Yellowstone

Wildlife

DISCOVERY OF A WONDERLAND

^

More than a century ago, explorers
and fur traders returning from the
wilderness of the Montana Territory
astounded the American people
with tales of a land of lakes, forests,
mountains, and canyons where
giant geysers spouted, springs boiled,
and wildlife abounded. Coming
from such men as Jim Bridger —
a notorious teller of tall tales — these
accounts were received with some
skepticism. But in 1870 an expedi-
tion of distinguished citizens led by
Gen. Henry Washburn returned
from the "Land of the Rock
Yellow River," as it was called by
the Indians, confirming its marvelous character.
A movement to set aside this wonderland for
all the people was soon launched by a group
of foresighted citizens. Their efforts resulted in
establishment of the world's first national park.

Wildlife was recognized, in the 1872 act of
Congress that set Yellowstone aside, as one of the
major resources of the new park. But apparently
the idea that wildlife had rights of its own, or
that its survival might even be important to man,
was slow in taking hold. For the killing of
bison and other Yellowstone animals continued
even after the park was established. A later act
(May 7, 1894) provided, in part, "that all hunting,
or the killing ... of any bird or wild animal,
except dangerous animals ... is prohibited . . . ."

With growing recognition of wildlife as a
valuable inspirational and scientific resource,
and with rejection of the pioneer philosophy that
animals were meant to be either hunted for
food or destroyed as enemies of man's interests,
real protection was extended to the park's
native animals.

The large predators were the last
to gain the sanctuary that had been
accorded legislatively to all animals
of the park. In an effort to build up
the populations of elk and
bison, a prolonged campaign
against cougars, wolves, and coyotes
was instituted. The killing did not
end until the early 1930's.
Today, a new ecological aware-
'"* ness, a wider appreciation of the
esthetic and scientific value of wild
animals, and extensive research
.., . . have led to better understanding of

.V wildlife populations in Yellowstone
and other national parks. Despite
the mistakes of the past and the gaps in our
understanding of the ecology of the park, it is
today a haven for wildlife and a mecca for people
who wish to see animals in a natural state.
Indeed, Yellowstone today still provides habitat
for virtually all the species known to have been
present when the park was established.

Your appreciation and enjoyment of Yellow-
stone's wild creatures will be enhanced by a better
understanding of how each fits into the intricate
web of plant and animal life. This booklet has
been prepared to contribute toward this under-
standing and to serve as a guide to finding,
observing, and photographing some of the more
noticeable, more interesting, and rarer species.

Snow falls early and leaves late in Yellowstone.
The "off" seasons offer unusual opportunities for
wildlife observation. This is an early-October
scene (above) in Hayden Valley, a particularly
good place to look for bison from fall
through spring.

WEB OF LIFE IN YELLOWSTONE

Basic to the understanding of the web of life is
the fact that plants directly or indirectly support
all animal life. Chemical compounds in the soil,
water, and air combined with energy from
sunlight are transformed into plant growth.
Plants serve as food for herbivorous animals,
which in turn serve as food for carnivores.
The deaths of plants and animals release chemical

compounds back into the soil, water, and air for
reuse in the next cycle of life.

Within this web all animals live — like man
himself — in communities. A community is an
association of plants and animals occupying a
specific physical environment. Each kind of animal
lives in its particular community because that
environment provides its basic needs — which are
the same for all animals: food, water, air (oxygen),
shelter, protection from enemies, and living
space. Each species fills a particular niche in the
community — which might be compared to the
job and the social position a man holds in a
human community.

Thus, in the sagebrush-grassland community of
Yellowstone, the white-tailed jackrabbit feeds
on green plants and is itself food for such
predators as the coyote, red-tailed hawk, and
golden eagle. In other words, its functional niche
in the community is as a direct or primary
consumer of green plants and as a source of food
for secondary consumers. A little thought leads
to the conclusion that flesh eaters, the carnivores,
are just as dependent on the green plants as are
plant eaters, or herbivores.

Within a natural community there is overlap
among the niches occupied by the many kinds of
living things. Thus, the jackrabbit uses some
of the same food plants as the pronghorn. So
do other small plant eaters. Indirectly, the
jackrabbit helps the pronghorn by providing one
of many food sources for coyotes.

Dead animals — carrion — are an important
element in the web of life. Two grizzlies (Left)
feed upon the carcass of a winter-killed elk. Later
in the same day, two ravens feed on the same
carcass.

Many kinds of animals make use of more than
one community. Yellowstone's elk, for example,
in summer can be found in nearly every plant
community in the park, from sagebrush-grasslands
to alpine meadows.

Communities in a complex natural area such
as Yellowstone always include many kinds of
plants, a number of plant eaters, and at least
a few flesh eaters. The combination of these
organisms provides a system of checks and
balances. Indeed, shifts in the relative numbers
and distribution of the members of the community
are occurring constantly as the natural environ-

Meat eaters, fish eaters
and scavengers

(wolf, coyote, black bear,
grizzly
red-tailed
hawk
marten,
raven
pelican.

cougar,
bald eagle)

ment changes. Rarely do these shifts in complex
communities have drastic consequences.

In a national park, management policy aims at
maintaining a natural habitat in a state as close as
possible to what would prevail without the
influence of modern man. This may mean not
only protecting the trees from lumbering and
the animals from sport hunting, but also allowing
natural controls — such as weather, disease, preda-
tion, and fire — on animal and plant populations.

Large aquatic plant eaters

(moose,
muskrat.
ducks,
trumpeter swan)

Grazers, browsers,
seed and fruit eaters

(mule deer, pronghorn.

moose, bison, elk. bighorn
pika, grasshoppers
sparrows,
jackrabbit)

Decomposer
organisms

(fungi.

bacteria)

Land plants

(trees, shrubs,

herbaceous plants)

Cycle starts

(chemical elements

in soil, water and air)

Small aquatic predators

(bullfrog, tiger

salamander, shiners)

Small

aquatic plant eaters

(tadpoles, insect
larvae, snails)

/

Aquatic plants

(algae, etc.)

^^,^

HUNTING YELLOWSTONE'S WILDLIFE
WITH CAMERA AND BINOCULARS

Once you're on the road looking for wild animals
in Yellowstone, there's a simple formula that
almost insures success: SLOW DOWN . . . STOP
. . . LOOK . . . LISTEN. The rewards will be
greater, however, if you familiarize yourself with
a few ground rules in advance.

First, learn which species of animals are most
likely to be seen near the park roads during the
season of your visit. Learn what time of day
they are most active, how to recognize them, and
where to look. The standard field guides will
help. This booklet gives a few guidelines for
spotting some prominent species. Ask a park
ranger; he will have current information on the
movements of the animals.

Learn the park's major natural communities
or wildlife habitats. In Yellowstone they include
the following:

Grassland-sagebrush Community: Uinta ground

squirrel, pronghorn, jackrabbit, badger,

coyote, grizzly, bison; mule deer and elk in

winter.

Coniferous Forest: snowshoe hare, lynx, red

squirrel, black bear, pine marten, porcupine,

moose.

Alpine Meadow: pika, marmot; bighorn in

summer.

Upland Herb Meadow: marmot, bighorn; mule

deer, elk, and bison in summer.

Willow-cottonwood-sedge Valley Bottom', elk,

bison, moose, muskrat, mink.

Sharpen your powers of observation. Listen as
well as look. Be alert for the raven's croak, the
trumpeting of swans and sandhill cranes, the
honking of geese, and the eerie cry of the loon.
Mammals, too, can sometimes be detected by
voice — or scent, for that matter. Listen for the
coyote chorus — which sounds like a pack of

yelping puppies. The bugling of the bull elk
resounds throughout the park in fall, and the
squealing of cow and calf elk in summer may alert
you to their presence in the vicinity.

Be an early riser, and an early diner. This will
enable you to be out in the first light of day and
in the last light of evening, when wildlife
watching is at its best for many species. Always,
as you drive, have others in your car scan the
edges — where the meadow and forest meet.

And remember, parks aren't zoos; satisfaction
comes not from quantity, but from the thrill of
spotting — by accident or by using your "hunting"
skills — an animal in its natural surroundings
behaving as a free creature of the wilderness.

As close study of the three maps and the
comments on vertebrate species in this booklet
will make evident to you, the "off" seasons offer
the greatest rewards in watching or photographing
Yellowstone's wildlife. These seasons offer
several practical advantages. Most of the hoofed
browsers and grazers disperse and move into the
less-accessible high country in summer. In spring,
fall, and winter they can be found in greater
concentrations and in more accessible localities.
Autumn foliage and winter snows lend color
and contrast to your animal pictures. A snowy
background also makes most animals stand out
more clearly, an advantage in spotting and
photographing them. Not the least of the reasons
for coming to Yellowstone in the off season is
that fewer visitors are in the park to disturb the
animals or get in the way of your lens.

The great Yellowstone wildlife show begins in
October when, to escape the heavy winter
snows, the big northern elk herd moves down to
the lower slopes of the Yellowstone River
drainage.

Photo Tips

Except for photographing larger animals spotted
near the roads, long-focus lenses will be an
advantage. A 35-mm. camera with a 100- to
500-mm. lens is perhaps the most practical
choice for photographing small birds and
mammals or for portraits of large animals. For
habitat shots, a normal or wide-angle lens is fine.

With extremely bright light prevailing on sunny
days in Yellowstone, you will not generally
need fast films. In fact, you will be wise to guard
against overexposure. But in the early morning
and the evening hours when wildlife watching is
at its best, you'll have good use for fast-emulsion
films.

When photographing a backlighted animal or
one that is in the shade of trees, allow for
greater exposure. A meter reading or automatic
exposure influenced by a bright sky or foreground
can result in underexposure of a moose or mule
deer browsing in the forest edge.

Be thoroughly familiar with your camera and
have it ready to capture those great shots that
come unexpectedly, as when you pull your car
to the side of the road because a moose is crossing
and you want to get a photograph before it
disappears into the forest.

Your car can serve at times as an observation
station or photography blind. Many wild animals
that take flight at the approach of man on foot

All seasons are good for wildlife photography in
Yellowstone. Shown here are mule deer in fall,
a coyote in winter, and nesting trumpeter swans
in June.

will tolerate his presence at close range in an
automobile. Coyotes, for example, will sometimes
come close enough for a camera portrait. For
safety's sake, too — as when photographing a
bear — your car often will be the best spot for you.
It may pay to drive to the observation site
before daylight, choosing your vantage point
and parking your vehicle with the expected
angle of the sun in mind. You will then have
time to set up your camera and be waiting
quietly when light reveals the scene. Banging
car doors, talking loudly, starting up the motor,
and other noisy activity will work to your
disadvantage.

A tripod will vastly increase your photographic
opportunities, particularly in poor light conditions
and when using a telephoto lens. It will help
prevent blurred pictures that result from hand-
holding any camera at slow shutter speeds. Shutter

speeds necessary to stop movement of an animal
depend on such factors as distance and whether
the animal is moving toward the camera or across
the field of view.

If you lack a long-focus lens you may have
to be satisfied with pictures of the animals as
part of the habitat scene. It is not safe to approach
a bison or other large animal closely enough
to get a portrait of it with a normal lens. And
never try to put a person in the picture with
your wildlife subject. Failure to observe these
precautions can result in injury or worse.

Remember, too, that trying to approach an
animal on foot is likely to frighten it and move it
back out of view from others. Be considerate of
other visitors and the animals by watching
from the roadway.

THE HOOFED ANIMALS

There are six species of hoofed mammals, or
ungulates, in Yellowstone — pronghorn, bison,
bighorn, moose, mule deer, and elk. The
ungulates are the most conspicuous animals in
the park, and provide many of the visitor's
greatest wilderness thrills. They are accustomed
enough to man's presence that you can often watch
them at your leisure and at fairly close range.
But don't mistake their tolerance of your presence
for tameness. Don't approach them on foot — or
try to drive off the road to get closer.

To identify these species, you need know only
one or two distinguishing characteristics of each.
A pair of binoculars is sometimes essential.
Keep in mind that it is difficult to judge distance
when you are in unfamiliar surroundings, and
identifying by size is unreliable without a known
object for comparison.

Bighorn

In Yellowstone, the bighorn, or mountain sheep,
may be a leftover from an earlier post-glacial
time, when favorable habitat was much more
extensive, supporting a larger population than
presently exists. The bighorn is well suited to
steep, rocky, sparsely wooded slopes and alpine
areas. Today, with a more moderate climate,
forests have increased, true alpine areas are
limited to the highest peaks, and the bighorn
population is limited.

In summer the bighorn migrate to the higher
reaches of the northeast sector of the park —
Mount Washburn and the Absaroka Range. You
can see those on Mount Washburn by hiking

Bighorn migrate to lower elevations of the paric
in winter; these were photographed in Gardner
River canyon.

the road or trail to the top. In winter most of the
bighorn migrate to lower elevations, becoming
especially concentrated in the area between
Mammoth and Gardiner, on the base of Mount
Everts. They are often seen above the road in
Gardner Canyon, on the cliffs of the Yellowstone
River near Tower, and on the slopes above where
Soda Butte Creek enters the Lamar River.

Because bighorn occupy a specialized habitat —
steep, rocky slopes — to which few other animals
are so well adapted and which these mountain
sheep use for escape , they are relatively invulner-
able to predators. When migrating, however, they
must cross territory where their surefootedness is
of no special advantage, and may be taken
by cougars or other large predators. Lambs,
during their first week or two of life, are subject
to predation even by coyotes.

Bighorn are easily distinguished from other
Yellowstone ungulates. Both sexes show a
conspicuous white rump patch. The rams weigh
about 200 pounds, have massive horns curling
a partial to a full circle. Ewes are smaller, and
their smaller horns curve slightly backward.

Bison

Yellowstone's bison are unique in the United
States: they are truly wild — free-ranging,
unrestricted by either internal or boundary fences,
and subject to no management interference by
man. These bison are descended, in part, from
the only wild bison in the United States to survive
the time of near extinction during the late 1800's.
Although the mountain bison of Yellowstone
survived, they were poached to such low numbers
during the early decades of the park's existence
that plains bison from captive herds were
introduced to Yellowstone in 1902. The hybrid
descendents from both subspecies have retained

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the hardiness and behavior patterns of the original
mountain bison.

The bison groups are most easily seen where
roads cross wintering areas in the valleys of the
Lamar and Firehole Rivers. The Lamar road is
open all winter; watch for the bison from Junction
Butte to Lamar Canyon, from the end of
November through May. On the Firehole, from
late September through May, the bison are most
often somewhere in the Lower Geyser Basin.
Oversnow vehicles provide access via the Firehole
road in midwinter. One of the best times to
see the bison is in May, when the frisky, red,
newborn calves cavort about their protective
mothers. In summer the herd groups are in less
accessible parts of the park, but lone bulls are
often seen, particularly in Hayden Valley.

The numbers of bison inhabiting Yellowstone
are greatly influenced by winter conditions.
Bison are hardy and well-adapted to foraging in
fairly deep snow, but winters are long and
periodically quite severe. Mortality resulting from
the stress imposed by the combination of deep

Bison (shown here on Old Faithful cone in
March) can usually be seen in winter in the Lower
Geyser Basin. The pronghorn buck (above) was
photographed while grazing in the Mammoth-
Gardiner area, in September.
Symbols on the map show where some of
Yellowstone's larger mammals can be most
easily seen by the car-borne visitor in spring and
fall.

snows, wind, occasional times of crusting, and
prolonged storms is important in the natural
regulation of the population size. Winter-killed
bison are a vital food source for grizzly bears,
coyotes, ravens, and other scavengers.

Pronghorn

Popularly but mistakenly called an antelope,
the pronghorn is actually the only species of its
family — a group distinct from the true antelopes.
This swift and beautiful creature of the plains is
one Yellowstone animal that you can count on

SPRING AND FALL
WILDLIFE

Prbnghorn
Elk (Wapiti)
Bighorn Sheep

Bison
Grizzly
Moose
Mule Deer

Upper case letter indicates that many
animals are likely to be seen.

Lower case letter indicates that few
animals are likely to be seen.

Inortheast
entrance

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ther vehicles.

seeing any time of the year — if you look in the
right places. It is limited to the northern region
of the park, in the Yellowstone River drainage.
A few pronghorn live the year around on the flats
in the Gardiner, Mont., area and on slopes on
either side of the Gardner River toward Mammoth
Hot Springs.

In spring many pronghorn migrate up the
Yellowstone River, across Blacktail Plateau and
eventually into the Lamar River valley and the
junction of Soda Butte Creek with the Lamar
River. But there is too much snow in these areas

The long-legged moose (below), primarily a
forest browser, is often seen feeding on aquatic
plants. The elk (opposite) is also both browser
and grazer; it feeds on woody shrubs and trees
and on soft-stemmed plants of the meadows.

in winter; and, among Yellowstone's ungulates,
the pronghorn is the least tolerant of snow.
Before the heavy fall snowstorms, the pronghorn
returns to its main winter range at the north edge
of the park below Mammoth.

Since they live on sage and other low-growing
shrubs in open dry areas that don't get much
snow, and since they depend on fleetness of foot
and excellent eyesight for protection from
predators, pronghorn avoid the forest.
Consequently, they may be seen at any time
of day.

Although both males and females bear horns and
have conspicuous white rump patches like
the bighorn, they are easily distinguished.
Pronghorn are smaller, adults weighing about 100
pounds. Their erect horns curve backward only
at the tip; the body markings are more striking;
and they occupy relatively level, open areas
rather than steep, rocky slopes.

The pronghorn, like the bighorn, may once
have been more widely distributed in Yellowstone.
A warmer period some centuries ago may have
created habitat conditions favorable to pronghorn
even in the central part of the park. Today
pronghorn numbers as well as distribution have
shrunk. Changes in habitat, decreasing availability
of winter range, and some of man's activities
have all affected the pronghorn population.

