Wildlife for tomorrow

Historic, Archive Document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

Conservation is a state of harmony between men and land.
By land is meant all of the things on, over, or in the
earth. . . . The problem, then, is how to bring about a
striving for harmony with land among a people, many of
whom have forgotten there is any such thing as land. . . .
This is the problem of "conservation education."
— Aldo Leopold (1887-1948)

EASTERN TIMBER WOLF
COURTESY DR. L. DAVID MECH

FRONT COVER : ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIGHORN SHEEP

FQR TQMQRRPW

by

Donald H. Wolfe
Division of Information and Education
Forest Service — U.S. Department of Agriculture

Program Aid No. 989
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOREST SERVICE

January 1972

For salo by tho Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printine Office
Washington, ]).C. 20402 - Price 60 cents
Stock Number 0100-1560

PREFAEE

Critics have said that we Americans have despoiled our land,
wasted our natural resources, polluted our water and air, leveled our
forests, and decimated our wildlife. It is true that mistakes have been
made and that many of our problems have not been resolved, but . . .

Is it a poor defense to point out that these United States have
evolved from a primitive wilderness to a civilization boasting of the
greatest society in history — all in the space of less than 200 years?

Is it a poor defense to point out that this Nation has reserved
for public use 760 million acres of land within the National Forests
and Grassland, National Parks, fish and game refuges and ranges,
and other public lands and reservations . . . and that more than 14
million acres of Wilderness and Primitive Areas have been established
on our National Forests ". . . where the earth and its community of
life are untrammeled by man?"

Is it also a poor defense to point out that as a Nation we are
recognizing our mistakes and inadequacies and are taking steps to
correct them?

As is so often the case, one must search for perspective and
make evaluations in context of the times.

We will be judged by our offspring and in that judgment
if all they can contemplate is muddy and polluted rivers,
eroded hillsides, burned forest lands, and wildlife behind
glass, stuffed, then they will have a right to ponder just
what type of improvident barbarians sired them.
—Ernest F. Swift (1897-1968)

2

ROCKY MOCXTAIN GOAT

INTRQDUGTIQN

The late Aldo Leopold — one of the foresighted conservation
leaders who pioneered the Wilderness concept of National Forest
land — made a significant comment several years before his death:
"Ecology is an infant just learning to talk, and like other infants, is
engrossed with its own coinage of big words. Its working days lie
in the future."

There is a desperate need for modern man to understand the
basic organization of nature — the ecological system of which he is
a part — even though ecosystems today are tremendously more com-
plicated than those of his forebears. The fact that most men's lives
are several steps removed from direct contact with nature does not
alleviate the effects of their actions and political decisions.

To be able to understand ecology, one must first understand
the concept of "ecosystem." An ecosystem is the sum total of all the
living and nonliving things that support the life chain within a given
area. The four primary links in this life chain are —
NONLIVING MATTER: sunlight, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
organic compounds, and other nutrients used by plants for growth.
THE PLANTS: ranging in size from the microscopic phytoplankton
in water up through grass and shrubs to trees. These organisms in
the ecosystem are the producers.

THE CONSUMERS: higher organisms that feed on the producers.
Herbivores, such as the rabbit and deer consume the plants. Carni-
vorous man and such animals as the wolf and panther, and raptor
birds such as the eagle and hawk, feed upon the herbivores and are
secondary consumers.

THE DECOMPOSERS: these tiny creatures— bacteria and fungi-
close the cycle of the ecosystem when they break down the dead pro-
ducers and consumers and return their chemical compounds to the
ecosystem for reuse by the plants.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to stockpile wildlife. One of
the most difficult biological facts to explain to the general public is
that regulated hunting and fishing pressures generally have mini-
mal effect upon the total population of wildlife and fish species.

3

The quantity and quality of the habitat is the real key to population
levels of most species. This should not be construed to mean that
illegal hunting and, in some situations, overhunting and overfishing
do not play a role in controlHng population numbers.

Many people do not realize that deer populations can tem-
porarily increase beyond the sustained capability of the habitat to
support them. Where this situation exists, the capacity of the range
to support deer is decreased and can result in a winter kill of
thousands of deer that might otherwise have been harvested by sports-
men. The changing patterns of land use, which are resulting in less
and less acres of quality wildlife habitat, are more responsible for de-
clining wildlife populations than regulated hunting. Recent studies
have shown that declines in population for species such as the raptors
is at least partially the result of pesticides.

However, many species of wildlife in the National Forests and
National Grasslands of the United States have increased dramatically
in the last four decades. Since about 1960, the estimated number of
big-game animals on the 187 million acres of National Forests and
Grasslands has leveled off at about 4.5 million, compared with
900,000 animals in 1928.

A large segment of the land on which big-game animals live in
the United States is administered by either the States or Federal
agencies.

While there has been substantial growth in the number of many
of these species, special survival management plans are in effect on
the Federal and State lands to improve the plight of many en-
dangered and rare wildlife species. These include the Tule elk, Cali-
fornia and peninsula bighorn sheep, Florida panther, California
condor, southern bald eagle, Kirtland's warbler, Piute cutthroat trout,
and others.

The Forest Service is proud of its stewardship of National
Forests and National Grasslands and is dedicated to modern tech-
niques of management directed toward preservation of this valuable
natural resource— AMERICAN WILDLIFE.

4

BALD EAGLE

EARLY YEARS

America — The New World.

To the first white settlers, the Eastern Seaboard seemed a for-
bidding place, offering only hardships, deprivation, and alien dangers.
Few were equipped by experience, background, or inclination to act
out the necessary role of pioneer in a new and virgin land. They came
because of persecution and prejudice at home, or because of a vaguely
defined hope of a better life.

For the newcomers, life was hard and Nature was a stem
taskmaster. True, the boundless forests provided logs to build shel-
ters and fuel for the hearth — but only for those skilled with tools
and strong of limb. Food was scarce, and lucky were the settlers
befriended by Indians during times of famine.
GAME ABUNDANCE: One redeeming factor was the teeming wild-
life on every hand. The continent was truly blessed with mammals,
birds and fishes!

For the first hundred years of colonization and settlement, this
gift of Nature provided the necessary sustenance for the advancing
frontier. The very clothes worn by the settlers and woodsmen tell a
story — buckskin leggings, breeches, mocassins, jackets; buffalo robes;
coonskin caps — the list is long. The forest provided turkey, deer, elk,
squirrel, and other wild creatures. The plains abounded with buffalo
and antelope. Streams offered fish and beaver. The air itself was
astir with the flights of geese, ducks, and passenger pigeons.

Even today, the United States is a bounteous, varied, and young
country whose people still remember and cherish their pioneer
heritage.

