A edhe a 240 ATL ra Lh Ay LeUSHIAN. mae LZOOLOGISYT: A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. FOURTH SERIES.—VOL, XVIII. — EDITED BY Wes DL Sa AN. LONDON: 230474 WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, HATTON GARDEN. SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO., Lrp. 1914. PRINTERS &s! PUBLISHERS ® f PREFACE. THE present volume maintains its character as a publi- cation for general Zoology; it ranges from Rotifera to Homo. The latter subject is found and illustrated as regards the Land- Dayaks of Borneo in Mr. Moulton’s paper on zoological notes made in that island. This communication is very apposite to the pages of the ‘ Zoonocist’; if teems with references to the zoological investigations made there by that great and well- remembered naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, who published. his first notes on Borneo in these pages (‘ Zoologist,’ 1855, p. 4803, and 1856, p. 5113). Another paper dealing with a fresh subject is that of Mr. Hugh Scott on ‘‘ The Fauna of Reservoir-Plants’’ from observations made in the Seychelles Islands and Trinidad. British Zoology, and especially British Ornithology, has again been the principal theme of the volume, as is the tradition of the ‘ Zoouoatst ’ from its commencement. Among the great naturalists whose deaths this year we have had to deplore are found the names of Dr. Albert Gunther, Sir John Murray, and Major Barrett-Hamilton ; while one of our oldest contributors, George Bentley Corbin, an excellent Hamp- shire correspondent, has also passed away. VALEDICTORY ADDRESS. By tHe Epriror. In retiring from the Editorship of the ‘ Zoonoarst,’ a position it has been my privilege and pleasure to hold for the last eighteen years—a milestone in a life—a few farewell words become necessary. I have learned very much during that time; I have iv PREFACE. ‘ discovered how, apart from expert and official zoology, the love of that study permeates our community, and the aptitude for observation in the field—not a common possession—is found, though perhaps sparingly, in all classes, from the squire to the marsh-man. As age mellows one, the impression becomes greater that naturalists are born as such and not made, and for observational purposes the difficulty is to find them, not to create them. I have tried during my Editorship to offer to all such as are zoologically and observationally inclined the hospitality of the ‘ Zoonoetst.’ A striking episode of my experience during the last eighteen years is the substitution of the camera for the gun, more especially among ornithologists. This has been well expressed in our pages by writers, to mention only Selous and Heatherley, whilst other ornithologists elsewhere have advocated the same departure. We who commenced with the gun have now come to see the ‘better way.’’ In British zoology, counties often lead like certain countries in other directions. During my officiate, Norfolk has become very prominent in these pages. I need only mention the names of Gurney and Patterson, among others, in this reference. Natural history is now supported by many monthly journals, a contrast to the early days of the ‘ Zootocisr.’ In a general sense it is a matter for congratulation, but the effect on this Journal has been to keep many communications from its pages which formerly would have appeared therein. In conclusion, I leave a pleasant task with the knowledge that I have received so much support from our contributors, and with the assurance that I have endeavoured to maintain the character of the ‘ Zoonoaist’ as a ‘“‘ Monthly Journal of Natural History.” CONTENTS. —— ALPHABETICAL LIST Apuin, O. V., F.L.8., M.B.0O.U. Early breeding of the Crested Grebe, 235; Leisurely nest- building by a Robin, 237; Black- cap wintering in Oxfordshire, 237; Supposed breeding of Tufted Duck and Pochard in Northants, 238; Notes on the Ornithology of Oxfordshire (1913), 401-13 BaGNaLtL, Ricuarp S., F.L.S., F.E.S. * Tvthobius lapidicola,” a Centi- pede new to the British fauna, 102 BLATHWAYT, M.B.0.U. Status of Blackcap and Garden- Warbler, 110 Bouam, GEORGE The Thrush’s song, 147 BUTTERFIELD, H. P. Ornithological notes from York- shire, 37; Status of Lesser Whitethroat, 110; Fieldfare in captivity, 398; Relative abun- dance of the Garden-Warbler and Blackcap, 598; Nesting of Troglodytes parvulus, 4832 ; Ampelis garrulus in Yorkshire, 432; Young Sand- Martins found dead outside their nest, 433 CHARLTON, J. M. Visitation of Black Redstarts, 148 CuHasEn, F. N. Norfolk Redshanks, 319 Cocks, ALFRED HENEAGE, ¥.S.A., F.G.S., M.B.0.U. Obituary notice of Major Barrett- Hamilton, 117 Cook, F. C. Migratory and other ornitholo- gical notes from Lowestoft, 321-333 Layo dn Ups Biles M.A.,, OF CONTRIBUTORS. CRITCHELL, JAMES T'ROUBRIDGE Neoceratodus forsteri in Queens- land, 77 Denpy, Professor ArtHuR, D.Sc., &e. Evolution at the recent meeting of the British Association (Aus- tralia, 1914), 400 Distant, W. L. Obituary notice of George Bentley Corbin, 157; Thrush swimming, 319; Notes by an Angler, 319, 359; Butterflies eaten by Bream, 320 Dyz, B. Glossy Ibis in Norfolk, 37; Wax- wings in Yarmouth and the neighbourhood, 111 Euiotr, J. STEELE Waxwings in Bedfordshire, 112; Some notes on Eels and Hel- catching in Bedfordshire, 121; The Water-Shrew in Worcester- shire, 147; Status of Blackcap, Garden-Warbler, and Lesser Whitethroat, 150; Nesting of the Golden-crested Wren, 2738; Curious nesting-sites of Chaffinch and Blue Tit, 274; Destruction of vermin in Bedfordshire, 275; Home colony of birds, 434; Distribution of the Cray- fish in Bedfordshire, 436 ; Hooded Crow in Bedfordshire, 462 EwLuiottT, W. J. Food of the Little Owl, 274 FRIEND, Rev. Huiuperic, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. Some East Sussex Oligochets, 81- 90 GILL, H. LEONARD Status of Blackecap and Garden- Warbler, 36; Lesser White- throat, 36 v1 CONTENTS. Gurney, J. H., F.Z.S. Gannet choked by a Gurnard, 150; Ornithological Report for Norfolk (1913), 161-182; Gannet plung- ing for its prey, 238; The Red- shank in Norfolk marshes, 275; Birds travelling northin October, 449 GURNEY, ROBERT The Egyptian Desert and its birds, 241-4 JONES, H. ViIcToR Parasitism in relation to birds, 41-538 LANGDALE, Rev. H. MaARMADUKE Osprey in Sussex, 438 Lewis, STANLEY Little Owl breeding in Somerset, 112; Linnets singing from trees, 433; United broods of Teal, 433 Longs, T. E., M.A., LL.D., B.Sc. Notes on the Fauna of the Country of the Chess and Gade, 201-212, 334-346, 451-461 LovERIDGE, ARTHUR Enemies of young Grass-Snakes, 358 McInrosu, Prof., F.R.S.S. L. & E. General remarks on some points in the life-history of the Salmon, and a contrast of its oviposition with that of a few other types of Teleosteans, 281-301 MENNELL, Epwarp N. Nutcracker in Surrey, 75; cundity of the domestic Cat, 236 Morris, ROBERT Notes on the Nightingale, 148; The Grey Wagtail in Sussex, 432 Mou tron, J. C., F.Z.S., &e. Zoological notes on a collecting expedition in Borneo, 361-374, M.D., LL.D. 414-431 Naso, J. Kirke, L.D.S. (Ed.), F.Z.S. (Scot.) Bird-life on the Island of Eigg, 226-234 NoBLe, HEATLEY Status of Blackcap and Garden- Warbler, 75 Norton, F. Large clutch of Great Crested | Grebe in Glamorgan, 196 Fe- | Panton, H. Relationship of species, 28-35, 91— 101, 245-261 Patrerson, AptHuUR H., A.M.B.A. Some Fish-notes from Great Yar- mouth and the neighbourhood for 1918, 1-20; Some miscel- laneous notes from Great Yar- mouth (1913-14), 375-392 Popuam, H. L. The Little Owl breeding in Somer- set, 150 : Roptinson, H. W., M.B.O.U., F.B.S.S. Muscovy and Duck, 76 Rops, G. T. Starling and Mouse, 274 RusseELL, HARoLpD Notes on a small collection of Earthworms from the Island of Islay, 155 Scott, Hueu, M.A.(Cantab.), F.L.8., F.E.S. The Fauna of ‘‘ Reservoir-Plants,”’ 183-195 SELOUs, EDMUND A diary of ornithological observa- tion made in Iceland during June and July (1912), 63-74, 2138-225 ; Courting habits of the Great Crested Grebe, 462 SHEPHERD, Colonel C. E. On the location of the Sacculus and its contained Otoliths in Fishes, 103-9, 131-146; The pharyngeal teeth of Fishes, 262-272 SmitH, E. A., F.Z.S., &e. Obituary notice of Dr. Albert Giinther, 113 Srupss, FREDERICK J. Corophium longicorne—an orni- thological study of a Crustacean, 54; A January Corn-Crake, 76; Abnormal coloration in the Common Snipe, 196; The de- crease of the Squirrel, 236; Corn- Crake in Essex, 238; A luminous Owl, 399 Swann, H. Kirke Redbreasts’ nest in a tree, 148; Bird- notes from Highgate, 239 THoMaAs, OLDFIELD An albino Water-Shrew, 36 TuHorpe, D. Losu, M.B.O.U. Cumberland Nature Reserve Asso- ciation, 155 CONTENTS. vil Tuck, Rev. Jutian G., M.A. Waxwines in Suffolk, 75, 150; Hybrid ducks, 76, 151; Early arrival of Stone-Curlew, 151; Nesting of the Reed-Warbler, 273; Notes on nest-boxes, 276, 400 ; Lesser Black-backed Gulls in Suffolk, 484; Grey Wagtail breeding in Sussex, 462 Twyman, RosAMOND 8. Avicultural notes, 152 WARREN, ROBERT On some Gulls observed in Ireland, 21-7; Iceland-Gull in Co. Mayo, 113; Some extracts from a Shooter’s note-book, from Janu- ary 6th, 1866, to January 28rd, 1867, including the great frost of the latter year, 441 W. EH. H. Ohiaaey notice of Sir John Murray, 56 Vill CONTENTS. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBJECTS. Ablabes baliodirus, 420 Abramis brama, 359 Acantharadus giganteus in Borneo, 366 Accentor modularis, 230 Aciagrion borneense, 866; and A. crinorubellum, 869; in Borneo Aclees borneensis in Borneo, 425 Acnistus arborescens bearing a large number of epiphytic bromeliads (fig. 1), 186 Acredula caudata, 46 Acrocephalus streperus, 273 AXigialitis hiaticola, 46, 56, 232 Aithopyga temmincki (or siparaja) in Borneo, 415 Agelasta newmani in Borneo, 416 Agrilus acutus and A. albogaster in Borneo, 415 Agriocnemis sp. in Borneo, 866 Alauda arvensis, 231 Alaus putridus in Borneo, 366 Albula conorhynchus, 264, (fig. I., 1) Alca torda breeding near Eigg, 233 ‘A List of the Birds of Australia,’ 200 Allodahlia coriacea and §. scabrius- cula in Borneo, 422 Amia calva, 262 Amnosia baluana in Borneo, 426 Ampelis garrulus, 75, 112, 150, 377, 432 Amphilestes macrocephalain Borneo, 366, 369 Amphipnous cuchia, 268 Ampullaria ampullacea in Borneo, 369 Anableps tetropthalmus, 270 Anaca florens in Borneo, 423 Anas boscas, 58, 232 Anchovy, 9, 11 Anguilla vulgaris, 121, 268 Anhammus daleni in Borneo, 368 ‘Animal Communities in Temperate America,’ 159 ‘Animal Life by the Sea-shore,’ 198 Anorhinus galeritus in Borneo, 418 Anser albifrons, 379 Antarctic Whaling Industry, Major 265 G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton’s | ' Blackeap, status of, 36, 75, 110, 150, Expedition to investigate, 440 Anthracoceros malayanus in Borneo, 418 Anthus obscurus, 46, 280; pratensis, 230 Anurea aculeata, 339; brevispina, 3838; cochlearis, 340 Aphana farinosa in Borneo, 366 Aphya minuta, 56 Arenicola marina, 18 Arhopala apidanus, 427; and A. eumolphus, 416, in Borneo Ariophanta dohertyi, 79 Asio acipitrinus in Borneo, 419 Aspidomorpha dorsata, 368, 424; A. fuscopunctata, 866; A. miliaris, 424; and A. sarawacensis, 424, in Borneo Atella alcippe in Borneo, 246 Athene noctua, 112, 150, 274 Attacus atlas in Borneo, 365 Atya moluccensis in Borneo, 369 ‘ Australian Zoologist,’ 472 Aviculture in Borneo and Java, 472 Balena physalis, 15 Barrett-Hamilton, Major, obituary notice of, 117 Bass, 11 Bateson, Prof. William, M.A., F.R.S., Addresses to Zoological Section of British Association—Melbourne, 302; Sydney, 347, 393 Belgian or French refugees invited to attend meetings of the London Natural History Society, 439 Belgium, House-Martin and Swallow in, 383 Belionota vuillifroyi in Borneo, 425 Bhandara picturata in Borneo, 423 Bibio marci, 381 Bindahara phocides in Borneo, 427 ‘ Bird-life throughout the Year,’ 39 Birds of Egyptian Desert, 241-4; Eigg, 226-254; Lowestoft, 321- 333; Norfolk, 161-182; Oxford- shire, 401-413; Home colony of, 434; Nest-building instinct in, 216-225; Parasitism in relation to, 41-53; Travelling north in October, 449 CONTENTS. 1X 170, 197, 398; wintering in Oxford- | shire, 237 Blicca bjoernka, 359 Boar-fish, 6, 7 (fig.) Booxs Novticep:— A List of the Birds of Australia, by Gregory M. Mathews, 200 Animal Communitiesin Temperate America, as illustrated in the Chicago Region—a Study in Animal Keology, by Victor E. Shelford, 159 Animal Life by the Sea-shore, by G. A. and C. L. Boulenger, 198 Bird-Life throughout the year, by John H. Salter, 39 Camping in Crete, by Aubyn Trevor-Battye, 80 Field-Studies of some Rarer British Birds, by John Walpole-Bond, 278 Heredity and Sex, by Thomas Hunt Morgan, 239 Indian Forest Insects of Economic Importance—Coleoptera, by Ed- ward Percy Stebbing, 436 Indian Museum, 1814-1914, 467 Report on Cetacea Stranded on the British Coast during 19138, by S. F. Harmer, 197 Reptiles and Batrachians, by E.G. Boulenger, 459 Some South Indian Insects and other Animals of Importance considered especially trom an Economic Point of View, by T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, 466 The Care of Home Aquaria, by Raymond C. Osburn, 240 The Gannet, a Bird with a History, by J. H. Gurney, 38 The Lifeand Habits of the Badger, by J. Fairfax Blakeborough and Sir A. EH. Pease, Bart., 158 The Life of the Mollusca, by B. B. Woodward, 78 The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore, by Richard Elmhirst, 278 The Philosophy of Biology, by James Johnstone, 437 The Snakes of Europe, by G. A. Boulenger, 77 Wild Game in Zambezia, by C. F. Maugham, 199 Borneo, Zoological notes on a collecting expedition in (sketch- map and two figs.), 414-431 Brachionus pala, 341; quadratus, 452; rubens (figs. 2 and 3), 204-6 Brachyplatys flavosparsas and B. sp. in Borneo, 424 Braconide in Borneo, 422 Bream, 359; eating butterflies, 320 British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, Melbourne, 302; Sydney, 847, 393 Bromeliacez, epiphytic (fig. 2), 187 Bufo calamita, 387; vulgaris, 358 Bunting, Ortolan, in Norfolk, 167, 169,177; Yellow-breasted, in Nor- folk, 167, 177 Buteo vulgaris, 231 362-374, Caloclytus seclusus and C. suma- trensis in Borneo, 424 Calyptomena viridis in Borneo, 415, 419 ‘Camping in Crete,’ 80 Cancer pagurus, 15, 18 Capyros aper, 6, 7 Carabide (four species) in Borneo, 426 Carcineutes melanops in Borneo, 418 ‘Care of Home Aquaria,’ 240 Carp, 360; names of, 438 Cat, domestic, fecundity of, 236; hunting instincts of, 379 Catophaga plana in Borneo, 415 Catoxantha lacordairei, 425; and C. opulenta, 416, 425, 426, in Borneo Cedus tuberculatus in Borneo, 426 Cellularia bassane, a Mite inhabiting the Gannet’s air-cells (fig.), 168 Cervus equinus in Borneo, 418 Cethosia hypsea in Borneo, 415 Chetura gigantea and C. leucopy- gialis in Borneo, 427 Chaffinch, curious nesting-site of, 274 Chalcophaps indica in Borneo, 865 Chess and Gade, fauna of, 201-212, 334-346, 451-461 Chirida scalaris in Borneo, 866 Chirocentrus dorab, 266 Chloropsis viridinucha in Borneo, 419 Choretypus mutilatus in Borneo, 424 Chotorhea chrysopsis, 418; and C. mystacophanes, 368, 419, in Borneo Chrysis sp. in Borneo, 422 Chrysobothris eneicoliis, C. cyani- pennis, and C. superba, in Borneo, 425 x CONTENTS. Chrysochroa fulminans in Borneo, 425 Cicindelia discreta and C. filigera in Borneo, 367 Cleomenes dihammaphoroides Borneo, 368 Cleride (two species), in Borneo, 426 Clupea harengus, 3 Clytellus westwoodi in Borneo, 368 Cod, 17 Ccenostoma pilicornis in Borneo, 422 Coluber corais, 78; quatuorlineatus, 77; sauromates,? 77; taniurus, in Borneo, 868 Columba livea, 232 Colurus caudatus, 455 Colymbus arcticus and C. septen- trionalis at Higg, 234 Conger vulgaris, 268 Copris molossus in Borneo, 417 Coptosoma nigrosignatum in Borneo, 424 Corbicula moussonii in Borneo, 369 Corbin, George Bentley, obituary notice of, 157 Corophium longicorne, an ornitho- logical study of a Crustacean, 54 Corvus corax, 230; cornix, 230, 462; frugilegus, 46, 231 Cosmoscarta guttata and C. roborea in Borneo, 423 Cotile obsoleta, 242; 4353 Cottus scorpius, 4 County Rrcorps :— Bedfordshire — Waxwing, 112; Eels and Kel-catching, 121-180; Blackecap, Garden- Warbler, and Lesser Whitethroat, 150; Ver- min, 275; Crayfish, 435; Hooded Crow, 462 in riparia, 321, | Cheshire—Lesser Whitethroat, 37 | Cumberland—Song-Thrush, 147; Black Redstart, 148; Nature Reserve Association, 155 Devonshire—Lithobius lapidicola, 102 Essex—Squirrel, 286; Corn-Crake, 238; A luminous Owl, 399 Hampshire—Flamingo, 40 Herefordshire—Switt, 152 Hertfordshire — Fauna of Chess and Gade, 201, 334, 451-461 Kent—* Fenians,” Conger Eels, and Pilchards, 40 Lancashire—Muscovy and Duck, 76 Lincolnshire—Blackeap and Gar- den- Warbler, 110; Black Red- start, 148 Middlesex—Redstart, 148; Bird- notes from Highgate, 239 Norfolk — Ornithological Report for 1918 (notes, records, &ce.), 161-182 ; Fish-notes from Yar- mouth, 1-20; Gannet, 238 ; Red- shank, 169, 275, 319; Common (not Lesser) Tern, 175, 275; Notes from Yarmouth, 375-392 ; Waxwing, 111 Northumberland—Blackeap, Gar- den-Warbler, and Lesser White- throat, 36; Black Redstart, 148 Nottinghamshire—Crested Grebe, 235; Tufted Duck, 238; Pochard, 238 Oxfordshire—Blackeap, 75, 2387; Garden - Warbler, 75; Robin, 287; Ornithology of the county, 401-13 Shropshire—Golden-crested Wren, 973; Chaffinch and Blue Tit, 274; Little Owl, 274 Somersetshire—Little Owl, 112; 150; Black Redstart, 148; Lin- net, 433; Teal, 433 Suffolk—Waxwing, 75, 150; Hy- brid Ducks, 76, 151; Stone- Curlew, 151; Reed- Warbler, 273 ; Nest-boxes, 276, 400; Star- ling and Mouse, 274; Migratory and other ornithological notes, 321; Sand-Martin, 321; Lesser Black-backed Gull, 484 Surrey — Nuteracker, 75; Cat, 236; Thrush swimming, 319; Bream eating butterflies, 320; Notes by an Angler, 319, 359 Sussex—Lesser Whitethroat, 37 ; Oligochets, 81; Nightingale, 148; Grey Wagtail, 432, 462; Osprey, 433 Westmorland—Corophium longi- corne, 54 Worcestershire — Water - Shrew, 147 Yorkshire — Lesser Whitethroat, 37, 110; Red-backed Shrike, 37; Swallow, &c., 37; Fieldfare, 398; Hawfinch, 399; Wren, 432; Young Sand-Martins dead out- side their nest, 488; Waxwing, Xe., 432 Courtship habits of Great Crested Grebe, 462 CONTENTS. X1 Crab, Edible, 18; with abnormal pincer-claw (fig.), 16; Marbled Swimming, 17; Porcelain, 17; Ross, 17; Velvet, 15, 17 Crabs, abnormal examples of, 15-17 Crake, Corn-, 76; in Essex, 238 Crangon vulgaris, 3885 Cranopygia n. sp. in Borneo, 422 Cratilla metallica in Borneo, 370 Crayfish, distribution in Bedford- shire, 435 Crex pratensis, 77, 232 Criniger tephrogenys in Borneo, 419 Crocidura cane, 80 Crossochilus vittatus in Borneo, 369 Crow, Carrion, 384; Hooded, in Bed- fordshire—effects of the war on bird-life, 462 Cuckoo, stomach of a young (fig.), 178 Cuculus canorus, 46, 60, 178, 231 Culicicapa ceylonensis in Borneo, 419 Cumberland Nature Reserve Associa- tion, 155 Cupha erymanthis in Borneo, 415, 426 Curetis in Borneo, 416 Curlew, Stone, 151 Cyanoxorides ceruleus in Borneo, 422 Cyclopterus Jumpus (fig. III.), 271 Cynthia erota in Borneo, 426 Cyornis nigrigularis in Borneo, 419; carpio, 360 Cyprinus nudus, 438 ; specularis, 438 Cypselus apus, 152; pallidus, 242 Danais plexippus in Borneo, 415 Daulias luscinia, 148 Delphinus bidens, 15 Demonax mustela in Borneo, 424 Dendrocopus minor, 46 Dermatochelys coriacea, 1 Diglena biraphis 457 Dinocharis tetractis (figs. 14, 15, 16), 452-3 Diplax trigona (fig. 11), 342 _ Disparoneura verticalis in Borneo, 369 Diver, Great Northern, in Iceland, 72; Black-throated, 234; Red- throated, 234 Dogs, speed of, 488 Doliophis bivirgatus in Borneo, 420 Dove, White Java, 385 Draco sp. in Borneo, 420 Dromia vulgaris, 17 Dryophis prasinus in Borneo, 368 Duck, Tufted, supposed breeding in Northants, 288 Duck and Muscovy, 76 Ducks, hybrid, 76, 151 Dyscerus sexpunctata in Borneo, 425 Dysphea dimidiata in Borneo, 369 Eagle, Sea, in Norfolk, 167, 168 Earthworms from Island of Islay— Allolobophora caliginosa, A. longa, Aporrectodea chlorotica, -Dendro- bena subrubicunda, Lumbricus castaneus, L.rubellus, L. terrestris, Octolasium studiosum, 155 Ebhul tessellatus sp. n., and one sp. unidentified, in Borneo, 422 Ectemnonotum nitidicolle in Borneo, 369 Eel, 7, 40; with Sea-Bullhead in throat, 4; with Hel in throat, 5; Conger, in Kent, 40 Eels and EHel-catching in Bedford- shire, 121-130; River Ouzel, 122; Ivel and its tributaries, 123; Ouse, 124 Eels in New Zealand, 279 Egyptian Desert and its birds, 241-4; Bullfinch, Trumpeter, 244; Courser, Cream-coloured, 243; Eagle, Bo- nelli’s, 242; Falcon, 242; Grouse, Sand, 244; Lark, Desert, 243-4; Owls (Barn and Eagle), 2485; Pipit, 242, 244; Raven, 242; Swallow, Rock, 242; Swift, 242; Vultures (Griffon and LHgyptian), 242; Wheatears, 2438-4 Higg, Island of, bird-life on, 226-254 ; List of species seen, 229-234 Emberiza aureola, 167, 177; citri- nella, 46, 230; miliaria, 230 Emys orbicularis, 391 Engonius rubropictus in Borneo, 425 Engyrus asper, 78 Entelopes amcena in Borneo, 424 Epania singaporensis in Borneo, 424 Ephies dilaticornis in Borneo, 424 Epidelus wallacei in Borneo, 368, 425 Epilampra goliath in Borneo, 421 Epiphytic bromeliad, diagrammatic vertical section through (fig. 3), 189 Epopthalmia australis in Borneo, 370 Eretmia cubeutes, 348 Erythacus rubecula, 46, 229 HKrythrospiza githaginea, 244 Hsox lucius, 269 HKuchlanis triquetra, 459 xii Eumorphus consobrinus(or E.quadri- guttatus) in Borneo, 426 Euphea inequipa and E. tricolor in Borneo, 367, 369 Kuplea claudius mulciber and E. diocletianus lowi in Borneo, 427 Kuryphagus cardinalis and E. lundii in Borneo, 424 EKusthenes robustus in Borneo, 423 HKuthalia dunya in Borneo, 426 Evolution and Taxonomy, 468 Falco peregrinus, 46, 231; tinnuncu- lus, 46 Fauna of the Chess and Gade (eighteen figs.), 201-212, 834-346, 451-461 Fauna of ‘‘ Reservoir-Plants” (three figs.), 183-195 Faunis (Clerome) sp. in Borneo, 426 “Fenians” (fish), at Leigh and Southend, 40 Fieldfare in captivity, 398 ‘ Field-Studies of some Rarer British Birds,’ 278 Fishes, pharyngeal teeth of, 262; some curiously tame, 5; repro- duction of, a vast field for reflec- tion, 301 Fish-notes from Great Yarmouth and neighbourhood (1918), 1-20 ; Essex and Kent, 40 Flamingo in Langstone Harbour, 40 Floscularia campanulata, 458; coro- netta, 458 Formicomus corvinus in Borneo, 568 Fratercula arctica breeding near Rigg, 234 Fringilla eaelebs, 46 Fulgoria gigantea and F. stellata in Borneo, 423 Fuligula nyroea, 323 Furcularia molaris (fig. 18), 344 Galleria mellonella, 388 Gallinago celestis, 196 ‘Gannet, a Bird with a History,’ 38, 231, 234 Gannet, choked by a Gurnard (fig.), 150, 151; plunging for its prey, 238 Geomalacus, 79 Gigantorhabdus enderleiniin Borneo, 422 Glenea, six spp. ?, 8368; G. funerula, G. udetera, and six spp. ?, 424, in Borneo Glycyphana pygmeza in Borneo, 368 Glyphodes laticostalis in Borneo, 416 CONTENTS. Gnoma longitarsis in Borneo, 425 Gobio fluviatilis, 319 Gonyophis margaritatus in Borneo, 420 Grass-Snakes, enemies of young, 358 Grebe, Great Crested, early breed- ing, 235; courtship habits of, 462; Horned (Slavonian), breeding habits in Iceland, 63-70, 73-4, 213-216 Gudgeon, 379 Gull, Great Black-backed, 231, 234; Black-headed, feeding habits of, 59; Glaucous, in Killala Bay and Moy Estuary, 26, 27; Iceland, in Cork Harbour, 21-26; in Co. Mayo, 113; Lesser Black-backed, in Suf- folk, 891, 434 Gulls, some, observed in Ireland, 21-7 Gunther, Dr. Albert, obituary notice of, 113 Gurnard, 5 Gynacantha sp. in Borneo, 866 Gynopygoplax submaculata borneensis in Borneo, 428 var. Haddock, 1, 2,3 Hematopus ostralegus, breeding at Higg, 232 Halcyon concretus in Borneo, 418 Halicherus gryphus, 20 Halme cleriformis in Borneo, 368, 424 Haplochilus playfairii, 270 Hawfinch as a breeding species in Yorkshire, 399 Helix desertorum, 79 46, 573 | Hemipimpla rugosa in Borneo, 422 Hemixus malaccensis in Borneo, 419 Heredity, 302, 347, 398, 400 ‘ Heredity and Sex,’ 239 Heron, Night (?), in Norfolk, 167, 171 Herring, 3, 7,8; in local waters, 7; some statistics of Hast Coast har- vest (1913), 18, 14 Hestia lynceus in Borneo, 415 Heterocrates marginatus in Borneo, 423 Heterogomphus sp., new to Borneo, 370 Highgate, bird-notes from, 239 Himantocera plumosa in Borneo, 425 Hirundo rustica nesting at Higg, 230 Hobbies seen in Evenlode Valley, Oxfordshire, notes on, 410 Homoptera in Borneo, 422 CONTENTS. Hoplionota sp. in Borneo, 424 Hybanda anodonta and H. bulbosa in Borneo, 422 Hydatina senta, 345 Hydrobasileus extraneus (or cro- ceus ?), in Berneo, 3870 Hydrobia ulvzx, 56 Hylotoma sp. in Borneo, 422 Hypencha ophthalmica in Borneo, 369 Hypolimnas misippus in Borneo, 415 Hyrmine chlorina in Borneo, 423 Hystrix crassispinis in Borneo, 418 Ibis, Glossy, in Norfolk, 87, 167, 180 IckLanD — Diary of ornithological observation made during June and July (1912), 63-74, 2138-225; Horned (Slavonian) Grebe, 63-70, 73-4, 213-216; Great Northern Diver, 72; Golden Plover, 70-2, 213; Nest-building instinct, 216- 225 Ichneumonide in Borneo, 422 Ictinus melanops in Borneo, 370 Ideopsis daos in Borneo, 415 ‘Indian Forest Insects of Economic Importance—Coleoptera,’ 436 ‘Indian Museum, 1814-1914,’ 467 TrELAND—Gulls, 21-7, 118; Common Snipe, 196; Extracts from a Shooter’s note-book, 441 Trena crinigera in Borneo, 419 Tridotenia chrysogramma in Borneo, 425 Ischnogaster ornatifrons in Borneo, 369 Kalocrania guttata in Borneo, 422 Kenopia striata in Borneo, 419 Lagopus scoticus, 232 Lampra leoparda and L. psilopter- oides in Borneo, 425 Larus argentatus, 46, 58, 238; canus, 58, 233; fuscus, 46, 58, 233, 391, 434; glaucus, 26; leucop- terus, 21, 113; marinus, breeding at Higg, 233; ridibundus, 58,— feeding habits of, 59-60 Ledra sp. in Borneo, 423 Lepidosteus osseus, 262 Leprodera fimbriata in Borneo, 425 Leptostyla gibbifera, 193 Leptura conicollis in Borneo, 424 ‘ Life and Habits of the Badger,’ 158 ‘ Life of the Mollusca,’ 78 Xlll Limax arborum, 79 Limenitis procris in Borneo, 426 Linnets singing from trees, 329, 433 Linota cannabina, 329, 483; flavi- rostris, 230 Lithobius lapidicola, a Centipede new to British fauna, 102 Lophius piscatorius, 17 Lora inclyta in Borneo, 369 Lowestoft, migratory and other orni- thological notes from, 321-333 Lugworm, 18 Mackerel, 1, 6, 11, 12, 13 Macronata saturalis in Borneo, 368 Mactra stultorum, 329 Manis javanica in Borneo, 418 Martin, House, in Belgium, 383; Sand, young, dead outside its nest, 433 Mastigocercea bicornis, 458 Mecistogaster modestus, 192 Megalops atlanticus, 263 Merganser, New Zealand, 471 Meregus australis, 471 Merinjakia typica in Borneo, 423 Metopidia acuminata, 338 ; lepadella, 3386; oxysternum, 335, 336 (figs. 9 and 10); solidus, 384 Metriona obtiva and M. catenata in Borneo, 366, 368 Micromerus (? new) in Borneo, 370 Microtus agrestis, 388 Miglyptes grammithorax in Borneo, 419 Migratory birds travelling north in October, 449 Miltochrista sp. in Borneo, 416 Monochamus fistulator in Borneo, 424 Motacilla melanope, 321, 432 Mouse and Starling, 274 Mundaria brooksi in Borneo, 425 Mureena helena (fig. III., 1), 269 Murznesox talabon, 268 Murray, Sir John, obituary notice of, 156 Mus decumanus, 379; rattus, 378 ; rattus alexandrinus, 378 Muscovy and Duck, 76 Myriapod sp. (Glomeridz) in Borneo, 420 Myrus vulgaris, 268, 269 (fig. IT., 2) Nannophya pygmea in Borneo, 370 Nasalis larvatus in Borneo, 364 ‘Naturalist at the Sea-Shore,’ 278 Necrophorus vespilio, 388 X1V Neoceratodus forsteri in Queensland, Te Neodelia moultoni in Borneo, 423 Neomys fodiens bicolor, 36, 147 Neopithecops zalmora in Borneo, 426 Nereis dumerilii, 55 Nesonetta aucklandica, 471 Nest-boxes, notes on, 276, 400 Nest-building instinct, a theory as to its origin, 216-225 Nettion crecea, 58, 433 Neurobasis chinensis in Borneo, 367, 369 New Zealand, Hels in, 279 Nightingale, notes on song of, 148 Ncemia flavicornis in Borneo, 424 Norfolk, Ornithological Report for 1913 (Plate II. and four figs.), 161- 182; Spring migration, 161; Breed- ing season, 163 ; Autumnal migra- tion, 163; Effect of wind on Nor- folk birds, 164; Winter miera- tion, 166; Principal rarities, 167; Weather conditions, 167; Diary, 167-181; Norfolk Broads, 169; Blakeney ‘“‘ Ternery,” 174; Septem- ber migration, 176; October migra- tion, 179; Migratory Gulls coming inland, 181; Contents other than fish found in Black-headed, Com- mon, and MHerring-Gulls, 181; Tenacity of the Weasel, 182 Noteus quadricornis, 206 Nothopeus fasciatipennis and N. in- termedius in Borneo, 421 Notoerypta feisthamelii in Borneo, | | Owl, Little, breeding in Somerset, 416 Notopterus aper, 264, 265 (fig. L., 2); chitala, 265; kapirat, 266 Nucifraga caryocatactes macrorhyn- chus, 75 Numenius arquata, 46, 232 Nutcracker in Surrey, 75 OBITUARY :— Barrett-Hamilton, Major, 117 Corbin, George Bentley, 157 Giinther, Dr. Albert, 113 Murray, Sir John, 156 (Kcistes stygis, 346 (idicnemus scolopax, 151 Oligochets, some East Sussex, 81-90; Allolobophora caliginosa (forms trapezoides and turgida), longa, 89; Allurus (Eiseniella) tetrzedrus, 88; Aporrectodea chlorotica, 89; Bi- mastus constrictus, eiseni, 89; Buchholzia appendiculata, focala, CONTENTS. tenuissima, 87; Chamedrilus chlorophilus, 88; Dendrobena ar- borea, mammalis, Subrubicunda, 89; Hisenia feetida, rosea (A. mu- cosa), 88; Enchytreus albidus, buchholzi, minimus, nigrinus, 87; Fridericia bulbosa, michzlseni, variata, and a bisetose form, 88; Haplotaxis gordioides, 83, 88; Helodrilus oculatus, 89; Henlea arenicola, curiosa, fragilis, fri- dericioides, heterotropa, hibernica, lampas, marira, rhetica, triloba, 86, 87; Ilyodrilus meganymphus, 838, 85; Limnodrilus aurantiacus, hoffmeisteri, papillosus, udeke- mianus, 84, 85; Lumbricus cas- taneus (purpureus), festivus, rubel- lus, terrestris, 89, 90; Lumbriculus variegatus, 86; Marionina sp., 87; Octolasium profugum (lacteum), 89; Tubifex heuscheri, tubifex, 85; Bibliography, 90 | Ommadius clytiformis in Borneo, 425 Oncochalcis apicicornis in Borneo, 416 Opistharsostheus simulans in Borneo, 423 Oriolus xanthonotus in Borneo, 419 Orthetrum sabina and O. testaceum in Borneo, 870 Oryctes rhinoceros, 466 Osprey in Sussex, 433 Oviposition of Salmon contrasted with that of a few other types of Teleosteans, 281-301 112, 150,—food of, 274; a Ilu- minous, 390 Oxfordshire, notes on the Ornithology of (1913), 401-413 Oystercatcher, 232, 234; eggs of (fig.), 172 Palemon serratus, 17 Palzemonetes varians, 385 Pandion haliaétus, 483 Papilio agamemnon, 415; P. am- phrysus (possibly helena), 427; P. memnon, 415; and P. payeni, 367, in Borneo Parasitism in relation to Birds (Plate I.), 41-53; Method of pro- cedure, 44; Birds examined, 146 Parthenos sylvia in Borneo, 364 Passer domesticus, 46, 230 Pedetes saltator, 455 Peewit, 403 CONTENTS. XV Phalacrocorax graculus, 231 Pharyngeal teeth of Fishes, 262 Phasianus colchicus at Higg, 232 Pheasant, 232, 234 Philentoma pyrrhopterum in Borneo, 368 Philocteanus flammeus in Borneo, 425 Philodina citrina (fig. 17), 4538-5 ‘ Philosophy of Biology,’ 437 Phoea vitulina, 18, 20 Phylloscopus trochilus, 230 Phymatostetha borneensis, P. hilaris and P. moultoni, in Borneo, 423 Pike, 3, 7,11; kippered, 4 Piked Dog, 15 Pilchard, 40 Pitta arculata in Borneo, 419 Plaice, 2, 5 Plegadis falcinellus, 37 Plover, Golden, breeding habits in Iceland, 702, 213 Pochard, supposed breeding in Northants, 238 Podicipes cristatus, 196, 378, 462 Pecilocoris pulcher in Borneo, 423 Pomatorhinus borneensis in Borneo, 419 Porcellana longicornis, 17 Portunus marmoreus, 17; puber, 15, 1iz/ Potamobius pallipes, 485 Poteriophorus fuscovarius in Borneo, 425 Pratincola rnbetra, 229 Prawn, Commen, 17 Prionoptera sarawacensis in Borneo, 424 Proales parasita, 460 Psectorocera plumosa in Borneo, 425 Pselaphide in Borneo, 420 Pseudagrion, sp.n.?, in Borneo, 369 Pseudoglottis guttifer in Borneo, 419 Pseudophyllodromia pulcherrima in Borneo, 421 Pseudothyrsocera bicolor in Borneo, 421 Pterodina patina, 203; valvata, 204, 205 (fig. 1) Puffinus anglorum, breeding haunts at Higgs, 226, 234 Pundaluoya simplicia, 466 Pygoplatys merinjakensis, n.sp., in Borneo, 423 Pyrestes eximius and P. virgatus in Borneo, 424 | Pyrotrogon diardi in Borneo, 419 Pyrrhula europea, 46 Python curtus in Borneo, 372 Queensland, Neoceratodus forsteri in, 77 Rana glandulosa in Borneo, 368 Raphisma inermis in _ Borneo, 370 Rattulus rattus, 209 Redbreast, nest in a tree, 148 Redshank in Norfolk marshes, 169, 275, 319, 383 Redstart, Black, in Cumberland, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Somerset, and Wales, 148 Regulus cristatus, 273 ‘Report on Cetacea Stranded on the British Coasts during 19138,’ 197 ‘Reptiles and Batrachians,’ 439 *¢ Reservoir-Plants,’’ fauna of, 183- 195 Rhinocypha biseriata in Borneo, 370 Rhinomyias umbratile in Borneo, 419 Rhinoplax vigil in Borneo, 415 Rhinops vitrea, 456 Rhipidura perlata in Borneo, 419 Rissa tridactyla, 46, 58; breeding near Higgs, 233 Roach, 7 Robin, leisurely nest-building by, 237 Rollulus roulroul in Borneo, 418 Rotifer macrurus, 208 ; tardus, 456; vulgaris (figs. 4, 5, 6), 207-9 Ruticilla titys, 148 Sacculus and its contained Otoliths in Fishes, location of, 103-9, 131- 146; List of specimens examined, 105-9, 131-146 Salius anthracinus, S. aureosericeus, 8. ducalis, and 8. princeps, in Borneo, 421 Salmo salar, 267 Salmon, some points in life-history of, and a contrast of its oviposition with that of a few other types of Teleosteans (three figs.), 281-301 Salpina mucronata, 202 Salvelinus willughbii, 267 Saxicola albicollis, 244; deserti, 244; isabellina, 244; monacha, 243-4 ; cenanthe, 229 Sead (Horse-Mackerel), 9 XVI CONTENTS. Scamandra lachesis in Borneo, | Tadorna cornuta, 58 423 Teniocerus bicanthatus in Borneo, Sciurus ephippium, 8. hippurus, and S. tenuis, in Borneo, 418 Scomber vars. concolor and scriptus, 11 Scopelus punctatus, 270 ScoTLAND —Gannet choked by a Gurnard, 150; HKarthworms, 155 ; Bird-life on Island of Kigg, 296-234 Seals, Norfolk, 18; reputed destruc- tiveness of, 19: Serixia modesta in Borneo, 424 Setaria cinerea in Borneo, 419 Shooter’s note-book, some extracts from, 421 Shrew, Water, an albino, 36, 147 Shrike, Red-backed, as a breeding species, 37 “ Silk-weed ”’ as food for Roach and Swans, 7 Simia satyrus in Borneo, 364 Simotes purpurascens in Borneo, 368 Sirex gigas, 388 Smelt, 11 Sminthocoris singularis in Borneo, 369 ‘Snakes of Europe,’ 77 Somateria mollissima, 232 ‘Some South Indian Insects and other Animals of Importance,’ 466 Spatula clypeata, 58 Species, relationship of, 28, 91, 245 Sprat, 3, 10, 11 Squirrel, decrease of, 236 Starling and Mouse, 274 Stephanops lamellaris (fig. 18), 459 Sterna fluviatilis at Eigg, 282; ma- crura, 56; minuta, 55 Stigmatium dilatum in Borneo, 425 Strangalia virescens in Borneo, 424 Strix flammea, 251 Sturgeon, 5, 17 Sturnus vulgaris, 46, 230 Sula bassana at Higg, 231 Suracarta tricolor basinotata in Borneo, 423 Swallow, 37, 230, 234; in Belgium, 38 Swift, a tame, 152 Sylvia atricapilla, 237; cinerea, 229 Syncheta pectinata, 211; tremula (figs. 7. 8), 210-11 Syrnium aluco, 46 Syrrhaptes paradoxus, 377 Syrrhopeus agelastoides in Borneo, 416 366 Talitrus locusta, 60 Tanylecta brevicaudata in Borneo, 425 Taxonomy and evolution, 468 Teal, united broods of, 483 Tephrodornis frenatus in Borneo, 419 Terias hecabe in Borneo, 415 Terinos clarissa (?) in Borneo, 426 Tern, Common, 175, 234,—feeding young one (fig.), 175, 275 ; Roseate, in Norfolk, 167, 178 Thalaspidosoma dohrni var. limbata in Borneo, 424 Thauria aliris in Borneo, 426 Therates batesi and qT. erinys in Borneo, 426 Thrush swimming, 319; Mistle, 229, 234; Song, 38, ~ notes on song of, 147 Thymallus vulgaris, 267 Tillicera sp. in Borneo, 425 Tillus birmamicus in Borneo, 425 Timomenus vicinus and T. sp. in Borneo, 422 Tit, Bearded, 171; Blue, 38,—curious nesting-sites of, 274; Marsh, 38 Tituria borneensis in Borneo, 423 Toad swallowing young’ Grass- Snake, 358 Tolumnia maxima in Borneo, 423 Totanus calidris, 46, 56, 282, 275, 519 ; hypoleucus, 56, 232; ochro- pus, 56 Triarthra longiseta, 344 Trigla gurnardus, 5 Tringa alpina, 56 Trithemis aurora in Borneo, 370 Troglodytes parvulus, 230, 378, 432 Tropidonotus natrix, 358 | Turdinus atrigularis i in Borneo, 419 Turdus merula, 46, 229; musicus, 46, 147, 229; viscivorus, at Hige, 229 Turtle, Leathery, 1 Tyriobapta torrida in Borneo, 3/0 Unio tumidus, 240 Uria grylle, 233; near Higg, 233 troile, breeding Vanellus vulgaris, 56; breeding near Eigg, 232 Varanus sp. in Borneo, 420 VARIETIES—Crabs, 15-17; Ducks (hybrids), 76, 151; Rat, 378; CONTENTS. Snipe, 196; Water-Shrew, 36; Whiting, 17 Vespa dorylloides in Borneo, 416 Vesperugo tylopus in Borneo, 368 Vestalis amosnus in Borneo, 369, 416 Wagtail, Grey, in Sussex, 432 Wates—Black Redstart, 148; Great Crested Grebe, 196; Hnemies of young Grass-Snakes, 358 Warbler, Barred, in Norfolk, 167, 176; Garden, status of, 36, 75, 110, 150, 170, 197, 398; Reed, nesting of, 273; Willow, 171 Waxwing in Bedfordshire, 112; Suffolk, 75, 150; Norfolk, 167, 180; Yarmouth and neighbour- hood, 111; Yorkshire, 432 Whitethroat, Lesser, status of, 36, 110, 150, 197 XV Whiting, a record season for, 9, 10, 7 ‘Wild Game in Zambezia,’ 199 Wren, Golden-crested, nesting of, 273 Wyeomyia smithi, 185 Xanthotenia busiris in Borneo, 426 Yarmouth (Great), and neighbour- hood, fish-notes from (1913), 1-20; Miscellaneous notes (1913-14), 375-392 Yorkshire, ornithological notes from, 37 Zantho rivulosa, 17 Zeuxidia aurelia in Borneo, 416 Zonopterus imitans in Borneo, 424 PLATES. PAGE Puate I. Parasitism in relation to Birds to face 41 Puate Il. A Sparrow-Hawk receiving the contents of Keeper’s gun. 5 6 pp aol ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT. Boar-Fish (Capros aper) : ; : vu Edible Crab (Cancer pagqurus) with aBHOrin al pincer-claw ‘ ; 16 Relationship of Species :— Diagram. Fig. 1: A, Ligurinus ; B, Acanthis; C, Fae . a9 5 Fig. Pye de Ley) C. (explanation i in text) . : 100 Location of the Sacculus and its contained Otoliths in Fishes :— Fig. I.: 1, Neoceratodus forsteri; 2, Hyodon alosoides; 3, Osphro- menus olfax; 4, Otoliths from right side only of Polynemus tetradaciylus 107 Fig. I1.: 1, Nebris micr ops; 9, Anatas yecmndlane ° 3, Notopterus hapirat; 4, Zeus faber; 5, En ythrinus salmoneus; 6, Macrodon trahira ; 7, Plecostomus bicirrhosus ; 8, Amia calva: 9, Panto- don buchholzi; 10, Balistes capriscus; 11, Mormyrus kannume 109 Fig. Ill.: 1, Sciena maculata; 2, S. aquila : ; 8, Micropogon furnieri; 4, Plagioscion surinamensis ; 5, Otolithus maculatus ; 6, Nebris microps; 1, 3, 4 and 5, cranules of excrescence (in No. 6 granules too faint to show in eR enne a) 1, 4, and 6, ‘sulcus acousticus ”’ 5 138 C XVill CONTENTS. Gannet choked by a Gurnard #% Sketch of Mite (Cellularva bassane) ian cat Gannenst large is subcutaneous air-cells: 1, under side; 2, upper side; 8, side view 168 Eges of Oystercatcher 172 Common Tern feeding young one 175 Stomach of a young Cuckoo : : 5 < ‘ : 5 178 Fauna of the Chess and Gade :— - Fig. 1.—See Pterodina valvata, p. 204 . 205 Fig. 2.—Brachionus rubens, pp. 204-6 . 205 Fig. 3.—B. rubens and Daphnia pulex, pp. 205 and 207 207 Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig. 6—Rotifer vulgaris, pp. 207-8. 209 Fig. 7, Fig. 8. —Syncheta tremula, p.210 211 Fig. 9, Fig. 10.—Metopidia oxysternwm, pp. 385- 5. : 336 Fig. 1 Fig. 12.—Diplax trigona and its sean ante: PP- 349-3 342 Fie. 13.—Furcularia molaris, pp. 344-5 : 344 Fig. 14, Fig. 15, Fig. 16. —Dinocharis tetractis 453 Fig. 17.—Philodina citrina, pp. 4538-5 454 Fig. 18.—Stephanops lamellaris 459 Pharyngeal Teeth of Fishes :-— ALBULID®.—Fig. I.: 1. Albula conorhynchus (p. 264) . 265 Noroprerip®.—Fig. I.: 2, Notopterus afer (p. 264) 265 Muranip#.—Fig. II.: 1, Murena helena 269 ApopEs.—Fig. II.: 2, Myr us vulgaris (p. 268) 269 CycLoprerIpz.—Fig. III.: Cyclopterus lwmpus 271 Fauna of ‘‘ Reservoir Plants ”’ :— Fig. 1.: Asmall tree (Acnistus arborescens) bearing a large number of epiphytic bromeliads (Tillandsia) ; Costa Rica 186 Fig. 2: Various epiphytic Bromeliacee ; Costa Rica : 187 Fig. 3: Diagrammatic vertical section through an epiphytic bromeliad (explanation i in text) . ; : : : 189 Some points in the life-history of the Salmon :— Figs. land 2. Scales of Smolt and Salmon from the Tay (see p. 283) Pee SUNN eH Fig. 3. Apparatus fitted up in connection with a bath for hatching Salmon (see p. 291) 29% Zoological Notes on Collecting in Borneo :— Sketch-Map . - ; ; ; : 363 Land-Dayaks of Sadong district, Sarawak . 4 : : 372, 373 Mh Oo 2 } = * a , : Zonal Nust=— in el Monthly Journal JATURAL HISTORY, | diled by W. Le. 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Lists free. CHARLES JEFFERYS, Naturalist, Bath (Bnatana). ee, SP oat a {v7 ™ GA i Rh yj 66 eH iO al WiUsse Vite mee ZOOLOGIST No. 871.—January 15th, 1914. SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH AND THE NEIGHBOURHOOD FOR 1913. By Artuur H. Parrerson. THE past year has not been remarkable for any great Ichthyological surprises, notwithstanding the long spells of fine weather obtaining during the greater part of it, and the high temperature which the ocean maintained even until late into November, when it yet registered some half-dozen degrees above the normal condition. Owing to the latter phenomenon, and probably the long continuance of southerly winds, with strong tidal influences, the advent of the Leathery Turtle (Dermatochelys coriacea)—two are said to have been seen together—may almost safely be laid. Some unusually large shoals of Mackerel of a goodly size characterised the fishing during the latter part of November. Most of my summer holidays and other spare hours were spent in my new houseboat (Moorhen II.) on the Waveney, so that I did not get into touch quite so closely with local fisherfolk as in some years. ; With regard to the Turtle, the first intimation I received of its appearance was on November 11th, when I saw a note ina local paper mentioning its capture in the nets of a herring- drifter, its being sold on the fish market for £3, and its reputed shipment to Hamburg. It was also stated as weighing between 3 cwt. and 4 ewt., a weight vastly increased in a succeeding ‘par.’ in the same journal on the 18th, that to me was by no means satisfactory: the weight then given was 183 cwt.! and Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII., January, 1914. B 2 THE ZOOLOGIST. it went on to say that ‘‘it has been proved by the National (!) History Museum authorities to be an extremely rare Australian specimen ... the strongest and heaviest ever seen in England.” From a Lowestoft naturalist I afterwards ascertained that it was despatched to Messrs. Lusty, of Limehouse, importers of Turtles ; and being unedible was very likely destined to be preserved. Also that the Scotch drifter that fell in with it broke its neck in hoisting it on board, although the wretched creature lived for two hours after the accident. I wrote to the Cromwell Road Museum authorities, and received a reply from Dr. §. F. Harmer to the effect that no one at the Museum actually saw it, but the owners had telephoned some particulars. Dr. Harmer thus refers to it: ‘‘ The statement that if is an Australian species is nonsense. The Leathery Turtle, though generally considered a rare animal, has a wide distribution within the tropics; and specimens are found from time to time, as stragglers, in various places.” Pennant, evidently referring to this species, records two on the coast of Cornwall, taken in Mackerel nets in the early autumn of 1756, one weighing 800 lb., the other 700 lb. A third, taken about that time off Dorsetshire, equal in weight to the first-mentioned, was believed by Bell to be in the British Museum. Dr. Harmer tells me they have examples—one, for many years, from Deyon- shire, and another caught in Cardigan Bay in 1908, and had heard of another captured in 1909, eighty miles west of Cardiff. Early in January I saw at a local fishmonger’s a plaice of some 4 lb. weight, with the whole upper surface of a beautiful porcelain-like white, with the exception of a patch of brownish on the ‘face,’ and a narrowish dark streak near the upper pectoral fin. The fish was quite without any of the characteristic red spottings. January 8th.—Considering the abundance of Haddock in the North Sea, in close proximity of Yarmouth, when I was a lad, its present scarcity is remarkable, if one can leave out the effects of the incessant trawling that then obtained. A 2-foot specimen was sent me from Eccles, where it had been caught on a line by a gentleman named Meale. It was a “slink,” and so attenuated, either from disease, or from parasites (although only two or three Lernea branchialis were taken from the gills), SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 3 that it weighed but a third of the proportionate normal weight, and looked something like a very bad imitation of an Hel. Abscesses on the gills suggested tuberculosis. A second wretched specimen was sent me from Lowestoft by the Piermaster, on February llth. For a length of 17 in., it only weighed 14 oz., and resembled nothing so much as a three- cornered file. The gaunt head, bare of all muscle, and merely covered by skin, looked like a skull bone, the huge eyes being unduly staring. There were a few fish-lice (Caligus) and a bloated Lernega attached to one of the gills. There were no internal parasites, but all the organs were wasted and bloodless, and the liver was much diseased. I looked for the Hagfish, but found none. Between forty and fifty years ago, so numerously were Haddocks sometimes netted on the East Coast that, when the markets were glutted, many were taken back and thrown into the sea, in order to keep up the prices. But to-day, as a local fish merchant recently emphatically remarked, ‘‘ should a Haddock show himself in East Anglian waters, he would be chased to death all over the place.’”’ One might imagine that such had been the fate of these diseased examples. As recently as December Ist the present scarcity of Haddocks for the month was referred to in a certain journal as follows :— “The Haddock, which ten years ago was, next to the Herring, the most abundant of our food fishes, is becoming so scarce that at Aberdeen alone the shortage for the current year, up to the current week, as compared with the corresponding period of 1912, is 5200 tons.’”’ If the devil (of reckless greed) ever had a hand in anything, it was in the invention and improvident use of the trawl-net; and unless the use of this engine is forbidden on the spawning grounds of Clupea harengus, there will be a Herring famine in years to come. Quantities of Sprats were being taken off the Suffolk Coast in early January. ‘‘Set’’ Sprats (fixed nets) and ‘‘trawled”’ ones are always scaleless and lustreless, and not nearly so sightly nor so edible as the “‘ drove”’ Sprats—fish gilled in drift-nets. In February a well-known angling expert in Norwich, having captured a goodly bag of Pike, offered several of them to his friends for eating, but was invariably met by the remark that they did not care for freshwater fish. This antipathy to the B 2 4 THE ZOOLOGIST. freshwater species is fairly general in Norfolk, although here and there a rustic will gladly accept the biggest and slimiest Bream from an angler’s catch for purposes of the table, although the usual fate of the various Roach, Rudd, and Bream is to be thrown either to the sow, or on to the refuse heap, to prove, in the latter alternative, a great nuisance. The gentleman in question, by way of experiment, had one Pike kippered and smoked, and then distributed sections of it among various persons, one of whom wrote: ‘‘I had for my breakfast a nice cut off the kippered Pike: cooked in the way usual for the dried Haddock, it was delicious, and with an entire absence of that slight muddiness of taste so often found with the Pike.” The effort, however, was a failure, and these fish from the Broads are in no better repute. It certainly is a great pity that so much good food should be wasted; only Tench being held in any esteem. I can testify to the edible qualities of a 1 lb. Bream, filleted and boiled, and served up with any suitable sauce. In my younger days it was a frequent thing for poachers to net tons of these fish and despatch them to large inland towns for the consumption of Jews. To-day they are allowed to exist only for the delectation of anglers and (as some remark unkindly) the various benefits derived from a shilling rod-tax! March 11th.—An Eel floating and struggling at the surface of Breydon, was found by an acquaintance of mine. He had been ‘‘ picking,’ and was returning home when he observed the unhappy fish ; he struck it with his eel-pick and managed to haul it safely into the punt. He afterwards sold this fine Hel for half-a-crown. Noting that its throat was unduly distended, he had the curiosity to foree open the jaws, when he observed the tail of another fish: on extricating it, a task of some difficulty, he found it to be a Sea- Bullhead (Cottus scorpius), whose extended gill- spines had made its removal, either way, impossible for the Hel, which would certainly have perished by choking, had this man not chanced to fallin with the ‘‘unequally-yoked”’ and unhappy pair. An almost similar fate attended another large Hel, in the following August, near Kendal Dyke, in the Thurne river, when a want of the sense of proportion led this fish to attempt a feat of swallowing that it was quite incapable of performing. Mr. Collinson, the water bailiff, was rowing towards Martham when SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 5 he noticed a very large fish, which proved to be a 73 |b. Eel, floating on the surface: on picking it up he was astonished to see the head and some three or four inches of another Kel, of some considerable size, protruding. Both had fallen victims to the voracity of the larger one. Whether fishes are blessed with anything like a memory, or whether they are less susceptible to pain than most other creatures, has not yet been satisfactorily determined: evidence is conflicting. When trolling with a noted angler on one of the Broads, related an old sportsman to me, a large Perch was hooked, which broke away, tearing the membrane of its mouth. It was struck a second time, and again broke away, but a third hooking proved fatal. When the fish was landed three rents in the cartilage of its mouth were discovered. Yet strangely, some time since, when I was chatting with Miss E. L. Turner on Hickling Broad, she pointed out certain fishes that had come constantly to her houseboat to be fed; one of them, a war- searred old fellow (a Rudd, I believe it was), she assured me had come to her vicinity two or three years running. The fish were curiously tame, and rushed at crumbs dropped quite close to my fingers. In 1913, Miss Turner told me that some Hels had become so tame and confident as to take crumbs from between her fingers. One day they were missing; probably they had taken some angler’s hook, or had perished in some other way. On March 18th an 11 in. female Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus) was sent to me by a fish hawker: its head was stunted, the upper lip overlapping the under one, on either side, the lower jaw protruding considerably beyond the obtuse little snout. April.—A small Plaice, about 6 in. in length, measured 4 in. across the back when the fins were distended. Placing the point of a pair of compasses in the centre of the fish (making allowance for a half-inch of ‘‘nose”’ and the caudal fin’s measurement of 1 in.), the other leg of the compass made a complete circle of the fish ; indeed, in sketching it, I first made a circle, and then easily ‘‘ filled in” the whole. The advent of an exceedingly fine Sturgeon in the little river Delph, near Welney, on June 16th, made quite a stir in that corner of Norfolk. Its weight was 31 st. 5 lb., and it measured 9 ft.9in.in length. The monster was despatched to Spitalfields, 6 : THE ZOOLOGIST. where it was sold for £6: the fish auctioneer telling a newspaper representative that ‘‘it took six porters to bring it from Liverpool Street Station to my shop. It was wrapped in sacks and tied up with thick cords. I have never seen a fish so large, and I thought at first a small whale had been sent to me.” The fish had been first observed on the Sunday, and attempts were made to shoot it, but the cartridges were loaded with too small shot to make any impression on its scaly cuirass: even shot the size of peas, fired as they were through the water, had no effect. A net was drawn across the water to prevent the fish’s escape: a boat was launched, and the owner of the shoot- ing rights, a Mr. Smart, went in her armed with a weapon very like a strong boathook. This was thrust into the mouth and the head raised by means of it, then another man who was carrying the gun discharged it into a more vulnerable and vital quarter. Five men were required to land it. On June 3rd, Mr. G. C. Gearing, fishmonger, of Lowestoft, very kindly sent me an example of the Boar Fish (Capros aper), the first he had seen during the thirty-five years of his business. It had been netted on Corton patch, about half a mile from Corton Lightship, in a shrimp-net. It was hardly so large as my hand, and is only the third I have examined since my first discovery of the species, locally, on July 9th, 1881. A second example, which I did not see, was netted off Yarmouth on the same date as Mr. Gearing’s. Whether there be anything in the belief among certain fisherfolk with regard to so-called ‘‘ blind’’ Mackerel, I am not prepared to say. The belief is pretty general, and there is a Scarborough tradition to the effect that ‘‘it is no use fishing for Mackerel with a line before Seamer Fair [7. e. July 15th], for before that time they are unable to see.” Ignorant fishermen may be certainly excused, when Pennant, probably on the strength of Lacapéde’s statement, who himself had been told it by acertain French Admiral, wrote as follows :—‘ In the spring the eyes of the Mackerel are almost covered with a white film, during which period they are half blind. This film grows in winter, and is cast off in the beginning of summer.” Dr. Day, ignoring his predecessors, in describing the diseases of Scomber, practically pooh-poohs the idea. I mention this SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. ul matter because two or three intelligent fishermen have recently spoken to me most emphatically in favour of such a condition being frequent. The stomachs of some Hels taken in marsh ditches by means of a net, in August, I found to contain only a quantity of Gammaride. Occasionally the smaller Pike will condescend to patronize an angler’s worm. A gentleman fishing in the Bure at Acle, one \ Ny ‘i ss K) be oYN N q Boar Fisu (Capros aper). day in September, hooked and landed on a small worm a ‘‘jack”’ of 4 lb. weight; and within half an hour another angler, fishing with a worm, landed a 2-pounder. The bottom of the cutting (leading into the Waveney) wherein my houseboat lies moored is, in summer, covered with a bright green, luxuriantly-growing coat of ‘‘ silk weed.’”” Some Swans came daily in August and early in September to feast on it; and several Roach which I dissected had their stomachs packed with it.* The hordes of Herrings crowding each autumn into local waters would seem to be as numerous as ever, if a greater catching power and a record harvest are any criterion. The * This weed is occasionally used as a successful Roach bait by London anglers.—(ED.) 8 THE ZOOLOGIST. hugeness of the catch of 1913 has been almost phenomenal. It — goes without saying that some vagaries of distribution would naturally follow such invasions; and, on October 29th, whilst some Aldeburgh fishermen were busy with rod and line among the Whitings—also uncommonly numerous on the Alde, twelve miles from the sea—Herrings were attracted to their lugworms which they were using as bait; at these they bit very much after the manner of Roach, and gave some lively play, a dozen in all being hooked. This distance from the sea had been eclipsed by a stray Herring that had wandered as far as Geldeston locks, on the Waveney, and was taken in a net with Smelts, some years since, a journey of quite eighteen miles from Lowestoft Harbour. This individual, had it entered Oulton Broad through the lock, or had it passed through Breydon, and so up the Suffolk river, must in any case have gone some miles in quite fresh waters. The capture of individual adult Herrings by rod and line, above referred to, was not a solitary instance, although in this neighbourhood rather unusual. Day (‘British Fishes’) mentions their capture in Scottish lochs as a common circumstance, bare white hooks being drawn through the water at which they freely snatch. A writer in the ‘ Angler’s News,’ dealing with the subject, stated that at Calais Docks, from January to March, “spent” or spawned Herrings are to be seen in numbers preying on young Elvers. Anglers took advantage of their voracity, and captured numbers by impaling a small worm loosely on hooks that they drew quickly through the water. Juvenile Herrings, not longer than one’s finger, are very freely taken every summer in the Lowestoft Basins, the anglers, of all classes and ages, using a tiny quill float and a single hook baited with a piece of Shrimp the size of a B.B. shot. The strangest Herring story of the year was published in a local paper on November 25th, relating to a ‘“‘bloater” that was being prepared for breakfast by a lady in Norwich. ‘She noticed something glittering, and her curiosity being aroused, she made the surprising discovery that a gem of some description was nestling among the offal. On washing the stone it was found to be a diamond of some worth, being highly transparent and colourless.’ The stone is stated as being the size of a marrow-fat pea, and had, it was thought, once been set in SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 9 aring. If such were the case, the strange circumstance leads one’s mind to queer speculation. The Sead, or Horse Mackerel, has been exceedingly numerous this fishing, and running to a largish size. On one or two occasions the tide-mark, thick with dead Herrings and Mackerel débris from the nets drawn in by certain tides, was well sprinkled with fish of this species. I cannot understand why this fish is so despised locally as food, even by the very poorest. The finding of an anchovy in a “swill-’”’ of Herrings was reported to me in the middle of October. This fish is of rare occurrence here, for the advent of such a remarkable species would speedily lead to its recognition. If Couch’s remarks (‘Cornish Fauna’) still hold good, that ‘“‘this fish abounds towards the end of summer; and if attention were paid to the fishery, enough might be caught to supply the consumption of the British Islands,” it is surprising that individuals should not more often straggle round into the North Sea. The meshes of the nets are so much smaller to-day that few fishes, smaller than Herrings, striking them escape. There was a remarkable inshoring of Whitings in September, the numbers keeping up without any seeming diminution well through November: it seemed to me curious that so compara- tively few should be taken in the Herring nets considering the— I think I may say—myriads that came within the three mile limit. Every boy armed with a piece of knotted string and a couple of hooks, with almost anything for bait, seemed to be almost as successful in capturing them as those who had pro- vided themselves with superior tackle and knowledge. The jetty was so crowded that folks fished, as it were, over each other, and the piers and beach were lined with sea-anglers. Some of the figures published of catches taken from the Britannia Pier are given as follow :— Nov. 5th ... 978 Whitings ... 10 Dabs ... 4 Cods. » 6th ... 1859 Soe MBean suiehiy ge eieh LON ays » (th... 1202 5 Fala yas 4 eps oe isin) teen aed Wd oy) 5p sick Ler cei ay Pe Sthiew allel. oo; es Au Ue De) tthe toll si LSwi as Ohi ss At the harbour’s mouth, on the Yarmouth side, there runs a 10 THE ZOOLOGIST. , sort of concrete and timbered breakwater which is accessible from a staging by means of iron rings let into the buttresses supporting the staging. At high water, and for sometime before and after, the water covers this low breakwater, and if it be rough waves break over it. Behind this is a kind of hollow, quite 6 ft. in depth, that is always full. Curiously enough Whitings frequently crowd into this pit, and some venturesome lad a year or so ago found, on dropping his line into it, that it was quite a fertile fishing ground: so at the fall of the tide it is a frequent resort of lads who occasionally capture a number of smallish sized fish. On October 29th I happened to look over the wooden pier into this hollow, and saw three or four lads fishing with improvised tackle—a long crooked osier, and, in one instance, a badly straitened hoop, with the sorriest of lines upon them. They were pulling out foot-length examples almost as quickly as they dropped in their hooks, using for bait small strips of very stale Mackerel, picked up on the tide-mark a short stone’s-throw from the pit. A butcher lad, who had delivered his beef to some fishing drifter in the harbour, had encroached upon his master’s time, but evidently was prepared to make excuse, if not atonement, with the silvery Whitings that nearly filled his basket. Mr. F. T. Lenton, Master of Claremont Pier, Lowestoft, wrote me on December 1st that there had been exceptional takes of fine Whitings, one sea angler about a week before, having had a bag of twenty-two fish weighing 18 lb. Mr. H. Tunbridge, the Manager of the Britannia Pier, Yarmouth, on December 6th wrote to the effect that ‘‘ this season has been a record one for Whitings.” From October 16th to December 5th a total of 57,326 had been landed thereon; also 851 Dabs, 396 Codlings, 5 Cods, and 4 Congers. Several Soles were caught in August and September. I am obliged to Mr. Ernest B. Cooper, of Southwold, for a few notes on the Sprat fishing, &c. He writes as follows: ‘“‘Sprat fishing has been very dull until this week: no Sprats were caught until the second week in November, and during that month the quantities landed at the Harbour were :— Week ending Nov. 15th a. a 233 bushels. = 2 », 22nd ms Fie 140 2 is + 5, 29th tae fi 150 i an en wl SOME FISH-NOTHS FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 11 About double the quantity is landed on the Beach, but no figures are available. A Bass about 12 lb. in weight was caught off the Pier in November.” I observed in the ‘ Daily Press’ of December 10th that the Sprats “‘set in” abundantly, heavy catches being taken into Lowestoft by the Lowestoft, Kessingland, and Pakefield boats, ranging up to some eighty ‘“‘maunds”’ (local baskets): these realized from 38s. to 3s. 6d. the maund. My old friend Mr. Robert Beazor, fish merchant, writing me on December 9th, states that ‘‘ the Smelt season was very poor, and to the workers not very remunerative: the fish were small. I take it that they do not like the polluted state of the water through which they have to pass to their spawning haunts: and I think that year by year their numbers are less. 1 found Salmon-Trout conspicuously absent, and those taken were small, The best take of the season came from Winterton. Our own local fisherfolk seem to have quite gone out of this branch of fishing [at one time our beach men made quite a feature of the autumn draw-netting for the ‘trout’], The Mackerel season (May and June) was a fair one, and I saw only a few Scribbled Mackerel (Scomber var. scriptus), and one black one (S. var. concolor). I had during the year four Anchovies brought me for identification—Red Mullet a few. Large Mackerel came late in the Herring fishery. I weighed several; the largest was 23 lb., and many exceeded 2 lb.” The voracity and want of discrimination in the Pike is aie known; and the bold fellow occasionally attacks more than he can possibly hope to devour. In September a lady, bathing in certain baths at Norwich, was bitten severely in the ankle by a Pike of some 6 lb. or 7 lb. weight. The bite of a “‘jack” is by no means a pleasant experience, as I can remember to my own cost, when a 5-pounder seized my finger, closing its jaws with a vicious snap, puncturing holes that were slow to heal and extremely painful. I had to lever the brute’s jaws open with a piece of wood before I could free my finger. I have a note dated June 22nd recording the capture of six Salmon-Trout at Oulton Broad, near the lock, by one fisherman on that date, fishing with live Shrimps. On October 29th following Mr. J. T. Hotblack, of Norwich, in a letter to the 12 THE ZOOLOGIST. ‘Eastern Daily Press,’ referred to reports reaching him from time to time of Salmon or Salmon-Trout being caught in the river (Yare)—July, August, and September (1913). Hewett, the Preservation Society’s watchman (he stated), had found no fewer than seven dead and decomposing fish at various times floating in the river between Surlingham and Cantley. They were described as fish weighing between 12 lb. and 20 lb., suggesting they must be Salmon. Mr. Hotblack wrote me for particulars of three Salmon-Trout captured at Oulton, and agreed with me that such Trout as I had observed ‘‘jumping”’ may have done so through irritation by the dirty (sewage-tainted) water. His contention was that the Trout caught so commonly along shore, all down the Norfolk Coast, were ‘‘ trying to find a freshwater stream to run up, and that they constantly enter our rivers trying to find a spawning-ground, which, as they are unable to get past the mills, they cannot do.” I did not come to the same conclusion, seeing that they would have to travel a great many miles up any of the Norfolk rivers before finding a bottom and other conditions suitable for their purpose. Undoubtedly such Salmon and Salmon-Trout as have been met with well up the Yare and Waveney travelled up from Yarmouth and through Breydon, and not through Oulton Lock from Lowestoft Harbour. It is strange that the Salmon referred to above had not been observed before they were found putrefying. Had they really come upstream, or had they been cast overboard by a fishmonger ? Some very heavy catches of Mackerel were made by local drifters fishing with Mackerel-nets in November. On Sunday afternoon, November 28rd, a boat ran in with fish packed and piled in every possible locker and corner; the decks were thick with them, and the nets lay heaped—fish enveloped in the folds in hundreds—on decks and hatchways. They were still busy well into the night ‘‘ scudding’’ (shaking out) the nets and pulling the larger fishes from the meshes, and piling them on the wharf in a huge heap 2 ft. deep, in an area surrounded by a flanking of ‘‘swills” (fish-baskets). Nearly seven lasts (70,000) of exceedingly fine Mackerel, many of them measuring 17 in. in length, were the result of the “strike”; but so many had “struck” that the nets ‘‘ grounded ’’ with the weight—+.e. sank SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 13 straight down—and quite fifty nets were lost with the fishes they contained. A boat’s ‘‘ fleet’ of nets consists of one hundred and twenty sections, and reaches out, like a long-meshed wall, to something like one and a half miles, and is about eight to nine yards deep. On the 26th the same boat returned again with a catch of 30,000 Mackerel that realized £120. Clearing the nets of Mackerel is a trying occupation for the fingers, almost every fish having to be individually pulled out of the meshes. A few days later another boat came in with eight lasts. Late in November a sea-angler, fishing from the beach, hooked and landed a Mackerel, a by no means usual capture so near the shore, and a rare enough circumstance from any of the piers. Years ago, when a number of old brigs and kindred “ sea- waggons”’ served as colliers between Newcastle and Yarmouth, it was a common practice to trail a line astern for the capture of a few Mackerel. ‘The hooks were encased in a small piece of lead-paper, the silvery bait evidently deceiving the rash, eager- biting Scombers. One ancient skipper, finding himself without lead-paper, managed to push the barb of a hook through a hole in a fourpenny-piece, and during the trip succeeded in bribing a baker’s dozen—thirteen—of Mackerel to their own destruction. Reverting to nets ‘‘ grounding,” a veteran’ Mackerel-catcher assures me that often meshed Herrings are more likely to swim up with the net and ‘‘frap about at the surface,’ but Mackerel ** crook (die) at once, and their combined weight carries the net downwards, providing they strike heavily.” It would be out of place here to enlarge upon the purely economic aspects of the great Hast Coast Herring Fishery; the following statistics, however, may be worthy of mention. Briefly, about 800,000 crans of Herrings (800 million fishes!) had come in by the end of November, 40,000 crans having been delivered in one day alone (October 18th). Lowestoft had in the same period added a catch about two-thirds as heavy as that arriving in Yarmouth —1,300,000 crans for the two ports, a prodigious congregation of 1,300,000,000 fish! The weight of the Yarmouth catch may be set down at 155,000 tons, and for the two ports at 260,000 tons. Placing these catches upon the rail would have 14 THE ZOOLOGIST. required a thousand trains of twenty-six ten-ton trucks each! Up to the time of writing these figures (November—end) 457,212 barrels and 137,188 half-barrels of pickled (salted) Herrings have been dispatched in steamers to Russia, Germany, and other ports; one large steamer, the ‘Indutiomare,’ had gone to the Black Sea with a freight of 18,175 barrels, worth £20,000. Thus it will be seen that with 999 drifters (Scotch and English) fishing out of the port, the thousands of men manning the boats, the thousands more working as coopers, carters, curers, and others; not mentioning the many incidental buyers, traders, and mechanics attached to the building, fitting, out- fitting and feeding necessities connected with this great industry ; and the thousands of Scotch lasses engaged in gutting, pickling, and other work, and the hundreds who lodge the girls and the men, the turnover in solid gold must be immense. Had Bertram lived to see Yarmouth the greatest Herring mart in the world and to revise his entertaining ‘ Harvest of the Sea,’ he would have had to add matter to the book that his wildest dreams and speculations could never have depicted. If the streets of London are paved with gold, Yarmouth’s roads and pathways are often ankle-deep in the greasy, oleaginous mire and mud, permeated with Herring oil and drip from the carts and baskets and barrels. The hooting of outgoing and incoming boats, often in continuous panoramic succession, with the rattle of wheels on the quays, is like Bedlam gone riotous; and the southern half of the town reeks of smoke and effluvia of “‘an ancient and fish-like smell.” Up to December 6th over 808,000 crans had been landed here, an increase over last year of more than 127,000 crans. On this date Herrings were getting fewer ; but the record price of 91s. per cran—for a catch of six crans—was realized! Whether the hosts of the Herring are greater than in days of yore, I am not competent to suggest; that there must be far fewer devoured by Whales would seem to be an undisputed fact, when it is stated that ‘‘so enormous have been the catches of Whales (Rorquals, Humpbacks, &c.] made in the Norwegian whaling industry since the invention of the explosive harpoon in 1868, the figures of 1911 being 13,800 Whales, that it is feared that the animals are in danger of extinction.” Such a slaughter SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 15 of these huge Herring-eaters, and the much fewer numbers of other predaceous Cetaceans, Cods, and other large fishes to be found to-day in this part of the North Sea, must make for at least a possible increase in this great East Coast harvest of the sea. The Messrs. Paget writing in 1834 (‘Sketch of the Natural History of Great Yarmouth’) with regard to the then more frequent appearances of Cetaceans, remark: ‘‘ Balena physalis (Fin-backed Whale) has several times been seen and taken in the herring-nets”’; and, again, ‘‘ Delphinus bidens (Bottlenose Whale), a large one caught in a Herring-net, November, 1816 ; a smaller specimen about twenty years before.” The first- named would belong to the Rorquals. Only in the opening days of the great Herring Fishery did a few small carcases of Piked Dogs wash ashore: as the fever and hurry of the fishing intensified, everything was subordinated to the capture and to the inbringing of the Herring. Men worked night and day, often getting less than four hours’ sleep in three days (a condition of labour with which trade unions might safely interfere), so that everything foreign to the desired catch was pitched overboard as soon as possible; not a solitary Shark, Dolphin, or Porpoise, to my knowledge, was brought into port; the only one of the first-named referred to in the county papers was an average-sized Porbeagle, taken near Sheringham; thisa fisherman or two carted about in a barrow as a rara pisces for the sake of what few coppers the curious might bestow upon them. Among the few Crustaceans worthy of remark, I have already recorded the capture of a large Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus) off the coast of Portugal (cf. ‘ The Zoologist,’ Feb. 1918, p. 77), the large pincer claws of which I had seen mounted on a shield like a Fallow Deer’s. The size of this giant may be imagined when I measured a free chela (or movable claw) at 6 in., working in a hand” 9 in. in girth! A male Velvet Crab (Portunus puber) was brought to me by a shrimper on April 28th; and on May 20th a medium-sized Crab came to hand with an extra leg growing on the left side, from an extra socket working on the “‘ swivel” of the third leg from the tail. 16 THE ZOOLOGIST. On June 8th a very curious example was obtained, with the free chele adorned, or inconvenienced, by an extra point that turned off at a right angle and curved slightly under the fixed chelz, so that very little movement could be made by the nipper; roughly speaking, it was as ‘“‘lockjawed”’ as a rodent would be whose abnormal incisor tooth might have grown round and closed its point in the outside of the other jaw. On the 28rd a ‘“‘big Edible Crab (with abnormal pincer claw). claw” was given to me to which was attached a smaller perfect claw with fixed and free chele quite in working order. For the benefit of those who might like to see or study such crustaceous variations, I may add that these have been sent to Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow, where many other similar finds have preceded them. One other curious Crab that has been preserved for Yarmouth Tolhouse Museum came to hand on September 6th. The right pincer claw (looking down on it from above) is normal, but the left, of equal size to it, is turned quite in an opposite direction SOME FISH-NOTHS FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 17 (see illustration). The photograph unfortunately does not show the defaulting leg in its proper proportions. What use the Crab made of its freakish member could only have been known to its possessor, and the secret has been lost in the boiling. In September somewhat unusual numbers of the Common Prawn (Palemen serratus), many of goodly size, were taken by the shrimpers and met with a ready sale. One shrimper assured me he had taken as many as thirty on a tide. Mr. F. C. Cook, of Lowestoft, sent for my inspection late in December (1912) an example of Dromia vulgaris taken off the ‘Galloper’ light-vessel (vide ‘The Zoologist,’ 1913, p. 38). I have never met with it at Yarmouth. Mr. Cook also kindly sent me a few notes referring to a trip made by him in a Lowestoft smack to the Smith’s Knowl (about twenty-five miles out from the north-east corner of Norfolk) in the second week in September. The first two or three days were more or less blanks, as far as his experiences went! ‘‘Scarcely a haul was made but what two or three examples of the Angler-fish (Lophius piscatorius) were met with; those examined contained great quantities of sand. A large Cod was taken on the 11th, the eyes of which were sunken and colourless; and it was in a very emaciated condition. A malformed Cod was caught on the 12th, and also a bull-head variety of the Whiting; a second malformed Whiting being met with the day after. While trawling on the rough or ‘ Ross- bottomed’ ground (where Sabelle and shells, &c., abounded) in the vicinity of the Smith’s Knowl Light, a great variety of Crabs was taken, among the more interesting of them were the Ross Crab (Zantho rivulosa), Porcelain Crab (Porcellana longicornis), Marbled Swimming Crab (Portunus marmoreus), and several Velvet Swimming Crabs (P. puber). The latter were very ferocious and menacing, and caused fun by the way they elevated and opened their pincer claws and ran at the skipper’s dog, who, knowing from experience the penalty he had beforetime paid by playing with Swimming Crabs, wisely kept at a safe distance. “A fine Sturgeon, weighing 20 stone and realizing £11 10s., was landed on Lowestoft fish-market on October 30th.” Some interesting notes and statistics were given in the ‘Hastern Daily Press’ of Dec. 6th, 1918, dealing with the little- known industries off the North Norfolk coast, which include those ool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., January, 1914. c 18 THE ZOOLOGIST. of whelking, crabbing, cockling, and such like. For 1912, of a total weight for England and Wales of 55,103 ewt., 15,897 ewt. were landed at Wells, and 10,216 cwt. at Sheringham. One hundred boats are engaged in crabbing, and accounted during the past season for nearly a million Edible Crabs (Cancer pagurus). The gathering of Cockles by men and women is a hard but interesting calling. Mussel culture is a thriving industry, and is well looked after by Inspector Donnison. The capture of Herrings, Mackerel, Soles, Plaice, Brill, and Salmon- Trout is in a smaller way pursued ; whilst the quaint occupation. of ‘‘ worming” is made remunerative. The Lugworm (Arenicola marina) is pursued by ‘“‘ worm-diggers,” who, armed with fork and basket, go to the wet sands at low water and search for their casts and deftly grub them out, a quick hand looking to. bag a thousand under normal circumstances. These worms are. ereat favourites with sea-anglers all over the eastern seaboard, and find a ready sale. There can be no doubt that Cods and other fishes prefer them to any other bait. , Norfolk Seals—I have to thank that capable and enthusiastic officer Captain Donnison, the Eastern Sea Fisheries Inspector,- for his September Report, which equals in biological and. statistical interest any of its predecessors. But that part of. particular interest to myself deals with the Common Seal (Phoca vitulina), that seems to have firmly established itself upon the maze of sandbanks in the Wash. One would greatly wish to know when the Seal became what. might be described as a settler in this country. Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) refers to it as ‘‘the Vitulus marinus sea- calf or seale wch is often taken sleeping on the shoare’”’; and again as ‘‘no raritie upon the coast of Norfolk at lowe water. I have knowne them taken asleep vnder the cliffes. diuers have been brought vnto mee. our seale is different from the Medi- terannean Seale.’ Lubbock (‘Fauna of Norfolk,’ 1848) adds nothing to Browne's short notes; nor does Mr. T. Southwell in his second edition of ‘The Fauna’ (1879). In his ‘ Seals and Whales of the British Seas,’ Mr. Southwell adds but little, dis- missing with the merest paragraph its status on this coast as follows :—‘‘In the great estuary between the Norfolk and Lin- ° colnshire coasts, called the ‘ Wash,’ this species frequents the. SOME FISH-NOTES FROM GREAT YARMOUTH. 19 sandbanks left dry at low water, and, doubtless, many yours ones are produced there annually.” ; According to Mr. Donnison’s calculations, the Seal practi- cally doubles its numbers in two or three years; to quote from the 1912 (September) Report:—‘“‘It was estimated that over 2000 Seals were in the estuary. . . . It was estimated that there would be 100 young Seals in this [Knock Sand] group of about 300.” In 1911 the numbers were put down at 1000, so that 3000 were expected ‘‘to rank ” in 1913; of these, he tells us, £45 has been paid for “‘ noses,” at the rate of ten shillings each. Ninety Seals would seem a goodly number recovered ; but when it is ‘known how difficult wounded Seals are to bag, and that a dead Seal almost invariably sinks if slain in the water, the death-rate must have been considerably higher. The Report is this year the more interesting, if disappointing, when ‘‘opinions”’ as to their predilections for certain fish, and the destruction they are capable of performing, are given by various fishermen, not one of whom had by dissection examined the contents of their stomachs. Like a perverted Mark Tapley, the average fisherman is only happy when he has something to srumble at; a number of them condemned the Seal as keenest upon prime marketable fish, Soles in particular. My own experience with several Seals I have kept in confinement was that Flounders (local ‘‘ Butts ’’) are their favourite prey ; probably they are easiest to capture; and when Eels were to be had these were as eagerly devoured, bent double, rounded part foremost. Mr. Donnison is rightly making an earnest endeavour to come to a just conclusion upon the Seal’s reputed destructive- ness and injury to the fisheries of the Wash, so that we may have further information on the subject.. It would be a great pity if this interesting colony should eventually be extirpated ; and a certain amount of cruelty which must follow on the methods-used to accomplish at least a reduction in numbers is unpleasant to contemplate. The Kastern Fisheries Committee, I sincerely hope, will not ‘‘ condemn unheard,” but do the right thing between fisherman and beast. A vice-president of the Selborne Society writes me that the matter may be taken into consideration by the Society ; he says :—‘‘I am told that many c2 20 THE ZOOLOGIST. of the fishermen say they have no grievance against the Seals ... the effect of offering such a large reward will simply be that every ‘Tom, Dick, and Harry’ with a gun will go out shooting Seals. . . . A large proportion of the heads produced are probably females and newly born young, which seems a great shame. These no doubt represent but a small proportion of those wounded.” With all my heart I hope the energetic Inspector will see the right thing done, and if it be possible that the evidence forthcoming should be in favour of these innocent animals, they will not be unduly harassed; and if it be proved necessary that a reduction in number be imperative, that vigilance will be exercised in doing the butchering ‘‘on the most approved modern methods” possible. There is a significant remark made in the Inspector’s March Report respecting a nose sent in; the particulars coming in with it were as follow: ‘‘ The Seal I caught was a white, long- haired one; female.” And the Inspector himself remarks :— “On January 17th, on passing Freeman’s Channel, I observed a score of Seals on the Roger Sand, three or four of which ‘ appeared quite white alongside the others. When on the sands on March 14th. . . I then noticed that three or four of the Seals had long, rough hair, in colour a dirty white. They were slower than the others in reaching the water.”’ Now, as it is well known that the young of the Grey Seal (Halicherus gryphus) are born white, and my somewhat limited experience of this species has led me to believe it less nimble out of the water than the commoner animal, one might suspect that the Grey Seal does more than occasionally occur in com- pany with Phoca. A young female was killed on Breydon, November 28th, 1882; and in the ‘ Field,’ 1904, some notes on this species by Mr. T. Southwell appeared. Herein he remarked that even young had been born, but that the conditions did not appear suitable to their long survival. He says :—‘‘ Although these sandbanks may form admirable nurseries for the numerous herds of P. vitulina which frequent them, no young Grey Seals deposited where the banks are covered by every tide can possibly survive, and they must ... perish by drowning”’ (vide ‘ Nature in Eastern Norfolk,’ pp. 319-320). GE 2h) ON SOME GULLS OBSERVED IN IRELAND. By Ropert WARREN. IcELAND GuLus (Larus leucopterus) In Cork Harzour. For a long period of years I have had frequent oppor- tunities of observing and capturing specimens of the Iceland Gull, and as I was particular in noting the dates and localities of the various occurrences, a copy of my notes may interest those readers of ‘The Zoologist’ who may not be personally conversant with the appearance and habits of this Arctic visitor, one of the most beautiful of the large Gulls, and certainly the most elegant and graceful in form and flight. When seen on the wing it is easily distinguished from its larger neighbour, the Glaucous, by its gracefully buoyant and gliding mode of flight, so different from the slower, heavier flight of that bird, similar to that of the Great Black-backed Gull. In its habits, so far as my experience goes, it is not a carrion-feeder like the Glaucous— I have never seen it feeding on carrion of any kind. I have often. seen the Iceland Gull resting in pasture fields in company with the smaller Gulls, a habit I have never seen adopted by the Glaucous, which keeps nearly altogether to the shores and sands. The Iceland Gull I have often seen with the smaller Gulls in the fields following the ploughman, feeding on the worms and grubs: turned up by the plough. On one occasion an immature bird haunted one of my ploughed fields for over a month, day after day, only going to the estuary to drink and wash. From its great tameness I did not wish to shoot it, but tried to take it alive on a baited hook; this was easily managed, but unfortunately the poor bird was so hungry that in swallowing the bait the hook became firmly fixed in the gullet, and being unable to extricate it safely, I was obliged to put the bird out of pain, and sent the specimen to the Dublin Natural History Society, thus disappointing me in the wish to send a live specimen to the Dublin Zoological Gardens. I first became acquainted with the Iceland Gull in Cork Har- bour, a “flight” having visited it, in the winter of 1848-1849, 92 THE ZOOLOGIST. and individuals were observed in different parts of the harbour from time to time. 1849, January 25th.—The first I met was when returning from shooting on Seamount Marsh, and while walking along the embankment, a lovely bird flew close past; its buoyant gliding flight and white primaries at once identified its species. On January 29th, when returning from Queenstown in my boat to Ringaskiddy, and just above Haulbowline Island, a fine bird passed our boat out of range, but returning as if to observe us more closely, and coming within easy distance, it was brought down by my brother by a shot from his lightgun. This was only the fourth specimen known to have been obtained in Ireland. I presented the bird to my old and valued friend Dr. Harvey for his fine collection of native birds, and it is now, with the rest of his collection, in the Museum of the Cork University College. On February 2nd, when returning with my brother from shooting on Seamount Marsh a fine specimen flew close past us, but as both our guns were unloaded after we had stopped shooting, this lovely bird, to our great disappointment, escaped us. On February 8th, when returning from Queenstown in my boat, a fine creamy-coloured bird flew past our boat, but out of shot. This was the last specimen I observed in Cork Harbour. Having some time after left the district to reside at Moy View, Co. Sligo, my future observations of Wild Fowl and Sea Birds were confined to Killala Bay and the Moy Estuary, in the counties of Mayo and Sligo; these observations were made during the years 1851 and 1909. 1851.—On December 4th, when walking on the sands along the Moyne Channel in Moy Estuary, I shot an immature specimen as it flew past me. This bird I sent to my old and valued friend, the late William. Thompson, of Belfast, who presented the specimen to the Belfast Museum. The day has been well impressed on my memory, owing to my shooting a srand specimen of the White-tailed Eagle on the sandhills. A pair of these fine birds had been, from October, haunting the sandhills of Bartragh, feeding on the rabbits and any dead fish thrown up on the shore. When returning, after shooting the Gull, I perceived an Eagle flying slowly over the sandhills, alighting on a little hummock. I remarked to my brother (who ON SOME GULLS OBSERVED IN IRELAND. 23 was with me) that it was a good chance to try and stalk the bird from behind another little sandhill, and asked him to try it, but he only laughed at the idea of shooting such a wary bird. So, giving him the Gull to carry to the house, I made my way to the sandhills, and quietly crept up behind the sheltering hummock to within about ten yards of the one the Hagle was standing on. I put my gun to my shoulder as I raised my head over the sheltering hummock and, on the instant, the bird spread his wings to go, but too late, for I fired and knocked him dead ‘with a charge of No. 5 shot. He was a very large bird, in the second year’s plumage. Had he not been gorged with a heavy feed of Rabbits and Hake (over six pounds weight), I don’t think I should have succeeded, the heavy feed causing him to be care- less and not so watchful as usual. On December 9th, when walking on the Enniscrone Sands by the river, I saw a very dark specimen, evidently in its first year’s plumage, in the company of some Herring and Common Gulls; it was remarkably tame and unsuspicious, allowing me to approach within eight or ten yards. 1855.—On December 9th a bird, evidently an adult from its pure white plumage, flew close over Moy View Cottage towards the estuary sands. 1862.—On January 26th I caught, on a Beitcd hook, the young bird (ante) that had been haunting the ploughed fields for over a month. On January 27th, when riding albtig ae Raniecrone Sands, among a number of small Gulls I observed a very dark-coloured bird that must have been in its first season’s plumage; its tame- ‘ness in allowing me to ride within eight or ten yards was also good evidence of the fact. 1866.—On January 6th I shot a bird in that creamy-coloured plumage that I consider the second year’s stage. This bird had been in one of my ploughed fields for several days past. On February 19th I rode within ten yards of a bird, in its first year’s plumage, as it was resting on the Enniscrone Sands. 1873.—On Sunday, January 26th, as I was walking with my friend, the late Captain Dover, near Dooneen House, a bird flew out from the fields and pitched on the road within twenty yards of where we were standing, then after some time searching for 24 wl THE ZCOLOGIST. food, flew low up along the road for about two hundred yards, and then disappeared over the fields. This was a very dark- coloured bird, evidently in its first year. 1877.—On Sunday, January 28th, as 1 was walking to church across one of my fields, I saw resting on the grass, among a number of small Gulls, a young Icelander, so very dark in colour that it must have been in its first year’s plumage. On December 26th, resting on the water with a young Herring Gull, near Killanly Marsh, I saw a young dark bird. On December 29th, when walking on the shore below Knunis- crone to Carrahubbock to obtain some Purple Sandpipers for a friend, I observed a young Iceland Gull among some small Gulls in a grass field, but as there was nothing to disturb them, I con- tinued my way to the Sandpipers’ haunt, when having obtained the required number of specimens I returned, and when passing the field where the Gulls were resting I saw the Icelander still among them. Intending, if possible, to secure the bird, 1 was just entering the field when it rose, flying to the shore, and passing close to me; so, taking my gun, I brought it down with a charge of No. 5 shot. It was a very fine specimen, apparently in its second year. 1887.—On October 9th I shot the young bird that had been haunting the shore field, following the ploughman for several days, feeding on the grubs and worms. 1892.—On January 9th I fired at a young Iceland Gull flying past my boat. On January 10th I again saw the Gull near the point, but without obtaining a shot. On February 3rd, below Enniscrone, on the Carrahubbock shore, I saw an immature bird standing on a flat rock along with several young Herring Gulls. Having no gun with me, I was obliged to content myself by using my glass, by which I easily identified it, by comparing its slight build with the other Gulls, and having a clear view of the ends of the closed wings extending beyond the ends of the tail feathers. On February 15th either an Iceland or Glaucous Gull was seen near Rinroc, but too far off to be identified (doubtful). 1898.—On June 19th, as I was driving to Oghill, and when half-way between that place and Enniscrone, on passing a field ON SOME GULLS OBSERVED IN IRELAND. 25 by the side of the road in which a man was ploughing, I was surprised at seeing an Iceland Gull along with some young Herring Gulls following the ploughman, feeding on the grubs and worms turned up. It was the first instance I have known of an Iceland Gull met in summer. 1902.—On January 29th either a young Iceland or Glaucous Gull, with a young Great Black-backed, was seen on the water near Killanly Marsh (not identified). 1905.—I omitted, by an oversight, to enter the exact date on which I walked to Enniscrone, after a heavy gale had been blowing, to see what birds had been driven into shelter. On reaching the sands I saw a large number of Herring Gulls, very noisy, hovering over a little sheltered bay near the Bath House. After watching them for some time, I recognised three Iceland Gulls in the crowd, so running down to the edge of the water I waited, closely watching the clamorous birds as they circled round, until one of the Iceland Gulls came within range, when I brought it down with an Eley’s wire cartridge—a fine bird in the second year’s plumage. I then reloaded, but having had only the one wire cartridge, I was obliged to use No. 5 shot; when a second bird came near I fired, but only slightly wounded it, and it flew away down the shore, the No. 5 shot being too light to act effectively on the thick coat of feathers on these Arctic Gulls. Although I waited for over an hour, the third bird gave me no chance of a shot. On April 26th, I was walking along the Moy View shore with my dogs, and when I got to the point I saw at the other side of it, resting on the water, a young Herring Gull, and what I first thought was an Ivory Gull, on account of its white colour. I immediately returned, put up my dogs, got out my punt and paddling round the point, found that the Gulls had moved farther off. I moved on slowly and quietly, and getting within range, knocked over the White Gull, which, instead of being an Ivory, proved to be an Iceland Gull in the white stage, assumed both by Glaucous and Iceland Gulls the summer before the autumn moult, when they take on the adult plumage. 1906.—On December 10th as I was putting out my punt for a day’s shooting, a fine Iceland Gull passed close by, flying round the point. 26 THE ZOOLOGIST. On December 14th I again observed the Gull. This was the last Iceland Gull I saw in the Co. Sligo, leaving Moy View in October, 1909, and coming to Ardnaree, Monkstown, Co. Cork. . Guaucous Guus (Larus glaucus) In KinnataA Bay AND THE Moy Esrvary. 1859.—My first acquaintance with this fine Gull was at Moy View on December 14th. There had been a heavy fall of snow the previous night. When looking for cocks, and passing along the shore from one small wood to another, a fine Glaucous Gull was flying past. I fired at it, but failed in stopping it. Kyidently an adult from its very white appearance. 1871.—Hither a Glaucous or an Iceland Gull was seen on the sands near Rinroc on March 29th. 1873.—On January 13th a fine bird seen on the sands. On January 23rd, when out in my shooting-punt, ob- serving a fine adult bird with some Herring Gulls near Cardens Island, I paddled on to it, but my small gun missing fire, the noise of the cap disturbed them, and they all flew off a couple of hundred yards; giving them time to settle down, I again moved near, and firing my big shoulder-gun, obtained a fine specimen of an adult. 1875.—A young bird seen on the sands. 1877.—On February 24th, seeing a fine bird flying past when my punt was hauled up I fired, but failed in stopping it. On March 16th, when out in my shooting-punt down the Moyne Channel after Wigeon, a fine bird flew past, and wheeling round to take a closer view of the punt, came within range. I fired, and had the pleasure of bringing down a splendid bird in adult plumage. On December 21st I saw on the sands near Scurmore a bird very dark in colour, but I think it was in its first year’s plumage. 1878.—On January 17th, when in my shooting-punt down channel near Scurmore, and whileI was looking at a young Black- backed Gull feeding on some carrion cast up by the tide, it was joined by a young Glaucous Gull, which though as large and strong-looking as the Black-backed Gull, had not the courage to fight for its share of the feast when driven away by the other Gull; flying further down along the shore it came to a dead dog, ON SOME GULLS OBSERVED IN IRELAND. (27 on which it began to feed so greedily that it let me bring up the punt within shot, when it paid the penalty of its greediness by the receipt of a charge of No. 5 shot from my cripple-stopper. Ié was a fine full-grown bird in its first year’s plumage. 1880.—On February 27th I shot the Glaucous Gull that, for several days past, had been feeding on the carcase of the bullock lying on the shore. It was so excessively wary and watchful that, day after day, I failed in obtaining a shot at it. How- ever, this day I changed my tactics, and creeping a long way behind a fence, I got within range, but the moment my head appeared above the fence it was off, but too late to escape the ‘charge of No. 5 shot that brought it down dead. It was a remarkably fine specimen of the Glaucous Gull (adult), weighing 34 |lb., carpus measuring 17 in., length 282 in. Some time before I shot an adult 29 in. in length, carpus 18 in., but it was not so heavy. Karly in December I met a fine bird on the Enniscrone Sands feeding on a dead bullock. It was so wary that I was unable to get within range and, firing a long shot, it got off, though hard hit. 1895.—On February 5th, when down channel near Bartragh, in my shooting-punt, I saw a fine bird among some Herring Gulls near Barrett’s Island resting on the water. They all rose on the approach of the punt, but it fled round Barrett’s Island. I followed, and coming within range, knocked over a fine adult. 1901.—On January 1st I saw an adult bird near Bartragh, its flight was just as slow and heavy as that of the Great Black- backed Gull. However, I failed in obtaining a shot. 1905.—On February 14th, when out in my punt passing the point, I saw a bird that I thought was an Icelander from its size, but on shooting it, it proved to be a very small, immature Glaucous Gull. . ; This was the last either shot or observed by me, as I left the district shortly after. It is strange that more Iceland Gulls have come under my notice than Glaucous Gulls, and also that I have seen only one Iceland Gull in adult plumage, while of the thirteen Glaucous Gulls observed, seven were birds in the adult plumage. Also, I may remark that severe winters did not increase the numbers of either species. 28 THE ZO0OLOGIST. RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. By H. Panton. (Continued from vol, xvii., p. 455.) Axsour fifteen years ago I wrote a short paper as a kind of summary of hybridisation, in which the results seemed to me, as far as I could then gather, to tend to confirm the views I put forward, and I cannot perceive that they do not apply equally to the present time. I was then unaware that these different degrees of hybridisation had been worked out and named by Broca as long ago as 1864.* I will quote a good deal from my old article on the subject. ‘“* Presumably, in the course of evolution, animals, when only slightly changing from each other, produce fertile young or mongrels; but when in the course of time their differences become intensified, they produce infertile young or hybrids; and finally, when still more changed from each other, they will be unable to produce young at all. And again, presumably, as these differences must grow gradually, there must be inter- mediate states between these three stages, 7. e., between the first and second, when the produce will be occasionally fertile (more or less); and between the second and third, when the contract- ing animals will only occasionally produce young.” Adding to the examples I then recorded, the table now gives :— . A. Animals producing fertile young (mongrels). Examples: Bison and Cow, Yak and Cow, Zebu and Cow, Gayal and Cow, Jaguar and Leopard, Dog and Wolf, Dog and Jackal, Brown and White Bears, Zebra (true) and Ass. Golden and Amhurst Pheasant, Hooded and Common Crow, Pintail and Mallard, Tufted Duck and Pochard, and various other birds. (These correspond to Broca’s Eugenesic hybrids, “‘ being fertile **On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo.’ RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 29 inter se, and breeding easily and indiscriminately with the parent species.’’) B. Animals producing young more or less fertile. Examples: I was at that time only able to presume perhaps Chrysomitris and Serinus, but suggested that reports one heard of Mules breeding might serve as examples; since then I have seen that Broca had described several graduations from ‘“ Para- genesic”’ (with a ‘‘ partial fecundity’’) to ‘‘ Dysgenesic,” ‘nearly altogether sterile” (i. e., infertile with each other, but some- times rarely breeding with one of the parent species, these three-quarters young being infertile): Broca’s examples were chiefly drawn, and perhaps not very correctly, from various human hybrids. Another example, however, is Pigeon and Collared Dove (Suchetet). C. Animals producing sterile young. Examples: Lion and Tiger, Horse and Burchell’s Quagga (which I only then included as ‘‘ probable’’), Duck and Muscovy, Blackcock and Pheasant, Serinus and Carduelis, Serinus and LTigurinus, Serinus and Alario, &c. This degree, “ entirely infertile,” Broca termed ‘‘ Aganesic.”’ D. Animals mating, but not always producing young. Fixamples: Horse and Ass (nearly always), Carduelis and Pyrrhula, Ligurinus and Carduelis (frequently), Serinus and Pyrrhula (very rarely). Broca does not specify this stage. Lest it should cause surprise, I may state that I have included Horse and Ass here on the authority of Tegetmeier and Sutherland,* who state some mares quite capable of producing young to a Horse do not do so to an Ass. (I have heard, however, of vice versd results being obtained.) Hj. Animals mating, but not producing young at all. Examples: Sheep and Goat, Eland and Cow (?), Buffalo and Cow (?), Fringilla and Serinus, Seedeater (Crithagra?) and Serinus. These results, meagre though they be (I could name several more, however), seem to my mind to apply very correctly to the degree of relationship of the contracting parties. In stage A. all these contracting parties seem to have very many if not entirely corresponding congeneric actions, or ‘‘in- ** § Horses, Asses, Zebras, Mules, and Mule Breeding’ (1895). 30 THE ZOOLOGIST. — dividualism,’’ and to be so nearly akin that they seek these mates with mutual satisfaction and as much or nearly as much avidity as they do their natural consorts. In the middle division C. the animals have so far receded that hybrids of this class are harder to get. There seems to be less attraction between the combining animals, and they have often to be kept together, and away from their proper mates, before they will copulate. In D. anyone with experience of Mule breeding will note the general want of affection between the ass and the mare, or the stallion and she ass. And in E. this mutual intolerance is perhaps somewhat more apparent still. Ail this looks so remarkably gradual, so evident and simple, that there appears no anomaly of any kind, except those which the arbitrary (and changing) barriers of our classification schemes erect. There are, however, a number of curious and contradictory results obtained by plant hybridisations that are dificult to understand; they occur also, as Mr. Finn has pointed out, in birds,* viz., that a hybrid that is hard to get, Wood-Pigeon and Common Pigeon (and which we might expect to class in group D. or E.), proves fertile, and, therefore, apparently has to be included in group A. (I should like to see this experiment repeated.) I do not think these aberrant results (or as we think them aberrant) destroy the results which we get in the above table, or the evidence which this brings forward of a certain gradual tendency and law in hybridisation. These graduating results, however, perhaps do not seem altogether so amicable to the fascinating theory of evulution of species by spontaneous variation or mutation, as they do to “‘ indefinite” variation. Darwin held it probable that species arise but rarely violently in this way (which is suggestive of the theory of Cuvier and others of the separate creation of species), but generally by the slowest and most gradual changes, as we will notice later on. Still this debatable point has never been settled. One must bear in mind, however, before definitely stating, as some may do, that these anomalies destroy our more general results, that in breeding with wild forms, environment or change of food * «The Feathered World.’ RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 31 affects fertility in so much that many species, the Fox notably, fail, as a rule, to reproduce in captivity. Curious phenomena such as'this emphasise the great power environment has on the reproductory organs, as Darwin long ago pointed out, and this impresses one to take the view that environment is one of the great causes cf evolution. Therefore, we must bear in mind that this may be the cause acting on the anomalies mentioned above, and which therefore may by no means be anomalies, although, to be fair, one is bound to admit that this cuts both ways, and may invalidate or put out of court some of the seemingly correctly graduated examples I have given in my table. At the same time, one might mention that Darwin hardly makes out any case for his supposition that domestication affects fertility to such an extent as to cause species unfertile while wild to become fertile together in their domesticated forms. At the time I first wrote out the above table I felt quite con- fident that it was the proper thesis; since then, however, I hope I have learnt to put no very definite trust in anything. When we dabble in relationship between animals whose common progenitor we know not, the length of whose separation we know not, and whose blood affinities we know little of, we cannot expect our results to be always as we should expect. It might be permissible to speculate whether environment and other effects, which are said to produce the separation of species and cause their physical attributes to become different, can cause them to come together again, so that animals once sterile’ can once again converge and become so alike as to again breed. It might be possible for the germ plasm to be so affected, how- ever unlikely; this would result in anomalies, and such pheno- mena as species becoming fertile together in confinement, while - sterile in nature, as Darwin considered probable, but which might equally well be held to be improbable. All the animals in Class A., term them different. species, or genera, or what you will, one can only, independent of struc- ture, hold to be, through blood affinity, nothing more than Nature’s evoluting varieties, in the same way that the Cochin Fowl and the Minorca Fowl are varieties, or Newfoundland and Pug Dogs, and there is not much doubt that if these latter (having gone through exactly the same conditions of evolution 32 THE ZOOLOGIST. as they now have) were discovered wild, they would imme- diately be put down as different species, and held to be as more distinct than they now are. Returning again to birds and taking, for instance, a favourite example of those who are fond of quoting the “ extraordinary results of hybridisation,’ what can appear more unlikely (when we become familiar with their congeneric actions) than to expect the young of Chinese and common Geese to be sterile, although a Classification (apparently faulty) formerly separated them ? Again, how does an Amhurst Pheasant differ from a Gold more than an Azeel Fowl from a Hamburg? Why are the two former different ‘‘ species,” and the two latter different ‘‘ varieties ”’ ? These barriers would seem to be somewhat pedantic. Turning to the Anatide, let us take some six species and note their grouping :— 1. Plectropterus. P. D. S. Subfamily Plectropterine. aes ‘ . Rk —- — Obleshaga: R. D. S. ;Subfamily Anserine (Geese). ale thenaloper . R. D.S. 3. con ME: ais «Era De — } Subfamily Anatine (Ducks). BNAE. es tea bE Note.—P. = Sok of se covered with large plates. R. = metatarsus covered with reticulated scales. D. = windpipe dilated at lower end. §. = spur on wing. We thus see that Plectropterus (Spur-wing Geese) is piaced in one subfamily; Anser (true Geese) with the Upland Geese and Egyptian Geese (Chlephaga and Chenalopex) in a second, Anser- ine (Geese) ; and the Shelduck (Tadorna) and true Duck (Anas) in a third, Anatine (Ducks). From what I have been able to see of the natural habits, actions, dispositions, cross-breeding, and calls, I should consider them allied as follows (call it blood relationship, essence, germ plasm, physiological unity, or what you will) :— Anser (with Bernicla, &c.). : Geese. Plectropterus (?) hleeph Ghephrge Sheldrakes.- Chenalopex Tadorna : ; Anas (with Dajila, he &e.) : Ducks. RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 33 It would appear that they are so classed in the first list chiefly on account of the reticulations or plates on the meta- tarsus, general size, and length of leg. This grouping appears far from their true natures. All the birds that I have classed in my list as Sheldrakes are spiteful birds, with great similarity in habits and calls, and are all, I believe, infamous eating, while the peculiarities on which they are generally classed are perhaps parallelisms or independent mutations. _ All these birds hybridise together more readily as I have grouped them than with members of the other groups. Plectro- pterus may be only a possible inclusion. It has interbred with Chenalopex, however, but I am not altogether familiar with it. Chlephaga and Chenalopex have an individuality quite typical of Sheldrakes, that is, in the points I have named, and they no more look and act like Geese or Ducks than a black Donkey looks or acts like a black Horse. Mr. Finn, whom I quoted just now, and who has written an interesting account of the different waterfowl,* is, I believe, struck with this resemblance himself, and styles the larger of these birds, or some of them, ‘‘ overgrown Sheldrakes.” Chla- phaga (the most Goose-like), which as a group is often referred to as ‘“‘the Southern Brents,” may resemble to some extent Bernicla (which is apparently a true Goose), but it has none of a Goose’s ways or characteristics, neither has it any love for Geese, judging from how they hunt these birds about, when breeding, in a somewhat un-Goose-like manner. Chenalopex resembles Anser in no respect whatsoever, except in the reticulated metatarsus, and J'adorna, which, being the smallest, most resembles the Duck tribe, seems in every way dissimilar to these latter birds. IT have had a good deal to do with T'adorna in confinement, and having been born where these birds breed in large quanti- ties | have taken much notice of them and their natural habits. I have, for instance, when engaged in punt-gunning during very bitter weather (and when for several days and nights on end I would take up my quarters in a sailing boat), been particularly struck with the fact that I have never on any one single instance noticed Shelduck in company with any of the Anatine, even * ¢ Fancy Waterfowl’ (1900). Zool, 4th ser. vol, XVIII., January, 1914. D 34 THE ZOOLOGIST. when the weather has been so severe that these others have been driven up into more or less mixed bands. I have read that Tadorna has interbred with Anas; this is, of course, quite possible, but although I have seen many Sheldrake hybrids inter se, or rather between birds which I have classed as ‘‘ Shel- drakes’”’ above, I have never seen this one, and therefore imagine it to be rare at any rate, and as, where a large variety of Ducks are kept, it is not always possible to be sure of the parentage, it would be well to be certain as to this before accepting these crosses. The last uncongenial grouping, and one which seems by some naturalists so to be held, is in the Viverride, where we see the inodorous Genets classed with the strong-smelling Ichneumons. Ought not the Viverrine to come with the Feline under Felide, and the Herpestine to join Proteline and Hyenine under a family heading Herpestide ? While the Genets appear to be long-faced primitive Cats, the Ichneumons, in their genital parts, much resemble the Hyznas, and the two groups appear dissimilar. Ichneumons, when attacked by an opponent of superior mettle, have a curious method of defence: they turn upon their backs and seem to fold their hind quarters back over their bellies, protecting them- selves with their powerful jaws. (An Ichneumon easily kills a Ferret, which kills a Cat.) It is interesting to note that a Hyena, when overmatched, has somewhat the same method of defence when tackled, for instance, by the Lion, except that it is apt to wave its legs about in the air rather more. Perchance, if related, as it may be, to the Ichneumon, it has more difficulty in arranging a safe position for its long evoluted (?) legs. Far be it from me to give advice to any Hyena as to what it should do in such embarrassing circumstances, but, judging from what I have seen of the beast when so set upon, and from the fact that Hyznas have been found on the veldt with their legs bitten off but otherwise uninjured, it is possible it might come off better if it kept these tucked away after the fashion of its smaller relative ; for it appears likely that the Lion has con- siderable respect for its powerful jaws. To show how contradictory our classification is in indicating RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 35 kinship concerning such an important matter as the production of young (and incidentally the continuation of the race, even if only a mongrel one), one has only to summarise the instances given above, such as :-— The non-production of any young between members of the same species (Oryctolagus * cuniculus and O. huxleyi). Between members of the same genus (Bos taurus and B. bubalus). The production of sterile hybrids between those of another genus, Hquus (H. caballus and E. asinus). And the opposite results, such as the production of hybrids between members of even different families (Ligurinus and Acanthis). And the production of possibly fertile hybrids between different genera, as Cercopithecus and Cercocebus, Macacus and Cynopithecus, and Macacus and Papio. With a possible exception of Cercopithecus, I should imagine all the hybrids of the Cercopithecine would be fertile; a suppo- sition hardly likely to be proved either way, unless, indeed, the subject receives as much attention in the future as it has neglect in the past. (To be continued.) * More generally known as Lepus. 36 THE ZOOLOGIST. NOTES AND QUERIES. MAMMALIA. An Albino Water-Shrew.—It may be of interest to note that the Natural History Museum has just received a nearly perfect albino of the British Water-Shrew (Neomys fodiens bicolor). The upper surface is completely white except just across the shoulders, but the under surface shows a certain suffusion of brownish. The specimen was sent from ‘South Hampshire” by someone who did not enclose his name. Should he see this notice, I should be obliged if he would send me his name and address for entry in our Registers.—OLDFIELD Tomas (Natural History Museum, 8.W., Dec. 20th, 1913). AVES. Status of Blackcap and Garden-Warbler.—Mr. Butterfield asks for the experiences of other ornithologists in regard to the relative abun- dance of the Blackeap and Garden- Warbler.* The difficulty in forming a judgment, as he probably recognizes, is that of distinguishing the two birds’ songs; for it is hardly once in twenty times that you get a satisfactory view of the singer. When the Blackcap sings its whole song there should be no doubt as to its identity; the song ends with a brilliant passage such as never occurs in the Garden- Warbler’s. The Blackcap, however, often stops short of this final passage, and then there is less to distinguish it by. But though it is undeniably one of the nicer distinctions among birds’ notes, it is still usually not impossible. The Garden-Warbler’s song is quieter in manner and more level in tone; the Blackcap’s has more of the effect of sparkle and “‘ cross-hatching” among the notes. If my ear is to be trusted, it leaves me in no doubt about the correctness of Mr. Butterfield’s opinion. Wherever I go in early summer I hear more Garden-Warblers than Blackcaps. The fact struck me last May in two such widely separated counties as Northumberland and Sussex. The Lesser Whitethroat, curiously enough, is another bird which seems to retain an undeserved reputation for scarcity; curiously, because its song is so unmistakable that there should be no difficulty in estimating its relative numbers anywhere. There are parts of the * ‘The Zoologist,’ 1913, p. 431. NOTES AND QUERIES. 37 country, no doubt, where it is scarce—Northumberland is one of them—but in ordinary country in most parts of England it seeras to be common enough. It certainly is so, for example, in the plain of York and in Cheshire. In Sussex (last summer, at any rate) it was one of the commonest of the Warblers, and the “common” White- throat was singularly scarce. I do not think I should be wrong in stating that I heard twenty Lesser Whitethroats in Sussex for one common Whitethroat.—H. Leonarp Ginu (Newcastle-on-Tyne). Glossy Ibis in Norfolk—The Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) has again been found in Norfolk, one having been shot on Oct. 28th, 1913, at Acle, nine miles west of Yarmouth. Mr. Lowne, our local taxidermist, on dissecting this bird, found it to be a male. The visits of this species to Norfolk generally occur during the autumn months. The following notes relating to the past eleven years may be of interest :—Noy. 28th, 1902, one shot on the river Bure. August 22nd, 1903, one shot at Halvergate, Sept. 3rd, 1906, four seen flying over Breydon; these escaped. Dec. 2nd, 1909, one shot on the marshes between the river Bure and Breydon. Nov. 2nd, 1912, one shot at Fleggburgh, and another shot on the Burgh Marshes on Dec. 2nd in the same year. All these localities are within about ten miles of Yarmouth.—B. Dyr (Great Yarmouth). Ornithological Notes from Yorkshire.—fed-backed Shrike as a Breeding Species.—In the sixties a friend of mine showed me a pair of the above species which had nested, so he alleged, on Silsden Moor—which, however, is not a moor in the ordinary acceptation of the term, but embraced some rough ground in an elevated part two or three miles north of Keighley—the authenticity of which I never doubted. I communicated the facts to Mr. Nelson, who considered the evidence not satisfactory, but on what ground it is not stated (see ‘ Birds of Yorkshire,’ vol. i. p. 142). We have it, however, on the authority of S. L. Mosley that the Red-backed Shrike has nested near Keighley, and Mr. Walter Greaves, in his ‘List of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Hebden Bridge District,’ reports the nesting of this species, on the authority of J. Cunningham, at Dudwells in 1885 (‘Birds of Norland Clough’). The Red-backed Shrike is a rare nesting species in Yorkshire. One (in addition to the above case) of the most recent cases is reported by W. Guygell in 1889 on Oliver’s Mount, Scarborough. On Noy. 29th, 1913, a Swallow was seen flying over the river Calder between Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd, near Halifax. In the seventies I saw one flying about near Bingley for a few days, but 38 THE ZOOLOGIST. each day it seemed to be getting weaker, and I have little doubt it ultimately died of starvation. This is the only one I ever saw in this district in November. Recently I spent about a fortnight in Belgium, and what struck me most in bird life was the comparative scarcity of the House-Martin about the towns and villages I visited. I was pleased, however, at seeing a fair number breeding in Dinant. The Swallow was by far the commoner species, and in one of the busiest towns I visited, it could be seen darting about in the principal streets after insects, much after the manner with us of the House-Martin. November, 1913, had been a most remarkable month for a high average temperature. Various species of birds on December 3rd were feeding in the wood on elderberries and blackberries of good quality. The Blue Tit is very fond of elder- berries; indeed, the Tit family are very omnivorous in their feeding habits. I see the Marsh-Tit occasionally feeding upon the seeds of thistle, and H. B. Booth writes me that this species will feed some- times upon the softer portion of maize. On Nov. 3rd I heard the Song-Thrush singing almost as if it were May, at Bingley, I believe the only instance so late in the season.—H. P. BurterFiexp (Wilsden, Yorkshire). NOTICES (OF (NEW (BOOKS The Gannet, a Bird with a History. By J. H. Gurney, F.Z.S8. Witherby & Co. Tus is probably one of the largest books devoted to the history of a single bird. Mr. Gurney writes: ‘“‘ My conscience pricks me with having occupied five hundred and sixty pages with the history of one bird, but I console myself with the reflection that, had the bird been the Cuckoo or the Raven, the book would have been much longer.’’ Even now, if the Gannet’s behaviour had been recorded by some of our patient and qualified bird-watchers, this publication could have been increased in size, and then it would have been none too big, for Mr. Gurney has inaugurated a new departure in the literature of natural history which may well, and will doubtless, be followed by other natura- lists, though not, it is to be hoped, by the ordinary compiler. These pages are rich in topographical details and biographical reminiscences, and their author seems to have consulted most of the literature that it is possible to trace on the subject, some NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. 39 of the translations contributed by the late Prof. Newton being particularly valuable. Stress is iaid upon the probable great longevity of this bird, based on its habits and limited nidification, and referring to the visit made by Ray and Willughby to the Bass Rock in 1661, Mr. Gurney makes the interesting remark that ‘‘ there is nothing preposterous in the supposition that there may be Gannets living on the Bass Rock now which were there in Ray’s time, for we know nothing of the ages which birds attain to.”’ An interesting chapter on “‘ Mortality among Gannets and Liability to Accidents’ promotes views on avian life outside the Gannet limitation. Mr. Gurney is of opinion that, “‘so far as we can judge, death from old age is by no means the usual termination of a wild bird’s life. Reflection leads us to the rather startling conclusion that nine birds out of ten meet their deatns by accidents or by starvation.” Good argument can also be found against the uninformed agitation sometimes prevalent that a destruction of sea-birds (including Gannets) is necessary for the purposes of human fish supply; Nature can be better left to manage her own supply and demand. The Gannet has now found a biographer, and ornithology is enriched by a really good book, which will be authoritative and long-lived like its subject. Bird Life throughout the Year. By Joun H. Satter, D.Sc. Headley Brothers. Tuts is a pleasantly written book detailing the avian events, arrivals and economy which, under normal circumstances, may be looked for and observed during the different months of the year in this country. It is well illustrated, many of the coloured plates, however, being taken ‘‘from cases in British Museum, South Kensington.’’ Dr. Salter, on the whole, believes in the efficacy of game-preserving as a protection to many of our smaller birds. ‘‘ It may be likened to the arm of the law which descends with crushing force on the evil-doer, while promoting the happiness and security of the general public”; and further on we read: *‘ Comparison with the state of things which prevails upon the Continent brings the conclusion that England is pre- eminently the country of small birds, because nowhere else is 40 THE ZOOLOGIST. game-preserving so general. Only let the matter be carried on with rather more discrimination and humanity, and every naturalist will express his indebtedness to the system.” The system doubtless, on the whole, works for good, but the danger is in the amount of ornithological intelligence of the ‘‘ keeper,” and the restraining influence of his employer. The operations of an ignorant and unchecked keeper, from the zoological Seo of view, are often deplorable. In this book the general lover of birds ill find much inter- esting information. EDITORIAL GLEANINGS. Framinco In LanestoneE Harsour.—Mr. W. Kingdom-Murrill; writing in the ‘Shooting Times’ of December 20th, 1913, reports that an adult Flamingo was shot in Langstone Harbour, near Ports- mouth, on Wednesday, December 10th. Although the bird showed no signs of captivity, naturally there is a doubt as to whether it may have been an escape, though there is nothing against the supposition that the successive south-westerly gales may account for the appear- ance of this southern species on our coast. It is, at any rate, the first known example that has been recorded from Langstone Harbour ; but in November, 1883, a similar adult specimen was obtained near the Beaulieu River, nor far distant. At the Quarterly Meeting of the Kent and Essex Sea Fisheries Committee, held recently (1913) at the Fishmongers’ Hall, London, Dr. Murie reported that this season there had been very large quan- tities of fish, called “‘ Fenians,” caught off Leigh and Southend. These fish were like a small whitebait, and it appeared that they came periodically when the wind and tide were under certain special conditions. Mr. Hussey said that more Conger Hels had been caught this season that he had ever known. Off Deal, a Mr. Olbey had a large catch of Congers, nineteen of them weighing 316 lb. The largest weighed 40 lb., others 37 lb., 36 lb., and down to 10 lb. Off Dungeness, also, large quantities of Pilchards had been taken, and this was exceptional. At Deal it appeared that the temperature of the water was 3:1 higher than the average temperature in Novem- ber for the last ten years. Several members also spoke of the fish mentioned by Dr. Murie, and said there were millions of them off the Kent coast. They were called “ whiting pout” there. NEO mS Deseristion of the eee and Bogs ot Birds which Been in Britain, warp Newman. — Srconp Eprrion, with Directions for Collecting and rvation; a Chapter on Bird-skinning; and Description and Woodeuts of Instruments necessary to the Collector. By Minter Curisty. Cloth extra. : . Pricels. Postage 2d. HE INSECT HUNTER’S COMPANION. _ Instrue- tions for collecting and preserving Butterflies and Moths, Beetles, Bees, Flies, &. By the Rev. Josnru Greene, M.A. — Fifth Edition, revised and tended by A.B. Fary. The Chapter on Coleoptera by Epwarp Nrwman; on ymenoptera by FrupERIcK SMITH; on Breeding Gall-flies by Epwarp A. Fircs. here to find moths and butterflies; how to catch ; how to bring home without ury; how to kill; how to set; how to find the caterpillars ; how to manage ; yw to feed; how to breed the perfect insects ; and numerous similar subjects. ice 1s. 6d., postage 2d. “Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, ae Pp, 144. Price 10s. Bird Pallector’: Medley BC. ARNOLD, MLA. With Twelve full-page Coloured cee and Eight Un- ured, from the Author's Drawings. Illustrated in the Text eventy Process Blocks. A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore-Shooters. Foolscap 8vo, Cloth, gilt top, 160 pp. + blanks for Notes. Price Qs. 6a. OCKET- BOOK of BRITISH et By E. F. M. ELMS. FORMATION is given respecting all British birds that breed in these islands, and those that are regular visitors at one time of the year or another, with rks as to a species being resident, intermigratory, or migratory. Hach species arately treated under the headings: Haunts, including distribution ; Plumage, y characterizing the predominant and striking features, with differentiation of es nearly alike; Language, with song and various cries; Habits; Food; Nidi- on, with site and materials of nest ; and number and description of Eggs. Cloth, gilt, price 2s. 6d. Postage 2d. Second Edition. 7AMILIAR INDIAN BIRDS GORDON DALGLIESH. Illustrated by Half-tone Blocks from the Drawings of . R. Hi. BUNTING ong HAH. B. NEILSON. WEST, NEW MAN @ CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. j ace dahas i: Bile Tee, On some Gulls observed in Ireland, Rout Warre en, | 21 _ Relationship of Species, A. Panton, 28. oe : ~ Notres anp Qurrius :— iets Mammatta.—An Albino Water- Sioa Oldfield Poh 36 ; sei ‘Aves.—Status of Blackeap and Garden- Warbler, #. Leonard Gill, 36 Ibis in Norfolk, B. Dye, 37. Ornithological Notes from Yorksh Butterfield, 37. : as Noticrs oF New Books, 88-40. : GLEANINGS, 40. SUBSCRIPTIONS to the ‘ZOOL LOGIST ’ ie “1914 f are now due. The amount is 12s. post tree. Cass for binding 1913 volume can be had for Is. 2d. post free from the Publishers, who will also undertake the binding of volumes at 2s. each post free on return r London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO. § 54, Hatton Garden ; 982 pp. CrotH Extra: 6s. 6d. Post FREE. Aristotle s Researches in Natural Science By THOMAS EK. LONES, M.A, LLD. BSe. With Illustratwe Drawings. Contents: i Introductory—Method of Investigation—Celestial, Atmospheric, and Terrestrial Phenomena—Light and Colour, Heat and Sound—Animalgy Plants, and Inanimate Matter—Dissections—Homaomeria—Anhomeeo: - meria and their functions—Animal Motion—Generation and Develops ment—Classification of Animals—Anaima, or Animals without Blood=— Enaima, or Animals with Blood. a oe London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden, z. g BOTANICAL DRYING PAPER For Drying Flowering Plants, Ferns, & Seaweeds. 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Limited, Be PRICE ONE SHILLING. ticles and Communications intended for publication, and Books and Pamphlets for review, addressed ‘ The Editor of ‘ The Zoologist,’ c/o West, Newman &Co., 54, Hatton Garden. eee cS) poe pan Me lemy wip wer wl) wee a Age oe ge) en we enn DA:)6 6h Canth. Nanwann. ~ j PENTERS of books on scientific subjects gene- LITHOGRAPHIC, CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHIC, ANI mulgus jotaka, Phoyx manillensis, Puffinus tenuirostris, Larus — | East. Prices much below usual rates. Lists free. i svat LETTERPRESS PRINTERS. ee 54, HATTON GARDEN, LONDON, E.C. > a ee eed rally, but especially of books relating to Natural History, Medicine, and Surgery. With these sub- jects artists and workmen are especially familiar: artists are on the spot ready to receive instruction — direct from authors at any time. Lithographers for various Government and other Museums, and for learned Societies in London, India, South Africa, &c. 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For particulars see our Catalogue, one hundred pages. 36, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. ee eae ee ee ee POR SALE.—Choice Eggs in Sets, with full data:— — Ossigfraga gigantea, Apenodyles longirostris, Diomedea melanophrys, D. nigripes, D. albatus, Geocichla varia, G. sibirica. — Cettia cantans, Emberiza fuscata, E. ciopsis, C. yessoensis, Capri- — crassirostris, Turnix taigoor, and many other good species from Far CHARLES JEFFERYS, Naturalist, Bath (England), en é 2 ar at Zool. 1914. Plate I. 7 HOOK [MAGNIFIED] SEXUALLY MATURE SEGMENTS. GRAVID SEGMENTS DILEPIS ( Mistte Torus ] THE ZOOLOGIST No. 872.—February 15th, 1914. PARASITISM IN RELATION TO BIRDS. By H. Victor Jonzs (Honours man in Zoology, and late Quasi Demonstrator in Zoology at the University College, Bangor, North Wales.) (Puate I.) PaRasitTism is a subject which at the present time is offering a wide field of investigation to biologists, especially so to bacteriologist and parasitologist proper. Upwards of thirty Protozoa—representing the main division of the group—are known at some stage or other of their life-history to be parasitic in the human body ; the presence of which causes diseases of a most vicious nature, such, for example, as “ sleeping sickness,” due to Trypanosoma gambiense. The so-called Leish- man-Donovan body, the parasite of dum-dum fever or spleno- megaly, and many others of a similar nature may be cited. No less important is the parasitism as exhibited by the phyla Platyhelminthes and Nematohelminthes. These phyla show different degrees of parasitism, as will be seen from the following classification :— Phyla. Family. Degree of Parasitism. | Turbellaria. All free-living. 3 Endo-parasitic. Platyhelminthes. | Trematoda. | Ecto-parasitic. Cestoda. All endo-parasitie. These families are undoubtedly connected with one another. Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., February, 1914. E 42 THE ZOOLOGIST. The Turbellarians are all free-living, with the exception of a few marine forms which have taken to parasitism. The Trematodes are all parasitic, showing ecto-parasitism as in Polystomiwm integerrimum, and endo-parasitism asin the Liver Fluke (Distomum hepaticum). The Cestodes, on the other hand, are all endo-parasitic. Taking next the phylum Nematohelminthes, we can tabulate it thus :— Phylum. Family. Degree of Parasitism. Nematoda. Free-living and para- sitic forms. ; Nematomorpha. Also free-living and Nematohelminthes. parasitic forms. Acanthocephala. Solely endo-para- sitic. From the above we see that the Nematoda show free living and parasitic forms. Such is the case also with the Nematomorpha. But when we come to the family Acanthocephala, it ig seen that it has been - specially constituted for the justification of a few peculiar genera, of which Echinorhynchus is the best known, and whose larvae live in arthropod and the adult in vertebrate hosts respectively. This paper will deal chiefly with the Cestoda, Acanthocephala, and Nematoda which were found in the alimentary canal of some of our common birds. An attempt has also been made to show the relation, if any, between the Mallophaga, or lice, found on the birds and the number of parasites found in the intestines. The large table* will show the month, locality, food of bird, and position of para- site when found. The life-history of Cestodes in general might here be stated with advantage. Life-history.—Cestodes are exclusively endo-parasitic, 2. €., they are found in the tissue or canal of the host upon which they prey. The larval life is lived in the tissues or chambers of invertebrate animals; while the adult stage of the Cestode is passed in some vertebrate host, with the exception of Archigetes sp. * A single page only of this table is here printed. PARASITISM IN RELATION TO BIRDS. 43 It is thus seen that the Cestoda illustrate enteric parasitism with entire loss of alimentary canal. They usually alternate between two hosts, and show a cestoid and cystic stage, such as, for instance, J’enia cenurus, alternating between Dog (cestoid) and Sheep (cystic). A general survey of Cestoda furnishes the following characters :— (1) Elongated flat worms with their cuticle and generally segmented body. (2) Head may have hooks and suckers present. (3) No mouth or alimentary canal; food being absorbed osmotically over the whole body-surface. (4) Life-history of two phases :— (i) The cystic. _ (ii) The cestoid. (5) No sense-organs. (6) One or two longitudinally excretory vessels. (7) Reproductive organs discontinuous from one proglottis to the other. (8) Endo-parasitic. Each joint, or proglottis, contains at first male genitalia; later on the female organs are developed, and ultimately self- fertilization takes place. Thus it is seen that the proglottides near the head, or scolex, contain testes. Next come the ones bearing testes and ovaries, and lastly appear segments bearing only fertilized ova, and thus bearing embryos. A controversy has here arisen as to whether the Tapeworm is to be considered as a colony, and that each segment is a complete animal, or whether the whole number of segments is to be taken as a single animal. Steenstrup, and, following his sug- gestions, Leuckart, Von Siebold, Van Beneden, and others, came to the conclusion that a jointed Tapeworm is really a colony composed of two generations :— (1) The head and neck being derived from the larva. (2) The segments from the intercalated growth of the neck region thus constituting a second generation. This colonial view was held from 1851-1880. Recent work has, | however, shown that the Cestode, or Tapeworm, is more probably | a monozoon. 44 THE ZOOLOGIST. Hatschek and Lang held the intermediate position. Collection and Preservation.—The Tapeworms of birds are for the most part found in the alimentary canal (sometimes in the mesentery, having perforated the canal-wall). They are found in a fresh bird fixed to the wall of the canal by means of their suckers, or hooks, or both; the rest of the body, or the strobila, lies loosely in the lumen, and is never very extended, but generally contracted to a very short dimension, and always lies in the direction of the cloaca, due to the flow of excreta. The position occupied by these parasites in the alimentary canal is shown in the following tables, from which it will be seen that the greater number of parasites was obtained from the ileum or small intestine. Method of Procedure.—The bird to be examined was laid ona dissecting board and the skin cut open from neck to cloaca, and deflected on each side so as to thus expose the pectoral muscles. The pectoral muscles were cut away, and the sternum completely removed. By doing this the whole of the viscera is exposed in siti. Next, the state of the viscera was commented upon in the following table, and any Tapeworms lying in the mesentery were collected :— Number of Condition of Ce pe Ah VAR ote Number of Specimen. Bird. 3 Tapeworm. — Good. vel — — Poor. |. Patric: — = Poor. Shrunken. — = Fair. | Distended. — The whole of the alimentary canal was then taken out and pinned out on a wax table under water. Next the canal was laid open by means of a pair of scissors, and the contents examined. This was also done to the ceca (if present). The large parasites were picked out, if loose, but if still adhering to the canal-wall they were allowed to remain for some ten minutes, when they release their hold and can then be bottled. The larger ones having been thus obtained, the fluid PARASITISM IN RELATION TO BIRDS. 45 contents of the alimentary system were poured into a large vessel, ‘aud a small quantity of a fixing agent * added; any small and transparent Tapeworms were by this means caused to become opaque and easily seen. The Tapeworms obtained were allowed to wash in running water for about two or three hours, during which time they become extended to the full. Fixing. — Next comes the fixing, which is performed by immersion of the worms in some fixing solution for a certain length of time. The fixing solution which acted best was the following :—Five per cent. corrosive sublimate, one per cent. acetic acid, ninety-four per cent. water. The worms were allowed to remain in this fixing soiution for about twenty minutes. Ofcourse, in the case of the large ones more time was allowed. Washing.—They were next transferred to running water to thoroughly wash out the fixing, a time generally extending over about twelve hours. The next process was to pass the worms through varying srades of alcohol, commencing with sixty per cent. alcohol, then seventy per cent., next eighty per cent., finishing with ninety per cent. The time of immersion in each case being about twice the former ; that is, four hours in sixty per cent. alcohol, and eight hours in seventy per cent., sixteen hours in eighty per cent. alcohol. Staining.—F rom the ninety per cent. alcohol the worms were passed into some suitable staining solution. Alcoholic borax- carmine was found to be most suitable for staining in toto; methyl green was also used, but not so successfully. After being in the staining solution for about twenty-four hours, the speci- mens were toned down to the requisite depth of colour by immersion in sixty per cent. alcohol, to which nitric acid had been added—three drops of acid to one hundred cubic cms. of alcohol. Dehydratin.—The stained Tapeworms were then again run through the varying strengths of alcohol, ending up with abso- lute alcohol to rid them of the water. From the absolute alcohol they were next transferred to xylol as a clearing agent. Oil of cloves was found to make them too brittle for mounting. * Two per cent. corrosive sublimate in alcohol. 46 THE ZOOLOGIST. The specimens were then mounted in Canada balsam and labelled. The following is a list of birds examined, showing the average number of ecto-parasites and endo-parasites per individual :— Ecto-parasite Endo-parasite Species sod: per individaalelipeeindaaitleeds Starling (Stwrnus vulgaris)........cscccceeee 6:00 1:24 Blackbird (Turdus merula).........000.00.++ 18-00 35°10 Rook (Corvus frugilegus) ........2...--000 160-40 — Thrush (Turdus musicus) ..........0cce0-: 12-70 15:00 Robin (Hrithacus rubecwla)............000005 2-00 0:50 Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) .........seeceeeee = 1:00 Green Linnet (Hmberiza citrinella) ...... — — Bullfinch (Pyrrhula ewrop@a) ............ — -- Sparrow (Passer domesticus) ............4+ — — Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) ..........0664 2 (hundreds , of eggs) — Peregrine (Falco peregrimus) ........5.004+ eggs — Curlew (Numenius arquatad) ..........0000 120 49:50 Oystercatcher (He@matopus ostralegus) ... 20°30 4:20 Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) .............5. 9:00 -— Redshank (Totanws calidris) ..........06.4. — Plover (A’gialitis hiaticola) ............44. 55 7:00 Woodpecker (Dendrocopus minor)......... | — — Tt (Acredula camdatd)\ 2...025.-b.o6ens J2eee | — — Mudlark (Anthas obscwrus).........s00eee eee 2-50 1-20 Snipe (Gallinago ca@lestis) .............0200 1-00 — Chaffinch (Fringilla celebs) ......6.....06 | oe -— Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus) — 2 Herring Gull (L. argentatus) ......... ..... — 1 Tawny Owl (Syrniwm aluco) ........0...446 - _ Twenty-four different species of birds were thus examined. The blanks are due to the fact that comparatively few birds of that species were examined, and therefore no data of any value could be obtained for the other columns. From the above table, rough as it is, there seems to be a relation between the number of lice externally and the number of parasites internally, with the exception of the Rook and Hawks, in which no endo-parasites were found, probably due to the abundance of gastric fluid secreted, and which thus limits the possible number of endo-parasites to a very few, namely, those PARASITISM IN RELATION TO BIRDS. 47 which are very highly specialized in relation to the environment of very intensified gastric secretion. N.B.—The number of endo-parasites seems to increase with the increase of ecto-parasites, which lends itself to the assump- tion that the lice may serve as intermediate hosts in most species of birds. It is a well known fact that the greater number of lice are found on the head region, and especially near the mouth, which fact makes it conceivable that the parasite can easily find access into the alimentary canal of the final host (bird) from this possible intermediate host (lice), of which as yet so few have been discovered to the hosts. The parasites found were Cestodes and Nematodes, and on examining the number of birds investigated, and the number of these parasites found, the proportion of Cestodes to Nematodes proved to be 4:4 Cestodes for every one Nematode; showing that 4-4 times more Cestodes were found than Nematodes. On the other hand, connecting the number with the numbers of birds infested, it was found that :— Thirty-two per cent. birds infested by Cestodes. Twenty-five per cent. birds infested by Nematodes. The following is a table with a classification of parasites found in the different birds :— Parasite. Starling. | Thrush. | Blackbird./L.M.Gull.! Curlew. Dilepis undula ...... Cheanotenia parina 2 eer eesseeoeseesesceas Monopylidium mus- CUlOSWM .......4+... Family Hymenouepipip@ (Raillet & Henry). Family Diagnosis. TA@NIOIDEA. (1) Scolex with an armed rostellum or without. (2) Hooks on rostellum, not hammer-shaped. 48 THE ZOOLOGIST. (3) Usually unarmed. (4) A single, or, rarely, a double set of reproductive organs in each segment. | (5) Genital pores marginal and bilateral, unilateral, or regu- larly or irregularly alternate. Subfamily DipHynuing. (1) Rostellum armed or rarely absent. (2) Suckers unarmed. : (8) A single set, or, rarely, a double set of reproductive organs in each segment. (4) Uterus sac-like, simple or lobulated, or not persistent, breaking down into numerous egg-capsules, each con- taining one or several eggs. (5) Pora-uterine organs not developed, adults in birds, mammals, and reptiles. The diagnostic character of each genus will now be given also :— Genus Diuepris (Weinland, 1858). (From Cestodes of North American birds, by Ransom.) Generic Diagnosis. (1) The rostellum armed with a double crown of hooks, which possess long dorsal but short vertical root and a long blade. (2) The inner longitudinal muscle layer consists of numerous bundles. (3) Genital pores unilateral. (4) Genital canals pass dorsal of the longitudinal excretory vessels and nerves. (5) Vas deferens coiled. (6) Seminal vesice not developed. (7) Testicles in medullary portion of segment surrounding the female glands at the sides and behind, typically numerous (40-50), but may be reduced in number to 7. (8) Uterus sac-like, with few or numerous out-pocketings. Adults in birds and animals. PARASITISM IN RELATION TO BIRDS. 49 Family HymMENoLEepipipm, genus MonopyLipium. Generic Diagnosis. DIPHYLLINE. (1) Rostellum armed with a double or single crown of hooks. (2) A single set of reproductive organs in each segment. (3) Genital pores irregularly alternate, rarely unilateral. (4) Genital canals pass between the longitudinal excretory vessels and dorsal of the longitudinal nerve, or dorsal of both excretory vessels. (5) Testicles numerous (20-40 or more) behind the female glands, or also lateral on both sides of the latter. (6) Vas deferens coiled ; seminal vesicle absent. (7) Uterus breaks down into egg-capsules, each containing one or several eggs. Adults in birds: Starling. Family HymenoLepipipm, genus ANomaTmnia (Cohn). Generic Diagnosis. DIPHYLLINE. (1) Rostellum with double crown of hooks, with long dorsal and short neutral root and long blade. (2) Genital pores irregularly alternate near the anterior margin. (3) Genital canals pass between the longitudinal excretory vessels and dorsal of the nerve. (4) Vas deferens coiled ; seminal vesicle absent. (5) Testicles numerous in posterior position of segment. (6) Uterus sac-like. Adults in birds and mammals: Thrush. Type species :—(1) Anomatenia constricta in Thrush; (2) A. nymphea in Curlew. As will be seen from the above, the Starling is the bird which seems to be infested by the greatest variety of Cestodes. The number of Cestodes collected was numerous, but the identification became very uncertain, due to the difficulty of making out the precise positions of the genital ducts and genital organs in general, owing to the fact that time did not permit of the microtoming of the segments, which in the majority of cases is essential for identification of the species. 50 THE ZOOLOGIST. Nematodes.—Of the Nematodes present the greater number by far belonged to the class Acanthocephala of the genus Hchino- rhynchus. The Hehinorhynchus larva is found in such intermediate hosts as the following :—(1) Amphipod (Gammarus pulezx) ; (2) Isopod (Ascellus aquaticus); (3) Beetles, Flaps, &c.; (4) Grubs of Cockchafer. Observation. From this it is seen that the intermediate host is probably one of the insects contained in the diet of the bird. The Echinorhynchus proportion to the other Nematodes found was 4-1; Round Worms to Thorn-headed Worms (Acantho- cephala) as 1-4. Acanthocephala.—This group embraces a small series of para- sites which in general appearance resemble the Nematode Round Worms. They differ, however, essentially in possessing scolices covered with spines. They are destitute of digestive organs. The species are entozoal in habit, abounding particularly in reptiles and fishes. The part table (p. 53) serves to show the method of treatment in dissection, an attempt being made to show the contents of stomach and the condition of the bird. The following abbrevia- tions are used :—V.G.C. = Very good condition; G. C. = Good condition; F. C.=F air condition; P.C. = Poor condition. Summary. A few words here will not be out of place upon the im- portance of the relation of the diet of the bird to the bird itself. W. P. Pycraft, in his admirable little book on ‘ Bird Life,’ has a chapter on the ‘‘ Foods of Birds,” in which he comments upon the following points. The Wrybill Plover has its bill turned sharply to one side to enable it to pick out Crustacea from under the stones. This fact at once confines the Wrybill Plover to a diet of Crustacea for the greater part of its sustenance, and therefore whatever parasites the Wrybill may have will no doubt be connected and related to the diet of Crustacea. The South American Hoatzin has made its crop do the work PARASITISM IN RELATION TO BIRDS. 51 of a gizzard. This hampers it in flight by the extra weight in front, and has even altered the shape of its breast-bone. In the stomach of the Great Crested Grebe, which lives on fish, we never find stones or pebbles, but only feathers; why so no one has hitherto explained. Tradition has it that the Snipe and Woodcock live by “‘ suction,’ consequently they are cooked without the removal of the entrails. These facts show what a vital relation exists between the food (therefore the method of feeding) and the structure of the bird. . In the same way a vital connection no doubt exists between the food and the parasite infesting the bird. Quoting Robert Newstead’s records from the supplement to the ‘ Journal of the Board of Agriculture’ of Dec. 9th, 1908, on the ‘‘ Food of British Birds,” it is seen that from his observations the insects chiefly found. in the stomach contents, putting them in order of fre- quency, are :— (1) Weevils (Rhynchophora). (2) Dung Beetles (Scarabaeidae). (3) Two-winged flies and their larva (Leather Jackets). Then comes a scale of others which we will neglect. He ultimately comes to the conclusion that birds on the whole are beneficial to the interests of horticulture and agriculture. Hach species of birds, he states, has its own particular diet. These observations by so able an authority confirm the fact that the probability of finding the solution to the occurrence of particular parasites in particular species of birds lies in the parti- cular diet characteristic of that species. : FuRTHER OBSERVATIONS. Occurrence of Extra Ceca in Birds Examined.—An exami- nation of the table shows the presence of extra ceca in birds examined. The c#ca, in most cases, were granular in com- position, and the lumen was very small. They varied from z-inch to #-inch in length, and generally occurred about nine inches above the ordinary ceca. Most of the Mudlarks* showed extra ceca. * Local name for Rock-Pipit (Anthus obscurws). 52 THE ZOOLOGIST. Abnormalities. — The abnormalities observed among the number of Tapeworms collected were few. The chief diversions from the normal type were :—(1) Interpolated segments; (2) Perforated segments; (3) Irregularity of the genital organs. (1) Interpolated Seqgments.—Here the extra segments were triangular in shape and wedged in between two normal segments. No genital organs occurred in these interpolated segments. (2) Perforated Segments.—Three cases of this abnormality were observed. The perforation was clean and not jagged, and showed for about three segments. (3) Irregularity of Genital Organs.—In a Cestode from the Plover some of the segments showed the genital openings to be irregularly disposed, instead of unilateral. In conclusion, it may be stated that several of the parasites, about fifty, were permanently stained, mounted, and duly labelled. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) ‘Encyclopedia Britannica.’ (2) ‘ Catalogue of Entozoa, 1853, of the British Museum.’ (8) ‘The Journal, Board of Agriculture.’ ‘‘The Food of British Birds,” by Newstead. (4) ‘ Wild Birds Useful and Injurious,’ by Archibald. (5) ‘Tniod Cestodes of North American Birds,’ by Ransom. 1909. (6) ‘Parasites. Entozoa,’ by Cobbold. (7) ‘ Agricultural Zoology,’ by Theobald. (8) Cambridge Natural History, ‘ Protozoa.’ (9) . at - ‘Worms.’ (10) ‘Lancet,’ 1883-7, 1877, 1868. *SUUIOM -odey, Z% ‘OUON “Un 4oa YT “QUON BOBO *SULIOA -adey, OT *sopoqsen % *apisyno uo = yshO poureyzuoyH ‘aol, “q90810] ‘auo “woTy ‘OUON|-1od [eysIp Uy ‘unl y ‘opond "SULTON. punoy 09-0¢ suIOMadB e $ereydeo -OTUBOV Z S900} -QULON F ‘Opoy -BUION T ‘ydosnp ‘yourg Arequoulpy UL UOTISO,{ “SOLGIS VV : ‘opIsvared -Opuny "BIOMOL *PVoOH *[e19UIy) “pBeH *[B19TIX) UOMISOg “sno -1aWINN ‘eseyd “OTe IN ‘ovisvavd -OFOOL "om ‘atqvyjaso A “eT q84 -990A {SaTVOS OU { SaTjoOq ‘Teter ‘aTqejosaa AT{SOUL ‘Tnyyuetd A10A Soave] OTVOG *AVITIAIN}VO VdIVT T ‘@Arvy [Tews Z ‘{aeprids ‘ST[IYS puw aarvy Z foauo [[VWIs [ puv so]jeeq oDIVT C *poysastpun 4B iT ‘qlas S {joys pus BAIV] T ‘Sopjooq snoxrwNny ‘au0g jo a0erd o81VBT] {ST[OYS pus wAaavy gt apjooq T ‘BAIV] T ' SoIpod ogy F {SITVY JO ‘ON {S9vO “sad Z ‘aseqaoy 07491] At0A { syTpAUS puUv BAIR, $G s]foys [Teg *YOVUloyG UL poo GT Gorey 66 oe Torey “YPUOTN “UByOOF Toye AN -AeyuRyy| *(epeut) ysnayy, “UBYydey 9 °9 -ILBJULTT ‘(ayeun) oor ‘rosueg| *(aywure}) SpMoy z ‘UBIooy 0°) -areyueyy|*(*utey) parqsporlg “UBYyoo} 0°) -areyuryq] (eyeurey) surpreyg ‘DA ‘r0Sueg) (e7BUtey) SUIpTBg ‘Ded “roSung|'(eTBULey) SUTpIyG 0°) ‘ro8urg| ‘(eTBut) Surparyg ‘a ‘roSurg|'(eyBvUtey) Surprvyg 10) 19) roSueg| ‘(eyem) Surpiwyg 10) 19) ‘roSurg| *(oyeur) surpre7g "UBTOOT -rreyuryy| ‘(epsur) sarpreyg “AqTVOOTT “Par. eA THE ZOOLOGIST. COROPHIUM LONGICORNE: AN ORNITHOLOGICAL STUDY OF A CRUSTACEAN. By F.-J. Srupss. Durine the summer of 1913 I spent some weeks as the guest of Mr. J. Franklin Kershaw at his house on the Kent Estuary, in Westmorland; and, as the garden where we spent much of our time reaches down to the tide-mark, I was able to make a long series of connected observations on the animal life of the sands. Besides the wide areas of vegetated salt-marsh, there is a great stretch of level sand which is covered by the sea only during the highest tides once a fortnight; and in each intervening fourteen days there is a period of over a week when the shore is never covered and remains quite dry. For my present purpose I took an area of one square mile of sand lying between Arnside and Sandside. The sand here is somewhat muddy, and, between the tides, unusually firm and smooth of surface. A motor cycle (as I noticed one day) leaves a mark no more than an eighth of an inch deep; yet, when I held an ordinary garden spade upright on the dry sand at the edge of a pool, and rocked the handle gently from side to side without applying any downward pressure, the implement in less than a couple of minutes sank so deeply that it could not be withdrawn by a direct pull. These remarkable quicksands, which occur on many parts of this coast, sometimes collapse beneath one’s feet in an alarming manner, although a moment before the surface had been hard, dry, and apparently solid. This square mile of firm level sand in front of the house— and I exclude now the salt-marsh, the permanent pools, and the regular channel of the river—supports a wonderfully simple invertebrate fauna and practically no plants. Once or twice I noticed a faint green tinge over a few square inches of sand, possibly due to the alga Halosphera; and, very rarely, a few fronds of Fucus were left behind by the tides. The molluscs A STUDY OF A CRUSTACEAN. bon Tellina and Hydrobia, abundant lower down the estuary, were here very scarce ; and the only worm was Nereis dumerilit, which existed in very scanty numbers in burrows half a yard deep, and was apparently absent from large parts of the ground. Arent- cola, although abundant in Morecambe Bay, and at the mouth of the estuary, did not occur on the area | examined at Sandside. The dominant animal was the Amphipod crustacean, Coro- phium longicorne; so far as I know, there was no part of the shore free from this organism. It burrows in the sandy mud, making U-shaped passages about two inches in depth, and throwing small castings on the surface. In an aquarium these castings take the form of fairly stable tubes projecting for half an inch or so above the sand, but in the moving waters out of doors, or on the exposed surfaces, the material is merely piled up at the mouth of the burrow. The castings indicate the presence of the animals; and, as I have said, this square mile of sand was dotted with them. Their number varied, but I did not take the trouble to count the castings; I did, however, make many counts of the numbers of crustaceans present in different square. inches of sand, never seeing Jess than fourteen, nor more than thirty-five. Near Humphrey Head, on the Lancashire coast, the animal is unevenly distributed, being Secu from the pure sand, and abundant in the muddier gutters; and in these I found that a single square inch of sand contained over fifty crustaceans in various stages of development. In September Mr. A. Rodgers, examining the shore at Silverdale for me, found them quite absent from the great stretches of the comparatively pure sand. For the present investigation round numbers will be quite sufficient, and we can take twenty as the number of crustaceans inhabiting each square inch of the shore at Sandside. Hleven animals of various sizes picked at random and drained on blotting-paper weighed altogether exactly two grains, and this gives us a total of over seven hundred tons of these crustaceans for the square mile. The preponderance of Corophium over all other forms of visible invertebrate life enables us to dismiss the molluses and worms, and the resulting simplicity allows us to consider the subject from an interesting point of view. The burrows I examined never reached a greater depth than two inches, and most of them were little more than an inch. I 56 THE ZOOLOGIST. know nothing relating to their enemies when the water covered the sands, but clearly during the dry week of each fortnight they could only be preyed upon by birds; and my observations were ~ directed towards the latter creatures. Here was a matter of seven hundred tons of food lying a couple of inches beneath the surface, and, one would think, open to the attacks of many shore birds. From July 23rd to August 18th, with one or two slight breaks, I was either on the sands or within sight or earshot of them at all states of the tide, and all parts of the day; the keen eyes of my wife and of my host were also pressed into these studies. The results are interesting chiefly from their nega- tive character. The actual channel was comparatively rich in life—Shrimps (Mysis sp.), immature Herring, Sprats, Spotted Gobies, Flounders, Sea Trout, and Sand Hels. From the refuse thrown up by the nets of the salmon fishers I took a Smelt and many of the curious Aphya minuta, our smallest vertebrate. These no doubt were the attraction for a flock of about a score of Arctic Terns (Sterna macrura) and one Little Tern (S. minuta) that appeared on August 8th. A heronry two miles away was seldom represented on my area, and I never here saw a bird fishing. Curlews were noisy and moving all the time, but as they confined themselves to the tidal pools which I knew to be full of young Flounders, Gobies, Shrimps, &c., and as I never actually saw them working the uncovered sands, I will omit these also. Twice in July I observed parties of eight or ten Dunlins (Tringa alpina)—in full breeding plumage, and perhaps belonging to the large race— feeding on Corophium ; on both occasions they were accompanied by a pair of Ring Plovers (4¢@gialitis hiaticola). The Common Sandpiper (Totanus hypoleucus) kept strictly to the water’s edge, as did the few Redshanks (7’. calidris) that were about up to the first days of August. The Green Sandpiper (7. ochropus) did not appear until the 18th, when I saw one in a gutter on the marsh. The Lapwing (Vanellus vulgaris) was constantly pre- sent at the edges of the richer pools, and a small number—not more than thirty—were generally to be seen about the wetter portions of the newly uncovered sands. Possibly these were feeding on Corophium, but this is doubtful; in one instance the small shell Hydrobia ulve was the attraction. A STUDY OF A CRUSTACEAN. 57 The only other wader coming to my notice was the Oyster- catcher (Hematopus ostralegus), a common bird in this part of England. On August 14th a flock that I estimated to contain six hundred birds came up the river, and we saw two other large bodies join the first one. Altogether there must have been not less than a thousand birds—more, one thought, than could have been hatched in the whole of England. After performing a number of striking aerial evolutions they vanished over More- cambe Bay, and we saw them no more. The regular “‘garrison” — of my square mile consisted of about eight Oystercatchers. These were very tame, coming to within a few feet of the garden, and sometimes I saw one prod the dry sand with its bill, obviously in search of Corophiwm; but after perhaps a score of thrusts the bird would return to the pool. The marks of the bill on the level surface were visible from a distance of many yards. From my observations I conclude that in Westmorland at least this particular crustacean is quite well protected from waders. Corophiuwm is described by Quatrefages as a migrant on the coast of France, appearing inswarms in April, and vanishing suddenly in October—in a single night, he states. On November 7th Mr. Kershaw wrote from Sandside :—‘‘ Corophium now very scarce, and I dug in a dozen places before finding any. Towards the mouth of the estuary they seem commoner. Some of the burrows now go down for five or six inches’”’; and in December they were still present in small numbers. For the present I would suggest not migration but hybernation, either by means of eggs or fertile females, and a seasonal summer abundance, as in the case of so many invertebrates. But clearly there is much to be learnt about the species. Indeed, in Spence Bates’s work on the ‘ Amphipoda’ (p. 281), the author cannot even be certain that Corophium makes its own burrows. I can decide this, for those I kept in an aquarium burrowed at once, and in due course formed the tubular prolongations of the mouths of the galleries which I have already described. A number of crustaceans were dissected, and cleared for microscopical examination, but without any success in ascertaining their food. As the summer advanced, ducks in increasing numbers used the sands as a diurnal resting place. The majority were Mallard Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., February, 1914. F 58 THE ZOOLOGIST. (Anas boscas), but I saw one lot of Teal (Nettion crecca), and recognized several Shovelers (Spatula clypeata). By the way, the latter bird is far more of a salt-water duck than is generally — supposed. I have observed it both on the Lancashire and the Scottish coasts, and on three occasions I have found the stomachs (including that of an Irish specimen) full of the shells of Hydrobia. I saw none of the above three ducks under circum- ‘stances which suggested that they were interested in Corophium. The Shelducks (Tadorna cornuta) came up each day with the tides, and worked the shallow pools in a half-hearted manner ; and as these waters held nothing except the crustaceans, I must include the bird as an enemy, but almost a negligible one, of Corophium. A mile or so distant from the area under observation there is an important breeding place of the Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus), and throughout the spring and summer the sands are crowded by the birds. But I never saw one of these Gulls attempt to disturb the crustaceans, and do not hesitate to say that Corophiwm is not a regular item of food for the species. Out in Morecambe Bay the Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) and the Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) were numerous, and I saw a single Common Gull (Z. canus) inland near’ Kendal on August 9th; none, however, was noticed at Sandside during my stay, and the only other Gull besides the Black-back was the ubiquitous Black-headed Gull (ZL. ridibundus). On my arrival I found a few young and adults settled on the sands, and when the Black- backed Gulls vanished (August 1st—5th), there was a great influx of Black-heads, and these commenced immediately to prey upon the crustaceans, and confined themselves to this diet. It is quite possible that the Black-backs from the great Foulshaw cullery move northwards in August, for, at the end of that month, in 1910, I noted the species as the commonest Gull amongst the lakes; and in a flying visit at the beginning of August few were to be seen. At this point we may stop to consider that on this square mile of sand, and within two inches of the surface, there are seven hundred tons of animal food untouched by terrestrial vertebrates, and brought within reach of aquatic organisms for but a very short period each fortnight. The birds which visited A STUDY OF A CRUSTACEAN. 59 the estuary, with one or two negligible exceptions, made no attempt to reach the crustaceans; the faithful surface of the sand recorded every disturbance of the burrows; and although it was natural to think that a restless party of birds were actually feeding, a subsequent examination of the spot, or careful obser- vation through our glasses, proved that the Corophium burrows were not disturbed. The Black-headed Gulls, although feeding exclusively on Corophium for many days, were powerless to reach the crusia- ceans inhabiting the uncovered sands. They could catch only those living in sand covered by water, and if the water was more than three inches deep they were again powerless. Each pool, however, shrank visibly from day to day, until the water vanished completely; and thus each day brought a smaller ring of new ground within reach of the birds. The method employed in feeding, although often observed, and described in several northern journals, seems to have escaped wider notice in the regular literature of ornithology. The Gull stands in the water, and, molding its body horizon- tally, dances vigorously with alternate steps for a minute or more, but with no change of position. This action on the sand, possibly by filling up the burrows, alarms the crustaceans, which rise to the water and scatter in flight. As soon as they appear the bird stops its dance for a second or so, and, still remaining precisely in the same spot, snaps in the water at the swimming animals. On imitating the action with the tips of my fingers, and of course with the same result, I found that the crustaceans were readily detected by the sense of touch as they struggled to the water; and this suggested the possibility of the webs of the Gull’s toes being used as tactile organs. The point is well worth consideration, for if established it would explain the presence of highly developed webs in birds which are addicted to wading but rarely use their feet in swimming. Sometimes a Gull would remain in one spot for so long a period as half an hour, gravely and patiently dancing the whole of the time. The result would be a crater-like depression six inches in diameter and an inch deep; but, if the birds were not disturbed, they would move gradually backwards, and in the course of a few hours make shallow furrows varying in length F 2 60 THE ZOOLOGIST. from a foot to twelve yards. One furrow that I measured was exactly twelve yards long, and had occupied its maker for at least three hours, and possibly twice this time. Now, allowing the width of the disturbed sand to be six inches (really this is the distance between the summits of the ridges thrown up on each side of the furrow), and the number of crustaceans twenty to the square inch, we find the total weight to be about a pound and a half. The greater part of this would go down the throat of the bird, for I do not think that many of the crustaceans are allowed to escape once they are driven from their burrows. As the pools diminish in size these curious markings are left on the bare sand, sometimes in great numbers where the Gulls have been congregated. I do not know if anyone has ever noticed these very conspicuous furrows, but I should expect them to present rather a stiff problem for an enquiring mind who did not think of the agency of birds. I ought to add here that I have often observed this very extraordinary dancing habit of Gulls on other estuaries, but I think it safest to say that I have no note of the actual species, nor of the food sought. Possibly the Black-headed Gull may prove to be the only species addicted to the habit, for I have seen it so employed while in the imme- diate company of other Gulls that stood by and looked rather hard-up for a meal. On the estuaries of the Conway and of the Clwyd I have sat and watched the Gulls dancing in the mud on very many occasions. In the summer of 1912 a tiny sandy bay on the north coast of Yorkshire was swarming with Sandhoppers (Talitrus locusta) ,* and each evening a flock of a hundred Black-headed Gulls, accompanied by either two or three immature Kittiwakes, patrolled the sands, snapping up these agile crustaceans. Hach bird marched steadfastly forwards, and picked at any hopper that happened to be in the air within a couple of inches of its beak at the moment the bird had disposed of the last one captured. The resulting gait was indescribably ludicrous to watch, for it re- sembled a violent form of palsy as the accompaniment of a * Possibly this is the species that crammed the stomach of a Cuckoo (C.canorus) shot by Dr. Stejneger on the coast of Kamtschatka. He called them ‘‘ the Gammaride which abound on sandy beaches.” A STUDY OF A CRUSTACEAN. 61 preternaturally grave and decorous walk. Thus the whole flock marched on, each head bobbing with clock-like regularity, and in apparent aimlessness; but probably most of the snatches were successful, although of course we were too far distant to detect the actual insects. When it was too dark to read we could still see the Gulls working as freely as ever, and could not but admire the perfection of eye and beak that made this business possible. On our Westmorland estuary we found the young birds of the year, fresh no doubt from the great Ravenglass gullery, as assiduous as their elders in the remunerative dance. At night, when it was too dark to see them, we could plainly hear the measured splashing from the tireless birds; and in what way are we to understand how they were enabled to see the crusta- ceans through a couple of inches of disturbed water? Bad enough in the daytime, it is either worse at night or—the Gull has a sense of sight of a quality unknown to us, and with powers that merit a position as a sixth sense. There are many published records of the Black-headed Gull catching insects in flight, and it has been observed that regular aerial feeding excursions are made after dark.* The fauna of the more or less permanent tide-pools was too complicated for exact observations, but the shallower pools could be surveyed with great convenience, and I was able to convince myself that, exclusive of microscopical organisms, they were inhabited only by Corophium. Gulls, therefore, which were seen at these places could be feeding only on this crustacean, and on nothing else. I would like again to draw attention to the fact that birds of the year were using this curious ‘“‘ dancing”’ method of obtaining food in July. Is it instinctive? If not, and if they were merely following the example of their elders, why did not the Kittiwakes off Grange copy their companions? Do other birds, in other localities, feed on Corophium or similar sand or mud inhabitants in a similar manner? Do the Gulls tread out other inverte- * Perhaps here I can repeat a note (cf. ‘ Naturalist,’ 1908, p. 456) of my own on a Buffon’s Skua, the stomach of which contained the remains of Craneflies and a species of Syrphid, the last recognized by the characteristic “false-vein”’ of the wings. 62. "mE ZOOLOGIST. brates besides Corophium? These matters may be worth the attention of ornithologists. P.S.—Writing on January 28th Mr. Kershaw says:—‘“‘I have not seen more than three Gulls on the sands for weeks. They are Black-heads, and the black feathers are beginning to come. One is the bird I mentioned before—it trails one wing, but seems to fly all right. . . . Yesterday 1 marked out two areas of sand, four inches square each, one on the edge of the solid sand near the high-water mark, and the other farther out. I dug down for about six inches (although none of the burrows went down farther than three inches), carried the sand indoors, and passed it carefully through a muslin sieve. There were forty-six Corophium Shrimps, three Worms (Nereis), and a few (T'ellina) shells about an eighth of an inch long. . . . I have not seen any Gulls ‘dancing’ lately.” According to these observations the crustaceans are fourteen times more abundant in July than they are in January; and, clearly, their disappearance cannot be put down to migration. Ornithologists are only too well aware of cases where the pheno- mena of migration have been explained by a theory of hyber- nation, but I cannot recollect an instance like the present case of Corophium, where migration has been suggested, when hyber- nation appears to be the fact. eS. (68%) A DIARY OF ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION MADE IN ICELAND DURING JUNE AND JULY, 1912. By Epmuunp SEtovs. (Continued from vol. xvii., p. 422.) June 17th.—The quest of the Falcons having failed, and Sigurdsson having told me that a small river which ran into a lake near the one where I had watched the pair of Great Northern Divers, was the haunt of the Horned or Slavonian Grebe, we returned to-day, and pitched the tent upon the crest of a low hill, overlooking both the one and the other. The river, in its general course, was a mere stony burn amongst low hills, but, upon coming out from amongst these into the flat, marshy land at their bases, formed a small creek running parallel with the lake, for some way, before curling round the hill I have spoken of, to join it. In England there might have been both Moorhens and Dabchicks here. The water was weedy, and flags grew in patches, here and there, along the green, marshy banks, but so thinly as not to conceal, except at some distance, either the bird or the nest. There were two of the latter, the probable owners of which disappeared at our approach, but I was in time to see one pair, whose Dabchick-like character I recognized at once, through their superior plumage, engaged in the per- formance of what was probably a courting action, though it may be more developed earlier in the season. The two birds fronted each other, then rose, both together, Penguin-like, in the water, and, after a moment or two, sank down upon it again.* I was now left alone, with the tent, but as this had been designedly pitched so as to be invisible from that part of the stream which I intended to watch, I soon left it and sought out a place of espial * The Great Crested Grebes do the same (though I have seen them do more), as also the Red-throated Divers. 64 THE ZOOLOGIST. on the slope of the hill, right overlooking one of the nests, and near enough to it to give a capital view with the glasses. This was about 9 p.m., and, for some forty minutes, there was only the pleasure of expectation, which, however, with any- thing like certainty at the end of it, is a sufficiently keen one. Then a pair of the Grebes swam up the stream from the lake, in a very purposeful way, without any stopping. They entered the clump of rushes, and, making directly for the nest, the female Sprang up and lay all along it, just as the Great Crested Grebes that 1 watched in Suffolk used to do, as a preliminary to coition. The male now came up to the nest, and remained by it, for a few minutes, then turned and continued to swim up the stream, and the female, after remaining in the same attitude, for a few moments, with a quick motion, raised herself and slid off into the water. I assume, from her actions, that she had ascended the nest with the special object alluded to, though the male, for some reason—just as was so often the case with the last-men- tioned species—failed to respond to the invitation. Some little time afterwards, the birds came again, and exactly the same thing took place. The attitude of the female, with the head and neck laid all along on the flat platform of the nest, was unmis- takable, as, for a moment or two, the intent of the male was also, for he was, again, half-hearted, and did not come up on the nest. Twice after this the pair swam up again, but the nest itself was now the matter of interest. They dived twice or thrice, close about it, and after each time the female jumped up on to it, and moved and arranged its materials with her bill. That she brought something to it, each time, from the bottom seems likely in itself, but I could not observe that she did, and as a considerable part of the nest must lie below the surface of the water, she may have been paying attention to this. Neither could I observe that the male brought up anything and added it to the structure. This probably means that he did not, nor did he ascend the nest, but there can be no doubt that he, too, was interested in it. Another time the female came to the nest alone, jumped up on it and remained there a few minutes before leaving it again. These Grebes uttered various sounds when visiting the nest, both as they swam up the stream, and when in its near neigh- ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 65 bourhood, but not when actually by it. One of the notes was a sort of soft chuckling cackle, and there were various other ones very suggestive of satisfaction, which I cannot recall sufficiently to set down. Another note often uttered, but not, I think, by one of the pair in question, was a sort of mewing sound, followed by a deep guttural one. Altogether there was a great variety of utterance. June 18th.—lt was a little past 6 a.m. when I first looked at my watch, and, about an hour afterwards, | saw the pair of Grebes swimming up the stream in the same purposeful manner as yesterday, and also the last thing overnight, as I was getting my bed ready—at a quarter to one,namely. Iwas now dressed, and creeping down to my place of observation, behind some low rocks on the hillside, was so lucky as to see both birds, together, upon the nest, the female lying along it in the manner described, and the male a little raised on his feet just behind her. The next moment he stood upright, or nearly so, and coition was effected. During its continuance, both birds constantly uttered a short, sharp note, which was shriller, I think, in the male than the female—at any rate, both were notalike. After coition, the birds came down, off the nest, and, for a short time, kept quiet amongst the flags. They then came out upon the open water, where, in a little pool-like bend of the stream, they floated at ease, together, and seemed full of content and satis- faction. Sometimes they dozed or went to sleep, and I noticed that their sleeping attitude was not the general one of birds. They drew back the head, indeed, but without turning it round, and pressed the beak into the feathers of the throat or upper breast, instead of hiding it amongst those of the back and shoulders. The head itself, however, was thus brought right into the middle of the back, and looked like nothing so much as - the little knob on the top of a pork pie. In this attitude they seemed to be really asleep, for the brilliant, light ruby-red eye was invisible through the glasses, though quite plainly seen at other times. After awhile, one of them began to dive for food, and, though the water was not clear, I could each time see it go down for some way, and the body always presented a smooth, oval outline, showing that the wings were not used under the water, as they are by various diving birds. The legs were always 66 THE ZOOLOGIST. visible whilst the bird was, and once I clearly saw them in action. The dive was always in the Shag or Cormorant style—a leap up, and then down, that is to say—but not with the same verve and energy, nor would it be expected of these soft and rounded little creatures, slightly enlarged and much glorified Dabchicks. So far as I was able to observe, I believe it was weed this bird was feeding on—at any rate, I never saw it with a fish in its bill. When the one bird had fed and the other rested sufficiently, both swam together down the stream in the same intent, busi- ness-like manner in which they had ascended it, and I thought they were going out into the lake. But they soon stopped, came back again, and again preened and idled on the water. It was now that I twice saw them go through the same courting action which I have before described, the only difference being that it was a littleless pronounced. They did not, perhaps, stand quite so bolt upright in the water, at any rate they had a little stoop forward, and subsided, again, almost immediately—it was more perfunctory in fact. Two or three times, also, when thus in each other’s company, they both, as on a common impulse, swam up closer together, and then, fronting one another, with beak turned to beak, but not now touching, and without rearing them- selves up, made a curious little twittering cry, thus presenting exactly the same little scene of reunion and mutual expression of gladness as I have so often seen pass between the male and female Dabchick. The note, however, was not nearly so shrill, nor did it rise in intensity, as with the latter, so that the perform- ance was not quite such a striking one. Also, like Dabchicks, these beautiful little Grebes would, sometimes, whilst swimming —generally when in full swim, so to say—make a little pause and, almost instantaneously, a little, gentle rise of an inch or so out of the water (too soft to call a jump), just showing the silky white of their breasts before sinking down again, and swimming on. So like Dabchicks are they, indeed, that I believe, with the exception of the notes, which are not the same, and of which they seem to have a greater variety, an accurate description of the habits and actions of the one species would be equally accurate for the other. This, however, may to a large— perhaps to an equally full—extent be said, substituting the Great Crested Grebe for the Dabchick. Unless for some special ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 67 development which has not yet been recorded, it seems probable indeed that all the members of the family have the same habits. After a short interval, filled up in these various ways, this pair of Grebes swam down the stream, but at a certain bend of it, in which was the next defined patch of rushes, the male of another pair that had made these their headquarters made a little bull-like rush out from them at the intruding male, as he chose to consider him, holding his head down on the water, and advanced like the ram ofa battleship. The latter was put to flight—actual flight for a little—for some way down the stream, and then went on into the lake. The female was not interfered with, nor yet when sometime afterwards she approached a narrow, fringing belt along the shore, opposite the larger one. She then swam back, up the stream, into her own home-waters, where I lost sight of her, for after keeping, a little, in the neigh- bourhood of the nest, she left it, and went on. Some time after this—about 10 a.m., to be precise—I saw the male of the other pair of Grebes swim from his clump of rushes to the opposite side of the stream, and there, just off the shore, take up some weed or other material in his beak, and return with it to the nest. This he did several times, at short intervals, sometimes diving, but, as it seemed to me, more as on his way to one bank or the other than to get weeds from the bottom. This he may sometimes have done, however, though, if so, they can have been but small pieces, but, as a rule, he either took weeds from the surface, or pulled the growing flags. I kept expecting the female to come and share in the work, and more eagerly, but I only thought I saw her do so once, and now doubt if I did at all. I saw, however, both birds mount the nest, in succession, and then one of them again, at short intervals. Since I had been given to understand that there were no eggs, yet, in any of the nests of these Grebes, this only suggested to me that the birds were still building, and kept getting on to the nest, to arrange the materials they were bringing to it, especially as I thought I once saw the female doing so. Nevertheless remembering my experience with the Great Crested Grebe when in Suffolk, I determined to try a long and difficult stalk down the side of the hill on which I was, and over a considerable stretch of flat, tussocky grassland, to the bank of the stream itself, if possible, in order to watch the birds 68 THE ZOOLOGIST. more closely. This I succeeded in doing, part of the way on my back and the rest crawling flat, till I was at last so close that I not only saw the vividly bright ruby-red iris of the bird’s eye, as it sat on the nest—which I at first thought a spot of red plumage—but the small light pupil in the centre, of a green- grey or yellowish colour. It was the female, not however occupied in building the nest, but merely stationary upon it, but it was not till I had got nearer still—perhaps within twenty feet—that I was able properly to distinguish the structure of the nest, amidst the rushes. I lay enjoying this close view, for some time, when I heard a very soft note, quickly repeated, something like ‘‘ croo, croo, croo, croo, croo,” which, though it got nearer, seemed hardly to get louder, till, at last, the male came stealing through the rushes, to the side of the nest, and, his partner coming off it into the water, he sprang up, and took her place. After a time, which, in my constrained position, seemed long enough, there was another change, but when the male, now relieved in his turn, began swimming up the stream, he must, I suppose, have caught a sight of me, or of something to make him suspicious, for, as far as I could hear only (I dared not now raise my head), he flew, for a little, along the water. Still the female kept her place, but, some time afterwards there was a sudden loud utterance of the curious mewing note I have before mentioned—a loud mew, in fact—upon which she showed instant anxiety, and quietly dropped off the nest. The male, however, in spite of his sudden alarm-note—for it must surely have been his—and previous flurry, came on to the nest again, but the female was now in a state of suspicion, to which her own observations kept adding, so, seeing that things would not con- tinue longer in their natural course, if I remained where I was, I crawled away over the flat and up the hill again, to a point on the summit, from which I could still see the nest, with the sitting male. It was now, of course, perfectly evident that, in spite of the continued bringing of weed to the nest, incubation had begun with these Grebes, and also that both sexes shared in it. The subsequent intervals, whilst I watched, at which the pair relieved one another, were as follows. At about 12.30 p.m., the female, who had waited about, anxiously, to do so, and whose fears were now dissipated, took her place on the eggs. At 1, the male ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 69 returned, and relieved her. At 1.30 the female again took her turn. About five minutes before 2, the male reappears, and, in a minute or two, I see him leap up on the nest. I miss seeing the female come off, but she was on it up to a little before. In about a quarter of an hour, she returns, but keeps to the stream, and the male leaves the nest, to join her. For a few minutes, they swim about together, at one time, very cosily, side by side and almost touching. Then the female goes on, and the male brings some more material to the nest, for which he once dives. He then swims some way down the stream, but very soon comes back, and, at 2.25, the female leaves the nest, and rejoins him. They swim a little together, again, going down stream, but, very soon, the male returns, and, at 2.32, takes his place again. I fancy that in the interval between then and 4 p.m., when I went to my tent for breakfast, he must once more have given up his place, and afterwards retaken it. Of this, however, I cannot be sure, and he had certainly sat unrelieved for a considerable time before Ileft—comparatively, that is to say, for the quick intervals at which the two have relieved each other upon the nest is here the salient feature, and may be peculiar to this Grebe, since I have not observed it either in the Dabchick or Great Crested one. There is no doubt as to the great beauty of this species. The rich russet chestnut of its sides, contrasting with the glossy slate- blue of the back, its neck russet also, the plum-bloomy ruff, the jewel-like eye and beautiful, almost golden, tufts of plumage on the cheeks—all this, with the silky and silvery white of the under surface which, when it rises on the water, is still its loveliest adornment, makes it one of the gorgeous-plumaged birds of the world, much more in keeping with a tropical land- scape than with these cold and colourless regions. There, perhaps, it might purchase security by the fiery blending and salient inconspicuousness of its hues, but here it is as badly off for plum-trees or orange-trees as is the Tiger for bamboos, over the greater part of its range. It swims over waters that are grey, and by shores that neither in themselves nor through their reflections at all resemble its own plumage; and it makes its large brown nest amidst thinly-growing, green flags, and sits there with its head, like a small sun, shining above it, a ruby 70 THE ZOOLOGIST. set in each side the sun. Still, it must not be forgotten that there is the bird’s own reflection in the water, with which, when . sufficiently emphasized, it must harmonize to perfection. Here, then, at least, is one quite satisfactory background. I cannot myself think of another, but, should it still be thought necessary, there is no doubt one might be designed. Still, with every assistance, and for all that hee been said, these Grebes, as examples of assimilative colouring, seem to me to stand in a very different category to such a bird, for instance, as the Golden Plover. Whilst on the way here from the home- stead, a nest of one of these birds was located, and marked for me with a few turfs by Sigurdsson and, for some time now, I have watched the female as she sits with almost the whole of her body exposed, yet the mottled and nondescript markings of the back and breast seem to fade into.the general coloration of the whole of the surrounding landscape, which is a wide expanse of brown earth, tawny grasses, and grey moss, in the unsalient interblending of which her own comparative insaliency is hardly to be distinguished at a moderate range, through the glasses. The general tone and colour-wash here seem designed for the eye to rest on, without being caught or detained, but this does not apply so well to the deep black of the throat, breast, and abdomen (speaking of the male more par- ticularly) which show when the bird walks about. This, being the nuptial garb, has probably been gained through sexual selection, as, indeed, the golden back also, though in the latter there is far more reconcilement between two not necessarily opposed principles ; for why should not sexual selection some- times have operated under the control of the larger power, Natural Selection, which would, in this case, have fixed the kind and the limit of the adornment? Indeed, in a wide way, this must always be so, for directly the advantages gained by the race, Owing to special attractiveness being acquired by the one sex in the eyes of the other, began to be overpowered through the greater destruction due to its consequent enhanced con- spicuousness, this process would be checked, and a compromise between it and the other effected.* With the Golden Plover, in * Of course all is really Natural Selection, and the seeming opposition merely a fluctuation in the manner of its action. ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 71 the breeding-season, the compromise appears to have been this, that it has been permitted to look conspicuous enough, whilst walking about, but not in the same degree, whilst incubating, since here the black parts, being undermost, are hidden, or partially hidden, whilst the mottled back, though more beauti- ful, is, notwithstanding, more assimilative. Partially hidden, I have had to say. The case, I confess, would show better if no such qualification were needed, but the particular bird which I have now for some two hours been watching, and which I believe to be the female, has sat all the while remarkably erect upon the nest. Hn revanche, however, she has also sat very motionless— Tam hardly sure if I have seen her move once. All over the country now, wherever these birds are at all (and they are widely distributed) one sees them and hears their plaintive pipe, and the conduct of any one of them that one approaches is generally in relation to the nest on which its partner is sitting. For instance, as I got up to the nest which I am now watching, the male of the pair was standing within a few feet of it, and as I advanced he moved away at but a short distance in front of me, showing an evident but yet moderate and well-governed degree of anxiety. Wishing to see how things would go, I followed him, and he kept for a long way at the same measured distance in front of me, stopping when I did, piping, as it were, conventionally, in fact, with professional adroitness, leading me away from the nest—for such certainly seemed to be his idea. Go where I would, I could not get rid of this bird. When I had walked to a distance away from the nest which I thought might certainly have satisfied him, he still kept about me, coming down, sometimes here, sometimes there, but never far away from me, and sometimes quite close. After some time I walked diagonally to another point, from which I could better watch the nest, nearer, indeed, but still at such a distance as, to a being with no knowledge of binoculars, might well have seemed perfectly safe. Now, for a little while, I thought he was gone, but, all at once, he was close at hand again, with his eye, as before, fixed professionally upon me, as though he had no idea of letting me get away. In fact, he watched and senti- nelled me, nor was it ever possible to attribute his actions to causes irrelevant to myself—it was plain to the extremity of 72 THE ZOOLOGIST. plainness that they were in absolute rapport with my own. I sat in the place I had chosen for a long time—half an hour at least, or an hour—and began to think that I should never see the return of the female to the nest--for I had startled her off it in the first instance—when, all at once, my eye happened to catch her standing there, and putting up the glasses I saw her make the series of little advances, with short pauses between, which eround-laying birds are accustomed to do when returning to their eggs, and shortly go on to them. All this while the male Golden Plover had kept by me, but now he gradually and, as it were, in an unabrupt manner, took his leave, and for another hour, perhaps—more, I think, for it is now nearly 9 p.m.—lI have been left alone. His cue apparently had been to watch me narrowly and, if possible, to get me away till his consort thought it safe to return to the nest, after which he was off duty. My own cue now, however, is to approach the nest again and see what happens. Accordingly I do so, but nothing happens that happened before, for the female bird sits on till I am almost on her, and there is no male to divert me this time. Still I feel sure that the one that was there and watched me so narrowly was the sitting bird’s mate. He cannot, after all, be always at the nest. Returning, now, to the tent, I have the unexpected pleasure of seeing four Great Northern Divers swimming on the lake together. Fine handsome birds they are, with their bold con- trasting colouring of black and white that would flash finely in the sun, if there were one, as 1 have seen it do, in snatches, with a single bird; but there is no sun now for this great state occasion. They have a majestic appearance, one may almost say, with their velvety black heads and necks of the same, set off with their white semi-collarets. They are like superb Spanish beauties, with raven hair, in black mantillas, and finely developed, but they have not the soft grace and loveliness—for it amounts to that—of our own Red-throated Diver (our own, because it breeds with us) whose charm is more subtle and captivating—a fay, an Undine. All these four birds swim with a curious sort of uncertainty, seeming to have no fixed purpose or direction, so that the deviation, by ever so little, of any one of them from the line of advance is a reason for any or each ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 73 of the others deviating in sympathy, and thus they become crouped, separated and amalgamated again, as each draws or is drawn by another. They have a habit of stretching out the head and neck along the water, and swimming so deeply that sometimes only the upper line of these and the top of the back —or even that alone—can be seen, but whether they are fishing or drinking, or engaged in anything special, when they do this, I cannot make out. Sometimes two would come together, as though by mutual attraction, seem about to touch with their bills, then both dash under water, as in coquetry or bashful confusion. As their mood grows more sprightful, firstone and then another takes wing, rising with a great deal of preliminary flapping along the water, flying then, for a littlé, low over it, and coming down on it again. In this last I made special note of the mode of transition from flight to natation, as shown more particularly by one of them, or rather I concentrated my atten- tion more strongly on this one—no doubt the performance was representative. Instead of descending upon the water at a slant, as does a Duck, and as I have seen the Red-throated Diver do, he sank down upon it while flying quite horizontally, and yet not abruptly so, but very gradually—a mode which had & curious new grace init. At length, one of the quartette flew round a bend of the hills, probably into some other sheet of water, opening out from beyond where this lake narrows, at what seems its one end. Then, from the distance, came the quavering note which I have described, and, before long, first one of the remaining three, and then the other two, flew after and were lost to me. Of the two pairs of Horned Grebes that have taken this little stream—or rather this little end of it, which, alone, is adapted for the purpose—as a breeding-place, I doubt if the birds that have eggs ever go abroad on the lake together, or, at least, not often or for long. The other pair, however, that have not yet laid, resort there at intervals, and disport themselves on its broader expanse, in a larger and wilder way. I noticed them diving, splashingly, and then, for a time, going only just beneath the surface—in frolicsome mood, as it seemed. From these merriments they repair to the nest, both to add to its structure, and also for the special purpose, as is now apparent, Gool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., February, 1914. G ay, THE ZOOLOGIST. of coition upon it. Evidently the nest, with this species, as with the Great Crested Grebe—probably the whole family *—is “love’s roseate bower.” rede Wishing, now, to see if they also shared the habit of covering the eggs, when leaving them, with some of the materials - of the nest, I walked along the bank of the stream past that one of the two nests belonging to the incubating pair. I have no doubt the bird was sitting at the time, but it was sufficiently wary to let me see nothing of it, and when I passed, two eggs alone were but partially visible through pieces of flag laid across them. This is just what it might have been with Dabchicks, in which species (as I have personally ascertained) the habit is neither invariable nor always completely carried out. As the number of eggs laid by this Grebe varies (we are told) + from two to four, I cannot say whether there were more than these two, in the nest, but completely covered. (To be continued.) * As also (I can now add) some other families. + Dresser’s ‘ Birds of Europe.’ ( 75 ) NOTES AND QUERIES. AVES. Status of Blackcap and Garden-Warbler.—I can assure Mr. Gill* that in this district, or perhaps I ought to say on this property, the Blackcap far out-numbers the Garden-Warbler, and is, in fact, our commonest Warbler. In forty years I have found but three nests of the latter, whereas in any normal season one could find upwards of thirty nests of the former. I have always been most careful about the identification, and have invariably watched the bird on the nest when there has been any possibility of a mistake. It is very curious, and I can see no reason why one bird should be so rare and the other so common, when the locality seems equally suited to both. Some years ago I spent several days in the Blagdon Valley, and thought Garden- Warblers slightly predominated over Blackcaps. In Hungary, where both species are numerous, we found about an equal number of nests of each.—HratLEy Nosue (Temple Combe, Henley-on- Thames). Waxwings in Suffolki—tThe first we heard of the visitation of the Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus) was on Christmas Day (1913), when my daughter reported two seen on Dec. 22nd close to their house at Rougham by her husband and herself. They got a good view of the birds through glasses at less than twenty yards’ distance, and could distinctly hear the call they gave. The Waxwings were feeding on hips, and were fortunate in having the glasses brought to bear on them instead of a gun.—Junian G. Tucx (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds). Nutcracker in Surrey.—By editorial request I have pleasure in sending particulars of the Nutcracker in my possession, which was taken in Addington Park, Surrey, on October 14th, 1913. The reason for not recording it before is because I sent it to my nephew, who forwarded it to Mr. J. A. Coward to identify and get properly stuffed, and it was returned this week with his remarks. It is the slender- billed form (Nucifraga caryocatactes macrorhynchus). Its habitat is, * Cf. ante, p. 86, 76 THE ZOOLOGIST. roughly speaking, Siberia, and a winter wanderer westward into Europe; while, strange to say, it is more frequently met with in England than the thick-billed Scandinavian bird. It breeds in the mountainous regions of Europe as far south as the Pyrenees, is found eastward to Japan, and is of casual occurrence in Great Britain. Hartert (?) classes it as a vagrant, and there are about forty authentic records of its occurrence. It inhabits elevated forests chiefly of coniferous trees. The specimen referred to was found in some Scotch firs at an altitude of 460 ft.— Epwp. N. Mrnnext (The Hostel, Shirley, Croydon). Hybrid Ducks.—With reference to Mr. Panton’s notes (ante, pp. 33, 34) I may say that in 1912 and again last year a Pochard drake paired with a female Sheld-Duck in Christchurch Park, Ipswich. One young bird was reared in 1912, and two last year, which were all alive and well on Dec. 23rd. They are handsome birds, more like the Pochard than the Sheld-Duck, both in habits and plumage. Mr. Damant, the caretaker of the birds in the park, takes great interest in his charges, and would, I am sure, be pleased to show these hybrids to any naturalist. They are quite tame, and will come for food offered them.—Junian G. Tuck (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds). Muscovy and Duck.—In Mr. Panton’s article on ‘“‘ The Relation- ship of Species,” he includes in class C as animals producing sterile young the Duck and Muscovy, and states that in this class hybrids are hard to get. Also, that ‘there seems to be less attraction between the combining animals, and they have to .be kept together, and away from their proper mates, before they will copulate.” My experience of the Muscovy is that he is a general nuisance, and will copulate with any of the Anatide at all times, from a tiny call duck to an Egyptian Goose, and also that the results are fertile, judging by the awfu) mon- grels too often to be seen in our public parks. It may be of interest to state that, at a farm in North Lancashire, Muscovys were nesting on the crossbeams in an empty barn thirty or forty feet from the floor. They were seen to fly through the ventilation holes, and, on investigation, we saw them walking along the beams to their nests, which were situated where two beams crossed. When the young hatched, they were simaply pushed off the beam, to fall on the floor, without being damaged, just as Mallard have been seen to do when nesting in a tree.—H. W. Rosinson (Lancaster). A January Corn-Crake.—On January 27th a strange bird was shot near Oxted in Surrey and sent to me the next day for identification, i NOTHS AND QUERIES. 77 It was a Corn-Crake (Crex pratensis), in decent condition, and half through the moult. Winter occurrences of this species are always worth recording, especially in connection with south-eastern England, where the bird is now rare and not familiar to sportsmen.—F. J. STUBBS. PES Gb Ss: Neoceratodus forsteri in Queensland.— This fish, commonly known as the Burnett’ Salmon from its flesh, is still abundant in the only habitat in which it survives, the Burnett River, South Queens- land. As an angler was fishing in the river recently, with a net some sixty yards in circumference, he enclosed, and in three hauls captured, no fewer than twenty-four specimens of this unique “lung-fish.” Some of the fish were very large, and the weight of a portion was stated at 90 lb. per fish—_Jamzs TROUBRIDGE CRITCHELL (22, Basinghall Street, H.C.). NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. The Snakes of Europe. By G. A. Boutenesr, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., &¢. Methuen & Co., Limited. ““THERE is no work in the English language dealing with the Reptiles of Hurope.” This is the first sentence in the Preface, and is no longer true, for Dr. Boulenger has now ade- quately and authoritatively supplied that want by the publica- tion of this volume. He has also, again, cleared the ground from some early misconceptions, for in his family divisions ‘‘ the presence or absence of a poison organ is left out of considera- tion,’ and the definitions of the families are based exclusively on osteological characters. Coloration and markings are also shown to be often but secondary and sometimes misleading guides in the discrimination of species. ‘“‘If we were to be guided by colour and markings alone, how could we believe that an adult four-lined Coluber quatuorlineatus is of the same species as the handsomely spotted Coluber sawromates? and yet if we 78 THE ZOOLOGIST. compare the young of these two snakes we find them to be absolutely identical in their markings, and, in the absence of any structural differences, we are forced to conclude that they only represent two forms of the same species, of which the latter is the more primitive.” Again, colour and markings are frequently, perhaps too frequently, employed in theoretical con- clusions and suggestions. Such an instance is found in the eye- spot on the hood of the Indian Cobra. But, as Dr. Boulenger observes, ‘“‘at present it is as inexplicable as the lugubrious emblem on the thorax of the Death’s-head Moth. It cannot be suggested that it is a warning mark intended to terrify intruders, for when the Cobra is at rest the hood is folded, and the characteristic marking is not displayed; whilst, as soon as it is aroused and the hood expanded, it faces its enemy in such a way that the spectacle, or ocellus, is not to be seen.” Again, as regards the now excessive advocacy of ‘‘ mimicry’; among Snakes ‘‘there are equally striking instances of what one would regard as mimics if they only occurred together ; thus, there is no better case of general resemblance between a poisonous and a harmless Snake than we find in the Indian Cobra and the Coluber corais of Tropical America, where Cobras are absent, or between a Viper and the Boid Engyrus asper, from New Guinea, where no Vipers exist.”’ But we must quit these delightful realms of philosophical zoology or a wrong impression may be given of the book. It is practical to the last degree, and the naturalist and student will find, by description and illustration, what he requires to aid him in the identification and knowledge of European Snakes, the British species being thus included. There is a good and useful bibliography, as well as distributional lists to readily enable the student to follow the range of species in the different parts of Europe. The Life of the Mollusca. By B. B. Woopwarp, F.L.8., &c. Methuen & Co., Limited. In this book Mr. Woodward has had the somewhat difficult task of combining a description of the well-known outer cover- ings or shells with that of the living animals within them. Both th NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. 79 are necessary to a knowledge of the Mollusca, but we so frequently find the study of one branch naturally, and necessarily a museum one, in the ascendancy, or contrariwise an ana- tomical or physiological one, which is more adapted to the laboratory and less to museum purposes. Mr. Woodward has succeeded in his twofold task, and from his precise and yet con- strained method the reader can at once see that he could have filled a second or even a third volume, had opportunity been afforded him. The zoological literature of the future will probably be that of the big volumes rather than that of the com- pressed handbooks, for the results of bionomical observations and evolutionary conclusions have now ceased to be the points for footnotes and have become the subject-matter of chapters ; and this is the charm of modern zoology which our author hag fully shown in these pages. Thus we are told: ‘‘ The mottled markings on the shell of the common Garden Snail play on a small scale the same part that they do in the Giraffe, and serve to make the wearer less conspicuous in the shadow of vegetation. The dun colour of the Desert Snail (Helix desertorum), like that of the other desert animals, harmonizes with the prevailing tint of the habitat. The arboreal Ariophanta dohertyi, of Sumatra, is of a delicate green colour, and almost invisible among the foliage on which it dwells, Many of the Slugs, by their colouring and markings, are rendered inconspicuous in their natural surroundings, such as Limax arborum on trees, Geo- malacus (the Kerry Slug) on lichen-covered rocks, &c.”’ It is these observations which give to shells an interpretation in nature, apart from their interest in the conchological cabinet. ** Classification,” ‘‘ Geological History,’ and ‘‘ Present His- tory and Distribution”’ are also adequately described, and we, at least, know no book where the molluscan story is so fully told, and where so much information can be obtained in a small compass. We wish, however, that if a bibliography was impossible by exigencies of space, some bibliographical references could have been added to the text, so that the less informed reader could more fully follow up many of the interesting and important facts and observations referred to. Mr. Woodward has told us so much that we would fain know more. 80 THE ZOOLOGIST. Camping in Crete. By Auspyn Trevor-Batryg, M.A., F.L.8., &c. Witherby & Co. Mr. Trevor-Battyr has written a most interesting book on an island well known for its archeological treasures. Its zoology is also peculiar and important in its derivation, for we | have been already told by Dr. Scharff that ‘‘no less than seventy- seven molluscs of Crete out of one hundred and twenty-one inhabiting the island are peculiar to it.’ Mr. Trevor-Battye himself has added a Shrew (Crocidura canee) to the list of its mammalian fauna, and has compiled an interesting list of the birds seen or obtained between ‘‘ March and the end of June.” He has also given an enumeration of the conspicuous plants which he observed or collected, with the very justifiable remark that his list may be found useful by future visitors to the island The reader will soon find himself on intimate terms with the author of this volume. He writes of “‘ terrestrial animals (other than man), a philosophical conception not always apprehended by claimants to the absolute distinction of Homo. Mr. Trevor- Battye’s experience at a certain monastery is distinctly enter- taining. He mentioned to the priests and deacons therein how interesting the story of the visit of Paul to Crete and the ship- wreck chapter as detailed in the ‘“‘Acts’’ must be to them. ‘“‘The Prior admitted that he had heard it.” The deacon also was extremely hazy on the incident. Fortunately on the shelves were several volumes of the ‘‘ Epistles of the Apostles” in a somewhat unused condition, and by their aid, and the inducement of our author, the deacon read the shipwreck story to the brothers and servitors, to their delight and information. Mr. Trevor-Battye narrates an instance of a well known protective resemblance which he observed at Furnés. He had been collecting seed of a shrub in which the seed-capsules are thickly grouped above the nodes of the branches. His boy brought him one having apparently a double set of seed. ‘‘As soon as I had it in my hand, I noticed that the lower set was not composed of seeds at all, but entirely of little snail-shells, so closely imitative of the seeds that they might quite easily deceive any snail-eating bird.” The shrub is known as Vitex agnus-castus. _BIRDSNESTING & BIRD=-SKINNING. A Complete 5 Description of the Nests and Eggs of Birds which Breed in Britain, = by Epwarp Newman. — Sreconp Eprrion, with Directions for Collecting and _ Preservation; a Chapter on Bird-skinning; and Description and Woodeuts of _ the Instruments necessary to the Collector. By Mituer Curisty. Cloth extra. = ep 8vo. Pricels. Postage 2d. ae INSECT HUNTER’S COMPANION. _ Instruc- ¢ tious for collecting and preserving Butterflies and Moths, Beetles, Bees, Tlies, &. By the Rev. JosEPH GrrENE, M.A. — Fifth Hdition, revised and extended by A. B. Fann. The Chapter on Coleoptera by EDwarp NrwMan; on _ Hymenoptera by FREDERICK SMITH; on Breeding Gall-fiies by Hpwarp A. Fircu. - Where to find moths and butterflies: how to catch ; how to bring home without - * injury ; how to kill; how to set; how to find the caterpillars ; how to manage ; how to feed; how to breed the perfect insects; and numerous similar subjects. - Price Is. 6d., postage 2d. Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, ane Pp. 144, Price 10s. Bird @ollector’s Medley : E. C. ARNOLD. MA. ¢ With Twelve full-page Coloured (Iisteasions and Eight Un- coloured, from the Author's Drawings. Illustrated in the Text by Twenty Process Blocks. g A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore-Shooters. Foolscap 8vo, Cloth, gilt top, 160 pp. + blanks for Notes. Price 2s. 6d. POCKET- BOOK of BRITISH BIRDS By B. F. M. ELMS, INFORMATION i is given respecting all British birds that breed in these islands, and those that are regular visitors at one time of the year or another, with Temarks as to a species being resident, intermigratory, or migratory. Hach species is separately treated under the headings: Haunts, including distribution ; ; Plumage, briefly characterizing the predominant and striking features, with differentiation of ‘Species nearly alike; Language, with song and various cries; Habits; Food; Nidi- fication, with site and materials of nest ; and number and description of Eggs. Re Cloth, gilt, price 2s. 6d. Béetinge 2d. Second Hdvtion. FAMILIAR INDIAN BIRDS GORDON DALGLIESH. Illustrated by Half-tone Blocks from the Drawings of R. H. BUNTING and H. B. NEILSON. WEST, NEWMAN «& CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. —— Notes and QUERIES :— _ Notices oF New Books, 77-80. Parasitism in Relation to nnd H. Victor Te : COU RIES longicorne: an Ornithological = ofa c (continued), Edmund Selous, 63. - Aves.—Status of Blackeap and Garden- Warbler, Heatley Noble, 7. W w in Suffolk, Julian G. Tuck, 75. Nuteracker in Surrey, Edwd. N. Men 75. Hybrid Ducks, Julian G. Tuck, 76. Muscovy and Duck, A. Robinson, M.B.O.U., F.R.S.S.,76. A January Corn-Crake, F’. J. Stubbs, Prscrs.—Neoceratodus forsteri in Queensland, James Troubridge Critchell, a SUBSCRIPTIONS to the ‘ZOOLOGIST’ for 1914 are now due. The amount is 12s. post tree. Cases for binding 1913 volume can be had for Is. 2d. post free from the Publishers, who will also undertake the binding of volumes at 2s. each post free on return, London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden. VALUABLE ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 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For particulars see our Catalogue, one hundred pages. 36, STRAND, LONDON. W.C. 982 pp. GOnotu Extra. 6s. 6d. Post FREE. Aristotle s Researches in Natural Science By THOMAS E. LONES, M.A, LL.D., B.Sc. With Iliustratave Drawings. London: WEST, NEWMAN € CO., 54, Hatton Garden Ph AZ2O0L0OGiLST No. 873.—March 16th, 1914. SOME EAST SUSSEX OLIGOCHATS. By tHe Rey. Hinperic Frienp, F.R.M.S. Waite treating of the distribution of British Annelids (1) * in this Journal, I gave in April, 1913 (vol. xvii., ser. 4, pp. 151-2), a list of the Lumbricide of Sussex. In the same volume I also described some new species of Henlea (pp. 81-91), while in other articles in the ‘ Zoologist’ and the ‘Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society’ I had added still further to our knowledge of the subject. Up till the present, however, no attempt has been made to bring under review our knowledge of the entire order of Oligochets. As I have, so far as I am aware, been the only naturalist to study the subject, the following records are entirely based on my own observations in the county. It will be necessary, for the sake of completeness, to re- capitulate some of my earlier statements (7). My researches commenced in November, 1890, and were continued in March, 1892 (2). The Lumbricide collected on these occasions numbered fifteen species. In addition, a number of Tubificide and En- chytreide were examined, but many of these have not as yet been reported on. In 1897 I compiled a list of Sussex Karthworms (8) so far as then known, and enumerated sixteen species; Octolastum pro- _fugum being the latest addition to the county records. For many years, owing to my residence at a distance and my other researches, no further progress was made, but in 1911 Helodrilus * The numbers in brackets refer to the Bibliography. Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII... March, 1914. H 82 THE ZOOLOGIST. oculatus was discovered. In December of that year I had to visit Hastings, and was fortunate enough to discover many | interesting things. The number was increased during a stay of some days in Sussex in July, 1912, while a visit to Sedlescombe in August, 1913, enabled me to make yet other discoveries. Practically all of those which were new to science have already been described in this or other journals; but there are a few species which are at present unknown in any other part of the kingdom, to which attention must be drawn before a list of all known species is drawn up. Hastings itself has proved to be peculiarly rich in Enchytreids and Tubificids; but, owing to the paucity of lakes, ponds, and streams, there seem to be very few Naidide or allied forms, though these abound around London. Of the Henleas which I described in this Journal (1918, pp. 81-91) a considerable number nave been found in Sussex, and in several instances the descriptions were based upon material collected at Hastings in December, 1911. My most successful hunting-ground on that occasion was a bit of waste land between the sea and the Bexhill road near the Bopeep Station. One or two bridges are found here under which the streamlets flow into © the sea, and it was found that Enchytreids delighted in the moist, cool situations provided by the wall on the one side and the earth, frequently enriched by decaying seaweed and other vege- table matter, on the other. Here I found many specimens of Henlea marina, H. curiosa, H. arenicola, H. heterotropa, and others new to science. Alexandra Park also proved to be a very valuable hunting- eround. The decaying leaf-mould usually harbours a number of interesting Lumbricids, such forms as Dendrobena subrubt- cunda, D. arborea, Eisenia fetida,” Lumbricus rubellus, and L. castaneus being the most frequent. In a manure-heap I found, in addition to many Brandlings and Enchytreus albidus, a form of Hisenia which is uncommon. Unfortunately the material in this case was immature, and I have not hitherto been able to obtain a fresh supply for its determination. The matter is, however, worthy of mention, as showing that the possibilities of further discoveries are not yet exhausted. The mud on the margin of the pool in the park proved to be SOME HAST SUSSEX OLIGOCHATS. 83 very rich in material, and both here and in the runnels which lead to it I have found material which has not up till the present sccurred in any other locality. One or two of the species merit special notice. Tlyodrilus meganymphus, Friend (1912, J. R. M. S., p. 289); the locality unfortunately not then recorded), belongs to the Tubificids. Its specific name is due to the large spherical celomic corpuscles (nymphus = lymphus, whence our term lymphatic). In this respect the creature resembles Rhyacodrilus, which is a link between the Twubificide and the Naidide (A). The chloragogen cells begin in segment 4, which is in advance of the usual position. Curiously enough, while it simulates Rhyacodrilus in the matter of ccelomic corpuscles, it closely resembles the red-blooded Enchytreids in the vascular system. This is of peculiar interest, seeing that the blood-vessels in the Tubijicide are usually much more profuse and the system much more complex than is the case with the Enchytreids. It is the discovery of such unusual forms as these which at once makes systematic lists and definitions a problem, and yet throws such a flood of light on the evolution of species. Haplotaxis gordioides (G.L.H.). In 18961 gave an account (5) of a worm which had been sent to me by a medical man in Essex. It was new to science, and was named Dicheta curvi- setosa, Friend. The name was changed in 1899 to Phreoryctes dichetus, Friend. Up tillthe present no further specimens have been found. Michaelsen (10) in 1899 published an account of P. gordioides, and included the Essex species, in spite of the great differences between it and the type. In 1900 (9) he issued his valuable monograph on Oligochets, and called the worm Haplotaxis gordioides, and still persisted in inciuding the Essex form. On December 21st, 1911, I had the good fortune to find the worm which bears this name in Alexandra Park, Hastings, and was able instantly to recognize it and to see how greatly it differs from P. dichetus. Thus, at the present time we have two species of Haplotazide in England; in addition to a third well worm found in Hast Anglia but not yet described. Tulifex heuscheri, Bret., was also collected near the park. It has not been found elsewhere in Great Britain up till the present time ; making the third unique species. HQ 84 THE ZOOLOGIST. It should be noted that my observations are limited to a triangle, the base of which extends from Hastings to Pevensey, and the two sides joining those places with Robertsbridge. On the occasion of my last visit to Sussex in August, 1913, I spent an hour in examining the Annelid fauna under moss and liverwort by a bridge over the little stream which flows through the meadows or ‘‘brooks,’’ as they are locally called in the picturesque village of Sedlescombe, and here I found some species of Enchytreids which had not previously been recorded for Sussex. It may be of interest to note that one of these was Chamedrilus chlorophilus, Friend (6). Though first described from material collected in Derbyshire, I found, on looking up my notes, that I had already found it in Sussex, but had not been able to identify it, and so had put my description aside to await fuller light. Thus it happens that Sussex has the honour of giving us one of the first reliable records for this hitherto unknown Annelid. These preliminary observations must suffice to prepare the way for the systematic list. The families and genera are for convenience of reference arranged in the order adopted by Prof. Michaelsen (9). Unfortunately there has, up till the present, been no reliable record for either the family Aolosomatide or Naidide. These contain many species of microscopic worms which inhabit the mud or vegetation of fresh or brackish waters. We begin, therefore, with the T'ubificide, another family of freshwater worms, but of larger dimensions. V'UBIFICIDA. Setz of various kinds; male pore on eleventh or twelfth segment, with spermathecal pore on adjoining segment. Upwards of a dozen known genera. Michaelsen (9), pp. 36 seq., 522 seq. The Sussex genera at present on record are limited to three, viz. Limnodrilus, Ilyodrilus, Tubifex. I believe Senuris, Clitellio, and Psammoryctes might be found if carefully sought. Rhyaco- drilus also, which I have shown (4) to be more nearly related to the Tubificide than the Naidide, is found in Essex, and should occur under similar conditions in Sussex. 1. Ltmnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Clap.—Michaelsen (9), p. 43. Alexandra Park, Hastings, June, 1912. Not uncommon in the county by streams and in pools. SOME EAST SUSSEX OLIGOCHATS. 85 2. L. udekemianus, Clap.—Michaelsen (9), p.45. Alexandra Park, Hastings, June, 1912, and elsewhere. First collected for certain at Amberstone Grange, August 30th, and at Battle and Sedlescombe, August 31st, 1911. 3. L. papillosus, Friend.—1912, Friend (6), pp. 276-7. ‘‘ First found at Kew, August, 1911, and since, discovered in gleanings from the neighbourhood of Battle and Hurstmonceaux, Sussex.” Hastings, June 20th, 1912. 4. L. aurantiacus, Friend.—1911, Friend (8), p. 414. ‘‘My notes show that this species is widely distributed in the South of England, from Derbyshire to Kew and Sussex.” Friend (6), p. 275. 5. Ilyodrilus meganymphus, Friend.— 1912, Friend (6), p. 289. Described from specimens found in runnel in Alexandra Park, below the Bohemia entrance. Found December 21st, 1911. Other species of Ilyodrilus occur in Sussex, but the T'ubificide of Great Britain are under careful revision, and until my work is somewhat more advanced, it, would only result in confusion to give further records here. 6. Tubifex tubifex (Muller).—Michaelsen (9), p. 48. Friend (6), pp. 291-2. Twubifex is common in Sussex as in most parts of England, but hitherto several different species, and even genera, have been confused under this name. I have taken different forms in Alexandra Park, at Battle, Dallington, Hurst- monceaux, and elsewhere. The same observation is true of Tubifex which is made of Ilyodrilus. I have notes made many years ago which suggest that Psammoryctes was at least once collected by me in Sussex. The muddy banks of rivers, as at Shoreham, would be prolific hunting-grounds, but have never yet been worked. Heterocheta costata, Clap., and other very inter- esting Annelids are sure to abound there, as they do in similar localities on the Thames estuary. 6a. T. heuscheri, Bret.—Near Kite’s Nest, Hastings, June, 1912; only British record. LUMBRICULIDE. Sigmoid sete either forked or pointed, four pairs on each segment. Girdle in a very advanced position (segments 3-7). Ten or a dozen known genera, of which only about one half are 86 THE ZOOLOGIST. as yet known in Great Britain. Rhynchelmis limosella, Hoftm., which was found in Hants in 1918 is almost sure to occur, and one or two species of Stylodrilus must also be indigenous. Hitherto, however, only one genus, and but one species of that, is on record. 7. Lumbriculus variegatus (Miiller).—Michaelsen (9), p. 58. First found by me in Pevensey Marsh in 1892. Taken in Alexandra Park, Hastings, June 20th, 1912. Not uncommon among water-weeds in streams and ponds or lakes. ENCHYTREIDE. Sete present, except in Acheta, straight, sigmoid, or bent near the internal extremity. Girdle usually on segment 12; but sometimes advanced three or four segments (as in Chamedrilus and Buchholzia). Spermathece opening between segments 4 and 5; either free within the celom or more frequently attached to the intestine. Dorsal pores in one genus (Fridericia). Blood usually red in the Pachydrylid section, otherwise colourless or yellowish. A very large and interesting family, concerning which I have written much during the past three years, especially in the ‘ Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society ’ and in these pages (1). One new genus (Chamedrilus, Friend) is at present known only in Britain, where, however, it is widely distributed. To the genus Henlea, as well as to Fridericia, I have recently added many new species. So far as our present knowledge goes, England has more Enchytreids than any other country. I give the Henleas alphabetically. 8. Henlea arenicola, Friend. —1912 (6), p. 586. Found at Bopeep, Hastings, December 21st, 1911, and first described from the material there collected. 9. H. curiosa, Friend. —1912 (6), p. 588. Same locality and date as foregoing. 10. H. fragilis, Friend. — 1912 (6), p. 588. Same iocality and date. 11. H. fridericioides, Friend.—1912 (6), p.587. Same locality and date. 12. H. heterotropa, Friend.—1912 (6), p. 589. Same locality and date. 13. H. hibernica, Southern.—1907, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vol. 16, SOME EAST SUSSEX OLIGOCHATS. 87 pp. 70-1, with plate. First Sussex record, Sedlescombe ‘** brooks,” August, 1913. 14. H. lampas, Hisen.—Michaelsen (9), p. 70. Friend (1), 1911, p. 465; (8), p. 821; (6), p. 584. The species as emended found at Hastings, December 21st, 1911. 15. H. marina, Friend.—1912 (6), pp. 589-591, with illustra- tions. Bopeep, December 21st, 1911. 16. H. rhetica, Bretscher. — 1912, Friend (6), pp. 593-5. Hastings as before, and again November 25th, 1912. 17. H. triloba, Friend.—1912 (6), p. 596. From the Bopeep station, December 21st, 1911. 18. Buchholzia appendiculata (Buch.).—Michaelsen (9), p. 72. Hastings, June, 1912; Sedlescombe ‘“‘ brooks,” August, 1913. 19. B. focala, Friend. — 1914, J. R. M. 8. (now being published). Hastings, December 21st, 1911. 20. B. tenuissima, Friend. --1914, J. R. M. 8. (see 19). Collected June 12th, 1912, Alexandra Park, Hastings. I have recently revised and extended our records for this genus, adding some new British species; but am at present un- able to decide whether or not a further species is to be added to the Sussex list. My Sedlescombe material is as instructive and interesting as it is perplexing, and must receive further study. 21. Marionina sp.—Not adult; Hastings, December 21st, 1911. This group of red-blooded Enchytreids is very extensive, and it is no exaggeration to say that, if the coast and estuaries of Sussex were to be carefully examined, a score of species at least could be collected. The genus, with its ally Lumbricillus, is under revision. 22. Hnchytreus albidus, Henle.-—The commonest species of this genus. Found everywhere in well-rotted manure. Very abundant in old manure-heap, Hastings, December 21st, 1911. See Friend (8) for earlier record. 23. EH. buchholz, Vejd. Sedlescombe, 1897. See last note. 24. EH. minimus, Bret.—Michaelsen (9), p. 92. Hastings, December 21st, 1911. 25. H.nigrinus, Bret.—Hastings, December 21st,1911. This is one of several species which have been discovered since Michaelsen’s Monograph (9) was published. Other species await determination. 88 THE ZOOLOGIST. 26. Fridericia michaelseni, Bret.—Michaelsen (9), p. 100. One of the most widely distributed species of this genus. Hastings, December 21st, 1911. 27. F. bulbosa, Rosa, and a variety or allied form at the same place and time. Also Sedlescombe, August, 1913. 28. F’. variata, Bret. Hastings, same time and place as foregoing. 29. Fridericia sp.—One of the bisetose forms, not yet suffi- ciently diagnosed. Sedlescombe “brooks,” August 16th, 1918. This list of species belonging to the genus Fridericia leaves much to be desired. Nearly one hundred species are known to science, about half of which are British, and forty or fifty species ought easily to be found in Sussex. The genus Acheta is at present unknown in this county. 30. Chamedrilus chlorophilus, Friend. —1912, Friend (6), pp. 257 seg. This interesting Annelid appears at present to be .unknown outside the British Isles. Hastings, June, 1912; Sedlescombe “ brooks,’’ August 16th, 1913. HApPLOTAXIDm. 31. Haplotaxis gordioides (G. L. H.).—Michaelsen (9), p. 108. Quite distinct from H. (Dicheta) curvisetosa, Friend (‘ Essex Nat.’ vol. 9, p. 110), with which Michaelsen confuses it. I found the genuine H. gordioides at Hastings, December 21st, 1911; a day memorable for the many discoveries made during a couple of hours spent between Bopeep and Alexandra Park. LuUMBRICULID2. 32. Allurus (Hiseniella) tetredrus, Sav. — Michaelsen (9), p- 471. Not known in November, 1890. Friend (7), p. 22. First record for Sussex, 1892. Friend (2), p.128. Since found in many parts of the county. 83. Hisenia fatida, Sav.--Michaelsen (9), p. 475. First Sussex record, 1891. Friend (7), p. 21. Found everywhere in manure. In the Gensing Gardens I once found a variety — which was peculiar, but I cannot at present put hands on my memoranda. 34. E. rosea, Sav. (=A. mucosa, Hisen). First Sussex record, March, 1892. Friend (2), p. 124. In May, 1892, my mother SOME HAST SUSSEX OLIGOCHATS. 89 collected for me at Dallington, the consignment consisting of seven species (Allurus tetredrus, Hisenia rosea, A. chlorotica, A. caligi- nosa, B. constrictus, L. rubellus, and L. castaneus), the specimens of H. rosea being marked, ‘‘ very typical.” 35. Allolobophora longa, Ude. Friend’ (2), p. 128. First found at Dallington, March, 1892, and frequently since. More abundant in many places than the true Karthworm, with which it is often confused. 36. A. caliginosa, Sav. (forma turgida, Hisen). Friend (2), p. 124. Forma trapezoides, Hurstmonceaux, July 23rd, 1889. 37. Aporrectodea chlorotica, Sav.—With many aliases, some of which accompany the first record for Sussex, November, 1890. Friend (7), p. 21. Very common and widely distributed. Inside Pevensey Castle. 38. Dendrobena subrubicunda, Kisen (= rubida, Sav.).— Friend (2), pp. 123-4. Very abundant, as a rule, in old manure and among leaf-mould. Alexandra Park, December 21st, 1911. 39. D. arborea, Kisen.—First found in Sussex, March, 1892. Friend (2), p. 128. Not common, but found again December 21st, 1911, in an old log on the shore at Bopeep. 40. D. mammalis, Sav. (=celtica, Rosa).—In tree-stump with the last at Dallington, March, 1892. Friend (2), p.124. Rare; but found most frequently in road-scrapings which have “‘ ripened.” Aj. Helodrilus oculatus, Hoffm.—A worm of peculiar interest. By the side of dykes at Boreham Bridge, by the Fish Market, Hastings, and on the way to Kite’s Nest Farm; apparently generally distributed in Sussex. 42. Bimastus eisent, Lev.—Apparently rare in Sussex. First record, March, 1892. Friend (2), pp. 123-4.. 43. B. constrictus, Rosa.— The Sussex record for March, 1892 (Friend (2), p. 123), was the first for Great Britain. June, 1912, I found one specimen in a gutter beyond the Fish Market, Hastings, with H. oculatus, L. rubellus, and A. chlorotica. 44, Octolasium profugum (= lactewm, Oerley).—Supra, p. 81. Dallington ; first and only Sussex record. 45. Lumbricus rubellus, Hoffm.—Friend (2), p. 123. Gene- rally distributed. 46. L. castaneus, Sav. (= purpureus).—March, 1892. Friend (2), p. 123. First record, November, 1890. Friend (7), p. 21. 90 THE ZOOLOGIST. 47. L. festivus, Sav. (= rubescens, Friend).—Near fir planta- tion between Brightling and Dallington, March, 1892. (2), p. 128. Not common in Sussex. 48. L. terrestris, L.—Friend (7), p. 20. Dallington, Hurst- monceaux, and elsewhere. In addition to the foregoing, I have to record the occurrence of a small tender worm at HEecclesbourne. It was found in July, 1912, but died before I could examine it alive. A second collection was made and preserved. No single example was adult, but it seemed undoubtedly to belong to the genus Allurus. Pending an opportunity of seeking for it again, I have named it Allurus mollis. When we remember that a county like Nottingham, without a seaboard or estuary, and with hardly any hills, already records nearly a hundred Annelids, we cannot repress the suspicion that many new species await discovery in Sussex ; and if two hours’ work could in December, 1911, yield such rich results, what might we not expect if a steady and systematic search were carried out? I shall be glad of any assistance in this most important branch of research. Gleaning should be placed in tin boxes and addressed Pocklington, York. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Friend in ‘ Zoologist,’ 1911-19138. 2 » 99 ‘sclence Gossip,’ 1892, pp. 122 seq. 3: » 9» ‘Hastings and St. Leonards Fauna and Flora.’ 4 » 9» * Nature,’ June 5th, 1913. 5: » 9, *‘Hssex Naturalist,’ vol. 9, p. 110. 6. oy os ee Re M, 83? 2912=1012: 7 » 9 © Field Club,’ 1891, pp. 20-22. 8. 68, “Naturalist; Ton 9. Michaelsen in ‘ Das Tierreich,’ 1900. 10. se 5, ‘Zool. Jahrb. Syst.,’ 1899, vol. 12, pp. 105 seq. ty) RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. By H. Panton. (Continued from p. 35.) Rererrine to the cases of hybrids which (as Mr. Finn mentions) are hard to get, one might point out these may be hard to obtain in two ways, viz. :—either that it is difficult to get the parents to copulate, although conception is general when this does occur, or that although copulation is frequent no conception takes place. This point ought not to be lost sight of. Further, it has always seemed to me that it is far harder to get ‘“uncongenial” hybrids (that is, sterile ones or aganesists) amongst lower animals than in the higher forms. These sterile hybrids, I have noticed, appear to me to be the results of what one might term true miscegenation, that is, the parents show in general little natural liking for each other, and thus I take it that in lower forms with small brain capacity, intelligence as suggestive and incitant to copulation is wanting (and this intelligence seems largely operative in the production of horse and ass hybrids), and that therefore copulation is much rarer than in the higher forms. Arguing by the above table of hybrids and congeneric habits, a hybrid, the parents of which mate readily, should be fertile, or again, when they show aversion or indifference, as happens where their habits are not congeneric, we might look for a sterile hybrid, and this is generally the case. I can conceive no explanation of this other than gradual evolutionary divergence of germ-plasm. It is suggested by certain authorities that in cases of infertility the physiological unit may be divergent or in dissimilar architectural multiples, and thus unable to combine; be this as it may (and we will refer to it later), it seems to me that it is always possible for the germ-plasm and outward form to run away from each other, t.e., there being more divergence 92 THE ZOOLOGIST. or less than is apparent, and that although outward form has altered, the germ-plasm has not done so to the same extent or vice versa, t.é€., a8 regards such practical powers as reproduction, and the congeniality and similarity this suggests. One of the most puzzling cases that crop up is the lack of breeding results from such apparently connected birds as Carolina and Mandarin Ducks, as remarked by Finn, but we are getting rather in advance ofourargument. To return: the infer- tility of agenesic hybrids is an unsolved problem, but it is possible that it is not essentially different to the infertility ot inbred species. Let us see what happens in this latter case, which is often carried out thus. Man takes an extreme type, and keeps breed- ing this type probably against any type that environment would select as the carrier of the germ-plasm. Man then produces what we may call an ‘“‘uncongenial host,” and the uncongeniality of the host probably adversely affects the vigour of the germ-plasm, thereby causing sterility. In short, Nature refuses to be led down the wrong path. In the same way the hybrid bred from two very divergent forms is probably an uncongenial host, far indeed from the two forms Nature has been evolving: it probably has a twofold diverse ‘‘drive,” and although the two parent forms have combined to produce the hybrid, and given so to speak the germ into its keeping, the hybrid combination, either from the general uncongeniality of the parental forms (to each other) that Nature has been producing, or its ‘‘ driving’ in two opposite directions through the influence of two different parental germ-plasmatic ‘‘driving’’ powers, cannot unite in full vigorous combination and undividedness to produce the perfect ripe filial germ-plasm ; the ovum and spermatozoa never, I believe, in sterile forms becoming mature or ‘‘ripe.”’ Admitting that the driving force of these two evolutionary parental forms be a bio-chemical one, the general explanation need not be different. As sterility arises from interbreeding, as well as from violent crosses, it may be that it is, as stated above, from much the same cause, and if this were so it would be some evidence against the suggestion that the latter is due to a difference in the architec- tural unit as suggested by the school of Weismann. To follow out interbreeding mercilessly, this procedure must RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 93 continue for generations, and as it is usually performed on animals, entails housing in the same way and feeding on (probably) a similar unvarying diet. This must result in time in a deprivation to the system of anything tending to induce change or variety (with its probable benefits) in the germ-plasm. This cannot be compared to the conditions which would obtain on the various islands, &c., where inbred creatures such as rabbits, &c., tend to multiply and increase. Here they get access to varying foods, which in their individuality they no doubt assimilate to varying degree, and where copulation with cousins many times removed is at least possible: both these causes ensuring some change in the system, however slight, from the stagnation that must result from the close inbreeding as practised by man, which cannot be compared to the natural evoluting inbreeding which takes place in the case of the rabbits quoted above, or such other examples as that of the red deer of New Zealand or the buffaloes of Australia. The latter move with the Unknown Cause of Evolution, the former against it, or rather tries to do so. One may further reason that continued inbreeding may be likened to the prolonged subdivision of the germ-cells of primi- tive life, which goes on for a time, but ceases for some unknown reason at a certain point, unless some other strange cell com- bines with it to give it fresh vigour. Also, it seems likely that the infertility of divergent forms can be more easily explained by the growing dissimilarities of the germ-plasm. It only seems reasonable that the germ-cell should require, as an inducement to give birth to a new life, a partner not too extreme, neither too satiate, nor too uncongenial. If, as one imagines, in the formation of cells, it is the union of the two separate individuals that causes the renewed productive powers, it would seem that inbred animals necessarily obstruct this process; the mating cells would in these types supply no new individuality to forward the above end. The rejection of a dissimilar and uncongenial unit can equally well be imagined. Against the architectural theory : while mutations may and apparently do occur in varying degree as regards outward form, I am unable to find any definite or clear distinction between the 94 THE ZOOLOGIST. result of these and that which we might expect to be the out- come of less sudden variations (indefinite), and, moreover, the apparently graduating decline of fertility in the evoluting species given in the table of hybrids seems to render unlikely any such explanation as the above architectural theory suggests. Any violent or abrupt change of germ-plasm seems in the face of these graduating results to be unusual, although one must admit this graduating evolution of germ-plasm is revealed in what appears to the eye as very apparent jumps as regards the outward form. However, are not the long-haired cavies as fertile with individuals of the parent type as these latter normally are inter se? and also the fertility of crosses of Zebu and European cattle, surely mutants showing a difference sufficiently great in jumping power to illustrate my meaning as to the congeniality of the germ-plasm as contrasted with the divergence of the outward form of these types. On the other hand, this graduating germ-plasm theory does at times receive a nasty jar, as notably in the instance of the beetle Leptinotarsa rubicunda, but perhaps I had better refer to this later on, and merely state now that, although this example seems at variance with our graduation theory of the germ-plasm, it is not unlikely that in some cases this jump in the plasm does take place; that the plasm does at times arrive more quickly at an uncongenial stage than appears general. This need not, however, force us to accept any such improbability or probability as an architec- tural physiological unit. There is, of course, the question of blood parasites to be considered as bearing on sterility, which has been put forward as the cause of the sterility of certain species, such as some of the bison herds which show unsatisfactory breeding results. Upon matters such as these, and others such as the sterility of human races as the Tasmanians, one loses oneself in conjecture. The sudden sterility of the Tasmanians, for instance, appears, if not attributal to blood parasites or inbreeding, to be almost super- natural, psychological perhaps. Another point, in which I imagine the more correct relation- ships of animals from similarity of germ-plasm as against structural changes are shown, is from the resemblance in the generative organs found in the various orders. While nutri- ‘ RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 95 ment, habit, and environment might be expected to very greatly affect the other organs, there would appear no very great reason why the form of the former should necessarily change, nor, broadly speaking, do they. Copulative organs and actions can have apparently no great reason for changing, nor would one expect them to be so liable to be influenced by evolution as bodily form, and they certainly appear to be the last to change ; and in this respect the divergence in these organs between Platyrrhine and Catarrhine primates appears to be extremely suggestive of long separation and great divergence. One feels bound to refer to divergence of results as shown in some reciprocal crosses between the same two species. Darwin refers to Kolreuter’s experiments (‘ Origin of Species’) thus :— “ Miribilis jalapa can easily be fertilised by the pollen of M. longiflora, and the hybrids thus produced are sufficiently fertile, but Kolreuter tried more than two hundred times, during eight following years, to fertilise reciprocally M. longiflora with the pollen of M. jalapa, and utterly failed.” An explanation of this curious fact appears hard to find. As, however, there does not appear to be any difference in the fertility of the hybrids that can be bred reciprocally, possibly some theory of ‘‘ uncongeniality’’ might apply to these cases. When definite light is shed on such problems, one may expect to see much of the puzzle of hybridism laid bare. Considering the fact that many females are not fertile with certain males of their own species, it seems unwise to lay too much stress on the aberrant infertility of these reciprocal combinations. If the theory of gradually separating forms shown by infertility is correct, some intermediate form should connect two others. No definite experiments to test this have been made, as far as I know. Kolreuter, however, experimented with five forms or varieties of the common tobacco, and found that, although all these forms and their hybrids were perfectly fertile (even when tried reciprocally), one of these forms when crossed with Nicotiana glutinosa produced hybrids less sterile than the other four forms produced when crossed with this species. After summarising the examples given above, and in the endeavour to draw deductions from them, one is prepared to 96 THE ZOOLOGIST. admit that matters may appear somewhat complicated. So diverse, indeed, do all these examples of hybridization appear to most writers in relation to the usual classification, that I am not aware that any recent authority has made any endeavour to put forward any theory on these matters. The best they seem to do, that is, the few who comment thereon, is to make some such statement as ‘‘ we now know that hybrids are not by any means invariably infertile,’ while many others give no details or examples of such results as I have given above, nor even refer to the subject at all. Dewar & Finn* and Bartlett + certainly produce an array of instances, but apparently make no attempt to summarise or explain them, and they therefore leave the subject much the same as when they entered upon it. Other writers touching on these matters explain that, whereas fertility was formerly considered to be the absolute test of a species, later investigations have discountenanced this theory. Such criticism is merely negative, and is very possibly far more unsound than the original belief which it condemns. Many modern biologists are fond of drawing attention to the inviolability of the germ-plasm, which they explain is housed, cuarded, and handed on from generation to generation, unin- fluenced by and unaffected by all “‘ indefinite variations,” which are therefore not inheritable. To a certain extent only does this appear feasible. It seems altogether too strict and unplastic a way of putting matters, nor does it appear sound reasoning com- pared with Darwin’s statement that environment and change of diet are the causes of evolution and differentiation of species. That these act on the germ-plasm seems probable, affecting it through the digestion and blood and inducing it, as the parent of the next generation (plasmatic and corporeal) to, as it were, initiate and stimulate these variations in the latter, to be in turn (the next generation) acted on in the same manner and urged further along the new path. The seeming resultant that strikes one as produced by all this is a belief to a certain extent only in the immutabilty of the germ-plasm, in that it is not so vitally affected as the out- ward form, as shown by the “ fluctuations” and ‘‘ mutations”’ * *The Making of Species.’ + ‘Wild Animals in Captivity.’ RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 97 which occur in species, and which are so apparent to the eye; no matter that the germ-plasm initiates these changes, or is affected by them (such as they are), they are more apparent than real, that is, as indicating any definite change in the parent germ-plasm, in so far as to any change in powers of inter- breeding, conception, and the begetting of young. For instance, these ‘‘fluctuating”’ and ‘“‘ mutating” animals are almost invariably quite fertile with recent similar developments of each other, as shown by the interbreeding of some wild and all (as far as I know) domestic varieties. Therefore it seems feasible to suppose that the germ-plasm changes only gradually, as sug- gested by the results given in the table of hybridisation, showing the gradual reduction of fertility given above, and that there are not generally any sudden changes or “‘jumps”’ in this germ- plasm in the nature of anything akin to mutation, such as are visible as structural changes to the eye. If, as suggested by Weismann, the physiological unit of the germ-plasm is built up architecturally (any alteration in design may possibly be a later development denoting greater changes) or whether, as more recent investigators suggest, the changes are due chemically to _ ferments, it is still possible the change is a gradual one and rarely effected suddenly, even if, as De Vries holds, there are times of violent activity in the life of a species, during which it tends to throw off mutations. As far as I can reason, the examples I have quoted appear to be evidence sufficiently strong to show gradual changing of the germ-plasm (more or less rapid though it may be through such stimulating effects as changing environment and food), no matter how spontaneous or important the visible jump may be. I believe that the inward invisible germ-plasm relationship (which one might expect would be reciprocated in blood tests) is most generally the true evidence of relationship as opposed to that entirely founded on every struc- tural difference, great or small. This does not mean, however, that structural evolution and germ-plasm changes do not go hand in hand, for it would seem that it is only generally in the closer relationship of the various groups that one, so to speak, gets ahead of the other. For instance, let us assume two forms evolute out, both, perhaps, still largely feeding on the same substances, the evolu- Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., March, 1914. I 98 THE ZOOLOGIST. tion being caused through one taking to climbing, or swimming, or jumping. It is more than probable that the outward form immediately begins to adapt itself by harmonious development to the changed circumstances (such as the unique loss of a great toe development in the Patas Monkey and digitigrade walking), thus leaving the animals more related in blood relationship than they appear (though this is, perhaps, not well illustrated in the above example), through the internal essences being similar, or, at most, more gradually acted on in later generations through a change of diet on the part of the separating form. It is in the adult Patas that the curious doglike form sugges- tive of high speed is most noticeable; the young do not show it so prominently. Hence I imagine the general want of comment on this special development. One may deny the above divergence, that is, the apparent difference in the rate of evolution of germ-plasm and structure, but, although outward form and germ-plasm must be in real unison, one cannot deny that, if one drew up a classification based on germ-plasm affinity (which I have held in these notes is shown in results of hybridism), this classification would cer- tainly be apparently opposed in many cases to the one of struc- tural similarity, as in the instances that I have given; but that I believe that this opposition would be only apparent, and have nothing to do with the real harmony between germ-plasm and structure, I have in these notes tried to make clear. One might imagine change of diet to be one of, if not the sreatest factor in inducing evolution, and environment of import- ance chiefly in so far as it offers opportunity of this change. Effects of change of diet would, one might conjecture, in time affect, through the anabolic action of the chromatin, the internal economy and blood of the animal, and one might expect that its influence must begin to be felt before aught else. In the case of the Horse and Ass the difference in form and habits seems more important than is generally supposed, and appears to contrast somewhat with the congeniality of the germ- plasm which results in conception. I might also remark here on an instance given earlier in these notes—on the differentiation of the Chaffinch groups from the other finches—that it is possible, instead of the view of the divergence given above, that through RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 99 the insect-eating proclivities of Fringilla a difference may have arisen in the germ-plasm of this group as compared with Acanthis and kindred genera, which causes the infertility between them, but that otherwise the relationship between Fringilla, Ligurinus, Acanthis, Serinus, &c., is co-equal. I do not think this view probable, however (although it might account for their readiness in pairing), but imagine the one I gave when commenting on this to be more correct. Ii is hard to keep from what appears to be arguing in a circle, and arriving at the commencement of our argument again, and at the apparently opposite conclusion that the germ- plasm changes through diet, while the structural change may not occur, and that therefore the latter is, in such cases, the truer test of relationship, and that the usual methods of classification are correct. In this way, one might imagine a germ-plasmatic change, let us say, through diet, but there would seem to be no apparent necessity that there should invariably or of necessity be any great corresponding structual change, unless environ- ment through adaptation ordered otherwise; and one might argue that this is indeed what one apparently finds in the above quoted cases of Fringilla and Acanthis. Allowing this, one may quite reasonably further contend that Ligurinus evoluted out further back than the separation of Fringilla and Acanthis, but through the similarity of food keeps a similar germ-plasm, but on account of some physical labour develops a diverse structure (powerful beak) for crushing larger seeds. The development being diagrammatically something as follows :— Fig. 1. (Inner lines show germ-plasmatic, and outer lines structural similarities or changes.) === A, Lagurinus. == = — or Lie —— eee San rT B. Acanthis. wwe C. Fringilla. Where A and B retain the same fertility-producing plasm, from which C has diverged, structural changes being vice versa. And from this one might assert that Fringilla and Acanthis were more nearly related to each other than either to Ligurinus, IQ 100 THE ZOOLOGIST. As before stated I do not hold this view, chiefly because the congeneric habits more than hint at a connection similar to that figured earlier in this paper. One feels, however, bound to bear this style of evolution in mind, and in the case of such an evolution of three species as figure 2, it would be hard to say which two of the species was nearer the third. Fig. 2. When I am speaking of structural changes, I wish to state that I do not imply by this any great structural change, but merely those minor differences that are generally credited as denoting generic divergence, or rather the lesser rank that generic modern divergence tends to assume. ; If (going back to figure 1) we place Anas at A, Aix sponsa at B, and Aix galericulata at C, we may be on the track of the curious interbreeding results got from those forms, Aix sponsa hybridising more readily with the Anatine than it does with its apparently nearer relation Aix galericulata. I cannot account for these anomalies unless it be by some such hypothesis as the above, or modifications of this by parallelism or convergence. In using the term ‘‘ relationship ” for animals, it is necessary that we note clearly what we mean. In using this term “near relation’? for human beings, we mean that those persons are nearer (genealogically) to a grandfather than to some remoter ancestor, that is, one farther back in the genealogical tree. It would seem that we ought not to so understand this term, when ~ we apply it as meaning nearness or divergence in species. For instance, in the case of the Porto Santo Rabbit. This animal is supposed to be descended from European Rabbits about the beginning of the fourteen hundreth century, being turned down on this island. It is probable that the original ancestor of the European wild Rabbit and the English wild Rabbit are not connected RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 101 genealogically till hundreds of years before this, till perhaps before the time of the North Sea. However, the Porto Santo Rabbit, isolated in a restricted environment, has apparently become very subject to evolutionary duction. It has apparently altered in habit, size, and structure, and now refuses to breed with ordinary Rabbits. One should say, therefore, that it is ‘“‘further” in relationship to the Continental Rabbit than the latter is to the English, though genealogically this is by no means the case. It is curious to note that this Porto Santo Rabbit, although it differs from the common type in all the above points, is but merely classified as a subspecies of Lepus (or rather Oryctolagus) cuniculus. What is the reason for this? None other, I should imagine, than the fact that we are unconsciously influenced by the fact that we know it has only evoluted out in the short space of six hundred years. Were this not known, would it not be held at least a distinct species? However, it seems absurd to liken the differences between this form and the common Rabbit to the usual small subspecial distinctions that generally hold good. : Are we not to consider different forms as different species because they have come quicker into being than perhaps often happens? If so, this strikes at the mutation theory. (To be continued.) 102 THE ZOOLOGIST. LITHOBIUS LAPIDICOLA, Metnert, A CENTIPEDE NEW TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. By RicHarp §. Baenatu, F.L.8., F.E.S. Wuitst spending a short holiday in North Devon in August of last year (19138), I observed a smallish Lithobiid which occurred in the Ilfracombe district, amongst the larger pebbles and under stones at the foot of the cliffs at Hele Bay, the bathing cove, Ilfracombe, and at Lee Bay, where it was not only found on the shore but on the cliffs also. I could not identify it with any of our known British species and accordingly sent specimens to Dr. Brolemann, who with his customary kindness readily identified them as Lithobius lapidicola, Meinert, a South European species. - It comes in the group Archilithobius, and according to Latzel near to our species calcaratus, though Von Attems* places it in another subdivision, with pelidnus, mutabilis, &c. L. lapidicola was described by Meinert in his ‘ Myriapoda Muse#i Hauniensis,’ 11., Lithobiinit in 1872, and a description will also be found in Latzel’s ‘ Die Myriopoden der Oster.- Ungar. Monarchie.’ { I regret that I have not yet found the opportunity of making a study of the species and therefore cannot, at present, offer any further remarks. * “Die Myriopoden Steiermarks,” Sitz. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien Math.- Naturw. Classe, civ. 1895, pp. 117-238. + Naturh. Tidskr., viii. 1872, p. 228. j I. Die Chilopoden, 1880, p. 106. ( 103 ) ON THE LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS AND ITS CONTAINED OTOLITHS IN FISHES. By Cotonzt C. HE. SHepHerp (Indian Army). Wauitst as a rule every fish that has otoliths has six of them (three each side), in different families they are located in the head in different ways, and these are characteristic of the families. The otolith in the sacculus is the sagitta, the otolith in that portion of the sacculus known as the lagena is the astericus. In many fishes the position of the sagitta, the bone of the skull being very thin immediately under it, becomes apparent on removing the epibranchial arches and the adjacent tissues, the opaque body of this otolith showing distinctly through the thin bone. This, however, is mostly seen in the case of a fresh head ; those that have been preserved in any way often lose this transparency of the bone, although in some cases it is retained. This transparency is not peculiar to any fish in particular, but is to be seen in many different families, whilst other members of the same family do not show it. It is to be observed in Gadus merlangus (the Whiting) ; in several of the Pleuronectide (the Flat fishes) ; in several of the Characinide, and many others which will be mentioned later on. In the cases where the sagittz can be seen they are always inclined at an angle to the middle line down the length of the fish, the backward end of the otolith being nearer to the middle line and the end pointing forward being’ further away, so that a line drawn through the direction of the otoliths would make an acute angle with the middle line, the apex of the angle being directed backward. When the thickness or opacity of the basi-occiput does not permit of the sagitte being seen, their position is often indicated by a more or less defined, prominent bulging of the bone on each side of the middle line. In some fishes the position of the sagitte# is shown by two bony excrescences on the under side of the skull, diverging from one another to suit 104 THE ZCOLOGIST. the divergence of the sagitte. This is seen in Antennarius hispidus, a small-sized member of the Angler family from the Indian Ocean ; in Ophiocephalus punctatus ; and markedly so in Anabas scandens (the Climbing Perch of India), where the bony excrescences look like the buds on opposite sides of a twig just before they burst open. When the skull is opened by a vertical cut down the middle, the differences in the location of the sacculus can more readily be appreciated. In some fishes this lies nearer the eye orbit, in others it is further away. Again, in some it is close to the middle line of the head, in others it is away to the side of the skull; this is noticeable in the Gobiide (the Gobies) ; in Tetrodon leopardus (an Indian Globefish) ; and in Anableps tetropthalmus (the Four Eyes of Demerara). In the Mormyride (Nilotic fishes) quite a different arrangement to the usual one is to be seen. The sacculus is attached in Mormyrus kannume to a bladder-like termination of the swimming bladder, and is situated at the back part of the skull. In some families the sacculus is completely embedded in the basi-occiput bone, which has to be carefully split up to extract the sacculus and its contents. This is so in the Characinide, the Cyprinide (the Carps), and the Siluride (the Cat fishes) ; all belonging to the Ostariophysi suborder of fishes, i.e. those that have their swimming bladder connected with their hearing organs by means of a series of bony ossicles known as the ‘“‘ Weberian ossicles.” In other fishes the sacculus with its enclosed otoliths, although embedded in a bony pocket, is not so solidly encased as in the Ostariophysi, and the opening where the junction of the sacculus with the utriculus is effected is more patent. In some this opening is small and the bony walls of the pocket have to ~ be cut away to release the sacculus; in others the opening is big enough to allow the sacculus to be lifted out through it. Other fishes have the sacculus lying fairly open in a depression rather than a pocket, whence it can be lifted out with a pair of forceps and removed, a trifle of bone perhaps having to be cut away to release one or other end of the stone; this is so with Gadus merlangus (the Whiting). Again, the sacculus may be lying in the open on the floor of the brain cavity, it can be picked up and removed without further trouble ; this is so with Zeus faber (the John Dory), and Batrachus surinamensis (the LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 105 Pacuma of British Guiana). Differing, then, as they do in the quantity of bone with which the sacculus is surrounded, there is also a difference as to the roominess of the bony pockets. With the Ostariophysi the sacculus fits compactly in the cavity provided for it, with no room for movement. In Brama rau (Ray’s Bream, Couch), on the contrary, the cavity is much longer than the sagitta in its sacculus, and this could be moved backwards and forwards freely. In the Scieinde also the pocket for the sacculus is roomy. In those fishes having a well- defined lapillus, the third otolith, there is always a cavity in the skull for the ‘‘ Recessus utriculi’”’ to rest in, this being that part of the ear labyrinth holding the lapillus. Notably is this so in the Siluride, to accommodate what in some of this family is a very large stone; this cavity is well-defined on the outside by a bulging-out of the bone of the skull: this is clearly seen in Arius spixii. To get a more definite idea of the location of the sacculus and of the otoliths it will be as well to take the families seriatim of such as have been available for examination. POLYPTERIDE. Polypterus senegalus has the pocket for the sacculus high up at the side of the skull and open; the sacculus could be extracted with a little manipulation without cutting away any bone. In this fish the asteriscus* is the largest of the three otoliths. : ACIPENSERID2. Acipenser sturio (the Sturgeon). In this fish the sacculus contains otoconie as well as a solid sagitta. AMIIDA. Amia calva (the Bowfin of North America) has the asteriscus as the largest of the three otoliths on each side. The location of the sacculus and its contents is shown from the outside by a swelling on the basi-occiput of thin shiny bone. The sacculus and labyrinth of the ear are situated in a recess separated from the brain in the cranial cavity by a diaphragm of cartilage. The sacculus is in two well-defined portions, the lagena, the posterior and larger one, holding the asteriscus (fig. 8, p. 109). * Figured in the ‘ Zoologist’ (vol. xiv., p. 294, pl. ii. f. 5). 106 THE ZOOLOGIST. LEPIDOSTEIDE. Lepidosteus osseus (the Long-nosed Garpike of North America) has a well-defined pocket for the sacculus at the side of the head, The sagitta* in this fish is the largest otolith. CERATODONTIDE. Neoceratodus fosteri, called the Burnett salmon, another name being the Dawson salmon of Queensland, Australia. This, the only living example known of this family, has no indication on the lower side of the skull showing the location of the sacculus ; but at the top of the skull two prominences show, when the skin is taken off, that indicate the upper part of the vertical semi- circular canals of the labyrinth. In the specimen examined there were only four otoliths found, two on each side. An illus- tration of them is given natural size (fig. I.,1, p. 107). The two upper ones are from the right side of the head, the two lower from the left. The lapillus is the upper one of each set, the other being the sagitta. These otoliths are very chalky-looking and not so porcelain-like as in teleostean fishes. The texture can be compared in the photograph with those shown (fig. I., 8 and 4). LEPIDOSIRENID. The otolithic material in the head of Lepidosiren paradoxa is in the shape of dust, otoconie. ELOPIDS. Megalops atlanticus (the Tarpon) has the sacculus lying in a bony pocket fitting the sagitta closely, with a distinct pocket for the lagena portion of it. The lagena itself is well developed and holds a fair-sized asteriscus. The pocket for the sacculus is open at the top. ALBULIDE. Albula conorhynchus, the specimen secured, came from Java; the site of the sacculi is shown by two prominent swellings under the basi-occiput. The sacculus is not embedded in a bony pocket, the sagitta could be easily lifted out. It is large for the size of the fish. * See ‘ Zoologist’ vol. xiv., p. 294, pl. ii. f. 6. LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 107 . Mormyrip&. In this family the sacculus is at the back of the skull, to one side, away from the middle line and separated from the cavity holding the brain by a diaphragm of a thick skin-like substance. The ear membranes are attached to an ovoid-shaped bladder, a prolongation of the swim-bladder. The whole arrangement is totally different from that of any other family of fishes. This is Ant= : mae Fost? Ant? : Inee, ME 1. NEOCERATODUS FOSTERI. 2. HYODON ALOSOIDES. 3. OSPHROMENUS OLFAX. 4, Otoliths from right side only of PoLYNEMUS TETRADACTYLUS. seen in Mormyrus kannume, Hyperopisus bebe, and Marcusenius isidori, all from the Nile River. In Mormyrus kannume the lapillus is the largest otolith of the three (fig. II., 11,p. 109). It is, however, nearly equalled by the astericus. The length and breadth of the two are nearly equal, but in thickness the lapillus is the greater, the astericus being, as is usual with this stone, comparatively thin. HyoDoNnTIDz. Hyodon alosoides (the Mooneyes of Canada) has no outside evidence of the position of the sacculus as far as the bones of the skull are concerned; but it may be noted that the sacculus lies 108 THE ZOOLOGIST. just under the forward end of a white leathery tissue forming the end of the swim-bladder, where this is connected with the ear labyrinth. The sacculus is embedded in a bony pocket which requires cutting away. The lagena lobe of the sacculus is larger than the front portion, the astericus being larger than the sagitta. The lapillus, however, in this fish is the largest of the three otoliths (see fig. I., 2, p. 107). The upper three are from the right side of the head, the lapillus being to the left, the asteriscus to the right, and the sagitta below them. The three lower in the same order belong to the left side. A similar system is kept to in all the other illustrations of the otolith. When otoliths have been missed in dissection their place is left blank. When, however, a whole side is wanting, the ear labyrinth of that side has been kept for other purposes. NoToPTERIDE. Notopterus afer, an African fish, has very thin transparent bone under the pockets in which the sacculus is contained, but this is covered by a prolongation of the swim-bladder, which requires to be removed to allow the sagittw# to be seen. The sagitta of this fish has a long spike of a projection to it; this is peculiar to the family of this fish. A complete set of the otoliths of N. kapirat, an Indian fish, is shown (fig. II., 3, p. 109). OsTEOGLOSSIDS. Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (the ‘‘ Aroowana”’ of British Guiana) has no external indication to point out the location of the sacculus. It is much enclosed in bone, which has to be split up and cut away to obtain the sacculus and its contents. PANTODONTID. Pantodon buchholzi, an African fish of small size, has a fairly large and solid sagitta; it is shown (fig. II., 9, p. 109). CHIROCENTRIDE. Chirocentrus dorab, from the Indian Ocean, gives no indication from the outside as to the situation of the sacculus. It is much embedded in bone. CLUPEIDE. Clupea harengus (the Herring) has its sacculus lying in a bony pocket that has to be cut away to get the sacculus out. LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 109 The same with C. finta (the Twaite Shad) and C. ilisha (the ** Hilsa”’ of Bengal, but called ‘‘ Pulla”’ in Scinde). SaLMONIDA. Neither in Salmo salar (the Salmon) nor in S. fario (the Trout) is there any external indication of the situation of the otoliths. In the latter fish the pocket is open at the top, the sacculus could be lifted out without trouble. In Osmerus eper- lanus (the Smelt) the sacculi are covered by two little ovoid -khannume Fig. II. 1. NEBRIS MICROPS. 2. ANABAS SCANDENS. 3. NoOTOPTERUS KAPIRAT. 4, ZEUS FABER. 5. ERYTHRINUS SALMONEUS. 6. MAcRODON TRAHIRA. 7. PLECOSTOMUS BICIRRHOSUS. 8. AMIA CALVA. 9. PANTODON BUCHHOLZI. 10. BALISTES CAPRISCUS. 11. Mormyrus KANNUME. lumps of thin bone on the under side of the basi-occiput, which allow the sagitte, large for the size of the fish, to be seen.* Salvelinus willughbu (the Charr) has no external indication of the situation of the sacculi. The basi-occiput has two swellings on the under side, but dissection reveals that they only cover the muscle actuating the eyeball. The sacculi realiy lie above this muscle. The cavity containing the otolith is open at the top, and the sacculus can be lifted out without cutting away of bone. * Salmo salar and Osmerus eperlanus are figured in ‘ Zoologist,’ vol. xiv., p- 298, pl. i. 13, 14. (To be continued.) 110 THE ZOOLOGIST. NOTES AND QUERIKES. AVES. Status of Blackcap and Garden-Warbler.—With regard to the correspondence on this subject, I can state that here, a few miles west of Lincoln, in my experience, the Garden- Warbler is far com- moner than the Blackcap. I have frequently noted the fact.—F. L. Buatuwayt (Doddington Rectory, Lincoln). Status of Lesser Whitethroat.—Referring to Mr. Gill’s remarks (ante, p. 36) regarding the status of the Lesser Whitethroat, I quite agree that the distribution of this species as given in most ornitho- logical works is very imperfectly mapped out; this, no doubt, is owing to its having been confused with two or three other species of Warblers. Gilbert White mentions a “rare, and I think a new, little bird frequents my garden, which I have great reason to think is a Pettychap. It is common in some parts of the kingdom. This bird much resembles the Whitethroat, but has a more white or rather silvery breast and belly, is restless and active, like the Willow- Warbler, and hops from bough to bough, examining every part for food; it also runs up the stems of the crown-imperial, and putting its head into the bells of the flowers, sips the liquor which stands in the nectarium of each petal,” which was evidently referable to this species; and it is quite obvious that much confusion existed in the mind of the late A. G. More when he wrote his work on the distri- bution of birds during the breeding season; and in the Yorkshire records by Thos. Allis, many of which are extremely doubtful. This species appears to be less common and more restricted in its distribution in the western than in the eastern half of England, but even in the eastern counties it is very irregularly distributed, and the same remarks would apply to Wales. It is said, however, to be fairly common in some parts of Cheshire and also in Derbyshire, which has not been my experience regarding its status in the latter county, but my visits have been comparatively short, consequently my obser- vations on that account may not be so valuable as more prolonged sojourns would have been. My visits have been chiefly confined to the NOTES AND QUERIES. 111 Peak District, the general physical features of which are very similar to North-west Yorkshire, and such conditions are not suitable habitats of the Lesser Whitethroat, at least in its Yorkshire range. In this district (Wilsden) I have only three occurrences for over forty years; twice it has bred, and, curious to say of both instances, almost in the identical bush in the Aire Valley, near Bingley. It is said to be an early breeder—much earlier than the Whitethroat—but I think this is a mistaken idea. It seems to prefer feeding among the higher branches of trees than the commoner species. Even to the seventies very little was known regarding the distribution of this species in Yorkshire, and it is to be feared that much confusion exists at the present time. In the north-west of Yorkshire it is a very rare nesting species. Morris says it is found near Halifax, but probably he copied his statement from the source which supplied Thos. Allis with his information. It is, however, hardly probable that the Lesser Whitethroat will be commoner there than in this district. In some districts to the east it is fairly common, or at least not rare, v2z., about Neatherby, Thorp Arch, and Boston Spa, whilst in the neigh- bourhood of York it is said to be more abundant than Syluza cinerea (Nelson); further south-east, about Beverley and the Holderness district, it is more sparingly distributed. It is not uncommon in the Huddersfield district, but is said to be absent from the district of Sheffield, although Thos. Allis reported it as common in 1844, and it is also absent from the neighbourhood of Flamborough Head. It is sparingly distributed in some of the valleys in the neighbourhood of Whitby, and the same remarks apply to Staithes and Loftus, in North Yorkshire, and it is a suramer visitor to Marske and Ellerton, in Swaledale. It breeds but locally in some parts of Wensleydale, and was considered a rare bird about Wakefield until the year 1870, but this might be on account of its having been overlooked or con- fused with some other species—a common mistake up to within a recent date; the Lesser Whitethroat is not included in the list of birds of Washburndale by Roebuck and Clarke, nor in the list of birds of Langstrothdale by Wood. Much remains yet to be known of its range in Yorkshire. This, however, is certain, that it is a rare breeding species in North-west Yorkshire, and nowhere can be called abundant except in the central plain. Personally I have never met with this species more commonly than its near ally cinerea in any part of Yorkshire.-—H. P. BurrEerFiexp. Waxwings in Yarmouth and the Neighbourhood. — Unusual numbers of Waxwings (Ampelis garrulus) have visited the east coast 112 _ THE ZOOLOGIST. — during the present winter, six having been seen at Yarmouth, four in the adjoining parish of Caister, and several others in the neighbour- hood. I received three examples from Runham, about four miles from — here, one on December 20th and two on the 24th. The first of these Was a very fine specimen, having wax-like appendages on the tail, besides seven on each wing. These appendages are very rarely seen on the tail; this circumstance probably not occurring more than once out of twenty examples. On the wings the red tips vary in number from three to seven, according to sex and age. One bird taken at Yarmouth had no sign of red on its wings, and the band across the tail was a greyish white instead of yellow. I should think this is the record season for this species.—B. DyxE (Yarmouth). Waxwings (Ampelis garrulus) in Bedfordshire.—The first reported occurrence of the Waxwing in Bedfordshire during the past winter is given in the ‘ Bedfordshire Times and Independent’ in its issue of December 19th, wherein one is mentioned as having been shot near the River Ivel at Biggleswade. On January 20th one of two was killed in a garden along the Clapham Road, in the borough of Bed-_ ford; the other that was in its company has been seen in the same grounds several times since. Another was obtained at Colworth House, Sharnbrook, on January 22nd. The previous known occur- rence of Waxwings in this county was one obtained early in 1904, killed in the Bedford Cemetery. Larlier records were in the winters 1882-83, 1884-85, 1889-1890, 1892-93, 1894-95.— J. Strene ELuiorr (Dowles Manor, Shropshire). The Little Owl Breeding in Somerset. —On May 24th of last year I had a set of five eggs brought to me taken the same day by a farm labourer at Doulting ; he said they were Owl’s eggs, and that he had taken them from the decayed head of a pollard elm tree. The eggs puzzled me, for although they were almost identical with some eggs of the Little Owl in my possession, I could not say with cer- tainty they belonged to that species: I mentioned the matter to a few friends in the locality who promised to keep a look-out for any strange Owls. During the past autumn Mr. Arthur Elton saw a small spotted Owl fying about the fields close to the ground, pitching here and there on low branches of trees, and on February 3rd last he shot one close to his farmyard at Bodden, a mile or so from Doulting, and brought the bird to me on February 4th; it was without doubt Athene noctua. I sent it to Mr. W. J. Clarke, of Scarborough, to be set up, and the following are his notes taken on dissection :—Adult female, eight and three-quarters of an inch in length and six inches Y ce OBITUARY. 113 and a quarter from the carpal joint of wing to longest primary, weight five ounces and a half; its stomach contained a few small pellets of the hair of some small mammal, and the hard portions of a single small beetle. I now conclude that the eggs mentioned above are genuine eggs of the Little Owl, and that this species breeds in this particular spot on the Mendips, about two miles north-east of Shepton Mallet. This is, I think, the first discovery of its breeding in Somerset, but not of the presence of the bird. I may add that it was not my wish this bird should have been shot, and Mr. Elton has promised not to shoot another, should one happen to come in range.— StanuEy Lewis (Wells, Somerset). Iceland Gull in Co. Mayo.—On January 27th an Iceland Gull (Larus leucopterus) in immature plumage was shot on the island of Bartragh, Killala Bay, by Miss Kirkwood. When leaving the house for the shore, she saw it flying slowly past, and pitching on the strand a couple of hundred yards away it began feeding. Having her light gun with her, she immediately commenced stalking the bird, and coming within range fired, knocking it over, but as it was only winged she has kept it alive, in the hope of taming it and curing its wounded wing, and if successful intends sending it to the Zoological Gardens, Dublin.—Rospert WARREN (Ardnaree, Monkstown, Co. Cork). OB IDA Wve ee Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER. ¢ Ar the request of the Editor of this Journal I have to offer to its readers a brief obituary notice of the late Dr. Albert Giinther, a task congenial to one who was associated with him for many years, in fact, during the greater part of the period 1856 to 1895, when he was connected with the British Museum. Té will not, however, be on account of the position he held in that Institution that he will be known to future zoologists, but by the extent and character of his voluminous writings. From an authoritative source we are informed that he was born ~ at Wirttemberg on October 3rd, 1830, and was educated at Stuttgart Gymnasium, and at Tiibingen, Berlin and Bonn Universities, obtaining the degrees of M.D., M.A., and Ph.D. Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVITI., March, 1914, K 114 THE ZOOLOGIST. At the conclusion of his University courses he visited London, and his services at the Museum commenced in 1857, being first employed on a ‘ Catalogue of Colubrine Snakes,’ published in 1858, and extending to nearly 300 pages. In the same year was issued his ‘Catalogue of Batrachia Salientia,’ pp. 176, with 12 plates. He then commenced his great work the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes,’ completed in eight volumes. These comprised over 4000 pages with text figures, and occupied most of his time during the next twelve years. In 1877 was issued his ‘Account of the Gigantic Land Tortoises’ (living and extinct), containing 96 pages of text and illustrated with 55 plates. His report on the Reptilia, Batrachia and Fishes from Melanesia, and Reptilia from the Western Indian Ocean, obtained by H.M.S. ‘Alert,’ was published in 1884. The foregoing constitute practically all the works published by the Museum, of which he was author. His other chief writings are:—‘ Die Fische des Neckars,’ 1855; ‘Handbuch der Medicinischen Zoologie,’ 1858; ‘The Reptiles of British India,’ 1864; ‘The Fishes of Zanzibar,’ 1866; ‘ Description of Fishes from Vancouver’ in J. K. Lord’s “The Naturalist in Vancouver Island and British Columbia,’ Appendix, 1866; in the Appendix to vol. ii. of ‘Mouhot’s Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China,’ &c., “Lists of New Species of Mammalia, Reptiles and Freshwater Fishes,’ 1864; ‘The Fishes of the Nile’ in Petherick’s ‘Travels in Central Africa,’ vol. ii. Appendix, 1869; ‘Reptiles and Fishes of the South Sea Islands’ in Brenchley’s “Cruise of H.M.S. ‘Curacoa’,” 1873; ‘A List of the Saurians of Australia and New Zealand’ in the “ Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’,”’ vol. ii. 1875; ‘Fishes from the Arctic Regions’ in Nare’s “Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Regions,” ‘vol. ii. Appendix 4, 1878 ; ‘ Die Fische der Siidsee,’ 1873- 1910; ‘Introduction to the Study of Fishes,’ 1880; ‘Shore Fishes of the ‘ Challenger” Expedition,’ 1880; ‘The Deep Sea Forms,’ 1887 ; and his ‘ Account of the Pelagic Species,’ 1889; ‘ Description of Fishes from the Arctic Regions’ in Markham’s “A Polar Recon- naisance—Voyage of the ‘Isbjérn’ to Novaya Zemlya,’ Appendix i. 1881; ‘ Herpetology of Matabale Land’ in Oates’s ‘“‘ Matabeleland and Victoria Falls,” Appendix iii. 1881; ‘ Report on the Fishes’ in Tizard and Murray’s ‘“ Exploration of the Faroe Channel in 1880 in the ‘Knight Errant’,’’ 1882; ‘On the Reptilia and Batrachia’ in Godman and Salvin’s “ Biologia Centrali-Americana,’’ 1885-1902; ‘List of Reptiles and Fishes collected on the Upper Yang-tze-kiang, OBITUARY. 115 &e., in Pratt’s ‘‘ To the Snows of Tibet through China,” Appendix ii. 1892; ‘ Report on a Collection of Fishes made during an Expedition to Lake Rudolf’ in A. D. Smith’s “Through Unknown African Countries,” Appendix A, 1897; ‘ Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Fishes made on the Ogowé River and in Old Calabar’ in M. H. Kingsley’s ‘‘ Travels in West Africa,” Appendix iii. 1897. In addition to the foregoing more or less extensive productions, he was the author of very numerous papers published in the journals of the Royal, Linnean, Zoological, and other Societies, and in other periodical publications. As many as three hundred can be attributed to his pen. The whole of his writings occupy some ten thousand pages, illustrated by a very large number of beautiful plates and text figures. He was also one of the editors of the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ from 1875 to 1912, and edited the first six . volumes of the ‘ Zoological Record,’ 1864-69. This will give the reader an idea of the literary work accomplished by Dr. Giinther; but it must be remembered that for twenty years (1875-95) he was Keeper of the Zoological Department, and the amount of administrative work connected with that position is only known to those who have served immediately under him. The supervision of his staff, the preparation of numerous reports in connection with the individual members of the staff, monthly and annual reports of progress and work accomplished, the supervision and editing of catalogues and guides issued by his Department, besides the consideration of all proposed acquisitions, and the attending to considerable correspondence continually arriving— these are only the principal duties which came to him as Keeper. It is, indeed, surprising that he found time during that period to publish the important works and treatises which issued from his pen. Dr. Giinther was in a great measure responsible for the careful removal in 1882-84 of the Zoological Collections from the British Museum in Bloomsbury to South Kensington, a very considerable undertaking, which was accomplished practically without injury to any of the specimens. He also to a great extent directed their subsequent rearrangement in the building where they are now displayed. At Dr. Giinther’s recommendation the building at present contain- ing the immense collections preserved in spirit was erected. The formation of the general and zoological libraries resulted also from his recommendation, and he was especially proud of having got together the groups of British nesting-birds, with their natural 116 THE ZOOLOGIST. surroundings, which have proved of such interest to the general — public. Mainly through Dr. Giinther’s recommendation the National Museum is indebted for the possession of many valuable collections of the greatest scientific interest. Among these may be mentioned the following:—The Gould collection of Birds, Baly collection of Phytophaga, Bates collection of Heteromera, Zeller Lepidoptera, the Keyserling Arachnida, Frey Lepidoptera, the Moore Indian Lepi- doptera, the Atkinson Coleoptera and Rhynchota, the Saville-Kent Corals, Parker Foraminifera, Pascoe Coleoptera, Morelet Land and Freshwater Shells, Captain Shelley’s African Birds, Godwin-Austen’s Indian Birds, the Oates collection of Birds of Pegu, the Sclater collection of Birds, the Grote North American Lepidoptera, and many other minor collections. Many most important additions to the Museum collections were acquired by presentation during the same period, and in some cases it was doubtless owing to Dr. Giinther’s tact and urbanity that these donations were received. Many honours were conferred upon him by various societies both at home and abroad. He was elected Fellow of the Royal, Linnean, and Zoological Societies, and filled the offices of Vice- President of the Royal Society (1875-76), and President of the Linnean Society (1898-1901). He was recipient of the Royal Society’s gold medal in 1878, and also that of the Linnean Society in 1904. In 1880 he was President of the Biological Section of the British Association. On the authority of one eminently qualified to express an opinion on the zoological work accomplished by Dr. Giinther, it can be stated without fear of contradiction that he was the foremost ichthyologist of his day, and his magnwm opus, the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes,’ has never been replaced by any similar comprehensive work. His writings on the Reptilia were also on the same high level. Dr. Giinther was a man with a strong personality, but with all his firmness of disposition he ever maintained a friendly relationship with those associated with him in the work of the Museum, and when freed from that official relationship he at once became the most pleasant of personal friends, of whom he had a very wide circle. He was twice married, and leaves a widow and two sons to mourn his loss. His death took place this year on February 1st in his home at Kew, and he was buried at Richmond in the presence of those he loved and many sorrowing and devoted friends. K. A. SMITH. OBITUARY. 117 Masor Barrett-HAmILton. GERALD Ewin Hamiuton Barrett-HamIcTon, only surviving son of the late Capt. Samuel Barrett, who, in 1887, assumed the additional name of Hamilton; of Kilmanock House, Campile, Co. Wexford, was born 1871; educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1894, taking a First Class in the Natural Science Tripos, in the same list with his friend Dr. Edward Adrian Wilson, who was afterwards to become the artist to Barrett- Hamilton’s great book on the British Mammals. Called to the Bar at the Inner Temple, 1896; in May of that year, with Professor D’Arcy W. Thompson (now C.B.), he visited the Fur-Seal Islands of the North Pacific on behalf of the Foreign and Colonial Offices, with a view to the investigation of the Natural History of the Northern Fur Seal, “with special reference to certain disputed points which have a distinct bearing on the industry connected with the skins of the animal.’’* While the Professor proceeded direct to the Pribiloff Islands, Barrett-Hamilton had instructions to visit the Commander Islands (near the coast of Kamchatka). Later they proceeded together to S. Paul Island, the largest of the Pribiloff group, return- inn home at the beginning of the next year. Barrett-Hamilton had formed a collection of small mammals, together with specimens of the Northern Fur Seal, a series of skulls of Steller’s Sea-Lion, and a skin which was mounted for the National Collection at Crom- well Road. There were algo fair collections of birds, fishes, and invertebrates. He served in the 8. African war, 1901-2, in the latter year being gazetted an Hon. Captain in the army. In 1903 he married Maude Charlotte, only daughter of F. 8. Eland, Esq., of Ravenshill, Trans- vaal, who survives him, together with six young children. Served as High Sheriff for Wexford, 1904, In 1905 he was promoted Major of the dth (Militia) Battalion (Special Reserve) Royal Irish Rifles; elected F.Z.S. and M.R.I1.A. Between 1898 and 1904 he gave numerous lectures in all parts of the United Kingdom on different subjects connected with the mission, including papers before the British Association in 1898 and 1899. His report on the Behring Sea Mission was so well received that he gained special recognition from the Government; and later was asked to report on the collection of mammals made during the *< Procs Zool. Soc.,’ 1897, p. 190. 118 THE ZOOLOGIST. Antarctic voyage of the ‘Southern Cross.’* Previously to this he had applied (as he has himself told us in his “‘ Appreciation of Dr. H. A. Wilson,” published with part xiv. of his ‘History of British Mammals’ in August, 1913) for appointment to the scientific staff of Scott’s first Antarctic Expedition (1901-4), when Wilson was selected, doubtless on account of his marvellous skill as an artist, combined with his qualifications as a doctor; while to Barrett-Hamilton fell the honourable task of compiling for the use of the expedition the chapter on Seals in the ‘ Antarctic Manual’ (1901). There is something singularly pathetic in the coincidence of the author pausing during the publication of his principal work to write an appreciation of his artist who had perished in the Antarctic ; and only five months later the publishers again pausing while a similar sad office is performed by an old friend (Mr. Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S.) of the author, who has now himself died on what may be called the threshold of the same Antarctic. He maintained a weekly score from his Cambridge days until his death in 1907 with Professor Alfred Newton, who took the greatest interest in and guided his career, and who always regretted that his life was not wholly given up to zoology. His output of papers and notes on all branches of zoology was very large, but space does not allow an extended notice of them. Early in 1904 Barrett-Hamilton “ approached ”’ the present writer by asking if he could supply certain specimens of British mammals for the National Collection at South Kensington, but in his third letter he divulged his real object:—I may as well tell you straight out that I have accepted the invitation of the owners of Bell’s ‘ British Quadrupeds’ to bring out a new edition of the work, and I am very anxious that it should be as good and up-to-date as possible. That is why I am anxious to obtain reliable information upon the moults, periods of gestation, &c., of the smaller and rarer carnivora, on which points I believe that no one has anything like the know- ledge which you have.” Correspondence on a subject so congenial to both of us once started, has flowed ever since, generally with very short intervals, ending only with his lamented death, ten years later. Another quotation or two will help to show the early stages of the work, though not by any means its inception, because from his youth he had cherished the idea, and his preparations began early. * ‘ Report on the Collections of Natural History made . . . during the Voyage of the ‘Southern Cross.’”” Mammalia. 1902. Sold at the British Museum Natural History. OBITUARY. 119 A few days after the last letter quoted from, he wrote :—‘ Certainly no one would do a perfect book, but there is room for more accuracy and detail than has already been placed before the public.” Ten days later :—‘ What I think I shall most need your assistance in regard to are certain small matters. . . . Then again,if you can favour me with a general criticism of my work when it takes shape, IT shall of course be very grateful. . . . I hope presently to send you some draft MSS. on Mustelide.” Considerations of space preclude many quotations, and it must suffice to record that the first part of the great work eventually appeared on October 18th, 1910, and that since then the present writer has read every proof, making every kind of criticism and suggestion that seemed to him improvements, with frequent consul- tations and discussions, Barrett-Hamilton proving a charming person to try to help, because he was always so grateful, and (what was even more to the point) because he adopted a very large proportion of the suggestions ! On July 10th, 1913, he wrote :—‘‘I wonder if you will be surprised or shocked when I tell you that I have accepted a mission from the Colonial Office to go and study the whaling at South Georgia. I couldn’t refuse it, .. . and it is a beautiful trip vid Portuguese ports. . Lam much troubled about my ‘British Mammals.’ ... I count that the knowledge which I shall get on Whales will more than recompense the book for any slight ‘hold up,’ and I am hoping to use my spare time in writing the Whale parts of it. It’s most curious that fifteen years ago they should have sent me to Kamchatka, which no one had ever heard of, and now to South Georgia, which ig nearly as bad in the opposite direction. But Iam a lucky naturalist to get these trips... .” Writing at sea on his passage out, on October 15th last (posted at Cape Verdes), he begins a long letter :—“‘The world is very small! Here I am, sailing to South Georgia under your old friend of the Finland [|= Finmarken] whaling days, Capt. I. Bryde,* who sends you his best respects! Your volume of reprints [= of Whaling Reports] has been of the very greatest use to me, as I hope you will be glad to hear. I have been abstracting information from it the last few days, and in some respects your statistics are the most valuable I can find. I hope to use them for comparison with those to be obtained later * Vide ‘* Reports on Finwhaling off Coast of Finmarken,” ‘ Zoologist,’ 1886-1890, and his father in those published 1884-85. Also ‘Saga Book of the Viking Club,’ 1895-6, vol. i., p. 322. 120 THE ZOOLOGIST. on in South Georgia. I hope you will be kind to me about my ‘Mammals’ while I am away.” ne After a passage of thirty-five days, he reached South Georgia, accompanied by an assistant from the Natural History Museum. On December 2nd he wrote again, ‘‘for post as opportunity offers,” another long letter about Whales, enclosing elaborate analyses com- piled from the above-mentioned Reports in the ‘ Zoologist’ (1884-90). He adds :—‘ I haven’t seen a great many Whales yet, only a few (of each) Finners, Humpbacks, Blue and Sperm; but the notes which I have been able to make support or amplify yours. . . . I arrived here on November 10th. I find the place most interesting—Sea Elephants, Sea Leopards, Weddell’s Seal, four or five kinds of Pen- guins, Albatrosses, and numerous Procellariide, all to be studied, besides the Whales, but at present I am chiefly engaged with the latter. JI haven’t time to write a full account, as when there are Whales on the platform I am there from 6 a.m. Some days the weather is charming, and of course we have the summer sun, but it blows and snows frequently, and there is little vegetation yet.” This letter was received on January 14th, and on the 17th occurred his apparently almost sudden death from heart failure. The melancholy news was conveyed from South Georgia to the Falkland Islands by a whaler, a run which occupied a week. Another week was occupied by a cablegram thence to South Kensington ; and from there the sad fact, lacking of course all details, was communi- cated to Mrs. Barrett-Hamilton, who has since heard that his body is being brought home by the whaler ‘ Orwell,’ due at Liverpool about February 27th, so before this appears in print he will no doubt have been laid to rest near his Wexford home. One would wish to write much more about him, who always believed the best of everyone, but already the limit of space is con- siderably exceeded. ALFRED HENEAGE Cocks. Animal Communities in bes America. _ AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE CHICAGO REGION © By VICTOR EH. SHELFORD, Ph.D. ~ of the Department of Zoology, The University of Chicago With Maps, Diagrams, and upwards of 300 Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Price 12s net Published by the University of Chicago Press and sold in Great Britain and the British Empire (except Canada) by The Cambridge University Press Fetter Lane, London BR IRDSNESTING & BIRD=SKINNING. A Complete Description of the Nests and Eggs of Birds which Breed in Britain, by Epwarp Newman. — Seconp Epition, with Directions for Collecting and Preseryation; a Chapter on Bird-skinning; and Description and Woodcuts of the Instruments necessary to the Collector. By MitteR Curisty. Cloth extra. Feap 8vo. Pricels. Postage 2d. HE INSECT HUNTER’S COMPANION. _Instruc- 3 tious for collecting and preserving Butterflies and Moths, Beetles, Bees, Flies, &. By the Rev. JosrpH Greune, M.A. — Fifth Edition, revised and extended by A. B. Farn. The Chapter on Coleoptera by EDwarD NEwmaN; on Hymenoptera by F'repDERICK SMITH; on Breeding Gall-fiies by Epwarp A. Fitcu. _ Where to find moths and butterflies; how to catch; how to bring home without ‘injury; how to kill; how to set; how to find the caterpillars; how to manage ; how to feed; how to breed the perfect insects; and numerous similar subjects. Price Is. 6d., postage 2d. Cloth, gilt, price 2s. 6d. Postage 2d. Second Hdution. FAMILIAR INDIAN BIRDS GORDON DALGLIESH. - Illustrated by Half-tone Blocks from the Drawings of La agli BUNTING and H. B. NEILSON. Foolscap 8vo, Cloth, gilt top, 160 pp. + blanks for Notes. Price Qs. 6d. POCKET: BOOK of BRITISH BIRDS By E. F. M. ELMS. NFORMATION is given respecting all British birds that breed in these islands, and those that are regular visitors at one time of the year or another, with Yemarks as to a species being resident, intermigratory, or migratory. Hach species is separately treated under the headings: Haunts, including distribution ; Plumage, briefiy characterizing the predominant and striking features, with differentiation of species nearly alike; Language, with song and variouscries; Habits; Food; Nidi- fication, with site and materials of nest ; and number and description of Eggs. ~ London : WEST, NEWMAN ¢ CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. rT London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., ation hip of nae (with eee (eoutied). Lithobius lapidicola, Meinert, a Centipede New to the Bria Bagnall, FL. SR BES. WI: ; illustrations), Colonel C. E. Shepherd, 103. NoTES AND QUERIES :— ; eta Avrs.—Status of Blackeap and Garden-Warbler, F. L. Blathwayt, 110. Stat of Lesser Whitethroat, H. P. Butterfield, 110. Waxwings in Yarmout and the Neighbourhood, B. Dye, 111. Waxwings (Ampelis garrulus) in Bedfordshire, J. Steele Elliott, 112. The Little Owl Breeding in Somerset, | Stanley Lewis, 112. Iceland Gull in Co. Mayo, Robert Warren, TLS SH Oxsituary.—Dr. Albert Giinther, 113. Major Barrett-Hamilton, 117. SUBSCRIPTIONS to the ‘ZOOLOGIST’ for 1914 are now due. The amount is 12s. post free. Cases © for binding 1913 volume can be had for Is. 2d. post — free from the Publishers, who will also undertake the binding of volumes at 2s. each post free on return. — London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden. | Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, are Pp. 144. Price 10s. Bird Collector's Medley Rg On ARNOLD. MLA. @ With Twelve full-page Coloured Illustrations and Eight - coloured, from the Author’s Drawings. Illustrated in the Text | by Twenty Process Blocks. a: @ A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore-Shooters. ce London: WEST, NEWMAN ¢é CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E. BOTANICAL DRYING PAPE 2 For Drying Flowering Plants, Ferns, & Seaweeds. ta Preserves form and colour in ee best possible manner, and seldom, if ever; requires change of sheets whilst the plants are being dried ; it is stont and dnrable. Used by the Arctic ships, and on the cruise of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger.’ ‘ * « Combines in a very satisfactory manner the merits of a high degree of absor with a reasonable toughness. No doubt, for drying plants, it is ‘the best paper tha be got.” —Nature. Sizes and Prices. 16 inches by 10, when folded, 15s. per ream, 1s. 1d. per quire. 7 18 és il, i 19s. as 1s. 4d. 5, ra 18 20 m 12, ge 28855) ak cies La ae 16, me 30s. a ie oe L_é D f Monthly Journal IATURAL: HISTORY, oe Edited by W. Le. 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Original drawings are accurately g reproduced by Lithography or Photo-Lithography, — either in colours or monotone, or by line and half- — tone blocks. | ‘ WATKINS & DONCASTER. } Manufacturers of Cabinets and Apparatus for Collectors of Birds’ Eggs, Insects, Plants, &c. Sen A large stock of Insects, Birds’ Eggs, &e. List of Clutches of Birds’ = Eggs on application. Climbing Irons, best steel, with straps complete, © ds. per pair.. Egg Collector's Outfit, containing Drills, Blowpipes, and all = Requisites complete, with Book of Instructions, post free, 3s. 3d. Label 7 Lists of every description. Birds and Animals stuffed and mounted in © Natural Positions. Tor particulars see our Catalogue, one hundred pages. 36. STRAND, LONDON. W.C. BOTANICAL DRYING PAPER For Drying Flowering Plants, Ferns, & Seaweeds. oe Preserves form and colour in the best possible manner, and seldom, -if ever requires change of sheets whilst the plants are being dried; it is stout and durable. ; Used by the Arctic ships, and on the cruise of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger.’ ‘Combines in a very satisfactory manner the merits of a high degree of absorbe: with a reasonable toughness. No doubt, for drying plants, it is the best paper that ¢ be got.” —Nature. : Sizes ands wages: 16 inches by 10, when folded, 1ds. per ream, Is. 1d. per queers 18 3 11, on 19s. 9 1s. 4d. 35 . 20 us 12, Be 235. on Is. Bg: ge 20 16, ds 30s. & 28 “Odeo ereay London: WEST, Phe eee & CO., Ie aes) Hatton Neo) y THE ZOOLOGIST No. 874.—April 15th, 1914. SOME NOTES ON EELS (ANGUILLA VULGARIS) AND EEL-CATCHING IN BEDFORDSHIRE. By J. SteeLte Ewuiorr. Tur River Ouse has for centuries had a reputation for the number of Hels taken from its waters. In the time of King Edgar a rent of 2000 Eels was paid by Stuntney Fen to the monastery of Ely. This payment eventually ceased for six years, and after a trial held at Cambridge the arrears of 12,000 were required to be paid, in addition to the annual rent of 2000 Hels.* For the earliest mention of Kels in the county of Bedford- shire we are indebted to the Domesday Survey. Herein is given the Kel value paid as part rent at certain of the water mills as under :— 2 Mills, Tempsford, paid 120 Hels and 40/- 1 Mill, Little Barford, ,, 125 ,, ,, 12/- 2 Mills, Eaton Socon, ,, 100 ,, ,, 36/6 2,8 stantord, $3) OL vee sk SOL 2 eee Litton. eo Oeics 40: 1 Mill, Putnoe, wen OOes soph oir, BOS ieee: Chambhatle,f ) +570 2O0K 37 1:5, .40/— * Dugdale, ‘ History of Imbanking,’ &., 2nd edit., p. 183. + The locality of this Manor, in the Half-Hundred of Buchelai, has never been satisfactorily determined. Channel’s End, in the parish of Colmworth, is suggested in the ‘ Victoria County History, Bedfordshire’ (vol. i., p. 287), and again Ravensden, in the ‘Bedfordshire Historical Records’ (vol. i., _ p.63). Neither of these writers seerns to have taken the Mill into considera- Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII., April, 1914. L 122 THE ZOOLOGIST. 1 Mill, Goldington, paid 100 Eels and 30/— 1, (Cardington, 00M. eee Oe 1 ,, - Willington, 39. LOO” oie er alee 4 Mills, Stotfold, » 400. ;, ,, 80/— 1 Mill, Bromham, st US Wie Oe 1’ 5, ‘Great Barford)... SO 9 ete eh OxcO1: 3, 260° ,,. 1) 35. 8B) LoeraOnkley, 3, 200 “Sj 26 1 ee anOdell. 4) 20045 BOS 1 we bromhan jo LOOK ee ie Oe 1 en barrold, 9 200! es eS GIS A total of twenty-five mills paying as part rent 2610 Kels.* There does not appear to have been any fixed custom as to a part payment of mill rents by Hels, as the other seventy mills in the county referred to in Domesday paid by money value alone. Such rentals varied, from a mill at Sharnbrook rented at 16 pence and another at Keysoe 2/-, to one at Clapham at 40/-. Whether the right of taking Eels in fixed traps was restricted by the holders to certain of their mills only is a moot point, but not an improbable one, as any additional traps fixed above their respective mills would seriously affect their catches. RivER OvzEL. Heath and Reach. Grange Mill.—One trap, 4 ft. 6 in. x 18 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 33 cwt. Heaviest catch, 14 cwt. Largest taken, over 41b. First trap on this tributary of the River Ouse. Owing to the chemical refuse flowing into this stream at Leighton Buzzard, the taking of EKels at this mill has consider- ably depreciated. Holcot Mill.—One trap, 3 ft. 6 in. x 6 ft. Average take of tion, which, judging from its comparatively high rental, must have been one of the most important in the county. Therefore we can reasonably presume the position of this Manor was adjoining the Ouse, and not remote from any important stream, as either of those two localities place it. Even from the part payment of the rent with Eels, it is as practically certain it could not have been either of the above-mentioned localities. * It seems probable that there would be some restrictions as to size or weight of Eels in these payments, but nothing is recorded in the Domesday Book. js EELS AND EEL-CATCHING IN BEDFORDSHIRE. 128 Eels per year, 28 lb. Largest taken, over 2 lb. First trap on this tributary of the Ouzel, which stream flows through the Woburn Park pools. River IvyeL anp Its TRIBUTARIES. Doolittle Mill* (Ampthill).—One trap, 2 ft. x 6 ft. Very few Hels are taken. Largest, 21b. Trap worked irregularly. First trap on this tributary of the Ivel. Campton Mill.—One trap, 2ft.x 6ft.6in. Average take of Hels per year, lewt. Heaviest catch, 151b. Largest taken, over 5 lb. Trap worked regularly. First trap on another tributary of the Ivel. Sheford Mill.—Two traps, 3 ft. x 11 ft. and 7 ft. x 11 ft. Fixed inside mill and under floor. Average take of Hels per year, 4 ewt. Heaviest catch, ?cwt. Largest taken, over 6 lb., others 5 lb., and several over 41b. Trap worked regularly. First traps on the main stream of the Ivel. Astwick Mill.—Trap destroyed about 1908. Average take of Hels per year was about } cwt. Formerly the first trap on this tributary of the River Hiz. Langford Mill.—One trap, 6 ft. x 14 ft. Inside mill. Average take of Hels per year, 2 cwt. Heaviest catch, 1} cwt. Largest taken, over 4 lb. Trap worked irregularly. Now the first trap on the Hiz. Holme Mill (Biggleswade).—One trap, 4 ft. 6 in. x 13 ft.,, inside mill; two traps, 4 ft. 6 in. x 12 ft., outside mill. Average take of Hels per year, 5 cwt. Heaviest catch, 1 cwt. Largest taken, over 41b. Trap worked regularly. Four miles of water on the combined stream to Shefford Milland Langford Mill. Biggleswade’ Mill.—One trap, 6 ft. x 13 ft. Inside mill. Average take of Hels per year, 2 cwt. Heaviest catch, 30 lb. Largest taken, 4 lb. Trap worked irregularly. One mile of water to Holme Mill. Sandy Mill.—Three traps, 3 ft. x 16 ft. Average take of Eels per year, 24 cwt. Heaviest catch, 40 1b. Largest taken, 4 lb. Traps worked regularly. Three miles of water to Biggles- wade Mill. * The first mill on a stream is oftentimes known as the “ Doolittle ” Mill. There is another mill of this name near Eaton Bray. L 2 124 _ THE ZOOLOGIST. Southill Pool.—One trap, 5 ft. x 7 ft. Average take of Eels per year, 4 cwt. Heaviest catch, several times over } cwt. Largest taken, 2lb. Trap worked irregularly. Area of pool upwards of 33 acres. Blunham South Mill.—Two traps, 4 ft. x 14 ft.6in. Aver- age take of Hels per year, 4 cwt. Heaviest catch, 13 cwt. Largest taken, over 5 lb.; three weighing 15 lb. taken in one night, March, 1912. Traps worked regularly, March to October. One and a half miles of water to Sandy Mill, and also stream from Southill and Warden pools. Blunham Mill.—Two traps, 4 ft. x 16 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 3 cwt. Heaviest catch, 62 lb. Largest taken, 3 1b. Traps worked regularly. One mile of water to South Mill. Tempsford Mill.—One trap, 4 ft. x 16 ft. Average take of Kels per year, 2 cwt. Heaviest catch, 1} cwt. Largest taken, four weighing 16 lb.; caught December, 1912. Trap worked regularly. One mile of water to Blunham Mill. River Ovse. Turvey Mill.—Three traps, 4 ft. x 16 ft. Average take of Kels per year, 5 cwt. Heaviest catch, 1 cwt. Largest taken, 5 lb., and several of 3 lb. and 4 lb. Traps worked regularly. Three miles of water to Lavendon Mill, in Buckinghamshire. Harrold Mill.—One trap, 11 ft. x 27 ft. Average take of Eels per year, 1} cwt. Largest taken, over 4 lb. Traps worked irregularly. Three and a quarter miles of water to Turvey Mill. Odell Mill.—T wo traps, 7 ft. 3in. x 17 ft., 4 ff. 3 in. x 18 ft. Average take of Eels per year, 1 cwt. Largest Hels taken, 3 lb. to 4 lb. Traps worked irregularly. One and three-quarter miles of water to Harrold Mill. Sharnbrook Mill.—Traps dismantled about 1890. Milton Mill.—Three traps; two 5 ft.x16ft., one 3 ft. x16 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 7 cwt. Heaviest catch, 43 cwt., in one night in 1909. Largest taken in fifty years, 43 lb. Traps worked regularly. Eight and a quarter miles of water to Odell Mill. Oakley Sluice.—Three funnel traps, 4 ft. x 15 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 3 cwt. Heaviest catch, 300, about 1890. Largest taken, 63 lb. in October about 1890. Traps worked EELS AND HEL-CATCHING IN BEDFORDSHIRE. 125 irregularly. Four and three-quarter miles of water to Milton Mill. Bromham Mill.—One trap, 4 ft. x 16 ft., inside mill and alongside wheel. Average take of Hels per year,6cwt. Heaviest catch, 13 cwt. in one night; 7 cwt. in a month about 1890. Largest taken, 641b. Trap worked regularly. Four and three- quarter miles of water to Oakley Sluice. Kempston Mill.—One trap, 8 ft. x 15 ft. Average take of Eels per year, 1 cwt. Largest taken over 61b. Trap worked irregularly. Two and a half miles of water to Bromham Mill. Duck Mill, Bedford.—Demolished and traps removed, 1890. Cardington Mill.—Three traps, 4 ft. x 15 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 2 cwt. Heaviest catch, 3 cwt. in twenty-four hours, about 1909. Largest taken, 41b. Traps worked irre- gularly. Five miles of water to Kempston Mill. The ‘ New Cut” would no doubt take the greater proportion of Hels from above Bedford direct to Castle Mill. Castle Mill (Goldington).—Two traps, 9 ft. x 15 ft. and 5 ft. x 42 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 8 cwt. Heaviest catch, 2 cwt., about thirty years ago. Largest taken, under 4 lb. Traps worked regularly. Two miles of water between this and Cardington Mill, and in addition, that proportion of the Kel supply vid the ‘‘ New Cut” from Kempston Mill. Roxton Sluice.—One funnel trap, 5 ft. x 12 ft. Trap broken and not used for several years past. One of 9 lb. is recorded from information given to me by the late Mr. Martin George, of Tempsford, taken at Roxton Sluice about 1880.* I have since heard what was probably the same Eel spoken of as weighing 7 lb. Eaton Socon Mill._—Four funnel traps. Three 4 ft. x 16 it., one 4 ft. x 12 ft. Average take of Hels per year, 15 cwt. Heaviest catch, 10 cwt. in three days, about 1909. Average weight, $ lb. to 1 lb. Largest taken, 4 lb. 10 oz., length 37 in., in August, 1909.t If traps were worked regularly, an average of 1 ton per year could be taken. Ten miles of water to Castle Mill. There are fourteen additional water-mills in the county at the present day where Hel-traps are not fixed. * * Victoria County History, Bedfordshire,’ vol. i., p. 101. | ‘Bedfordshire Times and Independent,’ August 6th, 1909. 126 THE ZOOLOGIST. The measurements of the traps are the extreme sizes taken from inside the sluice-gates. The average weight of Hels is taken from a period of the last ten years. The records of the heaviest catches taken in one night and the largest Hels obtained is from information generally. The weight of Hels taken at the respective traps is in a few instances approximate only; the quantity taken at any particular mill is dependent upon how regularly the traps are worked, and in relation also to the number of Hels taken in other traps above stream. But the general total would not be affected. This shows an annual take within this county of 3 ton 18 ewt., which, taken at an average weight of 3 lb. each, would number nearly 17,500 Hels: At the local market price of 6d. per lb. the total catch would be practically £220 value, or even more if the London trade were supplied. Drainage of the fens and the watershed of the Ouse generally must have accounted for a considerable decrease of Hels, and further no fish could be subjected to greater persecution by their capture, and it is not surprising to find that it would be impossible for several of the mills mentioned in the Domesday Book to take at the present time even as many as formerly paid for part rent. Eels working down the Ouse from above Bedfordshire have to pass eleven traps within this county alone, or, again, nine traps from the upper reaches of the Ivel, any of which traps are practically capable of taking every Hel on migration. But fortunately for the preservation of the Hel from extermi- nation, the mill traps are often worked but intermittently, as when the miller’s trade is good and the water supply limited it is often- times all required for motive power and none can be spared to pass through the sluice-gates for Hel-catching, and so at many of the traps they oftentimes escape capture. The taking of Hels is principally by means of fixed traps, traps that are probably very little different in their construction from those of Norman times.* A trap consists of an upward sloping * ‘Victoria County History, Bedfordshire,’ vol. i., p. 212, says: ‘‘ The Eels so often found in Domesday as forming a portion of the mill’s render came of course from the mill-pool.” This is obviously incorrect, the Hels being taken from the stream above the mill. EELS AND EHEL-CATCHING IN BEDFORDSHIRE. 127 srid with an upright end fixed between the sluice-walls, and three to four feet from the mouth of the sluice-gate. When the gate is slightly raised, the power of the higher stream forces the water into ° the trap, and any Eels that enter are carried upwards to the head oftrap; here they liein a wooden trough protected from the force of the water, and if the traps are so constructed, this trough is continued through the sluice-wall to an Hel-well built in the bank of the stream, where, with a continuous stream of water passing through, the Hels can remain until they are marketed, although in many such wells they are liable to a fungoid growth if left for many weeks; hence many Eel catchers prefer to keep them in perforated wooden boxes in the open river. Funnel traps are used at Haton Socon, Oakley, and formerly at Roxton. These traps have a wired, funnel-shaped covered-in entrance that quickly converges into a boxed-in trough, along which the Hels pass to the transverse trough leading to the Hel- well. The objection to these traps is partly their instability, but more particularly their liability to get quickly choked up with weeds, sticks, and other refuse, and the difficulty of freeing them again in comparison with the open traps. , Other means of taking Hels are with the independent basket traps, which are usually about three feet long and constructed of osiers; these are placed on the bottom of the stream, and of course have to be baited. A number also used to be taken with night-lines. But both these methods are far less practised now than formerly. Some few are secured by angling, usually with a hook, but occasionally by a needle-threaded worm. Hel-gleving, once a common method of taking Hels, is now almost unknown. A gleve is a four- or five-bladed spear attached to a pole some 15 ft. long, and used by continually thrusting it into the bed of the stream wherever EKels were con- sidered likely to lie. Any Hel struck by the gleve is forced up by the blow between the blades and held securely in that posi- tion by the rows of barbs along each edge of the blades. The shallower streams with a more or less even bottom are most suited for their capture, hence gleving was far more frequently practised on the Ivel and other smaller streams and backwaters than on the Ouse itself. Of the life-history of the Hel little can be gleaned from those 128 THE ZO00LOGIST. persons in charge of the traps, and less is credited by them of their migration and breeding in the open seas. Yet, strange to say, these countryfolk can seldom offer any explanation for their movements down the river, or again for the young passing up stream. That they breed in the mud is usually taken for granted, and some will go so far as to maintain that they have seen the young taken from a ripe female. The most favourable time of the year for the adult migration of Kels towards the sea is from mid-July to mid-October. There is also oftentimes a considerable spring movement about April, when good catches are frequently made, and by some the pro- portion of large Eels is considered greater at that time of the year, but others are of the opinion that the majority of larger ones come late in the autumn. Erratic movements occur during almost any month of the year, and occasionally heavy catches are made, even in the winter months, during a spell of mild weather, as for instance, some 23 cwt. were taken at Haton Socon traps in December, 1911. Some few Hels are occasionally taken during the daytime, more particularly if the traps are inside the buildings or covered in, and thick water is running at the time. When taken during the day it is a most invariable sign for a heavy catch to follow at night. Asarule Eels start to ‘‘run” about two hours after sunset, and continue ‘‘running”’ until midnight, after which hour very few pass into the traps, as I have frequently satisfied myself from personal observation, throughout the dark hours of the early morning. Neither can this limited movement be accounted for by all the Hels in any section of the river having been taken owing to the usual short distances between the traps, as where much longer reaches of water occur the results are the same. The darkest nights, with thick water and wind south to west, are most favourable to migration, any moon considerably checking their progress. After a thunderstorm the greatest catches are usually made, and if such stormy weather or thick water continues, their migrations will be prolonged for several Successive nights. Frosty nights immediately check their running, and no Hels are taken in snow water. Water-weeds that have been cut and floated down the stream and allowed to accumulate across the river above the trap EELS AND EEL-CATCHING IN BEDFORDSHIRE. 129 gates are an attractive cover for Hels, and help the catches considerably. : Many persons affirm that Hels travel short distances over- land, but I have never had satisfactory proof of this. It is well known that Eels kept in close confinement will free themselves if possible, and then endeavour to find their natural element again, but I haye never known them leave their natural haunts or any large area of water for such a purpose. In 1897, when Southill Lake was temporarily drained, the head-keeper, at my instigation, removed a number of Hels and placed them in a large pond which had no stream flowing out of it. Some of these Eels were captured for many successive years, showing annual increase in weight, and practically every one was even- tually accounted for. The young Hels enter the River Ouse at the Wash in April, and reach this county in the early summer months, having covered a distance of some sixty-four miles, overcoming all the difficulties of weirs, sluice-gates, and other obstacles by their indefatigable progress. By this time they have usually attained a length of 4 in. to 6 in.* The smallest, of which I have a note, being 32 in., taken at Blunham Old Mill sluice-gates, July 24th, 1912, with many others of a larger size. The migratory Hels taken at the traps usually weigh from 6 oz. to 1lb., and a few up to 2 lb. in weight; possibly smailer Kels may descend, but the openings between the bars of the traps would usually allow such to pass through and escape. Eels taken over 2 lb. in weight are the exception, and although many instances are given under the heading of those taken at the traps of fish over 6 lb. in weight, I have so far not been able to properly authenticate any record of an Hel being obtained even of 5 lb. in weight. Large Hels are said to be very coarse eating. Of the rate of migration of our Hels down the river very little is known, but such progress is evidently slow, as their * “T have noticed them in the latter part of the summer at the side of the Ouse near Bromham as small, thread-like specimens of about an inch or more in length” (‘ Victoria County History, Bedfordshire,’ vol.i., p. 101). Evidently a misstatement of facts, as the Elvers do not enter the Ouse from the sea until at least nearly three inches long. 130 THE ZOOLOGIST. movements are so intermittent and impeded, and, as already stated, restricted to a few hours in the night. From the upper reaches of the Ouse in Bedfordshire Hels would have a journey of some one hundred miles before reaching the Wash, and under all circumstances it seems probable that such a journey would take at least a month or more to complete. The number of years that Hels remain in these waters before returning to the sea seem to vary considerably, and it is difficult to satisfactorily account for this retarded migration. The largest Kels taken are usually females, the females growing more rapidly and attaining a larger size than males. There is a considerable variation in the colour of the migratory silver-bellied Hels; they range from pale green to black and light yellow to dark brown. By many Hel-trappers these are considered two separate species, the former being termed ‘‘ Black Kel,” and these are said to be generally of large size. Then, again, the undeveloped and at present non-migra- tory yellow Kel is termed the ‘‘ Yellow-bellied Kel” and ‘‘ Mud Kel”; these are considered a smaller species. Those Hels that have developed the enlarged mouth that is attained previous to their final transformation are spoken of as “‘ Frog-faced Hels ” and ‘‘ Bull-headed Hels.”’ There is a strong belief that Hels feed and enter into any carcase lying in the water and will be seen to leave such bodies when disturbed. Hence we occasionally hear this ignorant and ghastly story applied to drowned persons. There is no doubt that the Kel from a commercial standpoint is worthy of more consideration, and the present decreasing supply obtained could be very much increased by reasonable protection. There should be a close season for them at the sluice traps during part of the migration period, and some means devised of helping the young Eels to overcome more easily these difficulties of access to the upper reaches of the river. (si) ON THE LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS AND ITS CONTAINED OTOLITHS IN FISHES. By Cotonet C. EK. Suepperp (Indian Army). (Concluded from p. 109.) OsTARIOPHYSI. In this suborder the families of the Characinide, the Gymno- tide, the Cyprinide, and the Aspredinide have the asteriscus as the largest otolith. In the families of the Siluride and the Loricariide the lapillus is the largest. In all the families the sagitta is rod-like, or perhaps would be better described as like a splinter. CHARACINIDA. The sacculus in this family is thoroughly embedded in a bony cavity which has to be carefully split open to expose it; it is found completely filling the cavity. In Erythrinus salmoneus (fig. II., 5) the position of the sacculus is indicated from the outside by two polished-looking little excrescences of the basi- occiput. Macrodon trahira (the ‘‘ Haimara” of British Guiana) has similar excrescences, the bone of them being very thin (fig. Il., 6). Myletes setiger (the ‘‘ Paca”’ of British Guiana) does not show these excrescences. The lapillus in this family is well developed, and lies in a special cavity at the side of the skull, but not showing palvably on the outside. Leporinus arcus and L. maculatus show their sagitte through the thin bone underlying them, which, however, lies flat and does not stand out at all. GYMNOTIDA. Of this family only two small specimens have been available for examination—one a Higenmanuia virescens, the other a Sternopygus macrurus; they were too small to allow of any external indications being noted. The asterisci were found to be the largest of the otoliths. 132 THE ZOOLOGIST. CYPRINIDA. This, the Carp family, like the latter two families, has the sacculus embedded in a bony cavity, and the conditions are very similar, except that with the Cyprinide there is no external evidence of the sacculus, nor does the recess in which ba lapillus rests show prominently on the outside.* Sinurip# (the Cat fishes). This family also has its sacculus embedded in bone, as have the last three noted above. The lapillus, however, is the largest otolith, and in some of the Arius + species it is a very large stone, and consequently has a very large recess in the inside of the skull to accommodate it. This stone can be lifted out of its recess without much or any cutting away of bone. Externally the situation of the lapillus can be judged by a smooth swelling prominence of bone over it. LORICARIID. Plecostomus bicirrhosus (called the ‘‘Sea Hussar’? in Deme- rara; it is, however, a freshwater fish) has the ear labyrinth lying open in a double cavity at the side of the skull quite different to the boxed-in condition in the Siluride. As with them the lapillus is the largest otolith (fig. II., 7); the difference in size was made up by the more solid build of the lapillus, which does not come out in the photograph. ASPREDINIDE. In Aspredo sicuephorus the bone had to be cut away to get out the sacculus. The asteriscus is the largest of the otoliths. APODES. In Anguilla vulgaris (the Eel) the position of the otoliths is revealed externally by two very slight swellings of thin bone. Myrus vulgaris, a Mediterranean Kel, has the sacculus in a cradle-like cavity, from which it could be lifted out. The lapillus in this fish is not quite like the usual shape of this stone; it has * For illustrations of the asterisci of some Carps, see ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 3, figs. 20, 21, 22, 23; see also ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 293, fig. 16. The splinter-like sagitta is faintly visible. + See ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 298, fig. 19, and p. 294, pl. ii., fig. 4 LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 133 also a slight hook at its extremity. In Conger vulgaris (the Conger) , some thin but not transparent bone of the basi-occiput shows the site of the sacculus. The sagitte are large. Esocipz. Esox lucius (the Pike) has no external indication of the site of the sacculus. This is contained in an open pocket from which it could be easily lifted out; it shows no distinct lagena, but the asteriscus can be seen through the tissues of the sacculus ; the sagitta also shows through. ScoPELIDzE. In Scopelus punctatus the sagittz lie in two ovoid pockets that show on the outside; the thin bone under them permits of their being seen. CYPRINODONTIDA. In Haplochilus playfairi the pockets for the sacculus are at the side of the head, and two excrescences on the under side of the skull show their situation. Anableps tetropthalmus (the ‘‘ Four- eyes’ of British Guiana) has no outside indication of the site of the sacculus; it rests in an open cavity at the outer side of the brain chamber. FIERASFERIDE. The comparatively large solid sagitte of Fterasfer acus, a Mediterranean fish, show clearly through the transparent bone underlying them. GASTROSTEID. The ‘‘ Sticklebacks”” have no outside indication of the posi- tion of the sacculus DDE As may be surmised, the sagitt are very minute. CENTRISCIDE. In Centriscus scolopax (the ‘“‘ Trumpet Fish”’ or ‘‘ Bellows Fish ’’) there is no external evidence of the site of the sacculus. It lies loose on the floor of the skull, with no apparent special cavity for it. SYNGNATHIDA. Syngnathus acus (the ‘‘ Pipe Fish’’) has no external indica- tion of the site of the sacculus. 134 THE ZOOLOGIST. ScoMBRESOCIDA. Exocetus pecilepturus (the ‘‘ Flying Fish’’) shows the posi- tion of the sacculus by two distinct excrescences of the base of the skull. The sagittz are large for the size of the fish. Belone annulata (the ‘‘ Garpike’’) has two elongated bosses of thin bone, not so much under the basi-occiput but at the under side of the skull, that cover the sacculi and show their position. The sagitte are small for the size of the fish. AMMODYTID&. Ammodytes lanceolatus (the Sand Hel or Launce) shows the site of the sagitte by a piece of thin bone underlying them ;. this does not stand out, however, from the skull. The sagitte are small. ANTHERINIDE. In Atherina hepsetus, a Mediterranean fish, the bone of the — base of the skull is very transparent. The sagittz could be seen quite plainly in situ. In Atherinichthys bonariense (called the ‘‘Sea Pajerrey’’ at Buenos Aires) the site of the sacculus is indicated by two elongated prominences of thin bone, but not transparent enough to show the stones. In A. argentinense (the ‘‘ Freshwater Pajerrey’’) the thin bone over the sacculus is not markedly prominent, neither is it transparent enough to show the stones, which are of but moderate size for the size of the fish. The sacculus part holding the sagitta is in an open pocket ; the stone could be lifted out through the open top. The lagena end of the sacculus is, however, covered with bone which had to be cut away to get out the asteriscus. Mueiuip”. The sacculus of Mugil braziliensis (the ‘‘Queeriman” of Demerara, British Guiana) rests in a bony pocket that is open at the top. The lagena is long, and runs back at the end of the pocket into a burrow of its own in the basi-occiput. M. capito (the Grey Mullet) has two strong bony prominences on the basi- occiput that continue upwards round the side. This upward portion is what lies more immediately under-the site of the sacculus, which is placed in a long bony pocket; the lagena is a very decided prolongation of the sacculus, and holds a fairly LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 135 large asteriseus of crescentic shape. The sacculus pocket is open at the top, but bone has to be cut away to free the lagena. In this family the sagitta is of fair size and very much curved. PoLyNEMIDZA. In Polynemus tetradactylus (the ‘‘ Mangoe Fish”’ of Calcutta, where it is also called ‘“‘Tapsi machli,” adopting one of the native names) the site of the sacculus is indicated exteriorly by a slight swelling of the basi-occiput bone. The pocket containing the sacculus is open at the top; the sacculus could have been easily lifted out but for the lagena portion, which runs back into a bony burrow encasing it completely, and requiring to be cut away to extract it. The otoliths from the right half of the head are illustrated (fig. I., 4). SPHYRENIDE. Sphyrena vulgaris (the ‘‘ Barracuda ’’) has the sacculus lying in a groove in the bone of the skull, which is open at the upper end, a little bone, however, has to be cut away to free the sacculus altogether. The otoliths in this fish lie more parallel to, i. e¢. with less divergence from the middle line of the fish at their forward end, than is the case with so many other fishes. STROMATEIDA. Stromateus niger (the Pomfret’’ of India) does not show externally the situation of the sacculus; inside, the sacculus is in a pocket open at the top, but cased in with bone at the sides. The lapillus has a marked recess in the skull for itself. OPHIOCEPHALID. In Ophiocephalus punctatus the situation of the sacculi is well marked by two excrescences on the under side of the basi-occiput, which stand well out. : ANABANTIDH. In Anabas scandens (the ‘Climbing Perch’’ of India) the sacculi are located in two prominent excrescences, which, when the branchial arches are removed and the skull reversed, show remarkably clearly. The lagena is a long prolongation of the sacculus; it has alittle pocket to itself. The sagitte are fairly large and solid for the size of the fish (fig. II., 2). 136 THE ZOOLOGIST. A GADIDA. In this family of the Cod and its congeners the sagittz are large, and their location is shown from the outside by a swelling of the basi-occiput, and in some cases, as in Gadus merlangus — (the Whiting) and G. minutus (the ‘‘ Power’’), by the thin bone covering the stones allowing the opaque white bodies to be seen. In some the sagitta can be easily picked up from the inside with forceps ; this is the case with Merluatas vulgaris (the Hake) ; in others, a very little clearing away of bone enables the sagitta to be got out. Thisis so with G. merlangus and with Molva elongata, a Mediterranean relative of the ‘‘ Ling.” In Uraleptus maraldi, another Mediterranean fish, on the contrary, the sacculus is completely embedded in bone, its place shown exteriorly by a large swelling of the basi-occiput, which is out of proportion to the size of the sagitta when this is got out. BERYCIDE. Beryx splendens shows its sagitte through the thin bone that underlies them below the skull. These otoliths are large.* PEMPHERIDS. The sagitta in Pempheris russellit is comparatively large. CENTRARCHIDE. In Kuhlia marginata, a fish from New Guinea, the site of the sacculus is marked by a piece of thin bone, slightly elevated, that shows the whole length of the sagitta through it on each side, looking like grains of barley in shape. The sacculus is embedded in a bony pocket requiring to be cut away. The sagitta is a moderate size; the asteriscus is, however, very small in gize, even for this usually small stone. LoBoTiIDz. In Lobotes colonorum the sacculus lies in a strong bony pocket requiring to be much cut away to free it. PERCIDE. In Acerina cernua (the Ruff, Pope, or Jack Ruff) the two well-defined pockets holding the sagitte are covered with thin * See illustration, ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 293, pl. i., 9. LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 137 flexible bone, which allows the stones to be distinctly visible from the outside. Inside, the pockets are open at the top. In Perca fluviatilis (the Perch) the site of the otoliths is very apparent: two bulbous swellings, one each side of the basi- occiput, mark it unmistakably. The sagitta, large for the size of the fish, is well embedded in a bony pocket and the lagena well defined. SERRANIDH. Serranus gigas (the ‘‘ Dusky Perch’’) (Couch) has its sacculus in a long deep pocket, with room enough in it to allow the sagitta to be freely moved backwards and forwards in it. In 8S. cabrilla (the Comber) and S. scriba, a Mediterranean fish, smaller members of the family, the sacculus is more boxed in; the sagitta has not so much room for motion. In Apogon rex mullorum the thin bone below the sacculi permits the sagittz to be clearly located; they are large for the size of the fish. Ambassis urotenia has two large, almost hemispherical, protuberances of thin bone under the sacculi; the opaque bodies of the sagittz show through. These stones are large for the size of the fish. PsEUDOCHROMIDIDZE. In Lopholatilus chameleonticeps (the ‘‘ Tile Fish”’ of the North Atlantic Ocean) the sacculus is held in a bony pocket open at the top, through which the sacculus could be seen projecting, but bone had to be cut away to extract the otoliths.* ScIiZNID&. Amongst these fishes the sagitta is large, and consequently a palpable swelling of the basi-occiput shows the position of the sacculi and their enclosed stones. Umbrina cirrhosa (the Umbrina) (Couch) has a large pocket for the sacculus well open at the top, the whole of the ear labyrinth on each side was picked out at once, no cutting away of bone being found necessary, the semicircular canals only needed to be cut across. In Corvina nigra, a Mediterranean fish, the sacculus is in a big roomy pocket open along the top but closed at the ends. The lagena stretches well away at its extremity of the sacculus, and has*a roomy pocket to itself. In Nebris microps (the “‘ Butterfish”’ of Deme- * For illustration, see ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 294, pl. ii., 1. . Zool, 4th ser, vol. XVIII., April, 1914. M 138 THE ZOOLOGIST. rara) the position of the sagittz is well defined from the outside, the bone under them being thin. They are large and inclined at a sharp angle; their pointed ends upward, and the other end, Ere. LLL: 1. ScueNA MACULATA. 2. S. AQUILA. 3. MICROPOGON FURNIERI. 4, PLAGIOSCION SURINAMENSIS. 5. OTOLITHUS MACULATUS. 6. NEBRIS MICROPS. > which has two small projections, a curious example in sagitte, downwards (fig. III., 6). (Shown reversed to bring out these projections.) There is no defined lagena, the asterisci being LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 139 enclosed with the sagitte but at the lower end of the sacculus. In Ancylodon jaculidens (the ‘‘ Weak Fish” of Demerara) the decided swelling of the basi-occiput at its forward end becomes almost hemispherical. The sagitta is large. In Sciena amazo- nica, a South American fish, the position of the sacculus from the outside is easily located. Many of the Scienoid fishes have an excrescence on the concave side of the sagitta which is ‘notable in S. aquila (fig. III., 2). In others the excrescence is formed of granules. This can be seen in fig. III., 1, 3, 4, and 5; in No. 6 the granules are on the stone, but too faint to show in the photograph. The ‘‘sulcus acousticus”’ in these fish also takes a peculiar curved right angle bend; this can be faintly traced in fig. III., 1, 4, and 6. SPARIDE. In this family the sacculus is enclosed in a bony pocket, - which has to be cut away to free the sagitta and asteriscus. In Pagellus centrodontus (the Sea Bream) the lagena is a broad pro- longation of the sacculus. In Oblata melanura, a Mediterranean fish, the bone under the sagitte is thin and semi-transparent. MULLIDz. In Mullus surmulletus (the Surmullet) (Couch), although the sacculus is in a pocket open at the top, a great deal of bone has to be cut away to free it completely. CaPROIDA. Capros aper (the ‘‘ Boar Fish”) has the sacculus in an open recess; the whole can be lifted out without cutting away any bone. CHETODONTIDE. In Heniochus macrolepidotus, an Indian Ocean fish, the sacculus is embedded in a bony pocket, which has to be exten- sively cut away to release its contents. The sagitta is a fair size. OsPHROMENIDA. Osphromenus olfax (the ‘“‘Gourami”’), a fish from Java, has the site of the sacculus marked by two prominent bulbous swellings of the basi-occiput bone that project even into the cavity occupied by the superbranchial organ that this fish has, it M 2 140 THE ZOOLOGIST. being one of the Labyrinthici. The sacculus is enclosed in a bony pocket that requires considerable cutting away to get it out. The sagitte are large for the size of the fish (fig. I., 8). EMBIOTOCIDE. The sagitte in this family are underlaid by thin bone that allows of their site being seen. They are large for the size of the fish. The anterior end is free of bony covering, but the posterior end goes back into a bony cavity that requires opening . up to free the lagena end of the sacculus. Of four specimens examined, two came from Japan and two from the west coast of the United States of America: Neoditrema ransonnettit and Ditrema temminckit from the former country, and Cymatogaster aggregatus and Hysterocarpus traski from the latter. CICHLIDE. In Cichlosoma bimaculatum (the ‘‘ Patwa”’ of Demerara) and in Crenicichla saxatilis (called the ‘‘Sun Fish” at Demerara) there is no external indication of the site of the otoliths; the sacculus is embedded in a bony pocket, but requires only a little cutting out. In Tilapia nilotica, a Nile fish, the sagitta is large and much curved; the sacculus required to be cut out. LaABRID2. In Labrus maculatus * (the Ballan Wrass) and in L. mixtus (the ‘‘ Cook’’) there is no external evidence of the site of the sacculi. From the inside the sacculus can be easily lifted out from the shallow recess in which it lies. The sagitta is deeply notched on both sides, so much so as to require tender handling to prevent it splitting up longitudinally. CARANGID. Caranx trachurus (the ‘“‘Scad,” also called the ‘‘ Horse Mackerel ’’) has a well-defined bony pocket for its sacculus open along the top for a short distance. At its lower end this pocket has a constriction in it, but again expands to form a special cavity for the lagena, which is well defined and contains a fairly large asteriscus ; the sagittat also is a fair size. Lichia amia, a Mediterranean fish, has the sacculus in a long, trough-like, * See ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 293, pl. I., 12. + Ibid., pl. I., 7. LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 141 _ bony pocket open at the top; the lagena is a long protruding continuation of the sacculus holding a fairly large asteriscus. Seriola dummerilit (one of the ‘‘ Yellow Tails’’) and Temnodon saltator (the ‘‘ Skipjack ”’) require the bony pocket to be cut away to get out the sacculus. ScoMBRIDA. This family have small sagitte for the size of the fishes. In Sarda mediterraneus * (the ‘‘ Pelamid”’) (Couch) the pocket for the sacculus is small, it inclines upwards, and is embedded in bone with a small opening at the top. It is situated well in the posterior part of the skull. From Auzis rocheit,* the sacculus could be extracted through the opening at the top without any cutting away. In Cybiwm commersonii, an Indian fish, the sacculus has to be cut out. In Scomber scombrus (the Mackerel) there is no external indication of the position of the sacculus ; although lying in a pocket, it is not much enclosed by bone; it is visible through the opening at the top. BRaMIDz. Brama rau has a long pocket for the sacculus, allowing this to be moved backwards and forwards in it. The sagitta is com- paratively small.+ ZED. Zeus faber (the John Dory) has its sacculus lying openly on the floor of the brain cavity, it can be picked up with a forceps without further trouble. The sagitta is small and most peculiarly shaped (fig. II., 4). PLEURONECTIDS. Many of this family show the sites of the sacculi very plainly to the external view by a slight excrescence of the basi-occiput, the thin bone allowing the sagitte to be seen. Owing to the distortion of the head in this family, the sagitte seem to lie one above the other instead of side by side. In Psetta maxima (the Turbot) and P. laevis (the Brill) the sacculus is contained in a bony pocket. The latter fish and Pleuronectes limanda (the Dab) show the site of the sacculus through thin bone. P, platessa (the Plaice) shows the rings of growth of the sagitta from which the age of the fish is deduced most clearly when it is first taken out of a fresh head. * See ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910, p. 293, pl. I., 1 and 2. jlbtd.s ple Lessee 142 THE ZOOLOGIST. GoBIIDz. In this family the sacculus is placed in a recess away to the outer side of the skull and rather high up. The sagitta is large considering the usually small size of the fish. In Gobius jozo and Periopthalmus koelreuteri the sagitta can be seen, the bone being thin. ScorPHNIDE. Sebastes imperialis, a Mediterranean fish, has a skull that, in the part underlying the sagitte, is transparent, and the stones are visible as they lie in the head. ‘The sagitta is embedded in bone all round but open at the top; the bone has to be cut away to free the sacculus and its contents. The otoliths of S. norvegicus (the Bergylt) (Couch) are fairly large.* CorTip. The site of the sacculi in ‘‘ Cottus bulbalis”’ (the ‘‘ Bullhead,” in Cornwall it is called ‘‘Stingdom’’) is shown by two small swellings of thin bone. TRIGLIDA. In Trigla lyra (the “Piper ’’) the sacculus lies in a recess so open at the top that the sacculus can be lifted out. It is the same with 7’. gurnardus (the Gurnard); there is no external evidence of the actual location of the otoliths. DacTYLOPTERIDS. The sacculus in Dactylopterus volitans (the ‘‘ Flying Gur- nard’’) lies openly on the base of the skull, there being no special cavity for it. TRACHINIDE. Trachinus vipera (the ‘‘ Lesser Weever’’) shows the position of the sacculus exteriorly by two bulbous excrescences of the basi-occiput, which diverge very much at the anterior ends. The sagitta is confined at both ends, although the pocket is open at the top. The stone is of moderate size. NoTroTHENIIDE. In Trematomus hansoni, a fish brought from the waters of Victoria Land in the Antarctic, two prominent excrescences of * See ‘Zoologist,’ 1910, p- 298, pl. fey 10. LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 143 thin bone jutting out to the right and left of the basi-occiput give the location of the sacculi, the sagitta showing through. The sacculus is in a pocket open at the top, through which it could be lifted out without cutting. The sagitta is of fair size. URANOSCOPIDE. The site of the sacculus in Uranoscopus scaber, a Mediterra- nean fish, is shown by a large swelling externally. The sacculus lies in an open depression, the lagena end extending into a pocket of its own. CALLIONYMID. In Callionymus lyra (the ‘‘ Skulpin ’’) the sacculus lies openly on the floor of the cranial cavity ; no special depression exists for it. } BLENNIIDA. There is no external evidence of the situation of the otoliths in Anarrhichas lupus, the largest British representative of this family, and known to fishermen as the ‘‘ Cat Fish.” The sacculus lies in a shallow open depression: the whole sacculus was lifted out without difficulty. It was the same in a specimen of Blennius ocellaris (the “‘ Butterfly Blenny’’). The sagittz in this family are small. BaTRACHIDA. The basi-occiput in Batrachus surinamensis (the ‘‘ Pacuma”’ of Demerara) shows a large bulbous swelling under the site of the sacculus quite incommensurate with the size of the sagitta when this is got out. The sacculus lies in an open depression ; the lagena is attached not at the extremity of the sacculus, but placed about a quarter of the length of the sacculus from the posterior end. ZOARCIDE. The sacculus lies in an open cavity, from which it could be picked out entire in Zoarces viviparus (the “ Hel Pout”’). OPHIIDIIDE. The bone of Ophidium barbatum is very thin where it lies under the sagitte, which are plainly visible through it; they are large and solid. The angle they make with the middle line of the skull is very distinct. 144 THE ZOOLOGIST. LopHImDz. In Lophius budegassa, a Mediterranean species of the ‘‘ Angler” family, the sacculus rests in a shallow flat depression. ANTENNARIIDE. ~ Antennarius hispidus, from the Indian Ocean, shows the position of the sacculi under the base of the skull by the bone under the pockets standing out in divergent sections. BALIsTIDE. The sacculus in Balistes capriscus (the ‘‘ File Fish,’ also called the ‘‘ Trigger Fish’’) lies in a pocket open at the top, through which it could be lifted out. The sagitte are small (fig. I]., 10). B. niger is similar. TETRODONTID. In Tetrodon leopardus, a “‘ Globe Fish” of the Indian Ocean, the ear membranes lie in a cavity at the side of the skull away from the middle line and at the posterior end of the brain cavity. Mouipz. Orthagoriscus mola has no otoliths; it is supplied with otoconie only,* in this respect resembling the cartilaginous fishes. When dissecting for otoliths one is occasionally met with a difficulty in finding one, or sometimes both, of the parti- cular stones ; e.g., one lapillus, or asteriscus, or perhaps both asterisci. At first want of skill may be held to be responsible for the non-success, but as skill improves and experience shows that even fairly large stones are missed, it begins to be surmised that perhaps the stones in these cases are non-existent, and have never been developed. To quote some cases; eight different species of the Lutjanus family were examined, and in one case the left asteriscus could not be found; the note made at the time reads, ‘‘ The left asteriscus missed, the sacculus and lagena were got out entire, and the most careful search was made, but not a vestige could be found.” In all the other cases both, and in this * See article by Professor D’Arcy W. Thompson, ‘‘On the Auditory Labyrinth of Orthagoriscus.” ‘Anatomischer Anzeiger,’ iii., Jahrgang, Nos. 4 and 5, 1888. . LOCATION OF THE SACCULUS IN FISHES. 145 particular fish, the right asteriscus having been recovered, it only leaves the surmise that in this instance there was no left asteriscus. In a Platax vespertilio, one of the Chetodontide of the Indian Ocean, no lapilli could be found, although careful search was made. The lapillus, asa rule, is very easily got, and in four allied genera they were got; it would seem that in this particular Platax they may have been wanting. Ina Lophola- tilus chameleonticeps that was most carefully dissected, the sacculi were got out whole; the lagena of each showed as a distinct little purse, but on searching them no asteriscus could be found in either. There were two observers on this occasion, and had there been an asteriscus in either lagena it could not have escaped observation. In a Brosmius brosme examined, one lapillus, that on the left side, could not be found, the tissues came out whole, the ‘‘ recessus utriculi’’ with the sacculus, and most careful search was made; to judge by the right lapillus, it is a fair size, and could hardly have been overlooked in the careful search made. In two of the Characinide, a Hydrocyon brevis and an Alestes nurse, the rod-like sagitta was wanting in the first on the left side, and in the second on the right side. In each case the sacculus was got out whole, but no trace of the sagitta could be found; the same care was exercised that resulted in the sagitta being found on the opposite side in each case. In a former paper (‘Zoologist,’ 1910) a note was made pointing out that three cases of abnormal sagittz had been come across; in these the abnormality consisted in the difference of the structure of the stones to what is usually the case, it would therefore perhaps not be assuming too much to surmise that the abnormal might be also met with in the guise of an otolith being wholly wanting. More evidence is, however, requisite in this matter, and it would be of interest if others who have made researches in otoliths would publish their experiences on the subject. In this connection it is interesting to note that Couch, in his ‘ Fishes of the British Islands,’ vol. iv., in the article on the Carp, has as follows :—‘‘ Nor is this the only remarkable irregularity of structure, for I am informed by Edmund T. Higgins, Esq., who has carefully studied these objects in various orders of fishes, that in the Carp the otoliths (bones of the ear) are not always alike on both sides; in fact, that in some in- 146 THE ZOOLOGIST. stances they are altogether wanting on one side. The position of these bones is also different from what is the case in other fishes, so that the bone termed the malleus is at a distance from another called the incus, and it is serrated all round the border.” Mr. Higgins is right when he says the position of these bones (‘‘ stones,’ he should have called them) is different from what is the case in other fishes, for the asteriscus is so much more completely embedded in a bony cavity, as mentioned ante; it is the largest of the otoliths in this fish, and so came under obser- vation, the small rod-like sagitta being overlooked. The malleus, as he calls it, is evidently the asteriscus as at present named; as he says, it has a serrated edge all round (see the illustrations in the article on the ‘‘ Asteriscus in Fishes” in the ‘ Zoologist,’ 1910). The incus of Mr. Higgins is the lapillus, which, as he describes it, is at a distance from the malleus (asteriscus). Presumably Mr. Higgins was dealing only with British fishes, and so did not come across specimens of the Characinide, when he would probably have recognized the resemblance in their case to Carps. His evidence as to the occasional absence of the otolith in the Carp is noteworthy. A converse case to the absence of an otolith was met with once in a Lenciscus dobula (the Dace), the ‘‘recessus utriculi” on the right side of the head held two lapilli, whilst that on the left side held the normal one lapillus. In this case, three lapilli having been found pre- cludes any idea that by some chance the one from the left side had got mixed up with that on the right side, and so account for the two on this side. This paper cannot be concluded without recording, with many thanks, the obligation the writer is under to many institutions and personal friends for specimens received of fishes described; and in particular his indebtedness to Mr. R. H. Burne, of the Royal College of Surgeons, for much help, always most kindly given, in dissecting heads, and but for whose help much of the interest of this article would have been wanting. (Cd im NOTES AND QUERIES. MAMMALIA. The Water-Shrew (Neomys fodiens bicolor) in Worcestershire.— Whether this melanistic form of the Water Shrew is proportionately distributed in Great Britain or more or less local is not as yet known. In this neighbourhood it is certainly rare, and only in one instance, at Wribbenhall on December 25th last, have I been able to obtain a specimen.—J. STEELE Exuiort (Dowles Manor, Shropshire). AVES. The Thrush’s Song.—The facility with which some birds incor- porate the notes of other species in their song is well known, and our common Song-Thrush (Turdus musicus) is as apt an imitator in this way as most ofthem. A rather curious, and I think unusual, instance of the kind may at present (March) be heard here, and it suggests enquiry as to how the habit may be acquired. We have in this neighbourhood, at 1000 ft. about the sea, comparatively few small birds resident during winter, not more than an odd pair or two of Thrushes remaining; the significance of this becomes apparent below. The male of the only pair of Thrushes resident in our garden started singing on February 4th—an ordinary song. Since that date several others have appeared and sung every fine morning. One of these constantly makes use of the triple call of a Redshank (a by no means singular occurrence), occasionally one reproduces a note or two borrowed from the Curlew. Just a week ago, one began giving such a perfect imitation of a Wood-Lark’s song that, though it was practically impossible for the latter bird to be here, I was obliged to go into the plantation before I could really convince myself on the point. On most fine days the song is frequently repeated at intervals, in the ordinary Thrush’s song, but it is gradually losing its perfection. Now, the curious thing is that we never have any Wood-Larks in this part of the country (rare accidental visitors, of course, excepted), and one wonders how the Thrush has picked the song up, and where? It is pretty certain that it is not a resident Thrush, and quite certain that it has never heard the Wood-Lark’s song here. Can it have 148 THE ZOOLOGIST. lately come from a district where that song was familiar just now ? It may be added that it is only occasionally that a Redshank is to be heard here, but Thrushes might pick up the notes of that bird not so very many miles away.—GrorGE Botan (Alston, Cumberland). Visitation of Black Redstarts (Ruticilla titys).—It is well known that the Black Redstart is a regular visitor to certain parts of this country. This winter, however, I am inclined to think that the species has visited us in greater numbers than usual. This is especially obvious in the case of Northumberland, where previously there have only been six recorded. Northumberland.—Holy Island, November 5th, 1913; adult male (‘British Birds’). Chopwell, November, 1913; adult male. ‘‘ Feed- ing on green fly,” P. Charlton. Woodhorn, Ashington, November, 1913; adult male, T. Robinson (‘ Newcastle Weekly Chronicle’). Cullercoats, December 26th, 1913; female. Cullercoats, February 10th, 1914; immature. The last two birds were both moving south in a leisurely fashion along the shore. Cumberland.—Workington, December 21st, 1913; adult male, John Wilson (‘ Carlisle Journal’). Lincolnshire.—North-east coast, October 13th, 1913; rarely met with in this county. Four previous records (‘ British Birds’). Somerset.—Taunton, October 9th, 1913 (‘ Field’). Norfolk.—Norwich, December, 1913; adult female (‘Canary and Cage Bird Life’). Wales.—Llandudno, January 10th, 1914, T. A. ©. Valley, January 14th, 1914, T. A. C. (‘Manchester Guardian’). It would be interesting to hear if this species has occurred in other localities where it is usually rare—J. M. Cuaruton (Brampton, Cumberland). Redbreasts’ Nest in a Tree.—A pair of Redbreasts in Waterlow Park, Highgate, commenced on March 4th building a nest in a hole in the trunk of a tree nearly 10 ft. from the ground, a rather unusual site.—H. Kirke Swann (Finchley). Notes on the Nightingale (Daulias luscinia)—The Nightingale, which had been falling off to a marked degree for ten years or more, last year (1913) visited this district in something approaching its former numbers and, to my astonishment, one pair nested and successfully reared a brood in our garden. I had begun to think that we were not going to have any Nightingales at all, as I neither heard nor saw one until April 24th, which was the date upon which our bird was first noted by me—it was singing at the further corner of NOTES AND QUERIES. 149 the back garden at 9a.m. A Lesser Whitethroat, which I had been waiting for, evidently arrived at the same time, and this bird, too, finally mated, and a brood was reared on our premises. The Nightingale was mostly singing all day, from the 24th to the 28th, yet it was not until the latter date that it began to sing at night, when it commenced some time before 10 p.m., and this night-song continued until May 6th, when I detected the arrival of a female, and from that time it ceased. The song usually commenced at about 9.45 p.m., and must have continued throughout the night—the bird would be singing at midnight, I heard it whenever awake, and it would still be singing at daybreak. Rain stopped it at once—the night of the 3rd was wet and gloomy, and except for one or two out- bursts at 10 p.m., the bird was silent, and the following night, although singing with great vigour, it instantly ceased on rain commencing to fall at midnight. I first discovered the presence of a female at 2 p.m. on May 6th, and believe she had but just arrived, and from that time, except for an occasional attempt at about 10 p.m., the night song ceased, although another Nightingale was singing at a distance of little over two hundred yards away. It was the male who selected the spot, and he seemed determined that no alteration should be made, if I may judge by his conduct when in the presence of the female, and accordingly she commenced to build on the morn- ing of May 9th, and the nest was finished and contained one egg on the 15th. As far as I know, the female did all the building, and she appeared to work until 9 a.m., or a little later, and then left off for the day. The nest, constructed of the usual dead oak leaves, &c., was built upon some bundles of old pea-boughs which had been stacked against a laurel hedge, preparatory to being burned, and was at a height of 3ft. above the ground. Sitting commenced May 19th on five eggs, a duty apparently undertaken only by the female, and she was removing the egg-shelis on the evening of June 2nd, the young leaving the nest on the 14th of that month. I expected to be able to see something of these young birds after leaving the nest, but it was only with great difficulty that anything could be seen of them; IT do not think more than one at a time was ever seen by me, though they must have often been quite near me in the garden. With the parent birds, however, it was very different—they were more tame and confiding than the familiar Robin—but the presence of a cat was instantly detected, and they never left it all the time it remained anywhere near the nest or young. The young birds made more noise while being fed in the nest than I supposed would be the case. 150 THE ZOOLOGIST. The male had practically ceased singing by June 9th, though I did hear it for a moment on the 13th.—RosBert Morris (Uckfield, Sussex). Status of Blackcap, Garden-Warbler, and Lesser Whitethroat.— Bedfordshire-—Throughout the whole of the county the Garden Warbler outnumbers the Blackcap by about two pairs to one, and the Lesser Whitethroat is about as common as the latter species. Shropshive.—I1 can only speak from personal experience of the neighbourhood in which I live, and here the Garden- Warbler is even commoner, numbering probably three pairs to one, the Lesser Whitethroat again being about equal to the Blackcap. The dis- tribution of our breeding birds in the British Islands is as yet very . imperfectly known, and it would be of very considerable scientific value if a complete record, showing this distribution by means of shaded maps in colour or otherwise, could be published.—_J. STEELE Exurott (Dowles Manor, Shropshire). Waxwing in Suffolk—A hen Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus) was picked up dead at Beyton on January 21st, and brought to me in the flesh. It had certainly been shot at, but was in very good condition when found, and is now in the Ipswich Museum.—Juuian G. Tuck (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk). The Little Owl Breeding in Somerset.—I see a note in the ‘Zoologist’ (ante, p. 112) from Mr. Sanley Lewis, of Wells, Somerset, on the subject of the Little Owl (Athene noctwa) breeding in Somerset. This is not, as he thinks, the first dicovery of its breeding in this county. The Little Owls have nested here close to my house for the last four years, to my certain knowledge, and possibly longer. So far they do not appear to have developed any excessively predatory habits amongst young game in this part of the country. The nests always contain a plentiful supply of young rats and mice, and I have once found a Thrush—H. L. PopHam (Hunstrete House, Pensford, near Bristol). Gannet Choked by a Gurnard.—I am indebted to Mr. John Ren- wick for a rather curious photograph of a defunct Gannet, which was taken by one of a geological party (Mr. N. G. Reid) on the shore at Turnberry, in Ayrshire. The dead bird had met its death in a way which, I was told when at Ailsa Craig, has happened on previous occasions, v2z. in trying to swallow a Gurnard (Trigla ?), whose spinous dorsal fin had become wedged in its throat, with the result that the Gannet, unable either to swallow the fish or get rid of it, was starved. The Gurnard is a very common fish in British seas, NOTES AND QUERIES. | 161 and Gannets certainly do prey upon small ones with impunity, but in this case a larger one than usual had been captured, judging from the part of it which is still visible in the bird’s open mouth. It appears that other birds besides Gannets have met with a similar fate, for in the ‘ Zoologist ’ for 1894 (p. 265) there is an account of a Great Northern Diver being choked by a Gurnard, and on p. 308 of a Cormorant which was choked by a Flounder.—J. H. Gurney (Keswick Hall, Norfolk). Hybrid Ducks.—Referring to the three Pochard and Sheld-Duck hybrids (ante, p. 76) at Christchurch Park, Ipswich, I saw them again on March 4th. They are, I should say, a drake and two ducks, and will probably be the only ones bred, as the Sheld-Duck appears this year to have paired with a drake of her own species. It was rather interesting to watch them on the water, the Pochard keeping © near the other two, but at a respectful distance, while his old mate seemed entirely to ignore him, and to be quite happy with her partner. — Junian G. Tuck (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk). Early Arrival of the Stone Curlew.—On the night of March 11th, on which occasion the moon was very bright, the moat close to my daughter’s home at Rougham was visited by a bird which could only ~ have been a Stone Curlew (Cidicnemus scolopax). The note was 152 THE ZOOLOGIST. described to me as exactly like “the Great Plover’s human whistle” mentioned by Tennyson, and I was also told that the Dabchicks, which have now returned to the moat, seemed from their calls to be much disturbed by the unusual sounds. It is an early date for the Stone Curlew; I have a note of one which I handled in the flesh at Bury on March 25th, 1899. — Juntan G. Tucx (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk). Avicultural Notes.—I have been asked by a well-known ornitho- logist to write an account of my tame Swift (Cypselus apus). I found the little creature last summer on June 30th, when passing through the village of Bircher, about five miles from the town of Leominster, where I live. It had fallen from its nest, and was making strenuous efforts to climb up the wall of the house back to it, for the nest was under the eaves just above where the little creature was struggling on the ground. The old birds were screaming joyously overhead, appearing to know nothing about it. The little Swift was about two inches long, its colour was grey, the quills were just beginning to appear, and even at that early age the last joint of the wings took an upward curve. It appeared to be strong and healthy. I placed it under a clump of weeds near by in the shade, as it was a very hot day. I was spending several hours on the common a mile further on, and finding it still there on my return in the evening, I took it home with me. For the first four or five days I fed it every half hour on small quantities of blight. For the next month I fed it on mountain bread, the food used for young canaries, but it did not thrive at all well on it. It hardly grew at all, and the development of the feathers was very poor; its body was covered at the end of a month but very thinly, and the wings were covered with short feathers. At the end of July I went to stay on Bircher Common for ten weeks, and took the bird with me. At this time I began to feed it on wasp grubs; these it liked very much. I led an outdoor life and took my little Swift everywhere. It developed very quickly under these conditions; the wings grew very long and strong, and appeared to be quite normal, but for some reason or other it has never used its wings for sustained flight except on one occasion. I had left it upstairs, and while sitting at breakfast, suddenly heard a flutter of wings and the little Swift alighted at my feet, passing on its way an open window and door. I only kept it in confinement when necessary for its safety. While staying on the common I used to hang its basket on the garden fence, when it would climb about and retire to its basket again of its own NOTES AND QUERIES. 153 accord. We picnicked out a great deal, sometimes walking for miles, and the Swift always came with us, and when putting up sandwiches, I had always to remember a piece of wasp-comb. I once put its basket down in the fern some distance from where we were sitting, thinking it was securely fastened; two hours later, when I went to it, I found it hanging in the fern. It was at this time fully fledged. Another day, when at the highest point of the common from which an extensive valley slopes, I threw it up in the air, but it only fluttered down into the fern and made no attempt to fly away. I carried it with me on bicycle rides very often, hanging its basket on the handle-bars; on one occasion it accompanied me on a ride of twenty-six miles. At first it showed restlessness but very quickly became accustomed to it, and would settle down at the bottom of its basket as soon as it was hung on the bicycle, not moving till the end of the ride, when it would begin to chirp and climb up the side of the basket. I thought this showed great intelligence; also it would attract my attention when shut in its basket, if hungry or thirsty. Tt takes very little water, and takes it from my mouth; it has a queer little habit of shaking itself in anticipation as I take the water into my mouth; it generally sits on my hand both to eat and drink. At the end of September the wasp grubs came to an end—from then till the present time I have fed it on meat maggots. I give it thirty for a meal every two hours, killing them first by snipping off the heads with a pair of scissors. I once tried to see how many it would eat; when it reached fifty I left off, but the bird would have eaten more. I find thirty are as many as it can digest well. It takes them from the end of my finger, but never attempts to help itself, even when the food is close under its beak, it seems not to recognize it. It takes exercise by beating the air with its wings while holding tightly to the edge of its basket with its claws. The legs appear to be very weak. JI have never seen it walking without at the same time flapping its wings; in this way it gets over the ground very quickly. It very much objects to being on the ground, and will very quickly climb up my dress till its head is under my chin; there it will hang for hours, nibbling occasionally at my throat, and no occupation or position will dislodge it. As an adult bird it is very silent; it has only two cries—one a kind of scream which it utters with its mouth very wide open to show annoyance, the other is a monotonous shrill chirp, very much like the song of the cricket; this cry it kept up continually when young, often through the night as well. On one Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII... April, 1914. N 154 THE ZOOLOGIST. occasion the Swift was hanging on the outside of its basket near the fire, and the warmer it became the louder grew its song, when a Toad walked in, evidently attracted by the song and expecting a meal. The Swift is extremely sensitive to cold, and for this reason I found it impossible to keep it in a cage. I did try it, but it wandered aim- lessly about and seemed very unhappy. Then I tried putting flannel in the bottom of the cage; it immediately burrowed under the flannel, so this quite decided me. I have kept it in quite a small basket, the _ lid of which is generally open; it never attempts to come out except when it is time to be fed; it can gauge the two hours as accurately as T can, then it will come on to the edge of the basket and look at me. A weird little object it looks, with its large deep eyes. If I do not notice it, it will begin to flap its wings, and if that does not gain attention, it will flutter to the floor. I place flannel in the basket, and also cover it with flannel, and I keep a hot-water bottle under- neath, well wrapped up to allow a little heat to filter through. One of its happiest moments is when the bottle has been newly filled; it spreads itself out on the flannel, almost like a bird taking a sun-bath. It sleeps with its neck and head flat on the flannel and never behind its wing. It has a very good digestion, and has never cast up any pellets. It is apparently healthy and in good condition, and, I think, quite happy. It moulted slightly all through the winter, and in the second week in January it shed in one night all the feathers from head and neck, and a thin line on each side of the breastbone; in about three days the new quills appeared, and the plumage developed in about a fortnight, much stronger and healthier than the first growth. I did not notice any signs of migratory restlessness; at the time the Swifts were leaving I left it out of doors constantly that it might go if it wished. It plumes itself a great deal, but I have seen no inclination to bathe. In its habits the Swift is quite unlike the ordinary cage bird; it enjoys being caressed and handled, it will close its eyes while being stroked, and flutter its wings and at the same time utter its faint ~ little chirp in a most fascinating manner. It comes into my bed every morning, and if I do not wake when it is ready to come, it will utter its ery of annoyance; as soon as the lid of the basket is opened it will flutter on to my shoulders and creep into my neck, wedging itself tightly between my neck and the pillow; when it has enjoyed this position for a short time, it will come out and nibble my face for something to eat, and after it is satisfied, will retire with great speed NOTES AND QUERIES. 155 back to its position under my neck.—Rosamonp §. Twyman (Sunny- hurst, Leominster). VERMES. Notes on a Small Collection of Earthworms (Lumbricide) from the Island of Islay.—So little has been done among the Harthworms of Scotland that I should like to add a few records to the Rev. Hilderic Friend’s paper on the “ Distribution of British Annelids ” (‘ Zoologist,’ 1913, p. 262). Hearing that no Harthworms had, _ apparently, ever been collected in Islay, I made a collection when I was in the island in August, 1913. The summer was an exceedingly dry one, and worms were difficult to find. Mr. Friend was good enough to identify my specimens as follows :— 1. Dendrobena subrubicunda, Kisen.—The Gilt-tail. 2. Allolobophora longa, Ude.—This species is widely distributed in Scotland. 3. A. caliginosa, Sav. 4. Aporrectodea chlorotica, Sav.—A common worm in Scotland. © 5. Octolasiwm studiosum, Rosa (=O. cyaneum, Sav.).—Local. 6. Lumbricus rubellus, Hoffmeister.— Generally distributed in Scotland. 7. L. castaneus, Sav.—Plentiful on mainland. 8. L. terrestris, Linn.—One of the commonest and most generally distributed. It will be seen that there are no rarities in the list; but island faunas are always of interest, and possibly, in a more favourable season, several species might be added. They are all widely distri- buted forms which have been reported from the Scotch mainland. The Brandling (Eisenia fetida, Sav.) is, however, not among them, and I am almost certain that I have seen it in manure-heaps on other occasions when I was in Islay.—Haroxtp RussEwu (16, Beau- fort Gardens, 8.W.). CUMBERLAND NATURE RESERVE ASSOCIATION. Some of the many readers of the ‘ Zoologist’ may perhaps be in- terested to know that a Cumberland Nature Reserve Association has been recently formed, with the Right Hon. J. W. Lowther, Speaker of the House of Commons, as President, the Mayor of Carlisle, Major S.C. Ferguson, as Chairman, and Mr. L. EH. Hope, Curator of the Carlisle Museum,as Hon. Secretary. The objects of the Association are twofold: the promotion of Nature Reserves in Cumberland, and the institution of a Watcher’s Fund for providing protection to plant and animal life 156 THE ZOOLOGIST. in the county, particularly to those of the rarer birds requiring special protection during nesting. Already one Nature Reserve has been — established in affiliation with the Association, namely, on Kingmoor Common and adjacent wood, near Carlisle, where nesting-boxes have been fixed and drinking ponds prepared. A list of the fauna and flora of the Reserve is to be prepared this year, and it will be inter- esting to see what beneficial effect the protection has. At one time this common was a favourite breeding ground for the small summer visitors, and also one of the richest grounds in the county for the botanist, but of late years, through having been let for cattle-grazing, it has become very much depleted. An appeal is made to all interested in the preservation of our native fauna, some of which, like the Peregrine Falcon, Buzzard, and Raven, are the special objects of the egg-collectors’ greed, and it is hoped sufficient funds will be raised for this purpose. The Association will be glad to receive subscrip- tions from any of your readers who are interested in the preservation of these birds, and subscribers can, if they wish, have their subscrip- tions ear-marked for this purpose. — D. Los TxHorpsr, M.B.O.U. (Loshville, Carlisle). OF PRAY. Sir Joun Murray. Str Jonn Murray, whose sudden death owing to a motor acci- dent took place on March 16th, will always be remembered as a great contributor to the science of Oceanography. He was born at Coburg, in the province of Ontario, in 1841, and when sixteen years old came to Scotland, and, after a short period spent in the Stirling High School, entered the University of Edinburgh. Here he studied enthusiastically and successfully, but his independent spirit declined to be bound by a systematic curriculum, and he never took a degree. It was, however, his work in Professor Tait’s laboratory which led to him being appointed on the scientific staff of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger,’ when in 1872 she started on her memorable cruise round the world. From that time the success of the expedition became his main object in life. He voluntarily undertook the registration, packing and despatch of the enormous collections sent home from the various ports visited by the expedition. These were all consigned to the University of Edinburgh and, except for the purpose of replacing OBITUARY. 157 evaporated spirit, remained untouched until her return in 1877, to unpack them. It is a striking tribute to the care which had been taken that out of many thousands of bottles only four were broken. In 1881 he succeeded Sir Wyville Thomson as editor of the Reports which were just beginning to appear, and for twenty-three years superintended the issue of those fifty ponderous tomes, containing over 29,000 pages and about 3000 lithographed plates, charts, and other illustrations. He contributed himself, in collaboration with the late Abbé Renard, an epoch-making volume on the ‘ Deep-sea Deposits ’—a work which laid the foundations of that branch of science, and which will always be essential to the worker in it, even though he may disagree with some of its conclusions. Although when this task was finished he initiated other scientific enterprises, he still regarded the ‘ Challenger’ expedition as the gréat work of his life, and recognized this by naming his house and one of his sons after the vessel. His later works included expeditions in the ‘ Knight Errant’ and ‘Triton’; the foundation of marine laboratories at Granton and Millport; a bathymetrical survey of the Scottish Lakes (undertaken in conjunction with his friend, the late Mr. Fred. Pallar); the exploitation of Christmas Island; and an expedition, along with Dr. Johan Hjort, in the Norwegian steamer ‘ Michael Sars,’ the cost of which was borne by Murray himself. Its results were published in a joint work entitled the ‘ Depths of the Ocean,’ in 1912. It is needless to add that he received degrees and decorations and other distinctions too numerous to mention, but the memory in the hearts of those who knew him and worked with him is that of a man endowed with a deep-seated love of truth and of science for its own sake, and a loyal comrade who unflinchingly, not to say brutally, told his friends just what he thought of them to their faces, and never spoke ill of them behind their backs; of one who, though he might seem unfeeling to the outsider, could always be depended on for sympathy and help in time of need. GEORGE BENTLEY CORBIN. WE regret to record the toss of another old and valued contributor to the ‘ Zoologist’ in the person of Mr. G. B. Corbin, who passed away on March 12th last, aged seventy-three years. Mr. Corbin was quite a self-made man; he was educated at the National Schools, and this education terminated at an early age, when he was 158 THE ZOOLOGIST. taught his father’s business of a cabinet-maker and upholsterer. He then continued his education at evening classes with considerable success. But he was a true lover of Nature, and his great natural history lore was acquired first-hand in the fields and woods by his gifts of intelligent observation. In this he found the pleasure and purpose of his life. In 1862 he contributed his first paper to the ‘ Zoologist,’ ‘‘ The Macro-Lepidoptera of Ringwood, in Hampshire,” with a supple- mentary note by the Rey. Joseph Greene, M.A., and since that time he had been a more or less continuous recorder in our pages. We may recall his paper ‘“‘On the Occurrence of the Needle-tailed Swift for the second time in England,” which was published in 1880, and we are glad to learn from his relatives that this specimen “ will eventually be added to the National Collection at South Kensington.” Mr. Corbin had a considerable number of friends and correspon- dents among eminent naturalists, including Charles Darwin and Charles Kingsley. With the former the subject was “ Insectivorous Plants,’ with the latter the interest was focussed in the proof of the presence of the Smooth Snake in the New Forest. In his declining years he pursued the business of a taxidermist, and we are informed that for over thirty years he was a member of his church choir. NOTICES. OF NEW BOOKS: The Life and Habits of the Badger. By J. Farrrax BLAKEBOROUGH and Sir A. E. Pease, Bart. ‘The Foxhound’ Offices, Piccadilly. Some years ago Sir A. E. Pease published a monograph on the Badger, after its appearing as articles in the ‘ Yorkshire Post.’ Even since that date much more material has been collected and some statements revised, while Mr. Blakeborough, in conjunc- tion with the previous writer, has now produced a thoroughly up-to-date and attractive volume on one of the most interesting members of our mammalian fauna. Few Englishmen, indeed, have seen a Badger in his native haunts, while some of us, in NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. 159 days now long past, may remember that animal domiciled and captive in certain sporting resorts where ‘‘ Badger-drawing,’’ so called, was and could be witnessed; a cruel practice, now happily discarded. This book takes us to the creature in its natural haunts and advocates its preservation; may Brock long remain with us despite much ignorant persecution ! As regards the vexed question of mange and its possible dis- persion by Badgers and Foxes, the evidence seems to promote a negative conclusion. Brock is a very cleanly animal, and Badgers ‘‘ may very occasionally become mangy in a country in which the scourge has for Jong been prevalent among Foxes.” Mr. Blakeborough has ‘‘no hesitation in saying that Badgers in a hunting country do far more to aid and abet the sport than to spoil it. Man, with his desire to have the credit of preserving Foxes, and still rear a huge breed of Pheasants, with a mini- mum of danger, has done far more to ruin Foxes and Fox- hunting than ever Brock has or will do. Hand-fed, hand-reared Foxes are the mangy, ring-running brutes so often found now- adays.”’ As regards the theory of protective colouring as applied to the Badger, some reasonable and qualifying facts are con- tributed. ‘‘If the Badger wears the best coloration for night, why was a Fox made red with a white tag often to his brush instead of white on his face? He also is a nocturnal animal. If a black tail is concealing, a white tail is revealing. The Ratel, similarly coloured in many respects to the Badger, is diurnal as well as nocturnal, so that what is supposed to suit a nocturnal animal has to do duty by daylight too.” The book is well and pleasantly illustrated. Animal Communities in Temperate America, as illustrated in the Chicago Region; a Study in Animal Ecology. By Victor Ei. SHetForp, Ph.D. London: The Cambridge University Press. Tuts book is the result of a study of the whole animal life of a distinct area in connection with its environment. This is too seldom done. Few naturalists, indeed, are intimately ac- quainted with the whole fauna attached or incidental to their 160 THE ZOOLOGIST. private gardens, and equally few have a knowledge of the fauna and its environment in the larger detail of their own neighbour- hoods. Dr. Shelford has produced a volume which will not only incite this study but prove a model for that purpose; it is rich in observational information and focusses attention on the environmental causation of many animal communities. There is a very useful discussion on our methods of animal protection. ‘‘ Mistaken and sentimental ideas cause the killing of many useful animals and the protection of many noxious ones. The farmer kills Snakes and Skunks whenever he has the opportunity, though they are among the most useful animals.” Shrews are frequently killed, though they are destroyers of Mice, as is also the case with the House Centipede, though it is the enemy of household pests, &e. Dr. Shelford is not a theorist, and he does not advocate some very prevalent and popular suggestions. Thus, we read in his summary of mimicry :— “‘Qne species of insect (or other animal) resembles another. The theorist finds or thinks one of them is distasteful to birds (or other animals). He further discovers or concludes that the species, not having a bad odor or taste, is not eaten by enemies because it resembles the distasteful species. The species having the bad odor or taste is the model. The species not having the bad odor or taste is the mimic. The mimic arose and attained its perfection because those individuals of the mimic species which resembled the model species survived.” The argument is at least clearly stated, though its conclusion is apparently un- accepted, and this is not to be regretted, for a theory may be sound and probable, but liable to be distrusted through extreme advocacy and by the sometime employment of unsifted evidence ; opposition thus becomes a tonic. W. F. H. ROSENBERG, IMPORTER OF EXOTIC ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS, 57, Haverstock Hitt, Lonpox, N.W., Eneuanp., ess to announce the publication of a new Price List (No. 20) of MAMMALS, including over 400 Species from various parts of the world. This will be mailed free on application, as well as any of the following lists:—BIRD-SKINS (over 5000 Species); BIRDS’ EGGS (over 1100 Species); REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, anp FISHES (over 400 Species); HXOTIC LEPIDOPTERA (over 8000 Species). Largest Stock in the world of specimens in all branches of Zoology. ALL MUSEUMS AND AMATEURS SHOULD WRITE FOR THESE LISTS. All specimens sent on approval. Please state which lists are required, and give name of this periodical. RIRDSNESTING & BIRD=SKINNING. A Complete Deseription of the Nests and Eggs of Birds which Breed in Britain, by Epwarp Newman. — Srconp LEpririon, with Directions for Collecting and Preservation; a Chapter on Bird-skinning; and Description and Woodcuts of the Instruments necessary to the Collector. By MitLerR Curisty. Cloth extra. Feap 8vo. Pricels. Postage 2d. pte INSECT HUNTER’S COMPANION. Instruc- tions for collecting and preserving Butterflies and Moths, Beetles, Bees, Irhes, &. By the Rev. JoserpH Grerunre, M.A. — Fifth Hdition, revised and extended by A. B. Farn. The Chapter on Coleoptera by KE DwarD NEwMan; on Hymenoptera by 'repERick SmirH; on Breeding Gall-fiies by Epwarp A. Fitcu. Where to find moths and butterflies; how to catch; how to bring home without injury; how to kill; how to set; how to find the caterpillars; how to manage ; how to feed; how to breed the perfect insects; and numerous similar subjects. Price Is. 6d., postage 2d. Cloth, gilt, price 2s. 6d. Postage 2d. Second Edition. FAMILIAR INDIAN BIRDS BY GORDON DALGLIESH. Illustrated by Half-tone Blocks from the Drawings of R. H. BUNTING and H. B. NEILSON. Foolscap 8vo, Cloth, gilt top, 160 pp. + blanks for Notes. Price 2s. 6d. POCKET-BOOK of BRITISH BIRDS By EK. F. M. ELMS. eee is given respecting all British birds that breed in these islands, and those that are regular visitors at one time of the year or another, with remarks as to a species being resident, intermigratory, or migratory. Hach species is separately treated under the headings: Haunts, including distribution ; Plumage, briefly characterizing the predominant and striking features, with differentiation of species nearly alike; Language, with song and various cries; Habits; Food; Nidi- fication, with site and materials of nest ; ‘and number and description of Eggs. WEST, NEWMAN @¢& CO., 54, Hatton Garaen, H.C, : CONTE Some Notes on Eels (Anguilla vulgaris) and ‘Eel: cat J. Steele Elliott, 121. Pa On the Location of the Sacculus and its “cotliainenk Otoliths an? 7B illustrations) (concluded), Colonel C. i. Shepherd, 131. Notes AND QuErrixks :— Mammaria.—The Water- Srreg: (Neomys fodiens bicolor) in “Wore J. Steele Elliott. 147. a: Avres.—The Thrush’s Song, George Bolam, 147. Visitation of Black Redviare (Ruticilla titys), J. M. Cia, lton, 148. Redbreasts’ Nestin a Tree, H. Kirke Swann, 148. Notes on the Nightingale (Daulias luscinia), Robert Morris, 148. Status of Blackeap, Garden- Warbler, and Lesser Whitethroat, J. Steele Hiliott, 150. Waxwing in Suffolk, Julian G. Tuck, 150. The Little Owl — Breeding in Somerset, cree Ua: Popham, 150. Gannet Choked by a Gurnard — (with illustration), J. H. Gurney, 150. Hybrid Dueks, Julian G. Tuck, 151. 4 Early Arrival of the Stone Curlew, Julian G. Tuck, 151. Avicultural Notes, Rosamond S. Twyman, 152. Z VERMES. —Notes*on a Small Collection of Earthworms lantoraae) from the = Island of Islay, Harold Russell, 155. a Cumpertann Nature REsERvE Association, D. Losh Thorpe, 155. a Osituary.—Sir John Murray, 156. George Bentley Corbin, 157. = Noticses oF New Books, 158-160. UNPAID SUBSCRIPTIONS to the ‘ZOOLOGISI “@ for 1914 are due. The amount is 12s. post free. Cases — for binding 1913 volume can be had for Is. 2d. post — free from the Publishers, who will also undertake the — binding of volumes at 2s. each post free on return. J London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden. Crown tto, Cloth, gilt, ates Pp. 144, Price 10s, Bird Callectors Medley Dare Of ARNOLD. VLA. a @ With Twelve full-page Coloured Illustrations and Eight Un-— coloured, from the Author’s Drawings. Illustrated in the Text by Twenty Process Blocks. @ A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore-Shooters. London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C, 282 pp. CrotH Extra. 6s. 6d. Post FREE. ae” Aristotle s Researches in Natural Sciet By THOMAS E. LONES, M.A,, ‘iB. Ag tr With Illustrative Drawings. ¥ r London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO. Ol. XVIII. No. 209. | May 15th, - ae y Xe fi Mon bly Jour a TURAL HISTORY, » Ky RY, Edited by W. Le. Distant. PRICE ONE SHILLING. — and Communications intended for publication, and Books and Pamphlets for review, dressed ‘‘ The Editor of * The Zoologist,’ c/o West, Newman & Co., 54, Hatton Garden, ¢ direct to the Editor, W. L. Distant, Glenside, 170, Birchanger Rd.. wood CS ee Pe RS of books on scientific cae gene- _ - Tibetan Sand-Grouse (Syrrhaptes tibetanus), Spotted Sand-Grouse _ WEST, NEWMAN & LITHOGRAPHIC, CHROMO-LITHOGRAPH LETTERPRESS PRINTERS. Ne 54, HATTON GARDEN, LONDON, EC. Se rally, but especially of books relating to Natural | : _ History, Medicine, and Surgery. With these sub- — jects artists and workmen are especially familiar: artists are on the spot ready to receive instruction direct from authors at any time. Lithographers for various Government and other Museums, and for learned Societies in London, India, South Africa, &c. Original drawings are accurately reproduced by Lithography or Photo-Lithography, either in colours‘-or monotone, or by line and half- tone blocks. WATKINS & DONCASTER, Manufacturers of Cabinets and Apparatus for Collectors of Birds’ Eggs, Insects, Plants, &c. 2 A large stock of Insects, Birds’ Eggs, &c. List of Clutches of Birds’ Eggs on application. Climbing Irons, best steel, with straps complete, ds. per pair. Ege Collector's Outfit, containing Drills, Blowpipes, and all Requisites complete, with Book of Instructions, post free, 3s. 3d. Label Lists of every description. Birds and Animals stuffed and mounted in Natural Positions. For particulars see our Catalogue, one hundred pages. 36, STRAND, LONDON. W.C. a, - fi gh nas Se - el a Me 8 FOR SALE ENTIRE. 4 AX important Collection of Indian Birds’ Eggs, con- t aining approximately 3300 specimens of about 620 species, and including among other rarities the Greenish Willow-Warbler (Acanthopneuste viridanus), Red-browed Finch (Callacanthis burtoni), (Pteroclurus senegallus), Ibis-bill (Ibidorhynchus strutherst), White- bellied Minivet (Pericrocctus erythropygius), Bearded Vulture (Gypactus barbatus), numerous Cuckoos with their hosts, &e.” Parhioulaaaaay : full list may be had from— W. F. H. ROSENBERG, 57, Haverok ae Zool. 1914. Plate II. A Sparrow-Hawk RECEIVING THE CONTENTS OF KEEPER'S GUN. _ aN r 1914 | PTHE ZOOLOGIST No. 875.—May 15th, 1914. ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK (1913). By J. H. Gurney, F.Z.S. (Assisted by Members of the Norwich Naturalists’ Society.) (Puate II.) As usual I take up, with the Editor’s permission, the duties which fall to an ornithological coroner, and in doing so feel it to be a matter for satisfaction that these annual ‘‘ Norfolk Notes” are now, for the most part, the records of birds identified, not killed. Gamekeepers, however, still continue to shoot many creatures, both winged and furred, which they had better let alone. It happened to the present writer last year (July 18th) to inspect a gamekeeper’s ‘‘larder-tree,’’ on which were suspended the following delinquents (besides many Hedgehogs, Squirrels, Stoats, Weasels, and Cats): twenty-six Jays, two Hooded Crows, one Spotted Woodpecker, six beautiful Kestrels, and three Tawny Owls; afterwards increased to eight Owls, as I was informed, in spite of the law, which is a dead letter. During the summer an adult Hobby was sacrificed to a keeper’s ignor- ance, just at the time when it should have been going to nest (May 21st), and this happens every year. Forty-seven years ago Henry Stevenson could write of the Hobby as a very regular summer migrant, but Plate II. shows what happens to Hawks in Norfolk nowadays. I am afraid a good many Kestrels and - Brown Owls were also killed. The Spring Migration.—The spring of 1918 was chiefly notice- able for a lamentable deficiency among our garden favourites— Willow- Warblers, Whitethroats, Nightingales, Redstarts, Garden- Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., May, 1914. () 162 THE ZOOLOGIST. Warblers, and Blackcaps, which were almost as few in number as in 1912. Can it be that they are drowned in crossing sea when on migration, or is it more probable that they perish in the destructive ‘‘roccoli,” * which find such favour in Italy ? The usual migration of Rooks and Crows passed Cromer, flying E.§.E., a direction which, if maintained, would bring them to land near The Hague. Fieldfares also and Redwings were seen leaving, but no Buzzards. There was a marked coastal movement of Wagtails. The first Spoonbills were a fine pair seen on Breydon Broad by Mr. B. B. Riviere on May Ist; wind S.H. to §.W., force 2. Many other birds were on the mud-flats, including five Sheld- Ducks, Wigeon, Shovellers, and a White-fronted Goose (G. Jary), all of them travellers going north or east. From that date until August 16th there were twenty-six days out of one hundred and six on which the watcher was able to register the presence of Spoonbills. According to his carefully kept notes, the longest period during which there was not a Spoonbill on the Broad was from May 29th to June 11th. On June 25th Mr. C. R. Gurney and I had a distinct view of three, and on July 6th there were four, this being the largest number seen by the watcher on any one day. In recording the visits of Spoonbills Mr. Jary has always been requested to carefully observe the direction of the wind. Accordingly, in looking back at his notes for many years, we learn that forty-four Spoonbills have come to Breydon Broad with a N.K. wind, and seven with a N.W.; twenty more have come with a W. wind, eight with a S.W., and six with a 8. wind. These observations were all made in April, May, or June, and a cood deal may be gathered from them. Evidently in the spring it is a N.E. wind which generally brings Spoonbills; but this is curious, because in April and May their desire on leaving southern Europe would be to migrate north, or perhaps north- * These “ roccoli,” or devices for catching birds, especially Thrushes, are numerous throughout the north of Italy; they consist of small groves of low trees, trimmed and trained for the most advantageous disposal of thin one-inch mesh nets, while inside these seductive arbours is heard the piping of different sorts of decoy-birds. The nets are kept going during the migra- tory season, and everything down to a Long-tailed Titmouse is killed if captured by the peasants. There is, however, no reason for supposing the death of more victims in 1912 and 1913 than usual. ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 163 west. Do they then prefer to migrate with a wind which is against them? There is, however, another solution, namely, that it is a N.K. wind whereby they are checked, and without which many would pass on without halting on the Breydon mud-flats. This latter theory seems highly probable, and it certainly appears that when the wind has been §S., a few only (fourteen in about as many years) have stopped on Breydon Broad, the rest presumably wending their way to a breeding-place in Holland. Mr. F. C. Jourdain is of opinion that the largest Spoonbill settlement in Europe is probably that at Obedszka-Bara, in the Gegenwart (see Jakob Schenk, ‘ Aquila,’ 1908, p. 245), but it is not likely that our Breydon birds nest there, or even pass it on passage. The Breeding Season.—All Norfolk gamekeepers agree that the 1913 hatch of Partridges was excellent, the weather being dry and yet not too hot, but in spite of these favourable conditions the young birds died in the strangest manner. Various sugges- tions were made to account for this mortality, of which perhaps the most plausible was that their insect food had been destroyed by the floods of August, 1912 (see ‘ Zoologist,’ 1918, p. 175). Mr. N. Tracy is to be congratulated on again succeeding in finding a Curlew’s nest near King’s Lynn on May 18th, and he subsequently ascertained that the eggs, of which there were four, hatched. The Autumnal Migration.—The autumn migration to the east coast of England, and particularly to Norfolk, commences in August; it continues with fluctuations for three months, and the sequence of species is always pretty much the same, but the number of individuals composing each species varies greatly. If there are strong N.E. winds, a rush of birds may be expected, including rarities from Asia; but if the weather be open, with little wind, the migrants pass over the coast of Norfolk without stopping. This annually invading army may be roughly divided into two great brigades of birds, namely, those arriving in September, when a great host of Wheatears, Redstarts, Warblers of all sorts, Flycatchers, Nightjars, Sparrow-Hawks, and Kestrels deploy on our shores; and, secondly, the great rush in October and November of Grey Crows, Rooks, Jackdaws, Snow Buntings, Sky-Larks, Redwings, and Thrushes. The second inrush is the 0 2 164 THE ZOOLOGIST. more noticeable of the two, because the birds are partly day migrants, and so force themselves on man’s observation. Of the three hundred and nineteen species which are con- sidered to be admissible into the Norfolk list, all, except seven, are now known to be migrants. : The autumn of 1918 was too fine for local ornithologists to — expect great things, nevertheless the wind blew steadily from the north-east from September 2nd to 8th, and this was favourable for rare birds. Accordingly Mr. KE. C. Arnold, who was on the shore every day from September 2nd to 15th, was able to report a steady arrival of birds. But this only went on as long as the wind was from the north-east; on the 9th it changed to west, and at once Mr. Arnold remarked a disappearance of both waders and smali Passeres. It was no longer in the right quarter for them, and consequently they ceased to pass. The Ortolan Buntings and Barred Warblers had already put in a fleeting appearance, but few in numbers, and their stay short. The latter must now be looked upon as an annual visitant, given suitable weather, having already occurred in Norfolk about six- teen times. Of these, ten are stated to have come with a north wind, and one with a very gentle south wind, while in four cases the wind’s direction was not noticed. All have come very nearly at the same date, namely, between August 27th and September 12th. The first October rush of birds was registered at Grant Yarmouth by Mr. T. Chasen on the 12th, and again another rush was witnessed to the north of that town onthe 19th. Further to the north Mr. B. B. Riviere noted a big passage of birds at the mouth of the Wash on October 21st and 22nd, which will be described later on. Very few birds of prey came over; indeed, owing to the present system of persecution in Norway, they get scarcer every year, and although there was an extraordinary plentitude of wasps’ nests, only one Honey Buzzard arrived, and that was taken at sea (C. B. Ticehurst). The Effect of Wind on Norfolk Birds.—If you have not been already troubled with too many theories about birds and wind, I should like to add a few more words on this puzzling subject, which seems to bafile some of the best ornithologists. My old friend Heinrich Giatke, for whose meteorological observations, ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 165 although they have been impugned, I have a great respect, cites “the simple fact that, whereas birds appear in great number when the wind is in a particular direction, they are scarcely seen at all when itis in some other quarter ”’ (‘ Heligoland,’ p. 74). This was the opinion of the veteran observer, but it has been challenged by later writers. In another place he says: ** All species, without exception, approach in largest numbers to the earth’s surface when very light south-easterly winds, accom- panied by clear warm weather, happen to prevail for any length of time in the lower regions of the atmosphere” (T. C., p. 76). If this be true of Heligoland, it is probably equally true of the coast of Norfolk. It has to be remembered that the wind often changes two or three times in a day, and observers do not always keep pace with these changes. Take the following, which is only one entry among many: ‘‘ September 9th, 1913. At 7 a.m. the wind was K. at Northrepps, at 9 a.m. it was N.N.E., at 10 a.m. it was N.N.W., at 4 p.m. it was due N.” These readings were from the clouds, which I generally find to be the best weather-cock. Again, there is another point not to be forgotten, namely, that migrants eannot be much affected by any wind except that through which they are passing. Now migratory birds commonly travel high, and it may not unfrequently be observed upon the coast of Norfolk that, while the lower stratum of clouds is moving with the wind at a fair pace, the higher ones appear to the eye as absolutely stationary. Accordingly, if the birds have just descended from a height, it is not the lower stratum which has governed their movements but the upper. This was first remarked by a very acute observer, Mr. F. D. Power, who formerly visited the Norfolk coast every autumn, and was led by long experience to attach great importance to wind in its effect on birds. In a little work entitled ‘ Ornithological Notes from a South London Suburb,’ which deserves to be better known, Mr. Power says :—‘‘ These contrary currents may often be observed in studying the movement of the clouds, and I have many times seen migrants on passage against this higher wind at such an altitude that, had not my attention been attracted by the traveller’s notes, 1 should have missed the movement alto- gether’ (p.58). Gatke, who observed this, speaks of sometimes 166 THE ZOOLOGIST. hearing the calls of Rooks from above when the birds themselves were too high up to be seen (T. C., p. 207). Again, when little bands of Passeres, such as Pincus Buntings, Larks, Pipits, Wheatears, and Swallows (bands often composed of four or five individuals only), are to be seen going the wrong way—that is to say, north-west, when they should be going south or south-east—as often happens in the autumn (chiefly in September), it surely must be held that their move- ments are ruled by wind. These retrograde movements are coastal movements, and are especially to be observed near Cromer. It may be granted that they are partly due to the rounded outline of Norfolk’s sea-board, but the main factor is wind. The Winter Migration consisted of large arrivals as usual of Blackbirds, Wood- Pigeons (especially on November 21st),* Snipe, Wild Duck, Teal (over 200 in one small pond), &c., in December, as well as Waxwings and Woodcocks, the two best bags of the last-named being made at Sheringham (23) and Stratton (22). No Little Auks. As regards Waxwings, their numbers, although considerable, cannot have equalled what were seen in the great Waxwing winter of 1866-7, nevertheless the attention which they attracted was universal; although the whole eastern sea- board of England was visited, it seems to have been in Norfolk that the largest number landed. The credit of adding the Wax- wing to the list of British birds has generally been given to Martin Lister, but as a matter of fact it belongs to a Norfolk naturalist, the celebrated Sir Thomas Browne, who was the first to detect this migrant from the north, and the same observer also added the Bearded Tit to our avifauna.{ * Which coincides with observations in Kirkcudbrightshire, where, in twenty-five years, the Duchess of Bedford had never seen anything approach- ing their numbers (‘ Scottish Naturalist,’ 19138, p. 283). t The Waxwing being a very notable and conspicuous bird, early attracted attention in Western Europe, and a good deal might be compiled about it from Continental literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Conrad Gesner in his ‘ Historia Animalium’ alludes to an enormous flight of Waxwings in Germany (lib. iii. p. 674) :—‘‘ Garruli Bohe- mici anno Salutis MDLII inter Moguntiam [Mainz] & Bingam [Bingen, twenty miles distant] juxta Rhenum maximis examinibus apparuerunt n tanta copia, ut subito qua transuolabant, ex umbra earum veluti nox appareret...” ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. , 167 Principal Rarities.—The principal rarities during 1913 were a Sea Hagle in March, an Ortolan Bunting in April, a Night Heron (?) in May, two Roseate Terns in June, a Yellow-breasted Bunting (Hmberiza aureola), five more Ortolans, and two Barred Warblers in September, a Glossy Ibis in October, and the inrush of Waxwings in November and December. From a beautifully executed drawing of the Yellow-breasted Bunting with which Mr. EK. C. Arnold has obliged me, it can be seen how close a resemblance there is to his first one, of which the ‘ Zoologist ’ gave a figure (1906, plate ii.). This rare Bunting has been added to Mr. W. R. Lysaght’s fine collection. Weather Conditions.—The autumn was a very fine one, and was protracted far into November, the first sharp frost not occurring until the 23rd of that month (A. W. Preston). Rainfall 23°52. The figures used for denoting the force of the wind are the same as at the Meteorological Office in South Kensington. Force 1 is not enough to move a weather-cock, force 3is a gentle breeze, and force 5 a fresh breeze sufficient to make smacks shorten sail, while force 7 is a moderate gale, in which they remain in harbour, with a velocity attaining to 32-38 miles an hour. JANUARY. 1st.—The New Year opened with Thrushes in song, and a day afterwards the Mistle-Thrush and Sky-Lark were also singing at Brunstead, and a Bearded Tit was detected by my correspondent, the Rev. M. C. Bird on the common. 17th.—A Bernicle Goose taken on that once celebrated resort of wildfowl, Breydon Broad, where I have not heard of one since January, 1910 (EH. C. Saunders). 20th.—Shoyeller at Calthorpe (M. C. Bird). 23rd.—Great flock of Golden Plover at Horsey (M. C. Bird). 26th.—The Bittern’s boom heard on the Broads, one of the earliest of spring sounds there. Plenty of Jays about, and more cock Blackbirds than usual. FEBRUARY. 1st.—At Mr. Robert’s to-day a Slavonian Grebe,t a Great Crested Grebe, and a Red-throated Diver,t all just sent from Rockland Broad; the Slavonian Grebe’s eye was red, encircled 168 THE ZOOLOGIST. with yellow, but in one which I once had alive this was reversed, it being the inner circle of the iris which was yellow. Marcu. 4th.—A Sea Eagle seen at Fritton Lake, near Yarmouth, by Mr. Buxton, flying rather low against a south-west gale; nothing more was heard of it. Sand-Martin at Foulmere (H. Halls). 11th.—W.8.W., 38. The customary departure of Rooks and Hooded Crows was marked at different places on the coast by Mr. F. C. Cook (‘ Zoologist,’ p. 878), the Rev. M. C. Bird, and Mr. Burdett. 23rd.—§.S.W., 4. At about half-past five in the evening Mr. W. Burdett, gardener, was surprised to discover no fewer than sixty Pied Wagtails which had settled for the night on a comparatively short length of wire-netting used for covering fruit in a small garden, about a mile from the sea. These Wagtails are not only highly migratory, but more gregarious than authors have hitherto noticed. As early as February 22nd Mr. F. C. Cook saw over forty, evidently migrating (‘ Zoologist,’ p. 378) ; these also were near the sea, and a movement was also noticed at Brunstead by Mr. Bird on March 11th. APRIL. 7th.—A Gannett caught alive off Sheringham (Sir Digby Pigott), and on the 12th another + also was taken alive at Over- ILS 1. Under side. 2. Upper side. 3. Side view. strand, both fine adults. A careful search was made in both for the singular Mite which inhabits the Gannet’s large sub- cutaneous air-cells. This creature, which, though small, is easily discernible with the naked eye, was first described by ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 169 Colonel George Montagu under the name of Cellularia bassane. Mr. William Evans, who has made a study of parasites in birds, is inclined to suppose that Cellularia, when it has reached its adult stage, makes its way through the skin of its host, and might be then found reduced in size, hidden among the Gannet’s feathers. This will partly account for the very great difficulty which some have experienced in findingit. If any of your corre- spondents who may happen to skin a Gannet could secure me a specimen of Cellularia I should be extremely obliged, as it is desirable that a better figure of this singular form should be secured than that here reproduced from ‘The Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society.’ 28th.—S., 3. An adult male Ortolan Bunting taken in a market garden at Yarmouth (HK. C. Saunders). 29th.—Bittern booming at Hickling, and a pair of Short- eared Owls seen (Bird). May. 6th.—The Norfolk Broads. ‘Yo the gullery on Hoveton Broad, where there are considered by the owner to be three hundred Black-headed Gulls’ nests this year. There are also an excep- tional number of Redshanks on the marshes, whose strange quiverings and pirouettings have been so well described by Mr. J. S. Huxley (P. Z. S., 1912, p. 51). An ege of this species, which we found, was taken by Mr. G. H. Gurney and placed under a hen; it hatched out on June 4th, incubation having lasted twenty-four or twenty-five days. By dint of judicious feeding upon ants’ eggs and very small worms, this young Red- shank did well for four days, and would have lived longer if the hen had not killed it. The great size of its legs struck us as being out of all proportion to its little body. Mr. Arthur Patterson considers that Redshanks were remarkably numerous in the valley of the Waveney, and their abundance this spring has been noticed elsewhere by other observers; in a limited area he estimated a hundred pair, some of which must have bred very early, for Mr. F. Chasen saw young ones which were able to use their wings on April 25th. This increase may be due to protection, or, what is more likely, to the sediment left on the marshes by the great flood of August, 1912, which would probably breed the sort of food Redshankseat. Prior to this, Mr. Patterson 170 THE ZOOLOGIST. says the Bure marshes were becoming drier every year, and the Broads also are shrinking sadly in places. On June 10th, although not a very warm day, Redshanks were going through their amorous performance at Hoveton with a strange series of quiverings and up and down movements, very hard to describe in words, but not inaptly compared by Mr. Huxley to the motion of a switchback railway. All the time the performance is accompanied by a series of monosyllabic notes, very different from the shrill whistle of autumn and early spring. Although most of it takes place in the air, they sometimes alight on the eround, or even on a gate-post, where they seem quite at ease. 8th.—On the Broads again—always so delightful at this time of the year—this time listening for Bitterns, of which Mr. R. Gurney and I heard one, but not distinctly, owing to too much wind, and for the same reason the Bearded Tits did not show themselves. If it had been a fine day, we should not have been long without seeing the males chasing one another among the brown reeds, which they so much resemble. As the boat was ‘‘punted” noiselessly along with what our men call “a quont,” a Water Rat, alarmed by its approach, was seen swimming in ‘‘the dike’’ with a young one in its mouth. 9th.—A Coal Titmouset has now nine eggs in a box in the sarden. By the time the young ones are ready to fly, it will be a marvel how those at the bottom escape suffocation, but the Coal Titmouse is fond of close quarters, in which air seems to be of no consequence. It is not an unusual thing for this species to seek the warmth of a haystack, where it finds some convenient hole to burrow into at night, where with a small net it is easily caught. 13th.—Your correspondent Mr. Butterfield asks for informa- tion about the Blackeap and Garden-Warbler (1918, p. 431), but I can only say that both these sylvan Warblers have been again scarce. To-daya dead Blackcap was lying on the path—there being no cause to account for its death. A favourite as a songster, this pretty bird is at the same time too much of a fruit eater to be any friend of the gardener’s; indeed, it will hardly wait for him to go for his dinner before it sallies forth into the raspberry- canes, where it indulges greedily, going on eating sometimes until the feathers of its face are smeared with the red juice. ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 171 The Willow- Warbler has a better reputation, but I have so often seen him among my raspberry-canes that it is impossible to acquit him of a penchant for the fruit also, although this species is stated in the fourth edition of Yarrell’s ‘British Birds’ (., p. 434) not to eat it. 14th.—The increase of the Common Linnet calls for a word or two; in this parish more than a score of nests came under observation in a very limited area, and our market gardeners are calling out loudly, accusing it of doing a great deal of harm to the seeds and young growth of radish, lettuce, and cabbage crops. 16th.—A Night Heron reported to be on Holkam Lake, also a Ruddy Sheld-Duck, but this may have escaped (S. K. Long). 25th.—A Quail+ found by Mr. F. Chasen under telegraph- wires at Yarmouth; a Mistle-Thrush was also ‘‘ telegraphed,” and another { washed up by the sea. JUNE. 2nd.—Mr. B. Dye states that nine Grey Plover were seen on Breydon Marshes, and again on the 9th eight were seen, possibly the same birds, all of course in summer plumage. I once saw four at Blakeney so late as June 14th, but their occurrence at this season is somewhat remarkable, and must be confined to individuals which have no intention of breeding surely. 11th.—By dint of protection the Bearded Tit, or ‘‘ Reed Pheasant,’ as our marshmen call it, now holds its position. Fifteen or sixteen years ago, owing to the rapacity of one or two dealers, there were probably not thirty nests from which the young got clear away in the whole Broad district, but now eighty or even ninety nests would not be too liberal an estimate. They are early breeders, and to-day some were feeding young ones, but young Bearded Tits are to be seen as big as their parents by the middle of June. ‘The eggs, five or six in number, are occasionally laid at the end of March, and have a pink tinge when fresh, which is lost in blowing. In April Mr. B. B. Riviere was shown a nest containing ten eggs, seven of which were in their proper place in the nest, and three more were showing through the lining. I once heard of a nest at Hickling with twelve eggs, but in both these cases they were probably two 172 THE ZOOLOGIST. clutches, laid by different females, the second having been deposited after the first was forsaken. Common.as.is the Cuckoo on our Broads, I have only once heard of its selecting a Bearded Tit’s nest for its egg, and in that case, as the clutch was taken, there is no proof that the young Cuckoo wouid have been reared by its foster-parents. 17th.—Hight Oystercatchers on Breydon Broad (G. Jary). 18th.—There is now an Oystercatcher’s nest t at Blakeney with three eggs, and another with six (see photograph), the Eggs of Oystercatcher. produce of two hen birds in the opinion of Mr. William Rowan, who spent some time at the Point with Professor Oliver. I learn from Mr. Rowan that a third nest was discovered containing three fresh eggs, which a Rook subsequently ate, and that Oyster- catchers were locally considered to have been more numerous in 1913 than for some years. 20th.—Enjoyed another excursion with Sir E. Gurney to the Broads, where there is always something to see, but we were sorry to miss the pair of Montagu’s Harriers from the marsh where they had been last year. However, this disappointment was more than balanced when a little before half-past five a fine Bittern was viewed approaching with lazy flight, extended legs, and retracted neck from the same direction as one had come when Mr. Bonhote and I were on this Broad one warm July day two or three years ago. On perceiving itself watched by three ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 173 people, it rose considerably, but soon dropped again to its original level, some fifteen feet above the reeds, among which we eventually saw it settle. I should have liked at once to have searched for the nest, but the owner was obdurate, fearing that the birds might forsake it, a feeling with which one could not but sympathise. The return of the Bittern to Norfolk of late years has been accompanied by a general desire to protect it on the part of the Broad owners, and it is hoped that this good action will have the support of the public who use our Broads in summer. The “‘boom”’ of a Bittern is a curious sound, not often to be heard; it is hushed in the middle of the day, but towards evening this nocturnal ‘‘ Butter-bump”’ as it has been called in allusion to its note, becomes more lively. By listening carefully, we could easily distinguish five successive “‘ gasps,”’ rising in crescendo, and terminating in the deep ‘‘bump,”’ whence its name, but sometimes there were only three ‘‘ gasps,”’ which agrees with the statement of Francis Willughby that the number is always uneven.* Whether it goes on serenading its mate all night is hard to say; on the present occasion I can testify that its “boom” could be heard up to 11 p.m. and again at 4 a.m. the next morning —1. e. sixteen minutes after sunrise—breaking forth about once in four minutes, and this went on with clock- like regularity until past six o’clock. I believe it is not yet settled whether the female Bittern can boom or not, but at any rate she does not do it nearly as loud or as often as the male. Mr. W. P. Pycraft in a recent article (‘The British Bird Book,’ iv., p. 338) leaves the question open, merely remarking that the syrinx, which is usually considered to be the voice organ in birds, presents no modification. An old eighteenth century naturalist, Dr. Lamb, however, mentions having found in repeated dissec- tions a loose membrane on the inner side of the windpipe in the male, which the female does not possess (‘ Zoologist,’ 1880, p- 318). Itis through the nostrils, which are distinctly larger ‘than a Heron’s, that the sound is believed to come. 24th.—A pair of Roseate Terns identified at Blakeney Point by Mr. Bishop, and also by the bird- watcher, who were both near enough to see their rosy breasts, besides at once noticing the * “ Boatus numero impari vel tres simul, vel quinque edit, ut aiunt” (‘Ornithologie Libri Tres,’ p. 208). 174 THE ZOOLOGIST. difference in their cry of ‘‘ crake, crake,” harsher than that of the Common Tern. Although not remembered by these observers, the 24th was the identical day on which two Roseate Ternst were shot here by a boy in 1896. A pair were seen also at Wells in June, 1897 (Norwich Nat. Trans., vi., p. 512), and another at the Point in May and June, 1902, and they are even supposed to have nested at Hunstanton (‘ Ootheca Wolleyana,’ i1., p. 301). This species seems to be on the increase (cf. ‘ British Birds,’ vii., p. 242), and the Arctic Tern to be getting rarer—at least on our coast. 25th.—Two nests of the Lesser Tern, and afterwards a third nest, all with eggs, found by Mr. F. Chasen near Yarmouth, where they are not known with certainty to have bred for many years. At Wolferton, Mr. G. Cresswell reports first eggs of the Common and Lesser Terns on May 138th, and the first young of the Common Tern on June 5th and of the Lesser on June 4th. Here they generally use the shingle for their nests, but at Blakeney the marram grass (Psamma), and perhaps in rare instances the shelter of Sueda bushes (S. fruticosa). 30th.—Blakeney ‘‘ Ternery.” Last year’s report commented on the flourishing state of this well-protected ternery, and on the increase of Sheld-Ducks, of which, on the 30th, Mr. C. Gurney and I put up thirty-nine, showing how they have responded to protection (see ‘ Zoologist,’ 1886, p. 93, and 1887, p. 141). With the Terns we were very much disappointed, for not only was the number less than had been seen on previous visits, but also there had been a most unfortunate mortality among the young, three-fourths of which were lying dead on the sand, and other downy mites were scarcely able to crawl. The watcher in charge considered that they had been starved by lack of Whitebait, their usual food, he having opened several nestlings and found no food in them. Mr. William Rowan, who was staying at the Point* some ten days later, remarked on the ** In 1912 Blakeney Point was purchased from Lord Calthorpe by “‘ The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty,” and a small house has been built on the sand-hills for the use of botanical students, under the leadership of Professor Oliver. During the first week in July about one hundred and thirty Terns and fifteen Lesser Terns were ringed under his direction by Mr. Rowan, with rings supplied by Mr. Witherby. ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 175 Whitebait to be seen lying about in numbers among the Terns’ nests, whither they had been brought by the parent birds for their dying young, by that time too feeble to eat them ; or it may have been that the fish were too large. One can hardly imagine a nestling Tern making a meal of a Sand-Hel as large as the one which is being offered by the bird in the photograph, Lesser Tern feeding young one. but in some cases, as suggested by Mr. Rowan, the old Terns may have been kept off their nests too long by visitors. The Terns at Wells are reported to have suffered in the same way, but not those at Wolferton. JULY. 29th.—A Tufted Duck and five young ones seen on the Bure at Salhouse by Mr. H.C. Davies, and afterwards by Mr. Barclay, were identified beyond dispute. A nest had been previously reported to Mr. B. B. Riviere by one of the gamekeepers, which doubtless produced this brood; it may have belonged to a male which Mr. Barclay and I saw on Hoveton Broad on June 11th, and to a female which had been “ pricked,” and was known to be about in that neighbourhood. The nesting of the Tufted Duck on this side of Norfolk is of very rare occurrence, but I am 176 THE ZOOLOGIST. informed by Miss Turner that in 1912 a pair nested and had eggs at Hickling, but being disturbed, forsook their nest. Mr. Riviere says there have been three Pochards on Rockland Broad nearly all the summer, and earlier in the season on another large Broad he identified three Garganey Teal. AvuGusT. 6th.—A Green Sandpiper t received by Mr. Roberts, and on the 10th there were four t together at Intwood stream, a part of which had been emptied of water for the removal of mud, and on the 15th another at the same place. This is called ‘“‘fyeing out’ a stream in Norfolk, and it is extraordinary how quickly these Sandpipers find out when this operation has taken place, leaving exposed what is to them a rich feeding ground, which possibly they discover by a sense of smell, an organ much more acute in birds than is generally supposed. During the present summer a pair of Green Sandpipers have been continually seen on a large pond at Hanworth (G. Davey), where in September they were joined by three more, which, from their lighter tints, Colonel Barclay judged to be young ones. The odd thing is that these Sandpipers are also here in the depth of winter; at which season I have repeatedly seen single Green Sandpipers in December and January. 29th.—The Grey Wagtailt arrived, before its usual time; this species is said to have bred in Suffolk (‘ The Field,’ October 1st, 1910). SEPTEMBER. 1st.—T wo young Arctic Terns} shot at Yarmouth (F. Chasen). Q9nd.—September Migration. At 4 a.m., and probably much earlier, migration was in swing with a gentle wind from the north-east, for although it was still too dark to discern the feathered travellers, Mr. F. Chasen could recognize the calls of Dunlin, Ringed Plovers, Terns, Curlews, Oystercatcher (1), Sandpiper, and Turnstone, possibly attracted by the still burning lights of Yarmouth. At Cromer, where the wind was S8.E., 2, at 2 o’clock and K. at 7 p.m., several migrants were noted by different people. So were others by Mr. E. C. Arnold at Blakeney, where the wind was the same as at Yarmouth, viz., N.E., 2, and these included the rare Barred Warbler. Another ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 17% Barred Warbler was identified by Mr. Richards on or near the shore, as well as three or four Ortolan Buntings, and a few Bluethroats; these latter always an indication of the great September movement being in progress. 3rd.—H.N.H., 2, at the mouth of the little river Glaven, where a Razorbill and a Great Crested Grebe in the estuary marked its continuation ; while inland a solitary Snipe was shot (T. H. Gunn), and a few days afterwards Mr. Gunn had two more. 4th.—Mr. Arthur Patterson, ever on the qui vive, had a wave of small migrants at Yarmouth to record to-day, the town park being full of Redstarts, Willow Warblers, Robins, &c., so that Mr. Patterson thought there were seventy in one clump of shrubs. Birds of all sorts were now on the move, and Mr. Arnold, with his usual good fortune, annexed a Yellow-breasted Bunting (Hmberiza aureola) near ‘‘ The Hood.” In his diary the wind is entered as N.H., 1, with a squall, while in mine it is marked as E., 2, at 8a.m. The two previous occurrences of this Asiatic Bunting were with a very light N.W. wind (1), and a N.H. (4). There is nothing to beat a strong east or north-east wind to bring a big rush, as witness what happened in September, 1903 (see ‘Zoologist,’ 1904, p. 209). But besides rare birds, there was great restlessness among some of the commoner ones, especially Whinchats, of which species about forty were counted in one small field of cut peas, about a mile and a half from the sea, and that in a parish where at other times they are unknown, but, like the Redstarts, they did not stay long. 6th.—At 8 a.m. the wind at Northrepps was N.E., 1, where fifteen minutes later the gardener saw a Greater Spotted Wood- pecker fly over the house, followed a few minutes afterwards by a Wader whistling loudly. This was the day on which the first Bluethroats were seen at Lowestoft by Mr. C. B. Ticehurst. 9th.—8.W. to N.W., with rain at Blakeney. House Martins passing along the beach (Arnold). Six Sand Martins + going north-west against the wind at Overstrand. Swifts passing at Stalham (Bird). 10th.—The old Cuckoos have all left, but the young are now on migration. To-day Mr. HE. T. Roberts received a well-grown young bird, evidently a flier, and having the curiosity to examine its stomach, found therein on dissection a dense mass of rather Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII., May, 1914. Ee 178 THE ZOOLOGIST. long hairs, which had effectually insinuated themselves into the lining of the bird’s gizzard. There were three good-sized cater- pillars in its throat, still undigested, and these resembled the larvee of the Tiger Moth or Fox Moth, both of which are very hairy, and no doubt similar larve supplied the hairs in the 1 Stomach of a young Cuckoo. gizzard. That somehow or other caterpillars’ long hairs fre- quently find their way into the cuticle of the gizzards of Cuckoos has long been known, but it must be rare to find so many as in the present case.* 14th.—At 7 a.m. the wind was §.8.E., 3, but at Blakeney it veered round to N.E., with thunder, and here a large migration of House Martins and Swallows, as well as of Linnets, came under Mr. Arnold’s notice. The great number of House Martins which in September travel through East Norfolk has been before © alluded to (‘ Zoologist,’ 1906, p. 133, and 1909, p. 180), and a plausible suggestion thrown out, namely, that they follow the western shore of the North Sea, and not the eastern. 15th.—N.E., 2. Several Kingfishers reported by Mr. Arnold as being at no great distance from the shore had possibly crossed the sea in the night. * My late father recorded the presence of hairs in Orylophus serratus — (‘ Ibis,’ 1859, p. 246). ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLE. 179 23rd.—Two Crossbills at Northrepps (W. Burdett), and one on October 1st, nor did I hear of any more in East Norfolk until December 11th, when I saw two ¢ at Hempstead on Scotch firs. 25th.—Several Jack Snipe already over (Bird); a Bean Goose shot on Breydon (Saunders). OcTOoBER. Ist.—H., 5. No migration remarked by any of my corre- spondents, but it was probably going on, as the wind was high, and the next morning Mr. Chasen found a Wheatear and two Sky-Larks killed by telegraph-wires, and noticed several Robins on the beach. 7th.—October migration. W.,1. Atan early hour (7.30 a.m.), going on to the beach between Yarmouth and Caister, which, like Blakeney further north, seems a favourite landing-place, Mr. Chasen at once perceived that an extensive migration had set in during the night, and was in full progress, Chaftinches, Linnets, Sky-Larks, Starlings, Crows, &c., all coming from the north-east. 16th.—Several Siskins and a Mealy Redpoll (B. Dye). 19th.—S.W., 2. Another big migration noted at Yarmouth by Mr. Chasen, the birds coming as before from the north-east. Searching under the telegraph-wires he found two Starlings, two Titlarks, one Redwing, one Blackbird, and a Jack Snipe, all quite fresh, probably killed during the night. 20th.—An Kared Grebe brought in to the birdstuffer’s. Seven Shore-Larks taken in a clap-net (B. Dye). 21st.—S8., 3, at Yarmouth. Mr. B. B. Riviere writes :—‘‘ At Hunstanton there was a falling glass, rain, and §.W. wind. During the whole morning up to mid-day there was a large migration of Sky-Larks, Starlings, and Lapwings, with a few flocks of young Rooks, and three or four larger flocks of Linnets. All the birds were following the coast-line, coming out of the east beyond Holme, passing Hunstanton, and turning south-west along the shore of the Wash towards Heacham. In the afternoon I saw a Wheatear and a Black Redstart.” 22nd.—W.S.W., 1, at Yarmouth. Mr. Riviere writes again :— “At Hunstanton with very light 8.W. wind. From 7 o’clock in the morning until mid-day there was a very big passage of Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Linnets, Sky-Larks, Starlings, Rooks, P2 180 THE ZOOLOGIST. 9 Lapwings, Meadow-Pipits, and Reed Buntings, all following the coast-line in the same direction as on the day before. I also saw a flock of Shore-Larks on the beach, and two more Black Redstarts.” 23rd.—Finches and other birds still coming in from the sea near Yarmouth (Chasen). 28th.—Gossy Ibis t at Acle (‘ Zoologist,’ ante, p. 37). NovEMBER. 6th.—A Firecrest was shot at Cley by Mr. H. P. Williams. 14th.—A number of Rock-Pipits on Breydon Broad embank- ment (B. B. Riviere). 15th.— Mr. Arthur Patterson received a Waxwing from St. Olave’s, to be quickly followed by others, and for eight or ten weeks they continued coming over the sea. Altogether the presence of about one hundred and six was announced, for the most part near the coast, but very likely some were counted twice over. Most observers were content to watch them, and the number shot was not great, the most received by any one taxidermist being fifteen ; this was the more creditable because of their great tameness, which was remarked in several cases, possibly in part due to exhaustion, but they are said to be very tame in Finland. An interesting observation was taken at Cromer on February 7th by Mr. Henry Cole, who early in the morning (about 7.30 a.m.) saw, at no great distance from the sea, a little flock of about fifteen, apparently then landing from the Continent. Owing to the great scarcity of berries, a good many of the Waxwings betook themselves to gardens, where there was a better chance of finding food, and some even pene- trated into Norwich, six appearing in Harlham Road, two in Newmarket Road, and one in Surrey Street, where it had the ill-luck to get down a chimney (R. Mills). DECEMBER. 2nd.—House Martin at Haddiscoe (H. Cook). 10th.— A Land-Rail hanging up in a Yarmouth game-shop (Chasen). 20th.—About this date Mr. Gunn had a Black Redstart from Holkam; on the 28th Mr. F. H. Barclay saw one on Cromer lighthouse hills, and a week after that one was caught so far inland as Hollesdon. ORNITHOLOGICAL REPORT FOR NORFOLK. 181 30th.—A cock Pheasant + weighing 5 1b. shot at Kast Walton (Birkbeck). Mieratory GuLus comine INLAND. In October and November the farmers round Norwich are fond of manuring their fields with what are sold as “‘ gyps,” a. €., the gills and insides of Herrings. As eight hundred and twenty-four million (824,000,000) Herrings were brought into Great Yarmouth this autumn, ‘“‘gyps’”’ were cheap. Unless this unsavoury garbage is ploughed in quickly it becomes a great attraction not only to the Black-headed Gulls, but to the larger species too, which somehow find it out, and come inland in large numbers, so that it is not unusual to see two hundred Gulls on. a single field, and that even in mild weather, when there ought to be no shortness of other food. Whether these Gulls are to be regarded as migrants or as partial residents is hard to say. In this connection reference may be made to the Report recently issued by the Suffolk and Essex Fishery Board on the food of Gulls, and since brought before the Norwich Museum Association, in which the following analysis of a number of dissections is given. Contents other than Fish found in Black-headed, Common, and Herring Gulls. : Black-headed| Common Herring Gull, Gull. Gull. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Fisu of all varieties present in ............ 28 24°5 18-2 ,, useful as human food present in ...... 13°5 17°5 10:4 », useless as human food present in...... 14°5 7:0 78 Marine Foop oTHER THAN FiIsH. Shrimps (Pandalus and C. vulgaris) .... 27:0 14°6 5:2 Lugworms (Arenicola marina) .......... 7°6 2-4 = Ragworms (various Polychete) ........ 6:7 3°7 == MOLI SC Sarees Senate recto erste crebute coals aPaliers 4°8 3:7 7:8 SpooGW UL (HUE Se boon GOH Cobb ERagab Oe 8°5 2-4 2-6 Crabs (various shore Crabs)...........+ 77 73 16-9 Echinoderms— Starfish, Brittle Stars, Sea Urchins — — 18-2 Whelk-spawn (Buccinum undatum)...... — — 10°4 Lanp Foon. Barth wOrnigiie seen see cil as oa sere age 18°3 18-5 6°5 Ware WOLIMS eiereecee ee RY 3°8 0 0 Bee dee aee ais Cie BGI co ACT CRO REe oie 9°6 1:2 1:3 Craneiiese rvecconsnemtsne esas Cio aeons 57 11:0 1:3 Other insects ....... COOP oIOOOHOB OD Co An 3°8 8:5 1:3 Cereal sess: s(n ces) sere eprg epee alicia cievenstons 2:9 11:0 19°5 Garages ets eseletetera mien reter areieceeielete eons 3°8 13°4 11:7 182 THE ZOOLOGIST. TENACITY OF THE WEASEL. An incident of instinct at fault, which is not without pre- cedent, but shows the extraordinary tenacity of the Weasel in holding on to its prey, must be related in conclusion. Sometime during November (exact day forgotten) Lady Layland-Barratt, who was driving her car near Happisburgh, was greatly surprised at seeing a Hawk—presumably a Kestrel— rise from the ground with a Weasel, not in its talons but suspended from the bird’s breast, which it was apparently hanging on to with its teeth. The Hawk soon dropped to the sround, but rose a second time with the Weasel still hanging on, and flew heavily and with apparent difficulty over a field, where it was lost to view. It was a case of the biter bit, and it is a pity we cannot know the sequel. As the scene was near the sea, the Hawk may have just come over, and in the early morning light seized the Weasel in mistake for a Mouse, an error which probably cost it its life. ( 188 ) THE FAUNA OF ‘RESERVOIR-PLANTS.” By Huexu Scott, M.A. (Cantab.), F.L.8., F.H.S. (Curator in Entomology in the University of Cambridge.) It has long been known that a number of insects and other animals are to be found in the water and detritus which accumu- late in the hollow leaf-bases and other receptacles possessed by various tropical plants. But perhaps it is not a matter of common knowledge how extensive and diversified is the fauna dwelling in such situations, how largely peculiar it is to its habitat, and how remarkable in some cases are its relations to its curious environment. The present writer became interested in this subject in 1908-9 while engaged in collecting the inverte- brate fauna of the Seychelles Islands, and his interest was increased in 1912 by a slight examination in Trinidad of the fauna of certain epiphytic Bromeliacee. These latter are the most interesting of all reservoir-plants, and much has been written of their fauna. Recently there has appeared a long and most interesting paper entitled ‘‘Les Broméliacées épiphytes considérées comme milieu biologique,’ * in which the author, Monsieur C. Picado, embodies the results of an extended study of the inter-relations between these plants and their fauna. Therefore it may not be inopportune to attempt to give some general account of the fauna of reservoir-plants as a whole, and of Bromeliacee in particular, in relation to its environment. Many widely different plants possess receptacles of one kind and another in which water can accumulate, and it seems best to adopt Picado’s name “‘ reservoir-plants”’ to include the whole of them. The term ‘‘terrestrial waters” is used to denote pools, &c., on the ground, as opposed to those elevated above the ground in plant-receptacles. Permanent marshes and other standing terrestrial waters do * Bull. Sci. France et Belgique, sér. 7, vol. 47, fascic. 8, 1918, pp. 215- 360, pl. 6-24. 184 THE ZOOLOGIST. not usually exist in the heart of great tropical forests. Owing to loss of water by transpiration, draining of the soil by roots, and other causes, tropical forests and permanent marshes are to a large extent mutually exclusive. The same thing applies, though less markedly, to many temperate forests. If then there are no permanent marshes over large areas of tropical forest, how does this affect all the animals which, either throughout their whole lives or in certain stages of them, are dwellers in marshes and pools? Are such creatures absent from the forests ? On the contrary, many amphibious and aquatic creatures exist in such forests, and they are able to do so because the place of terrestrial pools and marshes is taken by accumulations of water in reservoir-plants. In some of these the water collects only at times, in others it is permanent. But in most parts of the world, and more particularly of the tropics, great forests contain reservoir-plants of some kind. It is not attempted here to give an exhaustive list, but let us review briefly the principal kinds and the fauna which has been found to inhabit them. (A.) First there are certain plants which hold water only accidentally, and then only for a time. The most important examples are the bamboos, which often hold water in the ends of broken stems, in the spaces between sheathing leaf-bases and stems, &c. Such accumulations of water have been found in Malaysia to contain larve of Culicid and Chironomid flies, and of Dragonflies, and in Central America to contain larve of Mosquitoes of the Megarhine group. (b.) True reservoir-plants: these are plants which quite nor- mally possess water- or detritus-holding receptacles. First may be mentioned the order Musacee. Musa, the banana, holds water between the stalks of its great leaves, and in the New World tropics Heliconia holds water in its gaudily- coloured, cup-like floral bracts. These plants are said only to hold water temporarily, but in both have been found certain aquatic insect larve, especially those of Mosquitoes. Next, one may refer to the well-known pitcher-plants, Nepenthes, of the Old World tropics. In these the midrib is prolonged beyond the lamina of the leaf, and bears at its end the pitcher. Insects attracted by the honey-glands of the pitcher are drowned in the water which it contains, and the plant absorbs THE FAUNA OF “ RESERVOIR-PLANTS.” 185 the products of their decay. Dipterous larve of several families (Culicide, Phoride, Anthomyiide) have been found living in these pitchers. If it be true, as is asserted, that the plants actively secrete a digestive product to act on the substance of drowned insects, then it is noteworthy that the living larve withstand the action of this digestive product and flourish in the pitchers. Passing back to the New World, one finds, in the temperate forests of part of North America, the Sarracenias. In Sarracenia nearly the whole leaf forms a long narrow pitcher. In these pitchers the water often dries up; nevertheless larve of Culicide and Chironomide have been found in them, certain of which are regarded as peculiar to this habitat. It is stated that the Culicid in question, Wyeomyia smithi, Coq., lays its eggs in the pitchers even when the latter are dry, and that hatching is deferred till the pitchers refill with water. In the Hawaiian Islands a species of Hriocaulon provides a habitation for the larve of a Culicid and for a species of Cyclopid Crustacean. This case is different in several respects from the others under consideration. The plant is a perennial herb with srass-like leaves, and it was found, not in forests but floating on a marsh; in spite of this, investigation failed to reveal the presence of the animals mentioned in the surrounding waters of the marsh—they were detected only in that between the leaves of the plant. Among the Liliacee there is the well-known discovery of Perkins, also in the Hawaiian Islands; that is, that the hollow leaves of a plant of this order are inhabited by certain Agrionid Dragonfly larve. Palms.—In the mountain-forests of the Seychelles* the present writer found a fauna, numerous both in species and individuals, inhabiting the spaces between the overlapping leat- bases of certain endemic palms. These spaces contained not water but moist organic débris. The fauna was principally coleopterous, and included representatives of Aphodiine, Scydme- nidé, Pselaphide, Staphylinide, &c., several of the species being found nowhere else. Only some of the palms have their leaf- bases so formed as to hold detritus. In others tne spaces are far too narrow, and consequently contain neither débris nor fauna. * Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, Zool., vol. xiv., 1910, p. 24, 186 THE ZOOLOGIST. The Pandanacee, or ‘‘ screw-pines,” are trees with stilt-roots and heads of spirally-arranged long narrow leaves. The leaf- bases overlap in such a way as to form abundant spaces capable of acting as reservoirs. In both the Hawaiian and the Seychelles Fic. 1.—A small tree (Acnistus arborescens) bearing a large number of epiphytic bromeliads (Tvllandsia); Costa Rica. (After Picado.) Islands* animals have been found inhabiting them. In the mountain-forests of the Seychelles the water in these plants is permanent, and they were found to contain a varied and interesting fauna, including Woodlice, Snails, Karthworms, a * Trans. Linn. Soc, London, ser. 2, Zool., vol. xiv., 1910, p. 24. THE FAUNA OF “RESERVOIR-PLANTS.” 187 Land-Leech, a Land-Nemertean, lepidopterous larve, larve of a Drone-fly (EHristalis), various Coleoptera, including a true Water- Beetle (Copelatus), and a peculiar flattened Cockroach. The Eristalis larva and the Copelatus are purely aquatic. They were never found elsewhere but in Pandani, and indeed in several localities where they were obtained there was no other water for them to inhabit. The Pandanacee are confined to the Old World tropics, and, regarded simply as reservoir-plants, they Fic. 2.—Various epiphytic Bromeliacee ; Costa Rica. (After Picado.) appear to occupy somewhat the same place in the Old World as the Bromeliacee do in the New. It is to a consideration of these last, the Bromeliacee, most important and most interesting of all reservoir-plants, that one now passes. ‘They have usually an exceedingly short stem and a rosette of fleshy leaves arranged so as to form a kind of funnel admirably adapted for holding water and débris. The majority of forms are epiphytes, i. e., they grow, not on the ground but on trunks and branches of trees, and it is with the epiphytic kinds that we have to do. Some Bromeliacee grow on the ground—the pineapple is one such—but these do not 188 THE ZOOLOGIST. concern us, since their leaves are not so constructed as to form permanent water-reservoirs. The Bromeliacee are confined to the tropics of the New World, and to understand their importance as reservoir-plants, one must realize the immense numbers of individual bromelias of the epiphytic kinds which are present throughout great forest areas in Central and South America and the West Indies. They are one of the most striking features of neo-tropical vegetation, and in many places are so numerous that they seem to push and crowd one another to obtain a foothold on branches of trees. Figure 1 shows a large number of a species of Tillandsia growing on quite a small tree; in figure 2, large specimens of more than one epiphytic kind are seen held up to view. Tor these two figures and the diagram (figure 3) I am indebted to the courtesy of Monsieur Picado, in whose paper they were published; as I possess no photographs of bromelias he has allowed me to republish these. In many places where these plants abound, there is no other permanent water save that which collects in them; I have myself seen a big area of forest covering a mountain-top in Trinidad, and other pieces of forest in Dominica, where this was so.* The bromelias and their contained water and detritus may be regarded, as Monsieur Picado has most aptly expressed it, as a great permanent marsh, broken up into countless small parts, which are elevated at various heights above the ground. Environmental conditions of the “‘bromelia-marsh”’ and their effect on the fauna.—The bromelia-marsh has several other peculiarities as a habitat for marsh-living animals. First, in many places the water never dries up. Though it may evaporate considerably during the hot hours, it is daily replenished by the condensation of atmospheric vapour in the form of mists, as well as being frequently reinforced by rain. Secondly, the water is not foul. Though containing animal and vegetable débris, it is | free from accumulation of decomposition-products. This most important fact is due to the action of the plants themselves. The roots of epiphytic bromelias usually act only as holdfasts, fastening the plant firmly to the branch on which it grows, but taking no part in its nutrition. The plant lives entirely on the * Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. x., 1912, p. 424. THE FAUNA OF “RESERVOIR-PLANTS.” 189 water and detritus which it collects between its own leaves. It has special absorbent scales on the lower part of its leaves, and these scales take up not only water and inorganic salts but organic substances as well.* Hence the purity of the water ; hence also the fact that the solid débris, deprived of inorganic salts and of organic decomposition-products, consists very largely of ceilulose, which substance is present in much larger proportion than it is in the mud of most terrestrial marshes. Thirdly, if a vertical section of an epiphytic bromelia be made (see fig. 8), it is seen that the inner part, where the leaves Fie. 3.—Diagrammatic vertical section through an epiphytic bromeliad; explanation in text. (After Picado.) are still alive, forms a number of water-holding compartments. So closely do the leaves fit that these interfoliar spaces are isolated from one another, so much so that the water in them stands at different levels. Thisinner part of the plant has been termed by Picado the “aquarium.” The outer part, consisting of the stumps of dead and fallen leaves and of solid débris formerly accumulated in the interfoliar spaces, is termed the ‘terrarium’’; in it the compartments are not isolated from one another. Now, plainly, all this must have a far-reaching effect on the * The fact that bromelias absorb inorganic salts through their specialized scales has long been known, but their power of taking up organic substances has not been so fully understood. Picado’s paper is largely concerned with this latter point. As the result of an elaborate series of experiments, he concludes that the plant actively secretes a definite substance which acts chemically on decomposition-products. But it is beyond the scope of this article to enter into this matter in detail, tb 190 THE ZOOLOGIST. fauna inhabiting these plants. (1) The geographical distribution of many forms of life is affected, since the bromelia-marshes are present over great areas of country where aquatic and amphibious creatures could not otherwise find any habitation. (2) The water being permanent, many bromelia-dwellers have no fixed season for egg-laying, but may be found in various stages of development at all seasons. (8) The purity of the water is of great import, for many animals can live in the bromelia-marsh which could not exist in foul waters. (4) The isolation of the compartments of the ‘‘ aquarium ”’ affects some creatures. For example, the bromelicolous larve of certain Megarhine Mos- quitoes are very cannibalistic, and though a number may hatch and start life together in a single compartment, after a time only one survives. Thus frequently a single full-grown larva is found in each compartment, and probably, if the compartments were to intercommunicate, many less larve would survive than actually do. The bromelia-fauna.—Having now considered the nature of its environment, let us turn to the fauna itself. A knowledge of its existence dates back certainly as far as 1879, when Fritz Miiller published his discoveries of certain bromelicolous animals in Brazil. Recently many contributions to the subject have been made by a number of writers. The researches of Calvert and of Picado in Costa Rica have added especially to our know- ledge of this fauna. The latter author, in his work already cited, gives a list of about two hundred and fifty bromelicolous species. Many (but not all) of these are considered to be exclusively bromelicolous, v. e. not to occur elsewhere. A full discussion of the reasons for this would be lengthy, but it may be stated that, first, many aquatic animals are found in bromelias over large areas in which there are no other waters suitable for their existence; secondly, in some cases, when terrestrial waters are present in the vicinity, careful search has failed to reveal in these the presence of the bromelicolous species. The opinion is expressed by Picado that, in proportion to the restricted nature of the environment, the bromelia-fauna is as diversified as any in existence. The following groups are actually known to be represented in it :— THE FAUNA OF * RESERVOIR-PLANTS.” 191 Protozoa. Tnsecta :— Peripatus. Rotifers. Thysanura. | Myriapoda. Planarians. Karwigs. Acari. Leeches. Cockroaches. Phalangids. Oligochzet Worms. Other Orthoptera. Pseudoscorpions. Gasteropoda. Thysanoptera. Scorpions. Crustacea (Ostra- Hemiptera. Spiders. coda, Copepoda, Ants. Vertebrata: tailed Tsopoda). Perlid larve. and tailless Batra- Dragonfly larve. chians. Caddis-fly larvee. Lepidopterous larve. Beetles and_ beetle- larve of a number of families, includ- ing a true water- beetle (Dytiscid). Dipterous larve, in- cluding Culicide, Chironomide, Tr- | pulide, Rhyphide, | Borboride, Antho- | myide, Syrphide. | } \ Special relations of members of the fauna to their environment.— Several of the more general relationships between the bromelia- fauna and its environment have been considered under the heading ‘‘ Environmental conditions of the bromelia-marsh.” Some special cases may be briefly mentioned. Bromelias may be upset by storms and temporarily emptied of their contained water. Many of the fauna can survive temporary desiccation, and some have special means of holding on to the piant. A remarkable case is that of a small Syrphid larva * which has ventral suckers; a phenomenon parallel to that seen in the larve of another family of flies, the Blepharo- cerid@, which cling to the rock-faces of waterfalls, &c., by means of suckers. It appears that some bromelicolous creatures, whose con- geners in terrestrial waters swim well, do not swim in the narrow spaces of the ‘“‘aquarium,” but rather climb on the leaves. Reference may be made to one of the longest-known bromelia- dwellers, a Caddis-fly larva found in Brazil by Fritz Miller. This insect, which Muller named Phylloicus bromeliarum, con- * Picado, op.ctt., pp. 263, 358. 192 THE ZOOLOGIST. structs a beautiful little case of pieces of leaves. Muller found an allied larva with a similar ‘‘ house” inhabiting rivulets in the same region. The pupa of the rivulet-dwelling species (which he referred also to the genus Phylloicus) agrees with many other trichopterous pupe in having the middle legs fringed with hairs to form a swimming-organ, which aids it in reaching . the surface on its emergence from its cocoon. The pupa of P. bromeliarum, however, is devoid of these fringes, which may be correlated with the fact that it probably has no need to swim in order to reach the surface in the narrow spaces of the plant.* One of the? most interesting bromelicolous animals is an Agrionid Dragonfly, Mecistogaster modestus, Selys. The insects of this genus are characterized by the extremely exaggerated length and slenderness of the abdomen, which gives them a highly remarkable appearance. Till recently nothing was known of their early stages or breeding-places, but in 1900 it was suggested that they might breed in bromelias. In 1908 specimens were actually bred by Knab from larve found in these plants in Mexico, and Calvert in 1909-10 worked out the life-history of the insect in Costa Rica. The abdomen of the larva is not dispro- portionately long, and the extreme length in the imago is acquired by a very rapid extension during the hours immediately following emergence from the nymph-skin. Thus it may be that the great length of the abdomen in the adult is a secondarily acquired character, and Calvert has suggested that it is possibly an adaptation for ovipositing between the leaves of bromelias in spaces which are too narrow and deep to admit of the female climbing down.t * Tam indebted to Mr. K. J. Morton for referring me to the literature on this matter. Miiller described and figured these larvz in a paper ‘“‘ Sobre as casas construidas pelas larvas de insectos trichopteros da Provincia de Santa Catharina,’ Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro, iii., 1878. He mentions P. bromeliarum on pp. 114, 115, without naming it, and again (in the Supplement) on pp. 131, 132, this time giving it its name; the case of the larva is figured on pl. 9, fig. 17. In the following year (1879) he published a paper in English in the Trans. Ent. Soc. London, and on p. 137 of this volume he refers to the same larva, but without giving it a name. It is also referred to by McLachlan on p. vii. of Proc. Ent. Soc. for that year. + Calvert, ‘ Entomological News’ (Philadelphia), vol. xxii., 1911, pp. 402- 411 and 449-460, pls. xviii.—xix. THE FAUNA OF ‘“ RESERVOIR-PLANTS.” 193 Mention must also be made of a new species of Tingitid Bug (Leptostyla gibbifera, Picado, op. cit., p. 8038), of which great numbers were found in certain bromelias by Picado. These insects feed on the plant, inserting their buccal stylets into its tissues. They remain thus motionless for hours at a time, and it frequently happens that they are caught and held by a gum secreted by the plant, as the result of the wound made by the insect. When thus held fast, one of two fates may attend them : either they may perish, engulfed in the gum; or, if they survive the hot hours of the day, they may be liberated by the melting of the gum at evening, when it receives moisture from the atmospheric condensation. The greater number of those which are thus held gummed to the leaves are immature, and these immature specimens are armed with a number of ramifying spines of rather terrifying appearance (see Picado’s figure). As the insects must be absolutely at the mercy of their enemies while thus held fast, these spines might be regarded as a means of defence. But examination shows that each branch of these spines bears at its apex, not a sharp point but a transparent and very delicate vesicle. Unless the vesicles contain some irritant, such fragile structures must be of doubtful protective value.* | Speaking more generally, the creatures normally frequenting bromelias derive their sustenance directly or indirectly from the plants. Some are phytophagous, attacking the plant itself: among these are certain Coleoptera, Acari, Hemiptera, some Orthoptera, larve of Lepidoptera, &c. Others are saprophagous, feeding on débris; such are Cockroaches and Earwigs, Milli- pedes, Pseudoscorpions, and Isopod Crustacea. Others again are predatory ; among these are Peripatus, Scolopendrid Centi- pedes, Batrachians, Spiders, and many more. Some of the Spiders spin webs above the surface of the water in the com- partments of the plant, in such a way as to catch winged insects when they emerge from their aquatic nymphs and take flight ; other bromelicolous Spiders chase their prey in the open—such are the numerous Salticids. Origin and dissemination of the bromelia-fauna.—There are *~ Picado states that he has also observed the young of anotler Tingitid similarly gummed to the leaves of Huphorbiacee of the genus Croton. Zool. 4th ser. vot. XVIII., May, 1914. Q 194 THE ZOOLOGIST. several ways in which species of animals can be supposed not only to have reached the bromelia-marsh in the past but also to reach if still from time to time. Some minute kinds, such as Copepods and Rotifers, could be transported in the form of eggs or cysts by wind. In steep places mud and water, perhaps containing living things, may often be splashed over the boughs of trees by landslides. Many species also have doubtless colonised the plants by active migration. Some would take to frequenting bromelias in order to derive a living from them, either directly or indirectly, in the manners indicated at the close of the preceding section. Others may resort to them in order to escape the evil effects of drought. This may be the case with Snails, Planarians, and Earthworms. In the Seychelles a Land- Nemertean and a Land-Leech were found sometimes in damp places on or near the ground, at other times between Pandanus leaf-bases; is not the moisture possibly the attraction of the latter situation? In India, too, certain Oligochet Worms have been found in hollows half full of water in tree-trunks, whither they resort on the drying up of their habitats on the ground; it is stated that they have been observed in the very act of this migration. As to creatures such as Dragonflies, Caddisflies, &e., it is not hard to imagine that, if they wandered in their flight far into the depths of forests and found there no terrestrial waters, they might lay their eggs in the only available water— that in the reservoir-plants. All this does not explain the origin of exclusively bromelicolous species. But is it not conceivable that if some individuals of a species became established in the bromelias, and that if their ranks were not frequently reinforced by the arrival of others of the same species from without; that then they and their descen- dants might be affected by the isolation in so special a habitat, just as some other forms are affected by becoming restricted in their habits to special food-plants or in other ways? Might not modifications occur, culminating in the forms affected becoming so distinct as to be regarded as separate species? * * For a discussion of isolation and segregation of forms due to difference of habits, see the highly suggestive ‘‘ Introductory Essay on the Hawaiian Fauna,” by Dr. R. C. L. Perkins, recently published in ‘ Fanna Hawaiiensis’ (vol. i., part 6, 1913). Perkins lays the greatest stress on isolation as a THE FAUNA OF “REHESERVOIR-PLANTS.” 195 Several of the above suggested methods of colonisation of the bromelias will also apply to the dissemination of the fauna, its passage from plant to plant. But there are also other ways in which it can be passively disseminated. For instance, bromelias often grow at different levels on the same tree, and if a plant be upset by any accident its contents may be spilled into others growing below. In such passive ways the fauna need not only descend; it can also slowly ascend. Bromelias reproduce largely by lateral budding, and the young plants grow to a slightly higher level than that of their parents, and in their turn produce buds which push a little higher, and so on. Hach lateral bud grows up through one of the interfoliar spaces of the parent plant, and in so doing may carry with it some of the contained water and fauna. Also the boughs and trunks to which the bromelias cling grow slowly upwards and outwards, carrying the epiphytes with them. Thus the Bromeliacee with their fauna may climb slowly, till they are perched right aloft in the green roof of the forest. factor in the production of the great number of endemic species in the Hawaiian Islands. He distinguishes carefully the two kinds of isolation, viz. (1) that due to the existence of geographical barriers, and (2) isolation and segregation of forms inhabiting the same area due to difference of habits. 196 THE ZOOLOGIST. NOTES AND QUERIES. AVES. Abnormal Coloration in the Common Snipe.—On February 9th Myr. G. Jefferies, of Leadenhall Market, sent for my examination a strange Snipe received in the ordinary way of trade from an English estate. The bird certainly had a most striking appearance, but this was due entirely to the colour of the legs and feet. In plumage, beak, and eyes it was nothing but an ordinary Gallinago celestis— perhaps a little above the average so far as brightness of colour was concerned; the axillaries held as much white as black in their pattern. The legs and feet were a clear golden or orange buff, flushed here and there on the toes with salmon-pink, and on the ‘ heel” or hinder aspect of the tibio-tarsal joint with pale lemon-yellow; the claws were dark slate-grey. I have many notes on abnormally coloured feet in other birds, but it is the first time I have noticed a Snipe aberrant in this detail. Exactly a month later Mr. Jefferies sent me a cream-coloured Common Snipe received from Ireland. It was a partial albino deficient in both black and brown pigment, and could be likened in general appearance to a Collared Turtle or the back of the female Sand-Grouse. Such a variety is not very rare, and of itself hardly worthy of record; but I saw at once that the feet and legs were exactly the same yellowish buff as in the first-mentioned individual. There were the same touches of salmon-pink on the toes, and of lemon-yellow on the heel, distinguishable on close examination. In this Journal for 1911* I ventured to suggest that the Common Snipe was one of the most variable of our birds, and the present note may therefore be offered as some addition to my previous remarks.— F. J. STuBBs. Large Clutch of Great Crested Grebe (Podicipes cristatus) in Glamorgan.—On April 24th I founda nest of the Great Crested Grebe containing the unusual number of six eggs and within a few yards of the spot where, on April 20th, 1912, my friend and I obtained a * “The Development of the Snipe,” pp. 205 and 265. NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. 197 clutch of nine, as recorded in this Journal (1912, p. 427). A pair of these birds have now visited Hensol for the last four years, and I think it probable that the same pair of birds have laid these two large clutches. On April 18th, on wading out to the nest, I found that it was empty, so that an egg must have been laid daily from that date, and the clutch, although large, may not have been com- plete. There was no decrease in the size of the eggs last laid, which could be distinguished by being less stained than the others. I have found two Moorhens’ nests this year containing fifteen and twelve eggs within sixty yards of each other. By the appearance of the eggs both clutches were laid by a single female. The Blackeap is much commoner than the Garden-Warbler in this district. The Lesser Whitethroat is rather a scarce bird here, and I have only found it nesting once.—F’. Norton (69, Whitchurch Road, Cardiff). NOTICHS OF NEW. BOOKS. Report on Cetacea Stranded on the British Coasts during 1918. By S. F. Harmer, 8c.D., F.R.S. Printed by Order of the Trustees of the British Museum. Tuts Report and others that will subsequently appear must prove to be of the greatest importance to British zoology. The Board of Trade in 1912 decided to issue a circular to all Receivers of Wrecks instructing them to send telegraphic infor- mation to the British Museum ofthe stranding of Whales. The records of 1913, thus procured, with the exception of three obtained during 1911 and 1912, form the substance of this Report. The number of Whales, Dolphins, &c., reported during 1918 was seventy-six, though the number given cannot be regarded as completely accurate, because evidence has been forthcoming that some of the specimens originally reported as ‘‘ Porpoises ”’ have really been Sharks. A definite determination of the species has been found possible in only a small proportion of the cases. This has generally been based on the examination of the entire ’ 198 THE ZOOLOGIST. animal or some part of it, which has been forwarded to the Museum. In a few instances a representative of the Museum has visited the spot where the specimen was stranded, and the evidence thus obtained has been the authority for the determination. Calculations made by ‘“‘curve” process show a sudden rise from two specimens in July to fifteen in August, while the maximum was reached by twenty-one in the first half of October. A conclusion is considered legitimate that a larger number of Cetacea, which have not been captured by fishing-boats, are stranded during August, September, and the first half of October than at other times of the year. It also seems that, although the case is not certainly made out by figures, there may be some connection between the stranding of the Cetacea and the position of the Herring fishery at the time. Reference to the species obtained is given in this excellent Report, and three distributional maps are provided. This publi- cation is worthy of the high standard of our great Natural History Museum. Animal Life by the Sea-shore. By G. A. and C. L. BouLenesr. ‘Country Life’ Limited. We have to recall early days—some fifty years ago—for books on our seaside zoology. Our shelves still contain ‘ Sea- side Studies,’ by George Henry Lewes; Charles Kingsley’s ‘Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore’; ‘The Sea-Side Book’ of Dr. Harvey; and the delightful writings of Philip Henry Gosse. Then somewhat of a hiatus ensues, Step published his ‘By the Deep Sea’ in the late nineties; but the time had arrived for a more modern guide, and the Boulengers have produced it. ‘‘A strictly systematic treatment has been avoided, the classification adopted being intended to meet the require- ments of the non-scientific reader, who is introduced to the subject in the simplest manner compatible with accuracy.” Seaside visitors who are wearied with the band on the pier, the comic efforts of minstrels on the beach, or a melancholy contemplation from a beach-chair, will find in the pages of this book an animal romance which they can unravel for themselves. NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. 199 Natural history lovers and students will possess a safe guide in these authoritatively written and well-illustrated pages, and by their help return from a summer holiday neither wearied nor jaded, but rejuvenated by a healthy recreation and intelligent pursuit. We recommend this volume as a seaside companion for a summer holiday, while it will be appreciated by any naturalist. Such books have a zoological mission among the general public apart from their value to naturalists. Wild Game in Zambezia. By R. C. F. Maueuam, F.R.G.S., F.Z.8., &e. John Murray. THE contents of this well-illustrated volume constitute a happy blend of the experiences of a sportsman and naturalist, and it is with the latter we are most concerned, for Mr. Maugham has much to tell us of the splendid but now attenuated vertebrate fauna of the African plains. He can also think for himself. Thus the peculiar coloration and markings of Zebras, which against a background of thin forest or high grass makes them easily overlooked—as was observed by the late Francis Galton years ago—has been accepted by many as a typical example of protective coloration. But before man commenced his de- structive work these animals knew but one enemy, the great carnivora. ‘‘ These hunting as they do by night and by scent, could not, as it seems to me, have been regarded as the dreaded source of danger. One therefore asks oneself in vain what the reason for a protective colour scheme for use by day only could possibly have been? ” In reference to the suggested game extermination in order to decrease the number of Tsetse Flies, which seem to spread with the game and increase in numbers as the herds increase, Mr. Maugham writes of vast tracts of ‘‘fly country”’ from which game is absent, and in some cases have been absent during the recollection of natives. The writer on African mammals cannot afford to miss a careful perusal of this book, though in some cases a little caution must be used. Thus we read, “‘ Secretary- birds pursue their benevolent mission in the slaughter of the ~ Snakes’’; but probably the author is quite aware that the Snake is not by a very long way the principal food of this bird. 200 THE ZOOLOGIST. Many will rejoice to read in the introduction the sympathetic recognition of the ‘‘Camera Sportsman.” He quotes with approval the view of Mr. Dugmore, ‘‘ The life of any animal, be it bird or beast, is far more interesting than its dead body.” True words, and the writer of this notice wishes he had always followed that maxim. A List of the Birds of Australia. By Grecory M. Maruews, F.R.S.E., &c. Witherby & Co. A compLEtE list to date of the birds of Australia, ‘“‘ containing the names and synonyms connected with each genus, species, and subspecies’’ will be valued by all ornithologists. Mr. Mathews has given his adhesion to what may be called the newer nomenclature, including the use of trinomials, and there can be little doubt that this advanced method has come to stay, though it may seem somewhat foreign to many of us who have been schooled in another method. The whole question is fully discussed in the Introduction. As regards the vast stride made in a knowledge of the avi- fauna of Australia, we are struck with the statement that ‘‘ no endemic land bird from Australia was known to Linné when he published his ‘Systema Nature’ in 1758 and 1766”; and in recognizing the early writings of Latham, most naturalists will agree with Mr. Mathews in his conclusion that ‘‘ there can be no question as to who should be considered the ‘ grandfather’ of Australian ornithology, conceding to John Gould the Australians’ tribute of ‘ father.’ ” The list has been very carefully and thoroughly compiled, and possesses an excellent index. W. F. H. ROSENBERG, | IMPORTER OF EXOTIC ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS, 57, Haverstock Hiri, Lonpon, N.W.. Eneranp., 5 Ss to announce the publication of a new Price List (No. 20) of MAMMALS, including over 400 Species from various parts of the world. This will be mailed free on application, as well as any of the following lists: —BIRD-SKINS (over 5000-Species); BIRDS’ EGGS (over 1100 Species); REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, snp FISHES (over 400 Species); EXOTIC LEPIDOPTERA (over 8000 Species). Largest Stock in the world of specimens in all branches of Zoology. ALL MUSEUMS AND AMATEURS SHOULD WRITE FOR THESE LISTS. All specimens sent on approval. Please state which lists are required, and give name of this periodical. 7 BRIRDSNESTING & BIRD=SKINNING. 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Bie f : 4 bed cout . a ae Ornitliolgnreal ee aS Norfolk < (1918) (with Plate and four Gurney, PZ 3S, hole The Fauna of “ Reservoir-Plants” (with Mastrations), Be Scott, F.L.S., F.H.S., 188. a NOTES AND QUERIES :— Aves.—Abnormal Coloration in the Common Shine fds FE Stubbs, 196. ve Clutch of Great Crested Grebe (Podicipes cristatws) in Glamorgan, Norton, 196. Novicrs oF New Books, 197-200. UNPAID SUBSCRIPTIONS to the ‘ZOOLOGIST’ for 1914 are due. The amount is 12s. post tree. Cases _ for binding 1913 volume can be had for Is. 2d. post a free from the Publishers, who will also undertake the — binding of volumes at 2s. each post free on return. — London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54. Hatton Garden. Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, extra. Pp. 144. Price 10s. A Bird Collector's Medley : E, Cc). ARNOED:. = NPA: @ With Twelve full-page Coloured Illustrations and Eight Un- coloured, from the Author's Drawings. 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For some years past, and particularly since the year 1910, I have made an extensive series of notes on many species of animals in the country of the Chess and Gade. These notes and others to be made later wil! be the chief sources of the following account of the fauna of the above-mentioned country. At present, those most easily adapted for publication relate to the Rotifers, and these animals will be described first, following on with other forms of animal life in the order which may seem to be most convenient. Particular attention will be given to the conditions under which the various species occur, the relative numbers of indivi- duals of different species, and, in some cases, certain changes which have taken place and are taking place in the numbers of individuals of the same species. The country of the Chess and Gade is somewhat triangular in form, its base being a sinuous line on the southern side of the Chilterns, and its apex being near Rickmansworth, where the waters of the Chess and the Gade meet the waters of the Colne, one of the tributaries of the Thames. Excepting some small scattered areas, such as those near Chesham and Leverstock Green, where tertiary outliers occur, the country is chalk, usually covered by post-tertiary deposits of very variable thick- ness and composition. : Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII., June, 1914, R 202 THE ZOOLOGIST. Being essentially a chalk country, many of its valleys and dells are normally dry, but, large areas being covered by the aforesaid post-tertiary deposits, the short grass characteristic of a chalk country is to be found only on parts of comparatively . small extent. Numerous woods and copses occur in most parts, and there are also many large private estates and parks, in some of which are many fine Deer. Further, on several of the commons found in most parts of the country there are extensive growths of bracken and furze, which often serve as cover for Pheasants, Partridges, Rabbits, Foxes, and other animals. There are only a few large sheets of water, and these are connected with the rivers or the Grand Junction Canal; this canal, it may be stated here, runs along or close to the old bed of the Bulbourne (a tributary of the Gade) and that of the lower Gade. On the higher grounds, e.g. on Chipperfield Common, Cholesbury Common, and Berkhamsted Common, and at Wigginton, Hastoe, and various places between Chesham and Berkhamsted, there are many small pools, the depths of which rarely exceed five feet. It cannot be said that, in number of species, the aquatic fauna is a rich one, but this disadvantage, from a naturalist’s point of view, is compensated for by the remarkable differences between the faunas of the several pools. These differences will be best understood from the following account of the fauna, given in accordance with the method previously explained. The Rotifers, as already stated, will be dealt witha first, comrencing with some of the commoner ones. RotuFERA. 1. Salpina mucronata, Kbren.—In those pools in whih there is a large quantity of weed s, especially duckweed, this i one of the commonest Rotifers. ‘From April to September tle speci- mens are very numerous, a.nd in May and June large 1umbers of empty loricas of the sami: Rotifer are also to be fouid. The presence of a large quantit'y of duckweed and the sitiation of the pools at a comparatively low level seem to favour the occurrence of large numbers \ot S. mucronata. This, ai least, is what my notes suggest. Where these conditions are fund, ¢. 9. FAUNA OF THE CHESS AND GADE. 203 at Langleybury Pool (elevation above sea-level about 200 ft.), Berkhamsted Castle moats (about 300 ft.), and Parsonage Farm Pool, Abbots Langley (about 400 ft.), the numbers of specimens obtained have been very large; on the other hand, at Wigginton Pool (700 ft.), among the Chilterns, the numbers obtained have not been nearly as large as in the pools before mentioned. Again, at many places close to the Chess, the Gade, the Bul- bourne, and the canal, are extensive watercress-beds, through which the river or canal waters are diverted. Some parts of these beds have been much less disturbed than the rest, and contain, besides watercress, small quantities of starwort and duckweed. In these parts only comparatively small numbers of specimens of S. mucronata are usually found. Often when seen beneath the microscope the specimens of S. mucronata swam about quite freely and rather rapidly, but if the water on the slide contained some vegetable matter, they usually spent their time by moving about this. Their long toes, resembling the blades of ancient Roman gladiti, were frequently swung forwards so as to be almost parallel to the long axes of their bodies. The comparatively large, bright red cervical eye- spot was always easily seen. 2. Pterodina patina, Ehren.—Most of the specimens of this Rotifer were obtained from Langleybury Pool, the rest being chiefly from Parsonage Farm Pool, Abbots Langley, and Berkhamsted Castle moats. All those examined were taken during the spring and summer months. Very many samples of water from Par- sonage Farm Pool were taken nearly every month during 1912 and 1913. Not asingle specimen of P. patina was seen in the 1912 samples, but several specimens were obtained in March _and August of 1918. The specimens from Langleybury Pool were exceedingly numerous in May and June, 1913. Most of them showed a few bosses, but indistinctly. These Pterodinas usually glided slowly through the water, occasionally turning their edges to view, when they presented a comic resemblance to a broken-down pedlar carrying a load on his back. When gliding through the water with their dorsal surfaces exposed to view, the trunk-like foot was almost always out of sight, by reason of its being extended downwards to allow the setw at its extremity to touch R 2 204 THE ZO00LOGIST. the slide; it was only occasionally extended horizontally so as to project a little way beyond the edge of the lorica. 3. Pterodina valvata, Hudson.—Among a large number of Pterodinas obtained from Langleybury Pool on May 12th, 1913, were some which, being but slightly stippled, were remarkably transparent. These presented about a dozen comparatively large bosses, which were well-defined and nearly equidistant. As they glided slowly across the field, these Pterodinas were beautiful objects. Fig. 1 represents one of them, its foot being drawn in order to show its peculiar form, although this parti- cuiar specimen rarely extended its foot beyond the lorica, when exposing its dorsal part to view. After gliding about for some time, it attached itself by its foot to a piece of Conferva and then remained stationary or nearly so for a long time. I did not see one of the specimens of P. valvata fold its lorica, although I watched for a time in expectation of seeing this phenomenon, from the occurrence of which the specific name of the Rotifer was derived. It seems, however, that P. valvata rarely folds its lorica, for Mr. P. H. Gosse says: ‘‘ As a rule, the folding of the valves is somewhat rarely performed. I have observed probably hundreds at various times, and I think I have not seen half-a-dozen folded”’ (‘ The Rotifera,’ &c., C. T. Hudson and P. H. Gosse, vol. ii. 1886, p. 118). 4. Brachionus rubens, Khren.—A vast number of specimens of this beautiful and active Rotifer were obtained on October 3rd, 1913, from a small, shallow pool at the eastern side of Potten End, and close to the road from that place to Water End. The water of this pool was quite green with Conferve and minute aquatic plants. Many specimens were also obtained on October 15th, 1913, from Wigginton Pool. The water of this pool also was of a green colour, as seen in the collecting bottles, but not nearly as green as the water of the Potten End Pool, there being only a comparatively small quantity of Conferve and minute aquatic plants in the Wigginton Pool. This difference in the nature of the waters of the two pools probably accounted to an important extent for the great difference in numbers of B. rubens in the two pools. The waters of Potten End Pool had every appearance of a rich feeding medium. Many specimens of B. rubens were seen swimming freely in FAUNA OF THE CHESS AND GADE. 205 the water on the slide, repeatedly lashing out with their long, flexible foot, while large numbers were attached to specimens of Daphnia pulex, Cyclops serrulatus, and what appeared to be young specimens of Cyclops strenuus. One specimen of D. pulex carried a large number of these Rotifers in the manner shown in fig. 8. = S Ay Fig. 2. They were anchored to a layer of sticky, flocculent matter covering the head and part of the back of the Daphnia; this matter had evidently been secreted by the foot-glands of the Rotifers. While the Daphnia was in the field, the Rotifers gradually left it, one or more at a time, tugging violently to free them- selves and causing their feet to be stretched out to a great length. 206 THE ZOOLOGIST. Fig. 2 shows three specimens from the Potten End Pool, after they had left the Daphnia shown in fig. 8, and still connected by means of a detached portion of the sticky matter. Their bright red eye-spots, like small rubies, were very conspicuous. By killing the Daphnia or other host with a dissecting-needle, the Rotifers at once begin to struggle violently to free themselves, and so they do when a little cocaine solution is put on the slide. It may be mentioned here that the various species of Rotifers differ very much in their ability to resist the action of cocaine. Many of them at once contract considerably under its action, but some are affected somewhat slowly. One of these is B.rubens, for, when trying to induce contraction sufficient to allow its oral spines to be seen clearly, I have found it best to add cocaine solution to the water until the strength is nearly two per cent. 5. Noteus quadricornis, Ehren.—This well-known Rotifer is to be found more particularly in Parsonage Farm Pool, Abbots Langley, and in the old pool near the side of Chesham Road, opposite Ashlyn’s Hall, Berkhamsted; this will be referred to as the Chesham Road Pool. The specimens of N. quadricornis from these pools were all taken during the months of August and September. The most complete records of the appearance and disappearance of this species refer to the Parsonage Farm Pool; for instance, many specimens were obtained there on August 1ith, 1912, some being very fine specimens indeed ;. a few were obtained on September 6th, 1912; on September 18th, 1912, six empty cases or loricas of the same species were obtained, but no living specimens ; on © September 22nd, 1912, I failed to obtain any trace of N. quadri- cornis. Among many collections of the forms of life in this pool, obtained during the ensuing months, I did not obtain a single N. quadricornis until August 18th, 1913. The Chesham Road Pool has yielded specimens as late as the very end of September. Among the specimens obtained from Parsonage Farm Pool on August 11th, 1912, was a particularly fine one. It was a beautiful object, appearing in side view like a deep purse tobacco- pouch, with two strong spines projecting from its lower edge, and two strap-like projections on the upper or dorsal side of the FAUNA OF THE CHESS AND GADE. 207 mouth of the pouch and curling over a little. The pouch was faceted and transparent, allowing the parts of the animal to be seen. After moving about rather slowly it anchored itself by its foot to the slide, and, swaying to and fro, set its wheels in motion, causing strong currents of water to flow into the mouth of the pouch whereby small protozoa, &c., were carried to its powerful masticatory apparatus. 6. Rotifer vulgaris, Schrank.—This species is appropriately named Rotifer vulgaris, the ‘‘commonplace”’ Rotifer ; in the mud Fig. 3. of the various streams and pools and of the canal, in samples of their waters, in samples of moss, in damp mould, in the green coverings and the washings of trees and walls, some Rotifers of this species are easily obtained. Sometimes, e.g. in washings from a fern-pot saucer in December, 1912, and in washings from moss obtained from Nettleden in June, 1913, they were very numerous and constituted nearly the whole of the rotiferan fauna. During examination under the microscope, they often moved somewhat slowly in leecn-like manner, but soon made their way into small collections of mud and organic matter on the slide, wandered about and through these, and, finally emerging, 208 THE ZOOLOGIST. started to swim, with expanded wheels, until they met other col- lections of mud and organic matter which were similarly explored. At other times they remained anchored for a long period. The specimens of this Rotifer varied much in size, but were usually about 4, in. long. The largest I have seen was, as far as I could measure it, = in. long, when fully expanded. This Rotifer was washed from a silk net which had been dragged for a long distance along the canal, below Hunton Bridge, on November 12th, 1918; it was almost the only form of life obtained on this occasion. It was, however, the finest specimen of its species that I have ever examined, and its movements on the slide were all that could be desired to display its form and allow of sketches being made. After moving about on the slide, in water quite free from mud or organic matter by which its movements could be concealed, it anchored itself and scarcely moved out of the field for about half an hour. During this time, the Rotifer repeatedly extended and withdrew itself slowly so as to assume sometimes the form shown in fig. 4, and sometimes that shown in fig. 5, stretching itself so fully that its joints appeared as very fine lines, its external contour being almost unbroken. In these positions, the whole of the foot was not seen, but occasionally the Rotifer threw itself smartly from the position shown in fig. 4 into that shown in fig.6. At such times, the full length of the Rotifer was seen, but never for more than a second, for it always quickly resumed the position shown in fig. 4 or fig. 5. Its exceedingly well-displayed movements, its elegant tapering form, its small, round red eye-spots, and the beats, about two per second, of its jaws against the anvil, were all well seen. The figures do not, I think, exaggerate the elegance of form of this Rotifer. 7. Rotifer macrurus, Schrank.—This large and well-known Rotifer, which is much less common than R. vulgaris, has been obtained chiefly from the Chesham Road, Langleybury, and Parsonage Farm Pools. From none of the water samples taken from any of the pools has the number of specimens of this Rotifer been large; in samples, e. g., obtained from the Parsonage Farm Pool, on September 6th, 1912, and yielding fourteen specimens of Salpina mucronata and six of Noteus quadricornis, only one specimen of A. macrurus was obtained. FAUNA OF THE CHESS AND GADE. 209 Every specimen examined exhibited very similar movements. The long foot was often extended so as to allow seven joints to be counted with ease, and occasionally eight joints were readily distinguished. After remaining for some time in an extended form and anchored to the slide, the Rotifer would retract its anterior parts, display its powerful wheels and stout column, and swim rapidly through the water. When travelling in leech- @6) — Fig. 4. like manner, R. macrurus often showed, what was very rarely shown by R. vulgaris, a lateral view of the hinder part of its foot. 8. Rattulus rattus, Muller.—From only a few pools have I succeeded in obtaining specimens of this Rotifer. A few were taken from Parsonage Farm Pool, Abbots Langley, on March 24th, 1918. One was carefully examined as it swam about rather rapidly and gracefully, turning itself about its long axis, and swaying its foot to and fro. It was brought to rest by means of a few spots of Rousselet’s narcotizing solution, and 210 THE Z00LOGIST. its length was found to be about 7, in. Its long and slightly curved toe was approximately as long as the rest of the animal. The very short styles at the base of the toe were seen, but only with difficulty. The central part of the Rotifer was brown, and the rest was almost colourless. Another specimen, obtained on April 28th, 1918, from a small pool, a little to the east of Hastoe and close to the bend of the Hastoe and Cholesbury Road, measured <4 in. in total length, and presented the features mentioned above. The water of this pool was exceptionally clear and transparent, but a few months ago the pool was completely filled in with clay and gravel. 9. Syncheta tremula, Khren.—This small and very active Rotifer is fairly common in the watercress beds of the Chess and Gade, and in a few pools in which the water is clear. The specimens I have examined have been chiefly from the Cashio watercress beds, near Watford, and from Chipperfield Common Pool. The movements of S. tremula are so characteristic that, apart from the conical form of the animal and its small size, they serve at once to identify it. A description of the movements of one very active specimen, obtained on October 3rd, 1912, from the Cashio watercress beds will make this clear. While examining two specimens of Amphileptus in a drop of water from the aforesaid beds, the illumination of the field being very brilliant, the Syncheta suddenly shot across the field. Being altogether unprepared for its appearance, the only im- pression it produced was that of a minute flash of light. Paying no further attention to the specimens of Amphileptus, I quickly moved the slide so as to enable me to follow the Rotifer, which was soon found spinning rapidly about its axis, which was vertical and practically stationary. Owing to its rapid rotation, the only impression produced was as shown in fig. 7. After a few seconds, the Rotifer darted across the field, appearing like a cone moving base forwards. Following it again, the Rotifer was found swinging itself in a very tortuous course about a piece of débris to which it was anchored by a very fine thread extend- ing from its toes, as shown in fig. 8. This thread, as is well-known, is secreted by the foot-glands of the Rotifer. For FAUNA OF THE CHESS AND GADE. 211 some time, these various movements were repeated in varied succession. Of the many species of Rotifers examined, S. tremula, especially as exemplified in the specimen just described, appears to be the most active. As long as that specimen was disporting itself in the way described, it was practically impossible to make out its characteristic features. A little narcotizing solution, however, soon brought it almost to rest, when its small foot and minute toes, small auricles, and the almost flat base of its conical body were clearly discernible. 10. Syncheta pectinata, Ehren.—Most of the specimens of this Rotifer, entered in my notes, were obtained from Chipperfield Fig. 7. Common Pool, which has a very interesting rotiferan fauna. From one side of this pool a narrow plank-walk extends towards its centre, the depth of water near the end of the plank being less than four feet. A dredging net, moved about for some time in the water, from the end of the plank, usually brings up one or more specimens of S. pectinata, but dredging during winter and spring has been most successful. Several specimens of this beautiful and active Rotifer, remarkable for their whiteness and transparency, were obtained in the way described, on May 1st, 1918. One specimen, which was moving about with more energy than the rest, was examined carefully. It was not less that <4, in. long, and swam forward rapidly, then doubled on itself, and swam rapidly in the opposite direction, these movements being repeated time after time. Little more than the curved sides of its conoidal body and its 212 THE ZOOLOGIST. very convex oral end could be made out while the Rotifer was performing these rapid movements. Its distinctive pair of anterior tufted projections and its large pendent and richly ciliated auricles were, however, very clearly seen after it had been narcotized. Two specimens were obtained by dredging from the end of the plank and beneath the ice which covered the pool on January 27th, 1914. Both were very rapid in their movements, and one of them went through evolutions precisely like those described above; the other, however, went round and round for some seconds in a flat spiral, and then swam in the same manner as the other, repeatedly doubling on itself. These and other specimens obtained during the winter did not seem to be as brilliantly white and transparent as the specimens obtained in the spring. Quite recently, on April 11th, 1914, I obtained several speci- mens of S. pectinata by dredging in the clear water of Bedmond Pool, which is situated in a deep excavation at the northern end of the village. These specimens and those from Chipperfield Common Pool are the only ones so far obtained. (To be continued.) (213) ) A DIARY OF ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION MADE IN ICKLAND DURING JUNE AND JULY, 1912. By Epmunp SEtovs. (Continued from p. 74.) June 19th.—One of the notes of the Golden Plover is a sad *‘pee-bier, pee-bier” (I prefer that spelling of the second syllable), and no words can impart any adequate idea of the protracted plaintiveness with which the last syllable is uttered. It is as though the bird’s whole spirit were one of sadness—of pensive depression—which, however, it almost certainly is not. Another—generally speaking, one may say the other—note at this season is the single, melancholy ‘‘ peep,’ equally in con- sonance with the spirit, to our human senses, of the wild, waste, and desolate scenes amidst which it is usually heard, merry as the bird’s heart may be within it at the time. Some time between 8 and 8.30 a.m. I saw the pair of Grebes, which have not yet laid, far out on the lake. Five or ten minutes later, on reascending the crest of the hill, I found that one of them—the male, I believe—had come into the little nook or corner where lake and stream join; and here he seemed to be waiting, almost stationary, upon the calm water (for it was a still, cloudy morning) for the other to join him. In a few minutes the female came diving up from the outer lake, and the two, meeting, drew close to one another, and began to press eagerly forward in the direction of the creek. It was exactly the way in which they had come up it, before, to the nest, on which coition had then taken place, and I expected a repetition of this. I have little doubt that they had the idea in their minds, but all at once they paused in what seemed their intent advance, floated a little asunder, came close again, and after confronting one another for a little in a hesitating manner, and once more increasing the distance between them, both suddenly dived and 214 THE ZOOLOGIST. came up almost together, each with a substantial quantity of decaying weed in their bills. With this they began swimming towards the stream, but first one (the female) and then the other dropped it in the water again, and the advance continued expeditus. ‘The female led, and seemed more eager than the male, who, as she disappeared into the creek, paused a little before continuing to follow her. I might have augured ill from this, and after having got to my place of observation, command- ing the nest of these birds—who were now quite hidden behind the bank and intervening shoulder of the hill—I waited in vain for their reappearance round the bend of the stream, a little above where it enters the lake. The male, as was so often the case with the Great Crested Grebes I watched, had evidently cooled off. Getting on to the lake side of the hill again, I found him waiting alone, as he had been before, and in the same place, just outside the mouth of the rivulet. After some ten or fifteen minutes he dived up the lake again, and very shortly afterwards the female returned from the creek, and, swimming to where he had but lately been, appeared to wait for him in her turn. After some time, however, as he did not come, she went out into the lake herself, diving and swimming, and I lost sight of her too. It seems as if the birds, when they have had enough of the open water of the lake, or feel some special homeward call, are accus- tomed to repair to this end of it, at the mouth of their stream, where they wait for each other preparatory to swimming up it, to the nest. But what was the meaning of the foregoing incident with the weeds? A reference to my paper on the domestic habits of the Great Crested Grebe* will show that a pair of the latter acted in precisely the same way, but more fully, inasmuch as each of them took hold of the same piece of weed, and, holding it thus between them, and standing upright in the water, like two Pen- cuins, moved backwards and forwards with it, after which, dropping it in the same way, they both swam eagerly to the nest, on which coition was effected. The subsequent conduct of the birds we are now considering will show the same curious apparent rela- tion between two things which one would not suppose were in any way conjoined. The following took place between 9.10 and 9.55a.m. The * * Zoologist,’ 1901, p. 339. ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 215 female Grebe, after being for some time out of my sight and knowledge on the lake, reappeared in the little nook or bay of it before-mentioned, which I am sure now is the birds’ accustomed trysting-place. Before very long the male appeared far out on the water, and with several long dives was soon at the same spot. He made his last emergence close in at shore, and then swam out again towards the female, with his head and neck held straight out before him in one line on the water, the beak driven through it like a ram. She awaited him in alert, sprightly mood, and when he was a few yards off, suddenly flew away from him over the water, coming down on it again at a little dis- tance. There was now a quiescent interval, the female slowly approaching the male, but undesignedly, as it were, and without anything marked in her manner, till a similar but also less marked advance, on his part, towards her, ended in the mutual flight of both. I think the details were that when the male had reached a certain degree of nearness to the female, she flew at him, coquettishly, and he away from her; but it was so quick and sudden, and so much, in appearance, at the same moment, that I am not sure of this. The pair flew thus into and up the stream, and came down upon it when they had gone a little way, behind the curve of the nearer bank, which quite hid them. I hurried down the hill again to my observatory, and, before I had got into place, had the satisfaction of seeing them rounding the second bend of the stream. They swam in a most purposeful and mind-made-up manner, side by side and close together, pressing on at top speed, and uttering a variety of sounds which I find it impossible to retain in my mind, and cannot therefore transcribe. They were not loud, but not low either—distinctly audible at a fair distance—and not harsh in character. The pair soon came opposite to where I lay con- cealed amidst the stones on the hillside, pressed through the rushes, and were at the nest. ‘They swam close about it, peered up at it, dived, and then the female, springing on to it, began to arrange the loose-lying materials, and bend down the growing flags amongst them.* Then, assuming the invitatory attitude, she obviously awaited the male. He, however, not ascending * So far as I remember, I have not seen the Little or Great Crested Grebe do this. 216 THE ZOOLOGIST. immediately, she came off into the water again, and there was more ministering to the needs of the nest; or, rather, as I should be inclined to say, more secondary sexual activity in regard to it, on the part of both the birds, several pieces of the growing sedge being pulled off by them and laid upon it, especi- ally by the female, who then mounted on to it again, and, stand- ing up, pulled more flags down upon it, and detached and laid down pieces of them in the same way. She then, a second time, invited the male to come up by assuming the appropriate posture, but, being again disappointed, again came off, and they both continued for awhile to add material to the nest; then swam a little away from it, and remained quiet amidst the sedge. In a moment or two, however, they approached the nest again; the female once more ascended and lay along it, and she was now quickly followed by the male. His attitude, as far as I could see, for the rushes, which a little obscured him, was well-nigh upright, and in the considerable pause which preceded coition he uttered a peculiar deep guttural note (‘‘kor-r-r”’), which, or something like which, I think I have heard at the end of the long, cat-like mew. During coition both birds were extremely vocal. As before, the notes of either differed, but I cannot keep the odd sounds in my memory distinctly enough to transcribe them. From coition the birds passed immediately to the associated instinct, the female whilst still on the nest. The male, however, did not stay, but, sliding off it, began to busy himself as before. There was then another short retirement, another approach, another ascent and invita- tion on the part of the female, which was not responded to by the male, after which the birds came out on the water, preened themselves, floated at ease, and finally went to sleep.* I think the facts here recorded justify me in saying that there is, in the minds of these birds, an intimate association between the marital act and the construction or manipulation of the materials of the nest, and this same bond of connection I ** No case of functional hermaphroditism was observed by me in this species, but I may take this opportunity of recording that this is habitual in the case of the Little Grebe, to go by a pair which I have since watched under conditions rendering mistake impossible. My observations on the Great Crested Grebe, in th's particular, are, therefore, more than corroborated. ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 217 have made out, with certainty, in the case of three other species, representing altogether three different families and, moreover, all these four species habitually pair on the nest. Now, if it were known with certainty that the structure which we call a nest, and which, in the great majority of birds (as I suppose, or will assume), is put to that use, and that use only, which the word implies for us, had been originally put to the very different one of coition, and that this had come about through that act having been repeatedly performed in one and the same place, so that the female, waiting in that place for the male, had some- times laid her eggs there, and thus, through the operation of Natural Selection, came, in time, to incubate them, an office which had been previously left to the sun, as in reptiles, and as it still is, with birds, in the case of the Megapodes, which stand lowest and therefore nearest to reptiles*—if these things were known, I think it will be admitted that the above facts would be held to receive a simple and natural explanation in the process of evolution through which the nest had passed. Since birds used to pair on the archaic nest, before they laid their eggs there, no one could wonder that, by inherited association, the ideas of pairing and nest-making were still connected in the minds of many of them, whilst some continued to act like their ancestors. Similariy, it will, I think, be also allowed that if it were known that the actual process of nidification had grown out of the objectless snatching up by birds of sticks, twigs, leaves, &c., from the ground, and dropping them again upon it, when sexually excited, either before, after, or during copulation, it would not then be held strange that they should sometimes now act in this manner, as I have, in fact, observed them to do. If, then, certain facts, 2f known, would be accepted as an explanation of certain other facts which are known, the postulation of these unknown facts, to explain the known ones, must be held legitimate, so long as they are not irreconcilable with other facts belonging to the subject. I submit that all the * The Megapodiude, with the Cracide, morphologically seem to be the lowest of the order, with which apparent fact may perhaps be correlated their singular habit of leaving their eggs to be hatched without incubation,” —Prof. A. Newton, ‘A Dictionary of Birds,’ vol.i. p. 589. A.& C. Black, 1893-1896. Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., June, 1914. Ss 218 THE ZOOLOGIST. following actions (which I have actually seen) are explicable on the hypothesis here indicated, viz.:—(1) The nervously excited seizing of things from the ground, and letting them drop again, by the male bird whilst in a state of sexual frenzy, on account of the female, during the courting period. (2) The taking up and playing with materials similar to those of which the nest is composed, by both the male and female bird, immediately followed either by a visit to the nest and coition upon it, or by a start in that direction, with every appearance of there being the same intention, even though it may not be carried out (8) The further association of these instincts—coition, namely, and nidification—at the nest itself. Im some of these cases the addition to or manipulation of the material composing the nest, by the female bird, is immediately followed by the invitatory attitude on her part, and as instantly follows the act of coition upon it. The male also joins in these nidificatory acts, both before and after the rite, so that the two forms of activity seem to be united in the birds’ minds, and to make together the purpose of their visit. In other instances the female alone acts thus, after coition only. (4) The taking up and again letting fall by the female of the materials of the nest, whilst actually in coitu upon it, so that here we see the two things, as it were, in combination. (5) Habitual coition on the nest, commencing from a period when this word can only be used in relation to place and not structure, and continuing certainly up to the laying of the first egg, and probably afterwards. (6) The remaining of the female on the nest, after coition has taken place there, for an indefinite period, during which the act is repeated. This last, 1 think, is an important point in my theory, for if it now be asked why the female should remain, for any time, upon a spot or structure which afterwards becomes the nest, for any other reason than such as is connected with the eggs or with nidification, it can be answered that she does so in expectation of the return of the male, and consequent repetition of the act of coition. This helps us greatly in understanding how any place that has once, if only by chance, been made use of for this purpose, might become a more or less permanent pairing-place, through the female bird waiting on upon it, in which case the eggs would sometimes be laid there; and since ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 219 incubation by the parent bird must be held to be of benefit to the species, we might expect that, from this point, Natural Selection would have brought it about. On the above view, the first early acts from which the instincts both of incubation and nidification have been, through Natural Selection, developed, were entirely unintelligent ones, due to the intense state of sexual excitement which birds fall into, every year, on the approach of the breeding-season, and, under the influence of which, they may be actually seen to go through the oddest and most uncouth actions, having no imaginable object, unless the relief of pent-up emotion can be said to be one, and which seem as little the outcome of any process of reason as it is possible for an act to be. This state of overwrought excitement and intense nervous energy of a special kind I have called the sexual frenzy, and if the important main act which arises out of it—coition, namely— may be called an instinct, all those secondary ones which accompany and surround it—rollings, tumblings, springings, prostrations, flutterings, cryings, callings, melodisings, &c., must be pronounced instinctive also. As everybody knows, these storms of desire are either, in themselves, more acute, or, at least, produce a greater crop of strange movements in birds than in any other division of the animal kingdom. Con- sequently, we have, in their case, a larger output of what one may call waste material for Natural Selection, if possible, to put to some use, so that, far from its being extraordinary, we might have expected, if the principle relied on be a true one, that something very special and particular would have been evolved under its action. And Natural Selection, in my opinion, has answered to the call, for out of this maelstrom of blind, formless animal movement, with nothing but sheer concupiscence behind it, she has, on the one hand, evolved the most elaborate, ordered and beautiful forms of sexual display, and, on the other, the still greater and seemingly wholly dissociated marvels of nest- building. This view of the common origin of both these instincts has the merit of simplicity, and moreover it strikes at the root of various objections which are constantly being brought against the theory of one of them only, namely, sexual display, though logically they should be equally valid against s 2 220 THE ZOOLOGIST. the other also. The fact that some birds make no nests ai all, or do so in such a slovenly fashion that they might just as well not, or that, in some cases, the nest is put to another and totally different use (as I have now shown to be the case) is not urged as an argument against the undeniable relation which it has to egg-laying and incubation in other cases, or in these also; but it is thought that because the sexual antics of some birds make but a poor sort of display, or do not seem designed to that end, or not exclusively so, or are performed by dull-coloured species, therefore the most highly developed and finished exhibi- tions, carefully gone through by the most beautiful male birds of the world, who thus show off their best points to the best advantage before the females, and may be seen actually to win them by so doing, are not real courtships, or real courting displays, either— even though they may have to be called so.* But if it is out of a number of odd, uncouth, violent, and wholly unintelligent move- ments made by male birds (for the most part) during what I have called the sexual frenzy, that Natural (here called sexual) Selection has, through the consequent excitation of the female, gradually evolved the true nuptial display, this state of things is precisely what we might expect—in fact, ought to find, and the argument is quite parallel as applied to the stages of nidification. What the objection to this view is I really do not know. It cannot surely be supposed that here alone we should find the crown of the edifice only, the flower without its stalk. It is in accordance with the principle of evolution that there should be a passage from the simple to the complex, from the generalized to the specia- lized; and out of what, more naturally, should the movements of sexual display have arisen than out of sexual movements ? As to the contention that because a male bird is dull-coloured it cannot, through pose and exhibition, make the best even of its dullness, and thus produce a greater or lesser degree of sexual excitation in the female—or vice versi—I have never been able to follow it. The concupiscent element seems to be forgotten by those who make this objection, and also that esthetic percep- ** Because they so obviously are. In the case of the Blackcock I have actually seen the hen won by the courtship of particular birds, though by far the greater number were resisted. ‘‘ Resisted”’ is the right word, for the effect of the display, as such, was always apparent. ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 221 tion must necessarily develop within the limits of what there is to perceive. Even so, however, there is not only beauty of form, as well as of colour,* but also a good deal of beauty in colours to which we apply the term dull. In short, in and for the opposite sexes of even the most sober-suited species, there are objects to see and desire, and these objects vary. What more should be wanted for sexual selection to make a foundationt upon? And with all this denial and scepticism, what other even tolerable explanation has ever been given of very beautiful sexual adorn- ment in combination with a very elaborate and careful display of © it, by which both the details and the general effect of the beauty are shown forth, or, as it were, insisted upon ? Supposing incubation and nest-building to have originated in the manner suggested, it might seem that we have here two very important instincts with which reason can neither have, nor have ever had, anything todo. But there is another way, as it appears to me, by which intelligence might enter into the composition of an instinct, than through the odd one of lapsing on entry, and that it has done so in the above two instances is a view that seems more in accordance with the whole of the facts than that they are, now, in all cases, entirely devoid of this factor. Why should not reason, in the course of time, have become grafted, so to speak, on to the main stem of unintelligent, motiveless actions ?{ In this I can see no difficulty, for the variations of intelligence must be as much under the dominion of Natural Selection as * A wing, spread effectively, for instance—still more a pair of wings—is beautiful even though it be brown, of which truth there can be no better proof, outside Nature herself, than in some of the plates in Mr. Howard’s masterly work on the Warblers. + In out-of-the-way parts where there are only a very few women, who happen (mirabile dictw) to be plain, these step forth as beauties, and act, and are acted by, as such. Still more is this the case with only one. Is not the law, here, alike for high and low ? | “We had a kitten which sucked its mother and when a month old taken to ——, and sucked another cat; then to —— and sucked two other cats, and then its instinct was confounded and became mixed with reason and experience; for it tried repeatedly to suck three or four other kittens of its own age which no one, as far as I am aware, ever saw any other kitten do. Thus born instinct may be modified by experience.” (Darwin’s MS. notes, quoted in Romanes’ ‘ Mental Evolution in Animals,’ ch. ii. p. 172.) And why not in wild nature, on the up-grade ? 222 THE ZOOLOGIST. those of irrational action, nor need they always, that I can see, become instinctive through lapsing. As time went on, if can hardly be questioned that, through individual memory, some conception would have begun to arise in the minds of birds as to the connection of the present building of the nest, for instance, with the future use to which it was to be put, and this must almost necessarily have passed, by degrees, into their having a clear purpose in building it, which they would probably be quite unable to distinguish from the strong instinct to do so, by which they would really be swayed. When once this point had been reached, the most intelligent birds, working, as one may say, perceptively as well as instinctively, might, without introducing any one great modification, have yet made many small improve- ments, and as the slowly increasing sum of these began to give them an advantage, this general superiority of intelligence, as well as the special results of it, would have been selected through the same agency, pari passu with any instinctive—that is to say, non-intelligent—beneficial variation. Thus the two forces would have become mingled in varying degrees, according to the greater or less intelligence of the species (since the general factor would be likely to be reflected in any particular application of it) but with a preponderance more or less marked, and always great, in favour of the latter. If the nest-building instinct has, in its origin, had nothing to do with the “sexual frenzy,” then it is certainly odd that the picking up and letting fall, or laying down again, of objects from the ground, or material from the nest, should, in some birds, be a feature of the paroxysms to which I have given that name, both some time, a little or just before, during and imme- diately after coition. No act lies more at the very basis of the instinct, is more absolutely essential to it than is this; and, moreover, occurring under these circumstances, it must be deemed a peculiar one. Yet if we do not recognise the con- nexion here suggested, we must see in it only a mere irrelevant coincidence. Again, it is noticeable that some of the movements by which birds—even such as are fairly advanced in the art— build their nests have an odd sort of resemblance to essentially sexual ones. The Peewit, during early spring, goes through peculiar movements on the ground, as the result of which a ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION IN ICELAND. 223 circular depression, closely resembling that in which the eggs are afterwards laid, is produced, and it places in this, moreover, some scanty materials, such as grass-blades. The general idea is that the cock bird alone does this, but I have seen both sexes act so, as a sequel to coition ; and also make little pecks at the ground at or beside the places rolled on. The most marked features of these performances, which seem clearly sexual, are the pressing of the breast against the earth, with a sort of rolling motion, and the strong downward pressure of the tail, or rather anal parts generally, with spasmodic movements, such as, in the male, accompany coition. The wings are drooped, extended from the sides and slightly quivered; and with these actions the pecking at things on the ground is also conjoined. The action here noticed with the tail as well as with the wings is a perfectly useless one, (at any rate, as it is practised, for the bird’s hinder parts are tilted into the air), in connection with the making of a shallow pit or hollow; but it is effectively employed by the Blackbird in shaping the rim of its well-built and very differently placed nest. There is also here the same pressure and movements of the breast and wings, by which the cup is shaped, and, whilst thus acting, the bird has a very curious appearance, for it seems to be in a sort of ecstatic state rather than exercising a purely mechanical craft. I cannot but think it odd, if nidification has been purely architectural in its beginnings, that any bird should have thought of employing its tail in this way. It may not be beyond the possibilities of intelligent adaptation (though we do not see many such), but I must look at the manner as well as the matter, and find it easier to suppose that one and the same cause lies at the root of these movements in the concupiscent Peewit, the building Blackbird, and the incubating, or fostering, Merlin—et sic de ceteris. If the nest, as an adapta- tion to the needs of the young and the practice of incubation, grew out of the place—at first unmodified and then strewed with some light litter of flung-about materials merely—where birds were accustomed to pair, we can see why, in the case of some species (we do not, by any means, yet know how many), the old habit and the old association of ideas is continued. Otherwise, however, these facts are not easy to explain. Archi- tecture, properly so called, cannot be supposed to flow naturally 994 THE ZOOLOGIST. out of the primary sexual emotions, and if the nest is the out- come solely of constant small acts of intelligence of a constructive kind, a bird, when building, should be in a very different state of mind from that in which it is when under the influence of passion. The two things, instead of being mentally associated together, through their common origin and consequent habitual concomitancy, might be expected to be cut off from each other ; nor would Natural Selection, as far as one can see, have at all tended to favour their union. Nor does she, upon the view which I advocate. On the contrary, she must be looked upon as a differentiating and specialising agency, whilst she at the same time makes use of the force of heredity. She has changed one trifling and wholly irrelevant instinct that arose, rhyth- mically, as a mere nervous adjunct of the sexual stimulus, into the important one of nidification; and if she has not yet eradicated all traces of the steps by which she has brought this about, yet she is, as it were, constantly striving to do so, since the tendency must be for mere useless actions, representing a waste of energy, to drop out and disappear before useful ones. Again, there seem many reasons against a habit of pairing on the nest, arising, as it were, per accidens. If it is continued after the laying of the eggs (as I have reason to think that, in some cases, it still is), these may, in consequence, suffer; nor does an artificial structure seem to offer any particular convenience for the act itself. One must recognise this where pairing begins on the site of the nest, and only comes to be upon it (the actual nest) as the building (or rather heaping) progresses. In the case of the Grebes it may appear otherwise, yet there are generally low and flat shores in the vicinity of their breeding haunts; and, more- over, it is scarcely possible to imagine any species having actu- ally to rear a structure in order to facilitate or make possible this primary physical act, on which its continuance depends. No bird, one must suppose, could have become aquatic beyond its capacity for this functioning, under the new conditions, though an acquired habit might have been transferred from the land to the water. In the case of a non-aquatic bird, the whole surface of the country, according to its habits, is open to it for this purpose, whereas coition on the nest may be attended with more or less of inconvenience. Thus Rooks have this habit, though it is not a ORNITHOLOGICAL OBSHRVATION IN ICELAND. 225 constant one with them; * and, as I have myself observed, they often suffer severely for it, for no sooner are a pair seen to be acting in this way, than as many of the rookery as happen to be there assembled, taking the cue one from another, set violently upon them, and the nest becomes shortly covered up beneath a mass of tumbling, struggling birds. The scene, indeed, is so animated and the main features of it—birds flying from every direction to one particular nest, with a general scrimmage upon it—so marked, that it has occurred to me it may often have been misinterpreted as the destruction of the nest of some couple convicted of pilfering. One would only need not to be there at the beginning, and not to stay till the end, to fall into this error quite easily. There is, however, no doubt as to the true cause in these cases, however established the other one (which I have not myself witnessed) may be. It is, I think, remarkable that the Rooks should cling to a habit attended with such severe penalties. If it has its roots deep down in the sexual instinct, or its concomitant developments arising out of the sexual frenzy, then here is an explanation ; but otherwise it is not easy to understand how, in the face of such difficulties and discouragement, it should ever have esta- blished itself. To conclude, on the supposition that the nest was originally the pairing-place, we have an explanation of the facts to which I have here referred, but all of which I have not yet fully recorded, nor need their being exceptional (though as to the extent to which they are we are yet in ignorance) surprise us, since the differentiating and specialising process, which is at work everywhere, would be sufficient to account for this. On the other hand, if these two instincts—nidification and the sexual or pairing one—though thus sometimes, as I have shown, combined and intermingled, have yet, so far as the origin and growth of the former are concerned, had nothing to do with one another, the fact of their being so is surprising, and has yet to be accounted for. * Rooks are not included amongst the four species mentioned by me as pairing habitually on the nest, nor do they belong to any of the families represented by these. 226 THE ZOOLOGIST. BIRD LIFE ON THE ISLAND OF KIGG. By J. Kirke Nasa, L.D.S. (Ed.), F.Z.8. (Scot.). Havine arranged with my friend Mr. David Hamilton to visit the Island of Higg for the purpose of observing the Manx Shearwater (Pufinus anglorum) at its nesting haunts, we landed there from the s.s. ‘Claymore’ at the somewhat inconvenient hour of 11.30 p.m. on June 20th last and left again on the 24th, when we crossed over by motor-boat to Arisaig. Anxious to make the most of the few days at our disposal, we called early next morning upon Mr. Glendinning, the factor on the island, to whom we had an introduction, and he kindly gave us any information we required regarding the nesting localities of the ‘‘Fachach ’—the local name for the Shearwater, and which I believe means ‘‘ night-bird.”’ The Island of Higg is rougbly divided into two mountainous portions by a valley which runs from the little bay at Kildonan on the east side to the Bay of Laig on the west. The larger section lying to the south-west of this valley rises to a consider- able elevation, attaining a height of over 1300 ft. at the ‘‘ Scuir of Higg,”’ which forms a notable feature in the landscape. The other portion of the island runs more directly north, and is really the more interesting part from an ornithologist’s point of view. Huge basaltic cliffs on the west side surround the Bay of Laig for over a mile in extent, and from their base a nearly perpendicular slope descends for a great distance to the level ground, on which stands the crofting township of Cleadale. Right at the top of this steep, immediately under the beetling crags, the nesting-burrows of the ‘“‘ Fachachs”’ are to be found. Walking along the top of these cliffs to their north-western extremity, the immense height of which greatly impresses one, and where a magnificent view of the Island of Rum can be obtained, we slowly made our way down, which required very careful footing owing to the friable nature of the rocks, and BIRD LIFE ON THE ISLAND OF EIGG. 227 cautiously making our way along the foot of the sheer face we soon came upon the burrows of the Shearwaters, but it took us some little time before we found the birds, and also the best method of getting at them, for being nocturnal in their habits, they are never seen leaving their nests, and they are also very silent. We found over a dozen nests. and took out several of the birds. As they can bite rather severely—sufficient to cut the skin—it is advisable for the ‘‘ Fachach”’ hunter to protect his hands with gloves when investigating the holes. If returned to the entrance of the burrow the birds immediately sought the nest again, but wishing to see their flight, we launched one or two of them into the air, when they flew down the declivity at a great pace, with very direct flight, right out into the Sound of Rum. One bird which was beyond our reach in its burrow made a curious crooning or grunting sound whenever we attempted to seize it. I mention this specially, as all the others were quite silent. Owing to the nature of the ground, the burrows only penetrate directly inwards for a short distance, when they run off for several feet, at right angles along the face as it were, and to many of them there was an entrance at either end. Passing in the hand as far as the arm could reach, we never could feel the birds nor the nest containing the single white egg, and it was only by judging the direction of the holes and digging through the face with the aid of a stout walking-stick that we got at them. All the nests we found had eggs, though in most cases they were highly incubated, and the chicks could be heard cheeping inside. The nests were very primitive in structure, a small quantity of dry heather-twigs apparently constituting the whole affair. It would be somewhat difficult to say whether the burrows were made by the birds themselves. Many are probably excavated by Rabbits, but as many of the holes would hardly admit one’s hand, I am rather inclined to think they are dug out by the birds. Working on the rock face under a blazing sun proved very laborious, yet so extremely fascinating it was only when the sun began to sink behind the hills of Rum that we thought of leaving the scene. Having now accomplished the main object of our visit, we devoted the whole of the following day to traversing most of the coast-line round the southern half of the island, from Laig on 228 THE ZOOLOGIST. the west to Kildonan on the east, besides visiting about a dozen small lochs scattered among the hills around the ‘‘ Scuir,” with a view to discovering what bird life was on the island. On the third and last day of our visit we made an excursion by moior- boat to Muck, which lies between three and four miles to the south, and whilst crossing the Sound of Higg we had an inter- esting encounter with a Lesser Rorqual Whale. Sailing close inshore to view the sea-birds which abound on the high cliffs along the south coast, our attention was drawn to the huge dorsal fin of the monster as it swam along near the surface of the water, and bringing the boat round we ran alongside of it, passing between it and the shore. We could see the creature from head to tail, and estimated it to be at least thirty feet long by comparing it with the boat, which measured twenty-eight feet. Mr. Glendinning, who was with us, gave it a prod with one of the heavy oars we had in the boat, when it plunged down and disappeared. We spent an hour or two on Muck, which is a flat fertile island, forming a strong contrast to Higg, and also landed on one or two islets, where numerous sea-birds breed. Although presenting a somewhat barren appearance when viewed from a passing steamer, the Island of Higg--which lies about ten miles west from Arisaig, the nearest mainland—is so pleasingly diversified by hill and dale, besides possessing a fair share of woodland on the east side, that it is not altogether surprising to find such a large variety of bird-life as abounds. So far as 1 am aware, no account of the birds of Higg has appeared since 1892, when an entertaining chapter on Higg was given by Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown in his book on the ‘ Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides.’ The account, how- ever, as the author states, is largely based on a previous one written by Mr. William Evans (published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society,’ vol. viii., 1884-85), who visited the island in June, 1884. In the ‘Zoologist’ for 1888 there also appeared an interesting paper on the subject written by A. H. and H. A. Macpherson. Mr. Evans personally observed fifty species, and from various sources of information he made up a total list of eighty-four. Of these, however, viz., the Bullfinch, the Short-eared Owl, the BIRD LIFE ON THE ISLAND OF EIGG. 229 Slavonian Grebe, the Great Shearwater, and the Storm Petrel, Mr. Macpherson held that they could not be admitted owing to insufficient evidence. Mr. Macpherson’s list numbered ninety- five species, but how many of these were from personal observa- tion he does not state. Our list, which numbers fifty-three species, only includes those seen by ourselves, and of these several have never before appeared in any published list. It also proves the breeding of some other species suspected or unknown to do so. Had we been able to prolong our stay I have no doubt the number could have been considerably augmented, as the wooded parts entirely escaped our attention. Only a resident ornithologist would be in the position to produce a complete and authentic list of the birds on this island, as several species from higher latitudes are known to pass the winter there, and in addition to these there will doubtless be many birds of pas- sage which could only be seen during the spring and autumn migration. The subjoined list gives a detailed account of all the species that came under our notice, and every bird mentioned was care- fully identified :— 1. Misrue-Torusa (Turdus viscivorus).—A few were found near the centre of the island feeding in the open. No previous record of this species has been given. 2. Sona-TurusH (Turdus musicus).—Very common. Many were seen along the seashore and throughout the bleaker parts of the island quite away from the woods. 3. Buacksirp (Turdus merula).—Several were seen in localities similar to those in which we met the Mistle-Thrush. 4, WHEATEAR (Sazxicola enanthe).—This was a fairly common species. We observed a good many pairs frequenting the rough ground one usually expects to find this species on. 5. Wuincwat (Pratincola rubetra).—These were also quite common, especially on the rough ground bordering the roadside on the way to Laig. 6. Ropin (Hrithacus rubecula).—We only encountered one bird, which was evidently feeding young on a wild part south of the Scuir. 7. WHITETHROAT (Sylvia cinerea).—We came on a number of 230 THE ZOOLOGIST. Z these at Laig, amongst the rough herbage, brambles, and meadow-sweet bordering the grassland. 8. WiuLow-WReEN (Phylloscopus trochilus).—Several observed. In summer, no matter what part of the country you wander in, this species seems ever present. 9. Hepar-Sparrow (Accentor modularis).—One bird seen on a very barren part towards the west coast. 10. Wren (T'roglodytes parvulus).—We were not long on the island before this lively little bird made us aware of its presence with its merry outburst of pleasing song. 11. Meapow-Prerr (Anthus pratensis).— This species was frequently seen and heard all over the island. 12. Rockx-Piprr (Anthus obscurus)—We observed a number on the rocks along the south shore and also on Muck. 13. Swattow (Hirundo rustica).— Mr. Macpherson records having seen one bird. We saw several and found them nesting at Laig. 14. Houssz-Sparrow (Passer domesticus).—This species does not appear in Mr. Evans’s list, though included in Mr. Macpher- son’s. We saw several on both sides of the island. They were nesting in a barn at Laig House. 15. Twite (Linota flavirostris)—We met a number of these birds, particularly on the heather slopes towards the south-west and perching on sallows near a small marsh. 16. Corn-Buntine (Hmberiza miliaria).—Although said to be one of the most prevalent species on Higg, we met with but few birds. 17. YevLow Buntine (Emberiza citrinella).—These were dis- tinctly more numerous than the previous species. 18. Sraruine (Sturnus vulgaris).—According to previous re- cords, this species seems to vary greatly in number. It was undoubtedly the most numerous of all the smaller birds during our stay; indeed, it was swarming in some parts, and we found several nesting among the ruins of the deserted crofts at Grulin on the south side. 19. Raven (Corvus corax).—We saw one bird on the cliffs at Cleadale. 20. HoopEp Crow (Corvus cornix).—Said to be a regular pest in Higg, but we only encountered a few birds. 3oD?) BIRD LIFE ON THE ISLAND OF EIGG. 231 21. Roox (Corvus frugilegus).—We noticed several in the centre of the island not far from the schoolhouse, but saw no in- dications of a rookery as mentioned by Mr. Harvie-Brown (1886). 22. Sxy-Larx (Alauda arvensis).—The song of these melodious birds could be heard all over the island. 23. Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus).—In the vicinity of the Bay of Laig the call of the Cuckoo often broke upon the ear amid the general silence, and these birds were well distributed over the island. 24. Barn-Own (Strix flammea).—In the inn at Laig we saw a stuffed bird taken the previous winter in the barn by the shepherd. 25. Common Buzzarp (Buteo vulgaris).— When at the Shear- waters on the cliffs at Cleadale, a pair of these birds were circling high overhead, uttering their shrill mewing cry, and next day at the wild rocky headland of Rhuda-an-Aeseid, on the south-west, another pair were seen. One of the birds repeatedly flew to and from the cliff face, whilst the other circled high above the waters of the Sound of Rum. We suspected they had young, but the overhanging nature of the rocks prevented us from obtaining a view of the supposed nesting-site. 26. Perrarine Fatcon (Falco peregrinus).-— Whilst sitting on the top of the cliffs watching the Buzzards and enjoying the beauty of the scene, a pair of Peregrines were noticed dashing along the face of the precipice. 27. Suae (Phalacrocorax graculus).—At several points along the sea-cliffs we were able to see some distance along the shore and on the rocks below we could distinguish many of these birds. They nest in the numerous caves that penetrate the cliffs all along the coast. 28. Gannet (Sula bassana). —If reliance can be placed on an ancient account by Dean Munro, who visited the Hebrides between 1540 and 1549, it appears these birds at one time nested on the cliffs of Higg. His quaint description is interesting : “ North from Ellan Muchd be foure myles, lyes an iyle called iyle of Hgga, foure myle lange and twa myle braid, guid maine land with a Paroch Kirk in it and maney Solane geese.” We saw two of these birds diving and fishing in the Sound of Rum, within a mile of the shore. 232 THE ZOOLOGIST. 29. MatuarpD (Anas boscas).—In a reedy pond near Laig House we came across several young birds and also a hatched- out nest on a hill loch. 30. Common E1pER (Somateria mollissima).—We saw a number of these birds both on the east and west side of the island, and found it nesting on Castle Island. 31. Rocx-Dovz (Columba livia).-—A large number of these birds frequent the numerous caves, one of which is known as Pigeon Cave, in the high sea-clifis that terminate the steep slopes from the Scuir on the south side. It is near here that the famous cave penetrating 300 ft. is situated, in which the McDonalds of Higg were suffocated by the McLeods of Skye when they raided the island. 32. Rep Grouse (Lagopus scoticus).—Although the ground is eminently suited for this species, there appeared to be very few of these birds. 33. PHEASANT (Phasianus colchicus).—We saw several of these among the heather on the hill slopes—a rather unusual situa- tion. No previous record has occurred. 34. Corn-CRAKE (Crex pratensis).—Quite common, especially in the meadows around Laig Bay. During the night the mono- tonous ‘‘ crek, crek’’ was almost incessant. 35. RineeD Piover (%gialitis hiaticola).—One pair on the sandy beach at Kildonan were observed. It seems that never more than the one pair is ever seen here. 36. Lapwine (Vanellus vulgaris).—Although informed that this bird had been observed in Higg, Mr. Evans did not see it during his visit. We saw several birds, and on Muck we found a nest with two eggs. 37. OysTERCATCHER (Hematopus ostralegus). — We noticed several on various parts of the coast, and we came on a nest with two eggs close to a colony of Common Gulls. 88. RepsHank (J otanus calidris).—One bird seen on the south side near the shore. 39. Common SanpDPIPER (Totanus hypoleucus).—Observed one pair near Grulin. 40. CurLEw (Numenius arquata).—A number seen feeding on the shore at Kildonan, and others fying across the island. 41. Common Tern (Sterna fluviatilis),—Two or three birds BIRD LIFE ON THE ISLAND OF EIGG. 233 came quite close to the boat as we were passing Castle Island, which enabled us to perfectly identify them. We also saw a few near Muck. We did not expect to find this species here, and no previous record of it has been given. We looked for Arctic Terns, but saw none, though I understand they breed irregularly on several of the islets. 42. Common Guiui (Larus canus).—We noticed individual birds on various parts of the island, but as a nesting species it was by no means numerous. We found a colony of over twenty pairs nesting on some shelving rocks on the south coast. 43. Herrine Gut (Larus argentatus).— Nesting in small numbers at ‘‘ Bidein Boidheach.”” Observed birds all round the coast. 44. Lesser Buack-packep Guin (Larus fuscus).—The same remarks apply to this as to the previous species. 45. Great Buack-BaAcKED GuLu (Larus marinus).—We found these birds here and there over the island. Landing from a small boat under considerable difficulty at the foot of the high sea-cliffs about a mile to the west of the McLeods’ Cave, with a view to finding a nest of the Black Guillemot, we came on a nest of this Gull containing one addled egg and a chick a few days old. It was a fine specimen, and even then showed the fierce nature of this species by pecking at and seizing hold of the finger held out to it. We also saw several nests on an adjacent islet. 46. Kirrttwaxse Guuu (Rissa tridactyla).—On the same islet we saw a number of these birds nesting. 47. Razorpiun (Alca torda).— We saw one or two birds between Castle Island and Higgs, and several in the Sound of Higg. We did not find it as a breeding species on the island, but we saw several nesting on a rocky islet a few miles distant. 48. Common GuinuEMot (Uria troile).—Observed several off shore in the Sound of Higg, and also on the east side of the island. A good many were nesting on the same islet where we found the Razorbill. 49. Buack Gur~LEmot (Uria grylle). — These birds were numerous. We saw a pair on Castle Island and several on the south coast between Castle Island and the Dubh Sgeir. We met many on the water in the Sound of Higg, also in Laig Bay, and one bird when crossing to Arisaig. They were mostly Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIITI., June, 1914. ny 234 THE ZOOLOGIST. in pairs, from which we concluded they were just starting to breed. 50. Purrin (Fratercula arctica).—A number of these birds were seen on the water close to the shore, and on an ‘islet we found a large colony breeding. 51. Rep-tHRoATED Diver (Colymbus septentrionalis)—When descending the steep slopes of Bein Tighe—the second highest point on the island—towards Loch Bein Tighe lying at its base, our attention was drawn to two birds resting on the water. Examining them through our glasses we easily recognized the species, and taking all the available cover we could we got fairly near without disturbing them. Wishing to see how near we could approach, our attention for the moment was taken up with the rough ground we were on, and on looking up again we found they had disappeared with surprising suddenness. This species forms a new addition to the Higg list, as does also the next one. 52. BLACK-THROATED Diver (Colymbus arcticus).— We saw this bird in the Sound of Kigg at no great distance from the shore. 53. Manx SuHearwater (Pufinus anglorum).—‘‘The”’ bird of HKigg (facile princeps). This completes the list, and the chief points of interest to which I would draw attention are, first, the Mistle-Thrush, the Pheasant, the Common Tern, the Red-throated and the Black- throated Divers form new records for Eigg. Secondly, although an allusion is made in one of the former lists to an unpublished record, the present is the first definite account of the Gannet having been seen at Higg. Thirdly, only one example of the Common Swallow—a straggler—was observed by the previous recorders. We saw several and found it nesting. Finally, we proved the breeding of the Great Black-backed Gull and the Oystercatcher, and also the following species in the vicinity: the Puffin, the Kittiwake, the Razorbill, the Guillemot, and the Lapwing. EARLY BREEDING OF THE CRESTED GREBE. By O. V. APpuLin. THERE were five pairs of Great Crested Grebes on the lakes at Fawsley Park, Northants, on May 11th, 1914. The cock of one pair carried on his back a single young one, as big, perhaps, as a goose’s ege. The cock of another pair carried either one or more (I could only make out one for certain, but think there were more) quite small young ones. Pike in the lakes probably accounted for the small number of the young ones. But Grebes also suffer a good deal from the depredations of the Crow family. When I was walking round the lake at Blenheim (where there were many Grebes) last June I picked np under a tree two Grebes’ eggs most obviously sucked, and doubtless by some of the Crow family. The day I was at Fawsley was rather cold, with but little sunshine, and the young might be feeling the cold wind ; or they might have been picked up by the old cock to get away from suspected danger as quickly as possible, for I think this is very often the reason for Grebes taking their young on their backs. At all events, I did not see the young on the water on this occasion. I think these were instances of unusually early breeding for this part of the country. There are good beds of old reeds and other water plants of this year’s growth on the banks of the lakes in places, in the outside edge of which the Grebes would find ample cover for early nests. And itis the question of the presence or absence of cover, and the early or late srowth of this, which determines the date of this bird breeding to a great extent. At Byfield Reservoir, for instance, where the cover is always late in shooting up (largely Stirpus), July is in most years the laying month with the Crested Grebe. The Grebes have been at Fawsley for nearly twenty years. Later in the afternoon, when passing one of the large ponds at Canon’s Ashby, I noticed a pair of Crested Grebes on it. 236 THE ZOOLOGIST. NOW S” AND 4 O Urner ies: MAMMALIA. Fecundity of the domestic Cat.—Our Cat is half Chinchilla half Persian, and she came to us just able to lap milk as a kitten. Her kitten record since then has been carefully noted in a book, copy of which is appended. Is not a litter of eight rather unusual? This was her last performance. All her progeny have been healthy and vigorous, and most have been light grey like herself :— A Cat's Progeny. Number in Number in : each litter. each litter. 1909, April 17 mes 5 1911, Aug. 10 4 July 23 Be ey 8) 1912, March 31 3) Date not exactly July 26 5 recorded in Sept. 3 Nov. 30 4 Dag Te eee LI oe 1913, March 4 5 1910, Feb. i May 19 4 May 23 5 Sept. 2 6 Avie LO ae Gee ee et) ed 1914, Jan. 29 L Oct. 27 born dead 2 May 16 8 Nov. 1.. 5 eae — 1911, March 31 5 Total 8 —Epwop. N. Mennett (The Hostel, Shirley, Croydon). The Decrease of the Squirrel—I wish to report that on May 8th, while with some friends near Ambresbury Banks in the northern part of Epping Forest, a good view was secured of a Common Squirrel. I missed it, but my wife, who is well acquainted with both species, was confident that it was the British and not the American species ; indeed, a lady of the party remarked on its rich red colour. I cannot remember ever seeing a Squirrel in Essex, and certainly not within the past three years, when its absence first began to interest me. Dr. Laver, writing on the Mammalia of Essex in 1881 (‘ Epping Forest Transactions,’ p. 169), stated that ‘it occurs in all parts of the county in suitable spots—that is, where there are woods’’; but I have spent a good deal of time in such localities and NOTES AND QUERIES. 237 never noticed the animal. Half a century ago it was common in most of the cloughs and valleys of that corner of the Pennines where the four counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire meet. There is an established tradition in Longdendale that formerly the woods were so dense that a Squirrel could pass from tree to tree between Staleybridge and Glossop; but this is acommonplace super- stition that is applied to many other places which have been stripped of trees. In Longdendale it is also believed that the making of the Woodhead series of reservoirs drove the animal out of the district. It is not uncommon in the Goyt Valley, between Cheshire and Derbyshire, and abundant near Grindleford, which is in the latter county nearer Sheffield. Five years ago I saw a single individual in Bottoms Hall Wood, near Mottram, but this may have been an escaped specimen. Destruction of woodlands as the cause of the decrease of the Squirrel might be studied with greater caution, for reliable observers have described to me that fifty years ago it was well-known as an inhabitant of the scantily-clothed valleys of south- west Yorkshire, and could there be seen running along the stone - walls. In other counties in Wales and England I have myself observed it far from any wood that could be termed dense.—F. J. Stusss (Theydon Bois). AVES. Leisurely Nest-building by a Robin.—We all know how very quickly birds can put up a nest when they are in a hurry; but this season I met with an instance of the opposite kind. Observing a Robin carrying building stuff to the upper part of an ivied wall on March 8th, I examined the spot, and found two or three handfuls of material. The bird was seen building once or twice during the rest of the month, but when I went up (I had to use a ladder), the nest was far from finished. On April 12th it appeared at last to be finished, but was empty, and when I next went up on the 18th, it contained five eggs.—O. V. APLIN. . Blackcap wintering in Oxfordshire.—I saw a male Sylvia atri- capilla in my garden on February 28th. It sang a little, but only got out one good high note. I noticed it at intervals until March 13th, when it sang well with some good high notes at the end of the strain, but not afterwards. 1t may have gone away, or been killed by a cat. Quite possibly it wintered in the garden, and remained unnoticed until it began to sing. During the time I had it under observation I found it difficult to see, as it generally sang from inside 238 THE ZO0O0OLOGIST. a yew tree or other evergreen. The weather was wet. Migrant Blackcaps appeared on April 30th, and we have more than we have had for some years. On May 3rd four, if not five, were singing not far from this house.—O. V. APuin. Gannet plunging for its Prey —Perhaps the principal desideratum still remaining in the life-history of the Gannet or Solan Goose is a satisfactory photograph of this singular bird, taken whilst it was in the act of plunging into the sea for its prey, and the writer would be grateful to anyone who could secure him such a snapshot, which ought not to be very difficult to procure in the vicinity of the Bass Rock or Ailsa Craig, where Gannets are plentiful—aJ. H. Gurney (Keswick Hall, Norwich). Supposed Breeding of Tufted Duck and Pochard in Northants.— On May 11th, 1914, I had an opportunity of seeing what birds there were on the lakes at Fawsley Park, Northamptonshire. I was pleased to see, besides ordinary birds, three pairs of Tufted Ducks and a pair of Pochards. The ducks and drakes of the respective pairs of the Tufted Ducks kept close together and did not leave the water. The Pochards got up, and after flying round twice—uttering their loud rattling ‘‘carragh”’ as they flew past—pitched again on the lake. I think, from the presence of these birds at that late date in the spring, there is a strong probability that they intended to breed there, if indeed the ducks had not already begun to lay. Lord Lilford, in his ‘Birds of Northamptonshire’ (1895), does not give any instance of either of these ducks breeding in that county; but the fact of their doing so may have been noticed and recorded since that date. The Pochard has been suspected of breeding in Northants at Byfield Reservoir for some years past. I saw a pair there in August, 1895. On July 6th, 1900, I saw a drake in the same place. In 1903 the Pochard was believed to have laid eggs there—the keeper reporting a nest containing “‘ brown” duck’s eggs mown out on the banks. On June 14th, 1905, there were three drakes and four ducks on the water.—O. Y. Apuin (Bloxham, Oxon). Corn-Crake (Crex pratensis) in Essex.—On May 18th I heard a Corn-Crake in a meadow at Piercing Hill, Theydon Bois; it was there the next morning and the next night, but I have not heard it since. An unfamiliar quality in its note led me to time it, when I found that the “crake” was uttered at the rate of about twenty to twenty-three times a quarter minute. All those I have timed else- where have called at the rate of about sixty-two to the minute. A 4 . NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. k 239 very funny article on the Corn-Crake in ‘ Punch’ for May 27th, 1914 (obviously from the pen of a writer who knows the bird), describes the rate at ninety-eight to the minute. Judging from my own experience the slower and more familiar rate is decidedly soothing, while the ninety-eight bird threatened to become an intolerable nuisance. I have not previously heard the voice of the Corn-Crake in any of the south-eastern counties.—F. J. Stusss (Theydon Bois). London Notes.—One or more Great Spotted Woodpeckers. have been frequenting one of the Highgate woods since the end of March, and presumably (if a pair) have nested in the locality. Chiffchaffs were heard at Highgate on April Ist. On the 30th of that month T observed a Lesser Tern on one of the Highgate Ponds. Tufted Ducks, at first a single bird, but ultimately two pair, frequented these ponds until the end of March. Carrion Crows are rather common there. I have observed four or five at once about the lower ponds in Parliament Hill Fields —H. Kirke Swann (Finchley). MOE ECriis sO Re NTE We) © OFS? Heredity and Sex. By THomas Hunt Moraan, Ph.D., &c. Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, London. THis is an American publication, written by the Professor of Experimental Zoology in Columbia University. It reviews the principal facts, suggestions, and conclusions on the subject con- tributed by other workers, and gives the results of original study in the same field by the author. Such a volume is bound in its treatment to be more or less argumentative, but Prof. Morgan is unbiassed. He writes:—‘‘It may not be desirable to accept everything that is new, but it is certainly undesirable to reject what is new because of its newness, or because one has failed to keep in touch with the times.’’ To keep oneself in touch with all the novelties in evolutionary speculation, and to judge them by a familiarity with advanced zoological knowledge is now within the province of few indeed, and the excellent bibliography appended to this volume will show the study needed for an up-to-date judgment. Some applications of Natural Selection 240 THE ZOOLOGIST. are discarded, and sexual selection as proposed by Darwin is given scant recommendation. We are struck with one conclusion enunciated by Prof. Morgan: ‘‘ The return to Darwin’s method rather than to Darwin’s opinions marks the beginning of the new era.” This book is very fully and excellently illustrated. The Care of Home Aquaria. By Raymonp C. Ossurn, Ph.D. Published by the New York Zoological Society. Aut publications on this subject are welcome, for we fre- quently find a new hint in management, and in an American guide we are introduced to fish and other animals outside our fauna which are not impossible to obtain for our own aquaria. Moreover, this communication is very fully illustrated, so that we can judge what are really desiderata. Dr. Osburn states that ‘‘it was not until 1850 that the first properly balanced aquarium was described by Mr. Robert Warrington, of Manchester, England, in a paper entitled ‘On the Adjustments of the Relations between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms by which the Vital Functions of both are permanently maintained.” It may be well in this notice to supplement that reference. The author’s name is to be spelled ‘‘Warington,” and his paper was published in the ‘ Zoologist,’ vol. viil., p. 2868 (1850), though it may have appeared else- where, as in a footnote he writes, ‘‘ Since the reading of this paper’? (which we believe was before the Chemical Society). Warington also published another paper, also referred to by Dr. Osburn, entitled ‘‘On Preserving the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms in Sea Water”’ (‘ Zoologist,’ vol. xi., p- 4118 (1853), which, however, had been previously read at the Hull Meeting of the British Association, and also printed in the Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. for November, 1853. Dr. Osburn gives some good directions for “clearing the aquarium,” but although he refers to Tadpoles and freshwater Snails as scavengers, he does not advocate the use of the fresh- water Mussels, one of which (Unio tumidus) is used by some keepers of aquaria with great success in this country. WwW. as i ROSENBERG. IMPORTER OF EXOTIC ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS, 57, Haverstock Hint, Lonpon, N.W., Enevanp., Bess to announce the publication of a new Price List (No. 20) of MAMMALS, including over 400 Species from various parts of the world. This will be mailed free on application, as well as any of the following lists:—BIRD-SKINS (over 5000 Species); BIRDS’ HGGS (over 1100 Species); REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, anp FISHES (over 400 Species); EXOTIC LEPIDOPTERA (over 8000 Species). Largest Stock in the world of specimens in all branches of Zoology. ALL MUSEUMS AND AMATEURS SHOULD WRITE FOR THESE LISTS. All specimens sent on approval. Please state which lists are required, and give name of this periodical. BR IRDSNESTING & BIRD=SKINNING. A Complete Description of the Nests and Eggs of Birds which Breed in Britain, by Epwarp Nrwman. — Sxeconpd EpitTion, with Directions for Collecting and Preservation; a Chapter on Bird-skinning; and Description and Woodcuts of the Instruments necessary to the Collector. By MiLLER Curisty. Cloth extra. Feap 8vo. Pricels. Postage 2d. HE INSECT HUNTER’S COMPANION. | Instruc- tions for collecting and preserving Butterflies and Moths, Beetles, Bees, Flies, &. By the Rev. JosuepaH Grunt, M.A. — Fifth Hdition, revised and extended by A. B. Farn. The Chapter on Coleoptera by EDwarp Newman; on Hymenoptera by ’ReDERICK SMITH: on Breeding Gall-fiies by Epwarp A. Fitcx. Where to find moths and butterflies; how to catch; how to bring home without | injury; how to kill; how to set; how to find the caterpillars; how to manage; - how to feed; how to breed the perfect insects; and numerous similar subjects. Price ls. 6d., postage 2d. Cloth, gilt, price 2s. 6d. Postage 2d. Second Edition. FAMILIAR INDIAN BIRDS BY GORDON DALGLIESH. Illustrated by Half-tone Blocks from the Drawings of R. H. BUNTING and H. B. NEILSON. Foolscap 8vo, Cloth, gilt top, 160 pp. + blanks for Notes. Price 2s. 6d. POCKET-BOOK of BRITISH BIRDS By E. F. M. ELMS. NFORMATION is given respecting all British birds that breed in these islands, and those that are regular visitors at one time of the year or another, with remarks as to a species being resident, intermigratory, or migratory. Hach species is separately treated under the headings: Haunts, including distribution ; Plumage, __ briefly characterizing the predominant and striking features, with differentiation of : species nearly alike; Language, with song and various cries; Habits; Food; Nidi- - fieation, with site and materials of nest ; ‘and number and description of Bess, onion: WEST, NEWMAN ¢ CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. et ee fe de J Notes on the Fauna of the Gane af ae Chee: and Gade tions), 7’. EH. Lones, M.A., LL.D., B.Sc., 201. A Diary of Ornithological Observation made in Iceland during : Tune and J 1912 (continued), Hdmund Selous, 218. Bird Life on the Island of Higg, J. Kirke Nash, L.D.S. (Ed.), F. ie S. (Se0t ) 22 Early Breeding of the Crested Grebe, O. V. Aplin, 235. ; NoTES AND Que RIES ;— are Mammatia.—Fecundity of the domestic Cat, Edwd. N. Mennell, 236. The Decrease of the Squirrel, F. J. Stubbs, 236, ye Avrs.—Leisurely Nest-building by a Robin, O. V. Aplin, 237. Blackeap wintering in Oxfordshire, 0. V. Aplin, 237. Gannet plunging for its Prey, — J. H. Guy ney, 238. Supposed Breeding of Tufted Duck and Pochard in ~ Northants, O. V. Aplin, 238. Corn-Crake (Crex patensis) in Essex, Je Stubbs, 238. London Notes, H. Kirke Swann, 239. fe Notices or New Books, 239-240. UNPAID SUBSCRIPTIONS to the ‘ZOOLOGIST’ — for 1914 are due. The amount is 12s. post tree. Cases for binding 1913 volume can be had for 1s. 2d. post free from the Publishers, who will also ‘undertake the. binding of volumes at 2s. each post free on return. London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden, — £ f 982 pp. CrLotH Exrra. 6s. 6d. Post FREs. Aristotle s Researches in Natural Science By THOMAS E. LONES, M.A, LL.D. B.Sc. With Illustratwe Drawings. Contents: Introductory—Method of Investigation—Celestial, Atmospheric, and — Terrestrial Phenomena—Light and Colour, Heat and. Sound—Animals, Plants, and Inanimate Matter—Dissections—Homceomeria—Anhomceo- — meria and their functions—Animal Motion—Generation and Develop- — ment—Classification of Animals—Anaima, or Animals without Blood— ¥ Enaima, or Animals with Blood. 4 et ieee x hig 2 BOTANICAL DRYING. PAPER For Drying Flowering Plants, Ferns, & Seaweeds. — ee! Preserves form and colour in the best possible manner, and seldom, if ae requires change of sheets whilst the plants are being dried; it is stout and durable: af Used by the Arctic ships, and on the cruise of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger.’ “nr Sizes and Prices. 16 inches by 10, when folded, 15s. per ream, 1s. 1d. per quire. 18 - 11, ‘ 19s. % Is. 4d. rs 20 ” 12, ” 23s. 2 P 20 vs ee ts Lt ey udon: WEST, NEWMAN & GO., 5 Grn hal ~y 2 = - Monthly Toarne sath 3 A : YATURAL: HI S TORY, hu oe ce = | Edited by W. Le. 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WATKINS & DONCASTER, Manufacturers of Cabinets and Apparatus for Collectors of Birds’ Eggs, Insects, Plants, &c. A large stock of Insects, Birds’ Eggs, &c. List of Clutches of Birds’ Eggs on application. Climbing Irons, best steel, with straps complete, ds. per pair. Egg Collector’s Outfit, containing Drills, Blowpipes, and all Requisites complete, with Book of Instructions, post free, 3s. 3d. Label — Lists of every description. Birds and Animals stuffed and mounted in Natural Positions. For particulars see our Catalogue, one hundred pages. 36, STRAND, LONDON. W.C. Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, extra. Pp. 144. Price 10s. A Sahin irre was ee ok Bird Collector's Medley Ec ARNOLD. M.A. @ With Twelve full-page Coloured Illustrations and Fight Un-| coloured, from the Author’s Drawings. Illustrated in the Text by Twenty Process Blocks. G A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore-Shooters. London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden, THE ZOOLOGIST No. 877.—July 15th, 1914. THE EGYPTIAN DESERT AND ITS BIRDS. By Rospert GURNEY. Tue ordinary traveller in Upper Egypt has few opportunities of making acquaintance with the desert which fringes the culti- vated strip of land along the Nile, and still less of seeing the true Libyan Desert beyond. An excursion to Sakkara from Gizeh will show him something of the former, but only of its less pleasing features. It is only from Dahchour southwards that the fringing desert can be seen at its best. This fringe yaries in width from a few hundred yards to two or three miles, and for the most part consists of stretches of absolutely barren, stony, or sandy ground, as at Abydos; but in other places there are long sand-dunes covered with tamarisk and coarse wiry grass, with intervening flats, either covered with grass or quite bare sand. The fringing desert merges into cultivated land, for the Fellah is always ready to sow his lupine crops so near the limit of the inundation that there is usually a debatable ground where stunted lupines struggle for bare existence against the parched sand, and only the pretty little blue Iris thrives. » The Libyan Desert, on the other hand, lying as it does at a higher level, is sharply marked off from the valley of the Nile either by rising abruptly in great limestone clifis, or in rolling sandy hills, as at Dahchour. Once on the true desert, the sight of a green thing is a rare treat to the eye; only here and there in a hollow one may come across a patch of plants with succulent Gool. sth ser. voi. XVIII... July, 1914. U 242 THE ZOOLOGIST. leaves or consisting of little more than thorny twigs. For mile upon mile the way leads over a gently undulating expanse of stony desert, where the only living things are sandy-coloured ~ Lizards and Mantids, darting about with prodigious swiftness, and probably feeding on the few minute flies which somehow contrive to find subsistence here. The view is shut in by the gently rising ground, and though every sky-line gives promise of a changing scene, it is a promise which rarely finds fulfilment. The desert is not, however, by any means all flat or even undulating, but the level plain may give place to more broken ground with bold rocky cliffs, which often show curious effects of the tremendous weathering power of blowing sand and extremes of heat and cold. Once out on the true desert, practically all bird life is left behind. Here and there, near the edge of it, a little flight of Pipits passes by seeking the patches of vegetation, and birds of strong flight, such as Ravens, Vultures, and Swifts are occasion- ally seen. The Swift (Cypselus pallidus) may be found nesting in rock crevices in the desert some miles south-west of Dahchour. With these exceptions there appear to be no birds resident in these wastes, in spite of the fact that there is a scanty insect fauna subsisting on one knows not what. It is only in the immediate neighbourhood of the Nile valley that birds are met with in any numbers, the cliffs that bound the valley being a favourite nesting-haunt of many of the birds of prey. These cliffs are composed of limestone, and their line is broken in various places by deep gorges running in for a considerable distance. These narrow gorges are closed in by precipitous walls of rugged rock terraced by ancient water levels, and often honeycombed with water-worn caves and holes of all sizes, many of which have been the abode of Neolithic man or of persecuted Copts, and some of which may even now be the homes of lawless or outlaw Arabs. The ledges and holes in these steep and almost inaccessible cliffs make admirable nesting-places for birds of prey, or dens for Jackals. It is here that the Griffon and Egyptian Vultures and Bonelli’s Eagle nest, and Ravens and Falcons may be seen in most of these gorges in the spring. The Rock Swallow (Cotile obsoleta) flits about the bare rocks in some numbers, and now THH EGYPTIAN DESERT AND ITS BIRDS. 243 and then Wheatears (Sazicola monacha) watch the intruder from the top of a boulder. At night the whistling note of the Barn- Owl and the echoing boom of the Eagle Owl (Bubo ascalaphus) may be heard, while Jackals steal out to make their way towards the cultivated land. The crevices harbour countless Bats which, silent during the day, fill the air with their twittering as dusk falls, before, as at a concerted signal, they fly out from every cranny in a cloud. A curious and rather awe-inspiring noise is sometimes heard in these valleys at sunset. A low rumbling is heard which rises to a vibrating roar reverberating from the hollow rocks and lasting some minutes before it gradually dies away again. Apparently this noise is caused by the slipping of the sand on the steep slopes. At all events, the same noise on a small scale is produced if one slides down one of these sand slopes. As one proceeds, the whole face of the slope begins to move, and gradually a vibrating humming sound rises beneath the sand in a@ most uncanny way. Apparently these gorges at Abydos were noted in ancient times for mysterious sounds, for Abydos is described in an inscription of about 4000 B.c. as ‘‘ the region of bellowing.” Between these cliffs and the cultivated land which borders the Nile is, as has been said, a fringe of desert, and here there may be a rather rich bird life. Hven here, however, in the dry stony wastes there is little to be seen, but where the moisture and other conditions are suitable for the growth of scanty grass, tamarisks, and other semi-desert plants, a number of birds find a home. It is in these places that the Cream-coloured Courser is met with in small flocks. These birds are not uncommon, though perhaps they are often passed unseen—I have seen a piece of desert covered with their footmarks, and yet have seen nothing of the birds. They are somewhat shy, run with great speed, and readily take wing when pressed. In flight they are very conspicuous, owing to the black markings under their wing. Another most characteristic bird is the Desert Lark (Certhi- lauda alaudipes), which may be found singly or in pairs along this fringing desert. It is a fearless bird, and delights the traveller by its habit of fluttering up a few yards into the air and u 2 244 THE ZOOLOGIST. then falling headlong to the ground again, singing a sweet little song as it falls. These two are the most striking and interesting birds of this region, but the Sand-Grouse belongs to it too, since it is not a bird of the cultivation and still less of the bare desert. The Sand-Grouse seems to be now a rare bird in middle Egypt. It may be simply bad luck, but in two visits to Egypt, in which I have seen all the varieties of country which Egypt has to offer, I have only once seen Sand-Grouse, though I have oceasionally heard them at night. Of the smaller birds there are the beautiful little Trumpeter Bullfinch (Erythrospiza githaginea), and a number of species of Wheatear, Pipit and Lark, which frequent, either constantly or partly, this desert fringe. The Bullfinch is, however, properly a bird of the cultivation, being usually found along the causeways which bound the irrigation basins. The Wheatears are very numerous in Hgypt, and while some, such as the Isabelline (S. isabellina), the Common, and the Black-eared (S. albicollis), seem to prefer the cultivated ground or its immediate edge, all visit the desert and some are rarely seen outside it. These desert forms are S. deserti and S. monacha. The latter I have only seen in one of the dry valleys penetrating the cliffs, where it apparently had a nest. Thus it may be said that, so far as Egypt is concerned, the desert itself has no birds resident within it. Such birds as are met with are merely birds of passage, or are making use of its rocks for breeding purposes: but if we extend our definition to include the fringing desert where there is a considerable xero- phytic vegetation, there are a number of birds which find here their congenial home. ( 245 ) RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIBKS. By H. Panton. (Concluded from p. 101.) Let us in our argument term Darwin’s slowly evoluting “indefinite variation’ a ‘‘variant,” in opposition to his ‘‘ de- finite’ or “‘ spontaneous variation,” the mutant of De Vries. The latter great exponent of the mutation theory is of opinion (as above stated) that evolution proceeds from a sudden jump; that a new species is suddenly born; a mutant. What is the difference between the slow changing variant of Darwin and the suddenly evoluted mutant of De Vries? Is it only one of degree? ' If so, there is no difference. I believe that a mutant is defined as a type that gives inheritable powers, but that a variant does not transmit this power, or hand on its variation to its offspring. This distinction is clear, but is it invariable ? A mutation, I take it, is the result of a power in the germ plasm to give forth suddenly a new form desired by or agreeable to Nature, whether acting through environment or nutriment. It is a natural evoluting process for the manufacture of new forms, and is recognized by Darwin, and although not considered by him to be as effective in evolution as his more graduating variant, is, it is not unreasonable to suppose, apparently like the latter, acted upon by ‘‘external conditions affecting the germ-cells.” One is therefore forced to the conclusion that a mutant and a variant arise from the same cause. But some say, as above, that a variant does not transmit its characteristics. Without entering into the argument at all fully, it would appear that there are a large number of cases where variation is hereditary. Nearly all domestic animals are moulded into various forms almost entirely by this means. And let it not be forgotten that in these domestic forms (or 246 THE ZO00LOGIST. most of them) the selection is not natural but unnatural, and (as in the case of the long-legged game-fowl, which will drop back in one generation to the short-legged type) these variations do not, therefore, become properly fixed but naturally tend to variate back at once to a normal condition. Most of these forms are monstrosities, and only come into being through unnatural interbreeding (with subsequent sterility), against the tendency through natural evolution to revert back from the monstrous to the correct type. If unnatural evolution can cause a variant to thus pass on its characteristics, it is not perhaps unreasonable to suppose that selection according to the requirements of Nature (whether Lamarckian or Wallacian) may obtain much better results, and pass on its characteristic as unvaryingly as any mutant. I do not know if Darwin is right in stating that variation gives rise slowly to species. I cannot see any reason why it should not. The matter appears to be by no means settled. Because species have been proved to arise through mutations, this is no evidence that they may not arise by variation. Some authorities, among them Professor MacBride,* appear by no means to accept the theory of mutation in toto, and state that the celebrated example of De Vries, the evening primrose, and on which the chief arguments in favour of his theory are based, may be an introduced form and is strongly suspected of being a hybrid, and thus appear to discredit the theory of evolution by mutation. As far as I can gather there do appear to be mutants, causing not merely new varieties, such as the white-bellied type of Mus rattus, Long-haired Cavies, &c., but even more, even indeed a species (?), at one bound, infertile with the parent form. Dr. R. E. Liloyd,t writing on the researches of Mr. W. L. Tower regarding the Potato Beetle of America, states: ‘‘ Here the origin of a species was actually observed (Leptinotarsa pallida)”; and later: ‘‘A number of L. multiteniata were allowed to breed in captivity under conditions which were nearly normal. The great majority of the offspring raised were of the kind multiteniata, like their parents, but both ZL. rubicunda and * € Zoology, the Study of Animal Life.’ + ‘The Growth of Groups.’ RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 247 L. melanothorax were born in the same line as sports. .. . The line of rubicunda, which was raised directly, both male and - female sports of this kind being obtained, was found to be ‘almost completely sterile’ with the parent species, but quite fertile with specimens of rubicwnda found at Toluca in natural circumstances.” The noteworthy point in this matter would appear to be the ‘‘almost complete sterility’ of the sport rubicunda with the parent species. It would seem at one jump to have arrived at the “D” stage without any of those intermediate graduating stages, as I have suggested in the Theory of Hybrids. This would appear to give it the appearance of a very extreme mutant, all other mutants that I know of being fertile in the first ‘A’ stage with the parent type. As classed in the ““D” stage they become associated with types as divergent as the Horse and Ass, that is, of course, as regards their germ plasm interaction, which, as I have tried to show, by no means is to be sauged by the outward appearance, so far as form is concerned. This would appear to discountenance (as stated before in this paper) if not the theory of hybrids, at any rate the suggestion I have put forward that mutations were confined to the somatic or visible evolution, but that the germinal mutation was more gradual, or rather, the effect on the germ plasm was not marked as regards sterility till a much later stage, viz. after two or three mutations, which gives the appearance of a more graduating change in the same. As, however, all these evolutionary matters of varieties, species, and genera, of variants and mutants, appear to be mostly those of degree, it is not incomprehensible to expect more sudden changes at some times than at others, and it would not appear to be any reason that, because some muta- tions, as far as they are germinal, are sudden, supposition of the general tendency of gradual evolution of germ plasm is unsound, or any theories based on this of no worth whatsoever. As far as my opinion is of value, this example of the Beetle L. rubicunda appears one of the most interesting facts that have been recorded of any mutants, and equalled only by the curious diverse results of those reciprocal hybridizing experiments mentioned by Darwin. Dr. Lloyd makes no special comment on this in his book (‘ The Growth of Groups’), although his other 248 THE ZOOLOGIST. examples of mutants, which appear to be chiefly based on variations of Mus 7attus, are, as usual, quite fertile with the parent form. I am unable to discover where a variant ends and a mutant begins, although one can understand the difference in the main. It appears probable that this ambiguity may be likened to the difference visible in white and negro, but indefinable in their cross-breeds, and also to the graduating difference between species where no line can be drawn. If we instance Cebus Monkeys, Roan Antelopes, and Red Deer only, I think it will prove a matter of some difficulty to distinguish the mutants from the variants. There seems evidence to show evolution of these and similar wild forms by variation, as in domestic types. How does the big ankle of the St. Kilda islanders arise ? Also the long legs of the Dinka tribes? As mutations? I should imagine not. And are these not acquired? An argu- ment in favour of acquired characters not being passed on is that of the non-transmission of docked tails in Dogs. This, however, is mere mutilation. Nature would hardly in- spire the deprived parent, handicapped in its efforts to balance itself, to transmit such a deformity to its unborn young. Although where Natural Selection gets a chance to work fairly (as conceived theoretically by the Darwinians), one might expect it to do its work and thus obviate the necessity for sudden mutations, it is possible it does not invariably get this opportunity. The selection that goes on must depend much on chance, namely, disease, famine, battle, murder, and accident, with the best types perhaps killed off. At the best these must be liable to be modified by crossing with bad types, and thus the race in desperation may have to throw off sudden big jumps (mutations) of much better survival value in order to exist; in fact, to make the jump in spite of the selection it has undergone and not through it. Natural Selection must have a better chance of acting on big jumps (mutations) than on slight differences (variations). Is it not possible that, whereas we may style such evolutions as change of colour from grey to black, absence of horns in RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 249 species previously horned (individual non-merging character- istics) as mutations, such evolutions as those of racial and merging characteristics one may count to be either variation or mutation, according as the difference is great or small, but with an indefinable separation line? In short, that there is but one evolutionary process at work, and that the rate at which this progresses must of necessity (to be in harmony with a more or less urgent environment) be of varying magnitudes, and hence may lead us into classifying these results as separate phenomena. It may be of interest to mention the phenomenon of Inde- pendent Evolution, a possibility somewhat unconsidered. Dr. Lloyd, discussing the origin of the brown white-bellied type of Mus rattus,* surmises that they arise independently all over India, and are not due to one evolution which has migrated. I should imagine that this is a very reasonable deduction from the facts he mentions. I have at present some specimens of this brown type in my possession which were bred by Miss Frances Pitt t from black parents. It is impossible, however, to say if these were an original mutation, or whether mutation occurred previously at the place where the parents were caught (a floating hulk), or in the district in general (Plymouth). Moreover, a seaport is hardly a place to expect isolation. The matter, however, is interesting if only from the fact that this brown type is held to be specifically distinct, under the name M. alexandrinus. A more trustworthy example of types separately evoluted is one given previously in connection with Leptinotarsa rubicunda, this type being produced independently from L. multiteniata, and, while sterile with its parent form, breeding congenially with a similar identical though unrelated (genealogically) species. As groups or species appear to arise thus in several places, it follows it is not impossible that genera or families may do likewise, that is, the process might be continued, part passu, to a greater extent, and this might account for curious geographical distribution, such as that of the Tapirs. Platyrrhine and Catarrhine Monkeys may be more widely separated than many * ‘The Growth of Groups.’ + ‘National Review,’ vol. lix. p. 862. 250 THE ZOOLOGIST. imagine, and this, judging from their great dissimilarities, may well be the case. There appears to be no reason why evolution may not, even does not, act in a similar way on types closely allied or even somewhat divergent, and if the process is repeated (and it would be presumptuous to altogether deny the possibility of such a proceeding), one would get parallelism (and even perhaps con- vergence) carried out to a far greater extent than appears to be credited or even taken into consideration. In fact, the possibi- lities of this style of evolution are somewhat staggering, that is, if we can admit that there is perhaps an inherent potentiality in more or less similar forms to be affected by the causes of evolution to similar and somewhat similar degrees. In this way kinship, or even germ plasm resemblance and fertility, need not depend on recent near blood relationship, and members of the same species might be unrelated in origin; to what degree of remoteness, it would be impossible to surmise. L. multiteniata sterile with . ~ ; - L. rubicunda (A). L. m. sterile with . : ; : E. r.(B) + L. 7. (A) = fertile. In this way we have seen how one strain (B) of L. rubicunda is produced from L. multiteniata and sterile (partly) with this form, and on account of this, and also because the former is fertile with another independently evoluted strain (A) of L. rubi- cunda, it may be assumed this ‘‘ A” strain is also sterile (partly) with L. multiteniata (this should be tested). We have thus a case of convergence in L. multiteniata pro- ducing a form of L. rubicunda indistinguishable from and fertile with the original L. rubicunda strain. If this breeding had not taken place under observation in partial confinement, who would have felt inclined to admit the possibility of a genealogical tree similar to the above ? I have mentioned above that the supposed fertility between RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 251 E. zebra and #. asinus suggests that the former is more nearly related to the latter than to the other Zebras. Some years ago it was pointed out by Mr. R. I. Pocock * that there were certain markings which are possessed by all the striped forms, generally referred to as Zebras, which are not found in any other of the Hquide. It has struck me that some such explanation as the following might be as permissible as such alternatives as that of these markings being caused by some peculiarities of the environment (such as are considered by some to induce these parallel cases), or that of being caused by mimicry. Let us assume instead an evolution of the more specialized (?) rock-haunting forms, H. zebra and EL. asinus, from intermediate types of Equines. Let us admit it as possible, if not probable, that EH’. zebra is a specialized form descended from some ancestral intermediate type, with medium hoofs, ears, tail, mane, &c., akin to the Quaggas, and with stripes and markings peculiar to Zebras in general. That in the course of this evolution there were independent strains from the ancestral type making towards the same goal; that is, that all the present tribe of E. zebra are not absolutely descended from one original Adam and Eve pair. This assumption would not be greatly in excess (as probability goes) of the facts noted in regard to the Beetle Leptinotarsa. : We shall here admit a and (3 strains to be one and the same species, for it is impossible to tell the difference between them, or which individuals belong to which strain, or even if there are two strains, or two hundred, or perhaps, in conformity with general opinion, only one. It is also quite easy to admit the probability of sterile hybrids between the specialized and ancestral forms. Admitting, therefore, independent evolution of this descrip- tion, we may proceed a stage further and suppose the presence, contemporaneously with the ancestral Quagga-like type, -of another intermediate form, also with medium hoofs, ears, tail, and mane, but of uniform coloration and akin to the Onagers; the above two ancestral types being sufficiently allied and congenial to each other to produce fertile hybrids. SacBee deg 252 THE ZOOLOGIST. What is to prevent an evolution of this Onager-like type, under the influence of the same evolutionary duction that has been acting on the striped Zebra line, to specialize into HE. asinus ? — Condition 1 to be a physiological state, in which this condition is so congenial to the germ plasm of nearly related forms passing through it, that they, while under its influence, would so retain their relationship and germ plasm affinity that fertile hybrids would be produced between them. Condition 2 is a physiological state after the evolution of these forms from Condition 1. One inducing a physiological condition congenial and necessary, let us say, to rock-haunting species, and one causing them to become infertile with the ancestral types left behind in a different physiological environ- ment. These specialized (?) forms resuming their congeniality inter se, and again producing fertile young on their arrival at Condition 2, and after their passage through the evolutionary period (congeneric barrier). We now arrive at the result that, speaking congenially (or even specifically or generically), H. zebra is nearly akin to E. asinus, and remote from the ancestral types, although retaining the Zebra markings characteristic of this type; and in so much this would meet facts similar to those put forward by Mr. Pocock. I have said in the above sentence ‘‘ even specifically or generically’? we have admitted we cannot separate the “‘a”’ Zebra strain from the “ 3” strain, notwithstanding that they do not connect genealogically except through the ancestral Quagga- like type, then why should we disconnect EH. asinus from them ? Are we to separate the H. asinus type on account of a different coloration from the Zebra type, and classify it with H. onager, while we associate the ‘‘a” and “3” Zebra strains in one species, although they (the iatter) are practically almost as distinct from each other as from the asinus strain? Is H. asinus to be taken from the evolutionary condition No. 2 and classed with animals of the evolutionary condition No. 1, when it has arrived at the same stage in evolution similar and congenial to the EH. zebra strains ? I do not wish to imply here, by using the species I have in this illustration, that these Equines have been subjected to or RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 253 have gone through any such evolution as that portrayed above; T use them because they seem very aptly to illustrate a process which is not perhaps an impossibility in evolution, and that in some such manner as this it is perhaps permissible to look for the rather baffling discrepancies that arise in estimating near- ness of relationship, and which hypothesis may be suggested by such possibilities as those of independent evolution. There is a tendency to bring forward the discoveries of Mendel as refuting those of Darwin. Ido not see any reason for this. One argument (against the latter) appears to be that, while the theory of Natural Selection accounts for the acceptance of the most adaptive form, there is no conceptive building-up principle or resultant in this to account for the new forms being brought into being. Darwin, however, definitely states that the external conditions affect the germ-cells slightly and affect their hereditary potentialities: this very feasible and likely supposition thus clearly producing variations, even if there were no Natural Selection to single out the best, consolidate and mould them. This view of the case is very clearly put by Professor MacBride, who points out* that Mendel himself refused to investigate those characters which were of a ‘“‘more or less”’ description. It would appear, however, that while Mendel’s work consisted in showing how two different races with different characteristics may, when crossed, transmit these qualities in different ratios, and how even new true breeding species or forms might be evolved by crossing these forms, certain followers of Mendel assert that these forms demonstrate the evolution of species. This, as Professor MacBride states, ‘‘ brings us up against a blank wall”; as very evidently these cross races must be evolved from two already evoluted races. There may be, of course, some examples of a new united race forming in nature as in artificial types, such as wheat (but then it must be from already evoluted types), but one may be excused if one imagines these instances to be rare, at least in the higher forms. It would seem that the new species of this description are * ‘Zoology, the Study of Animal Life,’ pp. 69-72. 254 THE ZOOLOGIST. very generally an artificially produced race of bastards (an un- staple race suggestive of and a precursor of the infertility of more evoluted crossings), certain forms of which are continually endeavouring to break back into the two parent types; these latter, indeed, being the only staple, true-breeding young of these mongrels. For instance, in what is styled the roan ‘hybrid ” (in cattle), in the first mongrel generation, while all the offspring are of mixed roan type, at the fourth generation the mixed hybrids (roans) have decreased to 1 in 6 as against the pure ancestral types (reds and whites), while in the fifth generation they are 1 in 18, and in the sixth only 1 in 27, and so on. Mendelism in this appears only to no more than touch on the. first signs, the fringe of evolution, and (to use a chemical simile) while the extreme form of species, such as Dog and Fox, may be looked upon as different chemical compounds, Mendelian new species may be said in comparison to be no better than mere mechanical mixtures ; while as regards the more distinct forms, such as new wheats, as bred from two divergent natural types, there appears only an artificial bastard race which, contrasted with the naturally evoiuted parents, can by no means be con- sidered examples of evolution. Where do we find in Nature any example amongst mammals of species thus evolving from any such process as the experi- ments of Mendel? We cannot definitely say. Take that gradually merging group, the Antelopes. Where is the Mendelian new form? Possibly only in the mongrel Cobus at the Zoo, and this perhaps not a true ‘“‘ Mendelian” hybrid. Moreover, those races which lend themselves to Mendelian experiment are chiefly those that (as shown by certain biologists) are deficient in some natural character. Thus the albino Mouse or Rabbit is deficient in colour, the dwarf pea is deficient in size, and so on. And thus, instead of the dominant and recessive characters of Mendel shown by diagram to be as follows :— BR + D D3 f.D and RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 255 the terms ‘‘ present’ and ‘“‘absent”’ are often used, as might be shown by P and O, thus :— Pe + 00> 2 PO and 2 iy eee = & 12) as 100 (Oe a ee Sc OSSIG) Several investigators have pointed out a difference in crossing various types; that in some instances the characters follow the usual Mendelian laws and do not blend but segregate, while in other crosses the characters blend (as in equine Mules). Whether non-segregating crosses will prove amenable to Mendelian interpretation appears a matter of considerable doubt. At present this difference in result appears of great importance, and it has been suggested that it is the non- segregating characters that one must look to for the conception of species (De Vries*). I do not gather, however, that this theory is accepted by Mendelians in general. The idea occurs to one that the same Mendelian factors are carried through the generations irrespective of the fact that, let us say, the Horse is becoming more “ horsey,’ or the Ass more asinine ; or whether it is a Horse or an Ass germ that carries them. The colour of an equine Mule, for instance, is perhaps acted on just as truly by the divergent parent factors as would be the case were these combining factors both from Horse (or Ass) parents; they also no doubt affect such qualities as immunity to certain diseases, sex determination, &c. There appears, however, no factor for ‘‘ horseness’”’ or ‘‘assness,’’ and one therefore inclines to the conclusion that, as Mendelism does not explain the intermediate forms resulting from the inter- breeding of two diverse species, it supplies no evidence of the evolution of these from a common ancestor. Should the formula -for such crosses be discovered (if there be one), it would hardly explain evolution. In reading the works of Professor Bateson + or Professor * © Mutationstheorie.’ + ‘Mendel’s Principles of Heredity,’ 256 THE ZOOLOGIST. Punnett,* one appears to get but little information on this point, that is, as regards the why and wherefore, as one does from Darwinism. Neither does one discover much regarding such matters as hybridism and relationship; that is, touching such details as I have raised in this paper. Considering the abstruse cases which have, when brought forward as antagonistic to Mendelism, proved amenable to its laws, one hesitates to dogmatise unduly; still, there are cases which Mendelism apparently does not solve, and it is possible that, were experiments more general between divergent natural species (animals) instead of between domestic varieties, these incomprehensible (?) cases would be largely increased. As the matter is of considerable importance, I will quote some cases from the writings of Bateson.t De Vries is stated to have found out that Ginothera muricata + O. biennis gives hybrids breeding true to the intermediate forms of the first crossed generation. Professor Bateson com- ments as follows { :—- “The hybrids were partially sterile in a high degree, but the subsequent generations raised from them showed no definite departure from the F, type. The evidence as it stands must be taken as constituting a definite exception”’ [to segregation] . ‘* Nevertheless, in view of the great sterility exhibited by the hybrids, and the fact that all that we know of the Ginothera crosses points to the existence of very unusual features in their genetic physiology, the significance of this curious observation is still somewhat problematical.” The fact that the hybrids are partially sterile is to my mind very suggestive, as it will probably prove to be to those who agree with my argument. Other instances similar or somewhat similar to the above are found in Homo (Mulatto), Lepus (Lop-eared Rabbit), Acidalia (Moth), Pararge (Butterfly), and Anemone (plant). Want of space must preclude my referring to these cases at any length, except to state that they appear to support my argument. It is regrettable that more experiments are not tried with the * © Mendelism.’ + ‘Mendel’s Principles of Heredity.’ } Loe. cit. p. 250. RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 257 higher animals (natural species). Most valuable animals for a test of non-segregating characters (and other matters besides) would probably be the hybrid Bears mentioned before in this article (hybrid Brown Polar, London Zoological Society). It can hardly be denied that the presence of intermediate characters in divergent crosses (extreme species) suggests inter- mediate, and therefore merging, evolution, such as I have found evidence of in the results of hybridization which I have given on p. 28. We are obliged to admit two cardinal points :— (1) Mendelians offer no explanation as to these intermediate characters. Thus: ‘‘In the phenomena of hybridization between the races of mankind the facts (fairly well-authenticated) must be taken as pointing at all events to the existence of special features in them.” * And, again, as regards dimorphisms in Lepidoptera (p. 257) : ** The only other suggestion ” [to the presence of factors] ‘‘ which can be made is that these distinctions are ultimately referable to the effects of external conditions.” And, again (p. 285): ‘‘ Of the consequences of specific crosses in the stricter sense little is known, and no case has been fully explored. But before any decision at all is pronounced or even contemplated, the laws which govern the incidents of sterility must be most carefully determined.” On the other hand, we have the definite opinion on p. 289: ‘The conception of Evolution as proceeding through the gradual transformation of masses of individuals by the accumulation of inpalpable changes is one that the study of genetics shows immediately to be false. Once for all, that burden so gratuitously undertaken in ignorance of genetic physiology by the evolutionist of the last century may be cast into oblivion.” This brings us up against our second cardinal point :— (2) That we have the evidence of the development of many extreme types of tne same domestic (and even wild) animal brought about by gradual divergence quite unconformable with any system of factors, as now propounded. If I may make the suggestion, it appears to me that we must, * *Mendel’s Principles of Heredity,’ p. 257. Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., July, 1914. a 258 THE ZOOLOGIST. in order to reconcile these apparent contradictions (Mendelian and Darwinian), recognize that we are arguing about two entirely different matters, namely (a) the germ plasm evolution; and (b) the ornamental accompaniments of that evolution—the colour, hair, &c., of Mendelian investigators. We must cast aside all endeavour to attach to such super- ficialities the index of true species (extreme). If we recognize the essential evolution as that of essence and germ, the difficulty of conflicting theories fades into insignificance. Mendelians appear to suggest (or this is how I understand it) that the Horse and Ass contracting germs should contain certain factors in their Mules, some to account for the Horse points, and some for the Ass points. The inference from this is that otherwise they are to be held inalienable. To limit our view to the differences of factors alone appears to me to obscure the issue. The two combining entities must be considered as of quite divergent composition. If we disregard this search for problematical factors, we can regard the cells (in all intermediate crosses) as exactly what they very probably are, namely, a composition of equal properties of both parents, entities of mingled physioiogical combination, and therefore of intermediate aspect. There is a hybrid Zebra- Ass at Regent’s Park, and if this animal proves fertile, I cannot imagine that she would throw (to a mate of similar breeding) an Ass, a Zebra, and two impure somethings. Why should she? The answer appears obvious. Let us assume that there be factors (bio-chemical), as may indeed be the case—there appears no reason why they should of necessity be segregating ones. If such a result is to be proved in all sperms, with no inherent specific diversity, there should apparently be no limit to any monstrous hybrid of any parent- age, or how would sterility be accounted for ? Chemistry of the organisms has unknown possibilities; it would appear hardly capable, however, of turning an animal whose organism is half Zebra into a homogeneous Ass. Segregating characters are of necessity more incompre- hensible than intermediate ones; there seems no need, therefore, for any assumption that the latter must be conformable to the same biological laws. The ‘‘ presence and absence’’ theory RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 259 seems quite inapplicable to the evoluted and diverse types of extreme species. One appears able to detect, however, even in extreme crosses, features which suggest Mendelian interpretation, such as an assumption of the hybrid of the outward appearance (possibly nothing more) of the male parent. Thus Horse 3 Ass 2 cross appears about = Horse, while Ass ¢ Horse 2 cross seems, on the other hand, approximately 3 Ass. This is a well-known characteristic, but it is impossible to say what would eventuate if these forms were fertile. As these Mules are quite common, the matter would no doubt have been investigated but for their sterility. This, however, is unimportant, as there appear to be forms showing this tendency which are fertile, such as the hybrid Bears, Zebra-Ass, &c., mentioned above. It would almost appear that the male carries some factor for ‘‘form’”’ which is perhaps absent in the female. The matter should be investigated by zoological societies, as mostly possessing the means and opportunities to carry on these experiments. Darwin has been criticized for following a false track in advocating the theory of gradual divergence, and it is suggested that, had he known of Mendel’s work, he might have altered his opinion. This is mere supposition. Hiven if Darwin gave less heed to mutation than variation, the distinction is not important to my argument: a stair is a gradually ascending (or descending) plane, and our ascent is sradual even if, at intervals, we take two or three steps at a time. Darwinism is said to have overshadowed and hidden Men- delism ; the position now appears to be somewhat reversed. When one remembers that the evolutionary idea was not wanting in the days of Aristotle and the ancients, and that many of the later discoveries are unconsciously fixed in the mind of the cowherd in the barton, it appears possible that the tendency is to apportion too much credit to later investigators than to those of former times. My own deductions may be held to favour surmise to the detriment of systematism. Both tendencies carried to excess are no doubt undesirable. While I venture to hope that the examples I have given may xe 260 THE ZOOLOGIST. protect me to a certain extent from being held to be merely a theorist, one might claim to find some support from the words of Vigors,* who, criticising the other extremist, writes :— ‘Tt is upon the labours of man that he dwells, and not on the works of Creation. He dwindles, as it were, into a mere compositor of the volume of Nature, artificially putting together the symbolic words that should stand for ideas, while the ideas themselves in their true spirit and meaning escape him. And thus the exertions, which, properly directed, might have tended to explain the laws and elucidate the operations of Nature, which might have been devoted to a study purely intellectual, are lost in a pursuit which is strictly and exclusively mechanical.” I have personally not been able to get beyond the Unknown Power, be it natural or supernatural, in the evolution of species any more than in the evolution of worlds. The chief matters that seem to be definite and not pure supposition are the interesting facts concerning the microscopic discoveries that have been made in the composition of the germ cell as regards its nucleus and chronosmomes, and it is perhaps to further discovery in this direction that one might expect more facts to come to light bearing on the problem of the Relationship of Species. SuMMARY. 1. That there are practically two evolutions :— (a) Visible and Corporeal. (b) Invisible and Essential. And while they are both never out of harmony, we are by no means always able to estimate from the visible aspect of the former (a) the degree of evolutionary progress attained by the latter (bd). 2. That the blood and germ affinity may change without loss of structural resemblance (a). 8. That the form of animals may change without loss of relationship (b) [blood and germ affinity]. 4. That where these two evolutions cause apparent anomalies, or point to opposite conclusions, habits which are congenerous * Quotation from ‘ Cassell’s Natural History.’ RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES. 261 in any of the forms are of value in probably showing the true relationship, and might be considered important enough to turn the scale in this direction. 5. That parallelism and convergence may take place as regards structure (a). 6. But that whether these two tendencies of evolution take place as regards the bringing together of divergent germ plasms (b) is perhaps not quite so apparent. 7. That the facts brought to light concerning the separate evolution of similar forms suggest parallelism to a wider extent than has been credited, and may alter our conception (genealogi- cally) of the Relationship of Species. 8. That, while segregating characters in hybrids appear of varietal value, intermediate ones suggest evolution of species. 262 THE ZOOLOGIST. THE PHARYNGEAL TEETH OF FISHES. By Cotonet C. E. SHepHerp (Indian Army). (Continued from vol. xvii. p. 389.) AMIID. Amia calva (the Bowfin), found in the rivers and lakes of North America. This fish is one of those that makes a rude nest amidst the roots of swamp vegetation, in which its eggs are deposited, and over which the male fish keeps guard. It has fourteen short upstanding gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypo- branchial arch, in length the longest is about half the depth of the gill-lamina below it. There is a set of similar gill-rakers on the inner side of this branchial arch. There are three similar gill-rakers on the first epibranchial, with two rudimentary ones at the top. The gill-rakers on the cerato-hypobranchial arch decrease in size till they become very small at the end near the tongue. The other branchial arches all carry a double row of similar but smaller gill-rakers, and all the gill-rakers bear minute teeth. For the upper pharyngeal teeth there are two very small points at the top of the second epibranchial which carry defined teeth and below these there is a little roughness on the surface of the epibranchial. The third and fourth epibranchials support a triangular shield with the apex upwards, of cardiform teeth. The lower pharyngeal teeth are set in two small elongated triangles. LEPIDOSTEIDE. Lepidosteus osseus. A freshwater fish of North America, colloquially known as the ‘‘ Long-nosed Gar Pike,’’ a voracious fish preying largely on smaller fishes. It has eleven flat tubercle gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial with six on its epibranchial; and the same kind on the outer sides with smaller and more numerous ones on the inner sides of the second and third arches. ‘The inner side of the first and the outer side of PHARYNGEAL TEETH OF FISHES. 263 the fourth arch have tubercles also. Along the top of the hypo- branchials where they join the basibranchials and for a short distance there are minute teeth on the four arches, they are so small as to be discovered more by the feel of resistance they give than by sight. At the top of the second epibranchial there is a small group of minute teeth representing the upper pharyngeal teeth. HiLoPIpz. Megalops atlanticus (the Tarpon) frequents the Atlantic Ocean. along the south-east coasts of North America and the West Indies. A fish much prized by wealthy fishermen who can afford to go across the ocean for the pleasure and excitement of catching it. It is called the ‘‘ Cuffum” at Demerara. This fish has forty-four long horny gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypo- branchial arch, that decrease in size very gradually as they approach the basibranchials. The longer ones near the angle are about a third longer than the gill-lamine below them. There are twenty-two on the first epibranchial. All the gill- rakers are toothed on the inner side so that they cling to the finger if it is brought against them from base to tip. The outer sides of the second, third, and fourth arches carry horny gill- rakers of the same pattern as those on the first arch but much shorter. The inner margins of the branchial arches have no gill-rakers except the fourth which has short tubercles which fit into larger tubercles on the outer side of the fifth arch. The top of the branchial arches, and the top of the basibranchials, and the epibranchials and lower pharyngeal bones are all covered with villiform teeth feeling like moderately coarse sandpaper, and these extend on to the tongue. EHlops saurus, found in tropical seas; the specimen examined came from Madras. This fish has twelve long horny gill-rakers on the outer side of the first cerato-hypobranchial, the longest about equal to the depth of the gill-laminz below it, with eight long horny gill-rakers on the first epibranchial arch. There are no teeth on these gill-rakers. The outer sides of the second, third, and fourth arches carry horny gill-rakers, decreasing in size as they belong to the inner arches. The inner sides of the three inner arches also have small tubercles rather distantly spaced. The head of the second epibranchial and the upper 264 THE ZOOLOGIST. pharyngeal bones are covered with minute cardiform teeth. The lower pharyngeal bones have similar minute teeth. There is a rough surface on the basibranchials and tongue. : ALBULIDE. Albula conorhynchus, a fish that swims in tropical seas; the specimen obtained came from Java. It has eight tubercle gill- rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial and four on the first epibranchial. Similar tubercles are on the inner and outer sides of the other arches that bear gills, all these tubercles bear teeth. There are minute teeth in two patches on the heads of the third and fourth epibranchials that run down on the limb of the third and are confluent at the upper part of the arches. The patch on the fourth is fairly large. There are a few minute teeth for the lower pharyngeals. Minute cardiform teeth are found running from the base of the tongue along the surface of the basibranchials, they seem fixed to the skin, some of them have been rubbed off. The hinder larger part of the tongue has eranular teeth on it that show very clearly. Fig. I., 1. NoToPTERIDS. Notopterus afer from the Gambia River has seven long horny sill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch with one rudimentary one; these are toothed; there are three on the epibranchial. The longest is about one and a quarter times the length of the gill-lamina below it. There are short horny gill- rakers on-the other arches. The upper pharyngeal teeth consist of a small group on the head of the fourth epibranchial of villiform teeth. The lower pharyngeal teeth are in two small groups of similar teeth. A long broad plate of minute cardiform teeth extends from the base of the tongue to the junction of the third arch with the basibranchials. The tongue is provided at its extremity with a recurved sharp conical tooth, there is a longitudinal groove in the mucous membrane of the tongue with six side grooves on each side, in each of the side grooves is a similar tooth, and by pressing this mucous membrane down, the teeth can be easily seen. In the illustration this membrane has been cut away to expose the teeth. Fig. I.,2. There is alsoa group of teeth on the parasphenoid bone. PHARYNGEAL TEETH OF FISHES. 265 Notopterus chitala, a fish found in the rivers of India, has eight long horny gill-rakers with two rudimentary ones on the first cerato-hypobranchial and three on its epibranchial. They all bear teeth. The longest equals in its length the depth of the gill-lamine below it. The one at the angle is very short. Similar but smaller gill-rakers are on the other arches, they get shorter as they belong to the more inward arches. The insides of the arches have short upstanding gill-rakers fitting into the Fic. I. ~ 1.—ALBULA CONORHYNCHUS. 2.—NOTOPTERUS AFER. opposite ones and making a good filter. The upper pharyngeal teeth are represented by a small group of minute cardiform teeth on the heads of the third and fourth epibranchials. The lower pharyngeal teeth are in two long plates of minute cardiform teeth. A long plate of minute villiform teeth covers the forward basibranchials. There are five backwardly curved teeth along each edge of the tongue, with one at the tip with sharp points. This one and the next two on each side are strong, the other three each side are smaller. At the base of the tongue and lying between the marginal is a group of short but strong 266 THE ZOO0LOGIST. cardiform teeth. The stomach held scales and vertebre of some fish that had been eaten. No teeth on the parasphenoid. A deep cleft in mucous lining of palate. Notopterus kapirat, also an Indian river fish, has nine long horny gill-rakers on the cerato-hypo portion of the first branchial arch. The one at the angle is short, about one half the length of the next one to it, which is one of the longest and is one and a half times in length of the depth of the gill-lamina below it. There are three gill-rakers on the first epibranchial. The gill-rakers of the first arch are toothed. The other gill- rakers are short, stout, blunt-ended on the outer sides of the other arches, with smaller blunt-ended ones on the imsides. None of them bear any teeth. They fit into each other and form a good filter. On the head of the fourth epibranchial some minute teeth can be felt forming the upper pharyngeal teeth. No lower pharyngeal teeth could be seen or felt. Forward from the junction of the third hypobranchial with the basibranchial, to the base of the tongue, there is a long plate which covers the forward basibranchials bearing minute teeth ; these engage with an elongated group of strong conical teeth on the parasphenoid bone. Five strong curved teeth line each margin of the tongue, with one at the tip. There are no teeth at the root of the tongue, asin N. chitala. The stomach of the specimen examined was full of food. Amongst it was a fairly large piece of what looked like the shell of a crustacean, and another piece looking like a fragment of some insect. CHIROCENTRIDZ. Chirocentrus dorab has fifteen long, thin, horny gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch, which are toothed. The longest, the one at the angle and the one next to it, are about equal to the depth of the gill-lamine below them; these gill- rakers decrease regularly in size as they get nearer the tongue. There are four similar but smaller gill-rakers on the first epibranchial arch. On the inner sides of the first and of the other arches there are minute teeth. The outer side of the second arch has shorter and flatter horny gill-rakers than those on the first arch; these are also denticulated. The third and fourth arches are bare of gill-rakers. There are small cardiform PHARYNGEAL TEETH OF FISHES. 267 teeth on the upper surface of the first four arches. There are two small groups of cardiform teeth on the heads of the third and fourth epibranchials for upper pharyngeal teeth. The lower pharyngeal teeth are in a long, narrow V shape of sharp cardiform teeth. The surface of the basibranchials has small cardiform teeth. SALMONIDE. Salmo salar (the Salmon) has thirteen short horny gill- rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch, with eight on the epibranchial. The longest about a third the depth of the gill- lamina below it. They all bear teeth. There are only three minute gill-rakers on the inside of the first arch and these are placed at the end near the tongue. The outer edges of the other arches are furnished with similar but smaller gill-rakers to those of the first arch. The second arch has five minute gill-rakers on its inner side at the tongue end. The third and fourth arches have them both sides all along. The upper pharyngeal teeth consist of a very few small cardiform teeth along the upper part of the third epibranchial, and rather more and larger teeth on the upper part of the fourth epibranchial, but even there these teeth are small. In neither case are they arranged in such a dense group as is so common in other fishes. The lower. pharyngeal teeth consist of, similarly, a few cardiform teeth, those nearest the esophagus being fairly large. The tongue has teeth on it. Thymallus vulgaris (the Grayling), an altogether fresh- water member of the family, living in rivers, has twenty-two long, thin, horny gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch, with thirteen on its epibranchial. All these gill-rakers are toothed. The longest is about half the length of the distance from the angle to the junction with the basibranchials. They decrease in size very quickly but very uniformly to each end from tha angle. There are numerous thin horny gill-rakers on the outer edges of the other branchial arches, but none of them have gill-rakers on their inner faces. No pharyngeal teeth could be made out in the specimen examined. Salvelinus willughbu (the Charr), from Lake Windermere, has fifteen moderately long horny gill-rakers on the first cerato- hypobranchial arch with six on its epibranchial. The longest 268 THE ZOOLOGIST. about half the depth of the gill-lamina below it. The other arches have short gill-rakers on the outer sides only. The first and second arches show some small papille-like excrescences on their inner sides. The upper and lower pharyngeal teeth are very minute and cardiform. There is a small set on the heads of the third and fourth epibranchials, and on the lower pharyn- geal bones they require to be looked at with a microscope to be fully realized. A row of teeth runs along the tongue to the opening of the second gill-slit. SYMBRANCHIDE. Amphipnous cuchia, an eel-like Indian fish, furnished with an air sac on each side of its neck, enabling it to breathe atmo- spheric air directly and so live comfortably out of water for some time. Has only three branchial arches and no gill-rakers. The upper pharyngeal teeth are in a circular group on the head of the third epibranchial arch. They are so much embedded in mucous membrane as not to be easily seen, but are quite palpable to the touch if a finger-tip is pressed against them. In a similar way cognizance can be taken of the existence of lower pharyngeal teeth. APODES. Anguilla vulgaris (the Common Eel) has no gill-rakers. The upper pharyngeal teeth are represented on each side by an oval patch on the head of the fourth epibranchial of minute cardiform teeth. Two long narrow slips of similar teeth form the lower pharyngeal teeth. Conger vulgaris (the Conger Eel) has no gill-rakers. The upper pharyngeal teeth are in a triangular group on the heads of the third and fourth epibranchials, and are cardiform teeth; the group is broad at the base, narrow at the top. The lower pharyngeal teeth are similar, but set in two elon- gated plates. Myrus vulgaris, from the Mediterranean, has cardiform teeth for the upper and lower pharyngeal teeth. The lower on two long broad plates, and the upper in fair-sized groups. Fig. II., 2. Murenesox talabon (the ‘‘ Koolarie”’ of the Tamil fishermen of Madras) has no gill-rakers. The upper pharyngeal teeth in two long narrow plates, 11 in. by ‘3 in. of small cardiform PHARYNGEAL TEETH OF FISHES. 269 teeth, those on the inner edges being a little larger than the others. The lower pharyngeals in two long narrow plates a little longer than those of the upper, but only two-thirds of their breadth. MuR=NIDE. Murena helena, common in the Mediterranean and occa- sionally met with on the south-west coast of England, has no gill-rakers. The upper pharyngeal teeth are on a long narrow plate attached to the head of the fourth epibranchial, and are ie) ule 1.—MURZNA HELENA. 2.—MyRuUS VULGARIS. strong, sharp, cardiform teeth in a single row. The lower pharyngeal teeth are similarly strong, sharp, cardiform teeth arranged partly in a double, partly in a single row. Fig. II., 1. EHsocip®. Esox lucius (the Pike) has no gill-rakers, the surface of the cerato-hypobranchials being covered with minute teeth; a few extend also up the epibranchials. The upper pharyngeals are in two long plates, but sparsely supplied with small cardiform teeth. The lower pharyngeal teeth are in two rather broad patches of similar but smaller teeth. There is a long patch of minute teeth 270 THE ZOOLOGIST. on the tongue and forward part of the basibranchials, also a small ovoid patch on the junction of the third and fourth hypo- branchial with the basibranchials. This fish is a voracious feeder ; fish, frogs, young of waterfowl, water rats, &c., form its prey, and the small number of pharyngeal teeth would seem inadequate for disposing of its food, did one not take into account the formidable amount of teeth on its palatines and vomer. ScoPELIDZ. Scopelus punctatus has seventeen long horny gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial, the longest about twice the length of the gill-lamina below it; there are six gill-rakers on the epibranchial. The other branchial arches have gill-rakers on both sides, those on the outer sides being larger than those on the inner sides, but none are as long as those on the outer side of the first arch. The upper pharyngeal teeth show as two plates with cardiform teeth, with a strip of mucous membrane separating them. The lower pharyngeal teeth are very minute and very scanty. CYPRINODONTIDE. Haplochilus playfairti has twelve little horny gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch, with two on the epibranchial, the other arches have similar but smaller gill-rakers each side that fit alternately into one another, forming a good filter. The upper pharyngeal teeth show as two circular patches of cardi- form teeth. The lower pharyngeal teeth are on two triangular plates. Anableps tetropthalmus (the ‘‘ Four eyes”’ of Demerara) has twenty-one horny gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch, the longest in length about half the depth of the gill-lamina below it. No gill-rakers on the epibranchial. There are horny gill-rakers on the inner and outer sides of the other arches which have a thickening at their roots, they fit in alternately and form a close filter. There are two patches each side, of upper pharyngeal teeth and a small narrow patch on the head of the second epibranchial. The teeth are strong cardiform teeth in the upper patch and on the head of the second epibranchial, the lower patch in its upper portion has small cardiform teeth with villiform teeth in its lower. The lower margin of the lower ? PHARYNGEAL TEETH OF FISHES. 271 patch stands away from the mucous lining of the mouth. The lower pharyngeal teeth are on an arrowhead-shaped patch, the right and left halves touching closely along the middle line where there is a double row of strong conical teeth, the rest of the surface being covered with minute teeth that have black points. ~ su be = =: cA Fic. Il].—CycLorpTtErRus LUMPUS. CYCLOPTERIDE. : Cyclopterus lumpus (the ‘‘ Lumpsucker,” also called ‘‘ Cock and Hen Paddle’’) has eight tubercular, conical-shaped, soft gill-rakers on the first cerato-hypobranchial arch that are irregularly spaced. The biggest one, at the angle, is in height 272 THE ZOOLOGIST. about a third of the depth of the gill-lamina belowit. The inner side of the first and both sides of the second and third arches have conical tubercle gill-rakers. All these tubercles are soft and distantly spaced from each other, so they do not make a close filter. There are only four branchial arches. The upper pharyngeal teeth are in a long patch, broader at the top than at the bottom; on the second and third epibranchials these teeth are cardiform. The lower pharyngeal teeth are in two small elevated lumps at the forward end of the fourth arch and very far forward from the cesophagus, and are strong cardiform teeth. (Fig. III.) A small piece of black paper was put between the two sets of the lower pharyngeal teeth, before the photograph was taken, to facilitate locating them; they are to be seen to the right and left of this little black mark. (To be continued.) ( 278 ) NOTES AND QUERIES. AVES, Nesting of the Golden-crested Wren (Regulus cristatus).— April 2nd, 7 a.m. A pair commenced nesting in a small Douglas fir-tree in my garden. The nest only 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground. April 13th. Lining nest with feathers. April 21st. First egg laid. April 28th, 3 p.m. Hight eggs and not yet incubating. April 29th. Clutch of nine eggs and female sitting close, until almost touched with my hand. May 8th. Hight eggs only now in nest. May 13th, 7am. Highteggs. 5.30p.m. One young, seven eggs. May 14th, 7 a.m. Three young, five eggs. 7 p.m. Five young, three eggs. May 15th, 7 a.m. Six young, two eggs. 7 p.m. Seven young, one addled egg. May 16th. Six young alive, one dead. May 31st, 12 p.m. Young still in nest. June Ist, 12 p.m. All have now left the nest. From the above notes the building of nest takes eighteen days. Incubation fourteen to sixteen days. Young remain in nest sixteen to nineteen days.—J. STEELE Hxurorr (Dowles Manor, Salop). Nesting of the Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus streperus).—On June 9th I found a Reed-Warbler’s nest with four eggs, and took one for a young friend. It proved to be quite fresh, so I visited the nest again on the 12th for the chance of finding a Cuckoo’s egg. The nest then looked like a new one, hardly completed, as some of the material was quite green, and I found two eggs hidden under a fresh lining; the third I could not find. The Reed-Warbler is a curious little bird in its domestic arrangements, and its nests sometimes disappear under conditions which rather convey the idea that the owners have pulled them to pieces and rebuilt them in another place. P.S.—Referring to the above note posted a few days ago, the birds have completed the nest, which I fear I rather pulled about in getting at the covered-up eggs, and the hen is sitting on four eggs. I have never seen a case like it before.—Junian G. Tucx (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds). Zool, 4th ser. vol, XVIIL., July, 1914. Y 274 THE ZOO0OLOGIST. Curious Nesting-sites of Chaffinch and Blue Tit—On May loth last I found a nest and eggs of the Chaffinch in Turvey Park, built on the side of a wheat-straw stack in the rick-yard. The nest had been woven around a number of the straws, which kept it securely in position. The site was purely a matter of choice as there are plenty of trees and bushes in the vicinity. At Southill Park, also in Bedfordshire, on June 2nd, noticing a Blue Tit leave a Wren’s nest that had been built in the fork of an elderberry bush alongside the ride of a plantation, I found the former species in occupation and sitting on a small clutch of eggs. Evidently it had deserted some previous nesting-site, as no materials appeared to have been added to the nest whatever, not even for a lining.—J. STEELE ELulorrT (Dowles Manor, Salop). Starling and Mouse.—On June 19th, while walking along a foot- path dividing a ploughed field from a wood, I noticed, a short distance ahead, a Starling acting in a strange manner. It had possession of some living object of comparatively large size, with which it seemed at a loss to know how to deal. The bird kept taking this up in its beak, putting it down again, and pecking savagely at it, and was apparently in a very excited state. It seemed very loth to leave its prize as I approached, and tried to carry it off, but, finding it too big and heavy, was obliged reluctantly to fly away without it. The object referred to proved to be a young Mouse (Mus sylvaticus), at least a fortnight and more probably three weeks old, it being already covered with short fur. In spite of this rough treatment, the little animal appeared to be very little if at all hurt. This is the only instance I have met with of a Starling attacking a mammal.—G. T. Rope. Food of the Little Owl (Athene noctua).—To show the diversified prey of this species of Owl, I give a list of the contents taken from a nest in a pollard willow tree at Turvey, Bedfordshire, on June 28th last; the nest contained but one young one:—Six adult and two half-grown Common Field Voles (Microtus agrestis), four of which were more or less eaten, the head portion of these having been devoured first; one adult and three young Common Shrews (Sorex araneus), one partly eaten ; five Frogs, which included the hind legs only of three adults with two smaller Frogs; remains of a fully-grown ‘Blackbird and one immature Thrush, probably taken from a nest ; with a number of elytra of beetles. In a hollow of the next willow tree was the headless body of a fully-grown Thrush.—W. J. ELuiorr (Dowles Manor, Bewdley). NOTES AND QUERIES. 275 The Redshank in Norfolk Marshes. — Writing respecting the increase of the Redshank (Totanus calidris) in our marshes, alluded . to in the ‘Ornithological Report for Norfolk” (ante, p. 169), Mr. J. Vincent mentions having this spring found thirty-five nests (of which the earliest was on April 15th), which is certainly a very satisfactory state of things. He has never in his long experience found a nest with eggs earlier than April 7th, and consequently expresses some incredulity as to young Redshanks being able to fly by April 25th, as reported last year (ante, p. 169) on the authority of Mr. Chasen. Certainly in that case they would have had to be hatched about April 1st, which is unprecedentedly early. May I take this opportunity of correcting my mistake pointed out by the Duchess of Bedford (ante, p. 175), where, by an oversight, the name Lesser Tern is made to do duty for a Common Tern feeding its young one. From the principal Norfolk breeding-place of these birds also a very good report came to hand from Sir T. Digby Pigott at the beginning of the month (June 5th), and it is hoped the young will not again die for want of Whitebait as they did last year—J. H. Gurney (Keswick Hall, Norwich). Destruction of Vermin in Bedfordshire.—It is evident that, with the continued increase in game preserving, the destruction of so-called “vermin ” will considerably alter the present status of many species, and it would be of interest if ‘‘ vermin accounts” from any consider- able areas of shooting could be published. The following list is from an estate of 2000 acres in the parish of Turvey, Bedfordshire. Previous to 1912 no strict preserving had been carried on for several years, and this accounts for the unusual number of vermin accounted for on so small an acreage :— 1912. ora (| aaa Mar. |Apr. May! June July| Aug. | Sept.| Oct.|Nov./Dec.| Total. | | rea aveae ata, Barra Pee Seo ela Stoats....| | Da leson |) dels Seale alee 4 4 | 32 Weasels ... leaecipe|iaelioiat ere 7} 13 | 20) 12 3 3 2 85 Caio. - | 5 | 4) 9 | 5 Onl eis Rats...... 5 |. 13 Uo | We 9 1 4 13 | 64 Hedgehogs | iL 3]. 5 1 3 3 iL) « al7 Hawks 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 12 Owls | 4 3) 2 2 || Ut vi 3 4 41 Crows ....| 2) 3 5) Rooks | 4 4 Jackdaws .| 1G 2 1 10 Magpies ..| May a Ww) 3 35 JAYS... herata) 3 u 7 24 347 276 THE ZOOLOGIST. 1913. Jan.|Feb. Mar. |Apr. May} June |July| Aug. | Sept.) Oct.|Nov.|Dec.| Total. | Stoats ....| 1 3 2 1 i 2 4 14 Weasels ..| B) 5 2 5 5 6/ 11 13 7 3 1 61 Cats...... 5 8 5 3 1 1 | 2 2 27 Raitisterser | LST eG 8 | 6 3 3 3 7 alee eh) 7@) Hedgehogs | Bi 2 1 2 pe ff at yee! 26 Hawks....| 1 1 2 4 Owls* ....| Eee | ey ae al aati SS” 24 Crows ....| | Rooks .... Jackdaws . 2 | 2 Magpies .. ree B83 il 10 RYE aelelsts USA ones 6 244 t In 1913 an assistant keeper was also employed, but a detailed list was not retained, but an additional one hundred and sixty-two ‘vermin’ were destroyed by him. The considerable destruction of Owls is regrettable, probably three-fourths of those killed being Little Owls. Tawny Owls, Barn Owls, and Long-eared Owls all met a similar fate. Of the Hawks, the Kestrel and Sparrow-Hawks would be about equal in the numbers destroyed. These accounts I know are often difficult to procure, as it is very seldom on shooting estates that the law is strictly adhered to, and many protected species are wilfully slaughtered, and I regret to think that that abominable and illegal means of destruction, the ‘“pole-trap,”’ is still freely used.— J. StgeLE Exxiorr (Dowles Manor, Salop). Notes on Nest-boxes.—The Tawny Owls which have nested in our church-tower for several years past deserted the place this year after the second egg was laid, but I have every reason to believe that they hatched off successfully on the property adjoining the church- yard, where they are strictly protected. Our own pair occupied an old cask in an elm close to the house, and brought off three young ones. One of these when in the down was much more yellow than the others. An old kettle was twice occupied by Robins, but the second brood were destroyed by a Rat or other marauder. In our boxes we had the Great Tit, Blue Tit, Coal Tit (one), Marsh Tit (one, * I have a note, May 4th, 1913, counting nineteen Little Owls and twenty-six Magpies, all recently killed, hanging on one of the “ keeper's gibbets,” and on a later date four Tawny Owls and one Barn-Owl hanging alongside the ride opposite a pole-trap. NOTES AND QUERIES. 277 and only the second nest of this species we ever had in a box), Nut- hatch (one), Tree-Sparrow (many), Starling, and Stock-Dove. The last-named bird seems on the increase here, as they have occupied four boxes. One sitting bird I think came to grief, as I found a great many featlers in the box one day, and two deserted eggs about half incubated. Possibly a Tawny Owl was the aggressor, but our pair here have always been very peaceable with human beings. When spring-cleaning the boxes early in the year, I found in one which had been occupied two or three times over by Stock-Doves last year enough ‘“‘guano”’ to give a dressing to a bed of aquilegias, which did remarkably well on it. On June 10th I was looking at a box and heard a humming inside, which I put down to a bee. However, the tenant proved to be a large queen Hornet, which had begun a nest there, and made it up to about the size of an oyster- shell. It is needless to add that both nest and owner were promptly destroyed. To find a Bat in a box is not uncommon, and one which we found one evening was a source of great delight to some young friends who had never seen one in the hand before. He was, I think, a Pipistrelle; we put him back in his retreat, and I believe I found him again in another box about a month later. We used often to find Great Bats in boxes, but have not seen one for some years. This year we had hoped to add the Jackdaw to our list of box- breeders, but the two pairs which nested about the place both preferred hollow beeches. As for several years past, Redstarts and Wrynecks have been absent; Swallows and Martins more abundant than usual—Junian G. Tuck (Tostock Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk). 278 THE ZOOLOGIST. NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS, Field-Studies of some Rarer British Birds. By JonHn WaLpoLE- — Bonp. Witherby & Co. Tus is one of the most interesting of all recent books on the birds of the British Archipelago. As we read these pages we are with live birds themselves in their natural environment, the intricacies of a revised nomenclature are quite unimportant, classification is forgotten, we are not out for skins but for facts in avian economy, eggs are observed—not clutched. Some of the records, of course, are not unfamiliar to field ornithologists, but very many are quite original and hitherto unrecorded, while en masse they will greatly encourage and enrich the annals of ‘‘bird-watching.” The suggestion that Crossbills may in some instances be triple-brooded will be new to many, and so also will be the fact ‘‘ that in hard springs {or rather late winters) Ravens are apt to be forward with their domestic affairs, in open seasons, backward.” Seventeen birds afford the material for eighteen chapters, and we hope that Mr. Walpole-Bond will publish some more of his notes (which he undoubtedly possesses) on other British birds. The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore. By Ricnarp Exmurrst, F.L.S8., Superintendent of the Marine Biological Station, Millport. Adam & Charles Black. THis is a recent volume of the series of books published under the comprehensive title of ‘‘Peeps at Nature,” and is written by one who, as superintendent of a Scottish marine biological station, is master of his subject. Such a book is very opportune at this season of the year, and should be in vogue among seaside visitors who feel an interest in the plant and animal life of the coast line they may frequent. These pages contain a great deal of zoological information, which is not only HDITORIAL GLEANINGS. 279 realiable but may be readily understood by the ordinary beach reader, and contains thirty-seven illustrations, of which eight are coloured full-page plates. At the small price charged for the volumes of this series nothing more can well be desired or expected. EDITORIAL GLEANINGS. “Enquiries made by Mr. Dudley Le Souef, Director of the Zoological Gardens in Melbourne, in regard to Hels in New Zealand have brought several notes from correspondents. Mr. Le Souef expressed a wish that those who accused Hels of eating Trout had found Trout inside the Hels caught, as otherwise the evidence against the Eels could hardly be regarded as conclusive. Mr. J. Finlay, of Tokaora, Hawera, writing on March 17th, now supplies the evidence Mr. Le Souef asks for. ‘My farm,’ Mr. Finlay states, ‘has a frontage of about fifty chains on to the beach in the South Taranaki Bight, and is close to the mouth of the Waingongoro River. Complaints reached the custodian of the South Taranaki fishponds that the lower reaches of this river were nearly depleted of Trout, although only a few years previously large quantities of Trout had been liberated in it. The custodian, Mr. Moorehouse, came to my house one forenoon with an Hel he had caught. It was 4 ft. 9in. long and weighed 104 lb. When we opened it we found a whole Trout, quite fresh, which turned the scale at 1 lb. 150z. The Hel also contained about half another Trout, partly digested, which probably would have weighed about 2 1b. Hach Trout had been swallowed head first.’ Mr. Finlay adds that it is admitted on the South Taranaki coast that large Hels swallow Trout. About the same time two men who were fencing for him fished for Hels in the same river one night. They caught twenty-six Hels, weighing from 2 lb. to 5 1b. each. The Hels were opened in order to discover if small Hels as well as large ones eat Trout, but no Trout were found in any of them. “An adjoining farmer constructed a farm about seven acres in area. It was stocked with young Trout, which thrived for a time, but then gradually disappeared. One day the farmer’s sons caught in the dam’ an Hel that weighed 32 lb. As it was given to Maoris, Mr. Baepeiiies ii ciel Sis. 8 3 280 THE ZOOLOGIST. Finlay was not able to discover what was inside it. The evidence against it, therefore, is inconclusive. The dam was stocked with Perch, which were very successful. Later on, as land in the district, being used for dairying, became very valuable, reaching from £70 to £80 an acre, the water was let out of the dam, and the custodian of the local hatcheries was able to rescue a large number of yearlings and large fish, up to 6 lb., for stripping. But when the water was released not a single Hel was caught in the dam or seen in it. If Kels eat Trout, Mr. Finlay asks, do Perch eat Hels ? «Further evidence is supplied by Mr. A. W. Babbage, of Hauturu, Kawhia. He states that about seven years ago an Hel weighing 7 lb. was caught in the Kaimango stream by Mr. F. Pearson. Inside there were two Trout, one 10 in. long and the other 12in. The smaller one was slightly digested, but the larger one was quite fresh, and, evidently, had been swallowed only ashort time previously. Mr. H. P. Washbourn, of Port Nelson, has entered with great vigour into the discussion in regard to the breeding of Hels. He has sent to Maoris and Europeans in the dominion a circular containing a number of questions. All the men to whom the circular has been addressed have had many opportunities for observing the habits of Hels. Mr. Washbourn feels that their replies will be at least interesting records, and he believes that they will show that the lives and habits of New Zealand Eels are not settled by the lives and habits of Hels in the Old Country.” —‘ Lyttleton Times,’ April, 1914. WE! H. -ROSENBER IMPORTER OF EXOTIC ZOOLOGICAL SPECIME 57, Haverstock Hint, Lonpon, N.W.. Enevanp, Bees to announce the publication of a new Price List (No. 20) of Ze MAMMALS, including over 400 Species from various parts of the world. This will be mailed free on application, as well as any of the following lists:—BIRD-SKINS (over 5000 Species); BIRDS’ EGGS (over 1100 Species); REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, anp FISHES (over 400 Species); EXOTIC LEPIDOPTERA (over 8000 Species). 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Hach species is separately treated under the headings : Haunts, including distribution ; Plumage. briefly characterizing the predominant : and striking features, with differentiation. of species nearly alike; Language, with song and various cries; Habits; Food ; Nidi- fication, with site and materials of nest ; ‘and number and description of Eges, London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. bi The Egyptian Desert and its Birds, Robert Gurney, 241, Relationship of Species (concluded), H. Panton, 245. The Pharyngeal Teeth of Fishes ee Tilustrations) (continued), Colonel ¢. q Shepherd, 262. _ é NovTes AND QUERIES :— Seis Aves.—Nesting of the Golden-crested Wren (Regulus cristatus), I. Steele Eliott, A Nesting of the Reed- Warbler (Acrocephalus streperus), Juan G. Tuck, 273. Curious Nesting-sites of Chaffinch and Blue Tit, J. Steele Hiliott, 274. a : Sanne and Mouse, G. T'. Rope, 274. Food of the Little Owl (Athene modiuay.. ‘ be W. J. Elliott, 274. 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Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, extra. Pp. 144. Price 10s. A Bird Collector's Medley E. C. ARNOLD, MLA. @ With Twelve full-page Coloured Illustrations and. Eight Un- coloured, from the Author's Drawings. Illustrated in the Text by Twenty Process Blocks. ; G A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore-Shooters. BE! London: WEST, NEWMAN & CO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. E 2 eee ali = fat: ZOOLO Gils | No. 878.—August 15th, 1914. GENERAL REMARKS ON SOME POINTS IN THE LIFE- HISTORY OF THE SALMON, AND A CONTRAST OF ITS OVIPOSITION WITH THAT OF A FEW OTHER TYPES OF TELEOSTEANS. By Pror. McIntosx, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & H., Gatty Marine Laboratory, University St. Andrews. Frew fishes, either now or formerly, have attracted more attention than the Salmon, for it is conspicuous alike by the beauty and symmetry of its form and the celerity of its move- ments, which are seen to advantage in the clear currents of the rivers which it periodically haunts. But both the naturalist and the anatomist might have celebrated its physical perfection in vain if there had not been other qualities which enhanced it in the estimation of man, such as the rich nature of its muscle as food, its high price, and the zest with which it is followed for sport—all which have brought it continually under the eyes of experienced observers, and thus information concerning it has been extended in a remarkable degree. The Salmon is essentially a fish of the present waters, for it goes no further back than the Pleistocene times, and, as a bony fish, it is characterised by the occurrence of fins with soft rays and of one (the adipose or “ fatty”’ fin) without any, its simple large air-bladder has an open pneumatic duct, and its scales are cycloid, like those of the Kel, Herring, and Pilchard. Its bones, as becomes a fish which partly frequents fresh water, are lighter or less ossified than such as the Cod or the Plaice ; and its skull has much cartilage in its composition. Its lateral Zool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., August, 1914. Z 282 THE ZOOLOGIST. muscles are of great power, a provision which enables it to over- come the cataracts and cascades of rivers, for, curving itself, it suddenly contracts the muscles of the convex side and throws its weighty body out of the water to a considerable height. When fancy held its sway in natural history, the older authors suggested that it rested its body on a rock, or in other cases put its tail in its mouth so as to get full benefit of the sudden muscular contraction in its leaps. This muscle has a characteristic tint from the oil, and the same hue is present in the globules which occur below the blastoderm in the developing egg. As in other fishes these great muscles long retain their irritability, so that by making slits and immersing the fish in cold water a stale fish is rendered firm. Like most fishes the Salmon is a predatory form, yet little or no food has been found in its stomach in fresh water, a fact which has led to various explanations by the public and by scientific men. Thus Prof. Owen at one time thought that, in common with many other fishes when hooked or netted, it emptied its stomach by an instinctive act of fear or to facilitate escape by lightening its load, leaving only minute animaleules in the gastric mucus. But, as pointed out long ago, if this were the rule, the intestine would be well filled, since the Salmon cannot eject its food after it passes the pylorus; moreover, the very terror which impels the action in one fish may paralyze the efforts in another. Investigations in the Tay below Perth from the Tents Moor upward show that many Sand-Eels, Sprats, Herrings, crustaceans, disintegrating muscular tissue, lime-crystals, and the ordinary chymous mass occur in the stomach of certain Salmon which probably fed in the sea or in the estuary. Sand-Eels, indeed, form a favourite bait in the sea for Salmon, and it is stated that in Sutherland hooks baited with this fish are attached to a bladder which is allowed to float up a narrow firth for its capture. The contrast with such as the Sparling and the Salmon-Trout, which are both caught by nets, is marked, for their stomachs are generally well filled. The Salmon, indeed, does not feed in fresh water, the fat and other materials stored in its muscles and viscera sufficing for the full development of its reproductive organs in the rivers in which it spawns. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 283 It is noteworthy that within the last thirty years, probably less, our notions of the life-history of this fish have been greatly modified, especially as to its sojourn in the sea. Thus during the twenty-three years—from 1860 to 1882—the prevailing opinion was that some of the young (called Parr) became silvery fishes (Smolts) at the end of the first year, which Dahl still holds is the rule for Norway, and that all became so at the end of the second year, and migrated to the sea. Further, that after a sojourn in the sea of a few months they returned as Grilse of some pounds weight (14 to 5) to their native rivers. This view (as to the speedy return from the sea) was held to be proved by the capture of those from which the ‘‘fatty”’ fin had been removed on their issue from Stormontfield ponds. There can be no doubt that my old friends, Mr. Robert Buist and Mr. William Brown, were quite right in holding that the ‘‘fatty”’ fin is not reproduced ; but, on the other hand, it may be asserted | that other agencies than scissors might have bereft a few of this organ. The modern method of placing a loop of silver wire in the dorsal fin admits of no doubt, and it has now been shown that the young Smolts remain a year or more (three) in the sea before returning to their early haunts to spawn. It is held, indeed, that some are fishes of considerable size before leaving the sea—where, of course, it is impossible for them to spawn, and these constitute the various runs of Salmon so well-known to tacksmen and to careful observers like Mr. Calderwood, Mr. Moreton Frewer, Mr. Malloch, the late Mr. John Dickson, of Perth, and others. Quite recently, also, the intimate structure of the scales of the Salmon at various ages has facilitated more accurate know- ledge of its age and habits. When dealing more than fifty years ago with the Salmon of the Tay and figuring the scales of Salmon and of Smolt, it was pointed out and figured that the concentric rings in the latter were few, and that there was scarcely a blank at the free end; whereas in the former the rings greatly increased in number, and the smooth portion at the free edge was of considerable size. The question of grouping the rings into annual series had not then been inquired into, and the spawning mark was unknown. (Figs. 1 and 2.) Recently many writers have devoted special attention to Z 2 He | Ns Sapa a 284 THE ZOOLOGIST. these scales as an index to the age and spawning periods of the fishes, such as W. Calderwood, A. T. Masterman, H. W. Johnston, Hisdale, Dahl, Malloch, and others. Ne communication, how- ever, deals with the subject in a more thorough manner than that of Dr. A. T. Masterman, Superintending Inspector for Fishery Investigations.* His observations are illustrated by excellent figures. He concludes that the scales are retained \ a WW hilt ( iN \ ei eal } | AUN a ASN SN aT SANA aH ANIA Zh Figs. 1 and 2.—Scales of Smolt and Salmon from the Tay, reduced from two lecture-drawings made in 1862 from life. I am indebted to the Carnegie Trust for the reduction of these figures. throughout life and grow in a differential manner correlative with the seasons; the small number of the ridges in the Smolt- scale remain unaltered in the centre of the adult scale; cessation of growth takes place on return to the river, and on the attain- ment and the duration of a condition of physiological repletion, usually at the commencement of the second, third, or subse- quent winter in the sea. He holds that the scale is not available for estimation of the period of time spent in the river after the * «Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Investigations,’ series i. vol. 1., ** Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries,” 1913. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 285 return. During development of the reproductive organs the scales suffer deterioration—producing the ‘‘spawning mark.” Though the Salmon is chiefly known as a freshwater fish, yet it is as much, if not more, an inhabitant of the sea, and to this habit there can be little doubt its safety is mainly due. It seeks the fresh waters for the most part to reproduce its species, for it does not enter them to feed. In the stomach of those caught off Tentsmuir and at the entrance to the Tay, as already stated, Sprats, Herrings and Sand-Kels occur, but after they have fairly entered fresh water no food of note is taken. Whilst the Salmon feeds freely in the sea it also becomes a prey to larger forms, such as Seals, toothed Whales of various kinds, even a Cachalot occasionally taking one. Groups of Seals at the estuaries of Salmon-rivers, such as the Tay, cause considerable loss to the tacksmen, who wage war againt them. Ca’ing Whales (Globiocephalus melas) appear to search for Salmon in their course round the various stake-nets in a bay, and the fishermen think the Porbeagle Sharks and Porpoises captured in these nets likewise seek the Salmon, but no frag- ments of Salmon have ever occurred in either at St. Andrews. As a rule Salmon are captured in the sea by stake-nets (or fly-nets) on sandy beaches, and by bag-nets off rocky shores. The principle in both is similar. At St. Andrews the stake-net, in use for generations on the west sands,* consists of a vertical leader (a single stretch of net) run out from the shore, supported on stakes or poles, and terminating seawards in two chambers ; the first opening freely on each side of the leader, but otherwise closed, so that a fish passing in either direction parallel with the shore is guided into it, then into the second chamber by a narrow defile, and lastly into the “trap” by a similar defile. Entrance is easy, but the acuteness of the fish is seldom sufficient for escape. The retiring tide carries many other fishes into the netted chambers, such as Flounders (P. flesus), young Turbot, Brill, Plaice, Sturgeon, Dog-Fishes, Frog-Fishes, young Sharks and Skate; whilst Porpoises, young Ca’ing Whales, or even a Regalecus and a Great Northern Diver are some- * A water-colour drawing of which (by R. M.) is in the Gatty Marine Laboratory. The net is usually erected in May after the heavy surf of early spring disappears. 286 THE ZOOLOGIST. times procured. The small size of the valuable young Turbot so often captured has frequently been noticed, especially as they are only utilised as bait for Crabs. Such ought to be liberated as soon as the ‘‘trap”’ is exposed at low water. To save trouble, the stakes to which the poles of the leader are fixed are left permanently in the sand, and are usually favourite sites for the borings of Limnoria. The bag-nets are similar in structure, only they are anchored off the rocky shores all round Great Britain and Ireland, and also have an inner and an outer chamber distended by poles, and a trap to which the leader guides the Salmon. These nets appear to be most successful in August, and, in addition to capturing Salmon, their ropes and floats afford a favourite site for the fixation of the planule of Obelia, the larve of Balani, and myriads of the young of the Mussel after their pelagic stage. The fishermen row from the shore at intervals, release the outermost stake, and then hauling the net (trap) up to the side of the cable ‘‘a lacing at the side of the inner court is opened, and the fish allowed to slide into the boat.” * It is said that few other fishes than Salmon are captured in these nets, but this needs qualification, for from early times the fishermen on the north-eastern coasts of Scotland fed their Pigs on the swarms of Lump-Suckers thus secured, and the same is found at St. Andrews, where many an interesting fish such as Mackerel, Rock-Herring, Horse-Mackerel, Conger, Sea-Perch, Frog-Fishes, Skate, Piked Dog-Fishes, Sharks, Mullet, besides Guillemots, young and old Porpoises, and even the long bands of tough mucus holding the eggs of the Frog-Fish have been procured from these nets. The life of the Salmon in the sea is still more or less shrouded in mystery, for it is rarely captured in the off-shore waters. Yet trawlers occasionally secure fine examples in deep water in their nets, and so do the inshore fishermen with their trammel-nets. Reports as to the nature of the food found in these examples are still desiderata. During several months’ observations off shore in 1884, only one fine Salmon was seen leaping above the surface many miles from land. = Vide recent description by Mr. Calderwood, ‘8S. F. B. Report, Salmon Fisheries,’ 1913, pp. 3-4. / THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 287 Young Salmonoids, about a foot in length or somewhat less, the size of a Herring,* however, were caught in the Herring nets in August, and this fifty miles from shore. Such an occurrence affords little information, however, as to the numbers in an area, for only those of a suitable size are meshed ; and in many cases the capture of the adults by liners and trawlers is not reported. Mr. Calderwood,+ H.M. Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, alludes to several captures at sea by trawlers, and the experiments which are being carried out by him in marking Salmon obtained in bag-nets at sea will, it is hoped, considerably add to our knowledge in the near future. Salmonoids considerably larger than Smolts are occasionally captured in numbers in the estuary of the Tay, so that such forms must linger now and then inshore. Whilst food is thus generaily absent from the alimentary canal of the Salmon, parasites are plentiful. Numerous tape- worms occupy the pyloric ceca, and threadworms crawl for- ward into the stomach on the death of the host, or are coiled on the surface of the viscera and mesentery. Distomes press their soft bodies amongst the mucus, their pale fluid passing back- ward and forward, becomes stationary and again proceeds. Echinorhynchi are attached to the wall of the stomach by their proboscides. In the duodenum are many larval Distomes, which move actively in the mucus. In connection with the circulation and respiration there is little differentiation from the ordinary Teleostean. It is worthy of note, however, that in the young fish the first vessels to leave the line of the body are those passing into the ‘‘ fatty” fin; whilst in fresh water the gills have the parasite Lerneopoda salmonea, which is killed when it enters the sea, just as the external parasite Lepeophtheirus salmonis disappears in fresh water. No young fish is better adapted for experiments on the circulation than the Salmon, whether in connection with the effect of drugs and poisons, or the behaviour of the capillaries after operations. The presence of a dilatation on the caudal * There may have been many larger and smaller accompanying the forms caught, the heads of the former being too large for entering the mesh, whilst the smaller heads might slip out. + Vide ‘S, F. B. Salmon Fisheries,’ 1913, No. 1, pp. 4 e¢ seq. (1914). 288 THE ZOOLOGIST. vein (so-called ‘‘ heart’’) is another feature of interest, and the impulse of the heart causes a slight jerk in it on each contrac- tion. In Shaw’s figure in the Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, the vitelline vein runs behind instead of in front of the large oil- globules. The vessels of the yolk-sac do not branch very minutely, but enter the venous system by a current two or three discs broad. Sooner or later, then, the Salmon leaves the sea and enters the mouths of certain rivers for the purpose of spawning, and so strong is the instinct which impells it, that, using the term Salmon in its widest sense, if sweeps through the whole length of the largest rivers, and, as is well known, reaches Bohemia by the Elbe, Switzerland by the Rhine, and the Cordilleras of America by the Amazon—the course of which is more than 9000 miles; and it has been stated that it reaches the sources of the river in about three months, but this appears to need verification, for Mr. Calderwood lately found that his marked fishes took ten days to cover sixty-eight miles, though of course it is unknown whether a straight course was followed. No country, however, shows on a more gigantic scale the impulse just mentioned than Canada, where the work of Dr. Edward EH. Prince, the Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, has lately thrown a flood of light both in regard to investigation and legislation.* The vast hordes of the various species of Salmon, for instance, which pour round Vancouver Island from the North Pacific to enter the clear, cold waters of the Fraser River, defies computation, and the phenomenon is still more remarkable when it is remembered that the majority in this instance perish after spawning. Even in our own waters the mortality after spawning is considerable. In its course up a river to the pure rills and streamlets which form its source, the Salmon encounters many obstacles, such as precipitous falls, cascades and artificial obstructions, some of which can only be passed in high flood, whilst a few are impassable except by salmon-passes, early introduced by Mr. Smith of Deanston, and by Messrs. Ashworth in their Galway fishings. Moreover, it has to run the gauntlet of the endless * The extent of these fisheries is well shown by a communication by Prof. Prince to the International Fisheries Congress at Rome in 1911. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 289 series of legitimate trammel-nets and of poaching devices, especially at weirs; the attacks of Seals at the estuary and of Otters higher up, and the use of trained Dogs which endeavour to drive it into nets, and nothing terrifies a Salmon more than a Dog. Thus when the water was turned aside from a pass for examination on an Irish river, a Salmon of about 20 lb. floundered amongst the water in the shallows, and a terrier rushed at it, causing the fish in frantic terror to dash itself hither and thither until it gained a pool of some depth, where it lay alongside and parallel with the concrete wall in perfect quietude, permitting the point of a stick to rest on its back rather than move from its shelter and run the risk of meeting its enemy. In former days before the syndicate took the fishings of the river Tay into their hands, one might well have doubts as to the safety of a sufficient number of fishes to stock the river. Thus, on looking down from Kinnoull Hill during the season, each bank of the river was dotted with the little huts for the fishermen, and the coble, as a black speck, pushed out every- where into the stream—now from this bank and again from the other—the ripple of the boats’ wake concealing the gradual falling of the net. The convexity of the boat’s course, which was in the form of a loop, was directed downward (toward the mouth of the river) during ebb-tide, and the reverse during the flow of the tide. One end of the net was fastened to the boat, the other on shore to a stationary windlass, by which, at the end of the loop formed by the boat, the net was drawn to the bank, and the fishes removed from the bag or trap of the net and killed by blows from a stick. Now all this is changed, and the reduction of the number of the fishing stations has been found to be no disadvantage financially, though the lively and picturesque features of old can no more be seen. Yet, if the Salmon is persecuted by stake and bag-nets, by trawlers and by trammel-nets in the sea, it is pursued with tenfold avidity in fresh waters legitimately by nets of various kinds, sometimes with the aid of Dogs, by traps termed ‘‘ cruives”’ in dam-dykes (now, it is to be hoped, almost in abeyance), by spears, and by anglers. It was formerly held, and with good reason, that early or 290 THE ZOOLOGIST. late Salmon-rivers, as they were called, owed this feature to the temperature of their waters. Thus, in Britain, certain rivers arising from lochs are earlier than some which do not; Yarrell, for instance, quoting Sir William Jardine’s case of the Oikel and the Shin in Sutherlandshire. The Oikel springs form a small alpine lake about half a mile in breadth, whereas the Shin, a tributary of the Oikel, takes its origin from Loch Shin, a large and deep loch connected to a chain of other deep lochs. Early in spring all Salmon entering the common estuary diverge up the Shin, and do not pass into the Oikel until later. The eggs in the ovaries of the Salmon are developed so as to form a mass of several pounds, varying according to the size of the fish, on each side by the utilization of the nutriment stored up in the muscular and other tissues, as indeed had long been suspected, but more clearly demonstrated by Meischer Ruesch and Noel Paton.* In the ovary, as in that of the Wolf-Fish (Anarrhichas), the egos attain a comparatively large size, and, moreover, all reach maturity about the same time, so that they are shed within a limited period—a condition very different, for instance, from that in the Cod or Haddock. On entering a river some pass upward to the spawning-ground with considerable rapidity, whilst others, especially in the larger rivers, or in those with lakes, may remain many months before spawning, and their perseverance in overcoming natural obstacles in their ascent to suitable spawning-grounds is well known. Fishes are usually credited with small intelligence, but as a matter of fact their intelligence is keen. Both intelligence and instinct, and in some cases memory, come into play in the selection of a good spawning-bed of clean gravel—as at the Boat (now the Bridge) of Caputh. Few sights are more interesting to the naturalist than to watch the fishes swarming on such a spawning-bed in November. The quiet stretch of shallow water (for it is out of the main current) is alive with the dorsal fins of the males as * It may be noted that before Dr. (now Professor) Noel Paton began his researches the late Mr. James Johnston, of Montrose, my colleague on the Fishery Board, agreed to present two Salmon per week for this purpose, and he loyally carried out his promise. Mr. Johnston deserves grateful remembrance for his generosity. THH LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 291 they rush after each other in their fight for the females, and here and there the surface is broken by the splash of a combat. The sight from the Bridge at Galway as the fishes pass up to their spawning-ground is also striking, but at a given moment they are far fewer than those collected on such a spawning- sround as that just mentioned. There the female stirs up the gravel with her tail, sheds the eggs in batches, probably during several days, and covers them over, the area being, as it were, sown with them, whilst the attendant male emits milt for fertilization. The newly extruded ova are covered with viscid mucus, which to some extent causes them to roll less readily on the stones, and prevents the current carrying them down- stream. Their specific gravity, moreover, is greater than that of the water, the reverse being the case in the pelagic eggs of the Cod and many others. Moreover, the eggs of the Salmon are shed into the cclom, and thence out by the genital pore behind the vent, whereas the Cod has oviducts. The developing egg remains in the gravel for 120 to 180 days or more, according to temperature, when the young fish is extruded. In a private apparatus in a bedroom (fig. 3) the young were hatched in sixty days. The larval Salmon keeps to its gravelly bed for a month or six weeks, until its store of yolk is more or less exhausted; and then it swims freely as a little fish about an inch in length (called a Parr), though at first it keeps to hollows in the bed of the stream where the currents are less strong. The destruction of ova in their natural spawning-beds is considerable by floods, Trout, Salmon-Trout, larve, beetles, birds, and other forms. Hence the basis on which hatcheries were advocated, and there is no doubt great benefit in many cases has resulted from the artificial rearing of Salmon to a certain stage. Yet if the adults are sufficiently protected on their spawning-beds (which unfortunately they are not in cer- tain cases, e.g. Ireland), the need for hatcheries would be restricted. It is the serious obstruction by weirs or impassable falls and the too-severe netting, together with the interference with the fishes on their spawning-beds, which reduces the numbers in many fine rivers. As the breeding-ponds at Stormontfield-on-the-Tay were 292 THE ZOOLOGIST. amongst the earliest and best known, it may not be out of place briefly to record the impression of a first inspection in May, 1861. They are situated on the ground of the Harl of — Mansfield, and were constructed in 1854 by subsidies from the leading proprietors of the Salmon-fishings on the Tay, each paying in proportion to the extent of his fishings. They are economically constructed, the chief expense, indeed, being the Sa TCO eT ERS Mf See tote X ae sal... ae SEES Seem | Fic. 3.—Apparatus fitted up in connection with a bath for hatching Salmon: a. small block-tin supply-pipe, with brass nozzle and stop-cock ; b. green glass vessel about 11 in. in diameter; c. wooden rest for vessel; d. basin of zine into which the water overflows from glass vessel; e. over- flow pipe into fixed basin; f. escape-pipe leading out of a small hole in window-pane to a leaden roof; g. bracket supporting apparatus; o. dotted lines indicating the perforated zinc band for retaining the young fishes. furnishing of the clay wherewith to make the porous sandy soil of the ponds impermeable. There is ample ground for exten- sion, and the supply of pure water from Stormontfield mill-lade above them is abundant. These features have subsequently been taken advantage of by considerable additions since the period mentioned. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 293 In a space 72 ft. square 800 wooden boxes are placed in twenty-five rows, each containing twelve boxes, on a gentle slope. In the bottom of each is placed a layer of fine gravel, with an upper loose coating of larger stones. A full supply of water is brought from the mill-lade just mentioned by a sluice and pipe, so that it bubbles up through a thick layer of sand and gravel in the filtering pond, whilst on each side of the aperture of exit is a wooden trough for collecting superfluous mud. The sole inhabitants of this pond are Minnows and Eels. From the filtering-pond the water passes by two wide pipes to the northern canal which laves the upper end of the breeding- boxes, bubbling up at the fourth box from each end, the water then rushing into each of the wide notches at the ends of the twenty-five boxes, streams longitudinally through, passing on to the next, and finally plunging from the last into the lower canal at the southern end of the boxes. A double sluice at the western corner of this canal carries the stream to the large rearing-pond further down the slope. The gravel and stones in the boxes are carefully cleaned before collecting the ova during the spawning season, which usually is between the middle of November and the middle of December ; the Salmon being captured near the mouth of the river Almond as it joins the Tay. The Salmon are gently held, and the hand passed from before backward along the belly, when the ripe ova or milt pass out by the genital aperture and drop into a vessel and then the fishes are returned to the river.* Fertilization being effected, the ova are removed to Stormont- field the same evening. It was found in 1859 that the milt of a Parr twenty months old was equally effective with that of an adult male, and no difference was observed in the growth or aspect of the young fishes subsequently reared. Having reached the hatching-boxes, the fisherman in charge commences at one side of the rows and literally sows the ova * This method of dealing with ripe fishes should be borne in mind. On one occasion an expert and an official were greatly perturbed as to certain ripe Turbot which would not discharge their eggs and milt; yet it was only necessary to capture the fishes with a hand-net, gently manipulate the abdomen, and a stream of ripe eggs issued at once, and were fertilized by milt from the males. 294 THE ZOOLOGIST. gently into each, and if they should appear too much exposed, by waving his hand in the water they readily sink under cover of the larger stones as if by instinct. The labour for a time is now over, and the water-supply of the boxes alone requires attention. During severe winters various precautions are necessary ; thus the ice on the mill-lade may block the current to the filtering-pond, and boards and straw may be required to protect the hatching-boxes from consolidation, which, in the case of the - pelagic eggs of marine fishes in a tank, is so fatal. The fisher- man feared that similar effects would ensue in the instance of the ova of the Salmon, but actual experiments cannot at this date be recalled. Moreover, a flock of ducks has been known during severe weather to devour all the eggs they could secure —just as Scoters and other forms at sea people a long line of floating organisms and greedily swallow the pelagic eggs of fishes. Toward the middle of January the eyes of the embryos are visible, and about the 8th of April the earliest are hatched, the larve with the large yolk-sac keeping the protection of the stones in the boxes. Those which, after struggling inside the transparent capsule, emerge head first, with a few wriggles shake off the capsule and are free, represent the normal births. On the other hand, those which emerge with the tail first are less fortunate, for the egg-capsule clings round the yolk-sac and the head, and may cause the death of the young fish. In mild winters hatching occurs about thirty days sooner than in a severe one. At this stage the little Salmon is in a rather helpless con- dition, though its mouth is open and it is capable of wriggling, and in its native rivers must be liable to many mishaps from spates in the mud, predatory birds, fishes and invertebrates. In the boxes they remain quiescent for six weeks longer until the large yolk-sac is absorbed, and then the tiny Parr* swim freely ; and, passing the small rapids from box to box, reach the lower canal, where they do not stay long, but voluntarily seek the larger pond below by the streamlets. In the rearing-pond they are fed chiefly on boiled liver, besides such food as they can obtain amidst the water and water-plants. Next year, * Parr are readily distinguished by the bold pigment-bars along the sides. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 295 about the middle of May, those which become Smolts are rest- less and sportive, even leaping out of the pond in their endeavour to reach the river. The sluice at the east corner of the rearing-pond is th a left open, and those so inclined pass down a wooden aa” duct to a small enclosure with perforated zine, close to th. river, and congregate there overnight. They are then ms.ked by cutting off the adipose fin, and liberated into the Tay. Other methods of marking formerly adopted were **punching” out a triangular portion of the operculum, and putting rings in fins (the present method) and tail. Those which exhibit the migratory instinct generally show the silvery hue of the Smolt, and very few Parr find their way into the ‘‘ trap.’’ The rest of the young fishes remain for another year before assuming the silvery coating of the Smolt and the migratory instinct. There is thus a marked difference between such and the Pacific Salmon which passes to the sea shortly after absorption of the yolk-sac. Its scale, Dr. Masterman points out, is devoid of the primitive annular ridges. The little fish of about an inch in length (Parr) feeds readily on minute organisms, such as copepods, in the water, gradually gains strength to encounter the currents, and at the end of the first year is about 23-8 in. long, a few reared at Stormonttield being larger and assuming the silvery dress of the Smolt (about eight per cent.), these manifesting a desire to migrate to the river. : In the early sixties of last century the sight from the margin of the pond in August, when the vegetation had recovered from the annual clearing, was both interesting and beautiful, and the same remarks will equally apply to the present time. The bright green pond-weeds had spread in truly tropical luxuriance, transforming the pond into an enchanting sub-aqueous forest, under the shade of which the Parr, together with shoals of the three-spined Stickleback, found both shelter and food; whilst, on a lower level, numerous Loaches and a few Hels shared the same retreat. Threading their way through the sub-aqueous thickets the little Salmon keep in companies, rising readily to artificial food in good weather, or hunt the minute animals which swarmed on all sides. lLarve of insects climbed the pond-weeds or formed their tubes on the stones. Pond-snails 296 THE ZOOLOGIST. glided over the sand, glistened on the stones, or fringed the green branches with their multitudes; whilst the Conferve afforded lurking places for Water-beetles, Cyprides, Leeches, Worms and other invertebrates which preyed on the more minute infusoria, diatoms, and desmids. From the platform on the southern side, indeed, the sight of all this natural beauty and luxuriance, as well as the shoals of sportive fishes, in- voluntarily recalled the coral reefs of the South Pacific, with their gaily tinted polyps and the brightly coloured fishes which frequented them. Since the foregoing period a new rearing-ground has been made and trees planted by the border; and itis a noteworthy feature that the young fishes thrive best in the pond fringed by the young trees—apparently since insect-life has thus been materially increased. At the end of the second year most become Smolts, assume the silvery dress and migrate to the sea, apparently passing at once to deep water, for very few small examples (7 in.) have been captured. It is in the sea that the Salmon obtains the abundant and rich nourishment (Herrings, Sand Eels, &c.) which enables it to increase rapidly in length and weight; so that next year it returns to its native river as a Grilse of 2-5 or more pounds; or if it remains a year longer it enters the river as a small Salmon in spring. Similar results were obtained by marking Kelts, or spent fishes, the short and the long sojourns in the sea in Scotland being respectively five months and fifteen and three-quarter months. Its food in the sea was long a source of dubiety. Thus Knox, Huxley, Queckett and others thought that it fed on the eggs of various kinds of Echinodermata, small crustacea, and Sand Eels, apparently linking on the colour of the food with that of the muscle of the Salmon. The Salmon is a type of a fish having demersal eggs—-that is, they are deposited on the bottom; and in such fishes the eggs, while they are far larger in size, are less numerous than in those having floating or pelagic eggs. Thus the Salmon has about 28,000 eggs, the Cod from three to nine millions. The young of the Salmon is not only much larger than in the case THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 297 of pelagic eggs, its mouth is open at its birth, and its store of yolk is sufficient to nourish it for five or six weeks; whereas the young hatched from a pelagic egg, as a rule, is devoid of a mouth, has a small quantity of yolk, which in the Cod lasts only nine days, and is a minute transparent speck scarcely visible in the water except for the shimmer it makes when moving. It has at first no definite circulation, whereas the young Salmon has on its first day a most complex and complete series of arteries and veins. The Wolf-Fish, amongst marine fishes perhaps, most nearly approaches the Salmon in the demersal condition of its eggs and in their comparatively large size, but it differs in having oviducts to convey the eggs to the exterior, and in the fact that the eggs are firmly agglutinated into a mass, and contain a single large oil-globule. The fishes on hatching are readily distinguished thus :— Wolf-Fish. Salmon. 1. Yolk, and contained oil-globule Yolk of reddish orange colour, of inconspicuous colour, and and elongated in outline. yolk-sac spheroidal. 2. Single large oil-globule, an- Many small oil-globules in upper terior in position. part of yolk-sac. 3. Snout blunt,so that eyesatthe Snout protrudes well in front of most anterior part of head. eyes. 4, Marginal fin continuous. Marginal fin forming separate median fins. Neither the Wolf-Fish nor the Salmon pays the slightest attention to its eggs after deposition, and thus they form a con- trast with the next species, viz. the Lump-Sucker (155,000 eggs). In this form the eggs in the ovaries agree with those of the two former fishes in ripening nearly simultaneously, and they form large amethystine masses attached to the rocks between tide-marks; but, instead of being forsaken after deposition, they are jealously guarded by the male, a smaller and more brightly- coloured fish than the female. So faithfully does the male dis- charge this duty that at extreme low water it may happen that most of his body is exposed, so that carrion crows destroy the eyes and even puncture the abdomen for the liver of the reso- lute guardian. The Gunnel is about as careful of its eggs as the foregoing, Gool. 4th ser. vol. XVIII., August, 1914. 2A 298 THE ZOOLOGIST. though they are comparatively few in number, for it deposits them, as Mr. Holt found at St. Andrews, in holes (such as a large burrow of Pholas crispata), and the parent coils her ribbon-like body around them, after the manner of a Boa. Space would fail, however, if the details of those having demersal eggs were entered into at length, for they are numerous, ranging from the Sea-Scorpion (Cottus) with its roseate masses of eggs, the Gobies with their separate eggs fixed by an elegantly reticulated series of strands, the disc-shaped egos of the Bimaculated Sucker, the globular eggs of the Shanny with their soft adhesive rims; the golden eggs of the Armed Bull-head, the greenish yellow eggs of the Sand-Hel, and of the curious eggs of the Garfish and Saury Pike, with their external filaments resembling magnified Globigerine surrounded by their protoplasmic filaments. Yet there is one demersal form which cannot be passed by—viz. the Herring (25,000 eggs), which has a small egg with a tough capsule glued to its neighbours, so as to form masses adhering to a gravelly bottom in countless myriads and covering, it may be, square miles. As the Herring is often captured at the spawning season, the eggs adhere to the nets and ropes and form a coating on the deck of the boats, but so hardy and firm are they that after sixteen hours’ exposure to the air they are readily hatched. Moreover, it is a curious check to theories concerning the safety of fishes having pelagic eggs to find that here is a fish, the vast multitudes of which surpass every other produced from a demersal egg, and which as time rolls on, and as methods of capture increase in intensity, seems by its undiminished shoals to set man’s influence at defiance. Yet its closely related brethren, the Sprat, Pilchard, and Anchovy all have pelagic eggs, and the countless masses of the former sometimes vie with those of the Herring; indeed, as a fragment of the captures in the Forth, seventeen truckloads have been sent in a day to the Carse of Gowrie to be utilized as manure. Truly the country has not hitherto utilized all its marine sources of food-supply. But some fishes exhibit great ingenuity by fashioning nests for the protection of their eggs—such as the 2-, 3-, and 15- spined Sticklebacks—and, moreover, they jealously guard them. The Gourami of the Malay Archipelago (Osphromenus gouramy) THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 299 makes a nest of floating weeds and attaches it to other water-plants; others, such as Macropodus (Paradise Fish), use the buccal secretion and air bubbles to float it, and in both cases keep guard over the eggs. Many of the Centrarchide (the group which contains the Black Bass) make nests, and so with the American Amiurus nebulosus (a Cat-Fish), and in the latter case the male guards. Doras, Corydoras and Callichthys of South America make nests of grass and leaves, and both male and female guard. Gymnarchus of the Gambia constructs a floating nest and the male guards; whilst Heterotis niloticus makes enormous nests in the swamps of the same region. The curious little Antennarius fashions a nest of the floating Sargassum, fixing, by aid of the same secretion as in the 15-spined Stickleback, the weeds to protect the eggs—which are like bunches of grapes. Still more curious is the habit of Rhodeus amarus, the. Bitterling of Europe (allied to the Dace, Chub, and Minnow), the female of which with its long ovipositor inserts the eggs into the mantle-cavities of Unio or Anodon, where they are duly hatched and reared. Aspredo platystacus (a Cat-Fish), however, is a better nurse, since the female attaches the eggs to the spongy papillose surface of the abdomen; and so are the males of the Pipe-Fishes, which carry the eggs in a long groove or pouch on the under surface. Moreover, as if to demonstrate the illimitability of Nature’s resources, the mouth and pharynx are used as brood- pouches in the male Siluroids Arius, Galeichthys, and in the male Osteogenissus, the females more rarely performing the same functions; and in Arius commersoni the eggs are from 17-18 mm. in diameter. No food occurred in the stomachs of those in this condition.* Malapterurus, again, is said to shelter its fry in its mouth. But these do not exhaust the remarkable variations met with in Teleostean reproduction, for not a few are viviparous. Thus in our own country the viviparous Blenny is a familiar instance, with its large young; and the Norway Haddock is another less common form, with its small embryos. Abroad, the viviparous forms range from Mud-Minnows * A vertebrate parallel to the condition of Asterias miilleri in the rock- pools at St. Andrews, the female of which carries a mass of ova over the mouth. 4 Me hs. D 300 THE ZOOLOGIST. (Umbride), Killi-Fishes (Cyprinodonts), in which the anal fin is modified into a long intermittent organ in the male, to Surf- Fishes (Hmbiotocide-Labyrinthieci), such as the White Surf- Fish (Cymatogaster aggregatus) with very large young. Hven the blind Brotula (Lucifuga subterranea) of Cuba, one of the Blennies, is in this condition. Whilst the previous methods of reproduction are both important and interesting, they hold but a minor position when contrasted with the striking and far-reaching influence of the discharge of pelagic eggs—a metbod so prevalent in the marine food-fishes; for, strange to say, almost the entire series comes under this category—only the Herring, the Wolf-Fish, and the Norway Haddock being the exceptions. It is this pelagic condition of the vast swarms of the minute eggs which has preserved these valuable fishes from serious diminution by man, whose fishing apparatus—often on a gigantic scale—searches the seas in every clime and especially in the much-frequented North Sea and the coasts of Europe, the American shores, those of Asia, Africa, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. Fears, it is true, are ever present with those whose scientific knowledge of the subject is limited, and new methods of fishing have not always been welcome, yet both conditions have existed for many centuries and will, in all probability, continue. Some may remember the general clamour on the introduction of steam- trawling into Scottish waters, and the resolute opposition it met with on every side from members of Parliament to line- and net- fishermen, yet in some instances the same method had been practised by the liners in their sailing boats for many years, and it was only the appearance of powerful steam vessels to compete with them in their own areas which roused opposition. Yet, after all, there is little difference, for instance, between captur- ing tons of Plaice by aid of hundreds of nets hung thickly throughout a bay, and sweeping them from the bottom by either beam or other trawl; indeed, many adult Plaice escape the two latter by sinking in the sand. But capture persistently as man may, the pelagic eggs and larve spread each species widely over the sea, many by-and-by having a definite drift as larval or post-larval forms—irrespective of those diverse currents, salinities and temperature of which we hear so much from recent investiga- THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON. 301 tors. Hydrographically, all these observations are of great interest and merit respect, but as an international method of solving the fisheries’ problems they have not been a success. It is fruitless to ask these to explain why the larval and young Plaice year after year invariably seek the margin of the sandy beach, why the young Cod keeps to deep water till it is an inch in length and then comes to the margin of the rocks, going out again as it gets older, why the young Haddock, on the other hand, remains in deep water till it is four to five inches in length, when it passes to the inshore waters. The laws that guide these and similar cases are beyond the influences of currents, temperatures, or salinities. The international investigators, who promised results of importance within two years, after fully eleven years’ labours have at last narrowed and focussed their recommendations to the protection of the Plaice, chiefly by a size limit, an idea long known, and indeed put in force by certain nations about a quarter of a century ago; this and the camaraderie of the fisheries’ representatives, scientific and otherwise, is perhaps the main result of an expenditure of more than £100,000 by our own country! Yet itis only fair to add that the Danish ship, with Dr. Johs. Schmidt on board, has notably extended our knowledge of the life-history of the Common Kel which spawns only in mid-Atlantic, the young thereafter traversing the entire length of the Mediterranean, besides supplying the whole of the western border of Europe. A calm survey of the reproduction of fishes thus opens up a vast field for reflection, and impresses the observer at once with the illimitability of Nature’s resources and the fine adjustment in every case to the needs of the species. Whether conditions so remarkable were the result of gradual evolution or formed by more or less sudden leaps has not been fully investigated. Yet there cannot be a doubt that through all the mazes of those wonderful complexities a Master Mind has ruled what was best for each, so that not one of the recent species has failed to preserve its existence under the most diverse circumstances, and with the increasing drain on its numbers by the cupidity of man. 302 THE ZOOLOGIST. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AUSTRALIA, 1914. ADDRESS BY PRorEssoR WILLIAM Batsson, M.A., F.R.S., President. Part I.—MELBOURNE. THE outstanding feature of this Meeting must be the fact that we are here—in Australia. It is the function of a President to tell the Association of advances in science, to speak of the universal rather than of the particular or the temporary. There will be other oppor- tunities of expressing the thoughts which this event must excite in the dullest heart, but it is right that my first words should take account of those achievements of organisation and those acts of national generosity by which it has come to pass that we are assembled in this country. Let us, too, on this occasion, remember that all the effort, and all the goodwill, that binds Australia to Britain would have been powerless to bring about such a result had it not been for those advances in science which have given man a control of the forces of Nature. For we are here by virtue of the feats of genius of individual men of science, giant-variations from the common level of our species; and since I am going soon to speak of the significance of individual variation, I cannot introduce that subject better than by calling to remembrance the line of.pioneers in chemistry, in physics, and in engineering, by the working of whose rare—or, if you will, abnormal—intellects a meeting of the British Association on this side of the globe has been made physically possible. I have next to refer to the loss within the year of Sir David Gill, a former President of this Association, himself one of the outstanding great. His greatness lay in the power of making big foundations. He built up the Cape Observatory; he organised international geodesy ; he conceived and carried through the plans for the photo- graphy of the whole sky, a work in which Australia is bearing a conspicuous part. Astronomical observation is now organised on an international scale, and of this great scheme Gill was the heart and soul. His labours have ensured a base from which others will proceed to discovery otherwise impossible. His name will be long remembered with veneration and gratitude. As the subject of the addresses which I am to deliver here and in Sydney I take Heredity. I shall attempt to give the essence of the discoveries made by Mendelian or analytical methods of study, and I shall ask you to contemplate the deductions which these physiological facts suggest in application both to evolutionary theory at large and to the special case of the natural history of human society. Recognition of the significance of heredity is modern. The term itself in its scientific sense is no older than Herbert Spencer. Animals BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 303. and plants are formed as pieces of living material split from the body of the parent organisms. Their powers and faculties are fixed in their physiological origin. They are the consequence of a genetic process, and yet it is only lately that this genetic process has become the subject of systematic research and experiment. The curiosity of naturalists has of course always been attracted to such problems; but that accurate knowlege of genetics is of paramount importance in any attempt to understand the nature of living things has only been realised quite lately even by naturalists, and with casual excep- tions the laity still know nothing of the matter. Historians debate the past of the human species, and statesmen order its present or profess to guide its future as if the animal Man, the unit of their calculations, with his vast diversity of powers, were a homogeneous material, which can be multiplied like shot. The reason for this neglect lies in ignorance and misunderstanding of the nature of Variation; for not until the fact of congenital diver- sity is grasped, with all that it imports, does knowledge of the system of hereditary transmission stand out as a primary necessity in the construction of any theory of Evolution, or any scheme of human polity. The first full perception of the significance of variation we owe to Darwin. The present generation of evolutionists realises perhaps more fully than did the scientific world in the last century that the theory of evolution had occupied the thoughts of many and found acceptance with not a few before ever the ‘ Origin’ appeared. We haye come also to the conviction that the principle of Natural Selec- tion cannot have been the chief factor in delimiting the species of animals and plants, such as we now with fuller knowledge see them actually to be. We are even more sceptical as to the validity of that appeal to changes in the conditions of life as direct causes of modi- fication, upon which latterly at all events Darwin laid much emphasis. But that he was the first to provide a body of fact demonstrating the variability of living things, whatever be its causation, can never be questioned. There are some older collections of evidence, chiefly the work of the French school, especially of Godron *—and I would mention also the almost forgotten essay of Wollaston |—these, however, are only fragments in comparison. Darwin regarded variability as a property inherent in living things, and eventually we must consider whether this conception is well founded; but postponing that inquiry for the present, we may declare that with him began a general recognition of variation as a phenomenon widely occurring in Nature. Tf a population consists of members which are not alike but differentiated, how will their characteristics be distributed among their offspring? This is the problem which the modern student of heredity sets out to investigate. Formerly it was hoped that by the simple inspection of embryological processes the modes of heredity * * De l’Espece et des Races dans les Itres Organisés,’ 1859. + ‘On the Variation of Species,’ 1856. 304 THE ZOOLOGIST. might be ascertained, the actual mechanism by which the offspring | is formed from the body of the parent. In that endeavour a noble pile of evidence has been accumulated. All that can be made visible by existing methods has been seen, but we come little, if at all, nearer to the central mystery. We see nothing that we can analyse further—nothing that can be translated into terms less inscrutable than the physiological events themselves. Not only does embryology give no direct aid, but the failure of cytology is, so far as I can judge, equally complete. The chromosomes of nearly related creatures may be utterly different both in number, size, and form. Only one piece of evidence encourages the old hope that a connection might be traceable between the visible characteristics of the body and those of the chromosomes. I refer of course to the accessory chromosome, which in many animals distinguishes the spermatozoon about to form a female in fertilization. Even it, however, cannot be claimed as the cause of sexual differentiation, for it may be paired in forms closely allied to those in which it is unpaired or accessory. The distinction may be present or wanting, like any other secondary sexual character. Indeed, so long as no one can show consistent distinctions between the cytological characters of somatic tissues in the same individual we can scarcely expect to perceive such dis- tinctions between the chromosomes of the various types. For these methods of attack we now substitute another, less ambitious, perhaps, because less comprehensive, but not less direct. If we cannot see how a fowl by its egg and its sperm gives rise to a chicken or how a Sweet Pea from its ovule and its pollen grain produces another Sweet Pea, we at least can watch the system by which the differences between the various kinds of fowls or between the various kinds of Sweet Peas are distributed among the offspring. By thus breaking the main problem up into its parts we give our- selves fresh chances. This analytical study we call Mendelian, because Mendel was the first to apply it. To be sure, he did not approach the problem by any such line of reasoning as I have sketched. His object was to determine the genetic definiteness of species; but though in his writings he makes no mention of in- heritance it is clear that he had the extension in view. By cross- breeding he combined the characters of varieties in mongrel indi- viduals, and set himself to see how these characters would be dis- tributed among the individuals of subsequent generations. Until he began this analysis nothing but the vaguest answers to such a ques- tion had been attempted. The existence of any orderly system of descent was never even suspected. In their manifold complexity human characteristics seemed to follow no obvious system, and the fact was taken as a fair sample of the working of heredity. Misconception was especially brought in by describing descent in terms of “blood.” The common speech uses expressions such as consanguinity, pure-blooded, half-blood, and the like, which call up a misleading picture to the mind. Blood is in some respects a fluid, and thus it is supposed that this fuid can be both quantitatively and qualitatively diluted with other bloods, just as treacle can be diluted BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 305 with water. Blood in primitive physiology being the peculiar vehicle of life, at once its essence and its corporeal abode, these ideas of dilution and compounding of characters in the commingling of bloods inevitably suggest that the ingredients of the mixture once combined are inseparable, that they can be brought together in any relative amounts, and in short that in heredity we are concerned mainly with a quantitative problem. Truer notions of genetic physiology are given by the Hebrew expression “seed.” If we speak of a man as ‘of the blood-royal” we think at once of plebeian dilution, and we wonder how much of the royal fluid is likely to be “in his veins”; but if we say he is ‘‘of the seed of Abraham” we feel something of the permanence and indestructibility of that germ which can be divided and scattered among all nations, but remains recognisable in type and characteristics after 4000 years. I knew a breeder who had a chest containing bottles of coloured liquids by which he used to illustrate the relationships of his dogs, pouring from one to another and titrating them quantitatively to illustrate their pedigrees. Galton was beset by the same kind of mistake when he promulgated his ‘‘ Law of Ancestral Heredity.” With modern research all this has been cleared away. The allot- ment of characteristics among offspring is not accomplished by the exudation of drops of a tincture representing the sum of the character- istics of the parent organism, but by a process of cell-division, in which numbers of these characters, or rather the elements upon which they depend, are sorted out among the resulting germ-cells in an orderly fashion. What these elements, or factors as we call them, are we do not know. That they are in some way directly transmitted by the material of the ovum and of the spermatozoon is obvious, but it seems to me unlikely that they are in any simple or literal sense material particles. I suspect rather that their proper- ties depend on some phenomenon of arrangement. However that may be, analytical breeding proves that it is according to the dis- tribution of these genetic factors, to use a non-committal term, that the characters of the offspring are decided. The first business of experimental genetics is to determine their number and interactions, and then to make an analysis of the various types of life. Now the ordinary genealogical trees, such as those which the stud-books provide in the case of the domestic animals, or the Heralds’ College provides in the case of man, tell nothing of all this. Such methods of depicting descent cannot even show the one thing they are devised to show—purity of “blood.” For at last we know the physiological meaning of that expression. An organism is pure- bred when it has been formed by the union in fertilization of two germ-cells which are alike in the factors they bear; and since the factors for the several characteristics are independent of each other, this question of purity must be separately considered for each of them. A man, for example, may be pure-bred in respect of his musical ability and cross-bred in respect of the colour of his eyes or the shape of his mouth. Though we know nothing of the essential nature of these factors, we know a good deal of their powers. They 306 THE ZO0OLOGIST. may confer height, colour, shape, instincts, powers both of mind and body; indeed, so many of the attributes which animals and plants possess that we feel justified in the expectation that with continued analysis they will be proved to be responsible for most if not all of the differences by which the varying individuals of any species are distinguished from each other. I will not assert that _ the greater differences which characterize distinct species are due generally to such independent factors, but that is the conclusion to which the available evidence points. All this is now so well under- stood, and has been so often demonstrated and expounded, that details of evidence are now superfluous. But for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with such work let me briefly epitomise its main features.and consequences. Since genetic factors are definite things, either present in or absent from any germ-cell, the individual may be either ‘‘ pure-bred’’ for any particular factor, or its absence, if he is constituted by the union of two germ-cells both possessing or both destitute of that factor. If the individual is thus pure, all his germ-cells will in that respect be identical, for they are simply bits of the similar germ-cells which united in fertilization to produce the parent organism. We thus reach the essential principle, that an organism cannot pass on to offspring a factor which it did not itself receive in fertilization. Parents, therefore, which are both destitute of a given factor can only pro- duce offspring equally destitute of it; and, on the contrary, parents both pure-bred for the presence of a factor produce offspring equally pure-bred for its presence. Whereas the germ-cells of the pure- bred are all alike, those of the cross-bred, which results from the union of dissimilar germ-cells, are mixed in character. Each posi- tive factor segregates from its negative opposite, so that some germ- cells carry the factor and some do not. Once the factors have been identified by their effects, the average composition of the several kinds of families formed from the various matings can be predicted, Only those who have themselves witnessed the fixed operations of these simple rules can feel their full significance. We come to look behind the simulacrum of the individual body, and we endeavour to disintegrate its features into the genetic elements by whose union the body was formed. Set out in cold general phrases such discoveries may seem remote from ordinary life. Become familiar with them and you will find your outlook on the world has changed. Watch the effects of segregation among the living things with which you have to do—Plants, Fowls, Dogs, Horses, that mixed concourse of humanity we call the English race, your friends’ children, your own children, yourseli—and how- ever firmly imagination be restrained to the bounds of the known and the proved, you will feel something of that range of insight into nature which Mendelism has begun to give. The question is often asked whether there are not also in operation systems of descent quite other than those contemplated by the Mendelian rules. I myself have expected such discoveries, but hitherto none have been plainly demonstrated. It is true we are often puzzled by the ~~. 7 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 307 failure of a parental type to reappear in its completeness after a eross—the merino sheep or the fantail pigeon, for example. These exceptions may still be plausibly ascribed to the interference of a multitude of factors, a suggestion not easy to disprove; though it seems to me equally likely that segregation has been in reality imperfect. Of the descent of quantitative characters we still know practically nothing. These and hosts of difficult cases remain almost untouched. In particular the discovery of H. Baur, and the evidence of Winkler in regard to his ‘“ graft hybrids,” both showing that the sub-epidermal layer of a plant—the layer from which the germ-cells are derived—may bear exclusively the characters of a part only of the soma, give hints of curious complications, and suggest that in plants at least the interrelations between soma and gamete may be far less simple than we have supposed. Nevertheless, speak- ing generally, we see nothing to indicate that qualitative characters descend, whether in plants or animals, according to systems which are incapable of factorial representation. The body of evidence accumulated by this method of analysis is now very large, and is still growing fast by the labours of many workers. Progress is also beginning along many novel and curious lines. The details are too technical for inclusion here. Suffice it to say that not only have we proof that segregation affects a vast range of characteristics, but in the course of our analysis phenomena of most unexpected kinds have been encountered. Some of these things twenty years ago must have seemed inconceivable. For example, the two sets of sex organs, male and female, of the same plant may not be carrying the same characteristics; in some animals characteris- tics, quite independent of sex, may be distributed solely or predomin- antly to one sex; in certain species the male may be breeding true to its own type, while the female is permanently mongrel, throwing off eggs of a distinct variety in addition to those of its own type; characteristics, essentially independent, may be associated in special combinations which are largely retained in the next generation, so that among the grandchildren there is numerical preponderance of those combinations which existed in the grandparents—a discovery which introduces us to a new phenomenon of polarity in the organism. We are accustomed to the fact that the fertilised egg has a polarity, a front and hind end for example; but we have now to recognise that it, or the primitive germinal cells formed from it, may have another polarity shown in the groupings of the parental elements. I am entirely sceptical as to the occurrence of segregation solely in the maturation of the germ-cells,* preferring at present to regard it as a special case of that patch-work condition we see in so many plants. These mosaics may break up, emitting bud-sports at various cell-divisions, and I suspect that the great regularity seen in the F, ratios of the cereals, for example, is a consequence of very late segregation, whereas the excessive irregularity found in other cases * The fact that in certain plants the male and female organs respectively carry distinct factors may be quoted as almost decisively negativing the suggestion that segregation is confined to the reduction division. 308 THE ZOOLOGIST. may be taken to indicate that segregation can happen at earlier stages of differentiation. The paradoxical descent of colour-blindness and other sex-limited conditions—formerly regarded as an inscrutable caprice of nature— has been represented with approximate correctness, and we already know something as to the way, or, perhaps, I should say ways, in which the determination of sex is accomplished in some of the forms of life—though, I hasten to add, we have no inkling as to any method by which that determination may be influenced or directed. It is obvious that such discoveries have bearings on most of the problems, whether theoretical or practical, in which animals and plants are concerned. Permanence or change of type, perfection of type, purity or mixture of race, “racial development,” the succession of forms, from being vague phrases expressing matters of degree, are now seen to be capable of acquiring physiological meanings, already to some extent assigned with precision. For the naturalist—and it is to him that I am especially addressing myself to-day—these things are chiefly significant as relating to the history of organic beings—the theory of Evolution, to use our modern name. They have, as I shall endeavour to show in my second address to be given in Sydney, an immediate reference to the conduct of human society. I suppose that everyone is familiar in outline with the theory of the Origin of Species which Darwin promulgated. Through the last fifty years this theme of the Natural Selection of favoured races has been developed and expounded in writings innumerable. Favoured races certainly can replace others. The argument is sound, but we are doubtful of its value. For us that debate stands adjourned. We go to Darwin for his incomparable collection of facts. We would fain emulate his scholarship, his width and his power of exposition, but to us he speaks no more with philosophical authority. We read his scheme of Evolution as we would those of Lucretius or of Lamarck, delighting in their simplicity and their courage. The practical and experimental study of Variation and Heredity has not merely opened a new field; it has given a new point of view and new standards of criticism. Naturalists may still be found expounding teleological systems* which would have delighted Dr. Pangloss * IT take the following from the Abstract of a recent Croonian Lecture ‘On the Origin of Mammals”’ delivered to the Royal Society :—‘‘ In Upper Triassic times the larger Cynodonts preyed upon the large Anomodont, Kannemeyeria, and carried on their existence so long as these Anomodonts survived, but died out with them about the end of the Trias or in Rhetic times. The small Cynodonts, having neither small Anomodonts nor small Cotylosaurs to feed on, were forced to hunt the very active long-limbed Thecodonts. The greatly increased activity brought about that series of changes which formed the mammals—the flexible skin with hair, the four- chambered heart and warm blood, the loose jaw with teeth for mastication, an increased development of tactile sensation and a great increase of cerebrum. Not improbably the attacks of the newly-evolved Cynodont or mammalian type brought about a corresponding evolution in the Pseudosu- chian Thecodonts which ultimately resulted in the formation of Dinosaurs and Birds.’”’ Broom, R.. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 87, p. 88. qe ie BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 309 himself, but at the present time few are misled. The student of genetics knows that the time for the development of theory is not yet. He would rather stick to the seed-pan and the incubator. In face of what we now know of the distribution of variability in nature the scope claimed for Natural Selection in determining the fixity of species must be greatly reduced. The doctrine of the survival of the fittest is undeniable so long as it is applied to the organism as a whole, but to attempt by this principle to find value in all definiteness of parts and functions, and in the name of Science to see fitness everywhere is mere eighteenth-century optimism. Yet it was in application to the parts, to the details of specific difference, to the spots on the Peacock’s tail, to the colouring of an Orchid flower, and hosts of such examples, that the potency of Natural Selection was urged with the strongest emphasis. Shorn of these pretensions the doctrine of the survival of favoured races is a truism, helping scarcely at all to account for the diversity of species. Tolerance plays almost as considerable a part. By these admissions almost the last shred of that teleological fustian with which Victorian philosophy loved to clothe the theory of Evolution is destroyed. Those who would proclaim that whatever is is right will be wise henceforth to base this faith frankly on the impregnable rock of superstition and to abstain from direct appeals to natural fact. My predecessor said last year that in physics the age is one of rapid progress and profound scepticism. In at least as high a degree this is true of Biology, and as a chief characteristic of modern evolutionary thought we must confess also to a deep but irksome humility in presence of great vital problems. Every theory of HKyolution must be such as to accord with the facts of physics and chemistry, a primary necessity to which our predecessors paid small heed. For them the unknown was a rich mine of possibilities on which they could freely draw. For us it is rather an impenetrable mountain out of which the truth can be chipped in rare and isolated fragments. Of the physics and chemistry of life we know next to nothing. Somehow the characters of living things are bound up in properties of colloids, and are largely determined by the chemical powers of enzymes, but the study of these classes of matter have only just begun. Living things are found by a simple experiment to have powers undreamt of, and who knows what may be behind ? Natirally we turn aside from generalities. It is no time to discuss the origin of the Mollusca or of Dicotyledons, while we are not even sure how it came to pass that Primula obcomca has in twenty-five years produced its abundant new forms almost under our eyes. Knowledge of heredity has so reacted on our conceptions of variation that very competent men are even denying that variation in the old sense is a genuine occurrence at all. Variation is postu- lated as the basis of all evolutionary change. Do we then as a matter of fact find in the world about us variations occurring of such a kind as to warrant faith in a contemporary progressive Evolution? Till lately most of us would have said “‘yes”’ without misgiving. We should have pointed, as Darwin did, to the immense 310 THE ZOOLOGIST. range of diversity seen in many wild species, so commonly that the difficulty is to define the types themselves. Still more conclusive seemed the profusion of forms in the various domesticated animals and plants, most of them incapable of existing even for a generation in the wild state, and therefore fixed unquestionably by human selection. These, at least, for certain, are new forms, often distinct enough to pass for species, which have arisen by variation. But when analysis is applied to this mass of variation the matter wears a different aspect. Closely examined, what is the ‘variability’ of wild species? What is the natural fact which is denoted by the statement that a given species exhibits much variation? Generally one of two things: either that the individuals collected in one locality differ among themselves; or perhaps more often that samples from separate localities differ from each other. As direct evidence of variation it is clearly to the first of these phenomena that we must have recourse—the heterogeneity of a population breeding together in one area. This heterogeneity may be in any degree, ranging from slight differences that systematists would disregard, to a complex variability such as we find in some moths, where there is an abund- ance of varieties so distinct that many would be classified as specific forms but for the fact that all are freely breeding together. Natura- lists formerly supposed that any of these varieties might be bred from any of the others. Just as the reader of novels is prepared to find that any kind of parents might have any kind of children in the course of the story, so was the evolutionist ready to believe that any pair of moths might produce any of the varieties included in the species. Genetic analysis has disposed of all these mistakes. We have no longer the smallest doubt that in all these examples the varieties stand in a regular descending order, and that they are simply terms in a series of combinations of factors separately transmitted, of which each may be present or absent. The appearance of contemporary variability proves to be an illusion. Variation from step to step in the series must occur either by the addition or by the loss of a factor. Now, of the origin of new forms by loss there seems to me to be fairly clear evidence, but of the contemporary acquisition of any new factor I see no satisfactory proof, though I admit there are rare examples which may be so interpreted. We are left with a picture of variation utterly different from that which we saw at first. Variation now stands out as a definite physiological event. We have done with the notion that Darwin came latterly to favour, that large differences can arise by accumulation of small differences. Such small differences are often mere ephemeral effects of conditions of life, and as such are not transmissible; but even small differences, when truly genetic, are factorial like the larger ones, and there is not the slightest reason for supposing that they are capable of summation. As to the origin or source of these positive separable factors, we are without any indication or surmise. By their effects we know them to be definite, as definite, say, as the organisms which produce diseases; but how they arise and how they come to take part in the composition of the BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 311 living creature so that when present they are treated in cell-division as constituents of the germs, we cannot conjecture. It was a commonplace of evolutionary theory that at least the domestic animals have been developed from a few wild types. Their origin was supposed to present no difficulty. The various races of Fowl, for instance, all came from Gallus bankiva, the Indian Jungle- Fowl. So we are taught; but try to reconstruct the steps in their evolution and you realise your hopeless ignorance. To be sure there are breeds, such as Black-red Game and Brown Leghorns, which have the colours of the Jungle-Fowl, though they differ in shape and other respects. As we know so little as yet of the genetics of shape, let us assume that those transitions could be got over. Suppose, further, as is probable, that the absence of the maternal instinct in the Leghorn is due to loss of one factor which the Jungle-Fowl possesses. So far we are on fairly safe ground. But how about White Leghorns? Their origin may seem easy to imagine, since white varieties have often arisen in well-authenticated cases. But the white of White Leghorns is not, as white in nature often is, due to the loss of the colour-elements, but to the action of something which inhibits their expression. Whence did that some- thing come? The same question may be asked respecting the heavy breeds, such as Malays or Indian Game. KHach of these is a separate introduction from the Hast. To suppose that these, with their peculiar combs and close feathering, could have been developed from pre-existing European breeds is very difficult. On the other hand, there is no wild species now living any more like them. We may, of course, postulate that there was once such a species, now lost. That is quite conceivable, though the suggestion is purely speculative. I might thus go through the list of domesticated animals and plants of ancient origin and again and again we should be driven to this suggestion, that many of their distinctive characters must have been derived from some wild original now lost. Indeed, to this unsatisfying conclusion almost every careful writer on such subjects is now reduced. If we turn to modern evidence the case looks even worse. The new breeds of domestic animals made in recent times are the carefully selected products of recombination of pre-existing breeds. Most of the new varieties of cultivated plants are the outcome of deliberate crossing. There is generally no doubt in the matter. We have pretty full histories of these crosses in Gladiolus, Orchids, Cineraria, Begonia, Calceolaria, Pelargonium, &c. A very few certainly arise from a single origin. The Sweet Pea is the clearest case, and there are others which I should name with hesitation. The Cyclamen is one of them, but we know that efforts to cross Cyclamens were made early in the cultural history of the plant, and they may very well have been successful. Several plants for which single origins are alleged, such as the Chinese Primrose, the Dahlia, and Tobacco, came to us in an already domesticated state, and their origins remain altogether mysterious. Formerly single origins were generally presumed, but at the present time numbers of the chief products of domestication, Dogs, Horses, Cattle, 312 THHK ZOOLOGIST. Sheep, Poultry, Wheat, Oats, Rice, Plums, Cherries, have in turn been accepted as ‘“ polyphyletic” or, in other words, derived from ~ several distinct forms. The reason that has led to these judgments is that the distinctions between the chief varieties can be traced as far back as the evidence reaches, and that these distinctions are so great, so far transcending anything that we actually know varia- tion capable of effecting, that it seems pleasanter to postpone the difficulty, relegating the critical differentiation to some misty anti- quity into which we shall not be asked to penetrate. For it need scarcely be said that this is mere procrastination. If the origin of a form under domestication is hard to imagine, it becomes no easier to conceive of such enormous deviations from type coming to pass in the wild state. Examine any two thoroughly distinct species which meet each other in their distribution, as, for instance, Lychnis diurna and vespertina do. In areas of overlap are many intermediate forms. These used to be taken to be transitional steps, and the specific distinctness of vespertina and diwrna was on that account questioned. Once it is known that these supposed intergrades are merely mongrels between the two species the transition from one to the other is practically beyond our powers of imagination to conceive. If both these can survive, why has their common parent perished? Why when they cross do they not reconstruct it instead of producing partially sterile hybrids? I take this example to show how entirely the facts were formerly misinterpreted. When once the idea of a true-breeding—or, as we say, homozygous —type is grasped, the problem of variation becomes an insistent oppression. What can make such a type vary? We know, of course, one way by which novelty can be introduced—by crossing. Cross two well-marked varieties—for instance, of Chinese Primula— each breeding true, and in the second generation by mere recombina- tion of the various factors which the two parental types severally introduced, there will be a profusion of forms, utterly unlike each other, distinct also from the original parents. Many of these can be bred true, and if found wild would certainly be described as good species. Confronted by the difficulty I have put before you, and contemplating such amazing polymorphism in the second generation from a cross in Antirrhinum, Lotsy has lately with great courage suggested to us that all variation may be due to such crossing. I do not disguise my sympathy with this effort. After the blind com- placency of conventional evolutionists it is refreshing to meet so frank an acknowledgment of the hardness of the problem. Lotsy’s utterance will at least do something to expose the artificiality of systematic zoology and botany. Whatever might or might not be revealed by experimental breeding, it is certain that without such tests we are merely guessing when we profess to distinguish specific limits and to declare that this is a species and that a variety. The only definable unit in classification is the homozygous form which breeds true. When we presume to say that such and such differences are trivial and such others valid, we are commonly embarking on a course for which there is no physiological warrant. Who could have BRITISH ASSOCIATION. . 313 foreseen that the Apple and the Pear—so like each other that their botanical differences are evasive—could not be crossed together, though species of Antirrhinum so totally unlike each other as majuws and molle can be hybridized, as Baur has shown, without a sign of impaired fertility? Jordan was perfectly right. The true-breeding forms which he distinguished in such multitudes are real entities, though the great systematists, dispensing with such laborious analysis, have pooled them into arbitrary Linnean species, for the convenience of collectors and for the simplification of catalogues. Such pragmatical considerations may mean much in the museum, but with them the student of the physiology of variation has nothing to do. These ‘little species,” finely cut, true-breeding, and innu- merable mongrels between them, are what he finds when he examines any so-called variable type. On analysis the semblance of variability disappears, and the illusion is shown to be due to segregation and recombination of series of factors on pre-determined lines. As soon as the ‘little species” are separated out they are found to be fixed. In face of such a result we may well ask with Lotsy, is there such a thing as spontaneous variation anywhere ? His answer is that there is not. Abandoning the attempt to show that positive factors can be added to the original stock, we have further to confess that we - cannot often actually prove variation by loss of factor to be a real phenomenon. Lotsy doubts whether even this phenomenon occurs. The sole source of variation, in his view, is crossing. But here I think he is on unsafe ground. When a well-established variety like “Crimson King” Primula, bred by Messrs. Sutton in thousands of individuals, gives off, as it did a few years since, a salmon-coloured variety, “‘ Coral King,” we might claim this as a genuine example of variation by loss. The new variety is a simple recessive. It differs from ‘Crimson King” only in one respect, the loss of a single colour-factor, and, of course, bred true from its origin. To account for the appearance of such a new form by any process of crossing is exceedingly difficult. From the nature of the case there can have been no cross since ‘“‘Crimson King” was established, and hence the salmon must have been concealed as a recessive from the first origin of that variety, even when it was represented by very few individuals, probably only by a single one. Surely, if any of these had been heterozygous for salmon this recessive could hardly have failed to appear during the process of self-fertilisation by which the stock would be multiplied, even though that selfing may not have been strictly carried out. Examples like this seem to me practically conclusive.* They can be challenged, but not, I think, successfully. Then again in regard to those variations in number and division of parts which we call meristic, the reference of these to original cross- breeding is surely barred by the circumstances in which they often occur. There remain also the rare examples mentioned already in 7? *~ The numerous and most interesting ‘‘mutations’’ recorded by Pro- fessor I’. H. Morgan and his colleagues in the fly, Drosophila, may also be cited as unexceptionable cases. Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII., August, 1914. 2B 314 THE ZOOLOGIST. which a single wild origin may with much confidence be assumed. In spite of repeated trials, no one has yet succeeded in crossing the Sweet Pea with any other leguminous species. We know that early in its cultivated history it produced at least two marked varieties which I can only conceive of as spontaneously arising, though, no doubt, the profusion of forms we now have was made by the crossing of those original varieties. I mention the Sweet Pea thus promi- nently for another reason, that it introduces us to another though subsidiary form of variation, which may be described as a fractiona- tion of factors. Some of my Mendelian colleagues have spoken of genetic factors as permanent and indestructible. Relative permanence in a sense they have, for they commonly come out unchanged after segregation. But I am satisfied that they may occasionally undergo a quantitative disintegration, with the consequence that varieties are produced intermediate between the integral varieties from which they were derived. These disintegrated conditions I have spoken of as subtraction—or reduction—stages. For example, the Picotee Sweet Pea, with its purple edges, can surely be nothing but a condition produced by the factor which ordinarily makes the fully purple flower, quantitatively diminished. The pied animal, such as the Dutch Rabbit, must similarly be regarded as the result of partial defect of the chromogen from which the pigment is formed, or con- ceivably of the factor which effects its oxidation. On such lines I think we may with great confidence interpret all those intergrading forms which breed true and are not produced by factorial interference. It is to be inferred that these fractional degradations are the con- sequence of irregularities in segregation. We constantly see irregu- larities in the ordinary meristic processes, and in the distribution of somatic differentiation. We are familiar with half segments, with imperfect twinning, with leaves partially petaloid, with petals par- tially sepaloid. All these are evidences of departures from the normal regularity in the rhythms of repetition, or in those waves of differen- tiation by which the qualities are sorted out among the parts of the body. Similarly, when in segregation the qualities are sorted out among the germ-cells in certain critical cell-divisions, we cannot expect these differentiating divisions to be exempt from the imper- fections and irregularities which are found in all the grosser divisions that we can observe. If I am right, we shall find evidence of these irregularities in the association of unconformable numbers with the appearance of the novelties which I have called fractional. In passing, let us note how the history of the Sweet Pea belies those ideas of a continuous evolution with which we had formerly to contend. The big varieties came first. The little ones have arisen later, as I suggest by fractionation. Presented with a collection of modern Sweet Peas, how prettily would the devotees of Continuity have arranged them in a graduated series, showing how every inter- grade could be found, passing from the full colour of the wild Sicilian species in one direction to white, in the other to the deep purple of “Black Prince,” though happily we know these two to be among the earliest to have appeared. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 315 Having in view these and other considerations which might be developed, I feel no reasonable doubt that though we may have to forgo a claim to variations by addition of factors, yet variation both by loss of factors and by fractionation of factors is a genuine phenomenon of contemporary nature. If then we have to dispense, as seems likely, with any addition from without we must begin seriously to consider whether the course of Evolution can at all reasonably be represented as an unpacking of an original complex which contained within itself the whole range of diversity which living things present. I do not suggest that we should come to a judgment as to what is or is not probable in these respects. As I have said already, this is no time for devising theories of Evolution, and I propound none. But as we have got to recognise that there has been an Eyolution, that somehow or other the forms of life have arisen from fewer forms, we may as well see whether we are limited to the old view that evolutionary progress is from the simple to the complex, and whether after all it is conceivable that the process was the other way about. When the facts of genetic discovery be- came familiarly known to biologists, and cease to be the preoccupa- tion of a few, as they still are, many and long discussions must inevitably arise on the question, and I offer these remarks to prepare the ground. I ask you simply to open your minds to this possibility. It involves a certain effort. We have to reverse our habitual modes of thought. At first it may seem rank absurdity to suppose that the primordial form or forms of protoplasm could have contained com- plexity enough to produce the divers types of life. But is it easier to imagine that these powers could have been conveyed by extrinsic additions? Of what nature could these additions be? Additions of material cannot surely be in question. Weare told that salts of iron in the soil may turn a pink hydrangea blue. The iron cannot be passed on to the next generation. How can the iron multiply itself ? The power to assimilate the iron is all that can be transmitted. A disease-producing organism like the pebrine of silkworms can in a very few cases be passed on through the germ-cells. Such an organism can multiply and can produce its characteristic effects in the next generation. But it does not become part of the invaded host, and we cannot conceive it taking part in the geometrically ordered processes of segregation. These illustrations may seem too gross; but what refinement will meet the requirements of the problem, that the thing introduced must be, as the living organism itself is, capable of multiplication and of subordinating itself in a definite system of segregation? That which is conferred in variation must rather itself be a change, not of material, but of arrangement, or of motion. The invocation of additions extrinsic to the organism does not seriously help us to imagine how the power to change can be conferred, and if it proves that hope in that direction must be abandoned, I think we lose very little. By the re-arrangement of a very moderate number of things we soon reach a number of possi- bilities practically infinite. That primordial life may have been of small dimensions need not 316 THE ZOOLOGIST. disturb us. Quantity is of no account in these considerations. Shakespeare once existed as a speck of protoplasm not so big as a small pin’s head. ‘To this nothing was added that would not equally | well have served to build up a baboon or a rat. Let us consider how far we can get by the process of removal of what we call “ epistatic ” factors, in other words those that control, mask, or suppress under- lying powers and faculties. I have spoken of the vast range of colours exhibited by modern Sweet Peas. There is no question that these have been derived from the one wild bi-colour form by a process of successive removals. When the vast range of form, size, and flavour to be found among the cultivated apples is considered it seems difficult to suppose that all this variety is hidden in the wild crab-apple. I cannot positively assert that this is so, but I think all familiar with Mendelian analysis would agree with me that it is probable, and that the wild crab contains presumably inhibiting elements which the cultivated kinds have lost. The legend that the - seedlings of cultivated apples become crabs is often repeated. After many inquiries among the raisers of apple seedlings I have never found an authentic case—once only even an alleged case, and this on inquiry proved to be unfounded. I have confidence that the artistic gifts of mankind will prove to be due not to something added to the make-up of an ordinary man, but to the absence of factors which in the normal person inhibit the development of these gifts. They are almost beyond doubt to be looked upon as releases of powers normally suppressed. The instrument is there, but it is ‘“‘ stopped down.” The scents of flowers or fruits, the finely repeated divisions that give its quality to the wool of the Merino, or in an analogous case the multiplicity of quills to the tail of the fantail pigeon, are in all probability other examples of such releases. You may ask what ~* guides us in the discrimination of the positive factors and how we can satisfy ourselves that the appearance of a quality is due to loss. It must be conceded that in these determinations we have as yet recourse only to the effects of dominance. When the tall pea is crossed with the dwarf, since the offspring is tall we say that the tall parent passed w factor into the cross-bred which makes it tall. The pure tall parent had two doses of this factor; the dwarf had none ; and since the cross-bred is tall we say that one dose of the dominant tallness is enough to give the full height. The reasoning seems un- answerable. But the commoner result of crossing is the production . of a form intermediate between the two pure parental types. In such examples we see clearly enough that the full parental characte- ristics can only appear when they are homozygous—formed from similar germ-cells, and that one dose is insufficient to produce either effect fully. When this is so we can never be sure which side is positive and which negative. Since, then, when dominance is in- complete we find ourselves in this difficulty, we perceive that the amount of the effect is our only criterion in distinguishing the positive from the negative, and when we return even to the example of the tall and dwarf peas the matter is not so certain as it seemed. Professor Cockerell lately found among thousands of yellow sun- BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 317 flowers one which was partly red. By breeding he raised from this a form wholly red. Hvidently the yellow and the wholly red are the pure forms, and the partially red is the heterozygote. We may then say that the yellow is YY with two doses of a positive factor which inhibits the development of pigment; the red is yy, with no dose of the inhibitor; and the partially red are Yy, with only one dose of it. But we might be tempted to think the red was a positive charac- teristic, and invert the expressions, representing the red as RA, the partly red as Rr, and the yellow as rr. According as we adopt the one or the other system of expression we shall interpret the evolu- tionary change as one of loss or as one of addition. . May we not interpret the other apparent new dominants in the same way? The white dominant in the fowl or in the Chinese Primula can inhibit colour. But may it not be that the original coloured fowl or Primula had two doses of a factor which inhibited this inhibitor. The Pepper Moth, Amphidasys betularia, produced in England about 1840 a black variety, then a novelty, now common in certain areas, which behaves as a fulldominant. The pure blacks are no blacker than the cross-bred. Though at first sight it seems that the black must have been something added, we can without absurdity suggest that the normal is the term in which two doses of inhibitor are present, and that in the absence of one of them the black appears. In spite of seeming perversity, therefore, we have to admit that there is no evolutionary change which in the present state of our knowledge we can positively declare to be not due to loss. When this has been conceded it is natural to ask whether the removal of in- hibiting factors may not be invoked in alleviation of the necessity which has driven students of the domestic breeds to refer their diversities to multiple origins. Something, no doubt, is to be hoped for in that direction, but not until much better and more extensive knowledge of what variation by loss may effect in the living body can we have any real assurance that this difficulty has been obviated. We should be greatly helped by some indication as to whether the origin of life has been single or multiple. Modern opinion is, perhaps, inclining to the multiple theory, but we have no real evidence. Indeed, the problem still stands outside the range of scientific investigation, and when we hear the spontaneous formation of formaldehyde mentioned as a possible first step in the origin of life, we think of Harry Lauder in the character of a Glasgow schoolboy pulling out his treasures from his pocket—‘ That’s a wassher—for makkin’ motor cars”’! As the evidence stands at present all that can be safely added in amplification of the evolutionary creed may be summed up in the statement that variation occurs as a definite event often producing a sensibly discontinuous result; that the succession of varieties comes to pass by the elevation and establishment of sporadic groups of individuals owing their origin to such isolated events; and that the change which we see as a nascent variation is often, perhaps always, one of loss. Modern research lends not the smallest encouragement or sanction to the view that gradual evolution occurs by the trans- formation of masses of individuals, though that fancy has fixed itself 318 THE ZOOLOGIST. on popular imagination. The isolated events to which variation is due are evidently changes in the germinal tissues, probably in the manner in which they divide. It is likely that the occurrence of these variations is wholly irregular, and as to their causation we are absolutely without surmise or even plausible speculation. Distinct types once arisen, no doubt a profusion of the forms called species have been derived from them by simple crossing and subsequent recombination. New species may be now in course of creation by this means, but the limits of the process are obviously narrow. On the other hand, we see no changes in progress around us in the contemporary world which we can imagine likely to culminate in the evolution of forms distinct in the larger sense. By intercrossing Dogs, Jackals, and Wolves, new forms of these types can be made, some of which may be species, but I see no reason to think that from such material a Fox could be bred in indefinite time, or that Dogs could be bred from Foxes. Whether Science will hereafter discover that certain groups can by peculiarities in their genetic physiology be declared to have a prerogative quality justifying their recognition as species in the old sense, and that the differences of others are of such a subordinate degree that they may in contrast be termed varieties, further genetic research alone can show. I myself anticipate that such a discovery will be made, but I cannot defend the opinion with positive con- viction. Somewhat reluctantly, and rather from a sense of duty, I have devoted most of this Address to the evolutionary aspects of genetic research. We cannot keep these things out of our heads, though sometimes we wish we could. The outcome, as you will have seen, is negative, destroying much that till lately passed for gospel. Destruction may be useful, but it is a low kind of work. We are just about where Boyle was in the seventeenth century. We can dispose of Alchemy, but we cannot make more than a quasi-chemistry. We are awaiting our Priestley and our Mendeléeff. In truth it is not these wider aspects of genetics that are at present our chief concern. They will come in their time. The great advances of science are made like those of evolution, not by imperceptible mass-improvement, but by the sporadic birth of penetrative genius. The journeymen follow after him, widening and clearing up, as we are doing along the track that Mendel found. C3090) NOTES AND QUERIES. AVES. Norfolk Redshanks.—Reference was made in the July number of the ‘ Zoologist’ (ante, p. 275) to the early appearance of some young Redshanks (Totanus calidris) in the east of Norfolk. As I was the actual observer, some further facts concerning this record may be appreciated by ornithologists. I found the birds under question frequenting the shore of a small, still, piece of water close to Breydon. They were foolishly tame, and on the afternoon of April 25th (1913) gave me ample opportunity for close observation. With other signs of immaturity, I then particularly noticed the yellowish legs. These Redshanks remained in the same locality for some few days after the 25th. Curiously enough, it was not until Mr. Gurney had noticed the entry concerning them in my diary that I realized how premature the date was for the occurrence, and now I really cannot remember whether there were three or four of them.—F’. N. Cuasrn (North Denes Road, Great Yarmouth). Thrush Swimming.—As is well known, most birds can swim, at least when in peril. At Dorking one September day I saw a Thrush fall into the water about forty yards from the opposite bank, and flapping its wings on the surface and apparently using its legs as propellers, safely reached the bushes on the other side of the river.— W. L. Distant. PRS: Cisis. Notes by an Angler.—The following notes refer to fishing days on the River Mole, on a stretch from Gatwick to Dorking. Pliny the younger in one of his letters confesses to have turned sportsman, and writes, ‘I advise you whenever you hunt in future to take your tablets with you as well as your casket and flask.” Substitute the words “angling” and “note-book,’”’ and this is a good angler’s exhortation. The following are some of my jottings on happy days with the rod. GupGEON (Gobio flwviatilis)—This small fish is generally de- scribed as found on the bottom where the current is not too strong ee Xa ae) a ie ne OO Oa te oe ee Sl i Pees Thee 22 | 320 THE ZOOLOGIST. and the water moderately shallow, which in a general way is true for the Mole. But there is a great exception in the broader and deeper parts of the river. For about an hour in the afternoon an angler may derive some surprise if he fishes with a line near the surface of some deep hole, say twelve to fourteen feet in depth, such a one as is in my mind at this moment. A number of small fish, Roach, Chubb, Rudd, and also Gudgeon, may then be caught, and with ease and rapidity, about two feet or less below the surface. The first Gudgeon that I took from this deep hole I thought, to my surprise, must have come from the bottom, but subsequent experience showed me that it must have followed the bait from the surface, and I have tried the experiment of shallow fishing (in the afternoon) many times since, and took Gudgeon among the other fishes. Where the stream is shallow the Gudgeon frequents the bottom in the Mole as else- where, but in the deeper parts it becomes a surface fish towards the afternoon. Butterflies eaten by Bream.—I had long wondered whether lepi- dopterous insects could be added to the prey of our freshwater fishes, but during a long angling experience had never been able to make such an observation. On one fine morning at Dorking, and within half a hour of each other, I saw two common white butterflies fall in the river, and at once seized and swallowed by patrolling Bream.— W. L. Distant. W. F. H. ROSENBERG, IMPORTER OF EXOTIC ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS, 57, Haversrock Hitz, Lonpon, N.W., Enewanp, (eee to announce the publication of a new Price List (No. 21) of REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, anp FISHES, including over 500 Species from various parts of the world. This will be mailed free on application, as well as any of the following lists: —MAMMALS (over 400 Species); BIRD-SKINS (over 5000 Species) ; BIRDS’ EGGS (over 1100 Species); HXOTIC LEPIDOPTERA (over 8000 Species). i Largest Stock in the world of specimens in all branches of Zoology. ALL MUSEUMS SHOULD WRITE FOR THESE LISTS. . All specimens sent on approval. Please state which lists are required, and give name of this periodical. UNPAID SUBSCRIPTIONS to the *ZOOLOGIST ’ for 1914 are due. The amount is 12s. post tree. 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Where to find moths and butterflies; how to catch ; how to bring home without injury; how to kill; how to set; how to find the caterpillars; how to manage ; how to feed; how to breed the perfect insects; and numerous similar subjects. Price 1s. 6d., postage 2d. Foolscap 8vo, Cloth, gilt top, 160 pp. + blanks for Notes. Price 2s. 6d. POCKET-BOOK of BRITISH BIRDS By E. F. M. ELMS. NFORMATION is given respecting all British birds that breed in these islands, and those that are regular visitors at one time of the year or another, with remarks as to a species being resident, intermigratory, or migratory. Hach species is separately treated under the headings: Haunts, including distribution ; Plumage, briefly characterizing the predominant and striking features, with differentiation of species nearly alike; Language, with song and various cries; Habits; Food; Nidi- fication, with site and materials of nest; and number and description of Eggs, _ London: WEST, NEWMAN & OO., 54, Hatton Garden, E.C. “CONT ENTS. General Remarks on Some Points in the Life. Taos of the Salmon and Contrast of its Oviposition with that of a few other types of Teleostean (with Illustrations), Prof. McIntosh, M.D., LL.D., ¥.R.SS. L. ¢ E., 28 British Association for the Advancement of Su nen Austr alia, 1914, 302. - NovTEeS AND QUERIES :— Aves.—Norfolk Redshanks, #. N. Chasen, 319. Thrush Swimming, W. ZL. — Distant, 319. PISCES. — Notes by an Angler, W. L. Distant, 319. Butterflies eaten by Bream, a W. L. Distant, 320. 982 pp. CrLotTH Extra. 6s. 6d. Post FRER. : ~ Aristotle s Researches in Natural Science By . 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Birds and Animals stuffed and mounted in 7 Natural Positions. For particulars see our Catalogue, one hundred pages. | 36, STRAND, LONDON. W.C. ae Crown 4to, Cloth, gilt, oe Pp. 144. Price 10s. . q Bird Collector's Medley Be. ARNOLD. M.A. 3 x @ With Twelve full-page Coloured Illustrations and Eight al x coloured, from the Author’s Drawings. Illustrated in the Text by Twouty Process Blocks. ya @ A Book for Amateur Collectors and Shore- Shpanecs a London: WEST, NEWMAN 4€ PE 54, “Hatton Garden Ba: ELE LOOLOGIST | No. 879.—September 15th, 1914.%° MIGRATORY AND OTHER ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM LOWESTOFT. : By F. C. Coox. Tue following observations were made in the neighbourhood of Lowestoft from June, 1913, to June, 1914 :— June 1st.—A Swan was seen flying southwards uttering harsh cries, to which it was keeping time with its wings. 5th.—Swifts were passing southwards almost continuously during the afternoon. A Curlew was seen making southwards, and a Ringed Plover had arrived on the Denes. Large numbers of Swifts were again seen passing southward on the 7th. 8th.—Three Ringed Plovers flying south along the shore. 14th.—I visited the nesting-places of the Terns between Kessingland and Southwold. There about twenty-five to thirty pairs of Lesser Terns nesting, but I could not find the Common Tern actually nesting, although several were seen. At Benacre we flushed a Nightjar off her two eggs, which were laid on the bare sand in the midst of a number of yellow-horned poppies. | Several pairs of Ringed Plovers were seen which had evidently got young ones. A Grey Wagtail (Motacilla melanope) seen busily feeding at the tide-mark. Nesting in the sand-cliffs were a large number of Sand-Martins; and below, under the nest- holes, we found some dozens of the young birds lying dead in all stages of plumage. Query—Had these young birds perished in the nest and been ejected by their parents, or had they by their own endeavours got to the entrance of the hole and fallen out ? Zool, 4th ser. vol. XVIII., September, 1914. G 322 THE ZOOLOGIST. 16th. —Several flocks of Starlings were noted going south; each flock contained from ten to thirty birds. A pair of Red-backed Shrikes seen. More Starlings were going south on the 17th. 22nd.—A large number of Curlews were heard over the town at night. 29th.—Cockchafers swarming the hedgerows on the out- skirts of the town, upon which a number of Noctule Bats were feeding. There were several Swifts ‘‘hawking’’ in the vicinity, but it is, I should imagine, impossible that they were catching Cockchafers. July 1st.—Two Wheatears in immature plumage were seen on the shore. The weather during the early part of the month was very — cold and dull, the wind being northerly. The nights were made weird by the cries of numerous waders; Ringed Plovers, Dun- lins, and Curlews being heard among others. Several Goldfinches frequented the coarse thistle-patches on the Denes for a week or so during the month. 16th.—Four Lesser Redpolls were seen on the Denes. * August 4th.—One Grey Wagtail seen at Beccles. 9th. — An immature Cuckoo, a Red-backed Shrike, a Wheatear, and a flock of Common Terns had appeared. There was also a considerable increase in the number of Goldfinches. 13th.—Six Wheatears, a young Red-backed Shrike, a Willow- Wren, and a common Whitethroat had arrived. A large number of Common Terns were also seen. Three Wheatears and fewer Terns were seen on the 14th. 16th.--By swimming boldly into the harbour, and away up the river, a Guillemot caused some considerable diversion among the visitors. During the past week or so numbers of Curlews were heard passing over the town at night. On nights when the moon was up, the notes of these waders were heard less frequently and appeared to be from a greater altitude. 17th.—A considerable increase was noted in the number of Stonechats, Wheatears, Common Whitethroats, and Terns. A flock of seven Curlews were observed flying south. 18th.—A very strong north wind. Two Oystercatchers, two ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM LOWESTOFT. 323 flocks of Ducks, and several Terns and Gulls flying north along the shore. About fifty Common Terns on the beach. 20th.—Two large straggling flocks of Sand-Martins flying south fairly high. An increase was noted in the number of Terns. While feeding peacefully on the tide-mark two Rooks were attacked by a Common Tern, which darted down at them from a height, and eventually drove them off the beach. 21st.—A Land-Rail came to hand, having struck the tele- sraph wires the night previous. 24th.—An increase in the number of Meadow-Pivits was noted, while a number of Sand-Martins were going south in large flocks. 26th.—A great movement of Sand-Martins was seen, the air seemed at times alive with them, all going south; a few Swallows and House-Martins were also with them. Several Common Whitethroats and two Lesser Whitethroats seen, also two Wheatears and two Willow-Wrens ; a few small flocks of Linnets, one flock of Greenfinches, and two Ray’s Wagtails were observed going southwards. 27th.—A Pied Flycatcher and a Lesser Whitethroat appeared. A few Sand-Martins were observed going south. 28th.—A considerable number of Wheatears and Meadow- Pipits had arrived; three Common Whitethroats and a Willow- Wren were also seen. 30th.—A decrease was noted in the number of Wheatears, while Meadow-Pipits were observed in about the same numbers. One Pied Flycatcher and a number of Mistle-Thrushes were seen. At night the notes of Redshanks, Ringed Plovers, and Curlews were almost incessantly heard. September 1st.-— An immature female Ferruginous Duck (Fuligula nyroca) was shot at Hopton by Mr. Knight. 2nd.—A Pied Flycatcher and a Willow-Wren seen. A Whimbrel was heard passing over the town at night. 3rd.—A number of Wheatears, several Pied Wagtails, four Pied Flycatchers, and a Willow-Wren were noted. Redstarts and Pied Flycatchers were seen also further inland later in the day. Dr. Ticehurst received a batch of about forty birds from a fishing-smack just in from sea; among them were an Ortolan 2c2 324 THE ZOOLOGIST. Bunting, a Golden Plover, Pied Flycatchers, Willow-Wrens, Whitethroats, Tree-Pipits, and Meadow-Pipits. 4th.—A great increase of Wheatears and Redstarts.