Moose

This big, awkward, photogenic animal of the
forests is scattered over the park, and numbers
perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 individuals. It is a
permanent resident, its long legs enabling it to
manage quite well in the winter snows. Moose are
not herding animals; you will see loners, family
groups, and occasionally several bulls together.
Look for them in broken forest and in
willow-covered meadows. They are often seen
in summer in Hayden Valley and near the mouth
of Pelican Creek; and in winter, between Tower
Junction and the Northeast Entrance.

The moose maintains itself in winter by eating
the needles of subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, and

other conifers, and bark and twigs of willow,
birch, and aspen. It is principally a browser on
land, but is often seen in summer standing in
water several feet deep, plunging its head under
the surface to feed upon bottom-rooted aquatic
plants.

The moose is the world's largest mammal with
antlers. Its great size and formidable hooves make
the moose relatively secure against predators other
than wolves and grizzlies. Studies indicate that
the wolves of Isle Royale National Park subsist
almost entirely on the moose herd. But it is not
known to what extent wolves prey upon
Yellowstone's moose. Grizzlies may take a few.
Althpugh it is sometimes possible to approach
these animals quite closely, cows with calves
can be quite belligerent, and bulls during the fall
rutting season tend to be nasty-tempered. Play
it safe, and keep your distance.

A hump-backed body on stilt-like legs, big head
with pendulous muzzle, and massive, palmate
(broad-bladed) antlers make the moose recog-
nizable at some distance. The cow moose, antler-
less and less massive, is easy to distinguish
from other members of the deer family by her
long legs, heavy shoulders, and big muzzle.

American Elk (Wapiti)

Mention Yellowstone wildlife to anyone and he
may first think of "elk." And with good reason,
for this is the most abundant large animal in
the park. Although it is not a true elk, the
wapiti has been saddled with the name elk, and
this is harder to shed than the big antlers. The
elk is almost moose-sized, but it is majestic rather
than ungainly in appearance. The bull's great,
spreading antlers are not palmate like the moose's,
and both males and females have a large, buff
or pale-yellow rump patch that distinguishes
them from other hoofed animals.

The elk is both a browser and grazer, feeding
upon a wide range of vegetation including sedges,
grasses, and other herbs, various shrubs, willows,
the bark of aspens, and the needles of Douglas-fir
and subalpine fir. This species, probably totaling

more pounds of flesh than all the other ungulates
in the park combined, is important in the
ecosystem as a consumer of plantlife and as
food for predators and scavengers. It is preyed
upon by cougars and by grizzlies, and coyotes
may take some fawns.

In winter the population of elk in the park is
several thousands; in summer Yellowstone is home
to many more. There are four main herds.
The southern herd descends into Jackson Hole
in winter. Most of the Gallatin herd leaves in
winter, too, going down the Gallatin River Valley.
The Madison herd, about 1,000 animals, does
not leave the park, but remains in the Madison
River region throughout the year. It is naturally
regulated, and has never been subjected to
reduction programs or artificial feeding.

It is the northern herd, whose numbers fluctuate
from about 7,000 to about 1 2,000, that provides
the great wildlife show for winter visitors.

Part of this herd moves outside the park in
winter, but many remain on the south-facing
slopes of the Yellowstone River drainage and
on exposed slopes that don't become snow
covered. Look for them in late fall or winter on
the road from Gardiner to Cooke City. In
summer elk frequent the area between Mammoth
and Norris. The best time of the day to see large
numbers of elk from a road is early morning
before they have been "spooked" by the traffic.
They are not easy to spot when they're among
the trees, but look near the forest edge. Binoculars
will help in scanning distant open slopes.

Mule Deer

This is the smallest of Yellowstone's three
members of the deer family; it weighs less than
one-quarter as much as the moose, one-third as
much as the elk. A large summer population
is scattered throughout the park, except in dense
forest. Look in broken forest and small meadows.
A browser rather than a grazer, the mule deer
feeds principally on shrubs and coniferous trees.
There is plenty of food for it in summer, but
mule deer can't tolerate deep snow, so most

migrate out of the park in winter. The small
winter population is augmented in spring by
individuals returning from Jackson Hole to the
south, the Shoshone River drainage to the east,
the lower Madison River valley to the west, and
the Yellowstone River valley in the north. In winter
you can see huge numbers in and near the park,
around Mammoth Hot Springs down to Gardiner
and beyond.

The mule deer is preyed upon by cougars and
grizzlies, and probably by the park's few wolves.
Fawns and disabled adults are vulnerable to
the coyote.

You should have no trouble recognizing this
species. The mule-like ears, body form and size,
and bouncing, bounding gait set it apart from
the other ungulates.

A good way to see mule deer (below), pronghom,
and moose is to drive slowly along one-way
Backtail Plateau Road.

Winter wildlife-observation opportunities are
indicated on the map on the opposite page. The
road between the North and Northeast Entrances
is kept open all year.

WINTER WILDLIFE

Pronghorn
Elk (Wapiti)
Bighorn Sheep

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Bison
Grizzly
Moose
Mule Deer

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Upper case letter indicates that many
nials are likely to be seen.

Lower case letter indicates that few
animals are likely to be seen.

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THE FLESH EATERS

You will see fewer four-footed predators and
scavengers in the park than hoofed animals — not
only because they are more secretive, but also
because plant-eaters always vastly outnumber
the carnivores that feed upon them. Some of the
predators of the park have made a comeback
from the days of persecution, some are barely
holding their own, and some have maintained
good populations throughout the park's history.
We still have much to learn about the exact
role predators play here, but it is clear that their
presence is vital to the health of Yellowstone's
ecosystem.

Coyote

The coyote, which has always been common
in Yellowstone, has been much abused by man
throughout its vast natural range — which even
today extends from Alaska to Mexico and from
California to Massachusetts. Along with other
large predators, it was persecuted during the
early years of the park. In a 12-year span at the
turn of the century, for example, 2,236 coyotes
were poisoned, trapped, or shot in Yellowstone.
Since 1934, however, a more enlightened policy
toward predators has prevailed, and the coyote
has rebounded to its former abundance.

This wild canine functions in the park ecosystem
as a predator on ground squirrels, pocket gophers,
meadow voles, and other small mammals and
as a scavenger on larger animals that have died
or been killed. While the primary factor
controlling populations of herbivores is the
supply of plant foods, the coyote's role may tend
to even out the fluctuations in numbers of rodents
and hares, minimizing the chance of overpopu-
lation that could unbalance the ecosystem.

Coyotes are among the least finicky of animals.
They eat grass, insects, fruit, carrion, fish,

birds, mice, hares, porcupines, crayfish, and frogs.

The coyotes of Yellowstone, where they are
unmolested, have become accustomed to the
presence of man. You may see them by the
roadside, and one may even approach your car
out of curiosity. Look for them in the drier,
larger open areas — sagebrush and grassland — and
especially in Hayden Valley, Lamar Valley,
Tower, Mammoth, and the Blacktail Plateau.
And be sure to listen for them at night.

Don't confuse this medium-sized wild dog with
the much larger wolf. Your chances of seeing
the latter are remote. The wolf is far warier
than the coyote, and is extremely rare in the park.

Wolf

The wolf, perhaps the most maligned, most
persecuted mammal in America, is now gain-
ing a measure of compassion and respect from
mankind. Moderate numbers of wolves were
present in the early years of Yellowstone. But in
those days — when even some biologists subscribed
to the belief that "the only good predator is a
dead one" — it was trapped, poisoned, and shot
mercilessly. By 1926 it was thought to have
been eliminated from the park. Records indicate,
however, that there have always been a few
wolves present in the park or its immediate
vicinity; today a few are known to range in the
northern part of the park.

Look for grizzlies in valley bottoms and other
open areas. The bear family (opposite) was
photographed in Hayden Valley.

The wolf in Yellowstone, as elsewhere, no doubt
has a culling effect on the ungulates it hunts,
by weeding out sick, weak, or crippled individ-
uals— those easiest to oveitake and subdue.
But Yellowstone's small wolf population today
has little impact on the populations of hoofed
animals.

Don't expect to see a wolf in the park; but if
you're there in spring keep a weather eye out
for it along the road between Mammoth and
Cooke City. There is nothing to fear if you do
encounter one, for no wild, nonrabid North
American wolf has been known to attack a man.

Pine Marten

The pine marten, as its name suggests, inhabits
the coniferous forest. The most arboreal of
weasels, it preys upon squirrels and birds, as
well as ground-dwelling rodents, shrews, and
pikas. It is one of several members of the weasel
family in Yellowstone (others: skunk, fisher,
both shorttail and longtail weasels, mink, otter,
badger, and wolverine).

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You may encounter a marten when hiking or
camping. Don't mistake its seemingly friendly
behavior for tameness — it is probably mere
curiosity that makes this 2-pound carnivore appear
so sociable. A hardy animal, it neither hibernates
nor migrates to lower levels in winter. It is
seldom far from the forest. Identify it by its
minklike form, prominent ears, bushy tail, and
buffy chest spot.

The coyote (below, left), which ranges widely and
will eat almost anything, can sometimes be seen
stalking small animals in the sagebrush-grassland.
The forest-dwelling pine marten (below), more
strictly carnivorous, preys chiefly on rodents.
In summer, Yellowstone's larger animals are
widely dispersed and are not seen in great
numbers near the roads. The map indicates good
summer observation spots.

SUMMER WILDLIFE

WFST
ENTRANCE

Pronghorn
Elk (Wapiti)
Bighorn Sheep

NORTH ENTRANCE

Bison

Grizzly

Moose

Mule Deer *-^™*

Upper case letter indicates that many
imals are likely to be seen

ower case letter indicates that few
animals are likely to be seen.

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[NORTHEAST
ENTRANCE

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LAMAR

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Mount
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CANY 01

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Pelican C>

LAKE

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FAITHFUL

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EAST_ENTRANCE

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River Otter

A delight to watch, this large, playful member
of the weasel family is nowhere common in
the park, but keep your eye peeled for it. Like
bald eagles, ospreys, and pelicans, the otter is
dependent on fish, especially cutthroat trout. It is
for these fish eaters, and others such as the grizzly
and great blue heron that rely partly on fish,
that the park's stringent fishing regulations have
been imposed.

Imagine the excitement of watching a curious
otter poke his head out of the water alongside
your canoe in Yellowstone Lake or seeing
a frolicking otter family in one of the park's
ponds! Look for these animals in any of
Yellowstone's major rivers as well as along the
edges of lakes and ponds.

Cougar

This sleek, graceful, sinewy cat is generally
called mountain lion in the Rockies. In other

The rare and elusive cougar (left) is virtually
never seen by park visitors. You are more likely
to see a black bear than a grizzly; note the latter's
shoulder hump — a good identification character.

sections of the country it goes by the name puma,
painter, panther, or catamount. An estimated
100 cougars lived in Yellowstone in the first
decade of this century, but they were almost
wiped out during the prolonged anti-predator
campaign in this region. For reasons we don't
fully understand, they have never recovered, and
are so scarce now as to have little impact on the
park's ecology.

These big cats are always associated with
deer — in fact, they are unknown outside of deer
range — and in Yellowstone probably subsist
chiefly on mule deer, though they will take smaller
mammals. Years ago, however, in Yellowstone
the cougars apparently depended upon elk as a
major food source. To the extent that elk numbers
and distribution on the northern range can
again more nearly duplicate conditions that
prevailed during early decades of the park's
existence, the cougar may in time increase.

Only by the sheerest accident will you see a
wild cougar. Very few persons have — except
hunters using dogs to tree their quarry. If by
remote chance you do encounter a big cat with a
long tail, this is it. But don't be alarmed; a
wild mountain lion is never a threat to man.

Black Bear

Although classed as a carnivore, the black bear
is actually, like man, an omnivore. It eats fruit,
flesh, fish, and fowl, as well as grass, insects,
roots, carrion, and garbage. Much of the year it is
more vegetarian than meat-eater.

Today, persons who visited Yellowstone years
ago when roadside bears were commonplace
are asking, "Where are the bears?" The answer
might well be, "Where they belong — in the

woods." The change has come about because
park managers and public aUke now recognize
the folly of roadside feeding of bears and of
allowing garbage to be available to them. Strict
enforcement of the ban on feeding, use of
bearproof garbage containers, and elimination of
open pits for garbage disposal have forced the
bears to return to natural ways — digging,
picking, grazing, foraging, and hunting for their
food. They are much better off for it, and injuries
from human-bear encounters have diminished.
True, fewer bears are seen today along the
roadside; but when you do come upon one, you
will be seeing an animal behaving as it did before
modern man intruded into its environment and
disrupted its life-style.

You can tell the black bear from the grizzly
by its generally smaller size; more pointed head
with straight, not dished, profile; and lack of
shoulder hump. Black bears are not always
black; a single litter may contain one black, one
brown, and one cinnamon-colored cub.

* Note this well: if you feed a bear, even from a
"safe" distance, by tossing food scraps, you are
endangering the lives of other park visitors —
and you may be serving the bear's death warrant.

Grizzly

Perhaps one-fourth of the grizzlies remaining
in the contiguous United States are in Yellowstone.
There is concern that this big bear, to many the
symbol of the American wilderness, may be
vanishing from the earth. While you are not
likely to see one in Yellowstone during the
peak of the visitor season, it should give you a
measure of satisfaction just to know that you are
in grizzly country — to know that here at least
they are given protection. The small population
of grizzlies — perhaps 250 — is widely distributed
in the park. It is not, like the black bear, primarily
a forest animal. There are certain open areas
close to the traveled routes where it may be
seen digging for roots and rodents.

The grizzly is not ordinarily a hunter, tracking
and pursuing a selected victim, but is in fact
more vegetarian than carnivore. In spring, it comes
out of its long sleepy period 2 or 3 weeks
earlier than the black bear. At this time elk and
mule deer are likely to be weakened from the
rigors of winter, with some individuals on their
last legs. Easy kills, as well as carcasses of dead
ungulates now emerging from the melting
snows, provide an abundance of fresh meat and
carrion from early May until mid-June.

One of Yellowstone's greatest wildlife thrills is
to watch a grizzly in spring as it grazes on new
green grass, turns up sod to get at roots, bulbs,
and rodents, or tears apart rotting logs for ants.
Spring spawning of the cutthroat and other
trout give these bears the opportunity to indulge
in a favorite food. Watch for fishing grizzlies
in the Pelican Creek area and the Yellowstone
River outlet of Yellowstone Lake.

Later in the season, when the surviving elk
and deer are in good shape again and moving to
higher country, the grizzly depends largely
on bulbs, sedge, green shoots, and berries.

Your best opportunity to see grizzlies is from
the road in spring when they are feeding in the
valley bottoms. They are widely distributed in the
back country. Before you venture on the trails, for
safety reasons you should be sure to discuss your

plans with a park ranger.

Grizzlies, as long as they remain truly wild,
tend to flee from man's presence. They usually
smell or hear approaching humans, and leave
without being seen. Most dangerous is an
accidental, sudden encounter that startles the
bear. To avert such occurrences, make noise
whenever on foot in grizzly territory.

When camping in bear country, camp near trees
if possible; adult grizzlies cannot climb trees.
Keep food out of your tent and out of reach of
bears, and keep a clean camp. Never fail to give
these powerful and unpredictable animals a
great deal of respect. Remember, in Yellowstone
you are the visitor — in one of the few homes left
to the grizzly bear.

GNAWING ANIMALS

The gnawing animals, including both the rodents
and the hare-and-rabbit order, are the most
abundant of Yellowstone's mammals, with more
species and larger populations than any other
groups. Consequently, they are close to the
core of the park's web of life. They are almost
entirely herbivorous, though some rodents devour
quantities of insects and other invertebrate
life, and a few species prey upon small birds or
even upon smaller rodents. Most importantly,
they provide a staple diet for predators ranging
in size from shrews — the smallest of mammals —
to grizzlies, the largest of the carnivores.

Pika

This tiny, almost tailless cousin of the rabbits
and hares is a hardy individualist. Its home
is often the park's severest environment, the
rockslides close to timberline, and this accounts

for another of its names — rock rabbit. Listen
for its telltale buzzy squeak near the summit of
Mount Washburn, in the Golden Gate area,
or on any of the higher, open rockslides in the
park; then look for it scurrying for the safety
of a crevice.

In summer the pika busily gathers twigs, leaves,
grasses, sedges, and other green plant matter,
which it piles beneath a jumble of rocks. In
winter it lives snugly but actively among the
rocks beneath the snow, subsisting on these
haystacks. During its summer daytime foraging
for plants it is vulnerable to weasels and pine
martens. Hawks sometimes pounce on a pika
that has strayed too far from the safety of its
rock pile.

Uinta Ground Squirrel

Like other ground squirrels, this rodent is often
called "picket pin," from its habit of sitting
upright, looking much like a peg driven into
the ground. Your attention may first be attracted
by its voice — a descending, birdlike squeal.
This burrowing animal lives almost entirely on
stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds of green plants.
It is preyed upon by hawks, weasels, badgers,
foxes, and coyotes. The picket pin is associated in
Yellowstone with sagebrush. Look for it at
Lamar, Tower, and Mammoth. But since it goes
into hibernation as early as mid-August and
doesn't come out until early June, its active
season is about the shortest for any Yellowstone
vertebrate.

The little ball of fur you see— or hear — in the
rockslides on higher slopes is the pika, famous
for its summertime harvesting activities.

Yellow-bellied Marmot

This rodent, similar to but larger than its
eastern cousin, the woodchuck or groundhog,
is adapted to open rocky slopes where grass is
plentiful. It is common in Yellowstone's high
country, but visitors more often see a marmot
along the road through the Golden Gate, at
Storm Point on Yellowstone Lake, or along the
road between Mammoth and Tower.

During that part of the year in which it is
active a marmot is likely to be seen at any time
of day sunning itself on the most prominent
boulder in its grassy domain. A shrill alarm
whistle may be your first hint of its presence.
The marmot is one of the winter sleepers,
retiring as early as September and coming out of
hibernation in June, when it may have to burrow
through snow to reach daylight.

Watch for the muskrat (below) in the park's
ponds and marshes. The Uinta ground squirrel
(opposite), like the pika, may be heard before
it is seen; look for it in sagebrush.

Muskrat

One of the most widely distributed of North
American mammals, known in every State but
Hawaii, the muskrat occupies many of the ponds,
lakes, and larger rivers of the park. Look for
the muskrat's lodge — a conical mound of
aquatic-plant stalks, more symmetrical and much
smaller than the house of sticks and mud built
by the beaver. Although it shares its aquatic
habitat with otter, beaver, and mink, the chances
are that a small mammal you see swimming in
the Yellowstone River or almost any pond or
marsh will be a muskrat.

Along with its principal diet of leaves, stems,
and roots of aquatic plants, the muskrat eats
frogs, salamanders, and an occasional fish. In
turn it is preyed upon by otters, coyotes, and
bald and golden eagles.

Beaver

This industrious four-footed engineer — builder
of dams, lodges, and canals — is the creator of
habitat favorable to an array of mammals, birds,
fish, and amphibians. There is visible evidence
that beavers abounded in Yellowstone in former
years: the remnants of dams (including one
that was thought to be the world's largest beaver
dam — which you can see from the road near
Obsidian Cliff, between Norris and Mammoth)
and the many meadows that appear to have been
formed through natural succession from aban-
doned beaver ponds. Today these big, busy
rodents are found in the park in relatively small
numbers. Biologists are not certain of the reason
for their apparent decline. You can still see
active lodges and dams, and if you're lucky
you may see one of the builders.

Beavers are strict vegetarians, feeding upon
aquatic plants in addition to the twigs and tender
bark of the trees they cut. They are preyed upon
by a number of carnivores — in Yellowstone,
by coyote, wolf, cougar, lynx, and bobcat. But
beavers are more important as environmental
engineers than as links in the food chain.

^'^t^v-, -rf

BIRDS

Endless hours of bird-watching pleasure and
excitement are yours if you come armed with a
good field guide and a pair of binoculars. With
well over 200 species known in the park, we can
suggest here only some guidelines on a few
of the prominent species. The park's water
birds — fish-eating birds of prey, wading birds,
grebes, gulls, shore birds, and ducks, geese,
and swans — offer particularly rewarding watching.
Look on and over the ponds (especially at
Lamar), lakes, rivers, and marshes. Hayden
Valley is the best area.

White Pelican

This huge white-and-black bird, with a 9-foot
wingspread, is another of America's endangered
animal species. The decline in numbers of
pelicans appears to be due primarily to agricul-
tural pesticides that are acquired by way of the
fish they eat during their southward migration
and wintering period outside the park. In
Yellowstone pelicans are summer residents only.
Their breeding colonies on the Molly Islands
in the southeast arm of Yellowstone Lake are
secure — for that part of the lake is off limits to
motorboats, and not even canoes are permitted to
approach within one-quarter of a mile of the
islands.

Identify flying pelicans — often at great heights —
by black wing tips, head hunched back on
shoulders, and long, flat bill resting on the curved
neck. Look for them drifting along the Yellow-
stone River and on Yellowstone Lake.

These young ospreys, soon to leave their nest on
a pinnacle in Yellowstone Canyon, have been
reared on fish brought to them by their two
parents.

The white pelican relies on Yellowstone's
cutthroat trout, which it scoops up in its basketlike
bill. In this wilderness park the pelican and other
native fish-eating animals have prior rights over
man, and park fishing regulations are designed to
insure that this food source remains as it was in
primitive times.

Trumpeter Swan

One of America's rarest birds, the beautiful
trumpeter can yet be seen by almost any alert
visitor. It breeds here in summer; and some
swans remain in the park through the year, in
areas where there is open water. Seventy
individuals were observed at the outlet of Yellow-
stone Lake in the winter of 1969.

Although 20 to 25 pairs habitually nested in
the park, there has been a recent decline, for
unknown causes. Its protected habitat in
Yellowstone and the nearby Red Rocks Water-
fowl Refuge is a key factor in survival of this
species so long feared on the way to extinction.

Look on the larger lakes, on the Madison and
Yellowstone Rivers, and in Hayden Valley. The
trumpeter can be distinguished from the whistling
swan — a migrant and winter resident but not a
breeder in the park — by its much louder,
lower-pitched, more bugle-like voice. Especially
if you have a long-focus lens, this photogenic
bird will be a prime subject for your camera.

Bald Eagle

A generation ago the bald eagle, our national
symbol, was widely distributed over America.
Today the pleasure of watching this great bird
as it soars high on almost unmoving wings,
plunges to the water to capture a fish, or feeds its
young on a bulky nest built atop a towering pine
is rare, outside of Alaska.

Not even in Yellowstone, once an ideal habitat
for this wilderness bird of prey, is the bald eagle
common today. The chief reasons are guns,
poison, and environmental pollution — primarily
DDT, which is accumulated in the eagle's tissues
from the fish it eats. Unfortunately, Yellow-
stone's eagles, though they are secure from
bullets, poison, and contaminated fish when they
are in the park, face these dangers as soon as they
leave in fall. Some individuals remain in the park
through the year.

Since its principal food here is trout, look for
the eagle at Lake, Hayden Valley, the lower
valley of the Yellowstone River, and the Madison
River. In spring this eagle, which is a scavenger
as well as predator, can be seen feeding on
thawmg carcasses of deer or elk that have perished
during the winter.

Osprey

Like the bald eagle, the osprey is a fisherman —
a more skilled one, in fact. And like the bald
eagle it is declining in numbers from the effects
of guns and pesticide pollution. The osprey
is still fairly common in Yellowstone from late /

spring, when it arrives from the south, until ^^
the fall freeze. It is frequently seen at

The strikingly patterned male Barrow's golden-
eye (left) is a choice subject for the cameraman
with a long-focus lens. Look for these ducks
along the Yellowstone River just north of Hayden
Valley. The big red-tailed hawk (above) soars
over the more open areas of the park in search
of small-animal prey. The Molly Islands, a nesting
ground that the white pelican shares with
California gulls and Caspian terns (not shown),
are off limits to visitors. The magpie (far right) is
more common in the park in winter than in
summer; watch for it in open valley areas.

Yellowstone Lake, in Hayden Valley, and in
Yellowstone Canyon. From any of the canyon
overlooks, watch for the ospreys soaring back
and forth over the river; you may spy one going
to its nest perched on a rocky pinnacle on the
side of the canyon.

Well adapted for its way of life, this smaller
relative of the eagles lives exclusively on fish
captured by plunging feet first into the water.
Although its head is largely white, it should
not be confused with the adult bald eagle, whose
head and tail are both entirely snow-white with
the rest of the body dark. The osprey is blackish
above and clear white below, the only large
bird of prey so marked.

Magpie

Eastern visitors to the park often ask about this
strikingly patterned bird seen in Yellowstone's
open country. It is not as big-bodied as a crow,
but its very long tail gives it the impression of
great size. Watch for it especially in the lower
Gardner and Yellowstone River valleys, and

along Slough Creek and the Lamar River. It's the
only large black-and-white land bird with a
long tail.

Like the larger raven, the magpie is a scavenger,
feeding on any animal carcasses it can find, and
is an occasional predator on small animal life.

Raven

The big all-black bird you see throughout
Yellowstone is the raven, not its much smaller
cousin the crow, which is much less common
here. A raven flies with hawklike alternate flapping
and soaring. It has a shaggy neck and a wedge-
shaped tail, and it croaks rather than caws.
In spring a flock of ravens can alert you to a
dead elk or other carcass, for they are scavengers
and often feed alongside coyotes or even
grizzly bears. During the spawning season you may
see them feeding on fish washed up on the bank.

COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES

Unless you are a fisherman, you are likely to be
unaware of Yellowstone's cold-blooded vertebrate
animals. The most abundant — and ecologically
important — cold-blooded vertebrates are the fishes.
Less than a dozen species of reptiles and amphib-
ians live here, and these are not, in most areas
of the park, numerous enough to play a significant
role in the ecology.
Not surprisingly in a park lying above 6,000

feet, the environment supports only five species
of snakes — and of these only one species of garter
snake is widely distributed. Also present are
bull snakes, rubber boas, and, in a very limited
area near Gardiner, the prairie rattlesnake. One
lizard, the sagebrush, is most commonly seen
near thermal areas, especially Norris.

Amphibians are represented by more species,
and some are present in fairly large numbers
in places. The western toad occurs in a variety of
habitats. Listen in early summer for the tiny
chorus frog, which is abundant in some wetlands
below 8,000 feet. This and other frogs can be
identified by their voices, as readily as birds. The
voiceless tiger salamander is common, and may be
seen on wet evenings in summer, when it is found
at or near its breeding ponds. Look for it
particularly at the ponds in the Lamar area.

As cold-blooded animals, the amphibians and
reptiles must hibernate, and can be seen only in
the warmer months, if at all. Some are so
scarce — or, like the rubber boa, are so secretive
in their habits — that you may have difficulty
finding them.

Always keep in mind that, in this national park
wilderness, all species of vertebrates, from eagle
to coyote to jackrabbit to garter snake to toad,
are protected. The only exceptions are fish
caught according to park regulations. It is your
right to enjoy Yellowstone's animals, and your
responsibility to respect their sanctuary.

The widely distributed tiger salamander (upper
left) and the spotted frog (left), a northwestern
species, are predators — primarily on insects. In
turn, these amphibians provide food for birds,
fish, reptiles, and mammals. The Lamar Ponds
(opposite) are a good place to look for amphibians
as well as water birds.

^^■^f%jj^'^

PROTECTING WILDLIFE HABITAT

Wildlife managers everywhere
recognize today that there is
nothing so important in wildlife
preservation as maintaining
good habitat. This means an
environment in which all the
basic needs — food, water, air,
shelter from the elements, pro-
tection from enemies, and living
space — are available in sufficient
quantity and quality. An inad-
equate supply of just one of these will affect
the health and stability of an animal population.
Living space, in the case of large browsers and
grazers that move from the high country to the
lowlands in fall, can be a problem even in a
park as large as Yellowstone — for the historic
winter range of some animals may lie outside the
park boundaries, in lands that are fenced for
domestic stock or open to hunting.

"Living space" entails also the freedom from
crowding or disturbance by humans. It is because
of this that boats are excluded from the streams
of Yellowstone. If canoes, rafts, or motor craft
were allowed on the rivers, the presence of humans
would drive many species away — in effect
depriving them of needed nesting, feeding, and
resting areas.

The fishing restrictions, which may seem
severe to some visitors, are designed to help
protect another element of good habitat — an
adequate supply of natural foods. The list of wild
animals in Yellowstone dependent wholly or
partly on fish includes dozens of species.

Winter and early spring in Yel-
lowstone cannot be surpassed
for offering countless opportun-
ities to see and photograph
wildlife. Snow forces the elk,
deer, bison, and bighorn down
from their high country summer
range to the valley bottoms and
surrounding open slopes, many
of which are adjacent to park
roads. Only at this time of
year can you get a true impression of the huge
numbers of Yellowstone's animal populations,
which in summer are distributed over a much
larger area of the park.

But at any time of year Yellowstone presents
one of North America's classic wildlife displays.
Very few places remain where a visitor can
thrill to the sight of the magnificent trumpeter
swan, watch wild bison grazing in a totally
unrestricted environment, or just know that he is a
guest in one of the last domains of the grizzly
and the wolf.

—Bill Perry

Hayden Valley (above) is one of America's prime
wildlife-observation areas.

hor sale by the
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 -
Price 4 5 cents

Yellowstone National Park is administered by
the National Park Service, U.S. Department of
the Interior. A superintendent, whose address is
Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190, is in
immediate charge.

As the Nation's principal conservation agency,
the Department of the Interior has basic respon-
sibilities for water, fish, wildlife, mineral, land,
park, and recreational resources. Indian and
Territorial affairs are other major concerns of
America's ^^Department of Natural Resources.''
The Department works to assure the wisest
choice in managing all our resources so each will
make its full contribution to a better United
States — now and in the future.

National Park Service

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR