ml \3s\i\ m II 1 iiii i ! s s mmw 1! Hi til ill [jl li I illii li ilii m\\ iiii! • i ! 11 111 1 <5 Ui 9.1,9 .a GIFT OF Agricultural Educ.Div A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE WITH PLANS FOR HOME PROJECTS BY ARETAS W. NOLAN, 4 45 Timothy hay (3 T.) 72 9 71 Clover, seed (4 bu.) 723 Clover, hay (4 T.) 160 20 120 Alfalfa (8 T.) 400 36 192 Apples (600 Ibs.) 47 5 57 Potatoes (300 bu.) 63 13 90 Fat cattle (1,000 Ibs.) 25 7 1 Fat hogs (1,000 Ibs.) 18 3 1 Milk (10,000 Ibs.) . . 57 7 12 Butter (500 Ibs.) 1 .2 .1 The value of the elements may be computed on the basis of a common market price for available plant-food, as fol- lows: Nitrogen .15 cents per Ib. Phosphorus 12 " " " Potassium 6 " " " The plant-food required for one acre of wheat yielding 50 bushels, one acre each of corn and oats yielding 100 bushels, and one acre of clover yielding 4 tons, is the total crop need of: Potassium 320 pounds Magnesium 68 " Calcium 168 Phosphorus 77 " From these figures one may estimate the cost of fertilizers in maximum crop production. 106 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE Liberation of soil fertility. After determining the total amount of plant-food in a plot of soil, the next important question is not how much is available, but how much can be made available during the course of the crop season year after year. We must liberate plant-food by practical methods. We must convert it from insoluble compounds into soluble and usable forms, for the plant-food must be made soluble before the plant can take it from the soil. It has already been stated in previous paragraphs that decaying organic matter is the important factor in making plant-food avail- able, and attention has been called to the fact that the decom- position of this organic matter is hastened by drainage and tillage, which permit the air to enter the soil and assist in the decomposition of the organic material. The application of limestone, as will be explained later, also assists in the liberation of certain plant-foods. Loss of plant-food. These plant-food elements are lost by cropping, erosion, and leaching. In a four-year crop rotation under ordinary practices, the amount per acre of calcium lost by leaching is 300 pounds; of magnesium, 30 pounds; of phosphorus, 2 pounds; of potassium, 10. It is a well known fact that great quantities of our richest soil are washed from the hillsides and valleys into the streams and carried to the sea. Some of the richest of the corn belt soils have found their way to help build the delta at the mouth of the Mississippi. The table above gives some idea of the extent to which the plant-food of the soil is lost through removal of crops that are grown upon the soil. Sources of elements likely to become deficient. It was SOILS 107 noted above that nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and prob- ably calcium and magnesium, were the elements likely to become deficient. This being true, we must look to sources, from which these elements may be economically obtained, and maintain if possible and even increase the fertility and productive capacity of the soils. Some sources from which these elements may be obtained are crop residues, barnyard manures, legumes, commercial fertilizers, and mineral sup- plies. Crop residue. All the material which makes up the roots, stubble, leaves, and other residue left after removing the crop, contains plant-food elements derived from the soil and air. To remove this residue or to burn it would be an evident loss of soil fertility. Should these residues be returned, their decomposition would not only add the elements to the soil in large measure, but the organic material which they would supply would give greater water-holding capacity to the soil, raise its temperature, foster the growth of bacteria, and pro- mote better physical condition. Legumes. Every school boy knows that upon the roots of the legumes such as red clover, sweet clover, alfalfa, soy beans, cow-peas, vetch, etc., are growing nodules which are colonies of bacteria living upon the roots of these plants, drawing the free nitrogen from the air and making it over into an available form for the plant. This nitrogen is assimilated into the leaf, stem, root, and seed of the plant. About as much nitrogen is contained in the part of clover above ground as is taken from the air. It will be seen, then, that if these legume plants be plowed under and incorporated 108 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE in the soil, large amounts of nitrogen will be supplied to the soil. In addition to this value, the mass of material making up the legume crop will add to the organic matter of the soil and give all the values ascribed above. Organic matter and its relation to soil fertility. When barnyard manures, crop residues, legume crops, or any other organic matter are incorporated in the soil and the physical conditions are right, the decay of this organic matter lib- erates directly plant-food elements, helps to dissolve certain mineral elements such as phosphorus and potassium, and makes them available as plant-food. The organic content of the soil provides a more suitable home for the growth of bacteria, which are important factors in soil fertility. It must be noted in this connection that barnyard manure, in addition to furnishing excellent organic matter, is also a source of plant-food. Ordinary barnyard manure contains per ton 10 pounds of nitrogen, 2 of phosphorus, 8 of potas- sium, with a value of $2.22 per ton for the plant-food ele- ments. We may see from these figures that it would take a very great amount of barnyard manure to maintain per- manently the fertility of the soil under maximum crop production, as is also shown in the paragraph above on plant-food required for crop growth. Nitrogen. Nitrogen is one of the most abundant elements in nature, yet it is the most costly element to the farmer as a plant-food. Some important facts regarding nitrogen em- phasize its value to the farmer: a. All growing plants require nitrogen. SOILS 109 b. Plants can get nitrogen only as a compound from the soil. c. Nitrogen is a free gas in the air. d. There are about seventy million pounds of nitrogen over each acre. e. Nitrogen in the combined form is unstable and easily lost. f . The nitrogen supply in most soils is low. g. Nitrogen compounds in the soil are mainly in organic matter and extend only a few inches below the surface. h. Nitrogen is the one element of plant-food that is most easily lost and wasted, and is often the limiting element in maximum crop production. i. The growing crops draw heavily upon the nitrogen sup- ply in the soil. j. If it were possible to exhaust the supply in the average soil, it would be entirely used up by thirty-two 100-bushel crops of corn. • k. Considerable nitrogen is lost by percolation of drain- age water. 1. Many nitrogen compounds are easily lost by leaching. Nitrogen is obtained for agricultural purposes from the following sources: rainfall, snowfall, and electrical storms; bacteria are the natural means by which nitrogen is supplied to the soil. Fish, blood, tankage, cottonseed, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, and ammonium sulphate are commercial forms of nitrogen. Farm manure, green manures, such as inocu- lated legumes and crop residues, are the natural economic HO A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE methods of maintaining and increasing soil nitrogen in gen- eral farming. The chief value of farm manure, aside from its supplying organic matter, is its source of nitrogen supply, but, as was noted above, it is impracticable under the present production of live stock to look to this source for an adequate supply of nitrogen. A more interesting and economic source is the green manure from inoculated legumes. One ton of red clover, when plowed into the average normal soil, will enrich the soil by the addition of forty pounds of nitrogen, and is, therefore, equal in nitrogen value to four tons of barn- yard manure. The use of red clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, soy beans, sweet clover, and other legumes provides the greatest soil improvers, and has made possible a permanent economic system of soil improvement. The use of high-priced com- mercial nitrogen is artificial and unprofitable in general farm- ing operations. A system of crop rotation that does not include a legume crop which may be incorporated into the soil to furnish the organic matter and the nitrogen supply is not a part of a permanent system of soil improvement. Phosphorus. Doctor Hopkins calls phosphorus the master- key to permanent agriculture. He says that phosphorus is really what its name signifies — light-bringer ; but that it is a light which the American farmer has not seen. We have exported to Europe each year enough phosphorus to double the average crop production of the entire United States, if it were all wisely used on our- soils. The tables given in a previous paragraph show that ordinary soils are defi- SOILS HI cient in phosphorus, and the results of many experiments in the United States and in England have shown that the application of phosphorus in good systems of farming pro- duces marked and profitable increases in crop yields. The important question is what form of phosphorus we shall apply. There are many kinds of fertilizing materials containing phosphorus, and one may cost many times as much as another. For example, 280 pounds of phosphorus in a ton of finely ground natural rock phosphate may be pur- chased at the mines in Tennessee and delivered at the farm- er's railroad station in the central states for about $12. Or, the ton of raw phosphate may be mixed with a ton of sulphuric acid in the factory, and the two tons of acid phos- phate may be sold to the farmer for $60. Again, the fer- tilizer manufacturer may mix two tons of acid phosphate with two tons of filler containing a little nitrogen and potas- sium, and then sell the four tons of complete fertilizer for $160. And the farmer gets only as much phosphorus in the complete fertilizer for $160 as he would get in the one ton of natural phosphate for $12. Common sources of phosphorus are raw bone, steamed bone, raw rock phosphate, acid phosphate, and basic slag. The next important question for consideration is the problem of mak- ing the phosphorus available as it appears in these various sources. When the natural rock is used, it should be ground so that at least 90 per cent will pass through a sieve with ten thousand meshes to the square inch, and a content of from 12 to 15 per cent of phosphorus should also be guaranteed. 112 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE Twelve to 15 per cent of phosphorus in rock phosphate is equivalent to the 28 and 34 per cent of the so-called phos- phoric acid. It must also be said, in advising the use of the natural rock, that it must be used liberally and in con- nection with plenty of decaying organic matter. The phos- phorus in the raw rock must be made available, and this is done through the decomposition of organic matter. About one ton of rock phosphate once every four or five years incor- porated in the soil with a green manure crop or barnyard manure is the economic way of using this mineral plant-food. As was said before, in the decomposition of these organic materials, carbonic acid and possibly other acids are formed, and these furnish a solvent for the phosphorus compound in the natural rock. Other forms of phosphorus, such as raw bone, steamed bone, and acid phosphate, are more quickly available than the rock phosphate and give quicker results when used, but they are more expensive when purchased in sufficient quan- tity to supply the need. These soluble forms of phosphorus may be practical and economical in truck farming, garden- ing, and in starting such crops as alfalfa and other legumes. Potassium. The tables given in a preceding paragraph show that potassium is an abundant element in normal soils. It is found in greater abundance in clay soils than in sandy or peat soils. As it exists in clay soils it is often unavailable and must be made soluble for the plants' use by proper tillage and by the use of organic matter. By the use of active organic matter, as explained above, large quantities of potassium otherwise not available are made available to SOILS 113 the plant through the decomposition of the organic matter. Barnyard manure serves in this way in addition to other more direct benefits. In a peaty swamp soil or bog land, it has been found that the potassium content is often very deficient, and that its deficiency is a limiting element in the produc- tion of crops. The commercial sources of potassium are kainit, potassium sulphate, potassium chloride, wood ashes, and manure. It would seem, therefore, that in systems of general farm- ing it would not be necessary to apply commercial forms of potassium, but to utilize the supply already found in abun- dance in the soil. Sometimes, however, in getting legumes started, and in building up worn out land, it may be neces- sary to make an application of some form of potassium such as kainit, in order to furnish food which is quickly available for the young plant. In truck and garden farming where intensive methods are used, applications of potassium are often profitable. Limestone. We must not omit mentioning limestone as a factor in soil fertility. Its first chemical effect is to neu- tralize the excessive acidity which prevents the growth of legumes. Often the first step, therefore, in renewing a soil is to correct the acidity, making it possible for the legumes to grow so that organic matter may be incorporated into the soil, thus furnishing a basis upon which to biuld the nitrogen and mineral plant-food supplies. Certain plants require large amounts of calcium as a plant-food, such as clover, alfalfa, and blue grass. Lime has been used as a fertilizer for thou- sands of years. It has been used in three forms : the ground 114 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE limestone or calcium carbonate, the burned lime or calcium oxide, and the hydrated lime or calcium hydroxide. Recent practices have justified the conclusion that ground limestone may be applied in any amount with no injurious results, while caustic lime destroys the organic matter, dissipates the soil nitrogen, is disagreeable to handle, and may injure the crop. If dolomitic limestone is used, magnesium as well as calcium is thus added to the soil. Limestone need not be very finely pulverized. If ground so that it will pass through a ten-mesh sieve, it is fine enough, and the coarser and finer material may be profitably mixed together in the application. Limestone is easily soluble in soil water carrying carbonic acid. It is thus readily available, and in humid sections the loss by leaching is great. About two tons an acre of ground limestone should be applied every four years when necessary in economic systems of farming. There are now on the mar- ket special spreaders to use in the application of fine ground raw rock phosphate and the pulverized limestone. The following record of a crop rotation and the applica- tion of rock phosphate and limestone in a system of per- manent agriculture is an account of an actual farm in south- ern Illinois which had been agriculturally abandoned for five years previous because of its inability to produce profitable crops with ordinary methods of farming. This outline care- fully studied will give the student and the practical farmer the correct idea of permanent systems of soil fertility, and what is meant by conservation of soil resources. The farm under consideration consisted of about 300 acres of poor, gray prairie land and was purchased in November, SOILS 115 1903, for $15 an acre. It was known in the community as the "Poorland Farm." The work of restoration was begun on 40 acres of the farm, which were covered with a growth of red sorrel, poverty grass, and weeds. The land was sour, dead, and depleted of plant-food. During the ten years following the purchase oj the farm the 40 acres received the following treatment: 1903 Fall 1903 " 1904 Spring and Summer 1904 Fall 1905 Spring 1905 Fall 1906 Spring 1907 ft 1908 1909 1909 Fall 1909 « 1910 Spring and Summer 1911 Spring 1912 Spring and Summer 1912 Fall 1912 « 1912 Summer Applied one ton per acre — fine ground rock phosphate Plowed for corn for next year Crop of corn Applied limestone, two tons per acre Crop of soy beans Crop of wheat Clover sowed in wheat Timothy and more clover Meadow and pasture Meadow and pasture Applied rock phosphate Plowed for corn Crop of corn Oats — volunteer clover appeared Clover harvested Plowed for wheat Applied limestone- Wheat harvest -two tons per acre Six loads per acre of barnyard manure were applied once during the ten years. Only 39 acres were in wheat, a lane having been fenced off on one side of the field. The yields were as follows : A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE 116 I1/* acres, with farm manure only, ll*^ bushels per acre. ll/2 acres, with farm manure and one application of ground limestone, 15 bushels per acre. 36 acres, with farm manure, two applications of ground limestone and two of fine ground phosphate, in the rota- tion as described above, 35!/2 bushels per acre. An Acre of Wheat I* nd treated with nanure. Limestone & Phosphate FIG. 17. EXHIBIT SHOWING THE VALUE OF LIME AND PHOSPHATE Here we have a yield of wheat about double that of the average land of the state. The practical farmer will nat- urally ask, "What did all this cost?" The average annual SOILS 117 cost for the purchase, delivery, and application of the lime- stone and phosphate was $1.75 per acre. In the ten years, then, the total cost was $17.50 per acre. Add to this the original cost, $15 per acre, making $32.50, and still you have pretty cheap land to produce double the average of the state. Doctor Hopkins puts it -this way: "The average annual investment of $1.75 resulted in an increase of 24 bushels of wheat (351/2 — 11%) per acre. Thus we may say that the application of these two natural rocks, or stones, brought about the production in 1913 of 864 bushels of wheat, an amount sufficient to furnish a year's supply of bread for more than a hundred people." This story of the Poorland Farm is a remarkable instance of the conservation of one of our greatest resources, the soil. Conservation means a saving of the resource by a wise use of it. At the end of ten years of use the soil on the "Poor- land Farm" is producing more wheat than the average pro- duction of the state, and at the same time its fertility is increasing year by year. Summary of facts on soil fertility. In the following para- graphs the basic facts of the Illinois system of permanent fertility are summarized. These should be thoroughly un- derstood and become the ready knowledge of every student of agriculture. All agricultural plants are made of ten elements, five of which are always provided by nature in abundance, carbon .and oxygen taken from the air, hydrogen from water, and iron and sulphur from the soil. Man need not concern him- self about these five elements. His fertility problem is thus 118 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE at once reduced to a consideration of the other elements, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. The Illinois system of permanent soil fertility recognizes that there is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the air, and provides for its utilization as needed; also that there is an inexhaustible supply of potassium in the soil which may also be liberated and utilized as needed. It also recognizes that the supply of phosphorus in the common Illinois soil is very limited, that phosphorus is contained neither in the air nor in the rain, and consequently that phosphorus must be purchased and applied to the soil in larger amounts than are removed in crops if the productive power of the soil is to be increased and permanently maintained. The Illinois system also recognizes that soils should be sweet, not acid or sour, and that ground limestone will destroy acidity and also provide calcium, Avhich is sometimes deficient ; and, finally, that if magnesium is also deficient in the soil, which is rarely the case, it, too, may be provided, together with calcium, in dolomitic limestone, which is the most common limestone of northern Illinois, and which consists of the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. These are the simple basic facts which every man should make a part of his ready knowledge, and then proceed to make use of in his farm practice. There is no one order of procedure that is best under all conditions, and the step which should be taken first in one season may not be best in another season. However, these are minor matters, the same as the time of plowing, the time SOILS H9 of planting corn, and the question of threshing from the stack or after stacking. One method of procedure in the beginning of a system of permanent soil fertility is to spread one ton of finely ground rock phosphate per acre on pasture land or clover meadow and plow it under; then apply twe to four tons of limestone per acre, mix it with the soil in preparing the seed-bed, sow- ing wheat in the fall and clover the next spring; or apply rock phosphate where manure has been spread, and plow both under for corn; then apply the limestone before plant- ing the corn. Both phosphate and limestone are then in the soil ready to benefit oats and clover which may follow the next year after corn. After the first rotation, half of these quantities of fer- tilizer once every four or five years is sufficient to main- tain permanently the supply of both limestone and phos- phorus. While limestone and phosphate, when properly used, increase the yields of wheat, oats, and corn, their most im- portant use in permanent agriculture is to make possible the production of large yields of clover and other legumes which may be returned to the soil in large part, either with crop residue or in farm manure, in order to provide both nitrogen and organic matter, and thus complete a system of permanent soil fertility. Benefits are also insured from the physical improvement of the soil which is brought about by the addition both of organic matter and of limestone. The important question remains, how much clover or manure must be returned to the soil to maintain the supply 120 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE of nitrogen. To replace the nitrogen carried away in a 60- bushel crop of corn would require nine tons of manure or two and a quarter tons of clover per acre. The important thing is to use the facts concerning the amount of nitrogen in manure and crops, and return enough to the soil to pro- vide for the grain crops, having such yields as are desirable or possible under permanent systems. The following facts should help us to solve this problem: NITROGEN SUPPLIES AND REQUIREMENTS Manure and produce Nitrogen 1 ton average manure 10 pounds 1 ton clover hay 40 1 ton alfalfa hay 50 " 100 bu. corn. 100 " 3 tons corn stalks 48 " 100 bu. oats 66 " 2% tons oat straw. 31 " 50 bu. wheat 71 " 2y2 tons wheat straw 25 " ON LIVE-STOCK FARMS For the live-stock farmer I would suggest a five-field rota- tion system besides the pasture land. Four of these fields may be used for a four-year rotation of corn, oats, and clover, while the fifth field grows alfalfa for perhaps five years, after which the alfalfa field may be put into the four-year rotation, and one of the other fields used for alfalfa for another five-year period, and so on. If the manure is saved with reasonable care, as many tons should be returned to the soil as the number of tons of air-dry produce that are SOILS 121 hauled off. It may be assumed that the roots and stubble of the clover and alfalfa contain no more nitrogen than was furnished by the soil for those crops, but that the nitrogen contained in the hay harvested may represent new nitrogen taken from the air. With the information thus far secured this is a reasonable basis to figure on for soils of moderate productive power. For the grain and hay farmer this rotation may well be modified by substituting wheat for the first corn crop, thus growing wheat, corn, oats, and clover in the four-year rota- tion, and alfalfa on the fifth field. If only the grain, clover seed, and the alfalfa hay are sold, all stalks, straw, and clover (except the seed) being returned to the land, the nitrogen and organic matter may be maintained by the grain and hay farmer, provided a cover crop of clover is also seeded on the wheat ground in the spring to be plowed under late in the following fall or sufficiently early the next spring so as to get the land in good shape for corn. Where there is no permanent pasture land, the live-stock farmer may seed both clover and timothy with the oats, and then use the field two or three years for meadow and pas- ture, thus making a six-field or seven-field system. With some modifications, a system of mixed farming may be prac- ticed in which some crops are sold and others fed to live stock. NOTEBOOK QUESTIONS 1. Why is the soil our greatest natural resource? 2. List the agencies active in the formation of the soil. 122 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE 3. What are the types of soil of your local community? 4. Show how water may be a limiting factor in the pro- duction of the maximum crops. 5. What is meant by active organic matter in the soil? 6. Give some values of cultivation of soil. 7. What is meant by a live soil? 8. Name the ten plant-food elements and give their com- mon source. 9. Which elements are most abundant and which are likely to be deficient? 10. What farm crops are the heaviest feeders on soil fer- tility? 11. What is meant by available plant-food in the soil? 12. How is plant-food lost from the soil? 13. What is meant by green manure, and what is its value ? 14. Mention all the values of organic matter in soil fer- tility. 15. What are the most economic sources of nitrogen, phos- phorus, and calcium in systems of permanent soil fertility ? 16. Compare the cost of commercial forms of nitrogen with the natural source in legume crops. 17. Compare the cost of acid phosphate with raw rock phosphate. 18. What is meant by complete fertilizer? 19. Explain why the Poorland Farm mentioned in the preceding chapter was poor land. What were the essential steps in restoring this farm? (The answer to this question should be an explanation of a system of permanent soil fer- tility.) 20. (a) To produce 100 pounds of grain requires about 3 pounds of nitrogen, of which 2 pounds are deposited in the grain itself and 1 pound in the straw or stalks. (b) In live-stock farming one-fourth of the nitrogen in the food consumed is retained in the animal products — meat, SOILS 123 milk, wool, and so on — and three-fourths may be returned to the land in the excrements if saved without loss. (c) When grown on soils of normal productive capacity, legumes secure about two-thirds of their total nitrogen from the air and one-third from the soil. (d) Clover and other biennial or perennial legumes have about two-thirds of their total nitrogen in the tops and one- third in the roots, while the roots of cow-peas and other annual legumes contain only about one-tenth of their total nitrogen. (e) Hay made from our common legumes contains about 40 pounds of nitrogen per ton. (f ) Average farm manure contains 10 pounds of nitrogen per ton. Question: How many tons of average farm manure must be applied to a 40-acre field in order to provide as much nitrogen as would be added to the soil by plowing under 2 1/2 tons of clover per acre? Answer — 400 tons. PRACTICAL EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS 1. Field trip study of soil formation. Early in the study of soils the instructor should take the class to places previ- ously noted where there are good examples of soil formation by weathering, by plant action, by animals, and by other agencies discussed in the chapter. Require the pupils to take notes on observations made. 2. Comparison of surface soil and subsoil. Go to a field and get three soil samples as follows: (a) Scrape away the plant growth and surface trash, take a sample of soil just below this, and seal it air-tight in a small jar. (b) Dig or bore down to a depth of six inches and take another sample of soil. 124 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE (c) Secure a third sample from a depth of twelve inches from the surface. Return to the laboratory and weigh out four ounces of each sample of soil. Spread each sample in a shallow pan and allow to dry for two or more days. Weigh each sample again. The difference between these weights and the first ones is the amount of water in the soils removed by evapora- tion. Note the color of each sample of soil. Examine with hand lens to see the size of soil particles. Heat each sample in an iron spoon until everything that will burn has been burned, and weigh each sample again. The difference between these weights and the last ones shows approximately the amount of organic matter in each. The last weights show the amounts of mineral matter in the soil samples. Tabulate the results as follows: Depth of soil Color Amount of moisture Amount of organic matter Amount of mineral matter Size of soil particles Type of soil 1 inch . . 6 inches 12 inches Repeat this exercise with samples from different fields. 3. Physical examination of soil particles. Pulverize air- dry samples of sand, loam, clay, and gravel. Place a few grains of each sample of soil on a white paper and examine with hand lens. Tabulate your observations as follows: SOILS 125 Soil type Color — White, gray, brown, black Shape — Angular or round Condition — Single or compound particles Size- Coarse, medium or fine Sand Loam Clay Gravel .... 4. Soil studies for water content. Go to the field and with an augur take samples of surface soil, subsurface, and sub- soil. Cover the samples in air-tight fruit jars, and take to the laboratory for further study. To determine the amount of capillary water in the soils, weigh the soil when taken, and after it is thoroughly air-dried weigh again. Note the difference as to capillary water. To determine the hygroscopic water, use the air-dried samples above obtained, note the weight made, then submit the soil to a temperature of 212° F. This drives off all hygroscopic water. Weigh again, and the difference should indicate the amount of this form of water. 5. Determination of volume, weight, and specific gravity of soils. Procure a given volume of soil. Weigh and deter- mine specific gravity by methods common in physical labora- tory. 6. Capillary rise of water. Fill glass tubes, preferably three feet in length and an inch or two in diameter, with air- dried soil representing as many different types as are avail- able, such as sand, clay, loam, etc. Tie a cloth over the lower 126 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE end of each tube and fill with soil. Fasten the tubes with one end lowered in a vessel of water. Note from hour to hour the first day, and for twenty-four-hour periods after- wards, the rate and height of the rise of water in each type of soil. 7. Water-holding capacity of different soils. Fill tubes similar to the ones given in the preceding exercise with the same types of soil, and weigh the soil in each tube. Sup- port the tubes so that water may be poured at the top and be permitted to percolate through the soil. As soon as the water begins to drip through the soils, cease pouring water upon them and after the dripping has stopped weigh the tubes to determine the amount of water held in the soils. This exercise will also show variations in the rate of per- colation of water through the different types of soil. These facts should be noted, also, in recording the results of this exercise. 8. Effect of the soil mulch. Fill two vessels with equal weights of the same kind of moist soil. Stir the surface of one, and leave the other with the surface the same. Continue stirring the surface from day to day and note the difference in the weights of the two vessels. Explain the result of this exercise. 9. Effects of lime on physical condition. Make up a clay mud-ball mixed with ordinary rain water, and a second ball mixed with saturated limewater. Place the two balls aside for two days. Note the difference with which the two balls may be crumbled. Explain. 10. Effect of manures on physical condition of soil. Put some finely-screened clay in each of two pans. Pour the same amount of water into each pan and stir each until you have a thick, well-mixed mass. Into one pan mix thoroughly a handful of well-rotted manure or leaf -mould. Set both pans aside for the soil to dry. Which dries first? Why? When SOILS 127 thoroughly dry, crush the soil in each pan. Note the hard- ness of each soil. Write two sentences on the value of manures or other organic matter to a soil. 11. Observational study of the plant-food elements. Have samples of some form of the ten plant-food elements de- scribed in the chapter for observational work in these studies. 12. Testing soils for acidity. *£ring in samples of soil from the various homes of the community to test for acidity. Cover a bit of blue litmus paper with moist soil, and after ten minutes examine the litmus paper. If it has turned red, it is an indication that the soil is acid. If hydrochloric acid be poured upon the soil and it effervesces, it is an indication that carbonates are present and that the soil does not need limestone to correct the acidity. 13. Soil drainage demonstration. There is on the market now a very practical and simple piece of equipment called the soil drainage apparatus which should be used in this exercise to demonstrate the principles of drainage and to illus- trate the process. Directions will not be given here, for they accompany the apparatus when purchased. 14. Simple soil tests for nitrogen. To tell accurately the amount of nitrogen in soil requires elaborate equipment, but the following method will answer for practical purposes and does not require much apparatus. In a clean glass vessel which can be heated place two tablespoonfuls of the soil to be tested. Add fifteen table- spoonfuls of ten per cent caustic potash solution. In another vessel add fifteen tablespoonfuls of water to two tablespoon- fuls of soil. This is the control. Heat both samples to the boiling point, and set them aside for five minutes. If at the end of that time the solution which contains the caustic potash is black and opaque, the soil is rich in nitrogen. If it is merely dark and allows light to pass through it, the nitrogen content 128 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE of the soil is low. If the solution is yellowish, there is prac- tically no nitrogen content. Compare the sample containing only water with the one containing the caustic potash. Test several samples of soil by this method, and record results as follows : Soil samples Nitrogen content high Nitrogen content medium Nitrogen content low . 1 2 3 * 15. Pot cultures of community soils. In order to deter- mine the limiting plant-food elements hi the soils of the locality, the pot culture method is a practical one to use. As many different systems of pots may be employed as there are farmers represented by members of the class. For each soil type to be studied secure ten "four-gallon earthen, jars. Fill each jar with the same kind of soil, taken from the field to be tested. Make sure that there is drainage from the bot- tom of the jar. Treat the soil in each jar as follows: Jar No. 1 — Nothing. " 2 — Lime (hydrated), 12.5 grams. Well rotted barnyard manure (a sufficient amount worked into the soil to cover the surface about two or three inches). " 3 — Lime; nitrogen (dried blood, 15 grams). " " 4 — Lime; phosphorus (bone-meal, 6 grams). " 5 — Lime; potassium (potassium sulphate, 3 grams). " 6 — Lime; nitrogen; phosphorus. " " 7 — Lime; nitrogen; potassium. " " 8 — Lime; phosphorus; potassium. " " 9 — Lime; nitrogen; phosphorus; potassium. " " 10— Virgin soil, untreated. SOILS 129 Use the same amounts and forms for the lime, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in each application given above as directed in jars Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5. The best way to incor- porate these fertilizers in the soil is to apply them in the form of solution. Sow in each pot equal amounts of wheat or oats, and give the samples the same care and attention regarding light, temperature, and moisture. Note the growth of the plant from week to week. The growth of the plant should indicate the limiting plant-food element in the type of soil under observation. Record fully this experiment in the notebook. 16. Outdoor plot experiments with various fertilizers in methods of soil improvement. For a demonstration plot at the school, the following plan is feasible, providing labor is available and a long time policy of management is possible. Arrangement and Numbering of Plots 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 21 22 23 24 25 30 31 32 33 34 35 40 41 42 43 44 45 General suggestions: Every boundary line should be a grass or gravel walk three feet wide. Every square should be 18 by 18 feet. Before harvesting crops, for records, each plot or square should be cut to a perfect rod square. For yield per acre, multiply by 160. Rotations should be conducted as follows : Plots 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 — Continuous corn crops. " 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 — Corn and oats rotation. " 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 — Corn, oats and clover rotation. 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 — Corn, oats, clover and wheat rotation. 130 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE The experiments in the value of standard fertilizers could be tested in this way: Plots 10, 20, 30, 40— Nothing. " 11, 21, 31, 41 — Apply farm manure (rate 3 or 4 tons per acre). " 12, 22, 32, 42 — Manure and lime (lime, 2 tons per acre). " 13, 23, 33, 43 — Manure, lime and phosphorus (phosphorus, 1 ton per acre). , " 14, 24, 34, 44 — Manure, lime, phosphorus, and potassium (kai- nit, 400 Ibs. per acre). " 15, 25, 35, 45 — Nothing, and remove all vegetable matter be- fore it decays. Complete records of the treatment of the soil and of crop yields, together with an accurate map of the plots, should be kept. PART II ANIMAL HUSBANDRY CHAPTER IX FARM ANIMALS AND LIVE-STOCK FARMING Live-stock fanning. So important are farm animals in agriculture that whole systems of farming are built about the live-stock interests. Without discussing the comparative merits of live-stock farming and grain farming, we must all agree that the raising of live stock on any farm has its advantages both to the farm and to the public good. Since the decrease of live stock on the great ranges of the West, and since general farmers have commonly stopped raising cattle because they were unable to compete with the production of the range, the raising of live stock has decreased in the United States until in the last decade we have had an 8 per cent decrease of live stock and a 25 per cent increase of our population. As a public question, therefore, it is of prime importance that the farms of the country begin the business of raising more live stock. This would, furthermore, work to the advantage of the individual farmer. The raising of live stock on the farm enables farmers to utilize profitably much material that would otherwise be of little value. Moreover, by feeding his fodder and grain to animals he can get much more than 131 132 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE by selling them directly. Besides this the waste materials are returned to the soil as fertilizer. Another value of live stock on the farm which must be noted is the satisfaction and pride which the business gives to the farmer, especially if he has good farm, animals, and this satisfaction is no small asset in successful agriculture. Pure breds versus scrubs. All these values of live stock on the farm are truer if we have pure-bred stock instead of scrubs. With the same amount of feed the pure- bred or well-bred animal converts it into the produce desired more efficiently. The good cow turns the food given her into larger and better quantities of milk; the good beef animal converts the food into large quantities of high-grade meat; the good hen utilizes her food in the production of the maxi- mum amount of eggs in the fall and winter season ; the good horse converts his food into energy and endurance at the minimum cost ; and so on through the whole live-stock list. The pure-bred animals have been bred up so that the desir- able characteristics are fixed and hereditary, and these char- acteristics are maintained by economical feeding and care. All this implies that well-bred animals bring more money on the market, and this fact alone would justify their production. The point made in the last paragraph that farm animals con- tribute to the pride of the farmers in his vocation is especially true of animals of the pure-bred type. The production of well-bred animals leads the farmer to improve his place, prob- ably name his farm, advertise his goods, and bring to his home and family all the best things which an interest in good farm animals will bring. CHAPTER X THE HORSE Horses and automobiles. Though the automobile and gas engine may seem to be displacing the horse in some in- stances, the high prices and great demand for good horses lead us to believe that mechanical power is not a successful substitute for the horse in all its work, nor that it is ever likely to be. We can not imagine a farm without horses. Probably most of our present enjoyment of comforts and conveniences is traceable to our friend and servant, the horse. There are about one-fourth as many horses in our country as there are people, and about three-fourths of these horses are on the farm. We are indebted to the horses that do the work on the farms for the production of most of our food. Horses are increasing in esteem and numbers, and more atten- tion is being paid to their health and comfort. The great question on the farm today is how to plan the farming opera- tions so that the horse labor will be used more effectively, thus reducing the number of horses and getting more efficient use of those that remain. The work of horses. Different kinds of horses are adapted to different kinds of work. One horse may draw a buggy along the road at the rate of ten miles an hour, and thus be 133 134 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE valuable as a roadster. Another may draw his share of a load of one ton or more and be of service as a draft horse. One may be just as useful to the owner as the other, each performing the work to which he is best adapted. With horses as with men, work is the result of the action of the muscles. About 40 per cent of the weight of the horse is muscle. Muscles of locomotion are attached to tendons and bones, and by contracting and expanding cause the bones to move. The lower part of the horse's leg is nearly all bone, but the muscles which move it are in the upper part of the leg and in the body. The common idea about the muscles of horses is often expressed, "Long muscles for speed; short muscles for power." In buying horses to draw heavy loads, we look for large and heavy muscles, while in driving horses we attach greater importance to length of muscles. Most of the horse's propelling muscles are in the hind quarters, and if you watch a horse pulling a heavy load you may be sur- prised to see that most of the work is being done with the hind legs. It is very important that there be large, strong hocks; the croup should be wide and straight; quarters and thighs, deep and heavily muscled; the legs straight and placed squarely under the body. It is very desirable, also, that a horse should have a rather short back; that is, short from the hips to the withers. We are to learn that the hind parts really push the rest of the body along; therefore a long back would hinder easy and rapid motion. Of course the front parts of the horse are very important ; for no matter how strong the hind quarters are, if there is anything seriously wrong with the forelegs, he THE HORSE 135 can not travel well. The front knees of the horse should be large, straight, and angular, and, when viewed from in front, the feet should be in line with the legs. Appearance of horses. Everyone likes to see a beautiful horse, and even if a person has not studied horses he knows an attractive horse with good style .and carriage when he sees FIG 18. A GOOD FARM TEAM it. No matter what kind of work horses are kept to do, it is desirable that they look well. Much of the appearance of horses depends upon their flesh and fettle and the groom- ing they have had, but more depends upon the breeding. We like to see a horse with proper length of neck forming a crest rising upwards from the bodj^, with the head and nose 136 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE pointed a little forward, the ears erect and rather close together, the eyes large and bright, and the whole body neat, trim, and gracefully poised. BREEDS AND TYPES OF HORSES Some horse history. The horse was probably the next animal after the dog to be domesticated. Its immediate ances- try is almost a matter of conjecture, since there have been no really wild horses within historic times. Down deep in the rocks, geologists have found remains of an animal that apparently was a relative of the horse. This ancient horse was smaller than ours, and, in place of one toe and hoof on each foot, he had three toes. Other remains were found of horses with five toes. The splint bones, the slender bones on either side of the long bone just below the knee, are all that is left of the two outside toes of the three-toed horse. The wild ass of Abyssinia, the zebra, and quagga of South America, are the modern relatives of our horses. The early use of the horse was to carry man on his back in hunting the fleeter game, and in waging war. The horse has never been used for food except in France, though recently such use has been recognized in New York and in other sec- tions as an emergency food. As man became more civilized, he found new uses for the horse, until now, in the twentieth century, even the gas engine can not detract from the great number of services which this beast performs. The various uses to which man has put the horse has caused the different types and breeds to develop. Draft horses are heavy and THE HORSE 137 strong and move best at a walk. They have been developed for power. Driving horses are built for speed and style, are quicker, and are characterized by long, even strides in the run and by great powers of endurance. Thoroughbreds. Students of history will recall the great Crusades in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when Eng- land, France, and Germany sent warriors to rescue the Holy Land from the Saracens. They were strong men mounted on large horses of great endurance, but the warriors were surprised to find the Saracens mounted on splendid horses more beautiful than any they had ever seen, the agile Ara- bian horse, bred for a thousand years for speed and endur- ance. The Englishmen took some of these beautiful Arabian horses back home with them, and, by breeding them with the best of the old English horses, developed the Thorough- breds. Barley Arabia, Gadolphus Arabian, and Byrley Turk are three Archian stallions that figure in the development of the Thoroughbred. They were used in tournaments or mock battles, in fox hunting, and also in horse racing. Only the pedigreed horses .could enter the races, and hence they became known as Thoroughbreds. Thoroughbred is the proper name for the English running horse, the oldest established breed in the world, and this horse became the foundation for all American trotters and saddle horses. Draft horses. The Arabian horses which the Frenchmen took back from the Crusades were bred with the common farm horses of France, and the modern Percheron is the result. Though as heavy as any other draft horse, he has good action inherited from the early Arabian stock. The 138 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE Belgian was developed from the old heavy horses of Flanders. The Shire and Clydesdale were developed from the old stock of heavy horses of the British Isles and the horses of Flanders. England early developed the coach horse, lighter than the draft horse but heavier than the Thoroughbred. The modern Cleveland bay is the descendant of this coach horse. The farm horse. Of all the types of horses, the draft horse of from .1600 to 2200 pounds is the one the farmer FIG. 19. A PERCHERON STALLION maintains most successfully. This is because the weight and strength of the draft horses enable them to do the general work of the farm, and because they may be put on the mar- ket with less training than other classes of horses require. THE HORSE 139 FIG. 20. A SHIRE STALLION The well-to-do farmer often keeps carriage or road horses. These are a kind of coach horse fifteen or sixteen hands high, of beautiful form, and even temperament. The Percheron. The Percheron draft horse is a native of La Perch a, France. It is noted for its massive size, good quality, endurance, and action. Stallions usually weigh from 1700 to 2000 pounds. They range from fifteen and one-half to seventeen hands high. The color is variable, though black and dapple gray predominate. This is the most common breed of heavy draft horse in the United States. The Shire. The Shire draft horse was developed in Eng- land about 150 years ago. It is commonly known as the old- est breed of "cart horse" (this term is also applied to Bel- 140 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE gians), and for heavy draft it is unexcelled. Shires often make the heaviest of all draft horses, sometimes weighing 2300 pounds. Bay or brown is the preferred color, with white on the forehead and on the legs below the knees and hocks. Grays and blacks are common. Long hair on the back of the cannons is a breed characteristic. FIG. 21. A CLYDESDALE MARE The Clydesdale. The Clydesdale draft horse originated in Scotland. It is an active breed, not so massive as the Percheron nor so heavy as the Shire. The weight varies from 1600 to 2000 pounds. Bay or brown with white on the fore- head and on the legs below the knees and hocks is the most THE HORSE 141 common marking, though there are many blacks and grays. Like the Shire, the long hair on the back of the cannons is a breed characteristic. The Belgian. The Belgian breed has been developed to a high standard through the great interest shown in horse breeding by the people of Belgium jand the assistance given by their government. Unfortunately, in pushing through Belgium in the present war, the Germans have almost totally destroyed the horse breeding establishments of these brave and courageous people. Before the war, however, many of these horses were brought to the United States each year and thus the breed will be saved. The Belgian horses are the blockiest of all draft breeds. They are not as large as the Shire, but being so thick fleshed are equally as heavy. Grading up of horses. The term " grading up" applies to the practice of mating common bred mares to pure-bred stallions, or the reverse, thus producing half-breeds. Half- breeds mated back to pure breeds of the same breed will increase the pure blood percentage in the offspring from one- half to three-fourths, and the next such cross to seven-eighths, and so on for each successive generation. A constructive grading-up process for the average farm community would be by the male line of pure-bred ancestors. If there are no enterprising, progressive men in the locality who are standing pure-bred, registered draft stallions, the first step would be to organize a community association to secure co-operatively the desired sires, and to promote the horse breeding industry. After a careful study of the mar- 142 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE ket. a class should be decided upon that is having a brisk demand in the sale ring, and a brood mare should be selected of that type and conformation. This will gradually eliminate for breeding purposes all those specimens described by the horseman as unsound, " stork" legged, "wasp" waisted, 1 1 washy ' ' coupled, and of faulty action. Those chosen should not only be sound and of the desired conformation, according to breed and type, but should show their sex characteristics in head and neck, having expressiopi mild, forequarters fine but well formed, chest deep, barrel roomy, and hips wide apart, indicating ability to exercise the maternal functions. By mating these "hand-picked," sound, suitable grade mares with sound, muscular, pure-bred, registered stallions, the result cannot help but be promising. Continue to use the best obtainable pure-bred stallions of the same breed on the mares, and thus profit by the accumulation of the blood of the desired breed in the grading-up process. To mate a draft mare of the farm chunk type to a high« strung, standard- bred, 2:10 trotter with plenty of stamina or "class" may result in a fairly good foal from the cross, but one which does not fall under any of the established market classes and which, would have to sell at a sacrifice. Not only will that particular cross be unprofitable, but further progress in grading-up will be stopped because the preponderance of blood of the recognized breed has been lost. If, on the other hand, a grade mare is bred to a stallion of the same breed used in her grading-up, her filly foal will be one step nearer pure blood than her dam? and, if the process is continued, further progress in establishing purity of blood and the other THE HORSE desired characteristics which are associated with it will result. The mating of mares to pure-bred draft stallions is not all there is in securing uniformity of type and conformation in the offspring ; the feed, shelter, care, and handling are impor- tant items in producing good specimens of any class of live stock. JUDGING THE HORSE Points in judging the horse. The heavy draft horse is one of the most profitable classes of horses the farmer can raise. In judging the draft horse, as in judging all farm animals, these points are first noted: size, soundness, conformation, quality, action, and condition. In noting conformation, five main points must be observed closely: general appearance or form, head and neck, fore quarters, hind quarters, and body. These heads are subdivided into several minor points noted in the score-card, and one must study them carefully in order to be able to judge horses. General appearance. To judge the general appearance of a horse, view him from both sides and ends at a distance of about 20 feet. Ascertain in your mind the height and weight, and observe closely the general form and conforma- tion. The draft horse should be broad, smooth, and mas- sive, with all bony projections well covered with flesh. The skin must be soft, the hair smooth and fine. Care- fully observe the action of the horse. The stride should be straight, regular, long, elastic, and fast. The trot should be straight, springy, and free. While watching all the above qualities, the temper should be observed; the expression of 144 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE the eye and the carriage of the ears very often indicate the disposition of the animal. Head and neck. The head must be clean cut, well carried ; the profile straight and in good proportion to the size of the body. The eyes and ears should be examined with great care. Back the horse into a dark shed with the head to the light and place the hand over the eyes for about thirty seconds. Then remove the hand and watch the expansion and con- traction of the pupils. The pupils should be of the same color, elliptical in shape, and should respond readily to the light by expanding and contracting. Examine the top of the head for any enlargement such as Poll evil. The ears should be medium in size, carried well forward, and alert. The jaws should be clean, uniform, and straight. Fore quarters. The shoulders are especially important in a good draft horse. They should be smoothly muscled, mod- erately sloping, and extending well into the back. The arms should be short and heavily muscled, while the forearm should be longer and, from a side view, wide and well muscled. The knee seen from the front should be wide and straight. The cannons should be straight and short, and the tendons back of them strong and well set back from the bone. The pas- terns should be moderately sloping, showing great strength. The feet should be equal in size and the horn thick and dense and not inclined to be brittle. The toe should be straight, not turned in or out, the soles convex, the bars strong, the frog long and elastic, and the heels wide and well sprung. The body. The body includes the withers, chest, ribs, back, and loins. The withers must be broad and muscled to THE HORSE 145 the top, the chest deep and round. The breast should be wide and carried low, giving a large girth; the ribs long and well sprung. The back should be short, broad, and well muscled. The loins should be short, wide, and flat, and the underline should be long and moderately curved. The flanks full and even, denoting a good feeder. Hind quarters. The hind quarters include more points to be noted than any other part of the animal. The thighs should be broad, smooth, and level; the croup moderately drooping, long, and heavily muscled; the tail attached high and well carried ; the thigh deep, short, and heavily muscled ; the quarter (between the thighs) plump and full; the stifle clean, round, and well fleshed; the gaskins long, wide, and smooth; the hocks, viewed from in front, broad, clean, and flat, and strongly supported below. The cannons are a little wider and longer than those in front; the pasterns and toes a little less sloping and shorter than those in the front legs. The feet are less rounding, but otherwise they should corre- spond exactly with those in the front. THE FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES Feeding the horse. Considerable attention should be given to the feeding and care of the horse for the sake of his health and comfort. The horse has a small stomach and, therefore, should not be fed a large amount of food at one time; but that which is given must be nutritious. Nearly all diseases of the digestive organs are the result of improper feeding. Mouldy or musty foods should never be fed. A 146 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE number of serious digestive disorders among horses often result from feeding corn in mouldy condition. A rather recent trouble among horses is forage poisoning, originat- ing from mouldy or other fungous growths eaten by the horse. Rations for horses. Corn and timothy hay alone are not good feeding rations for working horses. In this feed there is not enough protein food to keep the horse in the best con- dition. Oats and corn, with mixed clover and timothy hay for roughage, make a fairly good ration for the horse. Alfalfa hay, if well cured, is good and a great favorite with horses; with corn and oats it makes a good ration for the working horse. Corn may be fed in the ear, shelled, cracked, or chopped. The chopped corn is too fine, however, to be well digested. Ear corn and oats, half and half, make a good food commonly used on the farm. Patent stock foods are not to be used under any circumstances. Horses should be fed three times a day, as follows: The grain ration divided into three equal parts and fed morning, noon, and night. One-half the hay should be fed at night and one-fourth at morning and at noon. In general about one pound of con- centrate (grain) and one pound of roughage (hay) should be fed per one hundred pounds live weight of animal. A horse doing heavy work should receive from one and one- fourth to one and one-half pounds of concentrate and one pound of roughage per one hundred pounds live weight. A fifteen-hundred-pound horse at heavy work should receive, if fed corn, oats in ratio of two to one, and alfalfa hay — • fourteen pounds of corn (twenty ears) and six pounds of THE HORSE 147 oats (one and one-fourth gallons) and fifteen pounds of alfalfa hay per day. Salt should be given to the work horses once or twice a week. Watering the horse. The water horses drink does not lodge in the stomach but passes on to the large colon of the intestine, except when the stomach is full. When horses are very thirsty they immerse their whole nose in the water to prevent drawing in the air. Horses, like all farm animals, prefer and ought to have pure water. A good practice is to water immediately before and after each feeding, and, if the animals are to be left in the stall over night, to water again after their hay has been cleaned up. Stables for horses. Stables should be wide and large enough to hold at least two cubic feet of air space for every pound of the horse's weight. The stables should be well lighted; the horse's head should not face the light. Air should not come in as draughts, but the stable should be well ventilated. The floor of the stalls, should be higher in front than behind to allow good drainage. POINTS IN GOOD HORSEMANSHIP Training colts. To be able to break and train a colt is an accomplishment which every farm boy should desire to acquire. Handling and caring for animals has a good influence upon the education and character of boys and girls. "The end to be accomplished in training a colt," says Dean Davenport in his 'Animal Studies/ "is to teach courage, obedience, 148 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE and good workmanship to this wild colt that was never off the farm, never saw the cars perhaps, and that never knew the feeling of halter or harness or experienced reprimand or control of any kind." One can do little toward educating a colt until it can be haltered and taught to lead well. The halter should be strong and plenty of time should be given to teach the colt its first lesson in restraint. Teach it to lead gradually by requiring it to follow you for food. After a colt has been taught to lead, gradually accustom it to things that might frighten horses, as umbrellas, automobiles, blankets, paper, noises, etc. Be kind and speak in a reassuring voice during these trials of the young horse. The hardest lesson of all is to get the young horse to drive in harness. Do not hitch him at first, but teach him to back or turn to the right or left, etc., as you hold the lines. Give the colt the word that goes with every action he makes. Do not extend the lessons in breaking over one hour at a time. After the colt has submitted to be driven, hitch him to a cart. A draft colt can best be "broken" by hitching him with a quiet, gentle mare. Then a new line of good horsemanship is needed, a few points of which we can merely mention here. Hold a tight rein and keep cool. Let the colt understand that "whoa" means to stop; "back" means to back; "steady" means to go slowly; and "get up" means to go on. Do not use unnec- essary and contradictory words such as "whoa back" and "whoa haw," and never use profanity. Do not overwork or overdrive the horse. He is flesh and blood and not a machine. THE HORSE 149 It is best not to use the high over-check rein. The over-draw check is used for single harness, and the side-check or bear- ing rein for double harness work horses. Keeping* the horse comfortable. One point in good horse- manship is to see that the horse is. properly shod. Every owner should understand how a Ahorse should be shod, so that he can insist on the blacksmith shoeing him properly. Harness should be well fitted to the size of the horse. If the collar is too large or too small, sore necks will result, as well as other troubles. The harness should be kept well cleaned and oiled, not only to prevent rapid wearing out, but to give greater comfort to the horse. Never put a frosty bit into the horse's mouth. Warm it by breathing on it or holding it in the hand. The horse should never be left facing the cold wind, and should always be blanketed when left to stand in the cold. Examine the horse's teeth frequently. A horse can not eat properly when his teeth are poor. Use a curry comb and brush freely upon the horse, especially the brush. Laws of the road. A good driver observes and knows all the courtesies of the road. He turns to the right and gives half of the road to those he meets, and all the road, if pos- sible, to a loaded wagon. He permits anyone to pass who wishes to drive faster than he, and, if he passes another, he drives far enough ahead to avoid annoying him by the dust. Recent laws have been made in different states regarding the automobile and its rules in regard to horse traffic along the road, but a gentleman chauffeur and a good horseman need have no trouble about the laws of the road. 150 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE THE HORSE'S PLEA Please give us water often. Please give us a moment's rest on the way up the hill. Please do not overload us and make us pull too long in deep mud ; we are doing our best. Please do not use the whip ; it is seldom necessary. Please remember we will respond to a word as well as to a blow. Please look out for our health and do not work us when we are sick. Please see that we are properly shod. Please be sure that we have enough to eat and that we are fed regularly. Please see that the harness fits and does not chafe sore or tender spots. COMMON DISEASES OF THE HORSE AND WHAT TO Do FOR THEM Symptoms of illness. There are many symptoms by which a farmer may detect when there is something wrong with his horses. The temperature, the pulse rate, and the rate of breathing may be of assistance to the farmer in examining the horse to determine whether anything is wrong with his health. Most farmers after a little experience can tell whether or not fever is present by placing the hand behind the fore- leg, between the hind legs, or in the horse's mouth. In particular cases of sickness considerable importance is attached to the attitude and action of the horse. In most THE HORSE 151 cases it is advisable to call in a veterinarian when the horse is ill, but the farmer should know the symptoms of some of the common diseases and should know what to do until the doctor comes. Colic. The horse is subject to various forms of colic, some of which are quite dangerous and require immediate treatment. Wind colic and cramp colic are most common. In wind colic the horse appears dull, falls to the ground, and breathes hard. Pain is continuous. Charcoal given to the horse often relieves pain. In cramp colic pain begins sud- denly and is often severe. It may be the result of indiges- tion. The horse looks back at his side, paws the ground, lies down, rolls, and gets up frequently. Whiskey and Jamaica ginger or camphor may give relief. In all cases of colic the first thing to do is to give the horse a good physic. One or two quarts of raw linseed oil with one or two ounces of tur- pentine is practical and best for this purpose. All farmers should have on hand about two or three ounces of fluid extract of wild yam, sometimes called colic root. Give the horse one teaspoonful every half hour until relieved. Founder. This disease is known to veterinarians as lamin- itis. It is an inflammation of the horn secreting structure, usually showing digestive disorder or overwork. The dis- ease is painful. The front feet are the most common seat of the disease, although any one or all of them may be affected. In case the front feet are affected, they are placed in advance of the body and the hind feet thrust away under it, appear- ing as if the whole body were sore, though only the feet are affected. When all four feet are inflamed, the horse can 152 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE hardly walk. Varying with the degree of the disease, the connection between the secretive and horny portion of the toe is more or less obliterated. The form of the hoof changes and the heel appears higher and more contracted. Rings form on the walls of the hoof, coming close together at the toe; the hoof is hot and feverish. The sensitive part of the toe, being exposed by the degeneration of the horny struc- ture, is likely to develop horn tumors which are very painful and may result in chronic disorder. Early treatment by a veterinary surgeon may cut short the attack and prevent changes in the form and condition of the hoof. A physic of Epsom salts, one or two pounds, should be given. The horse should be led to a stream of running water and left to stand in it at least two hours ; and then one hour out. Alter- nate this process several times for a whole day. If this can not be done, use sawed-off barrels or tubs and stand the horse in cold water as described above. Lameness. On account of the unusual exposure to strains, the horse is subject to more forms of lameness than any of our domestic animals. Lameness may be due to strains of the muscles, ligaments, or the joint capsules in any part of the leg, shoulders, or pelvic girdles. Usually it is a very dif- ficult matter to indicate the exact cause of lameness in a horse, and we can not describe the veterinarian's system of ascertaining this. Some of the forms of lameness may be mentioned very briefly: a. Splints are the bony enlargements which lie between the knees and fetlock joints on the inside of the legs. These may become a cause of lameness. THE HORSE 153 b. Ringbone is a term applied to a bony growth around the bone just above the coronet of the hoof. This trouble is more serious than splints, but it is possible both to pre- vent and to cure it by methods which can not be discussed here. c. Bone spavin is a bony outgrowth of the hock joint. It interferes in a serious measure with the usefulness of the horse. After spavin has become established there is not much hope of cure. A month or two of rest in the pasture is the best medicine for a spavined horse. d. In addition to these bone diseases, lameness may be caused by various troubles about the joints, such as blood spavin, straining of the joints, or by various foot troubles. Wounds. Too little attention is given to the treatment of wounds in farm animals. Lockjaw and blood-poison are likely to result from the neglect of wounds. Shallow wounds may become exceedingly sore and cause much discomfort to the animals. When cut surfaces are kept perfectly clean, the wound heals much more rapidly, but this is not always pos- sible with farm animals. Never sew stitches in the horse's flesh. The wound should always be treated and bandaged if possible. Applying a solution of carbolic acid and covering the surface with iodof orm, if the wound can not be bandaged, is a treatment which will prevent the entrance of germs and flies. The application of camphor to wounds also prevents the entrance of flies. It should be said in this connection that if farmers were more careful about the use of barbed-wire fences about horse pastures there would be less trouble from wounds among farm horses. 154 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE Moon blindness. This is the name often given to an in- flammation of the interior of the eye. The trouble first appears as a flow of tears with inflammation. This occurs with the regularity of lunar phases ; hence the term moon blindness, though the moon has nothing to do with it. From five to seven attacks usually result in the lens of the eye becoming opaque and the curtain of the iris growing fast to the lens, causing blindness. When the symptoms first appear, a small blister should be made an inch or two under the eye, and the eyes washed in cold water or a solution of boric acid, one teaspoonful in one pound of water. The disease is caused by damp, cold stables, wet, undrained soils, rank, damp fod- der, lack of sunshine, indigestible food, and from hereditary tendencies; not from "wolf teeth," as some people believe. Of course, the removal of these causes is the first step in controlling this disease. THE AGE OF THE HORSE IN VERSE "Two middle nippers you behold Before the colt is two weeks old; Before eight weeks two more will come; Eight months, the "corners" cut the gum. At two, the middle nippers drop; At three, the second pair can't stop; When four years old the third pair goes; At five, a full new set he shows. The deep black spots will pass from view, At six years, from the middle two; The second pair at seven years; At eight, the spots each "corner" clears. THE HORSE 155 From middle nippers, upper jaw, At nine the black spots will withdraw; The second pair at ten are white; Eleven finds the "corners" light. As time goes on the horsemen know The oval teeth three-sided grow; They longer get, project before, Till twenty, when we know no more." NOTEBOOK QUESTIONS 1. Have you read the story of "Black Beauty"? 2. Who said, "My kingdom for a horse"? 3. Have you read Longfellow's poem called the "Belle of Atri"? 4. List some of the uses of horse to man. 5. Name the different types and breeds of horses. 6. How does a horse move its head when biting off grass? Does a cow do the same? 7. Can you tell the age of a horse by his teeth? How? 8. How does a horse lie down? Get up? How does this differ from the cow? 9. What blemishes on a horse would spoil its sale if you were the proposed buyer? 10. How many men would equal the power of one horse? 11. Describe the action of a horse's legs in trotting, pac- ing, and galloping. 12. Bring some interesting article about horses and read it before the class. Briefly review this article in your note- book. 13. Sketch the diagram of the horse's body and write in the names of the parts as numbered on the diagram. 14. What humane work among horses do you think is most needed in your community? 156 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE 15. What improvement in horses is most needed in your community ? PRACTICAL EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS 1. Report of home types and breeds of horses. Fill out the following table as a report of the horses owned on the home farm: Type, Breed and Color Weight Age No. of Horses General Condition 2. Study of external parts of the horse. Before a chart of a horse, or, better still, before a live horse, drill the mem- bers of the class in locating and naming all the most impor- tant external parts used in judging the horse according to the score-card. Every student should be familiar with the names and locations of the parts, and with the common blem- ishes found on the horse's body. 3. Comparative judging1. Drill the students in placing a ring of horses, ranking them first, second, third, etc., accord- ing to conformation, quality, and condition. Let each student be able to give the reason for his ranking of the horses in the judging ring. 4. The use of the score-card. Let each student use the THE HORSE 157 score-card designated by the State Experiment Station and mark the points of the horse according to his best judgment. 5. Harnessing a horse. Have a horse and buggy brought to the schoolyard and let every two members of the class, working together, harness and unharness the horse and hitch it again into the shafts ready for driving. This may be made more interesting by assuming the. nature of a contest, if desired. Practice in harnessing and hitching a team to a wagon is a good exercise. (A home project in cleaning and oiling a set of harness is advised.) 6. Reports from experiences. Let each pupil choose one of the following topics and report some of his own observa- tions or experiences for a written or an. oral recitation: (a) Breaking a Colt. (b) Choosing a Horse. (c) The Horse Barn at Home. (d) Some Laws of the Road. (e) How We Care for Our Horses. (f ) A History and Record of Some Noted Horse. (g) An Observation or Experience in Connection with a Severe Case of Sickness in Horses the Student Has Had. 7. Determination of feed rations. A. A table of foods (amounts in 100 pounds). Carbohydrates Foods Dry matter Protein and fats Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Clover 85. 6.6 39.1 Wheat bran 89. 12. 45.9 Corn 89. 8. 74.5 Timothy hay 86.8 2.8 46.5 B. Problem. What is the nutritive ratio of the following ration : 15 pounds clover hay, 6 pounds wheat bran, 4 pounds corn ? Is this a good ration for a working horse ? 158 A YEAR IN AGRICULTURE Note : A nutritive ratio is the proportion of protein to car- bohydrate and fat, and should be about 1 :6 for a working horse. C. Feeding standards for horses, per day, per 1,000 pounds live weight. Carbohydrate Dry matter Protein and fat Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Horse at light work 20 1.5 10.5 Horse at medium work... 24 2.0 12.4 Horse at heavy work 26 2.5 15.2 D. Determine the nutritive ratio and value as compared with the ration given in the paragraph above on feeding. 8. Plan of a barn. Draw a floor plan for a horse barn on a farm, providing places for harness, grain, box stalls, and vehicles. 9. Some live-stock statistics. Consult the last Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, and list the number and value of horses in the United States. 10. Some feeding determinations. Determine the weight of one quart of corn, oats, and bran. Determine the size of a forkful of hay that will average five pounds. CHAPTER XI DAIRY CATTLE AND THEIR PRODUCTS "The summer days grew cool and late; He went for the cows when the work was done, But down the lane as he opened the gate He saw them coming, one by one." The most important things to learn in> connection with the farm dairy cattle are how to increase the production of milk, both in quantity and quality ; how to fix these desirable char- acteristics in the cows, and how to feed such rations as will give the cow the best advantage of her breeding. Home of dairy breeds. In the English Channel just off the coast of Prance are four little islands that belong to Eng- land. They are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Stark, in order of size. Jersey is just twenty miles across, and Stark is practically uninhabited. The isles of Jersey and Guernsey have each given us a breed of dairy cattle named after their native island and bred pure for many generations. It has long been against the law of the islands to land any live animals there except for immediate slaughter. From Scot- land came the Ayrshire breed. In the eastern part of our country the Ayrshires have long been known and admired. From Holland came the Holstein-Friesian, the breed noted for the quantity or large flow of milk. In size they are the largest dairy breed. In America this breed is very popular for milk production to supply cities. 159 DAIRY CATTLE AND THEIR PRODUCTS 161 DAIRY BREEDS Name Origin Color Approxi- mate weight Milk, quantity and quality Distinguishing characteristics Jersey Jersey Isle Fawn, shad- 750 to 900 Low average High percentage ing to dark. Ibs. yield, high in butter fat. Yel-