Familiarity with wilderness and its freedoms and opportunities;
a close dependence on Nature's riches that seemed to be inexhausti-
ble; a great public domain and the right of all citizens to own land;
a Federal Government holding only those rights not reserved by the
States; a strong belief in local government and a citizen's preroga-
tives; the common-law concept of public ownership of fish and game,
even on private land — these and other historical conditions and
events of American life convinced the early settler that to fish, hunt,
and observe wildlife was an inalienable right.

DIVERSE CLIMATE: North America, with its crest in the cold
Arctic and its base in the warm subtropical region of the Gulf of
Mexico; with its Rocky Mountains in the West and its Allegheny
Mountains in the East; with its arid deserts, fertile plains, and its well-
watered valleys lying between, has within its boundaries almost every
possible variation in temperature, precipitation, soil fertility, and
vegetative cover. Altitudes range from thousands of feet above sea
level to parts of Death Valley that are below sea level. Temperatures
range from frigid cold in the arctic north of Alaska to steaming heat
in the tropics.

This diversity of climate has resulted in a truly amazing varia-
tion in both fauna and flora. The tiny lichen of the Arctic requires
50 years to grow only a few inches in contrast to thick jungle-like
growth along the Gulf Coast. Both the huge brown bear of Alaska
and the tiny pigmy shrew, weighing less than one-fifth of an ounce,
exist here under the conditions each requires to live and multiply.
So does the great California condor, one of the world's largest birds,
with a wing spread of almost 10 feet, and so also does the tiny wren,
about as large as one's thumb. It seems that on this continent Mother
Nature tried her utmost to supply the best possible accommodations
for an infinite variety of creatures.

THE SETTLERS: The early pioneers, explorers, and trappers saw
such an abundance of wildlife that they were hard put to describe it.
They spoke of flights of passenger pigeons that darkened the sky
for hours on end and told of bison herds that covered the prairie
as far as the eye could see. The eminent naturalist, James Audubon,
stated that a continuous stream of passenger pigeons he saw on one
occasion included more than 1,100,000,000 birds, and would con-
sume more than 8.5 million bushels of grain daily. Another observer
calculated one flock at 240 miles long, numbering 2,230,272,000
pigeons, with a required food-supply estimated at 17.4 million
bushels of grain a day.

Certain it is that native wildlife made a tremendous contribu-
tion to the establishment of our New World economy. The abundance
of game and fur animals and of fishes aided the pioneers and settlers

s

in establishing themselves in the new land. Supplies from the Old
World had to be brought over a long and hazardous ocean route — a
communication line far from being adequate to support even the
smallest outpost of civilization against the rigors of the wilderness.
Even after land had been cleared and crops were being harvested,
the early settlers found themselves still dependent on wild game and
fur animals for a considerable part of the essentials of life.

The Indians who occupied the North American continent for
millenia made no such inroads on Nature's largess as the white man
was to accomphsh in a brief time. Although at times he was wasteful
of game, the Indian lacked the weapons, tools, determination and
culture of the white settlers to create highly artificial landscapes. As
successive waves of the new immigrants swept the continent, much
of the eastern forested region and then the continental grasslands
disappeared before the axe and the plow.

It was at this time that many of the great fortunes were founded
on the fur trade. Small, remote trading posts in only a few years
garnered many thousands of pelts and left only scattered remnants
of what had been a great and valuable natural resource. The pelts of
fur animals and the hides of bison were almost the only commodities
that could be sent back over the long trail from the wilderness to the
settlements — the flesh of game birds and animals could not be pre-
served for such a journey.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES: The farming and cattle industries
and the need for timber changed the landscape and living environ-
ment for many kinds of wildlife. Many species adapted to the land-
scapes and flourished; others diminished; some became extinct.

The utilization of game by the advancing pioneers probably had
little lasting affect on wildlife populations, although a rapid decline
in some areas and for some species was due to market trappers and
hunters. There is little doubt, however, that drastic modifications of
habitat played the most important role in the decline of most species.

As early as 1776, the colonies of New York and Massachusetts
showed interest in wildlife to the point that they enacted a few regu-
lations for the protection of wildfowl, but elsewhere there was little

6

interest shown to game laws. In 1848, Massachusetts passed a law
governing the netting of passenger pigeons, but not to protect the
birds — it was to punish anyone caught frightening the birds out of
huge nets set by market hunters! In 1857, Ohio considered legislation
to protect these birds, but it failed of passage because ". . . no
ordinary destruction can lessen them nor can they be missed from
the myriads that are yearly produced."

A RECKONING: The buffalo was eliminated in Pennsylvania in
1801. The last elk in New York was killed in 1845, and in Peimsyl-
vania in 1867. The turkey disappeared from a large part of both
States at about the same time. Around 1860, the last moose in the
Adirondacks was gone. Spring shooting of waterfowl was forbidden
in Rhode Island in 1848, but the law was soon repealed. In the
1830's, New York and Virginia made vain attempts to outlaw swivel
punt guns and other devices that were designed for mass killing of
waterfowl. Incredible as it may seem, the last passenger pigeon on
earth died August 29, 1914 at the Cincinnati Zoo — a bird numbered
in the billions only two decades earlier.

GAME PRESERVES: After the Civil War there was a general in-
crease in wealth and leisure time, and, as rail travel became more
extensive and cheaper, people traveled farther afield in search of
sport. By this time the sportsmen had become concerned with the
decline of game, so they started buying land for private game pre-
serves and became active in bringing about legislation that would be
beneficial to their particular interests.

By the turn of the century there were several million acres of
private preserves created — mostly in the East. Although there was
some concern that most hunting lands would soon be in private
hands, the popular notion was that this would be better than to have
hunting disappear altogether. Although private clubs were subject
to State laws, they could enforce more rigid rules upon their members.
As early as 1888 the best waterfowl hunting along the eastern sea-
coast was under the control of private clubs, and as early as 1892
the deer population of the Adirondack area had benefited from pro-
tection afforded by private preserves.

The early white settlers and their immediate successors had little
understanding of the organic relationships in which wildlife is in-
volved. Their methods of land utilization were extremely destructive
of essential water, cover, and vegetation, and as these basic resources
were destroyed, the wildlife was depleted. Wildlife programs in recent
years, therefore, have been directed towards restoration — restoring
habitat and other factors that will benefit present and future wildlife
populations.

LEEIiLATIQN

The first prohibition against the wanton destruction of game
was enacted in Washington Territory in 1865, and in Wyoming and
Colorado in the early 1870's. In 1864, a closed season on buffalo
hunting was enacted in Idaho — the first closed season on an animal
that had been thought to be immortal. Between 1850 and 1885, game
legislation began to receive its first real consideration, and by 1880
there was some sort of legal protection for wildlife in all of the
States and Territories.

THE LACEY ACT: From the standpoint of overall wildlife conser-
vation, the Lacey Act of May 25, 1900 was one of the most im-
portant measures ever to pass the Congress. It has since become a
foundation stone for good wildlife management and continues to be
used to enforce wildlife protective laws of the States and the Federal
Government.

In summary, the bill was aimed to suppress the killing of game
as a business — a form of destruction popularly known as market
hunting. It made it much more difficult to take plumes and feathers
from both game and non-game species. It regulated the introduction
into this country of all exotic species of birds and mammals, and it
prohibited the introduction of species known to be injurious to
American wildlife or to agriculture.

In essence, the bill was meant to improve and enhance the status
of wildlife by additional protection and by excluding competition for
living space by imported species. Enforcement of the Act was placed
with the Department of Agriculture and became part of the duties of
the Biological Survey. (The Biological Survey was the forerunner of
the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife Service,
U.S. Department of the Interior.)

The Lacey Act, as amended, had teeth for enforcement of its
provisions. Legal authority stems from the powerful interstate com-
merce clause of the Constitution. Among its provisions was a prohibi-
tion against the ". . . shipment of game taken illegally in one State and
'transported across State boundaries contrary to the laws of the State
where taken." This means that illegal shipment or transportation of
game, or parts of game, or of other protected species, from one

7

State to another becomes a Federal offense. Its effectiveness is obvious
by examination of court records, particularly those pertaining to the
illegal shipment of beaver and other furs from one State to another.

Prior to passage of the Lacey Act, the taking of wildlife for
commercial purposes had been a national scandal. Forty thousand
terns are said to have been killed around Cape Code, Massachusetts,
in 1885. These beautiful little birds had already been practically
exterminated on the New Jersey coast. Herons, ibises, egrets, gulls,
roseate spoonbills, and other nongame birds of fine plumage were
suffering excessive kills all along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

Even in California, Oregon, and Washington, plume hunters
were plying their trade. The rookeries in Florida suffered great
destruction as squads of paid hunters were maintained by dealers
and local contractors. The purchasers regularly shipped enormous
quantities of bird plumes to New York and other centers of traffic.

Out of this traffic in wildlife came the organization of the
Audubon Society in 1886, formed ". . . for the protection of wild
birds and their eggs." The Boone and Crocket Club was formed
a year later. The League of American Sportsmen was organized
in 1898 with the avowed purpose of urging ". . . more adequate
enforcement of game laws and better protection of insectivorous
and song birds." All of these organizations developed into militant
groups pledged to the cause of wildlife conservation.

MIGRATORY BIRD ACT: Few pieces of national legislation are
spontaneous— they result from much debate and discussion on many
levels. This was also true of the Migratory Bird Conservation Act
of 1929. The Lacey Act. although it represented a great step for-
ward, had proved to be incapable of halting the decimation of
waterfowl. The game markets of Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
Washington, Baltimore, Chicago, New Orleans, Salt Lake City,
San Francisco, Portland, and Seattle readily accepted game of all
sorts as shipments came in from the slaughtering grounds. No
section of the country escaped; expert hunters worked six and
sometimes seven days a week, from daybreak to dark.

8

The Federal Refuge Program in the United States was ini-
tiated when President Theodore Roosevelt set aside Pelican Island
in Florida on March 14, 1903. The refuge system grew slowly
from that time, but adequate funds for the administration and
maintenance of these areas did not follow the growth of the system.
With the passage of the Migratory Bird Act, which authorized ap-
propriations for the establishment, improvement, and maintenance
of such refuge areas, the program really got underway. The Migra-
tory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which became effective on July 1,
1934, supplemented and supported the Migratory Bird Conserva-
tion Act by providing funds for the purchase and maintenance of
areas for migratory waterfowl refuges.

As mentioned previously, there is no private ownership of
wildlife in the United States. This resource belongs to the people.
Protection is a public problem and as such is of State and Federal
concern. The States have jurisdiction over all wildlife within their
borders, with the exception of one group. That group — the migra-
tory birds — is protected by Federal law under treaties with Canada
and Mexico, because these birds migrate over vast stretches of land
without regard for State or international boundaries. States work
very closely with the Federal Government in the protection and
management of migratory species. The Federal Government, as in
other Government fields, has also been called upon to carry on
many wildlife investigations that can be more efficiently done by
centralized efforts.

PITTMAN-ROBERTSON PROGRAM: The Federal Aid in Wildlife
Restoration Act was passed by Congress in 1937. It is better known
as the Pittman-Robertson Program, or simply the "P-R" Program,
after its sponsors. Senator Key Pittman of Nevada and Representative
A. Willis Robertson of Virginia.

Since it went into effect July 1, 1938, the P-R Program has
made nearly 50 million acres available for hunting and other sports
activities. It has also transformed game management from hopeful
guesswork to applied science, much to the benefit of sportsmen and
landowners everywhere.

A Federal excise tax of 1 1 percent on sporting arms and factory-
produced ammunition supplies the funds for the program. Collected
at the manufacturer's level, the tax monies are distributed to the
States on a 75- to 25-percent matching basis to be used by their
game departments for various wildlife projects. Since its inception,
more than 438 million dollars has been alloted to the States with
shares based on each State's area and number of hunting licenses
sold. No State may be allotted more than 5 percent, nor less than
0.5 percent, of each year's P-R outlay. The apportionment to the

fifty states plus Guam, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico added
up to 32.8 million dollars in Fiscal Year 1970.

Recently, the President signed into law a Congressional Act
amending the P-R program, making available to the States the
excise tax on the sale of pistols and revolvers. On the same 75- to 25-
percent matching basis, half the funding is to be used for target
ranges and firearms safety programs; the other half is to be directed
to the Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Fund. Previously the
10 percent handgun sales excise tax went into the general fund
of the U.S. Treasury. This tax amounted to $6,697,000 in Fiscal
Year 1970.

To become eligible for P-R funds, a State must not divert
hunting license fees for any purpose other than administration of
its fish and game department.

Motivated by the Pittman-Robertson Program, State game de-
partments have moved into land acquisition and management on a
broad scale and embarked on a wide variety of wildlife research and
development projects. Then, they can spend their own money on
the projects, secure in the knowledge that they will be reimbursed
for up to 75 percent of their outlays. If a State does not use its
P-R allotment one year, it may use it the next.

Unobligated P-R monies at the end of the second year revert
to the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife and are utilized
under the Migratory Bird Conservation Act. No State's allotment
may be transferred to another State.

Some of the Nation's finest public hunting is to be found in
tracts purchased outright by the States with P-R funds — nearly 3
million acres over the past 30 years. In fact, all aspects of game
management have benefited greatly from the P-R Program since its
inception. Thirty years ago it was thought that the best way to
conserve game was to shorten the hunting season and to restrict
the hunter's quota of game, or to pay bounties for the elimination
of predators. It was thought that the best way to improve hunting
was to stock every available cover with the most popular game
bird or animal of the region.

a

When P-R funds first became available, game departments
made liberal use of them in research projects to determine why
these so-called "conservation" techniques did not yield the hoped-
for results. As a reservoir of scientific knowledge about wildlife and
conservation has been built up. less P-R money has had to be spent
on research projects. Nevertheless, research carried out under the
P-R Program continues to improve the quality of game management
throughout the country.

No phase of game management has benefited more from the
Pittman-Robertson Program than restocking. From indiscriminate
and ineffective dumping of birds and animals, restocking has been
refined so that the right wildlife in the right quantity is settled on
the right land. The list is long and runs the gamut of restocking
native species to areas overhunted or destroyed through changing
or harmful land management practices. The white-tailed deer has
been successfully returned to many of the eastern States. Equal
success can be reported for return of the wild turkey to many of its
native haunts.

In retrospect, one can say that during the 30-odd years since
the enactment of the Pittman-Robertson Program all phases of game
management have benefited greatly. The American sportsmen owe
a vote of thanks to those responsible for its introduction and safe
passage through the Congress.

DINGELL-JOHNSON PROGRAM: A federal aid to sports fisheries
program became effective on July 1, 1950, with the signing of the so-
called Dingell-Johnson Bill, named after its sponsors. The provisions
are similar to those of the P-R Act, and are administered by the
same organization in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

The income from the 10 percent Federal tax on fishing tackle
was estimated to amount to 3 million dollars for the first year.
Annually, the fund becomes available for appropriation to the
States, 40 percent to be based on available fishing water and 60
percent on the number of fishing licenses sold. Since the beginning
of this program, nearly 133 milhon dollars has been collected. The
1970 Fiscal Year tax was 13.9 million dollars.

1Q

BEAVER

It might appear that research is a well-estabUshed and well-
supported function of wildlife management agencies, but this is not
quite true. A shortage of funds has been a feature of wildlife con-
servation and research since its very beginning. Salaries have been
consistently low for well-trained administrators and their assistants,
and State legislators have been loath to appropriate sufficient funds
to underwrite much-needed research programs. Aldo Leopold was
impressed with this fallacy in 1937: He said that we ". . . are
spending a score of millions on wildlife, but not a red penny for
research. They come to some research unit whose total budget
would not pay their office boys and say: 'Please give us the facts on
which to build our program.' Naturally, we can't. Nor could we if
we stood with them under the financial cloudburst. Facts, like pine
trees, take not only rain, but time."

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT: The beginning of modern wildlife
management can be traced to formation of the Iowa Game Con-

servation Commission in 1931 by some farsighted and concerned
citizens — among whom were Jay N. Darling and Aldo Leopold. Upon
the recommendations of the Conservation Commission, a new Iowa
State law set up the game and fish department under a bipartisan
conservation commission and required that game and fish be man-
aged in such manner that any loss suffered by a species would
be compensated by natural reproduction. The Conservation Com-
mission was designated as the sole agency to determine whether or
not a biological balance existed. Jay Darling and Aldo Leopold, as
members of the Commission, pointed out that the first and most
immediate problem was to find trained and competent wildlife
biologists and game managers. Very few were available in this field,
and such schooling as was offered dealt with pest species or in the
realm of pure science.

The essential ingredients of game management are skillful
investigators, money to pay them, land on which to work, and
proximity to individuals engaged in related fields. The obvious
choice was at a State Agricultural College, and Iowa State College
at Ames, Iowa, was the site chosen for the first training to be
offered in this new profession. Three years later, in 1934, Jay
Darling was appointed Chief of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Sur-
vey, Washington, D.C. In his new capacity, Mr. Darling urged
expansion of the Iowa experiment to include the Federal Govern-
ment, thus making it a State-Federal function under which each of
nine land-grant colleges furnished money, services, or equipment —
to be matched at each school by equal contributions from the
American Wildlife Institute, the Bureau of Biological Survey, and
the individual State Game Department.

A logical foUowup to this Federal-State program was a co-
operative agreement signed in 1946 between the Federal Extension
Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which resulted in
more emphasis being placed upon game and nongame species. At
the present time, there are 50 extension fish and wildlife specialists
in 24 States, who train county extension workers in fish and wildlife,
provide leadership in wildlife programs for 4-H and other youth

groups, serve as liaison between various wildlife organizations, and
give training and advice for income-producing enterprises that are
related to land and wildlife.

WILDLIFE RESEARCH: The attention being directed toward our
wildlife resource has increased dramatically in recent years, reflecting
a new awareness by the general public of the need for outdoor
recreation and protection of the environment. This demand can be
met only by making additional knowledge available to landowners
and land managers so they may attain optimum wildlife populations
in concert with other land uses.

Providing a suitable habitat is the key element in management
of wildlife and fish populations. In order to emulate a natural habitat
for a species, the land manager must provide the required amount
of water, food, and cover for that particular species to live, thrive,
and reproduce. Management of such a habitat is a very complex
undertaking, for each species has rather specific habitat requirements.

The production of timber, grazing of livestock, and water use
often have a great impact on the value of a habitat that is also planned
for the reproduction and welfare of wildlife. In order to reconcile
such a possible conflict, the wildlife habitat research specialist seeks
to define the particular requirements of the species of wildlife, de-
velop the technology necessary to meet those requirements, and
evaluate the impact of other land uses on the environment.

Wildlife habitat research by the Forest Service is a continuing,
long-term program of both applied and basic research. At fifteen
locations throughout the United States, studies are conducted in co-
operation with various State and Federal agencies and, in some
instances, with industry and private sportsmen's associations. Wildlife
biologists usually work together within a team — referred to as a Re-
search Work Unit. At times, the Research Work Unit is compjosed
entirely of wildlife biologists, but quite often a team of scientists
specializing in various disciplines is needed to solve the complex
problems encountered in the management of lands for multiple uses —
including wildlife.

11

Conservation of natural resources . . .

is the key to the safety and prosperity of the American people,
and of all the people of the world, for all time to come.
— Gifiord Pinchot (1865-1946)

12

REEREATIQN USE

HUNTING: Many critics of hunting are concerned with the motiva-
tion of the hunter and the conduct of the hunt. In a recent study of
this subject, nearly half of the hunters said that they could be satis-
fied with the hunt even if they did not kill any game, and about
four-fifths said that much of the pleasure of hunting is the result of
experiencing the wonders of nature at first hand.

It is undoubtedly true that the large majority of sportsmen
strive for a clean and merciful kill achieved through strict adherence
to regulations. To be intentionally cruel and to wantonly inflict pain
is as reprehensible to the true sportsman as it was to that gentle
healer and philosopher Albert Schweitzer.

Comprising less than one-twelfth of the Nation's total area, the
National Forests and National Grasslands account for about a third
of the total harvest of big game. Inasmuch as 85 f)ercent of these
lands are in the Western States, they produce a much higher per-
centage of the wilderness type game animals such as moose, elk,
bighorn sheep, and mountain goat. In 1970, there were over 14
million hunter visitor-days of use on Forest Service administered
lands. {Note: Each hunter/fisherman visitor-day represents the equiv-
alent of one person hunting/fishing for 12 hours or 12 persons
hunting/fishing for one hour.)

FISHING: It is also noteworthy that the National Forests and Na-
tional Grasslands have nearly one-fourth of the cold-water fishing
streams in the United States, excluding Alaska, and more than half
of the cold-water lakes and reservoirs, excluding the Great Lakes.
(These waters are so designated because they produce cold-water
species of game fish.) More than 10,000 miles of National Forest
streams in the Pacific Northwest are used by spawning salmon and
other anadromous game fish. These waters are particularly important
because they are part of the nursery streams so necessary for per-
petuating the runs of these choice food and sport fishes. Sport fishing
for salmon in off-shore waters is big business.

All fishing waters can remain productive only so long as good
water quality is maintained. Salmonid species of fish are among the

least tolerant to water pollution. As man's activities increase, the job
of maintaining water quality becomes more difficult.

In 1970, there were nearly 15 million warm and cold water
fisherman visitor-days of use on Forest Service administered lands.
NONCONSUMPTIVE USE: Fish and wildlife on the public lands,
both game and nongame species, constitute an important national
resource. Although about 40 million hunting and fishing licenses,
applying to public and private lands alike, were sold in the United
States in 1970, the fish and wildlife on the public lands have much
greater significance and meaning beyond that form of recreation.

Millions of people enjoy photographing wildlife, or observing
and studying birds and animals, as a part of their camping, hiking,
picnicking, or other forms of outdoor experience.

The Forest Service recognizes the importance of these non-
consumptive values now and for the future.

MOOSE

WILD TURKEY

PALL SHEEP

Public sentiment is everything.
With public sentiment, nothing can fail;
Without it, nothing can succeed.
—Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)

COURTESY BUREAU SPOBT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE TRUMPETER SWAN

I , ■ ■ ■ .

COURTESY BUREAU SFOBT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

MAN^EEMENT

Scientific management of wildlife and its habitat often becomes
very complex. Through the issuance of specific regulations, the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, many years ago, recognized the responsibilities
of the respective States for protection and management of wildlife
on the National Forests. Wildlife habitat on these forests, on the
other hand, remains a responsibility of the Forest Service. To better
define this delineation of responsibility and to provide a close working
relationship between both agencies, memorandums of understanding
have been approved in each State containing National Forest lands.
These agreements have worked very well as a basis for performing
the National Forest wildlife management job on a partnership basis.
And, under these agreements, much of the habitat improvement
work is cooperatively planned and financed.

Another complexity of management is the need for public sup-
port. States can manage and control game populations only to the
extent that the public will support such management. Thus, there
is need for conservation education to continually apprise the public
of the reasons for various aspects of management. Too often, human
emotions influence management decisions.

COORDINATION OF USES: In the management and use of other
National Forest resources, wildlife habitat can be enhanced or de-
graded. If degradation occurs, a study is made of events leading
to the error in management, and attempts are made to avoid
a recurrence. On the other hand, with proper technical planning,
other forest activities can often be carried out in such a way that
wildlife habitat is improved.

Trained wildlife biologists are assigned to the Forest Service
organization to help achieve proper management and development of
wildlife habitat. The biologist knows that a dense unbroken stand
of timber is unproductive of many forms of wildlife. Nutritious forage
is not produced under dense shade, but rather in openings where
sunlight can penetrate to the ground. This leads to the generally
accepted conclusion 'that productive wildlife habitats should have
interspersed openings and a variety of food plants.

14

FORESTRY PRACTICES: A properly planned timber harvest can be
an effective and economical way to develop a productive range for cer-
tain wildlife species. The Douglas fir timber zone in western Oregon
is an excellent illustration. Extensive logging developed there in the
late 1940's. Blacktailed deer, which inhabit the Douglas fir forests,
showed no increase in numbers from 1940 to 1950, but showed a
fourfold increase between 1950 and 1960, and another 20 percent
since 1960. It seems obvious that dispersed patch-cutting of timber,
through its effect on forage production, has been the greatest single
factor to cause the spectacular increase in the numbers of blacktailed
deer during the past 20 years. On the other hand, mule deer in
eastern Oregon showed a slight increase from 1940 to 1950, more
than a twofold increase from 1950 to 1960, and another slight in-
crease since 1960. The more gradual increase of mule deer has been
attributed to an adjustment in livestock use as well as the timber
cutting program. The elk population in Oregon has more than doubled
since 1940 — following a pattern similar to that of the mule deer.

Under the present rate of timber sale activity on National
Forest land, timber cutting (including the thinning of young stands)
is dispersed over about 1,750,000 acres annually, of which about
one-fourth is in some form of small clearcuts. The degree of benefit
to wildlife from these cuttings is indicated to some extent by the
high sustained levels of harvested deer and other game.

DIRECT HABITAT IMPROVEMENT: Direct habitat improvement
work has also paid off. Controlled burning to stimulate sprout growth,
planting and seeding of browse, and the release of preferred food
plants are examples. A type of improvement that has proved to be
very important over the years is the construction of new watering
facilities. These include waterholes, spring developments, and
"guzzlers." Guzzlers, which catch rainwater and funnel it into a
tank, are used extensively in the more arid parts of the West. They
are regularly used by quail, deer, and many other wildlife species.
In the East, on the other hand, large numbers of waterholes have
been constructed to enhance turkey ranges. Where natural surface

water is scarce, a waterhole for each square mile of land often is
desirable for nonmigratory game.

On some of the better ruffed grouse areas, abandoned logging
roads have been converted into hunter walkways. Upon the closing
of timber sales, some of the temporary roads are seeded to a grass
and clover mixture and, where necessary, closed to vehicular traffic.
The seeding retards invasion of timber, and the walkway provides
a feeding area for grouse.

WETLANDS: National Forests along the Mississippi flyway are
particularly well situated for waterfowl use. A short time ago, some
2,000 acres of the Oakwood Bottoms Greentree Reservoir was com-
pleted on the Shawnee National Forest in Illinois. Through a system
of low dikes, control gates, and pumped water supply, the area is
flooded during the late fall and winter season to help hold and feed
migrating and wintering populations of waterfowl. The local wood
duck population is expected to increase significantly on the project
area, which supports growing stands of pin oak trees. In a locality
where the better private lands are posted against hunting and trespass,
this developed area is especially welcomed by both the hunting and
nonhunting public.

Wetland development on the Chippewa National Forest in
Minnesota also presents great promise. Of the total Federal acreage
in this Forest, about one-half is open water in lakes of more than
10 acres. Here, duck nesting is limited to portions of the shoreline.
Another quarter of the Forest area is classed as wetland. One-third
of the wetlands, about 50,000 acres, can be effectively developed
and managed for waterfowl production. Development includes con-
struction of shallow-water impoundments, creation of potholes, and
installation of nesting boxes and platforms. More than a threefold
increase in waterfowl production is expected to result from these
improvements, as well as benefits to other resources.

Although major efforts in fish-habitat management within Na-
tional Forests are directed toward maintaining water quality in all
forest activities, many direct habitat improvement projects are re-
sulting in improved habitat conditions for fish. A partial listing of

GRIZZLY BEAR CODETESY DB. MAUEICB G. HOBNOCKGB

IS

such activities include streambank protection, in-stream improve-
ment devices, fishways, debris removal, and the construction of
fishing lakes.

16

SPORTSMEN'S CONTRIBUTIONS: It is not generally known that
hunters and fishermen pay for the support of all 50 State fish and
game agencies through sales of hunting and fishing licenses. The
money for support of these agencies does not come from general
revenue channels, as most people believe. In fact, hunting and
fishing are unique among most outdoor recreational activities in that
the participants directly pay for the support and increase of their
sport. It should also be pointed out that without this direct support,
most game management programs would be in serious condition.

Refuges purchased by sportsmen's money support more species
of non-hunted wildlife than game species. In most cases, game
refuges are open to the general public. The picnicker, the hiker, and
the photographer are seldom aware that quite often the land they
enjoy has been bought by sportsmen's money. The nature lover sel-
dom understands that the preservation and increase of wildlife is
made possible largely through funds that have been supplied by the
sportsmen of America.

Sportsmen spend millions of dollars developing and improving
private lands for wildlife habitat — a conservative estimate is over
100 million dollars a year. Thousands of sportsmen devote countless
hours planning and working on habitat development. As 60 percent of
the land in America is privately owned, it is obvious that the future of
wildlife depends to a great extent on such private development.

The public, and too often the hunter, does not understand
the careful surveys that are made by State and Federal agencies
before hunting seasons and bag limits are set. Many species of game,
such as white-tailed deer and mourning dove, are more abundant than
when the first settler came to this country. It is worthy of note that
when a game species is in short supply, the hunter is not only the
first to call for action, but he supplies the money to employ biologists
and make sure this species is protected and increased.

For the most part, the species of wildlife that are endangered
in America are not game species. The population of bluebirds, which
has never been hunted, has declined drastically during the last decade.

.5-

I OBWHITE QUAIL

MALLARD DUCKS

Habitat is then the starting point for any and all successful
game increase. If we are to increase a game species, we
must first know the habitat requirement of the species,
then find or create and preserve that environment type.
—Wallace Grange (1905 )

C01IRTE.SY BUREAU SPORT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

ROCK PTARMIGAN

LIMPKIN

WILD BOAR

17

BIE EAME

A large segment of the big-game population of the United States
lives all or part of the time on the National Forests and National
Grasslands. Mule deer of the western forests are the most abundant,
followed by white-tailed deer (with the largest numbers in the East
and South), blacktailed deer (found only in the Pacific Coast re-
gions), elk (mostly in western areas), turkeys, and black bear. The
National Forests also contain extremely important habitats for
antelope, bighorn sheep, moose, mountain goats, javelina, brown and
grizzly bears, mountain lions, and the introduced wild boar. A few
caribou in National Forests in Idaho, Washington, and Alaska com-
plete the big-game picture. Several of these species, such as the deer
and elk, are in large numbers and provide the bulk of big-game
opportunity, while other species, such as the grizzly bear, mountain
goat, and bighorn sheep, are few in number but provide trophy and
other unusual hunting, viewing, and photographic experiences.

Big-game species are valuable not only for hunting, but for the
enjoyment they provide for the nonhunting public. The opportunity
of observing deer, elk, bear, and other big-game species is the high
point of the trip for many thousands of people visiting the National
Forests.

On most National Forests, there is adequate food, water, and
cover to support the year-long requirements of the forest herds of
big-game animals. However, there are exceptions. There are National
Forests in the West where the winter range for deer and elk, and in
some instances the summer range, is inadequate to carry the present
level of big-game populations. The same situation exists in the deer-
yard areas of the North Central and New England States. Where this
situation occurs, it can generally be corrected through a reduction in
animal populations through hunting combined with a habitat im-
provement program for the ranges of the involved species.

The importance of habitat for big-game species can scarcely be
overstated. If habitat is not adequate in both quantity and quality,
only small populations can be sustained. However, a well-managed
forest in which wildlife numbers are balanced with the habitat capa-
bility can generally support large numbers of animals indefinitely.

SMALL SAME

Small-game species abound on all our National Forests and
Grasslands. The wild turkey, while sometimes listed as big game
under State regulations, is becoming common from coast to coast
and border to border. Various sub-species originally were native to
a particular section of the country, but transplanting and cross-breed-
ing of native and domestic stock has somewhat dimmed the identi-
fication of original breeds.

The cottontail rabbit is the most popular small game animal in
the Nation. Each fall, the forests and meadows echo to the excited
yelps and baying of beagles and other hounds as they chase their
elusive quarry. In northern States, the snowshoe, or varying hare,
demands a discerning eye of the sportsman as his white fur blends
into the snowy landscape.

Blue grouse, sage grouse, and chukar partridge are Western
game; bobwhite quail and woodcock in the South and East. Squirrel,
raccoon, and 'possum have their devotees in the East and South.
The mink and weasel are trapped for their fur; beavers are taken in
limited quantities both East and West. Waterfowl of many species
are common on National Forests and National Grasslands.

The list is long; too numerous to detail. But they are all at home
on our National Forests and National Grasslands.

CANADA GOOSE

COURTESY BTIREAII SPORT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

GRAY SQUIRREL

ia

NQN-EAME SPEEIE5

These include those species not hunted for sport or for their
valuable fur or edible meat.

Songbirds form the most numerous group, var^'ing in quality
of song and brightness of plumage. What would our forests be without
our feathered friends — the scolding of the jay, the inquisitive chicka-
dee, and the mournful cry of the loon?

The waddling porcupine, the mice, vole, turtle, frog, and toad
— these are but a few. The crow and his larger western cousin, the
raven; the hawk and kingfisher; the sparrow, robin, and tiny wren;
the staccato notes of the woodpecker pounding on a hollow limb,
easily discernible above the soughing wind and creaking trunks of
trees — these form the actors and the background symphony of a
forest.

Non-game species form an integral part of a forest and contrib-
ute substantially to the enjoyment of the forest visitor. They also
play an important rok in the ecology of the forest. Therefore, the
preservation of habitats of non-game species is extremely important
in the overall management of the National Forests and National
Grasslands.

OLDEN-MAXTLED GROUND SQUIRREL

■^■•i.

GOLDEN EAGLE

' 'St

COURTESY BUREAU SPORT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

COYOTE COURTESY XATIOXAL PARK SERVICE

Streams, lakes, and reservoirs on National Forests are among
the best quality fishing waters in the Nation. Generally located on
the watershed above the influences of municipal and industrial pollu-
tion and subject to effective types of land management, these waters
are less effected by the encroachment of civilization. Protection of
the watershed and maintenance of stable stream flows of high quality
are two of the major objectives of the Forest Service.

The Forest Service recognizes the urgency for more intensive
management of fishery habitat to help satisfy the increasing demand
for sport fishing. Water impoundments, when constructed on the
National Forests, are planned to serve recreational needs as well as
other purposes.

More than 10,000 miles of streams within the National Forests
constitute "nursery" waters for the production of Pacific salmon. It
is estimated that more than 40 percent of the salmon taken by com-
mercial and sport fisherman off the Pacific Coast States have their
origin in waters within the National Forests. Salmon is a self-
renewable resource, but as with any renewable resource, lack of
concern by the public could destroy it. Protected against natural and
man-caused hazards, and wisely managed, fisheries experts foresee
that salmon will continue to be an important source of food as well
as provide sport for America's fishing enthusiasts.

There are 84,000 miles of streams, approximately 1,500,000
acres of natural lakes and more than 1,000,000 acres of reservoirs
on the National Forests. These are the waters that provide a quality
fishing experience for millions of sportsmen each year.

The trout leads in popularity among most forest fishermen, with
the cutthroat and rainbow most sought in the West, and the brook,
rainbow, and introduced German brown in the East. The northern
pike, walleye, and the muskellunge are avidly fished for in the Lake
States and the Northeast; bass, perch, bluegill, crappie and other
warm-water species are most common in the Middle Atlantic States
and the South.

The tendency of anglers to seek out the larger and more
voracious species of fish with highly regarded game or fighting quali-

ties has been evident since the beginning of sport fishing. These
species are generally less available in numbers than are other fishes
of smaller size. Obviously, the less glamorous types must provide the
bulk of the catch in future years.

Major emphasis in the management of this resource is directed
toward planning and developing overall forest programs so as to
maintain high-quality water supplies, which, in turn, assures a high-
quality habitat for fish.

It is so they die on the plains.
The great old buffalo.

The herd-leaders, the beasts with the kingly eyes,
Innocent, curly-browed.

They sink to the earth like mountains, hairy and silent . . .
— Stephen Vincent Benet (1898-1943)

21

Wr

^^esse

NDAN6ERED SPEEIES

Saving the habitat of rare and endangered birds, animals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes is one of the
lesser-known activities of the Forest Service — although it has been going on for many years.

Rare or endangered species of wildlife occur in all parts of this country, including Hawaii and Puerto
Rico. Endangered species are in immediate danger of extinction. Rare species face the same danger, but it is
not so acute.

Saving endangered species nation-wide is a truly cooperative job, involving many Federal and State agen-
cies; National, State and local conservation groups; and individuals. Coordinating the whole program, which
was authorized by Congress in 1966, is the Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the !• • - i r Promi-
nent in pressing for action has been the National Audubon Society — acutely mindful of the irtt , le wild-
life, mostly birds of Hawaii, already lost. On the extinct list are three parakeets — the Carolina, Louisiana, and
Mauge's (of Puerto Rico) — besides the heath hen of our Atlantic Coast and the famous passenger pigeon.

Of the many species of wildlife on the rare or endangered list, 58 are on or near National Forests. The
Forest Service has either drawn up habitat management plans for, or is giving special management emphasis
to, 42 of these rare and endangered species. A recent action taken by the Forest Service in its endangered
species program is a joint study and habitat-management project with the Fish and Wildlife Service, aimed to
preserve the colorful Puerto Rican parrot. Perhaps only 15 or 20 of ' ith a red

forehead and blue primary wing feathers survive today — all in the troj in east-

em Puerto Rico.

Although the Puerto Rican parrot. now lives in a kind of refuge, as does the California condor, such " total
protection" is not considered today as the only method of safeguarding an endangered species — or any wild-
life population. Wildlife is basically dependent upon the condition of its habitat — the area where it lives —
regardless of what legal designation is given to the area.

Suitable conditions (food, cover, etc.) for most wildlife species to live and increase to desired numbers
can be provided through balanced land-use programs. In most cases, this means forests and other lands can
be managed for commercial production of timber, pulpwood, and other crops, and can provide recreation for
the public — all these activities without endangering its native wildlife. This multiple-use principle is a comer-
stone of National Forest management.

The Califomia condor, much larger than the American bald eagle, is a relic of the distant geologic past.
Only about 50 of these gigantic scavenger birds survive today, all in the vicinity of Los Padres National Forest.
Southern Califomia. not far from the densely populated Los Angeles area. Long realizing its rarity and
value, the Forest Service set aside a refuge in its nesting area in 1937, and another in 1947 — to protect its
young and help increase its numbers. Condors are also protected by Califomia law.

The tiny Kirtland's warbler in Michigan's lower peninsula has also benefitted from special Forest Serv-
ice help, in cooperation with State and local Audubon Societies. This assistance, startlingly enough, includes
setting fires, besides pulpwood harvesting and special plantings. The entire existing population of this warbler.

about 1,000 birds, would weigh perhaps 30 pounds, little more than one good-sized condor.

One of the primary nesting grounds of this lemon-breasted songbird, 4,010 acres in the Huron National
Forest, was set aside five years ago as a special management area to insure perpetuation of the species. Por-
tions of the forest are set afire at five-year intervals, under careful control, while the birds are still in their
winter quarters in the Bahama Islands. The intense heat of the fires is needed to open the seed cones of the
jack pine, thus starting new seedlings and providing the dense brush which the bird requires. It nests on the
ground, only where jack pine spread their dense living lower branches into thick ground cover. This means
that stands of these trees, 6- to 1 8-feet tall and between 8 and 20 years old, must always be available. The
Michigan Department of Conservation has also set aside three management areas for this bird.

Many other threatened species of wildlife also find havens in National Forests and National Grasslands.
Our national symbol, the bald eagle, is retreating from Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey because of man's
encroachment and activities. The southern subspecies of the bald eagle is on the endangered list and is be-
coming more scarce each year. The Forest Service has a management program for both birds, including a
regular inventory of nests, improvement and protection of nesting areas, and dissemination of information in
cooperation with National, State, and local Audubon Societies, to build public support for the programs.

The Kaibab squirrel on the Kaibab National Forest next to the Grand Canyon in Arizona is in the rare
category, although it has been protected by law for many years. Studies are currently being made to more
clearly define habitat requirements of Kaibab squirrels.

In the southern Sierra Mountains of California, the Forest Service is making it easier for two rare big-
game species to survive. The Tule or dwarf elk and the California bighorn sheep, both range into the Inyo
National Forest. Domestic livestock grazing has been restricted to provide these species with enough feeding
range.

The red wolf of Louisiana and nearby States is in immediate danger of extinction — if not already extinct
or completely hybridized with the coyote. The timber wolf of the Lake Superior region is in the same status,
but it is fairly abundant in Canada and Alaska. Timber wolves are found in the Chippewa and Superior Na-
tional Forests in northern Minnesota and in the Ottawa and Hiawatha National Forests in northern Michigan.
The range of both wolves has been drastically reduced — both have been ruthlessly hunted, poisoned, and
trapped as predators of livestock and wildlife, with bounties as an added incentive.

The fate of these wolves is largely true also of the grizzly bear of Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming — and
to a lesser extent of the glacier bear of Alaska — both of which are found on National Forest land. The Forest
Service is giving attention to improving the living conditions for these animals, in consultation with State game
specialists. The attitude that all predators should be exterminated is giving way to the more tolerant and en-
lightened opinion that all life is part of a great interdependent ecological system; that each animal has a
right to a niche in this system, and may indeed even be a vital part of it.

RARE Si

ENQAN6ERED 5PEEIES

ENDANGERED AND RARE WILDLIFE AND FISH SPECIES ON OR
ADJACENT TO FOREST SERVICE ADMINISTERED LANDS

SPECIES

STATUS '

SPECIES

STATUS «

1. Indiana Bat

Endangered

30.

Eskimo Curlew

Endangered

2. Spotted Bat

Rare

31.

Puerto Rican Parrot

Endangered

3. Glacier Bear

Rare

32.

Ivory-Billed Woodpecker

Endangered '

4. Grizzly Bear

Rare

33.

Southern Red-Cockaded Woodnecker

Endangered

5. Black-footed Ferret

Endangered

34.

Kirtland's Warbler

Endangered

6. San Joaquin Kit Fox

Endangered

35.

Bachman's Warbler

&idangered

7. Eastern Timber Wolf

Endangered

36.

\VaIlowa Grav-Crowned Rosv Pinrh

Rare

8. Red Wolf

Endangered

37.

Shortnoie Sturceon

Endange red

9. Florida Panther

Endangered

38.

I ake Sturgeon

Rare

10. Utah Prairie Dog

Rare

39.

Atlantic Sturgeon

Rare

1 1 . Kaibab Squirrel

Rare

40.

Piute Cutthroat Trout

Endangered

12. Tule Elk

Rare

41.

Lohontan Cutthroat Trout

Endangered

1 ^ Pcnin^ul^ Riphnm

Rare

JiAcinfc^nn \A/**ctQlorM* f^itthroaf Trout
IVlUIIUiIla VrCalalULlC V^UllllIv/al 1 luui

Ran*

14. California Bighorn

Rare

43.

Oreenhaclc C^itthmat Xroiit

Endangered

15. Florida Manatee

Endange red

44

AriTi^nA ( y^nsiphp^ Trniit

Endangered

16. Brown Pelican

Endangered

45.

Ciila Trout

Endangered

17. Tule White-Fronted Goose

Rare

46

Rare

18. Mexican Duck

Endangered

47.

I ittlp fVilnrado SnineHace

Rare

19. California Condor

Endangered

48.

Kendall Warm Springs Dace

Endangered

20. Southern Bald Eagle

Endangered

49.

Gila Top Minnow

Endangered

21. American Peregrine Falcon

Endangered

50.

Humpback Chub

Endangered

22. Arctic Peregrine Falcon

Endangered

51.

Colorado River Squawfish

Endangered

23. Prairie Falcon

Rare

52.

^ Bass

Rare

24. Lesser Prairie Chicken

Rare

53.

I >ied Threespine Stickleback

Endangered

25. Northern Greater Prairie Chicken

Rare

54.

Sharp Head Darter

Rare

26. Masked Bobwhite

Endangered

55.

Trispot Darter

Rare

27. Greater Sandhill Crane

Rare

56.

Pine Barrens Tree Frog

Rare

28. Florida Sandhill Crane

Rare

57.

American Alligator

Endangered

29. Whooping Crane

Endangered

58.

Bog Turtle

Rare

* Status determined by "Red Book" Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife of the United States compiled by Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-
life, U.S. Department of the Interior.
^ Species could be extinct at this time.

2§

We travel together, passengers on a little
spaceship, dependent on its vulnerable resources
of air and soil; all committed for our safety
to its security and peace; preserved from
annihilation only by the care, the work, and,
I will say, the love we give our fragile craft.

-Adlai Stevenson,

from his final speech as U. S. Ambassador to the United Nations

T-HE FUTURE

The Nationwide program to preserve at least minimum populations of
each existing species of wildhfe has come none too soon, with so many birds,
mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes close to extinction, and some others
already gone. The Forest Service plans to accelerate its efforts to play an im-
portant part in assuring that habitat of rare and endangered species on Nation-
al Forests receive proper management.

Aldo Leopold was keenly perceptive of future problems for American
wildlife, when he stated in his book ROUND RIVER: "Like winds and sun-
sets, wild things were taken for granted until progress began to do away with
them. Now we face the question whether a still higher 'standard of living' is
worth its cost in things, wild, and free."

The Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture is proud of its
long record of responsible husbandry of the 187 million acres of forest land
under its administration and management. Through tradition and dedication,
it is pledged to continue to serve the best interests of the American people now
and in the future.

* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 O - 449-782

. . we in this century have too casually
and too long abused our natural environ-
ment. The time has come when we can
wait no longer to repair the damage already
done, and to establish new criteria to guide

us in the future."

-President Richard M. Nixon,

Message on Environment, February 10, 1970

BACK COVER : SNOW GEESE

COURTESY BUREAU SPORT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE