. 367 After the candle has told its story the egg, if intended for long shipment or storage, must again pass examination before it has been classified fully, for an egg is no better than its shell. A perfect shell is one of the essentials of a good egg, because any crack or break in it will tend to let in all sorts of bacteria to hasten its putrefaction. The egg therefore must be graded not only by the condition of its contents, but by cleanliness and soundness of shell as well. An egg that is so badly cracked that its contents escape is termed a “leaker.” A “leaker”? not only will not keep itself, but it may soil and injure a large number of eggs packed in the same case with it. They are thrown out, therefore, at every stage of handling and constitute a total loss. “Checks” are eggs the shells of which are cracked but the membranes still intact. These, too, are sure to rot quickly. Even if their contents are perfectly fresh, they can not be held for any long period. The egg with a dirty shell, no matter how good its contents may be, does not bring a high price on the market. It is unpleasant for the housewife to handle and can not be served in the shell. Washing dirty eggs, how- ever, hurts rather than helps them, for the reason that any water put on an egg washes off some of the protective cover- ing which the hen puts on the shell to make it more resist- ant to the entry of germs. A washed egg is shiny and smooth looking and lacks. the powdery bloom of a clean fresh egg that has not been washed. One of the duties of the egg tester, therefore, is to detect the egg which has been washed to escape the lower commercial grade assigned to those with soiled shells. The commercial egg handlers in the large cities understand fully the importance of the delicate candling tests and the careful examination and classification of eggs according to shell condition. In some cases the middlemen—largely the country merchants or egg collectors of the small railroad towns of the egg-producing districts—understand candling, but frequently conduct this operation more or less roughly and do not always grade the eggs accurately. Many of them will count as nearly fresh or ‘‘strictly fresh,’ eggs which under the careful candling of the cities would be put in other than the highest grades. Similarly in the other gradings their candling is not nearly so exact as the work in the great egg 368 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. centers. A partial explanation for this is that the country egg collector is interested merely in getting his eggs 200 or 300 miles to the nearest wholesale egg-collecting market. The big candler in the city, however, must decide what eggs are good for the fancy trade and what eggs to sell as second and third class. Moreover, in the winter the city candler must candle the eggs that have been kept for months in cold storage to satisfy the egg hunger of the great cities during the seasons when the sturdy gray hen is not laying. Without such provision for the cold storage and canning of large supplies, a palatable boiled egg in the winter in the great cities would be a luxury entirely beyond the reach of any but the wealthy. The day when the housewife purchased her eggs from a near-by hen-keeping neighbor has passed. Few, of the city dwellers ever hear a hen cackle, except at the annual poultry shows, and not one out of ten thousand could go directly to a place where she could get eggs taken fresh from the nest. The luxurious eggs which sell at from 60 cents to a dollar a dozen do come largely from the environs of the large cities, but the bulk of the egg supply travels for dis- tances sometimes as long as 2,000 miles to reach the mar- kets on the Atlantic coast. This has transformed what once was a matter largely of personal barter between neighbors or between the country woman and the storekeeper who sup- plied his own retail customers into a vast and complicated food industry employing thousands of people and many millions of capital. To-day the egg starts on its trip to the big markets in the farm wagon, and for the woman of the farm each good egg in its shell is practically so much cash. In fact, eggs and chickens supply a large proportion of what might be called the ready spending money of the farm woman. The local merchant pays her for her eggs either in money with which she pays her doctor’s or dentist’s bills or buys articles for the home, or else immediately transforms the eggs into calico or shoes or groceries. The country storekeeper similarly regards the eggs as money and deposits them with the local egg collector and shipper, who honors the poultry check and turns back the cash to the storekeeper. From this point of view the local egg shippers might be regarded as running an egg bank. After the egg shipper at the local station starts his eggs toward the collecting centers Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XXXI. Fia. 1.—INTERIOR OF CAR, SHOWING VENTILATING FAN, HOLES IN THE CEILING, AND THE OPENINGS IN THE FALSE SIDE WALLS NEAR THE FLooRr. Fia. 2.—A DEMONSTRATION IN THE CAR OF GRADING EGGS BY MEANS OF THE CANDLE. PLATE XXXII. Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. a JUNLINIISV 40 LNIWLYVd3ad s/n ‘AMULSIW3HD JO Nv3adna “][9YS 94] Jo Jno pues s[pued oY} O1OJoq ‘OITA Uoals B YYM SS “Gq *]]2YS oy} JO INO pue o[puvo oY} e10Joq ‘359 pa[Ppe 10 JOT aI “O *]}9YS 044 JO Jno pus s[puvd oYy o10F -aq ‘ploul Aq popPBAUI 330 poyoRip *_ *TI9US 94} JO JNO puB o[puvo oY} d10Jaq “SUII pooTg SurMoys say “y “HaMOT ‘TPUs oY} JO JNO pueB s[puBd 9qy a10Jaq ‘[[aYS 0} dope 0} Suruutseq HOA YAIA S8q *-q *]]OYUS OY] JO INO puB o[ puro od ‘oUIYA UIT] B puB yjOA poudsy -jey “poyyqes B SuTMOYsS ‘350 9[VIS *—O ‘TOUS 044 JO yno pur a[pUvd 9YI B1OJoq ‘UOTeqnoUr JO vdUEp -IAQ9 SurMoys ‘330 oes AT “TIEYS 04} Jo pues e[puvd oY} e10Joq ‘350 Ysolj y “Vy oo” “Wadd “SMOHS GIGNY,) AHL LVH AY Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PEATE DOOXIITE KINDLY POST THIS NOTICE ON YOUR BULLETIN BOARD OR IN A PROMINENT PLACE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Egg and Poultry Packing and Chilling Demonstration Car Will Arrive at The two Department specialists in charge of the car will give demonstrations in dress- ing, chilling, and packing poultry and in candling, grading, chilling, and packing eggs for long shipment. The car contains a complete poultry refrigerating plant operated by its own gasoline engine. All interested in shipping poultry products are invited to visit the car and take part in the practical demonstrations d. ASML uetpr Secretary U.S. Department of Agriculture. THE PLACARD THAT ANNOUNCES THE COMING OF THE CAR. PLATE XXXIV. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. "UV AHL ONILISIA NSYGTIHD IOOHOS Egg and Poultry Demonstration Car. 369 in the large cities the egg then passes through practically all the selling agencies that attend the getting of any manu- factured foods from the factory to the actual consumer. The difference, however, between the vast egg industry and big trade organizations for handling other staples is that while the capital involved in the egg collecting, handling, and stor- ing business is very large, the trade is not highly centralized. The imposing total is made up of many small units— thousands of men in local towns who have invested a few hundred or a few thousand dollars in their branches of egg marketing. It is estimated that these men handle yearly a food product worth, to the consumer, $750,000,000. One of the missions of the egg-testing car, therefore, is to show the egg collectors in the small towns how to standardize their grading so that their rating of an egg will be much the same as the later candling of the great egg handlers, and thus help them to send to their customers in the cities more nearly the grades of eggs they order. The local egg collector who does this gets a higher price for his standardized product, avoids sending eggs that are likely to smash in transit and- make a ‘‘scramble,’’ as the trade describes the case of eggs made dirty by other broken eggs, and also will save the freight and loss on spoiled and broken eggs shipped con- siderable distances. In dealing with these local egg collectors—the town and country merchants and commission men—the Department of Agriculture’s egg specialists follow the doctrine that ‘‘seeing is believing and doing is better than reading about it.” In the distant past it was the policy to discover things and then send people printed descriptions of the discovery, possibly with black and white reproductions of photographs of what the laboratory investigator saw before the candle. It is not an easy matter for anyone to translate black and white into delicate differences of color, nor again, to visualize printed words into pictures and colors. Try as he would, the country merchant could not read black and white pages and see the delicate gradations of pinks and yellows and browns which the expert told him he needed in egg testing. Some improvement was made when egg-testing charts (PI. XX XIT) were printed accurately in color, but even here seeing the picture of an egg is not as effective as judging a basket of 73922°—yBK 1914——24 370 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. eggs before the candle with an expert and then breaking some of them open to determine the mistakes of the eye. The department, therefore, sent out its car equipped with practical egg-candling rooms, and here the country merchant, under the tuition of the expert, can test hundreds of eggs before the candle until there is fixed in his mental eye the exact appearance of eggs of every grade. Preceding the arrival of the demonstration car at each point, letters are sent to all commission men and local merchants dealing in eggs, inviting them to visit the car and take part in practical demonstrations of egg candling. In addition the railroad through its local agent notifies all ege shippers of the coming of the car. The department puts up in the post office and at other points in the village attractive placards (Pl. XX XIIT) announcing the time of arrival of the car, telling of its work, and inviting those interested to attend. The schools through their pupils give notice to country parents of the arrival of the car, and finally the local newspapers are supplied with information and asked to spread through their columns the news of the car’s coming and its usefulness to the county. The doctrine taught is not especially altruistic and the invitations do not imply that the local egg man or farmer owes some philanthropic or social duty to a distant consumer. The argument is entirely one of dollars and cents in the pocket of the farmer and his wife, the local egg commission man, and in the general pocket of the county itself. ‘‘Thirty per cent of your eggs are wasted. You are getting 30 per cent less money for your eggs than you ought to be getting. You are throwing away comforts, automobiles, luxuries, opportunities every week. It isn’t a question of tools or money or capital. It is a question of care and intelligence which cost nothing but a little time. Come to the car and learn how to save $1,000 a week in rotten eggs.” If the egg car, with its doctrine of egg conservation, reached only the collectors, it could save but a fraction of this waste. Eggs do not stay good as long as they are in the country and suddenly become bad when they come to town. An egg is full of original sin from the moment it is laid and asks only for a little leisure in a warm place to indulge in all its proclivities for wickedness. The egg that Egg and Poultry Demonstration Car. 371 is laid by the hen who steals her nest in the field, and is allowed to stay out in the heat for two or three days, until the hen’s hiding place is discovered or it happens to be con- venient to gather the eggs, has begun to spoil before it reaches the house. Similarly the morning laying, if left all day in the heat or in a hot henhouse over night, will begin to develop the hatching germ. Good fresh eggs put in a basket and stored in the hot kitchen for a day or two may reach town in such condition that they must be used at once to be availa- ble for food. A basket of perfectly fresh eggs left in the back of the wagon and exposed to the sun during a 10-mile drive to town may reach the country merchant in such shape that not even immediate chilling will make them available for long shipment to the cities. This is the story constantly revealed by the candle on the egg car. Eggs of which the farmer’s wife is very proud will show that they have been allowed to remain 24 or 48 hours in the nest or at some point in their history have been exposed to heat which lowers their value. It is evident, therefore, that if the egg is to be pala-. table to the city consumer care in its handling must begin on the farm. The farmer must gather his eggs twice a day and must keep them cool afterwards, just as he would cream or milk, until they are delivered in town. There the merchant must at once put them into a dry, cold place, or, if he wishes to be strictly up to date, must chill them in his own little refrigerating plant or in the large refrigerating plant of the town, to a temperature well below 40° F. Realizing that egg conservation thus stretches right out to the farm, those in charge of the egg car make a special effort to induce the actual egg producers coming to town on the day when the ear is giving the demonstration to bring with them baskets of eggs to be candled. These invitations, in which the local merchants commonly cooperate by mak- ing the day a special reception day for their country customers, bring farmers from a radius of 15 or 20 miles, and in some cases induce progressive men to come by train from towns within 20 to 40 miles. The demonstrations for the farmers and their wives in candling are the same as those for the commission men. The effort here, however, is principally to get the farmers them- selves to candle and grade their eggs before they start for 372 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. town and then to offer the buyers their eggs on a quality basis. This means that the farmer offers so many dozen of fancy eggs at a certain price per dozen and so many other eggs of different grades at smaller prices. Inasmuch as the size and the condition of the shells of eggs count, the farmer is ad- vised also to consider these things, which affect the market value of eggs. Under this plan the farmer quickly finds that he makes more money by selling his eggs according to quality than when he simply sells them at an average price per dozen which the buyer has to make low in order to cover himself against off-size, off-color, dirty, cracked, checked, or deteriorating eggs. If the farmer has 1 dozen of 17-cent eggs and another dozen of 13-cent eggs, he gets 30 cents for his 2 dozen, whereas under the other basis he probably would get only 13 cents a dozen or 26 cents for his basket. In the absence of a quality basis of buying, the buyer either simply pays a lump sum, gambling on the quality of the eggs and naturally fixing a very low price, or buys on a “loss off’’ basis, which means that he deducts from the farmer’s returns all the bad, leaking, or unmarketable eggs found in his offering. In either event the farmer has had the trouble of bringing worthless eggs to town and does not get the benefit of the high price that would be paid for the percentage of strictly good eggs in his basket. The quality basis of buying is generally believed by students of the business to lie at the very foundation of sup- plying the large centers steadily with eggs of good quality. Quality buying is equally important to the local store- keeper and small-town egg collector. This was illustrated accidentally one day at the car when two of the three prin- cipals inan egg deal met in the candling room. One of these, a dealer who bought on the case-count plan—that is, paid a flat price per dozen for the eggs, whatever their condition— brought alot of 10 dozen eggs and asked that their quality be determined by candling. He had paid 13 cents a dozen for the eggs, and the candle showed that only eight dozen could be rated either “‘firsts’’ or ‘‘seconds.”” The remaining two dozen were so bad as not to be marketable under any grade. A quality buyer who was one of the group said, ‘Those look to me like the same lot of eggs that were brought to my place this morning. I offered 15 cents for firsts and 12 cents for seconds, but the woman who brought Eqg and Poultry Demonstration Car. 373 them would not sell at this price, and said she could find an egg man who would take them all.” The case-count buyer figured gloomily that he had paid about 16 cents a dozen for a mixture of ‘‘firsts’”’ and ‘‘seconds,”’ or 1 cent above the market price for ‘‘firsts.”” In another case it was found that a case-count buyer had bought the eggs that had been thrown out by a quality buyer. This practice, however, in many towns is being broken up by agreement among the merchants, who stamp rejected eggs and thus prevent their resale as ‘‘farm run of eggs.”’ In connection with the candling demonstration, the dem- onstrators of the car take particular pains to show each visitor, by means of photographs and actual eggs, the dif- ference in the keeping quality between a fertile egg and an infertile egg, or one that is laid by a hen in a roosterless flock. The fertile egg, because of the chick germ in it, deteriorates very rapidly as soon as it is allowed to get warm. This deterioration appears as blood on the yolk, which is the first very noticeable evidence of the incuba- tion of the chick. The next stage is the formation of the blood ring—a circle on the yolk—which appears when the embryo dies. The infertile egg, which contains no chick germ, will, of course, deteriorate if allowed to get warm, - but as there is no germ to hatch, no ‘‘blood ring”’ devel- ops and the physical changes in the contents are very much less marked, and the chemical changes which would make it inedible go on much more slowly. The infertile ege, therefore, will keep very much better and is a better product to put in cold storage for winter consumption. State poultry officials and the dealers in many cities encour- age. the farmers to remove roosters from their flocks after the season in which eggs for hatching are laid. This move- ment is aided by the fact that after the hatching season the dressed poultry and egg dealers frequently offer the farmer an attractive price for the roosters, which are then dressed and sent to market. In Missouri, it is estimated, 1,000,000 roosters were removed in one week from egg yards in this way. The specialists believe that if roosters can be eliminated from the flocks the losses in commercial eggs will be greatly reduced. The farmer gains from not having to feed the rooster, the absence of which makes absolutely no difference in the laying of the hens. The 374 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. infertile egg, moreover, is just as nutritious and desirable for food as the other. The cold-storage plant in the car is designed for proving to the egg receivers of the towns the importance of chilling eggs to a temperature below 50° F. before they are shipped in refrigerator cars to the large cities. While this process would be of advantage if begun on the farm, it is realized that few poultry raisers can afford ice enough or the cost of even a small refrigerating machine for thoroughly chilling eggs. Instruction to the farmers in keeping eggs cool, there- fore, is largely limited to such practical methods as storing in refrigerators or in the cooler places on the farm, such as the spring house, cold. cellar, or ice house. Where none of these methods is available, the farmer is urged to gather his eggs quickly after they are laid and keep them ever after out of the direct heat of the sun. The value of refrigeration to egg shippers in the railroad town is so great, however, that every effort is made by those on the car to induce them individually or in combina- tion to install refrigerating machinery large enough to chill the normal egg supply of their town. The egg special- ists, by tracing hundreds of shipments of chilled and un- chilled eggs, have demonstrated beyond question that the egg which starts cold and is kept cold arrives much better than the egg which is put warm into the refrigerator car. They have figures showing the exact number of hours required in an ordinary refrigerator car for a warm egg to be chilled down to the point where it no longer incubates or spoils. Other figures show how ordinary eggs, by means of a local refrigerating plant, can be brought down in 24 hours to the temperature at which they can safely be shipped. Eggs prechilled to this temperature remain at the safety point in the refrigerator car instead of having to travel for two or three days at dangerous temperatures until the ice in the refrigerator car can chill them. As a result of this demon- stration work, many shippers who heretofore shipped warm eggs are now chilling the entire summer egg supply of their pro- ducing section and starting it to market in prime condition. In consequence, the eggs shipped by these dealers arrive at the great markets in essentially the same condition they were when candled by the local shipper. Disputes between the shipper and receiver as to the grade, quality, and price of Eqg and Poultry Demonstration Car. 375 such eggs are growing fewer in the sections where precooling has become a general practice. Another portion of the car, which is kept cool by the air blown from the ice bunkers, has been made into a small packing room, where cases can be filled and properly nailed for shipment. The purpose of this work is to show the egg shippers the safest way of preparing their product for the joltmg it must receive in freight cars. The importance of this work is indicated by a recent study of the breakage of eggs in transit. According to this investigation, on an average of 24 eggs out of every 30 dozen packed in a case arrived at market either cracked, dented, leaky, or mashed. These figures represent the detailed examination of 6,000 dozen: eggs before and after shipment, and the results of a general study of the condition of 71 carloads of over 500,000 dozen eggs shipped in car lots from 36 packing houses in the corn belt to 10 different markets on the Atlantic coast. They mean that New York City alone has a breakage of at least 116,000,000 eggs annually. The study was also extended to the question of whether the egg breakage was due principally to the jarring received in railroad cars or to carelessness on the part of the packers. Over 200 cases, or 6,000 dozen eggs, were separately examined at the packing house and the place of each egg in the case charted. As a result of this exami- nation it was found that over 19 eggs to a case, or 5.34 per cent, were broken or had cracked shells before the eggs were loaded in the car. Between the casing of the eggs in the packing house and their delivery to the city merchant there was an additional breakage of over 5 eggs per case. The number of eggs broken in transit, 1t is believed, could be greatly reduced if only sound, new cases were used, proper packing employed, a proper system of nailing on the covers followed, and an efficient method of stowing and bracing the cases in the car practiced. A study of egg cases has estab- lished exact facts as to thickness of the wood, and has shown that there is a right and a wrong way to drive every nail employed in putting the case together. By sending out thousands of dozens of eggs packed in many cases and stowed in different ways in cars and then recording the condition of the eggs on their arrival after a long journey, the specialists have determined that a 376 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. cement-coated nail will hold better in an egg case than a smooth nail; that the use of less than 6 nails in closing the case greatly increases its chance of straining; and that nails driven in straight make the box much more rigid than nails carelessly driven at an angle. The experi-. ment has also shown the most effective place to drive each nail. One of the most disastrous things that can happen to an egg case, aside from actually coming apart, is for the right angles at the corners to spring, with the result that the case loses its rigidity and the eggs are broken. The straight nail tends to prevent this far better than the nail carelessly driven which goes in at an angle and does not fully grip the wood. The way in which the eggs are packed inside the crate is also very important. Many experiments have shown that the fillers, or little cardboard cells in which the eggs are put, must be new and strong and that the flats, or cardboard sheets placed at the bottom and top of each case and in between the layers of eggs must be springy and unbroken. There is, of course, a temptation to reuse these fillers and flats. In the case of the fillers, the little projections around the outside which keep the nearest line of eggs from coming into contact with the box are very important and in second-hand fillers these are apt to be bent, with the result that the eggs are not kept in place but shift about with the movement of the filler. Some of the fillers when once used are dampened and weakened by ‘‘leakers,” with the result that each layer of little partitions, instead of being rigid and keeping the eggs in place, has weak points which permit individual eggs to mash against each other. Much of the breakage in transit is due, not to unusually rough handling by the railroads, but to neglect of these simple facts. Careless packing has resulted in such claims for damages and such controversies between egg shippers and railroads in the past that many of the railroads wished to give up handling case eggs. The investigations tended to establish the actual responsibility for breakage, with the result that relations between rail- roads and egg shippers are becoming more amicable. To make their demonstrations in egg packing more prac- tical, the experts with the car invite one or more of the ship- pers to send in a commercial shipment of eggs and the cases Egg and Poultry Demonstration Car. 377 and then help the local packers to place the eggs and nail up the cases according to the method which experience has shown gives the greatest safeguard against breakage in transit. At the same time the doctrine of precooling of eggs is combined with this packing work, because before the eggs are packed they are properly chilled in the car and all the operations are carried on where the air is held at a low temperature, so that the eggs will have less chance to deteriorate while they are actually being packed. The quality buyer of the little towns as a general thing is far better informed than his neighbors as to modern methods of handling his eggs, though even he frequently picks up points in the demonstration car which mean dollars and cents to his business. The case-count buyer is commonly the man who most needs education. Many do not even know how to candle and grade eggs, and their operations, instead’ of beimg based on sound business principles, are largely in the nature of speculative experiments. They commonly do not conduct a steady business, but buy when. they think they can make profits. They frequently guess wrong and sometimes stop buying just when profits are to be made. The attitude of one of them is fairly typical of many. This man regarded the commission men of the cities or the larger concentrators near home as a set of cheats who never returned just prices for the eggs he sent. The rail- roads, according to his statement, generally smashed the cases all to pieces and then refused to pay his claims for damages, on some such ‘‘fool’”’ reason as the use of second- hand or old cases, second-hand flats or fillers, or the lack of proper packing. Strange to say, the quality buyer in this same town found no such difficulties in his way. His only trouble, he explained, was to get enough good eggs to supply the demand of the city commission men. That the arrival of the car does mean monetary advantage to the poultry industry of the neighborhood is clearly evi- denced by the fact that the railroads are very anxious to have the car run over their territory and favor its progress in every way. The progressive men of the different egg- shipping towns constantly petition that the car make side trips to them or visit their towns on its next swing. The State agricultural agencies cooperate in every way with the 378 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. car, frequently sending with the Federal demonstrators not merely their own egg-handling expert, but their poultry- raising expert as well, to combine with the work lectures and demonstrations on improving breeds of poultry and better handling of chickens so as to increase the egg yield. In some States ane State poultry car with its exhibits of differ- ent breeds of poultry and models of poultry houses, poultry devices, charts, and reading matter on improved poultry Sg ob oP ede wee woe® US od eos ‘ eo « bai rgd UP = O ‘ % 0~0r2 o 93 es % fo, ep 029 SF ig es © O35, 72 e gA8” etn Ls sesoun 78 “3 ee | oKLAHOmMA™. | o® 978 se \ | | | | | ARKANSAS Fia. 21.—The egg car’s record. methods, goes along with ‘‘Uncle Sam’s’ egg-packing car. In many cases the on of the egg demonstration is made also an occasion for a stereopticon or other illustrated lecture on profitable chicken keeping. In its 7,000-mile journey the car has already visited 117 dif- erent egg-shipping towns, and over 11,000 farmers, commis- sion men, and school children (PI. XXXIV) have gone up and down its wooden steps to see for themselves the advantages of the proper handling of the Nation’s egg supply. (Fig. 21.) 1. 2. Egg and Poultry Demonstration Car. ITINERARY OF THE EGG DEMONSTRATION CAR. Butler, Mo., July 19, 1913. Nevada, Mo., July 21, 1913. 3. Lamar, Mo., July 22, 1913. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 56. 57. 58. 59. Joplin, Mo., July 23, 1913. Neosho, Mo., July 24, 1913. Harrison, Ark., July 26, 1913. Eureka Springs, Ark., July 27, 1913. Cassville, Mo., July 28, 1913. Pierce City, Mo., July 29, 1913. . Aurora, Mo., July 30, 1913. . Mt. Vernon, Mo., July 31, 1913. . Greenfield, Mo., Aug. 1, 1913. . Ash Grove, Mo., Aug. 2, 1913. . Springfield, Mo., Aug. 4 and 6, 1913. . Ozark, Mo., Aug. 5. 1913. . Bolivar, Mo., Aug. 7, 1913. Clinton, Mo., Aug. 9, 1913. . Odessa, Mo., Aug. 16, 1913. . Marshall, Mo., Aug. 18, 1913. . Higginsville, Mo., Aug. 19, 1913. Slater, Mo., Aug. 20, 1913. . Glasgow, Mo., Aug. 21, 1913. . Mexico, Mo., Aug. 22, 1913. . Bowling Green, Mo., Aug. 23, 1913. . Louisiana, Mo., Aug. 25, 1913. . Centralia, Mo., Aug. 26, 1913. . Drexel, Mo., Oct. 20, 1913. . Amoret, Mo., Oct. 21, 1913. . Hume, Mo., Oct. 22, 1913. . Anderson, Mo., Oct. 23, 1913. . Gravette, Ark., Oct. 24, 1913. . Siloam, Ark., Oct. 25, 1913. . Westville, Okla., Oct. 27, 1913. 4. Sallisaw, Okla., Oct. 28, 1913. . Poteau, Okla., Oct. 29, 1913. . Mena, Ark., Oct. 30, 1913. - De Queen, Ark., Oct. 31, 1913. . Ashdown, Ark., Nov. 1, 1913. . Temple, Tex., May 4, 1914. . Waco, Tex., May 5, 1914. . Hico, Tex., May 6, 1914. . Dublin, Tex., May 7, 1914. . Greenville, Tex., May 11, 1914. . Denison, Tex., May 12, 1914. . Gainesville, Tex., May 13, 1914. . Wichita Falls, Tex., May 14, 1914, . Ada, Okla., May 18, 1914. . Shawnee, Okla., May 19, 1914. . Oklahoma City, Okla., May 20, 1914. . Cushing, Okla., May 21, 1914. . Guthrie, Okla., May 22, 1914. . McAlester, Okla., May 25, 1914. . Muskogee, Okla., May 26, 1914. . Vinita, Okla., May 27, 1914. . Iola, Kans., May 28, 1914. Emporia, Kans., May 29, 1914. Parsons, Kans., June 1, 1914. Ft. Scott, Kans., June 2, 1914. Boonville, Mo., June 3, 1914. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. - Howard, Kans., June 18, 1914. . Cambridge, Kans., June 19, 1914. - Oxford, Kans., Jnne 19, 1914. . Wellington, Kans., June 22, 1914. - Caldwell, Kans., June 23, 1914. . Anthony, Kans., June 24, 1914. . Harper, Kans., June 25, 1914. . Kiowa, Kans., June 26, 1914. . Pratt, Kans., June 27, 1914. . Kingman, Kans., June 30, 1914. - Hutchinsgn, Kans., July 1, 1914. - Stafford, Kans., July 2, 1914. - Cimmaron, Kans., July 3, 1914. - Larned, Kans., July 6, 1914. - Great Bend, Kans., July 7, 1914. . Lyons, Kans., July 8, 1914. - McPherson, Kans., July 9, 1914. - Marion, Kans., July 10, 1914. . Newton, Kans., July 13, 1914. . Strong City, Kans., July 14, 1914. . Osage City, Kans., July 15, 1914. - Quenemo, Kans., July 16, 1914. . Ottawa, Kans., July 17, 1914. - Baldwin, Kans., July 18, 1914. . Alma, Kans., July 22, 1914. . White City, Kans., July 23, 1914. . Herington, Kans., July 24, 1914. . Wakeeny, Kans., July 27, 1914. . Hays, Kans., July 28, 1914. . Wilson, Kans., July 30, 1914. . Ellsworth, Kans., July 31, 1914. . Salina, Kans., Aug. 3, 1914. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. Holden, Mo., June 4, 1914. Moberly, Mo., June 5, 1914. Hannibal, Mo., June 6, 1914. Toronto, Kans., June 15, 1914. Chanute, Kans., June 16, 1914. Longton, Kans., June 17, 1914. Solomon, Kans., Aug. 4, 1914. Abilene, Kans., Aug. 5, 1914. Manhattan, Kans., Aug. 6, 1914. Clay Center, Kans., Aug. 7, 1914. Phillipsburg, Kans., Aug. 10, 1914. Smith Center, Kans., Aug. 11, 1914. Mankato, Kans., Aug. 12, 1914. Belleville, Kans., Aug. 13, 1914. Clyde, Kans., Aug. 14, 1914. Holton, Kans., Aug. 17, 1914. Horton, Kans., Aug. 18, 1914. Hiawatha, Kans., Aug. 19, 1914. Sabetha, Kans., Aug. 20, 1914. Seneca, Kans., Aug. 21, 1914. Axtell, Kans., Aug. 24, 1914. Marysville, Kans., Aug. 25, 9114. Blue Rapids, Kans., Aug. 26, 1914. Greenleaf, Kans., Aug. 27, 1914. Goff, Kans., Aug. 28, 1914. Effingham, Kans., Aug. 29, 1914. 379 380 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The success of the work is measured primarily by the reports of the egg collectors and the railroads that trou- ble with eggs is decreasing in the territory visited by the car. The demonstrators from time to time are also re- warded by the fact that some farmer and his wife will tell them that what they had learned was well worth the 10 or 15 mile drive to town, and that they intend to introduce the methods taught, so far as practicable, on their own farm. At one stop on the second trip of the car, a farmer broke into a conversation between a dealer and the demonstrator to say: ‘‘Well, I have been helping you considerable this year to get those first-quality eggs. You got it straight, young fellow. I sotd off all my roosters a while back, and I gather the eggs twice a day, keep them in the coolest place I can find, and market two or three times a week. I’m getting now $1.25 a case more than before I did these things. What I have done hasn’t cost me a cent, but it does take more time, and it’s a heap more profitable, I’m glad to say.” The demonstrators, however, do not expect to bring about an egg millennium by one day’s demonstration. They real- ize that much that they teach is new and that the carrying out of some of their directions involves departure from life- long practices, and in many cases prejudices, on the part of the individual egg raiser and the individual egg shipper. One woman, convinced that infertile eggs would keep better and market better than fertile eggs, was nevertheless unwilling to get rid of the rooster in the flock because he was a prime favorite with the children. In time, however, the demon- strators believe that the argument of a few more cents added to the weekly spending money from the eggs will overcome such a sentiment. They understand clearly, though, that farmers will not take the trouble of eliminating roosters and grading their eggs and delivering them to town as fresh as possible unless the egg-buying merchants adopt the quality basis and make it worth the farmer’s while to produce better eggs. The farmer is not in business for his health; his time is overfilled; his duties are many; his leisure limited; and the only argument that will make him introduce better methods on the farm is the fact that better methods pay. MEAT PRODUCTION IN THE ARGENTINE AND ITS EFFECT UPON THE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. By A. D. Mervin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and Grorce M. Romer, Chief of the Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. PRODUCTION IN THE ARGENTINE. HE growth of the meat trade in the Argentine Republic has been little short of remarkable, and its importance in the world’s commerce is greatest in beef products. Although the exports of mutton from Argentina rose from less than 200,000 carcasses in 1884 to over 2,000,000 in 1895, they have grown rather slowly since that year, exceeding 3,000,000 in 1902 and reaching the high point of 3,679,587 carcasses in 1904. The maximum output of frozen mutton under pres- ent conditions seems to have been reached in Argentina. Up © to the year 1913 the number of carcasses exported annually fluctuated from a little less to somewhat more than 3,000,000, and in 1912 there were fewer carcasses exported than in 1902. In 1913 fewer carcasses of frozen mutton were exported than in any year since 1896. Great Britain, the great consumer of meat exports from the Americas, gets only about 20 per cent of her mutton from Argentina. As the export mutton trade of the southern republic is therefore of somewhat minor importance at present, and as pork production is negli- gible, this paper will deal principally with the growth of the Argentine beef industry and its effects upon trade in the United States. : The area of the Argentine Republic is in round numbers 1,138,000 square miles. On this area there are 29,000,000 cattle, 80,000,000 sheep, and 3,000,000 hogs. Argentina ranks next to Australia in number of sheep, but is fourth in number of cattle, European Russia, the United States, and British India far outnumbering her in this respect. In the hog industry she is a negligible factor, hardly producing enough pork to supply her own small demands. 38] 382 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. On this area of over one and one-eighth million square miles there are 25 cattle per square mile, very few of which are used for dairy purposes, and an average of 70 sheep per square mile, nearly all of which are used for wool production. The United States, on the other hand, has on its continental area of almost 3,000,000 square miles an average of only 19 cattle per square mile, and of these nearly two-fifths are classed by the statisticians as milch cows. As against Argentina’s 70 sheep per square mile we have 17, but the mutton qualities are more strongly developed in our sheep than in those of Argentina. The United States has nearly 100,000,000 people to support on its 3,000,000 square miles of continental ter- ritory, while Argentina, with an area almost one-half as large, has less than one-tenth the population. The beef exports from Argentina started in the year 1884, when 112 quarters of frozen beef were shipped. From then on the trade grew rather spasmodically until 1899, when ex- ported frozen beef quarters jumped from 71,463 to 113,984. They passed the million mark in 1904 and the two-million mark in 1912. The year 1901 is notable in the Argentine beef trade, for in that year 24,919 quarters of chilled beef were exported. This trade has grown with only one setback (in 1908) until, in 1913, 2,989,805 quarters were exported, considerably more than the amount of 351,748,333 pounds of fresh beef exported by the United States in 1901, the year the Argentine chilled-beef trade began, and which year marked the beginning of the decline in United States exports of fresh beef. The growth of the beef trade is shown in detail in the table following. The figures are from the Boletin Mensual, pub- lished by the Argentine ministry of agriculture. Meat Production in the Argentine. 383 Exports of beef from Argentina. . Frozen beef. Chilled beef. Total increase Year. Increase Increase in beef , Exported yes Exported SHEE sods Pp - | preceding | ~*POrveC. | preceding ce 8 year. year. ear Quarters. Quarters. | Quarters. | Quarters. Quarters. BOO leet ee ne So eas teclccine 479, 372 213, 089 24,919 24, 919 238,008 NODS oe oe ore Se toe cette = eee Sac Se 735, 715 256, 343 94, 498 69, 579 325, 922 ODA Se 5.2 oo eee. bo 28 877,342 141, 627 142, 542 48, 044 189, 671 gL Nine res ee Se ae eee ae 1,018, 072 140, 730 198, 300 55, 758 196, 488 AOD eee ace i eee et eae ae 1, 533, 745 515, 673 426, 002 227, 702 743, 375 POGGeer a= seas eee- -eaees 1, 580, 589 46, 844 455, 459 29, 457 76, 301 POR Mea S Se 8 Pe See ye a se Sek 1, 403, 835 1176, 754 849, 613 394, 154 217, 400 NGO Bees ce sda atiee esse tes tick = 1,579, 163 175, 328 789, 348 1 60, 265 115, 063 AGRO Rie a <= eins = ae =e 2 op Salas = 1,615, 888 36,725 | 1,071,474 282, 126 318, 851 OO a SRE Be ESS Seamer 1, 434,078 1181,810 | 1,608,608 537,134 355, 324 TOMER se 2 5 tee ont. 22+ ete 1, 693, 494 259,416 | 2,131,791 523,183 782, 599 NON EEE S15 Sos 5 2 -Sme Sel= = 2,086, 780 393,286 | 2, 269,474 137, 683 530, 969 POS Se yeat ao see sos Sn eee = 1,102,938 1983,842 | 2,989,805 720, 331 1 263, 511 1 Decrease. These figures are particularly interesting from two stand- points. Except for two years (1907 and 1910) they show a constant increase in the quantity of frozen beef exported in spite of large increases in exports of chilled beef until the year 1913, when a drop of 983,842 quarters of frozen beef is noticed as against an increase of 720,331 of chilled quarters. This great change in 1913 doubtless indicates that Argentine exports will tend in the future to be confined to the chilled-beef class. For our purposes, however, the combined figures of frozen and chilled beef exports are much more important. Instead of an increase in volume, which is noticed in every year since 1901, the total exports of both frozen and chilled beef in 1913 show a decrease of 263,511 quarters below those of 1912. The figures for 1913 appear to indicate that slaughterings in Argentina are as great as present breeding stock will permit. Argentine chilled beef normally sells on the English mar- ket within 14 to 2 cents a pound of the price of English beef, and Argentine frozen beef from 1} to 24 cents a pound lower than Argentine chilled. 384 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The destination of nearly all of the Argentine beef is Eng- land, and Argentina is now the mainstay of the English beef market, as the following table shows. This table also shows the comparatively small influence of Argentine mutton in the English market: Imports of meat into Great Britain. [From Annual Statement of Trade of United Kingdom, etc.] Year. Source. ehiled.. |..drocens. | ate Cuts. Cuts. Cuts. oe Nae Rt h Re Sst) AROS eee A 5,216,022 | 1,955,853 | 1,012,347 Othert: Het MOE. 2. Sesser EL 31, 982 398,840 | 4, 191, 900 oP saan ar 52 gat ROE daca Penet ec wcRaetes 3,871,140 | 2,723,757} 1,589, 200 Other! Aes: Lae eee oe eee rene eee 5,310 226,120 | 3, 269, 509 aa ene Jae Se OE Some Aree 3,753,140 | 2,357,878 | 1,782,066 Other! 68:5.) eR La ee ee 177, 528 93,477 | 3, 430, 829 Laie loon F ctak RRETRES ce J5 Ot Ue 5c aeet 2,710,747 | 2,188,122] 1,419, 653 Others ese cb sane eee eet eee. beer 477, 968 159,521} 3,841,970 re ae cf SARE Oa ee EU eR 1,826,612 | 2,381,543 | 1,437,375 Other cho8. 3 calsete hee eS tes 822, 567 157,921} 3,130,572 ARGENTINE METHODS OF PRODUCTION. Argentina is a vast grazing ground. Situated largely in tropical or subtropical latitudes, pasture is available during the entire year, and shelter is rarely used, except for high- class breeding and show animals. Wonderful fatness and bloom are obtained by the cattle on the grazing lands, and only when disease, droughts, or locusts come does the estanciero have much cause for worry. These visitations, however, are quite sufficient and doubtless tend to check the expansion of the industry. Until quite recently grain was fed only to show and breeding animals. At present some grain is being used for fattening market stock. The droughts, of course, affect the crops more immedi- ately than they do the animals which may depend upon them, and the Argentine farmer who is depending largely on his corn or wheat is hit harder by protracted droughts than is the cattleman. In an earlier paper! it has been observed that in Argentina cattle growing is a much more certain enter- 1A,D. Melvin. The South American Meat Industry. Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1913, page 347. (See p. 358.) Meat Production in the Argentine. 385 prise than grain growing, and the people therefore prefer to raise cattle where the prices are remunerative, and that in 1913, on account of satisfactory cattle prices, there was a tendency to convert grain lands into alfalfa pastures. The enormous use of alfalfa pasture for fattening cattle in Argentina can not be overlooked in any consideration of the industry in that country. With its wonderful resistance to drought, no plant seems to rival it for the purpose, and when prices are at a satisfactory level a country so well sup- plied as Argentina with alfalfa pasturage has an assured po- sition in the trade. It appears that the rapid growth of the beef-cattle industry during the past 15 years has been coin- cident with the development of alfalfa for grazing purposes. Indeed, it may be said that the extensive seeding of alfalfa pastures by Argentine estancieros is what has made the ex- pansion of the cattle industry possible. Melvin also observed that alfalfa is not used nearly so much as it could be.t’ He naturally suggests that the exten- sion of the use of alfalfa for grazing will depend on the main- tenance of remunerative prices for cattle. As shown in the table on page 383, the increase in the sup- ply of breeding animals does not appear to be keeping pace with the slaughter of animals for beef, and Melvin? and others have called attention to the fact that Argentina is now slaughtering up to the limit of its present annual output. The sale and slaughter of females has been a matter of pub- lic investigation in Argentina, but it is believed that the high prices have checked this practice and are now tending to encourage breeding operations. BREEDING METHODS. Breeding methods in Argentina are on a high plane. Not even the United States, with its deserved excellent reputa- tion for the perfection to which its beef herds have been brought, can surpass Argentina. In the United States it is the exception to find a splendid herd of beef cattle handed down from father to son. In Argentina it is so common as to be almost the rule. In fact, many establishments have 1 Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1913, p. 358. 2 Thid., p. 364. 75922°—yBkK 1914——25 386 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. been in the hands of the same family for nearly a century. Add to this tenacity of purpose and continuity of plan and policy the universal custom of buying the best individ- uals and the best blood regardless of price, and we can read- ily appreciate that an exceedingly high degree of excellence is found in the best Argentine herds. An Argentine breeder recently paid the record price for a bull to head his herd, and this willingness to pay well for good blood is reflected in the prices which ordinary range bulls command. In no country are such uniformly high prices paid for these animals. EFFECT UPON THE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. At the outset, let us observe in some detail just what has happened to our export trade in fresh beef since 1901, the first year that exports of chilled beef were made from Argen- tina. This information appears in the following table: Exports of fresh beef from the United States, fiscal years ended June 30— Year. Quantity. Year. Quantity. Year. Quantity. eee | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. DOOD coe cise ces 351,748,550 || 19065 5-22 oe—- 268,054,227 || 1911. .-...-..... 42,510, 731 1002 8. 50252 301,824, 473: || 100 7ase-ase-s2e- 281 651,502) |p Ol 2 eee aeeeee 15, 264, 320 1903S ae 254, 795,963 || 1908.....-.----- 201,154,105 |] 1913. .-.....---- 7, 362, 388 1904322 res exes: 299,579,671 || 1909...-.-.------ 122,952,671 || 1914. ....--2---- 6, 394, 404 WOO eases t= 236, 486, 568 || 1910. ......----- 75, 729, 666 Starting in 1901 with over 351,000,000 pounds, we note a drop of one-seventh, or 50,000,000 pounds, in 1902, a further decline of nearly the same amount in 1903, then a rebound, then a drop of 63,000,000 pounds, then another rebound and another, with 281,000,000 pounds exported in 1907, from which time our fresh beef exports have constantly fallen with marked rapidity until in 1914 less than 7,000,000 pounds were shipped. At the same time let us refer back to the table showing the growth of the Argentine trade. We see that as the Argentine chilled beef trade has grown that of the United States has declined. The 351,000,000 pounds of fresh beef exported by the United States in 1901 repre- sents about the same amount of chilled beef that was ex- ported by Argentina in 1913. The 24,919 quarters of chilled beef exported by Argentina in 1901 equal about half the — Meat Production in the Argentine. 387 amount of fresh beef exported by the United States in 1914. Argentina has therefore taken our place as the source of England’s beef supply, not because she could produce beef more cheaply, for she always undersold our beef on the English market, but because she could produce the larger surplus. Our beef surplus has vanished and our own people now require all that our farms and ranches produce. It was not until this condition began to manifest itself in the United States that the enormous growth of the Argentine trade be- gan. The most striking feature of the whole subject, the one on which all can agree, is not that meat production in the Argentine has had an effect upon the industry in the United States, but that the decline in the surplus produc- tion of beef in the United States has had a most profound effect on the industry in Argentina. The rapid increase of our population without a corresponding increase in our beef output demanded the beef which had formerly gone abroad, and this decline in our exports transferred the English de- mand to Argentina and gave Argentine producers the oppor- tunity to furnish England the beef which she could no longer obtain from the United States. We must not, however, pass lightly over this subject. The possible effect of Argentine production on our trade in future demands serious consideration. With our markets thrown open to meat and meat products from abroad, the following table is interesting. It shows by months the im- ports into the United States of these Argentine products from October, 1913, to September, 1914, inclusive, and covers a period of only a few days short of one year. Imports of beef were highest in March, 1914, when some- what over 20,000,000 pounds came in. The total amount of refrigerated beef imported from October, 1913, to September, 1914, was nearly 140,000,000 pounds, which was more than the amount of fresh chilled beef exported by the United States in 1909, but much less than half the amount which we ex- ported in 1901. The total amount of all meat and meat food products imported from Argentina during this period was, in round numbers, 154,000,000 pounds. This, however, represents only 14 pounds per capita out of a total per capita consumption of 150 pounds. 388 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Imports of meat from Argentina to the United States, October, 1913, to Sep- tember, 1914. Fresh and refrigerated meat, Canned Other Month. and cured | meat food Total. meats. products. Beef. Other. 1913. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Octobers|.Vsla ees Fe ees! Di OGD! 704" ek: Ateeaesa| ee eee oe 46,070 | 2,115, 864 November. esas: ssaeee es 3, 988, 898 10, 204 31,025 63, 709 4, 093, 836 iDecembers =f... 5S ee ee 9, 440, 488 237, 422 130,176 546,588 | 10,354, 674 1914 ANUARY #52555. Sees ceste 8,935, 797 290, 317 16, 600 612,990 9, 855, 704 MebMUIAry s(5-=e sees eos ae 4346) 5600 | sae oes ae ais 50, 801 222,115 4,619, 481 Mani: tery olengera. JZ 20, 784,393 | 1,663,542 216, 711 146,871 | 22,811,517 ari ee ee ee ee 16, 538, 936 813,079 79, 200 189,120 | 17,620,335 i at Me ek RI i DE 12, 305,976 483, 995 363, 360 149,608 | 13,302,939 Funes ee i I RS 21,025,108 | 1,740,953 14, 400 140,946 | 22,921, 407 Tully’ eects. Ae 15, 715,179 376, 634 554, 750 476,432 | 17,122,995 PAIEUSER Eo. © tvotn ns ee 11,902, 399 625,156 | - 974,449 994,039 | 14,496, 043 Meplembicce ease eee 12,909,995 | 1,055,038 308, 544 294,298 | 14,567,875 Total, 12 months. ....| 139,963,528 | 7,296,340] 2,740,016 | 3,882,786 | 153, 882, 670 Apparently no one has been able to detect that this new trade has yet affected the industry here. Judging from the strong demand for pure-bred bulls, there is confidence among the producers of feeders that our home trade will not be seriously injured. We have seen that Argentina is slaughtering up to the limit of her capacity, and that, apparently, breeding operations are being extended in that country. Statistics seem to show plainly that to keep up with her increasing exports to Europe, Argentina is com- pelled to increase her breeding herds. With our own popu- lation increasing rapidly and our beef production appar- ently passing through a period of readjustment, definite fore- casts of final results seem unwise. However, we do not be- lieve that beef producers in the United States need have serious immediate concern regarding competition from Argen- tina. THE BREEDING INDUSTRY. Although the final effect of the beef output of Argentina may be difficult to forecast, there seems no doubt that a posi- tive and beneficial effect upon our industry may be expected in the demand for breeding animals. Although the Argen- tine herds have been brought to a high standard, their Meat Production in the Argentine. 389 owners are constantly in the market for breeding animals to bring in fresh blood or to improve the quality of the herds. This trade has heretofore gone almost entirely to Great Britain, and it has been one of the most profitable outlets which British breeders have had. Every influence is used to maintain this dominance of the English breeder. The busi- ness and social relations between British and Argentine breeders are close. British judges nearly always officiate at the leading Argentine shows, and, in spite of the large num- bers of young Argentines who have been educated at our agricultural colleges, British or continental authorities are usually consulted on live-stock subjects.. So far as recol- lection goes, there is not an instance of a North American breeder having been asked to judge at an Argentine show. The junior author of this paper has suggested that an invita- tion be extended to some prominent Argentine breeder to officiate as a judge at one of our leading shows. Such a courtesy would be greatly appreciated and would have a pro- found effect on subsequent relations between Argentine breeders and those in the United States. With the curtailment of breeding operations in England at present and natural interruptions to the trade, may we not expect Argentina to become interested in North Ameri- can breeding stock? If we take some of their beef, why should they not take some of our bulls in exchange? The writers do not believe that we have many to spare, if indeed we have any that our pastures do not need; but we do be- lieve that a reasonable amount of such trade with Argentina would be a great stimulus to breeders in the United States. Our breeders of beef cattle have gone far toward develop- ing distinct strains and families of marked merit. These families offer to Argentine breeders blood lines and valuable characteristics which can not be obtained in British herds. Without in any way detracting from the merits of British- bred animals, it is suggested that it would be to the advantage of Argentine breeders to mingle with their own well-estab- lished strains not only the best of the modern British blood lines but those of North America as well. As a striking and familiar example of the possibilities of such a course may be mentioned the Shorthorn bull Americus, which was grand champion at the Palerme show in 1913 and sold for 80,000 390 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. pesos ($34,400), the highest price ever paid for a bull of any breed. This bull’s sire was bred in Argentina and his dam was bred*by the Leonards at Boonville, Mo. Such facts have excited the interest of Argentine breeders, and this interest can be increased and made to yield tangible results if properly encouraged. SUMMARY. The foregoing remarks may be summarized as follows: -(1) BEEF PRODUCTION IN ARGENTINA. (1) The growth of the Argentine export beef trade has been a remarkable development of the last 15 years. (2) At present the Argentine beef output seems to be all that is warranted by the present supply of breeding animals. (3) The Argentine beef output may be increased, the ex- tent of the increase depending upon the maintenance of remunerative prices, the use of alfalfa pastures, and the relative importance of grain growing. (4) Very little of the Argentine beef is corn-fed, and the large profit in raising cattle on alfalfa pasture when prices are satisfactory may in itself tend to check the growing of corn for fattening. (5) Highly enlightened and long-continued breeding oper- ations have given Argentina a stock of beef cattle of a very high degree of excellence. (a1) THE EFFECT UPON THE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. (1) The tremendous growth of the Argentine export beef trade may be directly attributed to the decline in the surplus production of beef in the United States. (2) The United States imported from Argentina from October, 1913, to September, 1914, inclusive, in round num- bers 154,000,000 pounds of beef and meat products, of which 140,000,000 pounds were refrigerated beef. (3) The Bureau of Animal Industry does not believe that beef producers in the United States need have serious imme- diate concern regarding competition from Argentina. (4) A positive and beneficial effect on our beef cattle industry may be expected in the demand for breeding animals from Argentina. This demand should be stimulated in every legitimate way. HARD WHEATS WINNING THEIR WAY. By Mark ALFRED CARLETON, Cerealist in Charge of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. INTRODUCTION. URING the year 1870 a man named La Croix came to Minneapolis and constructed a wheat-flour purifier in one of the mills of that city. Such machines had been in use for several years in France, but until this time they were unknown in this country. By means of the purifier, which rapidly came into use, a complete separation of the milled products became possible, enabling the miller to produce from the strongly colored but nutritious middlings of hard wheat a flour suited in texture and color to the popular demand. Hight years later, in 1878, Gov. C. C. Washburn, founder of the Washburn-Crosby series of flour mills, installed a small roller mill, claimed to be the first complete roller mill in the United States, and thus initiated, for this country, the most radical advance ever made in the history of mill- ing. This mill was at first to be purely experimental. In fact, the new process was considered so uncertain for prac- tical use that even during the same year, the Washburn A mill having been destroyed by an explosion of flour dust (May 2), the new mill erected in its place was fitted with stone burrs, as usual. At the close of 1877 the total runs of stone in the 21 Minneapolis mills were 197, and all the mills had water power but one, which was run by steam. However, the use of rolls soon passed the experimental stage, and in a few years all plants in Minneapolis and all the principal mills elsewhere in the United States were roller mills. Rolls cause a crushing and flaking of the ker- nel instead of pulverization, as with stone burrs, and thus allow a more perfect separation of particles afterwards. They were at first made of various materials, chiefly porce- lain, but finally the present perfectly formed steel rolls were adopted. Upon these two innovations—the roll and the purifier— was based a new and complicated system of ‘‘high grind- 391 392 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. ing,’ which worked a complete revolution in the milling business. A tremendous increase in the business itself fol- lowed, because of greater efficiency in production, accompa- nied by cheapness of flour and increased consumption. The special significance of the new system in this connection is that the miller was enabled by its employment to operate successfully with hard wheats, which were destined to be the prevailing wheats in the prairie region. ADAPTATION. What are the conditions which made the cultivation of hard wheats inevitable in this country? Briefly these: They are the kinds of wheat best adapted to dry prairie regions, having come from such a region, the Chernozém (black earth) in Russia, where they have long been established. They are therefore best suited to our own very similar prairie region, the Great Plains (Pl. XXXVI, fig.1; Pl. XL, fig. 1), where they are now grown, and will give better yields there than other wheats. With greater yield and the same price the farmer will naturally grow what pays him best-—an axiomatic prin- ciple in any business. Although all hard wheats originally sold at a lower price than other wheats, the yield per acre of the former has almost always been sufficiently greater to more than offset the price discrimination. Later prices have become equal to or greater than those of other wheats. Add to these conditions the higher protein content of hard wheats, greater percentage of certain other nutritious constituents, and greater absorption of water by the flour, and we have ample reasons why these wheats must naturally prevail. CLASSES. Three classes of hard wheats have so far been introduced into this country (Pl. XXXV). These, in the order of their introduction, are (1) hard spring wheat, (2) hard winter wheat, and (3) durum wheat. Each has had an interesting history and has become established under difficulties. While each class has been a little more difficult than the preceding for the miller and baker to handle to their satisfaction, on the other hand these men have been better prepared each time 1 A discussion of this matter in detail is given in an article, “Successful Wheat Growing in Semi-Arid Districts,’”’ in Yearbook for 1900, and in B. P. I. Bull. No. 3, ‘‘ Macaroni Wheats,” pp. 13-19, 1901. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 393 to overcome the difficulties by improvements in machinery such as those already described. HARD SPRING WHEAT. Hard spring wheat, although introduced into the northern Great Plains of this country and Canada about the middle of the last century, did not become firmly established as a profitable crop until after 1870, coincident with the intro- duction of the purifier and roller mill. There are two chief varieties, Fife and Bluestem. The Fife was the first to be established. It is a little more hardy than the Bluestem and has a slightly harder kernel. The kernel is particularly distinguished by its greater breadth in proportion to length and by its very broad groove. The Fife has white bare chaff and the Bluestem white velvet chaff. Both varieties have red kernels and no beards (Pl. XX XV, figs. 1 and 2). ORIGIN OF HARD SPRING WHEAT. It is pretty generally agreed that Fife wheat came from the northern Volga River Valley district of Russia, but de- tails of the introduction are lacking. Much credence is given to the following statement from the Canadian Agriculturist of 1861: About the year 1842, Mr. David Fife, of the township of Otonabee, Canada West, now Ontario, procured, through a friend in Glasgow, Scotland, a quantity of wheat which had been obtained from a cargo direct from Dan- zig. As it came to hand just before spring seed time, and not knowing whether it was a fall or spring variety, Mr. Fife concluded to sow a part of it that spring and wait for the result. It proved to be a fall wheat, as it never ripened, except three ears, which grew apparently from a single grain. These were preserved, and although sown the next year under unfavorable circumstances, being quite late and in a shady place, it proved at harvest to be entirely free from rust, when all wheat in the neighborhood was badly rusted. The produce of this was carefully preserved and from it sprung the variety of wheat known over Canada and the Northern States by the different names of Fife, Scotch, and Glasgow. This traces the introduction no farther than Danzig, but it is very probable that the shipment was made from Russia. OPPOSITION TO THE WHEAT. Up to the year 1870 hard spring wheat was very unpopu- lar, probably fully as much so as any other hard wheat has been, including the durum. Hard spring wheat sold at 10 394 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. to 15 cents less than soft spring and 20 to 25 cents less than soft winter wheat. As some writers put it, it was a ‘“de- spised’’ wheat and considered quite unfit for making bread, particularly because of its strong color. Millers and bakers declined to receive it except at a considerable discount in price. CHANGE IN SENTIMENT. With the advent of the roll and the purifier there was an immediate change of sentiment. It was then possible to so handle the wheat as to produce a flour satisfactory in ap- pearance to the consumer in comparison with soft winter- wheat flour. This was not accomplished at once, however. The new product persisted still in being a “‘creamy”’ flour, not white, and required considerable time to establish a rep- utation. It was seen, finally, that creaminess is really an indication of good quality. Others besides Washburn were pioneers in pushing spring-wheat flour to the front in these early days. Among these were George H. Christian; C. A. Pillsbury, founder of the present series of Pillsbury mills, including Pillsbury A, the largest mill in the world; and W. H. Dunwoody, an associate of Washburn. GRADING AND PRICES AT CHICAGO. For a long time there was no definite recognition of hard spring wheat. Spring wheat was any wheat spring sown, regardless of color or hardness. At the Chicago Board of Trade, prices of the different erades at certain dates were as shown in the following table: Prices per bushel of No. 1 spring, No. 1 red winter, and No. 1 white winter wheat on the Chicago Board of Trade on dates mentioned. Price per bushel, Date. No. 1 No, 1 red | No.1 white spring. winter. winter. - Cents. Cents. Cents. Dec, 25; 1858 1.2222. 3. ose eee. SEL Rooms 83 to 85 | 108 to 110 124 to 125 Deo 2 SSIS oe Sao shee oe Bee acicele + eee 68 to 70 74 to 76 85 to 86 MAT S2D I OUN = sae E as deena ies = ayo eee ete 115% To'l167| Stitt se. 5 Dockvels IS60sa=- < Pease S.-i 84to 86] 103 to 105 |...........: 1 Average prices for week ending on date given. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 395 The grade of amber lowa was adopted in 1862, said to be a spring wheat from Minnesota, northern Iowa, and northern Wisconsin, which sold at 3 to 4 cents higher than No. 1 spring. The grades of Nos. 1 and 2 northwestern spring began in 1873 and sold at 1 cent higher than Nos. 1 and 2 spring, and in 1876 at 3 to 5 cents higher. On September 1, 1877, these grades were changed to Nos. 1 and 2 hard spring. Later on, the grade No. 1 northern was adopted as the stand- ard milling and contract grade of hard spring the same as in Minneapolis. December 30, 1911, No. 1 northern sold at $1.05 to $1.10 per bushel, while No. 2 red winter (contract soft winter grade) sold at 914 to 983 cents, showing a com- plete reversal of attitude toward hard spring wheat. On March 27, 1869, prices of flour per barrel were as follows: DHE WATT GCL Se es nei ee Ae = $7. 00 to $10. 00 EOP ITLGL thee i eee Maer Se Oe aS. cts 6.50 to 7.75 Fancy brands spring extras.............-...-- 6.25 to 6.75 Hairoto choiceapring extrase: 29.2. .u:-..- 5.00 to 5.75 Spring syperiver.eee: conc ies ls. 252). 18) 75. to, 4/50 Seven years later, in 1876, spring patent flour first sold at a price above that of white winter. GRADING AND PRICES AT MINNEAPOLIS. The grades Nos. 1 and 2 hard spring were adopted by the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce August 16, 1882, and sold at 5 cents above corresponding grades of ordinary spring called “‘regular.”’ In 1885, the grades Nos. 1 and 2 northern were established, and No. 1 northern became there- after the standard milling and contract grade. No. 1 hard, however, was retained as a grade for the best Fife wheat, though in recent years there is very little wheat to which this grade may properly be applied. About 7 years ago two more grades, Nos. 3 and 4 northern, were added. GROWTH OF THE HARD SPRING-WHEAT INDUSTRY. From 1878 onward hard spring-wheat cultivation and northwestern milling progressed with rapidity. New lands in the Dakotas and western Canada were occupied by the wheat farmer, and new mills were constantly being erected 396 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. in new settlements. The center of milling moved westward from New York to Minnesota, and Minneapolis succeeded Rochester as the ‘‘ Flour City.” Hard spring wheat had won its way (figs. 22 and 23). In 1878, when the first roller mill was built, the total output of flour of Minneapolis mills was 940,000 barrels. A large flour-export market was developed in Great Britain, and the first export was made in 1878, amounting to 109,183 barrels. In 1902 the export alone from Minneapolis was over 3,000,000 barrels, while the total out- put was over 16,000,000 barrels. In 1909 the total flour production in Minnesota was 22,737,404 barrels, and the U.S. DEFARTMENT OF AGFIGULTORE BUREAY OF STATISTICS. FIGURES IN STATES REPRESENT PRODUCTION. iN PULLIONS OF BUSHELS. AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION DECADE (1869-/878) INI4MILLIONS OF BUSHELS. Fic. 22.—Average annual production of wheat in the United States, in miilions of bushels, for the ten years from 1869 to 1878, inclusive. same year the production of the three spring-wheat States, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, was 25,531,610 barrels. PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHIC LIMITS. The area of hard spring-wheat cultivation at present in- cludes the three States just mentioned, portions of Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and eastern Montana. Hard winter wheat has steadily encroached upon this area from the south, and in the Dakotas, especially, there is an extensive substitution of durum for hard spring wheat. The yearly production of hard spring wheat for the three States, Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 397 Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, from 1909 to 1914, inclusive, is shown in the following table: Annual production of spring wheat in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, in thousands of bushels, for the six years from 1909 to 1914. Production, in thousands of bushels. State. | s 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 INBEATIOSO Lae terre) eis a2) cis os Se 54, 284 61,376 42,441 64, 704 66, 348 41,010 Mok oe Dakotas se sss. sos. 8 97, 606 32, 224 62,074 | 125,936 68, 553 71, 133 Soutnibakotayc=.-.2sc2= +. 31, 215 31, 489 11,396 37, 842 24, 440 23, 876 Wel sate sees es --| 183,105 125, 089 115, 911 228, 482 159, 341 136, 019 US _DEPARTIENT OF AGRICULTURE BUREAU OF STATISTICS. J FIGURES IN STATES REPRESENT PRODUCTION INMILLIONS OF BUSHELF AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION, DECADE (1899-1908) IN HILLIONS OF BUSHELS Fig. 23.—A verage annual production of wheat in the United States, in millions of bushels, for the ten years from 1899 to 1908, inclusive. The average production of these three chief spring-wheat States for the past six years was 157,993,000 bushels, exclu- sive of durum but including Preston (the so-called Velvet Chaff). HARD WINTER WHEAT. In this country the term “‘hard winter wheat” is applied chiefly to two closely related varieties or strains called Turkey and Kharkof. Other names, such as Crimean and Malakof, are often used for the same kind of wheat. The 398 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. characters are a medium-sized head, bearded, with white smooth chaff, and a hard red kernel, a little smaller than the usual winter-wheat kernel. There is little or no differ- ence in visible characters between the Turkey and the Kharkof, but the kernel of the latter appears to be, as a rule, slightly larger and a little darker colored than that of the former. The gluten content of hard winter wheat is large, about equal to that of hard spring, but differs some- what in quality. The expansive power or “‘strength’’ is | slightly less in hard winter. There is also perhaps a trifle more color in hard winter-wheat bread. ORIGINAL HOME. The original home of hard winter wheat is in the area of Russia just north and east of the Black Sea and north of the Caucasus Mountains. The area includes chiefly the governments of Taurida (Gncluding the Crimea), Ekaterino- slav, Kharkof, and Stavropol, and the Don and Kuban ter- ritories. In that region the wheat is generally called simply winter wheat, but is known locally by various names as Krimka (Crimean), Kharkof, Beloglina, Ulta, Torgova, ete. (Pl. XXXV, fig.3.) Our introductions from Russia are chiefly of the Crimean (the original Turkey) and Kharkof strains. In this country the area producing hard winter wheat, corre- sponding to the Russian area described above, is chiefly that portion of the Great Plains including Kansas, Oklahoma, small portions of Texas and Colorado, nearly all of Nebraska, and a small part of South Dakota.t The original home is strikingly similar in conditions of soil and climate to that portion of our Great Plains just mentioned (figs. 24 and 25). KANSAS AND THE CRIMEA. A traveler on the plains of Kansas, if suddenly trans- ported while asleep to southern Russia and deposited in the Crimea, would discover very little difference in his sur- roundings, except as to the people and the character of farm improvements and live stock. Even these last would be of 1 Inrecent years Turkey and Kharkof have come to be successfully grown also in Iowa and in certain western intermountain districts, as Utah and Montana, which are not in the Great Plains proper. They are not adapted, however, to Pacific coast conditions. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 399 the same kind if he were transported from certain localities in Kansas, where Russian immigrants now live. It is there- fore natural that the center of hard winter-wheat production in this country should be in Kansas, since in Russia it is in the Crimea. The climate of the Russian district is a little more severe, which fact makes Crimean wheat all the more satisfactory for Kansas. THE RUSSIAN MENNONITE PEOPLE. The history of hard winter wheat is closely associated with the movement of Russian Mennonite immigrants to the middle Great Plains. These people originally went from west Prussia to southern Russia about 1770 because of cer- tain land grants and civil privileges offered by the Govern- ment under Empress Catherine. One hundred years later their descendants, desiring further advantages to be ob- tained in America, emigrated to the middle Great Plains and settled principally in Kansas. The greater number were from the Molochna colonies in northern Taurida, but some were from the Crimea proper and others from Ekaterinoslav. The first settlements in Kansas were made in 1873 near Newton, Halstead, and Moundridge. Each family brought over a bushel or more of Crimean wheat for seed, and from this seed was grown the first crop of Kansas hard winter wheat. Bernard Warkentin, a miller, who erected mills at Newton and Halstead, was chiefly instrumental in intro- ducing the Turkey wheat, but in this pioneer movement of the Mennonites two other men were associated—Christian Krehbiel, first a farmer, but who later, in 1886, erected a mill at Moundridge, and C. B. Schmidt, acting as immigra- tion agent for the Santa Fe railroad. HUMAN IMMIGRANTS AND CEREAL IMMIGRANTS. There is an interesting feature of this introduction of a great crop in the fact that the crop and the people who knew best how to grow it migrated together. The Mennonites had been growing the wheat in its original home many years, al- though in the Molochna district spring wheat was grown up to 1860, when Turkey wheat was introduced there from the’ Crimea, and entirely replaced the spring wheat (Pl. XX XVII). 400 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. On account of the small rainfall in Taurida, an important feature of cultivation there is the “chernui par,”’ or black fal- low, called black simply from the very dark color of the rich turned-over soil. It is really a summer tillage, and there are four cultivations: First, a deep plowing, and then three lighter operations at intervals of a month afterwards, made by very Fig. 24.—Distribution of hard wheats in Russia: (1) Hard spring whea‘ (chiefly variety Russian); (2) hard winter wheat (Crimean); (3) durum wheai (chiefly Kubanka). small gang plows or cultivators. Therefore, these people, on coming to the Great Plains, were already acquainted with the practices of early deep plowing and thorough surface cultivation, which not until a quarter of a century later were widely advocated in this country in connection with “dry farming.” PLATE XXXV. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. (yeoyaM winamp (wyUTqN ys) F {BoA JoJUTM pavy (Josey ry 10 AoymnT,) ¢ “voy Surads prey (Uroysont_) Z pure (et) T] "SALVLSG GALINQ SHL JO SLVAHM GYVH 40 SaGvaH Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XXXVI. Fia. 1.—ViEW OF A PRAIRIE ON THE WESTERN GREAT PLAINS. Fia. 2.—TURKEY WHEAT IN MONTANA, AVERAGING 35 BUSHELS PER ACRE. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE DOOCVIE Fic. 1.—THRASHING TURKEY WHEAT IN THE MOLOCHNA DISTRICT, NORTH- ERN TAURIDA. Fia. 2.—HARD WINTER-WHEAT FLOUR MILL AT SIMFEROPOL, CRIMEA. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XXXVIII. Fic. 1.—DURUM WHEAT UNDER “DRY FARMING” IN WYOMING. Fic. 2.—ON LEFT, HARD SPRING-WHEAT FLOUR BREAD; ON RIGHT, DURUM- WHEAT FLOUR BREAD MADE AT THE SAME TIME IN THE SAME BAKERY. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 401 MAKING HEADWAY SLOWLY. The good qualities of Turkey wheat were not generally appreciated much before the close of the last century, 25 years after its introduction into Kansas by the Mennonites. At the Kansas experiment station its superiority came to light about 1897, though it had been under experiment for some time. Previously, Currell, or Zimmerman, had been the favorite wheat. In northwestern Kansas, Turkey was Fig. 25.—Distribution of hard winter wheat in the United States: (1) Hard spring wheat (chiefly Fife and Bluestem); (2) hard winter wheat (Turkey and Kharkof); (3) durum (Kubanka). scarcely known even as late as 1890, though it had been grown | already in scattering localities in that territory. OPPOSITION. The difficulties in milling and baking seemed to be a little greater than those met with in the hard spring wheat. Even Kansas millers for some time either declined to receive hard winter wheat or paid a lower price for it than for softer wheats. At Minneapolis, millers who had already had simi- lar difficulties in milling hard spring wheat and would there- fore know better than others how to handle it, nevertheless rejected it. 75922°—ysxK 1914 26 402 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. GRADING AND PRICES. AT KANSAS CITY. In 1875-76 the following grades were recognized at Kan- sas City: Nos. 1, 2, and 3 red winter, Nos. 2 and 3 white win- ter, and Nos. 1, 2, and 3 spring. December 1, 1879, No. 2 red winter sold for cash at $1.17, and No. 2 spring at $1. In 1880 winter and hard winter sold on the dates mentioned at the prices shown in the following table: Prices per bushel of Nos. 1 and 2 winter and Nos. 1 and 2 hard winter wheat at Kansas City, Mo., on three dates in 1880. Price per bushel. Date. No. 2 No. 3 No. 2 hard | No. 3 hard winter. winter. winter. winter. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. August3see sass seas cee ase ecieoe Cocleee see 833 | 748 to 75 76 72 September li. oe wean ee cee secs eeeiaar 80 724 73 71 October Faces aed 2 eases eee 86 78} 764 76 During this year the grades Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 hard winter were first mentioned. In August, 1886, soft winter wheat still sold higher than red winter. June 30, 1891, the grades of hard winter were first included in the inspection report. Prices on September 3, 1892, were as follows: No. 2 soft winter, 70 to 71 cents; No. 2 hard winter, 652 to 662 cents; and No. 2 spring, 65 cents, showing hard winter still selling lower .than soft winter, though there was now a large quantity of . Turkey wheat grown. Out of a total of 70,218 cars received that year, 54,108 were hard winter wheat. Even 16 years later, in 1908, hard winter still sold at a discount, the price difference being from 3 to 7 cents on September 1 and from 14 to 2 cents on December 1. In May, June, and July, 1910, it sold a little higher than red winter for the first time, but quickly fell again until April, 1911, and then again exceeded red winter to July 1, 1912. For December 15 to 21, inclusive, 1914, No. 2 hard winter ranged from $1.12 to $1.173, as against $1.11? to $1.174 for No. 2 red winter. CONDITIONS AT MINNEAPOLIS. In 1891, 1,386,185 bushels of winter wheat were inspected at Minneapolis, the first considerable quantity mentioned, but how much, if any, of this was hard winter was not re- Hard Wheats* Winning Their Way. 403 ported. After this no further very large quantities of winter wheat were reported at that place until 1901, when 5,353,340 bushels were inspected. About 1905 hard winter wheat was received in Minneapolis with hesitation, and then in small lots. Separate grades of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 for the hard winter wheat were first made in Minneapolis in 1907. On De- cember 1, 1914, the price of No. 2 hard Montana (the same class of wheat) ranged from 2 cents above the same grade of northern spring to 14 cents under, and 2 cents to 34 cents under No. 1 northern. On December 22, the difference was 1 cent less or 1 to 14 cents under No. 1 northern. CONDITIONS AT NEW YORK CITY. As early as 1901, hard winter wheat at New York was quoted at a fairly good price compared with No. 1 northern, and in 1902 the average price was only one-half cent below that of No. 1 northern. Afterwards it ran constantly several cents under in average yearly price, and under No. 2 red winter up to 1913, when it exceeded No. 1 northern by 1, cents, but was still 44 cents under No. 2 red winter. On Decem- ber 19, 1914, No. 2 hard winter to arrive was quoted at $1.314, 2 cents higher than No. 2 northern to arrive. HARD WINTER WHEAT AT ST. LOUIS. As St. Louis is situated in a soft or semihard wheat area, hard winter would not be expected to be popular there. Nevertheless it sold a little higher than red winter in 1911, then became lower again in 1912 and 1913. After long con- tention, No. 2 hard winter was admitted to contract grade in . June, 1914. In 1913, the receipts of hard winter at St. Louis were almost equal to those of red winter for the first time. Recently (December, 1914) prices of the two grades have kept near together. FINAL SUCCESS. All recent prices at the important markets show a decided but gradual change in attitude toward hard winter wheat, so that it is now ranked, where it should be, among the first-class wheats. It has “won its way” through difficulties, in accordance with the motto of the State where its pro- duction is greatest. 404 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. In recent years hard winter wheat has been used in con- siderable quantity by Minnesota mills, while Kansas millers, who originally paid a lower price for it, long ago turned about and now will use no other wheat. In the meantime hard winter patent flour has gained a large export trade, is ac- cepted everywhere, and has made Kansas the second flour- producing State of the Union. Kansas flour production in 1909 was 10,887,744 barrels. Hard winter wheat is now more generally in favor in this country than any other winter wheat. In California, where it is not adapted, a third to a half of all wheat annually used by the mills is imported from the middle Great Plains. It has encroached upon the hard spring-wheat area to the northward in Iowa and Nebraska and upon the area of softer wheats to the westward in the Rocky Mountain States, and has made Montana a wheat State (Pl. XXXVI, fig. 2). TURKEY WHEAT IN IOWA. Turkey wheat has for a long time been grown in Iowa, and it has been claimed that it was introduced there from Illinois even before its introduction into Kansas. Whether this is true or not, it could well have happened, as the earliest Mennonite immigrants settled first in Llinois before 1870, and no doubt, as was their custom, brought seed of Turkey wheat to that State. There is a published state- ment that Turkey wheat was introduced from Mason County, Ill., into Iowa in 1870. It is also reported that George W. rs lh ie of Atlantic, Iowa, first distributed this wheat in that State i in 1886. : INTRODUCTION OF KHARKOF WHEAT. The Kharkof strain of hard winter wheat was obtained by the writer; acting for the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1900, in Starobelsk district, eastern Kharkof government. This district is characterized climatically by ereat drought and piercing cold winter winds. It is much farther north than Taurida. Kharkof wheat has been able, therefore, to withstand the weather a little farther west and north than Turkey. It is particularly better for a combi- nation of cold and drought. At about two-thirds of the Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 405 points where Kharkof has been accurately compared with Turkey for several years, it has given a little better average: yield. At present about half the entire wheat crop of Kansas is of the Kharkof variety. For 1914, therefore, the Kansas production of Kharkof wheat alone should be about 80,000,000 bushels. LATER IMPORTATIONS OF TURKEY WHEAT. At the time of the introduction of Kharkof wheat several lots of Turkey or Crimean wheat were imported by the De- partment of Agriculture from the Molochna district of Taurida. A year later the Kansas Millers’ Association, through Mr. Warkentin, imported 15,000 bushels of Turkey from central Taurida, which was sold as seed to farmers in Kansas and adjoining States, the source of seed being recommended to Mr. Warkentin by the writer. For a time this strain really appeared to give slightly better results than the usual Kansas seed, but in a few years its influence disappeared. DURUM WHEAT. Near the close of the last century the hard spring and hard winter wheats had become established in a large portion of the Great Plains region, from Canada southward to and including Oklahoma. In the continued progress of settle- ment westward, however, extremes of drought and combi- nations of cold and drought were encountered, which even these wheats, hardy as they were, could not always overcome. So much new land had been taken that settlements were being made up to and beyond the one hundredth meridian. There was, therefore, great demand for more drought- resistant crops for the newer semiarid districts, but especially for such crops as wheat, which would give cash returns to the new settler. SHALL THE NORTHWESTERN PLAINS GROW WHEAT 2 Briefly, out of the situation grew the question: Can wheat be grown profitably in the extreme western or semiarid por- tion of the Great Plains? As the hard winter wheat is a little more drought resistant than the hard spring, and as winter wheat always yields better than spring wheat, other 406 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. things being equal, the need appeared more urgent in the northern Plains States, making it desirable to secure a spring wheat able to resist more extreme conditions. It should be added that there was considerable commercial demand for more wheat. So many mills had been erected in response to previous extension of the wheat area, as described under ‘‘Hard spring wheat,’ and such deterioration in quantity and quality of the wheat crop bad been reported, that there appeared to be a real lack of good wheat. INTRODUCTION OF DURUM WHEAT. It was therefore in response to a growing demand of both millers and farmers that the Department of Agriculture, in 1898 to 1900, attempted to increase and improve the wheat crop by the introduction of hardier varieties of still better qual- ity from east and south Russia. From results of experiments previously conducted and after a careful comparative study of soil and climatic conditions, it was already suspected that new varieties from these districts would be of benefit in this country. While several good new strains of winter wheat were obtained, including the Kharkof already mentioned, the chief result of this work was the introduction of Kubanka durum wheat from the Kirghiz Steppe district of western Siberia, in the vicinity of Uralsk and Orenburg (Pl. XLI). CHARACTERISTICS OF KUBANKA WHEAT, The Kubanka variety, which represents practically all the durum wheat of this country, is a bearded wheat with compact, flattened heads, yellowish-white chaff, and large light-amber colored kernels, which are extremely hard and vitreous in fracture when of good quality (Pl. XX XV, fig. 4). The gluten content is very large, and there is also a large percentage of.ash, oil, and sugar. Pererodka and perhaps Arnautka are other namesforthesame wheat. Beloturka also usually means the same thing, though in Russia it is claimed that this variety, when pure, is distinct from Kubanka, hav- ing longer and narrower heads. The varieties Gharnovka, Velvet Don (Chernouska), and Black Don (Chernokoloska) were also obtained from south Russia, but were soon found to be not so well adapted to our northern Plains. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 407 ORIGINAL HOME. The original home of Kubanka durum wheat is approxi- mately Samara, Saratof, and Orenburg governments, Uralsk territory, and adjacent portions of the Kirghiz Steppe. The best quality comes from the Kirghiz Steppe district (Pl. XLI figs. 1 and 2), where the annual rainfall averages little more than 12 inches. The center of production is about in south- ern Samara and Uralsk territory (Pls. XX XIX and XL). ADAPTATION IN THIS COUNTRY. On the basis of similarity in climatic conditions, the center of production in this country would be logically in western North and South Dakota. Other conditions than climate, however, have had such influence that the trend of production has not always been in the logical direction. The greatest production, as a matter of fact, has been near the Red River, a long distance eastward from where it should be. There are probably two chief reasons for this fact, out of several that are possible: (1) Durum wheat is resistant to rust as well as drought, and rust occurs in greatest abundance eastward toward the Red River; (2) millers of the smaller western towns are either not able or not willing to adapt their mills to a new wheat, unless forced to do so by lack of other wheats. At present the center of durum-wheat production appears to be in Ransome and Sargent Counties, in south- eastern North Dakota. No doubt, since durum-wheat prices have greatly increased, a greater extension of the crop westward will occur and the center of production will move westward (Pl. XX XVIII, fig. 1). RUST RESISTANCE. A quality of durum wheat of no little importance is its rust resistance. This fact was clearly brought out in the spring-wheat crop of 1904. There was a loss that year of 25,000,000 to 40,000,000 bushels in the crop of the three States of Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, practically all of which would have been avoided if the total crop had been durum. In many instances durum wheat made 15 to 20 bushels per acre, while Fife or Bluestem on the same farm was a total failure. One effect of this rust 408 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. epidemic upon the farmer was a very great increase in durum-wheat acreage the following year. Again in 1914 fields of Bluestem wheat were abandoned as not worth cut- ting in many localities in North Dakota because of rust. The new Marquis wheat fared little better; Preston wheat was still better, while Kubanka was apparently unaffected. ESTABLISHING A NEW CROP. Though durum wheat had been grown in small quantities at scattering points many years before its introduction by the Department of Agriculture, commercially it did not exist. The triflmg quantity grown was sold for stock and poultry food at a price absurdly low for wheat. There was no finan- cial incentive for growing it, and its good qualities were unknown. ‘The task before the department, therefore, was far more than the mere introduction of Kubanka wheat seed. It was the long, tedious process of establishing a new crop, with all its attendant difficulties, a process of sheer persistence and education of the people. DIFFICULTIES OF MILLING AND BAKING. Changes of some kind in milling operations have accom- panied the introductions of each group of hard wheat. Durum wheat has the hardest kernels of all. Even the modern roller mill would not handle it satisfactorily without some modifications, among which is a larger area of cor- rugated surface. The kernels must be softened much more by steam or water before being ground. After grinding, additional grades of bolting cloth are desirable for proper separation of the products. The closest grinding of durum gives a patent flour very sharp and gritty, with no pastiness. In baking the flour absorbs more water, an advantage to the baker, and the loaf expands less and is heavier than in bakings of other flours. The excess of oil and ash imparts a stronger yellow color to the flour, and the excess of sugar causes a slightly sweet flavor (again to the advantage of the baker, as little or no sugar need be added) and a darker brown crust on the loaf. All these qualities are desirable to most people. However, yellow color and lack of expansion Yearbook U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1914. PLATE XXXIX. Fia. 1.—STACKS OF KUBANKA DURUM WHEAT NEAR URALSK, RUSSIA. Fia. 2.—SELF-RAKE REAPER IN WESTERN SIBERIA. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PEATE Le Fig. 1.—HAULING@ DURUM WHEAT TO MARKET IN THE KIRGHIZ STEPPE, SHOWING ALSO THE CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. Fig. 2.-DURUM WHEAT BROUGHT TO MARKET BY KIRGHIZ FARMERS AT URALSK, RUSSIA. PLATE XLI. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. ge is ogre iy zi ees ' gee. rf age Fia. 1.—KIRGHIZ HUT, EAST SIDE OF THE URAL RIVER, IN SIBERIA. FIG. 2.— CAMP OF NATIVE KIRGHIZ HARVESTERS WHO CUT GRAIN WITH THE SICKLE. Fia. 38.—DURUM-WHEAT FLouR MILL aT URALSK, RUSSIA. IN THE SAME MILL A BREAKFAST Foop, ‘“‘KASHA,” IS MADE FROM PRoso MILLET. Pa ; siSveal = J Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 409 have been the stumbling blocks to the baker and the house- wife. It is still a matter of education of the eye and taste together and of dogged persistence on the part of certain enterprising millers and bakers, who will undoubtedly win their way in the end. OPPOSITION TO DURUM WHEAT. Naturally, durum, the hardest of hard wheats, met at once with the most violent opposition, chiefly from millers, but also from all grain men. Various epithets, such as ‘‘ bastard” and “‘goose,’”’ were applied to the wheat without restriction. At first the tendency was to ridicule it, as it was not thought possible that such a wheat could prevail. However, a crop of somewhere near 10,000,000 bushels in 1903 and receipts of over 1,000,000 bushels at Duluth alone made it apparent that-durum wheat was something to be reckoned with. The following is quoted from the report of the Duluth Board of Trade for the year ending December 31, 1903: ' This variety of wheat, new, yet not new, made this year its first appear- ance in this market in any considerable quantity—the receipts being 1,149,263 bushels. Prices range from 60 to 70 cents per bushel for No. 1. Opinions differ as to its future position in the grain market. * * * Millers do not seem to be very profuse in its praise. For a time opposition seemed to increase, and the differ- ence in price became greater. For 1903 the average price of durum at Duluth was 134 cents under No. 1 northern; in 1904, 15 cents; in 1905, 162 cents; and in 1906, 10 cents. Later the price difference became as much as 20 cents and more. INCREASE IN PRODUCTION. The production of, durum wheat nevertheless increased greatly each year. In 1907 the farm value of the crop was about $30,000,000, or more than 3,000 times the original cost of introduction, and three times the entire appropriation for the Department of Agriculture for that fiscal year. The yield per acre became constantly 30 to 50 per cent greater than that of other wheat, on the same farm, and often 100 per cent greater in very dry localities. In the annual report of the Duluth Board of Trade for 1905 it was stated that durum wheat ‘“‘has evidently come to stay, as evidenced by 410 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. the fact that 25 per cent of the wheat received at Duluth in 1905 was of this variety.’”’ The following more lengthy quotation from the 1906 report of the same board of trade gives a fair statement of the remarkable change in condi- tions respecting this wheat by the end of the year 1906: The movement of durum wheat and the easy manner in which the large and sudden increase in its production has been absorbed have attracted the attention of the entire grain trade of the country. It was in the year 1903 that this variety of wheat made its appearance in the Northwest in any amount worthy of notice. It was not received with open arms. The Amer- ican miller did not take to it, and to this day, the fourth year of its appear- ance in‘any volume, he still maintains his attitude of disfavor. With the American millers disposed against it, grain men naturally discouraged its production. The farmer, however, found that it grew easily and that it produced in more generous quantity than spring wheat, and its production increased. The year 1904 saw a somewhat larger amount grown, but it was in 1905 that the great increase came. So much greater was the volume of durum wheat that poured to market that grain merchants at the beginning of the movement of the crop despaired of ever finding a market for the yield. Good fortune was with the American grower, however, for the countries of Europe and in the Mediterranean district of Africa, which had always been large producers of this variety of grain, had reverses and were unable to supply those who had always looked to them for their hard macaroni wheat. The American exporter was quick to see the opportunity, and soon the foreigners were heavy buyers of durum wheat from America. Prices were advanced steadily, and the demand grew until there were times when durum wheat could actually be placed in some markets at better prices than No. 1 northern spring wheat. The entire crop was easily absorbed and at good prices. But one result could be expected from this—another great increase in the crop of durum—and the year 1906 brought this. Again there was consider- able uneasiness among grain merchants as to whether markets could be found for all of it. There was some fear that the buying of the 1905 crop by the Europeans had only been a temporary movement that would die out with the resumption of normal production by the macaroni-wheat raising countries of the other side. Nothing to justify this belief has as yet de- veloped. The durum wheat crop of 1906 is being steadily absorbed, and the short sellers who looked for durum wheat to go to very low prices have been badly mistaken. Europe seems to have been well pleased with the wheat supplied by America from the 1905 crop and is again buying it heavily this year. Even Russia, one of the foremost wheat exporting countries of the world, has been a good buyer of this wheat in the Duluth market. A further statement from the same source in the report for 1907 shows no abatement in the durum demand: In the year 1907 durum wheat again made up a large percentage of the receipts of grain at Duluth, and it was in good demand. Foreign markets Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 411 continue to absorb the larger part of the shipments from here, but its use shows some sign of growing with American millers. Millers of the United Kingdom also use it to some extent when the price level is attractive. The crop of 1907 was much larger than that of the year previous, but the increased yield was absorbed without trouble. A DECIDED CHANGE OF ATTITUDE. As an interesting illustration of the great change in attitude toward durum wheat, the following two letters, quite oppo- site in sentiment, from a prominent grain-exporting firm to commercial journals, are here reproduced. The first was written to Bradstreet’s in September, 1903, and from it the following is quoted: There are arid portions of the Northwest where this wheat will grow and where ordinary wheat fails. It is not surprising that the farmers in these regions eagerly accepted the statement of Mr. Carleton that ‘‘goose” wheat (now under the name of macaroni) contained valuable qualities for bread- making—in fact, equal to that of our Scotch Fife. This theory exploited by Mr. Carleton has resulted in the raising of an enormous crop of this class of wheat, estimated at 10,000,000 bushels. As indicated in the extracts from our Minneapolis letter, the millers view the situation with alarm. They are confronted with a large decrease in merchantable wheat, and also the danger of mixture of macaroni and other wheat, such mixture being useful only as food for stock. From a shipper’s standpoint this macaroni wheat must meet the com- petition in Liverpool,of similar wheats from Russia, the Danube, and India. These at present are very low, and about 67 cents at Duluth is the best the exporter can pay for it. Last year’s experience for the exporters of macaroni wheat was discouraging. They were encouraged to keep in the market through the fall, and were obliged to carry through the winter a block of macaroni wheat which failed to find a market. Its value as an export article is entirely independent of the price of other wheats. In view of this situation I think it is in good order to suggest that the Govern- ment exercise some caution in launching this variety of wheat and insisting that the millers and grain men meet the situation. IT heartily commend the Government for the establishment of its experi- mental stations and for the aid given the farmer in the development of proper seed grain, but I think Mr. Carleton’s enthusiasm has warped his judgment. He has been instrumental in producing a condition of things in the Northwest that, to say the least, is unhealthy. The question of supply and demand, which Mr. Carleton has apparently ignored, must settle the question in value. I think the farmer should be advised to go - slow in raising macaroni wheat until a safe market is found for it. The second very different letter from the same firm was published in a Minneapolis journal in October, 1907 after 412 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. having been refused the columns of another well-known journal in the same city. It is quoted here as follows: Just as a matter of interest, No. 1 durum wheat in Duluth sold to-day at $1 per bushel in store, and one durum wheat on track by sample is selling at $1.01 to $1.02. At the same time cash No. 2 red in Chicago can be bought at $1.03 in store at Chicago. Some of our export offers last night offered both the No. 1 durum and the No. 2 red Chicago at less than 3 cents per bushel difference, and the No. 1 durum is accepted and the Chicago No. 2 red not taken. Now, in view of this, and the fact that the buying is being done by English millers and German millers, and not by the Med- iterranean macaroni trade, why not come out frankly and state that you have been unintentionally misrepresenting this wheat for some time, or that you have misjudged its milling qualities altogether. With the situa- tion now, and the relative price between durum and red wheat for a milling mixture by a United Kingdom miller who can draw both, or draw any cheap wheat in the world, the plea that it is used because of its cheapness will not bear scrutiny. The fact is this durum wheat is a good yielder in the milling process. The percentage of off-grade is smaller than in a great many varieties of wheat. It makes a satisfactory body for a flour mixture, and it has a real value as a milling wheat, notwithstanding all that your- selves and other northwestern milling journals have said of it. Ina large section of the Northwest it is the most profitable wheat to grow, and if the journals in the milling centers had treated this question from the start on a plain common-sense business basis, they would stand to-day in a better light in view of recent developments in the durum trade. We should like to see you frankly retrace your recent course regarding durum wheat. DURUM AS A MILLING WHEAT. In the Minneapolis letter referred to but not quoted in the above letter to Bradstreet’s it is stated that durum wheat flour yields less bread per barrel. Quite the opposite result has been obtained in all bakings known to this department, and for a very simple reason—the greater water absorption of the durum flour. Note also the very different statement as to this question in the second letter: “The fact is this , durum wheat is a good yielder in the milling process,” ete. As a matter of fact not one objection to durum wheat flour for bread making has been made good, except possibly the one of greater cost of production. This disadvantage is becoming constantly less, and will no doubt soon disappear as the miller becomes better acquainted with proper methods ~ of operation. Even the yellow color, claimed to be so serious an objection, can be and has been eliminated by sufficient Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 413 aeration of the dough, which is made possible by the use of several mixers recently invented. However, this is only a suggestion to those desiring it. As a fact, the color should not be eliminated. Itis thestamp of quality. The fact that northwestern spring patents, which are not white, have been established in the face of great opposition to their color is ample evidence that durum patents will also succeed (PI. XXXVIII, fig. 2). SEMOLINA AND MACARONI. That durum-wheat semolina makes the best macaroni is a fact that probably needs no argument. We import chiefly from Italy, and the Italians use only durum wheat. Nevertheless, only a rather small percentage of macaroni is made from durum wheat in this country. Few Americans know what constitutes good macaroni. There is the ever- present idea again of whiteness, and when the color is good it is often spoiled by bleaching. It is then cooked into a pasty mass, wholly unlike the proper article, which should permanently hold its form, like rubber, although well cooked, and should be yellow or yellowish-white in color. DURUM WHEAT AT DULUTH. Durum wheat was first recognized commercially at Duluth. The grades of Nos. 1 and 2 durum were estab- lished there, at the board of trade, in 1902. Later, Nos. 3 and 4 were added. Much aid was given to the exploitation of durum, in the early days of its history, by exporters at this place. It also soon became a speculative wheat, equally so with spring. Durum sold readily as an export grain, as its qualities have long been known in Europe. The first great increase in production was in 1905, fol- lowing the rust epidemic of 1904, which brought out clearly the rust-resistant quality of durum. There was a good for- _-eign demand ready for this surplus. In recent years Minne- apolis and local mills have so far taken the crop that there is a constant scarcity for export. The receipts of durum, its percentage of the total wheat receipts, and comparative prices at Duluth for the first five years of its commercial history are shown in the table following. 414 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Annual receipts of durum wheat, percentage of total wheat receipts, and prices of No. 1 durum and No. 1 northern wheat at Duluth, Minn., 1903-1907. Price per bushel. Durum Durum 5 Year. wheat | Wheat in receipts. receipts. No. 1 No. 1 durum, | northern. Bushels. | Per cent.| Cents. Cents. G02. 2 :06-2 ust Semen. 5. Nase, Ler rele ae 1,149, 000 4,38 673 81 $904 S20) “Winwi, Sn Weaatiee. eee ene FE 1,707, 000 7.19 873 102 L0G aden viens paged hse Le SE. 7,824,000 12. 55 838 100 Ls Mees Bene PSION SUSU PORTE OD 5c eet 15,026,000} 37.47 708 80§ 10072 18. op eh ett: cg pee oe ove! 26, 721, 000 48. 07 80 97 The receipts of durum wheat, total wheat receipts, durum percentage of the total receipts, and average end-of-the- month prices for No. 1 durum and No. 1 northern at Duluth for 1908 to 1911 are shown in the following table: Annual receipts of durum and of all wheat, percentage of durum wheat in total wheat receipts, and average prices of No. 1 durum and No. 1 spring at Duluth, Minn., 1908-1911. Receipts. Price per bushel. ceipts Dees rice per bus : wheat in bees: total No. 1 No.1 Durum. | All wheat.) receipts. durum. | northern. Bushels. Bushels. Per cent. Cents. Cents. 1908 Aaa 3 Ro ea ee eS 22,631,000 | 46, 873, 000 53.90 90 107 1909 )7- So ooo a ne at a a er 17, 863,000 | 48,529,000 36. 81 100 114 DALY eae ep: Eel EMR tty a lO 8, 831,000 | 27,841,000 31. 72 90 110 TODD EEG ss Pee! ere peeg Ee 3,517,009 | 28, 503, 000 12.34 92 101 By 1907 almost half the total wheat received at Duluth was durum. Soon the low prices, as shown above, caused a decrease in acreage and also caused a larger quantity to be used by the mills. In 1911 even the durum that reached Duluth was reported to be practically all absorbed afterwards by Minnesota and other mills. In 1910 it was evident that European millers were using our durum, as so much of it went to markets outside of France and Italy. Even British millers bought it. Ant- werp offered one-half cent more for durum than for Manitoba No. 3. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 415 On September 5, 1911, durum wheat at Duluth sold at a premium over No. 1 northern for the first time, the price being $1.044 and for No. 1 northern $1.04%. Since then it has continued to be sold at a premium, at intervals, during three more crop years. Recently, for over two months (November and December, 1914, and onward) it has sold constantly above hard spring, often more than 20 cents above. DURUM WHEAT AT MINNEAPOLIS. Durum wheat for some time met with very conservative treatment by Minneapolis millers, as was expected, although its objectionable qualities were of the same nature as those met with in first handling spring wheat, but present to a greater degree, and therefore should have been considered evidence at once of its superiority. After the first large durum crop, in 1905, following the rust epidemic, Minneapolis appeared to give more attention to the wheat, seeing that it had evidently come to stay. Also the great discrimination in price against durum, at that time increasing, and no doubt furthered by the very opposition to the wheat, now made it possible to use it in an experi- mental way, a it was soon admitted to be a very excellent milling wheat, if for no other purpose than blending with other softer see The grades of Nos. 1 and 2 macaroni appear to have been first recognized on the Minneapolis Exchange in 1902. In 1904, the term “‘durum (macaroni)’’ was adopted and grade No. 3 added. In 1905 the grades Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 durum were established. The first considerable quantity of durum wheat inspected into Minneapolis, nearly 7,000,000 bushels, was in 1906, and very little seems to have been inspected out. In that year a full report of inspection and prices of durum was first given by the board of trade. From that time on- ward the receipts steadily increased, up to 1910, when the quantity of durum received was over one-seventh of the total wheat receipts. By this time, also, the period of great price discrimination, which, however, had already lessened the production, was about ended. This fact, together with a stronger foreign demand, caused a sharp decrease in Min- neapolis consumption. The receipts of hard spring wheat 416 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture and durum wheat at Minneapolis and the prices of each on December 1, for the years 1906 to 1913, inclusive, are given in the table following: Receipts of hard spring and of durum wheat at Minneapolis, Minn., 1906-1913, with the price per bushel for each on December 1. Receipts. Price per bushel. Year. oe Hard Hard spring. | Durum. spring. Durum. ‘ Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Cents. 1906S esa ee ee te ee Oe es eee 66,789,110 | 6,950,950 78h 634 1QOT-AL boo eeeend ee eee ee eee 66,382,470 | 8, 656, 410 106 $43 1:1 ee een Se ene ee Ae ee 62,847,180 | 8,094,060 1104 893 AQ0Q Soc sosns ee ete ee ee eee eee 63,211,410 | 8,996,950 106 872 19102 ee Le. Ae eect haem Seo 71,619,960 | 12,929, 790 106 88 1912 cere ee. ee eee 76,879,960] 4,818, 590 1023 99 1019. 4 yon eet te elereete oan ee Lees 101,213,460 | 5,140,010 823 794 1913... es ee ee ees 98,903,080 | 5,284, 480 854 80% Note that the price of durum jumped from a discount of 18 cents in 1910 to one of less than 4 cents in 1911, and, what is more important, has since been steadily maintained at an average of only 3 to 5 cents below that of spring wheat. At present (December, 1914) durum is selling as much above No. 1 hard as it was below it in 1909-10. The two following items are from the Northwestern Miller: November 18, 1914: Durum wheat on track at Minneapolis is command- ing a premium of 6} to 8} cents per bushel over No. 1 northern. December 2, 1914: Durum wheat sharply advanced in the last week on export inquiry from France to Italy. No. 1 durum on track at Minneapolis is held’ at 7% to 10} cents over No. 1 northern compared with + cent under to 24 cents over a week ago. . On December 22, 1914, durum-wheat patent flour sold at 30 to 50 cents per barrel higher than hard spring patent, while durum semolina was still higher. DURUM WHEAT AT NEW YORK. New York early became an important durum-wheat point because of the European export demand. At first the ship- ments were almost wholly to France and Italy for use in making macaroni, but in recent years large quantities have gone to Belgium, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and some Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 417 even to Great Britain, where the softest wheats are usually employed. There is sufficient evidence accompanying the reports of these facts to show that usually the wheat was ground for bread. The following table shows comparative wheat prices at New York from 1901 to 1913, inclusive. Note that even the average yearly price of durum finally exceeded that of all other wheats except No. 2 red winter (the popular eastern wheat) in 1913. Average yearly prices of various grades of wheat at New York, 1901-1913. Price per bushel. Year. + No. 2 No. 1 No. 2 red. |northern. rae No. 1 ar hard winter. |Manitoba.) @UtUm- Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. C0 A oS ra a RTI DE, eg 804 813 1 hs BR iw ne hat Passes BT AM 83,35 823 Soy LOL | Rae CS Sas Sie pen Sacer 5 ee eee ee Six's DOFe ly (2 Sate bes 2 Bledel. 35-Acceee Ct a ee ee ee eee ESP Seer 11033 112} ieee ere Caeeee nee 1S 7 92 SESS mee ermicerie, Sais 10243 108% 3929,| 494.5 190.8; ‘ILL 15 el ee aS gE 864 808 853 881i 83:55 SCT Side MEE Ee Rae bee Spetlens ore a 965 106i 993 | © 10133 904% BOWS SiR. ce se ey gs kh oe = Rom eae 1043 116§ 1093$ | 611333 1013 712 1) SaaS reticent tk ah fe 1248 125% 123355 12045 10785 ET jek lead bern tah a8 4: tin 11143 1218 | 71103 1113 1038; I9l1...-..-.---.----------------- +--+ --- 9725 11138 10335; 1068 3 1093 1912... .-.- +2222 +--+ +2 222222 eee eee eee 109% 1123 108% 1104 8 10535 1913..-.:.--------------------+--------- 104% 982 10075 1014 1018 1 Average for 3 months, October to December, inclusive. 2 Average for 9 months, January to September, inclusive. 3 Average for 5 months, August to December, inclusive. 4 Average for 2 months, October to November, inclusive. 5 Average for 10 months, January to July, September to November, inclusive. 6 Average for 2 months, November to December, inclusive. 7 Average for 9 months, January and February, June to December, inclusive. 8 Average for 5 months, January, September to December, inclusive. RECENT PRICES OF DURUM WHEAT. For a long time the discouraging feature of durum-wheat production was the steadily decreasing comparative price. This continued, with variations, up to 1910. So long as the difference was not more than 3 to 5 cents, the greater yield of durum made it possible still to grow that wheat at a greater profit, where it was adapted, than other wheat. With a 75922°—ypK 191427 418 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. price difference of 15 to 20 cents in 1908 to 1910, it was inevi- table that the acreage should decrease. From 1911 conditions in this respect have entirely changed. Durum is now often the premium wheat and always sells near to No. 1 hard. At the time of this writing durum wheat has already sold at a premium as high as was ever reached by No. 1 hard over durum. A steadily increasing premium has been maintained for two months. Durum first reached the $1.50 mark at Philadelphia on December 17, 1914. On December 1, 1914, No. 1 durum sold at New York at $1.61 per bushel. A PREDICTION FULFILLED. During the week of September 19-25, 1898, the prices of Kubanka durum wheat at Samara, Russia, ranged from 17 to 23 cents per bushel above those of Russian, the latter a grade of spring wheat very similar to our No. 1 hard, and corre- sponding to it. This fact was personally observed by the writer of this article, who was in Samara during the time mentioned in search of good seed of durum wheat. In referring to this matter in another publication, the writer made the following statement:! It is interesting to note that just five years later almost an exact reverse of the relations in price of these two classes of wheat existed in this country at Minneapolis, and yet we have the same system of milling and largely the same export outlet for our wheat and flour as Russia. The explanation is that the American trade is only now becoming acquainted with durum wheat (Pl. XLI, fig. 3). Later, in the years 1907 to 1910, when durum sold at 20 cents or more under No. 1 northern at Minneapolis, the writer, in discussing the conditions with grain men in that city at different times, made the prediction that in the future such conditions would be reversed and become similar to those at Samara, with durum wheat selling at a premium over No. 1 hard, and that the dealer who was first prepared and on the right side would reap the first profits. The idea was scouted as being hardly worth consideration. Several times in December, 1914, the prediction has been amply fulfilled, and the prices of durum and hard spring have finally stood in their proper relations, and as they were at Samara in September, 16 years ago. 1 Carleton, M. A., The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Tadusery Bul. No. 70, pp. 12-13. Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. 419 COOPERATIVE EFFORTS. A number of business firms have aided greatly in estab- lishing the dusum wheat crop, while at the same time profit- ing by their operaticus. Perhaps the greatest aid was given by the actual opposition of its enemies, thereby cheapening the wheat so that tests of it on a large scale were financially possible. These tests were all that was necessary to bring it into favor. THE FIXITY OF DURUM WHEAT. In earlier years there was much doubt as to the perma- nency of the market for durum wheat until three large crops in succession were readily absorbed. So in 1911, when it first sold at a premium over hard spring, it was not believed by some that this could be anything more than a sporadic occurrence and that the former relation of prices between the two wheats, with its great margin against durum, would soon be resumed. But there was a second surprise, and the former relation was not again resumed, even in four years. On the contrary, the higher price of durum has become more and more frequent and finally the regular thing. Hence, even taking into fuli consideration the present disturbing condi- tions of foreign war, the chances are that durum will continue to be in great demand and will ever be in future a preferred wheat. This most triumphant career of a once rejected wheat is simply a good illustration of results that are bound to follow persistent efforts based upon facts of science. AVERAGE TOTAL PRODUCTION OF THE HARD WHEATS. It is impossible to determine accurately the total produc- tion of hard wheat, but it can be roughly estimated. The three Northwestern States produce about 180,000,000 bush- els, including durum, each year. Other spring-wheat States produce about 15,000,000 bushels more of hard wheat, mak- ing 205,000,000 bushels of hard spring and durum. Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma grow about 136,000,000 bushels, of which probably 120,000,000 are hard winter. This added gives 325,000,000 bushels. Other winter-wheat States, such _ as Iowa, Montana, etc., will furnish about 25,000,000 more, making in all 350,000,000 bushels as the approximate aver- age annual hard-wheat production in this country. This is about half of the average total wheat production. 420 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture EXTENSION OF THE HARD WHEAT AREA. As may be inferred from the preceding diszussion, there are only two regions in the world whzre the strictly hard wheats may be successfully grown, these being the eastern and southern portions of Russia and the Great Plains and western intermountain districts of the United States and Canada. At the same time, only these wheats can be de- pended upon to give any profitable returns where the cii- mate is extremely dry. Therefore, because of their excellent quality and the fact that they must be used in the exten- sion of wheat growing into localities where the summers are drier and the winters colder than where wheat is at present grown, it is of vital importance for the future wheat supply to endeavor to improve them so that they will become adapted to localities at present still more unfavorable for wheat growing. For example, the hard winter wheat may be so improved in both winter hardiness and drought resist- ance that it can be grown farther north and west than the present Kharkof and Turkey varieties, while, on the other hand, the durum wheat may be so improved in drought resistance that it will be more successful in localities west of the one hundredth meridian. MEAT PRODUCTION IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. By E. C. Joss, Veterinary Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. INTRODUCTORY. ARLY in 1913 importations into the United States of frozen and canned meats from Australia and New Zea- land began to show a marked increase. In past years the large surplus of mutton and beef produced in the Australian colonies has found its principal market in England, with smaller shipments going to continental Europe and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. However, with the steady increase in the population in the United States and at the same time the rather marked decrease in the number of beef cattle produced, especially during the past six years, it was in- evitable that part of the world’s surplus of meat, particu- larly beef, produced in the vast pastoral regions of South America and the Australasian countries should begin to seek North American markets. In view of the volume of meat entering United States ports from Australia and New Zealand, the writer was directed by the Secretary of Agriculture late in the summer of 1913 to proceed to those countries and examine into the conditions under which the meat and meat food products intended for entry into the United States are produced, slaughtered, treated, and shipped. Owing to the vast area of Australia, which is approximately equal to that of the United States, not including Alaska or the island possessions, 1t was possible to visit only the principal live-stock districts of the States of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland lying to the eastward and bordering on the Pacific Ocean. However, in this portion of the continent are situated the principal cattle and sheep raising regions, and it is in this part of the Commonwealth that practically all of the Australian meat- export works are located. New Zealand, consisting mainly of two islands each approximately the size of the State of Iowa and situated about 1,200 miles to the east and south of Australia, was visited upon the conclusion of the observa- tions made in Australia. 421 422 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. PRODUCTION OF LIVE STOCK. The relative importance of Australia and New Zealand as sheep and cattle producing countries of the world will be noted in the following tables, showing the number of sheep and cattle of various countries. More detailed information on this subject can be found in the appendix to this volume. Number of cattle in various countries. Country. Date. | Number. || Country. Date. | Number. British India.........-- 1911 | 114,876,000 |} Sweden...............- 1911 2, 690,000 United States.......... 1913 | 56,527,000 |) Roumania............. 1911 2, 667, 000 Russian Empire......-- 1910) |!» 51, 4044000! Spainss ss5525-. 5 eeeee 1912 2, 562, 000 Aronian = 22 see. eee 1911 | 28,786,000 || Denmark.............- 1909 2, 254, 000 Gemmany . 27754322. ee 1912 20,182,000 |) Netherlands...........- 1910 2,027,000 Austria-Hungary......- 1911 | 17,188,000 || New Zealand.........-. 1910 2,020, 000 Wrance 4 ee ke. ee ee 1912 | 14,706,000 || Bulgaria..............- 1911 2,018, 000 United Kingdom....... 1913 | 11,869,000 || Belgium............... 1912 1,831, 000 Australia 20h. sa 55s 1912 24 PRL on7a000 || hOhiler. 04 20 Ee 1912 1,760, 000 UTHgUBYi2e- o 325. porte 1908 8,193,000 || Ceylon.-.--2......-.2.- 1910 1, 465, 000 Canada: !s2s2- 2 5552 1913 6,656, 000 || Switzerland............ 1911 1, 443, 000 Tiglgee oe = see 1908 G, 1992000) | Japanese sess 1912 1,399, 000 M@xICOse 8 5-8os) se 1902 5,142,000 || Algeria...oeoonnee aSO0E sere 50,713,000 | 1.19 | 60,198,000 | 7.87} 473,570,000 | 9.00 15.50 28, 066 ee eee 51,044,000 | 1.19 | 60,818,000 | 8.12] 494,114,000 | 12.50 14.00 35, 201 {8920s 50,853,000 | 1.18 | 59,824,000 | 8.20 | 490,428,000 | 11.00 13.50 33, 084 1ROsSsc Sse 49,613,000 | 1.33 | 65,766,000 | 8.68 | 570,883,000 | 10.00 10.50 54, 446 48,321,000 | 1.14| 54,874,000 | 8.54 | 468,578,000 | 10.90 10. 25 47,117 44,206,000 | 1.06 | 47,079,000 | 8.35 | 393,186,000 | 12.00 12. 00 59, 052 43,260,000 | 1.37 | 59,282,000 | 6.55 | 388,146,000 | 8.00 9.00 61, 658. 42,427,000 | 1.43 | 60,665,000 | 6.62 | 401,391,000 | 8.00 10.50 81, 827 42,781,000 | 1.55 | 66,377,000 | 6.00 | 398,061,000 | 8.00 10.50 64,916 41,328,000 | 1.37 | 56,656,000 | 7.27 | 411,926,000 | 10.50 12.50 72,716 52,351,000 | 1.09 57,002,000 |.......|-----------2--|-----2-[---- 22 -]e-e ee ee[eeee ee epee e renee ee 39,133,000 | 1.28 | 50,111,000 | 8.89 | 445,539,000 | 11.50 13.50 89,364 39,391,000 | 1.28 | 50,591,000 | 10.01 | 506,192,000 | 13.00 13.50 | 153,431 39, 825,000 | 1.50] 59,858,000 | 9.06 | 542,036,000 | 12.00 15.00 50,974 39,934,000 | 1.54} 61,306,000 | 9.07 | 556,276,000 | 10.00 15. 00 60, 730 39,999,000 | 1.52} 60,696,000 | 8.72 | 529,108,000 | 10.50 12.00 66,557 39,362,000 | 1.54] 60,532,000 | 8.52 | 515,960,000 | 10.00 12.50 70, 172 42, 476,000 | 1.35 | 57,146,000 | 10.37 | 592,540,000 | 15.50 20.50 58, 602 44,028,000 | 1.45 | 63,677,000 | 11.68 | 743,507,000 | 13.00 14.00 77, 281 46, 486,000 | 1.52] 70,798,000 | 8.98 | 635,423,000 | 11.50 13.00 64, 641 45,744,000 | 1.42| 64,938,000 |.......|--.-.---------|-------|-22-2--[-c2-20-[-22-ac|seeese- aes 51,041,000 | 1.35 | 68,833,000 | 10.50 | 722,401,000 | 16.00 16. 00 55, 007 1910 3.....] 51,015,000 | 1.36] 69,378,000 | 12.14 | 842,252,000 | 16.00 23.50 55, 223 A9TIE Ses: 48, 240,000 | 1.14 | 54,916,000 | 14.29 | 784,926,000 | 20.00 p 28. 00 59,730 1912s: 49,530,000 | 1.47 | 72,691,000 | 11.79 | 856,695,000 | 13.00 14.00 | 16.50 60,7 1OIsBE . 52 48,954,000 | 1.31 | 64,116,000 | 12.43 | 797,077,000 | 14.50 15. 00] 17.50 50, 149 1914. 2.2 49,145,000 | 1.43 | 70,071,000 | 11.12 | 779,068,000 | 15.00 | 16.00 |..-----|-------]-----**"- : I ee, se ee ee 1 2,000 pounds. 2 2,240 pounds. 8 Figures adjusted to census basis. Statistics of Hay. HA Y—Continued. TABLE 78.—Hay: Acreage, production, and total farm value, by States, 1914. State. New Hampshire.......... Wermonts) 2227. dssencesce New Wonk 2.2220 -022 223 Mew erseyones-se= = sen < Penrisylyania\. soe Fs Ie Delaware! - 52522854) .5- 22-8 [000 omitted.] Farm value, State. Dee. 1. Dollars ‘ 18, 523 || North Dakota...........- 10,166 |) South Dakota............ U7 S450) Nebraska s....- 52...) ke SSGal: ipenansas: 2227.22 See MO Ard CAR UMCKY LW >.- 2.5 s-s acces 9,146 || Tennessee....-........-.- 81,526 || Alabama:......-...2-.--2 9496" Mississippi... 5.2). 222-222 HSeloys |) Aemisiang - 22 £338 9/9252 2 S43 sh eras so. .t od 67554) || Okiaboma. 252.28 so 2c5 SHO5ON Apkansast 8; 20 soi 2s 11 008>|| Montana: -o5 282 6529311] Nn OmMlIn e225 2 SS 2 ke es 40114) Colorado © 9. 33a 0ed 5,476 || New Mexico.........-.... TIS PATIZON aes SoS ass cce jseeee AS SRST Midgar . os peed e822 PAY PAY ES (chi Ce as ee ee DE Ooon | aad Ore Sos ae se aces 36, 132\ || Washington.............. At AG To ‘Oregons ..oa 202.6 ake 205093) ||s@alaiomia: «27s. .~..c<5<- 41,117 24, 752 United States.....- 569 Pro- | Farm Acre- | quc- | value, age. tion. | Dec. 1. Acres. | Tons. |Dollars. 400 580 3,016 500 850 4, $45 1,500 | 2,535 | 17,492 1,650 | 2,492 | 18,441 750 712 | 11,392 800 960 16, 320 220 288 | 3,974 210 304 3, 648 200 380 4, 560 450 7 ioe 450 508 4,013 320 336 4,334 700 | 1,750 | 15,225 500 | 1,150 | 8,625 970 | 2,328 | 17,227 206 515 4,790 142 454] 3,995 406 | 1,116] 8,593 247 803 | 6,665 705 1, 868 13, 636 796 | 1,751 | 19,261 858 1,716 15, 787 2,700 | 5,265 | 43,173 49,145 | 70,071 | 779, 068 1 Based upon farm price Dec. 1 cal “ on | isd 2 Ske Pl SiQNe SANSSO $ 4 TEE SSse-s2gs iS Tals. 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WO Oiln on Pest eat eet fect oat ped et get ed Ow Nr oD O10 S15 00 eae senior AGae BOSw S ri a eet ee aAak Ti} nA pier otatars oOmnké oon a & | oOnmMMnO ASnee aoa forces * OM 28 OOM et aAaHAN ie] uD Aue oh Sow eee RES tivated S HN oD noms SANNA = ~i~x ™~ sani CO TA MIM — GD CD) a) sein sue 19 DD oo INA Aga eq wal teedlpadleateat ss CO o> 00 —T Sich te . for ioe) 1919 Bon Bios NN . akgods en eee tees S2e4n Sac didn 44444 GSLAB SHSH SEA GaLea ae 3 afaeed | SS8a2 detested ode odes soda ddddd cddael tae S228 |S a om 09 ee HEC 20s) re, a 5 ==) Aost 9 he ae Oo ARTAMA relvelxr) ee ee > DIO ges ap aS a ANNAA = | ; : 1:98 BLSSB LSeSSl| SRSRSR SFSERS|S . - : 2383 tH | Liged edoidieid Sagi |] waidddd SSSdsr |X hag = eg : S238 ie (188 S8988 BRSkS|| SABSRS SARARA |S a aa T| 5 igted aloioteded pees | sed odt wWedadstodat | of ‘ : st SRke SBSRSS Sense SSSRRS SLKSSS\s Bg S34 WH | viscos moiditixi ele diisetaid didsicide | x Eo be anh en Si Re To) —) =e) = oo Tae — io) By tat Ad 25 ALO SSa8 SASAS Sess S | SSSSSS BSLKSE |S g|a A A, T | picdcial cicictal ciaidaicl || cdedcdededes oS diadcd vin | 03 E ee | se B88 RESLS SLARS| BRSSREK RRRSRR |B ra & | SeSq | WH] gers seid voiges || Bsus Sossde |v a hem ee —— a | $235 | .o,| $888 28888 geeze| eases sssuea|s o ~a Koscict ea Aaircdal |] sededabeded waixioded si | od ' TS eee st SSSe BSBRS SRSA AARSSS ASSARE | Gea) | yea WHE | giaicdd Meleidel rived] clolcicicial ciciedaiated | of 9 OTF) to BS | &g38 SERR BSSS8 SSSSBll SSEBSRBG GSSSRE(S v On8, | MOT) Gadd HARA dod] GAARA AH doi | COnsS miNSOW Vel—i—k—i— | Ss er) Pong wD 7s 3 ra oD ad eS aASs Ss Otc ABANS N B= WH | ence raddda sdSaive ris toh mal rea el 5 we SSeS | ae _ © smorr | Ses ReneS RSSk RASSSS ASSRSa |S a = Tl] vised SoSHd aiedaint SHSM Kadddd |x & coo ption wo 19 Bie A eosehc =) . on Usty trek lor} RSs wn oO aHOoOM~ oS S28 Hotrod b= s 8 S 25 : NINN Noses Paarl Sabb Sdddda | lanl 3 Bg va ae i an a) le 3S a) og Inne CO Ey 1neeO ecoceslo | ee L Sosa Sins i=) re a Aires MO BARS HS oa nw HSSHS DHOSOS |S a mk Gsedcd lodedaded woicdedri || cdodedaioles oSaicdededed | af a “ os am RSBS ZOSae SSSual SBRSSSS SELGSR (SB y Sp £3 WH | soon NBSSH SNacdes || wWaisideded Words | Bale tian ee Bas asses Sasee | Saseee SEneee 5 i ‘d o's ys SSSS SRSRSS ABSZSAR SS8ss8 S38a888 |S 5 S) Pa OT | gicicici cdwiciaicd wiSwinidt || aids caiccoial nC a ; : 3 S32 Sks B&SSs RARaSS SSRASBBR A [Fn el WH | soir ended boride || saiddns piiiviniet 3 4 Losiae EE z nor | SRS SRBSS S8SSs| SRR 3388s o T| gvidid widdind droid || cencos RIS Sabie AETECRTPC Ema OTR) ae ST ne Pa x pkdters te Ht MeSH CRIME be ee Nat cute Sank TC ee eek mean GN eR Tad en kee Cheagy tal ea ere a 0 sgt sletnopatt: Ne ety te SMR poh UT TES Scar te te arg . Wo yee eee BP) kes APY RR SURO tits F718 BR g & Ca aE ci il ae aie vig vatattitrvlvaomet alse eh t A idieierrtiote iho’ banc taigmeeet ietgt th BES ee Saag sere acnam SAR n ho bb ASES SSS S3SSS Sanne Fes ess Besse Seeae Aaa Adee Sskadas BAnOZA 1 Poor to choice to 1905. 2 Prime, 1901 to 1907. 3 Prime ,1902 to 1904; poor to prime 1905-1906. Statistics of Cotton. 573 COTTON. TABLE 83.—Cotton: Area and production of undermentioned countries, 1911-1913. [Bales of 478 pounds net.] Area. Production. Country. 1911 1912 1913 1911 1912 1913 NORTH AMERICA. United States: Acres. Acres. Actes. Bales. Bales. Bales. Gontipnoust ws. eeaee 36,045,000 | 34,283,000 | 37,089,000 || 15,692,701 | 13,703,421 | 14,156, 486 Noncontiguous—P orto MVICO USS oo Ske ae ee (2) (2) (?) 412 447 633 Total United States (except Philippine Is- IPT eee Sete ieee Mee Oo Ee | 15,693,113 | 13,703,868 | 14,157,119 AU DER ET te. echt Ay 2 aR pen ee i (2) (2) (2) 200, 000 200, 000 200, 000 West Indies: British— BaRAMIAS o..2ks Sarcae=s (®) (2) (2) 427 428 428 Barhbados2: 2 252...225- 4,741 A GOOM ee = 35. 1,520 953 8&8 Grenadar 2 oo oe (2) (2) (?) 4574 4796 4 838 Wamnaniea sn =. eee (2) (2) (*) 437 476 4145 Leeward Islands..-.... (2) (*) (*) 3, 088 2,271 42,561 St, Wnuicinss. 3 22. 2-8592 (@) 2) (@) 38 47 48 St, Wincent:.. 2. 52. 3, 587 6,105 5, 444 51,175 41,117 41,018 Trinidad and Tobago. (*) (?) (*) 13 28 415 ISH ae. See 2 ES () (?) (2) 548 276 745 French—Guadeloupe. .... (*) 0 (?) 8 8 8 LE CDT eee aoe ge eye RL ee (2) 2) (2) 8, 783 9,077 8,970 WORT ice tio. ake eke] aa ome ne [Sap ean |e 15, 908, 894 | 13,918,505 | 14,372,343 SOUTH AMERICA. Ambontings 5 ea. 42) To eo 4, 690 4, 458 6,919 3,939 3, 744 5, 811 TENT SVAUL SAN = sos SN DSi a (2) (2) () 277, 000 277,000 277, 000 CI Gs a t e ae ener ee ee (2) (2) 334 eC @) 740 HIGHAG Olea eae ace ses wee (2) (2) (2) 4258 4254 255 TE ry sae A he See ae (?) (@) (?) 473, 274 4 88, 694 4110,314 in cule ee een aot ky CP ee ES ee Be S |heg eee 354, 471 369, 692 394, 120 EUROPE. BMP ATIAe cote eee oth eee 1,871 1,730 1,730 917 550 ESP OCH steer oon seta tr eres @) 12, 355 (7) 24, 000 24, 000 24, 090 Gales ae Sea ak ee ACR @) @) @) 2,700 2,700 2,700 IUD RG cya aye nl el erie alee eats 1,100 1 11: Te es a 392 512 567 Ticrten ene Soa Vee tet Allee a Cae oll Soe ae de ne il OSe a TE 28,009 27, 858 ASIA. British India,® including na- tive States 6 2,751, 464 3, 857, 741 Woviony sat aan 24s he aap sp ee L 41,490 4500 Chosen (Korea) 34, 591 C jb Op Stas See ne 7, 632 9, 655 Dutch East Indies 17,000 (*) French Indo-China 14, 459 (*) i Py Oya a eras iL oe ak oe Je 5, 057 (2) LEST EON TS ee, ale Py oe pa arp SA ek pe 128,709 (@) Philippine Islands8........... 6,098 6 , 098 1“Linters’”’ not included. Quantity of linters produced: 557,575 bales in 1911, 609,594 in 1912, 638,881 aie. For Porto Rico the data refer to exports to foreign countries plus shipments to the United ates. . 2 No official data. 3 Consular report. 4 Exports. 5 Sea-island cotton only. 6 Year ending September 30. 7 Mostly Kapoc. 8 Census, 1902. 574 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. COTTON—Continued. TABLE 83.—Cotton: Area and production of undermentioned countries, 1911-1918—Con. [Bales of 478 pounds net.] Area. Production. 1912 1913 1911 1912 1913 AsIA—continued. Russia (Asiatic): Acres. Acres. Acres. Bales. Bales. Bales. Gentral Asis 3. 8 se 864,123 | 1,085,158 | 1,141, 233 455, 742 596, 468 657,713 Transcaucasia ......-2---- 194, 808 241, 267 231,267 66, 340 70, 848 73,543 Total, Russia (Asiatic) .| 1,058,931 | 1,326,425 | 1,372,500 522,082 667,316 731,256 ST Aa eR re (1) apt. tL Gy a ers 1, 454 4, 686 Potale oe hese eres raed piesit: =) te ealnereh dea eeeaner set 3; 635, 270 | a aeeuiees AFRICA. British Africa: Nyasaland Protectorate... 22,845 26,773 25,023 Hast-Aieics 2. San see eee 347 910 2 282 Goldicodst <5 sae eae 2 20 2 43 258 WiSGria = Shee Sees 2 4,682 29,148 213,308 Upandat 222 sae 217, 456 2 22, 003 2 23,414 Union of South Africa. . 27 267 2 68 Total British) Atrica 2-2. |spcreute ss loses se = eos |no ee sre=e ae 25,424 38,944 42,153 WEY Db. onc. 4-o eee sees see oe 1,514,730 | 1,554,100 1, 565, 290 French Africa: NUP ORIS SS ooo te Seis ce cere 761 WAH OMCY.- 2552 sen Rteseer 623 Madacascars 2 ao sense 13 Senepals - asc se eee 69 Upper Senegal and Niger . 277 Soamali'Coast soc... o bases 25 Total (hrench Areca so |S. -a> see seaelee ee eee 1,748 German Africa: HSL PA LICA =e see eee oe 4,983 Kiaiemin'.< eee reason TORO... APES: sccm eee 2, 387 ‘Total German-Airicaes | | ose | 3b.” i] Year. | “as” | “a5 | “a5” | “ase | 96. Poet. | “P=ct), \ Peet. a> Pict.) Peck. Pict. | Rsk. VPS Pech | ee gS Sa eee 85.6 82.7 80.4 73.4 i (U7 | pat 20 ae 83.0 88.0 91.6 84.1 75.8 1894-2 = 5. 88.3 89.6 91.8 85.9 82.7 || 1905....- 77.2 77.0 74.9 72.1 71.2 S895-- cso 81.0 82.3 77.9 70.8 65.1 || 1906..... 84.6 83.3 82.9 77.3 71.6 1896...... 97.2 92.5 80.1 64.2 COLT. (190 7ES= = 70.5 72.0 75.0 72.7 67.7 WS 7s22552 83.5 86.0 86.9 78.3 70.0 || 1908..-.- 79.7 81.2 83.0 76.1 69.7 1898. ..... 89.0 91.2 91.2 79.8 75.4 || 1909....- 81.1 74.6 71.9 63.7 58.5 tt ae 85.7 87.8 84.0 68.5 62) 4910s = a: 82.0 80.7 75.5 72.1 65.9 1900...... 82.5 75.8 76.0 68. 2 670i) A9L ase 87.8 88.2 89.1 73.2 71.1 1901. ===... 81.5 81.1 77.2 71.4 61.4 || 1911....- 78.9 80.4 76.5 74.8 69.6 it eee 95.1 84.7 81.9 64.0 HS. 3 || 19isocee 79.1 81.8 79.6 68. 2 64.1 190822 23-:2 74.1 Mitek: 79.7 81.2 6501.) 1914-22 74.3 79.6 76.4 78.0 7305 Value 3 * F i Yield per acre (pounds of lint). acer a carltae pound geting lars). o ey a State. eo 80 50 Sm om oa ba bo bo oa 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 Se aly 1910)1911}1912)1913}1914 cet 1914 gs © |8s 25 bo a ea S 2 4 Va... 226) 204) 185! 190! 210} 190] 212) 330) 250) 240) 254//10.8 13.8] 9.0)12.0)13. 1) 7. 3)/11. 0/18. 54 N.C. 240 240| 201) 205) 211| 210) 227] 315) 267| 239) 283//10. 8/14. 1) 8. 8/12. 2/12. 6] 6. 9)/10. 9/19.53 S.C...| 224] 220) 175} 215) 219) 210) 216] 280) 209) 235) 256//10.9|14. 2) 8. 8/12. 4/12. 7) 6.9 11. 0)17. 66 Ga.....| 194} 200] 165} 190) 190) 184) 173] 240) 159) 208) 23610. 9|14. 2) 8.9|12. 4/12. 8) 6.9 11. 0/16. 28 Fla 126) 1441 95] 115] 112} 110} 110) 130) 113) 150] 185||15. 4/21. 0/12. 0\15. 7/17. 0/12. 2)|15. 6/22. 57 Mo....| 295} 294) 285] 275] 340] 271) 285] 360) 260) 286) 295//10. 4/13. 0) 8. 8/11. 3)11. 5) 6. 5/10. 2/19. 18 Tenn 900] 212) 180| 190] 218) 158] 207| 257) 169} 210) 196/10. 7|14. 1) 8. 8/12. 4/12. 7] 6.4)|10. 9/12. 54 Ala 176] 173) 165} 169] 179} 142] 160) 204] 172) 190} 209/10. 8|14.2) 8.8 12. 1/12. 7} 6. 7||10. 9/14. 00 Miss 195} 190} 215] 228) 233) 157| 182) 172) 173) 204 196, 11. 0/14. 4) 9. 2)12. 3/12. 6] 6. 8))11. 118.33 ee 174) 170| 272) 210) 145} 130} 120} 170) 193] 170) 162)/10.7)14. 4} 8.9)11. 5/11. 7) 6.9/|10.7|11.18 Tex...| 171] 164] 225) 130) 196] 125) 145) 186] 206) 150} 183/10. 5)14. 0} 8. 6/11. 5/11. 5) 6.8/10. 5/12. 44 Okla 181} 215) 217/ 200) 143) 147] 200) 160} 183) 132) 212|/10. 1/13. 3) 8. 0/11. 3/11. 4) 6. 5|/10. 1/13. 78 Ark 191} 172) 215) 195| 215} 153) 175) 190] 190) 205] 197//10.8|14. 4] 8. 9/12. 3/11. 6} 6. 6//10. 8/13.00 Cal. . PO ete Been ecto Bec Saece 335] 390] 450) 500) 506||10. 7|13. 3) 7. 5|12. 5/13. 0} 7. 0)/10. 7/35. 42 U. S.|187. 5)186. oe ae se 9/154. 3/170. 7/207. 7/190. 9|182. 0/207. 9 we 1 Based upon farm price Dec. 1. 2 Preliminary. = o ~ = — oo eo i = ~~ N nN for) oo i oO ies] = cs Statistics of Cotton. 577 COTTON—Continued. TaBLE 89.—Coiton: Farm price per pound on first of each month, by geographical divi- sions, 1913 and 1914. 5 South Atlantic || N. Cent. States|| South Central Far Western United States. States. west of Miss. R. States. States. Month. - 1914 1913 1914 1913 1914 1913 1914 1913 1914 1913 Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts Cts AU LESf fa ta U2 20 1 | ee 11.0 a LSS TES eee |e aecices 11.9 11.9 IPL) 12.1 12.1 12.0 11.6 gL Fal | Dame Vee me 12.6 11.8 14.9 11.9 11.6 9.0 11.5 iG Oe ah | eee 12.0 11.9 11.8 1257 12.06 11.6 9.5 gt ES 1H 23a | eee 1s 1252 11.6 12.8 11.6 in; 9.5 11.8 AS65252 ctles ceetes 12.4 DIS 13.2 11.6 12.0 9.0 12.0 at Fe: S| Peg Pee n=) 2 | 12.4 11.6 spill 11.9 12.0 9.3 12.1 1 aS | eee Seo oe 12.4 ala 9 12.9 11.8 ipl 9.1 12.2 Te Nee | eee 8.7 11.8 8.5 11.8 8.0 2S 8.8 11.8 ||------2-|-------- 7.8 13.3 8.0 16361) eee 13.0 ed, 13233) 7 Fish eee 6.3 13.0 6.5 1B) 6.2 DIS 6. 2 12.8 1 hee 6.8 122 6.9 12.8 6.5 HS 6.7 11.9 7.0 13.0 TABLE 90.—Cotton: Closing price of middling upland per pound, 1900-1914. New York. || New Orleans. Memphis. Galveston. Savannah. Charleston. Date. reeeinh SS en | ee Low. | High. || Low. | High. || Low. | High. || Low. | High. || Low. | High. |} Low. | High Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. etl 74 | 114 72 | 11 (a ea 78; | 103 7 102 7 12 74 git 74k 95 73 git ves 98 7 9 ry 3 73 9 7 93 7% 98 1¥6 935 T¥5 9% 8.85 | 14.10 8 | 138 8h | 133 8& | 133 sz | 138 8h 134 6.85 | 17.25 64 1625 4 164 68 16 64 161 63 16 7.00 | 12.60 63 127; 63 121 63 12 63 1134 63 11,5 9.60 | 12.25 UP ae: 93 | 1133 91 | 11,3 113 82 112 10.60 | 13.55 || 104 | 13%, || 104 | 134 1050 | 1S aes || Tees 92 13 9.00 | 12.25 $12 | 121 gs | 122 83 | 123 8k | 118 8h 118 9.25 | 16.15 8% | 153 9 158 9 153 $3 15% 53 1533 13.60 | 19.75 || 134 | 153 13% | 158 132 153 133, | 158 13 152 9.20 | 16.15 97, | 1544 gt | 153% 1 | 158 88 | 154 gg 15 9.35 | 13.40 92, | 13 9%, | 134 93 | 13:5; 83 12% 3 123 11.70 | 14:50 || 11%-]| 14 113 | 133 113 | 143 114 | 143 112 133 12230)! ts? 128 133; 13} 133 123 1335 123 131 124 13} 12.55 | 13.05 |} 1232! 13 13 134 123 | 122 123 | 13 123 122 13.00 | 13.75 || 12% | 13:8 |} 13 134 Des || SSB Ed | ibe bree 128 13 13.00 | 13.50 || 13 13; || 134 -| 133 1248 | 132 134 | 134 13 132 12.90 | 14.50 13 132 134 138 13 14 134 132 13 134 13.25 | 13.75 || 138, | 1348 || 133 | 133 1314 | 14 13% | 132 134 134 12.50 | 13.25 || 135; | 13,2 |] 13 133 134 | 138 13% || oe, oleae sees 111.00 {111.00 |} (2) ?) 13 Taal | Rees Reese 7 Sher ees sae aes s oas/P SSSR SEBS ce 825 88 8 84 8 82 7% z 7% 8 October... - | tae ate: Gree Selle ag |. s ae ae Gh |’ 7h 63 Th November...| 7.50 | 7.75 Tis 72 62 ies 12 8 ik a 7 7% December..-| 7.25 | 7.80 7 7k 7 Les 74 83 6% 3 63 74 Year. .| 7.25 | 14.50 6% | 1348 63 | 133 6g | 14 63 | 13% 63 134 1 Not based on actual sale; exchange closed. 2 No market. 75922°—yexK 1914 37 578 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. COTTON—Continued. TABLE 91.—Cotion: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913. [Expressed in bales of 50¢ pounds gross weight, or 478 pounds net. The figures for cotton refer to ginned and unginned cotton and linters, but not to mill waste, cotton batting, scarto (Egypt and Sudan). Wherever unginned cotton has been separately stated in the original reports it has been reduced to ginned Sore a this statement at the ratio of 3 pounds unginned to 1 pound ginned. See “General note,” p. 518. EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] 1913 1913 Country. (prelim.) . Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.) Bales. - Bales. Bales. Bales. de{cl (3 1b 01) Eee eee 137 163 150 PAZ TOS Ey Soa ASO 86 129 129 British India......- 73 89 110 CRina et erase codes 8, 920 11, 663 9, 376 Heyptsciwsesose3 151 196 202 Mrance-. sosssssc< ae | ——— Germany.:.-'. .-- 25% 13, 541 16, 766 14, 836 IMPORTS. Austria-Hungary - - 907 1, 021 953 s|| MEVUSSIa are saniaeiae sie 935 830 753 Bel@idm=<-sceccs<0 583 652 G47) | SDAIN 3a jemi es cre c 417 428 407 Ganadasossccc tees 157 165 166 || Sweden...........- 92 100 100 IVanicenese re sae 1, 469 1, 597 1,518 || Switzerland.....-.- 113 121 126 Genmanye 2 — “Sscs: 2, 180 2, 502 2,404 || United Kingdom... 4,008 5, 193 4,010 Ttaliy: 2 nea. 876 987 931 || United States...... 212 270 220 Japan. -5282.5.202 1,125 1, 655 1,655 || Other countries. . -. 308 357 313 Me@RICO soso 5 eee 6 18 18 | —_— _—____-- Netherlands...-.-.- 270 324 SIT "Rotel 13, 653 16,220 | 14,538 1 Year beginning Mar. 21. COTTONSEED. OIL. TABLE 92.—Cottonseed oil: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913. [See “‘ General note,” p. 517.] EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] 1913 1913 (prelim.) 191g Country. (prelim.) . Country. 1911 1912 Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. Belgitine 22.2 322232 1,042 1,341 1,014 || United States. ....-. 43, 004 © 47, 457 35, 304 Heypte. 2. ee 488 |. 359 619 || Other countries... . 6 40. 57 INGSCOe = Soe nee 177 172 295 $A me_-|}——————— Netherlands......-.- 43 40 31 Totalscssess 51, 542 55, 508 44, 946 United Kingdom... 6, 782 6, 099 7, 626 IMPORTS. VAP ORIAs 22's tes 128 118 (1Su\) Mexico. 5 ea-easiae 673 4,310 4,310 Mustraliaes.-...522 119 182 175 || Netherlands.......- 3, 544 7, 048 7,765 Austria-Hungary... 15 127 11S INOFWAY: soeeee nas = 1, 492 1,554] . 1,510 1310 Ca ee 2, 337 2, 876 2,005 || Roumania........- 805 805 805 Brazile. = 45 eee oe 1670 1670 440 || Senegal. .--.......-. 464 382 382 @anadar. =. acehe.- 1, 830 2,911 4) 104 Servis 215222 een inters 396 396 396 WEY Pt= aa. =~ eee = 186 345 118 || Sweden...........- 680 865 865 WYANCO. 2 - nce eee: 2, 609 3, 697 2,726 || United Kingdom... 7, 361 7, 587 4,990 Germmany=-e------- 6, 391 7,900 4,786 || Uruguay 4........-.. 383 383 . 383 Italy Ss-eeee =O| tee SOS els patel eae os |eeersein Saintes ceases Se | 2 co se ere eed ete ne 190082 4-28 1,046} 778.0} 814,245 6.6] 53,661)315, 787,782] 26,851,253) 88.5) 82.9) 77.5] 76.1 AGU Se cet 1,039] 788.0) 818,953 7.1) 58,283/301 , 007,365} 29,428,837) 86.5) 72.1] 78.2) 81.5 Lt 1,031} 797.3) 821,824 7.0) 57,564/368, 184, 084) 34,016,956] 85.6] 81.2} 81.5) 84.1 ISS 2% 1,038} 786.3} 815,972 6.8) 55,515/311, 971, 831) 31,162,636] 85.1) 82.9) 83.4/ 82.3 1904 225250. 806} 819.0] 660,461 8.1] 53,383/334, 302,091) 33,288,378} 85.3] 83.9} 83.7) 85.6 1905. 22.25% 776} 815.6] 633,034 8.5) 53,519/312, 227,202) 41,125,970} 87.4) 84.1) 85.1) 85.8 $906 '..;.'5.55 796| 857.2} 682,429 10.0} 68, 233/340, 742,864) 40,898,807) 86.7| 87.2) 86.2) 84.6 HOOF SR HZE. 821} 850.5} 698,126 10.2) 71, 411/330, 812,658) 35,005,131) 81.3} 82.8) 82.5) 848 1908. = cts. 875) 820.2) 718,061 10.3] 74,130/287, 900,946) 43,123,196) 86.6] 85.8} 84.3) 84.1 tt ee ee D180 || 80453 |e 940 Sod toss a Ne bee eels oe oan fesse ele) cx 21.324 |e A9OD SH Ee 1,295| 815.3) 1,055,765) 10.1} 106, 600/357, 196,074; 46,853,389} 89.8) 83.4] 80.2] 81.3 AQIORE Se 1,366) 807.7] 1,103,415 9.3] 102, 142/355, 327,072) 48,203,288} 85.3) 78.5| 77.7) 80.2 AG IGES 7 1,013} 893 7} 905,109 9.4) 85,210/379, 845,320) 54,740,380) 72.6) 68.0) 71.1) 80.5 1 eae 1,226, 785.5) 962,855 10.8} 104, 063}418, 796,906) 67,977,118} 87.7} 82.8} 81.1) 81.8 1013 SS ot 1,216 784.3} 953,734 12.8) 122, 481/449, 749,982) 61,174,751) 82.8) 78.3) 74.5 76.6 1914 ee 1,224) 845.7) 1,034,679 OS 8 51Ot: 4a eS. acne o semanas 66.0} 66.5) 71.4) 81.8 1 Figures adjusted to census basis. TABLE 96.— Tobacco: Acreage, production, and total Jarm value, by States, 1914. Farm Farm a State. Acreage. Eredug, value State. Acreage. Epaue. value : Decl i - Dee: i: : Acres. Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. Dollars. New Hampshire . 100 177,000 32, 000||> Olio... cc c205 lsc 78,120,000) 6,875,000 Wermont.2.5 5-25. 100 170,900 31,000|| Indiana......... 12,150,000} 1,094, 000 Massachusetts... . 6,600) 11,550,000) 2,044,600) Ilinois.......... 468, 000) 56,020 Connecticut., .... 20,200) 35,754,000) 6,614,000}} Wisconsin...... 53,808, 090) 5,919,000 New York....... 4,600 5,980,000) 718,000); Missouri. ....... 4,920,000} 640,060 Pennsylvania.... 33,100; 47,995,000) 4,080,000!) Kentucky....... 364, 000, 000)30,576,000 Maryland........ 22,000; 17,600,000) 1,408,000); Tenmnessee....... 63, 468,009) 4,760,000 Wirpinial 5.0004... 175,000] 113, 750,000/10,238,000|| Alabama. ....... 140,000} 39,009 West Virginia. ... 10, 800 8,856,000) 974,000)| Louisiana.....-.. 280, 000 98, 000 North Carolina...} 265,000} 172,250, 000/19, 809,600)! Texas........... 116, 000 24,000 South Carolina. -. 50,000) 36,500,000) 3,540,000) Arkansas....... 427, 000 77,000 Georgi: -. 2222: 5 1,900 1,900,000} 475,000 | | Mloridaepe--- cee. 4,300 4,300,000) 1,290,030 United States} 1,223, 500/1, 034, 679, 000|101,411,000 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 582 *T ‘eq ord wary uodn poseg 1 68°28 8F'°S8 1/86 (8 '2r \8'Ol |F'6 \8°6 {LOT L‘SPS |S ‘FSL |9°S8L |Z S68 |2°208 |€ FOS 1% "OSB |G °0S8 "298 |9"STS |G‘9G8 fn s89es peya 08 ‘60T|\88 ‘TOL |/0'8t |F'9T jO'8T JOE jO'OT j0°ST 019 (09 099 |009 |0¢9 009 019 02° |969 002 |FE9 PGS Ss ACTS ec. Core ke <--> ae POMS TOS OS ‘IZT|9Z TEL |\0'TS jO'SS |S LT (0°02 j0°SS j0°Es ose (009 002 j0s9 (009 089 |008 002 jos¢ 00g j€€9 ace * no Miehvaes = 8eKG; 00 ‘OFT/06 EZT |0'SE jO"S% |OOE jO'TE [0 °S% |9 66 OOP 10S7" 008 0eh = 0Ge" 099) “i0Ge" 0s G2 8008 |88h © )8 9 8 ee aie SSL arena. bs POULSEN ORY) 00 ‘96T/OL TST |/0°8Z JOSS JOSE |0°S@ 00% j0°Ss 00L (002 (04 |00L |00¢ 009 j0Sh 0S OTS OS jT8¢ pa cok ae ok 6nd Sia eee ULGC ET OS'T9 |T‘09 G2 |P'S |T2 |G'8 |F 8 jos 0z8 0c2 |099 |0T8 (0942 084 (008 008 S84 892 S92 Sk ie ede a th eee wOoepOUuE PPOL [TL‘TL §=|\h'8 j0°OT j2°8 j42 (£8. (8'8 016 092 084 088 OTS |Se8 |ST8 068 048 0&8 8&8 Sr Geen g os ey eer ve ROTO LM Mea] QOO‘OSTIIT OTT |/0'EL |2°eL |O'CE |O'CL |O'@r |¢°IT 00Z‘T j0S9 |000‘T [008 j0S0'T |S88 jo48 |sc8 08 BLL, (648. Donia cee ae eT. Sei eee eae OSS TA 08 “6Z1\ES SZ ||0'IT jO'ST jO'IL |O'OL |G°2 {LOT O8T‘T lost ‘T lo6a‘t josz‘t joSo‘T JOST ‘T \OSL‘T jOOT ‘T |ezz‘T JOLE*T [00ST 9927s sostOoSTM. 09°€6 |IS"cL |[0'2E |S*IT [06 |8'2 [$6 (66 082 (004 (092 (094 064 |0G4 |$S2 008 |0¢8 006 {082 re eS wie tee ee] CONANT 00°I8 |20‘8L {10% O'IT (06 (82 ($6 (26 006 j0SL (008 (016 088 096 |00L 0F6 |ST6 , /618 998 Gee oe Ce ere OgnOL TS Ze S88) |p TE (Li 195k . 198 4 196 006 |0S2 026 |Sc6 O18 {$26 029 {006 090‘T j0S8 |TZ8 OD EuRGars Rites Poe Stag swe OAK) 00 ‘00E|ZE ‘99 ||0'0S jO'TE |0'°OE j0°8% |0'ES |6°0E 000‘T |000‘T |OFS |0F6 [089 OTL (066 S26 |¢28 009 988 Dee «Aes og Monge ee JOC OCT 00 ‘0SZ|0F “6E%Z {10'S jO'TE [00 [0°8% |0'0% 0°62 000‘ 000‘T |0g8 |006 089 002 {$46 098 |¢29 Seo |FI8 , 75 inf "> "eT B1004) T8 ‘OL [S9‘T8 |2'6 |8°EL |6°OT |9'Cr |9°8 j|€ ‘OT 0s (092 (002 |0T8 089 008 |¢98 006 049 982 092 soeeeeceoeesess“BuTforey GyNog GL°PL |2L°88 GIT |S°8t |O°OT |9°IT |9‘OT [8 °TT 0s9 029 0c9 0TZ 009 009 joz9 S29 jose soo go tony ane CEOLE OD UATONG 02°06 |96‘9L |[0'IL jO'CT [OIL jO'8 |€‘OL j2 OT 0c8 |089 (092 |0S£ [09 928 092 022 082 -|064 992 Po ey pte em “RrUTSITA qSOM 0989 |16'92 106 |6°ST [OSL |9°6 06 186 0s9 0L2 (009 008 084 922 {S18 092 |¢z9 |o29 0&2 RAS Eto, Sy ate tol *BLUTSIT A, 00°69 |42‘89 10°88 j86 j0°8 \G2 I2°L 19° 008 |0r4 099 |ge2 |069 j0TZ 004 099 009 099 |F69_ A : **purypAreyy CS"SZT/ST ‘or |i9'8 i9°2 |¢°8 |G'6 \€6 ([9°6 OSF ‘Tt 00% ‘T loch ‘T JOzr‘T loos ‘tT |o86 |gze‘T joge‘T joze‘T [OLE T |PeE T eo eae Pear erupATASuUod: OO*OST/OL‘*ZET |/0'2L |°er |9°Cr |POT |G'°8 |FOT 008 ‘T j0z0‘T joe ‘T Jose ‘T jose ‘T |e¢ar ‘T GLI 'T OST ‘T 092 ‘T SFT‘ O16 T pero ese OREN Ch LZE|FS OES ||9'°ST |O'1S |LhS [$0 (GOT | ST 0LL‘T JOSS ‘T J00L ‘T |S29‘T JOSL‘T JOGO ‘T JO89°T JOTS*T [oes ‘T |9e2 T |899'T Pere ee OIL CG, GL°G0E|TZ ‘9ZE |/Z°2T |0°1S |6°S% 10°0S jO'ST |h ‘LT OSz‘T j0SS‘T JOOL‘T j0S9“T jOE4‘T |009‘T jOS9'T |oeG'T JogL‘T JOSR'T [929 T | - e TTret eet tt sqqosngoesseyy 00 "90/02 ‘082 |0'8T jO'8T |S°8L jO'9T |S‘PL (6ST 002 ‘T JOSS ‘T |00L‘T |002‘T |009‘T |¢29 T GEL T G29 ‘T |0OL‘T |0G9'T |F99 T em uoare A 09 ‘818|20 ‘26% ||0'8T |O'8T |S°8L jO'9T j0’ST (0 °or OLL‘T 0S9‘T |00L‘T 002 ‘T J0ZL‘T |00L‘T JOOS ‘T j0G9"T |e84‘T JOOL T [STZ T omysdureyy MON a A ba ! _ Be Be a SRS me rae Res PI6r | * ae FIGT | SI6T | ZTGT | TL6T | OL6T | * 3. & || FECT | ST6T | SL6T | TLGT | OLGT | 6OGT | 806T | L06T | 906T | SO6T | ~ oa oe So ; P g ie} ae 9781S ae ice un *(sju00) punod sed sdrid wet *(spumod) orov 19d pyarx a EE Me a a a ee eee ee ‘saynng fig ‘aloo wad oryna pun ‘7 vag punod sad aod ‘aun sad pjarx 000090 T—'16 ATAV], ‘ponua0)—ONNVaOL Statistics of Tobacco. TOBACCO—Continued. 583 TaBLE 98.—Tobacco: Acreage, production, and farm value, by types and districts, Type and district. I. CIGAR TYPES. INew Bmneland ase. 23 o5.8 2.2!) New York Pennsylvania. 2.52222 l... cee ee Ohio—Miami Valley WWASCOUSHM Ant Sot eet AD ose Il. CHEWING, SMOKING, SNUFF, AND EXPORT TYPES. Burnley GISiWicth.-.<.-s---s2--- Dark districts of Kentucky and Tennessee: Paducah district... -2... Henderson or stemming GistniCtesacnee- ae sone a. Clarksville and Hopkins- Walle district a2 52 -eee. Virginia sun-cured district... Virginia dark district......... Bright yellow district: Old belt—Virginia and North Carolina.......... New belt—Eastern North Carolina and South Caro- OXPOllse a wsee tastes eee esac Perique-Louisiona.....-..-.-- SCHipOLINe a2 = eas anise reaen roe 1913 and 1914. 1 Based upon farm price Dec. 1. Acreage Yield Production (thousands per acre (thousands of acres). (pounds). of pounds). 1914 1913 | 1914 | 1913 | 1914 | 1913 27.0] 24.7} 1,765] 1,550| 47,651) 38, 295 4.6| 4.3] 1,300] 1,020) 5,980) 4,386 33.1 38.9] 1,450) 1,200) 47,995) 46, 680 56.4] 51.3! 960] 730) 54,144] 37,449 45.6} 43.0} 1,180) 1,180} 53,808] 50,740 6.2} 5.8] 1,000] 1,000} 6,200] 5,800 244.2] 232.6 920 760 224, 664/176, 776 70.0} 75.0 780 780) 54,600) 58,500 71.5] 55.0! 950 800; 67,925! 44,000) 38.4) 38.4 960) 740) 36, 864; 28, 248) 98.9} 115.0 800 700) 79,120) 80,500 12.0} 15.9} 760} 800) 9,120) 12,720 50.0) 71.2 740) 820) 37,000 58,384 240.0) 240. 600) 690/144, 000 165, 600 185.0} 165.0 710 710)131, 350 117, 150 24.9) 27.6) 820 760} 20,418) 20,976 ‘ : 400 450 280) 270) FE ened 60; bia a 13,560} 7,260 Averagefarm}| Total farm price per value (thou- pound Dec. 1 sands of (cents). dollars).1 1914 | 1913 | 1914 | 1913 18.3} 21.0) 8,721} 8,033 12.0) 12.2 718 535 7.5 7.5} 3,600} 3,501 9.1 11.0} 4,927) 4,119 7.5} 12.0} 4,036) 6,089 28.5] 31.0} 1,765} 1,798 8.1) 12.3] 18,198) 21, 743 6.1 7.7| 3,331) 4,504 6.3 7.3) 4,279) 3,212 5.6 7.0} 2,064) 1,179 7.5} 9.0! 5,934] 7,245 6.5) 8.5 593) 1,081 7.3 7.0} 2,701) 4,087 11.0} 18.5) 15,840) 30, 636 11.6) 17.9) 15,237) 20,970 8.0 9.1) 1,633} 1,909 35.0) 25.0 98 68 Late eae hepato 1,212) 940 584 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TOBACCO—Continued. TaBLE 99.—Tobacco: Wholesale price per pound, 1900-1914. Cincinnati, ea Louisville, were Richmond Baltimore leaf, plug, epee, leaf (Burley, warts) Gag leaf, : eaf, ‘ stock, poet dark red), aren smokers, (Maryland), common to ayaa common roMine common medium to Date. good red. to good. ‘ to good. fine red. Low. | High. |} Low. | High. || Low. | High. || Low. | High. || Low. | High. Cents. | Cents. || Cents.| Cents. || Cents. | Cents. || Cents.| Cents. || Cents.| Cents. 1900 oo iein sare 5. 00 |} 14. 00 5. 50 | 14. 00 5009) -13. 50H io2s- | Seceses 5.00) 10.00 1SQe eS eteoae 5.00 | 15. 00 5.50 | 12. 50 6: O09} E4s (OO a i ton aoe 6.00} 11.00 POO 2. elomtast ernie 4.25 | 14.00 4.50 | 12.00 6.000) E250 tha Sos See eee 6.00 | 12.00 1b eee eS 5.00 | 13. 50 5.00 | 13.75 S005 | Hee OO Natori Sees 6.50 | 12.00 1904 Pf cio- 3.50 | 12.50 6.00 | 24. 50 4.75 | 12.00 6.00 | 12. 50 6.00 | 12.00 I90SE Fews-s- 5.00 | 14. 00 5. 50 | 14. 50 5. 75 | 13. 00 8.00 | 13.00 6.00 | 12.00 jk OEE Se 5. 75 | 15. 00 6. 25 | 17.00 6. 50 | 12. 50 9.00 | 13.00 6.00 | 12.00 LOOT ea oe 6.50 | 16.00 6.50 | 14. 50 7.50 | 17.00 9.00 | 13.00 6.50 | 12.00 BOS sere c= 7.50 | 20. 00 9.00 | 19. 00 9.00 | 18. 00 5.00 | 13.25 6.50 | 13.00 1900 sce cens 6.00 | 14.00 |} 12.00 | 18. 50 7.50 | 14.00 5.00 | 10. 00 8.50 | 13.00 Ii) esi See 6.00 | 17. 50 8.00 | 17.00 8.00 | 16. 50 5.00 | 10. 00 8.50] 13.00 UNE ee ens 7.00 | 18. 00 6.00 | 12.75 9.50 | 15. 50 5. 00 | 12. 00 8.50 | 13.00 1912... 22-52 8.00 | 16. 00 7.00 | 13.00 9. 50 | 15. 00 6.00 | 12. 00 8.50 | 15.00 1) BIAS = SE eee 27.00 P 14. 00 7.00 | 16.00 8.50 | 15.00 || 36.00 | 16. 60 8.50 | 15.00 ——— =) 1914. e January...-. 8.00 | 14.00 || 10.00 } 16. 00 9. 50 b 8.50 | 15.00 February...- 9.00 | 18.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 9. 50 h 8.50 | 15.00 March......-. &. 50 | 14. 00 9.00 | 16. 00 9. 50 ; 8.50 | 15.00 yo) nt eee ee 8.00 | 14. 00 9.00 | 15. 00 9. 50 | 16. 00 7.00 | 20.00 |} 8.50} 15.00 Bi ievgce sects 8.00 | 14. 00 9.00 | 15.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.50 | 15.00 JNO seo ee 8.50 | 14.00 9.00 | 15.00 || 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.50 | 15.00 1 LN Se 9.00 | 14.00 9.00 | 16.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 9.00 | 15.00 IATIPTISE A «a= 0000) hos OOM Bene toes 10. 00 | 16.00 || 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 9.00 | 15.00 September... 8.00 | 14.00 || 10.00 | 16.00 || 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.00 | 15.00 October. ..-. 7.50 | 14.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.00 | 13.00 November. -- 7.50 | 14.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 |} 10.00 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.00 | 13.00 December... =} 5.50) 13500) ||| --25---|s=e--- | 10. 00 | 16.00 7.50 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.00 | 18.00 Wear: - 7.50 | 14.00 || 9.00 | 16.00 7.50 | 16.00 7.00 | 20. 00 8.00 | 15.00 1 Common to fine red, 1900 and 1901. k 2 Common to good, February to November, inclusive. 3 Brights, smokers, common to fine. Statistics of Tobacco. TOBACCO—Continued. 585 TaBLE 100.—Tobacco (unmanufactured): International trade, calendar years 1911-1918. [Tobacco comprises leaf, stems, strippings, and tombac, but not snuff. EXPORTS. (000 omitted.] See ‘©General note,” p. 518.] 1913 1913 Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). | Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. ssn DES pee ames 8, 548 8, 825 10,475 || Netherlands.......- 3, 713 3, 686 3, 454 [tiie 13,426 | 14, 445 14, 445 || Paraguay.......-.- 14,312 8, 481 8, 481 Ausiria-Hungary...| 24, 073 26, 281 AD 247+) Persini2 2. 2 22552 2, 889 3, 776 3,77 1330301 40, 761 54, 466 64,788 || Philippine Islands.} 27, 656 30, 945 28, 585 British India....... 34,560 | 32, 256 357843) || Russia- = --i-.-c2e ee 22,950 | 23, 674 28, 024 Bulgaria....... cena ae BID 3,578 3,578 || Santo Domingo....| 30,441 | 12, 687 21, 584 Ceylon 55k He 4, 088 4, 482 4,482 || Turkey 2......:---. 54,582 | 54, 582 54, 582 (C(t Ce eee Sees 32, 234 42,983 30, 669 || United States...... 370, 284 | 410, 852 444, 372 Dutch East Indies.| 170,226 | 189, 551 189,551 || Other countries....| 60, 445 58, 366 50, 340 Grrentes 222 c5 oe 18, 629 24, 238 21, 876 Mexicot 5292222 2,101 1,271 eA Total 940, 730 |1, 009, 424 | 1,039, 423 IMPORTS. iG (yc ae a 12,788 12,734 UUaO1s | ittaliv= 2 sss02 ses 43, 469 47,917 56, 160 Argentina.........- 14, 047 18, 787 17,917 || Netherlands... 57, 266 55, 523 65, 913 Australia 2-2-2 14, 901 15, 036 15, 805, || Norway..-..-..--.- 3, 731 4,355 4, 036 Austria-Hungary...) 50, 429 49, 183 48, 174 | WOrtupal cs .ca4ne 6, 739 6, 382 6, 382 IESE Venter ere 20, 695 25, 989 21,597 || Southern Nigeria. . 5, 049 6, 602 6, 602 British India....... 5, 196 6, 346 7, 048 TL e, al SRE 48,931 | 60, 583 60, 279 Ganwgas ats 72. S22 17,815 20, 355 21,958 |} Sweden..........-- 10, 054 9, 913 9,913 @hind ses b est see 13, 026 19, 057 21,545 || Switzerland........ 18, 154 19, 429 18, 470 Denmark! 3.57.2 =~ 10, 674 10, 211 10,407 || United kLingdom...| 119, 347 137, 970 158, 668 Meypt.t toa eee 19,008 | 19,549 19,613 || United States...... 52,901 | 57,473 66, 899 1 Qaticl Fe wate | See eee 9,377 10, 294 9,450 || Other countries. . -. 54, 453 57, 056 52,314 Mraneeee: Gee ean 2: 61, 167 70, 869 81,779 Germany...........| 162,020] 178,443 | 182,775 fiotale faa". | 831, 228 | 920,056 | 975, 104 1 Year beginning Apr. 1. 2 Year beginning Mar. 21. 3 Year beginning Mar. 14, 1910. 586 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. FLAX. TaBLE 101.—Flaz: Area and production of undermentioned countries, 1911-1913. [000 omitted.] Country. NORTH AMERICA. Total Canada.... Production. Seed. Fiber. 1912 1913 1911 1912 1913 Bush. | Bush. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 28,073. |) 17; 853)|...2-22<- scan ee eee 9 es Pee Se 143 164 |o oo cccncicl scone ee 1, 252 ye Na ee 2) 23,033 | 15,579 |.- 1,693 |.-1, 155 |..-2..-2- 1.0) ocean Mexico soe see ee sce 26, 130 | 17,539 Hungary proper..... 21| (2) (1) 174 174 174 Croatia-Slavonia. . -.. 17 (4) () 15 15 15 Bosnia-Herzegovina.| (1) (4) (4) + 4 4 Total Austria- Euungary. 9.3 32|25 sae 2-325 ee = 890 843 801 |. 1/68; 026) |G: sae Seen eet 15s) [416601 ee Se ein es 49 54 57 515 514 387 Buleparia,..o5-seccosee 1 if (4) 12 6 8 BYR CR a2 soc eves 59 69 71 496 576 300 ALY os =o So osc 22 22 22 341 343 405 Netherlands..........- 39 36 36 579 428 326 Roumania. +2. ces sss56 52 79 67 607 772 569 Russia: Russia proper 3, 237 (4) TBI870, | DOV STE Wee om oc |omraisiw as eral orale eee Poland 222-550 ae 5 80 3 935 1. Depa sel Gem ceccce Seon os. sbi ocsecsecer Northern Caucasia. . - 96 | 1387 1) 732 B10) sos. 2 coo ee 2 oelsi- | enema | Seen Total Russia |, (European)....| 3,428 | 3,454 | 3,676 || 20,544 | 22,177 | 24,447 | 2 785, 136 -|21,172,059 Servis es veeeostcs ater 4 4 1y...3| [be ee en ees 2,091 2,095 Sweden...22.2-25-55652 4 4 1) 17 17 17 1, 500 1, 212 iraland << aes seeen 67 55 59 |} ~(@) Q) (1) 25,179 | 29, 021 J a7 COR es Pe aera Star See eR 24,001 | 25,676 | 27,360 |1,011,350 }....--..--|.----..... ASIA, British India.........- 3,757 | 4,946 | 4,125 || 22,544) 25,648 | 91,544 |........-112... ce temeeeees Central Asia.......-- 125 89 () 220 0 eee PS eecoce Semen cscl[osccmoSobk Siberia -- = .se222- 154 137 3 785 Tir el ee eee) Ro acospecd aeaace sine, [ansosgoons ‘Trancaucasia.......- 19 16 1) 94 OB es as sec Soc cust eos | nook eer eerie Total Russia (Asiatic).......| 298 242| (1) 1,000] 1,290: 4;800 1.52402. .4)otee eee see Motels see | eet ee |e oe eee 95, 643° | 26,878 | 844 | 5.0. oo al ocen eee] ee AFRICA A lperin/-2 3.22 seeee eee 2 1} @® 16 13 15 () Grand totalz3f 273 2S ee 101, 339 180, 317 1/131)549)|1) 011350) )2--- eee elo ee ee eee 1 No official data. 2 Includes 27 Governments only. Statistics of Flax. FLAX—Continued. 587 TaBLE 102.—Flax (seed and fiber): Total production of countries named in Table 101, 1896-1912. Production. Production. Year. Year. Seed. Fiber. Seed. Fiber. Bushels. Pounds. Bushels. Pounds. 82, 684, 000 Plas 20D 000s tO0Nsecc cence. ncteats 100, 458, 000 1, 494, 229,000 57, 596, 000 1408;.004, O00! 19062 2-25. .22 6. Set 88, 165, 000 1,871, 723,000 72, 938, 000 1803693; OOD nl 9B fen s2 2s 2 Sac See Ses 102, 960, 000 2,042, 390, 000 66, 348, 000 P1385 2055 000) || 190852 2252 22a. eos: 100, 850, 003 1, 907, 591, 000 62, 432, 000 A odbs O30; OOOH A9O9E. £223 oon soo- 100, 820, 000 1, 384, 524, 000 72,314,000 | 1,,050, 260,000 |], 1910. ...............- 85, 253, 000 913, 112, 000 OOD eee =: aos. as bSe- 83, 891, 000 TS 5645840 OOD IG eos occ ook eo8- 101, 339, 000 1,011, 350,000 (OTE ae Pia ie eae 110,455,000 | 1,492,383, 000 || 1912................- 130,417,000; |. eee ft se ee ee 107, 743,000 A OLT, 922; 000) M1913 5-25-52 lo 2552 131,549 000) Eee Saas ee ea TaBLE 103.—Flazxseed: Acreage, production, value, etc., in the United States, 1849-1914. Note.—Figures in italics are census returns; figures in roman are estimates of the Department of Agri- culture. Estimates of acres are obtained by applying estimated percentages of increase or decrease to the published numbers of the preceding year, except that a revised base is used for applying percentage estimates whenever new census data are available. Average Year. | Acreage. | yield per acre. Acres Bushels WUD ao soSecssececs|sseseecces RS SES SS 8pe5cec5| SSeaaase5 5 DE 4 sa becosa secs =| Gcercccese I 24) bascsrsee He] Boos saee 1889...) 1,819,000 7.8 1899...) 2,111,000 9.5 1902...| 3,740,000 7.8 1903...| 3,233,000 8.4 1904.-.| 2,264,000 10.3 1905...) 2,535,000 112 1906. ..| 2,506,000 10.2 1907...} 2,864,000 9.0 1908. ..| 2,679,000 9.6 1909...| 2,742,000 9.4 1909...) 2,083,000 9.4 19101..| 2,467,000 5.2 1911. ..| 2,757,000 7.0 1912... 2, 851, 000 9.8 1913...| 2,291,000 7.8 1914. ..| 1,885,000 Ras Production. 7, 170, 000 10, 250, 000 19,979, 000 29, 285, 000 27, 301, 000 23, 401,000 28, 478, 000 25, 576, 000 25, 851, 000 25, 805, 000 25, 856, 000 19,518,000 12,718, 000 19,370, 000 - 28,073,000 17, 853, 000 15, 559, 000 Condition of growing crop. When har- vested. Average farm price Farm value per Dec. 1. bushel July 1. | Aug. 1. | Sept. 1. Dec. 1 Cents Dollars. | PSCraal Peel. Wn Pace | | 105.0 BOF S15; 000M e= S8a lt See See Re ea 81.7 22, 292, 000 86.2 80.3 80.5 99.3 23, 229, 000 86.6 78.9 85.8 84.4 24, 049, 000 92.7 96.7 94.2 101.3 25, 899, 000 93.2 92.2 89.0 95.6 24, 713,000 91.2 91.9 85.4 118.4 30, 577, 000 92.5 86.1 82.5 152.9 29,795,000 | _ 95.1 92.7 88.9 231.7 29,472,000 65.0 51.7 48.3 182.1 35, 272, 000 80.9 71.0 68.4 114.7 32, 202, 000 88.9 87.5 86.3 119.9 21, 399, 000 82.0 77.4 74.9 125.6 19, 540, 000 90.5 82.1 72.9 1 Figures adjusted to census basis. 588 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. FLAX—Continued. TABLE 104.—Flaxseed: Acreage, production, and total farm value, by States, 1914. Average Average ead Sea Farm : A - price State. Acreage. sae pe tion, per bushel ee 2 Deon: ec. 1. i Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. "WHSCONSIN ce ./3).Snias clebneniciie's sieie mbtcreelgcte a 8, 000 13.5 108, 000 125 135, 000 Manmes0tas 5555 ses ee ene o eeom sees 315, 000 9.3 | 2,930,000 128 3, 750, 000 MW aie on cone oe opens ce oe cobs ere acer anee 20, 000 9.5 190, 000 120 228, 000 Missoni... ssocuchieese sesenes ic esee nesses 8, 000 8.0 64, 900 104 67,000 Worth Dakota. .22-~. ssbasmcet ose o-oo cee 840, 000 8.3 | 6,972,000 128 8,924, 000 South Dakotas s..sscs vaeeaesokwaseee seme 320, 000 7.5 | 2,400,000 123 2,952, 600 Nebraskan =. ..2.c-.e ee nes teers eee sees 7, 000 7.0 49, 000 119 58, 000 1 6 eS hee Se eae ee eae 45, 000 6.0 270, 000 125 338, 000 Weantans: 5.025 s ese = ee eee ee a eeeree 320, 000 8.0 | 2,560,000 120 3,072, 000 Calrados ances ss cose aces oee eee 2,000 8.0 16, 000 100 5 [ETL ed NSbALeS see ee eee eeeee ee 1, 885, 000 8.3 | 15, 559, 000 125.6 | 19,540,000 TaBLE 105.—Flazseed: Yield per acre, price per bushel Dec. 1, and value per acre, by States. ; : Value per Yield per acre (bushels). , Farm price per bushel (cents). acre (dollars).1 ‘ oa a State. = Bo! io >be ra pa ot ue ad BS gS wo se oe afm PALS liSisiSisisisisiais ie Si 1D oS, > 3% mo a Se Re EAs ee pict a Ge aE sh] = Wis =- 5-75 13. 4/13. 0/14. 0/14. 2/16. 0)14. 5]10. 0/12, 0/12. 5)14. 0)13.5)| 132} 220) 185) 127| 123) 125)/18. 84/16. 88 Minn. “255 9. 7/11. 3/11. 0/10. 5/10. 6/10. 0} 7.5) 8.0)10. 2) 9.0 9.3]| 134) 236) 182] 120) 123) 128)/13. 40/11. 90 Towa.....- 10. 6/11. 411. 4/11. 5}10. 9] 9. 8}12. 2} 8.0)11. 5) 9.4] 9.5|| 129) 220) 185) 124) 123) 1260))15. 77/11. 40 Mone 2s: 7.1) 7.8] 7.3|10.0} 7.0} 8.1] 8.4} 3.0} 6.0) 5.0] 8.0)| 122) 210) 190) 110) 115) 1 8.80} 8.32 N. Dak... .| 8. 4/11.6} 9.9] 8.0} 9.0] 9.3] 3.6] 7.6) 9.7] 7.2] 8.3]| 134) 235} 184) 114) 121) 128)|10.57/10.62 8. Dak -| 8. 5|11. 2/10. 5/10. 0)10. 7] 9. 4] 5.0} 5.3] 8.6] 7.2) 7.5]| 131) -229| 178) 113) 120! 123)) 9.68] 9.22 INDI coe 8.5/10. 2} §.5}11.0)11. 0] 8.5] 8.0] 5:0) 9.5) 6.0) 7.0)| 128) 225) 185} 128) 110 119})10.87| 8.33 Kans! Ss: 6.9} 8.0} 8. 2/10. 0) 6.5] 7.0] 8.2} 3.0) 6.0) 6.0] 6.0)| 124) 210) 190) 130) 116) 125)] 9.04) 7.50 Mont=; 22 10. 2/10. 0/12. 0/13. 0)11. 5/12. 0] 7.0) 7. 7|12.0| 9.0) 8.0)} 129} 240) 180) 112) 115) 120))12.81) 9.60 Colo x 2:22: 74) Se et sel eee | eee Bere 7.0} 7.0) 8.0} 5.0} 8.0)| 149} 225) 180 125) 115} 100}\10. 42) 8.00 U. S..| 8.8/11. 2/10. 2) 9.0] 9.6] 9.4) 5.2} 7.0) 9.8) 7.8} 8.3))132. 7/231. 7/182. 1/114. 7|119. 9/125. 6/11. 15}10. 37 1 Based upon farm price Dec, 1. Statistics of Flax. FLAX—Continued. 589 TasBLeE 106.—Flarseed: Farm price per bushel, on first of each month, by geographical divisions, 1913 and 1914. North Central North Central a . States east of States west of Far Western United States. || “Mississippi Mississippi States. Month. River. River. ; 1914 1913 1914 1913 |} 1914 1913 1914 1913 Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents. PAB UAL) = afsn =< etce 2i-= SSSA Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Area and production of undermentioned countries, 1912-1914. Area. Production. 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914 Acres. Acres. Acres. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. (?) (2) (2) 53, 370, 645 | 62, 898, 718 | 357,060, 000 (2) () () 1, 208,000 | 1, 208, 000 1, 208, 000 ie a EF =e Re 54,578, 645 | 64,106,718 | 58,268, 000 | 50,171 | 50,062 ) 44,413,872 | 18,879, 533 () 5,814 5,500 (2) | 4,012,372 | 4,435,200 (2) 55,985 | 55,562 (2) | 48,426,244 | 23,314,733 | 31,117,000 5,642 5,943 (2) 10,167,836 | 7,395,331 7,560,000 6,998 7,070 () 8,757,774 | 7,866,674 8,955, 000 66, 633 66, 836 (2) 45,334,292 | 23,408,222 | 55,157,000 24,297 24,297 24,297 | 14,083,992 | 16,973 016} 14 083,992 34, 829 35, 676 36,661 | 41,996, 837 | 28, 631,792 | 356,812,896 194, 384 195 S843 | ea Sete 168, 776, 975 |107,589, 668 | 173,685,888 122 131 (2) 87, 024 155, 344 160,000. 3) @) 2, 240 2, 240 2,300 1,029 1, 247 (2) 1,057,952 | 1,920,576 2,000,000 4: 65S5al eee sce (2) 710, 000 710, 000 710, 000 180 Zid Seine cece [ose eeceone 1,857,216 | 2,788,160 2,872,300 et ap Aare Hardee Bl Elbe 5: Te 225, 212, 836 |174, 484, 646 | 234,826,188 1 Commercial movement for years beginning July 1. 2No official statistics. TasBLe 116.—Hops: 3 Commercial estimate. #1911. Total production of countries named in Table 115, 1895-1914. Year. Production. Year. Pounds. ee ain SAS DODD OOS 204, 894, 000 || 1902............- ) TES FO09 000s UOOS 2 cera caer ae 1895219; 000))) 19042 2-2 e =. 166, 100, 000 |} 1905..:.........- 231,563, 000 || 1906.......-...-- 174, 683, 000 |) 1907....-.------. 201, 902,000 || 1908......---.--. Production. Pounds. 170, 063, 000 174, 457, 000 178, 802, 000 277, 260, 000 180, 998, 000 215, 923, 000 230, 220, 000 1 Preliminary. Year. Production. Pounds. 128, 173, 000 188, 951, 000 163, 810, 000 225, 213, 000 174, 485, 000 234, 826, 000 Date. October Statistics of Hops. 595 HOPS—Continued. TasLeE 117.—Hops: Wholesale price per pound, 1900-1914. | New York. || Cincinnati. Chicago. San Francisco. | Choice Pacifie Sacramento|| Willamette Eastern State Prime.! coast, good Valley, Valley, Washing- - to choice.2 choice. choice.* ton, choice. Low. | High.|| Low. | High.'| Low. | High.|| Low. | High.|| Low. | High.'| Low. | High. Cissy) Cis. WeGtse |) (CtseiWieCes:, | Cistely Cts: |) (Cts: |i Gts..| Crs Cisaners. 1255) 2H 10m} 18 Ge |) Sal leeeee ls sees 6 £4662 sl eee 13 20 132 173%!| 123 VOR Se eee 10 7 eed 2 a 14 38 144 30 123 pal} eae ER oae 10 28.0 Ne seeetlee ee oe 204 37 24 293 19 at Oe | eee Se fee Se 17 23% Bee ee Ae 32 Ailli| (he28 yw len 37 Pos al ey | ee TE RES i¢f 9a) PSS | leis |e“ 22 13 37 || 134] 33 10 BU | ee Bae Ra 94) ciS0iy|| aq enal ene 11 25 12 184 9 22s) aveealeeew ni 8 20) Weeee salen ene 12 23 | VAS eee 6 Bott | Reet sod ie tee 5 15 all | Bes See 6 16 S.lissseee 5 {ite | es wel ee ae a a lear eee ile CE 12 39 10 28 9 P| RS as eee |---s-n}ciemoc|[eaeme|=- 2 n= 21 35 || 154 | 272 || 14 71 eee eee eee eee |e: = el ee 23 OT Weeeess|\osese4 20 DOME Sere sleet econleeeeee | eae eases 22 56 224 49 20 50 17 50 || 18% 50 184 | 50 17 48 18 32 15 31 18 | 28 18 30 | 19 | 30 45 48 25 27 24 26 23 28 23 30 2a) a 30 43 46 25 27% 24 27 19 25 20 26 20 26 42 45 22 25 23 25 19 22 20 23 20 | 23 41 44 || 21 | 24 21 23 19| 22 20 | 23 20) i eae 38 40 22 22 19 21 16 22 16 23 16 | 23 36 38 21 22 18 21 16 17 16 17 16 17 36 38 18 18 18 20 16 17 16 17 16 17 35 38 20 20 19 22 14 18 15 194 14 19 35 50 22 22 19 21 17 19 18 20 Li 20 saueh 33 45 16 17 13 15a 2 10 18 ll 19 10 18 a oe 26 35 14 16 13 15 10 11 11 12 10 il Lad 23 28 134 15 13 15 10 124 11 13 10 12 aoe 23 50 || 133 | 272 || 13 27 10} 28 || 11 | 30 10 | 30 1 Choice 1900-1907 and 1909-1913. 2 Common to choice 1901-1903, prime to choice, 1907. 3 Quotations are for all grades to 1912. TaBLE 118.—Hops: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913. (Lupulin and hopfenmehl (hop meal) are not included with hops in the datashown. See ‘‘ General note,” p Country. Austria-Hungary... Belgium ITANCO ee et. 2o sae Germany Netherlands........ ACISIpalia =o = nae Austria-Hungary... Belgium IBnitish in diaescess. EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] . 1913 1911 1912 (prelim.). || Country. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. : 11, 766 28, 182 15,306 || Russia.....-- 8,958 3, 969 5,908 || United Kingdom... 399 590 339 || United States 16,744] 18,254 14,299 || Other countries. - - 1,154 535 2,704 205 277 498 Total. . IMPORTS. 907 1,129 1,511 |) Netherlands... 2,180 487 1,150 |) Russia....--- 8, 823 6, 562 6,975 || Sweden 285 247 162 || Switzerland United Kingdom. - - 541 498 484 || United States 1,271 1, 667 1,723 || Other countries... 1, 007 1, 235 751 7, 424 4, 229 4, 655 Total... 6,100} 11,790 5,541 1913 1911 1912 (prelim.). Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 2, 224 2, 294 3, 864 5,479 1,318 1, 263 14,104] 15,572 25,701 59 239 309 61, 092 71, 230 70,191 2,911 2, 090 4, 085 1, 045 1, 625 1,156 842 1, 206 1, 206 1, 256 1,746 1,125 16, 922 26, 356 27,562 5,567 5, 663 7,313 4,570 4, 387 4, 874 61, 651 70, 917 70, 273 596 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. BEANS. TaBLE 119.—Beans: Area and production of undermentioned couniries, 1911-1913. Area Production. Couniry. 1911 1912 1913 1911 | 1912 1913 ee Te Es ee NORTH AMERICA. Acres Acres Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. United/States--<2------2-s2--- 1784, 000 (2) (2) 111,145,000 (2) (2 Canada: Nova Scotia......--- bee ie 1,000 1, 000 1,000 21, 000 24, 000 22, 000 New Brunswick......-.-... (3) (3) 3 8, 600 7, 000 4, 000 Quebec este sss ee eee se 6, 000 5, 000 5, 000 114, 000 84, 000 97, 000 QOntario-=.-22-- 223222525 45, 000 46, 000 40, 000 876, 000 891, 000 670, 000 British Columbia,....--.-. (°) (8) () 8, 000 5, 000 8, 000 Total Canada. ..-.--.-.- 52, 000 52, 000 46,000 | 1,027,000 921, 000 801, 000 Total 3. eee - bose so Sewers = ee ae ee eee ee ee oe ree eee 12,172,000:|-.--i=22 e252 |= SOUTH AMERICA. ATE GDN ace occas em 65, 000 66, 000 65, 000 (2) ©) (2) Chile:s 2 5: 2. See ee 72,000 90, 000 35,000 | 1,360,000 | 1,669,000 | 1,551,000 EUROPE = Avs trig fo 23-28 oer roe 626, 000 637, 000 644,000 | 8,931,000 | 9,205,000 8, 725,000 Hungary® 38, 000 (?) Z 420, 000 (?) Do: 6a caten abe} Ler, CMD, 2 7, 128, 000 (2) 2) Croatia-Slavonia®.........---. 25, 000 2) 2 261, 000 (2) (2) GS See ee eae ed ES 496, 000 (2) (2) 1, 929, 000 2 (2) Beleiumeoee ete s ee e 21, 000 20, 000 (*) 662, 000 514, 000 2 Buleanlacseee 5 2-scesss soos a" 180, 000 212, 000 (2) 2,021,000 | 2, 482, 000 (2) IDenmarktases — 2 5/-.t sen aceente () 10, 000 (2) 285, 000 240, 000 255, 000 MPANCO. Fes eke eae eet 578, 000 558, 000 @ 8,187,000 | 9,739, 000 2 LC KW eee Se ae 2 ere Sep 1,510,000 | 1,476,000 | 1,444,000 | 18,990,000 | 14,778,000 | 16,568, 000 WUKEMDULE 2 Ss eo eee ee 3, 000 3, 000 F , 000 55, 000 000 Netherlands=. 8-52.93) oos 63, 000 59, 000 60,000 | 1,664,000 | 1,939, 000 1, 821, 000 Roumiauiao\5..29. tose. 92, 000 103, 000 108,000 | 1,058,000 | 1,109,0G0 | 1,303, 000 Do-b ces enoetee _...| 1,252,000 | 1,316,000 | 1,365,000 | 3,544,000 | 3,528,000 4, 454, 000 Russia: Russia proper 7134,000 | 7139, 000 (2) 72,146,000 | 72,190,000 (2) Poland sean eee dase 23,000 27,000 (2) 453,000 575,000 (2) Norther Calicassia === ss ee|nas-e nee en | ees ae eis | ee ee | ee Oe ere ee () Total Russia (Euro- pean) gessbeis As 85: 157, 000 166;,000)| 3-22-55 2,599, 000..| . 2,.765,0D08) = a2 - eee Servyidivs, 8 o-oo b esas Sony. 24, 000 430, 000 (2) 1, 453,000 | 41,491,000 (2) Spall. aoe tse eee eer eet 1,114,000 | 1,120,000 | 1,139,000 | 13,035,000 | 10,534,000 | 11, 737,000 Swedenk -.). 25--p een 10, 000 10, 000 (2) 171, 600 176, 000 164, 000 United Kingdom: Engiand 294, 000 270, 000 258, 000 7, 572, 000 7, 636, 000 7,517, 000 WialeSsccscccce shoes 1,000 1, 000 1, 000 29, 000 29, 000 31, 000 Scotland 9, 000 9, 000 6, 000 323, 000 306, 000 230, 000 ireland: ..2582.0.. eee 2, 000 1, 000 1,000 60, 000 61, 000 64, 000 Total United Kingdom. 305, 000 281, 000 266,000 | 7,984,000 | 8,032,000! 7,842,000 ol At) Fe | (a ape Re EE SO meee eee ello mdboe aes 802375, 000" |2S -- 222255. eee ASIA. Brivish Undies *. 7-5 sks. eee lee 13, 946,000 | 14, 129, 000. (2) 2) 2 2) aD Able sete cil ot wie 1, 652, 000 1, 607, 000 (2) 26, 289,000 | 25,392, 000 3 UCN ORES ee op eee 83, 000 $4, 000 (2) 604, 000 526, 090 2) Russia (22 governments)...---- 26, 000 27, 000 (2) 294, 000 375, 000 () AFRICA Algeria: =. Deeeee >t eee oc 99, 000 136, 000 (2) 1,132,000 | 1,022,000 (2) Egypt..... sbeBee: = > tee ee = 563, 000 539, 000 (2) (2) (2) (?) 1 Census figures for 1909. 2 No official statistics. 3 Less than 500 acres. 4 Includes other pulse. 6 Grown alone. 6 Grown with corn. : 7 Includes Northern Caucasia. Statistics of Beans. BEANS—Continued. 597 Tas Le 119.—Beans: Area and production of undermentioned cowntries, 1911—1913—Con. Area. Production. Country. 1911 1912 1913 1911 1912 \ 1913 AUSTRALASIA, Australia:! Acres Acres Acres. Bushels. | Bushels. Busheis. Queensland ies sees (2) (2) (7) 3, 000 2, 000 3, 600 New South Wales........- (2) (2) (2) 7,000 20, 000 16, 000 WiCLOTIA: 4 3e oS. Sapcee. 11, 000 12, 000 12, 000 230, 000 187, 000 240, 000 South Australia. .........- 10, 000 12, 000 9, 000 202, 000 162, 000 132, 000 Western Austraijia.......-- 1, 000 1,000 1,000 5, 000 5, 000 8, 000 SRASIIVATIA ee cise: oad Seyi 20, 000 24, 000 18, 000 514, 060 | 460, 000 476, 000 Total Australia. ........ 42, 000 49, 000 40, 060 961, 000 836, 000 875, 000 NewiZ eCaland oe sce 2 seers: 2, 000 (8) (3) 74, 000 (3) (3) Total Australasia. ...... ENT | a NPR, hs, See 4035, 000. |: .- eaten | Bois sae a 1 Includes other pulse. 2 Less than 500 acres. 3 No official statistics. TasiEe 120.—Beans: Wholesale price per bushel, 1900-1914. { | Boston. Chicago. | Detroit. San Francisco. Small white Date. Pea. Pea. Pea. (per 100 Ibs.). Low High Low High Low High. || Low. |} High. MUO Ors a. tN ee ng ON: = eee SS 1 SeMCINRS = 2 SERRE =. 2.10 3.10 1.60 3.10 1.80 2.90 4.09 6.00 598 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. PEAS. TABLE 121.—Peas: Area and production of undermentioned countries, 1911-1913. Area. Production. Country. 1911 1912 1913 1911 1912 1913 NORTH AMERICA. Acres. Acres Acres Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. United'States see see 11,302,000 () () 17,110,000 (2) (?) Canada: ie Prince Edward Island. ... (3) (3) (8) 2, 000 2, 000 2,000 INOVa NCOtal ee. foes (3) (3) (3) 5, 000 5, 000 7,000 New Brunswick 1,000 1,000 1,000 17, 000 10, 000 11,000 Quebec.= Po3sF- 2226822 228 33, 000 30, 000 26, 000 517, 000 449, 000 451, 000 Ontarion te oceecee eee 258, 000 226, 000 190,000 | 4,055,000 | 3,374,000 3,431, 000 Manitoba. ..----- (3) (3) (3) 9, 000 10,000: |aceocnee sees Saskatchewan.....- a4 (3) (3) (3) 8, 000 11, 900 7,000 Aibertar ecco. a eee eee (3) (8) (3) 8, 000 9, 000 8, 000 British Columbia.......-- 1,000 1,000 1,000 45, 000 43, 000 35,000 Motal'Canads- 32 a= <5 295, 000 260, 000 219, 000 4,666,000 | 3,913,000 3, 952, 000 Totales ek Parse es Se bane toe (Se wow cea ee cee Sere ore aera tere alee | ee SOUTH AMERICA. J Wess d MTOR pacer sae ee eeee see (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) Chile 4 S28 e852 See 27,000 29,000 35, 000 322, 000 528, 000 501, 000 EUROPE. IATis imine MaRS 9 sete eS (®) (®) 0 (8) (8) (®) Piaaiganyg See 2s cence < = 33, 000 (2) @ 418, 000 () () Croatia-Slavonia §...........-- 12,000 (2) (*) 171, 000 (*) t Beene seen seca ens 12, 000 12, 000 () 417, 000 409, 000 @ qt: Tats ee ees eae ee 73, 000 73, 000 (2) 1,134,000 | 1,277,000 (*) Guxembure So. 9... n-ne os 2, 000 2,000 2,000 31, 000 24,000 28, 000 INGihenlamdst==— 4-2 eae e- 55, 000 64, 000 68,000 | 1,838,000 | 1,868,000 (?) Roumaniaie |. Fi = 2. seh ek 34, 000 46, 000 61,000 598, 000 678, 000 1,076, 000 Russia: Russia Proper. oo. 252 ss aie alesse Sees [See Sess @)ive 0 Jeb saceetcces|cecsteReteer ae Poland ee sha. eee eee aceon lee ons eee (2) \cknedcciescn|eac cee eeneee See Northern Caucasia.......- bajo. ORE beets 2aeeeee (2)% y || eck. cee 3) 2. . a Tee Total Russia (European)| 3,484,000 | 3,472,000 (@) 32, 962,000 | 41,916,000 |....--.-.--.-. SOrvia: 39-po.<- seas ees 3,000 (5) (2) 71, 000 70, 000 (2) Spain 4. s55-6-cce dese sem ectes ce 1, 219, 000 1, 204, 000 1,244,000 | 11,444,000 | 9,885,000 9, 531, 000 Sweden 7 25--: -: eer asesSeerst 44,000 (?) (?) 1,277,000 | 1,069,000 1,317, 000 United Kingdom: } Piglan d= 328 cee an cs eeee 139, 000 172,000 127,000 | 3,788,000 } 4,007,000 3, 470, 000 Walesa: 2c hs tc. acct iacne 1, 060 1,060 (3) 14, 000 15, 000 10, 000 Scotland oer... ocseeee eee (3) (3) (3) 13, 000 18, 00 5, 000 Irelands!) 24.2 ascce ae | (3) (3) (3) 9, 000 8, 000 7, 000 Total United Kingdom. -! 141,000 174, 000 128,000 | 3,824,000 | 4,048,000 3, 492, 000 ASIA, Japaniz >. fe -8- oso eee eee 76, 000 89, 000 (2) 1,564,000 ; 1,914,000 (2) Russia (22 governments) 6... .-- 133, 000 127, 000 (“) 993,000 | 1,045, 000 @) AFRICA. Algeria: 4:55) -/cce pst aes eases 25, 000 26, 000 (2) 313, 000 277, 000 (?) AUSTRALASIA. =r AMUStraliaes ce Tents see (5) () 5 (5) 5) (°) New Zealand... 55520 See 15, 000 20, 000 20, 000 528, 000 666, 000 408, 000 1 Census figures for 1909. 2 No official statistics. 3 Less than 500 acres. 4 Includes chick peas, lentils, and vetches. 5 Included under beans. 6 Includes lentils. 7 Includes vetches. Statistics of Sugar. 599 SUGAR. TasLE 122.—Sugar: Production in the United States and its possessions, 1856-57 to 1914-15. [Data for 1912-13 and subsequently Beet sugar, also Louisiana and Hawaiicane sugar, estimated by United States Department of Agriculture; Porto Rico, by Treasury Department of Porto Rico; Philippine Islands, exports for years ending June 30. For sources of data for earlier years, see Yearbook for 1912, p. 650. A short ton is 2,000 pounds.] Cane sugar (chiefly raw). Beet Year lees vn: Total. 5 (chiefly Lawns Oth Port Philip- refined). | “OWS! ee orto | Hawaii.| pine ana. States.2 Rico. inipmGi. Average: Short tons.|Short tons.| Short tons.|Short tons. Short tons. Short tons.|Short tons. U856-57 LOL S60-61 24-2 2b ee| aoe eee 132, 402 5,978 (Peli: 4 Ae eee 46, 446 260, 190 1861-62 to 1865-66........... 269 74, 036 1,945 e652 |be laceacee 54, 488 202, 503 1866-67 to 1870-71........... 448 44,768 3,818 fo OE So | a 81, 485 226,633 1871-72 to 1875-76..........- 403 67, 341 4,113 87, 606 (3) 119, 557 279,020 1876-77 to 1880-81. .......... 470 104, 920 5, 327 76, 579 27,040 169, 067 383, 403 1881-82 to 1885-86......-..-- 692 | 124, 868 7, 280 87, 441 76,075 | 189,277 485,633 163, 049 8, 439 70, 112 125, 440 186, 129 555, 091 268, 655 6, 634 63, 280 162, 538 286, 629 807, 142 282, 399 4, 405 61, 292 282, 585 134, 722 823, 690 352, 053 12, 126 141, 478 403, 308 108,978 | 1, 257,673 348, 544 13,664 | 282,136 | 516,041 | 145,832 | 1, 785,376 360, 277 4,048 103, 152 355,611 75,011 | 1,082,705 368, 734 4,169 100, 576 437, 991 123,108 | 1,252,984 255, 894 22,176 138, 096 367,475 82,855 | 1,107. 100 398, 195 16, 800 151, 088 426, 248 125,271 | 1,359, 715 377, 162 13,440 | 214,480 | 429,213 | 138,645 | 1,485,860 257, 600 14, 560 206, 864 440,017 132,602 | 1,535,255 380, 800 13, 440 230, 095 521, 123 167, 242 | 1, 776.328 397, 600 16,800 | 277,093 | 535,156 | 123,876 | 1,776,409 364, 000 11,200 | 346,786 | 517,090 | 140,783 | 1,892,328 342, 720 12, 320 349, 840 566, 821 164,658 | 1,946,531 acer eet cles aia 'c cioiniajnanee a 599, 500 352, 874 8, 000 371, 076 595, 038 205,046 | 2,131,534 HOLA ease au cite eeeees eo seee ase 692,556 153, 573 9, 000 398, 004 546,524 234,000 | 2,033,657 AOS Ag So eee ae eee ee 733,401 | 292,698 7,800 | 4364,000 | 612,000 | 235,000 | 2,244,899 1914-15 (preliminary)..........- 22,054 | 242,700 CPLPAD Bt crcrenctaetes Meee eee Pa eet 4M Loin ae ee 1 Census returns give production of beet sugar for 1899 as 81,729 short tons; for 1904, 253,921; 1909, 501,682; production of cane sugar in Louisiana for 1839, 59,974 short tons; 1849, 226,001 hogsheads; 1859, 221,726 hogsheads; 1869, 80,706 hogsheads; 1879, 171,706 hogsheads; 1889, 146,062 short tons; 1898, 278,497 short tons; 1899, 159,583; and 1909, 325,516 short tons; cane sugar in other States, 1839, 491 short tons; in 1849 21,576 hogsheads; in 1859, 9,256 hogsheads, in 1869, 6,337 hogsheads; in 1879, 7,166 h short tons; in 1899, 1,691; and in 1909, 8,687 short tons. 2 Includes Texas only, subsequent to 1902-3. Unofficial returns. 3 Complete data not available for this period. Production in 1878-79, 1,254 short tons; in 1879-80, 1,304 short tons. 4 Estimate of Willet and Gray. ogsheads; in 1889, 4,580 600 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. SUGAR—Continued. TABLE 123.—Sugar beets and beet sugar: Production in the United States, 1901-1914. ; q a ss Analysis of Recovery of 8 |8 3 Sugar beet yaed. beets. | sucrose. 8 | 36 S > s me 1 to b [>] — 1 ayn Vee Oo Year of beet crop, | & bo & So H a SI = Se ee lise and State. ss ee) oo S$; |Be | =s | Be] BS | S~ | 23 1B5, SG ote t Be as 5 baa) eo) a4] os |] ay [ase 3 |® Pockaem | @8 | te) eae |e ee ieee oS 4 = = = |e | 8 | 8° | 82 | SF |b) ee |e" | ee leee| g 5 5 I ee a Cee Mee ee Num- Short Short | Short Per | Per. |- Per) Per Per ber. |Days.| tons. | Acres. | tons. tons. |Dolls.| cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. Dh! We See ees See Se 36 88} 184, 606] 175,083) 9. 63)1, 685, 689) 4.50} 14.8 | 82. 20) 10.95) 73.99) 3.85 1902 Sf eeeet aocseuce 41 94} 218, 406] 216,400) 8. 76/1, 895,812) 5.03] 14.6 | 83.30] 11.52) 78.90) 3.08. 1903 seeSe2-e se 5- 255, 49 75| 240, 604) 242,576 8.56)|2,076,494| 4.97) 15.1 |.-..-- 11.59] 76.75). 3.51 1904 Ses et t= 48 78| 242,113] 197,784] 10.47 |2,071,539) 4.95) 15.3 | 83.10) 11.69) 76.41) 3.61 1 O09 Sere ee oe 5 52 77| 312,921) 307,364 8. 67/2, 665,913) 5.00} 15.3 | 83.00) 11.74) 76.73) 3.56 ie) es eres 63| 105) 483,612) 376,074) 11. 26/4, 236,112) 5.10) 14.9 | 82. 20] 11.42) 76.64) 3.48 1OO7 Se224-2. se ae 63 89] 463, 628] 370,984| 10.16/3, 767,871} 5.20} 15.8 | 83. 60)-12. 30) 77.85) 3.50 1908: ses. oe Sey. 62 74| 425, 884] 364,913) 9.36)3,414,891) 5.35) 15. 74) 83.50) 12.47) 79.22) 3.27 1909) Mea 22 eens 65 83} 512, 469) 420,262) 9.71/4, 081, 382|.....- 16. 10} 84.10) 12.56) 78.01) 3.54 1910 -e2s2 33 Ses a-Si: 61 83] 510, 172} 398,029} 10. 17/4, 047, 292)... -.- 16. 35} 84. 35). 12. 61) 77.13] 3.74 TOU 32 2258 sees see 66 94) 599,500) 473,877) 10. 68/5, 062,333) 5.50} 15. 89).....- 11. 84) 74.51) 4.05 1919 See oc 5h Soe Sa 73 86} 692,556] 555,300) 9.41/5, 224,377; 5.82) 16.31) 84.49) 13.26) 81.12) 3.05 1913 sence ee ee 71 85] 733,401] 580,006} 9. 76)5,659,462) 5.69] 15.78) 83.22) 12.96) 82.13) 2.82 1914s sec 2k Seek sack: 60 85] 722,054] 483,400) 10. 9/5, 288,500) 5.45) 16.38) 83.89) 13. 65) 83.33) 2.73 1914 California -t see se=- 10 97} 169,004} 104,000} 10. 4/1,082,000) 5.68} 18,46) 82.70] 15.62) 84.62) 2.84 @olorado2 <= er see 13 96) 220,799) 135, 400 12. 6/1, 706, 300) 5.68} 15.35) 84. 22} 12.94! 84.30) 2.41 idaho ee e-6 see ee 4 78| 39,613} 25,300) 10.5} 264,400) 4.96} 17.78] 87.74] 14.98} 84.25) 2.80 Michigan: $2. 2.2 =-- 15 68} 110, 630} 101, 300 8.5} 857,000} 5.23] 15.78) 82. 85) 12.91) 81.81} 2.87 Ohiowat = tS see 3 56) 21,425) 17, 800 10. 4| 184,700) 5.04) 14. 50) 83.82) 11. 60) 80.00) 2.90 Utahee 22h 2st Fae 7 100} 78,619] 41,300 13.7| 564,600) 4.79] 17.03) 85.60) 13. 92) 81.74) 3.11 Other States. ..-.-- 8 76| 81,964] 58, 300 10.8] 629,500) 5.67} 15. 80) 83.35) 13. 02/ 82.41) 2.78 United States. 60 85) 722, 054] 483, 400 10. 9)5, 288, 500) 5. 45) 16. 38) 83.89) 13. 65 88. 33) 2.73 1 Based upon weight of beets. 2 Percentage of sucrose (pure sugar) in the total soluble solids of the beets. 3 Percentage of sucrose actually extracted by factories. 4 Percentage of sucrose (based upon weight of beets) remaining in molasses and pulp. TapLeE 124.—Cane-sugar production of Louisiana, 1911-1914. ree riers Sugar made. Cane used for sugar. Parish. : 1911 | 1912 1913 | 1914 1911 1912 1913 1914 1911 1912 1913 1914 Short | Short | Short | Short | Short Short Short Short © No.| No. | No.| No.| tons. | tons. | tons. | tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. Ascension......- 7 7 4 3] 14,496} 8,342] 10,808} 5,800} 234,719) 124,934) 163,000} 84,000 Assumption. ..-- 23 16 17 17| 35,950| 14, 457] 28,664] 22,500) 673,263) 243,864) 462,000} 331, 000 Theria.= 22. 4--=-- 13 9 10 7| 29,949] 10,999] 15,925] 8,000} 464,491) 140,932} 204,000] 97,000 libemville a.) 52 18 li 14 15] 23,759) 7,942) 19,187] 18,900} 481,545) 141,581) 315,000} 283, 000 Lafourche. ....-- 16 9} 13} 13] 42,001) 11,728] 35,021) 34,300) 707,764) 191,714) 535,000) 447,000 Siz VAMeS i. oto 20 10 17 16} 20,760} 9,368] 19,970 16, 900 361,537] 192,537) 327,000] 258, 000 Sts John: = -5- 2% 8 5 8 8] 14,935] 11,289) 13,596] 13,900} 275,536} 161,790} 236,000) 207, 000 St. Martin... .... 4) 3 31 3] 13,719] 5,382) 8,114] 5,000] 197,614] 62,165] 103,000) 56, 000 St. Mary -osee-8 26 15) - 22) 20) 57,602) 25,597] 54,689] 38,000} 866,744) 291,387} 663,000) 431, 000 Terrebonne... ... 14] 14] 13| 13] 27,462] 14,463] 24,631] 23,900] 442,218] 191,984| 352,000) 295, 000 > West Baton Houseses seas 10} 10} 10) 11) 17,235) 9,328] 15,305] 16,300) 314,472) 127,196} 225,000) 214,000 Lafayette and Vermilion. .... 5 6 6 6| 23,480] 14,547} 23,104] 14,900} 336,427) 164,580 276,000) 163, 000 Other’. Ves ese 24 il 16 17| 31,526] 10,131] 23,684) 24,300) 530,962) 127,910 353,000) 333, 000 Total Louisiana} 188) 126) 153 tee poset 153, 573/292, 698) 242, 700|5, 887, 292/2, 162,574 124 1 Avoyelles, Rapides, St. Landry, East Baton Rouge, Pointe Coupee, West Feliciana, Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, and St. Charles. Note.—The average yield o in 1914. f cane per acre in Louisiana was 19 tons in 1911, 11 in 1912, 17 in 1913, and 15 Statistics of Sugar. SUGAR—Continued. TaBLE 125.—Cane-sugar production of Hawati, 1912-1914. [Figures for 1914 are subject to revision.] 601 Cane used for sugar. Average extraction of sugar. : Facto- Island, and Ties nce Sugar yearending | in Speen eee Average Per P Sept. 30. opera- | 0. CAs > | Area har-| yield Produc- | Per cent | short oe t tion. | P@sn- vested. | “per tion. of cane. | ton of | 2c7°° acre. cane. cane. Short Short Short Hawaii: No. Days. tons. Acres. tons. tons. Per cent. | Pounds.| Pounds. 18 1 lease 2) 174 213,000 51,000 36 1,854,000 11. 49 230 8,353 Holset sc 2% 24 170 197,212 53,600 32 1,703,000 11.58 232 7,364 i Lee 24 204 209, 914 52,900 34 1,799, 000 11.67 233 | 7,936 auai: 1914 ae 9 214 121,000 21,600 50 1,089, 000 ib hf 222 11, 204 (Ch ee 9 198 100,340 20, 800 42 $41, 000 11.93 239 9, 665 ae USA oo 9 206 96, 845 18, 900 43 807, 000 12.00 240 10,248 aui: 1h Paes oe 7 167 145, 000 19, 400 54 1,054, 000 13. 76 275 14,948 1 Sear ee 7 152 124, 820 19,700 47 929,000 13.44 269 12,684 ene Soe mci 7 192 148, 740 19, 400 55 1,074,000 13. 85 277 15,334 u: 1 eee 7 188 133, 000 20, 700 44 903 , 000 14.73 295 12,850 af eee se 10 157 124, 152 20,500 49 1,003,000 12.38 248 12,153 1) 10 200 | 139,539 21, 800 50 | 1,094,000 12.75 255 12,802 Territory of Hawaii: H MO TAG acta 46 183 612,000 112, 700 43 4,900, 000 12.49 250 10, 861 LUG geet ers 50 169 546, 524 114, 600 39 4,476,000 | 21 244 9,544 TOU Pais x ai3: 50 200 | 595,038 113, 000 42 | 4,774,000 12. 46 249 10,532 TaBLe 126.—Sugar: Wholesale price per pound, on New York market, 1900-1914. Raw. Refined. Molasses, || Centrifugal, Granulated, = Date. * | 89° polariza-|| 96° polariza-|| Cutloaf. || Powdered. fine or Byte sues Soil supes tion.1 tion. standard. is co: Tee | | | Low. |High. |} Low. | High. || Low. |High. |) Low. |High. |) Low. High. || Low. |High. || Low. |High. Cts. | *Ciss Cts. |) (Cts Gis. \iGiso\iaGtss | Ges: I) (Cts. || Cts<|| Gis. | Gis ain@iss Ges AGO 3.81 | 4.88 || 4.25 | 5.00 || 5.35 | 6.55 || 5.05 | 6.25 || 4.95 | 6.15 || 4.60] 5.80 || 4.15 5.20 i 3.16 | 3.88 || 3.62 | 4.38 |; 5.15 | 6.10 || 4.75 | 5.70 || 4.65 | 5.60 || 4.30] 5.25 || 3.65 4.60 1902ZEE Been. 2 2.44 | 3.50 |] 3.25 | 4.00 || 5.05 | 5.55 || 4.55 | 5.05 || 4.45 | 4.95 || 4.20 | 4.70 || 3.65 4.15 1905252 S25 3.00 | 3.44 || 3.50 | 3.94 || 4.95 | 5.60 || 4.55 | 5.10 |} 4.45 | 5.00 || 4.20 | 4.75 || 3.65 4.20 Oa eee 2.81 | 4.38 || 3.31 ; 4.88 |] 5.10 | 6.45 || 4.50 | 5.85 |; 4.40 | 5.75 || 4.15 | 5.40 || 3.60 4.60 oi. ree 2.75 | 4.75 |] 3.75 | 5.25 |! 5.30 | 6.85 || 4.70 | 6.25 || 4.60 | 6.15 || 4.25 | 5.80 || 3.55 | 5.00 ADOGE Hs -.< 2 2.62 | 3.56 || 3.383 | 4.25 }} 5.20 | 5.70 || 4.60 | 5.10 || 4.50 | 5.00 || 4.25 | 4.70 || 3.65 4.05 DOO ee? 2.88 | 3.63 || 3.38 | 3.98 |] 5.40 | 5.70 || 4.80 | 5.10 || 4.70 | 5.00 || 4.45 | 4.75 || 3.85 4.15 NODS aise. 3.17 | 3.92 || 3.67 | 4.48 || 5.45 | 6.30 || 4.75 | 5.60 || 4.65 | 5.5 4.40 | 5.25 || 3.80 4.65 1909! 522522 2.86 | 3.70 || 3.61 | 4.45 || 5.35 | 6.10 || 4.65 | 5.40 |} 4.55 | 5.30 || 4.30 | 5.05 |] 3.70 4.45 OSs cee 3:05 | 3.73 || 3.80 | 4.48 || 5.40 | 6.05 || 4.70 | 5.35 || 4.60°| 5.25 || 4.35 | 5.10 || 3.75 4.50 LG VED, i ate 2.67 | 5.213!) 3.42 | 5.96 || 5.40 | 7.55 || 4.70 | 6.85 |} 4.60 | 6.80 || 4.45 | 6.60 |] 3.85 6.00 LOT se = 2.983] 4.05 || 3.73 | 4.80 || 5.70 | 6.65 || 5.00 | 5.90 |} 4.90 | 5.85 || 4.65 | 5.65 |] 4.05 5.05 TR es ees 2.374| 3.05 || 3:12 | 3.80 || 5.05 | 5.70 | 4.25 | 5.00 || 4.15 | 4.95 || 4.00 | 4.65 || 3.40] 4.05 1914 apa } | January....| 2.623} 2.98 |; 3.124! 3.48 )| 5.05 | 5.25 4.15 | 4.25 j| 4.05 | 4.20 |; 3.90] 4.05 |) 3.30 3.45 February . .| 2.89 | 2.98 || 3.39 | 3.48 || 5.05 | 5.05 || 4.20 | 4.20 || 4.10 | 4.15 || 3.95 | 3.95 || 3.35 3.35 March......| 2.28 | 2.64 |} 2.95 | 3.39 || 5.05 | 5.10 || 3.95 | 4.20 || 3.85 | 4.15 || 3.60 | 3.95 || 3.00 oao0 Aprile. : 2.27 | 2.39 || 2.92 | 3.04 || 5.05 | 5.10 || 4.00 | 4.00 || 3.90 3.95 || 3.65 | 3.65 || 3.05 3.05 MEER ete ere 2.39 | 2.74 || 3.00 | 3.39 || 5.05 | 5.15 || 4.00 | 4.30 |] 3.90 | 4.25 |] 3.65 | 4.00 |] 3.05 3.40 AINE) 2. 302 2.64 | 2.80 |} 3.29 | 3.45 || 5.15 ! 5.25 || 4.30 | 4.40 || 4.204 4.35 || 4.00 | 4.10 || 3.40 3.50 AJL pes Sees eee 2.61 | 2.67 || 3.26 | 3.32 || 5.25 | 5.30 || 4.40 | 4.50 || 4.30 | 4.45 || 4.10 | 4.20 || 3.50] 3.60 August.....|, 2.64 | 5.87 || 3.29 | 6.52 || 5.30 | 8.40 || 4.50 | 7.60 || 4.40 | 7.55 || 4.20 | 7.30 || 3.60 6.70 September .| 4.37 | 5.62 |] 5.02 | 6.27 || 7.65 | 8.15 || 6.85 | 7.35 || 6.75 | 7.30 || 6.50 | 7.05 || 5.90 6.45 October....| 2.99 | 4.37 || 3.64 | 5.02 || 6.50 | 7.65 || 5.70 | 6.85 || 5.60 | 6.80 || 5.35 | 6.50 || 4.75 5.90 November -| 2.86 | 3.42 || 3.51 | 4.07 |] 5.90 | 6.50 || 5.10 | 5.70 || 5.00 | 5.65 || 4.75 | 5.35 || 4.15 4.75 December..} 3.24 | 3.43 || 3.89 | 4.08 || 5.75 | 6.00 4.95 | 5.20 |] 4.85 | 5.15 || 4.60 | 4.85 || 4.00 4.25 Year .| 2.27 | 5.87 || 2.92 | 6.52 | 5.05 | 8.40 | 3.95 | 7.60 || 3.85 | 7.55 |] 3.60 | 7.30 || 3.00 6.70 1 Muscovado, 89° polarization, 1900 to 1908 inclusive. 602 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. SUGAR—Continued. TABLE 127.—Sugar: International trade, calendar years 1911-19138. [The following kinds and grades have been included under the head of sugar: Brown, white, candied, caramel, chancaca (Peru), crystal cube, maple, muscovado, panela. The following have been excluded: “Candy”? (meaning confectionery), confectionery, glucose, grape sugar, jaggery, molasses, and sirup. See “General note,” p. 518.] EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] 2 1913 1913 Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. ATSOMGINA Soe. 150 228 132 || Martinique......- 78, 204 86, 991 86, 991 Austria-Hungary | 1,334,958] 1,540,900] 2,368,765 || Mauritius. ......- 522,601| 454, 550 454, 550 Barbados. ..-..-- 61,699] 57, 902 57,902 || Netherlands.....| _ 432,359] 474,368 440,817 Belgram= Secs 360,159] 348, 081 2516935 |||BReruee asses eer 1270, 848] 328, 902 315, 041 Ascavileee: Sos 79,825} 10,520 11,832 || Philippine Is- British Guiana...| 222,588] 174,319 174,319 landss. seer ao 460,078) 434, 475 346, 858 British India..... 44,184, 80,454 53,181 || Reunion........- 111,181} 58,812 58, 812 Chine eo. 33,586] 43,154 14,555 || Russia......-.-.- 1,000,127} 830,036 325, 665 (Obl Oy eee eee 3,192,649] 4,357,051) 5,476,901 || Santo Domingo. -.| 193,499] 195,714 173, 832 Dutch East In- Trinidad and To- MicSaos ee eres. 2,952,302} 2,942,217) 2,942,217 bago. sesee teen 84, 979 74, 290) 74, 290 1 DA 0 ee SS ee 23,817 20, 769 11,316 || United Kingdom. 64, 011 67, 012) 52, 492 LO aan Desaeree, 163,146} 138,271 138,271 || Other countries..| 530,836} 701, 564 743, 810 MTANCOS cee cco 293, 732 373, 858 442,518 a Germany......-- 1,890,046} 953,743) 2,462,020 Motel. .. 2b esseene 194,552 | 196,488 192,122 || Other countries.... 8, 057 8, 236 6,015 Dutch East Indies... 38, 469 66, 610 66, 610 |] KS IROEINOSS «sar eos - 25, 620 23, 668 23,931 Totalese sees. 758, 335 | 804, 281 810, 310 IMPORTS. Arpenting=22/.m--< 3, 672 4, 082 4,148 || Germany.........- 8, 405 9, 124 9, 458 Australiag. Gente 34, 759 36, 756 37, 343 || Netherlands....--..-. 11, 466 12, 143 12, 052 Austria-Hungary... 3, 551 3,793 3,575 || New Zealand......-. 8, 071 7, 684 7,069 British India.....-. 10, 748 9, 167 8) 6537 || eb Grsiass Sar sa sees 9, 443 11,120 11, 120 British South Africa 5, 534 6,115 6, 567. || HRUsSsiaa emanate 153, 288 151, 037 152, 211 (OFRIE Ts Ree 33, 425 42, 658 35, 927 || Singapore......-... 6, 225 6, 692 16, 692. Chile ee ee 3, 625 3, 812 3,849 || United Kingdom...} 293,502 |: 295,409 | 305, 690 SUNG sip ae ae ee 16, 630 18, 445 25, 898 || United States....-. 104, 166 98, 706 89, 018 Dutch East Indies..| 6, 276 7, 624 7,624 || Other countries....| 33,214] 38, 486 36, 292 WTANCG. 352 cco 2,972 2, 886 2, 661 Trench Indo-China. 2, 680 2,920 2,920 Wotalie tee << 751,652 | 768, 659 768, 773 Statistics of Tea. TEA— Continued. 605 TABLE 131.—Tea: Wholesale price per pound, on New York market, 1900-1914. Foochow, fair || Formosa, fine Japans, pan- India orange Ceylon orange to fine. to choice. fired. pekoe. pekoe. Date Low. | High. Low. | High. Low. | High. Low. | High. Low High. Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents. 22 28 27 OW ee | Ls 27 30 27 37 20 28 27 EBS Cor Son Sateen 26 30 26 37 214 29 274 47 18 33 26 35 26 36 10 29 204 50 8 33 19 35 19 36 9 18 25 50 93 14 18 25 18 27 9 18 26 50 11 14 19 25 19 28 a 18 22 50 94 16 19 254 19 28 Py 21 22 38 144 35 15 254 16 30 12% 21 20 45 18 35 17 25 18 30 123 27 20 40 18 38 18 26 18 28 104 27 23 644 174 36 18 264 18 26 10 293 233 453 17 32 18 264 18 26 114 222 20 39 15 21 18 25 20 26 12 22 24 39 134 35 184 24 183 24 12 22 24 39 134 28 184 21 184 24 12 22 24 39 134 28 184 21 183° 24 12 22 24 39 124 30 184 21 184 24 12 22 24 39 124 30 183 21 184 24 123 22 24 39 124 30 184 21 184 24 124 22 24 39 123 30 183 21 184 24 123 2D, 24 39 123 31 183 21 183 24 124 22 24 39 14 38 184 27 _ 183 26 16 22 24 39 17 38 27 27 25 26 15 22 23 39 18 38 27 27 20 26 15 22 23 39 18 Chet | eee toe | eee 20 22 15 22 23 39 18 Bi s))| | aaeceoas Seeaeee 21 22 12 22 23 39 124 38 184 27 184 26 606 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. COFFEE. TaBLE 132.—Coffee: International trade, calendar years 1911-1918. [The item of coffee comprises unhulled and hulled, roasted, ground, or otherwise prepared, but imitation or ‘‘surrogate”’ coffee and chicory are excluded. See “General note,” p. 518.] EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] Country. 1911 1912 Pounds. | Pounds. ae Teen 1, 480341 |1, 507, 950 Taal: shee cece 7,95 British India....... *"24,593 |’ 34,937 Colombia. 625.2282 83, 554 123, 442 Gosta Ricans? {S52 27, 869 26, 980 Dutch East Indies.| 52,517 | 75,179 Guatemala........- 90, 003 82,855 1g Cn ee joe seer tee 52, 861 78, 864 Jamaica. es. 22-2 6, 726 10, 034 Mexico:.* Ati 22 seco 41, 587 53, 759 Argentina.....-...- 24, 482 31, 063 Austria-Hungary...| 127,196 | 124, ray Belgium! 252 22.c-- 93,177 110, 434 British South Africa] 24,954 | 26,004 Cuba 2-2 Bees ee 24,779 22,292 Denmark oo. ---h-- 32, 208 31, 637 era Gr oe ae milandetee-5526 2 28, 25: 28, HIFANCGP yo ceeic ws :ce 244,842 | 245, 243 Germany. 2252... =. 404, 035 376, 869 Wpaliyseseoeeeko ee 58,391 | 60,921 Netherlands........ | 289,273 | 256,288 1 Data for 1910. 1913 (prelim. ). Country. Pounds. 24,945 || Netherlands........ 1, 754,973 || Nicaragua.........- 22,073 || Salvador... ....2.-- 123, 442 || Singapore.......... 28, 702 || United States?....- 75,179 || Venezuela.......-..- 93,014 || Other countries. --- 57, 594 10, 034 Total: 8.628 53, 759 IMPORTS. 32,602 || Norway....-------- T3OS960Ni|\ RAISSIAE oe eee 118,195 || Singapore.........-. 26; 91.0ii|| Spain's. es... 6-28 25,108 || Sweden...........- 36,091 |} Switzerland.......-. 13,975 || United Kingdom... 28,371 || United States... -... 254,155 || Other countries... 371, 131 63, 196 Dota catvesOe 319, 572 1911 Pounds. 195, 902 112,973 165, 367 4,365 36, 384 97, 659 62, 961 2,372,775 29, 431 25, 219 5, 573 28, 336 71, 845 23, 707 28, 029 $00, 209 101, 006 2, 480.095 1912 Pounds. 180, 792 10, 201 59, 216 4, 842 49,716 117, 042 66, 047 2, 624, 892 25, 907 25, 968 6, 527 29, 500 67, 667 23, 942 27, 987 942, 515 106, 755 2, 586, 161 1913 (prelim.). Pounds. 202, 823 10, 201 63, 471 4,842 52, 905 142, 016 62, 686 2, 782, 659 29, 931 27, 590 6, 527 32) 013 67, 667 25, 470 28, 100 $52, 529 112, 912 2, 603, 005 2 Chiefly from Porto Rico. Statistics of Coffee. COFFEE—Continued. 607 TaBLeE 133.—Coffee: Wholesale price per pound, on the New York and New Orleans markets, 1900-1914. Date. 1914, Octoberss:-5- November.... December... Year... New York. New Orleans. Rio No.7) Stes |] aocha. || Padang. || Cucuta, |] Cordoba, || Rio No.7 Santos Tl eeN Ost ; 8s washed aerial ida | ap NOS, U1 shed. F/SIESTELSTE LS TESTES eS) 2/8 H | 4H | & H | & e| a el |e A} es H | & Cts. || Cts. | Cts. || Cts. | Cts.|| Cts.| Cts.|| Cts.| Cts.|| Cts.) Cts.|| Cts.) Cts.|) Cts.| Cts. 10 63/10 || 16 | 193 |] 18 | 25 || 9 | 132 || 9 | 14 6z | 10 7 \) 10% 72 || 5a | 72 |] 154 | 19% |] 15 | 19 7% | 13 8 | 12k 1) 52) 7) 5e1> 8 72 5 72 || 13- | 19 Ue aks) 8 | 133 8 | 121 53 | 74 53 72 72 || 5e5| 72 || 12 | 19 || 154 | 17 Sealers S53 52 | 73 || 5k] 6% S| 6k | Ors 13 | 18 || 154 | tex] 9 | 132 |) 82] 134 || 7 | Of ||. 94 || 72] 92 || 16 | 183 |] 15 | 16 9 | 13 |] 104 | 13 7a | 9 72) 9 9 62] 9 Ga tera 13-9) 15% gt | 12 94 | 122 74 | 8§ 7+ 83 72 || 6 | 7 || 154] 19 || 13 | 21 92 | 13% || 92 | 13 6 | 7 || 6] 7 7% || 6 | 7% || 144] 19 || 10 | 21 || 10 | 13: |] 104 | 13 58 | 68 || 7 74 88 64 | 82 || 14 | 17 10 | 203 & | 14 104 | 131 7E| &§ 7 8% 133 84 | 138 || 144 | 17% || 17 | 20 10 | 162 |! 103 | 153 81 | 134 82 | 133 164 || 12% | 162 |) 152 | 20 || 184 | 22 |} 132) 18 |) 142 | 182 || 118 | 16d || 124 | 164 154 || 144 | 164 |] 182 | 21 |] 194 | 22 |] 154 | 182 |] 153 | 184 |] 132 | 154 || 144] 168 14 102 | 152 |} 18 21 19 23 1s | 172 |} 15 18 9 14 103 15 9 | 98 || 102 | 112 |] 18 | 20 j|-21 | 23 || 142 | 18 |] 152] 16k || 92] 93!) 108) 113 93 | 93 || 102 | 112 || 174 | 208 || 21 | 23 |] 153 | 18 || 152] 163 || 92] 98 || 102] 113 8t | 92 |] 102 | 11 || 173 | 202 |) 21 | 23 |] 144 | 172 |] 154 | 164 |] 83] 92 |] 102 | 11 82 | 92 || 102 | 11 |] 183 | 204 |] 21 | 23 |) 1444] 17 |] 154 | 152 ]] 88} 92 |] 104] 112 82] 9 || 10%] 11 |] 183 | 204 || 21 | 23 |} 144 | 162 |] 154 | 153 |] 88] 94 || 104) 114 8g | 9§ |] 10h | 113 || 183 | 21 |] 21 | 23 |] 143} 16% || 154 | 16 si! 98 || 103! 114 re aa) 3] 104 |] 193 | 21 || 21 | 23 || 144 | 164 |] 15 | 16 75 | 9 Z| 11% 7% | 92 3 | 123 || 193 | 30 || 21 | 24 {| 144 | 18 |] 15 | 174 |] 74 | 108 || 10% | 138 62 | 73 |] 9 | 11 || 223] 30 |] 23 | 24 |] 12 | 16 || 153 | 172 |] 62 | 73 ]| 92) 118 6i | 63 2 | 92 || 222] 30 |] 23 | 24 |] 11 | 15 |] 123 | 154 || 68] 62 33 | 98 6: | 62 || 8: | 82 || 212 | 30 |] 224 | 24 |] 112 | 144 || 12° | 14 63 | 62 || 82| 9 61 | 78 || 8k] 83 |] 212 | 24 || 292 | 232 |] 12 | 153 || 12 | 14 62 | 73 || 82 z 6t | 93 || st | 122 || 174 | 30 |] 21 | 24 |] 11 | 183 |] 2 | 17a || 6g | 10g || 83] 133 608 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL. TABLE 134.—Oil cake and oil-cake meal: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913. [The class called here “oil cake and oil-cake meal’’ includes the edible cake and meal remaining after mak- ing oil from such products as cotton seed, flaxseed, peanuts, corn, etc. See ‘‘ General note,” p. 518.] EXPORTS. [000 omitted.) 1913 1913 Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). Pounds. | Pounds. | “Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Argentina. ......--- 44, 594 38, 849 46. hot al Ataly hoot eek crete te 89, 839 57, 795 43, 008 Austria-Hungary...| 158,739 | 127,661 111; 252 || Mexicos.2 2220 sae 41, 568 40, 138 40, 138 Belorame. 3) 2s... 174,257 | 157, 458 125, 241 |) Netherlands.....-. 210,956 | 253, 003 228, 492 British India.....-- 301,128 | 333, 504 400: 818] Russia = 2 seb Ss 28 1,452,291 |1, 552,042 | 1,611,823 36, 946 69, 353 65, 530 || United Kingdom..-} . 46,337 69, 512 52, 741 147,065 | 112,629 175, 060 || United States.....-. 1, 638, 537 |1, 980,166 | 1,952, 184 16, 213 21, 742 21,061 |; Other countries....| . 77,048 80, 677 88, 926 187,772 | 178,083 138, 839 —-- 560,172 | 471,101 473, 550 Total se -: 5, 697,651 |6, 124,895 | 6, 223,390 514,189 | 581,182 648, 536 IMPORTS. Austria-Hungary...| 48,058 74, 091 79: 860) Japanesec seen -sctsies 195,154 | 190,495 190, 495 Beleium™es ese. 529,596 | 534, 293 567,391 || Netherlands......- 643,155 | 822,757 766, 498 @arnada 4735-4228 6, 662 10, 594 Lt 090: || Norway.2 225-2 --28 63, 453 65, 400 66, 519 Menmark 25242" 948,133 |1,114, 414 | 1,250,972 || Sweden............ 357,198 | 385, 474 385, 474 Dutch East Indies. . 2, 230 38 38 || Switzerland......-.- 88, 451 75, 158 54, 955 unland. =. - foes 25, 588 32, O71 25,533 || United Kingdom...| 754,779 | 863,621 904, 606 BRrancel? 522 s2n.cs oe 314,806 | 341,642 223,862 || Other countries....| 25,595 | 120,616 20, 216 Geninny: 22. 25-5 1, 668, 380 |1, 750, 872 | 1,826,618 —_ |__| ——————— ialye ee oe cee = se 11, 872 8,627 6, 520 Total. .....--|5,683,110 |6, 290,163 | 6,380,647 Statistics of Rosin. 609 ROSIN. TaBLE 135.—Rosin: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913. [For rosin, only the resinous substance known as “rosin’’ in the exports of the United States, is taken. See “General note,” p. 518] EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] 5 1913 1913 Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). Country. 1911 1912 (prelim.). : Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Austria-Hungary... 1,988 2,388 2e32%- || (Spaileees " 2 2... 1910 HT ANCOR Se eee eee 1913 Genmamyesee osce-. 1913 Greecoue se sts. 2 1912 Rcelan disse hee 1912 hiss See eee See 1908 ; = Luxempures.). 35. . 1913 102 137 5 10 AG oo @): ea geto x] a eee ee ee (Mal taeeere ca. 1913 5 4 15 14 3 3 Sl cope eetete® Netherlands. ...... 1913 2,097| 1,350 842 232 BOE Ok. .205|Seaees ca lecce cece eee INOEWaAy- 0.22.2 Sel eee 2, G38 as meee MOrMmMOosa! <2 2-52 ee | 1912 French Indo-China.| 1911 Jap AH = so maiwete a= 1912 Morestce t= eS2- 1912 Guarentee eee Philippine Islands.} 1913 388] 1,822 103 515 192]. 22. ; S| eee oe T1025 | See Russia (28 govern- ments): Central Asia..... 1911 5, 629 118) © 23;719|" -2/968)]~ ~5, 316)". 22.2. 2]. 222 -|caemeee ee 9 365 SIDCLIae =e s= see 1911 5,720} 1,126 5, 025 225) 47597) 2... 5s4| 6 cosas eames 91 Transcaucasia... -| 1911 3,331 290 5, 749 679 ALA St 3 1012 10 338 1017 Total Asiatic RUSSIAS Ss) 14, 680)" 1,534) 34,4931" 3,872)" 10,330)..75..-..4|2 222-3. alee eee 383 SIDI! = So gcsacue ste Sees TO 28\ ie socal eestee| erences Xs) beeper ee 1 528[2s- cose Basis ® Settlements and Labuan. 1913 46 158 60 13 )) ee SEE emetic cilaso- = 57 Turkey (Asiatic)... eRe 3, ODES 5 St 45,000) 9,000 800/2 shoes 2;\500) 320 seceem| emcee AFRICA. Algeria. 28. 2. 1911 1,114 110 8, 529) 1 3, 682 227 192)! 2 DO) Sener 199 437| (8) 1,369 | eens (8) [RSS eS ee PAD ose cee Satie) eee Pde haeie 5 FIs te i ea 780 3 6,500| 4,020 i Rs 4 eee eee |in'nccoe 2” 119}. ~ 196 137 i | SS (8) ees eee G87], -b Sec Me aeece ee eel eae oie 48 23 682 633) Soe. eee 74 ae ee BOTS. oe il 20). == 5.2) 02 ee sees 47 Si | Berea ats » 128 138 3] (8) 1.2: CoS eee Gabon: \s282s22- 1911 ©) Adlon -aeee 10 45). C8) (olnce ese ak (8)! > |S Se erates Gambiass: 2 22733222 1907 Bhar eee es les eee ete eee Cee ol epee ea) eee ee lie icin 5 Geraint East Af- bee tas aes 1905 81,489 1 1,560} 1,820) (6) (6) QO). 2225 Sere cay Gaeta Southwest | EEICR Ne eee eo 1912 172 7 499 469 13 O12). 3/.-2--2|seeseeeee 1 ivory Coast. f7s25 52 1911 92 1 92 TAZ See ec. ie (8) [oe win cee eben ene Madagascar........ 1911 5, 330) 543 352 97 2 i ae) Ja Pee | is = Mauritius. 22255222 1912 19 6 1 6 | eS eel ee EB a) ie Mayotte and de- pendencies....... 1911 Sales oo cee (8) 27| (8) (6) (6) + * | ESS eee eer Nyasaland Protec- TOTRIE oss 25 a= 1912 63 22 23 137 ‘3 3 hats SO ASS Ses lee eee eee Hetmions Lis Jeee 1911 5 il 2 4 6) 1 ied (Wane Beeerseaead Seece a. Rhodesia.....-..... 1911 ihe 15 Nis a nit 300 C02) nn as nnelaceneete peered sells ae sees rrr St. Helena......... 1911 1) (6) 4 Tip (8) (9 | oe te Seneral: 23 22 1911 Co) ae = 206}: 428 36| (6) 40 12 Seychelles... 525-2... 1912 1 6} (8) Tl) (8) eee Seeelser eosc|- oy ee mn eee Sierra Leone......- 1910 atn(6) Wi ascee eee (6)'2 OC lsteeeeae eens dos 5 Soe eerie Somaliland (Ital- 110) pe eae ae 1910 SBbIGe 2-2 = T75\ oo cc ccclcecon deeledee cine | ae cic cac.c) ace eee | er Southern Nigeria (Dagos) 3.ch. 2-5 1902 2 2 2 3\, si) peal eee eee 19\- S98 eee | seers Sudan (Anglo- Egyptian).......-| 1909 P| eae 830 977 Biles ic 213 1212 eee 23 pide SSS Pee.’ | 1912 74 9 3164 7 80) 1] (8) | Bega ses pcs o5 eh SE ae vine | 1912 225 19 767 492 37 22 192% eae 110 U anil Protector- | ee ee aS Pe 1914 1 2ablpees ses 12 a] 121,220) (8) (8) (8) se aera 1 Including buffalo calves. 6 Less than 500. 10 1902. 2 Buffalo calves included with cattle. 7 1911. 11 1912. 3 Including goats. 8 1910. 12 Not including 3,000,000 sheep and 4 sinclading asses, 9 1903. goats in Rudolf Province. Statistics of Farm Animals and Their Products. TABLE 141.—Live stock of countries mentioned—Continued. Country. Year. AFRICA—continued. Union of South Af- rica: Cape of Good BONO sa. 55 ==. 1911 Watal oe 35. = - 1911 Orange Free TRbOle ates. = 2 > - 1911 Transvaal........ 1911 Total Union of South cAlries-- - =. 1911 OCEANIA. Australia: Queensland ...... 1913 New South Wales2...-...- 1913 Wate rn oh ee 1913 South Australia..| 1913 Western Austra- eee oe ae 1913 Oe Sih) ae 1912 Northern Terri- MEV eS 24.86- - 1912 Total Aus- ialigs : 2 4,544 SHeeprss Aas oc 17, 453 Skins, unclassi- Hedin 4. ee ee 921 Peru: Catiles2 22058: . 4,461 Godt... Se eese 855 pheepss 52822 28 2 81 Russia: Hides, large...... 19, 975 Hides, small... .. 44,227 Sheep and goat... 21,447 Singapore: Hides, unclassi- ed’, 320bee et =. 5,111 1 Unofficial estimate. 2 Year preceding. 1912 Pounds. 20, 595 8, 126 29, 103 82 24, 403 17,088 7,003 2, 598 32, 153 4,215 2,863 1, 722 15, 992 79, 097 27,207 111, 671 2; 884 14,959 725 953 35, 203 5, 405 954 939 2,336 1,017 897 132 26, 752 7,163 EXPORTS—Continued. 1913 Country and elassi- 1913 (prelim.). fication. a ae (prelim.). Pounds. || Spain: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 21,515 Goats .25 cette =e 1,865 1,801 1, 923 9,105 Sheep). cect sem 7,746 8, 574 9, 206 82,319 Unclassified... ..- 6,940 8, 202 6,471 Sweden: 36 Cattle, wet......- 28, 065 23,149 2 23,149 Cattle, dry..-...-- 523 395 2395 Horse, wet...--.. 711 620 2 620 60, 000 iorse; dryance = (4) 2 22 Goat, kid, lamb, 66, 405 and sheep, wet. 321 798 2 798 1,518 Goat, lamb, and 22,176 sheep, dry..... 89 110 2110 1,105 Unclassified, dry. 5 6 26 Unclassified, wet. 19 130 2130 4,649 || Switzerland: Hides, unclassi- 14, 207 fied’: 2: eee 14, 884 15, 897 15, 673 322 Skins, unclassi- Nad =. .2sbeeee 7, 220 7,174 8,178 20,814 ||} United Kingdom: Hides, unclassi- 217,088 1 io a ee 24, 182 30, 447 24, 388 Sheepskins....... 16, 215 18, 463 17, 837 7,029 || United States: 2,946 Calin + i385 os: 212 780 583 Cattle 7. Slee pees. 6, 519 20, 514 14, 454 34,164 Unclassified... ..- 29, 385 7,085 7,119 5,411 |} Uruguay: 2,601 BT See ris 22s oe etal 2 429 5 429 5 429 1,983 Cattle, dried..... 218,560 | 518,560 5 18, 560 13, 030 Cattle, salted..... 229,485 | 529,485; 529,485 82, 304 Horse, dried...... 2 526 5 526 5 526 Horse, salted..... 2 54 5 54 5 54 19,158 Tami... secs 2 503 5 503 5 503 104, 653 Sheep: 222 aete see 17,748 22, 825 17, 597 2,912 Yearling, dried...| 23,112 53,112 5 3,112 14, 594 Yearling, salted .. 2100 5100 5100 947 || Venezuela: 1, 296 7, 765 7, 426 7,013 364 483 354 48,094 2, 280 3, 4389 1, 606 7,446) Sheepy.c-s.cceece| | 8 cece meee Serene 1,191 || Other countries: 989 Hides— 2, 207 Cattle and buf- ‘ 782 falow jel bse: Ae 89,155 | 102,516 110,795 1,316 Horse:cse snes 594 645 427 Skins— 2 132 Ailigaton-cs.. =< 66 65 64 2 32,635 Calfe sees 222 4, 509 4, 891 4,184 2 646 Deere sscese sees 1, 297 1,491 1, 466 25,624 Goat and kid..| 20,115] 18,534 21, 466 22 Sheepandlamb) 22, 856 15, 613 16, 058 Sheep and goat, : 24,161 mixed 2252... 11, 046 11, 750 11,754 162 Unclassified. . . 32,977 54,514 55, 941 42,399 993 Totaleeccceo- 1,920, 720 |2, 116, 701 | 2,033,693 All countries: 5, 927 Hides— 20, 671 Cattle and buf- falol Peewee is x 757,305 | 843,547 814, 202 1,077 Horse 30, 052 26, 154 25, 388 6, 930 279 197 196 872 94,799 94, 861 91, 145 172 2, 672 2, 859 2, 854 Goat and kid..| 143,977 141,013} 142,197 90,065 Sheep and lamb} 213,160 | 224,687 193, 984 z Sheep and goat, FAD PLY | mixedeeee-: < 35, 551 42, 008 38, 865 Unelassified....| 642,924 | 743,089 724, 932 27,163 Totaley.c: 2. 1,920,719 |2,116, 701 | 2, 033, 693 ’ Number of pounds computed from stated number of hides and skins. 4 Less than 500 pounds. 5 Data for 1910. Statistics of Farm Animals and Their Products. 617 TABLE 142.—Hides and skins: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913—Continued. IMPORTS. Country and classi- 1913 Country and classi- 1913 fication. 1911 it (prelim.). fication. 1911 1912 (prelim. ). Austria-Hungary: | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. || Russia: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Calf, dried.....-- 1, 590 916 1,071 Hides, dry......- 12,956 | 10,326 9,317 Calf, green......- 1,678 1, 256 1,581 Hides, green. .... 82}064 | 72,973] 102,452 Cattle, dried..... 43,970 37,877 42,309 Goat and kid..... 3, 934 3, 239 1,603 Cattle, green. =. 42, 488 35, 006 37,440 HOPS...) sence 8,396 8, 829 1,733 asp eee 1, 366 1, 214 1,500 || Singapore: ; Here, dried? sa. 86 73 245 Hides. unclassi- Horse, green ss. i me pe 3 NGG eese Sep sae 7, 835 10, 965 210,965 USTs be pain: MamMib ies coe es 10,193 | 10,299 10, 124 Unclassified... ... 20,075 | 21,556 16, 035 HERD ew. eaee 3,813 3,027 3,770 || Sweden: Unclassified... ... 609 715 608 || Cattle, wet....... 18,511 18, 733 2 18,733 Belgium: Cattle, dry....... 5, 334 6,513 26,513 = Poesy aes eemia's 186,470 | 186,116 197,072 Horse} wet....... 62 109 2109 ritish India: Goat, kid, lamb | Paniler os c<) 20, 861 21,174 14, 401 and sheep, wet. 236 346 2346 Hides, unclassi- Goat, lamb, and hil 5 ee ae by 846 657 401 sheep, dry....- 310 649 2 649 Skins, unclassi- Unclassified, wet. (4) 15 215 Hed ae. ee jose 4,435 5, 453 5,336 Unclassified, dry. 23 33 233 een ifi a 41,826 64,300 44, 667 ron sn 215 24 nelassified.....- TUG ge (ere 2 2 Denmark: 4 ; i Gay wet 22... ic... Soe ee 666 eed ees 10, 388 11, 794 10, 766 ee Bi: re = 8,275 7,308 7, 203 ides, dry an Hides, dried..... 3, 186 4,919 6, 200 wet. a r a ae 83, 757 107, 506 105, 165 Hides, green... -.. 3,937 5, 336 6,374 Sheep: ee ee 8. 656 4,750 1,717 pSneeP. oe eee ee 334 515 310 Skins, unclassi- rance: CC! 3,006: |=--2-=--25]2s5-eeee ee ith ecto 18 5,566 | 4,743 5,114 |] United States: OEE a ae 21,799 | 19,928 19, 131 alidny sae 37,287 | 49,314 26, 302 ene oe Cass apy eaaalll cconmetere 65,546} 50,152 iit Ok see oraeS aod pickled....... 45, 344 5, 54 50, 152 ci) ee 5,968 | 4,365 3,123 || Cattle and buf : s Unclassified. ..... 115,809 | 119, 530 131, 201 c ar Cape a 62,563 | 107,234 77,625 ermany: attle, an uf- 23)0bit:) ) See ee 4, 630 () Q) falo, green or c Tee Be Galf}dried /.-.<- 12, 499 13, 232 10, 641 pickled......... 111,794 | 207, 695 158, 655 Calf, green....... 64, 582 63, 464 75, 846 Goatsdrys. 25.15. 64, 295 70, 291 64, 509 Cattle, dried..... 81, 324 88, 521 120, 063 Goat, green or ‘ Cattle, green.....| 217, 518 | 236, 646 249, 518 pickledé.- 22:25. 26, 769 25, 032 25, 168 Goat, with hairon! 18,827 21, 767 24, 426 Horse,.dry. --..-- 5, 885 8, 742 9, 726 Horse, dried..... 6, 204 3, 884 4 WEBER} Horse, green or s TiCESe, green... 23, ee 22, 896 25, 096 aS et soc snesee 6,170 5, yes i an GNie) 0.5 Seed ANPANOO ees =5- |S arenes ks 5 ) cc 2,023 |f 2» 689 2,582 |! Sheep, dry....... 21,190} 30,749] 27,552 Unclassified... ... 2,014 2,069 2, 239 Sheep, green or Greece: : pickled (2 -. 4. 36, 245 37, 482 40, 654 Hides, unclassi- Unclassified... ... 7,335 6, 603 8,803 6,359 5,257 5,219 Other countries: Hides— 1,641 1,306 1,211 Cattle and buf- 54,067 | 46,517 47,611 falow: Seek 16,132 | 14,226 14,121 2, 633 3,115 4,270 Horsenestes- 22: 35 44 54 67 41 104 Skins— 52 75 61 Deer..." See (4) 4 2 722 675 537 Goat and kid... 532 549 541 121 83 184 Sheep and lamb 1,297 1,294 882 2,634 | 5,673| 25,673 os Kg 42 42 7 , 67: ATER ee 28 249 eae "687 442 2 449 Unelassified...-} 33,298 | 34,270 | 33,245 etherlands: ee EET Ea suid, dried..... 34,208 | 35,791 41, oe Total.......- 1,871, 469 |2,114,813 | 2,069, 190 ides, fresh. ....- 6 13 All tries: SS Hides, salted... 35,601 | 36,517 | 34,189 Hides pene? Sean ae 3, 733 4, 492 4 812 Cattle and buf- ENE Yi faloo ts = eee 690,455 | 834,444 | 801,291 ae Gis Sees fi Be a ate 2 B07 Horse... -sg2a-.- 42,066 | 41/876 | 47,231 ides, green... ..- , »2 : Skins— Hides, salted... .. 62 447 = aa Gale eeer. 170,378 | 203,076 | 172,799 = eg oa 30 131 131 Lee ee ‘ a eS = a A a t ade 150:.7: 5 2 , 99 Hides, dried... .. 7,642 | 7,398 | 27,308 ema ie ane et 158 1’ 309 pitides, green... 356 178 2178 Sheepandlamb| 97,556 | 112,641 102,400 mutate sad a 8,629! 28 38629 Bree eudscal, 7| 2 ulfalo and cattle ) yee , 62 Mixed so! ew 1,384 1,847 21,847 Sheep, lab, a a5 191 191 $191 Unclassified....| 718,192 | 765,693 | 792,913 i pee eae 810 . 2810 3810 Rotalerentess 1,871,469 2,114,813 | 2,069, 190 1 Included in cattle, green. 4 Less than 500 pounds. 2 Year preceding. 5 Number of pounds computed from stated number of skins. 3 Data for 1911. 618 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. HORSES AND MULES. \ TaBLE 143.—Horses and mules: Number and value on farms in the United Ataiea, 1867-1915. Norte.—Figures in italics are census returns; figures in roman are estimates of the Department of Agri- culture. Estimates of numbers are obtained by applying estimated percentages of increase or decrease to the published numbers of the preceding year, except that a revised base is used for applying percentage estimates whenever new census data are available. It should also be observed that the census of 1910, guiness numbers as of Apr. 15, is not strictly comparable with former censuses, which related to numbers une 1 Horses. Mules. Jan. 1— i 3 s Price per Price per Number. head Paresuatly Number. head F ae Jans 1. cing Jan. 1. UR Giant eerie eee ae eres re are 5, 401, 000 $59.05 | $318, 924,000 822, 000 $66. 94 $55, 048, 000 312, 416, 000 856, 000 56. 04 47, 954, 000 396, 222, 000 922, 000 79. 23 73, 027, 000 556, 251,000 | 1,180, 000 90.42 | 106,654, 000 n ok STOW see ele See ee 1, 195, 516 No oee eee ee Ty (Res 2) Se oe ees See re 8, 702, 000 71.14 619,039,000 | 1,242,000 91.98 114, 272, 000 1S) aes Ss 5 «ee ree eae 8, 991, 000 67. 41 606,111,000 | 1,276,000 87.14 111, 222, 000 ATS Ree SAS alk eee 9, 222, 000 66.39 612, 273,000 | 1,310,000 85.15 111, 546, 000 AST SRLS df, TE eee ee 9, 334, 000 65.15 608,073,000 } 1,339,000 81.35 108, 953, 000 WS T5202 3a bens a 9, 504, 000 61.10 580, 708,000 | 1,394,000 71. 89 100, 197, 000 TST 6S eed Sates ee eee ee 9, 735, 000 57. 29 557,747,000 | 1,414,000 66. 46 94, 001, 000 i (eerie Sean oan Sia aan 10, 155, 000 55. 83 567,017,000 | 1,444,000 64. 07 92, 482, 000 1STSS 2 Sk SAE. oe ee 10, 330, 000 56. 63 584,999,000 | 1,638,000 62. 03 101, 579, 000 TS {Ohare B25 nt ec pean steer 10, 939, 000 52. 36 572,712,000 | 1,713,000 56. 00 95, 942, 000 1S8ON Fan See AS aa Sees 11, 202, 000 54. 75 613, 297,000 | 1,730,000 61. 26 105, 948, 000 1880, census, June 1.......--- 10, 35? 7, 488 See e8e Ss Jel Rate ds ato Se 1,818; 808) 30300 -¢ 35|-eeee eee ASBUS: .525 See NS) =~) Sek eee 11, 430, 000 58. 44 667,954,000 | 1,721,000 69. 79 120, 096, 000 ss oe A Se ee ees SED ae 10, 522, 000 58. 53 615, 825,000 | 1,835,000 71.35 130, 945, 000 WESC ot 5 tee So} -+ SESE 10, 838, 000 70. 59 765, 041, 000 1,871,000 79. 49 148, 732, 000 ii; i Re) ae ee re 11,170, 000 74. 64 833, 734,000 | 1,914,000 84, 22 161, 215, 000 ICL Gee) See CM See ae 11, 565, 000 73. 7 852, 283,000 | 1,973,000 82. 38 162, 497, 000 TSRGS. - oF Os SOE ee Sen 12, 078, 000 Ws2i 860, 823,000 | 2,053, 000 79. 60 163, 381, 000 ui Se pete aie ed 8 Sins 8 a oh 12, 497, 000 72.15 901,686,000 | 2,117,000 78.91 167, 058, 000 RRS = SE at Mele ts 13,173, 000 71. 82 946, 096, 000 | 2,192, 000 79. 78 174, 854, 000 IBROGRE < SE eee Se ae eee Sa 13, 663, 000 71. 89 982,195,000 | 2,258, 000 79. 49 179, 444, 000 TSO0E..-.) MESES Ns She 14, 214, 000 68. 84 978, 517, 000 | 2,331,000 78. 25 182,394, 000 1890) census, JUNE TL. o.oo a- oa TE O09 AGO Neon ken ame POCO ae bee 2, 296, 682: |<... ---=-=|2ehoeneepeeeee TROLS. 2 st ee eR 2 - Jogede See ee 14, 057, 000 67. 00 941,823,000 | 2,297,000 77. 88 178, 847, 000 a cst pease Se Smee eae ese wa 15, 498, 000 65.01 | 1,007,594,000 | 2,315,000 75. 55 174, 882, 000 AROS sche k ete oe ee eee eae 16, 207, 000 61. 22 992, 225,000 | 2,331,000 70. 68 164, 764, 000 180423 5a hoes vended ae eeee 16, 081, 000 47. 83 769, 225,000 | 2,352,000 62.17 146, 233, 000 18055550) Je LBS. 2 eee 15, 893, 000 36. 29 576, 731,000 | 2,333,000 47.55 110, 928, 000 1896: 32/5 SE ot: 3a eh es ee 15, 124, 000 33. 07 500,140,000 | 2,279, 000 45. 29 103, 204, 000 SOS eee RE ae eae 14, 365, 000 31. 51 452,649,000 | 2,216,000 41. 66 92, 302, 000 1 SOS Se ae eee atin” oe 13, 961, 000 34. 26 478, 362,000 | 2,190,000 43. 88 96, 110, 000 TSQQR SIF ae ees Tie eee 13, 665, 000 37. 40 511,075,000 | 2,134,000 44. 96 95, 963, 000 1900: enc basse cols doen cones 13, 538, 000 44.61 603, 969,000 | 2,086, 000 53. 55 vial 717, 000 1900; census; Jume 1. 22 42-2= 18, 267 O20 oo steerer nee ae mee tee 8, 964,615: } oo Jee. | Seen eee TOO a) See Se So ekes een 16, 745, 000 52. 86 885, 200,000 | 2,864,000 63. 97 183, 232, 000 OOD ert. 55 Se es Ci EE 5 16, 531, 000 58. 61 968,935,000 | 2,757,000 67. 61 186, 412, 000 O03 seus os ort Ot ee eee 16, 557, 000 62. 25 | 1,030, 706,000 | 2,728, 000 72.49 197, 753, 000 19042254. 2k LS ee 16, 736, 000 67.93 | 1,136, 940,000 | 2,758,000 78. 88 217, 533, 000 TONS es Oo eect aioe lenetare 17, 058, 000 70.37 | 1, 200,310,000 | 2,889,000 87.18 251, 840, 000 I G06 iiscl tesa ean os ..5 ee 18, 719, 000 80. 72 | 1,510, 890,000 | 3, 404, 000 98. 31 334, 681, 000 LOOT os ho... on Se temasae a See -| 19, 747, 000 93.51 | 1, 846,578,000 ; 3,817,000 112.16 428, 064, 000 TOOSSaeo > aden cores eee eae see 19, 992, 000 93. 41 | 1, 867,530,000 | 3,869,000 107. 76 416, 939, 000 NOOO VS ats See ne Caen site 20, 640, 000 95.64 | 1,974,052,000 | 4,053,000 107. 84 437, 082, 000 pt SS ee a eee ee Be raed se 21, 040; 0000 sc < 2 ot... -/32'-2 27, 230 26, 474 27, 867 7,002 3, 866 3, 680 RYATICG. osx... -.-- 28; 2215|| “37,572 42,931 Germany-.<-2.--5.. 555 482 602 Motaliers see 719,549 | 692, 468 719, 599 Mialivec cesses -o-scne 8, 147 8, 843 6, 033 | IMPORTS. Austria-Hungary... 6, 524 10, 265 14,616 || Germany......-.-.. 123,619 | 122,472 119,576 Belerum see see. we 15,161 | 15,225 14,522 || Netherlands.......- 6, 039 4, 636 5,529 STZ eee eet 4,321 4, 208 AB33 64 | CRUSSIBi so omnes 1, 808 2,754 2, 239 British South A frica 4,156 4,946 SOLO) || Swedena. i... 23 <<: 343 273 273 Cansdasseees 2-8 1, 876 7,177 7,886 || Switzerland.......- 12,098 | 11,930 11, 155 Wenmanke. 520s. 6, 027 5, 966 6,242 || United Kingdom...| 466,720 | 435, 247 451, 736 Dutch East Indies. . 4, 279 4, 486 4,486 || Other countries....} 35,132 30, 308 36, 207 ieee aaa er ees , 181 2,197 1,958 — ite! Cie \6 Re eee 1,315 3,388 3, 333 Motalhs cae: - 711,538 | 679, 657 701, 043 rancor: joi 2 52.55% 19, 939 14,179 13, 039 1 ~~ —_— - ar 626 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. BUTTER AND EGGS—Continued. TaBLE 152.—Butter and eggs: Average price received by farmers on first of each month, by States, 1914. Butter, cents per pound. Eggs, cents per dozen. State. disia 3 felig! Gl) A MAING: 5. een 33} 32) 32 45 New Hampshire.. 35} 35) 33 47 Vermont... ..=---- o} 34) 33 41 Massachusetts.... 97] 36] 36 53 Rhode Island. .... 35] 34] 35 55 Connecticut...-.-- 37] 35) 34 49 Now: yY ork: 342. 5=- 35} 33} 32) 41 New Jersey------- 36) 36 34 45 Pennsylvania. -..} 35) 34| 32 37 Delaware. --..----- 32| 32) 34 38 Maryland......-- 32| 30) 29 34 Virginia AS Seo 27 27| 27 30 West Virginia....| 28) 28) 28 30 North Carolina...) 25) 24) 24 26 South Carolina... .| a 27| 25 26 Geortist...£2-.---5 25! 25, 25) 26 WMlopida. «26 so ossee 36| 35; 34 33 Gina ae 29| 28| 27 “ Indiana . --2- 28| 29) 26 29 Michigan. ......-- 30| 29] 28 Wisconsin. 225... | 33] 30| 29 e Minnesota... -.-.--- 31) 30) 27 27 Fe oe SS Se Se 29) 29) 25 26 Missouri. .-.------ 25| 24) 23 25 North Dakota... .| 28} 26) 25 26 South Dakota... .! 29) 27) 24 26 Nebraska. .....--- | 225] 25) 22 25 ReANSHSE o. 2h - 2S 27) 25) 23} 25 Kentucky ..-.----- | 23] 23) 22 27 ! le Tennessee. -.----- 22! 2i] 23 26 Alabama.......-- | 24] 23] 22 24 Mississippi. - -.--- | 25) 24) 24 23 TOuisiaAllao. oe2see | 26 28) 28 24 GS ASR mon oer 23) 24) a 23 ! Oklahoma.......- 5| 23) 22 22 Arkansas ....----! 26| 26) 25 23 Montana... 2 2 36| 35) 35 38 Wiyomings> =e... 33] 34] 33 34 Colorado......... 30) 32) 29 33 | New Mexico...... 36) 36) 3: 33 Arizona... s=-5 40) 36] 38)| 37 (00 21 ee ee ee ee 33] 31) 30 31 Weyadas..i2 25-2 43| 38) 35 46 | C0 PO pene aes 34! 33] 30)| 2 33 Washington.....- 37| 33] 33 40 Oreronere oo = 34 35 33 39 California.........| 35] 34] 29|| 2% [Heo eo ON a Statistics of Farm Animals and Their Products. 627 BUTTER AND EGGS—Continued. TABLE 153.—Butier and eggs: Average price received by farmers on first of each month, by z geographical divisions, 1914. BUTTER (CENTS PER POUND). : j j Divisions. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July.! Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. Wmnited States...-....2....- 29.2 | 27.4 | 26.0 | 24.9 | 23.8 | 22.8 | 22.9 | 23.7 | 25.3 | 26.0 | 26.3 | 28.4 Worth Atlantic: .. 2.222 s< | 39.0 | 33.8 | 32.4 | 30.4 | 28.8 | 27.3 | 27.0 | 28.5 | 30.9 | 31.9 | 32.8] 34.0 SeuihrAtiantic® =... (526-52 27.4 | 26.5 | 26.3 | 26.4 | 26.3 | 24.1 | 24.2 | 24.3 | 24.3 | 25.3 | 25.5] 26.6 NE Oper. MISS: Ff eet ue 29.1 | 28.3 | 26.7 | 25.4 | 24.0 | 22.4 | 22.4 | 24.4 | 26.5 | 26.8 | 27.0] 28.4 MBC= Wi. Miss. Rie.<.-.+.<. 27.7 | 26.6 | 24.2-| 22.7 | 21.7 | 21.6 | 21.4 | 22.5 | 24.6 | 25.3 | 25.6 | 27.1 Beunn Oentral. o-.5......-22 24.3 ~) | 22.5 | 22.1 | 21.2 | 20.7 | 21.1 | 20.9 | 22.0 | 22.4 | 22.1 23.3 MarewWestenne 295. 2 a233.55 34.7 | 33¢5 | 30.9 | 29.1 | 27.4 | 25.1 | 27.0 | 27.6 | 29.7 | 31.0 | 33.3 | 34.0 EGGS (CENTS PER DOZEN). WinitedsStatesss25. .is2s. 4- 30.7 | 28.4 | 24.2 | 17.6 | 16.8 | 17.3 | 17-6) | 18:2 | 2050") 23:'5 | 25sa0) Zor NonineAtianticn 32... Sse. == 38.4 | 34.9 | 31.0 | 22.8 | 20.2 | 21.2 | 23.0 | 25.5 | 29.0 | 32.1] 36.5] 41.6 SoutheAtiantics-...222--.-= 29.6 | 28.1 | 23.6 | 19.0 | 17.4 | AO) | 1857) || 1952"| 2121 | 24017 oars oes INE @esBe IMiiss. ys. : 22.8 22 30.0 | 29.0 | 25.2 | 16.8 | 16.7 | 17.4 | 17.3 | 18.1 | 20.7 | 23.4 | 24.6 | 29.6 NS CAN e MOSS. VRE. p> ce 28.2 | 26.0 |} 22.6 | 15.9 | 15.6 | 15.6 | 15.1 | 15.3 | 18.4 | 19.9 | 20.9] 25.6 South) Gentral- se...) -. 2) 27.0. |-23:7 | 19.8 | 15.9 | 14.8 | 1550) [15 22) e427, | 1656" | 182901) 20a ered Mar Western +98... S422 3.5 42.3 | 36.5 | 26.0 | 19.5 | 19.6 | 20.7 22. Be (7 sy ee Ae | 36.4 39.6 Tasie 154.—Butter: Receipts at seven leading markets in the United States, 1891-1914. [From Board of Trade, Chamber of Commerce, and Merchants’ Exchange Reports.] [000 omitted.] Mil ; 's F Total | C F Mil- -, san Fran-| Total 5 incin- New Year. Boston. | Chicago. | yankee. | St- pou cisco. cities. nati. | York. Averages: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Packages. Packages. {ROL=ISOS: o-- =k - 40,955 | 145, 225 3,996 | 13,944] 15,240.) 219,360 8s | 1, 741 1896-1900. ...-.... 50,790 | 232, 289 5, 096 14, 582 14,476 | 317, 234 157 | 2,010 1901-1905........- 57,716 | 245, 203 7, 164 14, 685 15,026 | 339,793 177 2,122 1906-1910........-. 66,612 | 286,518 8, 001 17, 903 | 13,581 | 392,615 169 | 2, 207 AOD TE ees 57,500 | 253, 809 5,590 13, 477 14,972 | 345,348 238 | 2,040 Te Se ee 54,574 | 219, 233 7,290} 14,573 14,801 | 310,471 223 1,933 {O03 AAR Sete Ge 2: 54,347 | 232, 032 6,857 | 14,080] 13,570 | 320,886 121 2113 HOU See ee a) 55,435 | 249,024 7,993 15,727 | 14,336 | 342,515 147 2,170 ini. A ae 66,725 | 271,915 8, 091 15, 566 17,450 | 379,747 155 2, 355 NS0G He so eens ees iao 65,152 | 248, 648 8, 209 13,198 | 9,282 | 344, 489 205 2, 242) * TE aes a 63,589 | 263,715 8, 219 13, 453 16,725 | 365,701 187 2,113 NOUR SE ee Bonen ceca 69, 843 | 316, 695 8,798 18, 614 13,528 | 427,478 166 a 1900: +. eee ecke Lee 65,054 | 284, 547 7, 458 21, 086 14,449 | 392,594 150 2, 250 ROTORS ss Neca ee 69,421 | 318,986 7,319 23, 163 13,922 | 432,811 135 2, 257 (C1 eee once 63,874 | 334,932 8, 632 24, 839 17,606 | 449, 883 162 2,405 TOL: Le cor Seemed 72,109 | 286,213 7,007 | 20,521} 28,172 | 414,022 109 2, 436 MOIS esos Ie~2 ==: Bree 70,737 | 277,651 9, 068 24,726 23,122 | 405,304 103 2, 517 (Ok) eee 73,028 | 307,899 9, 496 24, 614 22,421 | 437, 458 82 2,513 1914 | Janey ete. <5 3,541 | 15,407 569 2,001} 1,932] 23,450 3 172 2,911 16, 802 514 2, 044 1,690 | 23,961 5 149 4,171 19, 034 939 2, 059 2, 107 28,310 6 202 4,311 22,279 124 2,111 2, 811 32, 236 5 192 7,327 24, 243 1, 054 2,353 | = 2, 435 37, 412 6 235 13,701 | 45,716 1, 203 2,181 1,964 | 64,765 8 345 12,685 | 39, 449 1, 102 1,991 1,872 | 57,099 8 286 7, 457 30, 678 708 2,130 1, 766 42,739 6 223 Heplember 2. 5 2c2 J. 5, 932 30, 162 786 1,908 1,330 40, 118 8 222, October so. : Soa 4,902 26, 007 735 2,074 1, 464 35, 182 10 179 Noyemibers io) cos: 3, 208 19, 448 657 1, 763 1,315 26, 391 7 152 Decamber-<- =. fc... 2, 882 18, 674 505 1,999 1,735 25, 795 10 156 628 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. BUTTER AND EGGS—Continued. TABLE 155.—Eggs: Receipts at seven leading markets in the United States, 1891-1914. [From Board of Trade, Chamber of Commerce, and Merchants’ Exchange Reports.] Year. Averages: 1891-1895.......-- 1896-1900......--- 1901-1905..--...-- 1906-1910...-.---- 1914. PATE Sb ee oo ese ae October. s223:-6t2<-% November: 2-22 -. Boston. Cases. 722, 363 912, 807 1, 155, 340 1,517,995 1,395, 385 1,709, 531 1,594, 576 1, 436, 786 1, 417, 397 1, 431, 686 1,441, 748 1,580, 106 1, 589, 399 1, 531, 329 Chicago. Cases. 1, 879, 065 2,196, 631 2,990, 675 4, 467,040 2, 783, 709 2) 659, 340 3,279, 248 3, 113, 858 3,117, 221 3, 583, 878 4, 780, 356 4,569,014 4,557, 906 4,844,045 4, 707, 335 4,556, 643 4,593, 800 4, 083, 163 94,132 205, 582 380, 914 809, 450 299, 211 643, 343 464, 630 359, 505 297, 007 231, 269 168, 682 129, 438 Cincin- Mil- New -. |\San Fran- nati, waukee. | York. St. Louis. cisco. Cases. Cases. Cases. Cases. Cases. 288, 548 90,943 |2,113,946 | 557,320 | 166,059 362,262 | 113,327 |2,664,074 | 852,457 | 194,087 418,842 | 139,718 |3, 057, 298 1,000,935 | 304,933 509, 017 180,362 |4, 046, 360 |1, 304,719 334, 766 493,218 | 128,179 |2,909,194 |1, 022,646 | 277,500 464,799 | 114,732 |2,743,642 | 825,999 | 285,058 338,327 | 129,278 |2,940,091 | 959,648 | 335, 228 377, 263 | 166,409 |3, 215,924 {1,216,124 | 319,637 420,604 | 159,990 |3,477,638 | 980,257 | 307, 243 484,208 | 187,561 |3,981,013 |1,023,125 | 137,074 588,636 | 176,826 |4, 262,153 {1,288,977 | 379, 439 441,072 | 207,558 |3, 703,990 |1,439,868 | 347, 436 519,652 | 160,418 |3,903, 867 [1,395,987 | 340,185 511,519 | 169,448 |4,380,777 {1,375,638 | 469, 698 605,131 | 175,270 [5,021,757 |1,736,915 | 587,115 668,942 | 136,621 |4, 723,558 |1,391,611 | 638,920 594,954 | 187,931’ |4, 666,117 {1,397,962 | 574, 222 461,783 | 221,345 [4,762,174 |1,470,716 | 619,508 14,116 5,250 | 188, 287 49, 085 34,053 36, 811 7,121 | 269,652 | 83,373 | 56,000 45,912 20,779 | 466,450 | 195,978 79,055 68,725 | 51,318 | 755,953 | 222,689 | 84,585 73, 740 54,859 | 778,391 | 178,387 70,773 54, 558 22,282 | 587,840 | 130,517 57, 715 35, 146 19,165 | 386,845 | 127,110 51, 526 29,415 | 15,748 | 365,261 | 114,357] 45,350 16,599 | 10,052} 349,731 | 117,392] 37,006 26, 059 6,965 | 277,881 | 104,131] 31,727 26, 459 4,702 | 176,366 | 81,231 | 29,283 34,243 3,104 | 159,517] 66,466 | 42,435 Total. Cases. 5, 818, 244 7, 295, 645 9, 067, 741 12, 360, 259 8, 655, 001 8, 146, 735 9, 146, 597 9,532,034 9, 858, 338 11, 106, 390 13, 070, 963 12,145, 724 12, 295, 412 13,182, 811 14, 275, 271 13, 696, 401 13, 604, 385 13, 150, 018 421,759 739, 203 1,305, 711 2,213, 764 1, 746, 206 1,730, 979 1, 234, 795 1,044, 649 925, 880 749, 296 550, 199 487,577 Statistics of Farm Animals and Their Products. 629 BUTTER AND EGGS—Continued. TaBLeE 156.—Eggs: Wholesale price per dozen, 1900-1914. Chicago. | St. Louis. | Milwaukee. New York. fea} Cincinnati. Average best Average best Date. Fresh. iret Fresh. oct Low. | High Low. | High. || Low. | High Low. | High. || Low. | High. Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents. || Cents. | Cents Cents. | Cents 10 26 9 22 8 23 10 24 12 29 10 28 9 27 6 25 10 24 13 31 132 324 13 32 11} 32 134 30 154 37 10 30 12 28 il 284 124 27 15 45 11 344 144 32 13 29 133 32 16 47 12 36 14 30 103 34 14 31 164 40 11 36 13 29 114 26 123 33 144 45 13 30 134 29 12 254 124 28 16 50 14 33 13 36 124 29 13 32 15 55 173 364 17 37 16 40 14 34 19 55 15 38 17 40 144 35 10 30 - 22 55 12 32 124 39 11 29 11 32 17 60 17 40 aly’ 40 143 39 15 38 204 60 16 37 154 42 12 35 13 35 20 | 65 () | Tee een 29 324 264 36 27 31 27 30 34 50 242 272 234 28 244 28 24 23 29 40 173 294 17 29 174 27 16 27 21 | 36 17 194 164 184 17 184 16 18 20 26 18 191 174 182 174 183 154 18 22 24 173 183 18 19 14 18 15 164 224 28 18 193 183 193 18 19 16 19 24 31 19 234 19 24 19 214 184 22 27 36 204 233 24 263 204 224 20 22 30 42 October..........- 204 263 24 283 20 242 19 25 31 55 November.....-..- 263 30 29 354 243 29 21 29 356 62 December......--.. 28 36 33 384 27 35 24 32 41 62 Vea 323): 17 36 164 383 14 35 15 32 20 62 1 Prime firsts. CHEESE. TABLE 157.—Cheese: International trade, calendar years 1911-1913. Cheese includes all cheese made from milk; ‘‘cottage cheese,’’ of course, is included. See ‘‘General note,” p. 518 EXPORTS. [000 omitted.] Country. 1911 1912 1913 Country. 1911 1912 1913 : Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Bulgaria. o2--.s-5- 7,549 4, 030 ABOSOM RUSSIAS. Seo e ea 8,945 7,455 7, 455 Ganadalte. 4. 22 169,179 | 154 345| 148,849 || Switzerland........ 66,593 | 66, 435 78, 739 WMrance:-.. 3. oikekr: 24,041 27, 690 37,386 || United States... ..-. 13, 781 3, 006 2,654 Germany— 5. 2-52. 2,179 1,812 1,603 |; Other countries. - - 10, 656 9, 982 13, 455 Tally yess a scee 61, 403 67, 505 72, 254 Sa SSS SSS Netherlands....... 113, 607 131, 107 145, 337 Total]..2.342 527,120 | 537,999 580, 268 New Zealand...... 49,187 64, 632 68, 506 IMPORTS. PAN ELIA: n= cee See 6, 205 6, 747 62747 Gera anya = os =<. 45, 954 47, 277 57, 903 Argentina.......... 10,845 11,849 LD a PAN ltr: eee oe eee saree 11, 915 10, 069 12, 342 iAnsiralian. 2s 52 319 444 365 || Russia...-....--.-. 4,009 3, 853 4,370 Austria-Hungary... 12, 473 12, 797 13; 260i | Sipainses eae 4,929 5,180 5, 961 Belgium. > 22. 22-:- 29, 642 31, 352 35, 845 || Switzerland........ 7, 644 7,995 7, 763 Brazil eee cannes 3, 931 6, 280 4,196 || United Kingdom...) 257,134 | 250,823 | 249,972 British S. Africa.... 5, 039 5, 242 5,694 || United States...... 45, 447 48, 929 55, 590 Guibas see Sees ese 4, 252 4, 232 5,200 || Other countries....| 22,210 19, 491 20, 217 Denmark = eee 1, 203 1,295 1,475 Hegyptss tee 8,928 7, 425 6, 378 Motaleeases 531,502 | 528,838 | 556, 186 PTAnCes2e 52s 17,194 | 79.5 389, 925 |250, 671 76,343 | 72,116 |64.3 |26.2 |40.8 30.4 (28.8 Montana... oo. 25... 376 | 64.5 93,569 | 13,546 596 | 9,309 {14.5 | 3.9 |26.9 4.4 |68.7 WOMMN Ss ss. 2k 5 146 | 70.4 62,460 | 8 543 252 | 7,035 |13.7 | 2-0 114.7 2.9 |82.4 Coloradous iseo. 6 | 799 | 49.3 66,341 | 13,532 892 | 8,339 |20.4 | 6.5 |31.8 6.5 |61.7 New Mexico....... 327 | 85.8 78, 402 | 11,270 1,491 | 8,312 |14.4 | 1.9 |13.0 13.2 174.6 POI AO Hwee. 204 | 69.0 | _ 72,838 1, 247 100 796 | 1.7] .5 {28.1 | 8.0 163.9 UTE Ee ae aie 373 | 53.7 52,598 | 3,398 146 | 1,884 | 6.5 | 2.6 [40.3 | 4.3 55.4 WNewidasc. 2... 5 82 | 83.7 70,285 | 2,715 48 | 1,914 | 3.9] 1.1 |27.7 1.7 |70.6 Wdahownse se) 326 | 78.5 53,347 | 5, 284 585 | 1,920} 9.9 | 5.2 152.6 111.1 36.3 Washington....__.. A; 142.) 47.0 42,775 | 11,712 1,542 | 3,797 127.4 [14.9 54.4 /13.2 |32.4 Oregons. 673 | 54.4 61, 188 | -11, 685 2,238 | 5,172 |19.1 | 7.0 [36.6 19.1 /44.3 California......_... 2,378 | 38.2 99, 617 | 27,931 4,542 | 12,000 |28.0 |11. 4 40.8 |16.2 |43.0 Far Western..._. 6, 826 | 51.2 753, 420 110, 862 12, 430 | 60, 479 {14.7 | 5.0 34.2 |11.2 154.6 United States....| 91,972 | 53.8 |1, 903, 290 878, 798/478, 452 |190, 866 |209, 481 |46.2 (25.2 154.5 (21.7 23.8 642 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TaBLE 174.—Total value of all farm property, land, buildings, implements and machinery, animals, poultry and bees, with percentages, by States. [Quantities given in thousands; 000 omitted.] Value of imple- | Value of animals, Value of all farm Value of build- : Value of land. . ments and poultry and property. oreo machinery. ‘bees. State and Division. Per Per Per Per re cent cent cent cent cen Total. of Total of Total, of Total. of Total of 1900. 1900. 1900. 1900. 1900. Maines. 3...0: $199, 272 | 162.8 $86,481 | 175.2 |! $73,138 | 155.1 $14,490 | 164.6 | $25,162 | 147.1 ? Neel 103, 704 | 120.8 44,519 1125.4 | 41,397 | 119.6 5,878.|.113:8 | 11, 910)| 11988 Vermont..... 145,400 } 134.1 58,385 | 127.4] 54,203 | 145. : 10,169 | 134.9] 22, oe 126. 9 US eesor Sate 226,474 | 124.0 105, 533 | 121.4 88, 636 | 124. 11, 564 | 131.0 20 131, (ee (eae eee 32) 991 | 122.2 15,010 | 111.8 | 12,923 | 133.2 1,781 | 140.2 3,276 | 126.3 Connecticut. . 159,400 | 140.7 72,206 | 137.7 66,113 | 147.0 6,917 | 139.8 14, 164 129.6 New York... .| 1,451,481 | 135.7 | 707,748 | 128.4 | 476,998] 141.6] 83,645 | 149.3] 183,091 | 145.8 New Jersey..| 254,833 | 134.5 | 124,143 | 133.0] 92,991 | 134.3] 13,1091 140.5] 24,5891 139.6 Lt? ae Se 152538; 270" |) PLO: 2 630, 430 | 109.6 410,639 | 127.2 70, 726 | 138.9 141,480 | 138.1 N. Atlantic.| 3,826,830 | 129.7 | 1,844, 455 | 122.7 |1,317, 038 | 135.2 | 218,279 | 142.8 | 447,056 | 139.5 Delaware ee 63,179 | 155.2 34,938 | 147.0 18, 218 | 170.8 3,206 | 149.1 6,817 | 165.8 Dist. of Col... 8,476 | 73.5 7,194 | 74.2 1,037 | 65.9 92 | 67.9 153 | 122.0 Maryland BEE 286, 167 | 139.8 163, 452 | 135.8 78, 286 | 142.8 11, 860 | 137.7 32,570 | 156.2 Virginia...... 625, 065 | 193. 2 394,659 | 196.7 | 137,399 | 193.6 18,116 | 182.8 74, 891 178. 2 Ne 2 oes ay cr 154.4 207,076 | 154. 2 57, a 168. 4 ie oe 139.1 eo ae Ba g AC aS YS (i ; 43, é 14 i i : BICC an 1A 302, 128 oon, 3 ee 778 360. 5 wee rte 537 3 i 109 ae 3 45,131 | 293.4 Georgia...... 580,546 | 254. 2 370,353 | 267.4 108,851 | 242.7 20,948 | 213.7 80,394 | 228.4 Florida... ... 143,183 | 265.5 93,738 | 304.1 | 24,408 | 244.6 4,446 | 226.5] 20,591) 184.4 8. Atlantic-} 2,951,201 | 203.0 | 1, 883, 350 | 209.3 603, 087 | 196.7 98,230 | 184.2 | 366,533 188.6 Oftio #232722 1, 902, 695 | 158.7 | 1,285,895 | 157.4 | 368,258 | 167.8 | 51,210 | 140.9 | 197,332 | 156.7 Indiana... .. 1,809,135 | 184.9 | 1,328,197 | 193.2 | 266,079 | 172.7] 41,000 | 150.0] 173,860] 158.7 Tllinois SSE 3,905,321 | 194.8 | 3,090,411 | 204.1 432,381 | 171.9 73, 724 | 163.9 308,805 | 159.4 Michigan soso 1, 088, 858 | 157.7 615, 258 | 145.3 285, 880 | 179.9 49,916 | 173.3 137, 804 174.3 Wisconsin... -] 1,413,119 | 174.1 911,938 | 171.9 289,694 | 186. 2 52,957 | 181.1 158, 529 164.6 IN. C. EB. of Miss. R - -|10, 119, 128 | 178.0 | 7,231,699 | 182.0 |1,642,292 | 174.8 | 268,807 | 161.3 | 976,330 | 161.5 Minnesota....| 1,476, 412 | 187.2 | 1,019,102 | 182.2 | 243,339 | 200.8 | 52,329 | 173.9 | 161,641 | 181.5 Towa. seeia=i 3, 745, 861 | 204.2 | 2,801,974 | 223.0 | 455,406 | 189.1 95,478 | 164.7 | 393,003 140.9 Missouri... ... 2,052,917 | 198.7 | 1,445,982 | 207.9 | 270,222 | 182.0 50,874 | 177.9 | 285,839 178.0 NeDalkeelee's 974,814 | 381.9 | 730,380 | 421.3 | 92,277 | 362.9] 43,908 | 312.4 | 108,250] 255.1 Babak FF: ek 1,166,097 | 391.9 902,607 | 477.1 102,474 | 331.3 33, 787 | 276.5 127,229 | 195.2 Nebraska. ..-] 2,079,819 | 278.1 | 1,614,539 | 331.8] 198,808 | 218.3] 44,250] 177.4 | 222,222] 152.9 Kansas......- 2, 039, 390 | 236.0 | 1,537,977 | 289.0] 199,580 | 179.1] 48,310] 163.8 | 253,524] 132.8 N.C.W. of Miss. R . .|13, 535,310 | 238.1 |10, 052,561 | 258.2 |1,562,106 | 206.0 | 368,936 | 186.9 |1,551,708 | 159.6 Kentucky... 773,798 | 164.3 | 484,465 | 166.4 | 150,995 | 166.1 | 20,852 | 136.3 | 117,487| 159.3 Tennessee. ..- 612,521 | 179.5 371,416 | 183.9 109,107 | 172.8 21,292 | 139.8 | 110,706 | 182.0 Alabama. sane 370,138 | 206.3 216,944 | 216.6 71,309 | 207.0 16, 290 | 187.8 65,695 | 181.7 Mississippi...| 426,315 | 208.8 | 254,002 | 221.1] 80,160 | 215.8 | 16,905|176.9| 75,247] 176.4 Louisiana...-| 301,221 | 151.7 | 187,803 | 174.3 | 49,741 | 148.9| 18,977] 66.5 | 44,699] 154.8 MROXAS 2) a St 2,218,645 | 230.5 | 1,633,207 | 276.1 210,001 | 209.5 56,790 | 188.5 | 318,647 | 132.5 Oklahoma...| 918,199 | 330.9 | 649,067 | 434.5] 9,611 | 418.6 | 27,089 | 257.7] 152,433] 158.4 Arkansas....- 400,089 | 220.5 | 246,022 | 234.1 | 63,145 | 210.0] 16,864 192.7] 74,058] 197.6 S. Central. -] 6,020,926 | 213.8 | 4,042,926 | 243.3 | 824,069 | 200.6 | 195,059 | 154.0 | 958,872] 155.5 Montana..... 347,829 | 295.1 | 226,771 | 430.6] 24,855 | 265.4 | 10,540 | 287.0| 85,663 | 164.2 Wyoming.... 167,189 | 247.8 88,908 | 379.4] + 9,007 | 255.0 3,668 | 268.5 65,606 | 167.6 Colorado.....| 491,472 | 305.2 | 362,822 | 401.6 | 45,697 | 285.6 | 12,792] 269.5| 70,161 | 140.5 perme) ee] a ees aa aes) ieee) ae a mite OU. 9) s . , . , . Uitahe 4.) G0 150, 795 | 200.6 99,482 | 247.9 | 187063 | 169.6 47468 | 152.9 | 28/782] 134.0 Nevada.....-. 60,399 | 210.6 35,277 | 265.7 4,333 | 185.2 1,576 | 177.4 19,214 | 157.9 fda) 305,317 | 453.9 219,953 | 619.8 25,113 | 367.6 10,476 | 317.9 49,775 | 229.8 Washington. . 637,543 | 442.6 517, 422 | 521.0 54,546 | 334.6 16,710 | 266.4 48,865 | 220.5 Oregon....... 528,244 | 205.8 | 411,696 | 363.9| 43,880 | 228.5 | 13.206 | 203.0] 59,462| 175.3 California... .| 1,614,695 | £02.7 | 1,317,195 | 208.9 | 133,406 | 172.2| 36,493 | 171.2 | 127,600] 189.6 Far West- wt ernst 4, 538,055 | 264.7 | 3,420,683 | 303.5 | 376,860 | 225.0 | 115,839 | 219.0] 624,674] 170.1 [URIS -|40, 991, 450 | 200.5 |28, 475,674 | 218.1 |6,325, 452 | 177.8 |1, 265,150 | 168.7 |4,925,173 | 160.1 ee eS 0 ee eee ee a ee ee eee Agricultural Statistics from Census of 1910. 643 Tasie 175.—Total number of farms, average acreage per farm, value of property, vale of land per acre, and total value of all crops. Aver- |Average value per | Average value of | Value of all Aver-| age farm of— land per acre— crops. age | acre- Total | acre- | age of State and Division, mummber age im- 4 bands offarms.| per | prove an farm. | land |“!PTOP-| puiid-| 1910 | 1900 1909 per y- ings farm. only. Number. | Acres.| Acres. | Dollars. | Dollars.| Dollars. |Dollars.| Dollars. IWeninioness geetisen tie ech 60,016} 104.9) 39.3 3,320] 2,660 13.73] 7.83] 39,317,647 New Hampshire.........-- 27,053} 120.1 34.3 3, 833 3, 176 13.70 9.83] 15,976,175 WeEmtOnte-arpteae beseccces 32,709] 142.6 50. 0 4,445 3) 442 12. 52 9.70) 27, 446, 836 Massachusetts.........----- 36,917| 77.9) 31.5 6,135] 5, 260 36.69] 27.62] 31,948,095 node Islands... atc. =p 5,292} 83.8 33.7 6,234] 5,278 33.86] 29. 46 3, 937, 077 Connecticut..-.-....:.---- 26,815) 81.5 36.9 5,944] 5,158 33.03] 22.68) 22,487,999 NORV DY OF Ka Se crac casace- oe 215,597) 102.2 68.8 6, 732 5, 495 32.13 24.34) 209, 168, 236 INE WHOrSeMe hon ste le cse. 33,487| 76.9] 53.9 7,610) 6,484 48.23} 32.86] 40,340, 491 Pennsylvania:..........-:- 219,295] 84.8 7.8 5,715] 4,747 33.92] 29.70] 166, 739, 898 IN AdantiC’s oS cee <. - 657,181} 95.7 5550 5,823; 4,811 29.32) 22.98) 557,362, 454 MelawarOecaccc--s-2-5-- = 10,836) 95.9 65.8 5,830) 4,905 33.63] 22.29 9,121, 809 District of Columbia. ....-. 217) 27.9 23.7 39,062) 37,932) 1,186. 53/1, 142. 68 546, 479 Maryland #2 S83.556 Hoge Seose 48,923) 103.4 68. 6 5, 849 4,941 32.32] 23.28) 43, 920, 149 SVAN PATNA 8 epetsecrars sfotsye cfs = fe: 184,018} 105.9 53.6 3,397 2, 891 20. 24 10.08) 100, 531, 157 Wiest Varginias.- v2. 6... 96,685} 103.7 57.1 By 250) 2, 739 20.65) 12.60) 40,374,776 North Carolina............. 253, 725 88.4 34.7 2,119 ie 800 15. 29 6.24) 142,890,192 South Carolina............- 176,434) 76.6] ~ 34.6 2293] 1,887 19.89] 7.14] 141,983,354 Georges eee ne oseee ss 291, 027 92. 6 42.3 1,995 1, 647 13.74 5.25} 226, 595, 436 Mlanid ae saee coos cn caeee s 50,016) 105.0} 36.1 2,863] 2,362 17.84, 7.06] 36,141,894 ReeATIEMGIC. fos ae cnc 1,111, 881 93. 4 43.6 2,654) 2, 236 18.15 8.63] 742,105, 246 OHO bse aecee ise ao-ses sce s 272, 045 88. 6 70.7 6, 994 6, 080 53.34 33.35} 230,337, 981 Ingianaeesess-2.-..0-<-.). 215,485) 98.8 78.6 8,396} 7,399 62.36] 31.81) 204, 209, 812 WMiingiseree eee ko es! 251,872) 129.1 111.4 15,505) 13, 986 95. 02 46.17} 372,270,470 Michigan 206,960) 91.5 62.0 5, 261 4,354 32. 48 24.12} 162,004,681 VMISCOMSIT] ens oes oe oe 177,127} 119.0 67.0 7,978 6, 784 43.30 26.71) 148,359, 216 Nee Ee Ohiss! Ro. 2 1,123,489) 105.0 79. 2 9, 007 7, 899 61.32 34. 15)1, 117, 182, 160 IMEnnIeSOtatees | see seen: 156,137} 177.3 125.8 9, 456 8, 085 36. 82 21.31) 193,451,474 OMe ree tet Ae 217,044] 156.3] 135.9 17,259] 15,008 82.58} 36.35] 314,666, 298 MISSOMRI Ae ent ep oes 277,244) 124.8 88.7 7,405) 6,190 41.80) 20.46) 220,663,724 North Dakota 74,360) 382.3 275.1 13,109} 11,063 25. 69 11.15} 180,635, 520 South Dakota 77,644) 335.1 203. 8) 15,018} 12,945 34. 69 9.92} 125, 507, 249 Nebraska AS 129. 678} 297.8 188. 0 16,038} 13,983 41.80 16.27| 196,125, 632 IREAS AS) oy es see =i ice"Scee - s 177,841| 244.0] 168.2 11,467] 9,770 35.45] 12.77] 214, 859, 597 N.C. W. Miss. R....} 1,109,948} 209.6 148.0 12,195} 10, 464 43.21 19. 37}1, 445, 909, 494 eemtticky see res. See: 259, 185 85. 6 55. 4 2, 986 2, 452 21.83 13.24] 138,973, 107 semmnesseotees 2h s--- aaa. 246,012} 81.5 44.3 2,490] 1,953 18. 53 9.93} 120, 706, 211 Mabamial es 22 Olt ene. - 262,901] 78.9} 36.9 1,408} 1,096 10.46] 4.84] 144, 287,347 Mississippi mo apoE Acc wea 274,382} 67.6 32.8 1, 554 1, 218 13. 69 6.30] 147,315,621 sOtmisinn ase. Se tern «ere 120, 546 86.6 43.8 2,499 1, 971| 17.99 9.74 77, 336, 143 ROXAS). go sate eet ES. 417, 77 269.1 65. 5 5,311 4,412 14. 53 4.70} 298,133, 466 Oldaboniaes ese 190,192] 151.7] 92.3 4,828] 3,884 22.49) 6.50) 133, 454, 405 ATL IR iho es as A 214,678} 81.1 37.6 1,864] 1, 440 14.13 6.32] 119, 419, 025 South Central... ..... 1,985, 666] 126.2 alee 3,032} 2,451 16.13 6. 45/1, 179, 625, 325 Migntanavecencc eneeen 26,214] 516.7) 138.9] 13,269} 9,599 16.7 4.45) 29, 714, 563 Wiyominges)- 220.284. cos 10,987] 777.6} 114.3 15,217] , 8,912 10. 41 2.88} 10,022, 961 Colorudomtess sees eee 46,170] 293.1| 93.2| 10,645] 8,848 26. 81 9.54) 50,974, 958 New; Mexicor. 2285 aks 35,676} 315.9 41.1 4,469) 3,135 8.77 3.38 8, 922,397 PARI ZON Ae eee ate 9,227) 135.1 38.0 8, 142 5, 125 33. 97 5. 90 5 496, 872 Wes ieee cee eee cee 21,676) 156.7 63.1 6, 957 5, 423 29. 28 9.75 18) 484) 615 INGE a ee Oe ee 2 689]1, 009.6] 279.7 22,462! 14,730 12. 99 5.17 5, 923, 536 dkinoweawenan seer coe e 30, 807 iy ASS 90. 2 9,911 7,955 41.63 11.07 34) 357, 851 Washinstons 2-222... 22. 56,192] 208.4 113.4 11,346] 10,179 44.18] 11.68] 78,927,053 Omesonbere: ose ces aegweree 45,502] 256.8 93.9 11,609} 10,012 35.23] 11.23] 49,040, 725 Calitormisda. sooo. ee 88,197} 316.7 129.1 18,308) 16, 447 47.16 21.87| 153,111,013 Kar Western. ...-<..- 373,337} 296.9 101.7 12,155) 10,172 30. 86 12.01} 444, 976, 544 United States........ 6,361, 502} 138.1 75. 2 6, 444 5, 471 32. 40 15. 57|5, 487, 161, 223 644 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TaBLE 176.— Estimated value of farm products. [Based on prices at the farm.] Year. R79) (COUSUS) eee Ses ee LSSO(CanSUS oso eee eee bee AG Se ee ete ee ee ATE TOO Seo. tee Shs. eee os SA Crops. Total, gross. Percent- Value. age of total. CONGUE TASC) Me (Ee Poe Fev Meee Us fue SO AGO ELOF ADEs |e eke Seas ha eee eee 3,960, 821,685 | $2,519, 082, 592 63.6 4, 338,945,829 | 2,759,569, 547 63. 6 4,717,069,973 | 2,998, 704, 412 63.6 5,009, 595,006 | 3,191,941, 763 63.7 5,302, 120,039 | 3,385,179, 114 63.8 5,594, 645,072 | 3,578,416, 465 64.0 5, 887, 170, 104 3, 771, 653, 816 64.1 6,121, 778,001 | 3,981,675, 66 65.0 6, 273,997,362 | 4,012) 652) 758 64.0 6, 764, 210,423 | 4,263, 134,353 63.0 7,487,988, 622 | 4,761,111,839 63.6 7, 890, 625,522 | 5,098, 292, 549 64.6 8,498, 311,413 | 5,487,161, 223 64. 6 9,037, 390,744 | 5,486,373, 550 60. 7 8,819, 174,959 | 5,562) 058,150 63.1 9,342, 790,149 | 5,842) 290) 449 62.5 9) 729,625,000 | 6,132, 759,000 62.6 9, 872,936,000 | 6,044, 480, 000 61.2 TaBLE 177.— Value of crops and animal products in the United graphic divisions, according to the census. [In thousands of dollars. ] Animals and animal products. Pane Value. | age of | total $1, 441, 739, 093 1, 579,376, 282 1) 718) 365, 561 1, 817, 653, 243 1,916, 940, 925 2,016, 228, 607 2,115, 516, 288 2, 140, 102, 135 2 31 o18 O10 hod => or Hs me fr) oO =I fez) for) 3’ 328" 456, 000 37.4 38.8 States in 1909, by geo- Animal products. Geographic division. | Crops. Animals , Dairy |Wooland| Eggs Fowls Honey | sold and ae products.) mohair. |produced.| raised. |and wax.| slaugh- d tered, | PY ucts. New England.......- 141,114 | 50,721 576 | 15,156 7, 361 109} 30,417] 104,340 Middle Atlantic. -.-.- 416, 249 130, 772 2,495 37, 507 21, 527 675 89, 563 282, 539 East North Central. -|1,117,182 159, 674 14, 287 75, 238 47,973 973 | 422,926 721,071 West North Central. ./1, 445,909 | 108,824 6,154 | 77,493] 52,337 864 | 715,336} 961,008 South Atlantic....... 742,105 | 35,578 1,962] 26,546] 24,414 926 | 102,509} 191,935 East South Central...| 551, 282 30, 201 1, 652 22, 283 19, 129 550 | 129,996 203, 811 West South Central. .| 628,343 32, 394 2,915 26, 396 17, 681 494 | 181,003 260, 883 Mountain. .....2-..-- 163, 898 12,992 29,396 8, 583 4,373 575 | 100,115 156, 034 PACING a. = ao hoa 281,079 | 35, 257 6,937 | 17,487 7,711 826 | 61,310] 129,528 United States. .|5, 487,161 | 596,413 | 66,374 | 306,689 | 202,506 5,992 |1,833,175 | 3,011,149 a. a Oe ee eee States Leading in Production of Specific Crops. 645 TABLE 178.—Crop production and States leading in production of each crop: 1909. (From Thirteenth Census report.) [The figures opposite the name of each crop are for the United States as a whole.] Per cent of United States total. Crop and State. Acreage. | Production. | Unit. Value. Acre- |Produc-| x, age. tion. Value. PNIMON GS ye SeS5 bo. Soh eh ae emer a aoe 6, 793, 539 | Lbs. $711;'970 1 35s Se 100. 0 100.0 Waltoeniay 22 50> -~ jones eee ee ee 6, 692, 513 | Lbs. 1005 304 1S aes 98. 5 98.4 ASDIESE es SERIA ENB eek ve || Bo | idee 147, 522,318 | Bu. S37931 op |e 100.0 | 100.0 ING WiSMOMK. 5/55 naneee Seale pe eee oe 25, 409, 324 | Bu. 135343028 ||.22 Syaee 17.2 16.0 WH CDIB ANY. \- 20 <)e econ -eer~ sal beeaes a neee 12, 332, 296 | Bu. by G69)080" |... Seer = 8.4 7.2 Rennsylvanis 5223s sions eee oe oe 11, 048, 430 | Bu. SETI) (il eee oe 7.5 6.7 MISS OUTS = \.. 8). (ich care deapias tele tee eee ee 9,968,977 | Bu. A885, 544 Wn ee 6.8 5.9 PANTICOUS! Boe). 2 s\o8 eine ce meets a |b oe «eee 4,150, 263 | Bu. 21858 1195]! eee 100.0 100. 0 CAMLOVIMND Feroaytore eee peeearose hoe =o eee 4,066,823 | Bu. 2768,9210 | Saas 98. 0 96.0 PAS QUEL ONDBAIS 55 jh aetoe = 4: Soa eafeee to eepesteency tesa yen ol tees Alo terete ek aS SEPM Se ae TN yr. ae Me Dt DY hoe fan Pane RR 4,920 | Crates 10°00) ee 100.0 | 100.0 13 pvacha Sees Sea Came Bee nee eae Sane oe 10, 060 () D661 5) Saar 100.0 100.0 lord as So ee Borat eee, (Sie 8 eet 2 10, 048 (1) LGR eae ee 99.9 99. 6 LET a 2 a oe a 7,698,706 | 173,344,212 | Bu. 92, 458,571 | 100.0 | 100.0] 100.0 Wibtitstes(c\ ee ee 1, 573, 761 34,927,773 | Bu. 17, 213, 817 20. 4 20.1 18.6 California BS fsa Ste vais imi chalaisar' Ske 1,195, 158 26, 441,954 | Bu. 17, 184, 508 15D 15.3 18.6 WaSEonsin $9 (2-2-4826. 816, 449 22,156,041 | Bu. 12, 682, 136 10.6 12.8 13.7 Worth, Dakota. .....Jsc2a..- 1, 215, 811 26, 365,758 | Bu. 11, 962, 036 15.8 15.2 12.9 Pouth: Dakota)... \./. Jecsese 1, 114, 531 22,396,130 | Bu. 10, 873, 522 14.5 12.9 11.8 IG: ee ood ie Bio 71,224 | 10,964,184 | Bu. 5, 320, 708 7.4 6.3 5.8 Beans (dry, edible)............. 802,991 | 11,251,160 | Bu. 21,771,482 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 CHAT oh a cero wllsccmeine =r 403, 669 5, 282,511 | Bu. 9,716, 315 50. 3 47.0 44.6 Galifonaia. 2 a.cee sod cee 157, 987 3, 328, 218 | Bu. 6, 295, 457 19.7 29.6 28.9 ING WsYOrke #5 cee cGosae-ee 115, 698 1,681, 506 | Bu. 3, 689, 064 14.4 14.9 16.9 IBeetsi(SHEAD): kine seams 364, 093 3,932,857 | Tons. | 19,880,724 | 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Wolorados . ce ashen os genenacd 108, 082 1, 231,712 | Tons. 6, 061, 152 29.7 31.3 30. 5 Gahifonnibe )2 6228 onde oe ae 78, 957 845,191 | Tons. 4, 320, 532 VA Lea 21.5 De Mighigan 3.00 oo swam ee 78,779 707,639 | Tons. | 4,014, 123 21.6 18.0 20. 2 WO soos es cekee oe 27, 472 413,946 | Tons. 1, 858, 600 7.5 10.5 9.3 Blackberries and dewberries. . - - 49, 004 55, 343, 570 | Qts. 3,909, 831 | 100.0} 100.0 100. 0 MESEOUMIE Sahoo oc nics onesie ee 5, 975 6, 391, 209 | Qts. 456, 283 1982, A 1 / INewlerseyi. - 225. seen oe 4, 332 5, 456, 789 | Qts. 313, 480 8.8 9.9 8.0 (CELL Ror Fa bee ee 2,576 4, 898, 524 | Qts. 282, 383 5.3 8.9 7.2 HnOISaseS bia. eens -peeoes 3, 503 2,915, 473 | Qts. 237, 058 WoL Ba 6.1 MGC hia rea tee moos ate 2,973 3, 075, 954 | Qts. 218, 174 6.1 5.6 5.6 PSTOOMUC ORM 0 cee lee 326,102 | 78,959,958 | Lbs. 5,134,434 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 Omdlahoma. co. 2-26 -gse~s 216, 350 42,741,725 | Lbs. 2, 559, 235 66.3 54.1 49.8 A TADIS ace ee oe a eos "38, 452 19, 309, 425 | Lbs. 1, 457, 172 11.8 24.5 28. 4 HAMISAS tee ere gt closes Se 41, 064 8, 768, 853 | Lbs. 593, 947 12.6 11.1 11.6 SU CKWROG ea: \.cdece co ccecio es 878, 048 14, 849, 332 | Bu. 9, 330, 592 100. 0 100.0 100.0 New York........ at Mcnally 286, 276 5,691,745 | Bu. 3,587,558 | 32.6 | 38.3 38.4 Pennsylvania- 5. -<-1-252- 22 292,728 4,797,350 | Bu. 2, 895, 958 33.3 32.3 31.0 Michigan. ace uu = Slapioracee 75, 909 958,119 | Bu. 594, 748 8.6 6.5 6.4 (CIDER 3c, Saenger Seema 4,126,099 | Bu. EA OAT TY bee e 100.0 | 100.0 RUAITOG MIR fo ores ac oee be bee eo iereien 501,013 | Bu. S51) (6241S eee 12.1 13. 2 PeHNSYIVANIA 5s). 2c cecmses|b dee aoo- es « 475,093 | Bu. 909° 975 |> Rees 11.5 12.6 OIG GRE Meee ae ce eee ese ecient = 338, 644 | Bu. 657,406) = ee 8.2 9.1 JS TG) Da G28 a ene SUR Rea Te a = (| Ea ge ae 338, 945 | Bu. 590,829 |..-2.-.- 8.2 8.2 ENE TM NCOL Katee mere Oe remrenin ection Sans 271,597 | Bu. 544550855 eee 6.6 7.5 Indinates eke ceo Sere cee| 1a eee 363,993 | Bu. 508, 516 |_......- 8.8 7.0 LN iPS pS See ae eae ee: | (eee ee eens 260, 432 | Bu. 455,022) se ease 6.3 6.3 DEO IS Preset saan pert ee ltoe bshitees 287,376 | Bu. ADS ATAS | tae ee 7.0 6.3 Giicorye se Stee... pen Neer 1,589 19, 284,000 | Lbs. 70,460 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 MICH PATI Soja ara cere oes ee 1, 584 19, 204,000 | Lbs. 70, 020 99.7 99.6 99.4 IGHWTASEE NS es aeaae os eS eeese 1,712 32,261 | Bu. 62,391 | 100.0] 100.0 100.0 LED Key ei bo bs Saas Se eee ete 1,072 21,500 | Bu. 43, 470 62.6 66.6 69.7 North Carolina ss... 2. ==2.- 376 6,880 | Bu. 10, 529 22.0 21.3 16.9 (CONE Set eeya as coh aes Shand tees 98, 382, 665 |2, 552,189,630 | Bu. 1,438,553,919| 100.0 100.0 100.0 Tin GIS se ace) Aaa bey ter 10,045,839 | 390,218,676 | Bu. — |198, 350, 496 10.2 15.3 13.8 OW A roe oats Sed eee ee 9,229,378 | 341,750,460 | Bu. 167,622,834 9.4 13.4 IIe yf MASS UBL Sooo = eee 7,113,953 | 191,427,087 | Bu. {107,347,033 T2 730 7.5 indian a. 47s. 5 -Ges es 4,901,054 | 195,496, 433 | Bu. 98, 437, 988 5.0 Had, 6.8 Nebraska. -....- od sos ae 7,266,057 | 180,132,807 | Bu. 88, 234, 846 7.4 deuk 6.1 ONLIO ty ee oes a= eee oes 3,916,050 | 157,513, 300 | Bu. 82, 327, 269 4.0 6.2 5.7 EAT SAS ek tans ec Sa 8,109,061 | 154,651,703 | Bu. 80, 750, 803 8.2 6.1 5.6 COTONEE ee. oe ee ee ee 32, 043, 838 10,649, 268 | Bales. |703, 619, 303 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 UGS. CCE ee ee ee 9,930, 179 |, 2,455,174 | Bales. |162, 735, 041 31.0 23.1 23.1 Georpiaats 3 — s oes. Jae ee 4, 883, 304 1,992,408 | Bales. |126, 695, 612 15.2 18.7 18.0 INUSSISSIP Pigs sa seer oe 3, 400, 210 1,127,156 | Bales. | 83, 148,805 10.6 10.6 11.8 South Carolina. - ..........-: 2,556, 467 1,279, 866 | Bales. | 80,337,945 8.0 12.0 11.4 AULADRING ooo sec cca eS aE 3, 730, 482 1,129,527 | Bales. | 74, 205, 236 11.6 10.6 10.5 ATKARGASS 55-25 222 3 ete 2, 153, 222 776, 879 | Bales. | 54, 559, 503 6.7 7.3 7.8 North Caroling: oo) 4... 2-252: 1, 274, 404 665, 132 | Bales. | 42,066,099 4.0 6.2 6.0 Oklahomayes ss sssessl2u<2- 1, 976, 935 555, 742 | Bales. ! 35,399, 356 6.2 5.2 5.0 1 Bunches. 646 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TABLE 178.—Crop production and States leading in production of each crop: 1909. (From Thirteenth Census report)—Continued. [The figures opposite the name of each crop are for the United States as a whole.] Crop and State. Acreage. Cottonseed (estimated)--).----.-|.---.--2--- BOXES ~ crejecied © he os ote ceramics eee ete GOI arescc rote cece e see ee ee aa South Carolinas: (oso earec ler. cee a= ae MUSSISSID DIS totes aero ean osteo oe PANS DSIND aro < eee oe oe aoe ole esate eee PATI AISA: ash eens cece te opera total eae North. Carolin i: 2-year |b eect eee ces ORIGHOMa seo 56 eS eeeeee | See ace eee CrsaxiWenrigs Sooo eo oe tee eee ais 18, 431 Massachusetise:: i -t-ssc- 6,577 Niew: Jersey2 2.5: sees a sjeca= 9,030 VSCONSINS Senter e saa 1, 689 CUnVARDSacotess —* = oe Gee om tents 7, 862 ING Wi NGOE. oS Senet eee ae 2,557 IMiGhipann. « SostencUe caer ee 609 Califonminee. Se cen= - eee tee 407 Dates== Fata c case, Sheer alan eee ceee Californias. ..)-7 Soo eee ee eee eee ATIZOM Aad taper sok ieee eee Ss Binmerandispelt-ese.-- beeen 573, 622 South Dakotas-- 9. 22sec 259, 611 NorthyDakotar foe. bs seen 101,144 ING DTS Kite each te oe eer 65, 681 PRGA TG AS yap ms Sees aes ere rer ey 49, 969 Minnesota. tees ae. =a oe 30, 891 eer eee er erence oes = eee isia Lets ao eee Walifonniin. 28 fo... se sels |e ete tee oe IMESSISSIP PI eas see me eases cee eee eee SNOKASE, Sie ose tise och te oleae een TOWISIATIA (earner e eeen cele eae eee Alabsnra. 52.0 cose kopceeo alee eee laxseed iss si fame £6 cep eee 2,083, 142 North akotar -n 02 2c ae 1,068, 049 South DWakotal socesdosceeee 518, 566 MGT ESO Lae pete tee eater 358, 426 Flowers and plants............- 18, 248 ING We ORK bce toe tinea 2,979. Pennsylyanias ses. Ae eee 2,032 (MIN OIS ost Sones Sons aa 1,339 INOW JGIseYt 2s atk ee a 1, 436 Massachusetts. ©2222-2522. 1, 203 Onion. Salt se aeee ee eae 1,070 Forest Productsac eee tec ee eal te sees North Carolinas Oeet asc asa |te eas cee oe New ork: 3.206 sG eee lies 7. See Viroinia!..< tele eee eee sg ae WHseonsin= 2 eee Bp ae oer i 23 i) 16 (1) ‘ (1) Pennsylvanian” seep eee (1) Michipan’..2 oie sees (1) Goosebernies:-.-.<.4. 00. soteaseens 4,765 UO IS ess so eee. 2 ees 603 IMNSSOHDIE «Ste. bee 555 GM Bike) ott ngs a Ne el a i Boe 297 Tn@idhtee nets, wes toe 274 INGWE MORK ot eon danacote 259 Oregons 2p asee eo steer oe 186 Maryland: peer e sere se. 241 Grapefruit (pomeloes) 2.2 202) |eees- se teee Blonds... eects eee |e nse oe California ies eee eel oe eee Grapes at ean one See. eee enn es ee ee @California-= (fe 225-4 Se eee oe eee New Wonks. os. soe teen eee GU sis te Nee cnc tel Ae en ee Milonga: Pe. a eee te eee Waliionitias a Lao) oo eee ee ee eee Production. 5, 324, 634 1, 227, 587 996, 204 639, 933 563, 578 564, 764 388, 440 332, 566 277, 871 38, 243, 060 22,714, 496 12, 072, 288 2,549, 344 10, 448, 532 3, 982, 389 768, 259 852, 378 9,947 3, 332 6, 500 12, 702, 710 6, 098, 982 2, 564, 732 1, 221, 975 785, 362 757, 339 35, 060, 395 22, 990, 353 1,949, 301 2,411,876 2,025, 308 1,773, 126 19, 512, 765 10, 245, 684 4, 759, 794 3, 277, 238 5, 282, $43 541, 498 470, 029 403, 680 320, 963 331, 135 307,395 300, 321 1,979, 686, 525 253, 006, 361 354) 062 258, 709 95, 053 Unit. Value. Per cent of United States total. Acre- |Produc- 1 Reported in small fractions. $121,076,984 25, 938, 913 93, 241, 446 16, 043, 122 13, 204, 628 12, 803, 196 8, 596, 180 80, 960 28, 970, 554 15, 488, 016 7,001, 717 4, 863, 328 34, 872, 329 5,148, 949 3, 803, 418 2, 384, 890 195, 306, 283 11, 364, 134 10, 365, 651 10,118, 851 10, 846, 812 3, 961, 677 11, 628 7, 604 4018 age, tion. Value. aiatece 100.0 100.0 LTSeeces 23.1 21.4 Sy Beate 18.7 19.2 Bee nee 12.0 13.3 ele eee 10.6 10.9 Peake vae 10.6 10.6 eee 7.3 Gu eae Eee 6.2 7.0 Se acas 5.2 4.8 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 30.7 59.4 60.5 49.0 31.6 28.7 9.2 6.7 7.2 100.0 | 160.0 100.0 32:5 38.1 33.4 Ube 7.4 7.4 5.2 8.2 ouD Lee Sscoe 100.0 100.0 Tattetee 33.5 78.4 Be okcacrac 65.3 18.0 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 45.3 48.0 47.1 17.6 20.2 19.7 11.5 9.6 8.7 8.7 6.2 6.1 5.4 6.0 6.1 he eee 100.0 100.0 Bane kane 65.6 32.4 SOS 5.6 13.4 sp septate 6.9 12. are = 5.8 10.8 We AD Ac ail 10.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 51.3 52.5 53.5 24.9 24.4 24.2 17.2 16:8 16.8 L000" s2eeeee" 100.0 16237 |S=seeeee 14.8 Leo seeeeee 19.9 7¢3) ||: 10.6 TaQ' os eee 8.2 65:63) eee eee 7.0 5: OM lcsaeneee 6.8 See ee 100.0 Se os ee 5.8 Peers eo 5.3 eats sees 5.2 hrs 5 See 4.9 100:,0' |-2422-25 100.9 Ses. See 17.9 69: Gales Vyasa Jas as So tee eee 14.4 Jeto22 5. 11.0 RE aici 10.1 ovtaad Jt eee 9.1 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 12.7 10.3 10.6 11.6 8.9 9.6 6.2 7.6 6.9 5.8 6.1 6.2 5.4 6.3 5.6 3.9 5.8 5.0 5.1 5.7 4.3 wes ae 100.0 100.0 Set St oats 89.3 92.6 Dee: 10.3 6.9 wena 100.0 100.0 aedege®: 77.0 49.2 eae deaee 9.8 18.0 see 100.0 100.0 Aes fe: L 65.4 waveatee 26.8 34.6 States Leading in Production of Specified Crops. 647 TaBLE 178.—Crop production and States leading in production of each crop: 1909. (From Thirteenth Census report)—Continued. [The figures opposite the name of each crop are for the United States as a whole.] Per cent of United States total. Crop and State. Acreage. | Production. | Unit. Value. Acre- Vesendiae age. | tion, | Value. Hay, and forage. |. 2e4- +) ee be 72, 280,776 97,453,735 | Tons. |$824,004,877 | 100.0} 100.0 100. New, MOgK. 4. 2.23)... 55 ee es 5, 043,373 7,055,429 | Toms. | 17,360, 645 7.0 7.2 9. WOW Acre oc Seales on ee ee 5, 046, 185 7,823,181 | Tons. | 59,360, 225 7.0 8.0 the IWaSeOnSIN «7 4253...-2 es BE 3, 079, 102 5,002,644 | Tons. | 40, 866,396 4.3 5.1 5. GC Ce eee Pee = cere 4 3,957, 745 5,936,997 | Tons. | 32,033, 954 5.5 6.1 3. IMG HEASICA. 521 S.Sasna) ee oe 4,520, 034 5,776,475 | Tons. | 31,729,691 6.3 5.9 3 Marin esota = 5-.4--225 eb ee 3, 946, 072 6,036,747 | Tons. | 26,724, 801 5.5 6.2 3. Ripe ee. ee ae 7, 647 7, 483,295 | Lbs. 412,699 | 100.0] 100.0] 100. USg TO fy BBB Ape Seee eo ge 6, 855 6, 420, 232 | Lbs. 348, 386 89.6 85.8 84. @aliformin.. 2)... ...--) es ne 300 * 600,000 | Lbs. 39, 000 3.9 8.0 9. Indiana 5 395, 467 | Lbs. 21, 755 4.4 5.3 5. BIG] Se Ree are Me sae Se 40,718,748 | Lbs. 7,844,745 | 100.0} 100.0} 100. Oregon 16, 582, 562 | Lbs. 2, 838, 860 48.7 40.7 36. New York 8, 677,138 | Lbs. 2,597,981 | 26.9] 21.3 33. California 11,994,953 | Lbs. 1,731, 110 18.8 29.5 22. Washington ; 3,432,504 | Lbs. 665, 493 5.4 8.4 8. Kafir corn and milo maize 5 17,597,305 | Bu. 10,816,940 | 100.0} 100.0 100. Liber Ce, a ee ee ee ee 3, 5, 860, 444 | Bu. a 785, 463 35.1 33.3 35. Kansas 5,115,415 | Bu. 3,046,799 | 23.8 | 29.1 28. Oklahoma 5 4,658,752 | Bu. 2,531, 036 32.6 26.5 23. California : 938,049 | Bu. 725,704 2.7 5.3 6. Kumquats..... 1,112 | Boxes. 2 S26) i. sami 100. 0 100. Florida 1,091 | Boxes. Fist ese eee 98.1 97. WUGWRONS hse iais fais ~ eee ee eo singe vee 8, 840, 733 | Bu. 7,910) 600)| 20s: 100.0 100.0 California... S022...) Peeseal. cc deo oetee 1,928,097 | Bu. 1;660;963) | Sessees 21.8 21.0 NewYork: .f Sie... DR eal ee ee 1,343,089 | Bu. 1418) 218) |Sopeeege 15.2 17.9 Michigan 3.7.59... 332 ae eel a ee 666, 023 | Bu. DoD yi Le | se eee 7.5 6.8 INiGwiJ GISOY .2)2-os-- ad- Se aee cle oe ae 463,290 | Bu. 254;582.)2 s0ss5e8 5.2 3.2 Peasi(dry) ee. -.b 2s. 8 ee 1, 305, 099 7,129, 294 | Bu. 10, 963, 739 | 100.0} 100.0) 100.0 Wistonsin< 2 32523 ease 78, 017 1,165,055 | Bu. 1, 645, 928 6.0 16.3 15.0 Michigan: 5-22. =. 525 Sess 94, 932 1,162, 403 | Bu. 1, 337, 430 723 16.3 12.2 South Caroling |) oserr ls 1265, 632 711, 853 | Bu. 1,311,454 | 20.4] 10.0 12.0 Georgia. 2+: | BARS. ener 1210, 315 736,009 | Bu. 1, 204, 783 16.1 10.3 11.0 North) Carolina 2. <2 3-5. - ee 1169, 934 651,567 | Bu. 1, 024, 228 13.0 9.1 9.3 Alabama, ...u- 256.25. steer 185,034 418,007 | Bu. 660, 270 6.5 | 5.9 6.0 Pecans 2.0 te =. ose. 2 a ee ae eee 9, 890, 769 | Lbs. 971,596) 10.52 55-8 100.0 100.0 TOxAS Oe Sch ds 2 Does eo ee 5, 832, 367 | Lbs. 5565208) | 2c sceee 59.0 57.2 MISSISSID Pisses oases) sees See eee 637, 293 | Lbs. (9936) | sss 2ceer 6.4 8.2 TZOWISIANIA | Gre Faso oe ee eo eee 723,578 | Lbs. 2270650) Seesee 7.3 8S) Oklahoma. 25550525) Bees ec eee 894,172 | Lbs. 595 481)\\.-pe- ore 9.0 SiG Persimmons (Japanese)....-----|....------:- 6,723 | Bu. 9S 0876 | iscaanstese 100.0 100.0 Galiforiiia: 42-3252 551 eee es = 2. kee 2,696 | Bu. Seana |. sae 40.1 36.8 TR OKAS oye o <[e so0 5 Seaton URE oss eee ee 1,175 | Bu. 2, 1300) snc eee 17.5 23.5 MVIOMEAE... t3siass tl eee oe 1,615 | Bu. 2 0660 Soo. soe 24.0 22.7 Mabama. _ f2 3.525222 See se. 339 | Bu. 402) el aware 5.0 4.4 Pineapples ss~ cess 2 Js5 eee 778, 651 | Crates. (34,090)! o eee 100.0 100.0 WlOviday. 3. dee cscs seeeeees 778, 644 | Crates. #3431069); =. ooees 99.9 99.9 Plums and prunes ---| 15, 480,170 | Bu. 10, 299, 495 |......-- 100.0 100.0 Oagitornig sts. oos scot cee ee bk 9,317,979 | Bu. 5 47e.De0s| cone pee 60. 2 53:1 Oregons. as... csek wee ee 1, 747, 587 | Bu. 838) 08alsans See 11.3 8.1 Wiashineponls.22csct eee 1,032,077 | Buy 600 ;5034 ese cee Gam 5.8 IPOMOPTANALCS.. 2 coe = eee ee] ok oe Sa 152, 825 | Lbs. (aS al en 100.0 100.0 California. 3.2 22's Se a 30,075 | Lbs. O68 wee eee 19.7 23.0 Georrigs... fascist ene See Se ches 27,365 | Lbs. 920) || ace see! 17.9 21.9 INGVAGG 0 c42-cs65bck See = cee ce 45,550 | Lbs. O15) eco sees 29.8 21.8 ATADaMe,.. ss. --5s 2 eae eae. + ee See 19,090 | Lbs. Glial ieee ae 12.5 14.7 Arizona....---- paz SR CSO Cee = 22s ee See 23,360 | Lbs. Wd | on teeeee 15.3 11.3 Potatocsieeeee tock ea ae 3,668, 855 | 389,194,965] Bu. |166, 423,910 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 New tiork sec e ene eee 394,319 | © 48,597, 701 | Bu. 20,338,766 | 10.7| 12.5 12.2 Pennsylvania. ...-.:. 0a ee 262, 013 21, 740,611 | Bu. 11, 978, 843 eu 5.6 7.2 Maine a. stop en -ou eee 135, 799 28, 556, 837 | Bu. 10, 224, 714 30 7.3 6.1 Michivant sett 22 PR ee 365, 483 38, 243, 828 | Bu. 9, 913, 778 10.0 9.8 6.0 QOhio# i... 5-02 S eee ee 212, 808 20, 322,984 | Bu. 9, 377, 955 5.8 5.2 5.6 Wisconsin. 2-200 ...-2 See 290, 185 31,968,195 | Bu. 7, 917, 754 7.9 8.2 4.8 Al Hearst) Nee eee eS dD 3 223, 692 26, 802,948 | Bu. 7, 685, 259 wood 6.9 4.6 Quainces S523. OAT. Tee ee eB ee 428, 672 | Bu. BLY can seats ee 100. 0 100. 0 New. Work.o 0.0!) ae aa ais eae 132, 451 | Bu. 15355 3454|- 0. cae 30.9 26. 2 Rennsylvaniat 5%. PSC e See aoe 62,350 | Bu. LOZ ARTs = 2 oe 14.5 19.8 ODIO se Seco Os O eos See eae eee 81,101 | Bu. TES GE eel eee 18.9 19.6 California... .-..- 22 SEER Sl PSE oe ci 32,638 | Bu. 265206 | Sec en se 7.6 5.1 Raspberries and loganberries. . - 48, 668 60,918,196 | Qts. 5,182,277 | 100.0] 100.0 100. 0 New pyiork. 32. :.. 2... at ae 11,057 | 14,751,940 | Qts. 1,168,062 | 22.7] 24.2 22.8 Michigan: 23.2! 5 2... eee eee 8, 786 8, 381, 943 | Qts. 695, 019 18.1 13.8 13.5 ORIOE Mice gees ads cok oe 3, 869 4,029,480 | Qts. 364, 272 7.9 6.6 Toe California .. 5:08. . 2 See Oe 1, 992 5, 222, 117 || ‘Qts. 304, 169 4.1 8.6 5.9 Washington............ dee 1, 210 3,118,720 | Qts. 223, 001 2.5 5.1 4.3 Rice; (rough): 2 Sse) aes 610,175 | 21,838,580 | Bu. 16,019,607 | 100.0} 100.0} 100.0 OuISigns..2-628 ..) 2 seca 317, 518 10, 839,973 | Bu. 8, 053, 222 52. 0 49. 6 50. 3 Mexasse-. sce...) Sokseme 237, 586 8,991,745 | Bu. 6,106,323 | 38.9] 41.2 38.1 ATEanSaS-. totes . 1 aasae 27, 419 1, 282, 830 | Bu. 1, 158, 103 4.5 5.9 7.2 125 (See i ee oe ae I 2,195,561 | 29,520,457 | Bu. | 20,421,812 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 Michigan 926-8): 2 tae ei 419, 020 5, 814, 394 | Bu. 3,944,616 | 19.1] 19.7 19.3 Wisconsin a: .e.. ten oe 339, 213 4,797, 775.| Bu. 3,163,520] 15.5] 16.3 15.5 Minnesota.) -. 2. icnb aoe eee 266, 567 4, 426, 028"| Bu. 2, 679, 987 12.1 15.0 13.1 Pennsylvania......... =u .495|| 2728560 3, 496, 603 | Bu. 2,673,514| 12.4] 11.8 13.1 NeW oY Ork. 5. -.:!--ch eee eee 130, 540 2,010, 601 | Bu. 1, 578, 408 5.9 6.8 (ha Seed (flower and vegetable)_-724| 2) .|. Seed. se acon ease oss |e SOL O18 yee eee eee 100. 0 Galiioritia: 222s. i eee pe of B 42.1 Ninel. soneccecen OG ie Ae). Se ate) 13.8 New? Work. i2242:< 2 Saabs e oe eee hb 55 SS Ses eee 72,991 fo won nl eee 5. 2 1 A considerable amount of this acreage is probably a duplication of other crop acreage. ee a ee States Leading in Production of Specified Crops. 649 TaBLE 178.—Crop production and States leading in production of each crop: 1909. (From Thirteenth Census report)—Continued. [The figures opposite the name of each crop are for the United States as a whole.] Per cent of United States total. Crop and State. Acreage. | Production. | Unit. Value. 7 Acre- |Produc-| ,, age. | tion. Value. Reed aCeTASS het noses ee ere a eee 6,671,348 | Bu. $15, 137,683 |-.....-- 100.0 | 100.0 Cine a a ene Pare hc a ee ete es oases 1,118,044 | Bu. Li i2k 289). |e 16.8 11.4 NEA OIS os te tte et ee a oc ee 1, 289,996 | Bu. 1,719; 420: Ass 19.3 11.4 Mitmmesotal Ses oes. +2 OES. FS 945,666 | Bu. 15,496 4380 2S 14.2 9.9 MOMal DAKOLA 2s cemace ees pe seeae eres 424,623 | Bu. 094-570" nea 6.4 3.9 Mentuckyi so. saeco re Sete. ot 612, 406 | Bu. GS8; 219 eS 9.2 3.6 Borghum'cane. -- 2 eee 444, 089 1,647, 262 | Tons. |! 10,174,457 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 eriguiGksy’ <=) seee a ae 62, 327 226, 303 | Tons 1, 416, 565 14.0 13.7 13.9 MMEMNESSEOL Sch sao Sek oe 52, 907 205,901 | Tons 1, 145, 932 11.9 12. 5) 11.3 1 45, 088 201,206 | Tons. | 1,036,263 | 10.2] 122| 10.2 PRE RSY wrote ecae oe ee ee 55, 027 101,691 | Tons 955, 769 12.4 6.2 | 9.4 INCRE CE OES See ie 33, 071 93,123 | Tons 658, 075 7.4 5.7 6.5 North Carolina....-...-.--: 21, 227 86, 462 | Tons 541, 294 4.8 5.2 a3 tllinois 15, 039 90, 287 | Tons 496, 114 3.4 5.5 4.9 Strawberries 143, 045 255, 702, 035 | Qts. 17, 913, 926 100. 0 100.0 100.0 New York 6,382 | 15,945,863 | Qts. 1, 187, 410 4.5 6.2 6.6 California 4, 585 15, 694, 326 | Qts. 1, 149, 475 3.2 6.1 6.4 Missouri 9, 048 15, 171,034 | Qts. 1, 122, 784 6.3 5.9 6.3 Maryland 14,292 | 23,611,095 | Qts. 1,070,072 | 10.0 9.2 6.0 Michigan 8,051 | 14,218,768 | Qts. 1, 000, 788 5.6 5.6 5.6 IN WAOESGY-.- J--)\---< 2-5 8, 684 18, 767, 473 | Qts. 929, 108 6.1 Mord 5. 2 SupaMicane.. -\.j.5.. 42a semis. 476, 849 6, 240, 260 | Tons. |? 26,415, 952 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 MAQUISISNS se omens nos teas 329, 684 4,941,996 | Tons. |? 17,752, 537 69.1 79.2 | 67. 2 ECT G att ee a Se ae eo ae 37, 046 317,460 | Tons. | 2 2, 268,110 7.8 rial 8.6 Sunflower seed... .- 22... 2222-2. 4,731 63,677 | Bu. 58,318 | 100.0} 100.0 100. 0 AIM DIS eee ise oh ee 3,969 49,004 | Bu. 44,539 $3.9 77.0 76.4 @ilifornia: Wi2 cee 2 ae 257 6,855 | Bu. 6, 264 5.4] 10.8} © 10.7 TTiGianiarwe ew 228 Ne 430 6,330 | Bu. 5, 894 9.1 9.9| 10.1 Sweet potatoes and yams.....-. 641, 255 59, 232,070 | Bu. 35,429,176 | 100.0 | 100.0 100. 0 eoraines e eeee e 84, 038 7,426,131 | Bu. 4,349,806 | 13.1] 125} 123 North Carolinale ssc os 2.2 22 84, 740 8, 493, 283 | Bu. 4, 333, 297 13. 2 14.3 | 12.2 PMInh aia: eee ee 66, 613 5,314,857 | Bu. 3,578,710 | 10.4 9.0 10.1 Mississip piso -toesese 2 See 56, 045 4,427,988 | Bu. 3,073, 290 Si7 7.5 Sh7 Vircinian. eres cnae sive 40, 838 5,270,202 | Bu. 2,681, 472 6.4 8. 3 7.6 South Carolina. ............ 48, 878 4,319,926 | Bu. 2, 606, 606 7.6 7. 7.4 Wamisiang! 2p, <68- as oe fen 56, 953 4,251,086 | Bu. 2,357, 729 8.9 7 6.7 INew lerseysee 222664. .0sce 22, 504 3,186,499 | Bu. 1, 527, 074 3.5 5.4 4.3 Mancerines: -. .=\9.-....222-- HOFOZGERSSTIES -~ 0 Sas 10/6985 1070 2a5-eeae see 15, 403, 143 Hp esas oes on soe dozens 973, 053 147,173 1, 367, 224 205,832 | 6,014,955 1,089, 164 Hpewyolks 2 -224..5=55 ounds. . 43, 822 4, 430 228, 305 36,892 | 3,420,412 504, 619 Feathers ee downs, crude: OStnighty sym ee see. Se:2 SRE Ie. bee. 3 S068 696) |e et 23222222 G3 252), 2ORa ee eae 3, 944, 928 IO ullen ee cee Se ae oneal nd eas 1; 228, 645. |. oa. see =~ O85 A084 sean eoneee 926, 735 Fibers, animal: Silk— Cocoons......... ounds.. 82, 456 51,073 158,342 55,589 1,413 1,118 Raw, or as reeled from the Coeoons—- pounds. .| 21,609,520 | 67,173,382 | 26,049,472 | 82,147,523 | 28,594,672 | 97,828, 243 MWiastoce eeeaere nt do. 4,892,986 | 2,317,217! 5,893,741 | 2,711,605 | 5,949,744] 3, 100,664 Motalisilke=---..—- do....| 26,584,962 | 69,541,672 | 32,101,555 | 84,914,717 | 34,545,829 | 100,930,025 W ool, and hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, and like animals— Class 1, clothing. . pounds 71, 203,329 | 15,106,193 | 67,238,715 | 15,422,920 |125,088,761 | 30,681,759 Class 2; combing....do....| 15,557; 664 | 3,802,034 | 16,886,446 | 4,266,327 | 18,839,698 | 4,906,967 Class 3, carpet...... do... 106,639, 720 | 14,170,115 |111) 168,094 | 15,890,576 |102/003,313 | 17,029, 111 Hair of the Angora goat, alpaca, etc..-.. pounds. . (2) (2) (2) (2) 1,717,097 | 572, 430 Total wool...... do... .|193, 400, 713 | 33,078,342 |195, 293, 255 | 35,579,823 |247,648,869 | 53, 190, 267 Total animal fibers, re POUNASE 22 2k ae 219,985,675 |102, 620,014 |227,394, 810 |120, 494,540 |282, 194,698 | 154,120, 292 Golapmees: =o. o5.o-0 pounds 783, 668 181, 461 1, 170, 082 314, 601 2,441,317 738, 731 Tre ean etre doneme |e sosdeaoD 776,696 | 6,550, 197 727,850 | 22,714,877 | 1,805,543 HIONGY ato er ose sss gallons. . 115, 040 62, 684 116, 271 68, 717 75,079 38, 665 i 1 Forest products come within the scope of the Department of Agriculture and are therefore included in alphabetical order in these tables. 2 Not stated. 652 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TABLE 180. Agricultural imports of the United States during the 3 years ending June 30, 1914—Continued. Year ending June 30— | 19 Article imported. 1912 13 1914 } | Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. ANIMAL MATTER—continued. Packing-house products: Bladders, other than fish....|...........- $4; O04 as ae eee $96, 237 |.522=senesae $52, 336 Blood: (dried!ce pres eh eee hos #200; 250 We oa ee BOw14D: | Ae ee 391, 816 Bones cleanegs,-- \-.224- aeenale ass ee aoe TS O12 yt 5.2 fe ee 40° 612) | i-2 eens 5, 023 Bones, hoofs, and horns.....|..-..--.---- A 0385 Goaileeaasaseo sae 885 5893. jin eu TE 1, 061; 466 Bristles— Crude, unsorted.-.pounds. . 26,174 14, 796 19,151 12,583 28, 359 25, 495 Sorted, bunched, or pre- i Perede sees ee pounds.-} 3,435,801 | 3,032,231 | 3,559,433 | 3,491,980 | 3,408,796 3, 170, 974 Total bristles. .pounds..! 3,461,975 | 3,047,027 | 3,578,584 | 3,504,563 | 3,437,155 | 3,196, 469 GTEaSOSse. enk Jet ka 4 ae Meee oegeees 963205 aa 3-52eeee 8657443] 255.22 1, 028, 595 = Baa ae SRR ana 7 DSSS ESE Ee Sean 132, 9200S ies ee 1391203). se eee ee 122,733 air— LORS@.22acea= sas pounds 5,381,730 | 2,308,319 | 5,147,923 | 2,223,344 | 3,738, 836 1, 663, 448 Other animal....... do....| 10,795,253 | 1,025,421 | 11,348,597 | 1,099,730 | 10,507,680 | 1, 051, 698 Hide cuttings and other glue StOCK. ...2 S355. Paes = - eee sce sete NRA (en A (Ee eee LST GY SO82 || eeeree 2,158,514 Hides and skins, other than "a f urs— aoe hides— SSoosss oases eg ae 4, 906, 362 732,465 | 16, 234,751 2,790,009 | 14, 492, 943 3,073, 717 Gaon or pickled. .do-.- 82,313 8 78ON oe. = 2 == ae ice aon a= 3A Re eee ee Cal skins— . Da pee SORES do...-| 41,992,100 | 14,697,085 | 39,974,383 | 15,092.017 | 27,767,882 | 11,582, 807 Green or pickled..do....| 63, 260,389 | 11,833,908 | 54,584,752 | 11, 202,956 | 54,635,708 | 11,799, 146 Cattle hides— Drytee ont do....| 78,131,330 | 15,161,229 | 82,595,225 | 18,670,672 | 71,485,650 | 18,083,314 Green or pickled. .do....|172, 881,183 | 23,244,292 /185, 447,165 | 27,628,292 |208; 477,838 | 34,098, 628 Goatskins— By ie tee Oe ake do....| 69,143,153 | 19,930,142 | 70,562,896 | 21,099,415 | 63,374,054 | 19,037,307 Green or pickled. .do....| 26,197,550 | 3,366,413 | 25,687,409 | 3,691,002 | 21,385,374] 3,153,956 Horse and ass bearen . IDA asad saseose 7,194,331 | 1,474,590 | 10,978,605 | 2,234,581 | 7,619,625 1,619, 178 Green or pickled. Heal 5, 674, 741 597,397 | 8,447,909 941,371 | 4,645,213 514, 833 iKanparoossee: soso = doz Q) Q) ds 097, 038 719,188 | 1,328, 668 898, 087 Sheepskins 2— Dry? elle. do 25,644,846 | 4,977,912 | 31,132,037 | 6,429,936 | 29,338, 146 6,165, 947 Green or pickled..do.._.| 34,755,463 | 4, 858) 304 | 40,652,682 | 5,965,008 | 40,738, 679 6, 427, 270 Other... 22 2252522-2:= do....} 7,904,337 1,593, 801 4, 801, 838 | 921,727 | 15,780, 906 3, 835, 591 Total hides and skins, Mounds sos.) eee 537,768, 098 |102, 476,327 |572,196, 690 |117, 386,174 |561, 070, 686 | 120, 289, 781 Meat— —— Cured— Bacon and hams, : pounds=. 32h =: = ..s65-- (3) (3) (8) (8) 2, 008, 960 383, 669 Meat, prepared or preserved AS. oe. Bot cla Se tee ce (yes slic csedaseese (i ales. .seaeeee 1, 676, 360 Sausage, bologna, POWnGS: 32052 See 971,775 182, 982 728, 469 157, 871 730, 326 186, 824 Fresh— Beef and veal. . pounds: : (8) (3) (3) (3) 180,137,183 | 15,423,911 Mutton and lamb.do.. (8) (8) (8) (3) 12,710,905 | 1,114,730 Pork... 606 262-65 do.. (3) (3) (8) (8) 4, 624,799 540, 801 Other, including meat ex- Pacis. Cece ees eee 076, 0100 |e eeeee esa GY il encase on 1, 075, 849 Totalimeats stots once eee 13582999" |0_ eee Sele ADR cRM eee oe eee 20, 402, 144 Oleo stearin......-- pounds..| 4,913,090] 448,950 | 9,511,134 967,000 | 5,243,553 459, 980 IRGDHGIS: 2 Saas sas aoe seme MIE ce See S02 1424|2---- meen aoe 120 Aa Tale = sake ee 129, 720 Sausage casings....pounds..| 4,923,768 | 2.385,715 | 4,569,944 | 2,476, 082 (3) 2, 955, 657 Total packing - house products. «== Fase: =lec Joe deeee LAs DEO Ol Sultce a= ae cpep ee 133, O88; 100) |2os--2-- eee 154, 969.389 Total animal matter...|............ (244,037,531 |............|288,706, 689 |--.--.------ | 358, 729, 684 1 Included in ‘‘ Other”’ hides and skins other than furs. 283,706, 689 2 Except sheepskins with the wool on. 3 Not stated. Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 653 TaBLE 180.—Agricultural imports of the United States cms the 3 years ending June 30, 1914—Continued. Year ending June 30— Article imported. 1912 1913 1914 Quantity. Value. | Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. a VEGETABLE MATTER. Argols, or wine lees... pounds. .| 23,661,078 | $2,225,180 | 29,479,119 | $2,621,632 | 29,793,011 | $3,228, 674 Breadstuffs. (See Grain and grain products.) Broom corn.......- long tons... 1,346 157, 969 187 14,720 1,272 141, 730 Cocoa and chocolate: Sees, bo | | ipieacses Cocoa— | | Crude, and leaves and } shells of........ pounds. -|145, 968,945 | 15,931,556 [140,039,172 | 17,389,042 |176, 267,646 | 20,797,790 @hocolate rv cc- anes Se «= do....| 2,816,901 658, 844 3,470, 680 787,678 | 3,096,445 706, 193 Total cocoa and choco- | | Eee oe oe pounds. .|148, 785,846 | 16,590, 400 |143,509, 852 | 18,176,720 [179,364,091 | 21,503,983 Dons Alesse bl Cai do... .|885, 201.247 |117, $26,543 |863, 130,757 |118, 963, 209 |1,001,528,317| 110,725, 392 Coffee substitutes: | Chicory root— Raw, unground..pounds. . 5, 401 125 | 2,205, 813 33, 091 (@) @) Roasted, ground, or other- wise prepared, POUNGS 28. coins. coe 679, 511 33, 530 519,179 21,182 2, 292, 430 47, 882 Total chicory root, i WOMNOS = copies Ameer =e 684, 912 33, 655 2, 724, 992 | 54, 273 2, 292, 430 47, 882 rhe 22-2 pounds..| 70,810 14,275 | 146,897 | 22, 831 188, 446 21, 498 Total coffee substitutes POUTIESS. 2253 aS 2 755, 722 47,930 | 2,871,889 77,104 | 2,480, 876 | 69, 380 Curry and curry powder......|............ 10, 441 | Este oan eh. eee 11, 861 Fibers, vegetable: | OTe Sa pee pounds. -/109, 780,071 | 20,217,581 /121, 852,016 | 22,987,318 |123, 346, 899 19, 456, 588 ibeexetee yee long tons. 10, 900 3, 778, 501 12,421 | 3,959,020 9, 885 2, 870, 274 DU eg ae og do... 5,007 | 1,100, 273 7,663 | 1,484,116 8,822] 1,564, 483 Istle,or Tampico fiber.do.... 9, 835 776, 351 9,573 | 923,104 10,660 1, 036, 431 Jute’ and jute butts...do.... 101, 001 7, 183, 385 125,389 | 9, 280, 565 106, 033 11, 174, 028 WHC ots. ch eensx.cs doze: 2,099 570, 084 2, 842 | 809, 001 1, 827 441,109 LAOS oes BS eee he dos 68,536 | 8,000, 865 73, 823. | 12,629, 693 49, 688 9, 779, 539 New Zealand flax..... do.. 5, 364 483, 310 7, 827 917, 166 6,171 716, 953 Rsaleorasasee rer nec S. do... 114, 467 | 11, 866, 843 153, 869 | 17,893,819 215, 547 25, 869, 729 CL ee a See ae do. 9, 270 703, 254 13,691 | 1,281,175 9,7 906, 449 Total vegetable fibers...|.........-.. ils RAY CL (| oe ee emma By pat Aird eee 73, 806, 583 MO MGRS SHALITAD =: ee oe Le eee 1 a(S") Ge eee seria 13+ 3768, sane 24,540 Forest products: @harcoale sess bs oh ee ne i ea | [eee ee 25, 028 ese see eee 69, 634 Cinchona bark..... pounds..| 2, a 823 233,323 3, 553, 239 357, 490 3, 648, 868 464, 412 Cork wood or cork bark ......|..-..3.-.--- SHEE EST ||- ceoeee Seeman 3; 152, O7O)e 2 sete Soe 3, 851, 794 Dyewoods, and extracts of— Dyewoods— Logwood. ----long tons- - 39, 571 476, 983 37, 027 476, 916 30, 062 378, 064 ANG ch ag ee dow = 3,141 47,315 3, 973 55, 843 7, 663 108, 928 Totaldyewoods.do.... 42,712 524, 298 41,000 | 532,759 37, 725 486, 992 Extracts and decoctions Ole =. Pee nee ee pounds 9, 297, 084 353, 245 9, 481, 275 365, 149 8, 810, 040 306, 934 Total dyewoods, and 2 GxXiMACUS Glee = eee as eal eaeeene ee STi store eae oe 2 | coo Feat Ue | bergen Seer 793, 926 Guayule plant... -- pounds. 2, 000 45 294,335 Meena eee Wee ee seanete Gums— Camphor— a rides). 2... 0 do....| 2,154, 646 682,669 | 3,709, 264 1,007,301 | 3,476,908 | 929, 715 Refined see. 2-65 do... 244,295 91,429 | 491) 256 162, 557 106 182, 790 Higip Pon... - do. 7,782,005 | 3,127,004 | 13,758,592 | 5,282,722! 8,040,891 | 3,012, 458 1 Not stated. 654 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TaBLE 180.—Agricultural imports of the United States during the 3 years ending June 30, 1914—Continued. Year ending June 30— Article imported. 1912 1913 1914 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. VEGETABLE MATTER—Contd. Forest products—Continued. Gums—Continued. Copal, kauri, and damar, and ee 25,115,739 | $2,016,474 | 28,573, 201 | $2,519,519 | 32,693,412 | $3,354,679 Gambier,or terra japonica DOWUDGS-2aseess 2a 21,002,795 | 1,031,047 | 17,064, 998 790, 081 | 14, 936, 129 571, 067 India rubber, gutta percha, ete.— Balaiaece tees pounds..] 1,517,066 984,012 | 1,318,598 766,772 | 1,533,024 793, 126 Guayule gum..... do....} 14,238,625 | 6,463,787 | 10,218,191 | 4,345,088 | 1,475, 804 607, 076 Guta-joolatong, or East Indian gum. -pounds. .| 48,795,268 | 2,255,050 | 45,345,338 | 2,174,441 | 24,926,571 | 1, 155, 402 Gutta-percha....- do....| 1,204, 406 225, 797 480, 853 167,313 | 1,846,109 323, 567 Indian rubber ...-do....|110, 210,173 | 93,013, 255 |113, 384,359 | 90,170,316 |131,995,742 | 71,219, 851 Total India rubber, Cle... ee pounds. .|175, 965, 538 |102, 941, 901 |170, 747,339 | 97,623,930 |161,777,250 | 74,099, 022 Shellacte 2. ee. pounds. .} 18,745,771 | 2,296,263 | 21,912,015 | 3,046,919 | 16,719, 756 2, 689, 269 Others feeme epee ee seers | so. 6 1 943,405 Wis os s3- scone 2) 3895 796)| a3. eee 2,001, 631 Motaloumss =< o4--ss-.4|a-c-- access = M4 TSO AG 3 i Sere 12702: S25 Wo eee 86, 840, 631 Ivory, vegetable. ..pounds. .| 23, 076, 847 789, 602 | 29, 656, 278 977,525 | 27,135, 406 881, 354 Naval stores: ee Tar and pitch (of wood), barrelssewee * 2.2) Behec 679 6, 227 287 5, 611 561 7,946 Turpentine, spirits of, gal- ODSS eS Et 60, 913 22,805 56, 855 19, 667 68, 966 28, 818 Total maval stores: <= ~.<|2- 2s. -s2+--- 2903245. oe Some 25) 2484 some cneeeaes 36, 764 Palatileat; natural’: <2 52 selec assess 32.6414) oars seer VT" 204s) Se oe eee 14, 044 Tanning materials: Mangrove bark.long tons. . 21,779 483, 920 15, 187 336, 136 7,689 196, 891 Quebracho, extract of, POUNGS 23.5. (op wea See lse a 71, 635,043 | 2,320,036 | 78,833,466 | 2,005,770 | 93, 329, 087 2, 548, 302 Quebracho wood ..1. tons 68, 174 982, 315 102,769 | 1,300,126 73, 956 900, 880 Sumac, ground. pounds. . 12, 498, 376 235, 154 | 14, 489, 776 297,506 | 10, 770, 400 258, 738 Opn ere eee a ea eae ee oes Pica 5A lel SSCS ES 8905056" 2-2 oe s5525 468, 230 Total tanning mate- TIS. oc connc = teemeeBles oo econ 4:290: 246i a-<-s2escnee 4,329,594) | 2 oe -steeme 4, 368, 041 Wood, not elsewhere spec- ified— Brier root or brierwood and ivy or laurel root...}..........-- ShShiad10 See cee 3135489. |2ea5.8 se 241, 493 Ghair’cane' or recede 222222! So-2 ee 575: QDigsesa. eee 620,893 eese~ = socom 451,099 Cabinet wioo d's, 4 \001=|| anon Ti ea) a sawed— Cédarsee 3-5) .2 M feet. 15, 035 807, 699 19,092 | 1,094,048 17, 285 982, 152 Mahogany .......- GOr=22 43,194 | 3,038,043 66,318 | 4,839, 625 70, 470 4, 925, 126 Other: 2-6 or ocd pees oo Ase 1 LOVE GT Ole 2 see Ue 2A Bad 22 Se 1) 217, 410 Total cabinet woods...|...........- ASS TL | sense ee eee ToS Taal ic eiae ieee ae 7, 124, 688 Logs and round timber Cebeciscac aaeteocesa 155,007 | 1,593,099 140,876 | 1,506, 235 148, 938 1, 657, 605 Boards, deals, planks, and other sawed famber Soe: M feet... 905, 275 | 15,802,789 | 1,091,649 | 18,969, 776 931,408 | 17,817, 550 Wattises se. ooo". obo Bs 646, 662 1,619,919 712,119 | 1,905, 254 564, 778 1, 613, 586 Shin cless.- se. .2. .. -u Mos 514, 657 1, 205, 327 560, 297 1,399, 751 895, 038 2,190, 170 Others saesen. 5.ct esl... heer 1 ATH AB4IlL 2: Beene SB5KSSRI-E ce -5)caae 815, 279 TOTS BADEY a ..5 fe aa ernie 197803371 |2, «=: Sts, astyp Senie acess oelsrocreriees 6335, 109% |S s- seoe a WO? L9GN| ee oe a 559, 036 Rotaliwood, N= e.:S-- 8 |stats eee 34, 600) Ol4 se 22 cc. en: AA AG AA lhc eee os 40, 926, 362 Wood pulp— Chemical— Bleached. ... pounds. ./161, 074,535 | 3,436,114 |163, 782, 137 3, 726,685 |177, 833, 052 4, 153, 036 Unbleached..... do... .|476, 680,044 | 7,266,271 |598, 574,507 | 9,435,942 |605,926,470 | 10,136, 707 Mechanical....... do... ./431, 863,879 | 3,516,537 1364, 168,563 | 3,002,689 |354, 967, 673 2, 733, 595 Total wood pulp. -. do. .|1,069,618,458] 14, 218,922 |1,126,525,207| 16, 165,316 |1,138,727,195| 17,023, 338 Totaltorest products. --||-.----s--->= Mie 52dKAGoN| =o ecion ee = = PROW5D2 Adal | eee ee 155, 261, 300 Fruits: Fresh or dried— Bananas........ bunches. .| 44,520,539 | 14,368,330 | 42,357,109 | 14, 484,258 | 48,683,592 | 16,397, 884 Carrantss 22 pounds. -| 33, 151, 396 1, 561, 350 | 30, 843, 735 1, 306, 410 | 32,033,177 1, 233, 228 ih See ee do....| 25, 208, 248 536, 983 | 34,304, 951 660, 311 | 34, 073, 608 679,527 Rigg eet ee Se do....| 18,765, 408 934, 763 | 16, 837, 819 944,317 | 19, 284, 868 941, 207 Grapes........ cubic feet..| 2,000,841 | 2,331,504] 1,135,942 | 1,359,415 | 1,334,163] 1,599,969 Lemons........-pounds. ./145, 639,396 | 3,368, 863 |151, 416,412 | 4,300, 266 (1) 5, 981, 635 Olives too... 228 gallons..| 5,076,857 | 2,303,277 | 3,946,076 | 1,896,982] 5,316,364 | 2, 292, 837 Oranges......... pounds..| 7, 628, 662 108, 880 | 12,252,960 233, 760 (1) 93, 472 IRAN EAD DIES) see cee eomee. be acme cee ea POV Sat Wen eee A STO%O0GT Ipc a eee 1, 287, 862 EUAISING foes eo pounds..| 3,255, 861 295,466 | 2,579, 705 241, 630 4, 554, 549 309, 511 CO} Geree Se. a eee |) Mek Lee TIAGOSE DIG, | Ute ee ee oe D5 S330)\| 2 eee 1, 710, 009 Wotalfresh’ or dried=.4--2)). 20-2. 222-2 28; GIS 27e) [2a acdloee See | 27, 861;685 pases Se se 32, 527, 141 Prepared or preserved.......|........---- SSB 107 Eee. 238 795;399)|G ee see eee 1, 111, 193 Motaltruitses.. .1-852.5- Aes os 99;4geseon|e. ie Sa 28: 6575084. (seesaw 33, 638, 334 Ginger, preserved or pickled, PGMMAS! A Ate He 2 ae 468, 329 30, 139 551, 320 42, 061 478, 058 36, 434 Grain and grain products: a Grain— Come: .----bushels. . 53, 425 47, 936 903, 062 491,079 | 12,367,369 7, 917, 243 Oniaee: iat ts Ft do....| 2,622,357 1,053, 470 723, 899 289, 364 | 22,273,624 | 7, 885, 837 WRCAT: anise meet <8 do....| 2,699,130 | 2,212, 887 798, 028 559, 559 | 1,978, 937 1, 761, 995 Total grain. ...... do....| 5,374,912 | 3,314,293 | 2,424,989 | 1,340,002 | 36,619,930 | 17,565,075 Grain products— Breadvand piscuit.£ ie. 2 yo ooo ee EE) (SN 4 en Bees 255416 ere anol aoe 415, 318 Macaroni, vermicelli, etc., OUNGSse ee Aces 108, 231,028 | 4,738,937 |106, 500,752 | 4,913,624 |126, 128,621 | 5, 698, 783 Malte 232 seen bushels 3,771 5, 098 10, 419 15,121 13, 472 16, 367 Meal and flour— Wheat flour... barrels. - 158, 777 665, 346 107, 558 453, 681 89, 911 363, 855 O ier eee soe s ol oe 3 ATS. 685) (pee ee ee 157545 ,949.'l| 3 oseeenans 3, 382, 879 Total grain products..]..........-- Oe Oy STO |e eee TSO 21GRLUl ae Soe eee 9,877, 202 Total grain and grain PLOdu CSM: eee ed ee a TR aes aoe SI A S78 OG86) baa s5 = grain products. ) : ; | 4 Malt extract, fluid and solid...|.-..-.....-. Shsgulerscee ee 1290480"|2 2 16, 566 Malt liquors. (See Liquors, j alcoholic.) Nursery stock: cae | Plants, trees, shrubs, and vines— ' | Fruit plants, tropical and | semitropical, for propa- PATON, GLC e = phew a hee ee pro ee Sh cen Oy EE, || = mm nina aiermtet llr eet e ‘ Bulbs, ps does ote he corms,cultivated for their flowers or foliage....M-.- 216,159 | 1,723,354 288,646 | 1,823,307 216, 138 2,092, 139 Other 4-2 ear | Bie aed | 1,251,365 |-- -~. ---00~- 1,379; 913"|---- eee 1,514, 669 Total nursery stock... ..- eee eee 2,990; 544 |--.--- = 3, 209,067, | ose 3, 606, 808 Nuts: : F F Almonds— Shellede: 2. see ounds. .|\,- Eo | {13,078,771 | 3,137,104 ; 13,307,631 4,040, 785 Unshelled._._... eld. P17 231,458 3, 253, 495 |) "9’599'187 | 207/554 | 5,730,774 | 638,504 Coconuts, unshelled.......-- a ees > 15949; 406 1-2. 2. eele MIB OTT |e oc ccc eee 2,133, 416 Coconut meat, broken, or etree Seen | (em ce ee 22 G62) BUie\ sec S-=ha oe 3,104,812) les =o eee 3, 055, 679 TUT See pe eae Be ae Sto © ee | 17,205,552 | ee eae 20, 084, 184 Spices: [ee a ae Unground— Cassia, or cassia vera, nde edt tx” 6, 795, 943 514,758 | 6,853,915 535,974 | 6,771,901 404, 853 Ginger root, not preserved, MOUNASS- Cle se cece coS 5,979,314 368,175 | 7,756,090 399,270 | 3,771,086 171, 250 Sone black or white, pounds ae ees 25,802,252 | 2,599,479 | 27,562,361 | 2,852,665 | 24,173,621 2,427,927 Others ssssy5s2522 pounds. .| 14,651,846 | 1,464,239 | 16,062,861 | 1,576,462 | 2,896,823 309, 184 Total unground, | | pounds! se. 4 keke 53, 229,355 | 4,946,651 | 58,235,227 | 5,364,371 | 37,613, 431 3,313, 214 Growuid 3-2/2 -.-s-- pounds 9, 887, 103 1,027,519 | 6,990,174 822,765 | 18,961,068 2, 282, 295 Total spices...... do....| 63,116,548 | 5,974,170 | 65,225,401 | 6,187,136 | 56,574, 499 5,595, 509 658 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TABLE 180.—Agricultural imports of the United States during the 8 years ending June 80, 1914—Continued. Year ending June 30— Article imported. 1912 1913 1914 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. VEGETABLE MATTER—Contd. Spirits, distilled. (See Liquors, alcoholic.) Starch ee eran pounds. -| 15,841,437 | $478,465 | 16,710,498 | $457,784 | 15,518, 434 $408, 922 Straw and grass. ...long tons. . 10,172 56, 702 3,553 19,079 6, 060 33, 499 Sugar and molasses: IMOIaSSBS 2 aero gallons. ./ 28,828,213 | 1,197,878 | 33,926,521 | 1,456,350 | 51, 410, 271 1, 744, 719 Sugar— oar TS, ina | a Raw— Beet eoena cess pounds. . 6, 504, 260) 239, 484 | 182, 647,582) 4,169, 523 2, 367, 708 70, 829 Gangs. $55. fats. 5 Gore 4) 092, 129, 718}114, 958, 470 |4, 554 049, 872 99, 293, 354 |5, 061, 564, 621| 101, 365, 561 Maple sugar and sirup, POUNGS Soo —ctacioe ences () () (1) (Q) 2, 095, 983 163, 047 Total raw... . pounds. .|4,098,633,978|115, 197,954 |4,736,697,454|103, 462, 877 |5,066,028,312] 101, 599, 437 Riefined 443. 5252.4. = dom tr, 5, 984, 415) 317, 125 3, 344, 034 176, 946 793, 561 49, 938 Tctal sugar....- do... -/4,104,618,393)115, 515, 079 |4,740,041,488)103, 689, 823 |5,066,821,873] 101, 649, 375 Total sugar and mo- Tassest 203.05.) S256 Ae go See ae DT G72 Ob (alles act tolerate 105, 096,173) fos. esse nee 103, 394, 094 Pear wast Sse eS pounds. .|101, 406, 816 | 18, 207,141 | 94,812,800 | 17,433,688 | 91,130,815 | 16,735, 302 Tea, waste, etc., for manufac- Abi tater pe ee ee pounds..} 5,994, 547 161,532 | 7,053, 550 211,541 | 5,874,308 194, 293 DOa7aISP noni paddies’ os Moe Sale see eee eae NG 5998 is ee cence 74 PAU OER iS. 24, 310 Tobacco: Leaf— Wrapper........- pounds..| 6,474,881 | 8,104,907] 6,398,782 | 8,242,212 | 6,092,787 7,785, 387 Filler and other leaf.do....| 46,536,954 | 23,814, 407 | 61,183,963 | 27,691,361 | 54,047,136 | 27,247, 259 Btemss eee ee! do....| 1,728, 545 6, 270 444, 373 4,938 | 1,034,528 5, 874 Total tobacco..... do....| 54,740,380 | 31,925, 584 | 67,977,118 | 35,938, 511 | 61,174,751 | 35, 038, 520 Vanilla beans.......-.-- doze 841,628 | 2,025,153 | 1,049,497 | 2,641,573 898, 100 2,277, 675 Vegetables: Fresh and dried— Gans. f. sece === bushels 1,004,930 | 1,857,220 | 1,048,297 | 1,938,105} 1,634,070 2,955, 663 Onions soe) ene do....| 1,486,087 | 1,234, 316 789, 458 481,756 | 1,114,811 ”909, 204 ness, dried =v esiese: dors: 806,762} 1,515,516 | 1,134,346 | 1,835,775 866, 488 IF 849, 274 IPOtatOGS: oe enc : do... 1 () 77, 047 22, 625 335, 348 124, 127 Total animal fibers, OUTS See esse 71, 132 16, 080 114, 594 32, 329 362, 945 132, 305 Ghee ssaeessscccs- pounds..| 3,059, 952 314,909 | 2,544,942 276,619 | 2,351,773 258, 611 igicy Meee coe ett close aie gee 129652) | eee aoe 1895259) |ke came 135, 669 pees anise products: eef— Canned 222452... pounds..| 11,026,431 | 1,303,404 | 6,840,348 857,826 | 3,464, 733 461, 901 Cured or pickled....do....| 38,087,907 | 2,832,109 | 25,856,919 | 2,489,965 | 23,265,974 | 2, 289, 516 roche Sees eck do....| 15, 264,320 | 1,596,319 | 7,362,388 902,149 | 6,394, 404 788, 793 Oils—Oleo oil... ..-- do... .|126, 467, 124 | 13,434,018 | 92,849, 757 | 10,866, 253 | 97,017,065 | 10, 156, 665 Oleomargarine....-. do....| 3,627,425 372, 567 2, 987, 582 311,485 | 2,532, 821 263, 453 allows aieeeese cs do. ...| 39,451,419 | 2,388,046 | 30,586,300 | 1,910,439 | 15,812,831 | 1,002,011 Matalibesteesse--e do. ...|233, 924, 626 | 21,926, 463 |166, 483, 294 | 17,338,117 |148, 487,828 | 14,962,339 Bones, hoofs, horns, and horn tips, strips and RAS LOE mee (ON eS 0 OF Ae oe vee 1625009} |b cena -seeees 20775760 ae eee 47, 651 Grease, grease scraps, and all soap stock— Te uibricahin gasses a cocscec|cieeo cee ass POS a Osu leyatecioenieinec= 25309; O15) lone) emai 2,394, 918 Soapisiock em enee sent (oar nes LCN Bi) | BE n C2 A ae a 424-349) | eee 5, 046, 959 TEESE eee: EC Se, Mae us one 2x eo Bib CORT TIMP seo eas ae 1 449),157;.|Soe eine 1, 085, 038 Hides and skins, other than urs— Caliskins Ss22< -sonnes a 1,819, 281 1,520, 879 iBiekies/and Salles 4:22. 225| Sees ARSON | Sesh owe Ore eek eee eae 491; 774 |° 2:603 41213) 2 a eee PAN GS balan at ry (SSP ea eR tad 845; 803° |-225 22-5552 17;-459, 632 |. 25 sccceee SOS TTA (VP os Bee Oss er ares ee Mare 7, 188, 556 | 18,316,876 |_........- ABS, 903) (Sees ete hoe soe soneteee 1, 289, 869 | 9,301, 894 | 13, 701,663 |.......... 531, 755 593) 0540 Seok Seeeaees: 1, 533, 834 | 10,794,025 | 6,401,543 | 218, 796 616, 090 ASS. SR | loin tone ree 2,006, 427 | 14,258,928 | 6,062,418 | 263, 641 957, 218 668! 797, Seek Soe ee 2,477, 696 | 18,349,386 | 5,146,927 | 428, 755 212, 476 765,215 | 51,234,056 | 2, 453, 280 | 16,927,090 | 3,968,469 | 508, 212 1, 649, 203 925, 828 | 56,181,900 | 2,355,560 | 16,658,955 | 3,406,245 | 479,776 1, 101, 815 714, 651 | 47,363,262 | 2,820,815 | 20,240,851 | 4,624,698 | 533, 920 942, 814 788, 241 | 46,998,512 | 2,535,962 | 19,177,788 | 5,388,439 | 412,750 1, 065, 771 566, 205 | 55,879,010 | 2,396,498 | 16,378,787 | 3,291,498 | 530,659 1, 426, 784 533, 182 | 47,420,095 | 2,585,108 | 17,202,808 | 3,788,740 | 558, 690 1, 283, 406 872, 192 | 48,286,285 | 2,310,275 | 15,894,813 | 3,856,623 | 486, 411 1,343,607 | 1,066,253 | 57,586,378 | 2,438,556 | 15,981,253 | 3,517,646 | 552,548 1, 623, 964 803, 346 | 51,120,171 2,560,966 | 15, 854, 676 3, 278, 110 600, 865 1, 548, 130 900, 812 | 61,696,949 | 2,712,732 | 19,532,583 | 4,883,506 | 463, 440 1, 357, 822 977,376 | 52,583,016 | 2,170,177 | 17,502,028 | 2,950,528 | 383, 309 1, 684, 489 928,197 | 49,783,771 | 2,144,318 | 15,587,737 | 3,245,196 | 451, 721 2,031,608 | 1,019,411 | 65,725,595 | 2,189,607 | 14,817,751 2, 673, 887 499, 547 eet. 2,306,680 | 1,161,591 | 64,162,599 | 2,474, 460 | 19,599, 241 31,067 | 406, 954 2,550,308 | 1,710,095 | 89,005,624 | 2,806,046 | 21,039, 597 34,502 | 477,135 2, 405, 296 867,805 | 77,150,535 | 2,417,950 | 18, 900, 704 29,859 | 411, 307 1 Including ‘‘Joists and scantling,”’ prior to 1884. ‘ ; Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 673 TaBLE 187.—Imports of selected forest products, 1852-1914. Year ending Camphor India Rubber : June 30— crude. | rubber. | gums,total. Shellac. |Wood pulp. sawed. Average: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Long tons. saz eee ae REC LOUOD Wo caf ase ucteclmecs ose (Soaaceec cant [Dace so-cee dele scacaos cede Oe ee HSE et SO Le ereer el og SOO OMA Mia Ie aioe S12 simic\al| sists alsieje. boininie [Seimocteie's seers |saiee soon coe a lamcee ee soem eee eee eee US AtUROO Maem eet MSSO LOL | wmts craic cisciec|Sac os eseec ec leebeeechoccclsouccesaaces) (634-2761 a=eeaaeee ee 1867-1871 17: 3802890) | Sos. 2 2:5 eee bate cs ake eee ae | 1872-1876 12; 631, 388 5640642 |e SB TOT cies hy ae Ce a 1877-1881 15, 610, 634 417, 907 55, 304 | 2..5 eee ee ee 1882-1886 24, 480, 997 577, 728 875:160) | 32 -- --setos | Se neeeeee 1887-1891 33, 226, 520 646, 745 184,050 | 5, 086, 421 37, 251 1892-1896. ....-- 1, 491, 902 | 38, 359, 547 | 39, 671, 553 6615495 | 22-35-2252. 5, 848, 339 42,771 1897-1901.....-- 1,858, 018 | 47, 469,136 | 52,974, 744 9665394) lec Sosa 8, 839, 232 46, 827 1902-1906... ...-- 2,139, 183 | 57,903, 641 | 75, 908, 633 727, 205 772, 340 | 11,613, 967 130, 764 1907-1911 .....-- 2,939, 167 | 80,129, 567 |121, 504, 098 899, 659 866, 565 | 19,046, 030 319, 007 55, 275, 529 | 64,927,176 490, 820 555, 853 | 9, 608, 745 46, 757 50, 413, 481 | 67, 790, 069 665, 603 707,614 | 9,064, 789 67, 416 55, 010, 571 | 69,311, 678 720, 937 724,131 | 11,590, 725 116, 881 59,015,551 | 74,327,584 589, 232 770, 373 | 10,933, 413 144, 796 67, 234, 256 | 87,004, 384 710, 538 758, 725 | 10, 700, 817 167, 504 fh) Se ies 1, 668, 744 |257, 844, 345 | 81,109, 451 949, 717 900, 856 | 15,780,090 157, 224 ik! //e Se eee 3, 138, 070 |276, 963, 838 |106, 747, 589 934, 195 881, 003 | 17, 785, 960 213, 110 Tee i aa 2,814, 299 |262, 233, 160 | 85, 809, 625 791, 288 988, 081 | 13,361, 932 237, 514 Lt Se Spero Babe, 1,990, 499 |288, 359, 895 |114, 598, 768 846,024 | 1,058,363 | 19, 185, 137 274, 217 Fi (ge Ope ua i 3, 026, 648 |2101,044,681 |154, 620,629 | 1,054, 416 762,798 | 29, 402) 182 378, 322 SON ieee coke cite sss 3, 726, 319 | 72,046, 260 |145, 743, 880 872, 374 642, 582 | 15, 494,940 491, 873 Lit) pee ees 2, 154, 646 |110, 210,173 |175, 965, 538 905, 275 514, 657 | 18, 745, 771 477, 508 IGS: ae eee 3, 709, 264 |113, 384, 359 |170, 747,339 | 1, 090, 628 560,297 | 21,912,015 502, 913 foresee ee 3,476, 908 |131, 995, 742 |161, 777, 250 931, 408 895,038 | 16, 719, 756 508, 360 1 Includes “‘ Gutta-percha” only, for 1867. 75922°—-YBK 1914 43 2 Includes ‘‘Guayule gum,”’ crude. ‘ 674 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TaBLeE 188.—Principal farm products imported from specified countries into the United States, 1912-1914. Year ending June 30— Country from which con- signed, and article. 1912 1913 1914 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Brazil: Cocoa (crude). --pounds..} 17,173,568 | $1,800,755 | 14,354,460 | $1,642,714 | 25,870,186 | $2,764,766 Coens ts ktsee a do....| 632,527,267 | 83,869,713 | 639,262,011 | 87,867,451 | 743,113,500 | 76,016, 463 British West Indies: Bananas....-.. bunches..} 15,474,513 | 4,405,234) 11,164,894] 3,488,964 | 15,677,191 4, 849, 037 Cocoarieeissse+ pounds..} 36,447,160 | 4,278,697 | 29,588,055 | 4,040,691 | 44,062, 426 5, 372, 327 Canada: Tea........-. do...-| 2,558, 583 734, 769 3, 024, 508 874, 544 3, 112, 383 864, 814 China: Tea isso. .25 do....| 17,605,670 | 2,260,949 | 23,728,418} 3,247,761 | 20,139,342 2, 755, 512 falambie: Coffee....do..--| 62,912,252 | 6,863,784] 89,684,514 fT 728, 459 | 91,830,513 | 11, 556, 038 uba: Bananas...-... bunches..| 2,478, 581 942, 481 2, 213, 733 834, 206 2, 354, 395 853, 536 Sugar (raw)...-- pounds. .|3, 186, 630, 468 | 91,106,014 |4,311,744,043 | 93,703, 674 |4,926,606,243 | 98, 394, 782 eiguasor: Cocoa.....-do.... "22 976, 780 2,143,005 | 15,229,159 | 1,606,253 | 26,319,735 2 693, 674 rance: CHEESES =o. oseae do....| 3,882, 891 942, 683 3, 982, 513 785, 965 5, 418, 904 1, 032, 817 + sue oil, salad..gallons. . 809,629 | 1,327,520 932,536 | 1,465,635 949, 858 1, 512, 324 taly: Cheese. ...-.---- pounds..| 20,625,202 | 3,948,550 | 21,326,445 | 4,217,674 | 26, 453, 826 5, 024, 270 Macaroni....-.----. do...-| 102,905,968 | 4,481,109 | 102,050,089 | 4,692,468 | 121,924, 372 5, 481, 187 Olive oil (salad). .gallons..| 3, 245,863 | 4,159,273! 3,584,945 | 4,619,156 4,319,567] 5,552,098 dapan: Pease sae pounds..| 53,747,386 | 9,213,402 | 44,381,278 | 7,793,197 | 41,913,273 7,171, 202 Mexico: Coffee.-..... do..--| 34,156,025 | 5,211,629 | 26,121,439 | 4,090,909 | 49,385, 504 8, 028, 186 Netherlands: Cheese: --2 2222-025 do...-| 3,109,104 437, 011 3, 420, 790 439, 079 3, 656, 763 455, 159 Cofise:--.2 s- 3e=2s do..-.| 1,941,746 342, 468 1, 956, 676 350, 093 5, 811, 934 920, 723 Philippine Islands: Sugar, POU GSs oo oe aan ere 435, 570,122 | 11, 243,693 | 203,160,972 | 4,593,199 | 116, 749, 211 2, 553, 601 Portugal: Cocoa..pounds..| 18,954,405 | 2,062,966 | 23,040,617 | 2,962,644] 17,738,638 2, 292, 959 Santo Domingo: Cocoa, MOUNdS 220 eee atae eee 27,786,868 | 2,886,995 | 27,241,763 | 3,068,655] 26,782,966 3, 187, 006 Switzerland: Cheese, : POUNSy So ae a cece wsanes 15, 147,393 | 2,857,631 | 17,371,616 | 3,183,350 | 22,490,006 3, 617, 721 United Kingdom: Coconeee ost pounds..| 8,791,716 | 1,028,004] 11,660,464] 1,538,225 | 12,903,640] 1,633,424 Sa Sk ae ati do....| 12,887,949 | 3,538,200 | 12,238°114| 3,619,098 | 14,077,601 | 3,858,970 Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 675 TaBLE 189.—Principal farm products exported to specified countries from the United States, 1912-1914. Year ending June 30— Country to which consigned, : and article. 1912 1913 1914 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Belgium: Corns eres ees bushels..} 1,406,508 | $1,006,231 | 1,648,089 $967, 838 60, 227 $38, 198 WINGAt Hens) es cue. do....| 4,054,171 | 3,971,061 | 10,601,248 | 10,402,577 | 12,873,372] 12, 479, 315 Baconts+. ts: pou uunds. - 4, 503, 110 556,100 | 9,140,688 | 1,280,658) 5,110,170 743, 371 Hams and shoulders. .do....] 15,017,836 | 1,654,616 | 5,821,638 792,214 | 4,080, 669 563, 140 far deeeee eee ree. do... .| 21) 743,806 | 2) 143) 636 | 18,761,624 | 2,074,640 | 15,915,380 | 1,833,325 sae Wheat flour... barrels... 625,399 | 3,277,981 583, 418 | 3,105, 239 748, 612 = 752, 105 anada: Corn es see toe sets: bushels..| 9,568,574 | 6,568,671 | 8,097,882] 4,766,805 | 4,641,737 3, 328, 785 WV ee See wedones. 537, 240 489, 194 851, 139 829,447 | 4,113, 701 3,821, 159 Wheat flour........ barrels... 99, 760 419, 033 98, 665 450, 104 122, 752 539, 942 Bacon asses a pounds..} 3,342, 270 481,163 | 6,868,480 | 1,007,014 | 11,082, 930 1, 644, 388 Hams and shoulders..do....| 6,281, 607 906,701 | 6,785,477 | 1,046,349]| 4,006,649 672, 855 ih <3 ee eee do....| 7,968, 353 804, 715 | 11,079,696 | 1,251,425 | 15,995, 669 1, 847, 515 Pork, pickled......... do... 11, 156, 806 1,007,026 | 9,436, 506 943, 799 | 12,825, 741 1,373, 501 Pitas Wheat flour. -barrels. - 741,192 | 2,895, 286 127, 814 493, 364 136, 374 540, 154 a: (Chri ae bushels..| 2,117, 724 1,641, 851 2,372, 678 1, 696, 821 2, 410, 156 1, 878, 664 Wheat flour......-. barrels. . 842,168 | 3,953, 385 907,786 | 4,311,027 892, 705 4, 057, 806 IBACOM Sn. oss cos = pounds..| 4,822,680 526,819 | 6,658, 202 804, 616 | 13, 733, 773 1, 634, 755 mans and shoulders. .do-. 5, 084, 977 709,780 | 6,002, 471 936,058 | 5,637,829 940, 720 hand eee ec eke do... Ss | 42) 548, 701 4,154, 046 | 46,526,427 | 5,181,445 | 49,609, 751 5, 582, 074 Pork, pickled......... do.. 9, 988, 925 879,998 | 9,141,098 943, 303 4, 090, 780 447, 374 Denmark: Corn..... bushels. - 1,545,624 | 1,106,451 | 5,389,897 | 3,021,673 118 95 ee Wheat flour _barrels. - 175, 575 869, 463 405,832 | 2,060, 268 429, 354 2,085, 441 rance: Wh Gate erect anak bushels. . 35, 977 38, 455 4, 931, 708 4, 994, 638 5, 536, 731 5, 384, 663 iBACOMS 25.5 s2 2s: pounds..| 9,418,140 978, 451 2, 096, 868 236, 160 197, 353 25, 416 [AGG lee ee ee do....| 24,474,920 | 2,445,882 | 17,428,157 | 1,807,530 | 5,307,986 573, 493 Germany Corts fel e.: bushels..} 6,800,562 | 4,874,657] 6,545,521 | 3,696,182 303, 303 225, 209 Wriheat eee Piss do....} 1,588,666 1, 533, 686 | 12,112, 223 | 11,950,009 | 10,983, 060 10, 604, 692 Wheat flour.......-. barrels. - 130, 328 671, 985 170, 345 860, 305 176, 485 891, 171 Ward ns Je SS tower poy 159, 473, 899 | 15, 651, 572 |160, 862, 204 | 18,079, 275 |146, 208, 598 16, 593, 043 Hard, neutralll- 2.3: do... .| 12,666, 387 1,349,539 | 9,368,924] 1,078,006 6, 309, 792 709, 101 Gitaiall. de he. do....] 18,042,333 | 1,910,286 } 17,480,760 | 2,054,694 | 16,180,268 1, 631, 254 Hongkong: Wheat flour, bar- ' fees CHee ee oars 1,491,073 | 5,840,299} 1,301,306 | 5,126,960 | 1,141,095 4, 501, 672 taly: IWillGa boc et oe. cca bushels. . 533, 009 596,916 | 7,217,479 | 7,419,597 | 1,839,830 1, 789, 400 ands Se SSS pounds..| 3,170,799 313,040 6, 106, 153 657, 097 5, 958, 983 616, 948 Japan: Wheat flour... barrels. . 716,347 | 2,750,405 878, 623 3, 383, 842 793, 269 3, 045, 532 Mexico: (Cn a ae bushels..| 1,168,145 913, 438 543, 340 407,897 467, 424 379, 675 Wiheatwoce ce. sot eee do....| 1,491,156 1, 520, 003 644, 377 665, 780 306, 376 313, 910 MALO eaen ees osecexc pounds..| 8,366,011 833,668 | 8, 468, 353 977,313 | 3,294, 437 392, 580 Netherlands Corns Pes. 528 bushels.-| 5,657,976 | 4,073,523 | 7,192,420| 4,071,068 373, 770 287, 417 iWiheat Saeee se cis do....| 3,386,444 3, 220, 987 | 14,832, 000 | 14,805,115 | 19,949,519 | 19,380,347 Wheat flour.......-. barrels. 675,429 | 3,627,197 859,987 | 4,279, 394 958, 063 4, 669, 565 IB SCOR Spas scicle == pounds..| 7,271,025 856, 363 7, 639, 281 906, 263 1, 718, 481 204, 260 ard) hee Aes aee 2 do....| 38,675,175 | 3,800,502 | 43,383, 774 4,940, 671 | 43, 469, 536 4, 859, 367 Lard, neutral......... do.-..| 40,110,521 4,267,778 | 27,123,927 | 3,090,156 | 13,174, 294 1, 438, 696 Oleo oil ESS ic eee do....| 66,894, 182 7,157,862 | 46,337,137 | 5,392,489 | 47,414, 421 4, 944, 474 Norway: Oleo oil....... do....| 9,004,322 972,880 | 6, 607, 526 754,728 | 7,285,043 764, 333 Philippine Islands: Wheat . forsee oe barrels. . 308,671 | 1,264,275 370,939 | 1,485, 1°5 236, 902 944, 747 poted Kingdom: asta as bushels. .| 10,616,488 | 7,852,770 | 14,982,604 | 8,652,721 540, 515 388, 620 Wheat J sce: do....| 15, 765, 454 | 14,342,814 | 31,548,507 | 29,647, 560 | 27,961,348 | 26,015, 351 Wheat fiour........ barrels..| 2,372,797 | 11,775,864 | 2,428,167 | 11 989 155 | 2 809 800] 13 805,674 IBaconk ess o5 sec pounds. .|147, 448, 565 | 17,864, 399 |138, 133, 416 | 17,758, 929 |132,819,680 | 18,103,518 Hams and shoulders. .do- - - .|169, 675, 214 | 20,575, 529 |134,016, 686 | 17,773, 973 |146, 007, 141 20, 558, 228 Rear) esos ae eee ae -|186, 125, 234 | 17,974, 221 |168, 379, 790 | 18, 796, 802 |164, 632,676 | 18,412, 791 Oleoolls- fe eS do....| 9,959,942 | 1,059,555 | 8,008,915 964,101 | 9,243, 952 1, 010, 834 Pork, pickled........- do....| 13,500,861 | 1,433,023 | 14,619,714 | 1,688,301 | 5,571,720 624, 462 676 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TABLE 190.—Shipments of principal domestic farm and forest products from the United States to Hawati and Porto Rico, 1912-1914. _ [These shipments are not included in the domestic exports from or imports into the United States.] Year ending June 30— Possession and article. 1912 1913 1914 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. HAWAIL. Dairy products ...... pounds..| 3,422,743 $458,228 | 3,937, 495 $578,337 | 4,275, 534 $562, 516 Meatproductsiss) a -oeee see ne tn | a= nena ee CASHES | peers mae TAGS O 74 ee ee eee 528, 960 Grain and grain products. .....|.......----- 7 PALI emer eee Boos 2,282, 034 oe oo sence ee 2,221,197 124 Ose Lame pounds. . 348, 450 15,229 | 4,033, 865 189,986 | 5,031,515 216, 252 WuMPCrsss.cseeccrs cee sane ee sel cceos ete ee iL. 239, OOS Macro kere ere TS 502,107 Noes eee 876, 544 PORTO RICO. Dairy products...... pounds..| 4,013,509 435, 465 | 2,833, 463 288,465 | 2,210,881 207,817 Mua isprogUcis = eee eer aan enaa las ee BOS tS Toles eeecee ae 3,21 2470 eae 3, 678, 741 Beans and dried peas. bushels. . 179, 131 543, 577 199, 823 534, 965 163, 843 469, 661 Grain and grain products......]}...-...--..- 2 OoStoOe leet ete 2), 0807020 |e acca eemeee 2,248, 045 PICO owe remitia tare nee pounds. .|/134,648,403 | 4,894, 747 |128, 748,080 | 5,069,527 |139, 836, 581 5, 306, 364 Pagar ets Pee do....| 18, 412, 818 754, 204 | 18, 443, 894 636,012 | 16, 855, 067 727, 966 Topaccos 225 Pee se eee do. fat". 083, 712 422,207 | 2,337,501 373,975 | 1,627,405 327, 790 Dumber sie se eae ees seen eee Saas O8bul ene sosee ee es 11945154.) 22 el eee 969, 124 TABLE 191.—Shipments of principal domestic farm products from Hawati and Porto Rico to the United States. HAWAII Gaitenx?) 5. sha eee pounds..| 2,131,920 336,343 | 2,149,875 352,965 | 4, 430, 722 657, 853 Pineapples, canned............|-..---.----- Pye o See 3.566; 204¢|;.. 05 eee 4,536,919 Sneart ets ee oe pounds. .|1,205,465,510 | 49,961,509 |1,085,362,344| 36, 607,820 |1,114,750,702| 33,187,920 PORTO RICO. Grapefruit............. 2) =118;919 524, 976 216, 216 726, 687 206, 200 751, 769 Oranges... pes-ALece- do....| 277,399 | _ 584,368 353, 633 740, 010 348, 870 752, 088 Pincapples.¢ 2 = soskostese sel a eee 685 S01"): steer 1, 142, 007: |: 5-505 ee 1, 245, 215 Molasses and sirup... gallons. .| 10,937,670 700,981 | 11,150,572 607, 747 | 15, 577, 832 927, 227 Sugar... =) ce me. pounds. .|734, 289,872 | 31,544,063 |765, 420,310 | 26,619,158 |641, 252,527 | 20,239,831 (Robacco; leaf2ee cee os do....| 4,680,781 | 2,228,125 | 6,952,467 | 3,006,854 | 6,308, 227 2,961, 614 Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 677 TABLE 192.—Destination of principal farm products exported from the United States, 1907-1914. Quantity. Per cent of total. Article, and coun- Year ending June 30— try to which con- signed. ‘a Aver- verage age, 1907-1911. 1912 1913 1914 1907 1912 1913 1914 1911. ANIMAL MATTER. Cattle: Number. Number. Number. Number. | Perct.| Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct. @aniida so: Sack eee 9, 535 6, 705 11,691 8, 957 3.8 6.4 47.3 48.7 United Kingdom... 215, 342 76, 925 LLANES | tga ee 84.8 72.9 ye al iseide ase Other countries. ..- 28, 990 21,876 11, 250 9,419 11.4 20. 7 45.5 ails} Motale.. eee 253, 867 105, 506 24,714 18, 376 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 100.0 Horses: Canada S524 21,044 31,910 26, 560 17,700 81.8 91.6 92.5 CUA United Kingdom... 806 517 430 609 ail! 1.5 1.5 24 Other countries. ... 3,861 2,401 ura Wy 4, 467 15s1 6.9 6.0 19.6 Totsle- ees. 25,711 34,828 28, 707 22,776 | 100.0} 100.0 | 100.0 100-0 Butter: : | Central American States and Brit- | Pownds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. ish Honduras. ... 663, 038 565, 320 775, 246 810,254 | 10.0 9.3} 21.6 21.9 West Indies and | Bermuda.........| 1,344,969 } 1,488,538 | 1,392,508 | 1,158,111] 20.4] 24.4] 388 31.4 Other countries....| 4,593, 482 4, 038, 377 1, 417, 846 1,725,232 | 69.6 66. 3 39.6 46.7 Total..........-| 6,601,489 | 6,092,235 | 3,585,600 | 3,693,597 | 100.0 100.0 | 100. 0 100.0 Meat products: Beef products— Beef, canned— United King- Goma saseees= 9,485,003 | 5,743,114 | 3,117,149] 1,157,104 59.5 52.1 45.6 33.4 Other countries.| 6,457,177 | 5,283,317 | 3,723,199] 2,307,629| 40.5] 47.9] 54.4 66.6 Rotalsa=c...- 15, 942,180 | 11,026, 431 6,840, 348 3, 464, 733 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 100.0 Beef, fresh— Panama.......-| 3,762,984 | 5,400,785 | 5,935,198 | 5,534,391 2.6 35. 4 80. 6 United King- ‘ Gomes sede 139,214,903 | 8,872,378 P265855) (Poet ees! 96. 1 58.1 107 Other countries.| 1,821,848 991, 157 1,300,305 860, 013 is} 6.5 AAs Total.........|144, 799, 735 | 15,264,320 7,362,388 6,394, 404 100. 0 100.0 100.0 Beef, pickled, and other cured— a Canada......... 2,215,941 | 1,752,093 712,086 | 1,331,150] - 4.8 4.6 2.8 Germany......-. 5,548,342 | 4,616,317 | 3,080,823 | 1,757,786 12.0 tot 11.9 Newfoundland andLabrador.| 5,116,545 | 5,077,404 | 3,807,237 | 4,935, 657 11.1 13.3 14.7 West Indies andBermuda.| 5,717,576 | 5,493,842 | 4,274,549 | 3,900,281 12.4 14.4 16.5 United King- dons. 230 13,376,801 | 8,747,355 | 5,929,949 | 4,113,347 29.0 23.0 22.9 Other countries.| 14,211,970 | 12,400,896 | 8,052,275 | 7,227,753 | 30.7] - 32.6] 31.2 Motaly sss er 46, 187,175 | 38,087,907 | 25,856,919 | 23,265,974 | 100.0] 100.0 | 100.0 Oleo oil— : Germany..-... 18,042,333 | 17, 480, 760 | 16, 180, 268 14.3 18.8 Netherlands.... 66, 894, 182 | 46,337,137 | 47,414,421 52.9 49.9 Norwayrce-ascs (1) 9,004,322 | 6,607,526 | 7,285,043 () {ol ipl United King- dome. 9,959,942 | 8,008,915 | 9,243,952 7.9 8.6 Other countries. 22,566,345 | 14,415,419 | 16,893, 381 17.8] 15.6 otal stss<2- @) 126, 467,124 | 92,849, 757 | 97,017, 065 () 100.0 | 100.0 1 Stated as ‘‘ Oleo oil and neutral lard” prior to 1911. 678 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TasLe 192.—Destination of principal farm products exported from the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. Quantity. Per cent of total. Article, and coun- ~ Year ending June 30— try to which con- signed. eae Average age 1907-1911. 1912 1913 1914 1907- | 1912 1913 1914 1911. ANIMAL MATTER— continued. Meat products—Con. Lard compounds— | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Perct.| Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct. Cabs Siete = 24,746,507 | 17,214, 452 | 17,525,703 | 14,673, 201 32.7 275 26.0 25, 2 Mexicol. co's: 8 6,695,549 | 6,768,838 | 4,127,593 | 3,119,285 8.8 10.8 6.1 5.4 United Kingdom.|} 21, 660,294 | 17,853, 640 | 21,115,679 | 19, 929,949 28.6 28. 6 31.3 34.2 Other countries. .| 22, 662,904 | 20,685,958 | 24,687,857 | 20,581,129 29.9 33. 1 36.6 35.2 POUR aise ce 75, 765, 254 | 62,522,888 | 67,456,832 | 58,303,564 | 100.0} 100.0} 100.0 100. 0 Pork products— Bacon— Belgium......- 7,149,191 | 4,503,110 | 9,140,688 | 5,110,170 3.4 2.2 4.5 2.6 Canada.......--] 1,811,913 | 3,342,270 | 6,868,480 | 11,082,930 9 1.6 3.4 5.7 (Girt cys eps See 6,045,118 | 4,822,680 | 6,658,202 | 13,733,773 2.9 2as 3.3 7. HYANce..2-25--= 1,214,689 | 9,418,140 | 2,096, 868 197,353 .6 4.5 1.0 ai) Netherlands....| 3,460,962 | 7,271,025 | 7,639,281 | 1,718,481 ure 3.5 3.8 9 United King- dom.........-|171, 689, 186 |147, 448, 565 |138, 133, 416 |132,819,680] 82.1] 70.7] 68.7 68.5 Other countries | 17,634,085 | 31,768,418 | 30,456, 649 | 29,301,865 8.4 15.2 15.3 15.1 (Potale s= teas 209, 005, 144 |208, 574, 208 |200, 993, 584 |193,964,252 | 100.0} 100.0} 100.0 100.0 Hams and shoul- ders, cured— Belgium.-...-- 9,214,198 | 15,017,836 | 5,821,638 | 4,080, 669 4.9 7.4 3.6 2.5 Canada 2.: () 1,152,866 | 1,017,545 | 1,491,539 \ () { 96.3 95.7 95.7 Other countries. - 44, 497 45, 688 67, 382 Bb ii 4.3 4.3 Motaleereeee acne @) 1,197,363 | 1,063,233 | 1,558,921 Q@) 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 Prunes— Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. Canadas. 2 oes, 8,954, 969 | 13,503,157 | 10,956,827 | 12,757, 585 19.0 18.2 9.3 18.3 rances so pees 4,075,770 | 6,158,115 | 11,962,280 | 13,514, 086 8.7 8.3 10.1 19.4 Germany.......-.-| 14,313,020 | 31,416,210 | 49,084,901 | 17,417, 865 30.4 42.3 41.6 24.9 United Kingdom.| 7,095,577 | 6,586,572 | 8,492,618 | 11,175, 968 155d! 8.9 a 16.0 Other countries. | 12,599,951 | 16,664,020 | 37,454,249 | 14,948, 207 26.8 22.3 31.8 21.4 Motab--ene oases 47,039, 287 | 74,328,074 |117, 950,875 | 69,813,711 | 100.0] 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 Fruits, canned— Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. United Kingdom} 1,608,168 | 2,690,834 | 3,892,646 | 3,182,051 70.7 67.1 69.5 65. 4 Other countries - - 666,374 | 1,321,629 | 1,706,727 | 1,681,895 29.3 32.9 30.5 34.6 Total.....--....| 2,274,542 | 4,012,463 | 5,599,373 | 4,863,946 | 100.0 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Glucose and grape sugar: Pounds. Pounds. United Kingdom. ..|121, 565,094 |137, 249, 475 Other countries....| 23,499,689 | 33, 906, 784 Mabnltee eas ee 145, 064, 783/171, 156, 259 Pounds. Pounds. 155, 597,018 |162, 715, 262 83.8 80.2 let 81.5 44,552,228 | 36,815, 612 16. 2 19.8 22.3 18.5 200, 149, 246 {199,530,874 | 100.0 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 ——————— a ————— 1 Quantity not stated prior to 1908. 680 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TaBLe 192.—Destination of principal farm products exported from the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. Quantity. | Per cent of total. Article, and coun- ieee ae try to which con- signed. a Vi - Average age 1907-191 1. 1913 1914 1907 1912 1913 1914 1911. | VEGETABLE MATTER— continued. | Grain and grain prod- ucts: Corn— Bushels. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Pelee see “2, 458, 048 1, 648, 089 60, 227 4.5 3.5 3.4 6 Canadar. 222 8, 485, 800 8,097,882 | 4,641, 737 15.6 23.9 16.5 49.5 cig | $s a poor | "Mus) 43) $5] ate]. Mt enmark.... is : 0 |SRS3 ee Germany ee 8, 123, 698 6, 345, 521 303, 303] 149] 17.0] 13.3 3. 2 Gxirthsse c Mies , 604, 700 43, 7, 424 4. 8- 2.9 141 : Netherlands...... 7, 413, 615 7,192, 420 373, 770 13.6 14.1 14.7 4.0 United Kingdom | 18,182,777 | 10,616, 488 | 14, 982, 604 540,515 | 33.4] 26.5] 30.5 5.8 Other countries. .| 1,598,228 | 1,157,194] 2,292 536 583, 605 2.9 2.9 4.7 6.2 | Bushels. Bushels. | Per ct. Total...........| 54,432,750 | 40,038,795 | 49,064,967 | 9,380,855 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 100.0 ‘W heat— Belgium........- 8,108,770 | 4,054,171 | 10,601,248 | 12,873,372] 12.9] 13.4] 11.6 13.9 Canada-2o.c5-- 22)" 17090" 734 537, 240 851,139 | 4,113, 701 1S, 8 .9 4.5 Hrant@ ose senor 2,877, 308 35,977 | 4,931,708 | 5,536,731 4.6 =1 5.4 6.0 Germany ......-- 7,252,785 | 1,586,666 | 12,112,223 | 10,983,060] 11.5 5739 ease 11.9 Mtaliyenss 5-2 FSi 4, 421, 662 533,009 | 7,217,479 | 1,839,830 7.0 1.8 7.9 2.0 MGXICOn. = See 1,406,354 | 1,491,156 644, 377 306, 376 Pasa 4.9 AT ne Netherlands......} 5,150,584 | 3,388,444 | 14,832,000 | 19, 949, 519 S97) Te 2 eee 21.6 United Kingdom | 25,621, 411 | 15,765, 454 | 31,548,507 | 27,961,348] 40.8| 52.3| 34.4 30.3 Other countries..| 6,924,972 | 2,768,095 | 8,864,293 | 8,829,838 HET 9.2 9.7 9.5 Total...........| 62,854,580 | 30,160,212 | 91,602,974 | 92,393,775 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Wheat flour— Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Brava se: ees - 358, 419 625,399 583, 418 748, 612 3.0 5.7 5.1 6.3 Canada <2 (eye 55, 606 99, 760 98, 665 122, 752 5 9 9 1.0 China ee 537, 681 741, 192 127, 814 136, 374 4.5 6.7 ek 1.2 Cubaete sent 788, 471 842,168 907, 786 892, 705 6.7 Tan 8.0 7.6 Hinlangds 36 2 () 175, 575 405, 832 ADG SHAD eee se 1.6 3.6 3.6 Germany......... 411, 067 130, 328 170, 345 176, 485 3.5 TH) 1.5 1.5 Tait ee ae 160, 629 324, 736 288, 495 208, 266 1.4 3.0 2.5 1.8 Hongkong........ 925,259 | 1,491,073 | 1,301,306 | 1,141,095 7.8 13.5 11.4 9.7 Sapa eee eee 540, 400 716, 347 878, 623 793, 269 4.6 6.5 Vey E 6.7 Netherlands. ..... 881, 519 675, 429 859, 987 958, 063 7.4 6.1 (ae) 8.1 Philip pine Is- Lands: =e as 134, 964 308, 671 370, 939 236, 902 et 2.8 333 2.0 United Kingdom | 4,219,607 | 2,372,797 | 2,428,167] 2,809,800| 35.6| 21.6] 21.3 23.8 Other countries..| 2,827,077 | 2,503,012 | 2,973,428 | 3,167,784 23.9 22.7 26.1 26.7 Totals eee 11, 840, 699 | 11,006, 487 | 11,394,805 | 11,821,461 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 Hops: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Canadas. ao 644,630 | 1,325,506 | 1,035,729 | 1,214,028 4.4] 10.9 5.9 5.0 United Kingdom...| 13,568,675 | 10,463,164 | 15,409,093 | 22,219,620] 91.8] 85.8| 987.6 91.6 Other countries... 560, 880 401,993 | 1,146,373 829, 248 3.8 3:0 6.5 3.4 Motalestocess 14,774,185 | 12,190,663 | 17,591,195 | 24,262,896 | 100.0} 100.0 | 100.0 100. 0 Oil cake and oil-cake meal: Cottonseed— Beletim=<.. S22. 33,205,110 | 42,981,422 | 38,953,330 | 19,685, 564 3.4 3.3 3.5 Denmark. ...... .|379, 947,294 |413, 512,583 |429, 490,872 |347,584,172 | 38.4] 32.0] 38.1 Germany........ 328, 823, 897 |451, 358, 869 |364, 266,905 |240, 348,664] 33.2] 34.9] 323 Netherlands....-.| 65,072,035 | 77,676,167 | 62,479,858 | 22,310, 420 6.6 6.0 5.5 United Kingdom. |125, 012,812 |247, 440, 239 |163, 960,512 |131,292,496 | 12.6] 19.1} 14.5 Other countries . .| 57,676,982 | 60,720,858 | 68,940,890 | 38, 752, 936 5.8 4.7 6.1 Notal®e.. ese 989,738, id a 1,128,092,367|799, 974, 252 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 1 Included in ‘“‘ Russia, European” prior to 1911. Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 681 TABLE 192.—Destination of principal farm products exported from the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. . Article, and coun- try to which con- signed. Average, 1907-1911. VEGETABLE MATTER— continued. Oil cake and oil-cake meal—Contd. Linseed or flax- seed— Pounds. Belgaum. .....2.. 282, 506, 100 Rrances:-¢ hes 20, 702, 312 Netherlands... .__|275, 652, 388 United Kingdom.| 53, 233,752 Other countries. .| 19,270,976 Le) ee Se 651, 365, 528 Oils, vegetable: Cottonseed— Argentina. ....... 3, 685, 461 Austria-Hungary | 2,847,992 IS CUITI ee eae 4, 636, 388 Cananda sae-) =... 11, 459, 332 rancestess He... 38, 265, 291 Germany... _.... 21, 063, 275 bi e aee 28,541, 565 MexICOne 2 tee 28, 418, 278 Netherlands... ..| 68, 635, 926 Nonways. .ste 4, 819, 158 Turkey,European| 7,086,030 United Kingdom.) 30, 434, £91 Other countries. .| 40,980, 038 Totale.c.e lees 290, 876, 625 Tobacco, leaf, stems, and trimmings: Belin. 2. =) 10, 942, 524 British Africa... ... 5, 292,728 British Oceania... .} 11,568, 041 Oanadate hee. 13,515, 314 Chins ese 4,213, 112 Wrances 2) Sake 2. 32, 342,718 Germany.......... 39, 616, 052 Lei ee Soe es 37, 737, 365 ET AY: Oeresesrten eee 1, 904, 701 Netherlands....... 21, 896, 221 Spainisesen ck! 13, 972, 444 United Kingdom...|120, 946, 489 Other countries ....| 20,448, 214 Rota ey ..e2 334, 395, 923 FOREST PRODUCTS. Naval stores: Rosin— Argentina. ......- Peas ane Russia, European United Kingdom. Other countries. . Barrels. 93, 787 94,420 102, 263 149,111 70,653 732,067 100,670 227,429 78,172 509, 843 197,145 2,355, 560 Quantity. Per cent of total. Year ending June 30— Aver- 1912 1913 1914 1907 1912 1914 7 1911. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Per ct. | Per ct Per ct. 239, 849, 696 |330, 952, 259 |332,697,680] 43.4] 40.2 50.2 40, 747,747 | 49,700,150 | 20, 671,619 3.2 6.9 3.1 265, 879, 242 |391, 513, 427 266, 792, 954 42.3 44.6 40. 2 36, 358, 331 | 53,796,998 | 29, 084, 892 8.2 6.1 4.4 13, 279,520 | 12,156,820 | 13,621,494 2.9 2.2 ti 596, 114, 536 |838, 119,654 |662, 868,639 | 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 8, 893, 927 | 14,708,379 | 14,989, 927 1.3 2.2 4.7 7.8 9,222,768 | 8,475,683 | 4,211,198 1.0 23 M7 2.2 9,834,185 | 1,970,255 | 3,452) 299 1.6 2.5 6 5 22,659,718 | 25,227,397 | 25, 493,039 3.9 5.7 $.0 13.2 25,596, 365 | 17,924,33; | 8,268,808] 13.2 6.4 5.7 4.3 24,798,799 | 13,440, 312 7, 682, 622 t2 6. 2- 4.3 4.0 36, 670,719 | 39,516, 645 14, 015, 326 9.8 549 12.5 (E3 28, 961, 136 | 23,743,576 | 6,219, 064 9.8 TD 7.5 Shy) 97,590,174 | 75,349,314 | 26,994,772 | 23.6| 24.4] 923.9 14.0 8, 028, 128 8, 986, 253 6, 985, 490 B17 4 2.0 2.9 3.6 11,931,876 | 12,556,417 | 4,947,904 2.4 3.0 4.0 2.6 71,420, 689 | 31,845,444 | 31,071,865] 10.5] 17.9] 10.1 16.1 43, 862,489 | 41,488, 880 | 38, 630,745 14.0 11.0 aes! 19.9 399, 470, 973 |315, 232, 892 |192, 963, 079 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 10, 072, 410 | 10, 235,594 | 11,677,604 3.3 Dai 2.4 2.6 6,357,617 | 8,377,246 | 6,600, 312 1.6 13% 2.0 1.5 10,870,147 | 17,516,283 | 13,186, 680 3.5 2.9 4.2 2.9 15,095, $25 | 16,309,480 | 17,658,562 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 6, 635, 350 6,641,628 | 11,445, 697 ha Tel 1.6 DAS 47,186,921 | 49,131,788 | 54,915,178 O87 | aaa he onierz 12.2 41,964,300 | 30,054,681 | 32,057,051] 11.8] 11.0 2 ri 39, 403,429 | 44,779,059 | 45,190,995 iiss 10. 4 10.7 10.0 2,947,452 | 5,266,034 | 3,696,273 .6 ag 1.3 8 27,277,631 | 26,688,355 | 28, 233,746 6.5 1d 6.4 6.3 28, 674,906 | 23,081,022 | 16,822,696 4.2 WEE L536) Sova 120, 936, 936 |150, 110,570 |174,779,326 | 36.2| 31.8] 35.8 38.9 22, 422, 296 | 30,605,166 | 33, 455, 862 6.0 5.9 tee Tab, 379, 845,320 |418, 796,906 |449, 749, 982 100.0 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. 122, 333 131, 286 102,028 4.0 4.9 4.7 4.2 103,959 84,070 66, 257 4.0 4.2 3.0 Py S 163, 345 141,013 111, 735 4.3 6.6 5.0 4.6 176,964 180, 701 99, 632 6.3 7.2 6.4 4.1 93, 464 86, 702 77,064 3.0 3.8 ey 3.2 681, 476 809, 745 796, 757 Bea | Zino) 28.9 33.0 102, 685 116,019 109, 380 4.3 4.1 4.1 4.5 194, 552 228, 360 247, 339 9.7 7.9 Bil 10.2 98,103 143, 336 144, 653 3.3 4.0 ail 6.0 503, 516 632, 515 504,400] 21.6 | 20.3] 22.5 20.9 234, 063 252,299 158, 705 8.4 9.5 9° 6.6 2,474,460 | 2,806,046 2,417,950 | 100.0] 100.0 100.0 100.0 682 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TABLE 192.—Distribution of principal farm products exported from the United States; 1907-1914—Continued. Quantity. Per cent of total. Article, and coun- Year ending Jnne 30— try to which con- signed. Aver- Average age 1907-1911. 1912 1913 1914 1907- 1912 1913 1914 1911. FOREST PRODUCTS— continued. Naval stores—Contd. Turpentine, spirits of— Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. | Per ct.| Perct.| Perct. | Per ct. Belgium. ........ 2,091,343 | 1,428,710] 1,872,893 | 1,027,355 12.6 7.3 8.9 5.4 British Oceania. - 536, 758 859, 605 686, 989 499, 248 She) 4.4 3.3 Paste Canadas ...-02020 964,218 920,612 | 1,039,768 | 1,114,863 5.8 4.7 4.9 5.9 Germanys... 22 2,834,502 | 2,812,160 | 3,849,191 | 3,275,929 17.0 14.4 18.3 17.3 Netherlands...... 2,197,241 | 3,379,518] 4,242,340] 4,393,902] 13.2| 17.2] 20.2 23.2 United Kingdom.| 6,363,766 | 7,865,713 | 7,432,271 | 7,109,851 38. 2 40.1 35.3 37.6 Other countries..| 1,671,127} 2,332,923 | 1,916,145] 1,479,556 10.0 11.9 9.1 7.9 Total..........-| 16,658,955 | 19,599,241 | 21,039,597 | 18,900,704 | 100.0 00.0 | 100.0 100.0 Wood: Lumber— Boards, deals, planks, joists, and_ scant- ling— M. feet. M. feet. M. feet. M. feet. Argentina...... 237,814 325,525 248, 363 208,177 | 14.2 9.6 8.6 Belgium. ...... 57,254 64,970 78, 662 62,772 3.4 3.1 2.6 Brazile, ....-£. 3. 35, 734 59, 866 69, 823 38, 125 Qt 2g 1.6 British Oceania 126, 720 218,431 260,473 293,009 7.6 10.1 12.1 Canada 2-2 - 207 698 553 090 545,257 434,399 12.4 21.2 18.0 Central Ameri- can States and British 52,151 52,483 56,509 81,251 3.1 252, 2.2 3.4 65,015 33, 668 88, 749 107,115 3.9 1.4 3.4 4.4 115,945 122,846 137,982 122, 938 6.9 5.2 5.4 5.1 26, 847 24,604 30, 202 39, 563 1.6 ual 152 1.6 68, 466 74, 068 83, 752 69, 852 4.1 3.2 3.3 2.9 36, 235 35, 397 44,319 53, 623 202 ee way 2.2 103,411 106, 574 121,657 69,111 6.2 4.6 4.7 2.9 Netherlands: ...- 79,049 102,012 125,201 120,661 4.7 4.4 4.9 5.0 Philippine Is- lands-222-5-5- 16,139 24,222 15, 747 22,485 1.0 1.0 6 9 United King- dom Sat? 201,608 226, 537 333, 390 332,457 | 12.0 9.7} 12.9 13.8 Other countries 247, 103 316,616 336,147 361,901! 14.6] 13.5! 13.0 14.9 Total........-| 1,677,189 | 2,340,909 | 2,576,233 | 2,417,439 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Timber, hewn and sawed— Canadas... Yesee- 422,036 53, 462 39, 705 37,846 | 10. 12.2 7.8 8.6 irancesgss... 2. anuee 212, 883 20, 132 39,950 32,047 5. 4.6 7.8 7.3 Germany... 312, 255 25,211 32,023 17, 506 8. 5.8 6.3 4.0 aly sts Se 139, 156 51, 260 44,726 65, 314 3. 11.7 8.7 14.8 Netherlands... - 666, 403 64, 327 60, 692 57, 776 17. 14.7 11.9 13.1 United Kingdom.| 1,372,855 156,317 213,016 186,906 | 35. 35.7| 41.6 42.4 Other countries. - 760, 434 67, 312 81, 525 43,771 19.6 1553 15.9 9.8 Totals. = es 3, 886,022 438,021 511,637 441,166 | 100.0 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 683 TaBLE 193.—Origin of principal farm products imported into the United States, 1907-1914. Quantity. Per cent of total. Adtaia, gd) Gaye Year ending June 30. , try from which SCIlOnnNNy War w igned. consigne ee: Average age, 1907-1911. 1912 1913 1914 1907 1912 1913 1914 1911. ANIMAL MATTER. Cattle: Number. Number. Number. Number. | Perct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. Mexico: 25 saseee 6 117, 424 315, 227 391, 477 625, 253 91.3 99.0 92.8 72.0 Other countries. .-. 11,137 3, 145 30,172 243, 115 8.7 1.0 1.2 28.0 aL LY 27 |e ee 128, 561 318, 372 421, 649 868, 368 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Horses | Canadas. 22.2se2: 2,934 1, 828 2, 063 4, 435 36.8 2iek 20.6 13.4 Mrancéesesset sss oe oe 1,761 1,692 1,925 al Pail 25.6 19.2 Sao) Other countries... . 3, 278 3, 087 6, 020 27,413 41.1 46.7 60. 2 83.1 TRopaleys. eee: 7,973 6, 607 10, 008 33,019 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Dairy products: Cheese, including substitutes— Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. MTrATCOSs + as s2oSs< 3,138,174 | 3,882,891 | 3,982,513 | 5,418,904 8.3 8.3 8.1 Bea (1 he ee 15, 636, 641 | 20,625, 202 | 21,326, 445 | 26, 453, 826 41.5 44.3 43.2 41.5 Switzerland. ...-.- 12, 995, 639 | 15,147,393 | 17,371, 616 | 22, 490, 006 34.5 32.5 aoe 35.3 Other countries. .| 5,892,358 | 6,886,521 | 6,707,370 | 9,421,577| 15.7| 14.9] 13.5 14.7 Topless. ecco 37, 662,812 | 46,542,007 | 49,387,944 | 63,784,313 | 100.0 | 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Fibers, animal: Silk, raw— Chintalees.sceace -| 3,931,790 | 4,776,506 | 5,510,607 | 5,926,745 20.0 22.1 2a 20.7 Ttaly:- 26 s24-0--~ 3,566,997 } 2,058,456 | 2,811,606 | 1,997,428 18.2 9.5 10.8 7.0 Japariees =o ....-] 11,502, 167 | 14,493,131 | 17,425,353 | 20,196,212 | 58.6| 67.1| 66.9 70.6 Other countries. - 643, 711 281, 427 301, 906 474, 287 32 u1RS; lei i Potalss5-- 555 19, 644,665 | 21,609,520 | 26,049,472 | 28,594,672} 100.0} 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Wool, class 1— Argentma....-s2- 21, 276,032 | 21,450,715 | 22,603, 402 | 30,959, 660 25a 30.1 33.6 24.8 Australia, Com- monwealth of. .| 24, 106,334 | 12,971,908 | 5,619,342 | 23,757,714 28.5 18.2 8.4 19.0 Belgium. ........ 1,790, 991 62, 478 266,930 | 4,581,419 ORT = -2-5 30, 634, 891 | 32,060,405 | 35,926,815 | 29,884,054 31.6 30.1 32. 29. Russia (Asiatic and European).| 17,289,187 | 20, 757,933 | 25,645,077 | 22,627,514 17.8 19.5 73; 22. Turkey (Asiatic) .| 7,739,662 | 7,780,616 | 7,394,257} 5,350,091 8.0 deo 6. Gi United Kingdom.| 22, 248,649 | 23,122,561 | 20,900, 746 | 22, 105, 267 22.9 21:7 18. 21. Other countries. .| 11,596,478 | 14,048,476 | 15,001,192 | 13, 795, 731 12.0 13.0 13.4 13. Potala. des 5: 96, 945, 426 |106, 639, 720 |111, 168,094 |102,003,313 | 100.0 | 100.0] 100.0} 100 684 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TaBLE 193.—Origin of principal farm products imported into the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. Quantity. | Per cent of total. Article, and coun- Year ending June 30. try ‘from which consigned. Aver- eee 1912 1913 1914 isp. | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 1911. ANIMAL MATTER— continued. Packing-house prod- ucts: Hides and skins, other than furs— Calf skins— Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct Belgium......- |( 4,222,034 | 4,724,643 | 5,157,640 4.0 5.0 6.3 Canada. F226 6,192,704} 5,930,010] 5,734, 207 5.9 6.3 7.0 WEAMGES=.- oes 5,134,402 | 4,991,299] 5,800, 673 4.9 5.3 7.0 Germany....... Q) 21,886,652 | 16,916, 203 | 16,560,316 Q) 20.8 17.9 20.1 Netherlands.... 8,582,182 | 8,142,510 | 12,006, 926 8.2 8.6 14.6 Russia (Euro- pean) )i-k2ee2 31,035, 801 | 30,247,647 | 19,747, 462 29.5 32.0 24.0 Other countries 28,198, 714 | 23,606,823 | 17,396,366 26.7 24.9 21.0 Motels =e () 105, 252,489 | 94,559,135 | 82,403,590] (2) 100.0} 100.0} 100.0 Cattle hides— Argentina. ..... 45,447,872 | 83,662,262 | 67,041,938 | 79,787,332 25.4 33. 3 25. 0 28.5 Belgium.._.... 6,668,560 | 9,073,305 | 7,106,337] 7,313,906 any 3.6 7 2.6 Brazile 2ss8e550- 1,330, 961 714,256 | 1,743,956 | 3,259,873 ey 3 xd 1D Canadat-- 2 tse 27,374, 445 | 29,769, 745 | 41,608,176 | 46,588, 543 15.3 11.9 15.'5- 16.6 Colombia.......| 4,684,133 | 6,303,727 | 5,461,505} 5,098,244 2.6 2.5 2.0 1.8 Cubal-252e5—° 4,508,675 | 4,366,121 | 2,840,141 | 5,528,502 2.5 1S 74 1.1 2.0 East Indies....| 8,116,461 | 3,175,040 | 6,929,176] 4,474, 768 4.5 1.3 2.6 1.6 rances: cane 13,059, 418 | 15,573, 978 | 20,102,370 19, 036, 552 133; 6.2 io 6.8 Germany.....-.| 5,411,370 | 7,246,577 | 9,787,312] 4, 939, 795 3.0 2.9 Seal 1.8 Thalys 2,784,857 | 4,853,634 | 2,411,973 | 1,967,552 1.6 1.9 9 a Mexicorss. so: 19,935, 692 | 28,103,124 | 29,500,427 | 33,194,289 iS 1.2 11.0 11.9 Netherlands....| 3,576,193 | 6,580,433 | 7,270,864 | 4,099,899 2.0 2.6 Qui ita Russia (Euro- PeaN)us-oseee 1,407,135 | 9,044,482 | 22,906,231 | 9,043, 103 8 3.6 8.5 Bow United King- dome it 6,940,237 | 9,262,242 | 8,588,600 | 11,204, 957 3.9 Ba Be 4.0 Uruguay......- 11,619,939 | 10,933,642 | 7,244,806 | 13, 403, 443 6.5 4.4 oe 4.8 Venezuela... ._- 4,657,262 | 5,555,809 | 4,470,501 | 5,149,398 2.6 AD Tei 138 Other countries | 11,158,327 | 16,794,136 | 23,028,077 | 25,823, 332 6.4 6.7 8.5 9.2 Total eee 178,681, 537 |251,012, 513 |268, 042,390 |279,963,488 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0} 100.0 Goatskins— (=) a ap oe Atdent ste eaeee 4,016,159 | 3,338,868 | 3,129,594 | 3,595,909 4.3 3. 5 hia! 4.2 IAI CA aes ate ole 4,692,173 | 2,834,130] 2, 625, 746 | 2,817,948 5.0 3. 0 257, a3 Argentina...... 3,396,239 | 5,323,163] 4,276,365] 3,470,013 3.6 BiG 4. 4 4,1 : Brazil a eee 3,607,515 | 3,600,012 | 3,357,781| 4,191,124 3.8 3.8 3.5 4.9 : Chinge sc wees 10,395,656 | 7,107,859] 9,827,646 | 7,304,761 | 11.0 7.15 | cg Oe 8.6 | East Indies... .| 38,285,240 | 41,069,568 | 41,594,938 | 35,831,857] 40.6] 43.1] 43.2 42.3 j France: 2Ssce22 4,053,395 | 2,489,532 | 2,406,371} 2,171,224 4.3 2.6 2.5 2.6 Mexicosenostess 7,046,718 | 5,241,903 | 4,815,304] 4,010,150 7.5 | 5.5 5.0 4.7 Russia) Euro- 4 pean) -see 4,819,488 | 7,299,991 | 7,183,542} 5,131,075 Teil TAY ve) 6.1 ; United King- 7 Contes oes 3,990,869 | 5,954,074 | 5,436,922] 5,281, 468 4.2 6.2 5.6 6. 2 Other countries | 10,026,388 | 11,081, 603 | 11,596,096 | 10, 953,899 10. 6 11.5 rip Ash k 13. 0 | Totale 94,329,840 | 95,340, 703 | 96, 250, 305 | 84,759,428 | 100.0] 100.0 00. 0 100. 0 Sheepskins— Mian ae: Ee ae MEL SEGAG ([foao* Argentina...... 5, 566,064 | 6,848,065 | 3,874,944 9.2 9.5 5.5 Braz leo od eee 1, 134, 635 993, 321 1, 582, 333 1.9 1.4 2.3 British Oceania 5,655,170 | 8,179,576 | 9,848, 498 9.4 11.4 14.1 , Canada........ 1, 478,584 | 1,860,948 | 3,678,117 2.4 2.6 5.2 Mranees. ss. 7 2,158,832 | 2,999,829 | 2,221,769 1 3.6 4.2 3.2 ; Russia (Euro- (*) @) ; Peas. 202s: 7,148,565 | 8,484,377 | 9,158, 287 148 11.8 13.1 § United King- dons saa 25, 992, 351 | 28,885,579 | 26, 384, 892 43.0 40. 2 37.7 Other countries 11, 266,108 | 13, 533,024 | 13,327,985 18.7 18.9 18.9 Bd Motaleessesse () 60, 400, 309 | 71,784,719 | 70,076,825 | () 100.0} 100.0! 100.0 1 Not stated. Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products. 685 TABLE 193.—Origin of principal farm products imported into the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. Quantity. | Per cent of total. Article, and coun- Year ending June 30. try from which consigned. Revels sie 1907-1911. 1912 1913 1914 1907 1912 1913 1914 1911. VEGETABLE MATTER Cocoa, crude: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. iBrawileseyso- sea ea 15, 859, 013 | 17,173, 568 | 14,354,460 | 25,870,186] 14.4] 11.8 14.7 British West Indies | 31, 046, 466 | 36,447,160 | 29, 588,055 | 44, 062, 426 28.1 25.0 25.0 Heusadors222 se 12, 734, 268 | 22,976,780 | 15,229,159 | 26,319,735 | 11.5] 15.7 14.9 Partugalse: 223 Se 14, 623, 642 | 18,954,405 | 23,040,617 | 17,738,638] 13.3] 13.0 10.1 Santo Domingo. .-.} 15,977,093 | 27, 786, 868 | 27,241,763 | 26, 782, 966 14.5 19.0 15.2 United Kingdom...| 3,701,708 | 8,791,716 | 11, 660, 464 | 12,903, 640 3.4 6.0 7.3 Other countries....| 16,390, 254 | 13,838, 448 | 18,924, 654 | 22, 590,055 14.8 9.5 12.8 Potala; <4 ese 110, 332, 444 |145, 968,945 |140, 039, 172 |176, 267, 646 100. 0 100.0 100.0 Coffee: | es Gass EAS pu S- a chsae 729, 057,927 |632, 527, 267 |639, 262,011 |743, 113, 500 78.0 75 74.2 Central American States and Brit- ish Honduras. ...| 45,546,944 | 39,264,532 | 32,172,524 | 40, 202, 480 4.9 4.4 357) 4.0 Colombian he. 51, 939, 867 | 62,912, 252 | 89,684,514 | 91, 830, 513 5.6 Wi 21094 9.2 Hast Indies........ 10,000, 852 | 12,907,807 | 7,559,765 7,413,605 Teil 1.5 9 Ari MEXICO seas ate 25, 036, 322 | 34,156,025 | 26,121, 439 | 49,385, 504 D7 3.9 3.0 4.9 Netherlands.......-. 1, 582, 121 1,941, 746 1,956, 676 5,811, 934 -2 «2 -2 6 Venezuela.......... 49,735,569 | 47,109,521 | 49,671,060 | 49,953, 478 5.3 5.3 5.8 5.0 West Indies and Bermuda... <=. 5, 508, 683 8, 061, 867 4,110,032 4,532,479 -6 9 oo AG Other countries. ...} 16, 125, 037 46, 320; 230 | 12,592,736 | 9, 284, 824 JEG 5.2 1.4 9 Totalins sscceee 934, 533,322 |885, 201, 247 |863, 130, 757 |1,001,528,317/ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Fibers, vegetable Cotton— Mey ptsee--seeee 70, 046, 332 | 85,103,780 | 94,333,483 | 63, 668, 055 75.8 Tie 51.6 Pers: 2 d-thee 4,727,682 | 4,848,201] 4,871,835 | 6,455,946 5.1 4.4 5.2 United Kingdom.| 8, 201, 692 | 10,356, 921 8, 354, 253 2,557,041 8.9 9.4 2.1 Other countries..| 9,462,027 | 9,471,169 | 14,292, 445 | 50, 665, 857 10. 2 8.7 41.1 Mn tal saceee ae 92, 437, 733 |109, 780,071 |121, 852,016 |123,346, 899 | 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Flax— Long tons. | Longtons. | Long tons. | Long tons. Belpapmes=— ees 2, 454 2, 434 1,919 1 266M ee 2552), 1223 12.8 Russia, European 2, 682 2,535 4, 450 2,735 27.6 23.3 Oar United Kingdom. 3, 083 4,251 4, 464 5,076 | 31.7) 39.0 51.4 Other countries. - 1, 502 1, 680 1, 588 808 | 15.5| 15.4 8.1 Ob 6 nase. =e 9, 721 10, 900 12, 421 9,885 | 100.0| 100.0 100.0 Jute and jute butts— British East In- CHES MSs Sex: 95,993 99, 100 120,511 100, 755 95.6 98.1 95.0 Other countries. . 4,427 1,901 4,878 5,278 4.4 1.9 5.0 Pome soe es 100, 420 101,001 125,389 106, 033 100.0 100.0 100.0 Manila fiber— ioe al Ts Philippine _Is- . lands2 90 ey 3S: 2 66, 930 66, 923 69, 629 49, 285 99.5 97.6 99.2 Other countries. - 359 1,613 4,194 403 -9 2.4 .8 Motalsscoo 2 67, 289 68, 536 73,823 49,688 | 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 Sisal grass— (eaeerae Stes a Shapia a SES MexiGos- 52 ees 98, 231 103, 683 136, 559 195, 086 95.9 90.6 90.5 Other countries. - 4,209 10, 784 17,310 20, 461 4.1 9.4 9.5 Totale {56-052 102, 440 114, 467 153, 869 215,547 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 Fruits hMacraarca = as Bananas— Bunches. | Bunches. | Bunches. | Bunches. British West In- ies: ae es 11,519,859 | 15,474,513 | 11,164,894 | 15,677,191 36.7 34.8 32.2 Central American States and Brit- ish Honduras...} 15,651,494 | 23,631,604 | 25,108,590 | 25,360, 760 49.9 53.1 52.1 Cupane: es 1,955,774 | 2,478,581 | 2,213,733 | 2,354,395 6.2 5.6 4.8 South America...| 1,699,959 | 1,804,536 | 2,869,247 | 2,271,866 5.4 4.1 4.7 Other countries. - 539,485 | 1,131,305 | 1,000,645 | 3,019,380 1.8 2.4 6.2 Total...........| 31,366,571 | 44,520,539 | 42,357,109 | 48,683,592 | 100.0| 100.0 100.0 686 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. TABLE 193.—Origin of principal farm products imported into the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. Article, and coun- try from which consigned. VEGETABLE MAT- TER—contd. Nuts: Walnuts— Austria-Hungary France Italy Turkey (Asiatic) - Other countries. - Oil, vegetable: Olive, salad— HTANCO: sees sass Italy Other countries. - Soya bean oil— Japan United Kingdom. Other countries. - Opium: Turkey (Asiatic and European)... United Kingdom... Other countries. - .- Seeds: Flaxseed orlin- seed— Argentina Belgium United Kingdom Other countries. . Tifa ase cee oe Grass seed— Clover— Canada.2iss5.32 Other countries Potale=.2 22 Sugar, raw, cane: Cabal sess one Dutch East Indies.. Philippine Islands . Sante Domingo.... South America..... Other countries... .. Totals. &: Japan United Kingdom... Other countries... Totaltecodc2): Quantity. | Per cent of total. Year ending June 30. Aver- Average age 1907-1911. 1912 1913 1914 1907 1912 1913 1914 1911. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. 749, 415 771, 003 4,409 514, 455 2.4 2 0. ft. 22,486, 462 | 24,145,579 | 20,379, 294 | 19,020,143 72.6 64.9 76.4 51.1 4,689,720 | 5,143,873 | 3,315,483 | 6,275,717 15.1 13.8 12.4 16.9 927, 009 718,915 424,418 |} 1,712,209 3.0 1.9 1.6 4.6 2,128,055 | 6,434,304 | 2,538,837 | 9,673,204 6.9 17.3 9.6 26.0 30, 980,661 | 37,213,674 | 26,662,441 | 37,195,728 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. 800, 454 809, 629 932, 536 949, 858 20.5 16.7 17.9 iba 2,546,390 | 3,245,863 | 3,584,945 | 4,319,567 65.3 67.1 68.7 69.5 550,380 781, 023 703,520 948,135 14.2 16.2 13.4 15.2 3,897,224 | 4,836,515 | 5,221,001 | 6,217,560 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 13,357,373 | 7,979,144 | 6,427,307 47.7 39.3 Q) 9,874,210 | 2,523,321 | 1,453,932 | (2) 35.2 8.9 4,789,699 | 1,837,720 | 8,481,213 ‘17e1 51.8 (@) 28,021,282 | 12,340,185 | 16,362, 452 @) 100.0 100.0 296, 294 274, 712 420, 406 378,815 60.5 68.7 83.2 155, 564 82, 782 61, 782 39,372 31.8 20.7 8.6 37,655 42,343 26, 245 37,013 ink 19.6 8.2 489,513 399, 837 508, 433 455, 200 100.0 100.0 100.0 Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 1,661,252 | 1,210, 628 ADU IRA meas Nene 51s1 | 7.7) SS eee 75, 745 357, 480 157 3 2.3 5. 2 0 513,485 | 1,525, 310 128, 981 50 15.8 22.3 0 831,538 | 3,510,883 | 4,732,316 | 8,647,168] 25.6] 51.3 99.9 166, 176 183, 119 2, 453 6, 010 5.1 Zaks ol! 437 54, 386 1,135 4 Al .8 .0 3, 248, 633 6, 841, 806 5, 294, 296 8, 653, 235 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 3,729,956 | 3,551,792] 2,887,143] 5,741,516 19.5 9.2 19.1 4, 474,698 | 8,882,820} 6,857,096 | 15,402,710! 23.4] 23.0 51.2 6, 185, 059 | 12,951, 378 5, 655, 558 4, 200, 141 3200 33.6 14.0 2,180,874} 5,823,223 2, 816, 795 44, 000 11.4 oat Ba! 2,573,937 | 7,341,924] 3,007,965} 4,719, 282 13. 4 19.1 15.6 19, 144, 524 | 38,551,137 | 21,224,557 | 30,107,649 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 3,052,989, 489|3,186,630,468) 4,311,744,043/4,926,606,243) 79.5 77.9 97.3 499, 629, 635 |340, 396, 410 | 12,759,756 |.........--. 13.0 8.3 )|\_, 233|\= 110, 688, 396 |435, 570, 122 |203, 160, 972’ |116, 749, 211 2.9 10.6 2.3 52, 401,679 | 17,681,938 | 2,670,630 | 4,316, 282 1.4 4 Mil 72, 104, 562 | 75,977,074 | 20,047,828 | 9,386, 732 1.9 1.9 59; 54, 785, 691 | 35,873,706 | 3,666,643 | 4,506, 153 1.3 9 Bal 3,842,599 ,452/4,092,129,718| 4,554,049,872|5,061,564,621| 100.0] 100.0 100.0 2,913, 222 | 2,558,583 | 3,024,508 | 3,112,383 3.0 2.5 Bey 3.4 28, 787, 073 | 17,605,670 | 23,728, 418 | 20, 139, 342 29.8 17.4 25.0 22.1 7, 865, 313 | 13,760,787 | 10,411,288 | 10, 551,735 Sot = 13%6i le oe 11.6 45, 490, 455 | 53,747,386 | 44,381,278 | 41,913, 273 47.0 53.0 46.8 46.0 10, 283,991 | 12,887,949 | 12,238,114] 14,077,601} 10.6] 12.7] 12.9 15.4 1, 402, 923 846,441 | 1,029,194} 1,336,481 15 .8 1.1 Lo 96, 742,977 |101, 406, 816 100.0} 100.0} 100.0 100.0 94,812, 800 | 91,130, 815 1 Not stated. Statistics of Farm Animals and Their Products. 687 TABLE 193.—Origin of principal farm products imported into the United States, 1907-1914—Continued. Quantity. Per cent of total. Article, and coun- Year ending June 30. try from which consigned. Aver- aoe 1912 1913 1914 pee, | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 1911. VEGETABLE MAT- TER—contd. Tobacco, leaf: Wrapper— Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. Netherlands... ... 6, 088, 884} 6,290,499 | 6, #93,042] 5,846,504] 95.8] 97.2] 96.8 96.0 Other countries. . 265, 704 179, 513 205, 740 246, 283 4.2 2.8 3.2 4.0 Total........-..| 6,354,588 | 6,470,012 | 6,398,782 | 6,092,787] 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Other leaf— Cubase sec. 2 cee 22,701, 893 | 22,744,032 | 27,553, 759 | 26,617, 545 65.1 seal 49.3 Germany: -2-2-- 2: 2; 452° 793 518,078 | 1,659,390 456, 445 7.0 Aa f -8 Turkey (Asiatic) ..| 3,897,065 | 11,238, 546 | 18,955,295 | 15,616,543] 11.2 0 28.9 Turkey(European)| 4, 388, 454 | 10,371,907 | 10,816,048 | 8, 502, 742 12.6 Sill 157 Other countries. . - f 428, 958 1, 669,204 | 2,071,471 2, 821, 450 4.1 5 5.3 Total..........-] 34,869,163 | 46,536,767 | 61,055,963 | 54,014,725 100.0 0 100.0 FOREST PRODUCTS. India rubber, crude: Belgium... -.--2:-- 3,799,181 | 6,101,346 | 5,917,440 | 10,978, 753 4.7 2 8.3 iBtazileece sos as Se 37,491, 456 | 46, 762,744 | 43,518,861 | 40,641,305 46.8 4 30.8 Central American States and Brit- ish Honduras....| 1,163,094 1, 390, 555 989, 772 565, 487 5 1.3 9 4 East Indies. ..-...-. 2? 329) 197 | 6,338,130 | 12,255,500 | 16, 597, 105 2.9 5.8 10.8 12.6 PaTICO ss meee, cae 2,490,616 | 4,139,109 | 2,968,232 | 2,629, 287 3.1 3.8 2.6 2.0 Germany. ..:---:-.: 4,944,586 | 8,820,516 | 7,790,742 7,079, 260 6.2 8.0 6.9 5.4 IMGxICOn Sst ace - 1 Hls 249, O19 | 2,226, 541 2,033, 791 640, 448 14.0 2.0 1.8 3 IROKuuoale. - =. oe 2 167, 201 1, 449, 7: 873, 249 556, 560 oil URE) 8 -4 United Kingdom... 12) 208, 216 | 29,728,994 | 34, 164, 908 | 48,279, 674 ibe 27.0 30.1 36.6 Other countries....| 2,287,001 | 3,252,448 | 2,871,864] 4,027,863 2.9 2.9 2.5 3.0 otal scene sess 80, 129, 567 |110, 210, 173 |113, 384, 359 |131, 995,742 | 100.0} 100.0} 100.0 100.0 Wood: Cabinet woods, mahogany— M feet. M feet. M feet. M feet. British Africa. --- 3, 786- 3, 254 7, 655 12, 888 8.5 7.5 aE 18.3 Central American States and Brit- ish Honduras - 11, 046 12, 732 13, 526 23, 356 24.9 29.5 20. 4 33.1 IMe@xiC0l. 85. --= 25> 12, 157 10, 596 10, 866 10, 381 27.4 24.5 16.4 14.7 United Kingdom. 11, 409 10, 428 20, 866 18, 289 25.7 24.1 31.5 26.0 Other countries - - 5, 971 6, 184 13, 405 5, 556 13.5 14.4 20. 2 7.9 Motaleren seo. - 44, 369 43, 194 66, 318 70,470 | 100.0] 100.0} 100.0 100.0 Boards, anignine: deals, and other sawed lumber— Canada......---. 887, 738 870,323 | 1,021,810 892, 833 98.7 96. 2 93. 7 96. 1 Other countries. . 11, 921 34, 829 68,818 36, 040 123 3.8 6.3 3.9 Motalesvenesctice 899, 659 905,152 | 1,090, 628 928,873 | 100.0] 100.0] 100.0 100.0 Wood pulp: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Canada cess cncces- 395, 648, 286 |468, 870, 801 |463, 877,981 |524, 251, 441 55. 4 43.8 41,2 46.0 Germany..........-|106, 095, 641 |147,030, 609 |151, 481,033 |149, 171,214 14.8 13.7 13. 4 13.1 WOrwayase-eeen ase 91, 024, 418 |166, 097, 531 |189, 951, 459 |181, 255, 024 12.7 15.5 16.9 15.9 Swedent@.o-255. 232 86, 433, 711 |238, 613, 758 |283, 916,347 |265, 457, 874 bea 22nd 25:2 PRY Other countries. ...| 35,373,805 | 49,005,759 | 37,298,387 | 18,591, 642 5.0 4.7 3.3 07; Totalie = aes 714, 575, 861 |1,069,618,458/1,126,525,207/1,138,727,195| 100.0 | 100.0} 100.0 100.0 a) ee “> . aide te het, GAs args RS - I 4 = ers en , + i ~ ’ » ' & A ‘ = *, ASL Nye fC ree 1 =odi5 be 1 of) : , aM. a ; aa 7 y * Pte 1. | ’ 3 Pt anh fe) aN) vy = ah! Gere Ree Le dS Ais ia _ END hx. Page. Abattoirs, public, Australia and New Zealand, management, requirements, etc. 433-436 “‘Absentee landlordism,’’ danger to rural communities..................------ 124 Agricultural— eotleses:-lsriaud remarkans 2252. 225-200) Soe SON a eh gok pee: 505-507 colonies, farm residents, description. =... <2. 2...2.-...-..2ss2-ocsene 260-261 development, national forests, retardation by land and timberspeculators. 70-71 distribution problems, marketing, standards, roads, etc. ...........------ 24-51 entry, withholding by Government of timber lands in national forests..... 71-72 experiment siations, laters os. 2 Ai AS eee 2. S122 2801 pS eee 507 extension act, scope and results, discussion...................-.-2-------- 50-51 extension work, cooperative, State officers in charge of................- 508-509 improvement, desires of farm women: .././ 2.50.2.) eee 311-318 land, heavily timbered, disadvantage of private ownership.............-- 71-72 Agricultural population— foamed: States total» MO15™ <> beeen ses. tO Bets os 008 ed ht eae as oe 257 PoALIMERCCNLANG. het 255225245543 stents ae eee MW Paik es eae 257-258 Agricultural production— ziaiional: present and: future problem. 2 2. 2225 J 22 ol) stk 2 ee 274 HolL-ciinierone ya stadiedss tL ON DEA SO OR RIO Dew) Ao poe 274 Agricultural products— SHDOL Gs Ane AMAapOM A= sare atten care OMNI, “El So, Sa ee 651-687 shipments to and from Hawaii and Porto Rico..............-.........--- 676 Agricultural statistics, rural population, farm areas, etc.................--- 641-649 Agriculture— aid from use of thermometer, article by Alfred H. Thiessen...........-- 157-166 ald etven by department experts: = 52. . 2 Seen ae so oe ee ere 13-15 Americans failure; to Organizes Causes: ClCe.4--555 522 oe oa eee 91, 93 high schools, needs of rural communities, scope, etc. ...............--- 316-318 loss from desertions of farms by farmers’ sons.....................22.2--- 272 Agriculture Department— pouliry and esr demonsiration Gar-.\.< -2 22.22. ..2....s.282 - eee 363-380 Mork reorvami zations sce SUC 8) 227, Ir SE ot 59-63 Agriculture, Secretary— mecommMendatlONs: ssa sees |e ee ee eee eee 19, 30, 44, 45, 58, 54, 57, 58 Teport for) 9145 2 7a seen or ER ie ok NIE eta 217 eer nr eae 9-64 Aereulture; State officials charge of:-2-.- 55. esa hs Ue. 508 Air temperature; .determination, discussion-....-..-.-<--.- + +ssso 2 ee 161-163 Alabama— ; losed: season for shore birds, laws:...< 22 S222 6.0: ei a ee ee 292, 293 live stock needvolamc»nrease Ol Tarims +. hae See CE ye ree ee ee 18 Alcoholic liquors, imports and exports, 1912-1914.._.... .............. 2.2. 656, 663 Alfalia, pasture; eatthefattenmme: Argentinas! 2. 5.22 9 2 ie Sea ee eee 385 Americus, Shorthorn grand champion, breeding and value... -............. 389-390 Animal diseases, eradication, need in relation to meatsupply............- 15, 19-23 Animal Industry Bureau, changes in work, proposed....-......-..-....-.---- 63 Animals— and ‘animal products, yalues;.1879—1994 . 52... WU he... ee: 644 dead=use and: value tor fertilizer: etesessss. 2s... ee ee 300-301 farm; and their proeducts, statisties: -:242-2 62.2 el. 2: ee NOE 612-639, 651, 659 TAMA CHD VAS LATCHES oaks cme emmewie eee AT ES ah ot eer 642 IniesAliony Dy DeMALNded NOL.J2-saee eee le os A 468-469 predatory. relation to- sheep raising 229 20s Pea ee eee 321, 336 slapehicreoven tarnid, value, 1899 and 1909". 222-225-2225 ccs eee es 11 Siahisncs. inipetis, and exports. 22.2 52.20). Pa el. 651, 659, 667, 677, 683 See also Live stock. 75922°—ypeK 1914——44 689 690 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Page. Apple sirup, new product in utilizing surplus and cull apples, article by H. ©. 6 GOLCos sas Bon Ss ee dee Dace te ee ee ee 227-244 Apples— surplus and cull, utilization in manufacture of sirup and concentrated cider, article by 2: C. Gore: s. 22 soso see ee as tn ee 227-244 yield of cider Per ton. . 2). 55-2 Lose eee See ee ee oe be ee ee 242-243 Argentina— area and Jive stock. 222e5 00202 Pe. cee ene eee ee 381-382 beef production, methods. 2.20222. 2.22252. e =e ee e eeee 384-385 beef trade, srowth since 1884: . Sr esttcertee. - See 382-384 cattle breeding 5 ce Somes acces wins ke eee eet hae ec ae 385-386 meat production, relation to United States industry, article by A. D. Melvin and Geo. M. Rommebericicc (cits aeeeg bh 1S. peep tne tee ee 381-390 Argols; imports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914. 5.20.00. -cccs.ni soe we nee ae 653, 669 Arizona, closed: season for shore: birds, laws.....-... ~-2 aces ee~ Soe Sete eee 292, 293 Arkansas— egg-car demonstration work and itinerary.....-.-.--.------------- 365, 378, 379 highway department, establishment {20 32- -s2i 2 caw erst deere eee 215 ATWATER, HELEN W., article on “‘Selection of household equipment”’...... 339-362 Auditing, cooperative marketing, necessity and usefulness.......-.....--.-- 197-198 Australasia, suggestions to American sheep raisers, article by F. R. Marshall... 319-338 Australia— and New Zealand, meat production, article by E. C. Joss.....-..-.--.. 421-438 cattle diseases, logseBneley: ote72ws dooce ctreine hjac- dae e oe ee 436-437 drought, effect on cattle and sheep industry... 2. -<----9q9- =f ae 424 early settlers, relation to live-stock industry......-..-.----------------- 422-423 food animals, domestic, 19011912. - 202. 25) 5 Oe. nos oe ee 423 live-stock districts...) .cc. soe ole ek cee Late on en eee ee 421 meat exports, trade, distribution, etc., 1901-1913.......---.-.--------- 431-433 meat-inspection laws and regulations, requirements onsigSfapae cere. ee 429-430 railroads, mileage, etc., relation to marketing liversiock... <<<. 2ccee see 426-427 sheep and wool industry, IMpPOrtanee: +... 22.2222 4 eee ee 422-423 veterinary education... ...2... see) -3594- fees theses? pot dee eee 437-438 water supply, note... .....02¢-e0% 2efeek -cgdteli esac fami. ape 424 Automobile— relation to,road. bawldanel. 1 besth 2 ede bciies oatmeal eee oo ee 213 reventes:, Use 1oMroad maintenancCes ss. =.-- ea aee ae ae 224 Avocet— extinction danger, protection; ete:, NObOz---e-w.5 Leas Sactiewee - oh aaa 284 withdrawal from list of game birds, Ot: gen? aot zacn eRe ose aes 291-294 ‘“‘Back to the land ”— discussion of movement, article by Geo. K. Holmes........-..--------- 257-274 movement, economic need, discussion -—-----.. cere ene ene eee 273-274 Bacteria, relation of reproducii tion to temperature, Note. - 7-3. aes 164 Bakeries, cooperative, possibility for rural organizations, note....-.-------- 135-136 Baking, Kubanka flour, duibculties, ete. 2.22. te-edenes peste tse eee 408-409 ‘See also Cooking. Bank loans— cooperative, experience in Northwest......-.-----------+--+-+-------== 205, 206 security from cooperative societies... - mea= er ae een taken = eee 204-206 use in cooperative marketing... ..--2--+-- 222-2 25-b eee een een 22 =e noe 202-203 Bankers, estimate.of crops.as security, notesitc s<22- -a5saaeee® ohare eee 201 Banks— Federal :reserve, establishment,.etestista> ace tees - poe eee eee eee 37, 38 land-mortgage, estimated loans, use of funds, etc........-.--.----------- 40, 42 Barley— exports and imports, 1911- 1913... .. sa eee 292, 293 TA PHANAC CM CN, TOMAR Same mais ate Ec! Senin eens fags phe I eae 214, 221 Peads. protection to shorebirds, Note: -. 5... ..<-----t hes > eae ee 294 Canadian Agriculturist, statement regarding Fife wheat..........--.--..-...- 393 Wands ears, Girections, Cfebe poets pit} ba canteens op ee 365-367, 370, 371 Candy— Mpkine; ald. Of, CNeTMOMCLER ooo an. oie win sin se we on tween > os eee eee ABE TROL apple sap, .TCCINC. 2 ee ene vos aos Se ee oe ae ee ee 233 Car, demonstration, egg and poultry, work in reducing waste, article.....-. 363-380 CARLETON, Mark ALFRED, article on ‘‘ Hard wheats winning their way”’.... 391-420 Carver, T. N., article on ‘‘The organization of a rural community” ......--- 89-138 Cattle— eects UM CRs (fas 2 aoe SOS es So Se SESS aos 2 oS eee 381, 382 Aqistraliatmum perl 901 1G1 2. sas 2 ese ee St oe ins Sent 5 beeen 423 breeding, American, opportunity to supply Argentina...........-....- 388-390 breeding, Argentina, methods, and sources of stock.......--.-. 385-386, 388-390 dgtry benetis of forest: eravine oo: 2025. oe aie oe eae 2 OE On diseases, Australia andNew, Zealand... 2-\2oc2.- + oe cine not einen aed oe cia 436-437 CREDORISs TO OA oes ree arate ges Pryor op si Speen ol a gee io 620 fathenmip, alfalia pastures, Argentina .2.5....2.-+- 5. e ste det ole See ene 385 692 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Cattle—Continued. Page. mmports, 1892-1914: =. 25 5252 Ve Ae ee eee ee ee 620 industry, Australia, effect of drought. c20 5s eee: -- 25s - 5c e ee eee 424 New Zealand; number, 1901-=1910U0 22s: 22s tie eee 423 number; decline since ;1899. .= 2-2-8 es ee) 2, numberin, varlous: countries tables a=. 22 02 ae ee eee 422 prices, values,ete 28.2 oe eee ee ae ee 620-623 prices; ‘wholesale,-1900=1914== =. +=ss22Ssh ese ee ee eee 623 Statistics numbers; «value: priCes) Ctcy. see. ce ee Se ee eee 620-623 worm nodules, prevalence im Australia’: 22.7... /2 22 52 Seas Se eee 436 Cereals— acreage, production, and value, 1899 and 1909:_-..-. 02.222.) 2.222282 11 crops, 1914) estimates set = 22 2m sin oot 2 apne ere a rr 12 “Checks” eges, descruption.2 s.s2- cs eos eet eee oe ee eee 367 Cheese— SOG ee ee ee ee ee 629, 659 BITTON Bs ony osa acd mace te eaanteye eS Ev ee aepege Shee hee eS 629, 651 production, 1899 and. 1909-* 5 55.5 o sete ene | cee ee eee ee ee 11 Chicago, hard spring wheat, grading and prices, 1858-1885.................- 394-395 Chicken yard, danger to water supply, note:?..:- 2... 402. {2h 2S ee 141 Chickens— prices, 1913, 1914)*by States! 2222 >-—. OS ae A 630 See also Poultry. Chilling eggs, importance and necessity.........-..-.--- _ Le EEE cae 365, 371, 374 Cholera, hog, losses caused by, control work............-....---+--.....- 15, 19, 20 Christian, George H., introducer of spring-wheat flour, note............-...--- 394 Churning, aid:of thermometers: .2:55.-:::22 2). 22 os oe eee 164 Cider— concentrated, keeping quality, experiments, 1913-1914......... 238, 239, 240-242 concentrated, new product for utilizing surplus and cull apples, article by TT CMG OLE ab ae ok sae ese ee ete Me te ee REE Oe 227-244 concentration cost, discussion, items, etc......-.....-......----:--- 239, 242-244 fresh, availability for soda fountains: <> 2724 eles Tee ae 228, 229, 242, 244 shipping advantages of concentration by freezing...............-.----- 241-242 sterilization experiments. 2-220 /2.522th 22225: 20S ae eee eee 228 sweet, concentration by freezing*::2:52/2.2225..3t BUS ee eee 238-242 yield by apples per: ton: - 2.024.222 Ree ee eee 242-243 Cider mill, steam, manufacture of apple sirup... .. 25 22-2-- 2-25-2252 233-237 Cider-freezing plants, recommendation only to ice-makers, etc.........-..-.-- 239 Cistern— above ground, conditions requiring: - - 22222. 222252.e% 255222 5's eee eee 147 switch and by-pass for keeping water clean... -...-. 222.222. 5.22.20 222222 146 Cisterns, construction and care for clean water supply..........-..--------- 145-147 Citrus— hybrids, hardy types, production by Plant Industry experts........-..--- 13 frees, damage by, nematodes. —22..24esencecboreneg- gece 20 eee ee 468, 470 Clay soil, wells.im,notess. <2 Al52 032522 SESS eee ee ee 142 Clean water. See Water, clean. Climate, Australian, advantage to sheep raisers...........-....---.------.-- 322, 336 Closed season, shore birds and woodcock, laws...:.....------------+-+------- 292-294 Clover seed; prices, [900-19 14) <0 testes! 22 eS Ee Wa eee one 572 Clubs,, boys’ .and girls’, work in crop ‘production. -)2 222222222. cee 99 Coss, N. A., article on ‘‘ Nematodes and their relationships’’.............-- 457-490 Coffee— CXPOntas tac 48 aes tak a ee Bs see ee ene a ee S032 TBE. Sa, 606 DAD DOTUS os stare eS SA PS Io eS) 606 AMIberMAwWoOnal ira Onsen eee eee AW LA DA CEL ee 606 TICS Ate) Men ceneee: BSS Be RON Ded Ty OS ee ae ee 607 Cold storage, eggs, demonstration!) .2 57-52 ee Oe ane eit 365, 374 Colleves, agricultural; list and'remarks:24 22226 230c aeme eae ee ee 505-507 Colorado— farmers’ association, request for timber-cutting restriction on North Platte watershed, note: 05! 3222 no 2 ao ee Nene ech: eee a 578 amports, 2911-191 Bo > acme 14 ecatrots 4 le bordelaise, recipes 7...baseasssee aoe == at Hone eee ete =, SOL Experiment— SimLiGus sav Meu br urHwISb ee oo nt nan Bes cine neces cso ce wetn ss = meee 507 Stations Office, reorganization proposed ...........2..----+--+---+-+-+------- 61-62 Exports— agricultural products, 1912-1914, and 1852-1914 ..............-------- 659-665, 666-668, 671, 675, 677-682 anleye toll tO 3. = Sopepeee bee aio ae ale chie «eset demensee suet See 547 696 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Exports—Continued. Page. CORN, 19TH Be ot bs Sa Sn ee rete eae 518, 531 forest products, 1912-1914, and 1852-1914. 7. -- see 661-662, 671-672 oats, 1917-1918. 220022 23. ee BR er 00S eh 5-39 Extension— agricultural, act, scope, and results, discussion...................-..--.-- 50-51 work, cooperative agricultural, State officers in charge of............--- 508-509 Farm— accounting, work of farm finance committee............-..-..----+------ 112-121 aid of thermometer in home and field....2..0 5.9.2 2-02 Su R 163-166 beautification; work of- committee 22002 1255.0 522228 32 133-135 credit, work of farm finance committee.....0. 2222 U2. SY AE 112-121 development, location in national forest, as aid to farm owner..........-- 69 drainage— economiy’ol; article: by. Rr D: Marsden. ....--- 555. 2as20 Sas 245-256 necessity for previous planning! 20/28. S0iLu2 2. FO gh Pete es 253-255 profits; discussion, cases cited; etc...-202 ei Pleas ee 250-253 See also Drainage. economics, study; importance!). 2) 217.252.0.220. . J 22 eee 23-24 finance and accounting committee, duties, etc ...........-....---..--- 112-121 home, household conveniences, work of committee............-------- 135-138 house— water supply, hydropneumatic system...............-------.-22=55 150-151 water supply, methods of obtaining ............--..---.-----2--+- 147-156 insurance, work of farm finance committee..............-.-..------.--- 112-121 labor, cheap, influence of community organization..............--...--.-- 95-96 lands— area. valtieMetes ect: 2 oeesee ss. Ses iL A aS, Bee 641-643 draining effect/and valuiet loss: 2 AP Sees Se 2 246-248 losnsePTeVIsIONss 5.254 -5es esa. se sdae Sees setecees eee 3-15 and the national forests, article by Henry S. Graves.........-.----------- 65-88 Index. 697 Farmers—Continued. Page. afienctiv.eness Of COUNLEy lle: SLUGIOS- soe te ence eee o.oo ae 124-127 benefits— of camping and timber cutting in national forests...............------ 83-84 of control of timber resources in national forests ...............--.---- 77-79 of flood control im" national fovests2=55 2220 ae 2 8. es 75-78 Ol erazine in Dallonal Toresine: 225-2 sce eee ose Se ot ee eee 79-82 Obmraional forests etn! 0 sphere ces ciade sea sals 7 uniee ce oe eae oes 83-84 camping in national forests, recreation, work, etc........-.-....--------- 83-84 cooperation in lumbering and marketing forest Produeise +. - =o" eee 448, 450 cooperative associations, Pptudiens Yi.) vee ees ea He 26-27 fire protection for national forests, cooperative work //_.22- >_< 24eee: eae 74 independence, relation to cooperative Marketing. .2- 22. °°. £7 3l2 sso tee national forest water for domestic use, benefits, etc....................-.- 74-75 obligations in cooperative marketing.....-. Ee Aes eos organization for self-help, necessity, value, methods, etc...........----- 89-138 Pea tor PUI mIBtceL aa. sexes e eee see Bee ne ee ee a eee eee 171 relation to timber conservation in national forests...............-.-------- 66-67 removal LOEWE BLUE eee ee set eos LORE, 3 POD ETO 124-127 ‘““summer, ” dissatisfaction of yearly residents; note: 2:24.22) 2959-4 268 unorganized market ficiltines, discussion....-..-........:...22 7.2800 aae 94 Farming, diversified, necessity in South. = Set SehS ioe ya 19 Farm-land banks, work of finance committee............-+-.----..-- SUL: 112-121 Farms— abandoned, use as summer homes; notes:-.... 5252.22.05. 2) 12. 267-268 beef production, PossibMitles! 22a Aone son ss oo. 22S) FN ORS 17-19 investment and speculation, inducement to farm residents. ........-.-.- 262-263 - irrigation water supply by national forests, total value.................-. 74 mortgages, loans insvarious States: 2222255222 P22. 6 0S Se eS 40, 41 movement from city and town, article by Geo. K. Holmes............-- 257-274 national forests, classification, description, area, agricultural value, etc.... 67-72 national forests, protection fronmeHoodsesc.3 217 bel G gece 72 UES 75-76 nonresident owners, food supplies, etc., studies.................. tie 263 Feeding— cattle, on alfalfa pastures’ of Argentina © 2.22225: . P29. 2720 eae 385 snail, @MirecHOnEe <2: besa Yes osa see sk inna: -. 928 LDOOU mismo agerl olbty 497 Fertilizer, preparation from municipal waste, article by J. W. Turrentine.... 295-310 eninlizerscominercial, inoredientse sss" = +--+ 25. ae 586-589 mavldiscrop, 19LI—1OlStmsr let. SIE a2 0S.. le) an UO 586-587 Flaxseed— pianidites. acreage, yield) prices! ete !.0..6262).22.25 4 2. Dae 586-589 WOOL ZAKCTO Dee pas atatth oes ato no teas) ast Old =| eR.) Ue ae 586-587 Floors, home treatment and coverings...:.-.¢... 2... 222. 22 -iws? =: ee eee 350 Flonda, closed season for shore birds, laws¥t 222. ..222.:..-24Su-. S22 Se 292, 293 Flour— hard spring-wheat, exports, 1878, 1902........---..------------------++-- 396 hard spring-wheat, prices, 1869, ASTGM PSs ook. wei ret.a2 oe eee 395 Kubanka durum, characteristics, PEER GR NLS 25) Reh et ee eee 408-409 purifier— effect on milling industry.....2... 20.20. 42----+--+-++ 05+. 2-5-- 391-392, 394 first anstallationime United: States, NOle: =... --=.2.022 s=co-sese eee 391 spring-wheat, growth of favorable sentiment. .......-.....-----------0+- 394 698 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Fly— Page. . house, dangers of disease transmission... <<. 1.22352 .----<2--+--+--mae 129-130 SCFGONS, CONSLTUCLION; SUPPOSLIONE. = eso 3o4b coe eee en eee 340-349 Food— fly-infected, danger to babies, control work .........................-- 129-130 freshness in. public imarket, ROtC. <<. 2A scent pe eee eo 2 169 EBC) OL BAUS on aoa s cane ais him amid = Selene ee ee eee ee ee 491-492 Foot-and-mouth disease— outbreak 1914, origin, pointa of infechion AiG. se a CEB? outbreaks,.1870:10. 1908. joriginetos-¢.hrs steers oe Soke ges eee 20 spreads methodsscs: 3.0.08 oe FINS TeOes wea ae BE ys oe ae eee 22 Forage. See Hay. Forest— products, exports and imports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914. . 653-655, 661-662, 671-673 protection, influence on agricultural industry...........-...-....--2-.+. 66-67 ranges, sUperionityol prazine Stoek jee cep Sc wi ad an 81 Service, management of grazing lands and results. ................-.-..- 16-17 Forestry— : farm, importance;rpossibilities, etc., discussion .. ¢ a.*5 0-5-4646 aeeoe 439-441 problems, discussion 3 2A BAG wench eyes bee sae meson ncee eee 52-59 Forests, national— abolishment proposition, discussione: 2. rue rae. ee 87-88 agricultural development, effect of land and timber speculation ......... 70-71 agricultural tracts, number and ‘total acreage... ...-..-----2-0-<-+sss-es 69-70 and the farmer:-article by. Henry S:iGrawes. 2 fone cee 65-88 area protection, xand! Uses ligiaoe oC Shes SOEs cee IE oe ae 53-59 development, suggestions by Secretary..;...-2).-2---4----00-- deen sce-- seed 87-88 existence and administration, interest taken by farmers, notes...........- 65-66 farmehnwelassitica tion wared elCs-- aa —4- 5454 aes oleae eee 67-72 industrial development, Mhene hits: tons aw eite A See 188 farm crops, use in cooperative marketing . -......--- 2.222 2----20----20=- 194 Grain— standards, preparation and distribution......-....-...-.....ts+---e-es-e- 30-31 Mita HOLISER : SLUG 22 REC Ne ee ce Sire Se isiaw cs METER PE ce 8 cacy See 32-33 See also Barley; Corn, etc. Graves, Henry S., article on ‘‘The national forests and the farmer” ......... 65-88 Grazing— rata COMUAT HOM UN At! s| SglL fu. Caceres scenes ct se seas AeEEE 384, 385 forest ranges, regulations, number of permits.-...-....-...........-..--- 79-82 laude public) improvement in handling... 2,2.3..-.:-..2.-+0. asses 15-17 live stock in national forests, numbersand improved methods.-..-.......--- 16-17 national forests, restriction as means of soil-fertility protection. .........-- 77 Grease, extraction from garbage, method, amount, value, uses, etc.........-- Great Britain, meat imports from Argentina and other places...-...--..---.-- Great Plains— northwestern, adaptability for wheat growing, studies......-..-- Be eae 405-406 region, demand for drought-resistant wheat..........---..------------- 405-406 Gums; imports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914. ..: ... n2n05-00 dae canes - 653-654, 673, 687 Hares, dressed, export trade of Australia and New Zealand..............---...- 433 Harvest-home festivals, value in rural communities...............-..-.------ 132 Hawaii, agricultural products, shipments to and from United States........... 676 Hay— acreage, production, and value, 1899 and 1909. ........---.-------------- ial CXPOLUS (SOG MOA Ss cud sods eee ak Seb St ach cae See 568 Hiatisiges, acreage, yield, PEICOK wELC seen cms pid Set ai nis = Pa 568-571 Health— boards, State, investigations of farm water supply, note.......-.-.-.------ 140 officer, rural, need, work of sanitation committee...................---. 129-130 Heating equipment, household, suggestions. .........-...------------------- 347 Helicogena spp. See Snails. Hele pomaina. description and life history .........-.-+---)--2-=52-s-0--ne= 493-495 Helix spp. See Snails. iereniiy. study, value of nematodes: ... 24 2.42 seb see. on noe eens 463-466 SI MeRenInG MILLS: 0. 52 oooac= sso Sar sce eget ees oe Fees... (eee One Hides— SCOOT Seb SRR EEO Ot TO ee Sco ae Hee eter Sareea ease ae Se tas See 616 POM CG. LSS roe a STI a Ca ea RPT ac Ss 617 CTU AMOMAINUTAC ES ©) Soe 8 cre SE se ee ee 615-617 Highway— commission, desirability as State authority..........-.-----1------------ 44 eonuimaction-spropress by ptates..2{.-..52..0..-.5~-------.-:-= see eee 221-224 departments, State, establishment and work............----.---------- 213-214 improvement, United States, note on early development.....---------- 211-212 maimienance. tallureogimcountiess-.. 6 2h. 0. 2. 22.5.2 - nese eas eae ee 224 See also Roads. Hog cholera, losses caused by, and control work...........---------------- 15, 19, 20 Hog pen; danccrae watersupply. DOtC:—.:...--------- 5 -----2-2-2h-2n0-—a5e55 141 ogs— JAGR EINGTEIMD, TNEUTE]S ET so ccceebk Gee Cee eee oe ea 381 ACN Tlie DEE eLOOl Igoe. te et eo. 222 eles eee eee 423 700 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Hogs—Continued. Page. industry in Australia and New Zealand, number and extent, note........ 425 New-Zealand, number,-1901-1910 5... 52125... 4 ee ee eee 423 number, decline since 1899... =. 4.2. 2 ee ee: 23 3. Doo Ronee 12 prices, Cincinnati and other markets, 1900-1914... .. AST. i Sia | 639 raising, need, for increase of meat supply..............2.2.----2--22020- 17,18 statistics, numbers, values,-ete?) 2 ?2l. ee a 637-639 Homes, Greorce K., article on “‘Movement from city and town to farms”... 257-274 Home— beautification, work of'committee:. 2.0% 2205. 98168 eb et ieee 133-135 equipment) belection? +4 lex Uae ee Gee SUT SE ee 339-362 interior decorations and finish, suggestions.................2......---- 349-352 Homestead entries, free, acquiring of cut-over lands in national forests by settlers Ales Sa Re aes he Se Se Sees ene 71 Homesteading, inducement to farm residents, notes....................-..----- 262 Homesteads, listing in-national'foreste..:: 222; 27202) 202.281, AL da Hookworm, control in homes, work of sanitation committee................. 129-130 Hops— tmports and exports’? “=> Sos 2h. a ee ee Oe 595, 655, 663, 668, 669 international trade, 1911-1913........... Sede contol tee eee 595 picking, Pacific coast and New York, attractiveness.................... 271 statistics, acreage,yield,’ prices, te! Srl 2b4, SU See oe eee 594-595 morld crops, L9T2Z=191 4s. Po Oe ae A ee ae eer 394 Horses— exporia* sy Yoioti sles Sst eye a ee eee 620, 659 amporte.’s.:') ld. 6 Me VPNs pe eek pa Oe Ee ENE 620, 651 Statistics; numbers; values eters: 2 kee Leet per) LOR AE eh ee 618-620 Household— conveniences, country homes, work of committee.................---- 135-138 conveniences, lack, inducement for farmers’ removal to towns........-- 126-127 economics committee, rural organization.........../........2......- 135-138 economics, study, importance to home maker. ..............4..------ 361-362 equipment, selection, article by Helen W. Atwater.................... 339-362 Housekeeping, equipment; selection“) 227! 2 Se VO) 1, Dee ee 339-362 Houston, DF; report as Secretary.o 2222. Se eee 9-64 Hydraulic ram— protection and management .* °2. 2058 SITS Oe eee 155 sizes and guarantees’ > 1s SUPE RAS 2 OEE ET aed ee 164 use in pumping farmhouse water supply .................-.--------- 153-145 Hydropneumatic system, water supply for farmhouse ................--.-- 150-151 Ice cream sauce, use’ of apple sirup, recipe. 2: 222.222 2:2... 8 eee 233 Ice houses, cooperative, possibility for rural organization, note............. 135-136 fdaho, ‘road lepislation; date.) 22.222. 2 et ee 214 Illinois, highway department, establishment. .....................------- 214-215 Implements; farm, ‘and’ machinery. 222!" S722 2 2 ee 643 Imports— agricultural products, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914..................... 651-658, 666, 669-671, 674, 683+687 barley, 1911-1993. te. ee a ee ee ee 547 beef, from Argentina into United States, 1913-1914.................2.. 387-388 corn; 19U1 1913 ee ee ee 518, 531 forest products, 1912-1914, and 1852-1914....................- 653-655, 671, 673 meats from Australia and New Zealand, increase, causes............---. 421 oats, 19TIR19I3* <5 ce ee a ee ee ee 539 Inemerator,; garbage, description, 6te 73-2 ek a A ee eee 302-303 Incorporation, relation to cooperative marketing. ..........---...--------- 191-192 Incubator, temperature maintenance, use of thermometer................-- 164-165 India rubber— : TGP OPES. “SLES es ee a ee a ee eee ent cop Reet = oe 610 international trade (1b. /2 PT Ss eee ee oe eS eee te eee 610 Infertile eggs, keeping quality, comparison with fertile eggs.................-. 373 Information Office, establishment and work...........-....-------- ates 2 4849 Insects— disease-spreading, control work of sanitation committee..............- 129-130 injurious, control work of entomologists... /.2..2<-292.0~-00s-- eee 14 Tnspection— Page. markets Note = + 217 Ot A EER EOS Rae ee or Oh od Fe SLE GOS 169 necessity in grading and packing for cooperative marketing. ............. 195 Insurance companies— farmers’ mutual, work, values methods; ete /.) 52. 2) ae 121 investments im: farm-morteazeiloans: s+: .ssee2tsec es ee eee ee 40-41 Totas, infestation of meadows and swamps, description. ................-...- 479 jlowa highway department establishmient-) Seo 0 PO cans 214 introduction of Turkey wheat from Illinois, 1870. ......................- 404 live stock, number, comparison with Southern States. ............ nae eed 18 State control’ of highway work = 2 =e se: teres 2 CO ae eee 224 Trrigation— and drainage work, transfer to Roads Office ...................2..---20-- 62 farming, influence of community organization, studies..................- 94-95 water supply, value of farms benefited by national forests................ 74 Joss, E. C., article on ‘Meat production in Australia and New Zealand”... 421-438 Johnston, John, first introducer of tile drains in New York............-....-- 246 Kansas— ege car demonstration, work and itimerary ..........-..........--- 365, 378, 379 Homrproduetion, 1909. = aesess ne. $a al ol dae Se duce hd beets ies eee 404 highway department, establishment, date...................-----+------ 215 improduchon ofhard wanterswheat, USis..se=s8cese. he eee ae eee 399 Millers’ Association, importation of Turkey wheat, etc...............----- 405 production el hard wheat; ebes 2.5. Sease..5 55 dies 35532 med aed 397-398 Kansas City, hard winter wheat, grades and prices...............--.-..-.----- 402 Kentucky, highway department, establishment.....................------ -- 215 Kerr, W. H., C. EK. Bassett, and CLARENCE W. Moomaw, article on ‘‘Coop- erative marketing and financing of marketing associations’’........ 185-210 Kharkof wheat— hard winter variety, description, ete... s2deee2. 2-6... 225 cle biqesa's tne, S9T—OOS DATO HOURNG! POM MEMOS Se oo dosh oe ais ese comes = «ae -She 404405 Kitchen— equipment selections dt stcnh... aelg=cean'- -memeiicey tects - aRS eer Bees 347 labor efficiency, relation to arrangement, suggestions...........-.-.----- 359-360 Knot, shore bird, summer and winter homes, locations, etc.............-..-- 276, 290 Kootenai National Forest, protest of farmers against elimination............-- 65 Krehbiel, Christian, introducer of Turkey wheat, note.................---.-- 399 Kubanka durum wheat. See Wheat, durum, Kubanka. Labor— city-to-farm— economic inducements, Aides Ssh oe ae. - Cae 271, 272-273 WOLLMILESSM ESS: CATISE ELCs eMOLOs oo axe cla Sectsccos oe eee eae ee 271-272 convict work on roads in Georgia, Nevada, Wyoming, and Oklahoma, dates IGANG S:c'n cera. a = aisles = <)an Steje' So a Ae mi a= RE 214 extra, demand for harvesting grains, fruits, vegetables, etc..........--- 269-270 farm, cheap, influence of community organization......................-- 95-96 migratory, demands for, location, etc., studies....................- 269-270, 273 Labor movement— Beanomal MISTaiON, GULGICS. «22.2. see a0 25-25 ols ata asa iaee See ere 269-270 BHI PEE ee eee ec ks oe a ee ee a 269-272 Laborers, migratory, classes, nationalities, etc.................-.---------- 270-271 Labor-saving devices— GERIRCVG Mia MA VOOM: 25.6 5) o ons ano 862 oe = =o of eee 311-318 IMpLOvements, work or Committee... .. 22.2... 25.2.2 2-2 - eee ee 135-138 Lambs, finishing for market in New Zealand..........-...-..--------+++---- 425 Land— acquisition, inducement to farm residents.................----------.--- 262 tillable, in humid region, uncultivated, inquiry of Agriculture Secretary. 93 utilization, influence of community organization......-...-.-...-....--- 95 Lands— classificamon im, forests, amportance.--.......-.----.+---.--.--- Syesesie5: 53 exchange between private owners and Government, need of legislation. - - 53 PATI ATCA LING Mel Choma EIeene Ns ees oo nla kf ao sce hole wig aE See 641-643 heavily timbered, national forests, disadvantage of private ownership... .. 71-72 public, disposal, early methods unsatisfactory....-.....----------------- 91, 93 702 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Page Laundries, cooperative, possibility for rural organizations, note...........-- 135-136 Laws— bind protections: 5 cjensa deuce o2'-a4 os oS ee eee Reet eee 292-293 State road, compilation, extent, etc., remarks....-..-......-..------.---- 225 ‘‘Leaker,’ ’ egg, description.........2..---+-- ee et ene eee ey en Leases, market. ccs bora. wsteaeacietemed:

san Ser Seno ee ee el -e 295, 296 milk, use in commercial manufacture of apple sirup......-....-------- 234-235 necessity in-culture.of snails... - an382 tts? ne as bees ah ee ee 495 Limestone region, wells, danger of contamination................-.---------- 142 Liquors, alcoholic, imports and exports, 1912-1914 oie cee ke aoelaet or bare 656-663 Little, James, originator of Corriedale sheep, note -...............----------- 437 Live stock— breeding, importance of organized promotion...........--...-.-----.-- 100-102 Britash. breeds, suse in} Argentina .. 2.25.4 5-4.-S25)25-Ee ns keer eee 389 grazing in national: faresta. i. Mesotos 4. ceteqeebupeebe |. tl 16-17 industry, neglect in Southern States......-.-.--...-- iT SRS ee 18 marketing in Australia and New Zealand, practices, ete. :! goin hemage 426-427 marketing, investigations: <0...) AY 2 TI st eee eee 28-30 markets, compilation: of directory-.2-\t. - #202". YT ee eee 29 number in various countries tablez2 2:44 A: Joo eee ee ee 422 numbers, decrease since 1800ieecds 21-222 2.20 MOO. hit lo one 12 statisties.s.: c2scsee ee ee BR BS OS 2 ee ae ee 612-615 world’s production »:ars: aagertc JOE PEO I 612-615 See also Cattle; Hogs, etc. Loans— commission-house, for marketing societies............-.----------------- 203 cooperative-marketing, use of- banks:..<227 2.20 ee. eee 202-203 Logged-off lands— national forests, private ownership, seriousness of problem for Northwest. - 72 outside national forests, private ownership, development as solution of agricultural problem SUEDE ES oI GD ET SAIS Se COLES 1 ee 72 Louisiana— closed season. for shorebirds, lawe 25220292. .22 992 ee 292-293 withdrawal of seashore from bird hunters, notes......-.-.- 293-294 Lumber, imports and exports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914... 654, 661, 672, 673, 682, 687 Lumbering, national forests, influence on agricultural industry. ........-..-.-- 66-67 Lysine humboldtiana buffoniana, edible snail, Mexicorii:q:-2otd: (2 eee 492 Macaroni, superiority of durum wheat in manufacture............-.----------- 413 Machinery, farm Ceisus AtALIBtICs 625 52S. aes oa ee ee 643 Maine— closed! season ition shorebirds laws Shc Soe a oe eee 292 road legislation; date... Sige ie oo ee en Be os ee 214 Malakof wheat. See Kharkof wheat. Man’ ‘intestation, by.mematodes=: 322 4--setatas- ate ee ae eee ee es 466-467, 471 Manager— cooperative marketing, discussion -<25.3202t5°25 00 seen eu se eee 192-193 cooperative, powers and duties......-.----- SS Oe SS Ae OS SER OCIS T 193 Manure— danger to water supply, NOtOS=. wee 52s << time% aaejngst on ee sees See 141 natural, studies by production committee, etc....-.....---.------------ ‘99-100 Market— accessibility. 625722 522255522 26: alas. ote een =e ee eee eee 174, 175 bread thot. 2: ose sn abe eee ee cicieia Soe as 175 central, advantages'snd popularity. <0 0 otc. aoe eee eee 172-174 CONSETWEHON, (CISCUSSION=s-6:-% a0 ee See cee ae eee eee 175-178 financing 3620.7)! 2 5h RSe ai deiess Sem Oe alata sist ree ee SRE ei eee ets 178-181 leases sTeEMaks. oi cics aes «ocean eee ates eee eee eee eee 180 open or curb— ; AGVAMERBOS .. os. a2 5 le reagan = Sees oe ny ee 172 Constructions): +22 5205 Shhh ote oe ee ee eee ee 178 Obyections’ . 2.50. ic oe ee ene ee ee 171 Index. 703 Market—Continued. public— Page. advantages and. problemas 86 fot soe Bate aha He a aera 169 I, DOSAN Cs PUTPDOSOSe. cae sate aerate Seg ek ee ee oes eee 167, 169 TeMials, TEMAS ...2.8 eee Cee Ae rae fee Gok tae clear ona anya ais cea 179 retail public— Conitolby, Ciby. Mecessivel Ole. 6 - - =< 7ao- See cee eeess a 180 Melimenyaprablemetes: tee ty ee eee tt ee ee 183 Nea GOT sans Fo Beek eh yo at Re yt a ed 172-175 PHA SeMeM = ae eee ttle ae = Sig A) Sie Shs seraietekeye Sete Cpe OTe eee ee 181-183 BALShAKe An Esta DMSO Le ae ee ee 169 Meet and demand CISGHSSOD ase. ss Oh Soe eR eg ee in ne 169-171 CAVES ASST AAT ST RE SMR, YS py imap eh De ae an ie Rail ale te 183-184 [STEPATEN mC WI 4 shear Pia eas" Guess “ah Ao ee Pee an aa en a naa eee ts 179 Hee a HONS 5 PISS OTE 2 Paes E ye mpyncn = =r ye a ietamar Ceeks 181-183 subletting ob privileges Gbjectlons:---.7--....02-<.+-basn=-22 2 oho eee 181 type in orn [OMe eee hee pe oe ilyAll Marketing— associations, CVA Mb OCA SONS ery) Sion cs ee 188 committee, rural organization, duties, etc., studies...................-- 102-107 contracts with cooperators, value in securing loans..................----- 205 cooperative, and financing of marketing associations..........-....-.-.-- 185-210 cooperative, membership agreement... _. . .--- -- ese n es ine ens ae eee 194 GInsda abba Pes Orisiiall farmers. 5.00 coe. Wl pas ot; «eek a See 96-97 farm products, cooperative, work of marketing committee...........-... 102-107 live stock, Australia and New Zealand, practices................-.-.-- 425-426 meat and meat products, cooperative, Australia and New Zealand.......- 426 iEHE CANES SPSS DR EIT DES A A REM che aim a a i pa sete 5 25-30 production Camino ee es: 98-99 BRIA ClABSeS RECON 1 GLC ere ee Bee ee tai OM oe gan Pen gee 498-499 PEMD EG OI AIM WOOM OG 5 Vs oo tena Satie © a mye Se iScieime se yiediae een cece 444-456 Markets— farm products, with national forest lumbermen............-.-....---...- 66-67 hive stock. CILCGLOry, COMPUALION epee ci Ain = aoo5 .2s25s2Jcae7stctes ee eee cee 481-483 and their relationships, article by N. A. Cobb.....-.....-.....-...-.5. - 457-490 damage to Girlie tréés..22 sera ees eee 468 eggs; size, transmission, etes.o.cree~kw erect ee eee 485-486 habitater so. jac SBS sete EAE OA Le a ee a Ae 471472 history, relation to diseases, etc., discussion.......-.-.-.-.-.-...---.-- 466-468 TG oR ye a Zoe i Sem a 467, 468, 469, 470, 472-473, 483-484, 486 infestation of human. body. 222... 0549.25 ee eee 466-467, 471 infestahionof solland watersec: 52 42cc0n ee eee eee 469-470 Index. 705 Nematodes—Continued. Page. Atidibe: -GeCNcriptignin CAALACHCES SOLE. - 2c) ui. 9oce" = 22 Jes Sec eee 76-480 Pat relide HMAMITEL c- 2 Fee ne soe atk tea os sidenote ee Ie 473-475 parasitic of man and domestic animals, remarks..........-.------------ 460-461 relation to man and domestic animals, remarks................22..---- 460-461 TelaionGe,soll biclory and Jertility >: 2.22562. 2 52. cee ae eeedeeoees 480-481 reproduction, life cycle, instincts, habits, etc..............-... 464-465, 485489 Wal TN pbie onminlngyme se ae Obs oy role Bae ehesck bes ee eee 463 Wesley CLG: Or BLN yy ROLE 2c. 3. Joe = V2 2 Sea Se 490 New Hampshire— closed scasonpor shorebirds. awe Seen eel soc Se ule hey oe 292 Mod dslepinlaiiaun Gate. ino a. ates bas eAsooS. Det Ss ee 214 New Jersey— closed! Reason for woodeoek* lawss202322 022 12.222. 2c. oe eb ee 292, 293 leadership ai state road pailding.— 25.2 son nee oe soot oo Sin A eee 213 Tad manasement, TemAacks =.= sje oreo Js ek lesice sd. sees 213, 214, 220 New York— closed season for shorebirds and woodcock, laws....-..............---- 292, 293 durum wheat, prices, comparison with other wheats, 1905-1913......... 416-418 highway department, establishment.and work..................-.------ 218-219 Hone RANACeINeNG, FOMARRAS SoS 5 oo eins sore «a= oe a= ee 2 214, 218-219 mbean prices, 190) —1Ohar ooo... cate epee. ewe 2G e eee 417, 418 New York City, hard winter wheat, condition, prices, etc..................-- 403 New Zealand— Catit CLGIsCASCH. LOSSES” CLC Hf occu aioe Sook oe eisai nics a chee SE 436-437 food animals, domestic, 1901-1912. number... ......-...-...-.+-2-822cn8 423 ive sock tnunsiey. AmMportance, OtC..<.'..<..0 62... J20 0. sss0- 2 ARE 423-425 meat production, ete, artacle by, H..C.. Joss. ........---22.. .s22.222288 421-438 meat-inspection laws and regulations, requirements...........----------- 430 mudion exports, importance, increase. 321.2 52.2.. i... Pode. ne ee 433 railroads, mileage, etc., relation to marketing live stock..-.-......-...-- 426-427 SReep ArMIEND, SUMMLeSe san oe eeete oe eck os nav sb etd oe 334-336 News service, market, in retail public market...........222-25.: 20222225. 183-184 Nitrogen, fertilizer ingredient, sources...........--------------+--- 295-296, 296-298 North Carolina— highway department, authorization... ..i52.2.2i 205-2622 2 2th Bes 214 live stock need of increaseionrfanmaeee ssa - ames se ee 18 North Dakota— closediseasoniior shorebirds: slaw se 2 eet eas es ee ge 292 hichway department, establishment:..-.-..0/.---.-2--2.- 1... See 215 Nurse, trained, need, work of sanitation committee......-....-.-....-.-...- 129-130 Mameny siock,imports, (912—I914 5. oie ee oi ee 656 Nuts, imports and exports, 1912-1914, and 1852-1914........... 656, 664, 669, 671, 686 Oats— exports, (Ol 2—101 Fe oie ol onc Sin a sine Slee stim sities = sles SEE Sab a eee 662 exports. and amporte; JOM VOI: - p25 Poems... (kacin-e ee ee 539 memories 101219142). 6.2322 ja ev se ened optus semis» Supe ee 655 Biases “acreage. yield prices, CtC =. 22 <5 cl Seek oes Le eee 532-539 statistics, international trade. ............ eb nemapak +53 Ae Reece we eee 539 MOE eetOp, Lolz VOI eo oo irlans nen ete Ik Be) eee 32-533 Wrceamireieht tates, reduction... .-:aic--0% J2d3eeq: is edu eee ee 212 Ohio— highway department, establishment and work..............--.-------- 219-220 foul mansvenent, TOMAS... ce5 2 222 See eS eee see 214, 219 Oil cake— exports (with oil-cake meal). ....252. := ese sae eee 32! po - 608 imports and exports, 1912-1914, and 1852-1914. ......-......... 656, 664, 668, 680 witheorl-cake anes | anternational trad emeeess n= 55 42) Lisa. eee | ae 608 Oil-cake meal (with oil cake), international trade................------------- 608 Oils, imports and exports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914.... 657, 664, 667, 668, 670, 677, 686 Oklahoma— ege car demonstration, work and itinerary............----.----.-- 365, 378, 379 hichway department, establishment. 0.2... .dsc 2.0.05 .02o55 eons ht beens 215 Onchocerciasis— RERCEENGIOO a NAITOs BhC Cae Sears: Banos Tos re ee oe ERT Shes 436 imienatOnOL cattio moAustralia +... 22526322. bed jeg t ee eee 436 75922°—yRK 1914——45 706 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Open market. See Market. Orchard— Page. ih OF Cher MomMeter x2.5.2:27 4%. astaaen! Reh s 2 Lae na 165 fruits, production and. value, 1899 and, 1909s. 9 cseeils Bake oa ie oe 11 Qregon, closed. season for shorebirds; laws. .2i4<:s<6.-e2eu wile J2de cans oe 292 Packing, farmers’ difficulties in work, and cooperative requirements. ..._..- 194-195 Packing house products, exports and imports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914..__.. 652, ; 659-660, 667, 684 Paint— mixture with enamel for inside woodwork, note.....................---. 350 use on floors, walls, and woodwork for home--............-.-..2...-.-. 349-350 **Papabotte,”’ distribution, habits, protection, ete....2....5.......-.2-.8 283-284 Parasites— cattle sin: Australia 0 22a 2c. scenes ad See ae ee ee 436 domestic animals, remarks on nematodes............-....-..---------- 460-461 human, nimberiof nematodes: <=... 2. 2.8 o20ck ts thee Ieee 460 Parcels post, marketing, investigations... 2....2..0. 002.8250. codees Jae 28 Peas— acreage and production. .......235& ee Siew Bie Lee ee 598 wueld ‘ecrop, L9LI-1916- 2 oe nbn te 598 # Peps,” description, migration habits, efc...........- S19! E ae eee 290-291 PennincTon, M. E., H. C. Pierce, and H. L. Suraper, article on “The egg and poultry demonstration car work in reducing our $50,000,000 waste in eges tL hus eed Seeks Fo eee ee ee 363-380 Pennsylvania— closed. season for woodcock, laws....-_.- a -2icateeiou.ceelele ee 292, 293 rood legislation, dates... ose: aad... See ei. 6 20 ee 214 tax on timber lands, disposition; ete sc. .22. 1.6 loan Luis ie 2.1 eee PENNYBACKER, J. E., article on ‘‘ State management of public roads: Its devel- opmentand. trend: i 2.0. eG2 tees. of ane 52. ee 211-225 Perishable products— markeinge, coaperation in. ...2-.2..Jo2ek ow dee Lie 64 J 188 use as collateral in cooperative marketing...........-.........-...-..- 201, 209 Pests; market, note 2.2.1: 22.. 158-4 St ee ee 176 Philadelphia, durum wheat, price, 1914-2. =. -2:!ct ssiiee teeta: See 418 Phosphoric acid, fertilizer ingredient, sources..-.......--- aT 295 Pirrce, H. C., M. E. Pennineton, and H. L. SHraper, article on “The egg and poultry demonstration car work in reducing our $50,000,000 waste Hepa 5.0.2 este eke es. ee eae 363-380 Pillsbury, C. A., introducer of spring-wheat flour, note......................- 394 Plant breeding, work of Plant Industry experts........---.....--.....---.-. 13-14 “Plant foods.’’ See Fertilizers. Plant Industry Bureau, reorganization proposed........----....----.-------- 61-62 Plant industry experts, work in aid of agriculture....................-------- 13-14 Planting,-aid of thermometer. .).22 4/2220 42 .2.22hc2=22ae~s- Se See i65 Playgrounds, establishment, control, and value, in rural communities........- 133 SY aris contagious, of cattle, prevalence in Australia... ... . SPORE 436 Plover— golden, migration habits, protection possibilities, ete., note........- 285-286, 287 Fmged, breeding habits, Rote:.-...2 -222..24 22 2t222.See eee ee ne ee 285 upland, distribution, habits, protection, etc..........................-. 283-284 withdrawal from: list of game birds, ete... -2.---.22.222242- 52 eee eo ee ee 291-294 Poison plants, investigations, transfer to Animal Industry Burean. .....-- BL Ae 63 Politics, elimination from State management of roads................-....-. 224, 225 Pooling, ‘cooperative Inarketing, remarks. -)./.022.....2-.= = tee ee 197 Pools, market, relation to money needs of marketing societies. .........-...-- 202 Population, movement from towns to farms, extent..........-.....-.------ 257-274 Porto Rico, agricultural products, shipments to and from United States... ...- 676 Potash, fertilizer ingredient, importation from Germany........-..----------- 295 Potatoes— acreage, production, and value, 1899 and 1909...............-.-..:.----. 11 CX POPtR. 3. 222. -ss.2.2224 dene nee Rt eee. eee 560, 564, 665 iiportss to... 2 on ee aie 7 ee ee 560, 564, 658, 670 statistics, acreage, yield, prices, etc....- coos SOR Oe Cee 0 oe 557-564 sweet, acreage, yield, prices, farm value, ete.......-...----------.++-+--- 564-567 world’s crop, I9E1-1913.0. 2.2 che< eee ete ee eee 597-558 Index. 707 Poultry— Page. demonstration car, work in reducing waste in eggs, article.............. 363-380 growing, need in increase of meat supply.....---.......-0<-- 222 ee ene -e 17-18 keeping: inducement, to farmiresidents. 2. 26.0.6. > a eee 148 PAS. disitiDuOn, habits, provection, Cte... <>. Tt eee 283, 284 Rabbits, dressed, export trade of Australia and New Zealand.......-...-....-- 433 Railroad development, relation to public roads, remarks...........--------:- 211 Railroads, Australia, mileage, development, etc.......-.------------2--2222-: 426 Ratiway tonnage, farm products, etc., 1911=191322 22. 2222222222 eee 650 Rain, use as water supply and-quality of water...............-2-.--2-.1).2.-- 145 Ram, hydraulic. See Hydraulic ram. Rams, selection for American and Australian flocks, reasons governing.....- 322-324 Ranches, cattle and sheep stations, extent, etc., New Zealand........-.....-- 424 Range— protection, national forests, benefits to farmers. .......-..---...--------- 79-82 public: acreare and management: 25225 2223279220 NRO. See 16 Recipes, appin STUD S250) oo a aso oak he Uetee te as Ae Oe 231-233 Recommendations by Secretary.-..---.----.------------ 19, 30, 44, 45, 53, 54, 57, 58 Recreation committee, rural organizations; duties Stes: 2.02 SC seem. Zee esis 130-133 national forests, development, number of pleasure seekers, etc... ----- 59, 82-83 necessity in rural communities, suggestions. ............--------.----- 130-133 privileges, inducement for farmers’ removal to towns. ..-..------------ 125-126 Refrigeration— Sepa idiporiance ANd MeCCesMby 2. sess ser on acess oe ee 365, 371, 374 Tale mn public Marketes.-— =. sce eens. eee see Oran AE tes ne eee 176,177 Registration, need for trade-marks, labels, and brandsin cooperative marketing. 195 Reserve banks, Federal, establishment, provisions, etc....--..---------------- 37-38 Retail public markets. See Markets, public. Rhabdias nigrovenosa, development, processes. ....------------------------ 464-465 Rhode Island— closed_season for shore birds and woodcock, laws ......---------------- 292, 293 road legislation, date..........----------------------- +--+ +++ 2-2 2s sees 214 Rice— GRPOTIS- 52 --222-- 22 ence nn ote nee Hones See ee oe ae ee pea 593, 664 WVEOPISC SS 2) ---- oon 22 2 sc PAE eee ee ae ae eee eee 593, 657 inpernational trade, 1911-1913: . 22.205 2 2 os 2 ho SB e eeeeee 593 statistics, acreage, yield, prices, etc......---.--------------------+---- 590-593 wenld's CIOP:..----------+=<-a--2>g-- dee tae = ae 2 590-591 Road— building, national forests, needs, funds, methods, etc....-.-.------------ 84-88 building, progress by States.........---.---------------++--++---222-- cae community, need of improvement........---.--------------++++++2+e+ee construction, national forests, appropriations by Congress. ...--..--------- 85-86 funds, availability from sale of cut-over timberlands ...------.----------- 71 improvements, State-aid systems, classes of......------------+--+-+---- pees maintenance, State aid.......-.------- ey eetige Yon Bloweseeice Pees management, State, development, efficiency, etc.... 43-46, 213-214, 223, 224-22 management, studies, and work by school pupils. ...-..-.----------- cote 122 See also Highway. 708 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. Roads— Page. cost of construction, notes.................... 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222-293 development in national forests, cost, ete.......................... 57-58, 84-88 good, relation to production and distribution of farm products... - 43-46, 122-123 improvement and control by individual schools.....................-2..- 122 influence on rural schools. |. 2.0)... 2. eee A eee oe Se 122-123 national forests, miles in operation: ....002.2..0 25.2000 22ce cece ccc ec lee 85 Office, reorganization,: proposed... 9220: ; SYD ASR es 62 public, State management, development and trend, article by J. E. Penny- backer: : 22s oe ic hcsasc o eaas 5 eRe 211-225 public, State management, leading States...................------2--. 216-221 public, transportation cost, remarks. .....0..02000.20020.. 22) ) 90 ee 212 State-aid, officials and expenditures, discussion................------2--- 43-46 Roller:mill, first in United States .. 121.2000 Leg) eh ate Wie eee . 39 Roller mills, deseription,. use, etc. i220. 00.ciee. ste ea 391, 392, 394 Roofs, cleanin ¢ to protect cistern water supply. ):i202.g.<<% bch... dee 145 Roosters, removal from flocks after breeding season...........++. ys ToS 373, 380 Rosin— CXPOTls oh ee ee 609 iéerna tional trade: i305 o24 ue Wake che ee Ue 609 Rots, eggs, discovery by candling.. 2/...1.. 2.0 ..8i0 1 Re ee 366 ugs, selection: for home; 2400) 2482 eo ee ee eee 353 Rural— communities— lack of organization,consequences ies. «ain stem nse nba nel ee 93-96 remeval-of farm owners to cities: cist £2 aici arey- Freya ase ge 124 community— organization, -articleby,'T: Ni Carvere.. .4 . acs. noe oe ee 89-138 organization, plans committees,etes2s-.:/2.:)-kiods 5s se 4edaseek 90-91, 97-138 conditions, improvement, task of Agriculture Department...............-. 64 credits— needs of rural communities. 6:5.2 60. << 4 eacisicw Sohewald ooo ee 318 study by Office of Markets... -. 2...-.f:eeskseee-s sae open eee eee 35-43 Engineering and Public Roads, new name of Roads Office.............-.- 62 organization, committees, reading, suggestions, note...........-..-----++- 138 organizations, essential to small farmers................--------------- 91, 96-97 population, by Statesiess Ae a hk Se ee 641 Sports, necessity, work of recreation committee...............---+----- 130-133 Rusaia, hard winter wheat, distribution, etc.............-2.-02+2see+e-eee- 398-399 sae BE. W;article.on “Eidible. sndile’? sores. cows ceeee ehGaceee ee eee 491-503 ust— injury to wheat crop in wheat States, 1904..........-..-----sse----+-- 407-408 o resistance, comparison of Kubanka durum with other wheats.........-- 407-408 ve Btatistics, ‘acreage, ‘yield, prices, ‘etc 2escacciasebote-aee eee ee ee 548-6554 world’s crop, 1912-1014. . 0 304 Ss. See eee eee ene ae eee yn = ae 548-549 Sanderlings, migration habits, protection, etc., note.........-..---.-------+-- 286 Sandpipers— sharp-tailed, breeding habits, distribution, etc., note...............--.--.-- 285 ‘Varieties; mileration Toutes; ctes. \ Soc oo. ec Lee ee eee eee 287 withdrawal from list of game‘birds, ete::5..2. 50200 0.2 t et ee 2 ee 291-294 Nandy soil, wells in, notes22.:.22 5. see ie eee eee eee 142 Sanitary conditions, inducement for farmers’ removal to towns...........-.--- 125 Sanitation— committee, rural organization, duties, etc............. ceo repue ce ss me 129-130 maintenance, relation to household equipment, suggestions, etc......... 347-350 markete.o0. SoS) See es ee Se ee SAR erat ieee ose eae 175-176 See also Water, clean. Sawmills, cooperative, in national forests, benefits to farmers.....-.....------ 78-79 Schmidt, C. B., introducer of Turkey wheat, note............- ey GaN A Ah = 399 School— Bs clubs, etc., requirements for rural communities......-..........-+---+- 127-128 funds, availability from sale of cut-over timberlands..........-.--------- 71 privileges, inducement for farmers’ removal to towns. ..-....---------- 124-125 Index. 709 Schools— Page. agricultural hich: ‘scope; ‘ete:, studies: .¢ 22 Jv saso eee 316-318 country, officials needed ,-stiggestions, ‘etc. J22 [unc 2k yeas ee 127-128 national forests, appropriations by Congress.....................2.------- 85-86 work of education committegirs: 5. sch 2 Bi eles ie a GBS 127-128 Needs: duipoerisand exports; 1912-1914 _.. 2209 ees Ae eae 657, 664 Selling agency, for farm products, work of marketing committee ............-- 104 Sellima, Cooperative, ad vantages so. - 24 223. th eee ee 188 Semolina, superiority of durum wheat in manufacture.............. Brey bay POs ae 413 Sewage sludge— nitroven content, production; yield, ete. 22i222... eeAte cee 299-300 use.as fertilizer eemipesition ete s:: s+ shalt axad6 ace cied iolistee tse ee 298-300 Street, use for public MATKGtpremankises sist se ahs). 3.3.2 ale-n1csel shea see a eee 171-172 Suburban travel, increased facilities, advantage to farm residents...........-.. 266 ugar— beet, statistics, production, prices, etc--..........-222s02-2ss2202- 0025 599-604 cane, statistics, production prices sete £ a-nsith- dei swore eee 599-604 exports. at iia tt ACR SO ate a's sabia os od a ct a Dep: aoe 602 BSG fides seer rote soi ere g relat cei Sommer 52 602, 658, 665, 668, 670, 686 inijeraationalitradesd 9h —VO13. 62 = aoe. | Sekt aces - see eee 602 RistLisiicn, wale. DMCCsCtG st imcastaloces bach een u: inaction eee 599-604 EHS CBR Da nt ane eB wo 2 ete oc oi sa. NYS - eee 603-604 Surplus fund, creation in cooperative marketing..............-.-.--------- 207-209 Sweepings, street— nitrogen content, injury by automobile oil, etc..........-...-.-.------ 299-300 use as fertilizer, composition, OUCH a ase ete osoetc ent bs See ee 298-300 Sweet potatoes, statistics, acreage, yleld, prices, Biases! otis ce eee ee 564-567 Swine. See Hogs; Live stock. fable adjustable, for-katchen, description s522.25- 2... Ss a-5 b2)n- n+ 360 Tableware, pelection, caution, @tC 2 so.2./.cipetpeGins views ioe aaso~ sane 357-358 Tank, water, supply, size, Isexpionvandiae. 90s. 5.02 paneans. toe eel 149-150 Tankage— dead-animal, preparation process, annual value, etc.......-..-.-.--.--- 300-301 garbage, composition Sete sibeme stae elas sates. Lae RUS seas eee 305-306 « garbage, use for fertilizer, trade value, price, etc........----- 306-307, 309, a Tannery supplies, source of foot-and-mouth infection.............---+---++++- aang, matenals, imports, 1OU2-1914. 3.2.26 soetoes dare -oegeseg- as eese 654 Tattlers, wandering, mipraijion habits, etc., note: ....2. 2. 2h -cEtet _). .2.denateus coc. > PORE eRe 407-409 establishment as new crop, difficulties, etc........----..-...---s:- 408-409 introduction by Agriculture Department...............--.----.---- 4054.06 origin, description, ete a6..2 2. c.te' 2he8 bes ae Sie eee 406-408 t yield, comparison with other wheats, 1904, 1914..............-.--.-- 407-408 oppoaition,. production, prices, eteis....< 44. +..0seShseeee Ae 409 permanency, aids in establishment, ..\0522. .¢9s 2-52-23 se nes 2 ee ee 419 price prediction: 49.1.5. <6 atince- ah aeosianiwes-saredlee! ate teshee ae 418 production increase, ptice, yield, etc... susie. cess cheese one cee 409-412 receipis, prades, DUCES. =... -....<=25 -st4heto-E > Shue oo ees ee 413418 value as milling wheat, studies -.d2..d-02cbeceseiwbhas: too rstee eee 412-413 Wheat, exports, 1912-1914, and 1852-1914 ..........-.-.--.------- 662, 668, 675, 680 Wheat, exports and. imports): 1911-1913 22:casen-e2 =n eu ae ess 2 ee kee 531 Wheat, imports,1912-1914 _.......-.....5.55-5+-8bsule- ee bee Bae 655 Wheat, Kharkof introduction, production, etc.........--..-------- 397, 398, 404-405 Wheat,:prices,, News York, 1901-1913 weidec: sack bagess-2d- eee eee 417, 418 Wheat, spring, hard— pradine and prices... --2.06-2-e-sa=-52 882 = Sheek Send sear eee 394-395 growth.of industry) «./si25 5,02 weet tte eee’ tea eee 395-396 introduction, Orlin .CtCsessees Wes RE ees a = Ses Se oe ho 393 production in three States-se. 22.6 2s. --- > sel eiei ete Ba eee 396-397 unpopillamtys.OtC 22 aaa eee eee 653 imports A B5S—WOLA: Fh: on ws) sc pine ots. «cie ete Sos BRE ee eee ee 659 Willet, decrease, extinction danger, etc., DOLE. 25 --\. cs: baa otiees Be- ee ceen tere 285 Wisconsin, closed season for shore birds, laws ....-....-.-----------<++eeeees 292 Women, farm. See Farm women. Wood— objections'to use in:public market... ...-. «..-s255cs neu <== ies = eer 175 pulp; international trade..<<-Sadees esest 226 oo oe ee Pe ae eee 612 Wood lot— farm, problem, article by Herbert A. Smith................----------- 439-456 special products required by manufacturers, marketing............--..- 449-450 TSC OLPEMM. o.oo oe ooo oe een os 6 eee ee ee 451 Tadeo. TAS Page. Wood lots, source of wealth, importance and possibilities...............2... 442-443 Woodcock— closed season, laws governing, various States..................-.---.---- 292, 293 deerease, causes; protection; eter... ois ce o.2 4 bk ee es ee 280-283 distribution, habits, value asgame birds, etc.............--.---.---s--- 280-283 Beeston work, transfer to-Morest Service... 222.222.202.022 =e eee 63 oo]l— American clips, preparation for market, Australian system, etc......... 332-334 American-grown, lack of system in preparation...................-..-- 329-331 classification, description, ete., in Australia;s...-2.0..-...4..5.2. 0 = 328-329 comparative prices per pound in Boston, October, 1899-1913............ 325-326 danger of insufficient supply in United States.....................-.-.-2- 319 SESTOPOTE FE) 18 1 aI 1s a re eee re Maree ee LA 637 Idaho and Australia, sorting and scouring, price comparison............ 330-331 FEET SBIS™ ZIG 3 1 0 a sane ene ee aa ee me Ree ice 637 imports and exports, 1912-1914 and 1852-1914 ................ 651, 659, 669, 683 preparation for market— Atisinaliavand UmMibed Scatese sees oe fae ue cle nee SS 326-331, 336-338 PRM APIS Paha SNe LNOU Ss! eee be- pasy vis eee ow otto So 5 326-329 prices, Boston and other markets, 1900-1914..................-2....---20- 636 probable importations from Australia, conditions governing............. 336-338 production— SHSktA cL oP OMAT CO er oe Moye oe cicke.s ose ke oe Sse. ee oe eee 422-423 BU mibed States, 1899-1914 2 oo. cscs ce es os hs a oe se 634 shearing, sorting, etc., methods in Australia..................--22-+--2 326-329 statistics, production, prices, and trade.............-----.----.----260 634-636 Wools, varieties, qualities, etc., studies and comparisons................--.- 323-325 Worms. See Nematodes. Yellowlegs— greater, migration habits, breeding areas, distribution, etc .....-...... 290-291 iccser miieration routes, Gescription, et... 2 .<5.-se0ec0 ind etee a eee ee SE OOS Soren COT ay NS ui ‘G ‘4 o r a Cy AN TOW ION ashi BN) s sek ye NY Dyk We osy tS ‘ BSA a *h KAP x BA ue seit Retype? ATU RA aN x isa HUA aR eR EN NK ¢ Stas , ‘ nt thy oF ROHAN As ‘ AN NV AOA NN : f, mY AY a i RU ‘ HEA NCCES AN fh) ss ‘. 0 a Sarita BRON Ny te 3 AN x NY ; S\ ») ND N ¥ RoR ONO Te ' ket Nis ae uh OOPS Amey 38% POINT SETTER es