UNIVERSITY OF CAUFOEHR
DAVIS

THE

YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL :

DETAILING THE

MANIPULATIONS OF THE FARM IN A PLAIN
AND INTELLIGIBLE MANNER.

WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR

LAYING OUT A FARM, AND ERECTING BUILDINGS, FENCES, AND FARM GATEa

EMBRACING ALSO

THE YOUNG FARMER'S WORKSHOP:

GIVING

FULL DIRECTIONS FOE THE SELECTION OF GOOO FARM AND SHOP TOOLS, THEIR USE AND

MANUFACTURE, WITH NUMEROUS ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF FENCES, GATES,

TOOLS, ETC., AND FOR PERFORMING NEARLY EVERY BRANCH OF

FARMING OPERATIONS.

BY S. EDWARDS TODD.

NEW YORK:

0. M. SAXTON, BARKER & COMPANY.

No. 25 PARK ROW.

1860.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by

S. EDWARDS TODD,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Northern District
of New York.

EDWARD O. JENKINS,

Printer and Stereotyper,

No. 26 FRANKFORT STREET.

PREFACE.

" A useful book may live from age to age,
And those unborn may read its printed page." — J. W. BARBER.

THE chief object of this little volume is, to instruct the young
farmer how to perform the various operations of the farm in a
skillful, economical, and workmanlike manner. From my early
boyhood I have been engaged in the cultivation of the soil, and
I have always experienced a very great disadvantage and incon
venience in not having a text-book to assist me in putting tools
and agricultural implements in proper order, and in handling
them with skill and dexterity. Knowing well what difficulties
and embarrassments a young farmer is sure to meet with, and
understanding what instructions he will be most likely to need, it
has been my aim to supply that knowledge which has for so long
a time been called for by the young farmers of America. I have
not written for farmers of mature age and long experience, to
whom the contents of most of these paragraphs may appear too
common-place, but for the sons of farmers, and those who are
leaving the merchants' counters and the mechanics' shops to en
gage practically in that honest, honorable, and noble calling — the
cultivation of the soil.

I have come directly from the farmer's workshop, from the

(8)

iv PREFACE.

stercorary, from the ditch, and from following the plow, with tow-
frock, and overalls, and India-rubber boots on, all bespattered
with mud, with callous hands and stiff fingers, to show young
farmers how to work.

Most writers on agricultural subjects have appeared to take it
for granted, that every one already understands the practical
operations in the various branches of business connected with
the farm (see " Introduction") ; therefore we have no elementary
works in our agricultural libraries, and when young men com
mence practically in any branch of farming operations, they are
at a great loss how to perform, in a workmanlike manner, many
of the most common operations of the farm without an expe
rienced foreman.

It has been my aim to lay down most reliable directions in all
my details ; and the young farmer can carry this volume into his
workshop or into the field, and learn from its pages how to per
form every job in a workmanlike, easy, and most expeditious
manner.

I have endeavored to make use of simple and intelligible lan
guage, which none can fail to understand ; and have numbered
the paragraphs, so that when reference is made to a subject the
reader may be able to turn at once to the paragraph, which will
explain more particularly what he may desire to know.

My manner of writing it has been to pen my own ideas, and
then on any subject which might not seem very clear, to confer
with such experienced and skillful farmers as Hon. David Crocker
and Deacon Isaac Bower, who are known to be thorough-going
farmers and producers of neat cattle, and to whose inspection I
submitted my MS. for criticism.

In regard to tools, and especially edged tools, I have conferred

PEEFACE. V

with many of our best mechanics, and I have not, as yet, been
able to detect anything in this work which does not coincide with
the most approved views and practices for manufacturing and
for putting tools in order.

The figures of tools and implements have been drawn with my
own pencil, and I have penned nothing which has not been well
tested, and have introduced no tools, or implements, which can
be considered of doubtful utility. The reader will find about
every tool which is represented in the following pages — and
scores of others also — in my possession, which are in prime order.

The chapter on fencing and fence tools, a portion of which has
been re-written, was published in the volume of Trans, of the
N. Y. State Agricultural Society for 1858 ; and it is a source of
great chagrin to me that I did not have the proof-sheets in time
to correct the numerous typographical errors, and to place some
of the cuts right side up, and others in their appropriate places.
Some of them were placed on the side, and some topsy turvy,
while several of them, instead of being inserted where they were
described, under their appropriate heads, were placed in another
part of the chapter, where they were simply alluded to. / grin
and bear it as well as any one ought to. Some of the cuts were
not engraved like the original drawings, and have since been re-
engraved.

Reference is frequently made to subjects in another volume,
which will follow this in a succession of paragraphs and illustra
tions, which will relate more particularly to the cultivation of the
soil and raising crops.

There are ten ways of performing most of the operations of
the farm ; there is a right way, and a wrong way ; an easy way,
and a hard or very laborious way ; a skillful, and an awkward

Vi PREFACE.

way ; a neat, and a slovenly way ; and an economical, and a very
expensive way. As a general rule, tyros, and, many times, " oZc?
ww," too, are very liable to perform every job and handle every
tool in one of these sinister ways.

Now, one laudable object in this treatise is, to furnish plain
directions, which, with the exercise of a little skill and com
mon sense, will turn our awkward, unskillful farmer-boys into
skillful, neat, and economical farmers.

A copiotls index will be found at the end of the volume, by
which the reader will be able to turn without any difficulty to
any subject, or cut of tool or implement. The first column of
figures refers to the paragraphs in which whatever is referred to
may be found ; and the second column refers to the page of the
book. Reference is frequently made to paragraphs, in different
parts of this book, where the subject under consideration is more
fully explained, which should be looked out when reading.

Stimulated by an ardent desire to give an efficient and skillful
direction to the energies of the young American farmer, and ele
vate him to that high and noble standing which the Creator
designed for him, I send forth this volume, hoping that my
labors of love will be appreciated, not only by my contempora
ries, but by thousands yet unborn, when I am sleeping in the
dust. S. E. T.

LAKE RIDGE, TOMPKINS Co., N. Y., 1860.

INTRODUCTION.

" The sounds of active industry

I love — I love them all :

The banging of the hammer, the whirring of the plane,
The crashing of the busy saw, the creaking of the crane." — ANON.

THE age has passed in which the hard-fisted cultivator of the
soil was looked upon as an illiterate plebeian, and the last beams
of its twilight are dancing about us. Our worthy grandfathers
taught their sons that, if they were able to read, intelligibly, the
Bible and the " Babes in the Woods," which usually constituted
their library, and could write a legible hand, and keep their debit
and credit so that no one could cheat them, they would have all
the education that would ever be of any practical advantage to
them in agricultural pursuits. Our fathers allowed us to exceed
the boundaries which restrained them, and permitted us to look
into geography, natural philosophy, a,nd chemistry, as applied to
agriculture ; and, after long importunity, allowed us to lay aside
those old Bull Plows, with wooden mold-boards, and those clumsy,
awkward, heavy, ill-shapen tools, for those which had been manu
factured of better materials,- and of forms more in accordance
with the most approved mechanical and philosophical principles.
Our forefathers were taught, and they inculcated the same pre
cept, that if a boy or man happened to be so unaccountably
stupid that he would not be likely to make a successful doctor, or
lawyer, or merchant, or mechanic, he must be a farmer ; but we

14 INTRODUCTION.

have manfully broken off this tyrannical yoke of "old fogy" con
ventionalism, and teach our sons that we need the most active,
promising, intelligent, and skillful men and boys, for farmers ; and
if a boy happens to be deficient in the attic story, he must learn
a trade, and be a mechanic. Our forefathers brought up their
sons to feel that farmers belonged to an inferior caste ; and many
of our fathers and fastidious mothers taught their children, that
manual labor was dishonorable and degrading, and that, in order
to be respected in the world, they must have a situation behind
the merchant's counter, or study theology, or jurisprudence. But
we, at the present day, teach those under our care, that there is
a no more honorable, nor respectable, nor honest livelihood, than
that of cultivating the soil, and its kindred arts and sciences.
And we teach them also, that, in order to be a thorough-going,
energetic, and successful farmer, a man must be educated ; that he
must have a good smattering of agricultural chemistry, natural
philosophy, geology, mineralogy, botany, and a good peep into
vegetable physiology, and arithmetic and geometry, &c. ; and
must have a good understanding, also, of the manufacture of
agricultural implements, according to the most convenient and
approved form and weight ; and must know how to handle them
with skill and dexterity. Therefore,

A FARMER MUST BE A MAN OF THOUGHT AND INVESTIGATION.

No man can reasonably expect to succeed in the thorough
cultivation of the soil, and raise good crops on his farm from year
to year, as long as he lives, and not :mpoverish it, but leave it in
as good, or even a better state of fertility at the end of his days,
unless he is a man of thought, accustomed to devise the best and
most practicable arrangements and systems of management, not
only for producing, but for consuming the productions of the farm.
(See How TO MAKE A GOOD FARM BETTER, in next vol.) He
must not always be " whistling along for want of thought," but
he must think beforehand — not a year afterwards — what he can
do practically to bring all his practices and farming operations to
a greater degree of perfection for the year to come, than they were

INTRODUCTION. 15

the past season. He must make note of his failures in every
operation, and endeavor to have everything performed in the most
seasonable time, and in the most economical and farmer-like man
ner. And'

A FAEMER MUST BE A LABORING MAN.

On the other side of the great water, the landlord, the farmer,
and the laborer, exist in three distinct personages ; but in America,
for the most part, these three are united in one. The most suc
cessful cultivators of the soil in America, whose opinions on
agricultural subjects and whose practices are eagerly sought, and
widely disseminated and adopted, are most generally men who
are not ashamed nor mortified to be seen in a ditch, with a tow
frock on, or holding the plow, or swinging the cradle. Reason
and experience teach us that manual labor is by no means incom
patible with the growth and vigor of our intellects. Philosophy
and long experience have furnished us with the most indubitable
demonstration that active, energetic, manual employment, imparts
vigor to the corporeal system, and that vigor of the body invigor
ates the brain. Our systems are so constituted, that while our
hands are engaged in manual operations, the head and the heart
may be led on to knowledge. It injures no one to labor with
his hands ; and, although we were doomed to toil by the Creator,
(G-en. 3: 19,) it is one of the greatest temporal blessings, in
disguise, which mortals are permitted to enjoy. If a farmer's
business should be so extensive that all his time is consumed in
planning and in superintending, or if he is able to glide along
through the >vorld passively, still he ought to have a good under
standing of manual operations, so as to be able to instruct those
in his employ how to handle their tools with skill and efficiency.
No man ever shortened his days by energetic, manual labor,
alone ; but lad habits have sent thousands to an untimely grave,
whose demise was attributed to " hard work." Intellectual culture
and manual labor must go hand in hand. The time is fast hasten
ing on, when the hands of hard-fisted industry will sway the
destiny of the world.

16 INTRODUCTION.

A FARMER SHOULD BE A GOOD MECHANIC,

theoretically, if he is not practically. There are so many branches
of mechanical operations connected with farming, such as making
farm gates, and fences, harrows, field-rollers, and tools of every
description, and repairing old ones, and putting edge tools
in order, and such like, that he who must necessarily depend
entirely on some one else to perform every little job, cannot
expect to succeed in farming operations like him who will accus
tom himself to handle mechanical tools with dexterity. More
than one-half of our country mechanics, who work at their trade
for a livelihood, are incompetent to perform a difficult job, in a
neat and workmanlike manner, without a foreman. For this
reason, if for no other, a farmer should be a good mechanic, in
order to give proper directions how a piece of work should be
performed, or whether or not it is perfect or faulty after it is
finished.

A FARMER SHOULD BE A MACHINIST.

Now that so many new machines are being manufactured and
introduced for performing the labors of the farm, a farmer needs
the skill and discernment of an ingenious machinist, in order to
understand whether a machine has been manufactured according
to the most approved mechanical principles or not, and to detect
at a glance any imperfection in its construction (see FITTING UP
MACHINERY, in the next vol.) ; and in case a machine fails in con
sequence of little imperfections in its manufacture, to be able to
repair it himself, or to direct another to do it, in a workmanlike
manner.

A FARMER SHOULD BE A GOOD ENGINEER.

Agriculture now is ranked among the arts and sciences of the
first order. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil has been not im
properly styled the " mother of arts." Perhaps in no other single
art and science can there be found such a variety of simple and
complex, cheap and expensive, tools and implements, as in agri
culture. Consequently, in order to be able to work, or manage,

INTRODUCTION. 17

or handle with skill and efficiency, such a variety of implements
and tools, a man needs an eye like a serpent, an ear like a roe,
the perception of an elephant, and the skill and acumen of a
honey-bee. He needs to have a good knowledge of the strength
of materials — which lies at the very foundation of successful
engineering — that he may be able to determine, without hesi
tancy, whether the various parts of a tool are of the correct pro
portion, (see next vol.,) or * whether one part of a machine is
made four times lighter, or heavier, as the case may be, than is
required, or is necessary. It is important for him to know
whether, in erecting buildings, the stress on the different parts is
so great, or so small, as to need a timber one foot square, or six
inches square. He should have a perception so acute when run
ning any kind of machinery as to determine, in an instant, by
the sound and clatter, whether the motion is too high or too low,
or uniform, or variable, or when anything is not in complete run
ning order. He should be able to tell whether he is hauling
with his team a number of hundred pounds of redundant mate
rial in a given machine ; and whether his team moves, or the
parts of machinery run, at the most effective velocity or not.
(See VELOCITY OF SAWS.) A farmer should understand well the
principles of draught, (see next vol.,) that he may not break his
tools unnecessarily, nor use up the energies of his team to no
good purpose. These are but a very few of the qualifications
which ought to be prominent characteristics of every successful
cultivator of the soil ; and besides these, it is of primary im
portance that a farmer should understand, well,

THE PROPER APPROPRIATION OF THE FORCES OF THE FARM.

" The prudent foreman now, with timely care,
Forecasts his labors ; gives to each his share,
No force is misapplied ; he keeps in view
The faithful, trusty, and the idle, too,
With plans well formed for every future day,
His forces execute without delay," — EDWARDS,

Why does one farmer often accomplish as much, or even more

18 INTRODUCTION.

labor with two workmen, than his neighbor does with four labor
ers of equal strength ? Why do the operations on one farm move
on most effectively in every respect, without any hurry, or blus
ter, or fretting, or worrying of teams, while on the next farm all
is hurry and excitement, and but little work done ? The answers
to these interrogations may all be expressed in few words, which
cannot be gainsay ed: A want of wise plans, and an improper
appropriation of the forces of the farm.

Every farmer, in order to be successful, must have well-digested
plans for performing every operation connected with his business.
He can never hope to be successful who goes to work at random.
A successful farmer will be a thinking man ; and all his plans will
be so harmonious, that little, if any, of his available force will be
improperly appropriated, under any circumstances. He will never
send two laborers to perform a little job which one can do in
about the same period of time. It cannot be denied that multi
tudes of pretty good farmers are most stupendously deficient on
this point ; and it is no uncommon occurrence to see them employ
two, three, and even four laborers to do what one hand could per
form very advantageously. There are very many operations on
the farm which one hand cannot do to any good advantage ; but
when one man can perform a given piece of work alone by work
ing four times as long as it would require four men to do it, as a
general rule, in practice, it will be found to be most economical,
on the score of expense, to employ but one hand at such a job.
It cannot be expected that uninterested laborers will care but
little how many of them are sent by their employer to perform a
given job ; therefore the skillful and successful farmer, whether
he is a tyro or not, should always think a moment, whether more
than one hand is really needed, and whether one will not perform
a certain job about as quickly as two will do it.

The practice of some farmers always is, if there is a job or two
of labor at a distant part of the farm which one hand could do iu
an hour or so most advantageously, to send three or four to do it,
thinking that if one man can do it in two hours, two men will be
able to do it in one hour ; and four men can do it in half an hour.

INTEODUCTION. 19

Did such reasoning hold good, there would be a loss of time by-
sending four hands. Suppose, for instance, the work is so far
distant as to occupy ten minutes in going to it and ten minutes in
returning. Now one laborer will go and do the job in two hours
and twenty minutes, or in one hundred and forty minutes, when
he will be ready for another job. But if four men are employed,
each one consumes twenty minutes in going to and returning from
the job, which will consume one hundred and ten minutes, pro
viding they perform the job in thirty minutes. With good faith
ful laborers, those who will work faithfully when alone, there is
almost always a loss of time, in proportion to the number em
ployed. There will be some waiting, one for another, which
cannot conveniently be avoided. And more than all, when a lot
of men work together, it often seems at first sight that they are
driving the job with great rapidity, when, if the labor performed
were divided up into plots, so that each could see exactly how
much he had accomplished, they would all be ashamed that they
had done so little. But it is much the wisest policy, many times,
to have a lot of hands work together, because some men do not
like to work alone, and they cannot work alone ; and if set to
work alone, they cannot work, and they will not try. This is a
weakness not uncommon to many pretty active men. They need
the little stimulus of example; and many times, men who are
good for nothing when alone will accomplish a large day's work
if they can have only the company of another individual, whether
he is an associate laborer or not. On this point the tyro must
exercise all possible acumen; and if it is his misfortune to have
in his employ a laborer not unlike the one just alluded to, he
should have every plan wisely laid beforehand, so that when his
workmen have finished one job, he will be ready to give orders,
with promptness, who shall go to this piece of work, and who
shall do that. There will be time enough consumed in going to
and returning from labor on a large farm, when the plans are ever
so well laid ; but unless some forethought is exercised little will be
accomplished.

It is no uncommon occurrence on some farms to see two men

20 INTRODUCTION.

sent to get one team, and go half a mile or more to get a load of
rails, or wood, or stone, or such like. We will grant that they
may work advantageously in loading and unloading ; but if it
consumes twenty minutes in going to, and twenty more in return
ing from their work, there is a loss of forty minutes with one la
borer, which might have probably been appropriated to some
good purpose. Now let forty minutes be taken from every two
hours during the entire day, and one third of his time will amount
to nothing. Allowing fifteen or twenty minutes for one man to
put on a load of rails, or of wood, if two were able to do it in
half that time, there would be a waste of time. In hauling dirt,
gravel, peat, muck, or manure, two men, and many times three,
are sent with one team and one cart, or wagon, to haul such sub
stances the distance of one fourth of a mile, or even more. Sup
pose, after loading, it requires only five minutes to drive to the
place for unloading, and five minutes to return. If two laborers
are employed, and both go to unload, there will be a loss of
time of one man, of ten minutes each load ; amounting to more
than two hours lost time during the working hours of one
day.

In mowing grass with scythes, or cradling grain, one man
usually, especially if he will work alone, will cut more than half
as much as two ; and as the number of hands are increased in
one company at such work, the less labor will be performed in
proportion to the number of workmen employed. Why ? Be
cause even when they are all faithful as possible, there will of
necessity be a vast amount of waiting one for another. Suppose,
for instance, there are five mowers, or cradlers. It will usually
be seen that one who sets in first will work one or two minutes
before there will be an opportunity for the last one to commence.
Now, they will all work fifteen or twenty rods, and perhaps not
half that distance, when there will be another halt until all come
up evi-n, when the scythes must be whet. Then there is a delay
of one for the other all day ; and it many times will amount to
more than the working hours of one man in one day. And,
besides, the labor performed will be most astonishingly less, in

INTRODUCTION. 21

proportion to the number of hands employed, than if one or two
laborers only worked together. And, furthermore, when a lot
of hands are mowing, or cradling together, each one is prompted,
by the recital of some nonsensical story or startling adventure,
to relate something similar, in order to disclose his own indomi
table perseverance, or prowess, or magnanimity : and if there be
half a score, all must wait to hear it. The true remedy is, to set
a few hands at work in one field, and a few in another field, —
when there will usually be a little ambition on the part of faith
ful workmen to perform quite as much, or a little more, and a
little better, than the other party.

It is no uncommon thing to see two men sent to the woods to
split rails, stakes, or the like, with but one beetle, and as many
wedges and glats, as one man only needs. Two laborers can
work together very advantageously in splitting such materials
only when each one has all the tools which one man requires.
But when two men have but one beetle, and a corresponding
number of wedges, if they are ever so faithful, there must neces
sarily be a loss of time, — unless one hand confines himself closely
to splitting, while the other chops off the cuts, and peals and
piles whatever the other splits. But pealing, piling up, and cut
ting the cuts, are usually much less than half the labor required,
to make rails and stakes. The true and economical way, when
two men are employed to split rails together, is, to furnish each
one with a beetle, an axe, and as many wedges as he needs. And
then let both work together, when opening the cuts, each one
having a good handspike, especially when the cuts are large ;
and when a cut is separated, let each one take one half to split
into rails ; and they will not be in each other's way ; and all
their time and labor will be most economically appropriated.
(See SPLITTING RAILS, par. 63.)

In digging post-holes, two men are very frequently seen at
work with but one set of tools. Under such circumstances, it is
almost impossible for two laborers to dig in a day twice as many
holes as one man alone will dig. When each one must of neces
sity wait a few minutes when he wants to use a tool, for the

22 INTRODUCTION.

other to finish using it, for the time there will be a loss of time ;
and in a few days, those lost, idle moments, when a laborer is
receiving seventy-five cents or more per day, will soon amount
to enough to purchase a set of tools.

During the season of haying and harvesting in particular, the
tyro should see to it that every plan is most wisely and economi
cally laid, in disposing of the manual forces of the farm. "Whether
he leads the van in active labor, or only superintends, he should,
as occasion requires, think what disposition he may make of his
-orces, in order to accomplish the greatest amount of labor in a
given time. If, for example, it will be necessary to spread, or
turn, or air a lot of hay, in some distant field, which one man
will be able to do in half an hour or so, let one only go and do
it. Let one hand only get a team, instead of sending two.
When there are more than two hands in loading, let two pitch
while one loads : because one man can load for two pitchers just
as well as for one. When the distance is half a mile or more
from the barn to the field, and it is convenient to have two teams
to haul with, three hands will accomplish more at hauling hay
and grain, by putting on two loads in the field and driving them
to the place of unloading, and unloading both wagons, than they
will to use only one wagon and one team : because there will be
less time not appropriated to useful labor when there are two teams,
than when but one is used. In hauling anything any consider
able distance, in order to appropriate the working hours to the
most economical-, purpose, each man should have a team, so that
all his time may be consumed, if not in active labor, in something
which consumes time, such as simply driving a team with a
load.

In hauling heavy logs or timber, where two or more hands are
absolutely necessary in loading, in order to lose no time of work
men, each one should have a team ; and then two, three, or more,
as may be necessary, should load one team, and then another ;
and then each man drive a team to the place of unloading, when
no time need be consumed to no purpose.

I have been led to pen these thoughts in consequence of having

INTRODUCTION. 23

seen so much injudicious and uneconomical appropriation of the
manual forces of the farm ; and by those, too, who were always
grumbling, and complaining that their work was always behind ;
and that they were not able to get laborers to perform as much in
a day for themselves, as when they were in the employ of some
of their neighbors. I might expatiate upon the subject to four
times its present length, with seeming propriety ; but enough
has been said to induce the tyro to think and plan for himself,
and to appropriate his forces according to the circumstances of the
occasion.

It may be urged that hard-working laborers need rest; and
that it seems rather like a disposition to overreach the limits of
fairness and propriety. It is granted that they need rest ; but
there is no danger that they will not avail themselves of all the
time, necessary or not, to reinvigorate their partially exhausted
faculties. They will seldom consider any number of hours spent
in idleness, in the light of rest; nor will they seldom feel willing
to make any greater exertion, when they are in active labor, if
half their time is consumed in idleness, than they do when they
work during all the working hours of one or of many days.
There are always rainy days, and portions of days, during the
year, when laborers cannot labor at all advantageously ; but they
must receive the same wages that they do when they are earning,
in a day, twice the sum which they receive per day. But, when
the weather is fair, it is but just and right that all the forces should
be brought into operation, in the most economical and effective
manner. The tyro should plan work for his hands on the pre
ceding day, so that each one, as soon as he rises in the morning,
can start immediately to his business, without hanging around a
half-hour or more, before he knows what to go about. Let one
nrm go and feed the teams; and another do this, and another
o,i do that job, until breakfast time, and in this way a long
catalogue of little jobs will be performed, during the season, which
otherwise would have gone undone. Another consideration of
vast importance is,

24 INTRODUCTION.

THE COOPERATION OF THE WIFE.

" Good husband without it is needful there be :
Good housewife within is as needful as he." — TUSSER,

However judiciously and economically the plans for the opera
tions of the farm may be laid, if a man and his wife do not har
monize, most completely, in prosecuting their labors, he had better
at once dispose of his farm, and lay by the avails of it for decrep
itude and old age, and work out by day's work. The housewife
and her operations are the great regulator of the operations of the
farm. There is too much truth in the old maxim, for fiction, that
" if a man would succeed well in his livelihood, he must ask his wife."
A very great fault among many farmers is, they do not consult
their wives in relation to matters with reference to which it is
highly proper they should have a word or two to say. "We com
miserate the man who bears the reproach of a hen-pecked husband ;
and, when we see a wife ruling, and engineering in-doors and out
of doors, we think that if she had a husband far superior to her-
self, she would be a woman of sterling worth. It cannot be
denied that wives have often made, to their husbands, some most
capital suggestions, in reference to the operations of the farm ;
and it must be acknowledged, that many women are far more
capable of planning judiciously, and carrying on more economi
cally the operations of the farm, than their husbands. But if a
wife superintends and executes, in the best manner, the in-door
operations, nothing more should be required of her. I know that
very many men consider it a little beneath them to consult their
wives with reference to any of their plans ; and they will never
suffer their wives to know, if they can prevent it, any thing about
their income or expenditures, or their debit or credit. But it is
a matter of doubt whether there ever was an instance in which a
ni;m habitually consulted his wife, when, as a consequence, it
proved detrimental, or a disparagement to him in any respect.
There can be no impropriety in the practice of some men, of
allowing the housewife to know exactly all about the income and

INTRODUCTION. 25

expenditures, the debit and credit of the farm ; and if these wise
ones, who congratulate themselves that they have a most perfect
knowledge of the best manner of performing the operations of the
farm, would confer a little more with their wives, their wisdom
would be greatly increased.

" A man may spare and yet be bare,
If his wife be naught — if his wife be naught I
But a man may spend, and have cash to lend,
If his wife be aught,— If his wife be aught/"

THE

YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL,

CHAPTEK I.

SELECTING THE MOST SUITABLE LOCATION FOB THE BUILDINGS
OF A FARM.

" Be this our home— that ever hallowed spot,
To plant a palace or a lowly cot."

1. THE first and very important consideration with a young
farmer, as soon as he comes into possession of a farm, is, to have
all his buildings situated in the most convenient location, with
reference to each other and to the different fields of the farm.
If a farm is broken up by gullies and deep ravines, if convenience
of access to fields on both sides of them is any object, the young
farmer should endeavor to have his buildings located at the most
desirable , point. If a farm is rather undulating, or nearly level,
and its boundaries at nearly right angles, it is not attended with
much difficulty to select a site for the farm buildings which shall
prove most convenient in every respect. It is always most
desirable to have every field as convenient of access from the
barn as possible. This is desirable, not only for the sake of
convenience, but for the sake of economy in the expenses of
travelling, with or without loads, to and from the fields. Some
people will select only a high spot of ground for locating farm
buildings, and never even think of consulting convenience of

(27)

28 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

access to the distant parts of a farm. Americans almost univer
sally will erect their buildings along the highway, even when such
a location would place them entirely on one side of their farm.
"When the boundaries of a farm are in the shape of a wedge,
which is not unfrequently the case, and the barn is located on the
small end, it makes a vast amount of unnecessary travel and
labor in hauling the produce of distant fields to the barn, and in
returning the manure to them. Streams of water and springs
often influence the young farmer in choosing the most desirable
and convenient location for buildings ; but streams of water can
be so easily turned from their natural course, and the water of
springs can be brought in pipe or tube at so small an expense,
and up hill, too, that these considerations should have but little
weight in selecting the location for the buildings of a farm.
When the farm is composed of only forty or fifty acres, and is
located in a square compass, if the buildings are all located on
one side of it the inconvenience is not so great as it is when the
buildings are all on one side of a large farm. Convenience would
dictate that the buildings should be located as near the middle of
the farm as is practicable.

2. It is true that there are many advantages in having the
buildings of the farm located on the borders of the highway ;
but it is a very rare instance in which the disadvantages attend
ing the performance of the labors of the farm — if the farm is a
large one — would not have a preponderating influence if they
were fairly and impartially compared. There are some farmers
who have torn away from the very common custom of building
along the highway, and have located their buildings in the centre
of the farm, and the result is, the most distant fields are situated
nearer the barn,' and much less time is spent in going to and from
them. Should the centre of a farm be an undesirable location,
on account of low, wet ground, it would be far better to locate a
little at one side of the centre, than to be placed entirely at one
side of the farm.

3. If I were to commence on a new farm of only fifty, or of
two hundred acres, on which there were no streams or springs

29

of water, I would dig a large, deep well in the centre of the
farm, and erect a wind wheel for pumping the water ; and here
I would locate the buildings, and would lay out a lane each way
from the centre of the farm, north, south, east, and west, so that
cattle could go to and come from any field to the water without
crossing another field. The land appropriated to lanes would
produce pasture, and therefore would not be useless. If it were
only " the fashion" to have the buildings of a farm located near
the centre of it, the inconveniences arising from having the build
ings located entirely at one side of it would seem almost intoler
able. It will require no more land for the sites of buildings, and
for pleasure grounds and yards, in the centre of a farm, than would
be occupied near the borders of the highway.

4. For the arrangement and disposition of buildings, and for
plans of dwelling-houses, and plans of out-buildings — as a chapter
of proper length on that subject would swell this Treatise far
beyond its prescribed limits — young farmers who are interested
in this subject, will find all that the most fastidious can desire on
this subject, in works devoted to that subject.

PLOTTING THE FARM AND LAYING OUT THE FIELDS.

5. Every farmer should draw a Plan of his farm on a large
sheet of drawing-paper, which may be inclosed in a wooden
frame, or it may be delineated on a large board, neatly planed.
Let the Deed of a farm be taken to a good surveyor, who has
the proper instruments, and he will be able to delineate the shape
of any farm, with the different distances of a proper proportion to
each other, with the outside lines running at the same angle in
the plan that* they do on the farm. The larger the plan is, the
better it will be. The next step will be, to lay out the farm into
fields of the most convenient shape and size. If the farm is a
large one, the fields may be proportionately large ; but if the
farm is small, and the proprietor designs to keep a limited num
ber of cattle, or animals of any kind, the fields must be small.
It should always be the aim, in dividing a farm into fields, by
fences, to have the boundaries of each field run about at right

30 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

angles. But when a farm is cut up with highways, railroads,
and deep gullies, which do not run parallel with the outside
boundaries, the young farmer must exercise a little judgment and
skill in giving them a shape that will be most convenient of
access from the barn. If the buildings are so located that the
fields must necessarily be all on one side of a lane, leading to the
barn, it would be more convenient to have the fields eighty or
one hundred rods long, and of a narrow width, and let them
extend from the farther boundary of the farm to the lane, than to
have the fields square and be obliged to cross one or two fields
in order to reach a distant field. Sometimes it seems desirable
to make the fields of an irregular shape, in order to allow animals
in each field to have access to water. But it is not always ad
visable to give a field an irregular shape for the sake of a stream
of water, when it can be brought to that field for a small expense.
It is always desirable to have the fields of a uniform size, especially
when one adopts, in raising crops, a rotation system.

6. The first settlers of our country were accustomed to locate
their buildings almost anywhere ; and to clear and cultivate the
best and dryest land first ; and to fence around those parts of the
farm which were too wet to plow, and to keep them for pasture
only. The result was, that the fields of many farms were as
irregular in shape as a shapeless rock. When the location is
such that such places can be drained, the fences should be made
in the desired places, and all wet places and corners made dry by
ditching. Having decided upon the form and size of each field,
let marks be delineated in the plan to represent the fences. Let
each field be designated in the plan by some name, or title, or by
some tree, or rock, or pool, or they may be designated as the
fields A,- B, C, &c. This plan, or map, should be placed where
every one connected with the farm could see it often, and under
stand the location of every field, and woods, and yard, and build
ing, from the map. Now, if there are little streams running
across the farm, let them be represented by dotted lines, running
at about the same angle in the map that they do on the farm.
When under-drains are made in any field, dotted lines should be

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 31

made on the map to represent them. The distances should be
accurately measured in the field, — how many rods from a given
corner a certain ditch crosses the boundary of such a field, and
how many rods it runs in a given direction, and how many rods
from a certain corner it crosses the fence towards the outlet.
Should there be branches in a main ditch, let the distance from a
given side of the field be accurately measured, in rods or feet, and
noted down with the dotted lines on the map. All this will not
require as much time, if everything is performed systematically,
as I have consumed in penning these few thoughts. If the
ditches are filled with tile, stone, or wood, in any form, let it be
noted on the map, and also the time when the ditches were made.

7. T he advantage to be derived from knowing exactly, to one
foot or less, where an under-drain is located, may often be of
more or less pecuniary profit, in case a certain ditch should fail
to discharge the surplus water where it is located, in consequence
of some little obstruction, which could be readily found if the
exact location of the drain were known. (See DRAINING, 395.)

8. If a young farmer should happen to settle on a farm where
all the necessary buildings are erected and the fields laid out, he
may frequently obviate many very great inconveniences, by
altering the shape of his fields, and by removing the out-build
ings to a more desirable and convenient location.

GENERAL REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS IN REFERENCE TO
ERECTING FARM BUILDINGS.

9. Every man who has a lot of farm buildings to erect, needs
all the forethought and experience of him who has had the super
vision of erecting the necessary buildings of a large farm, in
order that he may be able to plan everything judiciously, and
see that every part of a job is executed economically and sub
stantially. Erecting buildings is a piece of labor which is not to
be performed every year of a man's life ; and it is almost always
quite impracticable to undo, and perform correctly, a job in build
ing that has been done amiss. Not one in fifty knows how to
take advantage of common circumstances in erecting his build-

32 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ings ; and but few know really what materials are actually neces
sary, or know how to obtain them in the most economical and
expeditious manner. A few practical suggestions on this subject
may be of almost incalculable advantage to the young farmer.

10. When a man of little experience is about to commence
building, he should make a most vigorous effort to ascertain
what kind of buildings — how large or how small, whether of
wood, brick, or stone — he really needs. It may save him seve
ral hundreds of dollars, to first procure the excellent periodicals
published on this subject ; as in them he will find an almost
unlimited variety of ground plans and elevations of buildings.
In order to build most economically, the stone and sand should
all be hauled in the winter, when the labors of the farm are not
on hand ; and boards and plank should be well-seasoned, not less
than one year, before they are worked up. In the meantime,
the beginner should confer with those who have had experience
in planning buildings ; and endeavor to have every plan arranged
in the most complete and economical manner. Always, if pos
sible, commence building in the spring ; because the weather is
usually more favorable, and the days are longer, and workmen
will perform full one quarter or one third more, than they will be
able to do in the short, unfavorable, and cold days of autumn.
"We will commence with

THE DWELLING-HOUSE.

11. Every dwelling-house needs a good cellar beneath it.
And in order to have it cool in summer, and dry and warm in
winter, the foundation walls should be built not less than twenty
inches above the level of the ground, after the ground has been
levelled off, in order to furnish sufficient space for the, cellar win
dows. The surface of the ground should always descend a little
from the house in order to carry off the surface water. Before
the cellar walls are laid, a good drain should be cut not less than
six inches deeper than the bottom of the cellar, and a little trench
dug entirely around the bottom of the cellar leading into the
main ditch. Now, let water be poured into the trench to ascer-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 33

tain whether it will flow out freely into the main ditch. If
water will run out of the trench into the main ditch, lay pipe or
sole tile, having not less than an inch and a half calibre, in this
trench entirely around the cellar, and cover them with hard dirt,
well tramped down on the tile. These tile will carry off all water
that would find its way into the cellar. Let tile be laid in the
main drain. Two inch tile is sufficiently large. Never trust to
a drain filled with stone about a cellar, or beneath any building ;
because they will be filled with some obstruction in a few years.
Let the main drain extend into the cellar a foot or two. Let the
bottom of the cellar be a few inches highest in the centre. If it
is convenient, let a lead pipe extend from the bottom of the rain
water cistern through the foundation of the cellar, having a
faucet or plug in the end, so that when the cistern needs to be
emptied, or the cellar-bottom needs cleaning, water may be let
out of the cistern on the cellar bottom, and allowed to escape
through a hole in a flat stone into the drain. All the sur
plus water of the cistern, during heavy rains, should pass off
through the tile for the purpose of keeping the passage clear.
Never build a dry wall around a cellar under any building ;
because you will wish a thousand times in less than five years,
chat the stone had been laid up in good mortar. (Read paragraph
187, to learn the best manner of laying stone walls.) Remember
that roots and fruit will freeze much sooner in a damp cellar than
they will in a dry one. Make calculations to have sufficient
space in the cellar to allow a tall man to walk erect in it, and
carry a basket of potatoes on his shoulder. If a building is
large and heavy, the foundation stone should be sunk six inches
below the bottom of the cellar ; and the stone walls should in
no case be less than twenty inches in thickness. Thirty inches
thick would be far better.

12. In hauling the stone for the cellar wall, the young farmer
should endeavor to select those first which have a good face side,
and reject all ill-shapen ones; and when unloading them, let
them be well spread out, with the face side up, and corner-stones

34 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

by themselves, so that a stone-mason will be able to select readily
such as he needs, first or last.

WATER LIME CELLARS.

13. In localities where building-stone is very scarce, and the
subsoil is very compact and hard, the cellar walls may be built
with a small amount of stone, after the manner of building in
this region. Excavate the ground of the size of the cellar, about
one foot deep, and build the foundation wall two feet high, mak
ing calculations to grade up on the outside nearly one foot high.
Let the wall above the ground be carried up with square timber
to the desired height. There should be a narrow space between
the timbers, as frost will not pass timbers of the same thickness,
^when there is a space between them, as soon as it will one solid
stick : and so with stone foundations. If a wall is built of two
courses of stone, the frost will be excluded from the cellar much
longer than it will if the stones extend entirely across the wall.

Now, let the cellar be dug about three and a half feet below
the bottom of the walls, leaving a square shoulder of earth, not less
than two feet wide, entirely around the cellar ; and let this
shoulder of earth be well plastered with water-lime mortar, both
on the side and on the top. This shoulder will be found a very
convenient shelf to place barrels on in the winter. I know of
cellars that have been built in this manner fifteen years, and are
now as good as when they were first built. But the frost must
be kept out of such cellars, or it will injure such plastering, and
make it peel off. The middle of such cellars should be the
highest, and a gutter made around the outside to carry off the
water. My own cellar is built in this manner ; and although it
has been built ten years, and has been injured by the frost only a
little in two places, still I regret that the walls were not built
from the bottom of the cellar with good stone. These consider
ations with reference to the foundation wall, are equally applicable
to the foundation of a barn or other out-buildings. Every build
ing should have a good stone wall under it, laid up in lime mortar.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 85

14. In building the superstructure, as a general rule, timber is
made use of which is nearly twice as large as is necessary. It is
better to have the frame timber too large than too small. Sills,
one foot square, lying on a good stone wall, are more than twice
as large as is necessary. And, besides, such large timber is very
liable to be affected with the " dry rot." Sills, six by eight, or
ten inches square, are sufficiently large for any building that is
erected on a wall, whether dwelling-house or barn.* For small
building, sills that are six inches square are infinitely better
than if they were four times as large. When a tree is a large
one, of which it is desirable to make a sill or other timber, let it
be slit at the saw-mill of the desired size. A tree will often turn
out four good sticks of timber when sawed, besides some boards
or plank ; whereas, if it was scored and hewed only one stick
could be obtained. Where the plates of a building are supported
by studs between the posts, if they are five by eight inches square,
they will be sufficiently strong for the roof of any ordinary build
ing. As most kinds of timber, with the heart of the tree in the
middle of the stick, is liable to check and crack open, often to its
great injury, if a tree is slit through the middle for a couple of
plates, they will not check. If there is a large seam in the middle
of the tree, a plank or two may be sawed out of the middle, and
the plates cut out of the soundest wood.

15. The Roofs of buildings are often made too flat for profit.
A flat roof, whatever the materials are of which it is made, is far
more liable to leak than a steep roof, and it will leak much sooner
than if it were steeper ; and the same roof will be serviceable
full ten years longer if built with a half pitch, than it will if built
with a quarter pitch.f A roof looks far better, and is more

* A largo church was recently taken down in this town, tho sills of which were of the
best, of white oak, one foot square, and although the outside was as sound and tough as
good spoke timber, about one-third of the middle of the sills was nothing but a mass of
"dry rot." The rationale is, that the sills could not season only in part, because they
were so large.

•f When a building is sixteen feet wide, and the ridge of the roof is four feet higher than
the top of the plates, the roof is said to have a quarter, or one-fourth, pitch. When the
ridge of the roof is eight feet higher than the top of the plates, and the building sixteen
feet wide, it is said to have a half-pilch.

36 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

durable, when it kas about one-third pitch, than if it is built flatter.
"When a roof, covered with wooden shingles, has one-half pitch,
the shingles may be completely worn out before that roof will
leak. And another consideration of great importance is, in
countries like this, where snow falls deep, the roofs of buildings
should have not less than one-third pitch, because the steeper the
roof is, the less liable a body of snow is to lodge on it ; and a
body of snow that would thrust the plates apart, or injure the
roof, if it had but a fourth pitch, would not remain on a steep
roof. When heated air from any of the rooms below the roof
melts the snow on the roof in cold weather, the water thus formed
will run down to the eaves, and freeze before it falls into the
eaves-troughs ; and if there is much snow on the roof, and the roof
has less than one-third pitch, ice will continue to form at the
eaves, until it becomes so thick that the water will flow back
under the shingles, and fall down on the walls in the upper
rooms. This is of very common occurrence in this region, and
many costly walls in elegant dwellings have been seriously
damaged in this way.

16. The remedy is, steeper roofs, with the eaves projecting
beyond the sides of the building, not less than two feet, measur
ing horizontally. If the roof projects two feet or more, and is
rather steep, there will not be as much water and ice ; and should
it freeze at the eaves, there will not be enough on the roof to
cause the water to flow back under the shingles above the plates.

17. The beginner should be careful to see that when a house
or any other building is framed, some means is devised to pre
vent the middle of the building from spreading. Jobbers are not
particular on this point, and many times the plates at the middle of
the building will be thrust apart several inches, to the great injury
of the building. Sometimes a scantling bolted from near the foot
of one rafter to the other, called a cottar, on each of the rafters,
will be sufficient. In large buildings, if the roof is not supported
by purline plates and posts, the foot of the rafters should be
secured by means of a truss, or a tie and king-post and struts.
Sometimes this may be most effectually prevented, as in a hay

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 37

barn, where a beam would be very much in the way, by fitting
a brace, without mortises, and bolting one end of it to the middle
post just below the plate, and the other end to the upper side of
the beam which supports the floor. Braces in such places, when
put in with tenon and mortise, almost always give way, and it is
not safe to rely upon them.

18. When a roof is covered with wooden shingles, a little
care should be exercised in having the shingles three courses thick.
The distance which one course of shingles is laid above the
other, is called laying to the weather. If shingles are laid six
inches to the weather, and the greater part of them are a little
less than eighteen inches in length, the shingles will not be of
three thickness over the entire roof; but there will be many places
at the butts of each course, where the top end of the under
course does not extend far enough up the roof to receive the
water as it falls from the butts of the outside course. A new
roof often will leak because the shingles are laid more than one-
third of their length to the weather ; whereas, the courses should
be laid a little less than one-third the length of the shortest
shingles.

OUT-BUILDINGS.

19. Many farmers seem to prefer a lot of small detached barns
to one large one. But those who have ever had a cluster of
small barns, and afterwards came in possession of one larger one,
greatly prefer a large one to a lot of small ones. On the score
of economy, one large barn that will contain as much as three
or four small ones, will cost nearly one half less to erect it ; and
a number of small ones are never as convenient as one large one.
The young farmer, as a general rule, need have no apprehensions
that he will erect a barn larger than is necessary, for the com
plaint almost always is a want of barn room. Barn room usually
is all occupied ; and in most instances it pays a good interest ;
but so much redundant house room as is too frequently met with,
is a decided disadvantage to a farmer. A few years ago barns
were built with posts only twelve and fourteen feet in length ;
because it was so laborious and expensive pitching hay or grain

38 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

to the top of them. But now that we have very efficient horse
elevators, out-buildings should be made much higher than they
formerly were. It costs but a trifle more to frame a post twenty-
four feet long than it costs to frame one fourteen feet long ; and
it requires no more rafters, and roof boards, and shingles, to
cover a high building than a low one. The posts of a large
barn may just as well be, and ought to be, twenty-four feet long,
as to be shorter. If such posts are eight inches square no one need
have any fears that they would ever prove too small ; providing
every one is well braced. Every additional brace gives addi
tional stiffness to a building ; and the young farmer should insist
on having the foot of every post braced, where they will not be
in the way, with as long braces as there is room for receiving ;
and each end should be well pinned. One brace at the foot of a
post, is more effectual in rendering a high building stiff, than two
braces at the top of it. The braces in a barn frame may face
with the inside of the posts ; and then they can cross the girts ;
and braces as long as can be received between the posts can be
used without interfering with the girts or studs.

20. Jobbers will usually mutter and grumble when requested
to put in long braces on the inside of posts ; and will deny the
importance of having long braces, and of having the ends of
them well pinned. But these ideas have not been penned with
out knowing from experience how a building should be braced,
in order to render it as stiff as possible with a given quality and
form of materials. It is by no means the largest timbers that
can be worked into a building, which impart the greatest strength
and stiffness to the frame ; but it is the manner in which the framing
is performed. Every tenon, where it is possible, should pass
entirely through a sill or post ; and be well pinned with very
tough pins. The girts — or girders — should never be placed more
than four feet apart. If they are much farther apart, the outside
boards, which are nailed to them, will not be as firm as they
should be. The main beams should be not less than fourteen
feet from the floor ; so as to allow sufficient room for a load of
hay or grain to pass under them. If such beams are eight by

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

39

ten inches square, and supported at proper distances with middle
posts, they will be large enough for any barn. The beginner
should, at the commencement of a job, give the foreman direc
tions to let the ends of every beam into the posts not less than
half an inch, so that the superincumbent pressure will not all
rest on the tenons.

21. The sleepers or joists of the principal floor should be
stiff enough to sustain any team and load without bending ; and
they never should be placed more than three feet apart from
centre to centre, even when two inch plank is used for the floor.
Two inch basswood plank, thoroughly seasoned, with the edges
plowed with a half-inch plow, a half-inch deep, and a tongue
neatly fitted, like Fig. 1, will makev as neat a barn floor as any

FIG. 1.

MANNER OF UNITING BARN-FLOOR PLANK.

one can desire. Fig. 2 represents the best manner of uniting the

FIG. 2.

MANNER OF 3IAK1NG END JOINTS TO FLOORING.

ends of plank or floor boards. In the absence of good plankj a
double floor of inch boards will subserve a good purpose. In
this case, a good coating of tar, or lime and- tar, should be laid
between them for the purpose of excluding wire-worms and all
other insects, and for rendering the floor tight and firm.

22. "When there are a number of different kinds of timber in
the frame, such as soft and hard wood, the proprietor should see
that the workmen have three or four different sizes of nails in
their boxes. Every good joiner knows that it is not always
practicable to drive ten or twelvepenny nails into seasoned, hard
2*

40 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

wood. In nailing on siding or inch boards, if the timber is hard
wood, nails of a smaller size should be used. Let a workman
attempt to nail on a half-inch board with tenpenny nails driven
into a stud of sugar maple, thoroughly seasoned ; and after the nail
has entered about one inch it will bend or break ; and the siding
will most assuredly be split. Let sixpenny nails be used for nail
ing into hard wood, and eights and tens — according to the thickness
of the boards — when the studs, posts, or girders are of soft wood.

23. In order to keep the large beams from springing outwards
or in either direction, two or three of the middle joists should bo
let in with a dove-tail.

24. Rafters should be firmly spiked — not pinned with wooden
pins — to the plates ; because wooden pins are very liable to
shrink and become loose ; and if the roof should project as far
as it ought to in order to appear well, a violent gale of wind
would lift the roof from the plates. But forty penny nails will
hold it in place.

25. Reference should be had, in erecting a large barn, to the
most proper and economical disposition of the room. The joists,
which extend from one large beam to another, should be loose, so
that they can be removed until the mow is filled up to them,
when they should be put in their places, and a few loose boards
laid on them. Now the lower part of the mow may be threshed
out ; and then the upper part can be threshed, and the straw de
posited in the lower part of the mow. Should more room be
needed, the horse fork may be used to pitch a lot of straw into
the upper part of the mow.

26. Every good barn should have a basement story, and a
water channel of tile should be laid around the entire foundation,
as recommended for a cellar, paragraph 11, in order to render it
as dry as possible ; and the barnyard should be so constructed
that no manure will be wasted.

27. Eaves-troughs should conduct all surplus water into the
tile, for the purpose of keeping them open. Basement and cellar
walls are often ruined by allowing the water to fall from the
eaves and soak into the ground along the walls.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

41

28. When a carriage-house, hay-barn and stable are erected
under one roof, the posts may be eighteen or twenty feet high,
just as well as ten or twelve feet to the roof. When the posts
are short there is but little room for hay. It will cost but a few
dollars more to erect a carriage-house with twenty-feet posts than
with twelve-feet posts.

29. I have erected a carriage-house the past summer, with
eighteen-feet posts ; and I regret they were not twenty feet long.
The roof is one-third pitch, and on the top, at the middle of the
ridge, is a hole five and a half feet square ; and a square cupola,
with a door five and a half feet square on one side of it, is
erected over it, into which hay is pitched with a horse-fork. The
highest pulley is attached in the top of the cupola. With such
an arrangement the loft can be filled with hay to the peak with
no inconvenience.

30. As tie beams are always very much in the way in a hay-
barn, in my carriage-house loft, braces, made of iron-wood poles
six inches in diameter and seven feet long, were neatly fitted,
without tenons, and bolted to the middle posts below the plats, and to
the upper side of the middle beam with iron bolts three-fourths of an
inch in diameter, as represented by Fig. 3. Such braces keep the

3 ( _ t beam from sagging, and the

plates from spreading apart.

SCARFING TIMBERS.

31. It is often very difficult to
procure timber of a given length.
For sills and beams that are well
sustained with middle posts or
studs, they subserve about as
good purpose if they are neatly
scarfed together, and keyed, or
well bolted.

32. There are several different
modes of scarfing, or •' splicing"
timbers ; but some are very in

efficient, while some others will render a stick almost as strong as

MANXER OF BOLTING A TIE ERACE TO BEAM

AND I'.te-r.

42

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

a whole stick. Fig. 4 represents the best and strongest manner

FIG. 4.

STRONGEST MANNER OF SCARFING POSTS AND BEAMS.

of scarfing timbers. This style requires more skill to make good
joints than either of the other figures. This style is calculated
more particularly for beams and posts. When timber is scarfed
like Fig. 4, iron bolts should be put through both ways, and the
feather-edged ends well nailed. When two timbers are scarfed
like Fig, 5, if they are well pinned with wooden pins iron bolts

FIG. 5.

T T

MANNER OF SCARFING SILLS.

will not be necessary. The square hole in the middle of the
scarf or splice should be laid out with about one-eighth of an inch
draw ; so that when a wooden key is driven firmly in, the pieces
will be brought to a close joint.

CAUSE OF DECAY OF THE TIMBERS OF A BUILDING.

33. If the timbers of a building should be kept dry, they
would remain sound and serviceable during all time, even if they
were not made of the most durable kinds of wood. When mor
tises for studs, or anything else, are made in the upper side of a
sill, or any other part of the frame; or when there are large checks
in the upper side of a stick, a hole should be bored in the side of
the stick, so as to intersect the bottom of mortises or checks, for
the purpose of affording a passage for any water to escape that
might find its way into such cavities. I know it is argued that
when a house is erected it should be so well inclosed that no
water can ever find its way into cavities in the timber. But

THE YOUNG FARMERS MANUAL. 43

sometimes a driving storm will force the water through small
cracks, so that it will be very difficult to determine from what
source it comes. And may times, in cleaning house, some do
mestics will have every floor in the house completely deluged
with water, which flows into mortises and checks, and soon causes
decay. "When my dwelling-house was erected, a hole was bored
with a large bit in the side of the timber at the bottom of every
mortice, and other cavities in the frame.

34. As there are so many manufactories throughout the coun
try of window blinds, sash, and panel doors, the beginner will find
it most economical usually to purchase such articles ready made ;
because all such things when made by machinery are neater and
truer than the majority of mechanics will make them, even if they
have ability to do it as well. Panel doors should be allowed to
season nearly a year before they are pinned together, and then
they will not shrink after they have been hung.

VALUE OF BASSWOOD.

35. "Whenever a man is located where pine lumber is scarce,
and very costly, and other timber is abundant, such as basswood,
whitewood, butternut, chestnut, and some other kinds of wood,
they may be used instead of pine. For inside panel doors, bass-
wood, for both stiles and panels, is equally as good as pine.
"When I built my house I used basswood for many jamb casings,
and for the face casings, and for outside doors as well as inside.
Basswood is better to paint on than good pine ; and will be as
durable as pine if it is kept well painted. Some of the face cas
ings in my parlor are basswood, some butternut, and some pine.
They are painted white ; and nearly every stick of pine can
be selected, because the coloring matter in the pine has struck
through the paint, notwithstanding it has been well painted four
times. Basswood siding is now coming into very extensive use ;
and if I were to build a house, or any other building, and had
good basswood on my own land, I would not hesitate to use it for
siding, doors, and all kinds of casings, and for floors.

36. Basswood Shingles. — In localities where pine and hemlock

44 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

are scarce, and basswood is abundant, the beginner need not hesi
tate to use basswood shingles, providing they are well coated with
coal tar once in two or three years. They may be sawed, cut, or
shaved. I have laid several thousands of sawed basswood shingles
during the past season, and I have great confidence in them.
It is necessary to use nearly twice as many nails in nailing them
on as is necessary for pine and hemlock. If basswood shingles are
from eight to ten inches wide, each shingle should be nailed with
at least five nails ; otherwise, when they become a little wet, they
will expand, and the middles, or edges, will rise or " bulge up."
If well nailed they will make a neat roof ; and if kept well coated
with tar, will be serviceable a hundred years. (See PAINTING
ROOFS, next Vol.)

WALLS AND LATH.

37. When the sides of a room or that part overhead are
lathed with lath of ordinary length, wherever the lath break joint
for a foot or two, there will be a crack in the wall. In order to
remedy this cracking of the walls, the strips of lath should extend
entirely across the room. When a house is lathed in this manner,
there will be no cracks in the plastering across the lath.

38. The lath for my house were all sawed with a two-horse
railway power, with a circular saw one foot in diameter, out of
basswood plank, which was about an inch and a quarter thick.
The lath were sawed, about three-eighths of an inch thick, very
true ; and there is not a place in the entire house where the lath
break joint ; and, consequently, not a crack to be found across
the lath. This is a very economical way to procure lath ; and
they are usually much better than those that are purchased.
Have the logs sawed into plank an inch and one-fourth thick, as
long as the width of the widest room ; and let them be sawed up
into lath before they are seasoned, as they will not saw so hard.
Such work should be performed when the business of the farm
does not demand attention.

39. Mortar. — No one can reasonably expect to have good walls
unless they are made of the best of mortar ; and good mortar

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 45

cannot be obtained, however good the materials may be of which
it is made, unless it is most thoroughly worked over and over again
for a number of successive months, before it is laid on the lath.
It is a very laborious job to work over the mortar for a large
house, when it is performed by hand labor. When lime and
sand are mingled together, and in a few days laid on the lath,
the plaster will shrink and the wall will be covered with cracks,
and the plaster will soon crumble off. But if about two bushels
of clean, sharp sand is mixed with one bushel of unslacked lime,
and the mass is worked over once in two or three weeks for a
few months, a wall that is made of it will appear like slate ; and
will not crack unless the building or some parts of it change their
position, as is frequently the case by seasoning. In order to have
good mortar, that may be spread like good butter, it must be
mixed and worked over often enough to have the lime slack
most thoroughly, and " to work the shrinkage out." If mortar
should be worked over once in ten days for a year, it would be
all the better for it, and would make a better wall.

40. To facilitate the labor of mixing mortar so frequently as
is desirable, when my house was erected I constructed a rude

FIG. 6.

MACHINE FOB MIXING MORTAR.

machine for mixing it with horses, which subserved an excellent
purpose, and which is represented by Fig. 6. It is a very cheap
concern, and will pay for itself in one day. It consists of a post,
<r, about six inches in diameter, very firmly set in the ground,

46 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

not less than three feet deep, and about two feet high. Put an
iron band on the top to keep it from splitting. An iron bar, 5,
(a small crowbar will answer,) passes loosely through the sweep,
c, into the centre post, a. Next, lay a floor — water level — on the
ground, and nail the side boards, which should be sixteen or
twenty inches wide, to stakes driven into the ground. The side
boards should be placed in- an octagonal form, as shown in the
figure, although if the sides were circular it would be preferable.
The floor should be about fourteen or sixteen feet in the clear.
The sweep, c, should be six inches square in the middle, twenty
feet long, and the ends may be made smaller or not. The pad
dles, or legs, should be made of hard wood, two by four inches
square, firmly inserted in the sweep, c, with a two inch tenon;
about six inches apart, and so disposed that those on one side
will not traverse in the tracks of those on the opposite side, but
between them. The form of the legs is shown at E. They are
made similar to the wings of a wind wheel, with the two corners*
which are in a diagonal direction from each other, dressed off
smoothly, so that each knife-like leg will work the mortar towards
the centre. They should be not less than three-fourths of an
inch thick after they are dressed out. If they are too thin they
will break in mixing stiff mortar.

41. Let the lime and sand be put in, and hitch a horse at each
end of the sweep, and commence mixing as the water is poured
in, until it is so soft that it will flow slowly, and the surface
become level. Shovel the mortar from the corners into the
middle every time it is worked out. When a large quantity of
mortar is necessary, two or more places may be made, and the
same sweep used for all of them. When the sun shines, the
mortar should be covered with boards. Keep the surface of the
mortar covered with water, when not working it ; and if there
should be too much water when it is to be worked over again,
let it be dipped off. It should be worked over at least once in
ten days, and should never be allowed "to set" or become so
hard that it cannot be readily worked over with a trowel. It is
better to have a horse at each end, because the strain will not be

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 47

as hard on the post in the centre, as it would be if the power is
all applied at one end. Let the mortar be first mixed in the
spring, and keep it well worked all summer ; and if there is as
much lime in it as there should be, it will spread like butter, and
make walls as smooth and hard as stone. These directions were
followed, to the letter, in mixing the mortar for my present
dwelling-house ; and some of it was worked over, once in ten or
twelve days, for more than six months before it was used; and
my masons affirmed that they had never before handled mortar
that spread so neatly, and made such firm walls.

42. The hair should never be put in until a few days before
the mortar is to be used, because the lime will destroy it. In
separating the bunches of hair, some prefer to put it in a large tub,
and allow it to soak for a few days, and then have it well stirred
until there are no bunches ; and some prefer laying it on a floor
and whip it to pieces with an elastic whip.

MOVING BUILDINGS.

43. Buildings are very frequently located very inconveniently,
both in regard to each other and to the fields of the farm, and
removing them to a more desirable location, and arranging them
more conveniently, appears, to most men, almost as impracticable
as removing a mountain. I have known instances in which the
task of removing a certain building, or cluster of buildings, seemed
to the proprietor such a vast and expensive undertaking, that he
has been almost ready to offer four times as much to have the
job well performed, as the actual cost would be. When out
buildings are scattered here and there, if they are not erected on
a substantial wall, the arrangement would suit the fancy of most
men to have them conveniently arranged in a cluster, on sub
stantial foundations.

44. The machinery for moving buildings has become so well
perfected at the present day, that it costs comparatively but a few
dollars to load a large building, and haul it fifty or a hundred
rods, up hill or down, without injuring it in the least. If the sills
aie sound, a building can be loaded in a few hours; and if the

48 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ground is firm and smooth, it can be hauled along with all
desirable rapidity. When a building is so long that it would sag
down in the middle when loaded, it can be -cut in two, and the
parts moved separately and placed "together on the foundation.
Many times when a building was not erected in one part, but in
two or three united together, by putting timbers under the sills,
and by balancing it correctly when loading it on the trucks, it
may be removed with ease and safety.

45. Proprietors of moving machines usually ask from four to
six dollars per day for the machine, and one hand to work it.
But they often work by the job ; and if the owner of a moving-
machine is a faithful laborer, and a man of honest principles, it
will always be the cheapest *to employ him by the day. When
a man has buildings to move, and he is not at all posted with
regard to the time and expense of moving a certain building, un
principled fellows will often ask four times as much as would be
a fair and honest price for a given job.

46. I once built a good machine for moving buildings, and
worked it a few years very successfully; and with four good
hands and one horse, could load a large barn and move it eight
or ten rods in one day. But small buildings can be moved with
much greater facility. When a man has buildings of any kind
to move, he should do it when the ground is dry and hard, as it
costs nearly twice as much to move them when the ground is
soft. If there is any manure around a building, it should all be
removed ; and the ground over which the building is to be moved,
should be levelled. One or two day's work in preparing the way
and clearing up the rubbish, will often save a man ten dollars in
moving one building. I have known some farmers to move their
barns when all the manure which they had made in two years
remained about them, which always proved a great obstruction in
moving the buildings, and cost three times more than it would
have cost had the manure been first removed.

47. The art of moving buildings of all kinds has been so per
fected, that in most of our large cities tftre are those who possess
sufficient skill and machinery to move with safety, not only the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

heaviest wooden buildings, but those that are built of brick, and
which are computed to weigh three hundred tons.

MANNER OF FRAMING THE MIDDLE BENTS OF A LARGE BARN.

48. The importance
of having large build
ings framed in such
a manner that the sides
will not be thrust late
rally by the rafters, has
already been alluded
to in par. 17. Fig. 7
represents a style of
framing the middle
bents, which is very
convenient and effi
cient ; and I have
never seen it laid down
in any treatise on archi
tecture. As purline
beams are many times

very much in the way MANNER OF FRAMING THE MIDDLE BENTS OF A LARGE BARX.

they may be dispensed with entirely. The girts which connect
the tops of the middle post to the purline posts, should be of strong
timber ; and the tenons should extend through each post ; and
one edge of the tenons be fitted to a dove-tail mortise, and keyed
tight instead of being pinned. The braces a a, at the foot of the
purline posts, should be nearly as large as the purline posts ; and
should face on the opposite sides from the girts. Should the
purline posts be not less than twelve feet long, a beam might be
framed in ; and there would be sufficient room to pitch with a
horse pitch-fork, both under and over the purline beam. If the
doors are so arranged that teams are driven length ways of the
barn or across it, the framing will be nearly the same in both
cases. Very large builomgs may be framed in this manner ; and
if the work is well performed the sides will not spread one-fourth

50

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

of an inch. "When a barn is framed in this manner with purline
learns, the boss must remember not to pin one of the outside
posts when raising the building, until after the purline posts have
been put up ; because the girts which connect the purline posts
with the main posts, cannot be put in after both of the main posts
have been pinned ; unless one end of one of the girts is framed
without a shoulder, so that it may be run through one post and
then brought back to its place and pinned. If the barn is very
wide there should be two middle posts instead of one, placed far
enough apart for the width of the floor.

MANNER OF FRAMING A CORN-HOUSE.

FIG. 8. 49. Fig. 8 represents a

very good style of framing
the bents of a corn-house.
The figure represents one
of the bents. A A are.
the spaces for cribs; and
should not be more than
three feet wide at the bot
tom, and as high as may
be desired. - The bents
should be placed about
three feet apart, with girts
between them not more than
three feet apart, to which
slats are to be nailed.
The space B is for the
door or threshing floor, which should be tight for holding shelled
corn. This space should be not less than seven feet wide with
doors at each end of the building, so that a wagon loaded with
corn ears can be Driven through it. The upper floor should be
made of slats or narrow boards, laid half, an inch apart, for hold
ing the poor corn. If the corn is not sorted in the field, it can

JTOST IMPROVED MANNER OF FRAMING AN INDIAN CORN-
HOOSE.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 51

all be shovelled on the second floor ; and the best corn thrown
into the cribs from above. The most convenient way to get the
corn out of the cribs is, to have a little door at the bottom of the
cribs, on the inside, when the ears will come out as fast as they
are shovelled away ; and not more than two or three bushels
will come out at one time. In dry weather, let the doors be
kept open for the purpose of drying the corn. The frame may
stand on a smoothly-built stone wall, or on stone pillars, or on
pillars built of brick, or on wooden posts, covered with tin or
zinc, to prevent the rats and mice climbing up the posts. Rats
will jump sometimes three feet high ; and if there is nothing but
stone, or zinc, or tin, for them to ascend upon, they will not be
able to enter a building. When an abutment is made at either
or both of the doors, it should be at least four feet from the
building ; and a plank bridge, hung on hinges on one side, and
the other side kept turned up against the building by a weight
attached to one end of a rope, which passes over a pulley, and
the other end attached to the bridge. The lower end of a flight
of stairs may be kept up in the same manner.

BALLOON FRAMES.

50. In localities where hewn timber is scarce, every expedient
must be resorted to in erecting buildings, in order to save un
necessary expense. Necessity and economy are the ostensible
authors of the well-tested principle (which is no longer looked
upon as an experiment which will most certainly fail) which has
been for a score or more of years, successfully applied in erecting
buildings of every description, which have received the sarcastic
and technical appellation of " balloon frames" They are erected
without a stick of frame timber, or posts, or beams ; without
mortises, or tenons, or braces ; and if erected in a workmanlike
manner, the most incredulous need not hesitate to adopt this
mode of building a most elegant house ; for they will stand as
firmly in a violent tornado as any framed building ; and could be

52 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

moved from one place to another, or turned up on one side, with
out any more danger of injuring them than there would be if
they were framed. I am aware that those — even good mechan
ics — who have always been accustomed to nothing but heavy
frame timber, will scout at such a building, and, without any
hesitancy, prognosticate that it would go to the winds before it
could be half finished. But any good engineer who is at all
acquainted with the strength of materials — if he has never before
heard of such a mode of building, will unhesitatingly pronounce
it a most complete triumph over the costly manner of building
with heavy frame-timber ; and that such buildings may be safely
"taken up ly the hair" and tumbled about like a huge box.

51. Such buildings require just as much siding, and lath, and
roofing materials, and joists, and it will cost just as much to
inclose them, and finish them off; but any mechanic who can
make a window frame and hang a door, and nail two pieces of
timber together at right angles, can erect such a building without
the assistance of a loss.

52. The lumber for a balloon frame may be sawed of any
desired dimensions ; but for an ordinary building, the studs should
never be less than four inches wide ; and the joists should be
not less than eight inches wide if sixteen feet long ; and for
twelve-feet joists seven inches wide is sufficient ; and for rooms
eight feet wide joists six inches wide will be sufficiently wide.
The foundation must be as permanent and substantial as for a
brick building. Now, lay a joist on the foundation walls on
every side for the sills, and halve the corners together, and nail
them well. Joists two inches by eight will be sufficiently large,
although there can be no objection to using sills of timber or
larger joists. Now, if the rooms are to be nine feet between
joints, and the upper and lower joists eight inches wide, and the
building is to be two stories or more high, make a pattern for
the studs of a half-inch board, just ten feet and four inches long,
with a gain cut in it, just at the under side of the upper joists,
an inch deep and four inches wide. If the building is to be
covered with vertical siding, gains must be cut in the outside of

THE YOUNG FAKMEE'S MANUAL.

53

the studs an inch deep and four inches wide. Fig. 9 represents
a stud pattern with two gains in the outside and FIG. .9.
one in the inside of it. Now, mark off all the
studs like the pattern, marking the ends with a
right angle or square mark. Now, with a horse-
saw saw off the ends square, and saw the gains,
and split out the blocks, and saw the joists of a
given length. Now, take two studs and two
joists — one joist for the lower floor and one for
the upper floor — and *nail the studs and joists
together at right angles. Now, raise it as a bent
of a framed building is raised. Plumb it and
" stale-aft " it, so that it will keep in a perpendicu
lar position. One man and a boy is all that is
needed. Now, nail two more joists and two
studs together, and set them up about one foot
apart in the clear. See that the studs stand
plumb both ways, before they are nailed ; and be
careful to have the edges of the joists exactly
even with the ends of the studs, and the upper
end of the inside gains even with the under edge

0 A STUD PATTERN FOR

of the joists over head. After the studs and BALLOON HOUSES.
joists have been set up, fit ribs in the gains on the outside for the
purpose of nailing the siding to, and on the inside for sustaining
the joists of the upper floor. The ends of the lower joists will
rest on the top of the foundation sticks, into which nails should
be driven diagonally through the corners of both studs and
joists. If a building is to be but one story and a half high, the
studs may extend to the roof, and the joists be nailed to the sides
of them, as before. Now, nail a joist on the top ends of the
studs for a plate, and put up the rafters, being careful to have
the rafters rest directly over the studs. If a two-story house is
to be erected, erect one story as already recommended, having
the upper ends of the studs even with the top of the joists.
Nail a piece as wide as the studs on the tops of them, and erect
another story, nailing the lower ends of the studs into the strips

THE YOUNG FAEMEK'S MANUAL.

FlG. 10.

on which they stand. On each side of the doors and windows

studs four inches wide should be
used. If a building is erected
with an attic story, collar joists
should be nailed to the rafters
near the lower ends, to keep the
building from spreading. If the
studs should not extend more
than one or two feet above the
attic floor, collars on the rafters
will not be necessary. The raft-
ers should be notched on the plate,
and should extend beyond the side
of the building ; and the lower
ends may be planed and painted ;
and the under side of the roof-
boards planed and painted ; or
the rafters may be ceiled on the
under side of them ; or finished
with a plain projection or cor-

A CHEAP CORNICE FOE A BALLOON HOUSE. niC6j ag SHOWn by Fig. 1 0, which

will require less than half the amount of lumber and labor;
and in the eyes of many people, present a more desirable appear
ance as a cheap cornice.

53. Some builders line or ceil such buildings on the inside with
rough, second or third quality of lumber; and then lath and
plaster, which gives a building additional strength, but it is by no
means necessary, "Where vertical siding is used, some ceil or
line the outside of the studs. Some place the studs just twelve
inches apart, and fill between them with brick laid in lime and
mortar. But when good clay can be obtained, it will subserve
about as good purpose as lime mortar. Some tenon the ends of
the studs, and mortise the sills and plates ; but it is useless, as
they will never move if well nailed. If the timber is hard wood,
holes, just large enough for the nail to drive in tight, and not
split either studs or joists, should be bored for the nails through

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 55

one stick only. Use nails just long enough to extend through
the studs and joists, and drive in twice the number of small nails
that would be necessary of large nails, which would protrude
through two inches.

54. "When a balloon frame is not built on a substantial wall,
the superstructure should be erected on sills eight inches thick.
No young farmer need hesitate to build after this style ; for there
are more than thirty thousand of such buildings in the Western
countries ; and they give most complete satisfaction. Almost
any kind of timber may be used for studs and joists; and if a
man is possessed of but a small amount of mechanical skill, he
can get his frame timber all sawed in the winter, and dress out
the siding, &c., when he cannot labor on the farm, and if he is a
good economist, his house or building will not cost three times
more than it ought to cost for the labor alone.

55. When such a house is erected by the job, the young
farmer should not neglect to see that not less than five good nails
are driven in at the junction of each joist and stud ; and that
every other part of the frame is well nailed.

HOW TO INCREASE THE HEIGHT OF ROOMS WHEN THEY ARE
TOO LOW.

56. It is frequently very desirable to make the rooms, both
below and above, one foot or more higher between the joints
than it was originally made. When the attic story is to be made
higher, if the roof is a poor one, it would be the best and cheapest
operation to take it to pieces and raise the sides to the desired
height ; and then erect the roof as when a new house is built.
But when a roof is a good one, and it is desirable to raise it any
number of feet, let collar pieces be spiked to the rafters to keep
them from spreading, and then raise it bodily with screws, with
or without the plates, to the desired height. If the rafters are
spiked very tightly to the plates, it will be better to raise the
plates with the roof, and then put another set of plates in the
place of the first ones.

57. I once performed a job in less than one day, by the as-

3

56 THE YOUNG FARMEK'S MANUAL.

sistance of two men, of increasing the height of all the lower
rooms of a two-story house. The lower rooms were eight and a
half feet between joints, and it was desirable to make them ten
feet high. Four screws were paced under the side sills of the
house, two of them a few feet from one end, and two others about
the middle of the building. One end of the house was elevated
about twenty inches, when it was sustained on shores, placed
under the beams, and girts. The sills and floor were then low
ered with the screws to their original position, when the ends
of the post and studs at one end of the building were all scarfed,
or "spliced," and the sills were then raise.d again with the screws,
and the shores were taken out, and the building was then lowered
on the foundation. Then the two end screws were paced near
the other end, and that end was elevated and sustained on shores,
and the floor lowered, and the remainder of the posts and studs
were scarfed, and the shores were then removed, and the house
lowered to its original position.

58. Barns and outbuildings which are too low, may be raised,
in a short period of time, ten or more feet higher ; and the posts
scarfed at an expense of a few dollars. If the spaces below the
main beams of a barn are about right, let the roof only be raised ;
but if the arrangement of the timbers is about as one desires,
above, and not below the beams, raise the superstructure and
scarf the posts, or put a part of a new frame beneath the old one.
(See PAINTING BUILDINGS in the next vol.)

CHAPTER H.

FENCING.

" SWIFT from the rural shades, O Muses, bring
Your wonted aid, while of the Fence we sing I
And let the fence our fathers built of rails,
With stakes and posts and boards, or logs or pales,
Close up the long-neglected gaps." — INGERSOLL.

59. IF there is any one thing more than another which is a
source of constant anxiety and unremitting care to the farmer, it
is the erection of suitable fences for enclosing his own grounds for
the purpose of excluding lawless intruders, or keeping his own
animals within proper bounds. "Wherever a farm may be located,
or whatever may be its productions, fence, fence, fence, is the first,
the intermediate, and the last consideration in the whole routine of
the operations of the farm. Erecting new fences and repairing
old ones, and laying up a rail here, and fastening a loose board
there, is something that demands the vigilance of the farmer,
from the commencement to the close of the year. If there is a
day, or a number of days, when the laborers of the farm have
arrived at a point when they do not seem to know what to do to
advantage and profit, they can almost always find something con
nected with the enclosures of the farm, the performance of which
will be a work of some profit and economy, and sometimes of
very great convenience. In the winter and spring, in summer
and in autumn, on stormy days and leisure days, and parts of
days, if all the plans of the farm are wisely laid, something may
be done at fences or gates, or bar-posts or bars. But few farmers
have any proper idea of the expense attending the fencing of a

(57)

58 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

farm of one or two hundred acres, when performed in an efficient
and workmanlike manner; and could they see at a glance, in
dollars and cents, the amount expended in their fences, they
would be disappointed beyond measure. As a general rule, so
changeable and perishable are the materials of which fences are
built, that the expense of keeping them in good repair, from year
to year, consumes a much greater amount of the income of the
farm than we feel willing to appropriate for that purpose. But
fences must be erected at all events, and any thing that will
reflect light on the subject of fencing the farms of America, in
the most systematic and permanent manner, will be welcomed by
every one who is experimentally acquainted with the enormous
expenses which attend enclosing the fields of a farm, before it
would be prudent to commence the cultivation of the soil.

60. Fencing is a branch of labor, in the operation of the farm,
which requires the exercise of a good deal of wisdom and judg
ment in selecting, preparing, arranging, and disposing of the
materials which are to be made use of in building fences in the
most economical, workmanlike, substantial and durable manner ;
and as economy, durability and substantialness are the most im
portant considerations, as a general rule, in building a fence of
any kind, and as there is a variety of materials to be worked up
into fences, the preparation of materials demands our first atten
tion. It cannot be denied that there is a vast destitution of eco
nomy, not only in preparing the materials for fencing, but in
working up those materials. The very best of materials, when
improperly prepared, fail to make an economical and substantial
fence ; and, also, the best of fencing materials, when unskillfully
arranged and worked up, make a fence far inferior, in almost
every respect, to a fence made of materials of a very inferior
quality, which has been well made. As economy in preparing
timber for fencing is an object of the first importance, when the
materials are of wood, we shall speak of the best and most suita
ble time for cutting timber, in order to secure its greatest dura
bility, when it is to be split into rails, as well as when it is to be
split into posts and stakes.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 59

THE BEST TIME TO CUT TIMBEB.

WHEN autumn comes, and leaves are dr7,

And rustle on the ground,
And chilling winds go whistling by,

With moaning, pensive sound,
Cut, timber then for posts, and beams, and rails,
For tongues, and thills, for whippletrees and stales."

61. Late autumn is the best time for felling timber for almost
any purpose; and it is particularly so when timber is to be
worked up into rails, or stakes, or posts for fencing. At that
season of the year, the new wood has arrived at its most complete
maturity, and there is less sap and albumen in timber then than
there is at any other season of the year, which albumen, when
exposed to the influence of the weather, hastens the decay of
timber. If timber be cut and split out in the latter part of autumn
the seasoning process is much more gradual and perfect, because
the grain of the timber contracts more equally and uniformly,
rendering the timber firmer and less porous, and less cracked and
checked than when it is cut at many other seasons of the year.
Besides this, timber that is cut in late autumn and split out or
sawed out before spring, will not " powder post," nor be injured by
the worms working in it, nor be injured by the dry rot, as is the case
with timber many times, %fhich has been cut at some other season
of the year. Fence posts and stakes particularly, no matter what
the kind of timber may be, when felled and split out in late autumn,
will outlast other posts and stakes of the same kind of timber
which may be cut at a different season of the year, by several
years, according to the time when it may be cut. Reason teaches
us that this is so, and the experience of the most successful ex
periments in timber furnish the most indubitable testimony to
substantiate this fact.

62. The treatment which timber receives immediately after it
has been felled, effects its durability, and also its firmness and
tenacity, to a much greater degree than many are wont to suppose.
For this reason many farmers in experimenting on the durability
of timber, have failed, almost entirely, to allow this consideration

60 THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

to have any influence at all. If timber which is intended for
rails, stakes and posts be felled in late autumn, and allowed to
remain in the log for six or eight months, or half that length of
time, with some kinds of timber, its durability will be more or
less affected, according to the kind of timber; and no after-
treatment will make it as durable as it would have been, had it
been split out immediately and placed in a favorable situation for
seasoning. Timber for posts or stakes ought always to be split
out and seasoned nearly or quite one year before they are set in
the ground. A post or stake which is set in the ground when it
is green, will not last half as many years, as a general rule, as it
would have lasted if it had been seasoned well before it is set in
the ground. The first thing, after timber has been felled, is to
split it out into rails, posts and stakes ; therefore, as a very im
portant branch of fencing, we shall treat of

SPLITTING RAILS, STAKES AND POSTS.

63. It requires the exercise of a little good skill to split timber
economically into rails, stakes or posts. Any one who can handle
a beetle and wedge, can split fire-wood, for it matters little how
that is split ; but if a man does not know how to split timber straight,
he will be very liable, and, indeed, very likely to spoil a vast deal
of timber when splitting up a tree. The truth is, if he does not
know how to stick the wedges, and where to stick them, he will
be very apt to make bad work, even in the best of timber, for
splitting well. "When we split fire wood, we cleave- it the best
way that we can, and if it slivers to pieces, so much the better.
But there is a regular rule for splitting rails, stakes, posts, wagon
spokes, staves, and every thing else, and if one does not observe
this rule, he will, most assuredly, spoil much timber. If in split
ting any thing for fences, some pieces have huge ends at one end,
and are run out to a mere splinter at the other end ; or if they
are not all of about a uniform size, if the operator does not under
stand his business, and if he makes many short pieces, it would
be the wisest policy to employ some one else who will not waste
so much timber.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 61

64. In splitting timber for anything, it is best to set the
wedges always at the smallest or top end of a log, should there
be any difference in the ends. If there are no large checks across
the end of a log, take the axe in one hand, and the beetle in the
other, and make a crack entirely across the end of the log, so as
to split it into two equal parts. If there is a large crack a part
of the way across the end, drive in the axe a little with the beetle,
so as to make a crack entirely across the end. Generally speak
ing, timber splits the best and wastes the least, by setting the
wedges in an Old crack or seam. But sometimes a log will sepa
rate much the easiest directly across the old check. Now, set two
iron wedges in the end of the log, and drive them both together,
and when the end is opened sufficiently, drive in gluts; if the
wedges have been set in the middle of the end, the log will sepa
rate usually in the middle. Should it vary a little from following
the middle of the log, it is better to let it go where it will than to
undertake to open it at the other end, so as to meet the operation,
which is attended with doubt and difficulty. Sometimes it is
almost impossible to split a log through the heart. This is the
case many times with black ash, and elm, and buttonwood. Logs
many times have a seam entirely around the heart. "When this
is the case, it will require a vast deal of unnecessary pounding to
split it through the heart. Such logs can be worked up far more
easily and economically by slabbing them, following the old seams ;
and many times when a log has a very tough heart, even if there
be no checks nor seams, it is best to split them by slabbing off
about one-third of the log at once ; this will leave, in a log thirty
inches in diameter, a heart piece about ten inches square. If,
now, the timber be very tough and stringy, this may be worked
up by slabbing it. In splitting ordinary timber, the builder must
keep in mind that a round stick or a square stick cannot, very
well, be split into three equal parts; because, if we attempt to
split off one-third of it at a time, the smaller part is very apt to
run out before the split reaches the other end. Therefore, if a
square stick be about large enough for three rails, it is best to
split it through the centre, and then split the two halves of it in

62 THE YOUNG FAEMER5S MANUAL.

the centre again, even if the rails should be a little too small, than
to undertake to split it into three equal parts ; or if such a stick,
when split into four rails, would make them too small, it would
be best to make but two of it, even if they were a little larger
than we could desire. We cannot always have every rail, stake
or post exactly of the size we may wish, but the aim should
always be, in splitting rails, to have the smallest rails equal to a
stick two and a half inches square, and increasing in size, so that
the largest rails will be equal to a stick four inches square. This
is a very good rule to split by, but if thought to be exceptionable,
it is very easy to split in two those rails which A says are of the
right size, and which B thinks are too large for one rail, and just
right for two. A rail about three inches square, or equivalent to
that size, will be pronounced by the great majority of farmers to
be a more desirable size, so far as economy and convenience are
concerned, than a rail of any other size. When a man has a
saw-mill of his own, and timber does not split very well, it might
be good policy to saw out his rails, making them about three
inches square ; — but the same timber would build twice as much
fence if it were sawed into boards.

65. Sometimes rails are split out of poles, which will make
from two to eight rails each ; and it often occurs that a pole would
make about three good rails, and if split into four they would be
too small, and if split into two rails they would be rather large.
As it is very difficult, and usually impracticable, to split a pole
into three, or five, or seven equal parts, on account of their liability
to run out in splitting, if a pole be too small for four rails, it is
best to make but two of it, even if they should be rather large.
When a pole is about the right size for six rails, the best way is
to split the pole into quarters, as nearly as we can, and many
times one of the quarters will be large enough for two rails. The
idea should be always kept in mind, that the rule which is observed
in riving staves, wagon-spokes, and such like, is, to split a stick
through the middle, and then take a smaller piece and split that
through the middle, and so on until every piece or bolt is reduced
to its desirable size. When a log or rail cut will make about

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 63

eight good rails, the true way is to quarter it first, and then split
those quarters in two. If we attempt to split off of one side one
rail, in most timber it would be sure to run out before it would
split half the length of the log. The following cuts will furnish
the learner with a more correct idea how a large log is to be split
into rails, stakes, or posts. In the first place, split the log intc
quarters, if practicable, whether it is to be split into rails, stakes,
or posts. Fig. 1 1 represents one of those quarters split into rails.
After a log has been split into quarters, split FIG. 11.

the quarter in two again, as nearly in the
middle as may be. If the workman cannot
stick his wedge within half an inch of the
centre of a quarter of a log at sight, he had
better measure the distance. Now split these
pieces, first in the direction a a a, then split
off the heart rail b b, then split c c, and we
have three rails. Split the other heart piece, QUARTER OF L00
like the first, into three rails ; split the sap
pieces at c?, and split each piece at e e. Sometimes it is better to
set the wedge in the middle of a stick, half-way from each end,
then to set it at the end, when splitting a piece that will make two
rails, as at c c, for example. When a wedge is set half-way from
each end, in the middle of the stick, if the crack does not run in
the middle, each way from the wedge, sometimes a blow or two
with an axe will start it, so as to make it split in the middle ; and
sometimes it is necessary to set another wedge half-way between
the middle and the end. A little practice will enable the builder,
if he has a little good skill, to split timber very accurately, with
out spoiling but few pieces. The same rules are observed in
splitting stakes as in splitting rails; only it is necessary, first, in
splitting a quarter, to make a little estimate how many pieces a
quarter or an eighth of a log will make. In splitting fence
posts it frequently occurs that a piece is too large for one post,
and too small for two posts. In such a case, if a stake cannot be
split off without its running out, it is best not to attempt to split
it again, lest both pieces be spoiled.
3*

64

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

66. In splitting bar-posts, or any pieces that are required to
be thin and wide, first split the log in two, and if it is a large one
quarter it. Make calculations how many posts a quarter will
make, splitting from the heart to the bark. If a quarter will
make four, split it in the centre, and these pieces again in the
centre. If they are wider than necessary, take off a stake from
the heart side, as at Fig. 12. If half a log will make about six
posts, it is not best to quarter it first, because FJQ. 12.
each piece then would contain timber enough
for three posts each, and there would be dan
ger of spoiling a post in attempting to split
only one post from a stick which is large
enough for three ; therefore, divide the half
log into three equal parts, and first split off a
piece large enough for two posts, and ^^
split the pieces in two in the middle. The POSTS-

workman would do well, after opening the end a little, to set a
wedge or two in the side of the stick, to prevent its running
out, and drive all the wedges at once, or drive that wedge the
most which seems to split the truest and straightest. When tim
ber is not inclined to split exactly straight, by tracing it with the
axe and beetle the whole length of the stick it can be made to
split tolerably straight. In splitting a log eight or ten inches in
diameter into bar-posts, or any other wide posts, make an esti
mate how many a log will make ; if it will make four, split it
through the centre, and then, by tracing or starting it a little with

FIG. 13.

MANNER OF SPLITTING A LOG INTO FOUR POSTS.

the axe and beetle on the side, the two halves may be split in
two again the wide way, as represented by Fig. 13. Fig. 14

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 65

shows how a log may be split into three bar-posts by tracing on
the sides as the wedges are driven in the end. "We first take off
a slab, and if the timber does not split rather freely it is very lia-

FIG. 14.

MANNER OF SPLITTING A LOG INTO TUREE BAR-POSTS.

ble to run out and spoil a post. It is very impracticable to give
a perfect idea on paper of splitting timber correctly.

THE LENGTH OF RAILS AND STAKES.

67. The most common length for rails is twelve feet, although
many farmers make them ten, eleven, and even fourteen feet in
length ; but when we consult convenience and economy in split
ting and handling, as a general rule twelve feet for rails is the
best length. If timber should split very freely, there is no objec
tion to cutting them fourteen feet long ; on the contrary, if timber
should not split well it might be a matter of good economy to cut
them ten or eleven feet long ; but there ought to be a uniform
length for rails on every farm, because when rails are of different
lengths there will be more or less disadvantage in making them
into a fence. Large logs should be sawed in two, just twelve
feet long, and smaller logs may be cut with an axe ; and as every
rail cut should be measured with a pole just twelve feet long,
each cut should be measured from the middle of the chip, or axe-
cut, and the top end of each cut should be left square ; this will
make the heart rails a little longer than the outside rails. But in
laying the foundation for a fence, if there should be a little varia
tion in the length of rails, it should be remembered to select i|rsf,
the sap rails, and if the heart rails project a litt}e m^re than is
necessary at the joints, it will do no haym,

68. The length of stakes should always be rcgu.la.tecl by t}io

66 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

kheight of the fence. They are usually cut from seven to nine
feet in length ; but whatever length may be adopted, it should be
kept in mind that stakes should be cut long enough to admit of
being set the second time, after the end which has been set in the
ground has rotted off. The part of stakes out of the ground will
usually last twice as long as the part in the ground, no matter
what the timber may be. Therefore, if stakes be cut just long
enough to be set but once, after one end is decayed, so that they
need re-setting, they are worthless ; but by cutting them long
enough to be set again after a foot or so has rotted, it is much
more economical than to make new stakes as often as the ends
rot or decay enough to render them too short for the fence.

69. Some farmers deem it a matter of economy to cut their
fence posts, and particularly bar-posts, long enough to admit of
the other end being set in the ground after one end has decayed.
But there are very plausible objections to this practice. Fence
posts which extend from two to three feet above the fence present
an unsightly appearance, and, besides, the longer the post is the
more liable it is to deviate from standing erect. Bar-posts which
extend three feet higher than they ought to are a nuisance, because
they are always in the way, especially when one is passing with
a load of hay or grain.

PEELING RAILS AND STAKES.

70. This should always be done when they are split out, so
that they may season the better. It requires but a little time to
peel them when splitting them, and as rails and stakes are often
split by the job, at so much per hundred, a man will usually split
them, peel them, and stick them up, for a few cents more per hun
dred than he will ask for simply splitting them, providing one in
sists on it when negotiating about splitting. ; When timber is cut
in the fall, it is true, it does not peel as well as when cut in the
summer, but as a general rule it will peel tolerably well after it is
split out, even when cut in autumn. When the bark is thick and
heavy it will peel about as well from small pieces, like rails and
stakes, as it will when the timber is cut in the summer. But

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 67

the bark should be taken off at some rate ; and when it adheres
so tightly that it is necessary to cut it off, it may be cut off at
each end about a foot or so and laid in the fence, with the bark
downwards, and during the summer it will usually become so loose
as to drop off itself; but if it is not held in the joints of the fence,
it may be stripped off very readily after one end is loosened a
little, and if the rail be laid with the bark down it will become
loose by the drying of the rail. When rails are made of timber
having a very thin bark, like iron- wood, for example, the most
expeditious way of peeling them is to lay the rail to be peeled on
a couple of benches, and then with a drawing-knife shave off the
bark while the workman is sitting on it. When small poles are
used for rails, if they are not peeled entirely a strip of bark should
be taken off on two sides opposite to each other, and one of the
peeled sides laid upward in the fence ; by this means the bark
will become loose during the season, and many times drop off
itself. Rails, stakes, posts, and timber of every other description,
will be very much more durable if peeled, unless it is buried in
the ground. When a stick is two feet or more under ground, it
will last much longer if the bark be left on ; but if the bark be
left on a fence post, the part of it two feet below the surface
will be more durable with the bark on than if it were off. But
that same post will rot off at the surface of the ground many years
sooner if the bark was left on than if it was peeled before it
was set. Bark preserves timber when it is alive, but after it
has been cut down it hastens its decay, when it is exposed to the
influences of the weather, wet and dry. When the bark is not
taken off, worms damage rails and posts of many kinds of timber.
Allowing rails to soak in a pond of water for a few days will gen
erally loosen the bark so that it may be peeled off very quickly.

DISTRIBUTING RAILS FOR FENCE.

^1. It is a very common thing for many farmers, in hauling
rails and stakes where a fence is to be made, to distribute them,
as to number, entirely at random, without any calculation at all
how many will be needed for a fence of a given number of rails

68 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

high, and therefore in some places twice as many rails are un
loaded as are necessary, while in other places there are not half
enough. Sometimes there may be just enough to build the fence,
but they have been distributed so unevenly that many of them
must be carried too far. "When a man is obliged to go twenty
or thirty feet for every rail, it will take him twice as long to lay
up a fence as it would were the rails left within a few feet of the
place where they will be needed. It is a very easy matter to
distribute rails for a fence so that there will be just enough to
build it, and it argues a little stupidity and want of calculation to
see one distribute rails in such a manner that after the fence is
finished there are several loads to haul away. That is all lost
labor ; and it will consume several hours to haul and unload, and
reload and haul away, two or three loads of rails.

72. In distributing rails for a fence, in the first place set a few
stakes where the fence is to be built. Now calculate how many
panels there will be in five or six rods. We will say there are
thirty paces in six rods. If the foundation is not laid, the rails
may be laid for thirty paces or so, in a straight line, or zigzag,
like a worm fence, and then, by counting the number of panels
in thirty paces, and by multiplying the number of panels by the
number of rails in one panel, we shall know how many rails are
wanted in a distance of thirty paces. Now, let the number of
rails required in thirty paces be distributed close to the place
where the fence is to be made, and put them in small piles, with
not more than ten in a pile, so that they will be near at hand,
and be well spread out, so that small rails can be selected, if neces
sary, without tumbling over half a load. Never leave them with
nearly a load in a pile, nor in the place where the fence is to be
built, lest they have to be removed ; nor a rod or two distant,
for fear they may be in the way. Now pace off thirty paces
more — it can be done in less than one minute — and drop as many
more rails, and in the same order, and proceed in this manner
until a job is finished. When the foundation, or the first rail is
laid, it is a very easy matter to make calculations for hauling just
enough to make a fence.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 69

73. Rails of one kind of timber should always be left to
gether, and rails of another kind of timber, unless they are
equally durable, should be kept by themselves, because, when oak
and basswood are laid together, the basswood will decay long
before the oak, and the result will be, the entire fence must be
repaired ; whereas, if the oak had been kept together, and the
basswood together, no part would need repairing but the basswood.
For the same reason, new rails should always be kept together,
when repairing fence ; and take old ones to supply the place of
those which have decayed. When one is hauling rails which
are to be laid in a fence immediately, it is much quicker to take
the rails from the wagon and lay them in the fence, than to throw
them on the ground and then pick them up again and lay them
in the fence.

74. When the stakes are to be hauled let them be placed
near each joint of the fence, with one on each side of it ; because
it will save the time of picking them up. When the foundation
is not laid, if we know how many panels there will be in a given
distance, it is easy to calculate that two stakes will be required
for each panel, whether the fence is to be zigzag or straight.

PENCE BLOCKS.

75. These are a very important item in building fence. It is
very poor policy to place rails on the ground or on perishable
materials which will soon let the fence down to the ground.
Bowlders, from ten to twenty-five inches in diameter, make the
best blocks. When one is a little too large, let a hole be dug a
foot or so deep, and roll it in. When one is a little too small,
put it on the top of a flat stone. A small pile of small bowlders,
or little stones of any kind, will make a very good block for a
corner to rest on. When wood is used for blocks, always place
the bark side down, if possible, because they will last many years
longer than if the bark side is up. When a round stick is
used for a block, let it be peeled, if practicable ; but, if not, cut
off a strip of bark, three or four inches wide, on one side, and

70 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

lay that side up, and then, as it seasons, the bark will usually
become loose, but if the bark be left on the top of blocks it will
always hasten their decay. Sometimes a couple of good pieces of
broken rails will make a very good fence block. Flat stones, a foot
square, or more, laid on the top of a little mound of earth, or
on the top of two or three sods, will make capital fence blocks.
When one has a plenty of small stone, it is good policy to make
a ridge of stone, a foot or so high, and lay the fence on the top
of it. This will answer both for a straight fence and for a zig
zag fence. Where no stone can be found, and wooden blocks
are scarce, make a fence block with square sods, and lay on a
piece of board, or slab, or two or three short pieces of old rails.
Let the fence be kept well up from the ground, at all events. When
a foundation corner is made of earth, or sods, the sides should be
covered with sods, to prevent them from washing away in heavy
showers.

MAKING A ZIGZAG, OR WORM FENCE.

76. In making a zigzag fence of rails, there are two modes of
laying the bottom rail, by stakes, which I shall lay down, in order
to have the fence straight. And when a fence is to remain for
a number of years, or is to be a permanent fence, it ought always
to be straight ; but in making a temporary fence, if a man is me
chanic enough to give the fence the necessary worm, he may lay
the bottom rail by guess. But the beginner had better have
some stakes to guide him ; because, if he does not, he will be sure
to give some parts of it much more worm or crook than is
necessary, and give other parts so little worm that it will barely
stand alone. When a fence has too much worm, or crook, it is
a good fault ; it will stand more firmly, — but it requires more rails.
But when it has but little worm, it requires less rails ; and the
first driving storm may throw it from its foundation, and prostrate
it.

77. The first step, then, will be, to set a number of small, thin
stakes, six or seven feet high, in a line, where the middle of the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 71

fence is to be made. Now make a fence rule, Fig. 15, which consists
FIG 15 °^ a stick> either round or square, about seven feet
in length, as large as a fork handle, and pointed
at the lower end. If the ground be stony and
hard, the lower end ought to be fitted to an iron
socket, pointed. Bore several half-inch holes
through it, for the rod R, which should be made
of a very tough piece of wood, about as large
and elastic as a good whip-stalk. This rod should
be about three feet long; and then it may be
graduated, by making a mark for two feet, and
for two feet three inches, six, and nine inches.
This rod should be merely pressed into a hole,
_j ? without fastening it, so that when laying a foun
dation on very high or low blocks, it may be
raised or lowered, as may be necessary. Always
work up hill, in laying any kind of rail fence ;
because, when we begin at the bottom of a decliv
ity and work upwards, the rails will lay more level than the incli
nation of the ground; and, if we work down a declivity, the rails will
be more inclined than the ground, and will not stand as firmly as if
it were made by working up hill. When a string of fence extends
over rolling or undulating land, the proper mode of making it is,
to lay the bottom rail the whole distance, and then go back and
change those corners in that part of the fence which was laid by
beginning at the top a declivity, so that in laying up more rails
the operator can work up hill, both ways, from a valley. The
next thing in order will be to decide upon

THE AMOUNT OF WORM, OR CROOK, FOR A FENCE.

78. The length of rails must usually determine the amount of
worm for a fence. Long rails require much more worm, or crook,
than short ones, in order to have the corners of each kind of rails
of the same angle. Suppose, for example, that rails are nine feet
long, and we wish to give the fence which is made of them three
feet worm, i. e., the fence will occupy, measuring across the fence,

A FK.VCE RULE.

72 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

three feet of ground, from ^he centre of one joint to the other.
Now, if rails are fourteen feet in length, in order to give the cor
ners the same angle of the nine feet rails, we must give these rails
a crook of four feet eight inches, measuring from the centre of
one joint to a point opposite it, in a line with the joints on the
other side of the fence. "Where fence is to be staked, the rule for
the amount of worm which is most commonly adopted is, that
it be equal to one-third the length of the rails. This is enough
for any fence that is well staked ; and where a fence will not be
exposed to furious winds, it may answer just as good a purpose
to give it less than one-third the length of the rails. But where a
fence is not to be staked, and the rails are rather light, the worm
should be increased so as to be at least five-twelfths the length
of the rails, and sometimes even more than this.

79. If the stakes are all stuck in a line, plant the fence rule
(Fig. 15) in a line with the stakes, where we are to commence
laying the foundation, having the rod R standing at a right
angle to the right or left of the line which would cut the fence
rule staff and the stakes. If the fence is to have a worm of four
feet, which is about right for rails twelve feet in length, place a
fence block under the rod R, so that the centre of the block will
be just under the two feet mark, from the rule staff. Lay on a
good straight rail, and carry the rule forward ; and plant it down,
in a line with the stakes, nearly opposite the other end of the rail,
with the rod R extending in the opposite direction. Place a block
beneath the two feet mark on the rod R, and lay on the end of the
first rail, and then lay on another rail and carry the rule along,
and lay another block in a line with the first block, and so on.

80. Many fence-makers, in laying up rails, have the ends of
the rails extend beyond the points of conjunction at the corners
about one foot. But this practice uses up more rails than is neces
sary to build a fence a given number of rods in length; and, besides,
when the ends of the rails extend beyond the joint from ten to
twelve inches, a fence does not look as well, and is far more liable
to be thrown down, by the whippletrees catching it, or cattle rub-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 73

bing against it. If the ends of the rails extend three or four inches
beyond the joint, a fence is no more liable to be thrown down than
if the same rails extended a foot beyond the joint. It is very
important that all the rails should lie, at the joints, one directly
above the other. The smallest rails should always be laid at
the bottom of the fence ; and the largest ones, if there be any
difference in the size of them, should be laid on the top, as heavy
rails on the top render a fence, whether it is staked or not, much
more substantial than if the large rails were in the middle of the
panels, with small ones on the top. If there should be any differ
ence in the size of the ends of the rails, the large end should be
laid at the lowest corner. When there are many crooked rails,
make a panel or two of crooked rails, placing those together that
are of nearly a uniform crook. If there are but few crooked
ones, reserve them for the top of the fence. After a fence is laid
three or four rails high, if flat stones, three or four inches thick,
are at hand, it is a good practice to lay one on each joint, as they
will make the fence about one rail higher, and, at the same time,
it will subserve just as good a purpose as if a rail was in the place
of the stones. And another advantage is, flat stones laid on the
joints will turn the water from the joints, and render them more
durable, as rails often rot at the joints in consequence of the wet
finding its way there and not drying out. A large flat block of
wood will answer for this purpose, in the absence of flat stone.
Roundish stones in such a place would be liable to throw the fence
down. Low corners of a fence may be brought up level with
the others by laying on a flat stone between every two rails.

81. Another mode of laying the foundation of a worm fence,
which some people prefer to laying with a fence rule, is, to set
two rows of small stakes the whole distance where the fence is
to be built, with the rows just as many feet apart as there is to
be given to the worm of the fence. If the worm is to be four feet,
set the rows four feet apart ; if the worm is five feet, set the rows
of stakes five feet apart. Now lay a fence block in range with
one of the rows of stakes, and lay on a rail diagonally from one
row to the other; then lay another fence block in range with

74 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the other row tinder the other end of the rail, and so on. In
order to ascertain whether the block is in range with the stakes,
stand in range with the stakes, and set a stick, about as large as
a common fork-handle, perpendicularly, on the top of the block
before you, and if when it stands in the middle of the block it
is in range with the stakes, the block is in the proper place. By
placing the trying stake, or stick, in range with the rows, the
workman will readily perceive which way the block, or corner,
must be moved, in order to bring the corner in range with the
stakes.

82. There are other modes of laying the foundation by stakes,
but they are so inferior to those already mentioned that we
shall omit to notice them.

83. A common worm fence may be staked and capped, staked
and ridered, staked and wired, locked and ridered, or it may
merely be laid up without either stakes or riders or locks; but
whichever mode is adopted, the operation of laying the foundation
and of building the fence several rails high is the same in each
kind of fence, with the exception that a staked fence does not
require as much worm as one that is not staked.

LOCK AND RIDER FENCE.

84. Fig. 16 represents the manner of finishing a worm fence
with locks and riders, which will resist the wind as well as some
staked fences. The fence is first laid as many rails high as is
desired ; and then the largest rails are laid in a straight line,
from panel to panel, as in the figure. The locks may be good
stakes, or pieces of FIG lg

rails, placed in the

nook of the fence for- ^^s^ XX<O£NV Xx'

med by two panels, c^

and inclined into the

corner formed by the

top rail and rider. The LOOK AND EIDBK FBNCE-

dots in the figure show about where the foot of the locks should

be placed. The locks are not usually set in a hole in the ground,

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 75

although if they were the fence would be stronger. Sometimes
the riders in this kind of fence may be long poles, extending the
distance of several panels. Long poles are much better than rails
for riders.

85. Another mode for locking a fence is shown by Fig. 17.
The fence is first made as high as it is to be made, and then the
locks, which may be of good rails, or stakes, or pieces of rails, are

FIG. 17.

A LOCK RAIL FENCE.

stuck in the ground, as shown by the dots, or circles, and leaned
on the corners, as shown by the dotted lines. In locking in this
manner the builder must exercise a little skill, if he has any, in
regard to setting the locks so as to bind well. If they are not
placed on the correct side of each other, they will not lock the
fence, by wedging, any more than their own gravity will lock it.
It is not very convenient to show on paper which lock should be
on the outside, and which on the inside. If the builder has any
skill, he can alter the position of a pair of locks until they seem
to wedge, or bind, more than they will in any other position, and
then let the position of those locks be carefully observed, and let
him endeavor to set the rest as nearly like them as is practicable.
They should not be set too perpendicularly, nor too slanting,
because if set too slanting they will not resist as great force as if
they stand more perpendicularly ; and if they be set too perpen
dicularly, the lock is not as binding ; and if the locks extend sev
eral feet above the fence, the wind is very liable to blow them
over. If the locks be small stakes, or small rails, the foot of them
must be placed almost close to the side of the panel which it
locks ; but if they be large, they must be placed farther away

76 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

from the panel. Locking a fence is adopted more for a temporary
fence than for one which is to remain for a number of years ; and
when stakes are at hand for locking, and a fence encloses a field
of grain, it is more safe for the security of a crop to stake it, even
if it were to remain but one season. A locked fence is always
getting down ; and when a fence stands in a very bleak situation,
where the wind is liable to prostrate it, it is folly to attempt to
keep it up without having it firmly staked. Locking a fence ac
cording to the first mode of locking may be adopted with safety,
providing the last rails, which extend from panel to panel, are
very heavy, and the locks well rammed into the ground.

STAKE AND CAP FENCE.

86. Fig. 18 represents two different modes of staking a zigzag
fence. The black dots show the situation of the stakes. After
the foundation has been laid the stakes may be driven, or the
fence may be made four or five rails high before the stakes are
stuck. In either case the holes should be made with a crowbar,

FIG. 18.

STAKE AND CAP FENCE.

at least twenty inches deep ; and then, as one man stands on a
bench, and drives them with a sledge-hammer, another man should
keep them erect. In order to expedite setting the stakes, let the
holes all be made first ; and then let one hand get the stakes and
place them in the holes, and hold them while another man lays
his sledge hammer on his bench and carries them along, from
joint to joint, and drives the stakes. Let the stakes all be sharp
ened for driving, and the top ends dressed off, so that the caps
will go on readily before they are brought on to the ground. The
most expeditious way to sharpen a lot of stakes is, to have a

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 77

large flat block of wood for the stake to stand on, while it is held
erect with one hand arid sharpened with an axe in the other
hand. Cut a little hollow in the top of the block so that the
stakes, when being sharpened, will not slip off the block. The
stakes must be sharpened true, or else they will not drive well.
(See SHAKPENING POSTS, paragraph 79.) When the fence is
made four, five, or six rails high, as may suit the caprice of the
builder, the caps are put on, and then one or two rails more are
laid on the fence. If stone can be obtained of sufficient size,
one may be put between each pair of stakes under each cap,
and one above each cap, which stone will carry up the fence
the height of two rails. Some farmers put on two caps to
each pair of stakes, when the fence is to be unusually high, but
when stakes are driven twenty inches, or more, in dry ground,
and a cap put on three or four feet from the ground, two caps
are not necessary. In lieu of caps many farmers use wire
for holding the stakes together, which, by many, is considered
preferable to caps. Good annealed wire is used — about 9 or 1 0 is
the right size (see Fig. 30) — and after being put around a pair of
stakes, and cut partly in two with a file and broken, the two ends
are either hooked together or twisted together. If the wire be
large and stiff it is best to hook the ends together, as they can
readily be taken off the stakes when it becomes necessary to
repair the fence. Wire is cheaper than caps when one must
advance cash for making them, and by drawing it up tight around
the stakes it will bury into them, and the weight of all the rails
above the wires will rest on the stakes, thus tending to keep the
stakes in the ground when the frost has lifted them upwards. A
fence, with the stakes set at each joiat, one on each side of the
fence, will resist a greater force than when they are set in the
acute angles on each side of the joint, as shown in the figure.

MAKING FENCE CAPS.

87. The cheapest and most expeditious way of making fence
caps, when a saw-mill is near at 'hand, is, to have the logs sawed
into stuff about two by seven inches, or one and a half inches by

78 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

seven, and then, with a circular saw, cut them off the length
desired, and bore them. But, when timber will split freely, more
caps can be made of a log by riving them out than by sawing,
when the log is about twice the diameter of the width of a cap.
The logs are sawed off the length of caps and split into quarters
with a beetle and wedges, and then with a cooper's froe, (Fig.
19,) an instrument used for riving timber, and with mallet, the
the caps are split out, by setting the
froe in the middle of the stick to be split.
(See SPLITTING TIMBER, 63 and 64.)
"When caps are split out, one side of
them will usually be thicker than the
other. The average thickness of the
caps is a matter of fancy. Some make
them one inch, some two inches, some
three or four inches thick. The thicker A COOPER'S ™°*-

the caps are, the more they will aid in carrying up the fence to a
given height. If caps be made as thick as a rail, they carry up
the fence as much as one tier of rails, and at the same time sub
serve the purpose of caps, and make a fence stronger than thin
ones, which are liable to split very easily. There is nothing lost
in making caps four inches thick, for it requires much less timber
to make such a cap than it does to make a rail ; and a man can
split out four times as many caps in a day as he can rails ; and if
they be thick as a rail, they will save one rail to a panel the
entire length of the fence.

88. The length of caps must be determined by the size of the
rails, the size of the holes in the caps, and the amount of worm
in the fence. These three considerations combined, will enable
the builder to cut his caps of the correct length. It is necessary
first to ascertain, if we can, what is about the average size of the
rails. If they will average from three to four inches in diameter,
the worm of the fence being from three and a half to four feet,
the holes in the caps should be from five to six inches apart.
Now, six inches between the holes, added to the size of the holes,
which are usually about four inches in diameter, makes fourteen

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 79

inches, which, added to three inches at each end, between the
holes and the ends, will make twenty inches, the length of the
caps. Slabs which are cut from logs, at saw-mills, will make good
caps, and, as they can usually be purchased at a low price, they
will make very cheap caps.

BOEING FENCE CAPS

89. Is often done by hand, in the winter season, when farmers
have Jmt little to do. Two hands can bore one hundred or more
in an hour when they are not more than two inches thick.

90. There are various kinds of augers for this purpose. The
kind which may be worked with the least power is a hollow
auger, which cuts a circular ring through the cap, of the size of
the hole, taking out a core from the centre of a hole. This kind
of augers is not capable, generally, of boring caps which are
more than about two to four inches thick. Their cost is from
four to ten dollars, according to the work expended in fitting
them up and making a bench for one. But when caps are to be
bored by hand, an ingenious mechanic may get up an auger,
bench and all, for about two dollars, which will perform well, and
bore all the caps which will be required on one farm. When an
auger is driven by horse power, or steam, or water, the mandrel
which holds the auger must be of iron, having its bearings turned
and polished ; but when boring is done by hand, the mandrel
may be turned out of a very tough and hard piece of wood, with
a kind of large centre bit firmly fixed in the end of it for the
auger, with a crank at the other end. An ingenious blacksmith
will make for fifty cents a centre bit, with a square shank six or
eight inches long, for fastening it in the wooden mandrel. The
caps are placed on a slide, which is made to move towards the
auger by a strap being attached to it, and passing over a pulley
and fastened to a foot treadle. After the hole is bored, the slide
and cap are pulled back with the hands. The whole of it is so
simple as to hardly require a description. Sometimes the cap is
fed towards the auger by a screw, working in a stationary part
of the bench; but feeding with a strap and treadle is- the quick-

4

80 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

est and most convenient way to bore caps. (See BORING MA
CHINE, Fig. 122.)

BUNK AND CAP FENCE.

91. Figure 20 represents a bunk for fence, similar to stake
and cap fence, with the exception that the stakes are set in a
block about four feet in length, instead of in the ground. These
blocks may be as large as one man can jnIG> 20.
handle, or they may be small as a rail of

the largest size. The larger they are
the more substantial the fence will be.
The holes for the stakes should not be
less than three inches in diameter, and
should be bored entirely through the
pieces, in order to allow water to work
out at the bottom. "When a stake is a
little too small, it may be made tight by
a wedge on one side of it. This kind of
fence may be straight or zigzag, and all the advantage it pos
sesses over other stake fences is, it can be removed more easily.
It requires more timber and time to make it, and is not worthy
of adoption generally, excepting in localities where stakes cannot
be driven in the ground. "When this kind of fence is made
straight, the ends of the rails in the bunks may lie side by side,
or one above the other. When they lay side by side, pieces of
rails must be sawed just long enough to lie between the stakes,
for the purpose of raising the next tier of rails several inches.
"When this mode is adopted it will require as many short pieces
as there are rails to carry it up to the caps. This fence possesses
one good quality over a stake fence — it will not be lifted by the
frost, and is more easily kept erect.

STRAIGHT RAIL FENCE.

92. Figure 21 shows a section of a rail fence, built with the
rails in a straight line. The stakes are first set just far enough
asunder to receive a rail of medium size. Then turn two furrows

HUXX FOR KAIL FENCK.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

81

with a plow, towards the fence, on each side of it, and throw up
the second furrow with a shovel, so as to form a ridge one foot
or more in height, leaving it one foot broad on the top, so that
the rain will not wash it down too much. Let grass seed be
sown on this ridge. By throwing up a ridge the stakes stand
more firm, and are less liable to heave by the frost, and cattle do
not have so much advantage in endeavoring to get through it,

FIG. 21.

A STRAIGHT RAIL FENCE.

or over it ; and besides, it saves twice as many rails as a man
could split while he is casting up a ridge. Blocks of wood or
stone many now be placed close to the stakes, on the ridge, for
the fence to rest on, or an inch pin, of durable and tough timber,
may be put through both stakes for supporting the rails. "When
the fence is merely to stop horned cattle and horses, the pin may
be one foot above the ridge. Lay the fence two or three rails
high, laying between the stakes stones or blocks of wood, at
pleasure, and then put in another pin, or put on a wooden cap or
a wire. "When a rail is too large, cut it away with the axe so
that it will fit tightly between the stakes. Reserve the largest
rails for the top, and keep the crooked ones in a panel by them
selves.

93. This is the most economical rail fence that can be built
for every kind of stock ; every one likes it, and it possesses all
the commendable qualities that any fence can claim ; it occupies
but little space, requires but few rails, is strong and substantial,

82

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

FIG. 22.

and looks neat and farmer-like. It may with propriety be de
nominated the farmer's own fence.

THE HORSE FENCE, OB SKELETON FENCE,

94. Which is represented by Fig. 22, is a straight fence,
constructed of posts, rails, and wire, in the following manner :
The posts are first set firmly in the ground, as far apart as the
length of the rail, allowing the rails to extend by each post two
or three inches ; a line is then struck on the posts, as in building
board fence (see par. 152), as high as the top rail is to be placed ;
then strike two more lines below the first one, as far apart as
desired ; the two top rails may
be one foot apart, and the two
next one foot or ten inches.
Now, with a half-inch bit, bore
the holes through the posts at
each mark at right angles with
the fence ; then have two light
benches, just high enough to
set under the bottom rail, when
it is raised as high as it should
be on the side of the posts ;
let the benches be placed so as
to hold the rail about where it
is to be fastened, and, with a wire running through the posts,
fasten it around the end of the rail, by twisting the ends of it
firmly together. Carry the first bench forward to the next post
and lay up another rail, and put a wire through the post and
around the ends of the two rails, a rail being on each side of the
post, and twist the ends together. Carry forward the next bench
and lay up another rail, and so on until the lower rails are all
put up. Put up the second rail, letting one end rest on the bot
tom rail while the other end is beino- made fast. When more

O

than one hand is at work putting up rails the benches may be
dispensed with, but one hand alone will find it very difficult arid
inconvenient putting up the first rail without a bench to hold up

*"" UOR8E' OR ™TON FENCK

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 83

one end while he is fastening the other. It will be understood
that the wire passes through the post and clasps the rails ; and
on the under side of the rails the wire is on the outside of the
post.

95. Some men prefer having two holes bored through the post
for every tier of rails, and having a hole in each end of the rails,
and the wire put through one rail, then through the post, then
through the rail on the opposite side of the post, and then through
the post again. But it requires far more labor to make the fence
when two holes are made through the post for each tier of rails, and
a hole in the end of the rails also, and it makes a fence no better, in
any way, than when but one hole is made through the post for each
tier of rails ; and, besides all this, when the holes are made through
the rails as well as through the posts, they must be bored very
exact, or it will be difficult putting the wires through. "When
the wires pass entirely around the rails, if they are twisted up
tightly the rails cannot be got out without breaking the wires.
This is a very cheap and substantial fence, and will turn horses
and large cattle about as well as a fence seven rails to a panel.
It is a great improvement to cast up a ridge along this kind of
fence, as neither cattle nor horses can push against it with as
much force as when the ground about it is all smooth and level.
If the rails be unusually large, the holes in the posts may be
bored farther apart than one foot.

96. The principal reason why many fail in building this kind
of fence is, they do not use posts sufficiently large. Many use
only stakes, driven eighteen or twenty inches into the ground.
But in order to have such a fence stand well, the posts should be
as large as for an ordinary board fence, and should be set as deep
as for a board fence ; then if an unruly animal thrust his head
through he cannot throw off the top rails, nor push away the
bottom ones ; he must necessarily break the wires or rails, or
demolish the fence, in order to get through, and any animal that
will do that should not have his liberty in an open field.

84 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

THE LOG, OR POLE FENCE.

97. Fig. 23 shows the mode of building a fence with logs, or
large poles or rails ; they may be cut as long as they can be
handled conveniently. When a fence is made of logs, one end
of them should be spotted

with an axe, so that they

will not roll off at every

touch of an animal. When

one has lots of timber

that is of but little value, &

it may be worked into a

fence in the logs, at very much less expense than to split it into

rails. Logs thirty feet in length may be used for the two first

tiers, and may be rolled to their places on the fence with a team.

When k is one or two logs high it may be finished with heavy

poles.

98. When this kind of fence is made entirely of poles, the
cross panels may be made of the sound pieces of old rails, or of
pieces of poles. In either case the corners should be spotted, so
that they will not roll.

99. When one has a large lot of sound pieces of old rails,
they may be used up to an advantage in building a rail fence in
this manner. When such a fence is made of rails, in order to
have it straight, stick a row of stakes, and lay one corner of the
fence in a line with the stakes, and cut the lower sticks, for the
short panels, about two and a half feet long and place the next
corner as far from the first as it will admit of, and lap a few inches
at each end, laying the short panels at a right angle with the
rails. As the tiers of rails are laid on, the ends should be laid
inwards a little, every tier towards each other, so that when the
fence is about five rails high the top rails will lay in a straight
line, with their ends side by side. The pieces for the short
panels should be shorter in length at each tier, and the top ones
may be 'not more than one foot long. This kind of fence should
always be staked, and after it is staked the ends of the rails will

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 85

touch the under side of the stakes from the bottom to the top of
the fence. The place for each stake is shown by the preceding
diagram. The heaviest rails are laid between the stakes for
riders, and if large poles, as long as two rails, can be obtained
for riders, the fence will be much stronger than if it were made
entirely of rails. This kind of fence is to be staked with stakes
not sharpened, but set in holes dug with a pick, or mattock, whose
blade is about two inches wide.

100. I may be allowed to remark here, that but few men
know how to dig a stake hole correctly. We often see the man
stand facing the fence when digging the holes ; this is decidedly
wrong, because when standing in this position, the earth, which
should all remain unbroken and solid, to keep the stakes from
tipping up when the riders are laid on, is all broken up, and the
stakes tip up very readily ; but if the digger will stand with his
side to the fence, and dig a long deep hole, leaving an unbroken
bank for the end of the stake to raise against, it will be almost
impossible to make the ends tip up by laying on any amount of
heavy riders. It matters not how long the hole is dug in the
direction of the length of the fence, but it should be dug to fit
the stake. It should slant in the direction of the stakes when
the riders are on the fence, and be just wide enough to admit the
end of stake when it is thrust into the hole with a man's whole force.
When the stakes are large, and the rails also, the stakes must
be set more slanting than when the rails are very small. If
stakes be set rather straight up and down, they may be in the
correct position for a small rail, but if the riders were large there
would be too much space between the rails and riders. Two
riders are usually laid in such a fence, although many farmers
use but one. The under rider is laid with one end in a pair of
stakes, and the other end under the next pair of stakes. The
upper riders, of course, are laid in the stakes, with both ends
above them.

86

THE BOD FENCE,

101. Is a great favorite among some farmers because of its
substantiality. This kind of fence is made like the zigzag
stake and rail fence, with an iron rod passing through all the
rails at the joints. Iron rods, from three to four-eighths of an
inch in diameter, and about four and a half feet long, are set in
a fence block two or three inches deep, and then a hole about
three-fourths of an inch in diameter is bored through each end
of all the rails, after which they are slipped on the rods. To save
rails, pieces of rails may be sawed up about four or six inches
long, and bored and put on the rods. It is not necessary that
the rods be made very tight in the fence blocks, for the force
of anything against the fence is merely in a horizontal direction,
and when all the rails are laid up the fence will resist quite as
great a force if the rods enter the blocks loosely, as when they
are made tight.

102. When boring the rails, some eight or ten of them should
be laid on two benches, and the holes made at an equal distance,
measuring with a thin strip of board, or the like. The holes
should be at least one-third larger than the rods, and care and
skill must be exercised in boring them, and have them true with
each other. If one hole slant a little one way and the other hole
be straight through, or slant a little in another direction, it will
be very difficult getting the rails on the rods, on account of their
binding on the rods. If it were desired, a head could be made
on the lower ends of the rods and a nut and screw on the upper
ends, and they could pass through the blocks and rails and be
screwed up tight. Let a small hole be drilled in stone blocks for
the end of the rod.

OR GUN FENCE.

103. A section of which is represented by Fig. 24, is made
with small stakes and short pieces of rails, or it may all be made

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

87

SIDE HILL, OR GUN FENCE.

Two stakes are required for each rail.

of stakes only, four, FIG. 24

five, or six feet in
length, pointed and
driven in the ground.
The rise of the ground
where the fence is to
be made will deter
mine the length of
both rails and stakes.
Where the ground is
so steep that an ani
mal — horse or ox — can
scarcely ascend or de
scend, the horizontal
pieces may be only
four feet in length and
the stakes four feet.
Slabs placed edge ways in the stakes, will lay up much faster
with a given number of stakes than pieces of rails or stakes.

104. The first step in building such a fence on level ground
or up an acclivity, is to plow a narrow trench, from eight to
twelve inches deep ; and where the ground is too steep to be
plowed, a narrow channel may be dug with a pick or spade.
Commence at the foot of the hill and lay one end of the slab or
piece of rail on a large stone or block of wood, or a short post
driven in the ground, and the other end in the trench, and stamp
the dirt on each side of it to keep it on its edge. Set a pair of
stakes so that they will rest on this slab, as shown in the figure,
and then lay another slab in the crotch of the stakes, with one
end in the trench, and stamp in the dirt with the foot, as was
done with the first one. When this kind of fence is built on
level ground, slabs of almost any length may be used. Long
ones must be placed more nearly horizontal than the short ones.
When slabs are of various lengths, those of one length should
be placed together, in order to make the fence of a uniform
height. Whatever may be the length of a slab, the end of the

88

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

first slab above the ground should be elevated just as high as
the fence is to be made, and as the other slabs are laid in the
crotch of the stakes, care must be exercised to keep them all of
about the same inclination as the first one that was put up. If,
for instance, one has been making fence of slabs sixteen feet
long, and wishes now to use slabs twelve feet in length, in order
to have the fence of a uniform height, the slabs twelve feet long
must be placed more perpendicularly than those sixteen feet in
length. Let the builder always remember to place the largest
end of a slab in the ground.

THE PAEK FENCE.

105. Fig. 25 is a representation of a fence which will turn
almost anything that ought to have its liberty in the fields. This
fence, where timber is cheap, is the cheapest fence that can be
built, for a high fence. The first step in building it is, to plow a

FIG. 25.

\

^v

nimnnn

nflnnnn

s

\

\

\

\

\

! j

1

; 1

! i

1 >f i! I i! !
? 1 > f '

! '•

'f|

PARK FE.VCK.

clear, according to the size
side of the tops should be

deep trench, and then
make holes with a crow
bar in it, as far apart as
the stakes are to be
stuck. Have a long
plank bench, standing
by the side of the fence,
and let one man put the
stakes in the holes and
hold them perpendicu
larly, while another man
drives them. The stakes
may be from three to
eight inches apart, in the
of the animals to be turned. One

kept in perfect range, so that

a narrow strip of board may be nailed to each of them. At the
distance of about every ten or twelve feet, a stake two or three
feet longer than the rest should be set, for holding wires, which
may be fastened to the stakes with staples, or they may pass

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 89

through the stakes in holes as in the figure. Wire as small as
number twelve would be sufficiently large for this purpose.
After the stakes are all driven, there should be two or three fur
rows plowed on each side of the fence and cast up against the
stakes with a shovel, and grass seed sowed on it. "When such a
fence is made of durable timber, well seasoned and well made, it
will need no repairing, ordinarily, for a score of years.

STAKE AND RIDER FENCE.

106. At Fig. 26 the ordinary mode of finishing a worm fence
with stakes and riders is shown. The stakes are set about one
foot deep in the ground, the holes having been dug with a pick,
about from eighteen FIG. 26.

to thirty inches from
the fence, according
to the size of the
rails and the height
of the fence, before

it is Staked, and the STAKE AND RIDER FE.VCE.

amount of worm which is given it in laying the foundation.
The higher the fence is before it is staked, and the larger the
riders are, and the more worm there is, the farther the foot of
the stakes must be set from the fence. The dotted lines show
the position of the stakes ; and it will be discovered, that at
every alternate corner of the fence they are placed with the
opposite sides together. This is a very important consideration in
staking a fence of this style, which men of experience well
understand, but which the beginner does not always perceive
very readily ; and those who do not understand the practical
importance of it place every pair of stakes alike, and the conse
quence is, the spaces between the riders are very much too wide.
We will suppose, for instance, -that in making a fence like the
figure, we commence at a certain point and work west. The
stakes on the north side of the fence a a a must be placed on
the east side of those on the south side, and the stakes at b b
must be placed on the west side of those on the south side of the

90

fence. This is important only when the lower rider is placed
with one end in the crotch of one pair of stakes and the other
end under the next pair. For the lower riders, rails of small
size should be used. When no cross rider is used, the first or
lowest rider being laid, with both ends in the stakes, each pair
of stakes may set just alike. Let the outside stakes all be set
in a line, as nearly as may be, so that in plowing the plow may
be run straight along by the foot of them. Set the foot of the
stakes at a right angle with the fence, and not diagonally, either
way, because, when set so as to lean on the fence in a diagonal
direction, the spaces between the riders will often be rendered
wider, and a fence will not stand as firmly as if the stakes were
standing at a right angle with the fence. The height of this
style of fence, before it is staked, must depend on the size of the
fence blocks, the size of the rails, and the ultimate height of the
fence. When the fence blocks and rails are of a good size, and
animals orderly, and riders heavy, four rails high before staking,
and two after staking, will make a good lawful fence, and any
animal that would pass it by leaping over it, or by demolishing
it, should be hampered without delay, or placed in a field which
is fenced with a

DOUBLE STAKE AND RIDER FENCE.

107. Fig. 27 represents the manner of staking and ridering a

FIG. 27. fence in a twofold

oi p, manner. The fence is

^^v ><§^\ yx*xs ^rst ma<^e ^k° Fig.

>^' .^/^'6^N^, J — 18» ail(^ t^ien l°ng

on the top of the
DOUBLE STAKE AND RIDER FENCE. riders, and staked as

shown in the figure, and heavy rails or poles are laid in the stakes.
It is very convenient sometimes to have a yard or small field en
closed with such a fence, where a bull or stallion may be turned
loose without any fears of his getting out of his proper place ; and

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 91

if it is enclosed with such a fence, any animals that are let loose
within such an enclosure are obliged to remain there until they
are allowed to go out at the gate.

THE GUARD FENCE

108. Is sometimes one of the most economical rail fences that
can be erected. "When one has but few rails at hand, and a tem
porary fence is needed for a few weeks, the guard fence is a very
economical and convenient mode of fencing. It not unfrequently
occurs that it is necessary to fence a narrow way across the end
of a field, where the cattle are to be driven to a distant field every
day to pasture or to water. Sometimes, also, it is very desirable
to have a temporary fence through a field, for the purpose of al
lowing a team to graze for a few hours where there is good pas
ture, while there may be grain in one part of the field. This
style of fence is not designed to turn cattle only while the eyes of
some one is on them. It is made two or three rails high, zigzag
or straight. Stakes, or crotches, are driven into the ground, so
that the bottom rail, when resting on them, will be about two
feet from the ground. Stake them with anything that will not
decay while the fence is needed, and lay on one rider, or two, as
may seem best. If two riders are used, the lower rider should
be laid with one end in the crotch of one pair of stakes, while the
other end is under the stakes. This style of fence will often sub
serve as good a purpose as one which would cost four or five
times as much as this.

POST AND BAR FENCE

109. Is a style of fence which many farmers seem to admire
more than almost any other, but it is not economical, as a general
rule, because of the great amount of labor required to build it.
The posts are mortised similar to bar-posts, and the rails are split
from five to six inches wide, and about two inches thick ; and the
ends of two bars, one on each side of the post, are dressed off so
that two of them will enter one hole. There can be no objection

92 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MAN U AC.

to this fence save the expense of labor in building it. When a
post and bar fence is built of durable timber, and in a workman
like manner, it will stand without any repairing as long, and per
haps longer, than almost any other rail fence.

POST AND BAIL FENCE

110. Is made similar to post and bar fence, only in this style :
A round tenon is made on each end of all the rails, which are well
driven into round holes in the posts. When a fence is built in
this manner, the tenons should be well smeared with coal tar or
paint, to exclude the wet, as in such places they would be very
liable to decay in a few seasons if unpainted.

A post and rail fence may be made a self-sustaining fence by
boring the holes in round sticks for corner posts, at such an angle
that the rails of each panel will be about the same angle of an or
dinary rail fence. But we would not advise the builder to at
tempt to erect such a self-sustaining fence, for he would most
assuredly wish, in a few years, that he had never seen such a
fence. There are several other styles of rail fence, which we have
not adverted to, because we do not consider them worthy of
adoption.

BARS AND BAR-POSTS.

111. Bars should always be made of light timber when they
are made to be let down, so that children can put them up with
out difficulty. The lightest rails should be selected for bars,
when the rails are being overhauled, so that no time may be lost
in searching for them when they are needed. The neatest bars
are made by having a log of some light timber sawed into bars
about an inch and a half thick by four or five wide ; one log will
make a large lot of them. Bar-posts should be not less than
eleven or twelve feet apart, as that amount of space is none too
great to allow a load of hay or grain, or some of the implements
of the farm, to pass through freely.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

SLIDING BARS.

SLIDING BARS,

12. Represented at Fig. 28, are the most convenient style for
bars, especially where pIG. 28.

bars are used very
often. Three bar- —
posts are set so that =
the bar-holes will ex
actly range with
each other. Two
of them should be
set about four feet
apart, and two about
eleven or twelve feet
apart. The bars
shoul<^ be sawed true
and straight, and in opening the bar- way they can be pushed back,
as shown in the figure. Such bars are much more convenient
than those which must be let down or taken out when anything
is to pass through.

113. Cattle, horses, and some other animals, sometimes acquire
the vice of letting the bars down, and thus opening the way to
forbidden ground. This may be prevented by boring a hole in
the bars on each side of one of the posts through which the bars
slide, and by putting in pins. This is better than to wedge the
bars in the mortises.

114. Bar-posts (see SPLITTING BAR-POSTS, Fig. 12) should be
hewed out straight, as they are sometimes winding ; and all the
mortises should be parallel with each other. If the sides of a
bar-post are winding, an unskillful workman is very liable to make
the mortises crooked, or not parallel with each other, and the
consequence would be that the mortises in the different posts
would not range with each other. Good slabs, which are cut
from logs at saw-mills, will make good bar-posts.

115. Fig. 29 represents the manner of making a bar-post so as

THE YOUNG FAKMER's MANUAL.

to connect a fence with it. If the post is ten or more
inches wide, it will be wide enough for the bar-holes
or mortises, and a row of round holes for the ends of
rails. In case the post is not wide enough for a row
of holes for the ends of the rails, a stake may be set
on one side of it, with pieces of boards firmly nailed
on from the post to the stake, for supporting the rails.
The mortises should be not less than two inches wide ;
and the length of them and spaces is shown by the '
figures. The mortises for the top bars, when bars are
made to be let down, must be a little longer, up and
down, than the bottom ones, so as to allow the other
ends of the bars to go down to the ground. For slid
ing bars, the mortises need not be much longer than BAB-POST.
the width of the bars.

116. Repairing bar-posts is something that is seldom thought
of by those who have lots of bar-posts which have rotted entirely
off at the surface of the ground. The tops would last many
times fifteen years longer, but the lower ends of them have de
cayed. Let such posts be pinned firmly to a strong stake or two,
and an old bar-post will subserve the place of a new one.

117. Bar-posts should be made on stormy days and in the win
ter, when the forces of the farm are not engaged in the operations
which demand attention at some particular season. To aid the
beginner in laying out the mortises for a bar-post, take a narrow
strip of thin board and cut notches in it, so that it may be laid on
a post and the mortises and spaces marked off correctly and alike
on all the posts. The length of the mortises and width of spaces
must first be laid out correctly on the marking board, and then
there will be no danger of mortising a post wrong. The mortises
and spaces may be made according to Fig. 29.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 95

E. NASH'S IMPROVED FENCE.

Fig. 29^ represents a new style of straight rail fence, which
has but recently been invented by E. Nash, Auburn, N. Y. It
may be constructed of rails or of boards. If made of rails, flat
ten the ends a little, and cut them of a uniform length, and nail

FIG. 29J.

NASH'S IMPROVED FENCE.

pieces of boards four feet long, and five or six inches wide to the
ends of the rails, as shown in the cut, allowing them to extend
leyond the ends of the rails half their width. Two boards are
required at each panel, one at each end, and on opposite sides.
Set the panels erect on flat stones, or other blocks, and put a
small carriage bolt through the upper ends of the braces, and
through the uprights, or nail them, and set the braces, which
may be made of pieces of rails, in the ground with a pick or
spade. Drive small stakes, if necessary, near the foot of the
uprights, to keep the bottom of the fence from being moved side
ways. This fence may be used for hurdles, or fencing stacks, or for
making pens for stock. When used for either of these purposes
long staples, passing through one of the uprights and fastened
by a wooden key, will hold the panels at the corners more con
veniently than bolts. It may be erected on rolling land, or up
and down slopes, as well as on level ground ; and is very cheaply
constructed, saving more than one-third the number of rails, and
is as durable as any other style of rail fence, and is not liable to

96 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

be displaced by the frost. The only portion liable to rapid decay
are the ends of the braces, which may be cut off after the ends
have rotted, and bolted to the uprights lower down from the top.
Board fence may be built after this style, of any desired height
or width of boards, and it will be difficult to displace or knock
off the boards, as they are well battered on each side of the
fence. The foot of the braces need not be more than twenty
inches from the blocks. The cost of such a fence will depend
upon the value of timber. In my locality, good fencing can be
obtained for seventy cents per hundred square feet, and about
thirty square feet will make a rod in length. The labor of erect
ing will not amount to more than six cents per rod. This is the
most permanent and substantial straight fence for the surface of
the ground, that I have met with ; and I have no hesitancy in
recommending it to my brother farmers.

SECTION 2. BOARD FENCE.

" Where towering pines and rugged oaks abound,
With pales or boards the fields are circled round :
The royal oak supplies both posts and rails ;
Hemlock and tulip furnish boards and pales." — EDWARDS.

118. There is no limit to the different styles of board fence.
Boards of all widths and lengths have been worked into fence ;
and in half the instances, the builders have never stopped to
inquire whether they are using up their timber in the most
economical manner or not. I have no apprehensions of being
charged with making a random assertion, when I affirm, that
were all the boards which are worked up through the country,
in building board fence, sawed in the most economical forms and
sizes, just twice as much fence could be made with them, and
the fences would be just as permanent, efficient and durable as
they now are. There is not half the economy exercised in pre
paring the materials for a board fence, that there is in building
fences of other descriptions. Farmers too often trust to a saw
yer to saw their fencing of the different sizes, which they (the
sawyers) may think most convenient and suitable ; and in too

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 97

many instances it is sawed into boards, and that is all. Now, if
a board four or five inches wide will subserve as good a purpose
in building fence as one seven or eight inches wide, there is a
manifest want of economy in preparing the boards for fence ; and
if two posts will subserve as good a purpose for every sixteen
feet in length of fence, as if they occupied only twelve feet, then
there is a lack of economy in using up posts, and nails, and in
digging the holes, and in performing most of the other work
required to build a board fence. If the builder desires to build
a tight board fence, *'. e., one with no spaces between the boards,
it will require just about so many feet of boards for a rod,
whether they are placed horizontally or vertically. But when
an open board fence is to be erected, where economy in lumber
and labor is a consideration of any account, the idea which should
influence the builder is, to have the boards as long as will be
most profitable, and as narrow as will be most consistent, with
suitable strength and symmetry, and the spaces between the
boards as wide as possible, and turn those animals which the
fence is designed to stop from getting on forbidden ground.

119. Many farmers, and experienced fence- builders, also, have
imbibed the notion that the bottom board must of necessity be a
foot or more wider than the others, and the second and third
still narrower than the bottom board, until the top board is
arrived at, which must be narrower than any of the others. "We
might, with the same propriety, contend that the bottom rail of
a rail fence should be preposterously large, while the top one
should be the smallest. There would be just as much consist
ency in the latter as in the former. I know it is contended that
a board fence looks better when the bottom board is about twice
as wide as the top board. But we have all followed in the train
of custom in this respect for so long a time, that we have come
to think that a board fence looks " odd " and not tasty, if the
boards are all of one width, being as narrow as would be con
sistent with their strength to turn animals. Had we been accus
tomed to see all the boards of a uniform width, it would appear
still more odd and deficient in taste, to see a fence built with the

98 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

bottom board twice as wide as the top board. Sometimes the
bottom boards are from twelve to eighteen inches wide, and the
top boards of the same fence only four inches. There can be no
plausible reason whatever, to justify the use of such a wide
board for the bottom of a board fence. It cannot be argued that
greater strength is necessary near the bottom of a fence, for
the reverse of this is true. Swine and sheep do not. require as
strong a fence as horses and horned cattle ; consequently, if a
wide board is necessary, matters of taste and strength argue that
it should be placed at the top of the fence, where the greatest
resistance is needed. If a board four or five inches wide pos
sesses sufficient strength to turn horned cattle and horses, most
assuredly a board of that width is sufficiently strong to turn
swine and sheep. If, for instance, a board were fourteen inches
wide, and placed three inches from the ground, it would make
the fence seventeen inches high. Now, if that board were slit
into three boards of equal width, being about four and a half
inches wide, with the first board three inches above the ground,
and the first space three inches, and the second space four inches,
that same board would make a fence 3+4-^-|-44-4^ + 5-|-5-J=
26-^ inches high, and sufficiently strong to turn any kind of
domestic animals. Again, fence boards are often sawed twelve
or fourteen inches wide for the bottom board, the next nine inches
wide, the next eight, the next seven, the next, or top board, six
inches. The spaces often are two inches below the bottom board ;
first space two inches, second space three inches, third space four
inches, fourth space five inches, which will make a fence five feet
high. The boards used would be equal to a board forty -four
inches wide, with spaces amounting to sixteen inches wide. It
is granted that such a fence would be a strong and substantial
one ; but, if the boards were all of a uniform width, (four and a
half inches wide,) with wider spaces, but still sufficiently narrow
to stop pigs and lambs, a fence five feet high, and far more tasty,
in my estimation, could be made with six boards four and a half
inches wide, equal to a board twenty-seven inches in width, with
spaces three, four, five, six, seven, eight inches in width. But

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 99

we would not be understood that we consider such a fence an
economical one, or worthy of adoption as a general rule ; because,
for ordinary purposes, all timber that is used in building a fence
above four and a half feet high is useless, and the labor of
building no better than thrown away. And, again, there is no
necessity for having so narrow spaces between the boards. A
space of three or four inches wide between the first and second
boards at the bottom is narrow enough ; and any small animals,
pigs or lambs, that will go under the bottom board when it is three
inches above the surface of the ground, or through a space four
inches wide, above the bottom board, will seldom do any damage
on the other side of the fence. An animal must be very small
to be able to pass through horizontal spaces only four inches in
width. Allowing, then, a space of three inches below the bottom
board, and four inches between the first and second boards, when
they are not less than four and a half inches wide, the space be
tween the second and third boards may be five inches wide, with
out any danger of pigs or lambs passing through it ; for any pig
or lamb that can go through a five-inch space, cannot possibly
get through such a space when it is seventeen inches above the
ground on which the animal is standing, unless it should be a
descendant of the illustrious tribe of swine denominated " land
pikes" or " alligators," or some mountain ranger of the sheep race.
After a fence is built thirty inches high, if the spaces are just
narrow enough to prevent cattle and horses from thrusting their
heads between the boards, there will be no apprehensions that
sheep will be able to get through them. There is no necessity
whatever in making any of the spaces, which may be above two
feet from the surface of the ground, less than seven inches wide ;
for no sheep nor swine can get through a space of seven inches,
when it is above two feet from the ground. And there should
be no space more than ten inches wide, or eleven, at the most.
The upper space is often made one foot wide. But that is too
wide ; for horses and horned cattle of many kinds will thrust their
heads through the fence in a space of twelve inches. But in a
space of ten inches there is not room for the heads of ordinary

100 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

cattle and horses. The builder, in building a board fence, can
always calculate for himself on the width of spaces. If cattle
more than one year old, and horses, only, are to be fenced against,
it will be entirely safe, unless animals are quite unruly, to make
all the spaces ten inches wide. In fencing against calves, the
spaces below thirty inches from the ground should not be ten
inches wide ; because calves, and even most yearlings, can thrust
their heads through a space of ten inches.

119. We will now show by illustration what we consider as
economical, substantial, symmetrical, and tasty a board fence as
can be erected, when there is no ridge of earth along the fence.
We never consider a fence the most economical that can be built,
when it is necessary to build a fence from the surface of the ground,
that has not a ridge of earth below the boards; because a ridge of
earth twenty or more inches high may be cast up at less than
half the expense of purchasing other materials for fencing to such
a height, making no account of the labor of putting them up.
But as it is not always desirable, and sometimes very objectiona
ble, to have a ridge of earth beneath a fence, we will calculate
it from the surface of the ground. In all localities where animals
of every description are allowed to roam, lawlessly, in the high
way, a fence along the sides of the highway is usually required to
be a little better than the ordinary fences of the farm. Along the
highway it is often necessary to fence against all varieties of dis
orderly animals which belong to the dumb brutes of the fair crea
tion, saying nothing of fencing against bipeds, which are most
stupendously stupid, which run in the highways ; and consequently
a fence is needed which will offer a resistance fully adequate to
the exigency of the circumstances.

120. A board which is sixteen feet long, four and a half inches
wide, and not less than one inch in thickness, if it is of sound
timber when made into fence, as it ought to be, will not give way
beneath the weight of a heavy man when he is climbing over the
fence, and it will resist a much greater lateral thrust than we
would ordinarily suppose ; and if the top board be covered with a
cap board four inches wide and an inch and a quarter thick, if

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 101

of good timber, a horse or steer may mount on it and hang there
until he becomes satisfied that his weight will not break down
the fence ; but the timber must be free from knots and curls, and
places where the grain runs crosswise of the boards. If a board
four and a half inches wide will sustain such a weight and resist
such a thrust as have been mentioned, it cannot be considered as
the best economy to saw boards for fence over four and a half
inches in width, and sixteen feet long ; and it cannot be denied
that boards of these dimensions are sawed up in the most econom
ical manner for fences ; but if the timber be full of knots, and is
"cross-grained," it would be more economical, and wiser policy,
to saw some of them at least eight inches wide. With these con
siderations, the builder will be able to determine with propriety
what sizes, length, breadth and thickness, will be

THE MOST ECONOMICAL DIMENSIONS OF FENCE BOAKDS.

121. In order to save fence posts, the logs for boards should
be cut sixteen feet long, besides the stub-shot. "With this length
the posts should be set just eight feet apart, from centre to centre.
There can be no objection to cutting logs for fencing eighteen or
twenty feet long ; but with that length of boards, it would be
necessary to have more than two posts to each panel, for a dis
tance of more than eight feet between posts, when the boards are
only four and a half inches wide, would be rather too great ; but
if boards were sawed proportionally wider — and in no case should
fence boards be sawed less than a plump inch in thickness — there
could be no objection to cutting the logs eighteen or twenty feet
long, and in setting the posts nine or ten feet apart. It would
be far better policy to saw fence boards that are four and a half
inches wide, one and one-eighth or one and one-fourth inches
thick, instead of sawing them one inch or less in thickness.
Fence boards, when not well painted, become thinner every year
by the wearing away of the grain, caused by the influences of
wet and dry weather, and consequently every board becomes less
strong year by year.

102 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

122. Fig. 30 represents a style of board fence which will
turn, most effectually, horses, horned cattle, sheep, lambs and
swine, if they are not incorrigibly unruly, and which, in the

judgment of our civil fence

law, would be considered

'pl.q..,ff.i.iilmi'iHi.i.lilniii^!iil.Bn;llHllil,ltlj1:t, ..... ^ ...... ,„• ........... >m,,m;( ...... A,,,!,,..,) a lawful fence, either along

IB I I 10 II the highway side or be-

I 7 IT tween the adjoining farms.

4Xt |*| 5 n''| | Some of our great sticklers
~ - TT - -JL - ITT — for wide boards at the bot-

l**1 _*.._ W.*j._. torn may take some excep
tions to it; but if fields are
inclosed with such a fence,
the proprietor, and all the
HIGHWAY BIDB BOARD FENCE, FouB AND A HALF force of the farm, may lie
FEET HIGH- down to rest without en
tertaining any fears that any of their animals will get on forbid
den ground through or over such a fence. It will be seen by the
figure that it is fifty-three and a half inches high, including the
cap board, and if that were one and a half inches thick, which
would be economy, the fence would be four and a half feet high.
The posts are set eight feet apart, from centre to centre, perpen
dicularly, and a line struck on the sides of the posts for the top
board, according to the manner shown at paragraph 152 ; and if
but one workman is employed in building the fence, to aid in
holding up the ends of the boards he will find it very advanta
geous to use two gauge boards, like Fig. 31, which are very im
portant in building a board fence, in order to prevent mistakes in
the spaces. When two such boards are used, the lower ends can
be set on the ground, and the top fastened near the top of a post,
by driving in a nail a little, just sufficient to hold it while all the
boards of one panel are being put up ; two such boards would be
of far more practical utility to a good workman, than any two
boys from the Emerald Isle, because the gauge boards would al
ways hold them in the right place. The boards should "break
joint" on every alternate post, because it renders a fence stronger

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

103

than to have all the joints on one post. Not less
than two eight -penny fence nails should be used in
a place. The whole fence may be planed and painted,
or not, as desired ; but in either case, the face sides ]
of the posts, and thflse parts of the boards which come |
in contact with the posts, should be painted, or smeared j
with coal tar, to prevent their decaying. After the i
boards are all nailed on, the efficiency and strength of
the fence will be much increased by nailing on battens,
four inches wide, over the boards on each post. The
insides of the battens and the fence boards, where they are nailed,
should be painted. Much care should be exercised in nailing on
the battens, lest the large nails split the ends of the fence boards.
If the nails are very large, holes should be bored through both
battens and boards for the nails. Some fence makers consider it
very important to fit pieces of boards in the spaces between all
the boards, and nail them to the posts ; but if a fence is well bat
tened, and if the nails which hold the battens are driven near the
lower edges of the fence boards, pieces in the spaces will not pay
for the labor of fitting them and putting them in. After the
battens are all nailed on, let the tops of posts be sawed off square,
and the cap board firmly nailed on. This should be four inches
wide, so as to cover the top ends of the posts and the top board
and the batten. If it should be desirable to case all the posts of
such a fence, or every second post, the manner and style of doing
it may be seen at Fig. 32,

123. Which represents a style of fence which is almost uni
versally admired, especially by the farmers' wives. The fence is
designed to be planed and painted, and a part or all of the posts
cased. The face casings are eight inches wide, and extend ten
or eleven inches above the top of the fence. The tops of cases
are finished with square pieces of plank, or with a pyramidal top,
made of inch boards. The boards are all nailed on the posts,
and then the face casings to posts are nailed on, as if they were
battens. The side casings are then fitted by cutting gains in
them for the fence boards, and they are nailed to the face casings.

104

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

The side casings are six inches wide. This makes a case eight
inches square. If every alternate post is cased, the remainder
should be battened, as shown in the figure. There is no economy
in casing posts, and it is done merely to please the fancy. For

FIG. 32.

LAWN FENCE.

my own part, I do not approve of casing but few posts ; and I
may be allowed to say, that the majority of people are quite as
well pleased with the appearance of such a fence, when only the
gate posts and those at the corners of the yard are cased, as when
every post or every second post is cased. It increases the expense
of a fence very much to case all the posts, and they are by no
means ornaments of good taste and of rural beauty. For a fence
which encircles a huge cathedral of the Corinthian style of archi
tecture, cased posts for a board fence would seem to be in better
•taste and harmony than around a plain country residence of a
farmer. The fence, as represented by Fig. 32, is forty-five inches
high, including the cap board. There is one objection to it,
however, and that is, it is not high enough to suit most men.
But the eight-inch space might be .made two inches wider, and
the bottom board might be slit in two, and a space between the
two pieces thre"e inches wide. There is a width of boards, aside
from the cap in this fence, of twenty-two inches, and in Fig. 30

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

105

there is a width of twenty-two and a half inches, but about a foot
difference in the height of the fences. The builder can choose
either, or reject both, or make the spaces a little wider or nar
rower, to suit his caprice.

DIVISION FENCE.

124. Fig. 33 represents a style of board fence which almost
every farmer likes, because of its efficiency and cheapness and
durability. It is four and a half feet high, with boards sixteen
33 or more feet long, and four

and a half inches wide,
and only three to a panel.
— •" The spaces are the same
^ as in the fence at Fig. 30.
There are no cap boards to
this fence. The great ex
cellence of this fence con
sists in its permanence, and
the facility with which it
can be made. The posts
are set as shown at Fig. 34 ; and any one can see at a glance
that such a mode of setting posts will render a fence far more
substantial, and much less liable to be made to lean either way
by any influence which causes a fence to deviate from a perpen-

...j

I I

!....!

..

DIVISION FENCE.

FIG. 34.

MANNER OF SETTING FENCE FOOTS FOR A DIVISION FENCE.

dicular position. The boards of each panel are independent of
each other ; they may all be put up without any sawing off In
making a fence of this style, all the posts at the ends of the

106 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

boards should be set on a line with each other ; and then the
posts, at the middle of the boards, should be set about half an
inch on the other side of the line. There is no face side to such
a fence, both sides being alike, and there are no joints to make,
nor to break, as in fences of other styles. After the boards are
all nailed on, a ridge of earth, twenty two inches high, should be
cast up under the boards, and seeded with grass. As the grass
seed sometimes all washes from the top of such a ridge, a row of
sods should be laid on the top of it, beneath the bottom boards.

SELF-SUSTAINING BOARD FENCES

125. Are the most disagreeable nuisances that ever dishonored
a farm. It is perfectly ridiculous to talk of making a good self-
sustaining board fence that will bear any worthy comparison with
a good post and board fence, either in point of cheapness or per
manency. I have never seen a model of a self-sustaining board
fence (unless it had as much worm, or even more, than a rail
fence) which was fit for any other purpose than to entrap the
credulous, or to be kept in the museum. I am well aware that
there are several styles of self-sustaining patent board fences,
which have been extolled to the clouds, and which, at first sight,
appear to be a great improvement in fencing. They look well,
and seem to stand permanently ; but after a few — yes, very few —
years of exposure to the influences of the weather, they begin to
twist and warp, and give way in important places by decaying
or shrinking, so that they soon become as "shackling" as a
rickety old wagon. When it becomes necessary to give much
worm to a board fence, in order to save posts, any good arithme
tician can show by figures, in a few moments, how many more
feet of boards it will require to build a zigzag fence than a
straight one, and it will be easy to show how many feet of boards
will be used up in making locks and cleats, and such like, for
the purpose of holding the fence erect. He can then calculate
how much that redundant lumber is worth, which ia required to

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 107

build a zigzag board fence, over and above what is required to
build a straight fence. After this, calculations may be made for
posts ; and the cost of posts for a straight fence compared with
the cost for a redundant quantity of lumber for a zigzag fence.
A zigzag, self-sustaining fence cannot be made without using up
lumber of some kind for locks and cleats, nearly as many feet as
there are in a post. And so with a straight fence : there must
of necessity be about so many square feet of lumber for the
standard, and cross-pieces and sills, or locks and stakes, as the
case may be ; and there is more or less waste in working up such
material, and by close calculation it will, in most instances, equal
the amount of lumber in the posts required for a panel. If self-
sustaining fences would continue to be permanent for as many
years as a post fence, there would be some good encouragement
for adopting that style of fence, but the standards will shrink, and
the locks will become loose, and if the cross pieces are not painted
where they are joined together, they will soon rot away; and the
stakes, or pins, unless of the best of timber, and nearly as large
as a fence post, will soon become loose and rotten, and the first
heavy gale of wind will scatter the fragments as if it were a little
boy's cob house. Patentees of self-sustaining fences will denounce
me as a ninny for such words against their fences ; but unless
there shall a style of fence appear, which has never come under
my observation, entirely different from any that is now in use»
what has been penned will prove true to the letter in the experi
ence of every one who may give such fences a fair trial. A good
post and board fence is the fence for thrifty farmers; one that will
stand firmly and erect, without repairs, for a score of years ; and
one that will not crouch, like a sneaking cur before a bullock,
when he shakes his horns at it. "When fence posts can be pur
chased for ten or twelve cents each, it will be the wisest policy
and the cheapest, and infinitely better in the end, to make post
and board fences, instead of being perplexed with such vexatious
appendages as self-sustaining board fences.

126. But as there is such an insatiable thirst in many Ameri
cans for new things, I deem it best to furnish some specimens of

108

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

self-sustaining fence; and those who choose can adopt them in
fence building, if they prefer either style, to a post and board fence.
There are a number of patents on self-sustaining zigzag board
fences, which, when they are new, appear quite substantial and
efficient ; but I consider them a poor apology for a fence. If a
self-sustaining board fence is needed of a zigzag style, the best
way is, to nail the boards to pieces of scantling as long as the
height of the fence, having the corner standards, to which one end
of two panels is nailed, standing on flat stone. But such a style
of fence requires one-third more lumber than a straight fence,
although it will be almost equal to a post fence in point of perma
nency and durability ; and it will occupy a large space of ground,
too much for an ordinary fence. It is poor economy to build a zig
zag board fence. All self-sustaining fences that I have ever seen,
were very deficient in point of durability for a number of years.
But there are several styles of board fence which are not exactly
self-sustaining, although they pass under that name. For a per
manent fence, let me have a good ,_,
post and board fence, even when a
self-sustaining fence can be made for
about half the expense of it ; and, at
the end of twenty-five or thirty
years, if the expense is not in favor
of the post and board fence, I am no
arithmetician.

127. It is very convenient, many
times, to have what is called a surface
fence ; and in some localities, where
the soil is not deep enough to set
fence posts on account of rocks, it is
desirable to have some device by
means of which the standards of a
fence may be kept erect. At Fig.

35 is a representation of a standard STAND AED FOB SURFACE

for board fence, which subserves a
very good purpose for that object, and many prefer it to posts.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

109

a a are two standards, made of 1 J inch lumber, about seven
inches wide at bottom and three at top, with gains sawed in the
edges for receiving the ends of the fence boards. & is a sill,
about three feet long, two inches thick, and four inches wide. The
two standards pass through the sill, and are fastened with keys on
the under side of it. Keys are preferable to pins, because, if the
standards shrink a little, they can be tightened a little with keys ;
but with pins through the sills, they could not be tightened
so readily. The tops of the standards are fastened with a band,
or small carriage bolt, after the boards are put in the gains.
The ends of the sills are supported by flat stones, or blocks of
wood, and kept in place by stakes well driven into the ground,
as at c. The gains in every alternate standard may be just
wide enough to receive the thickness of each board. Notch
es are sawed in one side of the boards to prevent their slid
ing endwise. This style of fence is made without any nails,
and it can all be made in
the workshop, and carried
to the field, and put up
in a short period of time.
If it is preferred, stakes

FIG. 36.

FIG. 37.

STANDARD FOR 8UKFACE
BOAED FENCB.

GABRIEL'S PATENT POBTABLE BOARD

FENCE.

can be driven through holes near the ends of the sills for holding
them in place.

110 THE YOUNG FARMER^ MANUAL.

128. Fig. 36 represents a different style of standard. The
sills may be about two by four inches square, with the standards
passing through and keyed on the under side. Each side is
braced with wires, twisted together to hold it firm. "When wire
braces are used and twisted up tightly, there is no need of keying or
pinning the standard. The gains may be sawed in the standard
with a circular saw, about half an inch deep, and the boards
nailed to it. Large flat stones may be used for sills ; or, the
standards may be set on a rock, and the bottom kept from moving
by drilling a half-inch hole one inch deep in the rock, and two
inches deep in the bottom of the standard, and putting in a half-
inch iron dowel pin. Holes are drilled for the wire braces, and
made fast in the rocks by melted lead, and the wires afterwards
twisted together. Or a heavy stone may be placed on each end
of a sill, to keep the fence in the proper position ; but it will require
nearly as much timber for the sills and standards as it would for
posts ; and it will require more labor to make the standards, than
it would to set the posts three feet deep.

129. Fig. 37 represents Gabriel's patent portable board fence
standard, which appears to meet with much approbation by most
farmers, a a are standards made of inch boards, fastened to the
top after the boards are put in the gains by a wooden yoke, or a
little band of iron e; c c is a horizontal strip of board, about thirty
inches long and five wide ; and the standards may be nailed or
screwed to it at the bottom. 5 b are two pieces of boards fitted
neatly between the stakes d d and the standards, and firmly nailed
to the board c c. The stakes d d are one inch thick. Another
board of the size of c c must be nailed on the opposite side of the
standards. The standards may extend below the sills, as shown by
the dotted lines, and the fence rest on these points ; or the ends
of the sills may rest on stones. The standards for this fence may
all be made in the workshop ; but if the fence is to be set up where
it deviates from one direct horizontal line, the gains in the edges
of the fence boards should not be made until the time when the
fence is to be put up. In making such a fence up or down a hill, the
standards should all be set perpendicularly, and not at a right

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. Ill

angle with the surface of the ground. Many farmers like a style
of fence called

HALF WIRE AND HALF WOOD FENCE,

130. Or, a board and wire fence. The posts for such a fence
may be set, as shown at Fig. 34, paragraph 124, and a top board
and bottom board be nailed on above the ridge of earth, and two or
three wires fastened on the posts, . between these boards, with
staples. Three wires between the bottom and top boards, when
there is a ridge of earth along the fence, will turn sheep.

131. I have a fence four and a half feet high, thirty rods in
length, with only a top sugar maple-board four inches wide, and
three number eleven wires below it, with a ridge of earth twenty
inches high, which has turned most effectually, ever since it was
built, (four years since,) calves, cows, oxen, horses and colts; and
they have never broken a wire, although crops were always on
the other side of it. I own a young bull, which made many
desperate efforts to get through it, without any success. The
posts are eight feet apart, and the wires were never strained as
they ought to have been, because it was my first experiment in
using wire ; and I see no reason, at present, why that fence will
not remain permanent, as it now is, for ten or fifteen years to
come. I state this to show what three small wires and one nar
row board have done.

132. Fig. 38 represents a substantial barn-yard board fence.
As such fences should always be tight, i. e., no spaces between
the boards, on account of shielding animals from cold winds when
they are not in their stalls, the best, neatest, and most economical
manner of building them is, to set the posts three feet deep, and
frame the rails, which should be of scantling, not less than three
by three inches square, from post to post, as in building picket
fence, and nail the boards to the corners instead of the sides
of the rails. (See Fig. 49.) Such a fence should be about
six feet high. In that case the top rail should be about four
feet from the ground, and the bottom rail about twenty inches
from the ground. It looks better and is better, all things

5*

112

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

considered, to allow the boards to extend nearly to the ground,
instead of nailing on a bottom board, horizontally, below the
vertical boards, as is often done ; and, more than all this,

FIG. 38.

* i

U

SECTION OF BARN- YARD FENCE.

boards will not wear out as soon in the weather, when placed
vertically, as when in a horizontal position. It is a good idea to
place a row of flat stones under the bottom of the boards of such
a fence, in order to keep them dryer, by keeping away weeds and
grass. After the boards are nailed on the yard side of the fence,
battens two inches wide, portions of which are shown, should be
nailed over the boards, into each rail, with large nails. A line
should then be struck at the tops of the boards, and all sawed off
straight, and a cap nailed on the top of the boards, which is made
of strips of two-inch plank, two and a half or three inches wide,
and two inches thick, with a groove half an inch deep, and an
inch wide on the under side of it, for receiving the tops of the
boards. The corners of the cap are to be planed off before nail
ing on. This cap keeps the tops of boards dry, and prevents
their springing, and warping in and out, and makes a fence much
stronger, besides adding very greatly to its workmanlike appear
ance. If it is preferred to cut picket points in the top ends of
the boards, it can be done most expeditiously by marking them

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

113

all out with a pattern, and cutting them with a circular horse
saw.

THE RIB FENCE.

133. Fig. 39 represents a kind of fence which suits the fancy
of some men better than any other style of fence. The posts
are about five or six inches FI(J. 39.

square, and three-inch holes
bored in the sides, two inches /
deep, for the ribs. The ribs
are about two and a half
inches square. They may
enter the posts by mortise
and tenon, although that
style increases the labor of
making it. The ribs, if
square, should be put in as
shown in the cut, with one
corner upwards and one

downwards, as they will make less space between them than if
they were placed with a flat side up. The ribs should be about
eight feet long, and with the corners cut off a little the ends will
enter a three-inch hole. (See BORING POSTS WITH BORING MA
CHINE, Fig. 122.)

134. By adjusting a three-inch auger by the side of a railway
horse-power, so as to make about as many revolutions in a minute
as the band wheel, with one horse a man could bore a large lot
of posts in a few hours. And as the ribs are put up when the
posts are set, one workman would be able to put up a long string
of it in a day. A line should be stretched, when setting the
posts, parallel with the top rib, so that one panel will not pitch
clown nor slant up too much. "When the ribs are put in place
the ends should be well painted. This is a very economical and
substantial fence, requiring no nails, pins, nor wir-e.s. Should ^
rail or rib get broken at the middle of a fence, dig one post loosq
on one side of it, and lean it to one side of the fence and put ii}
a new rib, and then set it up and fasten the post in its former

114 THE YOUNG FARMERS MANUAL.

erect position. Five ribs in that position will give a width of
nearly eighteen inches, and the spaces thirty inches, which makes
a fence four feet high ; but the two lower ribs may be left out
and a ridge of earth thrown up in their place, which would be
as effectual as a fence five feet high. A two-inch round tenon at
the ends of the ribs would be proportionally stronger than the
middle of the same stick, eight or ten feet long, when of the size
mentioned. Where the timber is all hard wood, it would be
quite as economical to saw it into ribs two and a half inches square
as into inch boards ; and put them up with nails, because boards
of hard wood are, sometimes, ugly and hard things to drive nails
through without boring them for the nails.

SECTION III. WIRE FENCE.

" Glorious triumphs wire brings !
Wire fences, wire springs !
Wire into " hoops " is curled !
Wire soon will span the world." — INGEBSOLL.

135. The time has been, and it was but a few years ago, too,
when wire fences were considered by the great majority of peo
ple as an unwise experiment, which could never possibly be
attended with success ; and, even in the last decade of years, wire
fences have been decried and condemned by many able corres
pondents of agricultural journals, which were sound on all the
other ordinary subjects connected with the operations of the farm ;
and in some instances the editors themselves have imbibed the false
inspiration, and have coincided with their respected correspond
ents in their views with regard to the certain failure of wire
fences, and have denounced wire fence from beginning to end as
an " exploded humbug." For many years wire fences were
laughed at by almost every one who passed by ; and every old
fogy would wag his head and denounce the inventor, and build
ers also, as " incorrigible ninnies," and would utter all sorts of
most direful prognostications against wire fence, and everything
else that resembled it.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 115

136. It cannot be denied that there have been scores and hun
dreds of instances in building wire fence, in which it would seem
that the experiment was a most complete failure ; and many farm
ers, who have ever entertained a very favorable opinion of wire
fences, when they have come to see the report of those who
have experimented (very superficially) in building such fence,
" that wire fence could not be relied upon for protecting culti
vated fields from unruly cattle," have been fully deterred from
ever attempting to build a fence of wire, notwithstanding their
own good judgment has always seemed to be in favor of such (a
fence as a most complete success. If a substantial, permanent,
and impassable fence can be built of wire, what mean so many
failures in building it ? Why so many rods of worthless, ineffi
cient obstruction between adjoining fields, denominated wire fence,
which animals of all kinds pass and repass at pleasure ? The
reason is plain, and the remedy is very obvious and simple, and
the failures may all be expressed in one short sentence — imper
fect construction. Because one or two, or one hundred, individ
uals have failed in building an impassable wire fence, it affords no
plausible reason why a most permanent and impassable fence
may not be erected of the same materials. We have no hesi
tancy in affirming, that the failures have always been, without
one single exception, attributable to imperfect construction, and
not to any deficiency or imperfection of the materials used for
such a purpose.

137. But fences of wire are no longer viewed as an object of
doubtful utility by men of enterprise and of practical common
sense, in building fences of any kind. Wire fences, with posts of
durable wood or of iron, are among the most permanent, impassable,
and economical fences which can be erected, especially in locali
ties where materials, in the shape of stone or wood, cannot be
obtained at a fair price. It argues a great destitution of the
knowledge of the strength and efficiency of materials, to admit
that a wire fence cannot be erected, which will turn, most effect
ually, the most unruly animals that any one has no fears of giv
ing their liberty in the open fields.

116 THE YOUNG FARMEK'S MANUAL.

138. The chief difficulty, which has been almost invariably
the cause of failure in the permanency of a wire fence, is, the
snapping of the wires by animals bounding along, and plunging,
when in full speed, against them. It is an unusual thing for wires
which are destitute of flaws, to be broken by the simple pushing
and hooking of an animal. A bullock, or any other animal, will
not thrust very powerfully with his nose or neck against a bare
wire, consequently a small wire will resist effectually all the force
that an animal is disposed to apply to it. But when an animal
plunges against a wire with rapid fury, something must give way,
or he will be, perhaps, a little harmed by such an unceremonious
rencounter. If we stretch up a lot of wires, and animals have
nothing to admonish them that they are approaching an obstruc
tion, when running at full speed, a wire fence is a dangerous obstruc
tion to place in a field. "When a wire fence is built thus, it is very
imperfectly constructed ; and if the wires should be snapped
asunder, or the fence completely demolished, or animals seriously
injured, we need not be filled with wonder, because something of
that nature would be only a natural and certain result. When
a wire fence is erected in a proper manner, animals will very
soon learn where it stands, and they will no sooner plunge against
it than they will against a rail or a board fence. When a wire
fence is built across a field where the ground is entirely smooth
on both sides of it, and also where it stands, if the posts are
some ten or twelve feet apart, and nothing but bare wires from
post to post, colts and young cattle, when running, unless they
have learned that there is an impassable obstruction along the
line of posts, will be very liable to attempt to pass between the
posts, when running at full speed. But if a ridge of earth, from
one to two feet high, be thrown up along the posts, or if a nar
row board be nailed on the posts at the top, or even at the bot
tom, they will never plunge against it when running. It is
always best to have a narrow board at the top of the posts, when
it can be obtained readily. But in case boards are not at hand,
a ridge of earth along the posts is a consideration of the first
importance in building wire fences, because, if animals do not see

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 117

the wire they will see the ridge of earth, and will quickly learn
that wires are above it.

WIRE.

139. "Wire is obtained at the manufactory or at hardware
stores in large coils ; and sometimes the wire of a large coil will
be several hundred feet in length, and sometimes there will be a
score or more of pieces in one coil. In purchasing wire for fences,
the builder should see to it that the coils are not all pieces of wire,
because it is much more convenient to make fences of long wire
than it is of a lot of pieces, the ends of which must be firmly
united before they can be used.

140. Wire for fences is usually annealed at the manufactory ; but
when it is not annealed before it is to be used, a whole coil or more
may be thrown on a brush heap when it is burning, or a small
fire may be kindled of wood for the purpose of heating it. "Wire
should not be thrown into a fire where it will become heated to a
white heat, lest it become materially injured. All that is neces
sary is, to place it in a gentle fire that will heat it all to redness ;
and then, by allowing it to remain in the fire until it has all
burned down, and the wire has become cool, it will be as pliable
almost as lead, and very tenacious ; and the ends may be twisted
together without danger of breaking them.

141. The different sizes of fence wire are usually distinguished
by numbers. The following, Fig. 40, will give a very correct

Fia. 40.

SIZES OF FBNOB WIBB.

idea of the diameter of the various sizes, from three to thirteen,
which diminish regularly in size. No. 3 wire is exactly one-
fourth of an inch in diameter ; No. 6 is about three-sixteenths in
diameter ; and No. 11 is about one-eighth in diameter.

142. Fig. 41 represents the most common mode of uniting the
ends of wires. In uniting the ends of large wires, it is advisable
to have a small fire at hand in order to heat the ends when they

118 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

are to be twisted. An iron kettle full of burning coals will sub
serve a good purpose. It is not always an easy job to unite the
ends of large wire when they are cold : but by heating them to

FIG. 41.

MANNER OF UNITING THE WIRES.

redness they may be bent very readily without danger of break
ing them.

143. "When a coil of wire is uncoiled, the coil should be rolled
along like a hoop, or hung on a reel, until it is all uncoiled ; be
cause, if it be uncoiled by allowing it to run off at the side, the
wire will be twisted just as many times around as there are rings
in the coil. And twisting wire very often produces a kink or a
number of kinks in it, and causes it to break before it has been
strained to half its proper tension for a fence. When wire is to
be coiled up, instead of winding it around anything as we do a
cord or a string, the coil should be rolled over and over like a
hoop, in order to avoid twisting it, or wound up on a reel.

144. The most expeditious manner of separating a wire, either
large or small, is, to file a groove with a triangular file on two
opposite sides; and if the wire be a large one, file entirely around
it, and then bend it back and forth a few times, when it will sep
arate very readily. It is by no means an easy matter to break
a piece of anne?led wire simply by bending it back and forth,
unless it is held firmly by two pairs of pinchers or tongs.

145. Doubtless the beginner will often be in doubt as to the
most proper size of wire for fences for ordinary purposes. One
man will recommend No. 3, or 4, or 5, or some other number, as
the most suitable ; but he must exercise a little judgment of his
own in this respect. As a general rule, those farmers who have
built wire fences, and have reported their success in the Agri
cultural journals, have used twice or thrice as large wire as was
necessary. Many have insisted on Nos. 3 and 4 as the only suit
able sizes. There can be no disadvantage in using a large wire;

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 119

but when a wire two-thirds smaller, which costs only two-thirds
as much, will subserve the same purpose as a larger one, the small
one is to be preferred. There is no propriety whatever in using
No. 3 or No. 4 wire in building ordinary fences. Wire of such a
size would hold to draw out all the posts to which it might be
attached, without breaking. Hitch a span of horses to one end,
and let us see if, by fair drawing, they can separate it. By no
means, if there are no flaws in it. There can be no consistency
in using wire for fences which will resist three or four times as
much as the posts to which they are attached. It is much better,
and more economical also, to use a larger number of wires of a
medium size, than to use a few very large ones. Wire should
be strong enough to resist the force of the animals which it is
designed to fence against. For fencing against small, peaceable
animals, like sheep, No. 12 or 13 wire is sufficiently large and
strong ; and for horned cattle and horses, No. 9 will turn any
thing that wears horns ; and any animal that will thrust
into a fence, when it is properly made, with force enough
to break a sound No. 1 1 wire, should not have liberty in an
open field.

146. The manner of fastening the wires to the posts is a very
important consideration. Bending the wires around sharp cor
ners of the posts should always be avoided, as wires are very
liable to break when drawn tightly across a sharp corner. The
ends of the wires may be fastened to the end post of the fence,
by being passed entirely around it, after the corners have been
rounded off a little ; or they may be put through the post in a
half-inch hole, and the ends of two of them twisted together; or,
after the ends have been put through the post, they may be
wrapped round a rod of wood, and the ends twisted round the
same wire ; or the ends, after having been put through the post,
may be turned into holes in the post, and plugged up tightly
with a hard wood plug. The wires may be fastened to the inter
mediate posts by driving staples over them, or by sawing gains
in the sides of the posts for the wires, and nailing a strip of hard
wood on every post, to keep the wires in the gains, or gashes.

120 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

Strips one inch by two square are sufficiently large ; but if the
posts should be square, they should be about as wide as the posts.
But the best way of fastening the wires is, to bore half-inch holes
through the posts for the wires, and, if thought best, pins of hard
wood may be driven into each hole, which will hold them firmly.
A little care and skill are necessary in boring the holes, in order
to have them straight with the wires. If they should be bored
crooked, or not in a line with the wires, the wires will bind on
the sides of the holes with so much force that it will be very
difficult, in straining them, to bring them up to the desired
tension.

147. A pair of pliers for holding the wire, and a pair of pinchers
for twisting it, are indispensable in putting up the wires, and a
triangular file to aid in separating them.

148. Staples can be obtained at the hardware stores much
cheaper than they can be made by hand. In driving them, if
the posts are. very hard, holes, a little smaller than the staples,
should be bored in the posts, about half the length of the staples ;
otherwise the posts will be split, or the staples " stove up " be
fore they are half driven in so as to hold the wire.

149. The size of the posts is another very important matter.
It is not necessary to have posts for wire fence as large as they
are for a board fence, providing they possess equal strength.
One very common defect in wire fences have been posts that were
too small. It is necessary to have posts which possess as much
strength for a wire fence as for a board fence ; otherwise a fence
will be very deficient in fair proportion and symmetry. Many
farmers have recommended posts for wire fence only two inches
square. What a lack of common sense ! Half a thrust by a heavy
horse or ox, unless such posts were of the very best timber, would
break them off at the surface of the ground ; and, more than that,
posts but two inches square are too small on the score of econ
omy. It is true, that the wood of a small post may not decay
sooner than a large one ; but, allowing that they decay alike,
when a half-inch or more of the outside of a small post is gone,
there will be but little remaining ; whereas, a half-inch of the wood

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

121

of a large post may decay, and it will be injured but little. In
termediate posts for wire fence should never be smaller than
three by four inches at the lower end, and one and a half by
three inches at the upper end. But if they were one inch or
more larger than this each way, they would last many years
longer, provided they have been cut at the best season of the
year for cutting timber, and seasoned a year or more previous to
setting them in the ground.

THE PRINCIPAL MANIPULATIONS IN MAKING A WIRE FENCE.

150. Suppose, for example, we wish to make a wire fence
thirty or forty rods, more or less, in length : let a stake be set at
each end, and then set a dozen or more stakes in range with
these, one or two feet high ; plow a furrow where these stakes
are standing, as deep as practicable, and straight as a line ; by
using a double team and a large plow, very much of the labor of
digging the holes may be saved in a little time, by plowing a fur
row twenty inches deep, or more (see DIGGING POST HOLES, 226).
Set the straining-posts, Fig. 42, three and a half or four feet
deep; they should be made of good timber, not less in size than
three inches by six square, with two-inch auger -p . ~
holes in one of them, and holes two inches

square in the other. In order to have the
holes correspond exactly with each other, the
square holes should be made before the post is
set, and after they are set the auger can be run
through the square holes in order to bore those
in the opposite post. These posts should be _
set at least three inches apart.

151. The strainers are represented at
which should be made of the most firm and
tenacious wood, about one foot in length,
with four inches of one end four square, and
the remainder turned round. The wires are
put in a small hole through these strainers,
and wound up with a wooden wrench b, three

122 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

feet long, fitted to the square end of the strainers. When the
wires are sufficiently tight let the strainer be driven into the
square hole, and the wrench taken off. When a wire is to be
loosened, drive the strainer a part of the way out, and let it un
wind.

152. Set an anchor-post firmly at the other end of the fence.
The anchor-post and straining-posts should never be more than
forty rods apart. In making a long line of fence, straining-posts
should be set every forty rods, in which case they will answer
for both anchor-posts and straining-posts. They should also be
well braced. Let them be set perpendicularly on the work side.
Set one post about six rods from the straining-posts, perpendicu
larly, and then stretch two lines from this post to the straining-
posts, one at the top, and one near the bottom, and set the posts
by these lines. By having two lines, a workman will be able
to get the posts more in a line than when only one line is used,
with the plum rule (see Fig. 105) to keep them perpendicular.
When all the posts are set between the anchor-post and straining-
posts, let the top wire be attached and strained in part, or nearly
as tight as it can be. The aim of the workman now is, to strike
a line on the sides of the posts near the tops of them, which shall
be parallel with the surface of the ground, were it even and
smooth, and free from depressions and little knolls. If the sur
face of the ground is level, there will be no difficulty in doing it ;
but when the surface is undulating, it will require a little skill to
do it in a workmanlike manner. Let the workman stand at the
straining-posts, and look forward along the posts to a point where
the ground begins to rise or descend. On the post which is
nearest that point, raise the wire or fence line as high on that
post as it is at the straining-posts, and support it with a nail.
From this post cast the eye forward to the next point which de
viates from a direct line, and support the line or wire on a post
there with a nail. Let the top wire be adjusted after this man
ner throughout the entire length of the fence. Let the workman
go back, and where the wire does not seem to be parallel with
the surface of the ground, let it be adjusted by sticking a nail

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

123

under it where it seems to need raising a little, and a nail or two
above it where it seems to be a little too high. Fig. 43 will give
the builder some cor- jPIG 43

rect ideas on the sub
ject, by which the
top wire or line is
properly adjusted,
parallel with the gen
eral surface of the ground. Sharp angles in the rising and
falling of the fence, as shown at a b of the preceding figure,
should be avoided as much as practicable. After the
top wire or line is adjusted as correctly as may be, let
the workman stand away from it three or four rods, and
walk the whole length of the fence at that distance from ?
it ; and if it appears all right, the next operation will be -j~
to mark off the distances on the sides of the posts, by |
means of a board six or eight inches wide, with notches |
made in it, like Fig. 44, as far apart as the holes are to |
be bored, or the wires to be fastened. The upper notch P
of the marking board should be placed even with the top
wire, and then there will be no liability to mark some
posts wrong.

153. Let the holes be bored with a good auger bit instead of
an auger, as a man can bore more than twice as fast with a bit as
with a small auger,' and with much less fatigue. When the holes
are bored, the wires may be put in and fastened at one end, and
drawn up as tightly by hand as they can be, and then attached
to the strainers, (see Fig. 42). It is a good practice to hitch a
horse to one end of the wires, and draw them up as tightly as
practicable before attaching them to the strainers. When it is
necessary to unite a wire where it is in two parts, the junction
should be midway between two posts, lest it should be too large
to go through the hole in the posts. If the wires are to be fastened
with staples, the staples should all be driven almost in before.

124 THE YOUNG FAKMER?S MANUAL.

STKAINING- THE WIRES.

154. Let the ends of the wires be firmly secured in the strainers,
after having greased them with a little lard to make them turn
easily, and draw them up as tight as possible without breaking the
wrench or the strainers. About ten or fifteen rods from the
straining-posts let a man step on the wires, and spring up and
down on them ; and if they stretch any let them be drawn up
tighter. In warm weather the wires should be drawn up tight,
as they expand in warm weather and contract in cold weather,
about one inch in a hundred feet. As the cold weather comes
on the wires may be loosened a little, as there is some danger of
their breaking by their tendency to contract. There is but little
danger, however, of their breaking by contracting.

155. "When wires' pass through the posts, some fence-makers
prefer to drive a pin into each hole to keep the wires from ren
dering when anything presses against them ; and when they are
fastened by staples, some prefer to drive the staples tight on the
wires. The most advisable way, probably, is, to fasten the wires
at posts nearly a hundred feet apart, and then, if it is necessary
to loosen or tighten them, it can be done at less expense than if
they were fastened to every post.

156. The top board (see Fig. 46) may now be nailed on, and
if desirable, the tops of the posts may be sawed off and a cap board
put on. Or, what would be still less work, le*t a scantling about
three by three inches square be firmly nailed on the tops of the
posts. It will add very much to the durability of both wires and
boards to have them well painted with paint or coal, tar, or Japan,
especially where they touch the posts and where the wires pass
through the posts. By using a very small brush, paint can be
worked into the holes on each side of the posts.

157. When posts are more than eight or ten feet apart, stay
wires may be used to prevent an animal from thrusting his head
between the wires of the fence. For this purpose No. 12 wire
is sufficiently large, but should be well annealed before it is
used. It is attached, first, to the top or bottom wire of the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

125

fence, by wrapping one end two or three times around it, and
then by passing once around each of the other wires, being careful
to keep them at their proper distance apart.

158. The final operation now will be, to cast up a ridge of
earth along the fence, twenty or more inches high, and seed it
with grass seed. A wire fence should seldom be made without
such a ridge.

159. Another mode of building wire fence, where posts of wood
are scarce, and iron and stone abundant, is, to use iron posts and
stone sills for the intermediate posts. Figure 45 represents an
iron post, which is made of wrought iron, about three-eighths of an

FIG. 45.

inch thick at the lower end, and three-six
teenths thick at top, and three-quarters wide
at top, and an inch and a half wide at bottom,
with shoulder on each side of the tenon, which
is passed through the sill and fastened with a
key, or nut and screw. A shoulder one-fourth
of an inch deep on each side is sufficient,
and the tenon may be tapered from the shoul
der to the lower end of it, when a nut is used
to fasten the posts ; but an iron key is the
best and cheapest, in the end of tenon, and
is, usually, more convenient. The. best way
to obtain such posts would be, to give the
dimensions of them to the proprietor of some
manufactory of iron, and have them rolled out,
and holes punched for wires and keys, where machinery for such
purposes is used, and then the expense of them would be but
one cent or so on a pound more than for ordinary bars of iron.
The sills may be made of almost any kind of stone. A sill six
inches wide and four thick, and three feet in length, is a good
size. Stone for flagging, which are not more than two inches
thick, may be used for that purpose, providing they are not less
than three feet long and eighteen or twenty inches wide. Bowl
ders and blocks of square stone, weighing several hundred pounds
each, may be used by drilling holes in them three or four inches

IKON POSTS FOB
WIEE FENCE.

126 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

deep, and by placing the iron tenon in the hole, and by pouring
in melted lead to make it solid. Such posts may also be fastened
into blocks of wood, or into plugs of wood driven into the ground
as deep as for fence posts.

160. In making a wire fence with iron posts inserted in sills
of stone, it is best to form a ridge of earth where the fence is to
stand, about twenty inches high, and three feet wide on the top,
and seed it with grass seed, allowing it to settle one season; and
then place the sills in which the iron posts have been set, on the
surface of the ridge, in a line with each other, as in setting posts
of wood. Bowlders, into which posts have been set, may be
sunk a few inches into the ridge in order to make the holes in
the posts stand in range with each other. Posts set in this
manner may seem to some people like a very superficial fabric,
possessing little permanency, but after such posts have been
placed a few weeks, let a man move them, if he can, by taking
hold of the iron posts. Such posts may be placed thirty feet apart
on the ridge, and two or three stay wires put on the main wires,
between the posts. In order to prevent swine from lifting the
bottom wire, the stay wires may be first fastened to the stakes
driven into the ridge, and then passed around the other wires to
the top wire. After the wires have been put in and strained, the
holes may be plugged with hard wood to keep them from rendering
back and forth when the wires are pressed sideways. A fence
made after this plan will remain permanent, without doubt, as
long as one man usually wants a fence. If the posts should ever
become a little inclined, they may be readily set erect by raising
one end of the sills.

THE NUMBER OF WIRES

161. In a fence will always depend upon the size of the animals
to be turned by the fence. No sheep, cattle, or swine, of a hun
dred pounds weight, will be able to pass between the wires of a
fence like Fig. 46, when the wires are well strained. In merely

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

127

FIG. 46.

SECTION OP WIRE FENCE.

fencing against horned cat
tle and horses, there is no
necessity of having any of
the wires less than eight or
ten inches apart, and they
should never be more than
ten inches apart. The bot
tom wires, which are de- ,
signed to turn sheep and:
swine, may be no larger!
than number twelve or'
thirteen, as no sheep nor
swine will be able to break a wire of that size. The strongest wires
should always be placed about as high as the shoulders of horned
cattle and horses.

162. There are several modes of straining the wires of a fence
besides the one noticed in paragraph 154, but for convenience,
cheapness, efficiency and practicability, they are inferior to this.
Straining wires by having a small iron screw and swivel in each
wire is a good way, but is usually too expensive. There are
modes of having all the wires pass through holes in an upright
roller, and then with an iron lever the roller is turned round, and
the wires are strained from the ends of the fence towards the mid
dle of the fence, by being wound up on the roller from each way.
But this is a very inefficient manner of straining wires, and he
who adopts it will be glad to abandon it before he has been able
to bring all the wires to a uniform tension. There are several
other very neat modes of fastening wires to the posts, but some
are too expensive, and others are not worthy of adopting.

THE LOWELL WIRE FENCING.

163. Fig. 47 represents a style of wire fencing which cannot
fail, ultimately, to supersede every other style of wire fencing.
Wire of every size is woven into cloth, or network, by machin
ery, with the meshes of various sizes. The meshes are usually

about eight inches wide. After the wires are woven, the whole
6

128 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

of it is well coated with Japan, which is made from asphaltum,
which prevents its rusting. About 20 or 25 rods in length of it
are then rolled up in bales, as shown by the figure, which weigh
from 200 to 300 Ibs. ; when it can be transported to any locality,
and put up by almost any farmer. The very efficient manner in

FIG. 47.

A BALE OF LOWELL WIRE FENCING.

which the meshes are formed by the weaving of the wires, is rep
resented by Fig. 48. It will require the application of a force
almost equal to the strength of the wires to separate the meshes,
by drawing on two of them which are twisted together.

164. The COST of such fencing depends on the width of the
cloth and the size of the wire, varying from 75c. to $2.50. per
lineal rod. The cut represents a strip of network thirty inches
wide, with eight-inch meshes, made of Nos. 10 and 12 wire, weigh
ing five and three-quarter Ibs. per rod, and is sold for 75c. per
rod. "W. J. Johnson, Boston, Mass., manufacturer, will send an
illustrated catalogue of the various kinds and sizes which he
manufactures.

1 65. How to make the fence. — Set the posts from ten to twenty
feet apart, according to the size of the wire and weight of cloth
per lineal rod. If the cloth is narrow, cast up a ridge of earth
along the? posts. Set the straining-posts, which are represented
at Fig. 42, and attach wires to the cloth, and wind them up with
the strainers. When there are a number of straight strands of

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 129

wire in the cloth, they may be wound on the strainers. Fasten
the cloth to the posts with small staples driven over the wires.

166. In putting up such fence where the surface of the ground is
undulating, the young farmer will meet with a difficulty which
will puzzle many experienced mechanics to obviate. The wider
the cloth is, the greater will be the difficulty. "When a portion

Fia. 48.

MANNER OF WEAVING THE WIRES.

of such cloth is put up on a straight course, and then the ground
rises abruptly, the bottom of the cloth will be tight, and the top,
or upper edge, will be very loose. In such cases a strip of cloth
may be put up in a horizontal position, or at a given angle, and
another strip put up at another angle, with a pair of straining-
posts between them, so as to tighten the strips on both sides of
the straining-posts by one set of strainers. In any instance when
either the lower or upper side of the cloth cannot be made tight,
in consequence of the inequalities of the ground, cut one side of
the cloth and take out a gore, or set straining posts, as already
directed.

SECTION 4. PICKET FENCE.

'•The good eftd picket fences there surround
The garden, vineyard, and the furrowed ground,
To turn marauders, and nocturnal prigs,
And roaming curs, and pesty, rooting pigs,
And chanticleer, with majesty and pride,
Strutting along, with partfyby his sido."— EDWARDS.

130 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

167. There is probably a larger number of different styles of
picket fence than of any other variety of fence, and the most fas
tidious can always find some style, among so great a variety,
that will harmonize with his taste and fancy. There is greater
adaptedness in picket fences to many purposes than in any other
kind of fence ; and in some instances picket fence will subserve
a purpose which could not, practically, be accomplished with
any other kind of fence. As picket fences may be built of so
many different styles, he who aims to erect a picket fence which
shall be in good taste and harmony with his grounds and build
ings, if he knows exactly what he most desires, is not compelled
to search a great length of time to find a style of fence which
will come fully up to his ideas of what a picket fence should be.
There is an appearance in picket fence which almost always affects
surrounding objects more or less ; and not unfrequently a picket
fence of correct style, to harmonize with surrounding objects, im
parts a beauty to the scenery which a board fence of the neatest
style, or a stone fence, or hedge fence, would never impart.
Picket fences have all the excellencies which can possibly be com
bined in any style of fence ; they may be strong or fragile, costly
or cheap, neat and tasty, or awkward and homely, or ornamental,
or plain, to any desirable degree. No style of fence, in my own
estimation, adds more to the beauty of a spacious dooryard, or
lawn, than a tasty picket fence. Although a board fence may
be made as ornamental and tasty as such materials will admit of,
still a picket fence seems never to fail to satisfy the caprice of the
most fanciful.

168. There is also an efficiency in many kinds of picket fence
which no other kind of fence possesses. A picket fence will not
only stop fowls from roaming on forbidden ground, but will often
be the means of keeping the productions of the fruit-yard and gar
den in safety from pilfering interlopers, who would climb over a
board fence and carry off, without difficulty, the delicious booty.
A picket fence is usually a difficult, dangerous fence to climb
over ; and for this reason, when orchards and fruit-yards and gar
dens have been encircled with a substantial picket fence, the pro-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 181

prietors have feasted on their own fruit and vegetables, which
they would never have tasted had their grounds been enclosed by
any other kind of fence. When a fruit-pilferer is passing a fruit-
yard which is enclosed with a board fence that he can hop over at
any place, he is sure to glut his swinish palate with anything
within his sight; whereas, had there been a picket fence he would
have passed on, and found his booty somewhere else. Horses,
horned cattle, and almost every other kind of animals, fowls and
other bipeds, which belong to a higher order of creatures, not ex-
cepted, which need to be fenced against, are usually more shy of
a picket fence than of any other style of fence. Dogs will many
times run many rods around a picket fence rather than junljp over
it, when, if a board fence of the same height were there, they
would have bounded over it without any hesitancy. This is par
ticularly the case if the tops of the pickets are pointed. Fowls,
in flying over a picket fence, generally aim to perch on the top
of the pickets, as they are accustomed to do on other fences ; but,
as pointed pickets are not very convenient for them to stand upon,
they soon learn that it is best to fly over without touching it,
which they seldom do, or keep on their own side of it. Filching
marauders, in quest of good fruit, fear the points of pickets, lest
they, by an inadvertant hold or step, should meet with 'their mer
ited deserts.

1 69. In point of economy in dollars and cents, a picket fence
may cost more than a board fence, or it may not cost as much.
The height of each fence being the same, there will be little, if
any, difference in the cost of the rough materials ; but the labor
of building according to a given style will increase or diminish
that cost, according to the amount of labor bestowed upon it.
The style of casing and capping the posts, or not casing them ;
the style of rails and bottom boards ; and the style of the tops of
the pickets, all affect the expense of a fence, in proportion to the
amount of labor required in dressing out and preparing the mate
rials. There is often an unnecessary amount of labor expended
in making the tops of pickets very ornamental, by cutting them
of different forms, which only increases the expense, without

132 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

adding at all to its beauty or efficiency. The plainer the work is,
in making a picket fence, and the less cut work in the shape of
gains and moldings there is about it, the neater it appears.

170. The width of pickets, and the width of spaces between them,
is a consideration which affects the symmetry and expense of a
fence far more than most people are wont to suppose. Pickets
are often made one-third or two-thirds wider than is necessary for
strength, to say nothing for or against their beauty ; and the
spaces between them are too frequently twice or thrice as narrow
as they might be, without detracting at all from the efficiency of
the fence, or from its real beauty. Pickets are often four inches
wide, fnd the space between them but two inches ; in which case
a width of pickets eight inches wide is required for every foot
in length of a fence. But if the pickets were two inches wide,
which is sufficiently wide for ordinary fences, with two-inch spaces,
there will be a saving of just one quarter of the lumber for the
pickets required for a rod in length. But when pickets are a
plump inch thick, and not more than four feet long, a fence will
look quite as well when the pickets are an inch and a half
wide, with spaces two and a half or three inches in width. It is
a thing of rare occurrence, that pickets of the size last mentioned
are ever broken by animals thrusting against them, or by attempt
ing to pass them in any way. "When pickets are an inch and a half
wide, and the spaces between them two and a half wide, only a
width of four and a half inches of pickets is required for a foot in
length of fence. Spaces two and a half inches wide are narrow
enough to stop any kind of fowls, or pigs and lambs.

171. Fig. 49 represents a neat, cheap, durable and substan
tial lawn fence, and may be three and a half to four and a half
feet high, to suit the fancy. The top of the pickets should extend
not less than eight inches above the top rail ; and if the fence is
four feet or more in height, they should extend not less than ten
inches above the rail. The rails should be about three inches
square, in which case the posts may be twelve feet apart, and
should be fitted to the posts as shown in the figure, so that the
pickets may be nailed to a corner of the rails instead of the side.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

133

Rails are much stronger, both laterally and vertically, when placed
in this position, than when they are placed with one side up. And
besides this, the surface of conjunction between the pickets and
rails is so small, that there is little or no liability to decay, as is
the case when pickets are nailed to the flat side of rails. Every

FIG. 49.

m=

LJ

-..-'

A LAWN PICKET FENCE.

one who has had any experience in picket fence, knows that when
pickets are nailed to the flat side of rails, water will often get
between them and cause them to decay in that place in a few
years. The bottom rail may be halved and let into gains in the
posts, or attached by mortises and tenons ; and the strongest mode
of putting up the top rail (unless by mortises and tenons) is, in
sawing off the tops of the posts, to saw from each side of the
posts, with cut slanting downwards, so that the top rail will fit
the cut neatly, as shown at a in the figure. The top rails may then
be nailed, as shown at the top of the posts. "Where the rails and
posts touch each other, they should be painted to preserve them
from decay.

172. The pickets may be sawed out of inch boards with a
power circular saw, as it is difficult to saw pickets of so small a
size from logs at the saw-mill. After they are dressed out, the
tops may be sawed off in a mitre-box with a hand saw, or with
a small circular saw. Tn nailing them on the rails, let a chalk*
line be stretched as high above the rails as the tops of the pickets

134 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

are to extend, supporting it in the middle, if it sags a little, with
a picket slightly tacked to the rails. Dress out a space-board as
wide as the spaces, and be particular to have both ends of an ex
act width. Drive a long nail in one side of it, near the top, so
that it can be hung on the top rail ; now nail on the first picket,
and plumb the edge on one side. Hang on the space-board, and
put up another picket to the side of the space-board, with the top
barely to the line, and hold it with one knee while nailing it.
After two or three pickets more have been put up, apply the
plumb-rule and see if the pickets are perpendicular. After the
pickets are all nailed on, the bottom board, the top edge of which
is planed bevelling, as shown in the figure, may be nailed on the
outside of the pickets. The lower ends of the pickets need not
be sawed off even, as they are not in sight; and the bottom
board may be nailed to the lower rail, subserving the additional
purpose of a batten or ribbon ; or it may be two or three inches
below the rail. A ribbon about one inch by an inch and one-fourth
square may be nailed on the pickets into the upper rail. But if
each picket is nailed with two sixpenny nails to each rail — four
nails in a picket — if the rails are of hard wood, a ribbon will be of
little utility. A half round ribbon would look better than a
square one. Near the middle of the bottom boards a few pickets
may extend to the bottom of the board on the inside, and be
nailed to it to strengthen it. The bottom board may be from
eight to ten inches wide ; or there may be two narrow boards
four and a half or five inches wide, with a three or four-inch space
between them, which is in quite as good keeping with a picket
fence as one wide board. If it is desirable, the posts of such fence
may be cased. But if the gate-posts and posts at the corners of
the yard be cased, like those at Fig. 32, the fence will probably
suit the majority of people quite as well as if every post were
cased.

SELF-SUSTAINING PICKET FENCE.

173. Fig 50 represents a style of fence but little different from
the one shown at Fig. 49. The pickets, bottom boards, rails and

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

135

ribbons, are all alike ; but instead of posts, standards are used,
one of which is shown at Fig 51. The sills a are made of scant
ling, not less than three by four inches square, and thirty inches
or more long ; and the standards, 5, after the mortises have been

FIG. 50.

mt

SELF-SUSTAINING PICKET FENCE.

made for the rails and bottom boards, are firmly united by mor
tise and tenon to the sills. Braces c c are then nailed on, or
wires twisted together, as at Fig. 36. The standards may be of
one and a half or two-inch plank, and may extend above tops
of pickets, for holding one or two wires to prevent fowls from
flying over it ; or they may extend no higher JTIG< 51,

than the tops of the pickets. If preferred,
the standards may be in two parts, like Fig.
35, or 37. The ends of the rails are halved
together at the standards. The longer the
rails and bottom boards are, the less will be
the expense for the labor of building, as they
may be run through one or two standards
without having a joint at each one. When
they are made in two parts, like Fig. 35,

-,(.,>!• ,T vi 1 1^ STANDARD FOR SELF BUS-

instead Of fastening the tops With bolts Or TAININU PICKET FENCE.

bands, a wooden yoke, made of two-inch plank, with a long
mortise in it, is fitted to the standards, about half way from the
tops of pickets to tops of standards. The ends and sides of the
yokes are rounded a little, and give a very tasty appearance to
the fence. The sills may be staked to the ground, or large stones
6*

136

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

laid on them, to keep them from being moved ; or it will stand
very firmly itself. But if fence posts of cedar, or yellow locust,
or of some other durable timber, can be obtained for twelve or
fifteen cents apiece, it will be the most economical, in the end, to
build a fence like Fig. 49, with posts, instead of a self-sustaining
fence, like Fig. 50, unless a portable fence is desired.

SELF-SUSTAINING PORTABLE ZIGZAG PATENT PICKET FENCE, OR

HURDLES.

174. Fig. 52 shows a style of picket fence which was secured by
letters patent in 1858, and which appears to take well where it is
introduced. The rails are about twelve feet long and two inches

FIG. 52.

A A

A A

MA*

m

$

r

SELF-SUSTAINING PORTABLE PICKET PENCE, OB HPBDLES.

square, of hard timber, and the pickets are two inches wide,
pointed or not, with spaces to suit the builders. Each picket is
nailed on with four nails, and the ends of rails are fastened to
gether by pins of wood or iron, which are driven through two of
them. The panels are all made in the shop, and care is taken to
have the pickets nailed on at a right angle with the rails. The
holes at the ends of the rails are bored straight through, in order
to correspond with each other. If the pins are of iron, a rod
three-eighths of an inch in diameter is large enough, or a three-
quarter wooden pin. The panels are set up in a zigzag manner,
with a worm of three or four feet, with flat stones under the cor
ners ; and if it does not warp and twist, and settle off sideways in a

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

137

few years, or if the wind does not turn it topsy-turvy, and inside
outwards, it will stand firmly until it rots down where it was set
up. In the event of a hurricane, stakes might be driven in the
ground at each corner, and the fence wired to them. It is a very
good design for hurdles. When such a fence is made up and
down hills, there should be a brace nailed from one rail to the
other, to keep the panels in their proper shape.

POULTEY YARD FENCE.

175. Fig. 53 represents a very good style of picket fence for in
closing the kitchen garden or poultry yard. It may be built of
any desirable height. It is best, usually, to have a bottom board,

FIG. 3.

POULTRY TAED FEIfCE.

nine or ten inches wide, close to the ground, or a little ridge of
earth may be thrown up under it, to keep chickens and ducklings,
and such like, within the inclosure, and to exclude skunks and
other "varmints" from the yard during the night. There is no
necessity whatever, of building such a fence more than six feet
high. Our domestic fowls do not need wings any more than they
need fins ; and if they are disposed to fly over the top of such a
fence, let two or three inches of the end of one wing be clipped

138 THE YOUNG FAEMER'S MANUAL.

off, and they will soon make no effort to fly. The pickets for
such a fence should be sawed tapering, as shown in the cut,
about two and a half inches wide at the lower end, and not more
than half an inch wide at the upper end ; the space board should
be (see 172) about two inches wide at the lower end, as a space
of two inches is narrow enough, and the upper end must be
enough wider than the lower end to correspond with the taper of
the pickets. The space board need not be as long as the pickets.
The object of sawing them tapering is, to save lumber, as the
spaces can be much wider at the top than at the bottom of the
pickets. It is always best, when it is not inconvenient, to nail
on the pickets on the inside of the yard, so that fowls cannot fly
on the top rail, and then fly over, or get through between the
pickets.

THE FIELD, WIRE AND PICKET FENCE

176. Is usually made of pickets turned round and pointed.
although square ones are frequently used instead of round ones ;
but they are not as neat, especially if the fence is to be painted,
because the loops of wire, in straining, cut into the corners of the
pickets much deeper than they do in round pickets. The pickets
are cut out in a lathe in the same manner that broom handles
and rakestales are cut out, and the ends are thrust into an instru
ment called a "pointer," holding cutters, which will sharpen the
end of a picket in a second or two. They are from four to five
feet long, and an inch or more in diameter. One inch in diameter
is rather too small for a fence where cattle and horses run. In
stead of wooden rails for holding the pickets, two wires are used,
bent into loops, like Fig. 54, which represents a wire about the
size of No. 10 or 11, ready for the pickets. It is very important

FIG. 54.

MANNER OP BENDING THE WIRE RAILS FOR A PICKET FENCE.

that the loops be bent with as much uniformity as possible ; be
cause, if both the upper and lower wires are not bent into loops

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 139

as nearly alike as they can be conveniently, the pickets will not
all stand in a perpendicular position. I have noticed fences made
in this manner, where the pickets in some parts of the fenco
would lean more than the width of one space.

177. To aid the workman in making the loops, an instrument
like Fig. 55 is necessary, which is made of cast-iron, and screwed
fast to a work-bench, or held in a vise. The projections a a
should be as large in diameter as the pickets, and FIG. 55.
just as far apart as it is desirable to have the pick- a a
ets when they are worked into the fence. In

forming the loops, have the wire in a close coil,
and after winding it around one of the iron pins

INSTRUMENT FOR

a a, carry it to the other pm, winding the wire BENDING THE WIRE.
around that also. Now slip both loops off the tops of pins a a,
and put the loop which was made last on the first pin. Again,
slip off the loops and carry them back, making one loop every
time they are slipped off. Great care should be exercised to
carry the coil, in bending every loop, just so far forward, and to
have the last loop put on the pin with the straight part of the
wire between the loops at just such an angle with the pins; other
wise there will be a variation in the spaces, so that the pickets
will lean a little in some places, and then will be perpendicular in
some places, and then they will lean a little in other places in an
opposite direction. An accurate workman will bend the loops
with two pins ; but the beginner had better have three pins instead
of two, and then there will be no liability to make variations in
the spaces. When three pins are used, all three of the loops
must be slipped off the ends of them every time a loop is made.
The wire should not be wound around as a string would be, but
the whole coil must be carried around the pin. If this is not done,
the wire will be twisted once around at every loop, which weak
ens its strength.

178. The posts for such a fence may be set as far apart as
thought best, say from eight to twelve feet, with one side of them
on a line with each other ; and then the wires may be laid on the
ground, and the pickets put in the loops, with the tops all in line.

140 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

When the ground is level, after the pickets have all been put in
the loops, they may all be set up, and the wires strained (see Fig.
42) and fastened to each post, with staples driven over the wires
into each post. Where the ground is undulating, it is a most dif
ficult job to adjust the wires in such a manner that the pickets,
up and down slopes, will all stand in a perpendicular position.
Suppose, for instance, a fence is to be made fifteen or twenty rods
on a level, and then to rise up a slope from ten to twenty rods.
Let the wires be fastened to the post at the bottom of the slope
of ground, and have a set of straining-posis at the top of the
slope, and another set at the end of that part of the fence on level
ground ; and let the wires be strained from both ways. If either
of the wires should seem to be looser than the other, and straining
it more would incline the pickets from a perpendicular position,
it would be best for a man to step on the wire which is the tightest,
in several places, in order to bury the wires deeper in the wood ;
and then they can both be strained up to the desired tension.

179. The cost of such a fence will be easily estimated, and the
fence very quickly made. The pickets, in this region, can be
obtained, turned and pointed, for one dollar per hundred, four
feet long. If they are one inch and a quarter in diameter,
which is as small as they ever ought to be, with four-inch spaces,
it will require about thirty -seven pickets for one rod of fence.
The cost of the wire will depend on its size ; and the cost of posts
will depend on the locality, and the kind of posts used. Posts
similar to Fig. 45 may be used for this style of fence, by passing
a wire around the wire which holds the pickets, and through the
holes in the post, and twisting jt up tight. Instead of having the
pickets four or more feet long, a ridge of earth two feet or so
high may be cast up, and the pickets be made correspondingly
shorter, which will lessen the cash cost, and at the same time in
crease the efficiency of the fence by means of the ridge of earth.
When such a fence is put up in a workmanlike manner, and well
painted, it harmonizes with the taste of many individuals better
than almost any other style of fence.

180. Fig. 56 represents one of the most expensive kinds of

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

141

ORNAMENTAL BOUND PICKET FENCE.

picket fence which can be built, but which harmonizes quite
well with the style of archi- FIQ. 56.

tecture of the buildings which
it is designed to surround.
The pickets are turned round
and pointed, and every alter
nate one passes through three
rails. The rails should be
bored with precision, and
with an auger or bit that
will cut a clean, smooth hole,
so that the pickets will fit
water-tight. If they are
painted, there will be no danger of their rotting in the rails on
account of the rain getting in the joints.

181. In making this or any other style of picket fence up a
slope, the rails for one panel must be fastened in the position of
inclination in which they are to be placed, when the fence is
built, and then, with the plumb rule, make a perpendicular mark
on the edges of the rails ; after which it will be easy to adjust
the table on which the rails are laid when they are bored, in
order to have the holes of the desired angle. When the fence is
built on level ground, the holes for the pickets must be bored
through the rails at a right angle ; but if bored at a right angle
when the fence is not on a level, the pickets will all lean in pro
portion to the steepness of the slope, which would look awkward
and very unworkmanlike. — I should not have mentioned these
particulars, had I not seen fences which were made by inexpe
rienced workmen, with the pickets leaning down the slope at
about a right angle with the surface of the ground. — A modifica
tion of this style of

AN ORNAMENTAL LAWN FENCE,

182. A fine specimen of which may be seen encircling the
grounds of Mr. Andrus, of Ithaca, is made with turned posts
with acorn tops, and turned pickets with acorn tops, with two

142 THE YOUNG FAEMER's MANUAL.

rails through which the pickets pass, and a bottom board from
eight to twelve inches wide. The fence last mentioned is about
the neatest fence which I ever have seen for a lawn fence, and as
durable as the wood of which it is made. The acorn tops are
turned in a lathe, with gouge and chisel, after the other part has
been cut out straight. When it is desired to make the posts
ornamental by turning them — as turned posts are much cheaper
than the casing of posts — a very efficient lathe may be fitted up
for the purpose, without a mandrel, by having a point instead of
a mandrel at one end of the lathe, with a screw and point at the
other end, and allowing the band from the speed-wheel of the
driving power to pass round the post instead of a pulley, on the
mandrel. Or the posts might be mounted with a large wooden
acorn, whether they were cased or not, or with any other orna
ment turned out of wood. But a turned post would be in better
keeping with the pickets than a square one ; and a man who
understands turning, would turn out three posts sooner than he
could case one. As we cannot drive such pickets in the rails,
they should be just large enough to fill the holes, and so that
they can be worked in by hand, without driving them. The
pickets should be thoroughly seasoned ; but the rails through
which they pass may be green or half seasoned ; because, when
they shrink, they will hold the pickets tighter than when they
have been seasoned before boring the holes.

AN ORNAMENTAL LATTICE FENCE

FIG. 57. 183. Is shown at Fig. 57,

which is often built between
the gardens of adjoining own
ers, or on the back side of lawns
or gardens. The rails and posts
are put up in the same man"
ner as for ordinary picket fence,
with bottom board or not, as
preferred ; and the lattice is
LATTICE FKNOK. made of half-inch stun0, an inch

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

143

and a half or two inches wide, put up at a right angle to each
other, or at an angle that will make the meshes or open spaces
of a rhomboidal form, as in the illustration. The spaces may be
of the width of the lattice strips, or from three to four inches
wide. The tops of them should be screwed together, instead of
nailing them, as screws will hold much better than nails. In
putting on the strips, they should be kept at just such an angle ;
and the surfaces of conjunction, between the two courses of lat
tice, ought to be painted before the second course is nailed on.

THE FORMS OF PICKET TOPS

184. Are as numerous as the different styles of fence, and may
be varied to suit the taste of the most fastidious. Many men
like the plainest form possible for picket tops ; and others, again,
think a fence very incomplete and tasteless without ornamental
tops of some style. The style of architecture in which the
buildings are finished should determine, in a measure, the style
of picket tops for the fence which encircles them. Figs. 58, 59,
60, represent turned pickets, and are particularly adapted to rural
residences, with spacious dooryards, or lawns, beautifully embel
lished with a variety of shrubs and evergreens. The top of
Fig. 58 is turned in the shape of an egg. The top of Fig. 59 is
of any oblong conical form. Fig. 60 is of the form of an acorn.

FIGS. 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66,

68.

FORMS OF TOPS OF PICKETS.

If it were desirable to have the acorns larger than the main parts
of the pickets, they might be turned separately, and a half-inch

144 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

hole bored in the lower ends of the acorns, and tenons made no
the upper ends of the pickets. When this mode is adopted, the
acorns should be put on tight with good paint. The tenons can
be cut with a tenon auger fitted to the mandrel of a lathe, and
the acorns bored in a lathe, so that the expense of fitting them
up in this manner would be quite small. The ends of round
pickets are many times cut off square, or a little rounding, or
pointed in a conical form, like those shown at Fig. 56. Fig. 61
represents one of the plainest styles of tops for square or flat
pickets, with the corners saw.ed off. Fig. 67 is particularly
adapted to inclosing buildings of gothic order of architecture.
When buildings are of the very plainest order of architecture,
Figs. 63 and 64 would correspond quite as well with the work
on the buildings as any other style. Figs. 62 and 68 would be
in good keeping with the architecture of a country villa, where
the balconies and verandahs are encompassed with a balustrade
of turned balusters. When buildings are finished with a heavy
box cornice, with roof rather flat, and square columns with
bevelled mouldings, instead of a bead, or ogee, or ovals, Figs. 65
and 66 would be in good keeping with the workmanship of them.
185. The most expeditious manner of rounding the tops like
Fig. 63 is, to put fifty pickets or so in a gripe, with the top ends
all even, flat sides together, and set them up by the side of a
work-bench, letting them stand on the lower ends, and shave the
corners nearly round with a drawing-knife, and then a few strokes
with a joiner's hollow plane will make them all true. When all
the corners are to be cut off, like Fig. 64, a lot of them may be
put in a gripe, or they may be cornered with a drawing-knife
while they are held in a vise, or they may all be nailed on the
rails of the fence, and cornered with drawing-knife and bench
plane. Figs. 62, 65, 66, 67, and 68, are usually put in a gripe?
with top ends even, and laid on the work-bench, and some parts
cut with a back-saw and rabbet-plane, or a joiner's dado, or with
planes called hollows and rounds. A joiner's dado, for such
work, is a very useful tool. There are many other forms for
picket tops, but these must suffice for a work of this character.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 145

SECTON V. STONE FENCE.

" Let me but place one stone within the wall,
While the stout masons, with great plumb and line,
Are laying the foundations broad and deep." — T. B. BEAD.

186. Stone fence or stone wall is about the best and most
durable and efficient fence that can be erected, when it is properly
built ; but some farmers, who have an abundance of stone, have
no confidence in stone fence, because it tumbles down so fre
quently in places, making gaps for the ingress or egress of hogs
or sheep. But the difficulty is almost always attributable to im
perfect workmanship in building. Stone walls are usually built
by jobbers, who itinerate through the country in search of labor ;
and who sometimes understand the business well, and will lay up
a good wall if their employer understands what constitutes a good
wall, and insists on having his work done to order. Jobbers often
will slight their jobs all they possibly can; and if they discover that
their employer does not know when the work is well done, they
will toss the stones together any how, and pocket their wages
and be off. But if they have their orders how to lay up a wall,
and these are insisted on at the time of negotiating, and the over
seer watches the builders, there will be little danger of stone
walls tumbling down in consequence of having been laid up in
an unworkmanlike manner. Jobbers will often insist that it is
just as well to lay the foundation stones on the surface of the
ground, as it is to lay them eight or ten inches below the surface.
If the foundation stones were always flat on the bottom, and large
enough to extend entirely across the bottom of the wall, it would
be just as well to lay them directly on the surface of the ground,
because the entire wall would settle bodily and evenly, and, if the
frost gets under it, it will be raised evenly. But when the founda
tion consists of small stones, either flat ones or bowlders, they
will not settle perpendicularly. Large bowlders, when laid on
the surface of the ground, will seldom settle straight down ; be
cause, when more rain runs off of one side than the other, the
soil in one place will become softer than it is in others, and if

146 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the stone rests on that point it will be very liable to slide a little
sideways in that direction. And when the foundation is a part
small bowlders, and another part large flat stones, and another
portion something else, the wall will not all settle alike, and the
frost will not lift it all alike ; and, by constant lifting and letting
down, here and there, the wall will begin to spread out in places,
and in a few years will tumble down. A wall may often have the
appearance of being well laid up, when in reality it has been
very imperfectly done. It requires the exercise of good skill and
judgment to place every stone in the best position, so that it will
not roll or rock about at the slightest touch. Almost every stone
has one side a little broader and flatter than the other sides ; and
the best side should be always laid down, so as to keep the stones
from rocking about. If a stone has one good face side, and will
He more substantially with that side down, let it be laid in that
position rather than to set it on the edge for the sake of having
the face side outwards. It is desirable to have a straight and
smooth face to the stones in a wall ; but when this object cannot
be secured without detracting from the permanence of it, it is
best to place the best sides down, even if the wall is not quite
as even and smooth as we could desire. A wall may be just as
strong when the stones all have a rough and uneven face, as if
those rough and uneven corners were all knocked off and a
smooth face made on them. When jobbers lay up a wall, the
stones of which are mostly small bowlders, if they are not
watched closely they will lay up a row for each face, and then
throw in small stones without any order at all, to fill up the mid
dle. 'But such a wall will stand but a few years, because the
sides will bulge out in a short time, and it will fall flat to the
ground. The stones of a wall should all lie flatly, and lap on
one another clear across the wall. Such a mode of laying stone
will keep the wall from spreading or bulging out in places.

187. Stone walls are usually built by the perch or by the rod,
running measure, with the foundation and top of a given width,
and the wall of a given height. A perch of wall is sixteen and
a half feet long, and a foot square, or sixteen and a half cubic

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 147

feet. A rod of wall may be two feet wide or ten feet wide, and
almost any given height, but always sixteen and a half feet
long. When walls are laid up dry, the faces or sides should be
laid battering, as they will stand much more permanently than
when the sides are built perpendicularly. When the stones are
mostly small and round, the faces should be laid more battering than
when nearly all flat stones are used. If the stones of which a
fence is to be made be nearly all large and flat ones, it is quite
as well to lay the faces perpendicularly, as battering. The most
important idea to be kept in mind in laying up a stone wall is,
to have all the stones laid in such a manner as to bind the wall
together, from face to face, so that the faces will not separate.
The following figures will enable the farmer to know, if he is not
a practical stone layer, whether a wall is laid up in a workman
like manner, or whether it is performed in a slighty, job-cheating
way. Fig. 69 represents a transverse section of a fence or stone
wall which is laid so as to bind the two faces together, and which
is done in a workmanlike manner. It will be perceived that
there are no large holes between the stones, and that they are all
laid flat, and not pitching this way and that way, and are laid so
as to bind from face to face.

Fig. 70 shows a section of the same wall, and of the same size,

FIG. 69. FIG. 70.

A SECTION OF WALL WELL LAID. A SECTION OF WALL IMPROPERLY LAID.

and having faces equally as good as Fig. 69, but which is laid up
verv slightly, with merely a row of stones for each face, while
the m/.-lik of the wall is filled with stones thrown in promiscu-

148 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ously, without being placed so as to lie firmly, and without having
the face stones chocked on the inside. It is always very impor
tant to have the face stones well chocked on the inside. It is of
little or no importance, usually, to chock stones on the face side.
But if face stones are not well levelled up, and chocked up on the
inside, especially in erecting a wall with a single face along a
bank of earth, a wall is sure to bulge out and fall in a few years.
This explains, in a great measure, why walls under a house or
barn often bulge into the cellar and fall : the face stones were not
well chocked on the inside ; and a small force, produced by the
superincumbent pressure of a heavy building, or by the freezing
and expansion of the bank against which the wall is erected, will
thrust the walls into the cellar. When long stones are laid in a
stone wall, and the ends or sides within the wall do not rest one
on the other, if they are not chocked clear to the ends, (not back
six or eight inches from the ends,) the superincumbent pressure
of the stones which rest on the ends of these long stones will tend
to bring the ends together, and to separate the ends at the face,
thus bringing them into a position to be forced or thrust easily
from the centre of the wall.

MANIPULATIONS IN BUILDING- A STONE WALL.

188. The first thing in building a stone fence usually is, to
haul the stone ; and they are usually thrown in a long row, ex
actly where the fence is to stand. This is always wrong. If
stones are gathered from year to year, and hauled to a given place
for the purpose of making a stone fence, the place where it is to
stand should be staked off, and no stone should be dropped within
four feet of the point where the face of the wall is to be, on both
sides of it. If the wall is to be made six or eight feet wide on
the bottom, no stone should be dropped nearer than six feet,
especially if they are mostly large ones. It is a great fault with
most farmers who build stone fence, to get their stones . too close
to the wall. It is but the work of a few moments to tumble a
large stone six or eight feet ; and it is far better to have a stone

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 149

one foot too far away than to have it a foot too close, to obstruct
the progress of workmen.

189. When a stone wall is to be erected directly on the surface
of the soil, the stones may all be dropped in a long pile where the
fence is to be built, and then the workmen can commence at one
end and carry the stones back and lay them up ; and if they
should not be abundant enough without carrying them too far in
some places, they can be hauled along the side of the wall where
they are needed. But we do not advocate the practice of erect
ing a stone wall on the surface of the ground, because it will not
settle alike, unless the soil is of a uniform quality ; and as the
frosts of winter will raise it whenever it freezes beneath the foun
dation stones, it is very liable to freeze in freezing weather on the
windward side first ; and perhaps it will not freeze on the leeward
side at all under the foundation stones. "When this is the case,
when one side of a stone wall is lifted by the frost, and the whole
of it does not go up bodily, the stones will most of them be dis
placed a little. And again, supposing that it has all been lifted
bodily and evenly, when the ground comes to thaw it is not at all
likely to thaw evenly and settle uniformly. This will displace
the stones a little, and a large number of such little displacements
will soon produce bulges in the wall ; and as soon as a wall com
mences bulging here and there a little, it is very liable to fall in
a few years. In order to build a wall that will stand as long as
any man will need a fence, the soil where the fence is to stand
should all be thrown out, to a depth which will insure safety from
settling, or from heaving by frost. In some localities the neces
sary depth will be only four inches, while in other places, perhaps
in the same field, a depth of from eight to fourteen inches will
be necessary. T\e foundation stones should be well laid, and
chocked up all round. If a large stone, for instance, has but one
flat, or smooth side, and has more the appearance of half of a
globe than anything else, it is best to dig a hollow in the hard
ground which will correspond well with the round side of it, and
place it with the smooth or flat side up.

190. The width of the wall on the ground must be determined

150 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

in part by the size of the foundation stones. Should there be a
good number of large bowlders, from four to five feet in diameter,
it will be best to have the wall about that width. Between the
bowlders let a row of good stones be laid for each face ; now fill
up the middle, and level it off entirely across the wall. Then if
a large flat stone, or a number of them, can be obtained, lay them
on the long way across the wall, and chock them well, so that a
man may step on them without rocking or moving them. If there
is a number of ill-shapen, rough-looking bowlders, let them be
laid on such places as the tops of the large flat stones, and chock
them well. Let the workmen be particular to break joints well,
i. e., let a stone be laid directly over the joints of the two below
it ; let long stones from each face of the wall extend inward as
far as possible, and if a few can be obtained which will extend
from face to face, they will render the wall doubly strong. When
there are more large bowlders than can be laid in the foundation
course, if two or three men cannot lift them two or three feet
high on the wall, place a strong bench by the side of the wall,
and lay a couple of plank, with one end on the bench and the
other on the ground, and roll the large stones up this inclined
plane with a cant-hook, and lay them carefully on the wall. In
this way one man may handle stones with ease, and place them
on the wall three or four feet from the ground, which three or
four men could not lift directly to that place. "When there is
stone enough to build a wall, we will say three feet wide on the
bottom, and two feet or two and a half on the top, and three feet
high, if there should be enough bowlders about two feet in diam
eter to form a single row the entire length of the fence, they
should be left till the wall is finished, from three to four feet high,
as the case may be, and then these bowlders should be laid care
fully on the top of the wall, close together, and chocked up well all
around. Such bowlders will be more efficient in building a fence
when placed in such a part of the wall, than they would be if they
were placed near the bottom ; but they should be assorted, and
those of a given size should be placed together. If we would
make a fence five feet high, for example, it may be made three

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 151

feet high as far as the bowlders, which are two feet in diameter,
will extend ; and then, if a lot of bowlders are but twenty inches
in diameter, let the wall be laid a few inches higher, so that the
tops of all the bowlders will be of a given height. It is a very
great help, in putting on these cope stones, to lay two strips of
boards, about three inches wide, and the longer the better, on the
top of the wall, with their edges even with the faces of the wall,
and then lay on the cope stones, letting them rest on these strips
of boards. A board or plank as wide as the top of the wall is
often laid on the top for the cope stones to rest on; but two strips
of boards, I think, are preferable, because they are cheaper, and
they do not require so much chocking on the sides, and any cor
ners or points of the stones will set down between these strips much
better than they would rest on a wide plank.

What has been penned in the preceding paragraphs has partic
ular reference to walls which are made of all kinds of stone. "We
shall now notice the best mode of building

COBBLE-STONE FENCE.

191. When stone fences are made of small stones only, where
there are no flat stones to bind the wall together, small strips of
wood, called binders, about an inch wide and one-fourth of an
inch thick, which are usually split out of cedar or some other
durable wood, are laid between all the courses of stone as thickly
as thought proper ; but one binder extending entirely across the
wall to every six or twelve inches will be sufficient. If the
stones are all quite small, it would be well to use more binders
than if the stones were larger. The stones will settle a little into
these wooden binders, and keep the sides from bulging out and
falling down. The binders should not extend beyond the face of
the wall far enough to allow cattle to move them ; they should
be cut of different lengths, when the wall batters on both faces,
so as to be just as long as the wall is wide, as the wall increases
in height. When any of the binders extend beyond the face of
the wall, the ends should be sawed off even with the stones.
7

152 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

This mode of building refers more particularly to walls about
thirty inches wide on the bottom, and a foot wide at the top, and
from three to four feet high. This kind of wall is sometimes cov
ered with a row of square stones, sometimes one foot square; and
sometimes stones from two to six feet long, and from four to ten
inches thick, and as wide, or even a few inches wider, than the
top of the wall, are placed carefully on the top. Sometimes a
stick of timber is placed on the top of the wall, and the top of it
dressed in the shape of a roof of a building, and cased and painted.
Sometimes, again, when such a wall is from three to four feet
high, the top is levelled off, and a board of some durable timber
is placed on the top, and stones of a given size, which were
reserved when the workmen were carrying up the wall, are placed
on the top close together, and chocked up well on both sides. It
will require the exercise of a little skill to place these cope stones
in the most firm and permanent manner. A large stone should
be placed at the end to keep them from moving readily, and the
others should be placed in the best possible manner for laying
firmly and wedging the entire length of the wall. Sometimes
such walls are finished with two or three rails in height, or, what
is much better, long poles staked and ridered.

192. Throwing a bank of earth against each side of a wall
about two feet high, and sowing grass seed on it, is highly recom
mended by some, and equally denounced by others. "When a
wall is resting on a good foundation, below the influence of frost,
there can be no advantage in banking up the sides of a wall, ex
cepting this : it prevents stock from approaching as closely to it
as they could do if it were not banked up, and consequently they
are thus deprived of the advantage they would otherwise have, to
rub, and hook, and displace any of the stones. Many farmers
contend, and with very plausible reasoning, too, that when a wall
is banked up the dirt finds its way between the stones, filling all
the spaces so completely that a frost affects a wall just as much,
and sometimes even more, than it would if it were built on the
surface of the soil. If a wall is properly laid up, a bank of earth
on each side will not make it stand any longer than if it were not

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 153

there. The farmer can do as his own judgment may dictate in
reference to banking up the sides.

193. Another thing of no little importance in building stone
fence is, to lay all the stones as nearly level as may be practica
ble. In making a wall up or down a slope, the workmen should
always work up hill, laying the stones level, instead of laying
them parallel with the surface of the ground. When stones are
laid sloping in a wall, they are moved much more easily than
when they are laid in a level position ; consequently, a wall built
in such a manner would not be as strong as it would be were the
same stones laid level.

194. Whenever a wall is built along the hillside, and the dirt
is hauled down against it, the face of the wall should be more
battering than are the faces of a double-faced stone wall. It is a
very great error to lay up a wall in such places with the face
perpendicular ; because the earth will freeze and expand behind
the wall, and, unless it is several feet in thickness, it will thrust
it over in a very few years. Stone walls that are erected along
the sides of abutments should always be laid battering, lest the
sides bulge out in a few seasons, and they fall. The face of such
a wall should be laid battering not less than one foot in three.
For example, if a wall be three feet high, it should be laid bat
tering one foot ; and if six feet high, two feet battering. And
there is another very important consideration in laying up such a
wall, which is almost always entirely overlooked, or not even
thought of, which is this: the stones, especially the flat ones,
instead of being laid level, as in other kinds of wall, should be
laid pitching inward towards the bank or hill above, with their
surfaces at a right angle to the face of the wall. When a wall is
laid up in this manner, if the frost should ever thrust it over any,
it would settle back again to its original position as soon as the
earth behind became all thawed out. When a wall is built along
a side-hill, as has been mentioned, it should never be less than
two feet thick clear to the top. It should be as thick, and even
thicker, at the top than at the bottom. The wider it is, the less
liable it is to be thrust over by the frosts of winter. In localities

154 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

where there is an excess of water in the soil, arising from springs,
a good ditch should be made, and well tiled or stoned two or
three feet above the foundation of the fence, in order to receive
the water before it should saturate the earth under the founda
tion of the wall. This precaution will keep the dirt about the
wall more dry, and consequently less liable to heave by freezing.

DITCHES UNDER STONE WALLS.

195. It is a very common practice with some farmers to throw
out the earth, where a stone fence is to be built, to the depth of
thirty or forty inches, and from two to four or five feet wide, or
as wide as the wall is to be built at the surface of the ground,
and then fill this channel with small stones, thrown in promis
cuously. In this operation they have two or three objects in
view — draining the soil, preparing a good foundation for the
fence, and a place for the surplus stone. But this is a very ex
pensive way of disposing of surplus stone of any kind. It would
be far more economical to lay them up even on the top of a wall
that is already high enough, than to bury them beneath the soil.
"We do not approve of nor advocate the practice of forming a
channel for water beneath a stone wall, by simply allowing the
water to percolate between the stones, because dirt will keep
working towards the bottom, and mice will haul in dirt in places,
so as to stop the passage of water entirely. "When it is desirable
to have a passage for water under a stone fence, the earth should
be thrown out from one to four feet deep, to suit the judgment of
the proprietor ; and then a channel should be dug in the bottom
of this trench from six to twelve inches deep, and a good throat
laid, as in an ordinary ditch, and well chinked with small stone,
and then filled with the kind of earth that was taken from it,
and well trodden down even with the bottom of the large trench.
If there should be much water, it would be necessary to make a
large throat ; but, whether a large or small throat be made,
the workman should exercise unusual care to do every part of
the work in such a manner that mice cannot possibly find tlicir
way into the throat of the ditch. If the ditch be well chinked

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 155

with small stones, and then about six inches of hard earth be well
trodden down on these stones, mice will never try to burrow in it,
and the water will have a free channel as long as water runs.
A row of tile laid beneath a stone fence would be the most
complete manner of making a permanent channel for water ; but
where stone is abundant, economy dictates that they should be
used for this purpose. "When stone walls are built up and down
a steep slope, with a stone drain beneath them where there will
be much water, flat stones should be laid in the bottom of the
ditch to prevent the water from gullying the bottom of the
ditch, and thus undermining the wall. Where there is much
flood-water, make a deep furrow on each eide of the wall in the
former part of summer, and seed it, so that a stream of water
will not wash it away. (See MANNER OF STONING DITCHES, Par.
422.)

DITCHES ON BOTH SIDES OF A WALL.

196. Many farmers seem to prefer to have a deep ditch usually
open on both sides of their stone walls, to having a ditch directly
beneath the wall, as has been recommended. The method pur
sued in such cases is, after the wall is finished, to cut a large
open ditch on both sides of the wall, say three or four feet wide
on the top, according to the depth of it, and about one foot on
the bottom, leaving sufficient space between the ditch and the
wall to receive all the dirt, so that when the ditch is finished the
embankment on each side of the wall will correspond with the
slope of the sides of the ditch. The sides are then sown with

197. Although this style of stone fence is very common and
much admired, it is decidedly objectionable on account of the
expense incurred in cutting two such large ditches, and also the
amount of land occupied. If the two ditches are made three
feet wide on the top, and the spaces from them to the wall be
four feet on each side, and the wall three or four feet wide on the
bottom, and as we cannot plow nearer than about two feet to a
ditch, it will be perceived that the space occupied by such a fence
will be about twenty feet wide, or more, when less than half that

156 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

space, with a ditch beneath the wall, would be much cheaper
and subserve a better purpose.

HALF WALL

198. In localities where stone is not very abundant, and where
there is some fencing timber, a very good, economical, and dura
ble fence can be made by laying a stone wall two or three feet
high, according to the amount of stone at hand, and then by
staking and finishing with two or more rails, as may be necessary
to make it of sufficient height to turn stock. Some farmers finish
their stone fence by laying on the top of the wall long poles,
say twenty or thirty feet in length, and then staking it, and after
wards laying on heavy poles for riders.

199. Another mode of building half wall fence is, to set the
posts as for a whole board fence, and then lay up the wall about
hah0 as high as the fence is to be made, and then nail on the two
top boards. If the boards should be nailed on before the stone
are laid up, they will be very much in the way of the workmen.

200. Another manner of finishing a half wall fence is, to set
the posts, and, after the wall is laid up, fasten rails to the posts
with wires, as shown by Fig. 22, paragraph 94, skeleton fence.
When this mode is adopted, rails may be used, or poles twenty
feet long, instead of rails".

A CHEAP WALL OF QUARRIED STONE.

201. Whenever stone are quarried expressly for a fence, and
they can be taken from the quarry from one to two feet wide, and
from two to eight or ten feet in length, a small amount of stone
may be made to build a long line of fence, in the following man
ner, which will stand firmly as long as one man will need the
advantages of a good fence, and subserve as good purpose as
those walls in which there are three or four times the amount of
stone.

202. If the soil where the wall is to be built is at all inclined
to be a little wet, let a ditch be made as directed (paragraph
195), and then throw up a ridge of earth over the ditch not less

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 157

than two feet high, and three feet wide on the top of it, and six
feet or more at the bottom. Let it all be smoothed off level, and
grass seed sowed on it. Allow it to settle for one year or more,
and then lay the stone wall directly on the top of this ridge.

203. The object of the ridge of earth is, to save stone; and the
object of seeding with grass seed is, to prevent the rain from wash
ing it down; and the object of letting it settle one year or more
before the wall is laid on it is, to have the earth the entire length
of the ridge of a uniform density, so that the whole wall will set
tle uniformly. Other advantages of such a wall will be readily
perceived without mentioning them.

HON. A. B. CONGER'S STONE WALLS.

Hon. A. B. Conger, President of the N. Y. State Agricultural
Society, has forwarded me his mode of building stone walls, which
has been very successfully adopted by many other farmers in va
rious parts of the State.

"I cast up a ridge with plows and shovels about eighteen
inches high, one foot or more wider on the top than the bottom
of the wall is to be made. This is done at any time before frost,
as opportunity offers. The bottom stone are then hauled on,
even in the winter, and placed in a line, without the usual filling
in with small stones, so as to have the benefit of being thoroughly
bedded in by the following spring, when they can be readjusted,
if necessary, to the line, and filled in ; and the " seconds " — stones
of a smaller size than the bottom ones — are placed upon them,
and the wall raised to three and a half feet high, without levelling.
After the foundation has been laid, the wall may be left to un
dergo another settling by the next winter frosts, and early in the
succeeding spring can be topped off and finished. In all cases
thorough draining of the ground where the wall is built is very
necessary for the security of the wall, otherwise water will be
absorbed and remain late in the season under the bed of the wall,
and so tend to its upheaval.

"It may be added, that the strength of the wall and its durabil
ity will be materially assisted by the care of the builder in chink-

158 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ing in all the interstices between the large stones, and especially
by a careful binding of the sides together, as only in this way
can displacement be prevented under the action of our severe
winters. In passing across gullies, or over undulating fields, it
may be well, in order to give the wall when finished a more uni
form top-line, to lay a lower wall of the rougher stone of a height
to correspond with that of the ridge on which they are placed.
The width and height of a wall will necessarily vary with the
quality, size and character of the stone. If large bowlders exist
in abundance, they must be blasted when they are larger in diam
eter than the base of the wall. It will be sufficient to build the
wall four feet wide at the bottom, four feet eight inches high, and
twenty inches wide at the top. If the stone are of a smaller size,
and cobbles mostly, or of slate, the width at the bottom may be
two and a half feet only.

"It is understood that a wall is considered of a lawful height if
it is four feet six inches high. But I have thought best to con
struct my walls four feet eight inches high, so as to allow for
settling."

Some farmers cut an open ditch on both sides of the wall, and
throw up the dirt on the top of the ridge against each side of the
wall, so that animals cannot approach the wall. But such ditches
take up too much land, and increase the expense of a fence to an
unnecessary amount. (See par. 196 and 197.)

QUARRYING STONE.

204. The first step in taking stone of any kind from a quarry
is, to remove the dirt from a large surface. Sometimes this may
be done with a team and scraper ; and sometimes, when a stream
of water is near, it may be turned out of its natural course and
made to wash the dirt away ; and sometimes it must be removed
with shovels. "When the surface of the stone is all laid bare, if
the stone is found with regular, vertical, and horizontal seams, at
the distance of a foot or so, it will be very easy to get them out.
It requires the exercise of a little judgment and skill to quarry

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 159

stone, or the operator will make bad work by damaging many
good blocks of stone, that might, by a skillful workman, be taken
out of the quarry of a very desirable size and form. Stone are
not very elastic, and the operator should bear in mind that he
cannot drive in wedges in the seams of stone as carelessly as he
may in a block of wood. Stone will break before they will ren
der, or give but little ; therefore it will not answer to drive in
wedges all in one place.

205. A workman in a quarry needs a half score of wedges
many times. They should be about four or five inches long, one
inch and a half wide, and about three-eighths of an inch thick,
of the very best iron, and steel-pointed. These should be driven
in the seams not more than one foot apart, and all driven at one
time, by striking them alternately one or two blows at a time.
This will open a seam uniformly, without danger of breaking a
stone. But if a wedge be driven in at a corner, for example,
unless the stratum is very thick the corner will be very liable to
break off. "Where the courses are laid bare, having vertical
seams from two to four or five feet apart, and the strata from four
to twelve inches thick, the surface should be marked off in a
square form, of the size of which it is desirable to have the stone,
and then a row of holes may be drilled eight or ten inches apart
where the stone is to be broken, and iron wedges driven into
these holes until the stone separates. Two pieces of half round
iron should be placed in each hole, leaving a space in the middle
of each hole for a flat wedge to enter between the two pieces of
half round iron. When the strata are not very thick, and the
stone are such as may be broken with fire, the strata may be
broken by fire instead of drilling holes and separating with wedges.
It is usually best to drive most of the wedges at the end in lifting
a stratum of rather thin stone, although some wedges may be
driven on the side ; but if the wedges should be driven mostly
on one side, a stone will seldom break square across the stratum.
When the strata are rather thin, by cutting a groove with a cold-
chisel about an inch deep where it is desirable to break the stra
tum, if the wedges be driven in the side opposite the groove,
7*

160 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the stratum will break very true where the groove has been
cut.

TOOLS FOB HANDLING STONE.

206. In addition to a good crowbar or two, and hand-spikes,
a good canthook, represented by Fig. 71, is a very useful and
convenient implement for handling bowlders
which two or three men could not handle
with crowbars without much difficulty. But
with a good canthook one man can roll along
a bowlder of six or eight hundred pounds
. with ease, and by using a couple of plank he
8 will be able to load such a stone on a sleigh
dj I or stone-boat in a very few minutes.

« 207. The handle of the canthook is al
most always made too large and clumsy. It
should be about six feet in length, and of a
uniform taper from the mortise where the
hook enters it to the end, which end need
not be larger than the end of a fork handle.
The other end may be tapered off, as shown in the cut. At the
mortise it should be about two by three inches square, or even
smaller if the timber be of the best quality, otherwise it must be
larger. The hook should be made of the best iron, about an inch
and a half wide and three eighths of an inch thick, with half-inch
holes every two inches, and from twenty to thirty inches long,
according to the size of stone or logs to be rolled with it. At
the hook end it must be made much heavier and stronger than
the other part of it. The curvature of the hook is a very im
portant feature of it. If it is curved but little it will hook on a large
stone or log very readily, and will not hook on a small one. But
if the curvature of it will admit of its hooking to a small stone, it
will usually hook on a larger one, except it is very large. The
bolt which holds the hook should work easily in and out, and be
fastened with a leather key.

208. The grapple hook, Fig. 72, is used for hooking on to
large stone with a team, in rolling them over and over, or in lift-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

161

ing one end of a stone, so that a chain can be passed around it,
when one end of it is in the ground. It is very convenient in a
quarry, for hitching a team to a corner of a large stone, when it

FIG. 72. FIG. 73.

A GRAPPLE HOOK IIITCHKD TO A LAUGE
BOWLDER.

A WINDLASS FOE LOADING STONE ON A
WAGON.

is desirable to slide it a little. "With three or four such hooks, a
stone may be slung up, when it would be very inconvenient get
ting a chain round it.

209. The grapple hook should be made of about the same
curvature as the iron part of the canthook, Fig. 71, with a link
and ring in one end, as shown in Fig. 72, for the purpose of
hitching a chain to when in use. It should be made from eight
een to twenty-four inches long, of the best iron, with the point of
the hook laid with steel. The hook should be large enough to
retain its shape without bending, even when two teams may be
hitched to it. At the hook- end, where it is exposed to the great
est strain, it should be about three-fourths of an inch thick and
two inches wide. The other parts need not be half as heavy
as this.

210. Fig. 73 shows a portion of a platform to a wagon or
sleigh, with a windlass attached to the hind end, for the pur
pose of loading stone which would weigh from one hundred
to three or four hundred pounds. One man can roll a stone,
which three or four men cannot lift, on the wagon ; and by
having a windlass on the hind end of the wagon, one man
can raise a large stone on the wagon in one minute? with
ease. In loading a stone, the fore end of tlje platform should

162

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

be fastened down, so that it cannot tip up without raising the
forward wheels of the wagon. Hitch the chain around the
stone, and raise it as high as the top of the platform, and then
let a board be slid under the stone, with the two ends resting
on the sills of the platform. The stone can then be rolled
forward on the platform, and another raised in the same manner.

211. The windlass should be about three inches in diameter,
of good timber, and about thirty inches above the sills of the
platform. The sticks for turning the windlass should be at
least four feet in length, and if the timber be very tough,
one inch in diameter is large enough for ordinary purposes.
The ends of the sills should extend beyond the cross-piece
about eighteen inches, as shown by the figure. A small chain
is best, although a rope would subserve a good purpose, for
winding up on the windlass.

212. For loading stone on a wagon, which will weigh from
four hundred pounds to a ton or more, a set of sheers and
tackles, Fig. 74, is about as convenient and efficient as anything

FIG. 74.

GIX FOR LOADING LOGS AND CTONE.

in the line of cheap implements which can be made use of.
Almost every farmer often sees the need of such an apparatus
for many purposes besides loading stone. It hardly needs a
description ; but, to aid the beginner, we will give the chief

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 163

dimensions. The sheers should be not less than sixteen feet in
length, of light timber, and should be larger in the middle of the
sticks than at the ends, to keep them from bending. The single
sheer, or the one to which a windlass is attached, for winding up
the slack rope, should be, in the middle, of a size equivalent to a
scantling three by four inches square. The other two sheers may
be two and a half by three inches in the middle, and tapering to
each end to two inches square, in order to render them as light
as possible. At the upper end of the single sheer an iron rod,
about seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, and twenty inches
long, should be fastened, by passing through it, for holding the
other two sheers, which should have an inch and a quarter hole
in their upper ends for receiving the ends of this rod in the sin
gle sheer. The tackles may be made by almost any mechanic,
with cast-iron sheaves. A rope an inch in diameter is large
enough to hold one ton and a half, when the rope is three-
double, or three sheaves in the upper block of pulleys.

213. Such an apparatus is very convenient in hoisting large
stone on to any part of a stone wall, arid especially in placing
large stone on the top of a wall. It may be used also very ad
vantageously in loading logs and timber, and such like, on a
wagon. In extensive quarries a crane will be found to be more
efficient and convenient than almost any other apparatus, for
hoisting the stone from their bed on a wagon or other vehicle.
As cranes may be seen in every locality where stone quarries
abound, we do not think it advisable to give, in this place, a cut
and description of one. "When the farmer has a quarry of any kind
of stone, if he has not in his employ a man who has a good share
of practical experience in quarrying stone, he will find it very
much to his interest and convenience to visit some extensive
quarry, and spend a day or so in witnessing the manipulations of
the workmen, and in making inquiries of the foreman and pro
prietor in relation to the business, and in examining the tools
used in quarrying. A day or two spent in this manner may be
worth hundreds of dollars to an individual, in enabling him to
start in his operations in the most efficient manner. Scores of

164

men have been in the possession of excellent quarries, but who,
for the want of getting started right in the quarry, and not know
ing exactly what they really needed, have blundered along at a
very great useless expense and inconvenience for a long time, or
many times have entirely abandoned the operation as a non-pay
ing business, when a day or two spent in examining the machin
ery, &c., of an extensive quarry would have enabled them to
start right, and progress with all desirable rapidity and efficiency.

BREAKING STONE WITH FIRE.

214. Many kinds of stone may be broken very readily and
very expeditiously with fire. Large bowlders, when a fire is
built on them, will, in a short time, separate into small pieces ;
and many times these pieces will have straight edges and smooth
and true faces, and may be used in a foundation for a building, or
in stone fence, with no little economy. When a large bowlder
is mostly below the surface of the ground, let the earth be thrown
away from it all around as low as the middle of it, and then pile
on a lot of old rails or pieces of stumps, or even good wood, and
it will soon crack into pieces so that they may be pried out with
the crowbar. Should it not be broken clear to the bottom, apply
the fire again after the broken pieces have been removed. Some
times, after the fire has been burning for a few minutes, the top
of the bowlder will be covered with large scales of stone, which
should be immediately removed, in order to allow the fire to come
in contact with the unbroken stone. Some kinds of stone that
are taken from the quarry may be broken very straight and true
into almost any desired shape. In many quarries stone are often
taken out ten or twenty feet in length, and from six to ten or
twelve inches in thickness, and sometimes from one foot to three
feet in width, with straight edges and true and smooth sides.
Now, in order to break them in pieces of a desirable size, let lit
tle fires be made with hard, dry wood, across the stone where it
is desirable to break it, and in a few minutes a seam will be

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 165

formed so that a crowbar will easily separate them. "We have
often broken large flat stone, very true and straight, with fire, by
laying a scantling about foiir inches wide on the place where it is
to be broken, and then shovelling dirt on both sides of the scant
ling, about an inch in depth. Take up the scantling, and make a
fire with short pieces of dry wood, split very fine, the whole length
of the stone where it is to be broken. Small hard wood chips
are the most convenient article to make a fire with in such a place.
The dirt is to prevent the fire from heating the stone on each side
of the line where it is desirable to have it broken. If the
fire burns uniformly entirely across the stone, it will require but
ten or fifteen minutes before it will crack, when the fire should
be immediately removed lest it should injure the edges of the
stone. Small thin stone may be broken very readily by heating
a large bar of iron and laying it on the stone where it is to be
broken.

215. Some kinds of stone will not break at all with fire, and
some kinds will crumble to pieces before they will break in two
parts. The beginner can soon learn, by a little observation and
experience, which kinds may or may not be broken with fire.

SECTION 6. FENCE POSTS.

216. There are several considerations of first importance in
making fence posts, which should not be overlooked. One is the
length of posts. Posts are cut, many times, nearly one foot longer
than is necessary. If all the logs of a tree be cut one foot longer
than necessary, there will be waste of timber enough in one
tree, many times, to make a cut for posts. The farmer should cal
culate how deep he intends to set the posts, and how long they
are to be above ground, and then cut them but three or four
inches longer than that length.

217. Another thing is the size of posts. When timber is
good and well-seasoned, a large post will always outlast a small
one ; therefore, it is not a bad fault, so far as durability is

166 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

concerned, to have posts large ; but, on the score of economy,
it is not best to have them very large. It is much better to
have them too large than too small. A post six inches square
is much better, and will last longer, than one four inches square ;
but it would not be an economical manner of working up tim
ber to make ordinary posts six inches square. For ordinary
fence, sawed fence posts may be about four inches square at
the lower ends, and two by four inches at the upper ends ;
but some prefer to have them sawed five by five at the lower
ends, and five by two or three inches at the tops. For a high
fence, like Fig. 39, this last size would be better- than a size
smaller. In splitting fence posts, when a portion of a log is
rather large for two posts, and too small for three posts, it is
much better to make them a little too large than too small.
It is much more economical to have posts sawed out than to
split and hew them, when a saw-mill is not more than two or
three miles distant, providing the timber is large. It is not
practicable to split as many posts out of a log, even when it
splits well, as can be sawed from the same amount of timber.
By sawing the lower ends large, and the upper ends proportion
ally smaller, there is always a saving of timber, and the posts are
of a much better form. If timber is very small, and will split
good, it might be best to split them out, instead of sawing them.
Sometimes, when small timber is winding, four posts, worth fifty
cents or more, might be sawed out of a small log which could not
be split into posts, and which, if not sawed, would make only one
post.

218. Another thing, which seems almost superfluous to men
tion, is, the kind of timber for posts. Red cedar and mulberry
are, perhaps, more durable than almost any other kinds of timber ;
yellow locust, oak of different kinds, butternut, red elm, red beech,
and many other kinds not mentioned, will make good posts. The
butt-ends of trees, when the trees are sound and healthy, are
usually more durable than cuts near the tops of the trees. It is
always very poor economy to make fence posts, and especially
gate posts, of perishable kinds of timber, such as sugar-maple, or

THE YOUNG FAKMERJS MANUAL. 167

bass-wood, and such like. All kinds of posts should be seasoned
at least one year before they are set in the ground.

219. Hewing posts. — "When posts have been split out, the most
convenient mode of scoring and hewing them is, to lay the post
to be hewed on two large blocks or logs, and then drive in two
stakes or pins, about six or seven inches apart, in one log, and
let them extend beyond the surface of the log eight or ten inches,
and key the post with a wedge in the desired position between
these two stakes ; then line it and hew it. Some men prefer hew
ing their posts after they have been set in the ground, but the
practice is not a good one, because it loosens them.

220. Sharpening posts. — "When the ends of posts are to be
sharpened, if they are so large that a man cannot hold them
erect with one hand, with the post standing on a firm block,
while he sharpens it with an axe in the other hand, they may be
fastened with a wedge in a gain cut in a heavy log, in a device
similar to the one for holding posts when they are to be hewed,
as shown by Fig. 75. It requires the exercise of a little skill to

FIG. 75.

ffHCUSOM

A POST CLAMP FOR HOLDING WHILE SHARPENING.

sharpen a post in a proper manner for driving well. The bevel
or slant should be of exactly a given angle on each side of the
post. The following figures will give some correct idea on the
subject : Fig. 76 represents a post sharpened in the most proper
manner. A post sharpened thus, when it is being driven, will
go straight down, if the point does not hit a stone. Figs. 77
and 78 represent two posts improperly sharpened. Although
they may go straight down, when sharpened like Fig. 78, they

168

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

MODE OF SHARPENING FENCE POSTS.

will drive very hard, because they are too Hunt. When they
76, 77, 78, are sharpened like Fig. 77, it is
almost impossible to keep them,
when driving them, in a perpen
dicular position. Sometimes, when
posts are not entirely straight, the
sharpening must all be done on
two or three sides of it only, as
the case may require. Fig. 79
will furnish a very good idea of
the most proper manner of sharp
ening a crooked post, in order to
have it drive true. The dotted
lines will show on which side the
post should be sharpened. The idea to be kept in mind in sharpen
ing a crooked post is, to work by a line drawn from the centre of
the top of the post, Fig. 79, at a to &, and then bevel the end on
both sides of this line, so that the angle of the bevelling will be
nearly the same on both sides of the line a I. It will be per
ceived by the figure that the sharpening is almost all done on
one side, at b ; but a thin chip only was taken from the other side.
A workman who has a mechanical eye, will sharpen posts with
all desirable accuracy without a line. lie will cast his eye from
end to end of a crooked post, and at a glance observe about how
much must be cut off on each side, in order to make it of a true
taper, and then will snatch up his axe and cut it off while an
other man would be getting ready to sharpen it. In sharpening
straight posts, a workman must calculate to have the point at the
centre of the post, and to have the cut on each side of the post
of a true taper, from fifteen or twenty inches from the end,
according to the size of the post, to the point, like Fig. 76. If
these rules, which may seem trivial to some, are observed, the
beginner will soon be able to sharpen his posts with necessary accu
racy. If the ends of posts are of a true taper from the points to
that part which is at the surface of the ground, they will enter
the ground much easier ; but they will not stand as well as

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 169

those which have a short taper. Pointed posts are far more
liable to be lifted out by the frost than those which are of full
size clear to the end, and we would not recommend the practice
of pointing fence posts ; but as farmers will persist in doing it,
we have thought proper to give some practical hints on the sub
ject, to aid the inexperienced workmen in doing the job in a
workmanlike manner. Let the farmer avoid sharpening posts
like Fig. 77.

JENKINS' PATENT CAST-IRON POST.

221. Fig. 80 represents a cast-iron fence post for board fence ;
but the pattern for it may be made shorter, with holes in it for
receiving the ends of the rails for picket fence. The entire
length of this kind of post is six feet. The breadth is three and
a half inches. The length below the flange or cross-pieces is
eighteen inches, tapering and terminating as shown jnia< gQ^
in the figure, in a barbed or spear-head end. The

flange is two inches wide, eighteen inches long,
with a mortise in the middle of it, through which
the post is inserted, — the flange being put over the
top of the post, and resting on little shoulders or
projections, eighteen inches from the lower end.
The main part of the post, through which the mor
tises are made, is one-fourth of an inch thick, with
a flange around the margin, from half an inch to
three-fourths of an inch wide, to give strength to
the posts. The mortises for the boards are two
inches wide, and of any desirable length.

222. The object of the flange or cross-piece is,
to aid in keeping the fence erect, and to prevent
the frost heaving it. Holes are made with a crow
bar for the posts, when a piece of hard wood plank
is thrust through the lower mortise, and the posts
are driven in by striking on the edge of the plank.
Afterwards the cross-piece is put on ; and a ridge of FENCE POST.
earth is thrown up along the fence to save one board, and to cover

170

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the cross-pieces, and thus keep the posts in their places. The posts
should receive a good coating of pitch and gas tar, applied hot,
which will keep them from rusting. If this is not done, in some

SECTION OF BOARD FENCE WITH CAST-IROX POSTS.

soils such posts would corrode or rust so rapidly, that in less than
twenty years the wind would blow them over. But by smear
ing them they will last for ages. •

223. The weight of a post will be according to the pattern
and style of fence. For ordinary board fence, if they weigh
from twelve to fifteen pounds they will be sufficiently strong.
If a goodly number were ordered, they could probably be ob
tained for about three cents per pound in most of our cities. One
such post is worth two posts of the most durable kinds of
timber.

224. In making a board fence with such posts, stretch two
lines, one a few inches above the surface of the ground, and the
other near the tops of the posts ; and drive every post so that
the top mortise will exactly coincide with the line. Now, put in
the boards, and smear the ends, where they come in contact with
each other, with paint or coal tar. No nails are required in
building such a fence ; no post holes are to be dug ; and the
posts may be set twelve feet or more apart, and the ends of the
boards driven into the mortises. If the boards are not very
stiff, nail a narrow strip across all of them at the middle of each
panel. A fence built with such posts in a workmanlike manner,
is worth all the portable board fences in America. Alex. S.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 171

Rowley, Hudson, N. Y., holds the right for these posts, who will
sell farm or State rights for them.

REMEDY TO PREVENT POSTS BEING LIFTED BY THE FROST.

225. When posts having a straight end of uniform size are
set in the ground, unless they are set three or four feet deep in
the ground, they are very liable to be lifted out of the ground in
a few years by the influence of the frost. In dry localities, how
ever, the freezing and thawing of the ground has little or no
effect on them. Setting very deep in the ground is the usual
remedy against their heaving out in the winter, but a more con
venient and cheaper one is to bore a two-inch hole through the bot
torn of each post, and drive in a hard wood pin, allowing it to
extend beyond the surface of the post about four inches, and then
in setting the posts place a stone on each end of the pin, and let
FIG. 81. the dirt be well rammed down on the stones.
Another and better remedy is, to cut a notch on
each side of the bottom of the post, about four
inches from the lower end, and ram the dirt well
into these notches, or place stones in them, as
shown by Fig. 81, which represents a post with
stones placed in the notches. Posts may be cut
on both sides, if they are of good size, so that in
the thinnest place they will be not more than
one inch and a half thick, without injuring their
strength or Durability, because at the bottom of
a post, which is from two to three feet below the
surface of the ground, but little strength is neces
sary ; and at that depth in the ground a post de-
MODE OF PREVENTING Cavs very slowly. It should be remembered, that

FENCE Peal's BEING i

LIFTI:I) «Y THE FROST, posts decay most at the surface of the ground.
When posts are rather small, a notch may be cut only on one
sido of them for receiving the stone. This is a most effectual
remedy for the heaving of posts by frost.

172 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

DIGGING POST HOLES

226. Is a part of fence building which may be performed at
" odd spells," and may be done by the forces of the farm which
are very awkward and unskillful in everything they attempt to
perform, providing the work is all laid out for them, so that it
will be barely possible to do anything wrong. In the first
place, set two stakes and plow a deep trench, as stated, if the
saving of labor is any object, and then stretch a line four or six
rods long, and have a little pole as long as the distance is to be
between the posts, from centre to centre, and measure along the
line, and stick a little stake exactly where the centre of every
hole is to be made. With the spade cut a circle in the sod or
dirt around these little stakes, and throw out the dirt with the
spade for one foot or so in depth, if the earth is not too hard to
be spaded with facility. Let the digger be careful not to work
the holes so far on one side of the centre that the posts cannot
be placed in range with each other. There is no necessity of
digging the holes for ordinary fence posts more than one foot in
diameter. If the ground is very hard and dry, it must be picked
up with the crowbar or spud, and taken out with the dirt-spoon.
If the ground is not stony, the post-hole augur (Fig. 99) may be
used to great advantage, especially after a hole is two feet deep.
In digging large holes for gate posts, or straining-posts for wire
fence, which are to be four feet deep, an expert digger will sink
such a hole much the quickest by stepping down into it, and by
making it at least thirty inches in diameter at the top and nearly
two feet at the bottom. The hole for fence posts should be large
enough to admit the rammer freely all round them when they
are being set.

SETTING FENCE POSTS.

227. Let the post be placed in the hole so that it will almost
touch both the upper and lower line, (see mode of adjusting the
lines, par. 152,) and throw in a little dirt, say enough to fill the hole
around the post not more than two inches after it is well rammed ;
put in as much more and ram it. and the post will stand without

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 173

holding it. Be careful in ramming not to move the post by ram
ming too hard on one side of it. Be very particular in making
the bottoms of the posts firm. Let the dirt be well rammed in
at the top of the holes, by filling in a little at a time ; and let the
earth be raised around each post a little above the level of the
ground, with the hardest kind of dirt. This will keep the posts
from becoming loose. When small stones are used for filling
the holes around the posts, they should be placed with care, and
in such a position that, by being rammed a little, they will hold
the post very securely. "When there is water in post holes, it
must be bailed out, as it is not practicable to make a post stand
firmly when there is water in the hole. Posts are somtimes set
in grout, which is made of good sand and water-lime, and poured
among the stones which are placed in the holes around the posts.
This renders them very firm, but the frosts of winter are very
liable to injure it as deep as it freezes.

228. Posts are often set by driving them in a hole made with a
crowbar ; but as a general thing I never could like it as well as set
ting them in holes that have been dug. I have often practised
driving posts in the bottom of the holes after they have been
dug two feet deep, and I have always found that this practise
saves much digging ; and the posts are more solid and quicker
set than when the holes are dug as deep as the posts are to be set.
By digging two feet, and driving one foot or more, posts will be
sufficiently deep for ordinary fences.

229. In driving square posts a wrench is very necessary to keep
them from turning from a right line when they are being driven.
For this purpose an iron wrench, large enough to fit on the
post, may be used, or a mortise as large as the post may be made
in a piece of tough plank, or a gain may be sawed in the edge
of a plank, and the posts held in the desired position by one
workman while another drives them with a sledge. When
posts are driven without any digging, the workmen are too apt
to drive them only twenty or twenty-five inches, instead of thirty-
live and forty inches deep, as they should be. It is no easy job
to drive a post three feet into the ground in some localities, while

174 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

in others a post may be driven clear down with comparatively
few blows. In such places driving posts is preferable to setting
them in holes which have been dug.

CHARRING POSTS,

230. With a view to render them more durable, has long been
commended by men who ought to pass for good authority on
such subjects ; but the beginner may rest assured that the prac
tice is by no means a good one, as a post will last longer when
not charred than when charred ; and this is particularly true of
green timber. I am fully persuaded, that if posts of green tim
ber be charred it hastens their decay. Charcoal, we all know, is
very durable in the ground, but posts which have been charred
are not all converted into charcoal. Simply a small portion of
the outside, by being charred, is rendered more durable. But
this does not exclude moisture from the wood inside or beneath
the charred portion. There is a thin portion of wood just be
tween that which has been converted into coal and the remainder
of the post which has not been affected by the fire, which has
been heated almost to a burning point, which will quickly decay
when the whole charred portion will afford no more protection
from the influences of the weather than so much loose charcoal
placed around a post. Posts are charred usually around the part
that will come, after they have been set, just at the surface of
the ground, because posts always decay first near that point ; and
if that part could be rendered as durable by any artificial means
as the other portions of the posts, they would last as long as we
could desire. When posts are charred they are almost always
burned too much. It is necessary to form only a thin coal on
the outer surface, which is just as efficacious as if coal an inch
thick were formed around the posts.

231. In order to place the matter beyond a doubt, let two
posts be taken from the same log, and from the same portion of
the log, and let them be seasoned for one year ; and then let one
be charred, and both of them set in the ground where the soil

175

and moisture are as nearly equal as they can be, and if the
charred post outlasts the uncharred one, the result will be in
favor of charring them.

STEEPING FENCE POSTS

232. In different kinds of antiseptic liquid, for the purpose of
rendering them more durable, has been often practised with very
good success. The process has been denominated Kyanizing and
Burnettizing timber, from the names of the inventors. Kyan
used corrosive sublimate, and Burnett used chloride of zinc. A
tank or vat is prepared, or a molasses hogshead will subserve a
good purpose, and about one measure and a half of the dry
chloride of zinc to about one hundred measures of water are
put in the tank and well stirred together, when the posts are set
in this liquid, and allowed to remain ten or fifteen days, or until
they become thoroughly saturated with the liquid. They should
then be taken out, and allowed to dry, under cover, until they
are entirely dry. It is necessary to saturate only that part of the
posts which is set in the ground, and a few inches above the sur
face of the ground.

233. Dr. Boucherie, of Paris, France, has used for this pur
pose about one pound of sulphate of copper to one hundred
pounds of water. It is contended that timber thus treated is
rendered more firm, and will endure three times longer than if it
had not been submitted to the process of steeping it in the liquor
of an antiseptic character. In some localities there are compa
nies having suitable apparatus for impregnating large quantities
of wood with an antiseptic liquid, for bridges, ships, &c., and it
is considered to be a process which pays exceedingly well.

234. The practice of boring a hole in posts near the surface of
the ground, and filling it with common salt, is but a modification
of steeping. The salt soon becomes dissolved, and is absorbed
by the wood, and thus preserves a small portion of the post for
a short time. All these processes which have been mentioned
are chemical processes of preserving wood. There are mechani
cal modes of preserving posts, of which I will mention but one,

8

176 THE YOUNG FABMER'S MANUAL.

which is, smearing the parts of posts near the top of the ground,
for a few inches above the ground and several inches below it,
with melted pitch or coal tar, or anything else which will exclude
the moisture. A mixture of equal parts of pitch and coal tar,
applied hot to posts, is far more effectual in rendering fence posts
durable, in my own estimation, than any chemical antiseptic
liquor that has been used for that purpose. A good coat of such
materials will protect posts much longer than we are wont to
suppose, until we have tested it in a practical manner.

THE TOP END OF TIMBER UP, AGAINST TOP END DOWN.

235. Almost every man who has ever set fence posts, and
many who have never set a post, will recommend setting them
with the top end of the wood in the ground, affirming that they
will last many years longer than if the butt end was set in the
ground. But we have never seen nor heard of a philosophical
reason why they will last longer when the top is in the ground ;
and we never had one atom of confidence in the theory, and we
never expect to have, until it has been fairly and honestly shown
that the theory is a correct one. It is a most palpable absurdity
to affirm that a post will last longer when placed in a reversed
position from that in which it grew. This is not the place to
show, by extended argument, that the theory is a false one, but
those who are anxious to investigate the matter may find an arti
cle on this subject from the pen of the author, in the Country
Gentleman for 1858, page 323. It is sufficient to say, in this
place, that posts well seasoned before they are set in the ground
will tell infinitely more on their durability than the position in
which they may be placed.

SECTION 7. GATES.

" Opes the gate that hung for ages,
Rusting in its old repose,
Which, once swung upon its hinges,
There's no giant hand can close."— READ'S NEW PASTORAL.

236. A gate closes a passage or opens a way to an enclosure,
and consists, usually, of a rectangular frame, made of wood or of

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

177

iron, or of both these materials, and is so adjusted on hinges or
rollers that the force of a child can open and close it at pleasure.

FIG. 82.

A

? It,

]

I

II II gag*!

a

&

=jb II , T II A

II II • II \\

T

II 1 1 a 511 \\

II j 1 1 * 1 1 >

-v i

— !r&4

A SUBSTANTIAL FARM GATE.

237. The essential and very important parts of a gate are,
a heel-post or stile a (Fig. 82, inserted at the head of this arti
cle) ; the head or latch stile 1} ; the top bar or arm c ; the lower
arm d ; the slats or the filling, which extend from the heel stile
to the head stile ; the stay or stays, or those pieces which extend
across the middle of the gate vertically ; and the struts, or those
pieces which extend diagonally in the direction from the bottom
of the heel stile towards the top of the head stile. Ties extend
from the upper end of the heel stile to the lower end of the head
stile, or in that direction. The struts operate as supports to the
gate to keep it in an unchangeable position and shape. The
strut of the gate operates as a pillar, and the force applied to it
is a compressive force. The ties operate in an opposite direction,
and sustain the gate by suspension. Struts are more effectual in
keeping a gate in position and shape when they are made of
wood than when made of iron, unless they are made of a bar
heavy enough not to be bent by the weight of the gate. Ties
are more frequently made of wood, in wooden gates, but large
wire, with a nut and screw on one end, and a head on the other,
makes a tie which will keep a gate in shape and position as long
as the wood remains sound. Stays are very important in a gate ;
and every gate that is long enough to allow a load of grain or of

178 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

hay to pass, should have not less than one stay. The slats fre
quently pass through mortises in the stays, but, as a general
rule, the stays are nailed, riveted, or bolted to the slats.

»

INSTRUCTIONS TO AID IN MAKING A GATE.

238. Every young farmer should learn to make his own gates.
It requires but little mechanical skill to make one, and it will
not be any disadvantage to a man to exercise his mechanical fac
ulties in using tools a little, even if he is abundantly able to hire
every such job performed. It cannot be denied that there
are a few men in the world who always make a complete botch
of every job they attempt to do, and the true reason is, they lack
the exercise of energy and perseverance. If a man will go to
work with a determination to succeed in performing a job well,
he seldom fails, after a few trials. There are thousands of young
farmers who could, with the instructions we shall give in this
place, make gates for all their fields, and they need only occupy
the hours which they squander in idleness. Come on, then,
my good friends, and make a gate, and hang it in the place of
those bars which you have taken out and put in a hundred and
one times during the busy season, and see if you do not detect a
smile on your countenance every time you go through it ; and
listen, and you will, doubtless, hear the proprietor soliloquizing
thus : " This is truly more convenient than those old bars. I
wonder I did not have one years ago. I shall soon save time
and strength enough to make a gate ; and, more than this, Eddy
can open and shut it, and turn away the cows, and bring them
up." Don't be disheartened because you cannot make one quite
so neatly and quickly as I can. I can make a gate like any one
of the cuts given here, and plane it, paint and hang it in a day, and
dig the holes for the posts ; and can make six such gates in a
week, in a workmanlike manner, and hang them, too, — and I
never had one single word of instruction about any part of the
business. If you will make as good a one in two days, we will
give you a meed of praise, of "well done."

239. In the first place, have a log of good oak timber for

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 179

gates, like Fig. 82, sawed into stuff, a part three by six inches
square, for the heel or hinge stiles, and a part into slats, one by
three, and a part into upper arms, c, three by six at one end, and
three by three at the other end, and have the sawyer saw the
upper a'rms at the mill like the arm in Fig. 82, as far as the
jog in it. At the jog in the arm it should be about three
by four inches. The piece that is taken off will make a good
head or latch stile. As soon as the timber is sawed out, let
it be stuck up, very straightly, under shelter, where it can sea
son not less than one year. If any of the pieces are sprung
after being sawed, if the .pile is stuck up straight put a lot of
stones or timber on the pile to bring all the pieces down straight.
240. The next thing will be, to have a few tools in order to
work with. The planes must be sharpened after they have been
ground, on an oil-stone, which will give the irons a fine, keen
edge (see EDGE TOOLS). Let the chisels be well sharpened, for
it is impossible to make a good mortise with dull chisels. Let
the hand-saw be well filed and set. Saw off a piece of scantling
for the hinge stile, as long as desirable, and plane off the smooth
est and truest side of it, and mark it with a pencil as the face
side. It is very important to have the face side not only straight,
but true, i. e., not winding. Fig. 83 represents a hinge stile laid
out ready for mortising; a is the face side and b the FIQ 83.
work side. If the face side of the stile should be a
little winding, it may be the means of making the whole
gate winding. Therefore, to ascertain whether the
face is winding, lay it on the bench face side up, and
lay on the square at one end and the jointer planet
at the other end, and look over the edge of the square
to the jointer; and if the edges of the square and
plane coincide with each other, the face is true. If
the face is not true, the mortises will not be true.
Apply the try-square, and see if the work side is at a
right angle with the face. Plane this side straight
and true, and mark it (see How TO PLANE). Now,
with the rule and scratch-awl, prick off the spaces

180 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

for the mortises (see Fig. 82), and then, with the try-square
and scratch-awl, make marks across the work side, I, as in
the figure. Place the square against the work side always, not
against the side opposite the work side, and make the marks across
the face side of stile, as in the figure. Then, from these marks,
with the square against the face side, draw the marks on the
side opposite the work side. Have two points in the gauge
just one inch apart. (I would not recommend to purchase a
mortise gauge, for they cost too much. A common gauge,
costing fifteen or twenty cents, with two steel points for mark
ing, will answer a good purpose.) Run the gauge along against
the face side, and mark the sides of the mortises, both on the work
side and on the side opposite to the work side. Lay the stile on
two benches as high as a man's knees, and have it lay level. One
cannot work as well when a stick does not lie level. Bore the
mortises half through from each side, and dress the sides of the
mortise to the mark. Or the stiles may be bored with the boring
machine (Fig. 122). Be careful and not break the wood over
the mark. With mallet and corner chisel, head down the ends.
If the farmer has no corner chisel, let him procure one, for it is
worth a score of straight chisels for making mortises. See that
the mortises are true clear through the stile. If they should be a
little winding, and if the tenon is made to fit tightly, the stile will
most certainly split when the gate is put together. Now plane
out the latch stile, and lay it by the side of the other stile ; and
lay out the mortises, and see if they correspond with each other.
After the mortises are made, bore the holes for the draw-pins
in the stiles. Half-inch or five-eighths are sufficiently large.
Dress out the arm of the gate, having a face side and a work
side. Let the face side on the arm be on the face side of the
stile, and the work side of the arm upwards. Lay out the tenons
with the gauge, and make them a sixteenth of an inch wider
than the length of the mortise, so that they will be tight when
driven in. If the tenons are a trifle too thick, they will split the
stile. Make the tenons on the slats, and have a little shoulder

181

on one edge at each end. See that the tenons on the slats are
not too thick, but have them a sixteenth of an inch wider than
the mortise. Drive stiles and slats firmly together, and mark
the tenons in the holes of the stiles with the bit. Drive the
stiles partly off, and bore the holes in the tenon* about a six
teenth of an inch nearer the shoulders than they are in the
stile. Give all the tenons a good painting, or smear them
with coal tar, and drive them together and pin them, painting
the pins when they are driven in. A gate usually decays first
in the joints, and if they be well painted, and the draw pins,
which should be made of oak or yellow locust, well painted
when they are driven in, a gate will last forty years. Put on
the stays by cutting a gain on one side of the arm, about half
an inch deep, and halve the ends of the stays, and paint the
joints, and fasten them with carriage-bolts. If it is thought best,
lay out the mortises for the slats in the stiles half an inch on
one side of the centre, and .then make mortises in the under side of
the arm two inches deep for the stays. Put small carriage-bolts
through the lower ends of the stays and bottom slat. A wrought
nail will answer through the other slats and stays. Let in the
strut in the hinge stile and upper arm, by making a gain half an
inch deep. Make the strut first, and then mark off the gains,
and have it fit tightly. If the upper hinge is not bolted to the
arm, as in Fig. 82, put not less than three draw-pins through
the tenon of the upper arm, because there is great strain on this
arm, which tends to draw the tenon out, while the strain on the
lower arm or slats is inward. I have mentioned the most impor
tant considerations in making a gate. Space will not allow me
to give all the minutiae.

HANGING GATES.

241. The first step in hanging a gate of any kind is, to decide
how it is desired to have it hung. One must decide whether he
will have it hung so as to open both ways, or but one way only,
and whether it is to be so hung that it will remain at rest at any
point which it may pass in opening it ; or whether it shall be so

182

THE YOUNG FAKMEK'S MANUAL.

adjusted on its hinges that it will shut of its own accord when
it has been opened at any angle, in one-fourth of a circle. Gates
may be so hung that they will immediately open when unlatched,
and swing back to a right angle ; or they may be hung so as to
shut themselves when opened at a right angle. Many farmers
seem to think it very important that a gate should be hung so as
to shut of its own accord ; while others prefer to have it hung so
as to swing open when unlatched, and remain open ; and others
choose to have a gate hung on an even balance. Hanging a gate
according to one's fancy may sometimes not be practicable, on

FIG. 84.

STYLE OF GATE HINGES CALLED HOOKS AND STRAPS.

account of the kind of hinges. "With hooks and straps, like
Fig. 84, gates may be hung so as to open or shut of their own
accord, or to remain at rest when opened
wide or opened but little. But with such
hinges they cannot be opened both ways.
With hooks and eyes, like Fig. 85, they
may be hung to open both ways, and at the
same time they may be hung so as to be
self-opening or self-closing. The most proper
and expeditious manner of drawing out a
gate hinge from a post is, to bore a hole
close to the hinge, above or below it, a little
larger than the hinge, and then with a cold-
chisel crowd it down or up into the hole
bored. A large nail or spike may be taken
out in the same manner.

242. We will now show how the farmer may hang his gates,
no matter what may be the style of hinges, so as to suit his wishes.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 183

And should one mode of hanging them not seem to coincide with
the fancy of his fastidious neighbor, we will lay down rules which
will aid him in hanging his gates to his mind. If Mr. A. wants
his gates to swing open as soon as unlatched, exposing his crops,
or offering an opportunity to cattle to leave their enclosure and
run away, or to enter on forbidden ground, will he allow me the
prerogative to hang my gates so that they will close of themselves,
rather than swing open when unlatched. Gates are often left
open by children ; and indolent interlopers, wandering about the
fields, are frequently too lazy to shut a gate. Therefore, if a
gate should, by any means, get unlatched, if it is hung so as to
shut itself, it may be the means of saving much damage to a crop,
or the running away of animals. Vicious cattle and horses are
often rubbing and hooking about gates, and if they happen to un
latch them and they immediately swing open, they are more in
clined to try their skill again in opening them. But if a gate is
hung on an even balance, or so as to shut itself, they are obliged
to learn, not only to unlatch a gate, but to push it open,
before they can pass through. Now, if one unruly animal has
succeeded in getting through the gate, if the gate closes after
him, the others must necessarily learn the tricks of their leader
before they can follow him.

243. It is important that the farmer should understand the
principle of hanging gates so as to make them swing any way he
may desire, or have them remain at rest, which is nothing more
nor less than adjusting the centre of gravity in the gate. The
centre of the turning points of the hinges, i. e., the centre of the
hooks and the centre of the eyes, are the two centres of motion.
The whole gate, in swinging, is supported by and revolves around
these two points. If, now, the higher point of the centre of mo
tion is perpendicularly above the lower centre of motion, a gate
will be hung on an even balance, and will remain in any part of
the circle which it describes, in opening and closing. It is no
difficult job for a skillful workman to set the posts for a gate by
the square rule, and attach the hinges, doing everything by meas
uring, so as to have a gate -swing as he may desire. But the
8*

184 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

young farmer must first understand the " cut and try " mode of
hanging a gate, which is the most practicable, and most generally
practised, even by the best workmen.

244. "We will run through with the operation of hanging a
gate. Set the heel or hinge post firmly (see Fig. 82), with the
inside, at least, perpendicular. (The inside of a post is the side
towards the latch post.) If the gate is to be hung with hooks
and eyes, like those represented at Fig. 85, it is best to hang
the gate so as to swing both ways. After the heel post
is set firmly, strike a perpendicular line on the inside of it. Put
the eyes in the heel stile of the gate, square through the stile.
If it is desirable to have a gate hung so as to shut itself, the
upper hook must be about two inches longer than the lower, and
the lower eye must be about two inches longer than the upper
one. This subject will be made more intelligible by reference to
Fig. 85, which represents the position of the hinges as just de
scribed. It will be readily perceived, that when a gate thus
hung is swung around through a quarter of a circle, or more, it
will not stand perpendicularly, but is inclined towards the gateway.
This inclination tends to close the gate. If it is desirable to have
a gate swing open itself, all that is necessary is, to reverse the
hinges, having a long hook at the bottom, and a short one at the
top. "When a gate is hung in this way, when open at a quarter
of a circle, or at a right angle, it will lean from the gateway.
This inclination tends to keep the gate open.

245. When a gate is hung with hooks and straps, like Fig.
84, a gate can open but one way, and it may be hung on an
even balance, or so as to swing open or to swing shut. The
straps should be bolted first to the gate, and if it is desirable
to hang it so as to swing shut, let the lower strap extend be
yond the heel stile of the gate about one inch and a half far
ther than the top one. Set the gate post, and plumb the
inside of it, and also the side of it where the hinges are to be
put. After the straps are bolted on the gate, set it up and
hold it in the position it is to hang, and bore the holes for the
hooks, observing to keep the bit or auger directly under the eye

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 185

of the strap. Drive the hooks partly into the post, and hang
the gate on, minding to keep the latch end of the gate blocked
up until the hinges are driven clear in. If the farmer would
have his gate swing open, let the upper strap on the gate extend
beyond the lower one about an inch and a half. Another way
of hanging with hooks and straps, so as to have a gate swing
open or shut, is to let both straps extend an equal distance be
yond the heel stile of the gate, just as they do when a gate is to
be hung on an even balance. Now, if the gate, when it is being
opened, swings to the south, for example, set the heel post lean
ing to the north about an inch and a half from a perpendicular
line. This slight inclination of a post will hardly be perceived
by the bystander, and yet so slight an inclination will close a
gate quickly when it is open a quarter of a circle; but when
swung beyond a right angle, it will swing back the other way.
In order to have a gate swing open when unlatched, when it is
hung as last mentioned, let the heel post lean a little the way
the gate swings open. It will then open at a right angle, and
there remain, and if swung back through half a circle, it will re
turn again, itself, to a right angle, when set free.

246. I have been unusually particular in the preceding para
graphs, in order to show the farmer what is necessary to make a
gate swing to his mind which has been hung for a long time, and
needs righting up a little. If, for instance, a gate has been hung
on an equal balance, but will swing open one way, and swing
shut from the other way, the heel post leans the way the gate
swings open, and must be righted up a little, if we would have
the gate remain at rest when open or partly closed.

247. When it is desirable to have a gate, when hung with
iron hinges, open both ways, and shut itself from both ways, the
gate should be hung with hook and eye at the top, as shown at
Fig. 85, and with a forked hinge at the bottom, like Fig. 86.
The forks rest against two staples which are driven into the heel
posts, one of which is represented at Fig. 87. The staples are
made of half-inch round iron, about two inches wide and three
inches long, and the forked hinge may be made morn or less

186 THE YOUNG FAEMER'S MANUAL.

forked or branching. For ordinary purposes the forks should be
about four or five inches apart from centre to centre. When the
forks are six inches apart, the gate will close itself so rapidly,
from a right angle, as to break the latch, or to split the latch
stile when it closes. The true way to hang a gate on such
hinges is, to put the hinges in the gate stile first, and then set the
heel post perpendicularly on the inside, and strike a line on the

FIG. 86

FIG. 87.

A FORKED GATE-HINGE. A STAPLE FOR J'OKKED GATE-HINGES.

inside of the post, from top to bottom ; and having driven the upper
hook in the post, in the line, hang on the gate, and drive in the
staples at an equal distance from the plumb line on the post. A
gate hung in this manner may be made to swing open both ways
of itself, by leaning the heel post from the gateway far enough to
raise the latch end of the gate four or five inches above a hori
zontal line,

248. The advantages of the forked hinge over hooks and eyes,
or hooks and straps, are : the latch end of the gate, in opening
either way a quarter of a circle, rises from eight to twelve inches,
more or less, according to the length of the gate and the width
of the forked hinge, and the distance the hinges are apart. This
is a matter of convenience when snow obstructs the gateway, or
when the ground on one side of a gate would not allow a gate
to bo opened horizontally. When a fence runs down a slope,
having a gate in it, if the heel or hinge post is set on the upper
side of the gateway, the latch end of a gate will rise on being

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

187

opened, and allow the gate to be opened wider than with any-
other hinges.

249. Fig. 88 represents a cheap wooden gate, with wooden

FIG. 88.

A

A SELF-SHUTTIXG GATE WITH WOODEN HINGES

hinges, self shutting, when opened either way. The dotted lines
running up and down the heel stile, cutting the centre of the
upper and lower hinge, which lines should be about two inches
asunder, will show how to make the round parts of the stile.
The round parts of the stile should be not less than two and a
half or three inches in diameter. The bottom eye should be made
of a good piece of hard, durable wood, about three by six inches
square, and the mortise for receiving it should be not less than
three by four inches square and six inches deep, and the tenon of
the eye and mortise should be well painted or tarred before the
eye is firmly driven in.

250. To hang such a gate with the greatest facility and dis
patch, drive in the lower hinge and put the hinge post in its
hole, and fill it just enough to keep the post erect ; then put the
gate on the lower hinge, and drive in the upper eye while it is
hooked on the upper end of the stile. Block up the latch end of
the gate on a level with the heel end, and plumb the side of the
heel stile, keeping it in that position while the hole is filled to the
surface. Afterwards set the latch post. Instead of having the
lower end of the heel stile made round for a hinge, it may he

188

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

square on the end, and a piece of three-quarter-inch round iron
driven into the lower end of the stile, and passing through the
wooden eye which supports the gate. In such a case the wooden
eye need not be more than two and a half inches square, but it
should always be made of the very best of timber. Always keep
wooden hinges well greased. Never put on tar, because it will
soon become hard and wear the hinges more than if nothing were
used as a lubricator. This style of gates will correspond well
with fences like Figs. 30 and 32.

251. Fig. 89 represents a very neat board gate, to correspond

FIG. 89.

^

CARRIAGE-YARD GATE, THRKK FEKT SIX INCHES W.ill.

with the style offence like Fig. 32. The heel stile is about three
by four inches square, and the latch stile two by three square, of
oak, or other hard and durable timber. The stay may be mor
tised for the slats, or halved on one side, and a ribbon of a cor
responding width fitted to the other side and bolted with carriage
bolts. The struts are one inch by two, neatly fitted, one on each
side of the gate, and bolted with carriage bolts. Carriage bolts
are much better than rivets, because they will draw the struts
tighter than rivets, and are more easily put in ; and they cost no
more, and look much better than rivets ; and in case a gate gets
broken it can be readily taken apart, whereas it would be no de
sirable job to get out a lot of rivets after they have been firmly
put in. The latch plays in a mortise in the latch stile, and is
suspended by a little chain near one end. The gate maybe from
ten to twelve feet long, with boards one inch thick, and widths
and spaces as indicated by the figures in the illustration. The

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

189

tenons should be well painted, and also the surfaces of conjunc
tion between all other parts. The cap board is as wide as the
stiles, with the ends let in them about half an inch, as shown in
the figure. When such a gate opens into the highway, it looks
quite as well to have it hung with hooks and strap-hinges, like
Fig. 84.

A STRUT AND PICKET GATE.

252. Fig. 90 represents, in the eyes of many people, a very
FIG. 90.

A STRUT AND PICKET GATE.

tasty and fanciful style of lawn gate. The heel stile is about two
and a half by four or five inches, and the latch stile two and a
half by two, and the arms also two and a half by two. The bot
tom board is about eight inches wide and three inches below the
lower arm. The struts are one inch thick and two and a half
wide, and the ends sawed off in a mitre-box. In nailing on the
struts, commence with the shortest one, at the heel stile. The
pickets may be of any desirable style, with or without ornamen
tal tops, or the tops may be plain and tapering to a point. Such
a gate ought to be hung with hooks and strap hinges, bolted to
the stile and the upper arm. If such a gate is more than nine
feet long, there should be a stay bolted to the arms and bottom
board in the middle of the gate. When such a gate is u'sed very
often, it would bo much better to have a double gate — two short
ones — than one twelve feet in length. It may be fastened with
a latch or hook. It would be well to have an iron tie on a gate

190

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

of this style, to keep it from sagging, as without one the arms
may bow upwards more or less.

A PICKET GATE FOR A LAWN ENTRANCE.

253. Fig. 91 represents a very good style for a picket gate,
FIG. 91.

A GATE WITH SQUAKK PICKETS.

and it may be made in two parts, or whole, as represented by the
cut. The hinge stile is three by four or five inches, the latch
stile two by three inches, the arms two by three, and the pickets
about an inch and one-fourth square. The arms are about two
feet apart, and the longest picket extends twenty inches above
the upper arm, and the shortest ones about eight inches above it.
The ends of the stiles are pointed also. The bottom board may
be close to the lower arm, or two or three inches below it.

254. In making such a gate, make the mortises in the upper
arm smooth and true through the arm, and dress out the pickets
one inch and a fourth square, and point them in the vise, with
drawing-knife and plane. Drive in the longest one first, and then
extend a line from the point of it to the point of the stiles, and
drive in the others. Let them be dressed so that they will fill
the mortise water-tight. When they are all in, nail them, and
saw off the lower ends, and drive on the lower arm, and it will
be then ready for the stiles and bottom board. Let the tenons
and parts of pickets in the arms be well painted, before putting
them together. Hang it with hinges, which may be bolted to the
stile and arm, like Fig. 84. I have been thus explicit on this

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

191

gate, because many workmen are at a loss to know how to put it
together in the most advantageous manner.

WIRE GATES.

255. Fig. 92 represents a wire gate, with the heel or hinge
stile and latch stile of wood, upper and lower arms of wood, with

FIG. 92.

A WOOD AND WIBB GATE.

the wires passing through the stiles, and the two ends twisted
together. The hinge stile should be at least four inches wide,
although five inches would be better, and the latch stile should
be at least three inches wide, and, for ordinary gates, about two
and a half thick. Both the upper and lower arms should be
tapering, as represented in the illustration, and the deeper, up
and down, they are, at the hinge stile, the less liable a gate is to
sag. At the other ends of the arms they need not be more than
two and a half inches square. Wire as large as number twelve,
(see Fig. 40,) well annealed, is sufficiently large for filling be
tween the arms. Two wires are put at one place, and strained,
by putting a short rod of iron between them at the middle of the
gate, and turning it over and over until it is sufficiently tight.
Before straining them, however, a stiff rail or pole should be
placed parallel with the wires, between the stiles, to prevent the
wires, when they are being twisted, from springing the latch stile
inward. After all the wires are strained, this rail may be re
moved, and the wires will all remain of the same tension. Should
any of the wires become a little slack they can be strained a

192

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

little more, at any time, as two wires when twisted together will
not untwist of their own accord.

AN IRON AND WIRE LAWN GATE.

256. Fig. 93 represents a very neat and cheap gate, made en
tirely of iron and wire, with posts of stone. The posts may be

FIG. 93.

IRON LAWN GATE WITH STONE POST.

maae of small stone, laid up in cement, with hinges for gates
and staples for wires laid in the cement. The hinges should
extend entirely through the posts ; and the staples, for attaching
the wires of a fence on each side of the gateway, should also be
long enough to reach from side to side of the posts, with the
ends bent like a square hook, to prevent their drawing out. The
stiles and arms may be of cast or wrought iron, with holes in
each side for the wires, which may be put in and strained by
twisting them together, as recommended in Fig. 92. A very
light pattern may be made of wood, with both sides of the gate
alike, and gates cast after it. Two such gates swinging together
may be used to close a drive or carriage-way. At 'a and b two
cross sections of the stiles and arms are shown. The top may
be ornamented with pickets of any style, and cast with the gate.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

193

The hinges may be also cast with the gate. The pattern for latch
stile may be made of stuff an inch and a half by three-eighths, and
the hinge stile a trifle heavier. The posts should be of very small
stone, with the joints pointed, and the top mounted with a square
cope stone, with any ornament on the summit of these. Should a
wire fence be attached, the post should be most substantially
braced, so that the frost would not move the posts by lifting the
ends of the braces.

257. Fig. 94 repre- FIG. 94.

sents a very cheap but
durable farm gate^ which
has one quality to recom
mend it, of which the
other gates noticed are
destitute, which is, it is
adjustable on the hinges,
and when snow obstructs
the way it can be raised
as high as the top of the
hinge post, and fastened
there by putting a small

iron pin into the round A CHEAP WOOD AND WIRE GATE.

part of the post, under the end of the upper arm. The top
end of the post is turned round, not less than three inches in
diameter, and, instead of passing through the upper arm, a strip
of band iron may be bent around it, and bolted to the end of the
arm. The lower hinge is made of a tough piece of hard wood
plank, not less than two inches thick, of a form corresponding to
the size of the post, with a gain in one side. The lower end of
the heel stile is fitted to this gain, and the hinge is bolted to the
stile, and plays on the outside of the post. A gate hung in this
manner will swing entirely round the post. The slats of such a
gate may be of narrow boards instead of wire, or pickets may
be nailed on the arms. Let the hinges be kept well greased.
Sometimes an iron pin is put through the end of the arm into
the top of the pos', instead of letting the post extend above the

194

THE YOUNG FARMEE's MANUAL.

gate, as shown in the figure ; but the stress at that point is so
hard, that a small iron pin, if it were not turned smooth, would
in a few years wear a large hole in the arm. This gate will
open either way, and hangs on an even balance at whatever
point it may be opened. It may be fastened with a latch or
hook.

SELF-SUSTAINING GATEWAY.

258. Fig. 95 represents a gateway which some men prefer to
all others, because it has many things to recommend it which are
not available where nothing but bare posts are used. It is self-
sustaining, and may be successfully used in localities where rock
lies near the surface of the soil, where it would be impracticable

FIG. 95.

SELF-SUSTAINING GATEWAY.

to dig post holes. It may be made as ornamental as desirable
by casing the posts c c and the plate d. One gate, or two, may
be hung to the posts, and by having the hooks (hinges) go
through the posts, and fasten with nuts and screws on the outside,

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 195

the hooks can be taken out with facility and put into holes one
or two feet higher in the winter when the snow is deep, which is
a convenience of no trivial consideration in many localities where
snow is liable to drift about the gate. The bed-piece a should
be of durable timber, and extend a little on the outside of the
posts and braces. The sills b b should be let into the bed-piece
about two inches. The posts need not be more than six inches
square, and the plate four by six. The gains, tenons and mor
tises should all be painted well, or smeared with coal tar. By
attaching a piece of plank each post may be used as a straining-
post for wire fence. The bed-piece a may be a round log, flat
tened a little on the upper side, with the surface not less than
three inches above the surface of the ground. The sills should
not be set on the ground, but supported with flat stones.

RAILWAY GATES.

259. It may be asked why I do not give an illustration of a
railway gate, since there are so many different styles of them.
If I had ever seen one that I truly admired as economical and
convenient, I would not fail to give a description and illus
tration of it, but I have never seen one that I liked half as
well as a hinge gate ; and I never have known one instance
where a man had used a railway gate for a few years who did
not utterly dislike it, and wish a good hinge gate were in its
place. An illustration of one looks well, and a new gate looks
well, and if well made will work well for a few seasons ; but if it is
used very much the wheels will soon rub hard against the wood,
and will make it run hard ; and in wet and wintry weather the
wheels will be frozen fast, and a man's strength will be required
to open it ; and, more than all else, a railway gate is more expen
sive than a hinge gate. A good stick of timber, more than
enough for two gate posts, is required for the track, and as it is
laid near the surface of the ground, it will not last but a few
seasons. A man will make and hang a good hinge gate with
less timber and in less time than a railway gate, and when it is
finished it will outlast the railway gate by twice the number of

196 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

years, and be twice as convenient. A railway gate is always
getting off the track, or something else, and the proprietor is
always wishing that he had never seen such a vexatious nuisance.

SECTION 8. HEDGES FOB FENCE.

" In rural shades, 'mong rural hills and dales,
The Osage Thorn supplies the place of rails.
The Yellow Locust, with far-reaching roots,
Of rapid growth, and thorny, numerous shoots ;
Or the Red Cedar, with its ugly arms,
Guards safe the way between adjoining farms."— EDWARDS.

260. On the subject of hedges I shall be unusually brief, be
cause at the present day many writers, and experimenters, too, of
unquestionable authority, pronounce hedges a total failure, while,
on the contrary, others, of equally good authority, speak of them
in the most approved terms. It cannot be denied that good
hedges have been made in A.merica, and that there are now
hundreds of miles of hedges which will turn, effectually, every
kind of animals that are allowed to have their liberty on the
farm. It is granted that there have been very many total fail
ures in making hedges, but the cause of failure could not be
attributed to the materials employed, but to the manner of arrang
ing and disposing them, and to the improper treatment which
they received at the time of transplanting, and for a year or two
afterwards. The first steps in making a hedge decide the ques
tion whether it will ultimately prove a failure or a success. Be
cause one man has failed in his attempts to make a hedge, the
beginner should not be deterred from exercising his ingenuity
and skill, if he wishes to have a hedge, by endeavoring to pro
duce one that will not disappoint his expectations. Hedges
require care and protection, and sometimes a little skillful pruning
and other treatment, in order to render the plants even, vigorous
and strong. There are miles in length of most beautiful hedges,
in many of the older States, which have stood for years as an
impassable barrier to every animal that it is desirable to turn on

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 197

a farm, besides being a most beautiful appendage to a well cul
tivated farm. And, without doubt, more than an equal number
of miles of hedge can be found, which, on account of its having
received improper treatment and cultivation during the first
years of its growth, stand, not only as a complete failure, but as
a nuisance on a farm, and an eye-sore to a skillful farmer.

261. The first step in making a hedge is, to prepare the soil
where the hedge is to stand. If the soil be wettish it should be
thoroughly drained. It would be folly to attempt to grow a
hedge in a locality where it would be too wet to raise good
winter wheat. But few kinds of trees will flourish well where
there is an excess of water in the soil. If the soil needs a ditch
where the hedge is to stand, a portion of the distance, or all of it,
commence preparing the ground the season previous to planting
the hedge, in order to have a deep, well pulverized soil for the
roots to ramify in. The use of the ground need not be lost
while the hedge is growing, but it will be an advantage to raise
a crop every year, until the hedge is sufficiently large to turn
animals. Stake off a strip where a hedge is to be planted, about
sixteen feet wide, or wide enough to have, at least, two or three
rows of potatoes on each side of the rows of hedge plants. It
is better to have the strip unnecessarily wide than to have it too
narrow, or so narrow that the ground on each side of the hedge
cannot be cultivated with a horse and scarifier of some kind.
Commence plowing this land early in the fall. If there is sod
on the ground, commence in the spring. Plow it four or five
times, at least, before winter, throwing the furrows outward at
every plowing. This process will produce a deep middle furrow,
and the deeper it can be plowed the better. After working the
land as deep as is convenient with the plow, make a ditch in the
middle so that it would be not less than three feet deep on a level.
Tile it or stone it well, having a good outlet for the water. Fill
the ditch with dirt, and let the whole remain exposed to the
influence of the frosts and rains of winter, which will make the
whole soil very mellow. This operation is very important, where
the soil is inclined to be lumpy during the summer, and where

198 THE 10UNG FARML'K'S MANUAL.

the subsoil is very stubborn. On gravelly soils, or on any other
soils where the roots of trees strike deep readily, where the sub
soil has not been pulverized, this operation is not necessary.
The operator must exercise his own judgment, whether or not his
soil would be improved by such a process. In many localities,
such a preparation of soil for a hedge would be injurious, and a
hedge would not flourish as luxuriantly on it as it would have
done had the subsoil been allowed to remain untouched. "Where
a soil can be benefited by fall plowing, such a preparation is very
necessary.

262. On the succeeding spring, as soon as the soil is dry
enough to plow, plow this strip of land by turning the furrows
inward at every plowing, until it is six or eight inches higher
over the ditch than it is at the sides. Level it with a harrow
and mark out the rows with a plow, and it is ready for the plants.

263. When the soil is not of a uniform quality throughout the
whole distance, care and pains should be taken to make it so, as
far as practicable. In crossing a field forty or fifty rods in width,
for instance, a portion of the distance may be a deep, mellow,
and very fertile soil, where almost anything would flourish rapidly,
while, perhaps, only a few rods from this fertile soil, on a little
rise of ground, for a number of rods in length, the soil is very
compact, stubborn and barren. When this is the case, a few
loads of the good soil should be hauled, and well mingled with
the poor soil before the plowing is finished ; and there should be
enough spread along on the top to set the plants in. Besides
mingling the different kinds of soil, some parts of the land should
be well manured, and plowed in at the last plowing. The idea
to be kept in mind is, to have the soil, for the entire distance as
nearly as may be, of a uniform character, so that the hedge will
be of a uniform height throughout. If the soil be barren in one
place for a few rods, and very fertile in another place, it will be
impracticable to produce a hedge that will be at all beautiful, and
efficient for the purpose of turning animals. If the soil is not
sufficiently fertile to produce good crops of grain, it should be
well manured with chip manure where the soil is compact, if it

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 199

can be obtained, or with well-rotted barnyard manure. It would
be great folly to transplant a lot of quicks in a soil where they
would not make a good growth the first season. It is no uncom
mon thing to meet with barren spots in fields that are considered
to be in a good state of cultivation, and whenever a hedge is to
be made through such a place, it must be plowed and pulverized,
and enriched thoroughly, or we may rest assured that in such
places hedges will prove a complete failure.

HOW TO OBTAIN THE QUICKS.

264. "When a farmer contemplates making a hedge, he should
sow the seed in drills in the nursery, in a soil which is not in a
better state of cultivation than the soil where the hedge is to be
made. If quicks be taken from a nursery where the soil has
been manured very highly, and transplanted where the soil is of
an inferior character, they will not grow as much in a season, if
they grow at all, as if they had been taken from a soil inferior to
the soil into which they are now to be transplanted. The prac
tice of taking plants from a rich, well-cultivated soil, and trans
planting them into a soil inferior to the one from which they
were taken, operates like taking a well-fed animal from his regu
lar allowance of grain and good hay, and compelling him to sub
sist on straw only. In order to have the quicks grow well, the
soil where the hedge is to be planted should be quite as rich,
mellow, and fertile as that soil is from which the quicks are taken
when they are to be transplanted. For this simple reason the
farmer will succeed much better in his attempts to grow a hedge
if he sows his own seed and raises his own quicks, than he will to
purchase of professional nurserymen, whose grounds are kept in
a high state of cultivation by an abundant supply of good ma
nure. Farmers often purchase quicks — and the same thing holds
good with fruit-trees — of men whose grounds have been made
as rich as they could conveniently be made with manure ; and
although they have transplanted them in the best manner, and
have cultivated the soil on which they stand in the most thorough
9

.

200 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

manner, still, during the first season or two, many of them barely
live, without growing two inches.

265. Does the beginner ask, Why not sow the seed where the
hedge is to grow ? One reason is, the quicks would not be as
well protected from cattle, usually, as if they were in the nursery ;
and another reason is, it would not be as practicable to produce
a hedge with the quicks of so uniform size and distance apart
from planting the seed, as it would to grow them in a nursery,
and then transplant them. Were it not for the feet that plants
of almost every kind, when produced from the seed sown in
drills, will in some places be very vigorous, while others will not
grow as rapidly as they ought to in order to keep of a uniform
size and height, and were it not also for the failure of some of
the seed to grow, and the liability of the quicks to be of unequal
distances apart, and to stand not in a line, as they should, it would
be as well to sow the seed where the hedge is to be made. It
will, as a general rule, be found to be the most convenient, eco
nomical, and best, to grow the young plants in a nursery, and
transplant them where the hedge is to stand. The soil should be
prepared as for carrots or beets, and sowed, with a drill or by
hand, in rows from thirty to forty inches apart, to suit the pro
prietor. It is best to have them far enough apart to allow a
horse and scarifier to pass between them. In clayey soils that
are inclined to bake over the seed, the drills should be covered
with black dirt or mould, or fine chip manure, tan bark, sawdust,
or such like. The seed is usually sown thicker than the quicks
should be allowed to stand, and must be thinned out so as to stand
from two to three inches apart. Let them be nursed, and
the ground kept clean and mellow about them ; and remember,
that weeds in some States will grow four times as fast as the
young plants, and if not kept down the plants will soon be
smothered.

TAKING UP THE QUICKS.

266. "WTien the young plants are dug up, if dug with a spade,
great care should be exercised by the laborers not to mutilate

201

the roots more than can be avoided. "When there are many to
take up, it can be performed very expeditiously with a plow and
team. Let the tops all be cut off within about four inches of
the ground with a stiff very sharp grass scythe; and then, if one
has a subsoil plow, let the plow run about eight or ten inches
deep, if the roots run as deep as that, on each side of a row,
about eight inches from the row ; and then a third furrow, with the
handles of the plow leaning to the left, will loosen all the plants
so that they can be taken up with the hands without any spade
or mattock. When the roots run very deep, those who raise
many thousands of plants have a plow made almost expressly
for such a purpose, with a very wide wing to the plow point for
the purpose of cutting off the long tap roots ; but ordinary farm
ers may use any plow, and hitch on a strong team to plow up
the row, and if half of them or more get covered up, let them
be hauled out with manure hooks. After they are all taken up,
they should be assorted, and no little care should be exercised to
keep the roots from being injured by sunshine or drying winds
while they are out of the ground. If thought best to take them
up in autumn, and to keep them in the cellar during winter, as
many prefer to do, the roots should be well covered with sand or
loam to keep them from wilting.

ASSORTING THE QUICKS.

267. The object of assorting quicks for a hedge is, to have all
those of a uniform size planted together. If they be transplanted
without any regard to size, with the small ones mingled with the
large ones, the large ones will most certainly overgrow the puny
ones, making a weak place in the hedge. There will be many
quicks which are not fit to transplant into the hedge row, and
which should be rejected as worthless, or left in the nursery to
grow another year. If such quicks be planted with others which
have strong, healthy roots, the roots of the large quicks will spread
all around where the roots of the small weak plants should be,
thus robbing the small ones of their necessary nourishment ; but
by transplanting those of a given size together, i. e.: those having

202 THE YOUNG FABMER'S MANUAL.

roots and stems about of an equal size, the hedge will grow up
of a uniform size and strength. If, for instance, there are quicks
enough in one lot to make a hedge row four or six rods in length,
let the smallest ones be set together in the best soil, if there
should be any difference in the quality of it, and the largest ones
in the poorest locations. Assorting the quicks properly is one of
the most important parts of making hedges. It requires the
exercise of keen and quick perception, and good discrimination
and judgment. In assorting them the operator should select one
of the largest and most vigorous quicks in the lot, and lay it by
itself. Then select as small a one as is fit to be transplanted.
Select one or two, if there be much difference in their sizes, of a
size between those already selected. These will answer for a
common standard. Distribute the quicks, with the large ones by
themselves, and the small ones and those of medium size by
themselves. One must be guided in assorting, not only by the
size of the stems alone, but by the size of both roots and stems.
Should a small quick have very strong and vigorous roots, it
would be better to rank it with those having roots of about an
equal size. If a large quick has but few roots, it should not be
placed with the large ones because it has a large stem, but it
should be placed with those having roots which correspond in size
the nearest to it. The operator cannot be too particular in this
operation, for not only the beauty and evenness of a hedge de
pend on a judicious assorting of the quicks, but their efficiency is
involved in it. If quicks be transplanted without the foregoing
considerations, gaps and weak places in a hedge will surely follow.

SECTION 9. TRANSPLANTING QUICKS.

" Beneath the sunny, vernal sky,
Now scoop the mellow earth aside,
And bury in the fertile soil
The tiny rootlets spreading wide." — EDWARDS.

268. In the first place take the plow, adjusted to run about
three inches deep, and turn two furrows from each other, where

THE YOUNG FARMERS MANUAL. 203

the hedge is to be planted. Next, with a shovel, clean out the
trench, three or four inches deep, and wide enough to receive the
roots of the largest quicks, when they are fully extended from
side to side, without their being bent sideways. The roots should
spread out as far as they will reach, and all the little roots and
spongioles should be spread out to their full extent, as they origin
ally grew. Cut off all tap roots smoothly, and cut off the ends
of those roots that have been mutilated in digging up the plants.
Stretch a line about three or four rods long, about an inch on one
side of the place where the row is to stand. Have it high
enough so as not to be in the way when hauling in the dirt.
Let knots be tied in this line, as far apart as the quicks are to be
planted. Set each quick about an inch from the line, at every
knot. When two rows are to be planted, the quicks of the
second row should be placed opposite the spaces and not opposite
the other plants. When three rows are set out there should
be two lines stretched, one for each outside row, and the quicks
in the outside rows should stand opposite the spaces in the middle
row. When the stems of the quicks are cut off, the line may be
stretched where the rows are to stand, and a quick placed under
every knot of the line. If the dirt is not mellow and fine in
every place, it would be well to have a load hauled by the side
of the hedge row ; and when one man places the quicks, let
another man throw a few shovelfuls on the roots. Manure should
never be applied directly to the roots. A few inches of mellow
earth should be applied first, and then manure, and then more
dirt, when manure is applied at transplanting. The quicks should
never be transplanted, when the soil is too wet to be worked in
for other purposes, lest it lake around the root.

269. When the quicks are all transplanted in a workmanlike
manner, the hedge is by no means finished. Indeed, this is but
a good beginning. From five to ten years, according to the soil,
the kind of plants used, the kind of hedge to be made, and the
training and cultivation it receives, will require strict care and
protection, to render it an impassable barrier to stock. The first
thing will be, if it has not already been decided, to determine

204 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

what style of hedges shall be adopted, as different styles of
hedges require very different treatment.

STYLE OF HEDGES.

270. Hedges may be made to grow in almost any form desired,
but it is always best to imitate nature, as far as convenient and
practicable ; and, especially it is best, when greater efficiency is
secured by adopting a given style. The tops of all trees and
plants assume a conical form more than any other, in their natu
ral state. If some other form for the tops of trees were more
desirable, they would unquestionably assume that form. But,
as a hedge cannot be trained in a conical form, we must adopt
the style nearest to it, — that of a pyramid. The quicks are trained
to a single stem, sometimes, for a few feet high, and then the top
is sheared in the shape of a pyramid. Sometimes two or three
rows of quicks are transplanted in a hedge row, in which instance
they are trained to a thick mat, as it were, from the ground, with
sides perpendicular, sometimes, for a few feet high, and then of a
pyramidal form ; and sometimes it is trained of a pyramidal
form from near the ground to the top. Sometimes the sides are
kept perpendicular, and the top is square across, or flat. But
this style is considered objectionable by our best hedgers. Some
times the hedge is trained or sheared in the shape of a sharp-
pointed egg, with the point upwards. But whatever style may
be adopted,

THE PRUNING AND TRAINING

271. Must be attended to in a proper season, or one may at
once abandon the idea of making an impassable barrier for even
small stock. "We must not be afraid to cut off a fine growth of
sprouts for fear it will require a year longer for them to attain that
height again. Depend upon it, this is the most important opera
tion in rearing hedges. The quicks need to be cut off, time after
time, in order to give them size and vigor. If they are allowed
to grow, from year to year, without being cut down, the hedge
will be thin in places, and the sprouts will be tall, slim, and easily
demolished by animals.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 205

272. In order to make a thick, impenetrable hedge clear to the
ground, the quicks standing in three rows, as has been previously
stated, should all be cut off two or three inches from the ground,
when they are one or two years old. It is desirable that they
should be cut off with some instrument which gives a drawing
cut, as a crushing cut is very liable to injure the stems. If they
grow up again very soon, they should be cut off again, the
same season, in the latter part of July, some five or six inches
higher than the first cut. At every cutting a thick growth of
sprouts is produced, which interlace each other so closely that it
is difficult for a small bird to get through it. If any sprouts
shoot off laterally several inches beyond the majority of the side
sprouts, they should be clipped. The sprouts should all be cut
off at least once every year, six or eight inches higher every
year, until the hedge is four or five feet high, training the hedge
in the form of a pyramid. (See TOOLS FO]j PRUNING HEDGES,
Par. 360.)

273. Another mode of training is, to have but a single row, and
not cut off the tops until they are all about two feet high, when
the limbs are all interlaced with each other, by hand, and the
ends of those which grow at right angles to the hedge row are
sheared off to an even length, making the body of the hedge
from two to three feet through. This interlacing the limbs is
continued, as the height of the hedge increases from year to
year, until it is five or six feet high, when the top is simply
pruned in the form of a pyramid.

LAYING AND PLASHING.

274. "The operation consists in first removing the thorns and
prickles, and cutting away all the needless branches and stems,
and leaving straight upright stems in the middle of the row.
The best and straightest of these are left for stakes, and their
tops are cut off at the height of about four feet. If possible
these should be at equal distances of about two feet apart ; but
as they cannot always be had so regularly distributed, stakes
may be driven in the ground to supply their places. The rough-

206 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

est stems are then cut out, and those that are left are bent over
to an angle of about forty-five degrees, and a hack is made in
them near the surface of the ground. They are then woven
backwards and forwards in a slanting direction. When a por
tion of the hedge is thus treated, long slender sticks are cut and
wattled in among the stakes, within an inch or two of the tops,
by twisting backwards and forwards, and crossing them on alter
nate sides of the stakes. The live stakes, in consequence of
being surrounded by the hedge, are apt to send out shoots thickly
at the tops, and not below, unless prevented by being cut half
through at the ground. Strong leather mittens, with long
sleeves, are needed by the man who does the work." — Albany
Cultivator.

01

CULTIVATING THE SOIL ALONG HEDGES

275. Must be thoroughly performed yearly, until the hedge is
large enough to turn cattle. The soil should be plowed every
spring, just as if no hedge were there, and some hoed crop planted
by the sides of it. If corn be planted there, a row of potatoes,
or carrots, beets, turnips, or the like, should be planted on each
side of the hedge between the corn and it, never nearer to it than
three feet. Let a horse scarifier be run along the hedge row as
often as you can find leisure during summer ; and keep the ground
mellow and level, and free from grass and weeds, during the
entire growing season. Never allow plants of any kind to cast
their seed near the hedge row. If weeds or thistles are allowed
to grow among the quicks, they will soon choke them, and pro
duce a thin, weak place in the hedge. If some parts of the hedge
do not seem to grow as fast as others, give the small parts of
stinted growth a liberal dressing of well-rotted chip manure, or
sawdust, or well-prepared compost, and work it in with a hoe.
If the soil in places seems to be so hard that they do not grow
as fast as other parts of the hedge, let mellow dirt be spread on
each side two or three inches deep. There will be a great many
times during the growing season, when, for an hour or two, and
perhaps for half a day, the work hands will have nothing which

THE YOUNO FARMER'S MANUAL. 207

they can do advantageously. Let all such leisure hours be occu
pied with a hoe at the hedge. Let the farmer keep an eye on
the hedge and see that it is not neglected in autumn, and that a
lot of weeds do not go to seed, so as to keep one weeding for
seven years. Remember, that

276. " One year's seeding makes seven years' weeding."
Never think of making an impenetrable hedge in less than a
decade of years, when only a little strip two feet wide on each
side of the hedge is scratched over a little once or twice a year.
If land is cheap, and it is no object to cultivate a crop by the
side of a hedge, let the work of cultivating be performed with
plow, harrow and cultivator, without a crop. Another thing
which is too commonly neglected is,

PROTECTING HEDGES FROM CATTLE,

277. While they are too small to protect themselves. Young
steers, especially, and bulls, delight to plunge into a hedge row to
hook, and horses and sheep like to nip off the tender shoots ;
and, if it is not protected by a good fence, it is all folly to attempt
to grow a hedge. Nor should we delay to fence a hedge row
for the first year or two ; for cattle are very liable at any time to
get on forbidden ground, when they would quickly make irre
parable breaches in it. Should there be no sheep kept on the
farm, the expense of protecting a hedge would be trifling. A
fence on each side of it, like Fig. 22, even if the posts were not
of the most durable timber, would subserve a good purpose until
the hedge should be strong enough to turn cattle without any pro
tection. It is always advisable to keep cattle away from hedges,
until there can be no risk in permitting them to hook into it to
their satisfaction.

REPAIRING HEDGES.

278. Should a breach be made in a hedge, or should it become
so thin and weak in places as not to be strong enough to turn
cattle, if the stems are not healthy, it would be best to remove
them entirely for a few feet in length, and commence anew with

9*

208 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

young quicks ; or, if thought best, the stems should all be cut off
a few inches from the ground, when new sprouts will spring up,
which must be treated like a new hedge until the gap is securely
closed. Wherever thin spots occur in a hedge, it is a pretty
sure indication that the soil is not as fertile as it should have
been made previous to transplanting, or that roots of the quicks
were mutilated, or that they did not have an equal chance with
the rest of the hedge.

HEDGES FOR WET GROUNDS.

279. It is frequently the case, that lands on the borders of
rivers and lakes, which are liable to inundation in the spring and
in autumn, are so wet that none but aquatic plants would flourish
well there. In such localities an impenetrable hedge may be
made in a very few years with the branches of the yellow willow,
or of any other kind of trees the limbs of which will take root
when stuck in the ground. The limbs should all be cut of a
uniform length, say five or six feet long, with a saw, as an axe is
very liable to split and sliver the ends. The upper ends should
be sawed off slanting, for a slanting cut will heal over more
readily than a square cut. The lower ends should not be sharp
ened by cutting off the wood all around them, because the ends
will be very apt to rot as far up as the bark is all taken off, and
sometimes farther, endangering the life of the plants. But the
sharpening should all be done on one side of the limbs, and then
roots will start from the ends, and a portion of the lower ends
will not decay. Take the limb in one hand, when it is to be
sharpened, and set it on a block, and make a clean slanting cut,
only on one side. Limbs that are less than two inches in diame
ter should not be sharpened at all, because they will take root
all round better than if they were sharpened. Let limbs of a
uniform size be planted together, and never stick small ones and
large ones indiscriminately together, lest the large ones overgrow
the small ones. Let all the branches remain on them for inter
lacing, except such as grow on the parts which are to be below
the 'surface of the soil.

THE YOL'NiT FARMKJi's MANUAL. 209

280. In sticking them, draw a line and make the holes with a
crowbar, directly under the line, about ten or twelve inches apart.
For large limbs let large holes be made, and for small ones do
not make the holes so large and deep that the limbs will extend
downward so that the lower ends will all decay. If they are
planted ten or twelve inches in depth, unless the soil is very deep,
they will nourish better than if they were planted twenty or
more inches deep. Plunge them in the holes to the desired
depth, with the hands, and never drive them. If, then, any of
them do not seem to stand sufficiently firm, place a good sod on
each side of them, and stamp it down well. After the limbs are
all stuck let the branches on them be interlaced, by commencing
at the bottom and weaving them back and forth, forming a kind
of lattice work. Should the whole seem not to stand very firmly,
let long slender branches from the trees of some other kind of
wood, be interwoven at the tops. Such a hedge should be made
early in the spring in preference to the fall ; and it will require
shearing at least once a year, to keep it even, and to prevent its
growing too high.

WHAT KINDS OF PLANTS ARE USED FOR HEDGES.

281. " The selection of suitable plants for hedges depends, in a
very great degree, upon the locality. In some localities one kind
of plants will flourish very luxuriantly, and make the best of
hedges, while only a few hundred miles distant from such location,
that kind of plants will not succeed at all in hedge-making. Some
species of plants are not at all adapted to the climate where they
are to be used ; while some others, which flourish well in a given
climate, are so liable to be attacked by the borer or bright, as to
be of no value whatever for hedges. The English hawthorn, for
example, has been found entirely unsuited to, m,ost parts of the.
United States.* Some plants do not seem, to be hardy enough tq
endure, without injury, the extreme cold of our northern winters j
and such plants, although they may have a great reputation for

* Albany Cultivator.

210 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

making hedges, in some localities, should be tested with caution,
where any doubts are entertained of their success.

282. In searching for information in regard to hedges in the
agricultural journals of the present day, the young farmer will be
puzzled, beyond measure, to know what to do in regard to mak
ing a hedge of any kind. One article, penned by a man who
professes to have been successful in making hedges, will state, in
most unequivocal language, that "every farmer may raise
hedges." Another writer, of very reliable authority, will assert,
with the strongest confidence, that it is by no means practicable for
American farmers to make hedges, with a view of enclosing and
dividing their fields, which shall be cattle proof. One writer will
recommend a certain plant for hedges, with the most confident as
surance that it will ultimately be universally adopted for fencing
the western prairies, where timber is not abundant, and that such
a plant succeeds for hedges remarkably well ; while, on the con
trary, another man will declare, most positively, that such a plant
can never make a good hedge ; and that he will defy the world
to produce a solitary instance where an efficient and impenetrable
hedge has been made of that kind of plant. Amid such a con
flict of opinions, on a subject apparently so full of doubt and un
certainty, the farmer must exercise a little good common sense,
and let the bugbears and sharks go to the winds that brought
them.

283. It cannot be denied that there are miles in length of the
most efficient and impenetrable hedge, in nearly every State in
the Union, through which an American bison could not pass, and
which has been produced with but a small degree of expense and
care. And, if a few enterprising farmers have succeeded in mak
ing a good hedge, the arguments and assertions against hedges,
of a man who has failed to produce a good hedge, from utter neglect,
or from local causes, should have no influence in deterring the
young farmer from making a hedge, if he desires one.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 211

RED CEDAR FOR HEDGES.

" On barren cliffs, the hardy cedars red,
Clinging to crevices, lift up their heads." — TUPEEB."

284. The red cedar is acknowledged, by the most reliable au
thority, to be one of the best plants in America, for both orna
mental and field hedges. It has more desirable qualities to recom
mend it than any other known plant which is used for making
hedges. If it only lore thorns, it would be incomparably better
for hedges than any other plant whose merits have been thor
oughly tested as a hedge plant. It is extremely hardy, and
adapts itself to both barren and fertile soils, although it flourishes
on a rich soil as much better, as any other plant ; and it attains a
great age, is as highly ornamental as the most fastidious can desire ;
and is not liable to blight, or winter-kill, or to be injured by in
sects. No other plant bears shearing any better, or with less
injury, than the cedar ; and a hedge of this kind of plants may
be sheared into almost any form with great facility.

285. The best mode of obtaining the young plants is, to gather
the berries or seed as late in autumn as possible, before the ground
freezes, and sow them in drills, covered about one inch deep with
some very light mellow earth. But few seeds will vegetate the
first season, but if the soil be kept well cultivated and free from
noxious weeds during the growing season, the second season they
will appear in abundance. If the soil be deep, mellow, and rich,
they will grow from one to two feet in height the first season ; if
the soil is rather poor, and the little quicks are obliged to grow or
die among weeds, if they grow six inches high the first season, it
will be all that can be expected. The plants should be thinned
out when they stand too thick, and transplanted in rows for a year
or two. When they are from two to three feet high, they should
be planted out for hedges, in soil prepared as recommended, as
early in the spring as it will answer to work in the soil. If they
are set in only one row, they should be not less than twenty inches
apart, and if in two rows, two feet apart, with the plants of one row

212 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

opposite to the spaces of the other row. Let all the limbs on all
the insides of the trees be interlaced, as neatly as may be ; and
let the limbs on the sides of the hedge row be sheared to a uniform
length, from six to twelve inches in length, according to the length
of the limbs. During the first and second seasons, or perhaps
longer if necessary, let the tops be sheared of a uniform height.
As the hedge grows higher, let the inside limbs be interwoven
from tree to tree, backwards and forwards ; and do not fail to keep
the soil well cultivated on both sides of the hedge row, for at least
six or eight feet on each side. If everything is performed in a
workmanlike manner, a complete lattice-work, impenetrable by any
domesticated animal, will be formed in a few years.

286. As the red cedar bears no thorns, and as cattle are so
much inclined to hook and thrust about in evergreen plants, the
red cedar may, upon trial, succeed better by training the young
trees to bare stems about four feet high, and then allow the tops
to branch out, so as to be sheared in the form of a pyramid, or in
the shape of an egg, with the little end upwards. — (See paragraph
270.) In this style of training the inside limbs should be in
terlaced, from a point two feet above the ground to the top of the
hedge.

287. A little skill and judgment, and the exercise of a
little common sense, are indispensably requisite in pruning the
young cedars. If the trees are two or three feet high it will not
answer to cut off all the limbs the first season, and leave but a
little bush at the top. The first season that they are transplanted
in the hedge row, the lower limbs, for about six inches along the
bottom of the stems, may be cut close with a sharp knife ; and
if the limbs above this point be more than a foot long, the ends
may be clipped off to a foot in length on each side. The next
spring trim off the limbs a few inches higher, close to the st&ms.
If the plants have grown six inches or more in height, it may
answer, if there is an abundance of limbs, to cut off smoothly all
the limbs for six inches more. The growth of the plants up
wards will usually determine how much of the limbs may be cut
off below in one season.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 213

THE YELLOW AND HONEY LOCUST FOB HEDGES.

" The fair Queen of Spring, as she passed down the vale,
Quaffed the nectar of locusts in every mild gale :
Its fragrance and odor replenished each breeze,
And lily-white glory environed the trees." — CAMPBELL.

288. The yellow locust and honey locust are indigenous in the
United States, and nourish luxuriantly in almost every locality
where there is not an excess of water in the soil where they are
planted. They are among the most beautiful ornamental trees,
and when in full bloom the yellow locust seems most delightful.
Both of the kinds already mentioned are very hardy and great
feeders, the roots of the yellow locust growing to an almost in
credible length in one season. The honey locust bears bunches
of long and sharp thorns, from two to three inches in length,
presenting such an ugly appearance as to deter almost any ani
mal, man not excepted, from climbing up into it ; but the thorns
of the yellow locust are small and short, and deciduous on the
main stem and limbs of the trees when they are a few years old.
The honey locust is said to be a very common tree in the forests
of some of the "Western States, and when found on rich bottom
lands, it attains a growth equal in height to most other trees
which surround it. The timber of the honey locust is somewhat
hard, and rather porous, and is sometimes made use of for cabinet
purposes, and sometimes for posts and rails for building fences.
The timber of the yellow locust, of thrifty trees, is remarkably
tough and firm, and durable when exposed to the influences of
the weather. On account of its excellence in resisting the action
of moisture, it is used in preference to almost any other timber
for pins and wedges, and such like, in ship-building. For fence
posts it is not inferior in point of durability to white oak, and for
carriage hubs it is not inferior to the best of birch. In some
localities the yellow locusts have been entirely destroyed by the
ravages of the borer and the large green caterpillar. But the
borer seldom attacks any other part of the tree excepting- the
body, for six or eight feet from the ground. But if the epidermis
or dead part of the bark be all scraped off or shaved off, to the

214 THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

live bark, once in four or five years, or as often as any signs of
the borer are discovered, and the bodies of the trees smeared
with a daubing made of three parts of pitch or rosin, and one
part of tallow, melted together and applied warm with a brush,
the borer will be most effectually excluded.

289. Neither the yellow locust nor honey locust have been
tested satisfactorily for hedging purposes. It has been used to a
limited extent in a few instances, and there are at the present
day many young hedges of both kinds which promise to be in a
few years most impenetrable barriers against any kind of stock.
I am able to discover no good reason why the locust may not be
used most successfully for hedges, with proper treatment and care.
It grows quickly even on poor soils ; is easily propagated ; bears '
shearing extremely well ; and is very tenacious of life. The
locust will probably succeed better when planted in a single row
and plashed, than in two or three rows and trained in a mat
hedge. The locust nourishes best solitary ; and when the art of
hedge-making shall arrive to greater perfection, the locust will
rank among the first plants for hedges.

290. Both kinds of locust bear seed contained in long pods,
which may be gathered late in autumn and kept in a dry apart
ment until the succeeding spring, when, to insure their vegeta
tion, the seed is put in a vessel of some kind and boiling hot
water poured on them while they are stirred lively for a few mo
ments, and then allowed to remain in the water for a day and a
night, when most of them will be swollen to twice their original
size. All such seed is sure to grow if planted in a soil that will
produce good corn, and covered about as corn is covered when
planted. Those seeds which have not swollen during the opera
tion should be treated in the same manner the second time. The
object of scalding the seeds is to soften the hard and tough skin
which envelops the germ, so that moisture can enter the seed.
If the seed is planted as soon as it has arrived to maturity early
in autumn, before the skin on them becomes so dry and tough,
most of them will vegetate in the succeeding spring, when they
may be treated as has been recommended.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

215

THE OSAGE ORANGE FOB HEDGES.

291. The Osage Orange, a cut of which is here shown (taken
from the Albany Cultivator,) has been used extensively for

FIG. 96.

OSAGE OBANGK.

hedges, so that its success is no longer attended with doubt. It
is found wild in Arkansas, Mexico, Mississippi and some other

216

States, where it grows from twenty to thirty feet high. It flour
ishes well in most of the States and Territories, and with proper
treatment has never failed to make an impenetrable hedge.
Many failures have been reported respecting the Osage for
hedges, but in all probability the failures could be traced to
improper management, such as neglecting to shear down and to
keep the soil in good condition, or assorting the quicks and trans
planting them properly. "We need apprehend no failure in mak
ing a first-rate hedge of the Osage, if the course is strictly fol
lowed which has been marked out in the preceding pages.

We copy from the American Farmers1 Encyclopedia the follow
ing description of the Osage Orange : " It is very branching,
each branch being armed with numerous sharp thorns. The
wood is remarkably tough and solid. The male and female
flowers are on separate trees. The fertile, or female tree, bears
fruit abundantly in a few years. These are round and rough,
and greenish colored, resembling somewhat an orange, and weigh
ing from twelve to eighteen ounces, containing from one hundred
to one hundred and fifty seeds."

292. The best manner for any one to obtain the quicks for
hedges is, to procure the seed in some locality where the Osage
flourishes in a wild state, and sow them in autumn in well-pre
pared ground. The seed, like many other kinds of seed, will
vegetate better after having been exposed to the frosts of winter
in the soil. It is said that there are about eight thousand seeds
in one quart, and that they may be obtained in Arkansas for the
mere expense of gathering them. When they are obtained of
nurserymen the cost is from two to four dollars per quart. It is
recommended by some farmers to scald the seeds of the Osage in
the spring, at the time of planting them. Hedges made of the
Osage Orange require trimming twice a year, and some, who
have experimented with it extensively, say that three trimmings
are necessary in one season. The farmer must exercise a little
judgment with reference to trimming a hedge. Should the
growth be small, it would not be proper to cut off as much as if
there were a very great growth.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 217

BUCKTHORN FOR HEDGES.

" What a thorny maze we tread I
Thorns beneath and overhead I
How they pierce, and scratch, and tear 1
Cursed thorns grow everywhere." — HAMLET.

293. The buckthorn is pronounced by some writers to be the
most suitable plant for hedges that can be found in the United
States. It makes an efficient and impenetrable hedge when prop
erly treated, and grows very rapidly, is very hardy, and almost
entirely exempt from disease and from the attacks of insects.
There are hedges of the buckthorn in some of the older States,
which have subserved the purpose of an impenetrable fence for
more than forty years, and are now free from gaps and weak
places. The buckthorn bears pruning very extensively without
any apparent injury, and is never injured by the most intense
cold of winter. It vegetates early in the spring, and does not
cast off its verdure until late in autumn.

294. The figure here shown represents a branch of the buck
thorn. The seed may be sown early in autumn in mellow soil,
covered about one inch deep, when most of them will vegetate
the next spring, if the seed is good. It is best to have at 'least
two rows, or three, in a hedge row of buckthorn, and train them
by shearing down, so that the hedge will be an impenetrable mat
clear to the ground. .

There are several other kinds of thorns, such as the "Washing
ton, Newcastle, Hawthorn, and some others, which have been
used for hedges, and sometimes successfully ; but they are so
liable to be affected by blight, or insects, or something else which
is very injurious to them, that it is not safe, except in a few locali
ties, to experiment with them. The various kinds of thorn are
propagated by gathering the haws or seed, and divesting them
of the skin and pulpy matter, and sowing them in the fall, so
that they may freeze and thaw during the winter.

218 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

FlG. 97.

BUCKTHORN.

RECAPITULATION AND GENERAL REMARKS.

295. After the farmer has fully concluded to raise a hedge, let
him secure good seed, which is generally distinguished from an

THE YOUNG FARMERS MANUAL. 219

inferior quality of seed by its weight. Poor seed is usually
rather light, and feels dry to the touch, while good, plump, bright
and heavy seed seems to be colder, when handled, than it really is.
Let all seed that is more than one year old be rejected, and none
but new seed sown. Bear in mind, that as seed advances in age
it looses its vitality. Seed is many times injured, and often the
vitality is entirely destroyed, in preparing it for use. The pulpy
matter which encircles the seed is usually removed by placing
them where they will rot gradually, and afterwards washing the
pulpy substance from the seed, and then by spreading out the
seed where they will dry. But they should not be allowed to
become too dry, as that will injure the germ. If they are per
mitted to lie, while rotting, in piles so large or deep that they
will heat and mould, the germs of such seed will be liable to be
destroyed. I must be allowed to insist that it is important that
every farmer grow his own quicks, on soil of about the same
quality of that where the hedge is to stand. (See Par. 264.)

296. When the quicks are cut off in autumn it would be
a good practice to have a vessel of equal parts of melted pitch or
rosin, and tallow, and smear the ends with it, applied with a paint
brush. The most expeditious mode of doing it would be, to hold
as many in one hand as is convenient, and then apply the brush.
Even after the quicks have been transplanted, a man with a small
brush would smear the ends of a long row in a few hours. It
would not be practicable to perform such an operation after the
first shearing, or cutting down, on account of the great number
of stubs, although such an application will be found very useful
in preventing the stumps from drying and cracking, to the injury
of the quicks. Any instrument, in pruning, shearing, or slashing,
which cuts the stems square off, with a crushing instead of a
drawing stroke or cut, is quite apt to shiver the butts or stumps
of the quicks, so that they will not heal as readily as if they had
been cut with a slanting and drawing cut. (See Par. 543.)

297. On the subject of pruning, too much care cannot be taken,
for rules and practices which would be all-important for raising
an efficient hedge in one locality, would be very deleterious to a

220 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

hedge in another region. In some regions the sprouts cf the
Osage Orange grow so rapidly as to attain the height of four to
seven feet in one season, while in other places they would not
grow as many inches. Where they grow so rapidly the roots
become proportionably strong, and shearing must be resorted to.
But when the growth is very small, and the stems slender and
weakly, it might be the wisest policy to allow them to grow un
molested for one season. It is not easy for one to tell, with pen
and ink alone, whether a hedge should or should not be cut down
at a certain stage of its growth. Sometimes it might be very
advisable to trim or shear a hedge twice in one season ; but the
probability is, that in our climate it is best to clip but once a
year, and the best and most natural season for this operation
would seem to be in the spring. I know many recommend late
autumn, and others the month of July, for this purpose, as being
the best, but it appears to me that unless the ends of the quicks
are smeared with something to prevent the weather from drying
them, it would be best to do it in the spring, about the time the
buds begin to enlarge a little. If some of the quicks grow too
rapidly during the summer, the top ends may be pinched off a lit
tle. This will check the tendency to shoot upward tall and
slim, and will tend to enlarge the stem and side branches. If it
is desirable to have limbs clear to the ground, the side branches
should not be clipped until they have grown, laterally, not less
than two feet on each side of the row. In order to have the
branches low, the quicks must be clipped near the ground the
first time they are cut off. If they are clipped high the first time,
it will be impossible to produce limbs near the ground, unless the
whole top is cut down, when, if the roots are strong and healthy,
many sprouts will start from the stumps, both upward and hori
zontally. (See Par. 301, 302.)

298. Hedges oftener prove a failure in consequence of neglect
than from any other cause. .Hedges cannot grow, they will not
grow well among weeds and grass, and those who expect them
to flourish will be most certainly disappointed. The soil on each
side must be kept loose, mellow and clean, for at least half a rod

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 221

from the hedge row. When only a narrow strip of two feet or
so on each side is scratched over occasionally, it would be no
more beneficial, in many localities, than if the soil were not
broken at all. On prairies and bottom lands, where the soil is
deep, always mellow, and fertile, preparing the soil as recom
mended in paragraph 261 is not so very important as on stub
born, clayey and calcareous soils, in which localities the directions
should be followed up to the very letter.

299. I have never, as yet, met with any writings in which it
was recommended to transplant the quicks as suggested in par.
268. The more usual practice is to dibble them in with a kind
of paddle, or to thrust in a spade where a quick is to be set, and,
thrusting the handle forward, the quick is set behind the spade in
a wedge-shaped hole, without any spreading of the roots. But
it seems to me that, if it would pay in transplanting fruit-trees,
which none will deny, to spread out the roots, it would be time
profitably spent in transplanting the quicks for a hedge in the
most workmanlike manner. According to the modus operandi
in par. 268, a long line of hedge could be put out in a day by a
faithful laborer and a small lad ; and in such soil as we find, for
the most part, in central and western New York, and in some
of the New England States, no one who is acquainted with
their character, and with the most proper manner of working
them, will wish to deny that this is the better mode of trans
planting the quicks. It is most certain that the more the roots
of a tree or quick are spread out, in transplanting, the better
the tree is transplanted ; and the more they are crowded into
a small compass, the less liable they are to flourish luxuriantly
for the first year or two after transplanting. If a quick has
side-roots, nature and common sense teach us that it is better
to spread them and extend them in their full length, than to
double them and crowd them into a small hole.

300. The proper distances apart for plants to be set, is a very
important question in growing a good hedge. For my own part,
I am fully persuaded that hedgers, as a general rule, plant too
close. It is a most common fault, in transplanting all kinds of

222 THE YOUNG FAKMEK's MANUAL.

fruit-trees, to • plant too dose together ; and, although very close
planting is recommended, on good authority, for hedges, it is
my candid conviction that if those hedgers who advocate and
adhere to very close planting, and who succeed well in raising
efficient hedges when planted very close together, would plant
the quicks farther apart, they would meet with still better suc
cess than they do in very close planting. No one will deny
that quicks for hedges may be planted too closely together, and
we all acknowledge, without any argument, that it is not diffi
cult, in the least, to plant them too far apart. Now, then, if
there is a point beyond which, in one direction, it may be said
the quicks are too near together, and, in the opposite direction,
they are too far apart, that is the point which will determine
most accurately the most proper distance apart for transplant
ing the quicks, in order to make the best and most efficient
hedge. The distance that might properly be called close plant
ing when one kind of plants is used, might not be said to be
too close for another plant. The kind of plants used always
should, in a great measure, determine the proper distance for the
plants to be set apart. We consider eight inches apart too dose
for any plants, and for any style of hedge, although some hedgers
advocate a distance of only four and six inches apart. -But
when plants are set so very close together, the shoots are very
apt to be small and slender, with not sufficient space for the lat
eral branches to attain suitable size for consistent strength ; and,
more than all else beside, when they are crowded so closely
together they are quite liable to die, in consequence of being de
prived, by those on each side of them, of their necessary nourish
ment at the roots. We consider one foot sufficiently dose for
any plants in a hedge row, and for some plants one foot apart is
just twice as close as they should be. When plants are set
closer than one foot, or even one foot and a half, let a few plants
be placed in a row at such" distances apart, and see how little
space they have for branching out. Look, for example, at the
sprouts around stumps which stand very close to each other.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 223

They are tall, slim, and not half as strong as they would be if
they were not half as numerous ; and, more than all else, their
lateral branches, if there are any at all, are very slender, and will
very soon decay ; whereas, if the plants stood twenty or thirty
inches apart, the lateral branches — which give the greatest
efficiency to a hedge — will be large, strong, and not liable to pre
mature decay, as in close planting. It is better to have one
strong, healthy, lateral branch, than three, or even four branches
in the same space, which are slender and liable to decay in con
sequence of close planting. Strong, stiff, lateral branches, with
the ends clipped off, and having thorns on their sides, are very
repulsive things for stock of any kind to plunge into. But when
all the sprouts grow erect and slender and smooth, bullocks with
very long horns will delight in the fun of thrashing them to the
ground. Any one who is well acquainted with the habits of the
red" cedar, or the hemlock, or American arbor vitee, will, I doubt
not, fully coincide with me, that when planted very close to
gether they could not be relied upon for making an efficient and
impassable hedge ; but if transplanted at about thirty inches
apart, they will make, in some localities, a more efficient and
impassable and durable hedge than any other plant which has
as yet been successfully cultivated for hedges. Of these three
plants last mentioned, the red cedar is most preferable. The
honey locust, the yellow locust, the Osage orange, and, in fact,
almost every other plant which has been and is now cultivated
for hedges, will flourish best when standing nearly or quite soli
tary. Therefore, to close this subject, we lay it down as our can
did conviction, that all the plants just mentioned will flourish
better, be more durable, be stronger, less liable to premature de
cay, be trained with less difficulty, make an impassable fence
sooner, be kept within the desired limits assigned for the width
and height of the hedge, after the hedge is completed, and be
grown at a much less expense, and by laborers possessing infe
rior skill in the business of hedging, when the plants are set from
sixteen to twenty inches apart, in some instances thirty inches,
than if they were set from six to twelve inches apart. I have
10

224 THE YOUNG

planted some red cedars for a hedge fence, and I place them
thirty inches apart, believing that at that distance they will make
a better hedge than if set any closer to each other.

PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING.

301. Why do we prune trees and plants? Trees and plants
are pruned for several reasons. They are pruned sometimes for
the purpose of removing the dead branches, and sometimes to
make a tree grow higher, and sometimes to make it grow broader
and lower ; and sometimes for the purpose of making the fruit
grow larger and fairer, by removing the redundant branches. If
the ends of all the limbs of a tree should be clipped off two or
three times during the growing season, and they were not allowed
to grow only so high and so far laterally, a tree would soon send
out sprouts or suckers all over the limbs, and in a few years a
tree would be a complete mat of brush. If all the topmost
branches are clipped off about as fast as the ends grow, the greatest
part of the sap will be driven or thrown into the lateral branches,
and they will shoot off horizontally with great rapidity. On the
contrary, if one bud or stem is allowed to shoot up in the centre of
the top, and all the others are kept back by clipping off the ends
as fast as they grow, there will be an unusual amount of sap flow
ing to this centre stem, and it will run up tall and slim. When
young fruit-trees are inclined to grow slim and tall, we clip off
the top buds, which will throw the sap into the lateral branches,
and the trees will begin to thicken. Although pruning fruit-
trees is not intimately connected with the subject of this section,
still I cannot forbear to notice, briefly, some things connected with
pruning trees. — (See Figs. 125 and 150, TOOLS FOR PRUNING.)

302. In forming a head to young fruit-trees, the young farmer
should aim to have one stem run up in the centre of the tree, and
then a system of two or three or four limbs extending horizontally
from the upright stem, about thirty or forty inches apart, clear to
the top of the tree. The first system of branches should be about
five or six feet from the ground. If they should be inclined to

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 225

sag down too much, they might be well shored up, or tied up with
wires extending from the top of the tree to them, during the
growing season, when they would probably remain in that posi
tion.

303. It is bad policy to allow trees to grow at random for a
number of years, and then give them a severe pruning. It in
jures a fruit-tree to cut off a large limb as much as it hurts a man
to have a limb amputated. Fruit-trees should always be pruned
so that a man can easily get around in the tops of them, without
the assistance of a ladder. Small branches should be left all along
large limbs, so that a person may go on them when plucking fruit.
Many people have clipped off all the branches on the large limbs
of their apple-trees, so that nothing but a bare limb is left for ten
or fourteen feet, with the fruit branches all at the ends of the
limbs. This is a very objectionable manner of pruning. The
heads or tops of fruit-trees should always be formed as low as
will be practicable, and not be too inconvenient getting around
beneath the lowest limbs. It will be far better to have the
branches low, than it "is to prune them so that a man will need a
sixteen feet ladder to get on the limbs. The higher the trees are,
the more, by a great deal, will fruit be injured when it falls to
the ground, when it falls on any hard substance or against
each other. When trees are low, they will produce quite as
much, and even more fruit than they would if the same tops were
elevated on long limbs sixteen feet higher. When they are very
high, much more of the fruit is blown off by high winds, some
times before it is ripe; and a greater portion of it cannot be
plucked when the trees are high ; whereas, if the trees were low,
almost every apple could be plucked.

304. Many good orchards have been almost ruined by employ
ing a raw "bushwhacker" to prune their fruit-trees, who knew no
more about the correct principles, according to which fruit-trees
should be pruned, than the skillful paddy did whom a certain
farmer employed to prune his young orchard, who, on being
asked at noon how his pruning progressed, replied, "And I have
pruned none at all yet, but have cut them all down." Get J. J.

226 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

Thomas' Fruit Culturist, and learn to prune according to the most
approved principles.

305. As soon as a tree has been pruned — the limbs having
been cut off smoothly — a little kettle of liquid grafting cement
should be at hand, and with a brush every wound that is as large
as a man's thumb should be smeared, and a piece of coarse paper
put over it before it becomes hard, and pressed into the wax.
Have a little basket with square pieces of paper in it ; and if the
paper is a little larger than the wound, it will do no harm, for
the rain and wind will soon carry away all that does not adhere
to the wax. I have and do now practise these directions.

THE HEDGE COMPLETE.

306. " The following figure will give the young hedger the most
approved manner of pruning a hedge, which is made to assume
the form of a Gothic arch, as shown by the curved lines o n and
o m, the apex of the hedge. The dotted line c represents the
point where the hedge should be clipped the first season, if it is
large enough. The dotted line d shows the place for the second
clipping ; e is the third clipping, h the fourth clipping, and o the
hedge complete."*

307. Since penning the preceding thoughts on hedges, I have
read " Warder's Hedges and Evergreens," a most useful treatise
for every one who ever contemplates raising ten rods of hedge.
"When I penned this article on hedges, I did not know that such
a book was in existence, and am much gratified to learn that our
views on the subjects connected with hedging should coincide so
well, especially in regard to the distance apart at which the quicks
should be set. I have to acknowledge, with gratitude, my in
debtedness to the Country Gentleman and Albany Cultivator,
published by Luther Tucker & Son, for some of the ideas in com
posing this Section. When anything has been copied, due credit
has been given.

* Dr. Warder's Hedges and Evergreens, price one dollar.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

227

CHAPTEE III.

THE PRINCIPAL TOOLS FOB FENCING.

THE fencer comes, in order well arrayed,

His little kit, and saw, with glittering blade,

With piercing crowbar, spade and spud and rammer,

With plumb-rule, line, and auger, axe and hammer,

Not strewn in wild confusion in the track,

But neat and clean, supported on the rack.

308. It is a trite but usually true maxim, that "a workman
is known by the chips he makes and by the tools he uses. A
good workman, as a general rule, will not work with poor and
awkward tools, because it is bad policy. He knows that with
poor tools, he is required to exert much more physical strength in
doing a given job ; and that he makes little progress, and many
times cannot do a piece of work in any other than a very ineffi
cient manner. Some men always use poor tools. A good tool
of any kind, with them, is the exception and not the rule ; and if
they chance to get a good tool, it is of short duration, for it is
soon broken or stove up, or injured in some manner, so that it is
a poor one. On the contrary, other men will always keep their
tools good until they are worn out ; and one will seldom find a
poor tool in their possession. Good tools, many times, cost no
more than poor ones, in dollars and cents ; and the loss sustained
by using poor tools would often amount to more than enough, in
dollars and cents, to purchase good ones. It will not be denied
by the great majority of workmen, that a laborer will be able to
do twice as much in a given period of time, with less force and
fatigue to his powers, with a good tool than with a poor one ; and
many times the difference is even four or five times in favor of good
tools. The best of tools are often rendered no better than very
(228)

THE YOUNG FARMEK'ri MANUAL. 229

poor ones, by neglecting to keep them in good order ; and they
are often allowed to be used in that unworkmanlike condition,
because those who use them do not know how to keep them in
good order. And good tools are often very much damaged by
neglecting to take care of, and keep them fr< m the influence of
the weather. This leads me to speak of

THE USE AND CARE OF TOOLS.

309. It is not always those who break and wear out the great
est number of tools who perform the most labor, but the opposite
of this ; for those who are in the habit of damaging, staving up
and breaking the most tools, are usually those who do a very
limited portion of labor. One-half of the laborers — yes, more
than that proportion — do not seem to think but that they may
pry and lift with a spade, shovel, or hoe-handle, as they would
with a crowbar or handspike. For this reason, the handles of
both spades and shovels become so badly sprung, if they are not
broken, as to render them very inefficient, and almost worthless.
The beginner should learn to exercise a little judgment in regard
to the strength of the materials of which tools are made, and to
protect them from the injurious influences of wet and dry weather,
which will rust, warp, distort and rot them, to their injury more
than all the wear of them when in actual service.

THE FENCE TOOL-RACK.

310. When laborers are digging post holes, it becomes neces
sary to use several different tools, at various times, in digging
one hole, and when there is nothing to lean them against, a work
man will spend a portion of his time in picking up his tools and
changing them ; and in some places, where the surface of the
ground is covered with mud and water, tools will be falling into
the mud, and then a laborer must spend time to wipe off the
mud. All these little points of time will soon consume enough
to dig a hole or two. A workman needs all his tools close ly his
side, where he can lay his hand on them without stepping away
from his work. To aid him in having his tools all at hand, and
for keeping them out of the mud, a tool-rack, Fig. 98, is a very

230 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

important implement in fence building. It should be made very
light, so that one will not dread to move it when necessary.

FIG. 98.

TOOL-RACK.

A is a piece of scantling, two inches square and two feet long ;
Z> is a light board, one foot wide and two feet long, screwed to
the sills ; c c are standards, round, two feet long and one inch in
diameter ; D D are guard-pins, one foot long and one inch in
diameter, for keeping the tools, as they stand on the platform &,
from falling on the ground. On this platform should be kept the
shovel and spade, the auger and spud, the crowbar and spoon,
and the rammer, and then no time will be spent in picking them
out of the mud ; and it should be borne in mind, that this little
light bench is not strong enough to be used as a heavy saw
bench.

THE POST-HOLE AUGER.

A Post-hole Auger here we view,
Without a pod, or worm, or screw.

See AUGERS, Par. 588.

311. Fig. 99 is an illustration of a dirt auger, which is a
very useful tool in digging ordinary holes for fence ; and when
the stones are all so small that they will pass between the
lips, a workman can bore a hole three times quicker than he
can dig it with other tools. When the ground is very wet,
one can make a hole three feet deep in less than five minutes,
should the auger not hit any stone. When there are many
stones, they must be taken out by hand. But few men know
how to use such an auger. Many will insist upon having a large
screw on the end, to draw it into the ground ; but such a thing

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 231

would be impracticable, because the threads of a scr«v would
immediately clog with dirt, and be worse than a small plain

FIG. 99.

c

THE POST-HOLE AT7GEB.

point, such as they should always be made with. In using such
an auger, dig a foot or so with the spade, and then with the
crowbar make a hole six or eight inches deep for the point of the
auger to turn in, if the ground is hard. "When the ground is soft,
a hole made with a crowbar will not be necessary. Bore in six
inches, and with the rammer pack the dirt a little on the auger,
so that when it is lifted out it will bring all the dirt with it. In
dry dirt, if it is not rammed a little on the auger it will fall back
into the hole when the auger is taken out. Make a hole with
crowbar again and bore as before. Have a little paddle at hand
to clean off the auger when the dirt adheres to it. Never strike
an auger on a stone for the purpose of knocking off the dirt,
should be kept so bright that dirt will seldom stick to the li
Bear in mind, that a post auger is not a crowbar nor a sledge, and
when made as light as it ought to be it can be easily broken.
"When the lips hit a stone in boring, let the auger be taken out,

and pry out the stone with the crowbar.
10*

ips:

232

312. Description. — a is the handle, two feet long, which passes
through an eye in the shank 5, which shank is made of three-
quarter-inch round iron, about three feet long, screwed into
the socket of the auger, c c are the cutters or lips, which are all
lips and point, which point cannot be seen, cast in one piece.
The lips at d are from one and a half to two inches apart, accord
ing to the size of the auger, although two inches is large enough
in the widest place. The lips should not be more than one-
fourth of an inch in thickness, tapering to the edges, which should
be chilled when they are cast (see paragraph 312). The point
should not be more than two inches in diameter, terminating
with a point about three or four inches long, made of a true,
round taper. As such augers are seldom kept on hand, and
where they are kept for sale the price is from $3 to $4, the
farmer can employ an experienced pattern-maker to make the
pattern, and he can get such an auger fitted up at a machine-
shop for about $1 50, handle and all. Treman Brothers, of
Ithaca, sell them, ready for use, at $1 25. The whole of the
boring portion should be kept as bright and smooth as a plow,
and never allowed to become rusty. When not in use it should
be washed and wiped clean and dry, and kept where it will not
rust, because if it becomes rusty it will not work well, any more
than a plow that is not scoured so bright that the dirt will slip in
plowing.

THE SPUD.

313. For digging post holes, a spud, Fig. 100, is frequently
the most convenient and efficient tool that can be used. Where

FIG. 100.

TIIE SPUD.

there are but few stones, and the earth is too hard to spade it
up, a spud is very useful. In digging holes twice as large as the
dirt auger will bore, the spud is brought into use, and with it the
sides of the holes are cut down and dressed twice as quick, and

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 233

twice as easy, as it could be done with spade or crowbar. For
digging up the earth in the bottom of post holes, when no dirt
auger is used, a spud is far better than a crowbar. Any good
blacksmith can make a spud, and the cost will be from $1 50 to
$2 50, according to the size and weight of it.

314. Description. — a is the blade, from two and a half to three
inches wide, and about half an inch thick and a foot long, and of
the best of iron, and the edge or lower end of the blade, for two
or three inches, all steel, properly tempered for cutting stone and
gravel. The edge is bevelled from both sides like a crowbar.
b is the socket, large enough to receive a handle two inches in
diameter, and not less than four inches deep. The handle c
should be round and tapering, and made of the firmest and tough
est timber. If it is two inches in diameter at the socket, it will
be of a fair proportion if it is made of a true taper to the
upper end, which should be about one inch and an eighth in
diameter. The whole tool is about six feet in length. Re
member that a spud is not made to pry or lift with, like a
handspike, but to cleave off the dirt, and to dig it up, so that
it can be taken out of the holes with the dirt spoon. Let
the edge be made as thin as will be consistent with sufficient
strength. If it is too thin it will soon break or bend.

THE RAMMER.

315. The rammer (Fig. 101) is used for packing the earth
firmly around posts. In using it workmen are too apt to

FIG. 101.

o

THK RAMMER.

pack the dirt close around the posts and leave much of it
untouched with the rammer. The dirt should be well rammed
from the post to every side of the hole. The rammer should
be about five feet in length. The large part of it should be
about four inches in diameter and twenty inches long, and the

234 THE YOUNG FAKMER's MANUAL.

lower end mounted with an iron plate over the end, and a
good band around it to keep it from splitting. It should be
made of heavy, durable wood. The upper end of the knob
need not be but one inch in diameter. Rammers are often
made by boring a hole in a piece of scantling, and putting in a
handle. But a turned one is a little neater. A handle may
be turned of the proper size, and driven firmly in the head,
after which the head may be turned. Recollect that a rammer
is not a tool to pry with, nor to strike sideways with.

THE CROWBAR.

" Behold here the crowbar, a lever for prying
And lifting stone, standing or lying." — EDWARDS.

316. Here we have something that you do not break and
stave up without some extra exertion. This is not a shovel ! lift
FIG 102 w^ ^ as neav^7 as y°u please! It is not a spade !
pry with it till you are tired ! It is not an axe-helve,
nor fork-handle ! And now, friend, you who are
always breaking and staving up tools that were never
designed to pry with, when you have anything to pry,
get the crowbar. A crowbar is a very useful tool, and
its efficiency depends, in a great measure, on its form
and size. For ordinary purposes on the farm, a crow
bar of the following dimensions is of a fair proportion
and good form and size, and as small as one ought to be.
•~II-" por hand}mg heavy stone, crowbars may be heavier
than this, but never lighter. It is better, for gene
ral purposes, to have the basil from a to the edge
tapering like a wedge, instead of being pointed.
From a to the edge, four inches, made of steel, and

I • tempered as hard as it can well be and not break

when punching on stone. From a to I eight inches,

a.....L™ and one inch and three-eighths square. From Z> to the

\ I upper end, which is about one inch in diameter, round,
it should be of a true taper. From 5 to c it is twenty
BAK. inches, with the corners hammered, as in the figure.

235

From c to the end, thirty to thirty-four inches, round and smooth.
The upper end should be laid with steel, so that it will not
become battered up in hammering or driving stone with it. Let
the edge of the crowbar be kept sharp, and it will not be difficult
to work a hole in almost any soil.

317. The most efficient and proper manner of using a crowbar
when making holes in the ground is, to clasp it with both hands
close together, when it stands perpendicularly before the work
man, with the hands about as high as the elbows, and then lift it
perpendicularly, and plunge it down perpendicularly. By hand
ling it in this way, it is easy to thrust it straight in a hole at
every thrust. But when a man attempts to make a hole by tak
ing hold of the crowbar as he would take hold of a pitchfork or
spade, he finds it very difficult to thrust twice in one place. In
digging up the earth in the bottom of a post hole with a crow
bar or spud, first make a hole three or four inches deep in the
.centre of the post hole, and then thrust in the bar about three
inches from this hole, and pry the dirt towards the centre of the
post hole. Let the dirt be loosened all over the bottom of the
hole, and then take it out with

THE DIET-SPOON.

" There is a choice in spoons." — BARLOW.

318. A dirt-spoon (Fig. 103) is not calculated to shovel dirt,
nor to spade with ; its office is to scoop out the loose dirt in dig-

Fia. 103.

THE DIET-SPOON.

ging post holes. It is better for such a purpose than a spade, or
any kind of shovel, because it is not so pointed as some shovels,
and has a deeper bowl, like a scoop shovel. They are seldom
made to hang correctly, and the bowl is usually too long to do

236 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

good work. The bowl is frequently made in a straight line with
the handle, whereas, there should be so much hang to it that
when it is full of dirt there will be no tendency to turn over in
the hands of the workman. (See SHOVELS, paragraph 323.)
There should be so much hang (see HANG, in the next vol.)
or crook to it that, in filling it with dirt, it must be carried to
the opposite side of the post hole from where the digger is
standing, and then crowded down into the dirt, not by thrust
ing, but by the weight of the operator, and as it enters the
dirt it should be carried back to the other side of the hole.
Fig. 104 represents a side view of the dirt-spoon, by which it

FIG. 104.

SIDE VIEW OF DIRT-SPOON

will be seen what is about the correct shape for the bowl, and
crook of the handle. Our old-fashioned ladles for scooping
boiled beans from the dinner-pot come nearer to a dirt-spoon
than any other implement, and when a ladle hangs cor
rectly for dipping beans out of a dinner pot, it may be used
as a model for making a post- or dirt-spoon. The handle of
the dirt-spoon may be of wood, and bent like a shovel-
handle ; or the spoon may have an iron shank, a foot or so in
length, bent in proper shape, like Fig. 104. Let the bowl be
kept bright, so that dirt will not adhere to it, and clean it with a
little paddle, instead of striking it on a stone or block to knock
the dirt off. When it is struck on a stone to clean the dirt off,
the edges will soon become all stove up, and the dirt will not
slip off" readily.

THE PLUMB RULE.

" From the zenith above to the nadir below,
A plumb in a vertical line will go."— GRAY.

319. The plumb rule, Fig. 105, is made of a strip of board

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 237

about four feet long and three inches wide, and scalloped or forked
at the bottom, as in the figure, so that it may rest on the points,
while the plumb c swings freely. The rule must be planed as
straight as can be with the jointer, with the edges parallel, and

FIG. 105.

PLUMB RTTLK.

a mark made with the gauge along the centre, as at the dotted
line a ; I is a screw to which the plumb line d is attached ; c is
the plumb, made of lead, about two inches long and one inch in
diameter. To make a plumb, bore a smooth hole in a hard stick
of wood, and fill it with melted lead ; as soon as the lead is
poured in, hold a little wire staple in the melted lead, with the
pinchers, until the lead becomes solid. Split the stick, and attach
the plumb by the staple, to a piece of small cord d. Place the
edge of the rule against the side of a post, and if it is plumb the
cord will hang exactly over the dotted line a. Such a rule is
usually quite as convenient as a spirit level and plumb, which
will cost ten times more ; and it is often far more correct, and will
show any slight variation with more accuracy than many spirit
rules.

238

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

THE SPADE.

" Hurrah for the spade, and a workman to use it I
It turns the black glebe into bright shining gold I
What could our fathers have done, boys, without it,
When the fields lay all bare and the zephyrs blew cold ?"— DWIGHT.

320. Fig. 106 represents a good spade, in one sense, but be-

FIG.

107.

cause it hangs so awkwardly it is worthless.
It would be almost impossible to spade with
such a tool, because there is no hang to it.
The names of the principal parts of the
spade are, b, the handle, a, the hilt, c, the
stamp or shoulder, e?, the blade. Fig. 107
shows a side view of a well-hung spade.
It will be discovered that a line cutting the
middle of the straight portion of the handle
will strike the edge of the blade, as shown
by the dotted line, and the upper end of the
blade should set back of this line about two
inches, in a spade about a foot long. When
the blade hangs in such a position that a
line cutting the centre of it would be par
allel with a line cutting the straight part of
the handle, (see Fig. 108, OF SHOVELS,) it
will not work easily, because the laborer
will be obliged to make an extra effort to
prevent a spadeful from slipping off the end
SPADB. Q£ ^e blade. "When a spade has as much

hang as a well hung shovel, a spader is obliged to reach for
ward with the handle so far that the motion is awkward, ineffi
cient, and not easy. But when a spade has about as much
hang as is shown at Fig. 107, a workman is not obliged to use
up any of his energies in an inefficient manner. It is much
better to have a spade-handle entirely straight, without any
hang at all in a spade, than to have the edge and the blade
stand at such an angle as is represented by Fig. 106. A spade

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 239

with a handle entirely straight, and straight with the blade, is
not an awkward tool to spade with until one attempts to lift a
spadeful, then we shall see distinctly the necessity of having a
spade hung in the most proper manner. Manufacturers would
do well to make two kinds of spades, one kind very neat and
light, but sufficiently strong for skillful laborers, and another kind
unnecessarily heavy and clumsy, for the special benefit of those
fetupid dolts who use a spade as if it were a crowbar, and who
cannot use a spade a half day without bending the blade, or
breaking or springing the handle, or staving it up into some unde
sirable shape.

321. In using a spade, especially in spading sod, the operator
should always remember to cut a spadeful loose on both sides
before it is thrust in to take up a spadeful. "When a spade is
thrust in its whole length into hard soil, and the force of a laborer
applied to the handle to loosen the spadeful as if it were a lever,
if it is not made too heavy and clumsy for a skillful laborer, it
must 'break or bend, so as to be unfit for use. In spading we can
not avail ourselves of any advantage by resting the handle across
one knee, as in shovelling ; therefore a spade should not be one
ounce heavier than is necessary for consistent strength. The
blade should be made of steel, because a steel blade is much
stiffer than an iron blade of the same thickness. A man whose
mind is enlightened with a knowledge of mechanical principles,
will never bend nor break a spade ; his keen perception will tell
him, even if he were blindfolded, when the strength of the spade
is unequal to the force applied to the handle.

322. In spading the soil in gardens, when a plow is not used,
the laborer takes a spade-slice six or eight inches wide and spades
clear across a given plot of ground, leaving a furrow about half
as wide as the furrow made by a plow. The narrower the spade-
slices are the more completely the soil will be pulverized. When
manure is worked into the soil in spading, it should be spread in
the furrow, and every spadeful turned upside down on the top of
it ; and if the dirt does not all fall to pieces, a thrust or two with
the edge will pulverize it sufficiently for raking. When spading

240 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

soil of a clayey or adhesive character, after the spade has been
thrust in, instead of prying the spadeful loose by prying down on
the handle, the laborer should thrust the handle from him, forward,
so as to loosen the spadeful. This operation will not require
half the force for spading that is necessary where the spading is
all done by prying down on the handle to loosen the spadeful.
A skillful spader will wear out his spade ; but an awkward Jona
than will break and stave up twice as many spades, and will not
perform half the amount of labor, as he who handles a spade with
a little skill. In spading in ditches where the soil is quite wet,
ninety -nine diggers in one hundred will put their whole weight
on a spade-handle in order to pry a spadeful loose ; whereas, if
they would loosen it by thrusting the handle forward, it would
not require one-fourth the strength, and it would be loosened in
less than half the time. By prying down on the handle to loosen
a spadeful where there is water, a spadeful is not easily pryed
loose, because in separating the spadeful from the unbroken
ground there is a tendency to form a vacuum ; but by thrusting
the handle forward enough to loosen the spadeful, air and water
will find their way behind the spadeful, and it may be easily
lifted from its place with the spade. Remember, that a spade is
neither a crowbar nor handspike. If the edge and blade of a
spade are made of steel, as they should be, and polished on the
grindstone, and the edge ground up sharp, if the edge has a good
temper, so hard that it will not batter when it touches stone, nor
break when thrust on a flint, it will not require much force to
drive in the spade when spading. But .when the edge is all bat
tered up, and towards one-fourth of an inch thick, spading is a
very laborious operation. A good steel spade should never be
allowed to become rusty, nor to be exposed to heavy rains, as
bent handles in spades are quite apt to spring straight when left
in wet places. A few drops of oil will keep the blade from rust
ing, and it will not require half as much time to clean a spade
and oil it and put it under cover as it will to scour it fit for use
after it has become rusty. If the edge of a steel spade is too soft,
it may easily be tempered again as hard as may be desired, by

241

heating about two inches of the edge. (See TEMPERING TOOLS,
532.)

SHOVELS.

" 0 give me a shovel ! There's magic about it I
And the laborer skilled will teach us to use it." — EDWARDS.

323. The great excellency and efficiency of shovels, and the
ease with which they may be handled, depend almost entirely on
the correct hang of the handles and blades. If a shovel or spade
be made of the very best materials, and is defective in the hang
of the blade and handle, it is a poor tool; and the intelligent
farmer would find it for his interest to dispose of such tools to
those who seen* to contend that a laborer can perform just as
much work with a tool having a straight handle as with a tool
correctly hung, providing he is only accustomed to using such tools.
Shovelling dirt, or manure, or anything else, is very laborious
work, even when the very best kind of shovels is used; but
when shovelling is to be performed with a poor tool, the laborer is
sure to be greatly fatigued, while he performs but a light day's
work ; but when a shovel is made of good materials, is light and
bright, and correctly hung, a man will be able to perform twice
the amount of labor, with half the fatigue that he would experi
ence with a shovel improperly hung. Shovels are too frequently
made unnecessarily heavy in order to be of consistent strength,
because the materials of which they are made are very poor ; but
if they were made of good steel they might be often full one-third
lighter, and sufficiently strong for any skillful laborer to use with
out fear of breaking. When the blades are made of poor iron, it
is necessary to make them nearly twice as heavy as if they were
made of steel ; and more than this, iron blades will not wear as
smooth, and will not enter the dirt as easily, as a steel blade ; and
dirt is far more apt to adhere to an iron blade than to a steel one, —
all of which require the exercise of more force in using a shovel.
It is no uncommon thing to find shovels from one to two pounds
heavier than is necessary. Suppose, for example, a laborer will
throw up ten shovelfuls in a minute ; at that rate he will throw
up six thousand shovelfuls in a day of ten hours. If his shovel

242 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

be two pounds heavier than is necessary, he will in ten hours
exert a force, which is entirely lost in handling a heavy shovel,
which would have been sufficient to have thrown up twelve thou
sand pounds of earth, with no more fatigue than he experiences,
had he used a lighter shovel. The laborer will discover from this
fact the importance of having shovels as light as will be consistent
with necessary strength ; and the better the materials are of which
shovels are made, the lighter they may be, and the more a work
man will be able to perform with a certain amount of force. In
using a shovel, all the force which a laborer exerts should be
turned to the most efficient purpose. It requires but little force
to shovel a ton of earth when a man handles a good shovel with
dexterity ; but if a laborer must bend his legs and back very much
in order to bring his shovel in the best position to enter the sub
stance to be shovelled with the least force, the fatigue produced
by bringing his body into such a position, and straightening up
again, will be greater than that caused by thrusting in the shovel
and lifting a shovelful. For this reason it is very poor policy for
a laborer to use a shovel with a very short handle, like the handle
of a spade, for shovelling any length of time, because it is very
laborious and fatiguing. A man may shovel with a short handle
for an hour or so as fast as he would with a long handle, and not
discover any difference in the fatigue produced or force expended;
but let him continue to use a shovel with a short handle all day,
and if he does an honest day's work, unless his powers of endur
ance are very great, he will pronounce shovelling very laborious
business. In shovelling dirt or manure with a short-handled
shovel, the operator usually places the hand which holds the hilt
of the shovel against the inside of one thigh, and bends his knees
and body forward, and in this position, by no means an easy one,
thrusts in the shovel. The simple act of bringing the body into
such a position, and bringing it again erect, will require the ex
penditure of more force than the shovelling alone. In order to
shovel with the least fatigue, a laborer needs to stand almost erect,
with his back straight and knees bent but little ; and then, with
the handle resting across one knee, the shovel is thrust into the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

243

dirt by a forward motion of the body ; and by straightening the
knees and keeping the arms stiff, with the shovel across the knee,
the shovelful is lifted a few inches with the least possible fatigue.
Then, by making a fulcrum of the knee across which the han
dle is resting, and by thrusting the upper end of the handle
down with one hand, the shovelful may be raised nearly a foot
high with the greatest ease. It must then be lifted by the arms.
But a man's back should be always kept about straight in
shovelling, as he will be able to work much longer and with less
fatigue than would be possible when he is constantly bending
and straightening his back. The knees should always perform
the most laborious part in shovelling dirt, and the arms should be
kept as closely to the body as is convenient. My apology for
being so particular on this subject is, — few laborers, old or young,
know how to use a dirt-shovel with the greatest ease, and to
perform the greatest amount of labor with the least fatigue;
and they often labor very hard and accomplish but little, be
cause they do not understand handling the shovel with dexterity
or because it is not properly hung. I shall now treat more par
ticularly of

THE RULE FOB HANGING SHOVELS IN A WORKMANLIKE MANNER.

FIG. 108.

FIG. 109.

A SHOVEL WELL HUNG.

324. Fig. 109 represents a shovel well hung, and the dotted

i
244 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

lines show the angle at which the straight part of the handle and
the blade should stand with each other, in order to have a shovel
hang in such a manner as to work easily. When a man takes
such a shovel in his hands across one knee, as if he were about
to shovel dirt, the blade should lie nearly flat on the ground,
on a level with his feet. This will be readily comprehended
by the dotted lines. Every laborer who knows how to handle a
dirt shovel with dexterity, knows that the blade of a shovel
must lie nearly flat on the ground, in order to enter the dirt
with the least force of the operator. In Fig. 109, for example,
the dotted line a b represents the level on which the laborer
stands. The blade lies flat on this level. -One hand of the work
man grasps the handle at c, and the other hand at d, while the
handle rests across one knee at e. Now by a slight motion
of the body forward, the shovel is thrust in with the least
possible force, and by the motions then of straightening up and
thrusting down the hand at d, as already mentioned, shovelling is
performed with as little fatigue and force of a laborer as it is
possible to do it. With a shovel hung like Fig. 109, a laborer
can avail himself of some mechanical advantage in shovelling;
whereas, with a shovel exactly like it, which has a short handle,
like the handle of a spade, one hand must not only lift much
more than a shovelful, but it must operate as a fulcrum for the
other hand to pry across, so as to balance the shovelful. A
shovel like Fig. 109 is not designed to be used in ditching, or
for shovelling up ridges along a fence, because it is so wide
at the entering edge that twice as much force is required to
make it enter the dirt as is required for a shovel like Fig. 1 1 0 of
the same width. For shovelling sand or mortar, or for clean
ing stables and such like, a shovel like Fig. 109 is preferable
to one like Fig. 110, which represents a round-pointed ditching
shovel, or the best kind of a shovel for casting up a ridge along
a fence. Fig. Ill represents a round-pointed shovel similar h>
Fig. 110, with the sides turned up by a blacksmith, for working
in a narrow channel or ditch. Figs. 109, 110 and 111 are all
hung alike, as will be seen by the dotted lines, and hung ac-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

245

cording to the most approved mechanical principles. A shovel
that hangs just right for a tall man will not hang exactly right for
a short man, when they both grasp the handle at the same

FIG. 110.

FIG. 111.

places ; but a short man, by grasping the handle nearer the blade,
may use a shovel that hangs just right for a tall man, and vice
versa.

325. Fig. 108 represents a round pointed shovel very awk
wardly hung, and it would be a very disagreeable and ugly tool
to work with. There is curvature enough in the handle, but it
will seen by the dotted lines that the straight part of the handle,
and the blade of the shovel, are in lines parallel with each other.
Whereas, if the point of it stood at the upper dotted line, as in
the other figures, it would be a good shovel, and a laborer would
be able to shovel with it with as much ease as he would with
one hung like Fig. 110. With a shovel like Fig. 108, a laborer
must bend his whole body very low, in order to bring the blade in
a position to enter the dirt by the application of the least force.
If he attempts to shovel with it across one knee, the blade stands
up and down at such a sharp angle that it is difficult to keep a
shovelful of dirt on it, and more than this, a laborer cannot thrust
it into the dirt unless he stamps it with his foot, except the dirt
i very mellow. Shovels are never made of this shape by skill
ful workmen ; but by allowing them to be exposed to the influences

24:6 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

of wet and dry weather, and by prying with them, and other
rough and hard usage, shovels that are correctly hung are often
brought into a shape like Fig. 108 before they are one quarter
worn out. The handles of such shovels ought to be made of
timber having a natural crook, not bent, and then there would be
little liability to spring out straight. Let the blades of shovels
be kept bright by wiping them dry after using them, and apply
ing a few drops of oil, — not salted grease, as many do, for salt wih
rust iron, — and keep the handles near the blade well painted, and
never use a shovel for spading or prying, for it is not a spade
nor a handspike. "When a shovel is used to spade with, the
almost certain consequence is, that the blade will be bent directly
across the middle. What has been penned holds equally good
with reference to the hanging of scoop shovels, and of forks for
pitching manure.

BOOT IRON FOR SPADINQ.

326. In spading or shovelling, when it is necessary to stamp
the spade into the dirt with one foot, the shoulder of the spade
or shovel would, in a short time, wear the sole of a boot entirely
through, besides making the foot tender or lame. To obviate all
such occurrences, a boot iron, Fig. 112, is used for the purpose

FIG. 112.

a

BOOT IEON FOB SPADING.

of protecting the boot, and for giving efficiency to the force of
the laborer, a is the sole of it, made of iron, about three-six
teenths of an inch thick, as long as the boot is wide, and about
two inches in width from the flange e to the forward edge of the
iron at a. At b is one of the ears through which the leather

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

247

strap c passes ; d is a buckle in one end of the strap. The ears
are a part of the sole iron, turned up, from two to three inches
long, according to the size of the boot. The flange e is turned
downwards, like a hook, to prevent the shoulder of the spade
from slipping off it. The iron is placed in the hollow of the
boot, with the flange e against the forward side of the heel of the
boot, and the strap c is passed behind the heel, and through mor
tises in each ear, as shown in the figure, and buckled around the
instep. An ingenious blacksmith will make the iron for ten or
twelve cents, and the strap and buckle will cost eight or ten more.
This is a very useful article in using the spade, and will save the
wear of boots very much more than its cost.

THE RAIL FENCE JACK.

327. In repairing rail fence it is often necessary and desirable
to put in a good rail near the bottom of a fence, where a rail is
broken or rotten, without taking down the corners. When there
are heavy riders on a fence, and the stakes are firmly set, it is no
little task to take off the riders and loosen the stakes and let

FIG. 113.

A BAIL FJSNCB JACK.

down the corners, in order to take out old pieces of a rail, and
place a good one there. But by having a fence jack like Fig.
113, a man or boy can raise the corners of a fence, when it is
staked and ridered with heavy rails, and take out the pieces and
put in a good rail much quicker than he would be able to do it
by taking the fence down and putting it up again. It is so plain
11

248 THE YOUNG FARMERS MANUAL.

that almost any one can make it. a is the sill, about thirty inches
long, of good timber, two by four inches square, b is the stand
ard, about three and a half feet long, five inches wide, one inch
and a quarter thick, with three-quarter inch holes bored in it about
four inches apart, c is the lever of tough timber, not less than
three inches square at the mortise where it plays on the standard.
The mortise should be so long that the lever can play up and
down freely. The short end of the lever should be six or seven
inches longer than the end of the sill, and scalloped, as in the
illustration, to prevent its slipping off the rails. The other end
should be about six feet long, and of a true taper from the mor
tise to the end. The end need not be larger than a fork handle.
d is an iron pin with an eye in the end, attached to the lever c
by a small chain or leather strap. The pin is for holding the
lever at the holes in the standard for prying across, e is a pawl,
attached to the handle, and plays in the notches in the standard
I. In using the jack for lifting the corners of the fence, put the
end of the lever under a rail and raise the corner a little, and
put a stone or block of wood between the rails to keep them
apart. Now, carry the jack to the next corner and raise it up a
little, and fasten the lever with the pawl, and then take out the
pieces of the rail and put in a good one, and let the fence down
again. When it is desirable to raise the corners of a fence so as
to put larger blocks under them, the fence jack is much more
convenient than a handspike, because one hand can work with it
very advantageously, while with nothing but a handspike two
hands are very necessary. If the end of the lever on which the
rail rests extends too far beyond the end of the sill, the jack will
tip over when a corner is resting on it. To obviate this difficulty,
run the end of the lever under the rails so far that the weight of
the fence will not be beyond the end of the sill. If the rails
should be close to the ground, raise them a little and block them
up, and then set the jack a little under the fence. Such a jack
is a very convenient implement for raising one end of the axle-
trees of a wagon, when the wheels are to be taken off. The
notches for the pawl should not be quite as close together as they

THE YOUNG FAKMEK'S MANUAL.

249

appear in the illustration. It would be a great improvement to
have an iron rack — a straight piece of iron with teeth on one
side of it — bolted to the standard, and an iron pawl playing in it ;
but for ordinary purposes, notches in a wooden standard and a
tough piece of wood for a pawl will subserve a very good purpose.

FIG. 114.

A PICK MATTOCK OR GRUBBING HOE

" Let servant be ready with mattock in hand,
To grub out the bushes that cover the land."— TUSSER.

328. Is a very useful tool for setting stakes for a rail fence,
when the stakes are not driven in the ground in a perpendicular
position. The blade of a mattock should be not less than two
and a half inches wide, and the handle should be of an oval form
instead of round, so that a laborer can hold it more advanta
geously in the proper position when using it. When the handle
of a mattock is round, it may turn half way over in the hands
of a workman and he will not perceive it ; but when a handle is
of an oval form, the eye
also being oval, a workman
will perceive a slight varia
tion of the mattock with
out looking to see if he is
holding it correctly. (See
HAMMER AND BEETLE, Par.
331 and 338.) The handle
of a mattock should always
be put through the eye
from the lower side, and
then it will not draw or
work out, if the eye is
made as it should be — a
little the largest on the
lower side. Eemember,
that a mattock or grubbing
hoe is not a crowbar for
prying stone, nor a mill- A PICK MATTOCK OB GRUBBING HOK.

250 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

pick for dressing stone. Neither the handle nor blade is calculated
for prying. Mattocks and picks of all forms may be seen in the
illustrated catalogue of R. L. Allen & Co., New York city.
For digging up trees, and for setting fence stakes among roots,
one edge of the mattock should be in the form of an axe, for the
purpose of cutting roots and sprouts. For ditching, or for pick
ing up very hard dirt, a pick with a pointed end, instead of an
edge like a mattock, is much the best, as in the figure.

SPOOL FOB CHALK LINE AND FENCE LINE.
" The twisted lines curl into kinks and loops." — HOMER.

329. The majority of farmers, if they have any chalk line at
all — and the same is true of many good mechanics — wind it up
on a corn cob or a stick of wood, notwithstanding the very great
inconvenience in letting a line off, and the injury it receives by
being wound up and let off over the end of whatever it is wound
up on. Many mechanics have a little pocket spool to wind the
line on, and let it off by holding it, as it revolves, with a thumb
at one end and a finger at the other. It is a fact which but very
few people understand, that in winding up a line or cord, or rope
of any kind, by putting it over the end of the stick or spool, if it
is wound up the same way it was twisted when it was made, it
will be twisted harder and harder every time it is wound up, and
will soon curl up, running into all sorts of kinks and loops, while,
on the contrary, if it be wound up in an opposite direction, it will
soon be all untwisted and nearly worthless. I have seen many
good lines completely spoiled in this manner, by being always
wound up one way, and then let off by allowing the spool to
revolve. "When a line is wound up over the end of a stick, and
let off over the end it does not injure it, providing it is wound
up the way that will twist it harder as it is wound up. If it is
twisted harder by winding up, and untwisted by letting it off
just as much as it was twisted, the line will remain in the same
condition if wound up few or many times ; but when it is wound
up in the contrary direction, which will untwist it, as it is wound

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

251

up, it will not generally twist it as hard as it ought to be twisted
by simply allowing it to run off. These few ideas will enable
the farmer to understand and to appreciate the FIG. 115.
importance of having a spool like Fig. 115.
It will be discovered by the cut that there are
three flanges to this spool, which are about
four inches in diameter, and two inches between
them. A half-inch hole is bored through the
spool, and it revolves easily on the part of the
handle which passes through it, which should
be made of very tough wood. In letting off
the line, let the workman, as one hand grasps
the handle, apply the thumb against one flange
of the spool to keep it from unwinding too
rapidly, and in winding it up let the spool be
turned by taking hold of the wrist-pin or little
handle, in one flange. By letting a line off
such a spool, and by winding it up without SPOOL FOB CHALK LINE.
passing it over the end of the spool, it will never become un
twisted, nor twisted so hard that it will curl into kinks ; and a
line will last much longer when kept on such a spool than it will
when kept on a corn cob or stick, and more than all besides, it is
infinitely more convenient. A chalk line is kept in one gain and
a fence line in the other. To keep the other line from unwind
ing when one is being let off, cut a gash in each flange with a
saw about three-sixteenths of an inch deep, and after the lines
are wound up draw the ends into these gashes. Always have a
loop in the end of each line, for hooking on a scratch-awl or pin.
330. When chalking the line, the line should not be allowed to
run across a lump of chalk, cutting gashes all through it, but the
chalk should be held in such a manner that the line will run
between the thumb and chalk, wearing down one side of the chalk.
A little skill will enable a workman to wear a piece of chalk all
out on the line without cutting gashes all through it. Select soft
chalk, as hard chalk will not shed, and will wear out the line.
For black chalk, a billet of basswood, burned to a coal, and the

252 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

fire quenched by dipping it in water quickly, will answer a good
purpose.

THE HAMMER.

" Here view the hammer, glory of our nation;

The universal emblem of mechanics ;
The boasted empress of civilization.

What thrilling, wondrous stories in dynamics,
Are told of hammers, back in bygone ages !
How oft its feats fine laurels crowned ! Wise sages,
With their fair hands the chaplets round entwined,
And statesmen, kings, with glory it enshrined." — EDWARDS.

331. Fig. 116 represents a claw hammer ; and the face should
be of steel, so hard that it will not batter up, and not so hard
that it will cleave off, and the claws should be of the same mate
rial. The handle should not be round, but of an oval form, so
that it may be held in the proper postion, when in use, more

FIG. 116.

advantageously than if the handle were round. The face should
be ground smooth and true on a grindstone, and should be paral
lel with a line cutting the centre of the handle, as shown by the
dotted line. If the face stands inward too much towards the
handle, or in an opposite direction, or if the face be convex or
one-sided, or if the corners be knocked off, it will be a poor thing
to drive nails with. The face of a claw hammer should never
be used for pounding on chisel handles when mortising, because
the corners are so sharp that it will soon split them or wear them
out ; and it should never be used for hammering iron or stone,
lest the corners of the face be broken off or battered up. Make

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 253

it a rule to use the claw hammer for nothing but driving nails
and drawing nails. If oil or tar be on the face, it will be almost
impossible to drive a nail with it until it has been removed. In
drawing a nail out of hard wood with the claw, strike it one or
two blows, enough to start it in a little, and it will come out
much easier than if it had not been started in. "When the hand
grasps the handle, let the thumb lie lengthways of the handle,
instead of clasping it as shown in the figure. With the thumb
on the top of the handle one can strike truer and longer without
tiring the wrist. In order to drive a nail true, place the hammer
on the nail, and then keep the eye on the nail, when striking,
instead of on the hammer. Never try to draw a nail with the
claws if it will not start without starting the handle in the eye
of the hammer. If one is always careful to put a little block or
piece of iron under the hammer for a fulcrum, there will be little
danger of starting the handle. If the hammer hangs correctly,
and the handle gets bent, it will not hang right, and will bend a
nail down before it has driven it in. If the face of a hammer is
ground true, as it should be, on the grindstone, not one-sided nor
convex, and if the face is in a line parallel with a line which
would cut the centre of the handle from end to end, as in the
figure, and if the handle is made of a true and oval form, there
will be little danger of bending nails over sideways when driving
them. When the handle of a hammer is round, a workman can
not perceive ly feeling the handle whether a hammer is in the
right position for driving a nail or not ; but when the handle is
of an oval form, and is put in the eye true, with the widest way
of the handle in the direction exactly from the claw to the face,
after a workman has become accustomed to a hammer he can
snatch it up without looking at it, and the perception of the fin
gers and thumb will-determine most accurately the correct posi
tion for driving a nail. If the face of the nail hammer were a
little concave, it would be less liable to slip or glance off when
driving nails. A good nail hammer is not a proper tool to drive
wooden pins with, nor for driving any piece of work together
with, because the corners are so sharp that they will split a pin

254: THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

very readily, and make deep dents in the sides of anything that
is hammered with it. Should the face of a claw hammer be
come battered up, it should be tempered again, and made as hard
as it will bear to be and not fly or break easily. The handle of
a hammer should have a little bilge in it at the point where the
hand grasps it, as in the figure. If the handle is made of a uni
form size from end to end, a workman will be constantly losing
his hold ; whereas a little swell in a handle will prevent its slip
ping in the hand.

THE SLEDGE HAMMER.

332. Sledge hammers are of various forms, and are made,
when made properly, with a reference to the services which they
are intended to perform. If a sledge is wanted simply to drive
stakes and posts for fencing, the best form for such work will be
a round cast-iron sledge, with two faces, similar to the beetle.
The faces of such a hammer should be convex a little, and not
have sharp or square corners like the face of a claw hammer,
because, if the corners are square or sharp, if a workman does
not strike exactly square when driving a stake or post, such sharp
corners, will make deep dents in them ; and they are far more
liable to split a post than if the faces were a little convex. But it
is not well to have the faces too convex ; because, if they are too
convex the efficiency of a blow, in driving wood, is partly lost, in
consequence of the great convexity of the face, which bruises and
indents the wood more than if the faces were square. When the
pattern for such a hammer is made, the convexity of the faces
should not exceed one-eighth of an inch across the face, and the
sharp corners should be rounded off a little. About twelve to six
teen pounds would be the proper weight for a hammer of this
description. But such a hammer should never be used for pound
ing iron, nor for breaking stone, because cast-iron hammers will
break easily when hammering substances harder than wood.

333. The handle for such a hammer should be of an oval form,
and of good timber, with a knob at the end of it similar to the
beetle handle, with faces in lines parallel with a line cutting the

255

centre of the handle, as shown at the beetle, Fig. 117; and the
widest way of the handle should be in the direction from one face
of the sledge to the other.

334. "When a workman attempts to drive a post, for example,
with such a hammer, which has a round handle, if he is not skill
ful in using such a tool, he will not be able to strike true, and will
split half the posts which he undertakes to drive. When the.
handle is round, such a hammer may turn one-fourth of the way
around in the hands ; and unless the workman can see the face of
the hammer, he will not be able to tell whether he is going to
strike with a corner or side, or with the face of the hammer. But
if the handle be of an oval form, and the hilt oval, the perception
of the hand will determine, very correctly, whether the face is in
the proper position for striking a square blow or not. Such
handles are almost always made round ; and we often see laborers
strike, many times, a half-dozen blows, without starting a post at
all, simply because they do not strike true and straight ; and they
will strike with a corner of the sledge, when it will fly over
and over in their hands, and they will be obliged to give it up
with the exclamation, " It can't ~be driven!" when the fault is partly
in the tool, and partly in the workman.

335. When a skillful laborer attempts to drive a post with such
a hammer, he will set the sledge on the end of the post, on the
face, square, and at once calculate how far to drop the hand that
holds the hilt, in order to have the hammer strike square ; and he
will grasp the hilt of the handle firmly to prevent the sledge from
striking on one corner; and every blow, when the face strikes
square, will crack as sharply as the report of a cut rifle. But
when an awkward, unskillful Jonathan attempts to drive a post
with a hammer having a round handle, his blows sound as dull as
if he struck a post of India-rubber ; and he will hammer the end
of a post all to slivers, before it is half driven into the ground.
Let the farmer bear in mind, that in order to have the blows of a
hammer most effective, the face must strike square against the
substance to be driven. When striking heavy blows, he should
observe how he holds the handle when he strikes an effective blow,

256 THE YOUNG FAKMEK'S MANUAL.

and then endeavor to keep the hammer as nearly in that position
as possible at every blow. A skillful laborer will usually strike
truer and more effective blows by grasping the handle at the hilt
with loth hands, and swinging it at arms length over his head.
But this manner of swinging a heavy sledge-hammer is much
more fatiguing and laborious than to slide one hand towards the
' sledge every time it is elevated. — (Read paragraph 339.)

STONE MAULS

336. Are sometimes made of cast-iron, for the purpose of break
ing stone ; and instead of a flat face, one end of the pattern is
rounded off to a kind of conical obtuse apex, while the other end
is rounded in the form of a pyramidal apex, not brought to a
sharp edge, but in the form of a blacksmith's swedge for making
a circular groove. A hammer of this form will stand a vast
deal of hammering without breaking, but it would be a worthless
tool to drive posts or stakes with, because it would indent and
bruise and split the end of a post, without driving it but little.
There are several other kinds of hammers, a notice of which does
not seem to come within the province of this work. But as every
farmer needs a hammer, besides the claw-hammer, for riveting, a
few words with reference to

THE RIVETING HAMMER

337. May not be out of place, which for ordinary purposes
should weigh about one pound. If it be too heavy, rivets are
very apt to lend in consequence of too heavy a blow, when spread
ing the ends of them with the hammer. The face of a riveting
hammer should be a little convex, and the edge of it should be
acute enough to dent or spread the ends of a rivet readily ; and
it should not be so sharp as to cut the iron when riveting. Light
blows made with a light hammer are more effective in spreading
a rivet than a blow of an equal momentum made with a heavier
hammer. A riveting hammer should have a longer handle than
an ordinary claw hammer, in order to give a greater velocity to it

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 257

in striking. It is not very practicable to spread the end of a
small rivet with a hammer that weighs two or three pounds,
because a stroke with such a hammer would be so heavy as to
crush or double a rivet before the end could be spread. Riveting
hammers of almost any desirable size may be obtained at most of
the hardware stores. (See MOMENTUM, in the next volume.)

THE MALLET AND BEETLE.

"The beetle, now twin-brother of the hammer,
Holds equal rank in pounding and for clamor ;
Unlike the hammer with its flinty face,
The beetle, in close impact, yields an ace."— EDWARDS.

338. A mallet should be made of some very hard wood ; and
if it be not made of a knot, the ends of it should be banded like
the beetle, to keep it from splitting. That part of a tree, if it be
tough wood, which grows just above the surface of the ground,
which is called the crook, will make the very best mallets, which
will require no hooping. I have a mallet which was made of
the crook of a part of a white ash stump, which has been the only
mallet in use for framing all my buildings, and doing all my shop
work for sixteen years, and it is not half worn out as yet. A
mallet should be turned out true, with the ends convex or rounding,
not less than half an inch from edge to edge. The handle should
be put in true, so that the faces will be parallel with the handle, as
shown in the Fig. 117. Let it be well oiled to prevent its crack
ing. Never allow the faces of the mallet to be bruised and dented
on iron bolts and the like, but keep it smooth for pounding on
chisel handles only. A tough piece of apple-wood will make
about as good a mallet as almost any other kind of wood. But if
it is made of a round piece of wood, on account of its great liability
to check, it should be treated as recommended for

BEETLES.

339. Figure 117 represents a farmer's beetle, made in a work-

258 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

manlike manner. Beetles should always be turned true, and the
-p , , ,_ handle turned of an oval

form, (see SLEDGE HAM
MER, paragraph 332,)
and put in very true, so
that a line cutting the
centre of the handle will
be exactly parallel with
lines continued square

A WOODEX BEETLE. . i j f

across the ends or face

of the beetle, as shown by the dotted lines, Fig. 117. The beetle
should hang as nearly like the sledge hammer as possible; and
the reader can refer to that paragraph (333) for the information
which seems to be lacking in this place.

340. Beetles should be made of very firm, tough wood, such as
the butt end of a small locust, iron-wood, or apple-wood. If a
beetle is to be made of a round stick, which has the heart of the
tree in the centre, when the timber is green, a lot of beetles
should be sawed off, about eight or nine inches long, in late
autumn, and an inch and a half hole bored lengthwise through the
centre of the sticks ; and they should be allowed to season during
the winter, not in a stove room, lest they check badly, but under
shelter. The object of the hole in the centre is, to allow the
timber to settle together, without cracking or checking. When
they are made of split pieces of wood, it will not be necessary to
bore them, as they will not check like a stick with the heart in it.
(See SEASONING TIMBER, in next vol.) When they are seasoned
thoroughly, turn out a tough stick, just large enough to drive
through the beetle, and turn out the beetle like the figure, with a
shoulder two inches from each end, leaving the ends just large
enough to receive the rings when they are red hot. (See EX
PANSIVE FORCE, in next vol.) By heating the rings before put
ting them on, and driving them down to the shoulder while hot,
and then by cooling them quickly, before they have time to burn
the beetle but little, they will, by contracting, become so tight
that they will remain tight until the beetle is worn out, without

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 259

wedging. Should they become loose, let them be wedged well
with wedges of hard, tough timber. (See paragraph 345.) Many
men will wedge such things with wedges of soft timber; but
every good mechanic who knows anything about driving wedges,
will tell you, that anything can be wedged very much tighter with
hard wood wedges than with wedges of soft wood. Use an inch
framing chisel (see Fig. 156) for making checks in the ends of a
beetle for the wedges ; and make the wedges a sixteenth of an
inch wider than the chisel, and then they will not work out.
Some men prefer to have a beetle made without any shoulder for
the rings, but my experience teaches me, that a beetle will wear
longer, and the rings remain true longer, when it is made with
shoulders, than when it is made of a true taper, without shoulders
for the rings ; because, if a laborer happens to strike mostly on
one side of the end of a beetle, unless the rings are so tight that
they cannot be moved by much pounding, one side of the rings
will be driven on farther than the other, and the faces will soon
become one-sided] and then it wi]l be an awkward tool to strike
with. And if the rings are not very tight, when the wood begins
to batter and spread over them they will drive on towards the
middle of the beetle, and a beetle will be all stove up and worth
less before it is half worn out.

341. The size of the different parts of an ordinary beetle is about
as follows : beetle eight or nine inches long, shoulders two inches,
rings, of the best of iron, one inch wide, about three-eighths of an
inch thick, and about large enough to go on the end of a beetle,
five inches in diameter, and handle about thirty inches long. For
a strong man the handle should be longer than for boys, or men
of inferior strength. "Where the handle enters the head, it should
not be less than an inch and a half in diameter. The hilt and
straight part of the handle may be made to suit the size of the
laborer's hands. A man with small hands and short fingers needs
a smaller handle than he who has very large hands, with fingers
of a corresponding length. Great care should be exercised in
putting in the handle, lest it stand as shown by the dotted handle
in the figure. It is no uncommon thing to see handles standing

260

at such an angle ; and when they do, we hear those who use
such beetles complain of having their hands hurt often by the jar,
in consequence of not hitting the wedges true ; and more than all
else, beetles that are hung one-sided, wear one-sided ; and as they
usually in striking hit one corner or one side of the top of an iron
wedge, they will not wear as long, nor will the force of driving,
when the beetle is in use, be half as effective as if the face struck
the wedge perfectly square. (See USING SLEDGE, paragraph 335.)
After the rings have been but on and the handle driven in, make
two plugs of hard wood, and drive them in the ends of the beetle
very tightly, and saw them off even with the surface ; it is then
ready for use.

HANDLING A BEETLE.

342. It is often very amusing to see how awkwardly and ineffi
ciently many laborers handle a beetle in splitting wood or rails,
or anything else. One blow will be on one corner of an iron
wedge, and the next blow will be on another corner, and the next
one will be in such a manner that one corner of the wedge and
beetle ring will come in contact, and the beetle will roll over and
over, and very likely will fly half a rod ; and when the laborer goes
to get his beetle again, he will not unlikely find a ring bro
ken. When beetle rings are put on as tightly as they ought
to be, one or two awkward blows with the beetle, in such an
unskillful manner that the iron wedge and beetle ring will come
in contact, will snap a ring asunder instantaneously, unless it is of
the very best iron; and even then rings will often break, es
pecially in frosty weather, when the blow is not very powerful.
Laborers ought to know — but I blush to say that one in fifty does
not know — that when the face of a beetle is struck on the corner
of an iron wedge, the blow is not half as effective as it would be
if the face struck the head of the wedge entirely square. And
more than all this, when all the blows are applied to a corner of
the wedge, a beetle will be completely worn out before it has
performed one-fourth of the service that it would have done had

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 261

the blows been applied in such a manner that the face of the beetle
and head of the wedge came together square, as they should come.
It is most surprising to witness how long a good beetle will last
some laborers, and how much they will use it at hard pounding,
while, on the contrary, it is still more surprising to see how very
soon another laborer will use up a good beetle, before he has used
it enough to begin to even think of its being worn out. The first
alluded to always strike very true and square, while the latter
deal their blows in every imaginable way but square and true.
A laborer who handles his beetle with skill, will pound very hard
on his wedges all day, and the faces of the beetle will be battered
but little, while he who strikes awkwardly with a beetle just as
good as the other, will use it up in one day, as if it had been in
hard service for a week or more. It is all folly to use up beetles
at such a rate, and a laborer ought to know better than to strike
a ring on an iron wedge, or to strike a corner of a wedge with the
face of the beetle.

343. In whatever position a wedge may be standing, place the
face of the beetle and head of the wedge square together, then grasp
the hilt of the handle firmly, and be careful to make every blow
square, and not on one side of the face of the beetle, but as nearly
in the centre of it as may be. If a wedge leans a little, or varies
its position as it is driven in, let the position of the beetle be
varied accordingly, so as to have the beetle and wedge strike each
other exactly square. By exercising a little skill in this respect, a
laborer will very soon find that he will be able to drive a wedge
with half the number of blows, and not use up his beetle one-
fourth as much as when he deals his blows every way lut square
on the head of the wedge and face of the beetle. (Read the
paragraphs on the HAMMER AND SLEDGE, 331.) As beetle and
wedges are used together, I shall now notice

262

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

THE WEDGE. - HOW TO MAKE WEDGES.

M The mighty power of the wedge to sever
Both flinty rocks and gnarls, exceeds the lever.
Impelled by force of oft-repeated blows,
In splitting, piercing, cutting, and in cleaving,
Or rending right and left, or in upheaving —
Unlike the screw its power no measure knows." — EDWARDS.

344. Fig. 118 represents a well-formed iron wedge, and a is
the head, b is one of the sides, d is one of the edges, and e is the

118

FIGURES
119, 120,

entering edge. A wedge will not
rebound as readily when the cor
ners at the entering edge are made
flush, or square, like the figure, as
it will when the corners are round
ed off very much like the edge of
an old axe, the corners of which
are well ground off. Sharp cor
ners of an iron wedge make it
stick when entering.

345. Fig. 119 is a very ill-
shapen wedge, but very like the
iron wedges which many laborers
use, and exactly like the wooden
wedges which are often made with the false impression that they
will be more effective of such a form than if they were like Fig.
118. But wooden wedges of such a form cannot possibly be as
effective for any purpose as if they were like Fig. 118, because
small wedges of such an ill form will be crushed at the entering
point before they are half driven in ; and if large wedges are
made of such a form, it requires a greater number of blows to
drive one in far enough to open a log two inches.

346. Every author whose writings I have consulted on the
subject of the wedge has simple spoken of it in philosophical or
theoretical terms, and the most important considerations which
affect, directly or remotely, many of the operations of the farm,
and which are all-important for the beginner to understand, have
been entirely overlooked or rejected ; and what has been penned

263

in reference to the wedge, if put into practice according to the
strict letter of the various writers, will, in practice, lead the begin
ner into most egregious errors. The wedge has always been
considered as a double inclined plane, and its efficiency has been
spoken of as being in proportion to the acuteness and length of its
sides. Theoretically speaking, this is all correct ; but, in prac
tice^ no principle in philosophy proves to be more errone
ous than this. Theory would teach the farmer to make
his wedges, in order to be most effective when impelled by a
given force, sixteen or twenty, or more, feet in length. But
practice instructs us that there is a certain length for a wedge,
and thickness for the head, which is much more effective, when
impelled by a given force, than if it were longer or shorter.
Every man who has split much timber knows too well, that a
wedge of the proper length and thickness can be driven into a
log with less force than one of the same thickness which is twice
as long, to say nothing of a short and blunt wedge. Now this
is what the beginner wants to know ; he needs something tangi
ble — some instruction in making wedges that will render his
labor as light and effective as possible. Suppose, for instance,
an iron wedge is two inches square at the head, and its
sides of a true taper to the edge, and twelve or more feet long.
Theory would instruct us, that a wedge of such dimensions could
be driven with less force than one about ten inches long, of a
true taper to the edge, with the head of the size already men
tioned. But, in practice, we find that such a long wedge would
be utterly useless, because it would not possess sufficient strength
to resist the force of heavy blows without being crushed or
doubled up in places, and it would be very liable to twist
and turn wherever the grain of the timber ran ; and, more
than all else beside, it would require three times as many blows
to drive it up to the head at it would require to drive a wedge
of the proper dimensions, and the friction would be so incal
culably great in such a long wedge, that it is not at all proba
ble that the force exerted by one man with a beetle would be
sufficient to drive such a wedge clear to the head, even were it

264 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

sufficiently strong to bear driving. And even if such long
wedges were most effective, they would be most inconvenient
and unwieldy tools. As the friction in driving wedges is
usually so intense, the idea of an intelligent laborer always is, to
have the most economical and convenient amount of surface in the
sides of the wedge, which will prove most effective under a given
number of blows. This leads us to speak of

THE MOST CONVENIENT AND EFFECTIVE DIMENSIONS OF WEDGES.

347. Iron wedges for splitting timber should always be so
thick and strong that they will not bend nor twist, even when
driven into the toughest knots and gnarls. The size which has
been found in practice to be the most convenient and effective for
ordinary purposes, is about ten inches long, two and a half inches
wide, and about two inches in thickness at the head, and of a true
taper to the entering edge, which should not be brought entirely
to a feather edge ; but the entering edge should be left about a
sixteenth of an inch thick when it is tempered, and then ground
off to a sharp edge, like the edge of an axe (see Fig. 152). The
entering edge of# iron wedges should be made of steel, and tem
pered about as hard as for cold-chisels. Iron wedges may be
smaller than this, or larger, if desired ; but it is just as well, when
a man has two wedges of the size just mentioned, to have gluts,
as large iron wedges are rather costly, and are no better follow
ing in a check made by iron wedges than a good glut.

348. One very important consideration, which has been and
is entirely overlooked by laborers, is, to have their iron wedges
in the most proper order. The head should be a little convex,
and the sharp corners on the edge smoothed off a little, so that
they will not cut the face of the beetle. The two edges and two
sides should be hammered as true as is convenient, and then
they should be ground off on the grindstone as smoothly and
true as the blade of a saw. After the sides are ground smooth,
if they were polished they would enter their whole length with
less than half the number of blows which would be required to
drive the same wedge unpolished and all battered up, as wedges

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 265

usually are. Laborers are not aware how much unnecessary
hard pounding they perform when the entering wedge is very
dull and the sides uneven and rough ; and they will not believe
that there is really any difference, after all, in driving rough
and smooth wedges, until they have some ocular proof of the
fact. But let the beginner, or any one else, rest assured that
it will abundantly remunerate him, in saving hard labor, to
polish the sides of iron wedges, and to keep them smooth and
the entering edge sharp.

349. Is it suggested that if well polished and sharp they will
not stick as well as if left rough and uneven ? I know, and any
one can try the experiment, that a polished and sharp wedge will
not recoil when splitting green or frozen timber, half as often as
a dull and rough wedge ; and with sharp and well-polished wedges
a laborer would be able to split frozen timber many times when
it would be impracticable to do anything with it if the wedges
were dull and rough. Iron wedges should never be driven with
an instrument of iron, because it would soon batter and spread
the heads, and destroy their proper shape. When wedges are
driven with an iron beetle, they soon become in shape like Fig.
119, with the head spread so that the sides are not of a true
taper. When it is almost impossible to make a wedge stick in
green or frozen timber, by having the wedge quite warm, or by
driving a little wedge made of dry wood into the check, and
then driving the iron wedge into the dry wedge, it will usually
stick. Some laborers drive a little flat stone into the check where
the wedge is started, and then drive the wedge into the stone in
order to make it stick ; but stone will usually make the sides of a
wedge rough, so that it will drive hard.

GLUTS

350. Are large wooden wedges, and are not to be driven into
the solid timber like ^an iron wedge, but into the checks which
have been formed by the iron wedges. They are usually made
of round sticks of timber, with two sides flattened at about tho
same angle of iron wedges. A lot of sticks ought to be sawed

266 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

of the proper length, and laid up under shelter in a safe place,
where they will be seasoned and ready for use when gluts are
needed. None but the hardest and toughest timber should be used
for gluts, and if made when the timber is green, they will check
less, and it is not half the work to make them that it would be
to make them after they are seasoned. Laborers generally make
no provision for gluts until they arrive at the woods, or where
they are to labor, and then they will make gluts of the limbs of
a green tree, which are very poor things for such a purpose, and
spend time enough to no good purpose, to pay for half a dozen
well-made gluts. And, more than this, gluts made of green
timber will seldom last one quarter as long as if seasoned, and
they require, many times, twice as many blows to drive them as
if they were seasoned. And another thing of importance is, it
is not at all practicable to make a glut in a workmanlike manner
with the axe only. I know that they are usually made with no
other tool but the axe, and they are made of every imaginable
shape and form, like Fig. 119, or like Fig. 120, which shows an
edge view of a glut which has been made with the axe alone.
It will be discovered that the face sides of Fig. 120, which should
be as true and smooth as the face of a plane, are very rough and
hacked up, and not of a true taper, and will require more than
twice as many blows to drive it than if it were true and smooth.
He who wishes to appropriate all his strength, or the strength of
his laborers, to the most effective purpose when splitting timber,
will make his gluts at the work-shop, and have them well sea
soned before they are used.

351. The most pro/cr manner of making a glut is, to dress it
off with an axe as true and smooth as practicable, leaving the
entering edge never less than half an inch thick. In large gluts
the entering edge should be three-fourths of an inch in thickness.
Then, put it in the vise and plane it off true and smooth, and
round the corners of the head and the corners of the entering
edge with the drawing-knife, as shown at Fig. 121, which repre
sents a view of the face side of a well-made glut. If the enter
ing edg^ of a glut is reduced in making it to a feather edge, it

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

267

will be very liable to be split and shivered to splinters, when it
happens to be driven on to, or among slivers. It may seem, too,
unnecessary to finish the face sides of a glut with a plane ; but
let two wedge's be finished, one with a plane, as directed, and the
other with an axe only, and a laborer of keen perception will
quickly tell which will drive the easier. If a glut is not smooth
and true on the face sides, it will be far more liable to recoil, or
"bound out," when opening a log. Wedges of every descrip
tion should be smooth and true.

BORING MACHINE.

352. At paragraph 89 allusion has been made to a boring
machine, for boring fence caps. But as there is so much boring
to be performed in making the different styles of fence, I have
thought best to give a cut of a very cheap and efficient boring
machine which I have had in successful operation for several
years.

FIG. 122.

FERGUSON ALBANY

BORING MACHINE.

353. Fig. 122 represents a perspective view of the machine,
the frame of which is made of square scantling, 3 by 3, of

268 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

any desired length to suit the length of mandrel, length of
auger, and materials to be bored. It is about three feet wide,
and from two to three feet high, to correspond with the
stature of the workman who uses it. Fence posts, fence
caps, bar posts, or anything else to be bored, are laid on the
slide a, to which a strap of leather b is fastened, which strap
passes around a pulley-roller c, and then is carried back under
the slide a, over another pulley roller, as seen in the end of the
frame, and is fastened to a treadle. The slide a has gains in
the under side of it, which fit neatly to the top pieces of the
frame, so that it can slide back and forth toward the auger. If
it does not fit well, and one end is allowed to be moved faster
than the other end, a post will not be bored at a right angle.
(See BANGING SAWS, paragraph 679.)

354. The way to lore with it. — Place a post on the slide a,
and stand at the end of the machine, having hold of the slide
with each hand, and when the auger revolves place one foot on
the treadle and press downwards with it, and push a little with
the hands. As soon as a hole is bored, remove the foot and
draw back the slide. "When the stuff to be bored is small, lay
some pieces of board on the slide a, in order to adjust the height
to correspond with the auger. To bore holes diagonally, nail
pieces of board on one end of the slide, to serve as a gauge to
hold the material to be bored in a diagonal position.

355. This machine may be worked by hand, or it may be
driven by any kind of horse power. Pullies of various sizes may
be placed on the mandrel, and for boring small holes it may re
volve as rapidly as the journal of a circular saw. "When large
holes — say four or more inches in diameter — are to be bored,
the pulley on the mandrel should be so large that it will revolve
about one hundred and twenty times in a minute. One horse
turns my auger when boring four-inch holes in hard timber, and
the auger revolves about one hundred and thirty times per min-
nute. Now, if it were driven by a smaller pulley, that would
make it revolve twice as rapidly, it would require two horses to
turn it in order to keep boring constantly.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

269

HOW TO OBTAIN SUCH A BORING MACHINE.

356. If you go to the machine shop and order such a machine,

it will cost not less than about
$20. I have cuts of patent bor
ing machines which cost from $30
to $50. But farmers do not wish
to pay $30 or $40 for a ma
chine which can be afforded for six
or seven dollars, which will sub
serve every good purpose, and last
a whole life-time. It is all folly to
pay mechanics an extortionate price
for turning, filing and polishing a
piece of isoarse work, which will
not add in the least to the dura
bility or efficiency of a machine.

357. In the first place, if you
are not mechanic enough to make
the frame, employ a good joiner
by the day, who will be able, if he
can perform a faithful day's work,
to make all the wood-work in a
day and a half.

358. Next, write Wales French,
68 Beekman street, New York
city, or to Westville, Conn., and
procure a patent extension-lip bit,
which is represented by Fig. 123,
with which holes of any size larger
than two inches may be bored with
one bit. A is the adjustable ex
tension cutter, which is adjusted
in the mortise of the main part of
the shank b by a set screw or
key. Two spur cutters c c cut
the shaving or chips, making a

FIG. 123.

BORING MACHINE.

270

clean, smooth hole. D represents an edge view of the extension
cutter, separate from the shank 5. The entire auger should not be
more than one foot long. Order the end of the shank made
round, to fit a hole or socket in the end of the mandrel (see
Fig. 124), instead of having it square, because it can be fitted
to run true with less work when the socket is round. The
next thing will be,

THE MANDREL,

which is represented by Fig. 124. Take a round bar of inch-
and-a-half iron, eighteen inches long, to the machine-shop, and
have two bearings a a turned and polished (see FITTING UP

FIG. 124.

THE MANDREL.

MACHINERY, next vol.), and fitted to two iron boxes ; have the
shank of the auger fitted to the end of the mandrel, and have a
small hole bored through the mandrel, at the end or bottom of
the socket, so that a punch may be driven in to force out the
shank of the auger. The shape of the rocket is shown by the
dotted lines at the end of the mandrel. Have a fly-wheel I and
large pulley c keyed on the mandrel, and have a small bolt put

271

through the end of crank and mandrel. The bearing a nearest
the crank should be turned an inch in diameter, in order to form
a good shoulder ; and the other bearing should be an inch and
a fourth in diameter, as more strain will come on that when bor
ing. A hoop of band iron may be put on the fly or balance
wheel, about three inches wide, and may be used for a pulley in
boring large holes. Always take off the crank when boring with
a horse ; because a crank will produce a tremulous motion unless
there is a corresponding weight on the other side of the mandrel.
(See BALANCING MACHINERY, in next vol.)

359. If one has a horse saw, or straw-cutter, or threshing-
machine cylinder, have a hole bored in one end of the journal,
for the auger, and make the frame of the boring machine to re
ceive the shaft of saw or shaft of straw-cutter. This will save
the expense of a mandrel. A hole may be bored for the auger in
the end of the shaft for twenty-five cents. Then, the cost of
auger, $2 50, frame and fixtures, $4 00=$6 50, will cover the
whole expense, besides the mandrel, of as good a boring machine
as any farmer can desire.

A GRASS HOOK, OR DUTCH GRASS SICKLE.

360. Fig. 125 represents an instrument for pruning or trim
ming hedges after they have grown too high to be clipped
with a stiflj sharp grass scythe. They should be heavier than a

FIG. 125.

A GRASS HOOK.

common grain sickle, having a sharp fine edge — and not a sickle
edge. They may be obtained at R. L. Allen's Agricultural
"Warehouse, 189 Water street, New York city.

361. For the first two or three seasons, the best instrument for
12

272 THE YOUNG FAKMER's MANUAL.

clipping a hedge is a good grass scythe. After this time there is
no better instrument than such a sickle, according to the opinion
of Mr. A. H. Ernst, Spring Garden, Ohio, who says: "In clip
ping hedges, if the sickle is to be used with one hand, the handle
may be about six inches long ; and, if both hands, it should be
from two to two and a half feet long. For a hedge not over three
and a half feet high, one hand is all sufficient. But when the
hedge is higher than that, both hands are necessary. We have
a fine hedge, of some two miles, around Spring Garden Cemetery,
of Osage Orange, six feet high, for trimming which this instru
ment alone is used. Two men, one right-handed and the other
left-handed, start at the same point, on opposite sides, and with a
quick stroke upwards, make a clean sweep of all the straggling
branches, trimming the hedge in the form of the letter A, which
is decidedly the best form for a hedge, as it gives the greatest ex
posure to light and air, which is a very essential point to the
health and duration of a hedge. I should prefer to have the
borders of my hedges raised somewhat above the common surface
of the ground, so as to admit a freer circulation of air and light
to the lower branches."

THE AXE.

" The faithful axe, whose burnished blade
Stood gleaming in the old oak's shade,
In quick response replied, Who, tell,
Save me, the mighty forests fell?
Who clave the gnarly oaks and pines,
The thorn, the brambles, and the vines ?"— EDWARDS.

362. The axe is one of the most efficient implements of the
farmer, and, when made of a correct shape and put in good order,
when hung correctly and handled expertly, performs wonders,
even when he who handles it is by no means strong. It is very
poor policy to attempt to chop with a poor axe, because a laborer,
in a very short time, with a poor axe, will lose time and expend
strength — to no profit — sufficient to purchase a good axe. Chop
pers often feel too poor to purchase a new axe, and will peck,
peck, with an old worn-out tool, year after year, very much dis-

THE YOUNG FAKMEB'S MANUAL. 273

satisfied with their day's work. If they had no other means of
obtaining a new and good axe, it would be a matter of economy
" to work out" a day or two, and earn each enough to get a good
axe ; and then with half the time and strength that would be re
quired with the old axe, they would be able to accomplish enough
more with a good axe to pay for it.

363. Figure 126 represents an axe with its different parts

FIG. 126.

A CHOPPING AXE CORRECTLY HUNG.

lettered. A represents the heap or poll, which is sometimes made
of steel ; B the edge, 0 the steel, D the outside corner, E the
inside corner, .Pthe eye. The position of the axe, from the eye
to the edge, is called the bit or blade of the eye. G is the helve,
H is the hilt of the helve. The dotted lines represent the angle of
the axe and helve, and will be referred to under the head of hang
ing an axe.

THE SHAPE OF THE AXE.
"A neat, symmetrical, becoming shape."

364. Nothing adds more to the efficiency of an axe, as a tool,
than a correct shape of the bit or blade. Manufacturers often
give a shape to the axe which defies and sets at naught every
correct principle in mechanics. Some make them with a very
small poll — with almost no poll at all — and with a very long
blade, and very wide from the outside corner to the inside corner,
with the edge about twice as long as the poll, and with almost
the whole weight of the axe on one side of the eye — in the blade
or bit. Some make them with a very heavy poll and a long nar
row blade, with no corners to the blade, but almost circular on the

274 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

edge like an old axe with the corners ground off. It cannot be
denied that an axe with no corners will enter farther into wood,
at a given stroke, than one that has corners ; but a man can chop
much faster with an axe that is almost straight on the edge, than
with one that is very round on the edge. The reason for this is,
a chopper with an axe that is very rounding on the edge makes
a great deal of mince ; but with an axe that has but little round
ing on the edge, he will make but little mince or fine chips. An
axe of due proportion will measure about five inches from one
corner of the edge to the other, and about three and a half inches
the length of the poll, and about eight inches from the crown of
the poll to the edge A. B, midway between each corner. An
axe, the poll of which is about two and a half inches long, the
edge six inches long — and hundreds are made thus — is a very
poor tool to work with, and an ill-shapen thing.

THE WEIGHT OF THE AXE

365. Is a consideration in regard to which choppers often disa
gree; but the majority of them will probably agree in what fol
lows. If a chopper is naturally very slow in handling an axe,
and is not disposed to exert much strength, he should have an axe
which weighs from, five to eight Ibs., according to the strength of
the chopper. If a chopper strikes very quickly, and raises his axe
very quickly, — if he is a man of ordinary strength, he should have
an axe weighing about four Ibs. A chopper will cut off a log
quicker with a heavy axe than with a light one ; but when he
comes to handle it all day, he will find he will be able to chop
quite as much, and with less fatigue, with a four- or five-lb. axe
than he can with one that weighs six or seven Ibs. or more. It
is better to exert the muscles a little in striking with an axe, than
it is to exert all the strength in lifting an axe which is heavy
enough to cut sufficiently deep at a stroke by its own weight.

366. Were a chopper to strike twenty blows per minute, he
would strike twelve thousand blows in ten hours. With an axe
weighing five Ibs., in that time he would raise as high or higher
than his head, an equivalent to sixty thousand Ibs., or thirty tons,

275

— a good day's work aside from chopping. Chopping with a six
pound axe, he would raise, at the above rate, in ten hours, thirty-
six tons, of 2,000 Ibs. per ton. For trimming the limbs of trees,
cutting under-brush, and for other light chopping, an axe weigh
ing four Ibs. is preferable to a heavier one.

367. Boys should always have light axes to chop with, lest
they make poor choppers, soon tire out, and imbibe an ever
lasting dread of and disrelish for chopping.

PUTTING THE AXE IN ORDER.

368. There are two things of great importance to be kept in
view when one is putting an axe in order, which are, to have it
of a shape which will cut the fastest, and chip the best. It may
be seen, by referring to EDGE TOOLS, (paragraph 543,) that the
axe cuts with a crushing stroke. Now, if nothing else were re
quired of an axe but to cut, it would be wisdom to grind it as thin
as possible, consistent with strength. But since an axe must chip
as well as cut, it is important to give it a shape which will not
only cut fast, but which will chip well. An axe ground very thin
near the edge, will cut fast and deep at every stroke, but will not
chip well ; and a very thick axe, with a blunt edge, will chip well,
but will not cut fast. If an axe is ground very thin, it enters the
wood so far at a blow that it is apt to stick, especially in soft
wood.

369. It is almost impossible to give a correct idea of the prop
er shape of an axe, in this respect, on paper; but Fig. 127 will
give something of an idea. This figure represents a transverse
section of an axe, at about two inches from the edge. A ridge
should be formed on the dotted line of the angle of the axe, (see
Fig. 126, A B,) which should disappear towards the cutting edge,
and towards the eye of the axe. The object of this ridge is to split
the chip. From this ridge towards each corner, it should be ground
of a true taper, with a little swell.

370. "When holding an axe on a grindstone, put the head of
it in the gain of the Clamp, Fig. 128, which may be made of a
piece of two-inch plank, about eighteen inches long, and put the

276

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

opposite end of the clamp against the abdomen of the workman
who holds the axe. Such -a little instrument will be found of
very great service. In grinding up a new axe, make a gain in the
end of a rail or scantling, and sit on -it when grinding. The cut
ting edge at B should never be more than half an inch beyond a

FIG. 127.

FIG. 128.

A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE
BLADE OR BIT OF A WELL-FORM
ED CHOPPING AXE.

A CLAMP FOR HOLDING AN AIB
WHILE GRINDING IT.

line drawn from the outside corner D, to inside corner E. (See
Fig. 126.) For scoring timber, an axe must be a little circular
on the edge from D to E. If this edge is very circular, the
timber will be badly hacked. After grinding, whet the edge with
a fine gritted oil stone; and if the sides of the -blade could be
polished on a polishing wheel, it would enter the wood farther at
a given stroke. (See OIL STONE, paragraph 572.)

THE AXE HELVE.

371. In order to chop well and easily, a man must have a
good helve ; and unless a helve is made of good timber, and of a
good shape, it will be an awkward tool in the hands of a good
chopper. A helve, in order to be a good one, must not be too

THE YOUXG FARMER'S MANUAL. 277

large, nor too small, at the hilt, nor midway between the hilt
and the end that holds the axe. It should be made with a good
hang — or, as some call it, with a good deal of crook — from the
hilt to the other end. A helve should always be made so that
the Jiang will be in the direction of the grain of the wood from
the bark towards the heart. If a helve is made "slab fashion,"
or as our backwoodsmen call it, "bastard fashion," with one
sidt of the helve towards the heart, and one side towards the
bark, it will soon spring so as to be a worthless thing to chop
with. If the hilt be too large, or too small, or of an improper
shape, it will surely cramp and blister the hand. It should not
be made round, but of an oval or elliptical shape. Without a
good hang and an oval shape, it will be impossible to strike true.
(See HANG, in next vol.) Some men, who know nothing
about chopping, contend that if a man is accustomed to chop
with a straight stick, he could chop as well as he could with a
helve having a good hang. But no good chopper will ever make
such an assertion. When a helve is round, an axe may turn
half way round in the hands, and not be perceived by the chop
per ; but when it is of an oval shape, and has a good hang in
chopping, an axe will adjust itself; and a little deviation will
readily be perceived by the accustomed hand. (See Par. 331.)
One who chops much with a straight helve, or with one that has
a hilt too large or too small for his hand, is very liable to com
plain of lame hands and of lame wrists ; and that he is not able
to strike twice in one place. If a man has a very small hand,
his axe helve should be correspondingly small ; and vice versa.

372. Helves that are made by machinery, when they are made
of good timber, with straight grain, and the right way of the
grain, are usually superior to those which are made by hand ;
unless those made by hand are made by one who understands
the business extremely well. It is a very difficult task for some
good mechanics to make a good axe helve until they have prac
tised by making a number of helves ; and some never can, with
ever so much practice, succeed in giving a helve the most correct
hang and shape at the hilt, and at other parts, of it. But if the

278 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

tyro be favored with a little ingenuity, the following directions,
with a little practice, will enable him to make a very good helve.

HOW TO MAKE AN AXE HELVE.

373. Fig. 129 represents an axe-helve pattern of a very good
shape. From a to b is two feet eight inches. This is too long
for some men. If a pattern cannot be obtained from a helve
having a good shape, a pattern can be made in a few minutes of
the desired shape, out of a piece of thin board, as shown by the

FIG. 129.

AXK HELVE PATTERN.

dotted lines. At a let it be made not less than three inches
wide, and at 5 about two and a half inches wide. At c, about
six inches from the end, near a, make a pencil mark for the
most prominent point. At D make another mark, about two-
thirds of the distance from a to 5. At E make another mark,
six or seven inches from I. Now, with a pencil, mark out the
shape, like the figure, as nearly as possible ; and then cut it out
very exact and true. The dotted lines at a will show how
much of the upper corner should be cut away in order to give
the hilt a good shape.

374. Now, rive out a piece of tough hickory, and dress it
with an axe or circular saw, four square, and as thick at the
large end as the hilt, and wide enough to admit of marking out
a helve with a pencil by the pattern. Now, with the draw
ing-knife, smoothing plane, spoke shave, and rasp, dress it down
to an oval shape. This oval form should extend entirely through
the hilt. Avoid a round hilt ; because with a round hilt the best
choppers cannot keep the axe in the correct positiou, with
out grasping the hilt so firmly that the muscles of the hand
will soon be cramped. Avoid, also, making the edges of the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 279

helve too sharp ; and avoid a very large hilt. Such a hilt
is sure to cramp the hand, and make a man's wrist lame,
and the fingers stiff. Always lay the pattern on the stick,
so that the part at c E will be towards the lark, and the
part at D towards the heart of the tree. Then, if the helve
should spring, it would spring with the curve, which will make
an axe hang still better ; whereas, should it spring sideways, it
would be a worthless thing to chop with. (See SPRINGING OF
TIMBER, in next vol.) Endeavor to make a hilt that will work
easily in the hand, and not one so short and sharply curved that
the third and the little fingers hold the axe, while the first and
second fingers do nothing. A longish hilt is most desirable ;
because it never cramps the hand in chopping. Fig. 126 is an
exact representation of helves made by the author, which have
been pronounced by some of the best choppers in the Empire
State to be exactly right in every particular.

HANGING THE CHOPPING AXE

375. Is a piece of labor which requires no little skill to perform
correctly ; and if it is not correctly done an axe will not work
well. Good choppers usually know when an axe is correctly
hung ; but a great many excellent choppers cannot hang an axe
correctly. And when an axe hangs wrong, or " bad," as chop
pers say, it is impossible to chop well.

376. The RULE for hanging an axe upon the most approved
mechanical principles is, to have it so fastened on the helve that the
edge will range exactly in the direction of the centre of the hilt, and
that the hilt, the centre of the eye, and the centre of the blade, will be
at right angles. By consulting Fig. 126, it will be seen by the
dotted lines, showing the angle of the, axe, that this line cuts the
hilt, the centre of the eye, and the centre of the blade. "When
the eye of an axe is crooked, or not in range with the edge, which
is often the case with even good axes, the edge may be made to
stand in range with the hilt of the helve, by wedging the axe on
one side of the centre of the helve. When the eye is true we
insert a wedge in the centre of the eye, splitting the helve in the

12*

280 T:TE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

centre ; but when the eye is one-sided, by splitting the end of
the helve on one side of the centre, and inserting a wedge one
side of the centre of the eye, the edge may be adjusted with all
desirable precision. If, when the helve is driven into the eye, it
should not touch on one side, and the edge stand correctly, it is
best not to split the end of the helve in wedging, but to wedge
on one side, with timber as hard as the helve. Have a thin, iron
wedge made to fasten on the axe, with a large flat head that will
cover the eye of the axe. This may be readily taken out in case
of a broken axe or helve, when a wooden wedge could not be
extracted.

CHOPPING.

" The sturdy feller, with his glittering axe,
Incessant plies the well-directed blows." — ANON.

377. Why can one man chop so much faster and neater than
another? Why can a very small man, possessing but little
strength, often chop twice as much as some large, strong, Goliah-
like fellow ? The reason is very obvious : it requires but little
strength to chop well, and to chop fast, when a chopper handles
his axe well and easily, and strikes as straight as may be, losing
no strokes. But when a chopper handles his axe awkwardly —
be he ever so stout — he is not likely to strike very straightly :
and if he does not strike exactly in the same spot at every blow,
he loses his strokes ; and when he loses Ins strokes, and makes
a great deal of mince, or fine chips, before he is able to bring
out the chips, it requires many more strokes to start the chips
than when there is but little or no mince made. A good chop
per makes but little mince, and he always strikes so as to start a
chip at nearly every stroke. The first thing, then, in order to
be a good chopper, is, to learn

TO HANDLE THE AXE CORRECTLY.

378. When a chopper stands on a log which he designs to
cut off with the axe, he should stand erect, straighten his back at
every stroke, and, with one hand holding the hilt of the helvo,

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 281

the other should grasp the helve eight or ten inches from the
axe ; bring the axe right up before the face, and thrust it up into
the air as high as he can reach easily, letting the hand that held
the middle of the helve slip down against the other hand as the
axe rises. Now, the eye of the chopper should be fixed on the
spot where he wishes to strike. Now strike straightly, and
always look to the place where the axe cuts, looking between the
arms, and not on one .side of the arms. Let the arms be as
limber and elastic as a leathern strap, but keep the hand that
holds the hilt of the helve firmly grasped, so as to keep the axe
in just such a position as it is in when it comes down.

379. Some choppers, in lifting their axe, give it a side swing,
bringing it round near one shoulder ; and some thrust it out for
ward of them, and raise it up .before them, with arms as stiff as a
stake, to an angle of about forty-five degrees, before striking. But
such are very awkward, feminine and inefficient ways of hand
ling an axe.

Another consideration of great importance in chopping is,

THE SHAPE OF THE KERF, OR CHIP.

380. Fig. 130 represents a log cut off with an axe. At A the

kerf, or chip, is shaped badly,
and at B it has a good shape.
The RULE, among good chop
pers, for the length of the out
side chip, usually is, not less in
length than the diameter of the
log. Then, as we chip deeper
into the log, the cut should be more, square across it, so that the
ends that have been cut off will be circular, as at B. If a log be
two feet in diameter, commence a chip, to take a log half off,
two feet long. The tyro may then trace the shape of the kerf,
with his axe, on the bark, until he can form a good kerf ly the
eye. In cleaving the outside chips, let three or four inches of the.
ends be cut off square, and it will be seen that a stroke of the
axe will start a chip the end of which is square, vfhen severa}

282 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

blows would have but little effect if the end were not cut off
square. He who would be a good chopper must learn to strike
straight, and not strike too quick, lest his strength fail, nor too slow,
lest suitable progress be not made, and he must learn to shape
his kerfs like B in the figure.

FELLING TREES WITH AN AXE.

" Loud sounds the axe, redoubling strokes on strokes ;
On all sides round the forest hurls her oaks
Headlong. Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown ;
Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down."

381. The first and most important consideration, when we
have concluded to fell a tree, is, to decide which way it will fall
most advantageously. When a tree stands perpendicularly, it
may be felled just which way we choose. If, for instance, we
wish to fell a tree to the north, let the north side be cut a little
more than half off, and three or four inches lower than the south
side, and it will surely fall towards the north, unless the wind is
contrary. A tree that stands perpendicularly will always fall in
the direction which the chips fly when it is being cut down. A
tree will fall usually on that side of the stump which is cut the
lowest. "When a tree is large and valuable for timber, if a chop
per does not understand felling trees, he is very liable oftentimes
to damage a tree very much, and for some purposes spoil it en
tirely. Large trees, especially very tough timber, are very apt
to split, shiver and check at the butt when falling, if they are not
cut correctly.

382. We have often seen valuable trees split at the butt six
or eight feet when falling ; and sometimes splinters six or eight
feet long are drawn out of the butt of the tree, and stand erect
on the stump, damaging a tree very much.

383. A tree for timber should be cut as low as possible, as one
foot in length of the butt of a tree is worth, in many instances,
four times the cost of cutting down the tree ; and each side should
be cut square across, and not diagonally, with one side slanting
onc> way, and the other side in an opposite direction. It is just

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 283

as easy, and far better for many reasons, to cut trees low than to
cut them high. Let a chopper keep the hand that holds the hilt of
the axehelve well down, (the length of the arm,) and bend his back
a little — it will not injure him — and he will soon get accustomed
to cutting trees low and square across. In order to save timber,
the kerf should be more straight inward than it is in chopping off
a log. It will require a little more time and strength to cut down
a tree with a short chip ; but, where timber is valuable, the
amount saved by a short kerf more than compensates for the
extra time in cutting down. When one is cutting down a large
tree, and there is any apprehensions of its splitting at the butt,
and the tree is cut off within eight or ten inches, the heart of the
tree should all be cut off first, letting it stand as long as it will
on a portion of the sap part of the tree.

384. My practice, in cutting down a valuable tree, is, to set
two long braces against it, one on each side, in the direction
where we intend to fell it, and brace it firmly until the tree can
be cut entirely off. Then knock away one of the braces, and the
tree may be made to go whichever way we choose to have it.

385. When trees lean, they should never be cut to fall in the
direction they lean, because they will surely split or damage in
some way.

386. Suppose, for instance, a tree stands near a precipice, and
leans a little towards it, it may be made to fall in any direction
we desire, by attaching a rope and tackles to it and fastening to
another tree, or to a post set firmly in the ground, and then hitch
ing a team to the slack rope, when the tree is nearly ready to
fall. When a valuable tree is to be cut, when standing on an
eminence, never allow it to fall down hill, but always up hill, or
along the slope.

SAWING DOWN TREES.

387. Sometimes trees may be sawed down to good advan
tage. Before using a saw, however, for sawing down a tree,
a kerf a few inches deep should be cut with the axe, so as to

284 THE YOUNG FAKMER's MANUAL.

steady the saw. Let a tree be sawed about half off on one side,
in the direction it is designed to fall the tree ; and then saw on
the opposite side, and drive wedges into the kerf as fast as the
saw goes in, to keep the tree from swaying and pinching the
saw, and from falling in a wrong direction. If a tree be large,
three wedges should be driven in ; and the saw should be worked
straight across the tree, and not all round it, lest it fall to one
side and break the saw.

388. Let the tyro remember, before a large tree is felled, to
take the team and haul three or four small logs or sticks of tim
ber, fifteen or twenty feet long, for the tree to fall on. Never
trust to a few rails, or a little pole or two ; for a heavy tree will
surely crush or bury such trash in the ground ; and then, before
the tree can be sawed or worked up, there must be tugging and
prying, and time enough spent very disadvantageously, to have
got the team and hauled a score of logs for a tree to fall on.
Let trees be kept up well from the ground ; because it is far
easier to let logs down than it is to raise them a few inches after
a tree has fallen. When a chain cannot be put under a log to
roll it over, hitch the grapple-hook to it. (See Fig. 72. — See
How TO HANDLE A CROSS-CUT SAW, Par. 648.)

CHAPTER IY.

FENCE LAWS.

389. OUR civil law in relation to fences, which appears to be
founded on principles of strictest equity, provides, that where land
is enclosed, and lies contiguous, and possessed by two different
owners, each one must build and maintain a good lawful fence on
one half the distance of the entire line between their land.
According to law, A may not build his half of the line fence
exactly on the line / neither may B. But each must erect his
fence on his own land, as near to the line as he desires. But
neighbors usually erect their line fences exactly on the line ; while
waspish owners place them as they choose.

390. If A refuses to build or to maintain one equal half of a
line fence between his land and the land owned by B, by giving
A thirty days' legal notice that he must build or repair his line
fence, and A neglects so to do, B may build or repair such fence,
and collect of A the expense of building the same as for any other
indebtedness.

391. If A has land not enclosed, or "open to the commons,"
which lies contiguous to the land of B, if B desires to have his
land enclosed, he must build all the fence between them. But
after B has enclosed his land, if A should then enclose his, he
cannot hold one half of the line fence. He must allow B to
remove one-half of the fence ; and he (A) must build a fence in
the room of it ; or he may purchase one-half of it. If he refuses
to do either, B, the owner of the fence, may prosecute A and
recover pay for half of the line fence.

392. B may not, in a fit of resentment or frenzy, remove his

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286 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

division fence, and throw open his own fields to the commons
with impunity, unless he give A ten days' notice of his inten
tion to throw open his fields to the commons, between Novem
ber and April. During the time from April to November, if a
line fence is removed by A, and B is made to sustain any loss
by such removal, A is responsible for the damage.

WHAT IS A LAWFUL FENCE ?

393. There are three very important considerations which
constitute a lawful fence : viz., height, strength or substantiability,
and tightness. When a fence is four feet six inches high, and
made according to the various styles of fence laid down in Chap
ter II, and built of good materials, our civil law would hold the
proprietor of any animals that would get over it or through it,
accountable for any damage which they might do. A fence that
is three feet six inches high, might be, under certain circumstances,
very lawful. Sheep and swine that would get over or through,
by demolishing a substantial fence three feet six inches high,
would be considered as unruly animals / and their proprietor
would be held accountable for any damage done by them.

394. I have failed to bring out in the chapter on fences, uncle
Will's lawful fence, which he testified in court was " a lawful,
buncombe fence :" "it was horse high — bull strong — and pig tight"

CHAPTER V.

UNDEEDRAINING.

" Each bog and marsh industriously drain,

Nor let vile ponds deface the beauteous plain." — ANON.

395. Notwithstanding there has been so much written on the
subject of underdraining with tile, stone, and wood, writers on
this subject have failed to bring out, with their suggestions and
directions for draining, many things which I consider of very
great importance, and which all good practical ditchers consider
of greater importance than almost any other part of draining.
There have been volumes written on draining which appear very
plausible while reading them, to those who have had but little
experience in thorough draining, but which in reality, instead of
imparting the desired information to the young farmer, mislead
him. It is attended with no embarrassments to pen a good chap
ter on draining, and to give diagrams of ditches, and to direct
how deep they should be cut, and with what materials they
should be filled. But let a beginner take the tools, and attempt
to follow up the directions which have been laid down by writers
on draining ; and if he does not meet with some almost insuper
able embarrassments, he will be an exception to the general rule.
Making a long drain in a manner to subserve the best purpose,
is a job which is not to be performed every year ; but it should
be done so that it will work well for a life-time. A long drain
may be made in the best manner throughout its entire length,
with the exception of a few inches near the outlet, which will
render all that lies above it nearly or quite worthless. Drains
are often rendered worthless by having been improperly dug, or
by having been filled with poor materials, or by the improper

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288 THE TOTING FARMER'S MANUAL.

arrangement and disposition of good materials. If a drain is
made of good materials, and those materials are properly dis
posed of, we may safely calculate that it will work well for ages
to come, without any repairing.

396. The first consideration in draining wet land is, to ascer
tain with certainty from whence the water which renders a soil
too wet comes. Land is often made too wet for cultivation by
the superabundant water coming out of the earth, or by its being
retained by a retentive subsoil. Where a very thin super soil
lies on a very retentive subsoil, water will often collect in ponds
in low places ; and so long a time will be required before it will
disappear, that a crop would be about destroyed. In this case,
if the young farmer desires to drain only such low, wet places, a
good drain may be run directly through them. But if his aim is
to drain the entire field in the most thorough manner, drains paral
lel to each other, about two rods apart, should be made across
the field, up and down the slope, if the surface of the field is in
clined, all of them intersecting with one large drain. . Some
times the most proper place for the main drain will be across the
middle of a field. But it is a minor consideration, where the
water is turned, if a drain is properly made, and has a good out
let. When a low place is rendered very wet by water arising
from springs, a drain entirely around it, between the wet ground
and the dry ground, will cut off the source of the water ; and
if the bottom of the drain is lower than the lowest place in the
pond-hole, it will be well drained ; otherwise, a drain should be
cut through the lowest place, and then around the outside of it.

397. When the surface of a field that lies sloping is too wet
in places over the entire field, the most approved manner of
draining it is, to cut the ditches up and down the slope, from thirty
to forty feet apart. Then, if a spring of water should happen to
be near the middle of two drains, which the main drains did not
seem to affect, a branch drain should be made, diagonally, above
the wet ground, two-thirds of the distance across the space be
tween two drains. In cutting off the water from springs, it
should always be borne in mind that the most proper place for a

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 289

drain is — in order to be most effectual above the wet ground — be
tween the wet ground and the dry. The slope of the field must
determine how far above the wet ground the drain should be
made. If the surface of the ground slope about six inches in a
rod, the drain should be made not less than forty or fifty feet
above the wet ground. The idea is, to have the diagonal drain
far enough above the wet ground to cut off the veins of water
which render the ground wet, so that they will be near the bottom
of the drain.

398. There are veins of water all through the earth in most
localities ; and if a drain intersects any of these veins, the water
flowing from them will find its way to the bottom of the drain,
even if the drain should be filled with clay, well rammed in. But
if the drain is not deep enough to reach a vein, the water in it
will flow on, and come out at the surface, as it always has done,
and the drain will be of little benefit. Sloping fields, which lie
below large bodies of standing wood, or below large tracts of
swamps or wet land, are very liable to be so wet as to need
thorough draining ; whereas, if the woods above them were re
moved, or the wet ground alluded to were well drained, those
sloping fields would be sufficiently dry, in some instances, without
drains. In such instances the water from above may, many times,
be cut off by running a deep drain along the upper side of the
field, to receive the water as it finds its way from the up land, and
spreads over the fields below. One of the fields on my present
farm slopes to the west about six inches per rod. About one-
fourth of a mile above it was a tract of wet, swampy land, which
was supposed to be the source of the numerous veins of water
which out-cropped in this sloping field. The sloping field has
been drained ; and before the swamp above was drained, the
drains in that sloping field emitted an abundance of good water,
as long as there was water in the swamp. But now that the
swamp has been drained, the water in those drains in the sloping
field fails early in the season, showing very conclusively that the
source of the water has failed.

399. Sometimes mill-races or canals are cut along hills, and the

290 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

water from them percolates through the bank, rendering a large
tract of the land below the water very wet during the whole
growing season. Now, if a deep drain is made along the race or
canal, it will cut off the water that would render the soil too wet
for cultivation. If, after one drain has been made for such a pur
pose, some of the water passes under the first drain, and renders
the soil wet several rods below it, another drain nearly parallel
with the first will effectually cut off all that would otherwise pass
on and render the soil wet.

400. The young farmer need have no apprehension that he may
cut a drain in some places where it will injure the soil by draining
it too much. There is but little danger of draining a field so much
as to injure it. Most soils operate like a sponge in retaining
water. If deep drains were made at a distance of every ten feet
across our driest fields, they would retain all the water, as it fell
in rain, that is necessary to sustain healthy vegetation ; and they
would be benefited rather than injured by such a system of thor
ough draining. I pen these suggestions to show that if the
young farmer should cut a drain in one place, and it should fail to
drain the soil thoroughly on both sides of it, he need not fear to
cut another drain, even within a few feet of the first one. Now
that the most proper place is chosen for drains, and the stakes
stuck for it, the next consideration which is of great importance is,

THE MANNER OF CUTTING DRAINS.

401. The young farmer will, very frequently, be so fortunate
as to have in his employ some piece of stupid intelligence who
professes to know more about thorough draining than all the
world besides, and who will insist that a drain must be cut here
or there, and that a given depth, which he may mention, is infi
nitely better than any other depth ; and that he can excel any
other man in laying out, cutting, and stoning or tiling a drain.
But the truth is, too frequently, with such knowing ones, that
they, in reality, know about as much as juvenile school -boys.
There can be no impropriety in giving such knowing ones a hear
ing ; but the beginner should consult some farmers who have had

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 291

no little experience in underdraining, and read attentively all that
has been written on the subject, and then bring all the common
sense that is in his possession to bear on the subject.

402. It is a consideration of very little consequence how rough
and uneven the sides of a drain are, providing the bottom is made
true. Therefore, when a drain is to be cut without the aid of a
regular Ditching Machine, in order to facilitate and economize
the expense of cutting it, if the soil is in sod, plow a furrow
where the drain is to be made, about six inches deep, and
then cut another furrow about six inches wide, very straight,
and throw it beyond the first furrow, either with the plow
or with manure hooks. Now drive back to the other end,
and plow the subsoil as deep as is convenient, by going twice
in the same place. Now shovel out the loose dirt, and plow
again. By hitching the team two or three feet further from the
plow, with a chain, than they are hitched for ordinary plowing, a
ditch can be plowed two feet deep with a common plow. A
strong double team and Michigan Sod Plow is much better than
a single team. After the dirt has been shovelled out, if the drain
is to be a small one, have a very long yoke for oxen, or long
whippletree or evener for horses, and loosen up the dirt with a

FIG. 13 Of

MILTON ALDEN'S DITCHING PLOW, AUBURN, N. y.

Sub-Soil Plow, or with a Ditching Plow, shown at Fig. 130|,
which is a most efficient and superior tool, and can be obtained
of the inventor, Milton Alden, Auburn, N. Y.* When the ditch

* Since this chapter on Draining was written, M. Alden, Auburn, N. Y. , has made a
great improvement in ditching plows. His improved plow is made with two standards and
two points. One standard is bolted to one side of the beam, as in the Fig. of the single
standard plow on this page, and the other standard is bolted to a block, which block is

292 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAU

is sufficiently wide for a horse to walk in, let one or two be hitched
before it, ad tandem, or one before the other. The bottom of a
ditch is a very difficult place for a horse to walk in ; consequently
a man should steady him, walking by his side, with one hand
hold of the back-band to keep him balanced, — or in a narrow
ditch a horse will lose his balance so often, by hitting his legs and
feet against the sides of the ditch, that he will fall over sideways
so frequently, he will become afraid to move. A horse cannot
walk in a channel which is barely wide enough for a man to
walk in.

GRADING THE BOTTOM OP A DITCH.

403. Any one can work at ditching until he comes to the bottom;
but not one ditcher in fifty, that I have ever seen, knows how to
grade the bottom correctly, or dig it across the bottom in the
most correct form. The bottom of a ditch, from the outlet to the
head, should be of a straight uniform grade all the way. The
bottom should not be level for a few rods, and then ascend a few
rods, and then be of a water level for a number of rods farther,
and then ascend, and so on to the head of it, as they are usually
dug. The idea is, to have the bottom of such an inclination that
water will flow at the same velocity through every part of the

bolted to one side of the beam of the plow. The arrangement is such, that the plow will
cut a ditch six, eight, ten, or twelve inches wide. Instead of being drawn by a chain or
clevis attached to the end of the beam, it is drawn by a tongue, the end of which is
fastened to the upper side of the beam, near the middle of it, and plays up and down in a
tongue guide, which is bolted to the end of the beam. The handles are adjustable, to
enable the man who holds it to walk nearly erect, even when the plow is in a ditch two
feet deep.

The advantages of this plow over others are, it will run more steadily with a tongue
than without a tongue. With two standards and two points, a ditch is easily kept of a
uniform width, without any difficulty ; and with two points a vast amount of labor in
dressing off the sides of a ditch is saved ; and the corners of the bottom are dug out much
better than they can be with an ordinary plow ; and by having the team hitched to a
tongue, the plowman can prevent the plow from running too deep in soft places ; and he
will be able to lift it from a ditch much easier than he can without a tongue. Every part
is made strong and durable ; and the plow is a valuable improvement. It will work well
where any other ditching plow will work, and will always do better work than one having
but one standard.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

293

drain. In order to do this correctly, a ditcher must have a me
chanical eye — an eye that can, at a glance, detect a depression or
an elevation at any point in the bottom of a ditch. If a ditch is
cut where there is but little descent or fall, and the bottom is not
as straight as a mathematical line, but is sunk an inch too deep
here, and a little farther on two inches deeper than the line of a
true grade, water will not run out freely ; but the current will be
so slow in these level places that in a few years the calibre of
small tile will be completely filled up with sediment. But if
there is a little inclination all the way, and the inclination is of a
true grade, there will be no chance for sediment to lodge and to
collect. "Whether a ditch is to be filled with tile, stone, or wood,
the bottom should be of a true grade. Some men may dig ditches
all their lives, and they cannot grade the bottom of a ditch just as
it should be, in a difficult place. It is more important to have the
bottom of a ditch very true, where very small tile is to be laid,
than it is where large tile is to be used.

404. The accompanying Fig., 131, will give the young farmer

FIG. 131.

CORRECT MANNER OF GRADING THE BOTTOM OF A DITCH.

a more correct idea of the proper manner of grading the bot
tom of a ditch, a a represents the surface of the ground. The
line b &, nearly parallel with the surface, shows the common mode
of grading the bottom of a ditch, up a slope. The straight line
c c represents the most approved manner of grading the bottom of
a ditch. A. ditcher who possesses little or no mechanical skill,
will be puzzled some to grade the bottom just as it should be ;
but if he cannot make calculations about at what point to com-

294 THK YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

mence digging a little deeper, and about how deep he must sink
the bottom at the highest point on the surface, and about how
far he must dig before he runs out, he had better resort to stakes.
Stick a stake at the outlet and one at the head of the ditch after
it has been dug, like the line b b, allowing them to be say four
feet high. Now at the highest places, E E, set up stakes four
feet high, and then look over the tops of them ; and dig a hole in
the bottom of the ditch at E E, until the tops of the stakes at
E E will be in a line with those at the outlet and head of the
ditch. The ditcher should bring his head down in the ditch as
near the bottom as is convenient, when he will be able to discover
any depression or elevation in the bottom, as far as the eye can
distinguish.

405. "When a ditch is to be filled with stone, if there is to be a
throat made in the bottom, the young farmer should make calcu
lations about how large a throat will be necessary, and about how
large will be the average size of the side stones. In this case the
corners of the ditch should be well dressed out, and the middle
dug about an inch the lowest, as shown by Fig. 133. (See
Par. 416.) The object of having the middle of the ditch the
lowest is, to keep the water from forming a channel between the
side-stones and the bank; which would be liable to displace the
stone, and thus form an obstruction in the drain. When the
corners are not well dug out in the bottom of a ditch, it is much
more difficult to stone it in a complete manner. There is no
necessity for digging out the corners of the bottom of a ditch for
tile, unless tile of the largest size is to be used, or two rows of
tile, as shown by Fig. 132, in which case the bottom should be
hollowed out, as shown in the figure.

DEPTH AND SIZE OF DRAINS.

406. It is totally impracticable for any individual to tell where
a drain should be cut, or how deep or how wide drains should be
made, without going on the ground during a wet, and sometimes
a dry part of the season, and examining the sources of the surplus

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 295

water and the inclination of the ground where a drain is thought
to be needed. The young farmer should never be satisfied with
a drain that is not thirty inches deep ; and the instances are very
rare where it would not be better to cut it thirty inches than less
than that depth. In some places it may be allowable, and drain
the soil well, to put small tile in a ditch only two feet deep.
But for large tile, and particularly for stone, a ditch should never
be less than thirty inches deep. Drains that are thirty inches
deep will be just as effectual in drying some fields as if they were
three or four feet deep. On the contrary, drains only thirty inches
deep in some fields would not be half as effectual in draining the
land as they would if they were forty or fifty inches in depth. In
some places it will be necessary to sink the ditches four feet deep
in order to "get the water," or to reach the veins. But when
the water veins are reached at the depth of thirty inches, it will
be incurring a bill of useless expense to sink the ditches deeper
than that depth. It is no detriment nor disadvantage to land to
have the drains four feet deep ; because water will percolate into
a deep drain about as soon as it will into a shallow drain twenty-
five or thirty inches in depth. When land is drained to cut
off the water arising from springs, as a general rule the drains
need to be deeper than they do where the surplus water does not
arise from springs.

407. When a drain is to receive a single row of tile, if the
ditch is cut barely wide enough to admit them it will be just as
well as if it were a foot wide. When the ditches are to be cut
three or four feet deep, they must necessarily be wide enough for
a man to work in without being cramped for want of space. The
narrower a ditch is, of course the less earth there will be to dig
up and shovel out. When a ditch is to receive tile not more than
five inches wide, and is to be dug not more than three feet deep,
it may be about ten inches wide at the top and five inches wide
at the bottom. A man cannot work conveniently in a ditch
smaller than this size. When a ditch is to be filled with stone,
calculations should first be made how large will be the stream of
water, and how much space the stone will occupy. A stoned
13

296 THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

drain with a large throat should never be less than three feet
deep. The larger the throat is, the deeper a drain ought always
to be made ; because the wider the space of the throat the more
liable a drain is to become obstructed by the dirt caving in.
Throats that are much deeper than their width are less liable to
become obstructed than those are which are wider than their depth.
Tile, the calibre of which is twice as deep as it is wide, will dis
charge water with greater rapidity than those will having round,
or half round calibre. (See MANUFACTURING TILE, 436.)

HOW TO DETERMINE THE PROPER DEPTH FOR DRAINS.

408. A man who has had a good share of experience in under-
draining will be able to conjecture, in most instances, about how
deep ditches should be cut in order to operate most effectually.
But the correct and sure way is, to " cut and try." Let the
ditches be cut about thirty or thirty-six inches in depth, not in a
very wet time, nor in a very dry time. Now, if by digging
thirty inches deep most of the veins of water seem to be cut off,
and but little bubbles up from the bottom of the ditch, it is use
less to dig deeper. "When it is very evident that a field needs
draining, and ditches have been cut thirty inches deep, and no
veins of water are reached, it is very conclusive evidence that the
ditches should be sunk deeper. Again : when ditches have been
cut thirty inches deep, and most of the water issues from the sides,
and but little or none bubbles up in the bottom, there will -be no
necessity of sinking them deeper for the sole purpose of cutt'ig
off the veins of water. It is no uncommon occurrence to see
about all the water that has been the cause of rendering the soil
wet, flow into a ditch at twenty or twenty -five inches from the
surface of the ground, at the sides of the ditch. When such is
the case, the expense of sinking a ditch more than thirty inches
deep — except for the purpose of securing a bottom with a true
grade, or for large tile (see Fig. 132) — would be entirely useless.
When a ditch has been sunk thirty inches deep, and the subsoil
appears to be full of water, and but little water flows into the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 297

ditch, and most of that bubbles up in the bottom, there is certain
evidence that it should be sunk from six to twelve, or perhaps
twenty inches deeper. When the soil is too wet to plow, a ditch
thirty inches deep will often send out a stream of water sufficiently
large to fill tile having an inch and a half calibre. But when
that soil is dry enough to plow, and such a stream of water can
be obtained in a ditch of twenty rods in length, it will drain the
ground for a rod or more on each side of it. But when there is
an abundance of springs, in some localities there will be four
times as much water collected in a given distance as there would
be in some others. But it is utterly impossible to give perfect
directions for draining every place or field, without having a man
of some experience on the ground to examine the ditches, either
after they are dug or while the digging is going on. An engineer
may give directions for draining a field, with the assurance that
if the ditches are sunk three and a half or four feet deep it will
be thoroughly drained ; when, at the same time, if he were on the
ground when the digging of the ditches was in progress, he would
decide, without hesitancy, that it would be useless to dig the
ditches over thirty or thirty-five inches deep, to collect about all
the water that would be collected were they sunk twelve or
twenty inches deeper. I would by no means advocate the prac
tice of attempting to drain land with drains less than thirty inches
deep, even where a drain two feet deep would collect just as
much water as a deeper one. But when drains thirty inches
deep will subserve as good purpose as deeper ones, there can be
no plausible reason assigned why they should be sunk deeper.
At the depth of thirty inches frost will never affect them, nor the
subsoil plow derange any portion of them so as to obstruct the
water passages. I refer more particularly to small drains, where
there is but little water.

MANNER OF FILLING DRAINS.

409. The sooner drains are filled after they have been finished,
the better ; and, in some instances, it will be very necessary to
make the passage for the water as soon as practicable after the

298 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ditches have been dug, on account of the liability of the sides to
cave in. Ditches ought not to be left unfilled during the sum
mer, so that cattle and sheep will be jumping across them, for
they will be very liable to fall into them ; and if they do not
slip in, and carry a portion of the bank with them, they will
often tread up the bottom so that it will require more labor to
prepare it again for the tile than most men are aware of.

410. Before a ditch is filled, if the young farmer does not
know positively that water will flow freely from the head to the
foot of a ditch, the fact should be ascertained without delay.
"When there is but little fall, it is the easiest thing in the whole
science of underdraining, to be greatly deceived with reference to
the amount of fall. I have seen many instances in which men,
who affirmed positively that they had not the shadow of a doubt
that water would flow from the head to the outlet of a ditch,
were most wofully disappointed when they saw water standing a
foot deep above the outlet. No man can determine, simply by
the eye, whether water will run towards the head or the foot of
a ditch, when the surface is about level. I have seen men so
confident that water would run out, that they have stoned their
ditches and filled them with earth, and afterwards had the very
unpleasant satisfaction of learning that the outlet of their drain
was about a foot higher than the middle or the head of it.

411. As levelling instruments are not always at hand on a
farm, the most expeditious and most accurate manner for com
mon laborers to ascertain whether or not there is sufficient fall in
a ditch is, to pour a barrel or two of water into it at the head.
If it will flow onward until it reaches the outlet, we may rest
assured that water will not stand in it after it has been filled.
When a ditch is thirty or forty rods in length, it may be neces
sary to pour in three or four barrels of water, as the earth will
often absorb one or two in a short distance. It is a good prac
tice to grade the bottom of a ditch while there is a small stream
of water in it, as it can be done much more accurately than it
usually is performed when there is no water in it.

THE YOUNG FARMEK'S MANUAL. 299

LAYING TILE IN A DITCH.

412. This is a part of draining which requires the exercise of
more good judgment than anything else in making a drain. "When
tile are all very straight and true, and the ends square, if the
bottom of the ditch is as true as it should be there will be little
difficulty in laying them in the best manner ; but when some of
them are crooked, and the ends of many by no means as square
as they should be, it is often difficult to lay them as well as they
should be laid. I must condemn the practice, which is too fre
quently recommended, of placing the tile in the ditch with a
tile-hook and staff, while the workman is standing on the surface
of the ground. In order to lay tile as they should be laid, the
workman must stand in the ditch. Of course, he will understand
that, in tiling or stoning a ditch, he should always commence at
the head of it, so that nothing can flow down and enter the
water passage. Now, the idea is, to have the calibre of each
tile placed so that a smooth passage will be formed throughout
the entire length of the drain. Place the first tile at the upper
end of the ditch, and stop the upper end with a stone, and stamp
the tile down firmly with one foot. Now place another to the
end of it, and stamp it down, so that the ends will exactly corres
pond. If a tile is crooked, and is of such a form that it will not
answer to turn it over in order to make it fit better on the
ground, or if the middle or one end of it is kept too high by a
small stone in the bottom of the ditch, I always use a rammer of
some description, and sink the earth until the tile will lie in the
most desirable position. Sometimes the ends of one tile will
pitch down more than the tiles at each end of it. In such a case,
I use hard dirt, well rammed down, and lay the tile on it and
stamp it down, or place a thin piece of flat stone under one or
both ends, to raise it to the desired position. The ends of tile
are very seldom so square that a dime could not be dropped

300 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

into the calibre after they have been placed in the ditch, and
frequently the ends are so untrue, that the upper side of the
joints will be open from half to three-fourths of an inch. In such
a case I usually try another tile, or change ends with it, or turn
it on the side, or upside down. If then I fail to make the ends
fit as closely as they should, I place a lot of small flat stones
over and on the sides of the open joint, and then cover the stones
with hard dirt with my hands, so that nothing will be displaced
when the dirt is plowed or shovelled in. A tile that will not
endure hard stamping, for the purpose of sinking it into the dirt,
is not fit to be laid in a ditch. The aim of the workman should
always be, in laying tile, to place them in such a manner that
they will never sink, so that the ends of them will not be uneven
with each other. If the bottom of a ditch is neatly graded, and
the tile are very true, an experienced workman will be able to
lay three thousand, or even more than that number in a day.
But if tile are crooked, and the ends not true, and the bottom of
the ditch is full of little stones which must be rammed down to
a level, a laborer may sometimes labor most faithfully and not
lay more than one thousand in a day. It is always desirable to
have the joints between tile so close that there will be barely
room to receive a knife-blade of ordinary thickness ; but if there
is, in some places, a space of three-eighths of an inch at the joints
of tile which have a calibre of over three inches, any substance
that would find its way into a joint or space of that size would
be swept out by the force of the stream of water. When the cal
ibre of tile is less than three inches, and there is but little fall in
the ditch, the workman should be unusually particular in securing
tla good Jit" at each joint, as the current of water in small tile
would be so slow, where there is not more than six or eight
inches fall in one hundred feet, that it would not be very apt to
carry dirt or very small gravel out of the tile. Some men seem
to prefer a little channel in the bottom of a ditch, to lay small tile
in ; but I have always found that with such crooked, untrue tile
as we are obliged to use, I could secure a better fit at the joints, when
the bottom of a ditch was about five or six inches wide, with no
channel in the middle. When very large tile are used, or when

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 301

two rows of tile are laid in one ditch, with a water- -cr -.00

passage between them, as shown by Fig. 132, it is _ ^_

best to sink a channel, not more than an inch
deep, between the tile, for the purpose of prevent
ing the water from undermining any of the tile.
The preceding remarks refer solely to pipe tile.
But, as many knowing ones will persist in having
half-round or horse-shoe tile — although I do
not approve of that form of tile (see paragraph
438) — I will give directions for

LAYING HALF-ROUND OB HORSESHOE TILE.

413. If the young farmer will have horseshoe tile, they should
always be placed on soles, which are flat pieces of burnt clay, of
the same length and width as the tile, and not less than half an inch
thick. These soles are placed firmly in the bottom of a ditch,
and the tile placed on them so as to break joint near the middle
of the soles. But both soles and tile are so frequently warped
and twisted, that there is sufficient room, in some places, between
the soles and the tile, for meadow mice or moles to enter the
water-passage and haul in dirt, and thus obstruct the flow of the
water. Some farmers lay a narrow board or plank in the bottom
of a ditch, and place a row of horseshoe tile on the boards ; but
such a practice cannot be denounced too strongly. Boards are
so liable to decay in places, and thus allow some of the tiles to
sink below others, that we cannot calculate with certainty that a
drain will not be obstructed within a few years, when the tile are
laid on boards. Perhaps most of the boards might last, in the
bottom of the drain, thirty or forty years ; but if there should be
only one or two poor places in the boards, an obstruction would
be formed in a few years. When the bottom of a ditch is very
hard, large half-round tile may be laid in the bottom, and sub
serve a good purpose; but they should never be placed on
boards. When the ground is hard they will never sink one-
eighth of an inch ; but, where they would be liable to sink with
out a board under them, soles or sole-tile should be used, but
boards never. When small horseshoe tiles are laid in a ditch
with boards, it would be far better to sink a narrow channel in

302 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the bottom of the ditch, and place the tile in it, upside down, and
cut up the boards into short pieces, and lay them crosswise on the
row of tile. I should have far more confidence in the durability
of a drain made in this manner, than if the boards were beneath
the tile.

MANNER OP LAYING STONE IN A DITCH.

414. Anyone can pitch stones into a ditch, and cover them
with dirt ; but, in order to have a stoned drain carry off the
water as well as it should, and not become obstructed in the
water-passage, it is very important to have every stone placed
just right. The most common cause of obstructions in a stoned
drain is, the side stones, which, in consequence of not being placed
most correctly, fall over into the middle of the water-passage, or the
stream forms a channel between the side stones and the sides of
the drain, and thus displaces the stones. As stones of almost
every form and size must be worked in when the throat is laid,
a laborer needs much judgment and skill to place every one in
such a manner that it will not be displaced.

415. Writers on draining with stone, in years past, recom
mended breaking the stone as small as the size of a hen's egg for
filling ditches, and, also, to have ditches filled with stone to a
point within about one foot of the surface of the ground. But
the observation and experience of our most successful farmers,
who have used stone for filling their ditches, have induced them
to come to the deliberate conclusion that drains are but little, if
any, more effectual in draining the land, when they are filled with
small stone one foot above the throat, than they are when
nothing but a throat is made of stone, well chinked with small
stone. The expense of digging ditches three feet deep, and of
laying a good throat in them for the water, is quite as large as
most farmers are willing to incur, without incurring the additional
and useless expense of breaking a large lot of stone into small
pieces. Any one who knows anything about breaking stone
in very small pieces, knows, that it is a very laborious and ex
pensive job. As a good throat is all that is necessary in a ditch,

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 303

and as drains are less liable to become obstructed in the water
passage when there is only a throat than they are when small
stones a foot or more deep are placed above it, let us attend par
ticularly to the manner of placing the stones in the bottom of a
ditch, so that they will not be displaced by the water.

416. If most of the stones are cobble or bowlders, both the
side stones and covering stones, place them as shown in Fig. 133

FIG. 133. FIG. 134.

MANNER OF STONING AVITII COBBLE STONES. IMPROPERLY STONED.

It will be discovered by the figure, that if the covering stone is
removed, the side stones will fall into the water channel. But
the covering stone being convex or circular on the under side, it
keeps them from falling inwards. When side stones will not
stand alone until the covering stone is placed on them, I hold
them up with one foot. This is the most approved manner of
stoning a ditch with small bowlders.

417. "When the side stones are flat on one side and convex on
the opposite side, as shown at Fig. 134, which represents a stone
drain improperly stoned, they should be placed, not as shown in
the figure, but with the flat side against the side of the ditch,
and the convex side inwards. It will be seen by the figure, that
there is a passage for water between the side stones and the sides
of the ditch, — which is very objectionable. And, besides, when
the flat sides of the side stones are placed against the side of a
ditch, and not as shown in the figure, the superincumbent pres
sure will all be near the corners of the bottom of a ditch ; and
not near the middle of it, as here represented. When stone are
placed as represented by this figure, they are very liable to slide
13*

804

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

inwards, as they appear to be sliding in the figure, and obstruct
the free passage of the water. If two such stones were turned
around, with the covering stone remaining as it is represented in
the figure, the throat would carry a larger stream of water, and
little or no water would run between the side stones and the
sides of the ditch ; and the superincumbent pressure would tend
to keep the side stones in their proper places.

418. Fig. 135 represents the side stones placed very improp
erly. Great care should be exercised in placing the side stones,

FIG. 135.

FIG. 136.

VIEW OK BIDS STONES
IMPROPERLY PLACED.

MANNER OF STONING
WITH THIN SIDE STONES.

so as to have them of a uniform height, or of such a height that
the covering stones will rest on every side stone. If large and small
side stones are placed together, as shown in the figure, those that
the covering stones do not rest on, will be very liable to fall or
roll over into the water passage. When covering stones are
broad, the beginner should see that every side stone sustains
some superincumbent pressure. It is necessary, sometimes, to
make a little depression with a pick, for a side stone of peculiar
form, in order to have it lie well.

419. Fig. 136 represents the most approved manner of stoning
a ditch, where most of the side stones are nearly or quite flat.
The sharpest edge of the side stones should be placed in the
corner of the ditch, in order to make the throat as spacious as pos
sible, and to prevent the water from forming a channel outside of
them.

420. Fig. 137 represents a very good mode of laying the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 305

throat of a drain, when the covering stones are flat, and a little
wider than the bottom of the ditch. This man- FIG. 137.
ner of forming a throat with flat stones is far
preferable to the one in which the stones are
placed like the rafters of a building.

421. Chinking with small stones is a very im
portant part of laying the stones in a ditch.
Great pains should be taken to chink the entire
surface so thoroughly, that there will not be an

0 8TONIKG WITH ONR

open space as large as a mouse-hole. When BOW OF SIDE STONES.
flat stones are used for covering stones, small flat stones should
be used to cover the cracks and for chinking ; and, when bowl
ders are used for covering the side stones, small round stones
will be the best for chinking. After the chinking has been thor
oughly performed, it would be a good practice to spread coarse
gravel on the stones, for the purpose of keeping out the moles
and meadow mice. It would hardly pay, however, to haul
gravel for such a purpose any considerable distance, as the sur
plus water would find its way into the throat of the drain quite
as well without the gravel. Let those who doubt this, try the
experiment for a few years ; and I am confident they will coin
cide with me in every respect.

SIDE-HILL DRAINS.

422. "When drains that are filled with stone, have a fall or
inclination of more than one foot per lineal rod, if the bottom of
the ditch is not very hard, should there be a stream of water
sufficiently large to fill a four-inch tile, the water would be very
liable to form gullies, where it runs swiftly, and to undermine the
side stones, thus causing derangement and obstructing the free pas
sage of the water. When a stream of water as large as a man's
arm is confined and pressed a very little, and its passage is down
a slope, which may not be very steep, it will carry in it large
gravel and stones, as large as hens' eggs ; which, rolling and
rumbling and tumbling along, will cut a gully in a few weeki
even in very compact earth. It is often very desirable to make

306 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

a stone drain beneath a stone wall, which runs up and down a
steep slope, or beneath a hedge row. (See Par. 195 and 261.)
In such localities, a farmer does not feel willing to purchase tile
for that purpose when suitable stones are very abundant. Now,
in order to form a throat with stone in such a drain, which will
be as permanent as the hills, let the bottom of the ditch be fin
ished in a triangular form, as represented by Fig. 138, which
represents the manner of forming a throat with thin flat stones.
In order to perform the job in a workmanlike manner, the work
man should have a light stone-hammer for dressing off the edges,
FIG. 138. in order to make them fit well. Should the
stream be a small one, and the stones small, the
throat may be made small. But should the
stone average in size about one foot wide, the
channel should be dug about one foot deep, and
two inches wide in the bottom, and eight or nine
inches at the top. When flat stones are scarce
and rather small, it would be best to place a

MANNER OF STONING A .

DITCH WITH THIN FLAT row of them lying flat in the bottom of the

STONES ON A SIDE HILL _

OR THROUGH QUICK- ditch ; and then form a throat with bowlders for
the side stones, and for covering stones. This
manner of forming a throat with the bottom flagged with flat
stones, would be worthy of adoption where the subsoil is so soft
that a drain is liable to sink in it.

FILLING IN THE EARTH.

423. Every writer on underdraining, whose writings have come
under my observation, has recommended placing sods directly on
tile or stone when filling in the dirt. My experience in under-
draining teaches me that this practice is by no means a good
one ; and I am confident that every intelligent farmer, who will
or who has given the subject a proper investigation, will coincide
with me. When sods are placed over stone or over the joints of
tile in an inverted position, they will exclude most effectually the
loose dirt from the joints of the tile and from the interstices be
tween the stones. But it must be remembered, that sods in such

THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL. 307

places will very soon decay, forming a complete bed of mellow,
fine earth, which will be very easily washed into the calibre, or
worked in by moles or mice. When straw or shavings are used,
they soon decay, and furnish an abundance of the right kind of
substance to obstruct the water passage. When mellow earth is
placed on the stone, moles and mice will haul it down and fill the
throat full in one season. But if hard earth is placed directly on
the stones, they find it impossible to work holes through it ; and,
therefore, they will not be able to obstruct the water passage
with earth. I was once accustomed to put straw on the stones
in my drains, and to place sods, inverted, next to the stones ; but
I found that the moles and meadow mice made holes so readily
from the throat to the surface of the ground, and hauled in so
much dirt, that I abandoned the use of straw entirely ; and in
stead of putting the sods on the stones, the hard subsoil is always
placed directly on them.

424. My practice now is — and I find that all our best farmers
are adopting it — to return not less than six inches in depth of the
hardest sub-soil directly on the tile or stone. I always prefer to
shovel it in when it is wet, as it will set, and form a more compact
covering when it is wet than it will when the dirt will crumble.
In covering tile, I always fill with a shovel about six inches above
the tile, and exercise great care that small stones do not fall on
the tile, and crush them. In covering stone, I shovel in about
six inches of hard dirt, and then tread it down firmly — not with
a horse, as I have read of in some agricultural journals, but
with my own feet. After this, plow in the dirt with one horse.
One horse is better than two horses, even when they draw by
a long whippletree, because they are usually afraid of getting into
the ditch. After the ditch has been filled so that one horse can
travel on the dirt in it without danger of displacing the stone or
tile, it is best to plow with two horses. Great care should be ex
ercised by the workmen not to allow a horse to step in a ditch
when there is but little earth over the stone or tile, as he will
surely displace some of them.

425. Of the many hundreds of rods of underdrains which are

308 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

on my farm, of tile and stone, my own hands have laid every
foot ; and there is not a rod of it that does not work very effect
ually. I have never dared to trust those men to fill my ditches
who were employed by my neighbors ; because they do not, in
some instances, know how to perform such a job in the most
approved manner; and, when they do know, they are too apt
to slight it. Being unable, once, to use a shovel myself, I em
ployed a man to fill a short ditch after the tile had been laid, and,
although he had put straw over the tile, he had allowed small
stones to drop on them, which had broken them in three different
places, and obstructed the water passage. A stone as large as a
hen's egg, when allowed to fall on tile in a deep ditch, if it should
strike just right, would break it. I pen these observations that
the young farmer may see the importance of being very careful
in placing the first earth on the tile.

HOW TO FIND WHERE A DRAIN IS OBSTRUCTED.

426. If the locality of a drain is known exactly, when the
water passage is obstructed dig down to the tile or stone ; and
if water does not rise in the hole where you dug, the obstruction
is above that place. (See Par. 6 and 7.) Now pass on up
stream, until it is thought best to dig again, or until the soil
appears to be full of water, and dig another hole. Now, if
water rises in the hole from the calibre and stands in the hole,
the obstruction is below that point. If there is not more water
than the drain can carry, the soil will be dry a short distance
down stream from the obstruction. If the exact locality of a
drain is not known, it may be found sometimes by running a
crowbar down for every six inches ; and when it is thrust in over
the drain, it will go down much faster and more easily than it
will when the subsoil has not been disturbed.

HOW TO FORM THE OUTLET OF DRAINS.

427. Both stone drains and tile drains are very apt to be dis
turbed and displaced by the frost at the outlets. In order to pre-

THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL. 309

vent the frost from injuring them, lay a few feet of the outlet
with scantling and plank ; or, with scantling for the sides and
flat stones for covering. Timber for such places should be of the
most durable kind. The earth should be shovelled away at the
outlet as often as it works inward so as to obstruct the water
from flowing freely. The practice is too prevalent, even among
some good farmers, of leaving the earth some three or four inches
higher, a few feet below the outlet, than it is at the end of the
calibre. When left in such a condition, drains are very liable to
fill up in the calibre near the end of the outlet. The young
farmer should not neglect to have the earth cleared away in
the spring and in autumn, so that the stream of water may
wash out all gravel and fine earth which has found its way into
the calibre. But if water is forced to " back up " at the outlet,
gravel and earth will be carried down almost to the outlet, where
it will lodge and soon close the water passage.

HOW TO FORM SMALL POOLS IN A DRAIN FOR WATERING STOCK.

428. On farms where all the water is collected in underdrains,
it is often very convenient to have some arrangement so that
animals may obtain water. Water is collected in underdrains, on
my own farm, which run the whole length of it. At the lower
side of each field I cut a gully with plow and scraper, directly
across the drain, wide enough for a span of horses and plow to
pass back and forth, and not less than six inches deeper than the
bottom of the drain, after the tile or stone have been removed.
Now, place a box without a bottom in it, made of good plank,
three or four feet long and about two feet wide, and one foot or
more high, with the corners halved or rabbeted together in the
channel of the drain. In the upper end of the box cut a hole a
little larger than the calibre of the tile or stone ; and in the lower
end of the box, bore a dozen or more — according to the size of
the calibre — inch holes, close together. At the lower end of the
box, on the outside, make a large calibre with flat stones, for a
foot or two from the box, so as to direct the water, as it flows

310

through the holes in the box, into the calibre of the drain.
Chink it well with small stones, so that mice cannot haul in dirt
and stop the passage. Now, let the box be well staked to keep
it in its place. The box should be the widest at the bottom so
that the frost will not lift it. In lieu of stakes, if a man has
an abundance of plank, it would be better to allow the ends of
the side plank to extend into each bank, above and below the
main box. On each side of the box the earth should be kept
shovelled away, so that cattle when drinking may stand as low as
the surface of the water is in the box. In times of high water,
such watering places will be overflowed ; but if there are enough
holes in the lower end of the box, the drain will never be injured
by the water.

429. The object of having the box sunk deeper than the cali
bre of the drain is, to allow all gravel and dirt that may be
washed out to lodge in the sink, so that it can be shovelled out
when the water is low. The gully should be so wide across the
ditch that cattle can go down and drink, and turn around and
come up again, without difficulty. By having the earth exca
vated on each side of the box so that they can go down and
drink, if a small animal should get cornered by a large one, it
may jump over the box and escape on the other side. Such
watering-places should be examined very often, and cleaned out,
if necessary, as cattle are very liable to drop their excrement in
and about the pools where they are accustomed to drink.

DITCHES OR OPEN DRAINS.

430. "When there is a stream of water so large that it would
be too expensive to have it run in an underdrain, it is necessary
to have open drains. These can be made with a plow and
scraper very much cheaper than they can be excavated with
spades and shovels. Open drains should be made so wide that
the banks will not be continually caving in ; and so deep that
where the water from underdrains flows into them it may flow
freely. The banks of an open drain should slopo not less than at

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 311

an angle of forty -five degrees. Accordingly, when a ditch is cut
thirty inches deep, and is ten inches wide on the bottom, it should
be forty inches wide at the top.

431. In localities where the water flows with such a rapid cur
rent as to wash out deep gullies in a short period of time, the
bottom and sides of open drains should be paved or flagged with
small stones. The sides need not be paved more than one-third
or half way to the top of the banks — according to the amount of
water that usually flows in it. In places where water flows only
a part of the season, in order to prevent it from forming gullies,
the bottom and sides of open drains should be scratched over
with an iron-toothed rake, and grass seed — red-top seed is best —
sown on them in the fore part of summer, in order to form a sod.
But where the water seldom or never dries up, the bottom and
sides must be paved, or simply covered with flat stones. The
gutters along some highways, where flood-water is apt to form
gullies, should be smoothed off, and grass seed sown to form a
sod ; or, they should be paved or flagged with small flat stones.

PILLING DITCHES WITH WOOD.

432. I would never advocate the practice of filling ditches with
wood, in any form, where stone of suitable sizes or tile can be
readily obtained. But where timber is cheap, and stone and tile
scarce, it is infinitely better to fill them with plank than to at
tempt to drain land with open ditches. I have known many
farmers to use split timber about the size of rails for the side
pieces, and split slabs for covering them. But with materials in
such a form it is always very difficult to perform a job in a
proper manner. There will be so many large cracks between
the side pieces and the cover, that such drains always become
obstructed in a very few years. I have filled several ditches on
my farm with plank, because tile and stone were scarce ; and I
see no good reason why such drains will not work well for thirty
or forty years, providing the outlets are kept clear, and the earth
is not allowed to enter at the head.

312 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL*

433. Fig. 139 represents the best manner of filling with wood.
F 1 39 Where there would be a stream of water as
large as a man's leg, the bottom of the ditch is
dug about ten inches wide, with the corners
dressed out very true, and a channel sunk in the
bottom, as shown, in the figure, from four to six
inches deep. Great care should be exercised in
cutting the channel, so that each bank be not
broken up. Now, have a log sawed into strips

MANNER OF FILLING an ^nck an(^ a na^ ^7 two inches square, for the
DRAINS WITH PLANK. si(}e.pieces. I have always had my logs sawed
into plank, and then the plank were slit with a circular horse-saw
into two-inch strips. (See SLITTING TABLE, Par. 689.) I have
sometimes slit up inch boards into strips two inches wide ; and I
think they are quite as good as if they were an inch and a half
thick. The covering should never be less than two inches thick ;
and plank should never be placed lengthways of a ditch, but al
ways crossways. Because, when a plank is placed lengthways it
is very liable to split, in consequence of a heavy superincumbent
pressure, and thus obstruct the water course. But when placed
crossways there is no danger of their splitting. And, more than
this, when plank are placed crossways there is no waste, as plank
of any width can be used ; whereas, if laid lengthways they must
be all of a uniform width. I saw up the covering plank, with a
horse saw, as long as the width of the ditch. Now place two
side-pieces in the ditch, and lay a plank on them, and nail it.
Nail a plank at the end of every side-piece. The plank should
be placed about half an inch apart, if they are a foot wide, and
seasoned, so that when the water expands or swells them, the joints
will not be so tight that there will be no space for the water to
enter. If there is but little water to flow in a drain, and the sub
soil is very hard, I dispense with the side-pieces, and lay the
plank over the channel, on the earth. Seasoned plank in a drain
will last twice as long as green ones ; and they will be much more
durable in a deep ditch than they will in a shallow one ; and in a
ditch where there is water nearly all the year, they will outlast

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 313

those that are laid where there is no water during the summer.
Necessity compelled me to use hemlock or elm plank. But the
better the timber is, the more durable a drain will be. As plank
is costly, I have in some instances sawed up slabs for covering.

434. The young farmer should be very careful not to lay any
poor pieces of plank in a drain. Plank sawed out of logs near the
tops of trees, in most kinds of timber, will not be as durable as
plank cut from the butt logs. Let the best plank be laid at the
lower end of a drain ; and if poor pieces must be used, — although
they had better be thrown among the firewood, — let them all be
placed together at the upper end of the drain. Now return about
a foot in depth of the hardest dirt, and tread it down well ; and
should the plank decay in less than twenty years, in which time
they probably will not, the earth will be so compact that a water-
passage would remain in. the earth for ages to come. In filling
in the earth on plank, I am always careful to see that no stones
lie directly on the plank. My plank drains seem to drain the land
as soon and as effectually as tile or stone.

ON THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF STONE, TILE AND PLANK
FOR FILLING DITCHES.

435. In making small drains, where two-inch tile will carry
the water, providing tile do not have to be hauled more than
four or five miles, the expense in dollars and cents of purchasing
two-inch tile and laying them, would be less than the expense of
picking up and laying the stone for a given number of rods. But
a tile drain is always letter than stone or wood drains. The
expense of purchasing, hauling, and laying four-inch tile will
greatly exceed the expense of a stone or plank drain, which will
carry a stream of equal size. I always consider it the best policy
to use up my stone in making drains, as far as they will go, and
then, if there is but little water, use tile ; and if there is a stream
large enough to fill a four-inch tile, use plank. Four:inch tile
cost at our works, eighteen miles from me, forty dollars per thou
sand ; and a thousand tile fourteen inches long will lay about
seventy rods. Now if stone are not too scarce and scattering,

314: THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

a man can pick up and haul stone sufficient for ten rods of drain,
and lay them, in a day. Where there is an abundance of good
stone, he will accomplish more than that. Almost any intelligent
school-boy will be able to determine how many feet of plank it will
require to fill a rod in length of a drain having a water-passage of a
given size. When there is a large stream of water, the side-pieces
might be three or four inches wide, and the covering plank twelve or
fourteen inches long. (See Fig. 139.) Suppose, for example, that it
costs fifty dollars to fill seventy rods of drain with tile having five-
inch calibre, making no account of the expense of hauling them. If
they are thoroughly burnt, a drain made with them would remain
good during all time. Now, then, if a channel is cut in the bot
tom of the ditch three inches deep, two inches wide on the bottom
and four inches wide at the top, with side-pieces two inches high
and an inch and a half thick, covered with plank eight inches
long, a calibre or throat would be formed which would b^ equal
in size to the calibre of a tile, the superficial measure of which
is equal to twenty-two square inches. A throat of the size
just mentioned would carry a larger stream of water than tile
having five-inch calibre ; and it would require for seventy
rods about two thousand one hundred feet of lumber, which
would cost in many localities fifteen dollars per one thousand
feet ; but in many other places, lumber of equal value would not
cost over five dollars per one thousand feet. Now, allowing that
a plank drain would last only fifteen years before it would need
to be newly planked ; and allowing that it would cost twenty
cents per rod to re-dig the ditch every fifteen years, which would
use up $14.00 ; and reckoning the interest on the money, being
the difference between the first cost of tile and the first cost of
plank, we find that it will not cost half as much, in dollars and
cents, where large tile is used, to keep drains in order one hun
dred years, filling with plank every fifteen years, as it will to use
large tile. But who would like an arrangement in which all the
leading drains of a farm must be re-dug and re planked every
twelve, or fifteen, or even twenty years ? It is better to use plank
than not to have drains, where tile nor stone are not at hand.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 315

ON THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE.

436. After the clay has been worked by machinery so that it
is of the right consistence, it is forced through dies in the side of
a strong box, which is usually made of iron, with the inside planed
smooth and true ; and as several of them are forced out side by
side, they are received on a table of small rollers, until they are
several feet in length, in one piece. A small frame is then lifted,
by which small wires cut the tile of the desired length. An in
strument like a wooden fork, with round tines or fingers, is run in
the calibres of the tile, and by this they are lifted from the table
and placed carefully on shelves to dry, in a building which is open
on the sides. After they have become so dry that they will sus
tain the superincumbent pressure of each other, they are placed
in a kiln and burned for several successive days and nights, until
they are so hard that they will not disintegrate or fall to pieces
when they are placed in a ditch. In handling tile when they are
in a plastic state, careless workmen often handle them roughly,
and thus deprive them of their true form, by bunting the ends
against the shelves, or by allowing them to be bent with the
fingers of the fork. If farmers would insist on rejecting every ill-
shaped tile, manufacturers would soon learn to handle them with
care. Some of them will spring a little when they are being
burned, but that will not injure them if the calibre and ends are
true. Sometimes a kilnful of tile is about half burned. But
honest tile-makers will not allow those that are not thoroughly
burned to be sold until they have been re-burned.

437. Good tile, when they are handled, will ring like stone
ware, if they are not saturated with water. But those that are
not thoroughly burned will emit a dull sound, and should be re
jected. When good tile are saturated with water they are
nearly one-third heavier to haul, and will not emit a clear sound
when struck.

THE BEST FORM OF CALIBRE FOR TILE.

438. Tile having the calibre of the shape of a turkey's egg,
pin red with the small end down, are preferable to those of any

316 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

other form, because the narrower the channel is on the bottom,
the more rapidly the stream will flow ; and the swifter the stream
flows, the more gravel and dirt which may find way into the
calibre will be carried out with the stream. Therefore sole tile,
with egg-shaped calibre, when they are made true, are preferable
to tile of any other form. But when we must take up with those
that have been jammed and pinched and heedlessly knocked into
the shape of a cocked-hat, when in a plastic state, round tile are
preferable to those of any other form, because one can make letter
joints in laying them. Half-round or horseshoe tile will become
obstructed with sedimentary matter much sooner than sole tile
with egg-shaped calibre. Pieces of tile, for the junction of drains,
are manufactured with one or two branches on the sides, or with
two calibres at one end like a fork, and one at the other end.

COST OF DIGGING DITCHES.

439. It will cost twice as much to dig a ditch of a given depth
and breadth in some localities as it will in others ; and even on
the same farm, and sometimes in the same field, a man will be able
to dig twice as much as in others. If the subsoil is so hard and
stony that it must be all picked up with a sharp pick, if a laborer
cuts six or eight rods in length, of thirty inches deep, in a day, he
performs a faithful day's work. It is acknowledged by every
experienced ditcher that it is proportionally more expensive cut
ting deep ditches than shallow ones. After a ditch is dug thirty
inches deep, it is worth, in some ground, from eight to ten cents
more per rod for the next foot in depth. In ordinary digging, all
good ditchers will be able to dig a rod in length of tile ditch, thirty
inches deep, in an hour. Very many ditchers will perform more
than this, while many who have had but little experience, and
handle their tools awkwardly, will not be able to do more than
one rod in length in two hours. "Where ditching is performed as
recommended in paragraph 402, ditches for a single row of tile,
three feet deep, ought not to cost over ten or fifteen cents per
rod, according to the compactness of the subsoil ; and the cost will
not exceed that sum, if laborers are willing to do a faithful day's

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 317

work. "Where the subsoil is so free from stone that a ditching
machine can be used advantageously, the cost, per rod, is still
less. When a man can spade most of the earth, if he is a good
ditcher, and willing to do a faithful day's work, he can make good
wages by digging ditches thirty inches deep, and eight or ten
inches wide on the bottom, for fifteen cents per rod. If a laborer
is not able to do this, he may safely conclude that he is an inferior
laborer, and should be willing to work for wages in proportion to
the amount of work performed. I have had several hundred rods
of ditch dug, not less than thirty inches deep in the lowest place,
and eight inches wide on the bottom, for fifteen cents per rod, the
ditchers boarding themselves. And they earned, in some in
stances, at that price, from $1 to $1 75 per day. A faithful
laborer will shovel out a long piece in a day ; and when a man
can procure laborers who are willing to do an ordinary day's work
for one dollar, or one dollar twenty -five cents, it is the most econom
ical way to use the plow, as recommended in paragraph 402.
The habits of most ditchers are so detrimental to their health and
strength, that their powers of endurance fail when they attempt
to perform a day's work ; and therefore they increase the price
per rod in order to make fair wages by performing less labor.
For this reason ditches of a given depth, which a few years ago
cost fifteen cents per rod, will now cost twenty and twenty -five
cents per rod. But even at those prices, drains will often pay for
themselves in the first crop.

KECAPITULATION. CONCLUDING REMARKS.

440. Underdraining will pay, and pay well, too, and no intel
ligent farmer will attempt to deny it. If the young farmer feels
incompetent to lay out his drains most economically, it may save
him hundreds of dollars eventually to confer with some ex
perienced, successful farmer, who has had much experience in
draining. This confiding in the directions of some would-be engi
neer, who knows so much that his wisdom is a decided disad
vantage to him ; or laying out ditches, according to the notions
of some ditchers, who know more than experience ever taught

318 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

about ditching, will sometimes drain land and sometimes not.
Don't be a three- cent farmer, especially in underdraining. If
drains thirty inches deep will drain the land effectually, it is un-
neces.:ary to sink them deeper. If a three, or four, or five, or even
six feet drain is needed, never stop to compute the cost. Insist
on having everything performed just right. Never yield to the
suggestions of any one to make a drain according to the good-
enough-for-the-present system. If one or two day's work in a drain
seems to be necessary, drop every other job and have it done in
time. When a laborer has completed a job of ditching by the job,
and a ditch is not as deep as it should be in some places, if he has
dug as deep as he agreed to dig, employ him a day or so to com
plete it. Never commence filling a ditch until you have seen
water now from the upper end to the lower end, except one
knows positively that it will flow as directed. Water, in such
places, never deceives us. Levelling instruments may be incor
rect, or may vary, or an inexperienced hand may not adjust them
correctly. Water is the cheapest and the best, and always at
hand, even if it is not found in a ditch. Never spoil a drain for
the sake of using up every tile, both good and poor. If you are
a little suspicious that a tile is not hard enough, if it must be
used, lay all of that kind at the upper end of the ditch, and lay
them all together. Thousands of rods of drain have been stop
ped, simply from this cause, — laying, occasionally, a tile among
good ones, which was so soft that it disintegrated in one season.
Never make a drain with two-inch tile to carry a stream of water
which will be large enough to fill a four-inch tile. Let every tile
and stone and plank be laid by some one who is a little interested
in having it done well. Do not trust a man to work at filling a
ditch who insists that he can stand on the surface of the ground
and do it just as well as to get into the ditch. If it is likely to
ruin a man's reputation should he be found with India-rubber
boots on, and other ditching duds, filling a ditch, then let it go.
In filling a ditch with stone, endeavor to make the throat or cali
bre of a uniform size. If the side stones are so large that they
will extend nearly across the bottom of a ditch, place a bowlder

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 319

on one side, and a flat one on the other side. Allow nothing to
be done in a superficial, perfunctory manner. Keep sods, and
mellow earth, and straw, and all such substances out of a drain
until after several inches in depth of hard earth have been placed
on the stone or tile. Never allow a stream of water to flow on
the surface of the ground directly over a drain, because if it is a
stone drain, the water will most certainly find a hole downwards
into the calibre, and wash in dirt, and thus obstruct the water
passage. In places where water is apt to flow on the surface in
times of high water, have a furrow on one side of the drain for the
flood water to flow in, and have the earth raised over the drain
a few inches above the common level. If a drain is filled with
tile that are not open on the bottom, if a stream flows along the
surface directly over the drain, there is" no danger that it will
injure a drain. Always keep a vigilant eye on drains; and,
above all, keep the outlets clear. If a main drain prove to be
too small to carry all the water, let another one be made a short
distance from it. Never allow the water flowing from a stoned
drain to flow into small tile, lest some obstruction lodge in the
tile. Where a part of a drain is filled with tile, and a part with
stone, if the calibre of the tile is less than four inches in diameter,
always put the tile at the upper end of the drain. I have seen
drains filled with tile, and then a row of flat stones laid on each side
of the tile, from the top of the tile to the bottom of the drain, form
ing a water passage on both sides of the tile. This practice is
very objectionable, because the water is very liable to undermine
and displace the tile. We usually reap our best and most abun
dant crops directly over good drains. In wet seasons, vegetation
suffers far less from too much moisture directly over good drains;
and in dry seasons, when crops are suffering extremely for want
of moisture, vegetation will suffer much less directly over a good
drain, than it will for a rod on either side of it. Let very dry
knolls be well drained with drains five or six feet apart, and they
will retain more moisture than they did before they were drained.
Truly, the entire surface of the earth which is devoted to agricul
tural purposes, needs to be underdrained.
14

320 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

441. Drains should never intersect at right angles. If they
are made at right angles to each other, the one that intersects
with a larger one should be dug in a circle for a few feet from
the main drain. Tile should be manufactured expressly for
receiving side drains. They are commonly made with a hole in
one side of a tile. But the correct way is, to have a large tile
made like a tree, with a large limb on one side of it, which should
stand at about an angle of forty-five degrees with the main tile ;
or a crotched tile placed at the junction would subserve a good
purpose. (See Par. 438.)

DITCHING WITH MACHINES.

442.. There have been several kinds of ditching machines in
vented and put into successful operation in some localities. But
where there is much hard-pan, or many stones or bowlders, large
and small, firmly imbedded in the subsoil, it is almost impossible
to accomplish much with any that have as yet been invented.
When the subsoil can be nearly all spaded, some ditching ma
chines operate very satisfactorily. The best ditching machine
with which I am acquainted is drawn by two horses, one walking
on each side of the ditch, having a small plow to loosen the earth,
with a system of revolving spades to bring up the earth ; and when
each spade stands in a perpendicular position, the earth drops
clown, and slides or rolls off on each side of the ditch. After
such a machine has accomplished all it can perform, in most
places it is necessary to have a good practical ditcher to grade
the bottom of a true inclination. For such a machine the ground
must be free from stone.

443. In J. J. Thomas' Farm Implements, page 139, is a cut
of a draining plow which is said to operate very successfully,
cutting the ditch and laying the tile at one operation. But the
cost for ordinary farmers is too great ; and besides, it would not
operate where there are many stone in the subsoil. And, more
than all else, the tile when strung on a rope would be liable to
be left many times in such a position that when the ground came
to settle down some of the ends would settle by each other.

CHAPTER VI.

PLOWS AND PLOWING.

" Speed the plow ! Speed the plow I

O'er the fields away ;
And turn the furrows up and down
All the summer's day."— N. STONE.

444. OUR country is full of ill-shapen, clumsy, awkward, and
almost worthless implements, which pass for plows, in the manu
facture of which nearly every correct principle in mechanics has
been set at naught. But while there are so many plows of an
exceptionable form and character, it is very gratifying to know
that there are scores of them which have been manufactured
according to the most philosophical and correct mechanical prin
ciples ; and many of them have been brought to so good a degree m
of perfection that it is impossible to point out a single imperfec
tion in any part of them. The common plow, because of its great
efficiency, and almost universal application in the thorough pul
verization of the soil, is the implement on which common farmers
must almost entirely rely; therefore, to aid the young farmer
in the proper selection of plows, I will endeavor to point out some
of the defects and imperfections which are too commonly met
with in the manufacture of plows.

M

DEFECTIVE PLOWS.

445. A very heavy plow is objectionable for a single team,
because it increases the draught of the team ; and a light or indo
lent plowman will not perform as good work with it as if it were
lighter ; because in one instance they are not able to handle it,
and in the other they will not. Another very jrreat defect in our

(USll

322 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

common country plows is, there is not a sufficient dip of the point
below the sole of the plow, or the bottom of the landside. (See
Par. 449.) Another defect is, a little short stub of a mole-board.
Another is, the wing of the share is too narrow, and rises very
abruptly from the entering edge. Another very great fault or
imperfection is, a very short, low standard, having an acute edge,
and connected with the beam at an acute angle, by which every
sod and straw is sure to ciog it. Another defect is, the point of
the share is not half as far forward of the throat of the plow as it
should be. The throat of a plow is the space beneath the beam,
just forward of the junction of the standard and the beam.
Another defect in the manufacture of common plows is, the han
dles do not extend far enough behind the plow, but stand so
straight up and down that the plowman too often stubs his toes
against the plow ; and he cannot handle it, because it is too near
his feet. Another defect is, the handles are too high ; and the
left handle stands too much behind the plow.

WHICH IS THE BEST PLOW?

446. Many farmers are often puzzled, and are in great doubt
to know which is the best plow for them to purchase. A joiner
might with the same propriety ask, "What plane shall I purchase,
as the best for every kind of planing. For plowing some kinds
of soils a certain kind of plows will operate in the most satisfac
tory manner, while on a different soil those very plows will not ope
rate with any degree of satisfaction. Many plows will work well in
plowing stubble ground, and in cross-plowing, which would be
almost worthless for plowing sod ground. One farmer will laud
a certain kind of plows, and pronounce them the very best for
plowing sod ; while his neighbor, just on the other side of the
fence, and in the same kind of soil, with the same kind of plows,
does his work intolerably bad. The first one mentioned plows
just deep enough for the plow to operate as well as possible ;
while his neighbor, having adjusted his plow to run a little too
deep for the shape of the mold-board to turn the furrow-slice
well, is entirely unable to plow in a workmanlike manner. Hun-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 323

dreds and thousands of plows are now manufactured, which will
operate as well as any man can desire, while they cut a furrow
only four or five inches deep. But when they are put into the
soil seven, eight, or nine inches in depth, the draught is unac
countably hard, and all the strength of a strong plowman is
necessary to hold them ; and even then they will not operate
well. Some plows have such a peculiar shape that an increased
depth of the furrow only one inch will so affect their operation as
to make them work decidedly bad.

447. At a plowing match of the New York State Agricul
tural Society in 1856, there were two steel plows entered, which
were made as nearly alike as two plows could be made. The
plowing done by one of them was done most neatly, while the
other performed intolerably bad. The teams and plowmen were
good, and the soil where both plowed exactly alike. One plow
cut just six inches deep and eleven inches wide ; while the other
cut from eight to nine inches deep and from ten to eleven wide,
and left the furrow-slices all standing on the edge, to the great
chagrin and mortification of both the manufacturer and the plow
man.

448. This showed very conclusively, that plows for deep and
for shallow plowing must be of a little different form to operate
well. A plow that works well for plowing deep, may cut a shal
low furrow well ; but a plow may cut a shallow furrow well and
will not a deep one, and turn it well.

HOW TO SELECT A GOOD PLOW

449. In selecting a plow for every kind of plowing, the surest
and best way is, to purchase it on trial, and not take it because
A or B pronounces it " the plow that beats the world" Perhaps
your manner of adjusting a plow and of plowing, and your soil,
are all so very different from his who pronounces that kind of
plow a most complete implement in every respect, that you can
not possibly make it operate at all satisfactorily. Such a plow
no man desires to purchase ; and, as different plows are calculated

324 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

for plowing different kinds of soil, and for cutting a furrow of a
given depth, it is always best after selecting a plow, the various
parts of which are as nearly perfect as possible, to purchase it on
trial. "When the first cast-iron plows were manufactured, the
stand was made very low, and the mold-board also was very low.
For plowing three or four inches deep they operated very well, —
as most plows will which have a low standard and low mold-
board, when turning only a very shallow furrow. But most
farmers have learned that mines of untold wealth lie just beneath
this thin stratum of super soil, which our ancestors merely
scratched over with these imperfectly constructed plows ; and
that when they attempt to bring it up with such plows, they need
more team to draw such imperfectly-shaped implements, when
they are driven an inch or two deeper than they were cal
culated to run ; and that they do not turn the furrow-slice well,
but shove it off, and turn a portion of it over, while the greater
part is merely set on one edge, ready to fall back into the furrow.
With the foregoing considerations, we will attend to

THE POINTS OB CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PLOW.

450. A good plow is one the shape of which is such, that the
draft will be as light as possible / and will turn a furrow-slice well,
whether the furrow is four or eight inches deep ; and will main
tain easily a uniform depth of furrow ; and will hold easy, with
out much exertion of the plowman ; and which will glide along
as smoothly as a goose glides over the gentle-rolling waves of a
lake. The mold-board should be rather long, and so high that
the furrow-slice will not be constantly falling over it into the
plow and furrow ; and the plow should be several inches nar
rower at the sole than it is at the hind end of the mold-board at
the top of it ; and the mold-board should have a good twist at the
hind end ; and the standard should be of a good height ; and the
throat open and circular, so that every little sod or bunch of
manure will not clog the plow ; and the plow should be of a good
length from the end of the point to the middle of the throat or
standard ; and should not rise too much in a short distance ; and

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 325

the point and" wing of the share should be in such a position — •
"lying down flat," as common plowmen express it — that they
will enter the earth several inches, straight in, before it raises the
furrow-slice any. "When the furrow-slice must begin to rise as
soon as the wing of the share begins to enter the earth, and must
rise more and more, until it reaches the mold-board, the draft of
that plow will be full one-third greater than it would be if the
wing of the share were very wide, and the surface of it for two
or more inches almost horizontal. When the share of a plow
can enter two or three inches, so as to cut the furrow-slice loose
before it begins to rise, it requires but little force to raise the fur
row-slice and turn it over. The wing of the share should extend
beyond the sole of the plow never less than three inches ; and
farther than this, as the size of the plow increases, in order to
cut loose the furrow-slice so that it will turn over more readily.
When the wing of the share extends but little beyond the sole
of the plow, the furrow-slice is not cut loose ; and it is far more
inclined to fall back into the furrow than if it were cutv loose on
the bottom. The wing should always be " cold chilled " — hard
ened — on the under side, and should be so thin that it will wear
off as fast on the upper side as it does on the under side. When
the wing of the share is half an inch thick, and chilled or not, it
will wear off the fastest on the under side ; and will affect very
greatly the running of the plow.*

451. The point of the share should always be cold chilled on
the under side ; and if the soil is free from stone it should be
much longer, and more slender, and thinner than it should be for
plowing ground that is full of fast stone. When there are no
fast stone against which a plow may be broken, the point of the
share may be so thin that the upper side will wear away as fast
as the under side wears off. When plow points are very thick —

* Plow points and any other iron is " cold chilled " by running the liquid iron on a
smooth piece of cold iron, which is placed in the sand when the pattern is molded. Iron
being so much better to conduct heat than wet sand, the liquid iron is cooled so rapidly
that it is rendered as hard as it can be made. It costs no more to cold chill plow points
than it does to cast them without cold chilling. And one plow point cold chilled will out
last two, and sometimes four — if they are made of soft iron — which are not cold chilled.

326 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

up and down — the under side wears off much faster than the
upper side ; consequently, after the under side of a point has
become worn off but little, there is a tendency of the plow to run
up out of the ground. For plowing ground that is full of fast
stone, a thicker plow point is necessary, as thin, slender ones will
break too frequently. But as every plowshare should be made
with a fin-cutter to separate the furrow-slice from the unplowed
land, the lower part of the fin may extend almost to the end of the
point, which will strengthen the point very much. Plowshares
should always be made with fin-cutters, because they lessen the
draft of a plow ; and a plow works much better with them than
without them.

452. Plow points as well as plows, should always be ground so
smooth before using, that the earth will not adhere to them.
Grind any kind of cast-iron without water, as a grindstone will
grind it much faster than it will when wet.

453. When the young farmer has found a style of plow to
suit him, when he is about to purchase a new one, order one
made, and charge the manufacturers to make the mold-board
of old iron, such as old stoves and old plow-points ; as such iron
will form new iron which will wear far better and longer than if it
were run out of pig-iron. Tell them to endeavor to make the
mold-board as smooth as possible, as a rough mold-board is a very
disagreeable thing to plow with. Charge him to use the best of
timber in wooding it ; and give him directions, in feet and inches,
just how high to make the handles. Have the left handle bent
to the left not less than seven inches from a right line, so that
the plowman can walk in the furrow without the left handle close
to his side. A plowman cannot exert as much strength in hold
ing a plow, when the handles are as high, or even higher than
his hips, and when the left handle is constantly against his side.
The best and most proper height for plow handles is, just high
enough for the plowman, when he stands erect, to grasp them
with his hands without bending his body forward, and having his
arms straight. When the handles are so low that the plowman
can just grasp them without bending his arms, he can hold a

THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL. 327

plow very much easier and better than he possibly can when
the handles are so high that he is obliged to bend his arms when
his hands are hold of the handles. It is better to have the han
dles too low than too high. Plow handles are almost always too
high for boys ; — and this is one good reason why they are not
able to plow as well as they might plow, if the handles were of
a proper height. "When the handles are low, a plowman can
throw his whole weight and strength on one handle ; but it will be
very difficult and inconvenient for him to do so when the handles
are as high as his ribs.

454. Steel plows. — In some of the "Western States, and in some
parts of the Empire State, plows are manufactured with steel mold-
boards. Steel plows cost several dollars more per plow ; but for
plowing some kinds of soil, and especially very light soils, they
are far superior to the best cast-iron plows, because the surface
of the mold-board is smoother, and admits of a finer polish ; and
in some kinds of very light soil, where the dirt will not slip well
when a cast-iron plow is used, a steel plow will perform most
complete work. For heavy, stiff soils steel plows are little, if any,
better than cast-iron plows, providing they are made of old iron,
and have a very smooth surface.

ADJUSTING THE DRAFT OF THE PLOW.

455. There are so many collateral and conditional considera
tions which influence and affect the proper adjustment of the
draft of the plow, that it seems almost an impossibility to lay
down any infallible rules to enable the tyro to adjust his plow
correctly. When a plow is correctly adjusted it will glide along
with a steady motion, requiring very little effort of the plowman
to hold it, in smooth ground ; and it will not seem inclined to
run too much on the point, nor on the heel. When the draught
is improperly adjusted, the plowman is often obliged to exert all
his strength in order to make his plow work at all satisfactorily.
Sometimes it will run too much on the point ; and the most skill
ful plowmen are unable to adjust it so that it will glide along
14*

328 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

smoothly, resting equally on the point and heel. The draft
may be correctly adjusted for plowing one kind of soil, but for
plowing a different soil — perhaps not eight rods distant — that
adjustment of the draft would be very incorrect. Let a plow
be adjusted correctly for plowing stubble ground of any kind,
where the soil is very compact and hard, and it will be found
that for plowing sod of the same kind of soil the plow will run
too deep. The soil often varies very much in the same field ;
so that a plow in one part of the field runs well, and in another
part, with the same adjustment, runs very badly.

456. The idea which the expert plowman keeps in mind is, to
have the plow cut a furrow-slice just so thick and just so wide,
with the least draft to the team, and the least exertion for him
self. To secure this end, the team is hitched as close to the plow
as it can be and not have the whippletrees hit their heels in turn
ing at the corners. As the length of traces is increased, in plow
ing, the draft increases. Now put the connecting ring, or link,
or dial clevis, at the end of the beam, in the lowest notch ; and
if it will not run deep enough, raise it another notch at a time,
until it will run just deep enough. Now alter the clevis from
right to left, or from left to right, as may be necessary, until the
plow will cut a furrow-slice just wide enough to turn it over well.
If the plow crowds the furrow-slice into the furrow, without turn
ing it over, it shows that the furrow-slice is too narrow for its
depth; and the plow must be adjusted to cut a wider slice. On
the contrary, if the plowman is obliged to push the furrow-slice
over with his foot constantly, if the ground he is plowing be very
smooth and even, it shows that there is an imperfection or fault
somewhere. Sometimes by adjusting a plow to run an inch
deeper it will do very bad work. (See Par. 447.) And sometimes
it is necessary to adjust it to cut a little wider, or a little nar
rower, before it will turn the furrow-slice as well as it ought to
be done. When a good plow is correctly adjusted, it will glide
along where there are no obstructions, without being held, for
many rods. When a plow is constantly inclined to fall over
either way, and the plowman must hold it up all the while to keep

829

it erect, there is either an imperfection in the construction of the
plow, or it is not adjusted correctly. When a plow " tips up
lehind," and does not keep down flat on its sole, or when it
seems to run all on the point, either the point is too Hunt, or is
worn off too much on the under side, or there is not " dip enough "
— pitching of the point downwards — to the point. Sometimes I
have found that a plow could not be adjusted by the clevis so
correctly as all the parts were arranged ; and that by shortening
the traces or draft chain, or giving them a little more length,
it would run like another plow. When a plow is adjusted to run
just right, as the point wears off it is necessary many times to
give a little more length to the draft chains, or to adjust it with
the clevis to run a little deeper. It is sometimes impossible to
adjust a plow to run just right with the style of clevis which is on
the end of the beam. The arrangement ought always to be such
that the draft can be adjusted half an inch at a time, either up
or down, or to the right or left. Then if the beam of the plow
stands as it should, so that the most correct line of draft will cut
the end of the beam, it can be most correctly adjusted in a few
seconds.

457. To make a plow run deeper, raise the connecting point at
the end of the beam one or more notches higher in the clevis ; or
lengthen the draft chains. To make it run more shallow, lower
the draft a notch or more in the clevis ; or shorten the draft
chains; or, which should never be done, shorten the lack-hands
or hip-straps of the harness. To make a plow take a wider fur
row-slice, carry the connecting point one or more notches in the
clevis to the right hand. A notch or two to the left hand will
make a plow cut a narrower furrow slice. Or, which is seldom
allowable, a plow may be made to run more shallow by putting
the gauge- wheel lower, (see Par. 459) so as to raise the end of
the beam. And a plow may be made to cut a narrower furrow:
slice by carrying the handles to the left hand ; or wider by carry
ing and holding them to the right, beyond an erect position;
neither of which is allowable, except for a temporary purpose.
(See HOLDING PLOW, 466.)

330

458. I always go with my plowmen to the field and show them
how to adjust the plow until it will run just right ; and at least
once every day I take hold of the plow with my own hands, to
see if it runs correctly. It would be no difficult thing to tell, if
I were blindfolded, when a plow runs correctly or incorrectly,
and how to adjust it properly in case it seemed to run wrong.
Any good plowman can tell by the touch when a plow runs
right.

THE GAUGE-WHEEL.

459. Were the soil which is to be plowed always very smooth
on the surface, and of a uniform depth, and of equal solidity,
and could the share always be kept as sharp as when first put on
the plow, a gauge-wheel under the beam to regulate the depth of
the furrow would be not only a useless but a cumbersome appen
dage. A plow should always be adjusted to run as nearly as
may be the desired depth without the wheel ; and if the plow
is inclined to run a little too deep in some places, while most of
the time it runs just deep enough, the wheel may be lowered not
more than half an inch at a time, until it appears to be exactly
right. When the share is very dull and the soil variable — being
very hard in some places and mellow and light in others — it is
almost impossible to plow a furrow of a uniform depth without a
wheel. In such a case a plow must be adjusted to run deep,
and then the gauge-wheel lowered under the beam, until it will
make the plow cut a furrow of a uniform depth. But such an
adjustment of a plow increases the draft more than we arc
wont to suppose ; and makes it hold harder ; and it does not, as a
general thing, run as well. Take off that dull point and put on
one that is fit to plow with, and then the plow will operate enough
better to repay the expense of a new share.

460. A gauge-wheel for general purposes should never be less
than one foot in diameter. Very small gauge-wheels never
operate as well as wheels of a larger diameter, unless the ground
is very smooth. When the ground is rather rough, small wheels
are apt to strike obstructions in such a manner as to require a

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 331

much greater force to draw the plow than if the wheel were,
much larger.

461. In plowing deep with a double team, where the soil waa
variable and very uneven, we have found two gauge- wheels to
operate very advantageously ; one under the beam, and one over
the heel of the plow, fastened to the side of the beam. The
plow is adjusted to run about the desired depth, and then the
hindermost gauge-wheel is attached to the side of the plow in
such a manner as to allow the plow to enter only a given depth.
In plowing over knolls, it is many times very difficult to turn the
furrow-slice well without this wheel, because the plow will run
so very deep. The plow should not be adjusted to run deep, and
then the wheel lowered under the beam, to make it run more
shallow ; because that would increase the draft of the plow and
make it hold harder ; and if the wheel is nearer the standard of
the plow than it is the end of the beam, the plow will be very
much inclined to fall over to the right. In plowing a field where
the soil is so light and mellow in some places, that a plow would
run in up to the beam if it were adjusted to run of the desired
depth through the hard portions of the field, two gauge-wheels
are very necessary. Although very many farmers denounce a
gauge-wheel as a useless appendage, I must be allowed to say
that / know a plowman can plow better, as a general rule, with
one, and sometimes two gauge-wheels, than he can without them.
Every good plowman will coincide with me in this assertion.

THE COKRECT ADJUSTMENT OF THE COULTER

462. Of a plow is something which not one plowman in fifty
understands. My manner of adjusting the coulter is, to have
the lower end of it from two to three inches above and forward
of the plow point, and standing as far to the left as the left side
of the end of the plow point. The coulter works best when it
cuts just as wide as the plow will cut. When it is adjusted to
cut a half-inch wider or narrower than the plow would cut, the
plow will not run well, and will hold hard. Most plowmen
adjust the coulter as shown at Fig. 140, Par. 464, with the end of

332 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the coulter directly over the left corner of the point. But in plow
ing where there are some stone in the soil, it will be found that
stones will throw out the plow much oftener when the coulter is
adjusted as in the figure, than they will if it is adjusted forward
of the point so far that most of the stone will pass between the
end of the coulter and the point of the plow, when they will not
throw the plow out. And I am fully persuaded — and my expe
rience coincides with all the good plowmen with whom I have
ever conversed on this subject — that when the blade of a coulter
is of a good length, and sharp, and of the form shown by the
next figure, and stands about as slanting as shown in the figure,
with the point from two to three or four inches forward of the
plow point, it will work better than it will in any other position.
It requires but little force to draw a sharp coulter through the
sod, and when the blade of it is made of the form shown in the
figure, common sense teaches us, that if it stands slanting — as a
knife for ripping — it will clog less, and lessen the draft of the
plow. Always keep the coulter sharp-pointed, and the edge sharp.
464. Fig. 140 represents a very useful instrument for prevent
ing weeds, manure, grass, &c., from clogging a plow. It was
invented by Mr. E. C. Bills, Perry, Wyoming co., N. Y. It
consists of a corrugated conical cylinder, attached to the coulter,
as represented in the figure, which turns freely either way. The
bearing of the lower end of the cylinder plays in a hole in the
front side of the coulter, and the upper end plays in a hole in a
clasp, which is fastened to the coulter by means of a set-screw.
When straw, or clover, or manure, comes in contact with the
coulter, it slides up against the cylinder ; and as it is free to turn,
as one side of such materials will usually draw more than the other,
the cylinder revolves and carries it all on one side of the plow,
and thus keeps the coulter clear. With such a contrivance a
plow will seldom clog.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 333

FIG. 140.

BILLS' PATENT COTJLTEK-CLEABEB.

PLOWING TECHNICALITIES.

465. A furrow is the trench or channel made by the plow
when it is drawn through the soil ; and it is said to be wide, or
narrow — deep, or shallow. The furrow-slice is the strip of soil
which the plow separates and turns away from the unplowed soil
when making a furrow ; and it may be wide, or narrow — thick, or

334

thin. A lack-furrow is two furrow-slices turned towards each
other so that their edges will meet ; or, one may overlay or lap
on the other. A dead furrow, middle furrow, or open furrow,
which are only different names for the same thing, is the channel
that is left when a land is finished. A land is the unplowed
ground between two back furrows, or the quantity of unplowed
ground which a plowman, in plowing, goes around, when he turns
about in the opposite direction from which the furrow-slice is
turned. A land may be wide, or narrow. A ridge embraces a
part of two lands, or all the ground from one middle furrow to
the other ; while a land extends from one back furrow or centre
of a ridge to another. A headland is a narrow strip of ground
at the ends of the lands on which the team turns when plowing.
"When a team goes from one end of the plowing to the other, it
is called a through. "When a team goes to the other end of the
land or ridge, and returns plowing a furrow, it is called a lout or
a round. When land is plowed two or more times before seed
ing, if the furrows are made across the furrows of the last plow
ing, it is termed cross-plowing. When a furrow-slice is turned
into a furrow, and the edges of each furrow-slice just touch each
other, it is denominated flat-plowing, or plowed with a flat fur
row. When the furrow-slices lap on each other, it is called plow
ing with a lap-furrow, or lap-plowing. "When plowing is per
formed with a Michigan Sod Plow, with which a narrow furrow
of the sod two or three inches deep is rolled up, and the whole
covered with well pulverized soil, it is called round-plowing.
"When a common plow is run twice in a place, it is called trench
ing, or trench-plowing. When a subsoil plow is run in the furrow
of a common plow, it is called subsoiling.

HOLDING PLOW.

" The plow with ill-holding goes quickly aside." — TUSSER.

466. After the plow has been correctly adjusted, the young
faffmer, if he would make a skillful and complete plowman, must
be careful to observe and to practise the following rules : Always
keep the plow as nearly level as is practicable. Stand up straight

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 335

between the handles, and never fall into the unworkmanlike
practice of walking two or three feet behind the handles. Take
a firm hold of the handles, and make the arms so stiff, if it is
necessary, that the handles will take the plowman off his feet
before it can deviate from a right line. If a stone or anything
else should cant the. plow from its erect position, with a quick
jerk with one hand set it instantaneously erect. Keep the eye
a good portion of the time on the furrow-slice, to see if it is not
cut too wide, and to see if it all seems to be broken up, and
whether there is not a narrow strip which remains unbroken.
Some plowmen, too indolent to step up to their work, will sup
port themselves, in part, by the handles, and will roll to the right
and left as a huge ship does in a storm, carrying the handles of
the plow with them, until the plow almost loses the furrow-slice,
or cuts one so wide that it cannot turn it, when they will begin
to " right up." Such plowmen always make crooked furrows ;
and no plowman can perform a job neatly who does not cast his
eye forward of the team and plow, and endeavor to cut straight
furrows. By riding on the handles of the plow from an indolent
habit, or for the purpose of keeping the plow from running too
deep, increases the draft of the plow always ; because, when the
handles of a plow are long and the plowman rests heavily on
them, the fulcrum being at the heel of the landside, and the weight
at the end of the beam where the draft is downwards, the draft
is increased as much, many times, as it would be if a number of
hundred pounds of stone were carried on the plow. On the con
trary, when a plowman walks up square with his handles, and
instead of riding on them, lifts a little, and at the same time leans
a little forward, he will diminish the draft of his plow from
twenty to fifty pounds, and at the same time plow a furrow just
as deep and wide as he who indolently rides on his handles.

467. Many a good plowman, understanding this principle, when
the committee at our agricultural fairs and plowing matches have
been testing the draft of his plow with the dynamometer, has
secured the first prize by lifting and shoving a little on the han
dles, instead of riding on them. The movements of a good

336

plowman must be as quick and agile as a weasel ; and if his
plow deviates to the right or left, he must set it up as quickly as
it turned from its course. A slow-bellied, indolent Jonathan,
who always desires to ride through the world, never can make a
complete plowman.

468. In breaking up the prairies of our Western country,
which are as level and free from stone and other obstructions as
a barn floor, the plow being drawn by three or four yoke of
oxen and sustained by four wheels, with a seat on it — like the
devout and submissive Paddy, who " let the world slide along
' azy,' and jump on and ride" — the plowman holds his plow when
riding on it. But let a plowman adopt any such arrangement on
our compact, stubborn, and stony soils, "where our good plowmen
do not know half of the time whether they are on their feet or
in a passive state between the heavens and the earth, and he
would find his quiet seat disturbed very abruptly so frequently,
that he would choose " to foot it " until he became somewhat
tired.

BEGINNING TO PLOW.

" Clear the brown path to meet the coulter's gleam !
The plowman comes, behind his smoking team I
Line after line, along the verdant sod,
Marks the broad acres where his feet have trod.
At every round the loosening chains resound,
And glittering mold-boards sleek the furrowed ground." — GRAHAM.

469. The principles of adjusting and of holding the plow being
well understood, and the team being correctly hitched to the
plow (see Par. 456), and the mold-board being well polished, so
that the dirt will slip, we are ready to start the plow. Now, then,
it is not desirable to have huge ridges thrown up along the fence,
nor to have deep furrows there; but the surface should be kept
as smooth there as in any other part of the field. "Where fields
are about level, it is best to plow them one way at one time, and
across the middle furrows at the next plowing. This will keep
the surface of the ground about level and smooth. In plowing
with a double team or with a single team, the plowman must

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 337

first determine how wide his headland (see Par. 465) must be in
order to give the team sufficient room to turn at the ends of the
lands. If a field is to be plowed by going directly around the
outside, there will be nothing to do but to go ahead and keep
plowing until the field is all plowed. But when a field is to be
plowed by lands, — having determined which way to plow it, run
the plow along say ten, or any number of feet distant from the
edges of the field, which will be at the ends of the furrows, mak
ing a shallow mark — not plowing a furrow — with the point of the
plow. Now always turn out the plow and set it in exactly at
these marks. Now measure off a strip with the rod-pole (see Par.
695) on both sides of the field, just as wide as the headland strips.
This strip entirely around the field must be left to be plowed last.
Now plow a back furrow on the farther side of the field, leaving
a strip as wide as the headland. Commence on the farther side
first, so that the team will not trample the plowed soil in going to
and from work. Now if grain is to be sowed by hand, (see
SOWING GRAIN BY HAND, 493,) it is best to have the middle
furrows of exactly equal distances apart, and the ridges exactly as
far apart as the middle furrows are. I always calculate to sow
about forty-two feet at two rounds. Therefore, measure off forty-
two feet from the first ridge, and turn another ridge, as straight
as a line, and back-furrow just as many furrows on every succeed
ing ridge as there were furrows on the first ridge ; and commence
to turn a ridge every time at the same end that you commenced
at when the first ridge was turned. If a plowman commences at
one end in striking out one ridge, and at the other end of the field
for the next ridge, and plows one or two furrows more on one
ridge than he does on another, the ridges may be equidistant
apart ; but the middle furrows will be of very unequal distances
apart. This will be a bad arrangement when grain is sowed by
hand, with ridges and furrows for guides.

470. When striking out a land or a ridge, the first furrow
always requires much more strength of team to turn it than is
required after one furrow has been turned. And the draft of a
plow needs a different adjustment with the clevis, usually, to run

338 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

at the same depth in striking out a ridge, and in plowing after
two or three furrows have been plowed. Therefore, if a team is
very spirited or fractious, and disinclined to press steadily into
the yoke or collar, — which is no uncommon occurrence with
many good teams, — adjust the plow to cut a very shallow furrow,
and go twice in one place until the team will work steadily.
Many a valuable horse has been balked, and "fooled," and well-
nigh spoiled for service, simply because this precaution was not
observed. "When a team has lain idle for a long, and sometimes
for only a short period of time, and they are hitched to a plow,
and it is put in the soil at the ordinary depth, their necks and
shoulders are very often tender, and they will flinch at a heavy
draft. Therefore they must be hitched to something, and made
to haul it about until they will not flinch when drawing a plow
when it runs at the ordinary depth.

471. In order to strike out a ridge straight, plant not less than
three stakes in a row ; and if the distance is over twenty-five
rods there ought to be four stakes. Let the plowman put the
lines around his body, and keep an eye on the stakes, between
the horses, and have the lines just tight enough to enable him to
guide his team by turning his body to the right or to the left.
This is a far better way than to have the lines on 'the neck and
shoulders. I have always found, that with the lines around my
body I could strike a ridge fifty or sixty rods long as straight as
a line, without touching my lines ; whereas, if they were about
my neck I could not do it.

472. The beauty and excellence of plowing are, to keep the fur
rows as straight as a line, and of a uniform depth. He who can
not take a team alone and strike out his lands and finish them,
and adjust and re-adjust his plow to suit all circumstances, and
perform a job in a neat manner, cannot expect to receive the
appellation of a complete plowman.

473. In order to finish a land neatly when plowing sod ground,
the plowman must make calculations to leave a strip of sod just
as wide as two ordinary furrow-slices. Now elevate the end of
the plow-beam by lowering the gauge-wheel so that the plow will

339

run about half as deep as usual ; and turn half of this strip with
the team going up the slope, if the ground is not about level. In
turning the last furrow let the team go down the slope, because
the last furrow is much more difficult to turn than any other ; and
it is less difficult to turn it when going down hill. Remove en
tirely, or raise the gauge-wheel higher than usual, while plowing
the last furrow, and then let the plow run along once or twice to
break up the soil where the next to the last furrow was cut shal
low. This leaves the middle furrow full of mellow earth, instead
of leaving a space about two feet wide with little or no super-soil
on it. Having finished the field in this manner, the last thing
will be,

PLOWING THE HEADLANDS.

474. If the soil is about level and smooth, plow the headlands
by passing round and round the field, turning the furrows inwards.
If the soil was turned away from the fence when plowed last,
turn it towards the fence. This manner of plowing headlands is
infinitely better, and more plowman-like, than it is to plow the
headlands in a land, or back-furrow, which is the common prac
tice. If a strip twenty feet wide is left entirely around the field,
there is no disadvantage in it. It is as important to keep the
surface of the soil smooth along the margin of a field as it is near
the middle of it.

475. Many plowmen will insist on plowing very wide back-
furrows and lands, and will plow across the ends of the lands.
But the practice is by no means so good a one as it is to leave
a wide headland. The headlands should always be plowed last ;
because, if plowed first the soil in many places will be trodden
down so firmly that it would need to be plowed again when the
field is finished.

476. Plowing side-hills and throwing the furrows down hill
year after year is not a good practice, because every plowing re
moves the soil of the entire field down the slope about one foot
farther ; and on the lower side of the field the soil would be piled
up in a huge ridge, while there would be in a few years a wide

340 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

strip at the upper side of the field, from which all the super-soil
had been removed. When it is not impracticable, side-hills
should always be plowed up and down the slope. The soil will
work down hill sufficiently fast without plowing it downwards.

PLOWING A FIELD BY BEGINNING IN THE MIDDLE AND TURN
ING THE FURROWS INWARDS.

477. Every plowman knows that when a field is plowed by
going around it and turning the furrows outwards, all the soil is
thrown at each plowing nearly a foot towards the outsides of the
field ; and if a field is plowed in this way many times, a high
ridge is formed at the outside, and in the middle of the field the
soil is all thrown outwards so far that a large excavation is made
where the plowing was finished. And, furthermore, when a
field is plowed by going around it and finishing in the middle,
there is always a dead-furrow from every corner of the field to
the middle, where the plowing is finished ; and, beside these dead-
furrows, there is a strip of plowed ground on which the team turns,
which often becomes so much trodden as to injure it very much^
especially if the soil be of a clayey nature, and is a little too
moist when the plowing is performed. But by commencing to
plow in the middle of a field, and by turning the furrows inwards,
there will be no dead-furrows, no plowed ground trampled down
by the team in turning, and no ridges at the outsides of the field ;
and the team will turn on unplowed ground until the field is fin
ished. Plowing a field by beginning in the middle is the neatest
way in which a field can be plowed. The only difficulty in plow
ing a field by beginning in the middle is, to get started correctly ;
and if the plowman has a little geometrical skill he will find no
difficulty in plowing a field of almost any shape, unless it is some
what hilly, and have every side finish up with the greatest accu
racy. The main idea to be kept in mind is, after a field has been
plowed by commencing on the outside and finishing in the mid
dle, to commence in the middle and turn each furrow inwards,
with the same precision that they were turned outwards.

478. The first step, then, will be, to find the middle. This

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

341

process will be readily understood by Fig. 141. A B C D repre
sents the outside of a plot of ground, to be plowed in the form of
a parallelogram. At E E, at equal distances from E F, E G,

FIG. 141.

MODE OP PLOWING A SQTJARK FIKLD BY COMMENCING IN THE MIDDLE.

and E H, which is found by measuring in the direction of the
dotted lines, stick a stake at both centres, E E. Now, as it is
not very practicable to turn a plow at a right angle when it is in
the ground, let a back-furrow be turned from each corner of the
field to A E B, and C E D, and from E to E. Now, the land is

342 THE YOU^TG FARMERS MANUAL.

laid out, and the plowman has only to keep his furrow-slices of a
uniform width on every side, in order to have the field finish
alike on every side. If he is careless in setting in his plow,
and is not particular at each corner to have the team go straight
out, and takes a furrow-slice in one place a little too wide and
in another place too narrow, he will have a very undesirable job
to finish the plowing up ; because, at one place it may be finished,
and at another it may lack many feet of being finished to the
margin of the field. The plow should be set in and come out at
each corner with the greatest precision. It will not hurt a plow
man to exercise his geometrical faculties a little at every corner,
by measuring the width of each furrow slice with a mechanical
eye ; and, after a field has been plowed in this way, every one
will acknowledge that it is enough better to " pay " for any
apparent extra trouble or care in laying out the work and in
finishing it. By plowing in this manner there will be neither
ridges nor dead-furrows, which is very desirable, especially where
hoed crops are to be planted ; and also, when a field is to be pre
pared for a meadow, the entire field is left as level as can be
desired.

479. Fig. 142 shows the manner of plowing a field of an irreg
ular form by commencing in the middle. The same letters in
this figure refer to the same points as in Fig. 141. It will be
seen that the point E is found by measuring from the outside of
the field G H F, at right angles to each side. The centre K is
found by measuring at the dotted lines N L M, at a right angle
to the centre of the field. It will be seen that the point to set a
stake at, K, is in a line with E M, M being equidistant from D
and C. Now, turn a back-furrow from each corner of the field
to the two centres, E and K, and also from E to K. Now, com
mence plowing by going around the centre, jE7, and be very par
ticular, in commencing, to have the furrows run parallel with the
outsides of the field. After plowing a few hours, measure from
the outsides of the field to the furrows on every side, and if the
distances from the last furrow, represented by the dotted lines
0 0 O 0 O 0, are all equal, the field will be finished alike on

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

343

every side. If the distances are unequal, let stakes be stuck on
every side, at equal distances from the outsides of the field, and
plow up to those stakes on every side, until the last furrow is
exactly parallel to the outsides of the field, like the dotted line
at 0 0, &c. When the plowman has arrived at K in plowing,

FIG. 142.

M T>

MODE OF PLOWING A FIELD OF IBBKGULAB FOEM BY COMMENCING IN THE OENTBB.

cut off just the point of the unplowed ground across the end
at K. After plowing a few furrows across the end, measure
from K to the last furrow on each side, and if the distances are
equal, " speed the plow," and you will come out square on every
side.

480. The first field that I ever undertook to plow in this way
was a field of irregular form. But by following the directions
here laid down, the field finished up on every side very exactly.
If the young farmer is not able to carry these directions in his
mind, let him take them to the field with him, and refer to the
figure as he measures.

481. In order to determine at what point to start in measur-

15

344 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ing, in order to measure on a line at a right angle to the outsides
or margin of the plot to be plowed, nail two narrow strips of
thin boards together at a right angle, and place them on a car
penter's steel square on a high stool or box, or on three stakes
driven in the ground, and place one arm of the square parallel
with the margin of the field, and if the other points to the centre,
E or K, as the station may be, commence measuring from that
point. In about half an hour a field of ordinary size can be laid
out and all the stakes stuck, ready for the plow.

CHAPTER VII.

HARROWS AND HARROWING-.

" A harrow to dig up and mellow the path,
And roller to smooth it, good husbandry hath." — ANON.

482. THE styles and/orms of common harrows are so numerous,
and all good, that I shall here give illustrations of but three of
them. A farmer in moderate circumstances does not feel willing
nor able to pay fifteen or twenty-five dollars for a common har
row, which could be afforded for less than half that sum. It is
with harrows as with many other farm implements : there are
many times several dollars expended in fitting them up, which is
of no practical utility whatever. Common farmers, who obtain
every dollar and dime by the most rigid economy and hard-fisted
industry, expend their cash somewhat grudgingly when it goes to
pay for redundant, unnecessary work in the manufacture of im
plements. A manufacturer will soon use up $5.00 in unneces
sary hammering and filing and polishing portions of implements
which would be just as good, in every respect, if they were
merely coated with paint or coal tar ; and the same implement,
while costing much less, would be equally good and durable.

483. Fig. 143 represents a triangular hinged harrow, — which I
have used for fifteen years, and it is good still, — which cost me
$7.25 ; and it is a very substantial one. Timber, 30 cts. ; making,
75 cts.; 26 teeth, $4.00; hinges, $1.00; draft chains, 50 cts.;
4 carriage-bolts, 15 cts. ; painting, 30 cts. ; — total, $7.00. The
timber is 3x3, of the best of white-oak. The two centre-sticks
are six feet long, and the forward wings are six feet. The hinder-
most wings are a few inches shorter. The wing-pieces are thirteen

(345)

346

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

inches apart. The slats are an inch thick, four inches wide, of
the toughest timber, and driven in firmly, with the joints painted.
The forward ends of the wings are let into a mortise, with a good
fit, as shown by the dotted lines, and lolled with carriage-bolts,
which may be obtained at the hardware stores. The teeth are

FIG. 143.

1UANGU..4K HARROW,

less than an inch square, and three inches apart, from centre to
centre. If it is desirable to have a wider harrow, make the wings
longer. The hinges are put through the centre-pieces, which are
placed close together to prevent the middle of the harrow rising.
One of the hinge-hooks has a spring-key in it, and the harrow

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 347

is readily taken apart. The draft-chains need not be heavy
chains ; and one end of them is attached to an eye-bolt, which
is put through the centre-pieces.

484. Harrows similar to this are manufactured all over the
country, with iron bars bolted across all the sticks where the slats
are placed, with hinges at one end of them. But that mode of
hinges increases the expense, and they are not as strong as they
would be if made in this manner, because in this style the draft
is on the centre-pieces, while the hinges are put through them ;
whereas, in the common style the draft is at the hinges, which are
bolted with small bolts to the wood. A carriage-bolt should be
put through the pieces at every tooth, to keep them from split
ting.

485. In order to get the wings at the proper angle, strike two
chalk-lines on the floor at a right angle, and measure three feet
one way from the corner, and two feet and one inch on the other
line, and strike a diagonal line, which will give the desired angle.

486. Always have the teeth extend below the wood not less
than eight inches, and have them even on the points. The
longer they are the less liable they are to clog. A harrow
should be supported on the points of the teeth, and not by the
frame.

487. Fig. 144 represents one of the very best styles of harrows
for pulverizing any kind of soil,

and especially sod ground. It
will pulverize sod ground more
with one harrowing than two
harrowings with a common har
row. It will not clog, nor tear

up manure that has been plowed COULTER HARROW.

under, nor turn over sods, even when it is drawn across them. It
draws easier than a common harrow, and I know it to be a most
useful implement. It is manufactured by Pease and Egglestone,
Albany, N. Y.

488. The frame of it is made similar to a common harrow, of
timber two by six inches square. The coulter teeth c are thin

348 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

plates of iron inclining forward, or turned up like sleigh runners,
so as to prevent their clogging. The mold-board, M, and stand
ard between c and M, are all cast in one piece, and the edge of
c is cold chilled to make it wear well ; and they are bolted to the
wood with carriage-bolts. For preparing stiff soils for hoed crops,
or for any other crop, such a harrow is worth two ordinary har
rows. J. J. Thomas says of this harrow : " Every farmer who
cultivates a farm of any considerable size, especially if the soil
be strong and adhesive, would certainly pay for this harrow in
one year, by the work it would enable him to perform. Nothing
can exceed it in preparing inverted sod for corn, or for any other
crop. It is one of the best inventions of late years for the farmer."

HERALD AND TOMPKINS' PATENT IRON HARROW.

489. Fig. 145 represents an iron harrow, which promises event
ually to supersede and supplant every other form
of tooth harrows. Messrs. Herald & Tompkins,
Trumansburg, Tompkins Co., N. Y., are the
manufacturers and patentees. It has recently
been patented, and is a genuine implement.
They manufacture of various sizes, and the prices
vary from $5.00 to $22.00, according to the
number and size of teeth, and weight of harrow.
The teeth are bolt teeth, with a nut and screw
on the upper end. The frame is made of round rods of iron,
which cross each other at the angle shown in the figure, and are
held in their proper places by two small collars of cast-iron, which
have grooves in them to fit the round rods, and a hole through
the centre of each collar for the tooth. Three-quarter-inch round
rods are used for the largest size. The frames are made in two
parts, hinged together as shown by the figure. The above cut
is a perspective view of one tooth, and the collars, or flanges,
as they clasp the rods. One flange is placed beneath the rods
and one above them, when the tooth is put in its place, and screwed
up firmly.

The chief advantages of this harrow are, — it is as durable as

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.
FlG. 145.

HERALD AXD TOMPKIXS' PATENT IROX HARROW.

iron it is less liable to clog than harrows having wooden frames ;
it is more substantial than wooden-frame harrows ; the teeth can
be taken out, and sharpened, and replaced, much more readily ;
and it is a neat, farmer-like implement.

HABROWING.

490. Sod ground should always be harrowed the same way
that it was plowed, so as not to tear up any sods, unless the
coulter harrow is used, when the harrow may be run directly
across the furrows, or diagonally. In harrowing stubble that has
just been plowed, harrow across the middle furrows the first time,
in order to level the ridges, and fill up the middle furrows before
the grain is sowed or drilled in. Some farmers never harrow
their land before sowing, be it ever so uneven and rough. But
I never feel that grain is well put in if the soil is not harrowed

350 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

previous to its receiving the seed. If the teeth clog, they should
be unclogged at once. Harrow teeth will clog much sooner in har
rowing damp or wet soil than they will when it is rather dry.

491. When beginners are learning to harrow, I always walk
with them, and tell them to keep their eye on the fore feet of the
animal that is nearest the harrowed ground, and keep him just
so far from it. If he keeps his eye on the harrow most of the
time, he will be very liable to have his team on the harrowed
ground, or too far away from it. Always allow the harrow to
run one or two teeth on the harrowed ground, so as not to make
balks. One can harrow faster to go directly back and forth than
he can to go round a land. Always harrow the borders of the
field thoroughly. I seldom harrow a field but twice, — once be
fore and once after sowing, after which the ground is rolled.

OHAPTEK VIII.

SOWING GRAIN BY HAND.

" Scatter ye seeds, and flowers will spring I

Strew them at broadcast o'er hill and glen :
Sow in your garden, and time will bring
Bright flowers with seeds to scatter again."— ANON.

492. NOT every one is fit to sow grain broadcast, and not one
man in a score is able to scatter seed with his hands as evenly as
it should be, and no man can sow grain as evenly as a good
drill, or a good seed-sower. But in some instances a drill cannot
be used ; and sometimes a seed drill is not at hand ; and some
times scores of very good farmers have imbibed the erroneous
notion that, all things considered, it is better to sow broadcast and
harrow in the seed, than it is to put it in with a drill. Some
men may sow grain as long as they live, and they will throw it
in ridges or streaks. It is very important to know how to sow,
even if a drill is used for putting in most of the grain on a farm.

493. There are two modes of sowing by hand broadcast ; one
is by ridges and furrows (see Par. 469), and the other is by stakes.
A person can sow much more correctly by furrows and ridges,
than he can by stakes, and can sow much faster, also, as it con
sumes much time in moving the stakes.

494. A good-sized bag, with one corner of the bottom tied to
the mouth of it, hung over the shoulder, is about the most con
venient thing to sow out of. Have grain at each end of the field,
or if the field is not more than forty rods long, have the grain in
the middle of it. Now, measure off half an* acre, and calculate
about how much you desire to sow on an acre. Sow handfuls of
a given size while sowing the half acre, and if the proportion

15* (351)

352 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

seems to be about right per acre, endeavor to take about so much
at every handful.

495. Always throw grain as the opposite foot rises. If the
foot on the same side with the hand that sows, rises as the hand
throws the grain, a man will find it much more difficult to go for
ward. But if the opposite foot rises with the forward motion of
the hand, the sower will move much easier than if he raises the
foot on the same side of the hand that sows.

496. In sowing, either by furrows or stakes, always throw the
grain from the margin of the field, because one can sow much
more evenly up to the margin by throwing away from it, than he
can to throw towards it. Let the grain slip off the ends of the
fingers, and not between the thumb and fingers, nor betiveen the
fingers. Make calculations how wide to sow at one through or
once across, and endeavor to give the grain such a cast that it
will come down as evenly as possible.

497. In sowing by middle furrows and ridges, which, if the
plowing has been done correctly, will be just twenty-two feet
apart, I always sow just eleven feet to a cast. I can usually sow
more evenly by walking about midway from each edge of the
strip that I am sowing. It matters little where a sower walks,
if he only distributes his grain evenly.

498. Casting the grain all one way is the most approved man
ner of sowing, with many farmers. When sowing is performed
in this manner, some farmers mark out the ground with marks
just eleven feet apart, and the sower travels in the marks ; and if
he commences sowing east and west on the north margin of the
field, he starts at the east end, travelling on the margin, and casts
the grain to the south with his right hand, sowing up to the first
mark. Now, when travelling to the east, he walks in the mark
and casts his grain to the south with his left hand, and so on, until
the entire field is finished.

499. Some farmers walk in the middle furrow, and cast the
grain half way from the furrow to the ridge, and in returning
travel on the ridge, and with the same hand cast the grain from
the ridge, half way to the middle furrow, and then return on the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 353

ridge, sowing with the same hand half way to the next middle
furrow.

500. Some farmers sow from a basket suspended from their
neck, walking in the middle of the strip to be sowed, and casting
at every step, alternately, with both hands. I never could dis
cover any advantage in this manner of sowing. Indeed, I do
not approve of it, because it requires a long practice before a
man can become an ambidexter — able to use both hands in sow
ing with equal facility. There are those who can sow very
evenly with both hands, alternately, but if the sower is not ex
ceedingly careful he will sow more unevenly in this manner than
when he sows with only one hand.

SOWING BY STAKES.

501. When the ground is not prepared by furrows and ridges,
nor by marks, (see Par. 498,) the idea is to sow by one or two rows
of stakes, placed at a given distance. In sowing with one row
of stakes, which should be not more than eight or ten rods apart,
set a stake where you commence, twenty-two feet — or seven paces
is my rule — from the margin of the plot to be sowed. Sow along
the margin eight or ten rods, and plant another stake seven paces
from the margin, and so on clear across the field. Now, in re
turning, sow from the row of stakes half-way to the margin of
the field, or up to where it has been sowed. Now, set the first
stake seven paces farther on, at the end where you first com
menced, and sow up to the row of stakes. According to this
mode the sower casts with only one hand in sowing both ways.

502. When two rows of stakes are used in sowing, they are
placed eleven feet apart, or as far apart as the width of the strip,
which is sowed at one through, and one row of stakes is carried
by the other row, at every through or time across the field. Sow
ing with two rows of stakes consumes too much time in removing
them. When a sower uses two rows of stakes, he usually walks
between them ; although some sowers choose to walk in the line
of one row, and sow with the right hand when going one way,
and with the left hand when going in the opposite direction.

354 THE YOUNG FARMEE's MANUAL.

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS.

503. "Whatever the manner of sowing may be, the sower
should endeavor to travel with an even step, and in a straight
course, and not step sometimes three feet or more, and sometimes
one foot or two feet, because any variation in the steps will tend
to sow the grain unevenly. A sower who has long legs and
takes long steps, is too apt to get over the ground so fast that he
will not distribute a sufficient amount of seed, unless he has a
very large hand. On the contrary, he whose legs are very short,
and who takes short steps, if he has a large hand, is very liable
to sow too thick. Most sowers are quite apt to scatter much
grain in bunches and streaks, when they bring their hands back
from the grain preparatory to casting it. The hand should grasp
as much as is thought proper, and be brought back even with his
side, as high as the hips, and extended the entire length, when
the hand, in the act of casting the grain, should always move hori
zontally, and not rise nor fall, when in the act of sowing. (See Par.
496.) Beginners are very apt to cast their grain in streaks three
or four times as thick along their tracks as it is a few feet distant.
Some sowers give their grain an upward heave as they cast it,
throwing so far that the courses will overlap each other several
feet. This practice is not as good as it is to have the courses
overlap a very little. When they overlap too much, the grain
will be too uneven. A sower should not cast too high nor too
low. If he casts too high, the grain will be too thin in the middle
of the courses ; and if he casts too low, the grain will be too thin
at the junction of the courses. A sower who casts his grain low,
if he casts it the most proper distance, will always sow more
evenly than he who casts his grain very high ; and this is more
particularly true in

SOWING GRAIN WHEN THE WIND BLOWS.

504. No sower, however skillful, can sow grain evenly when
the wind is blowing furiously, or hard enough to change the
course of the grain as it is cast from his hands. If the wind

355

always blew steadily, a sower could make calculations how far
the grain would be drifted, and could thus sow it tolerably even.
But as the wind blows in sudden gusts, a sower may calculate
how far to cast his handfuls, and may cast a number of them
with all desirable precision, and in an instant a gust of wind
would drift two or three handfuls in one place, leaving a space
without a dozen kernels of grain on it. A sower can sow any
kind of grain with the wind, far better than he can when he casts
towards the wind, whether he travels with the wind blowing in
his face or against one side. If grain must be sowed when the
wind blows, I always endeavor to manage so as to sow with the
wind, and never against it. One way is, to have all the grain on
the windward side of the field and sow towards the leeward side,
returning with empty vessel. Another way is, if the wind blows
from the south, commence on the south side, and if the wind is
north commence on the north side, and cast the grain all to the
south. In travelling to the east on the north side, cast the grain
with the left hand, and when going to the west, cast it with the
right hand. (See Par. 498.) Let a sower do the best he can, if
the wind blows very hard the grain will be very uneven.

MANNER OF GAUGING THE HANDFULS.

505. If it is at all difficult for the tyro to gauge his handfuls
when he grasps a large or small quantity with all his fingers, he
must try several expedients. Sometimes he must close the little
finger only when taking a handful, and sometimes close both the
second and third fingers also. Sometimes, in sowing buckwheat,
or flax-seed, or any kind of seed, where but a small quantity to
the acre is needed, some sowers hold a round stone with their
third and fourth fingers. Some sowers grasp a large handful, and
cast a small portion of it at every step, casting both ways, as the
arm moves back and forth. But I could never recommend this
mode of gauging the handfuls, because twice or thrice as much is
apt to be cast at once as there should be ; and sometimes as the
sower empties his hand there will not be in it enough for half a
cast. In gauging the handfuls when

356 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

SOWING GRASS SEED,

506. The tyro would sow more evenly to hold a round ball of
wood, as large as a hen's egg of ordinary size — not an ill-shapen
polygon — in his hand, grasping the desired amount of seed with
the thumb and fore finger. In sowing grass seed — not in the
chaff — it is best to sow the field loth ways, sowing half the de
sired amount each way. This is far better than to sow it all at
one sowing, because it distributes it more evenly.

507. If the ridges and middle furrows are about forty-two feet,
equidistant, — twenty-two feet from ridge to furrow, — it is better
to sow such a strip at five throughs instead of four, as in sowing
grain. In sowing grass seed by stakes, and especially very light
grass seed, it is best to sow at one through only about eight and
a half feet. Some farmers sow at one through twelve feet in
width. But it is difficult to sow so wide a strip at one through
without making balks.

THICK AND THIN SEEDING.

508. It seems hardly necessary to state, that if grain is sowed
very thick on the ground, but little or no seed will be produced ;
and if it is sowed too thin, not so much grain will be produced as
there would be if it were sowed thicker. There is little danger
of getting grass seed of any kind too thick. Not half of our best
farmers sow as much per acre, by one half or more, as would be
most profitabfe. But there is danger of sowing grain too thick,
and too thin also. Now if grain can be too thick and too thin,
in order to produce the largest amount per acre there must be a
medium quantity, which, if sowed, will produce more grain per
acre than any other amount, either smaller or greater. The idea,
then, is, to determine with any degree of certainty how much
grain per acre, when evenly sowed, will produce the greatest
amount of grain. There are very many collateral considerations
which must not be disregarded in deciding how much grain to
sow per acre. Different kinds of grain, in order to obtain the
largest amount, require a different amount of seed per acre. Dif-

357

ferent soils, also, require a different amount of seed ; and a differ
ent amount of the same kind of seed is very necessary in order
to produce the greatest amount of grain per acre. Sometimes 60
Ibs. of a given kind of winter wheat will produce only half as
much as 60 Ibs. of the same kind of wheat, — both kinds being of
first quality, — if the kernels were large in the first, and half as
large in the second mentioned. We have no standard size for
the kernels of any kind of grain. If we had it would be an easy
task to "determine, with the greatest accuracy, how much grain
of any kind we must sow in order to obtain the greatest amount
per acre. Some grain tillers to a certain extent, if it is not sowed
too thick. Therefore, if one hundred kernels of grain are sowed
at such a distance apart that by tillering they will produce just
six heads each, or six hundred heads ; and if six hundred kernels
are sowed in the same space of ground and do not tiller at all, the
evidence cannot be gainsayed, that, although the first amount
mentioned may be too small, six times that amount will be less
profitable than the first, or an amount a little larger. One kernel
of buckwheat or of flax-seed, when sowed alone, will usually pro
duce more seed than half a dozen kernels, when sowed within the
compass which is occupied by the one plant. Now the question
arises, how may the tyro know, or be able to determine with tol
erable certainty, how much to sow per acre in order to get the
largest amount of grain. A will tell him so much, and B will
say double that amount ; while C will affirm that in both cases
the amount is too small. They may all be correct, and under
different circumstances all be very wrong.

509. In order to settle the point most satisfactorily, let a
farmer measure off a number of plots of good soil, as nearly equal
in every respect as practicable, and sow them all with the same
kind of grain. Now in one acre of ground there are 43,560
square feet. One bushel of wheat weighs sixty Ibs. Now we
will have the plots for sowing wheat contain just one sixtieth of
an acre ; so that by sowing one pound on a plot it will be at the
rate of one bushel per acre. One sixtieth of 43,560 is 726.
Now a plot of ground twenty-seven feet square — not twenty-seven

358 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

square feet — is as nearly one sixtieth of an acre as we care to
measure. Measure off five such plots. On the first sow one Ib.
of good wheat, and label it as sown at the rate of one bushel per
acre. On the second sow two Ibs., or one Ib. and a half. On
the third sow two, or two and a half Ibs. On the fourth sow
three, or three and a half Ibs. On the fifth sow four Ibs. Sow
them all very evenly, having a space of a foot wide between
each plot, and cover the seed with a hand-rake. At harvest,
cut and weigh each plot separately, and note the result. Notice
particularly the size of the kernels, and then make an estimate
of how many kernels in a pound, &c., and the young farmer will
have in his possession some valuable, tangible data, which will
aid him in determining this point with more correctness than
the opinion of all the best farmers in his vicinity.

510. In determining how many Ibs. of oats to sow per acre,
when the kernels are of a given size, and the soil of a given qual
ity, as thirty-two Ibs. constitute a statute bushel in the Empire
State, measure off four or five plots, each plot containing one
thirty-second part of an acre, which is 1,361£ square feet, — not
feet square, — equal to a plot forty -five feet and three inches long
and thirty feet wide. One pound of oats evenly sowed on such a
plot will be at the rate of one bushel per acre. Two Ibs., at the
rate of two bushels per acre. Two and a half Ibs., at the rate of
two and a half bushels per acre. Sow five plots in this manner,
and note the result, as in Par. 509.

511. Forty-eight Ibs. make a statute bushel of barley; and the
size of the kernels varies as much as almost any other cereal grain.
If the kernels are very large, it will be necessary to sow more
pounds per acre than it would if they were only half as large.
But in order to test the matter as directed in 509 and 510,
43,560 square feet in an acre divided by 48, the number of Ibs.
in a bushel, gives 907^ square feet, which is equal to a plot of
ground about 30 J feet long and 30 feet wide. One Ib. of barley
sowed on this plot will be at the rate of one bushel per acre ; two
Ibs., two bushels, &c.

512. On my soil I have been accustomed to sow not more than

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 359

three bushels of oats, two and a half to three of barley, and one
and a half of wheat. "When more than that amount of wheat is
sowed it tillers but little, and the heads are very short, and the
grain small. I have sowed at the rate of four or more bushels
of oats per acre, and the straw was slender, the kernels small,
and but a small number on each straw.

513. I am well satisfied, beyond a doubt, that it requires at
least half a bushel of seed per acre less when it is drilled in than
when it is sowed broadcast ; and that I always obtain several
bushels more per acre when the seed is put in with a drill than
when it is sowed broadcast. When grain is drilled in, it is all
covered of a uniform depth, and consequently it vegetates alike,
and grows more uniformly and evenly, and stands more evenly
on the ground. When grain is sowed broadcast, even with some
machines, the grain in some places is scattered at the rate of four
or five bushels per acre ; while in other places, when the wind
blows, the proportion is less than one bushel per acre. And
more than this, some of the kernels are not covered at all, and
some of them are covered two, three, and four inches deep ; and
a vast deal of it is covered so deep in mellow soil by the feet of
the team that it never comes up at all ; and much of it that does
come up after a long time never amounts to anything at all but
straw. The question now arises,

WHAT IS THE MOST PROPER DEPTH TO COVER SEEDS?

514. We all know that if seeds are covered so deep that all
the substance of the kernel is exhausted in forming the roots and
stems before it reaches the surface of the ground, the sprout must
die. And we acknowledge also that if a kernel is not covered
deep enough it does not flourish luxuriantly. That the depth at
which seeds are covered materially influences the germination of
them no one will deny. The shallower grain is covered, provid
ing it is covered sufficiently deep to insure a healthy and good
germination, the better it will be for the plant. Small seeds need
only a light sprinkling of earth. If they are covered deep, if

360

they germinate at all there is not substance enough in them to
push a stem to the surface of the soil, and of course they die. Oft-
repeated experiments and extensive observation prove very conclu
sively that if our cereals are covered about two inches deep every
good seed will germinate readily, and be as productive, and per
haps more so, than if covered at any other depth. As they are
covered deeper than two inches, they are longer in coming to the
surface of the ground. Grass seed vegetates better, and more of
the seeds grow, if they are sowed after the last harrowing, or after
the roller. When it is harrowed or rolled in, a good portion of
it is covered so deep that it is forever lost. A good shower will
cover grass-seed as deep as it ever needs to be covered.

" Soon as the soil receives the fruitful seed,
Make no delay, but cover it with speed." — VIRGIL.

ROLLING THE SOIL.

515. There are several objects in rolling the soil after it has
been harrowed. One is, the pulverization of the lumps. The
roots of grain seldom or never enter hard lumps of earth. An
other is, to cover the grain that the harrow has failed to cover.
This it does by mashing the lumps. Another object is, to form
a smooth surface to work on, with mowers or reapers, cradles,
scythes, or rakes, when cutting and securing a crop. Another
is, to leave the surface of the soil as smooth as practicable, so
that the next plowing may be neatly performed. Never roll up
and down a slope, if a field can be rolled by going along the
slope, because a heavy roller draws hard up a slope. I would as
soon dispense with my harrow as with my land roller. I always
entertained a poor opinion of small rollers, because they draw
heavily, and are not as effective as a larger one in levelling the
surface of the soil. Rollers usually cost too much. A common
farmer in moderate circumstances, does not feel willing to expend
thirty or forty dollars for a roller. Therefore, I will give direc
tions to the young farmer, who is unwilling to pay four times as
much as a good roller will cost,

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 361

HOW TO MAKE A ROLLER

516. That will do good service for an age, and be worth two
small cast-iron rollers which will cost fifty dollars each. I have
a roller which has run sixteen years, and rolled thousands of
acres, and has not cost twenty -five cents for repairs, and which
will be good for thirty years to come. It cost less than ten dol
lars for materials and labor, at cash prices. A roller should always
be double, so as to turn more easily for a team. It should be
not less than four feet in diameter — so as to be heavy and run
easy — and about eight feet long. If a young farmer has suffi
cient ingenuity to make a neat " cider peg," he will be able to
make a good roller. If he will keep it under shelter it may be
made of elm, maple, beech, or any other hard wood. The axle
of mine is sugar maple.

517. Specifications. — Fig. 146 represents the principal parts of
a wooden roller ; a a are the two end pieces of the frame, seven
feet four inches long, and three by four inches square, framed to the
front and rear girts, three by three, nine inches apart, with inch
and a half tenons. The tongue is bolted to the forward girts, with
whipple-trees on the under side. The girts are eight feet three
inches between joints. E is the shaft, six inches square, of hard
timber, seasoned, with four gains turned in it, h, four inches in
diameter and three inches wide, and a bearing at each end three
inches in diameter, to fit a hole in the wooden box F which is
bolted to the under side of a a. From one bearing to the other,
eight feet three inches. From bearing to first gain, three inches.
Middle gains, six inches apart. Get it turned at the turning-
shop, or machine shop. A turner will turn it in less than an
hour ; and it will cost not over thirty cents. I is one of the
roller heads, in two parts, with a four-inch hole in the centre.
They are made of plank three inches thick, forty-four inches in
diameter, and united in the middle with four 1-^-inch dowel
pins in each head. The pins must be of the best of tim
ber, and well-seasoned, and must be pinned or nailed, to keep
the heads from separating in case the dowel pins should shrink.
After the frame is made and the shaft E fastened in its place,

362

THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

place the ends of the frame a a on two benches, and put the
heads b in their places, and nail four small braces, d d, from the
shaft to the head, to hold it true as it revolves. Now, saw off

A. LAND ROLLER FRAME.

the staves, c c, which are two inches thick, four inches wide, and
three feet eleven and a quarter inches long, and with a carpenter's
adz, dress the inside of each stave hollowing so as to fit the heads,
and nail them with forty-penny nails. If the staves are very
hard, bore holes for the nails. It is not important to have the
edges of staves bevelled very neatly. Some men never bevel
them at all. The shaft will wear three times as long if the
holes in the heads are bushed with thin band or hoop-iron, as
iron and wood will wear much longer than wood running in
wood. It is not necessary to have hoops to hold the staves.
Nail a piece of leather over the end bearings to keep the dirt

363

out of the boxes. Use soft grease instead of oil on the bearings.
The two parts of the roller should be one inch and a half apart,
as at the dotted lines, and should run as close to the hind girt as
practicable, in order to scrape off any dirt that may adhere to it.
But soil should never be rolled when it is wet enough to stick to
the roller. It will require 192 feet for the heads, about 192 feet
for the staves, about 50 feet for the frame, 27 feet for the shaft ;
tongue ten cents, turning thirty cents, eight pounds of nails
thirty-six cents, eight carriage-bolts fifty cents, for bolting-tongue
and bearing-boxes, and two and a half days' work, $3 13. Rec-
oning the timber at one cent per foot, the cost of a good roller
will not exceed 192 + 192 + 50 + 27 + 10 + 30 + 36 + 50 + $3 13
=$9 00. Mechanics will scout at these figures, but I know
that I can get up a roller according to these figures, and not lift
a finger toward it. But those who would like a very neat and
more expensive roller, should procure

Fig. 146^- represents a perspective view of a most superior
FIG. 146 ,V.

GILES A TOMPKINS' IMPROVED FIELD BOLLEB, WITH SEED AND PLA8TEB SOWEB ATTACHED.

field roller with cover, and with grass seed and plaster-sower
attached. They are manufactured by Herald & Tompkins, Tru-
mansburg, Tompkins co., N. Y. The prices vary from $40 to
$70. With cover to the roller, and box for holding stone when
hauling them off the field, and with Seymour's grain-sowing

364 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

attachment, for sowing all kinds of grass seed, and plaster, lime,
ashes, and other kinds of fertilizers, the price is $70. They are
made in a very neat and substantial manner, in two parts ; and
the manner of hanging them, and of attaching the staves to the
heads, has been secured to them by letters patent. The heads
are made of cast-iron, with a flange at the circumference of each
head, which fits a gain in the ends of each stave, so that no bolts
or nails are used in fastening the staves to the heads. There are
cast-iron gudgeons bolted to the ends of the frame, which work
in the hub of the cast-iron heads. An iron cross-bar passes
between the two parts of the roller, and is bolted to the frame
behind and before, and in the middle of the cross-bar are two
gudgeons, which play in the centre of the middle heads. Those
who desire a superior roller, will do well to confer with the manu
facturers already alluded to. It weighs about eight hundred
pounds, and can be loaded with stone to make it heavier if de
sired.

CHAPTBK IX.

THE FARMER'S WORKSHOP.

" The farmer's workshop now our notice claims ;
The work-bench, screw, the yawning jaws and planes,
Augers to bore, chisels to mortise, grinning saws
To cut and rip, hammers with potent claws ;
The shaving-knife, and set of bits and brace,
All well arranged, each in its proper place."

518. EVERY farmer needs a good workshop, where he can
appropriate to some useful purpose his leisure days in winter, and
stormy days at any season of the year ; and every energetic
and thoughtful farmer will have a shop, and will avail himself of
the advantages and conveniences which a shop and a few tools
afford. There are scores of farmers (and be it said to their
shame) who squander away time enough in one season in loafing
about places of public resort, to make all the harrows, gates,
etc., that are needed on a small farm, and to do all repairing
of implements, if they only had a bench and a few tools. Fur
thermore, it" is a good discipline for any farmer to exercise his
skill in the use of tools, and if a skillful and ingenious farmer
will only become accustomed to repair his implements, if he pre
pares his timber for such purposes beforehand, he will have the
satisfaction of knowing that, all things considered, his repairing
is done better than he is accustomed to have it done by regular
mechanics. The idea that farmers should have a set of tools,
may appear somewhat ridiculous to many people, and mechanics
will sometimes deride such a thought. But it is not to be ex
pected that a farmer, unskilled in the mechanic arts, will be able
to handle tools with all the facility and exactness of an expe-

(365)

366

rienced mechanic. Still, with a little practice, and with the in
structions we shall impart, any one whose apprehensions are not
too blunt, may do his own repairing of the common implements of
the farm, and make many new tools in a neat and workmanlike
manner. It is impossible to do a piece of work well without
tools, and if the tyro has tools, and they are in good order, he
will often do a piece of work infinitely better than he had ever
thought it were possible for him to do it.

519. The Fig. 147, on the opposite page, represents in part
one side of a farmer's workshop. It ought not to be smaller than
sixteen by twenty -four feet. A larger shop than this is always
convenient. There should be a window at each end of the bench
on the same side of the shop, and the more windows there are
on the other sides the better.

520. The bench should be not less than twelve feet long, and
the front plank not less than three inches thick, of some hard
wood. Two feet and six inches is wide enough for a bench for
ordinary purposes. The height should be in proportion to the
height of the man who works at it. The correct height is, just
so a man can sit on it by standing on tip-toe. If it be too high,
he cannot shove a plane easily, and if too low, he will be obliged
to stoop too much.

521. The jaws, of which a is the movable one, and b the
stationary one, should be made of hard timber, four by five inches
square, and should extend above the bench six or seven inches,
so that the shaving-knife can be used in dressing out timber.
The bench-screw should work in a nut cut in the jaw, b, and
should be above the bench rather than under it. There are
several patent devices for keeping the jaws parallel with each
other, when holding a stick of timber, but the one shown in the
figure is the cheapest, and good enough for any one. The ends
of the jaws should be mounted with cast-iron flanges, as shown
in the engraving, fitted neatly to the jaws.

522. c is a rest, which may be placed in any of the holes in
the bench, for the purpose of supporting one end of anything
that may be held in the vise when dressing it out.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

367

368 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

523. L is a board made to slide in a groove in the frame of
the bench, and a pin is put in any of the holes in it, to support
one end of a board when jointing the edges.

524. d is a " grab-hook," made of a piece of wood two inches
square and a foot long, for laying on the bench, with one notch
against the front side of the bench, and whatever is to be sawed
is placed on it against the other hook of it.

525. c is a dog or plane-hook, made of an old steel file, and
teeth filed in the end that is turned over for holding anything
that is to be planed. It should fit so tightly in the bench that it
must be adjusted with a hammer.

526. His the shaving- knife, which should hang on a wooden
pin, opposite the jaws, so that standing on either side of the
jaws one may reach it. / is the measuring carpenter's square,
and K is the try-square, hanging on a square block. / is the
tool-rack, for holding chisels, bits, &c., which is a kind of shelf
with holes in it for holding them. The brace should hang close
to the bits. Angers should hang at the front end of the bench,
on the side of the shop. They should not hang all together, so
as to touch each other, lest the lips become injured and dulled
by knocking one against another. The framing chisels should all
be at one end of the tool-rack, and the firming chisels next to
them. Each chisel should have its place, and so should each bit
and screw-driver ; and the tyro should adopt the plan at once of
putting every tool back in its proper place when he is working
at the bench, even if he uses it every two minutes. It is a bad
habit to lay bits on the bench because they are to be used again
in a moment. The saws should hang on wooden pins about the
middle of the bench. The slitting-saw, the back or tenon saw,
the crosscut hand-saw, and compass-saw, should each have its
place ; and if taken down only to cut off a stick, let it be hung up
again at once, and never laid down on the bench, c is a felloe-
saw, for sawing out circular work, and at one end is a stirrup for
straining the saw, having a nut and screw on the outside of the
frame. M is a drawer with apartments in it for screws, cotters,
brads, nails, and other trinkets. Let the mallet be hung up

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 369

under the saws, near the chisels. Other tools which it is not
necessary to enumerate, should have a place on a shelf or in a
closet. If one has an iron vise, it should be attached to a bench
on the other side of the shop, because it would be very much
in the way on one end of the work-bench when planing a long
board. A large, heavy piece of cast-iron will answer for an
anvil. The planes should be placed opposite the plane-dog, e,
and the ends should rest on a couple of strips nailed across the
bench, so that when they are set on the bench the edges of the
plane irons will not be dulled against any grit which may be on
the bench. Iron chips, and iron filings, and all such substances,
should be brushed from the bench so that edge tools will not get
dulled on them. Remember, that it is the most skillful part of a
trade to put tools in order, and to keep them in order. It is bad
policy to work with dull tools.

EDGE TOOLS.

And now we speak of edge-tools long and slim,
With edges straight, or curved, or thick, or thin ;
Of furbished knives to cut, and rip, and shave ;
Of piercing forms to separate and cleave ;
Of tiny needles, awls with double edge,
And other forms that sunder like the wedge.

527. Every instrument that has a cutting edge, whether it is
formed for piercing substances, for shaving off the surface piece
meal, or for cutting them in two, operates like a wedge. Pocket-
knives, cambric needles, grass scythes, and shears of all kinds,
are wedges ; and their efficiency usually depends on the complete
ness of the cutting edge, and on the acuteness or ohtuseness of the
angle with which they are formed, and on the trucness and smooth
ness of their surfaces. (See WEDGES, Par. 344.)

528. Mathematically speaking, a perfect edge in any tool is an
absolute impossibility. The finest and keenest edge that can be
produced on the very best razor, when viewed through a micro-

370 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

scope appears full of serrature — more like the edge of a huge saw
than a razor. So with the finest cambric needle, whose point is
as delicate as it can be made, when viewed through a microscope
the point appears like a blunt, dull crowbar. When we attempt
to cut a very fine hair with a very sharp razor, by holding the
hair between the thumb and finger, with one end of the hair hang
ing free, we can perceive the serrature by the slipping or jerking
of the hair from one to another. . In the sickle the serrature may
be seen with the naked eye. In a scythe, and in many other
tools, we can feel them by drawing a finger along the edge, when
the tool has a good edge. When a grass scythe is in good order
the serrations are not as fine as they can be made, because if they
were the scythe would not be most effective. (See PUTTING
SCYTHES IN ORDER, 551.)

529. Why may we not make a razor, or a knife blade, or any
other cutting instrument, out of a piece of cast or wrought iron ?
Why can we not make a needle or an awl out of a piece of wire?
Because there is not sufficient firmness and solidity between the
particles of such materials to retain their shape and position when
brought in contact with other substances. We have seen (see
WEDGES, Par. 344) that a piece of very tough and hard wood
always makes the best wedges. This holds good in respect to
edge tools : the cutting edge must be made of such material as is
capable of being made not only hard, but tough and hard. If
iron that is capable of being made very hard would make the
best edge tools, there would be nothing better than good cast-
iron ; because that can be made as hard as we can desire. But
such iron possesses no more tenacity than glass, and of course is
unfit for edge tools. ' If an edge tool were made of the very
toughest iron, it might appear to the naked eye to possess all the
qualities of a very effective tool. But when brought into use,
the edge would readily yield by bending and turning every way,
because the cutting edge lacks firmness and hardness in addition
to its toughness. And, more than these qualities already men
tioned, the serrations of the cutting edge of a tool made of either
wrought or cast-iron would be very coarse ; and if they possessed

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 371

tenacity and hardness they would lack a very important quality
— -fineness of particle.

530. Now good steel possesses every desirable quality for mak
ing the best of edge tools. It possesses refinement of particles,
and is capable of being made very hard and brittle, as glass, or
tough and soft, as wrought iron ; or any degree of hardness and
tenacity combined, from its softest to its hardest condition, may
easily be secured. Many kinds of tools are made wholly of steel;
and some are made of a part iron, and faced with steel ; and some
are made of entire steel, excepting the shank or the eye.

531. Framing chisels, for example, are made with the whole
face steel and the back iron ; but firming chisels are usually all
steel. Large, heavy tools, the edges of which are bevelled only on
one side, are made with a steel face, for the sake of economy in
the cost of tools, and are just as good, and sometimes better, than
if they were all steel. The cutting edge of an axe, or a pick, or
crowbar, or any other tool the edge of which is bevelled on both
sides, must be all steel for a few inches back of the cutting edge.
Large knives for some kinds of straw-cutters, shingle-machines,
and such like, the edges of which are bevelled only on one side,
are just as good, and much cheaper, by having their faces laid
with a thin plate of steel. When it is desirable to have tools of
a given size, they should always be forged a very little larger,
wider, and thicker than it is necessary to have them, so that there
will be room or space for finishing them up well. The forging
should be done as true and smooth as practicable, and the tools
partly ground or filed off a little, and then tempered.

TEMPERING EDGE-TOOLS.

" The tempered metals clash, and yield a silver sound." — DRTDEW.

532. Tempering edge tools is the art of giving them a certain
degree of hardness. If a tool be made of the very lest of steel,
and has not the correct temper, it is in one respect no better than
if it were made of steel of a very inferior quality. It requires the
exercise of much skill and wisdom to temper tools right. A man

372 THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

may be able to forge and finish up edge tools in the neatest man
ner, and be incompetent to temper them well. This is an art
which is acquired by the exercise of mechanical skill, and long
experience. A workman may " hit " upon the right temper in
one tool, and then, if he is not a natural mechanic, and if his ob
servation be not very close, and perception very quick and keen,
he may fail to get the correct temper in tempering a score of tools
exactly like the one he had tempered so well. The idea to
be kept in mind in tempering edge tools is, to have the whole steel
tempered so as to make a good cutting edge as the edge wears
away. Tools are tempered many times so that the cutting edge
is first-rate until one-fourth of an inch or so is worn off, and
then they become poorer and poorer as the edge is worn away,
when they are worthless until they are re-tempered. And many
times the first edge of a tool is very poor ; but after it has been
ground two or three times the edge will continue to grow better
until it is worn out. But if a tool is tempered as it should be,*lt
will hold as good an edge when it is half worn out as it did when
it was new.

533. When a piece of steel is heated to redness, and immedi
ately plunged into cold water, it is rendered as hard as it can be
made, and as brittle as a file, which possesses no tenacity.
When steel is heated to certain different degrees it emits differ
ent colors, each color corresponding to the different degrees of
heat. For example : if we heat the end of a steel bar, or chisel
which has good steel on the end, to redness, and thrust the end
into cold water and cool it for an inch or two from the end, if the
steel is not rusty, by looking attentively at the steel between the
hot and the cold steel we shall discover several colors. As the
cold steel is being heated up, a kind of greyish color will be per
ceived, and a little farther towards the hot part of the tool the
steel will assume a kind of straw color ; and between this color
and the hot portion the steel will assume a sky-blue color. Now
when all these colors are discovered in ordinary steel, if the whole
were plunged into cold water and cooled, those parts of the tool
which presented different colors would possess different degrees

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 373

of hardness. If the cutting edge of the tool were formed in that
part which presented a greyish-white color, it would be so hard
that it would not retain a cutting edge, either for cutting iron or
wood. Now if this hard or grey portion of the tool were ground
off until the cutting edge is formed in that part which was of a
straw color, the cutting edge would usually be hard and tough,
suitable for cutting iron. Now grind off all the straw-colored
portion, so that the cutting edge will be in the sky-llue part, and
in good steel we would have an edge most suitable for cutting
wood. Now the idea always is, if we know about how hard it is
desired to have the steel of which tools are made, we have only
to heat the whole tool to such a degree of heat and plunge it
into cold water, when the entire steel will possess a given degree
of hardness. Sometimes one kind of steel must necessarily be
made a little harder than another kind, for the same purpose ; and
sometimes the steel of which a tool is made is of such an inferior
q^felity that it is impossible to give it such a temper as will retain
a good cutting edge. Tools are sometimes heated to redness, and
plunged into cold water and partially cooled, and then heated in
the fire until they exhibit the desired color, when they are
plunged into the water and cooled. Large tools, such as saws,
scythes, &c., are heated in large ovens to a given degree of heat,
when they are slipped instantaneously into a large tank of oil or
water to cool them.

534. Different steel requires different degrees of heat. Now,
when the young farmer has an axe jumped, or a pick repaired, he
should tell the workman to remember and note the cdlor or degree
of heat at which the edge was tempered, and if the edge upon
trial proves to be too hard or too soft, if he is a skillful work
man he will be able the second time to temper the edge of the
desired hardness and toughness. I find that almost all kinds of edge
tools as the cutting edge is worn off become softer, and will not
retain an edge well. I heat such tools in a charcoal — not mineral
coal — fire to redness ; and cool about two inches of the cutting
edge, and then if it is desired to have a cold-chisel edge, cool it
just as the straw-color begins to appear at the edge. If for cut-

374 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

ting wood, cool it just as the sky-Hue begins to cover the end.
Should it be too hard or too soft, try again. Great care should
be exercised in heating the steel, not to get it too hot. Steel is
often injured very materially by being heated to a white heat ;
and sometimes if steel is heated a little too hot, it is spoiled com
pletely for good edge tools.

535. If a farmer has many tools to be tempered, whoever
tempers them should use charcoal instead of mineral coal for
heating the steel, because with charcoal, steel is heated more
gradually and uniformly entirely through it ; whereas, the heat of
mineral coal fire being so intense, the steel is heated too hot at
the surface he/ore it is sufficiently heated in the middle. Conse
quently, it is quite liable to be injured or " burned " by too
intense heat. No good manufacturer of edge tools will work in
mineral coal fire : he will use charcoal.

536. Our common blacksmiths usually work in mineral coal
fire, and they seldom get half as good temper in drills, picks,
and such like, because it is impossible to do it without charcoal.
I can always obtain a better temper in small tools by heating
them in a common stove, than our ordinary blacksmiths can in a
fire of mineral coal. — Although grinding tools is the next opera
tion after tempering them, it is necessary to have the grindstone
in good order first. Therefore, although rather out of place, I
shall notice here

THE GRINDSTONE.

" Noiselessly the grindstone's standing

In the willow's cooling shade ;
O'er it now no workman 's bending,

Grinding up his tempered blade.
Faithful grindstone ! useful grindstone I
Who does not thy service prize."— EDWARDS.

537. Allow me to see a farmer's grindstone, and I will not ask
to see him, nor his tools, nor his farm, nor his gates, nor his fences /
and I will " grind out " for you his traits of character with infal
lible certainty. If it is " as hard as a nether mill-stone," and
hung upon a wooden crank, and supported by a couple of old

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 375

rails set against the fence, or on two stakes driven into the
ground, and bobs up and down, and wabbles sideways when
revolving, like an old rickety, "drunken" carriage- wheel, and
utters a mournful squeak, which sounds like the last requiem of
an old dilapidated New England ox-cart, he may be set down as
a slack, unskillful, unsuccessful, thriftless, penny-wise-and-pound-
foolish sort of a nonentity, who does not take an agricultural
journal ; and who always performs every job just as if he felt
that his time was consumed to no good purpose, and his money
thrown away. On the contrary, if the grindstone is a good one,
and neatly hung, we may rest assured that its proprietor will
eventually distinguish himself in the world — if he has not already
done so — as a thorough, successful and worthy citizen. The
grindstone is the most useful implement among all the tools of
the farm. How shall we put all our tools in order without a
good grindstone? Therefore, because of its great utility and
efficiency, it must of necessity be itself a good one, and be in
good order.

HOW TO SELECT A GOOD GRINDSTONE.

538. A good grindstone should not be too hard nor too soft.
If it is too hard, it will require a long time to grind a tool ; and if
it is too soft, itself will wear out much more rapidly than it will
grind a tool. For ordinary tools, the grit should not be too
coarse nor too fine. Very coarse stones are used for grinding
heavy tools with coarse edges. (See GRINDING TOOLS, Par.
548.) Grindstones often are full of hard spots and hard streaks.
Therefore, the young farmer should always purchase a grindstone
on trial, and if it should be found to have no hard streaks or
spots in it, if the grit is about right, it will doubtless prove to be
a good stone. Select one for ordinary use, which weighs about
two hundred pounds. It is impracticable to grind tools well on
a stone that is full of hard spots or streaks. Small ones may be
cut out with a cold-chisel, but as a general rule it is best to reject
every stone that has hard spots in it.
16*

376

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL,

HANGING THE GRINDSTONE.

539. In order to be able to grind tools well, the stone must
run as true, both on the sides and edge, as a circular saw. It is as
impracticable to grind tools properly on a stone that wabbles, and
lols up and down, as it would be for a miller to grind grain well
with the mill-stones in bad order, or not balanced correctly.
Many a good grass scythe or cradle scythe has been condemned
and returned to the manufacturer as not having a good temper,
simply because it could not be properly ground on that miserable
apology for a grindstone.

540. There are various modes of hanging a grindstone true,
but I shall notice in this place only one of them. Grindstones
will often wear away on one side much faster than on the other side.
In such a case, if the stone is wedged on with wooden wedges, it
must be unhung, and rehung in order to make it run true. But

FIG. 148.

!

AN IMPROVED GBINDSTOKE SHAFT.

if it is hung on a shaft with collars, as a circular saw is hung, it
will require but a few moments to wrahang it, and rehang it.
There are grindstone shafts for sale, fitted up like the journals of
circular saws, with collars and a nut to fasten the stone. But

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 377

they cost several dollars, and are no better than the style of
shafts represented by Fig. 148. a is the shaft, not less than
three feet long, with a crank at each end of it, and the bea-ringS)
b b, 1^ inches in diameter and three inches long, turned smooth,
with a collar, e, six or eight inches in diameter, cast with the
shaft having a square key-hole through it at E. Put the shaft
in the eye of the stone, as shown by the dotted lines, against the
stationary collar, c, and put a loose collar like c on the opposite
side of the stone, and drive in the key a little. Place the shaft
on the frame, and if it does not revolve true on the side, adjust
it with a few thicknesses of paper, or with a piece of thin leather.
The shaft should be smaller than the eye in the stone, so that it
can be made to run true on the edge. If the stone is too thin
for the space between the collars, put in a thin piece of board.
Drive with a hammer, on the stationary collar to the right or left,
and not on the surface of the stone, when adjusting it to run true
on the circumference. With such a shaft a grindstone can be
well hung in fifteen minutes. Do not drive in the key too hard,
because it requires but little to hold a stone. If the shaft of a
grindstone is short, the crank is always in the way when grind
ing the knives on cutter-bars, grass scythes, axes, &c.

541. Fig. 149 represents a grindstone complete, running on fric
tion rollers ; although if the bearings of the shaft are neatly polished
it is a matter of indifference whether there are any friction rollers
or not, because there will be so little friction at the bearings that
there will be no perceptible difference in the running of the stone.
The bearings of my grindstone run in lead boxes, (see FITTING
UP MACHINERY, in next vol.,) and I would not exchange them
for friction rollers, a is the frame, made of 3x3 scantling. 5 is
the water-trough, which should be well smeared on the inside
with coal tar. c is the treadle, by which the grindstone is turned
by the foot, d is the dash, to protect the workman from water.
I sometimes place a board on each side of the stone, to turn the
water into the trough when grinding. When a stone revolves sq
rapidly that it will throw all the water from the tpangh, a vesse]
containing water may be suspended above it, and a small hole.

378 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

FlG. 149.

A GRINDSTONE WITH CLAMP FOR HOLDING TOOLS WHILE GRINDING THEM.

made near the bottom of it with an awl, so that the water will
drop just fast enough to keep the stone wet.

542. Grindstones should always be protected from the influences
of the weather, and especially from the rays of the summer's sun.
Sometimes the sun will affect them so as to render them very
hard ; and sometimes the rain, frost and sunshine will check them,
or cause them to crumble. In order to grind edge tools correctly,
the workman should understand very well the difference be
tween a

CRUSHING STROKE, AND A DRAWING OR SLIDING STROKE.

543. Edge tools of every description operate most effectively
by being drawn diagonally as they enter the materials to be cut ;
and any substance can be cut with far less force when the cutting
instrument is made to operate in a diagonal direction than if it
were forced square through it. When a cutting instrument is
forced straight into or through any substance, it is said to have a
crushing stroke ; and when the cutting edge is made to enter, and

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 379

to slide along as it enters, the stroke is called a sliding, or a
drawing stroke. The stroke of an axe is a crushing stroke. A
chisel in mortising, an auger in boring, and a plane in planing,
have a crushing stroke. A sickle, a grass scythe and cradle
scythe, have a drawing stroke. (See SHARPENING GRASS
SCYTHES, 551.) A shaving knife, a pocket knife, a razor, and
many other instruments, are used with either a crushing stroke or
a drawing stroke. When an edge tool is used with a crushing
stroke, no matter what the substance to be cut may be, the cutting
edge should be whetted on a whetstone that will produce as fine
an edge as possible. An edge tool that has a coarse edge re
quires the exercise of much more force in working it than if it
had a very fine edge. A first-rate chisel will not work at all
well in mortising dry, soft timber, when the edge is coarse. But
give the same chisel a fine edge and it will shave like a razor.
It is impossible to make a good plane-iron work well in planing
when it has a coarse edge ; but give it a fine edge and one can
shove it in very hard wood with ease. For cutting wood with
any instrument, having either a drawing or crushing stroke, and
for cutting any kind of metal, either with a drill, or turning it
with any kind of chisel, or for planing it, the cutting edge should
be whet on an oil-stone having very fine grit. The cutters of
mowers and reapers usually operate with a crushing stroke ; and
they require a very fine edge in order to have them work with
the least amount of force. Edge tools that are used with a draw
ing stroke for cutting such substances as cornstalks, operate much
more effectively with a coarse edge than if it were very fine. A
very fine edge on a sickle would require the exercise of double
the strength that a coarse edge requires. But any edge tool for
cutting wood having the serrature of the edge as coarse as the
edge of a sickle, would require more than twice the amount of
power to work it that would be necessary if the edge were very
fine.

544. Straw-cutters, and some kinds of shingle machines, the
knives of which are attached to a gate, are made to cut with
a sliding stroke by having the gate work diagonally instead of

380 THE YOUNG FAKMEft's MANUAL.

playing straight up and down. A very little slide or draw when
an instrument is cutting, often gives it more efficiency than we
are wont to suppose.

545. When a young lad begins to whittle, he very soon learns,
without any instruction, to give the knife blade a diagonal mo
tion across the stick. In using a drawing knife a workman soon
learns, when shaving a hard stick, to draw the knife across the
stick, as he draws it towards him. A man may clasp the edge
of a sharp tool or razor very firmly and it will not cut his hand,
but draw the instrument or hand a very little, and with one-fourth
the pressure the edge will enter readily. When a young man
first begins to pass the razor over his face, he often finds that
even with a good razor he is not able to cut his down-like beard
unless he draws his razor; and even then some of it is so very
slim and limsy — like the down on a young gosling — that it will
slip between the serrature of the edge. (See PUTTING RAZORS
IN ORDER, 550.)

546. In trimming fruit-trees, or shrubs, or hedges, if the cutting
instrument makes a crushing cut, more than twice the force is re
quired in cutting off a small branch than is necessary when it is
cut with a sliding stroke. And more than this, the work is much
better, and more neatly performed, if the cut is sliding.

547. Pruning shears, represented at Fig. 150, by having a slot

FIG. 150.

SLIDIXG-CUT PRUNING SHKARS.

in one of the blades, so that the centre-pin will move easily back
and forth in it, make a sliding cut when cutting off branches, or

381

the long hoofs of sheep. Common shears make a crushing cut ;
but when this kind of shears is opened, the connecting rod, in
closing them, slides one blade along, so that the centre is at the
other end of the slot. They can be obtained at Allen's Agricul
tural Warehouse, 89 Water street, N. Y. city.

GRINDING EDGE TOOLS.

" The flashing knives upou the grinding disk
Are held, with grating and discordant sound." — T. B. READ.

548. The young farmer doubtless understands that the process
of grinding and whetting tools is performed very similar to re
ducing the thickness of a board, by planing it with a gouge-
shaped plane. The grit of the stone enters the steel, and scratches
numerous little furrows in it, removing the metal as soon as it is
cut loose. If the grit is coarse, the scratches will be much deeper
and wider, and farther apart than if the grit is fine. If the
scratches extend to the cutting edge of the tool, the edge will be
full of serrature, coarse or fine, corresponding with the grit of the
stone. If the scratches are made at a right angle with the cut
ting edge, the serrature will stand at a right angle also. But if
the tool when grinding is held in such a position that the scratches
are made at different angles, the serrature will be hooked, or stand
at the same angle with the scratches on the sides of the tool.
Now, when a tool is designed for cutting wood or iron, or any
other kind of hard substances, it is best to grind it and whet it
while it is held in such a position, that the scratches and serra
ture will stand at a right angle with the cutting edge, whether
the tool makes a crushing cut or drawing cut. But when a tool
is designed for cutting soft, spongy substances, and is used with
a draw cut, it should be ground and whet so that the serrature
will stand at an acute angle, or be " hooked."

549. Let a case-knife be ground so that the scratches will be
at an angle of forty -five degrees towards the handle, and let it be
whet by drawing it on a fine-gritted stone, from heel to point
across the stone, and attempt to cut a loaf of soft bread with it.
by drawing the knife towards you, and if the knife is a good one

382 THE YOUNG FARMERS MANUAL.

soft bread can be cut neatly, which could not be cut with a crush
ing cut.

550. Sharpening razors is a job which every man ought to
understand. If a man's beard is very fine, and the serrature of
his razor almost as coarse as his beard, the serrature will jerk
from beard to beard, and "pull hair " intolerably hard. If a
razor is very dull, draw it fifty times or so on a very fine-gritted
oil-stone, from heel to point across the stone, with sweet oil on
it, (see Par. 565,) and then strap it on a razor-strap which has
three or four sides, each being a little finer gritted. There is
grit in wood and in leather. The idea is to make the serrature
as fine as possible. Then, as the beard is composed of the same
substance as our finger nails, by wetting it thoroughly, and by
having a thick lather to hold the ends of the beard from vibrating,
and by shaving with a drawing cut, any bachelor whose face is
tolerably plump, will be able to shave his beard so closely and
smoothly, that the fair, soft cheek of the belle of the town, when
cheek to jole, would not recoil on account of the " prickers."
It will not dull a razor half as much to cut wet beard as it does
to cut dry beard.

GRINDING GRASS SCYTHES AND CRADLE SCYTHES.
" They sharp their blades with many a shrill che-whet." — READ.

551. "When scythes are handled most correctly, they make a
sliding cut ; therefore, in order to have them " take hold " of the
grass or straw, the serrature of the edge should stand towards
the point, or in an opposite direction from the serrature of a grain
sickle, which stand towards the handle. Now, in order to have
the serrature all standing at the proper angle, and hooked towards
the point, both sides of the blade must be ground and whet, so
that all the scratches will be diagonally across the basil of the
blade, from heel to point, as represented by Fig. 151, which
exhibits a microscopic view of a well-ground scythe.

552. Now, with one hand holding the heel of the scythe
firmly, so that it cannot rock either way, and with the other

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 383

hand towards the point, hold the scythe on the grindstone, with
the edge towards you, so that the scratches of the grindstone
will be at about an angle of forty -five degrees with the cutting
edge, as shown in the figure. Move the scythe gradually from
heel to point when grinding, and grind clear to the point at just

FIG. 151.

A MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF THE EDGE OF A SCYTHE IN GOOD ORDER.

such an angle. After grinding one side in part, remain in the
same position, and turn the scythe over, taking the heel of it in
the other hand, and grind that side at the same angle clear to the
point. Grind no more on one side of a scythe than on the other.

553. Always hold a scythe so that the stone will revolve
towards the edge, and never from it ; because, when a stone re
volves towards the edge, it cuts the steel smooth and clean
entirely to the edge, and a workman can see distinctly when a
tool is ground up to a good edge. But when a stone revolves
from the edge, if a tool is not very hard, the steel will not be
swept clean from the edge, but a very thin stratum of it will
hang to the edge, sometimes more than a sixteenth of an inch
wide, which will all come off when the tool is whet. And
besides, when grinding a very wide cradle-scythe, it is almost
impossible to grind it in a proper manner, if the grindstone
revolves in the direction from the lack to 'the cutting edge. Let
a workman of but little experience grind up a new cradle-scythe
by grinding from the edge, and if he does not grind it so thin
as to spoil it, he will be an exception to the general rule.

554. I once had a young man in my employ who knew far
more than I about grinding up new scythes, who ground from
the edge, and reduced the basil of the scythe so thin for half an
inch back of the cutting edge, that it would not retain an edge

384 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

to cut grain one rod, but would crumble like a thin plate of cast-
iron. No good scythe will retain a good edge for any reasonable
length of time if it is ground too thin.

555. If a scythe is ground square across the basil, the serra-
ture will stand at a right angle with the cutting edge ; and a
workman win be obliged to exert more force when using it to
make it cut well. If the scythe is ground so that the scratches
on the basil and the serrature are made in the opposite direction
from those in the preceding figure, a scythe will not cut grass or
grain near as well as if made as shown in the figure. A work
man, when grinding a scythe, should avoid rolling and rocking a
scythe on the stone, because such a motion will make the surface
of the basil circular or convex, and the cutting edge will be very
blunt. Avoid also letting the grindstone catch the edge, as it
will round it off so much that a rifle or rubstone will not touch
the edge.

556. Whetting scythes requires more judgment and skill than
to whet a razor. To whet a scythe correctly, set it up before
you on the small end of the snath, and move the rifle from heel
to point slowly and alternately on each side of the scythe, draw
ing the hand downwards as it is thrust forward, so as to make very
fine scratches on the basil, in the same direction of those which
are made by the grindstone. Stop the rifle suddenly and see if
you do not whet too rounding on one or both sides. No scythe
will cut well if it is whet too rounding or blunt. The idea is, to
hold the rifle in such a position that it will sharpen the cutting
edge, and lie fiat on ike basil when it is on either side of the scythe.
If a rifle is not held in a correct position, the more a laborer
whets his scythe the worse he makes it. Boys, and some men,
too, when whetting their scythes, will thwack away with all their
might, sometimes hitting the back of the scythe, and sometimes
making a very rounding stroke on the edge, and sometimes the
rifle will not touch the edge on either side, and sometimes a care
less stroke backwards will remove more good edge than can be
restored by whetting half an hour.

557. More good scythes are spoiled and worn out, and rendered

THE YOUNG FARMER^ MANUAL. 385

useless by improper grinding and careless whetting, than by all
the grass and grain which they cut. Let a man who understands
well how to grind and to whet scythes, have a good scythe, and
he will wear it out by cutting grain or grass, and not by whetting
it. Good scythes, when properly ground, do not need to be whet
every ten rods. When I see laborers whetting their scythes at
every ten rods, the conclusion is a correct one, that they have
poor scythes, or that they do not know how to whet them correctly,
or that they prefer " to stop and whet " to using them. I have
often cut around a ten-acre field without whetting my scythe ;
and I always observed, even when I was in my teens, when
mowing or cradling with a lot of hands, that they could not cut
as far as I did without whetting, and cut it well.

558. Different scythes require rifles and rubstones of different
grit. Sometimes a new rifle will produce too coarse a serrature
on the edge, and sometimes a new rifle will produce an edge
which a rubstone or old rifle will not. And sometimes an
old rifle which is about worn out, will give a scythe a keener
edge than anything else. If a scythe is rather soft, keep rub-
stones and coarse rifles off7 it, and use some old rifle nearly worn
out. The grit of both rifles and rubstones should be very fine,
in order to form a keen edge.

CLAMPS FOR HOLDING EDGE TOOLS WHILE GRINDING THEM.

559. At edge-tool manufactories, different styles of clamps are
used for holding edge tools on the grindstone, so that a workman
can grind the basil of any tool very true at any desired angle,
by the application of a little strength. But common farmers do
not always feel willing to expend several dollars for a clamp
which they will not use but a few times in a year. Every one
who has ever ground many tools, knows that it is a very difficult
and laborious job to grind up some kinds of tools while holding
them with the hands alone.

560. To facilitate the grinding of small edge tools, like knives
of straw-cutters, or any knives which are difficult to hold in the
hand, I have been accustomed to use a very cheap but efficient

386 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

clamp, shown at Fig. 149. E is a board ten inches wide, bolted
to the frame a, with the bolts put through slots or mortises in E,
so that it may be raised or slid along to the right or left. F is
a square stick fitted to a mortise in J57, and extending from E
across the grindstone. With wood-screws or small iron bolts,
fasten a straw-cutter knife to the under side of the handle f]
and place it on the grindstone with the handle in the mortise E,
and adjust the board E so that the knife will rest on the stone at
the desired angle, and fasten E with the bolts. As the grind
stone revolves, slide the knife across the stone back and forth by
taking hold of F. The handle may be four or five feet long,
and if it fits the mortise well, a knife can be ground as true as
is practicable with any other clamp. With only one hand a
man can set a span of horses with ease.

THE MOST PROPER ANGLE FOR THE BASIL OP TOOLS

561. Is a subject in relation to which the opinions of all good
mechanics coincide very well. The more acute the angle of the
basil is. the less will be the force required to make it cut. But
when tools are used for prying as well as for cutting, the angle
of the basil must be more obtuse than if the tool is designed sim
ply for cutting. The angle of the basil of a scythe is usually
about five degrees — very acute.

562. Fig. 152 represents a side view of a cold-chisel, which
every farmer needs. If no old file is at hand, purchase a piece
of octagonal steel, and have one end forged like the figure, and
tempered, and then grind the edge on both sides, as shown in
the figure, at an angle of about twenty -five degrees.

563. Framing chisels, and plane-irons, and drawing-knives,
and knives for straw-cutters, &c., I usually grind at an angle of
about twenty degrees. And even when plane-irons and chisels
are ground at an angle of twenty degrees, the edge will not
stand when cutting hemlock knots, and such like, unless they
are made of superior steel. All such tools should be held on the
grindstone, so that the scratches and serrature will be at a right
angle to the cutting edge.

THE YOUNG FAKMEK'S MANUAL.
FlG. 152.

387

SHOWING THE PROPER ANGLE FOR GRINDING COLD-OHISELS.

564. The knives of mowers and reapers usually cut with a
crushing stroke. Therefore, the more acute the angle of the
basil the more easily they cut. But if they are ground too thin
they are more liable to be dulled by breaking out at the edge,
than if they were ground at a more obtuse angle. All things
considered, if such knives are ground at an angle of twenty de
grees, the basil will be acute enough for all kinds of work.

OIL-STONES

565. Are almost as indispensable as a grindstone. Indeed, it
is very impracticable to produce a fine, keen edge without one.
They may be obtained at the hardware stores for about fifteen
cents. Set it in a wooden block, and use sweet oil on it when
whetting a tool instead of water, because oil will aid in giving a
tool a keener edge. Nail a strap of old leather on one side of
the oil-stone case, and after a chisel or plane -iron has been whet,

388

strap it a little on the leather, and if the steel is good and prop
erly tempered, it will clip a hair.

SHARPENING SHEAES

566. Is a very short job. Fig. 153 represents a transverse
section of one of the shear blades ground at a proper angle.

FIG. 153.

\

V

A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A 8HEAB BLADE PBOPERLT QEOtTNI).

Never grind any shears on the flat side of the blade. The
grindstone should run very true, and the blade should be held
square across it as it revolves towards the edge. If the edges of
the blades have become worn off on the flat side where they
cut, they must be ground off on the edge — not on the flat side —
until the flat side is most prominent at the cutting edge. Whet
sheep-shears and wife's shears on an oil-stone, and if they will
cut wet newspaper they are in good order. If shears are ground
at an angle as acute as chisels, in cutting thick hard substances
the edge would yield bv bending or breaking.

BENCH PLANES.

567. A farmer needs a good set of planes, consisting of a
jack-plane for rough work, a fore-plane or short-jointer, larger

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 389

than the jack-plane, for dressing stuff truer than can be done
with the jack ; a jointer, for making straight work, and a smooth-
ing-plane, for smoothing boards when it is not necessary to joint
them.

568. Select planes that are made of good white beech, in pref
erence to any other wood. Apple-wood and cast-iron planes
shove much harder than beech planes, because they set so close
to the stuff which is being planed. See that the grain of the
wood runs up and down, and not parallel with the face of them.
Before they are used they should be thoroughly soaked in linseed
oil, to render them more durable and heavy, as a workman will
usually be able to plane more easily with a heavy plane than with
a light one.

569. The face of a good plane must always be very true, not
hollowing, nor rounding, nor winding. They are very liable to
wear untrue, — when they must be "faced off" with a jointer,
similar to the manner of dressing out a gate stile. (See Par.
240.) New planes are very apt to be winding on the face.
When they are so they must be faced true.

570. Planes with double irons are best, because with them we
can plane smoothly cross-grained or eaty timber. But it is not
practicable to do so with a plane having a single iron. The
adjustable iron or cap is designed to break the shaving when
planing, by turning it at so short an angle that slivers cannot be
torn up as they often are with a single iron. In planing straight-
grained timber, a single iron is preferable.

PUTTING PLANES IN GOOD ORDER

571. Is a job that every wood-mangier is not able to perform.
If the irons or bits are not ground correctly and whet on a fine
stone, no man can plane well. Fig. 154 represents a view of
the face side of a jack-plane iron. Hold it in grinding so that
the grindstone will revolve towards the edge, and grind the basil
at an angle of about twenty degrees, if the stuff to be planed is
hard and knotty. (See Fig. 152.) Set the bevel square at the
desired angle, and try the angle when grinding. Grind it about

890 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

FIG. 154.

SHAPE OF TUB EDGE OF A JACK-PLANE IRON.

as circular on the edge, from corner to corner, as the figure.
Place the try-square against one of the edges of the iron, to see
if one corner is not being ground off too much, as shown by the
dotted line. If a jack-plane iron is ground straight on the edge,
as shown by the dotted line, it will cut a shaving so wide that
the plane will choke or clog. The edge should be ground on as
true a circle as is practicable, from corner to corner, and if the
basil should be found upon trial to be too thin for planing hard
and knotty stuff, let it be ground a little more blunt.

572. Fig. 155 shows the correct form for the jointer and
smoothing-plane irons. The edge, from corner to corner, should
be ground convex but little. If it is ground very true, and the
middle is about one-thirtieth of an inch more prominent than the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.
FlG. 155.

391

SHAPE OF THE EDGE OF THE JOINTER IRON.

corners, it will work well, and the plane ridges will be hardly
perceptible. In order to plane smooth, the irons must be as
straight on the edge as they can be, and not make a square cut
at their corners, for if they do they are very liable to choke
or clog. In order to plane well, the edge must cut like a razor.
(See OIL-STONE, Par. 565.)

ADJUSTING THE PLANE BITS

573. Requires considerable skill in order to do it just right
when it is done with a wedge. There are in limited use several
patent arrangements for adjusting plane bits, but they increase
17

392 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

the cost to such an extent that ordinary mechanics are not will
ing to purchase them. The old way of adjusting and key
ing them with a wedge is good enough for any mechanic, and
will without any doubt supplant and triumph over every other
mode of adjustment.

574. Set the plane on the hind end, holding it erect with the
left hand, with the left thumb in the throat, placed on the face of
the bit. Rest the fore end against your chin and look lengthways
of the face of the plane, and put the plane iron through the throat
until the eye can just see a little of the edge. Hold it then with
the left thumb while the wedge is crowded in with the right hand.
A light tap with the hammer will fasten it. Never drive in
the wedges as if they were never to be again withdrawn. Try
the plane ; and with light taps with the hammer start it in until
it cuts deep enough. For planing cross-grained, eaty timber,
sharpen the bit, and set the cap or shaving breaker (see Par.
570) as close to the cutting edge of the bit as practicable. To
withdraw the bit, hold the plane with one hand, with the thumb
in the throat at the lower edge of the wedge. Press upward with
the thumb on the wedge as you strike on the fore part of the
plane, on a rivet head which is put in the plane to hammer on.
Or turn the plane upside down, and withdraw the wedge and bit
with one hand, by thumping the plane downwards on the bench.

575. Mechanics many times dispose of their old planes because
the mouth is too wide. Such a defect may be obviated by set
ting a piece of band iron in the face of the plane so that the
mouth will admit only a thin shaving. When planing straight-
grained stuff, raise the cap, or shaving breaker; because more
force is required to shove a plane when the shaving breaker is
set near the edge of the bit. If a wedge is driven in very hard
in keying the bit, there is danger of springing the plane.

THE WAY TO PLANE A BOARD TRUE AND SMOOTH.

576. If a board is pretty true, not warped nor winding, it is a
short job to plane it. Lay it on the work-bench, with one edge
about even with the front side of the bench. With the jack-

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 393

plane, well sharpened, commence at the end of the board, and
shove the plane at the first stroke along the edge of the board
nearest to you about two or three feet. Cut another shaving now
a little farther on the board, and then another, until you have
planed entirely across the end of the board. Now step along
and plane about three feet in length more of the board, and so on
until the whole board is planed. Now go over it with the smooth-
ing-plane in the same manner as was done with the jack-plane.
Make as long strokes as you can conveniently without stepping
forward. Endeavor to avoid this planing at random, as many
workmen often do ; and be very careful not to plane off the sides
of the board more than the middle. A few random, careless
strokes with a plane near the edge of a board, will in some in
stances make the side of it so uneven that the entire board must
be dressed down even with the deep cuts ; which might consume
nearly half an hour of time. Let the sides at the edges of the
board be left a shaving or so the highest, if anything, until the
finishing strokes are applied, when it will be found much easier
to plane the sides down even with the middle than it is to plane
the middle down even with the sides. If the face of a board is
required to be straight, after it has been jacked off with the jack-
plane the fore-plane or short-jointer should follow the jack-plane,
and after the short-jointer use the long-jointer. When the board
is cross-grained, and cannot be planed smooth by shoving the
plane one way, the tyro should learn to plane in an opposite di
rection. After the face of a board has been dressed with the
short-jointer as smooth and true as seems to be practicable by
shoving the planes forward, or lengthways of the board, if there
are numerous ridges made by the plane it shows that the edge of
the plane iron is too circular, or convex, from one corner to the other.
Sometimes, after a board has been dressed pretty true, it is best
to plane crossways of it, cutting a thin shaving, after which it
must be planed lengthways, cutting a very thin shaving. It is
just as well, in planing timber which is not " eaty " or cross-
grained, to cut a thick shaving at first as it is to take a very thin
one. But in finishing it, in order to leave it true, and destitute

394 THE YOUNG FAKMER'S MANUAL.

of plane ridges, it must be done by taking a very thin shaving.
When a board is very rough, and covered with a mat of fine
slivers, resembling wool more than wood, which is often the case
with baswood and other soft woods when the boards have been
sawed with a dull saw, the jack-plane iron must be very sharp or
it will not cut these fine slivers when planing lengthways of the
timber. When such is the case, it will be well to try planing
crossways of the grain until the board is jacked off. Sometimes
one can cut a very thick shaving with a jack-plane, and thus take
off all the fine slivers at one planing much better than to cut only
a thin shaving. In planing hard wood, if the boards are not pretty
true it is best to plane crossways with the jack-plane until the
short-jointer or smoothing-plane can be used to plane lengthways.
If a board is warped, or is winding, it can usually be made
true more easily by planing it crossways first, and then planing
lengthways. In planing crossways of a board, the tyro must be
careful to turn up his plane or make the shaving run out just be
fore the cutting edge of the iron arrives at the opposite side
of the board; otherwise, instead of cutting a smooth shaving
entirely across the board, it will split a sliver from the opposite
corner, and mar the face of the board at the corner. In plan
ing off long boards, if they are a very little winding they mar
be dressed out winding; but when a workman intends mukimr ;;,
bee-hive, or chest, or nice box, the side boards and end boards must
not be winding. If they are dressed out winding, the whole b<-x
is liable to be winding, unless the boards of two opposite sides
wind equally towards each other, or from each other, when they
are placed side by side. The tyro will perhaps find it much
more difficult to plane a board true and smooth that is but one
foot long than to plane one that is two or three feet in length ;
because beginners at planing usually cut a thicker shaving at each
end of the board, in consequence of not keeping their plane level
on the board. When the iron begins to cut at the end of the
board, the forward end of the plane must be held down firmly un
til, it arrives at the other end of the board, when the hindmost end
of the plane must be kept down until the plane iron is beyond the

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 395

end of the board. This last direction is very important in jointing
or planing the edges of boards, in order to have them straight.

577. When one side of a board is planed true, which may be
determined by holding the straight edge of a steel square across
it, if the board is to be planed on both sides, and brought to an
even thickness, run a gauge-mark along the edges and across the
ends, and then plane it down with the jack-plane almost to the
mark near the edges of the board first ; and then plane down the
middle, and be very careful and not plane the middle lower than
the sides are. Plane crossways or lengthways as already
directed ; but do not try to plane with an iron that has not a
sharp edge, because with a dull plane iron the tyro will do poor
work. Sharpen the plane irons very often in order to plane true
and smooth. Sometimes the grain of about half of the board runs
in a contrary direction from the other half. In such a case the
board must be turned the other end forward, or the workman
may shove his plane with the other hand in an opposite direction.
Good workmen accustom themselves to shoving the plane both
ways, as it is often much more convenient to plane the other
way than it is to change ends with a board.

578. In planing some kinds of hard timber that is eaty, tough,
and with the grain doubled and twisted, it is necessary to take a
very thin shaving. And even then, should the throat of the
plane be rather large, one cannot plane smooth. If the plane
iron be a double one, the cap or shaving-breaker must be set as
close down to the edge of the cutting iron as it can be, and not
prevent its cutting a shaving. In such a case the iron must be
very sharp or the workman cannot plane at all. The nearer
the shaving-breaker is to the edge of the plane iron, the greater
will be the force required to shove the plane. If the grain of a
stick be very straight and not eaty, the shaving-breaker may be
raised one-fourth of an inch from the cutting edge of the piano
iron, as it will plane just as smooth, and much easier.

JOINTING BOARDS AND PLANK.

579. Let the board be put in the vise on the edge, vertically,

396

not leaning to or from you, and have it as low, if possible, as
the top of the bench ; because one cannot plane well when he is
obliged to hold his plane on a board as high as his arm-pits.
Jack off the edge the entire length, and then look over it to see
where it is a little the highest or lowest, and jack the high places
until the edge looks about straight, and then apply the jointer. Be
careful to keep the edge of the board at a right angle with the side
by using the try-square. In jointing a board or plank, beginners
— and many old workmen, too — plane off the edges near the
ends, in starting their plane and in running out, so that the edges
are convex from end to end. When a workman is apt to fall into
this error in jointing, he should not allow his plane to cut within
a foot of the end, until it seems highest at the end. Some work
men think if they cut a shaving the entire length of a board it
must be straight. But one may plane a shaving the entire
length of a short or long board, and it may not be straight by
half an inch. When the workman cannot tell by a glance of
the eye over the edge of a board whether it is straight or
not, he had better, if the edge of a board is a little rounding or
hollowing, strike a line on the side of it with a very small chalk
line, and then, with the drawing-knife and planes, it can be made
straight very easily and quickly. Some pretty good joiners
cannot tell always, simply by the eye, whether the edges of two
boards will make a close joint when placed together. The be
ginner may find it to his advantage to place the edges of two
boards together when he is jointing them, and then he will be
able to discover without any difficulty, how much must be planed
off in order to make a close joint.

580. Some mechanics, when they look over the edge of a
board, cannot tell with accuracy whether it is convex, concave,
undulating, or entirely straight. And when it is undulating
they cannot go and put their finger on the highest point of the
edge of the board. The chief reason of this failure is, they
close one eye, when looking at the edge of a board, and then
endeavor to keep the eye on the highest place, until they can get
to it with the plane. This is all well enough. But when they

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 397

come to open the eye that was closed the vision is so affected
that the exact point is lost sight of for a moment, and it is
impossible to determine where it is. The best and most correct
way is, to look with both eyes open, as they always are, and
then the exact point can be kept in view until the workman can
reach it with the plane. It will require a little practice and
ingenuity to look over the edge of a board with both eyes open
and determine whether it is straight or not. But in order to do
it, the head must be placed in such a position that the edge can
be seen with one eye only. Then it will not be difficult to keep
the eye on any point on the edge of a board, until the workman
can step to it with his plane. In looking at anything, which is
often expressed by different mechanics as " ranging" "squinting"
"sighting" or "shooting" in order to discover whether it is straight
or not, it is always best to keep both eyes open ; because the
vision is less perfect when one eye is closed. And if a person
becomes accustomed to " take sight " with both eyes open, it will
be found a better way than to close one eye.

581. In jointing the end of a board or plank with the square
and sharp point of a knife, cut a deep mark on each side of it,
and then with the drawing-knife shave the end almost to the
marks, and afterwards use the jointer or smoothing-plane. Never
shove the plane entirely across the end, lest it stave off slivers
from the opposite corner. Place the board in the vise, if it is a
short one, and if a long one, lay one end of it on a low bench on
the edge, and joint the end while standing astride of it. Have
the plane iron very sharp for this purpose. If these directions be
strictly followed, there will be no more difficulty in making the
joints of a box water-tight at the ends, than there is on the sides
of it.

CHISELS.

" Chisels here, with faces bright,
Framers, flrmers, heavy, light,
Corner-chisels, duck-bill, too,
True and crooked, now we view.

582. Fig. 156 represents a face view of a good framing-chisel.

398

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

FIGS. 156,

158,

159.

FRAMER. FIBMBB. COBNEB CHISEL. DTTCK-BILL CHISEL.

a is the face of the blade, I is the socket-shank, which receives
the handle, which has an iron ring on the top of it to keep it
from splitting.

Fig. 157 exhibits a face view of a firmer chisel, which is
usually made of the lest of steel, — blade, shank, and all. Such
chisels are designed for light work, such as hanging doors, and
for shaving and fitting by hand without a mallet.

583. Fig. 158 is a perspective view of a corner chisel, which
is worth a score of common chisels for mortising. As such

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 399

chisels are seldom kept on hand at hardware stores, get one
forged, with the wings at a right angle, which will cost about
seventy-five cents. Take it, before it is tempered, to a machine-
shop, and have the blade planed true, at a right angle, both on
the face and bach Have the edges planed down so that each
wing will be about seven-eighths of an inch wide, so that it can
be used in making inch mortises. After tempering it, grind it on
a stone that runs very true, and whet it like any other chisel.
File the basil in the corner to the desired depth with a triangular
file. Do not file off the projecting point at the middle of the
basil, as that will aid very much in mortising. Planing it and
tempering it will cost not over forty cents.

584. The superiority of such a chisel, when compared with
straight chisels, is this ; in heading down a mortise, it makes a
clean, true cut in the corner, and a workman can mortise very
much faster with it than with another chisel, and a beginner can
make a very good mortise with it when he would not have suffi
cient skill to make a mortise " half-way decent " with a straight
chisel. (See MAKING MORTISES, in next vol.)

585. Fig. 159 represents a side or edge view of a duck-bill
chisel, which is designed for making deep mortises, and is ground
about as every kind of chisels should be ground.

FORMS OF CHISELS, AND GRINDING THEM.

586. No mechanic can mortise well and easily if his chisels
are not of a good shape and well sharpened. In order to have
a chisel enter a mortise easily and not stick, so that it is difficult
to withdraw it, it must be a trifle wider at the cutting edge than it
is at the upper end of the blade. When a chisel is narrower at
the cutting edge, like Fig. 163, it will bind so tightly in a mor
tise that it will be difficult to withdraw it. If the two side edges
are exactly parallel with each other, like the blades of 156 and
157, they will stick in mortising but little. In order to have a
chisel enter straight inwards, the face should be as straight as
shown at Fig. 162, which is an edge view of a framer. Never
17*

400

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

grind the edge of a chisel like Fig. 161 ; because, when of such
a form it is very difficult to mortise true with them. Chisels are
sometimes made and sometimes lent like Fig. 160. But they
are very awkward, inconvenient tools to mortise with, because
the edge will always run inwards from the mark, making a mor-

FIGS. 160, 161, 162, 163.

MANNER OF GBINDING CHISELS.

tise larger in the middle of it. The side edges of every chisel
should be ground at a right angle with the face. If they arc
bevelled but little either way from the face, they will stick when
mortising. If the face and side edges are polished as they should
be, so that you can see the color of your eyes in them, and kept
oiled when mortising, they will never stick. Rough, untrue
chisels make hard work in mortising.

TURNING-GOUGES AND TURNING-CHISELS

587. Of all sizes, and firmer-gouges also, may be obtained at
hardware stores, and are often of great service in the farmer's
workshop.

THE YOUNG FAEMER'S MANUAL. 401

AUGERS AND BITS.

" An auger once to boring went,
And bored until the shank was bent ;
The screw encountered a tough knot,
And stopped the boring on the spot.
The pod untwisted, and the lips
Refused to cut and heave out chips."— PUNCH.

588. The principal parts of an auger or bit are, a the screw, b
the cutters, or lips, c the pod, or twist, and d the shank. Pointed
projections on the under side of the lips of some kinds of augers
and bits are called spurs.

589. It will be seen by these figures that the lips are circular,
and not square, as most augers are. This is a patentable feature
in the manufacture of augers and bits, and Mr. Ransom Cooke,
Saratoga Springs, N. Y., the patentee, informed me that he "re
ceives four hundred dollars per month for his claim, during the life
of the patent, from Messrs. Lamson, Goodnow & Co., Shelburne
Falls, Mass., who are the sole proprietors for manufacturing this
kind of augers and bits. I know them to be far superior to any
other auger that was ever made. They bore with the greatest
possible ease at any angle of the grain of the wood, without crush
ing or breaking and tearing out the wood which adjoins the hole
bored. These augers now stand without a successful rival in the
world, and can be obtained of any size of the manufacturers, at
•79 Beekman street, N. Y. city.

590. Fig. 166 represents a small bit, with a single lip and a
single twist ; and for boring any kind of wood it is infinitely su
perior to a centre-bit. (See PATENT EXTENSION BIT, Fig. 123.)

SHARPENING AUGERS AND BITS

591. Is usually done with a file, while the pod is held in the
vise. The lips should be filed at as acute an angle as will be
consistent with strength on the upper side, and on the under side
they should be filed as flat as possible and have the cutting edge
a little more prominent than it is lack of the edge. This style of
augers and bits should be filed with a very fine round file. When
augers have spurs, the spurs should never be filed on the outside.

FIGS. 164,

165,

166.

DOCBUC-tlP ACGER.

(402)

DOUBUB-UP BIT. 8INOIJB-UP BIT.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 403

but always on the inside, so that they will mark out the size of
the hole, and cut so large that the pod will not fond, or be
" pinched " in the hole. As augers and bits cut with a crushing
stroke, (see Par. 543) after filing the lips whet them a little with
a small piece of oil-stone, to give them a keen edge.

DEFECTIVE AUGERS AND BITS.

592. Good augers and bits are sometimes rendered almost
worthless by improper filing. If the under side of the lips is
more prominent back of the cutting edge than at the edge, the
screw will not draw it in, and a workman must necessarily bear
on in boring. (See the remedy, Par. 591.) Sometimes the screw
has become very dull, and needs -a little filing in order to make it
draw in when boring. Sometimes the pod is larger than the hole
which the lips cut ; and sometimes it has been bent a little, so
that it binds on one side of the hole. In either case the pod
must be dressed off true, so that it will not bind in the hole.
Sometimes one lip cuts a chip twice as thick as the other. Bore
a hole close to the end of a stick, so that you can see which lip
cuts the thickest, and file it off a little on the under side. Should
the screw of a large auger get broken off, if there is substance
enough in the auger another screw may be put in for a few dimes
by a gunsmith or watchmaker.

BORING HOLES.

593. In order to bore holes straight and true, the stick to be
bored should lay about level, both endways and sideways ; for an
auger can be kept in a vertical position much easier than it can
be inclined a little to correspond with the inclination of a stick
that does not lie level. Carpenters, when framing a building,
always want their timber to lie as nearly level as practicable, so
that they will be able to bore the pin-holes more exact. In bor
ing a hole diagonally, the tyro will be able to bore it truer if the
stick be held level one way and inclined the other way, so as to
bring the auger in a vertical position. In boring a hole length
ways through a stick, put it in the vise and plumb it, and then

404 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

start in the auger and plumb that also, and keep it in an erect
position until the auger has entered the length of the pod, when
if the pod be true the auger will run very straight through. In
this way I have often bored a hole through a piece of scantling
twice the length of the auger, by boring at both ends. After an
auger has entered the length of the pod, the chips should be cleared
out often, especially in green timber, by turning the auger back
wards just enough to loosen the screw, and then drawing it
straight out, turning it forward as it is drawn out. If it be turned
backward it works the chips towards the bottom of the hole. Some
times an auger refuses to bore, in consequence of a shaving get
ting on the cutting edge ; and sometimes the screw will fill with
wood, and will not draw the auger in. This may be prevented
by filing the screw a little, and by sharpening the cutting edge.
If this does not remove the defect entirely, oil the screw, and bear
on the auger a little when boring.

594. In boring pump logs, or wooden tubes which may be
eight or twelve feet long, or anything else of that description, a
long lathe is necessary, or something equivalent to it, by which
means the centre of each end of the stick and the screw of the
auger and the end of the shank will all range exactly in a
straight line. But the auger must be drawn out often, lest the chips
clog so firmly that there will be difficulty in withdrawing it at all.

595. The neatest auger for this business consists of a pod some
eight or ten feet long, made very true, fitted neatly to turn in an
iron tube of the same length as the pod. The tube may be two
or more inches in diameter, and the lips of the auger cut a hole
just large enough for the tube to enter easily ; and the chips are
all brought out through the tube. Such an auger will bore
very true, and will not clog. The lips of such an auger cut a
hole just as large as the tube. This arrangement was patented,
and is now in use by a man in Elmira, N. Y.

596. The tyro should be very careful, in boring hard wood,
not to thrust the shank of the auger or bit sideways, from right to
left, when first starting it in, because there is danger of bending
or breaking the screw.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

405

597. There are many patent devices for attaching augers to
the handles ; but I shall notice none of them, because they in
crease the cost of an auger too much. A thin plate of iron
screwed on the under side of the handle, with a square hole in it
just large enough to receive the end of the auger shank, which
is passed through the handle and secured on the upper side by a
small nut and screw, is about as good a device, all things consid
ered, as any one can desire. Keep augers sharp and bright, and
it is good fun for boys to bore.

598. When bits cannot be used with the brace, make a small
handle for them, and use them as a gimlet.

FIGS. 167, 168.

AWLS.

599. Fig. 167 is a harness-awl, for
making holes in leather. From the
point to the part where it begins to ta
per it is ground rather flat, so that the
edges will cut when entering the leather.
A round awl does not enter leather
easily.

600. Fig. 168 is a brad-awl, for
making holes in wood. The edge is
made square across the awl, in order to
cut off the grain of the wood as it en
ters. A pointed round awl will split a
stick when such an awl would not.

601. Scratch-awls should always
have a round point. Harness -awls
and brad-awls should be whet on an
oil-stone, else they will not enter ea
sily. All such awls can be obtained
at the hardware stores for two or
three cents each.

HARNESS-AWL.

BRAD-AWI..

406 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

SAWS.

" The saw hangs glittering in the quiet shade,
With sharp and grinning teeth, and burnished blade.
The well-set teeth laugh at the stubborn oaks,
And knots and gnarls yield to its potent strokes.

Now starting, and stopping, and darting,

And ripping, and slitting, and splitting,

Dividing, and cleaving, and riving,

And shivering, and quivering, and slivering,
Inspiring with terror, amazement and awe :
Such are the manoeuvres cut up by a saw. "—EDWARDS.

TECHNICALITIES IN RELATION TO SAWS. ,

602. Hanging a saw means, putting it in the frame or gate
previous to using it, or fitting a buzz saw to a journal or mandrel.
The two irons on the mandrel which hold the saw in its posi
tion are called the flanges, or collars. The collar which is keyed
fast to the mandrel is called the fixed collar, and the other one
the loose collar. The distance from one tooth to another is called
the space. Gumming a saw is the act of making the spaces
deeper, or wider and deeper, according to the shape of the teeth.
The face of the teeth is the edge which is forward when the saw
is in use. The lack of the teeth is the edge opposite to the face.
The hook or pitch of the teeth is the inclination of the face of
the teeth forward from a line drawn at a right angle with the
cutting edge, or points of the teeth. Setting a saw is the act of
spreading the points of the teeth, either by hammering or bend
ing them sideways, so as to make the saw cut a kerf wider than
the thickness of the saw. Jointing a saw is the act of making
the points of the teeth true, both on the edge and on the sides
of the points, so that in a buzz saw every tooth will extend just
so far from the centre of motion. The roots of the teeth are
the bases of them at the bottom of the spaces. The rake of a
saw is the inclination of the cutting edge forward towards the
timber to be sawed. This is only applied to saws which work
up and down, or horizontally. Fleam-pointed, or fleaming, means
having the teeth filed on the face and back diagonally. A circular
saw is said to be fast when the rim is largest^ which is caused
by stretching the edge when gumming it. When a saw deviates

407

from a straight course in sawing off a stick, it is said to run.
The young farmer should make himself familiar with each of these
terms, as they will often be used in the succeeding paragraphs.

NAMES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SAWS.

603. Saws that are circular on the cutting-edge are denomi
nated sometimes buzz saws, or crosscut-circular, or slitting-circular,
according to the form of the teeth. Hand-saws are denominated
hand-crosscut, or hand-slitting, or panel saws, according to the
form of their teeth. Saws that have their backs inserted in a
bar of brass or iron are called lack, or tenon saws. A compass
saw has a narrow, tapering blade, with a handle on one end for
sawing round holes in anything. Saws that are used by two
men when sawing logs are called crosscut, or crosscut log saws.
(Any saw that is filed to cut across the grain of wood is called a
crosscut, and when filed square across the teeth, slitting, or rip
saws.) Saws that are used for sawing logs into short cuts for
staves, or shingles, or firewood, when attached to a pitman are
called crosscut-butting saws, or drag saws. Felly, or felloe saws
are put in a frame and filed to cut both crossways and length-
ways of the grain of wood. Pit saws are long, two-men saws,
for slitting long timber, while one man stands on * the timber,
and the other beneath the stick that they are sawing. Billet,
or wood-sawyer's saws, are put in a frame for sawing fire-wood.
Bow, or billet-web saws, are put in a small frame and strained,
and used for sawing circular work. Cast-steel webs are used for
sawing iron and brass. Mulay, or "mooly" saws, are used in
sawmills where the pitman is attached to one end of the saw,
and the saw is not hung in a gate. There are many other
kinds of saws which we will not notice here.

SELECTING SAWS, AND THE EXTERNAL SIGNS OF GOOD SAWS
AND POOR ONES, AND NUMBER OF TEETH IN SAWS.

604. In selecting a saw of any kind, it is always the wisest
policy to get a good one, even if it be a little more costly. A
poor saw is always a source of vexation and loss to any one who

408 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

has much sawing to do ; and a man never regrets having paid a
few dimes more for a good saw.

605. A good saw is usually distinguished by a bright polish —
a clear and lively ring — -freedom from flaws in the blade and
in the teeth — its great elasticity, and a good degree of hardness.
A coarse-looking, leaden-colored, dull-sounding, non-elastic, pew
ter-plate, coarsely -polished saw should be avoided. A hard saw
is worth a score of soft ones. A saw that is so soft when it is
filed that a thin sheet of steel hangs to the edge of the teeth, is
a poor thing. The two ends of a good hand-saw, or a crosscut
saw, if the blade is not too thick, may be brought together with
out any danger of kinking or breaking it. A saw that will kink
very easily is not as good as it would be if it were harder. Such
a saw will never retain its set of the teeth like a harder one.

606. Another thing of great importance in selecting a saw is,
to select one that has teeth, many or few, adapted to the kind
of sawing to be done. The materials which a farmer has to saw
are so variable, that it is best for him to select a hand-saw for
ordinary purposes having a pretty stiff plate, and about seven
teeth to the inch. A saw with fine teeth will cut much smoother
than a saw with coarse teeth. Indeed, for some kinds of sawing
a saw with coarse teeth would do the work intolerably bad ; while
if the same saw had four times as many teeth it would saw neatly,
and just as fast, and sometimes much faster, with the same
power. If the materials to be sawed be of good thickness, the
teeth should be farther apart ; and if the materials be small, or
thin, the teeth must be fine, else they will take too rank a hold,
making a very rough, jagged cut. For sawing hard wood, both
across and lengthways of the grain of the wood, a saw with fine
teoth is best. A hand-saw, whose teeth are half an inch or three-
eighths of an inch apart is an ugly thing to saw a thin, hard board
with, or even hard plank. The teeth of a saw, for any purpose,
ought to be so fine that not less than four, in sawing soft wood,
and six or eight in hard wood, shall be cutting at once. In slit
ting hard plank, the teeth must be fine or the work will be very
rough. The reason of this is, when the teeth are far apart each

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 409

tooth is made to cut deeper than it is capable of cutting without
staggering or springing aside ; and when the cut of a saw is all
notched and jagged, it is very evident that each tooth is made to
cut too deep. If the plate of a saw is very thin, the teeth must
be fine, else it will spring, and work badly. If the plate is a
thick one, the teeth may be farther apart without danger of
springing, but the cut will not be as smooth as if there were
more teeth. A saw having fine teeth will require more filing and
setting, but it will do the work enough better to compensate for
any extra expense in putting it in order.

607. The teeth in circular saws from twenty to thirty inches
in diameter, for cutting firewood, ought not to be more than an
inch or an inch and a fourth apart to work the best, taking hard
wood and soft, large and small, together. Each tooth can cut
only a certain distance to good advantage, and this distance is
in proportion to the hardness or softness of the timber. In saw
ing soft wood, if there are a great many teeth the saw-dust is cut
very fine ; and each tooth does not cut as deep as it should, espe
cially if the power is limited. Consequently there is a loss of power.

608. A buzz slaw, for slitting boards and plank, for both hard
and soft timber, should have rather fine teeth, where smooth work
is any object, unless the velocity with which such a saw revolves
is unusually great. (See VELOCITY OF SAWS, 680.) A tenon
saw for ordinary purposes should have about eight teeth in an
inch. Such a saw will cut about right for sawing the limbs of
trees preparatory to grafting.

609. Circular slitting saws, as a general thing, have too few
teeth to do smooth work, unless the materials to be slit are pretty
thick. In a saw forty-eight inches in diameter, for sawing soft
wood good sawyers say there should be about twenty-four to
thirty teeth, and for hard wood about forty teeth. A small circular
saw ten or twelve inches in diameter, for slitting hard wood plank
and boards, should have the points of the teeth about half an
inch apart. The thinner the blade the finer the teeth must be.

610. I am now using a circular saw about one foot in diame
ter, the teeth of which were about three inches apart at the cut-

410

ting edge. It was impossible to slit hard timber smooth with it
until I cut the teeth all away and made new ones in it about half
an inch apart. Now it saws as true and smooth, with the same
power and velocity, as it is possible for a saw to cut. I used for
several years a 2 2 -inch circular wood-saw, whose teeth were three
inches apart at the points, and it always worked very unsatisfac
torily. Another one was put in its place, having teeth an inch
and a fourth apart, and with the same power it would saw nearly
twice as fast, and do it very smoothly.

PUTTING SAWS IN ORDER

611. Is an operation that requires the exercise of much dex
terity and mechanical precision. If the teeth are all filed to a
sharp point, unless they are perfectly even and true on the points,
a saw will not cut as fast as it ought, nor as fast as it would, if it
were well filed. When a saw is well filed and the teeth set
properly, by casting the eye over the teeth, lengthways of the
saw, not the least variation in the length of the teeth can be
discovered. Where some of the teeth are longer than the rest,
the long ones only will cut ; and so far as cutting is concerned,
the short ones might as well not be there. When a few teeth
only have been dulled, the saw will cut no faster by filing these
dulled ones to a point, unless the rest of the teeth are jointed off
and made of a corresponding length. In such instances it would
be as well to let them remain as they are until the remainder of
the teeth need filing. In filing, the aim should be to keep the
teeth of a uniform shape, — i. e., the angle of what is called the
hook of the teeth, should be retained as much as possible. Many
farmers, not understanding the importance of this, continue to
file with a file that is nearly worn out on its corners, and thus
the hook of the teeth becomes not only very obtuse, but the teeth
are not kept as long as they should be. It is poor policy to file
a saw with a file the corners of which are worn out. It is very
important that the corners of file should be sharp, in order to
keep all the teeth as long as possible. If a tooth has been short
ened on the point by dulling or filing, it should be filed to its

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

411

original length as it is filed to a point. Much care should be ex
ercised lest the teeth on one side become smaller and shorter than
those on the opposite side. Whenever this is the case with a
saw, the file, in filing, should be pressed harder against the larger
teeth than against the smaller ones.

612. It is very important when filing a saw, to have it held
firmly in a proper position. For this purpose a saw-clamp is

FIG. 169. FIG. 170.

SAW-CLAMP.

necessary, a perspective and end view of which is represented by
Fig. 169, with a saw in it. a is a heavy plank, two inches thick
or thicker, a foot wide and three feet long. Fig. 1 70 is an end view
of the same. ~b ~b are four standards, one and a half by four inches
square, of hard wood, driven into mortises in a, and are about
eight inches long, c c are the jaws, about four feet long, and
fastened to the upper ends of b b, by mortise and tenon, d d
are screws, which pass through b I. They may be nothing but
iron bolts. The standards b I should be about one-eighth of an
inch apart, to give room for a saw. Put the saw in the clamp
and screw up the jaws, and if the clamp is not heavy enough to
remain still when filing, bolt it to the bench. If the jaws are
straight and true, they will press against the saw from one end
to the other. If the saw rattles or works between the jaws,
they are not true, and must be straightened.

PUTTING HAND-SAWS IN ORDER.

613. Put the saw in the clamp with the teeth extending a
little above the jaws. Always have the clamp set as level as
practicable, and never attempt to file a saw in a place where it
is 11 Dt as light as is desirable. It is very important to havo

412 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

enough light, that the points of all the teeth may be seen dis
tinctly. No man can expect to file a saw well when the light is
dim. Sometimes one can file by candle-light, if he has good sight,
quite as well as by daylight. In dark, cloudy days, the clamp
can be carried out of doors when filing ; but it should always be
placed in a level position.

614. Now, the idea is, to file just so deep between every two
teeth, and to file the face and back (see TECHNICALITIES, Par.
602) at a given angle, and to have the teeth on both sides of the
saw of equal length and size. Cast the eye over the teeth, and
if some of them are longer than others the teeth must be jointed.

HOW TO JOINT SAWS.

615. Put a saw in the clamp as for filing, and, holding a large
file in the hands with the flat side down, and level, run it along as
you would a plane on the points of the teeth, until the long ones
are all filed off on the points even with the short ones. Great
care should be exercised in jointing a saw, and not joint off the
teeth on one side of the saw more than they are jointed off on the
other side. Run the file from end to end of the saw, and exam
ine it at every stroke to see if the teeth are not jointed off
enough. One careless stroke in jointing, or one stroke too much>
will cause much unnecessary filing.

616. To joint a circular saw, set it to running moderately by
hand backwards, and hold a large file on a plank placed close to
the edge of the saw, so that the longest teeth as they revolve
will touch the file. Place the edge of the plank at a right angle
with the saw, in order to have some guide for holding the file at
a right angle. If this particular is not strictly observed, the saw
will not be round. I have seen workmen, when jointing circular
saws, hold their file so unskillfully that all the short teeth as well
as the long ones, were jointed off, and the saw was no more
round than it was when they commenced jointing it. Hold the
file firmly, and move it towards the teeth only a hair's-breadth at
a time.

FILING SAWS.

617. After having put the saw in the clamp, as in the figure,

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 413

and placed it on a bench that will bring the teeth about as high
as " the pit of your stomach," put the shank of the file in a
handle not less than one foot long, and put it in as true as prac
ticable. The beginner will be able to hold his file more correctly
with a long handle than with a short one. Now, hold the file
firmly, so that it will not turn to the right nor to the left, and
file every tooth to a point ; and as soon as a tooth is filed to a
point, do not give it another stroke. Great care and skill are
necessary when filing with a triangular file, lest while one tooth
is being filed, the tooth on the opposite side of the file should get
filed off too much. Always make the strokes from you ; and
when a tooth is almost to a point, make each stroke with precision
and care, and rather slowly.

THE PROPER ANGLE FOR FILING THE FACE OF THE TEETH

618. For cutting across the grain, varies very much among
different filers. The work to be done with a saw must determine,
in a measure, the proper angle for filing the face of the teeth.
If the wood be hard, and knotty, and gnarly, the teeth must be
filed for chipping or removing the sawdust. And the best kind
of tooth for removing sawdust is one that is filed square across
on the face. But a tooth filed square across on the face of it
will not cut off the fibres of the wood well ; therefore, the face
of the teeth must be filed more or less diagonally. If filed very
diagonally on the face, the teeth will be very fleaming, or fleam-
pointed. (See TECHNICALITIES.) When filed of this shape, they
cut very fast, but they remove the core very slowly. Some men
prefer to file four teeth or six teeth very fleam-pointed, at an
angle of about forty or forty-five degrees on the face, and then
file one tooth square on the face for taking out the core, leaving
the point a little shorter than the others. For all kinds of work,
for hard and for soft wood, when a man keeps but one saw, if
the teeth be filed at an angle of about ten or fifteen degrees on the
face, it will be found to subserve the best purpose for hand-saws.
If a man keeps a slitting-s&w, his crosscut hand-s&w may be filed
a little more fleaming on the face of the teeth. When the wood

414

to be sawed is all soft wood, a saw will cut the fastest if -four
teeth — two on each side — are filed quite fleaming on the /ace,
and every fifth tooth filed square across it on the face and back,
without setting them. When teeth are all filed very fleaming,
and none filed square to clean out the chip or core, it will be
necessary to bear on in sawing.

619. Slitting-saws are always filed square across on the face of
the teeth, and usually square 'on the back of them ; although
some filers contend that it is better to file a little fleaming on the
backs at the points. As it is very difficult for beginners to retain
the proper angle in- all the teeth, and to file every tooth of exactly
such a size and form, with nothing but the eye for a guide,

A SAW-FILER,

620. A perspective view of which is shown at Fig. 171, is
found to be a very useful implement. With such a filer, any

FIG. 171.

1GUSON. ALB

farmer can file his saws in a most complete manner, giving every
tooth exactly a certain angle, both on the face and back, and of a
given hook, and just so long and no longer, nor shorter ; and
besides, if every tooth is filed to a point, the saw will be neatly
jointed. It consists of a clamp like Fig. 169, with an iron plate,
a, screwed firmly to the jaw of the clamp. ~b is an iron slide, which
is neatly fitted by notches or gains to the true edges of a, which
is slid along the jaw, back and forth, from end to end, by the
endless set-screw and wheel c, fastened in front of the iron plate
a. d is the handle of the iron plate which holds the file which
plays back and forth in the iron post E, which is fastened to an

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 415

adjustable iron plate, which is bolted to the slide I. f is a thumb
set-screw, to regulate the proper depth to file the teeth. H is
another set-screw, for holding the file at any desired angle.

621. When a saw is filed with such a filer, put it in the clamp
very true, with one end just as high above the jaws as the other.
Adjust the file to file hooked or not, and, with the set-screw and
wheel, run the slide b to one end of the clamp. Now, adjust the
post E by the thumb-screw on the lower end, to hold the file at
the desired angle. File the teeth on one side of the saw, and
carry the post E around, so as to bring the file at the same angle
in the opposite direction. After having filed one tooth, turn the
set wheel around once or twice, more or less, according to the
size of the teeth, which will draw the slide b along just so far.
If the slide is drawn along only a trifle too far at one time, and
not quite so far the next time, the teeth will not all be of a uni
form length. The file is so hung that in thrusting from you it
will cut, and can be raised a little when drawing it back. There
are several styles of patent filers. The proprietor of this one is
Mr. H. Miller, Ithaca, N. Y., who will furnish both filers and
rights to manufacture.

622. Fig. 172 exhibits a section of a slitting hand-saw well
filed. It will be seen by the figure that the faces of the teeth

FIG. 172.

/N

N

\i

N

\

rr

N

\j\

N

\

i

SLITTING-SAW WELL FILED.

are at right angles to the cutting edges, or points, and are all
filed square across. It is not practicable to saw across the grain
with a saw filed in this manner.

613. Fig. 173 is a crosscut section of a hand-saw well filed.
The faces of the teeth are at right angles with the dotted lines
along the points. Many filers contend, that if the faces of the
18

416

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

v teeth are filed at right angles they will be too hooked. But if
filed in this style a saw will cut much faster and easier, and it

FIG. 173.

C!;os<(TT WELL FILED.

coincides with the manner of filing adopted by our best me
chanics.

624. Fig. 174 shows a saw badly filed; but it is an exact rep-

FIG. 174.

BADLY FILED.

resentation of many saws that have been filed by those who do
not understand the principle on which saws are sharpened. By
a glance at the dotted line along the edge it will be seen that a few
teeth only must do all the sawing. (See Par. 611.) I have
taken this figure from a saw that was brought to me to be filed ; and
some parts of it had been filed worse than this. It had been filed
with old worn-out files until its proprietor found it impossible to
cut off a narrow board with it.

625. Now in order to put it in sawable order it was put in the
clamp and jointed, and all of the teeth started in filing of the
proper form, and then the teeth were set. It is not always most
advisable to restore such teeth to the most proper form at one fil
ing unless one has much sawing to perform. If a saw-filer is
used it will be much easier to restore the correct form of the teeth
than it will be when filing by hand. When filing such a saw by

417

hand, after it has been jointed place a try-square against the edge,
and with the sharp point of a file make a scratch across the blade
ror the face of each tooth, as shown by the dotted lines Figs. 172
and 173, and then file the teeth only in part to a point the first
time across from end to end. Some filers always change ends
with a saw after filing one side. But it is of little consequence
how a man files, if he only does it in a workmanlike manner.
After a saw has been filed, in order to have it cut a kerf a little
wider than the blade the points of the teeth must be set.

SETTING SAWS.
FIGS. 175, 176, 177.

CKOSS SECTIONS OF SAWS.

626. Fig. 175 represents a cross section of a saw with the
points of the fleam-pointed teeth set, showing the cleaners, or
teeth that are filed square across. (See Par. 653.)

627. Fig. 176 is a section of saw in which all the teeth have
been set. When a saw is well filed it will appear like these fig
ures when viewed endways, and a cambric needle may be slid
along between the points of the teeth, from one end of a saw to
the other.

628. Fig. 177 is a section of a saw, the teeth of which are set
more than they ought to be for the thickness of the plate ; and
the whole teeth having been set too much, the points have been
worn off, so that it will work very hard, and perhaps not at all
without great power. This shows the importance of setting as
little of the points as practicable.

629. There are two kinds of set for saw teeth, — lent set and

418 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

swedged set. Bent set is used for both crosscut and slitting-saws ;
but swedged set is used only for saws that cut lengthways of the
grain. There are two kinds of lent set, but we shall notice but
one in this work.

630. The least possible amount of set, in either a crosscut or
ripping-saw, and have the saw work easily, is the best. The
greater the amount of set the wider will be the kerf; and the
wider the kerf the greater must be the power to drive a saw.
Soft wood requires more set than hard wood. A good saw often
does bad work in consequence of too much set. If there is too
much set, a saw will sometimes run in consequence of it ; and
sometimes, especially if the feed is heavy, if there is too much
set, a saw will often make a rough and jagged cut, which makes
a saw run hard.

631. The rudest and simplest mode of setting a saw is, to lay
the blade of it on a smooth end of a block of hard wood, and with
a punch and hammer bend the point of every other tooth by a
single blow, and then turn the saw over and set the other side,
being careful to place the punch on each tooth in the same place,
and to gauge the force of each blow as nearly as may be. If the
FIGS. 178 179. Puncn *s placed near the points of some teeth

and near the roots of others, the teeth will be
set very unevenly. Two or three teeth on each
side should be set near the end of the saw first;
and then, if there appears to be too little or too
much set in these teeth, let the blows be lighter
or heavier, as may be necessary.

632. Fig. 178 represents an edge-view of a
slitting-saw having the teeth set by bending the
points.

633. Fig. 179 is an edge- view of a slitting-
saw having the teeth set, or spread, by swedging.
It is not practicable to set small saws by swedg

SLIT- ing the points.

EDGE VIEW OF
TING-SAWS.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 419

SAW SETS,

634. Of many different styles, may be obtained at hardware
stores. It matters little what the set is, if it will only set all the
teeth true. JBow-saws, billet-saws, and all other saws having a
very narrow blade, must sometimes be set with a punch, or nail
set. (See Par. 631.)

635. Fig. 180 represents a punch for setting a rip-saw, which

FIG. 180.

^- SWEDGING SAW SET. EESS^

is made of steel, and well hardened, with an iron band around it,
near the crotched end, to prevent its splitting. The fork is made
with a triangular file, while the steel is yet soft, of an angle more
obtuse than the saw teeth, and left a little crowning at the bot
tom of the fork, from side to side. Before the set is hardened,
make the crotch a little deeper with a sharp cold-chisel, to pre
vent dulling the points of the teeth.

636. To set with a crotched punch after the saw has been
jointed and filed, let the punch be held steadily and firmly against
the point of the tooth, parallel with the side of the saw, and with
light blows with a hammer weighing about a pound, (with a still
lighter hammer if the teeth be small,) spread the points of the
teeth like the tail of a dove (Fig. 179), both ways from the cen
tre. Heavy blows will be liable to bend the teeth. As the crotch
of the punch is a little convex lengthways of it, by varying the
position of the punch the point of the tooth may be spread to the
required extent. After the points are spread enough, the cutting
edge of each tooth may be drawn out with the hammer by hold
ing a heavy piece of iron firmly against the face or bottom of the
tooth. This operation saves a vast amount of filing. In spread
ing the teeth of a circular saw, the set may be gauged by allow
ing the saw to revolve slowly, when every tooth must be spread
sufficiently to just touch the end of a stick of hard wood. In

420 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

case a tooth should get set a little too much, the side of the point
may be dressed off a little with a file, being careful to have the
side edge of the face of the teeth more prominent than they are
back of the face edges. If there should be any play of the man
drel endways, it must be held against one shoulder of the bearing
while it is being set. This mode of setting will make a circular
saw of uneven thickness, or that has little kinks in it, cut much
truer, and work easier, than if the set of the teeth were gauged
by the side of the saw plate. The teeth of circular saws for cut
ting across the grain of wood, the points of which are spread by
bending instead of swedging, may be gauged in setting by the end
of a stick instead of the side of the plate.

637. A saw set that is used for lending teeth should have not
only a set-screw to gauge the amount of set, but should have a
brass or copper plate for the points of the teeth to rest against
when the saw is being set, which plate may be adjusted to allow
the teeth to enter the set just so far and no farther. A saw set
that has no adjustable plate, but receives some teeth half their
length, and only the points of others, is an improper instrument
to set teeth with. If a saw set, for instance, takes hold of one
tooth near its point, and bends it as much as the gauge-screw
will admit of, and if the set is then put on the next tooth farther
than it was on the first tooth, the teeth on which the set was
placed the farthest, will receive the most set, even if the set-
screw is made to touch the plate alike in setting each individual
tooth.

638. There is great danger, in setting the teeth of saws which
have a high temper, or which are very hard, of breaking them,
especially in cold weather. Whenever a hard saw or a thick one
is to be set, it should be well warmed before any teeth arc set.
The teeth of some good saws when they are very cold will snap
almost like glass when we attempt to set them. The best way
to warm the teeth is, to pour hot water on them before setting?
unless the saw can be taken into a warm room. This applies not
only to circular saws, but to all kinds of long saws ; and the tyro
will ever regret that he did not warm his saw previous to setting

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 421

the teeth, after having broken several teeth of a good saw in
consequence of not warming it.

639. The teeth of a very soft saw will require more set than a
hard saw of the same thickness ; because, in the hard saw the
edge is more perfect, and the cut of such a saw of course will be
cleaner and smoother. On the contrary, a very coarse edge,
instead of cutting the fibres of wood smoothly, tears them in
two, leaving the sides of the kerf very rough, which makes a
saw work hard. Avoid setting the teeth too wide in any saw.

640. To take the set out of a saw which has too much set in
the teeth, lay it on a smooth stick of timber, and lay a hard,
smooth plank on the sides of the teeth, and strike on it with a
heavy hammer ; or, use a set.

TWO-HAND CROSSCUT SAWS.

641. Fig. 181 represents a two-hand crosscut saw, with teeth
of a proper form at one end, while at the other end they are repre
sented as they are too often filed in old saws which have been
filed with old files. The dotted lines show how much should be
filed out in order to make them of the proper form. Although
there is the same number of teeth per foot when filed at such
an obtuse angle as is shown at the left hand, the teeth will
not cut half as fast as they will when filed like those at the right

FIG. 181.

^tfzfrf^^^

A CE088-OUT SAW.

hand. When teeth are filed short and Uunt, they require more
force to make a saw cut, on the same principle that a man with a
thin axe will be able to chop faster than he will with one having
a very thick blade.

642. The teeth in crosscut saws are almost always too far
apart to work well. Many a good saw has been spoiled by some
knowing know-nothing, who has cut away every alternate tooth

422 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

with a view to make a saw cut faster. Suppose, for instance,
that we cut away four-fifths of the teeth, how fast will a saw
cut ? For sawing timber of ordinary size, the teeth should not
be more than one inch apart. When a saw jumps and jerks
along, it is very certain evidence that the teeth are too far apart.
The smaller in diameter the timber is, the closer together the
teeth should be, in order to work best and smoothest. As the
teeth of two-hand crosscut saws are filed without any hook, they
should be filed rather slim and narrow at the base or roots, in
order to cut the fastest.

643. Improved two-hand crosscut saws are now manufactured
with every third tooth formed like a cat's claw, and filed square
across, and about a sixteenth of an inch shorter than the others*
which are filed very fleaming. They are much superior to the
common kind of saws.

PUTTING TWO-HAND CROSSCUT SAWS IN ORDER.

644. Dress out two strips of board, with one edge of each one
of the same circle as the cutting edge of the saw, and screw
them together with the saw between them, like Fig. 182, which
shows a combined clamp and jointer, with the longest teeth of a
saw extending above the edges of the clamp. The screws are

FIG. 182.

A CROSSCUT SAW WITH HANDLES.

put between the teeth. Adjust the clamp so that the long teeth
will extend a little above the edge, and with a file dress them
off even with the edge of the clamp. After it is jointed take
out the screws, and place the saw in the bench-vise, and file it.
645. In filing, always endeavor to file the spaces as deep or

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 423

deeper than they were originally made. This will keep the teeth
of a good length, and a saw will never need to be gummed.
Never file with an old worn-out file ; because, although the teeth
may be filed to a point, the spaces will not be deepened ; and in
a short time it will cost far more to gum a saw than it would to
keep the teeth of a suitable length by filing them. If the teeth
are filed very fleaming, or diagonally, it will be necessary to file
about every seventh tooth square across, and a little shorter than
the others. When all the teeth are filed fleaming, if they are
filed at an angle of about ten or fifteen degrees with the face of
the te'eth, they will remove the core or dust as fast as they cut.

646. After filing, set the points of the teeth a very little.
The least possible set, and have a saw work easily, will cause it
to run the truest and the best. If a saw is kept as sharp as it
ought to be, it will seldom need any more set when cutting soft
wood, than it will when cutting hard wood. "When a saw cuts
a jagged, rough, uneven cut, it is a sign that the saw is not set
true, or that the set has been taken out of some of the teeth.

647. When the whole tooth is set, the set is very liable to be
taken out by allowing the saw to be pinched between the ends
of a log when it is nearly sawed in two. This may be the cause
of its running. Perhaps a few teeth are a trifle shorter on one
side than on the other, made so either by filing or dulling. In
this case the teeth should be jointed and filed of an equal length.
If the set is out and the saw runs towards the top end of the log,
give the teeth on the opposite side a little more set. In sawing
logs for staves, spokes, and shingles, it is important that the saw
run true, else there is danger of sawing one side of the log too
short.

HANDLING A CROSSCUT SAW

648. Kequires the exercise of a little activity and agility, else
the work will be rendered laborious. The hands of the sawer
should merely hang loosely on the handles, allowing the handle
freedom to play up and down, as the saw adjusts itself in its pas
sage through the log. After a saw has entered a log sufficiently

18*

424

to keep itself erect, if a sawyer is inclined " to ride," as it is
called, it would be well to pass a rope or strap of leather around
the handle for him to pull by. A good sawyer must make
long, elastic motions with the arms, and let the saw play lively,
lightly, and freely through the log, and if the saw is in good
order, the ends of the log will be as true as if they had been
turned off. Let the saw be kept well-jointed and properly set,
and not allowed to become rusty, and it will work easy and cut
fast.

THE MANNER OF FILING COMPASS SAWS.

649. Compass saws, and billet-web saws, and such as are used
in a frame, for sawing felloes, and other circular work, cut as
much lengthways of the grain as they do crossways ; and if filed
for crosscutting, they do not work well in sawing lengthways of
the grain ; and if filed exclusively for ripping, they will not
work at all when they come to that portion of the circle which
crosses the grain of the wood. Most mechanics file such saws
but a little fleaming, but I think they will cut smoother and faster
by filing every third tooth for ripping, making it a little shorter
than the teeth filed fleaming. The object of this is, when the
saw comes to that part of a circle which runs lengthways of the
grain, teeth filed fleaming will not chip well ; therefore, every
third tooth being filed for ripping, and not set, will cut away the
centre of the kerf as fast as the fleaming teeth cut the sides of it.
Compass and billet-saws being so narrow, they cannot advan
tageously be set with an ordinary set, but must be set with a
nail set, or punch and hammer, by laying them on the square
end of a block of hard wood, and by giving each tooth an equal
blow with the hammer.

650. The blades of compass and all other saws for cutting cir
cular work, should be thinner on the lack than they are at the
cutting edge. When of this form they will turn in sawing a
small circle with less set than they possibly can when the blade
is all of a uniform thickness.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

425

CIRCULAR SAWS.

651. Fig. 183 represents a circular saw with four different
kinds of teeth. Three kinds, C B, B A, and A D, are for rip
ping, and the portion between D C is for cutting across the
grain. To find the angle for filing the face of the teeth, strike a
circle, the dotted line a, half the diameter of the saw, and a line
from the points of the teeth to one side of this circle, will give

FIG. 183.

A CraOTTLAR SAW HAVING FOUB KINJJ8 OP TEETH.

the hook of the teeth. The marks may be made with the sharp
point of a steel file. The angle for the hook of the teetji may be
more obtuse or acute, as at 5, from A to _D. TJie teeth between
J5 and C are kept in order with less filing than those with circu-

426 THE YOUNG FAEMER's MANUAL.

lar backs between A and B. Those teeth between A and B are
the strongest, and if the spaces- at the roots of them be filed with
a half-round file, the teeth will be still stronger. The lacks of
the teeth for one-fourth or half an inch back from the points,
according to the size of the teeth, should be on a line drawn from
the point of one tooth to a point as much below the point of the
tooth behind it, as each tooth is required to cut in depth, as at c c.
If, for example, a saw cuts one inch in one revolution, and has
forty teeth, the teeth back of the points must be filed below the
points, so as to be on a line drawn from one-fortieth of an inch
below one point, c c, to the point of the tooth forward of it.
Such a shape will allow the teeth to cut just as easily as if the
backs of them were like those between 0 and D. The filer
should be very careful to have the points of the teeth more
prominent than they are just back of the cutting points. These
teeth, that are formed like those between A and J9, will cut
very much faster, and with less power than either of the other
kinds. They seem to cut a kerf through a stick, while teeth
with less hook scrape or file out the kerf. But teeth of such
a shape must be made only in a saw of the very best materials,
and for sawing hard and knotty wood there is great danger of
breaking them, For all soft wood such teeth work most admi
rably. Such teeth must never be bent in setting, but swedged
with the swedging set, Fig. 180. The teeth between C and D
are for cutting across the grain. The correct hook is found by
drawing a line from the points of the teeth to the centre of the
saw ; or, at a right angle to the cutting edge of the saw. This is
allowed to be the best angle for the face of all crosscutting saws,
except such as have no hook tp the teeth, like Fig. 181. It is
of very little consequence so far as cutting is concerned, what
the shape of the back of a tooth is, if the part lack of the point
is far enough back of, or below the line of motion, in which the
points move, for all the teeth to enter the wood freely. If the
lack of a tooth be higher than the point, a tooth must wear its
way through a stick instead of cutting through.

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 427

JOINTING A CIRCULAR SAW.

652. If a circular saw is not as round as may be, the teeth on
one side will cut too deep at each revolution, and on the other
side will not cut as deep as they ought to cut ; and, therefore, at
every revolution one side will sometimes take such a rank hold
as to produce a jar, or spring the teeth, thus making a rough cut.
Some mechanics use for jointing circular saws, a kind of templet or
template, one end of which is rested on the collar of the mandrel.
But that is not as correct and easy for beginners as the manner
recommended at Par. 616. When a large circular saw is jointed
by being made to revolve backwards while a file is held against
the points, the impact or friction is so intense, that the teeth will
wear out a file wherever it touches the saw. When large teeth
need much jointing, hold a bar of lead near the points for every
one to touch as they pass it ; lead will not dull them : and then
file off the points of the long teeth until the facet made by the
jointing-file on the ends of them, will be even with the points of
the shortest teeth. Now, set it and file it.

FILING CIRCULAR SAWS.

653. The best and most convenient place for filing a circular
saw is on its mandrel, providing there is sufficient light to enable
one to see the points of the teeth. Some mechanics always take
the saw off the mandrel and put it in a vise when filing. But
any contrivance which will hold a saw firmly on the side which
is being filed is all that is necessary. I always have used for
this purpose two sticks, one on each side of the saw, extending
from the saw to some part of the frame. Every tooth should be
brought to the top of the saw when it is filed ; because any one
can file better on the top of a saw than on the sides of it. And,
if. every tooth is brought to just such a position before it is filed,
they are more likely to be filed alike. If the teeth are to be filed
square across, every tooth may be filed while standing on one side
of the saw ; but if the teeth are to be filed fleaming or bevel
ling, it is better to file the teeth on one side while standing on

428

one side of the saw, and to file the other side when standing on
the opposite side. The same rules hold good for filing circular
saws that are observed for filing long saws. A circular saw for
cutting across the grain should have not less than four t^eth — •
one on each side of the saw — filed square across, and a little
shorter than the others, to cut out the chip. These teeth should
have a good hook. All the teeth should be kept as nearly of a
size and length as possible ; and for this purpose the templet
(see Fig. 184) should be placed on every tooth before it is filed,
in order to show whether or not a tooth has the desired shape.
It is sometimes a very good practice in filing any kind of saw,
and especially if it is a very soft saw, to go over all the teeth
with a very fine file, or with one that is nearly worn out, after
they have been brought to an edge with a sharp file. This pro
cess gives the teeth a more perfect edge. A good fine edge can
never be obtained with a coarse file, if the strokes be made ever
so light. The finishing strokes with the file should always be
made from you, and if the teeth be fleam-pointed, the strokes of
the file should be made in the same direction that the teeth are
bent in setting. My twenty-four-inch circular saw, for cutting
fire-wood, with teeth an inch and one-fourth apart, is filed fleaming,
at an angle of about forty-five degrees ; and every fifth tooth is
filed square, and a sixteenth of an inch shorter than the others ;
and I have never met with a saw before which will run through
large knots and gnarls so noiselessly, and with so little power, and
cut so neatly. ,

654. There are several styles of saw-filers for filing circular
saws. But a man should have more saws to file than a common
farmer usually owns, in order " to make it pay " to purchase a
filer, which costs from $10 to $15. A little practice and skill
are more important than a saw-filer, unless some cheaper article
shall be invented than any with which I have ever met.

WHERE TO OBTAIN THE BEST PATENT GROUND SAWS.

655. The best saws of every kind with which I have ever
met, wern manufactured by R. Hoe & Co., 29 Gold st.? New

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 429

York city, and by Andrews & Burbage, Elmira, N. Y. Their
patent ground circulars sustain an unrivalled reputation through
out the States, not only for sawing lumber, but for farmers' wood-
saws. :*The patent ground circulars are thicker in the centre than
they are at the cutting edge, and are ground of a uniform taper
from the centre to the edge, which shape renders them stronger
than those which are ground in the usual manner ; and they
require less set, and, as a consequence, less power is required to
drive them ; and they are less liable to become heated ; and they
do not wear out so many files, because the teeth are thinner ;
and, more than all, they possess a superior temper ; and are made
of the best of steel. I have two of them in use, and although I
am a stranger to the manufacturers of these saws, I would not
exchange one of these saws for a gross of common saws. If a
farmer desires a good saw of any kind, and made of any thick
ness, or of any style of teeth, or if he has an old saw which needs
to be re-toothed, or re-tempered, or straightened, he need not fear
to confide in either of these companies.

HANGING CIRCULAR SAWS.

656. It is a pretty nice piece of work to hang a circular saw
just right. It is an impossibility to make a saw mathematically
true, or to hang it to run with mathematical precision ; but it is
easy for a good mechanic to approximate as near perfection in
this respect as is of practical use. A good saw is often con
demned when the whole fault is in the mandrel on which it turns ;
and a badly fitted mandrel is liable to spoil a good saw.

657. The idea to be kept in mind is, to have the collars or
flanges turned as true as possible ; and any deviation in the col
lars from trueness, will multiply this deviation in the saw just as
many times as the saw is larger than the collars. The bearings
of the mandrel should be turned first, and then the face of the
collar should be turned off very true, without changing ends of
the mandrel in the lathe. Sometimes the centres or points in a
lathe deviate a trifle, and by changing ends with the mandrel,
a,nd finishing a part of it with the ends in opposite directions, the

430 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

bearings will not be true with the collars. If the lathe be rather
light, and it springs when the collars are being turned, the man
drel should be put in the lathe, and the face of the fixed collar
turned while the mandrel revolves on its own bearingsfamd not
merely on the centres of the lathe. Sometimes the collars must
be turned a little concave, to fit the saw well, and sometimes one
must be a little concave and the other one correspondingly con
vex or straight, as the shape of the saw requires. The mandrel
should fit snugly the eye of the saw without any play. When
the saw is placed on the mandrel, if it deviates any in revolving,
it may be adjusted by a piece or two of paper, between the col
lar and the saw, and be made to run with the greatest precision.
The bearings should be so neatly fitted to the boxes, that there
will be no working of it up and down, nor any play endways.
(See FITTING UP MACHINERY, in the next volume.) In sawing
anything where exactness is not necessary, if there should be a
little play of the mandrel endways, it matters not ; but in sawing
to a gauge, if there be much play of the mandrel endways, some
pieces will be thicker or longer than others, according to the
amount of play.

BALANCING SAWS.

658. When saws are hung on a mandrel having a fly-wheel
on it, if it is not well balanced the saw will vibrate or flutter at
the edge, and the frame will shake like a person who has been
attacked with the quotidian ague. When a saw is well balanced
the frame will not tremble, even when the motion is very high.
(See How TO BALANCE A SAW, in next vol.)

GUMMING SAWS

659. Is the act of making the teeth longer by making the
spaces between them deeper. This is performed in several ways.
The best mode, but most expensive, is, to gum with a file; be
cause by gumming with a file there is no danger of breaking or
bending a saw, nor of stretching the edge. And if the spaces

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 431

were filed deeper, as the points wear off there would be no neces
sity for^jjj|r gumming saws at all.

660. Gumming is often done with a cold-chisel and hammer
while the saw lies on the smooth face of an anvil, or an equiva
lent to an anvil. If gummed in this way, it must be done with
a thin, sharp chisel and a rather light hammer ; and the operator
cannot be too particular in having the part of the saw opposite
the chisel rest level on the anvil. One careless blow has often
broken a good saw, or damaged it by kinking it or cracking a
tooth. Both ends of the saw should be supported as high as the
surface of the anvil, and then, with a narrow cold-chisel, about
one-fourth of an inch wide, work crossways of the saw, with the
edge of the chisel parallel with the edge of the saw. Never
cleave at one cut more than one-eighth of an inch, unless the chip
be cut loose first on the ends. If the chisel stands crossways of
the saw, in working the spaces deeper there is great danger of
stretching the edge of the saw, or of starting the teeth near the roots.

661. Gumming saws with a machine is done with a kind of
punch playing in a die of the shape of the spaces, which is at
tached to a strong lever, and the saw is placed between the die
and punch, and the spaces are worked deeper by nipping a little
at each descent of the lever. In gumming with a machine every
alternate tooth should be gummed with the saw the other side up.
If the gumming be all done on one side it is apt to lend the saw ;
and straightening it back stretches the edge ; and, in stretching the
middle, by striking the saw a few smart blows on opposite sides
with a hammer having a roundish face, when the saw lies on a
true anvil so as to make the edges straight, there is great danger
of breaking a saw. The cutting edge of the punch should have
about three-sixteenths of an inch bevel, so as to make a cleaner
and easier cut when gumming it.

662. There is always more or less danger of damaging a good
saw while gumming it ; therefore it is far better to expend a dol
lar in gumming with a file than to pay a dollar for gumming with
a chisel or gummer.

663. In order to have all the spaces and the teeth of a uniform

432

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

FlG. 184.

size, they should be marked out
with a templet, shojj^it Fig.
of a piece of

184, which is made
sheet-iron, or a thin piece of hard
wood, and is placed withoneend
on the collar against the side of
the saw ; and as each tooth is filed
the templet may be placed against
the saw, in order to determine
whether the face or lack of a
tooth requires more filing or not.

664. Fig. 185 shows the form of a templet for marking out

Fio. 185.

MANNER OP MARKING OUT THE CORRECT
SHAPE OF SAW TEETH.

new teeth on a saw like the shape of the teeth at J, Fig. 183.
The templet may be formed to mark out any style of teeth.

MILL SAWS.

665. "Why is lumber often sawed of all shapes and of variable
thicknesses at the great majority of saw-mills ? In most instances
it is in consequence of the saw being in improper order. Should
the set get out of any of the teeth on either side, by passing a
hard knot a saw will most assuredly run, and make the lumber
thicker or thinner in the middle than it should be. From what
has been' said of filing and setting other saws, the tyro will be
able to file and set a mill saw in a proper manner. Where both
hard and soft logs are to be sawed, it would be good policy to
have a saw for each kind of wood. For sawing hard wood logs
the plate should be rather thick and stiff, with the teeth nearer
together, and rather short, to retain the set longer, than in a saw
designed solely for soft wood. In order to saw lumber or timber
of an exact size, and very true and smooth, the saw or saws must

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

433

be in perfect order. A few practical directions may not be amiss
on the sjjfect of

TEETH IN SAWS WHICH WORK UP AND DOWN.

66. Fig. 186 represents a mill saw having five different forms
of teeth. At a the teeth are filed on the FIG. 186.

face, at a right angle with the cutting
edge of the saw, and the backs, or upper
sides, at an angle of forty-five degrees.
This is the oldest and most common form
of teeth, and whether filed square or
bevelling, more power is required to drive
a saw having this kind of teeth, unless
they are hammered as at e. Teeth of
this form remove the sawdust by scraping
instead of cutting. It requires less skill to
keep such teeth in good order than either
of the other kinds.

667. At 5 much the same kind of teeth
is shown, with the faces filed at an acute
angle, giving them a greater hook, while
the lacks are of the same angle. If the
motion were high, such teeth will cut
much faster, with the same power, than
the kind at a. But if the motion be very
slow, teeth with much hook are liable to
draw into the log farther than they are
able to cut without staggering or trembling,
as if having too much feed.

668. At c and d are two different kinds
of teeth, which operate with far less
power than those at a and 5, but they
require much more skill to keep them in
order. But by using a templet (see Fig.
185), any one who is able to put the teeth

of any saw in order will find little difficulty v.-illi those. The

434 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

teeth at c should be filed so that the cutting points shall be one-
sixteenth or one-twentieth of an inch more promin^Bhan they
are back of the points. (See Fig. 183, c.) If the material to be
sawed be such that each tooth is required to cut one-sixteenth of
an inch, by filing the ends of the teeth so that a line dr^^Krom
the point of one tooth would strike one-sixteenth of an inch below
the point of the first tooth back of it, the saw cannot draw into
the log any farther than it will cut without trembling, even if the
teeth be filed very hooked.

669. At d is a form for teeth having a heel or guide to prevent
the saw from drawing into the log when sawing. The guides or
heels are dressed in a line with each other, at a given distance
back of the cutting edge. If, in sawing, the saw is inclined to
haul into the log, the heels prevent its entering any farther than
is desirable.

670. At e teeth are represented with the points hammered;
i. e., with repeated blows on the back of a tooth, near the point,
with a light hammer, the edge is turned downward. There is a
saving of nearly one-half the power by hammering the teeth, if
it be performed very skillfully. If this spur should not all be
worn off before filing again, it is necessary to hold a smooth and
square piece of steel against the face of the tooth, and with a few
blows of a hammer upwards, bring this spur on a line with the
face of the tooth, so that it will not be filed off in dressing the
tooth.

671. As hammering teeth, either for the purpose of setting
them or turning down the points, refines the steel and renders it
harder, the cutting quality of an inferior .saw is often improved
by working the points with a hammer when cold.

672. It is of primary importance that a saw which works up
and down, should be jointed straight on the edge. If a saw is
allowed to become hollowing on the cutting edge more than one-
fourth of an inch, if everything is not made doubly strong, we
may surely expect that the saw or something else will break. If
the cutting edge is crowning from end to end, a saw cannot be
made to work up to its greatest capacity. A jointer for a mill

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 435

saw mav^e made with its edges straight and square, like the
jointei^^m crosscut saw. (See Fig. 182.) In order to have a
saw work well, it should be jointed every alternate time it is
filed. A skillful filer will take a square block a foot long, and
one by three inches square, and place the flat side of it against
the side of the saw, and, holding the jointing-file on the edge of
the block, joint the teeth very true.

LENGTH OF THE CUTTING EDGE OF A SAW.

672^-. When a saw is worked by a crank and pitman, all the
teeth beyond a given point had better be cut away ; because, it
is only a waste of time and tools, to keep them in order with the
teeth that do all the sawing. The teeth below the rabbet on the
head-block, when the crank is up never cut any, unless in sawing
a log with a bow downwards. If the stroke of the crank be
twenty-four inches, and the logs one foot in diameter, three feet
of the cutting edge is all that is brought in contact with the log ;
and a cutting edge of greater length would be useless. If the
logs be two feet in diameter, and twenty-four-inch stroke of the
crank, the cutting edge should be four feet long. If the logs be
three feet in diameter, the cutting edge of the saw should be not
less than four and a half feet long. When the crank is down,
all the teeth above the log are useless.

673. This rule holds good in regard to saws that are worked
horizontally. In sawing off logs two feet in diameter with a
crank having a twenty-eight-inch stroke, the cutting edge should
be four feet and four inches long. With the same crank, for saw
ing off logs only one foot, three feet four inches of the cutting
edge is all that saws.

674. There is, many times, two or three inches in length of
the cutting edge of hand-saws near the handle, which never saws
any, and is worse than useless ; because, the teeth must all be
filed off in order to keep them of the same length as those in the
middle of the saw. These suggestions will enable the young
filer to understand how large a number of teeth near the ends of
his saw are useless.

436 THE YOUNG FAKMER's MANUAL.

RAKE OF SAWS.

674-^. Saws are hung in a gate working up and down, not
only for sawing logs, but for sawing out boat-knees, sleigh-run
ners, felloes for wheels, wagon thills, scrolls, and other circular
work, and they are always dressed to cut only when they descend.
If the material be forced on to the saw when it is ascending,
unless it should be very heavy, the material with the carriage
will be jerked up and down in a most frightful manner. To
avoid this difficulty the saw is hung with a rake, (see TECHNI
CALITIES, Par. 602,) in order to allow the material to be brought
up to the saw with facility when it is ascending.

675. I knew a mechanic once who got up a little saw for saw
ing out felloes and sleigh-runners, and not understanding this
principle, he hung his saw without any rake. He could not
make it operate with any degree of satisfaction until he hung the
saw with a rake.

676. The amount of rake which should be given to a saw,
should be equal, usually, to the greatest amount of feed, measuring
from the tooth which is found at the upper side of the timber
when the crank is down. Many sawyers hang their saws with
out any rake.

677. To ascertain the amount of rake, set the crank up, and
suspend a plumb, P, Fig. 186, with a small line from the upper
tooth, and lean the saw forward as far as is desirable, as shown
in the figure, and fasten it there.

678. Rake, in saws which work horizontally, is something
which is seldom recognized or even thought of. But when a
drag or a butting saw is attached to a pitman, and it is filed to
saw only one way, if the cutting edge is not exactly parallel
with a line cutting the centre of the pitman, it may or may not
be hung with a rake. If the farthest end falls below a parallel
line cutting the centre of the pitman, it will have a rake just in
proportion to the distance it falls below a parallel line.

RANGING SAWS

679. Is a very important consideration where a carriage or

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 437

table is u^d. The carriage or table should always move parallel
with the sides of the saw. An ingenious sawyer will be able to
determine, by simply glancing his eye along the sides cf the saw
to some point on the carriage, whether the saw and carriage are
T^^^^Tor not. When the carriage or table is fitted up, the
saw must be hung to correspond with it ; but, when the saw is
already in the desired position, the table or carriage must be
fitted to the saw. To determine whether the carriage or table of
a circular saw for cutting wood is in range with the saw, push
the carriage back as far as it will go, and then place a board
having a straight edge on the carriage, with the straight edge as
close to one side of the saw as it can be and not hit it. Move
the carriage back and forth, with the straight-edged board on
both sides of the saw, and if the board remains just so far from
the saw, it is all correct. When there is a long carriage, run
one end of the carriage to the saw, and stick a nail where the
edge of the saw hits. Now, move the carriage so that the other
end will be at the saw, and stick another nail. Now, hold a long
straight edge against the side of the saw-plate ; and if in range,
the straight edge will point directly to these nails. If the feed
ing-table of a circular wood-saw does not range with the saw, it
will be almost impossible to saw off a large stick, because it
will bind against the sides of the saw, and almost stop the motion
of it if the power is limited.

THE VELOCITY OF THE CUTTING EDGE OF SAWS.

680. There is little danger of having the teeth of any saw
move too fast. The faster the cutting edge moves, the more
work a saw is capable of performing. When there is an abun
dance of available power, it is well to have a buzz-saw run with a
frightful velocity ; for it will saw much smoother and faster than
if it moves with less rapidity. But when the power is limited,
and it is desirable to lose none of that power, it is very impor
tant to have the cutting edge move at the most effective velocity for
the power which drives it. Some engineers say that the cutting
edge of a crosscut circular saw should move about seventy-five

438

feet per second, while others, of equally good authority, say
one hundred feet and more per second. The diaj^Mr of the
saw has much to do in this respect. A circular sa^Mwenty-lwo
inches in diameter, has a cutting edge of sixty-nine Aches. Now,
if it revolves twelve hundred times in one mi; nttmrr

edge will move one hundred and fifteen feet per second, or fix thou
sand nine hundred feet per minute ; and if the wood to be sawed
be as large as that saw will cut in two without turning it over,
by putting another saw of the same thickness, having teeth the
same distance apart, which is twenty-six inches in diameter on
the same mandrel, the same amount of power will saw more than
it will with the saw twenty-two inches in diameter. It will require
a little more power to drive the twenty-six-inch saw, because it
is a little heavier ; but the difference is so small that it cannot be
perceived. And the diameter of the saw being greater, there
will be a greater leverage to absorb the driviug power. But the
velocity of the cutting edge of the twenty-six-inch saw being (at
1200 revolutions per minute) one hundred and thirty-six feet per
second, together with the greater diameter of the saw, by reason
of which, in sawing materials of the size already mentioned,
fewer teeth cut at the same time, both operate in favor of the
large saw. Consequently, a twenty-six-inch saw will do more
with the same power than a twenty-two-inch saw, in sawing
wood that is nearly all as large as a twenty-two-inch saw will
reach through ; the teeth and thickness of the plate being the
same. If, now, the speed pulley on the saw mandrel be made
so large as to give the cutting edge of the twenty-six-inch saw
a velocity of one hundred and fifteen feet per second, the same
amount of power will saw more than when the velocity of the
teeth was one hundred and thirty-six feet per second. If the
tyro should have much sawing to do, and his power limited, it
would be well worth while to have two or three different speed
pulleys to put on the saw mandrel. The size of the pulleys
would very soon decide whether too much of the power was
absorbed in producing a higher velocity than will be most effect
ive for the amount of power employed. The driving wheel may

THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL. 439

be so lajge and speed-pulley so small, (in a one or two-horse
power, J*Il; to absorb all the available power in getting up a good
velocity. These should be just large enough to allow the horses
ove with their ordinary gait. Intimately connected with
subject, as elucidating and rendering it more intelligible, is

tins s

THE INFLUENCE OF THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIALS
TO BE SAWED.

681. Every one who has ever sawed a board in two with a
hand-saw knows that it will require three times more time and
power to saw off a board one foot wide, if the saw be made to
cut entirely across the width of the board, than it does to saw it
having the saw cut only across the thickness of the board at once.
A man will saw in two with a hand-saw twelve boards one foot
wide and an inch thick, twice as quick as he can saw in two a
stick of timber one foot square. A man will saw with a slitting-
saw, eight feet in length of a board one inch thick, quicker and
easier than he can saw one foot in length of a four-inch plank
with the same saw, unless the teeth were very coarse.

682. In sawing fire-wood with a two-horse-power, if the wood
be nearly all from six to eight inches thick, by splitting it in two
before sawing it can be sawed with the same power in about half
the time that it would require, without being made smaller.
With an abundance of power a cord of large wood could be sawed
sooner than a cord of small wood. A span of horses on a two-
horse railway power will do a good business at slitting boards
and plank from one and a half to three inches thick. As the
thickness of materials to be sawed increases, in order to do a fair
business an increase of power is necessary. With a circular saw
about one foot in diameter, driven by two horses, a man can saw
seventy feet in length of hard lumber one inch thick — if he is able
to handle the lumber as fast as the saw will cut it — sooner than he
can saw through a plank twelve feet long and three inches thick.

683. A circular saw ten or twelve inches in diameter, for slit
ting boards and two-inch plank, will do much neater and smoother
work than a saw twice as large in diameter. This is particularly

19

440 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

so with hard- wood lumber, for slitting which a saw tl^ is just
large enough to reach through a board or plank to beJJed will
saw smoother than a larger saw, that will cut more square a'cross
the lumber.

684. In sawing logs into boards, either with an up-and-down^
saw or with a circular saw, the larger the logs are the greater
must be the power in order to do a profitable business. A power
that will do a good business at sawing logs from one to two feet
in diameter into lumber, if the power be all absorbed in sawing
such logs, will be insufficient to drive a saw at a good velocity
through logs from three to four feet in diameter. It is all folly
to attempt to do a fair business in sawing anything thick and
heavy, with a weak or limited power. If, in erecting a steam
saw-mill, the logs are of an average large size, it would be infi
nitely more profitable to the proprietor to have an engine say of
not less than thirty-horse-power, that would drive a saw with a
good speed through any log, however large and hard it might be,
than it would to use an engine of ten or fifteen-horse-power.

685. In slitting lumber with my two-horse-power, with a cir
cular saw one foot in diameter, I found by experiment that with
a pulley six inches in diameter on the mandrel I could saw only
about half as fast with the horses travelling at a given gait as
I could when the pulley was about eleven inches in diameter.
With the small pulley too much of the power was absorbed in
producing a given velocity. The difference was not so percepti
ble when sawing thin stuff as it was when sawing plank two or
three inches thick.

A WORD ABOUT FILES.

686. My rule in selecting files is, to choose those that have a
clear, bright, and lively appearance, and that are well cut, having
sharp corners. If the corners are full — which is of the greatest
importance — the sides will be correspondingly sharp. If the cor
ners are not full, it is a pretty certain evidence that the temper is
not right, — generally too hard, — and they will not do good ser-

(441)

442 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

vice. Always examine the corners of files, and select those that
have the sharpest corners.

THE SIZE OF THE FILES

687. Should be in. proportion to the teeth. Files about the
size of the teeth to be filed are generally the most economical,
because there are more corners in proportion to the sides. I al
ways use very small triangular files for filing small teeth. The
double-cut single files, although they cost a trifle more, are prefer
able to the single-cut ones, because they make a cleaner and
neater cut when filing.

688. Save all the old files and have them cut over, in nearly
any of our cities, at less than half their original cost.

.

THE SLITTING-TABLE.

689. Fig. 187 is a representation of a bench and slitting-table
for slitting boards, plank, and anything else of that character.
When a man has a wood-saw, he may bolt two extension benches
to the frame, as shown in the Fig., and put a small slitting-saw
on the mandrel, and he will find it a most convenient arrange
ment for slitting all kinds of lumber. I have such a table, the
frame of which is twenty -four feet long, and the movable carriage
or table is sixteen feet in length. This table is moved back and
forth close to the saw, on rollers in the frame, and boards or plank,
when being sawed, are placed on the table and pushed towards
the saw. With two horses I can saw lath, door-casings, stiles
for doors, and such like, faster, and very much truer, than ten
active men would be able to saw with hand-saws. (See Par.
38.) The rollers — one of which is shown at the left hand in the
Fig. — which support the table, are about five inches in diam
eter, sixteen inches long, with a gain in each one for the guide
to run in, which is fastened to the under side of the table. A
gauge is shown behind the sawyer, which is adjusted by two set-
screws, a a, which screws pass through a long mortise in the stick
under the gauge. The nut is beneath the long mortise. At

443

the left hand is shown a portion of the table, with an iron
dog, c?, screwed to the top of the table for holding the plank.

SQUARES AND MEASURING RULES.

690. A carpenters' steel square is an indispensable tool in lay
ing out any heavy work. Steel squares are usually graduated
correctly, and are as " square " as they can conveniently be made.
The common iron squares are almost always a nuisance ; because
they are not square, are not graduated correctly, are always
bending and twisting, and the edges are not straight. No one
who is possessed of much mechanical talent, will be satisfied to
use an iron square. Steel squares are usually graduated and fig
ured on both sides, with a rule for measuring lumber on one
side, which is many times very convenient.

691. In addition to the carpenters' square, a try-square and
bevel are very useful, and it is not very practicable to perform
many little jobs without them. These can always be obtained at
hardware stores, of almost any desirable size.

692. A pocket rule is another very convenient instrument,
both for laying out any piece of small work in the shop, and for
taking the dimensions of anything that comes in our way that
we wish to measure. Pocket-rules and carpenters' steel squares
are usually graduated as small as sixteenths of inches, and the
tyro should be careful to see that in purchasing a square he does
not get turned off with an iron square. A good steel square
will ring when struck while it hangs on one's finger, but an iron
one will give a very dull sound.

693. Mechanics who make many patterns for moulding for cast-
iron, when they wish to have their casting of a given size, use
a graduated rule twelve inches and one-eighth in length, or one-
eighth of an inch to a foot longer than the sealed or statute meas
ure. The object of using such a rule is, to make the necessary
allowance for the contraction or shrinkage of the iron in cooling.
When such a rule is not at hand, it is necessary to make calcula
tions for the contraction of the iron, by making the pattern twelve
inches and one-eighth long, if the iron is to be just twelve inches

444 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

in length when cold. But when such a rule is used there is no
allowance to be made and no liability to make mistakes.

694. Squares are not always " square " or true. They may
be readily tested when purchasing them, by holding them against
the straight edge of a board, and making a mark across it, and
then reverse it ; and if the arm of the square is exactly paral
lel with the mark, the square is true. Let squares and rules be
kept bright by rubbing them with a piece of white chalk.

695. Measuring poles are very convenient many times. I
have three of different lengths. One is six feet in length, three-
eighths of an inch thick at the ends and an inch wide at the ends,
and half an inch thick at the middle and two inches wide, gradu
ated to three inch spaces at the ends. Another is ten feet long,
one inch wide and half an inch thick at the ends, and in the mid
dle two inches wide, graduated in feet. Another, of the same
size as the ten feet pole, is sixteen and a half feet long, correctly
graduated to half feet. These are all made of baswood, very
straight and true, and varnished with three coats of shellac, (see
next vol.,) and a piece of sheet copper, just the size of the ends,
is neatly fitted and screwed on the ends, to keep them true and
square. All these poles have their appropriate place in the shop,
where they will lie in a straight position ; and when they are
not in use they are returned promptly to their places. It will
injure them very much to get very wet, by springing and warp
ing them.

696. Instead of poles, many men have a graduated tape, two
or four rods in length, which is wound up in a circular case of
stiff leather, and can be carried in the pocket. In measuring,
the tape is drawn out of one side of the case, a part or the entire
length. The tape is usually graduated on one side into feet and
inches, and on the opposite side is a graduation into Units for
measuring land. But for ordinary purposes, and especially for
correct measuring, and for cheapness, poles are far the best, and
the most convenient. One man can measure alone with a rod
pole very expeditiously, while with a tape it would be very diffi
cult for him to measure alone.

THE YOUNG FAKMER's MANUAL. 445

697. There have been of late several patent improvements in
squares and measuring rules. But I shall notice none of them
except the one in which the blade of a common hand-saw is
graduated on both sides, atnts back edge. There can be no par
ticular objection to this manner of having a measuring rule.
But they who use this kind only, will find it, many times,
very inconvenient ; and, besides, the teeth of the saw would be
very liable to get a dulling oftener than we like to file them, and
it makes an awkward, clumsy rule at best. A saw and a good
carpenters' square cannot very well be judiciously and conven
iently combined.

698. For measuring the circumference of anything, or the out
side or inside of the rim of a wheel, or drum, it is not very prac
ticable to do it with a straight rule. For such purposes a meas
uring wheel is made use of, which is represented by Fig. 188.

FIG. 188.

A MEASURING WHBBL.

The wheel should be about six or eight inches in diameter, and
instead of being flat on the surface of the circumference, the
wheel at the circumference should be formed to a sharp edge
entirely around it. If it is three or four eighths wide at the cir
cumference, it is much more liable to vary from the correct meas
urement of anything which is measured with it. In measuring
with the wheel, the operator must be careful to have it roll in a
straight direction, and not from right to left, as that would indi
cate a greater distance than it really is.

446 THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL.

799. Mr. Louis Young has invented an improvement in the
measuring wheel, in which there is a neatly graduated circular
disk in the end of the handle, which is moved by a pawl, work
ing in a ratchet wheel at the disk, which pawl is worked by a
cam on the shaft of the measuring-wheel. "When the wheel is
rolled forward, the distance traversed over is accurately indicated
in feet, inches, and fractions of inches on the disk. But it is too
expensive for farmers, otherwise I would have given an illustra
tion of it in this place.

700. For measuring the circumference of small bodies, in the
absence of a measuring-wheel, use a piece of small wire, and
then take the length of it with the rule afterwards. There is a
no more correct way to measure a round body than this.

701. This chapter on edge tools has been revised and very
much abbreviated, and a goodly number of tools which every
farmer ought to have, have been excluded in order to bring the
chapter within a proper limit for such a work as this. But if the
young farmer is possessed of sufficient skill to put these in order,
he will be able to put all others in order. When tools of a desired
form or kind cannot be obtained at country hardware stores, the
young farmer will be able to procure anything which he may de-
eire at R. L. Allen's agricultural warehouse, 189 Water st., New
York city.

INDEX.

Abutments, how to make,

Anvil, substitute for, . *

Auger, extension lip, with cut,

and bits, with cuts,

names of different parts of, .

how to sharpen, .

defective augers, . .'•'

boring holes with,

post-hole, or dirt auger, with cut,
Awls, with cuts of, . *

brad-awl, .' .

harness-awl, . ;

scratch -awl, . . .

Axe, with cut of, ; . .

names of various parts of, . ;

proper shape of, .

most proper weight of, . .

how to hang correctly,

rule for hanging correctly,

how to put in order,

most proper form of blade, with cut,

clamp for grinding of, with cut,

axe-helve, how to make,

why helves should be crooked, .

axe-helve pattern,

how to handle expertly,

B.

Barley, how thick to sow,

Barn, how to frame properly, with cuts,

and houses, how to make higher,

large and small,

floor for, how to make joints, with cut of,

proper disposition of room,
19*

PARAGRAPH.

PAGE.

. 194

153

626

368$

. 358

269

688

401

. 588

401

591

401

. 592

403

593

403

• 311

231

599

405

. 600

405

599

405

. 601

405

362

273

. 363

273

364

273

. 365

274

375

279

. 376

279

368

375

. 370

276

370

276

. 371

276

371

277

. 373

278

378

280

. 511

358

48

49

. 56

55

19

37

. 21

39

25

40

(447)

448 INDEX.

PARAGRAPH. PAGE.

Barn-yard, how to make, . . . . . 26 40

Baswood, value of, ..... 35 43

shingles made of, . . . . . 36 43

Balloon frames, ...... 50 51

cornice for, with cut of, . • . .52 54

Bars, sliding, with cut of, . . . . . 112 93

Back-furrow, definition of, . . . . .465 334

Bark, influence of on timber, . . . • 70 67

Binders for stone wall, . . • . . 191 151

Beetles, with cut of, how to make, . . . 339 257

how to handle, expertly, . . .342 260

Bench, Farmer's work-bench, with cut of, . , 522 367

Bench-planes, . 567 387

Bits, cuts of, . 588 401

extension-lip, with cut of, . . . 358 269

Blocks for fence, how made, .... 75 69

Board fence, . . . . . . . 118 96

Boards, how to joint, ..... 679 396

marking-board, with cut of, ... 152 124

for fence, most economical size, . . . 121 101

Boot-iron for spading, with cut of, . . . 326 246

Boring-machine ; with cut of, . . . 353 267

how to obtain one, . . . . .356 269

Buckthorn, with cut of, how to propagate, . . 293 218

Buildings, how to erect, . . . . 9 31

whereto locate, t. . . . 1 28

when to commence erecting, . . .10 32

pitch of roofs of, . . . . 15 35

out-buildings, . . . , .19 37

how to frame to prevent spreading, . . 17 36

how to move buildings, . . . . 44 48

Braces, how to make, . . . . . 19 38

c.

Cant-hook, with cut of, . ... 206 160

Caps for fence, how made, . . 88 79

Cedars, red, 284 211

Cellar, how to make it, . . . . 11 32

Chalk line and spool, with cut, .... 330 251

Chisels, how made, ..... 531 371

cold-chisel, how to grind, with cut, . . . 563 387

various kinds of. with cuts 582 398

INDEX.

449

Chisels, comer chisel, with cut of,
duckbill do. , with cut of, -
framers and firmers, .
how to grind correctly, with cuts,
turning do. and gouges,

Clamps for holding tools,

Charcoal vs. Mineral, .

Chopping, how to do it, -. <

Coulter cleaner, with cut of,
how to adjust,

Corn-house, how to make it rat-proof,

Crowbar, with cut of,

D.

Ditches beneath stone walls,

Draining, . .

manner of cutting do.,
grading bottom of,

depth and width of, .* .

how to determine depth of,
cost of, per rod, . . . „ .

side-hill drains, how made, «...

outlets for, how to form, . - . .

how to prevent gullying, . , *

plow for, with cut, Alden's,
how to lay tile in them,
manner of laying stone in, with cuts,
improper stoning, with cuts of,
how to stone through quicksands,
boards beneath tile, bad policy,
filling with straw and sods, not allowable,
important considerations in filling,
how to form watering pools in,
open drains, how to make,
how to find obstructions in,
filling with wood, with cuts,
recapitulation, concluding remarks,

Ditching with machines, . . ,

Drilling-in grain, ....

Dwelling-house, » .

PARAGRAPH.

PAGE.

. 583

398

585

399

. 582

398

586

400

. 587

401

559

385

. 535

573

377

280

. 464

333

462

331

49

51

316

234

. 195

154

395

287

. 401

£90

403

292

. 407

295

408

296

. 439

316

422

305

. 427

308

. 431

311

402

291

. 412

398

414

302

. 416

303

422

306

. 413

301

423

306

. 425

307

428

309

. 430

siq

426

308

. 433

311

440

317

. 442

320

5,13

359

11

33

450 INDEX.

E.

PABAGRAPH. PAGE.

Edge Tools, ... 527 368J

tempering of, . 532 370

coarse and fine edges of, . 543 378

grinding of, ..... 548 380

F.

Fencing, ...... 59 57

Fence, zig-zag rail, . . . . 76 70

rule, with cut of, . . • . 77 71

how to lay foundation of rail, . » • .79 72

how to make higher without rails, v . 80 73

lock and rider, . . . ^ *- ... 84 74

stake and cap, with cut, . . . 86 76

bunk and cap, with cut, . . y . . 91 80

straight rail fence, with cut, . . ." 92 81

horse, or skeleton, with cut, . . .94 82

log, or pole, with cut, . . . . 97 84

rod fence, . . . . . . -101 86

side-hill, or gun fence, . . . 103 86

Jenkins' improved, . . . .222 170

park fence, with cut, ..... 105 88

stake and rider, . . . . . 106 89

double stake and rider, . . . 107 90

post and bar, ..... 109 91

guard fence, . . . . . 108 91

post and rail, ..... 110 92

board fence, . . . . . 118 96

E. Nash' s improved, with cut, . . .117 95

highway fence, with cut, . .122 102

division fence, with cut, . . . .124 105

self-sustaining board, .. . . 125 106

barn-yard fence, . . . . .132 112

rib fence, . . .133 113

wire fence, . . . . 135 114

Lowell wire fencing, with cut, . . . 163 128

picket fence, ..... 167 130

do. lawn do. .... 1*71 133

self-sustaining picket, .... 173 135

poultry-yard picket, with cut, . . 175 137

INDEX. 451

PABAOBAPH. PAGE.

Fence, lattice, 183 142

ornamental lawn, . . . .180 141

stone fence, . . . . .186 145

A. B. Conger's, . ... 203 157

laws about fence, . ;, . . 389 285

height of lawful fence, . . . 893 286

fence line, . • . . . 329 259

Uncle Will's buncomb, ' .. . . 394 286

Farm, plotting of, • , i . . . .5 29

Froe, a cooper's, with cut, ... . . 87 78

Furrow-slice, definition of, . . . .456 333

Files, how to select, ., .. . . . 687 442

Filer, Saw, with cut, . . . . . 620 414

Fruit-trees, how to prune, % • , . . 305 226

G-.

Gates, with five cuts of, . . • . . .236 176

denominations of parts of, . . . 237 177

instructions to aid in making, . . . 238 178

gate-stile, with cut of, . . U . . 240 179

how to hang correctly, . \ . . 241 181

philosophy of hanging, . ^ . . 243 183

wire gates, with cut of, . . • . . 255 191

iron lawn gate, with cut of, ,; . . 256 192

railway, why objectionable, . . . 259 194

Gate- way, self-sustaining, . . . » . 258 194

Gauge-wheel, ...... 459 330

how to use two, . . • ' ... . 463 331

Gin for loading stone, &c., with cut, . . . 212 162

Gluts, how to make, with cuts, . . . . 350 265

Grab-hook, . . . . . . . 524 368

Grain, how to sow ..... 492 351

Grapple-hook, with cut of, . . . . . 208 161

Grass-hook, with cut of, .... 860 271

Grass-seed, how to sow, ..... 506 356

Grindstone, complete, with cut of, ... 541 378

how to select a good one, . . . 538 375

improved shaft for, with cut, . . . 640 376

should be protected, .... 542 378

Gouges, . .... 587 400

Grubbing-hoe, with cut of, . . • . .328 249

452 INDEX.

H.

PARAGRAPH. PACK.

Hammer, improved claw, with cut, . . . 331 252

how to hang, and form of handle, . . .331 253

riveting do., how to use it, . . 337 256

sledges, how to use expertly, . . . 332 254

Harrows, and harrowing, . ^- ., . . 482 345

triangular hinge, with cut, . . • . . 483 346

coulter, with cut, . . . . .487 347

Herald and Tompkins' iron, with cut . . • . 489 348

learning beginners to harrow, .,*.. . . 490 350

Hedges, style of, how to propagate, . ' . . . 260 196

preparation of soil for, . .-. .- . 260 196

how to plant the quicks, . . . 268 202

how to prune, . #' . v , ,ia» . 271 204

laying and plashing, . .. f . 274 205

protecting from cattle, I • . . 277 207

how to repair old ones, . . . . .278 207

for wet grounds, . . ;) . . 279 208

kind of plants for, . . ; . . .281 209

causes of failure in raising, , . . 298 220

distance apart for the quicks, . . . 300 221

hedge complete, with cut, , . 307 227

Headland, how to plow, . . • * . 474 339

Hurdles, with cut, . v . . 174 136

Hinges, with cuts of, ..... 241 182

forked, with cut, . 247 186

how to draw from a post, . * r . .241 182

Hook, cant, with cut, . . .-. . 206 160

grapple, with cut, ..... 208 161

I.

Instruments for bending wires into loops, • •• . 177 139

J.

Jack, for fence, with cut, . . . . .327 247

Jaws of work-bench, how to make, . . . 521 366

Jackplane, and bit, with cut of, .... 671 390

Jointer iron, with cut, . . . . . 572 391

Jointing boards and plank, ..... 579 396

Jointing saws, how done, .... 615 412

Jenkins' iron post, with cut, . . .222 169

INDEX. 453

K.

PABAGBAPH. PAGE.

Knives, case knives, how to grind, . . . 549 381

most proper angle for grinding, . . . 563 386

Kyanizing timber, ..... 232 175

L.

Laws, fence, . . . . . . 389 285

Land, definition of, ..... 465 334

Lath, how to make, . * : . . . . .38 44

Locust, yellow and honey, * , . . . 288 213

how to propagate, ..... 290 214

M.

Machine for mixing mortar, with cut, . . . 40 45

Mandrel, for boring machine, with cut, . . . 358 270

Mallet, with cut, ..... 338 257

Mattock, with cut, . . . . . 328 249

Maul, stone, . . . . ' . 336 256

Measuring rules, . " . ' . ' , . . 692 443

Measuring wheel, . ' . ' . . . 698 445

Mortar, how to make good, . . . . . 39 45

N.

Nails, how to drive, how to draw, \ . . . 331 253

o.

Osage Orange, with cut, . . . . . 291 215

how to propagate, ..... 292 216

Oil-stone, importance of, ... 565 387

Pickets, forms of tops, with 11 cuts, . . . 184 143

Perch of fence, how much it is, . . . 187 147

Platform for wagon, with cut, .... 210 161

Plumb rule, with cut. ' . . . . 319 237

Pick, with cut, ...... 328 249

Planes, how to select good ones, . . . 568 338

Plane irons, with cuts, . . . . 570 388

how to put in order, . . . .571 388

how to adjust the irons of, . . . 573 390

454 INDEX.

PARAGRAPH. PAGE.

Plane, defective ones, ..... 575 391

how to plane true, ..... 576 391

Plows and plowing, ..... 444 321

defective plows, ..... 445 321

which is the best, .... 446 322

how to select a good one, » 449 323

characteristics of a good one, . • , . 450 324

how to hitch a team to, . . . . 456 328

how to adjust the draught of, . . . 455 327

steel plows, advantages of, «. . 454 827

how to hold, . .' . . 466 334

riding on handles, . . . . . 468 336

plowing lands and ridges, # . , . 469 337

how to plow straight, . ^ . .471 338

how to finish a land neatly, . . . 473 338

Plowing headlands, . , . . . 474 339

commencing in the middle of field, with cuts, . 477 340

Plowman, good and poor, ..... 466 335

Technicalities in plowing, .... 465 333

Plowpoints, how chilled, . , . . . 451 325

coulter cleaner, with cut, . ' . . 464 332

gauge wheels for, . ."., .' . . 459 330

Pools, in drains, . . .... . . 428 309

Posts, how to split, with cut, '. . . .66 64

for bars, with cut, . .« . . . 115 94

fence, how to set in a line, .... 152 122

to prevent their upheaval, with cut, . . 225 171

straining-posts, with cut, .. . .151 121

how to set, ..... 227 172

large and small, • 149 121

posts for fence, length of, &c., -. « . 216 165

kind of timber for, . . . . .218 166

clamp for holding, with cut, . . . 220 167

how to sharpen correctly, with cuts, . . . 220 168

Jenkins' cast-iron, with cut, . . . 221 1G9

turned posts, . . . . .182 143

iron post, for wire fence. . . . . 159 126

driving posts, . „' . . .228 173

charring, injurious, .... 230 174

steeping, &c. to render durable, . . .232 175

top end up vs. top end down, . . . 235 176

wrench for holding, when driving, . . . 229 173

INDEX.

455

Q.

Quarrying stone, how done, . . .

wedges for, ....

B.

Razors, how to sharpen, ....
Rails, splitting of, rule of, &c., with cut,

length and size of, ...

peeling, importance of,

distributing for fence,

fence, how to build, .

different kinds in one fence,
Rack, for tools, with cut of, .
Rake of saws, .....
Rammer, with cut, ....
Ranging saws, .....
Rollers, how to make a cheap, with cut,

Giles' and Tompkins', with cut, .
Rule, plumb, with cut of,

pocket, and other kinds, .

s.

Saws, technicalities in relation to,
names of different kinds of,
how to select good ones,
external signs of good ones,
number of teeth in,
how to put in order,
clamp for holding, with cuts, .
how to joint, ....
best angle for filing the face of teeth,
cuts of saws well, and badly filed,
setting of, how done,
should not be filed with old files,
patent saw-filer, with cut,
slitting saws, how to file,
effect of setting too much,
sets, simplest form of,
three sections of, showing the set of teeth,
bent and r-.wedged set, with cuts, .
how to un el saw teeth,

PARAGRAPH.

PAGE.

204

158

. 205

159

550

382

. 63

60

67

65

. 70

66

71

67

. 77'

71

73

69

. 310

230

674J

436

. 315"

233

679

437

. 516

361

517

363

. 319

237

690

443

. 602

406

603

407

. 604

407

605

408

. 606

408

611

410

. 612

411

615

412

618

413

622

416

. 626

417

611

410

620

414

619

414

. 628

417

34

419

. 626

417

631

418

. 640

421

456 INDEX.

PAEAGEAPH. PAGE.

Saws, how to set very hard saws, . . . 638 420

two-hand crosscut, with cut, . • . 641 421

improved ' . . . . • . 643 422

how to put in order, . . . . 644 422

how to handle with skill, r. . . 648 423

compass, billet-web, how to file, . . . 649 424

circular, with cut and forms of teeth, ,' . 651 425

kow to hang circulars, .... 656 429

jointing circulars, . ,' . '"' . 652 427

filing circulars, . .' .vi° . . 653 427

Andrews & Burbage's patent ground circulars, . 655 428

balancing, how done, (see next vol.) . . 658 430

gumming saws, how to do it, . . . 659 430

how to mark out the teeth, . .' . .663 432

mill saws, . . ' '. i . 665 432

forms of teeth in up and down saws, . . . 666 433

length of cutting edge, .... 672£ 435

rake of saws, ..... 674£ 436

ranging, how done, .... 679 436

velocity of cutting edge of, .... 680 437

thickness of materials to be sawed, . . 681 439

table for sawing, with cut, . . . . 689 441

Scythes, grass and cradle, with cut, . ... . 551 382

microscopic view of edge, with cut, . . . 552 383

how to grind and whet, .... 553 383

how to spoil good ones, ,. . . . . 557 384

Seed, signs of good and poor, . . . . 295 219

Sickle, Dutch, with cut, . v . . . 360 271

Shears, pruning, with cut of, . . . 647 380

wife's and sheep-, with cut of section, . . 566 388

Sheers, or gin, with cut of, . . . . 212 162

Shingles, how to lay, . . . . . 18 37

Siding, how to nail on, ..... 22 40

Slitting table, with cut, ..... 689 441

Soles, for tile, ...... 413 301

Sowing grain, by hand, . .; . . . 492 351

casting it all one way, .... 498 352

casting it both ways, „* . . . 499 352

by stakes, ...... 501 353

by furrows and ridges, . . . .497 352

important considerations about, . . 603 354

INDEX. 457

PARAGRAPH. PAGB.

Sowing grain when the wind blows, . . . 504 354

how to gauge the handfuls, . . . 505 355

how to sow grass seed, .... 506 356

thick and thin seeding, .... 508 356

experiments in, . . . . 509 357

the most proper quantity per acre, . . 510 358

seeding with drill, ..... 513 359

most proper depth to cover, . . . 614 359

Spoon, dirt, with cuts, . .,. .... 318 235

Spud, with cut, ...... 313 232

.Squinting, how to do it, . . . . 580 397

Steel, how to temper, ..... 534 372

should be heated with charcoal, . . . 535 373

Stones, how to break with fire, .... 205 159

tools, for handling, . . . • 206 160

oil-stones, . . . . . 565 386

Stone walls, with cuts. . . . . .187 147

cobble do. ..... 191 151

how to quarry, . . . . . 204 158

windlass for loading, with cut, . . . 208 161

gate post, with cut, . . . . . 256 192

how to lay in ditches, with cuts, . . . 418 304

Shovels, with cuts, . . . . . .323 243

how they should be hung, . . . 324 243

how to shovel with ease, .... 323 245

care of, ...... 325 246

Stakes, how to split, &c., . . . . .63 60

Stile for gate, with cut, ..... 240 179

Spades, with cut, ...... 320 238

well and ill hung, .... 320 238 1

how to spade with skill, . . . .321 239

importance of, care of, keep bright, . . 322 240

Spool for chalk line, ...... 329 250

Squares, carpenter's steel, .... 690 443

how to test their trueness, .... 694 444

graduated of different lengths, . . . 693 443

strokes, sliding and crushing, . . . 543 377

Swedge, with cut, ..... 635 419

T.

Templet, with two cuts of, . . . . . 663 432

Timber, best time to cut, .... 61 59

458 INDEX.

PARAGBAFH. PAGE.

Umber, treatment oi, . . . . 62 59

how to scarf, with cuts, . • • . 32 42

cause of decay, . . . , . 33 42

baswood, % . . . . . . 35 43

how to cut down, ..... 389 284

how to saw down, .... 387 283

Kyanizing and Burnettizing, . . . 232 175

Technicalities in plowing, . . . . 465 333

with relation to saws, , ' . . . 602 406

Tile, how manufactured, ..... 436 315

signs of good, . . . . 437 315

best form of calibre, .... 438 315

branch pieces how made, .... 438 316

how to lay, in a ditch, . ..* . . 412 289

horse-shoe, how to lay, . . . .413 301

boards beneath, bad policy, . . . 413 301

how many per rod, cost of, . . . .435 313

Tools, edge, . . . . . .527 369

how to temper, ..... 532 371

how to grind, ..... 548 381

clamps for holding when grinding, . . . 559 385

most proper angle to grind, . . . 561 386

for building fence, . . . • . 308 228

rack for holding, ..... 310 230

use and care of, . . '. . 309 229

u.

Underdraining, . . . . * . 895 287

V.

Velocity of saws, . . . . . . 680 437

Vise, how to make, . . . . .521 366

w.

Wax for grafting, . . . . . . 305 226

Watering-pools for stock, .... 428 309

Wedges, with four cuts of, . . . . . 344 262

for quarrying stone, . . . . 205 159

best form of, ...... 347 264

recoiling of. how to make stick, . . . 349 265

INDEX. 459

Windlass, with cut, to load stone with, . . 211 161

Wheels, gauge, large and small, .... 459 330

two on one plow, ..... 461 331

Wire, for fence, ...... 139 117

sizes of the numbers, with cut, . . . 141 117

how to unite, with cut, .... 142 118

Itow to fasten to posts, . . . . 146 119

how to anneal, ..... 140 117

causes of failure in wire fence, . . . 136 115

to bend into loops for fence, with cut, . . 176 138

how to strain, with strainer, . . . . 154 124

contraction and dilation of, per foot, . . 154 124

stay wires, ...... 157 125

section of wire fence, cut of, . . . 161 127

Lowell wire fencing, with cut of bale, . . 163 128

manner of weaving the wires, with cut, . . 166 129

Walls, stone, with cuts of section, . . . 187 147

properly and improperly laid, . . . 187 147

how to lay the stone of, . , . . 188 148

cobble-stone walls, . . . 191 151

half wall, . .> . . . .198 156

built of quarried stone, . . . . 201 156

why they fall down, .... 187 148

Hon. A. B. Conger's, ...» 203 157

hoA% to have good, in a house, . . .37 44

Water lime cellars, ... . . . 13 34

Work-bench, with cut of, . . 522 367

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