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MEMOIRS of the NATIONAL
MUSEUM of VICTORIA

NUMBER

Melbourne, Australia
1969

Registered at the G.P.O., Melbourne, for transmission by post as a periodical

MEMOIRS

of the

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF VICTORIA

MELBOURNE AUSTRALIA

No. 29

Director

J. McNALLY

Assistant Director and Editor

EpMuND D. GILL

PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES

9 APRIL 1969

TRUSTEES

SIR ROBERT BLACKWOOD, MCE BEE FIE Aust (Chairman)

HENRY С. А. OSBORNE, BAgrSc (Deputy Chairman)

JAMES C. F. WHARTON, BSc (Treasurer)

PROFESSOR E. S. Нил, PhD (Lond) Hon DSc (Dunelm) DSc FIC FAA FRS
PROFESSOR S. SUNDERLAND, CMG MD BS DSc FRACP FRACS FAA

THE Hon. MR JUSTICE ADAM, MA LLM

SIR HENRY SOMERSET, CBE MSc FRACI MAIMM

W. L. DREW, Secretary to Trustees

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF VICTORIA

STAFF

Director: JOHN McNALLY, ED MSc
Assistant Director: EDMUND D. GiLL, BA BD FGS FRGS

Administration: A. G. PARSONS, (in charge)
L. M. GROSVENOR
H. J. E. CLARKE
G. H. RUSSELL
MARIE FLYNN
NANCIE WORTLEY
GWENDA BLOOM

SCIENTIFIC STAFF

Geology and Palaentology:
Curator of Fossils: T. A. DARRAGH, BSc DipEd
Curator of Minerals: A. W. BEASLEY, MSc PhD DIC FGS
Assistant Curator of Fossils: H. E. WILKINSON, BSc
Assistant: J. K. JAMIESON

Vertebrate Zoology:
Curator of Vertebrates: Joan М. Dixon, BSc (Hons)
Curator of Birds: A. К. McEveY, BA
ASSISTANT: A. J. COVENTRY

Invertebrate Zoology:
Curator of Insects: A. NEBOISS, MSc FRES
Curator of Invertebrates: B. J. SMITH, BSc PhD

Assistants: ELIZABETH M. MATHESON
LEONIE L. CONVEY

Anthropology:
Curator of Anthropology: A. L. WEST, ВА Dip Soc Stud
Assistant: J. A. S. HOLMAN

Library:
Librarian: Joyce M. SHAW, BA
Assistant: SUSAN L. BROOKES

Display Staff:

С. J. BROWNING
D. T. MORGAN

Preparatorial Staff:

P. C. К. BosweLL (Senior Preparator)
L. J. CHAPMAN

M. G. TRAYNOR

A. STEN

Education Officers:

N. W. MonrEv, BSc BEd
L. E. LEESON
R. N. MiLLER
ManiE-THERESE MURPHY

HONORARY ASSOCIATES
Geology:
A. А. BAKER, 1951
G. BAKER, DSc, 1956
A. C. COLLINS, FRAIA ARIBA AMTPI МАСЕ, 1953
1. б. б. DOUGLAS, MSc PhD, 1966
J. A. TALENT, MSc PhD, 1966
D. J. TAYLOR, MSc, 1966
J. W. WARREN, MA PhD, 1968

Vertebrate Zoology:

C. N. AUSTIN, 1955

C. W. BRAZENOR, 1962

A. G. BRowN, MRCS (Eng) LRCP (London), 1968
К. P. СООРЕВ, FNIA, 1952

N. J. FAVALORO, 1945

P. A. RAWLINSON, BSc, 1968

C. TANNER, 1953

R. M. WARNEKE, MSc BAgrSc, 1966

Н. N. B. WETTENHALL, MD BS MRCP FRACP, 1963

Invertebrate Zoology:
J. Hope ВгАСК, MSc (née Macpherson), 1966
R. F. BURN, 1962
A. М. Burns, MSc FRES, 1966
J. E. Н. Crorts, 1960
D. F. Скозву, FRES, 1968
R. A. Dunn, AAA AAIS, 1948
FLORENCE V. MURRAY, MSc, 1969
К. L. Јем5о, BSc Dip.Ed., 1968
E. T. SMITH, 1960

Anthropology:
D. A. CASEY, MC FSA, 1933
Photography:
BALCOMBE Quick, DSO MB ChB FRCS FRACS, 1960

CONTENTS

Page
COVER ILLUSTRATION
Australite , (anterior and posterior views) from Lavers Hill, Otway
Ranges, Victoria, X4. F. Guy photo
MINERALOGY
1. Beach sands of the southern shore of Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia.
By A. W. BEASLEY. (Plate 1)
PALAEONTOLOGY
2. A fossil chelonian of probable Lower Cretaceous age from Victoria,
Australia. By J. W. WARREN. (Plate 2) 23
3. A lower mandible of Zygomaturus gilli from The Sandringham Sands,
Beaumaris, Victoria, Australia. By MICHAEL О. WOODBURNE 29
4. Description of an Upper Miocene albatross from Beaumaris, Victoria,
Australia, and a review of fossil Diomedeidae. By Н. E. WILKINSON.
(Plates 3-4) 41
PLANETARY SCIENCE
5. Five large australites from Victoria, Australia, and their relationships to
other large forms. By GEORGE BAKER. (Plates 5-10) 59
6. Australites from Мика, Lake Eyre Region, South Australia. By GEORGE
BAKER. (Plates 11-15) 65
ARCHAEOLOGY
7. Radiocarbon date for aboriginal remains at Maroona, Victoria, Australia.
By EDMUND D. Girr. (Plate 16) 81

ZOOLOGY
8. Catalogue of Baldwin Spencer earthworm types in the National Museum
of Victoria, Australia. By К. L. JENSZ and В. J. SMITH 85

9. The spawn and early life history of Cacozeliana granaria (Kiener, 1842)
(Gasteropoda, Cerithiidae). By FLORENCE У. MURRAY. (Plate 17) 199]

BEACH SANDS OF THE SOUTHERN SHORE OF
PORT PHILLIP BAY, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

By A. W. BEASLEY

Curator of Minerals

Abstract

The textural and constituent composition of 23 samples of beach sand collected along the
S. shore of Port Phillip Bay are described. The sand is coarse along the shore of Dromana Bay
but grain size diminishes to the W., the median diameters from McCrae to Point Nepean
ranging between 0-18 and 0-52 mm. Except for two samples, all sands are well sorted. The
sands are composed mainly of quartz grains and shell particles. The content of acid-soluble
(mainly shell) material is low in the E. part of the study region, but between Rye and Point
Nepean it ranges between 22.2 and 50-1 per cent. The heavy mineral composition of the
samples is given and the minerals described. It is concluded that most of the sand constituents
have been derived from disintegration of granitic rocks and dune-limestone which outcrop
along the coast in the study region. Much of the shell material in the sand from Rosebud to
Point Nepean is considered to have come from the dune-limestone which is composed largely
of shell fragments of sand size. The beaches are relatively stable, but human interference
appears to be partly responsible for coastal erosion at certain places.

Introduction

The sandy beaches on the S. shore of Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, being not far
distant from the city of Melbourne, are popular playgrounds. They constitute a
scenic and recreational resource of major importance, and thereby are of com-
mercial value. No previous work has been carried out on the beach sands of Port
Phillip Bay's S. shore. The present research was conducted primarily to obtain
information about the nature of the sands and to enquire into their origin. However,
is was realized that the work could be of value in projects associated with the
prevention of coastal erosion and the control of sand accumulation.

Field work was carried out during July, 1966, when mid-tide beach sand
samples were collected at approximately one-mile intervals from the NE. corner
of Dromana Bay to Point Nepean, a distance of 223 miles. During the period of
collection, calm weather prevailed and wind conditions were fairly constant. The
position of each sampling station was fixed by surveying methods with reference to
the maps of the Mornington Peninsula Area Base Map Series (scale 400 ft to 1
in.). Figure 1 shows the localities whence the samples were collected; information
about precise locations and remarks about the places of collection are given in the
Appendix.

Sand samples of approximately 350 grams were collected at about the reported
time of low tide, by pushing down a thin metal cylinder to a depth of 3 in., remov-
ing the sand around the outside of the cylinder, and sliding a thin board under-
neath. Width and gradient of the shore at each collecting locality were determined.
Rock samples were collected from coastal cliffs, to assist in the enquiry into the
origin of the sands.

A. W. BEASLEY

Coastal Geomorphology, Geology and Environment

The $. shore of Port Phillip Bay extends along the NW. and N. margins of the
Mornington Peninsula—that region of the Victorian mainland between Western-
port Bay and Port Phillip Bay. The shore consists of sandy beaches alternating
with rock-cliffed sections and headlands. Topographic relief varies along the coast.
The surface is usually low and hummocky behind long sandy beaches, and gently
undulating to hilly behind rock-cliffed sections of the shore. At Mount Martha and
Arthur's Seat, near the coast, the land rises to heights of 520 ft and 1,000 ft
respectively.

The extreme E. part of the region of study is known as Dromana Bay. The N.
shore of this Bay consists of a cliffed coastline cut in the Mount Martha Grano-
diorite (Palaeozoic). From the S. limit of the granodiorite cliffs a broad sandy beach
stretches for 11 miles to White Cliffs. The beach is bordered in many places by a
belt of weakly defined sand ridges which are fixed by vegetation. The sand ridge
bordering the shore is subject to wave attack during gales, and rock sea-walls have
been constructed at a number of places to prevent coastal erosion. There are small
outcrops of granite on the sandy shore at The Rocks, Dromana. White Cliffs is a
headland of Pleistocene dune-limestone (aeolian calcarenite).

From White Cliffs a sandy beach extends for about 3 miles in a WNW. direc-
tion to The Sisters. This stretch of shore is bordered for most of its length by
vegetated sand ridges which are higher than those between White Cliffs and
Dromana. In the vicinity of Blairgowrie and at certain other places between White
Cliffs and The Sisters, groynes and retaining walls have been constructed to control
erosion. The Sisters are two headlands of dune-limestone separated by a small
sandy beach.

The shore extends in a WNW. direction from The Sisters for 8 miles to Point
Nepean. It consists of a series of sandy beaches separated by cliffed sections and
headlands of dune-limestone. Between Sorrento and Portsea, Point King, Point
McArthur and Point Franklin form conspicuous headlands, and cliffs of dune-
limestone rise steeply from the shore in many places. These cliffs reach a height of
70 ft in the vicinity of Point McArthur. From the Army Officer Cadet School at
Portsea to Point Nepean the shore mainly consists of a broad sandy beach bordered
by sand ridges. At Point Nepean (the E. Head of Port Phillip Bay) a broad, hori-
zontal shore platform is developed in dune-limestone but this wide platform dies
out inside the Bay. Erosion is active at Point Nepean, and the headland is partly
protected by a sea-wall.

The width of sandy shore varies along the coast (see Appendix), reaching 250
ft near the Rosebud Jetty. Where the beach is wide, the angle of slope is small,
being only 1° near the Rosebud Jetty. Where the shore is comparatively narrow,
the gradient is higher, reaching 7° at some places. Since the tide range is small,
the foreshore is narrow where the slope is relatively steep; the spring tide range
diminishes from 3:5 ft at Point Nepean Jetty to 3 ft at Dromana Jetty. However,
where the shore gradient is low, the foreshore is wide; this is so in the Rosebud-
Rye area where the sandy foreshore attains a width of 200 ft.

The S. shore of Port Phillip Bay lies approximately at right angles to the direc-
tion of maximum fetch in the Bay and is exposed to N. and NW. winds but pro-
tected from both S. and E. winds. Strong winds from the N. and NW. generate
powerful waves which erode sand off some of the beaches and deposit it in the
off-shore region; but smaller waves generated by weaker winds transport sand back
on to the beaches. Bowler (1966) regards the coast from Dromana to Point

BEACH SANDS OF PORT PHILLIP BAY 3

Nepean as a zone of sediment accumulation by N. to $. and W. to E. movement,
and he believes that the protection afforded by the coastal orientation permits little
drift. The accumulation of sand alongside groynes on various beaches along the
coast certainly is not great; and variable drift is indicated at different places and at
different times by the building up of sand on opposite sides of groynes. At the time
when field work was carried out most accumulation of sand was on the W. side of
groynes in the Rye-Sorrento region.

Emerged beach deposits and other evidence of emergence of the land can be
seen at various places along the $. coast of Port Phillip Bay. These features have
been described by Hills (1940), Bowler (1966) and others, and are believed to
have formed in mid-Holocene times when sea-level was about 10 ft higher than
th There are no streams of any significance entering Port Phillip Bay along its

. Shore.

Figure 1 shows the geology of the region of study. Maps showing the geology
of the coastal region immediately to the N. are included in papers by Keble (1950)
and Gostin (1966). A cliffed coast of Mount Martha Granodiorite extends N.
from Safety Beach to Balcombe Bay, and from there for about 11 miles the coastal
sections are composed largely of Upper Tertiary ferruginous sandstones known as
the Baxter Sandstones.

With reference to submarine topography, bathymetric contours indicate that
much of the near-shore region is fairly shallow. The near-shore profile off the
cliffed coastline of Mount Martha Granodiorite is relatively steep, but flattens S. in
Dromana Bay. Proceeding SW. as far as Tootgarook the near-shore gradient is
also low. A system of shallow sand bars begins off the beach at McCrae, and these
off-shore bars continue W. subparallel to the beach to near Sorrento. Off-shore
between The Sisters and Point King, the Bay floor is nearly flat over a large area
(part of the region known as the South Sand) and the 5-fathom line is about 2
miles from the coastline. Between Point King and Point Nepean the 1-fathom and
5-fathom contours are closely spaced near the shore for long distances, particularly
where the coast is steeply rock-cliffed.

Sand covers the floor of Port Phillip Bay for a considerable distance N. from
its S. shore (Beasley 1966), extending out to about the 10-fathom line. In shallow
areas off-shore between Sorrento and Point Nepean dune-limestone outcrops
through a thin cover of sand to form rocky shoals or ‘reefs’; and in deeper water
near Port Phillip Heads tidal scour has exposed dune-limestone. Tidal currents are
fairly strong in the channels off the southern shore of the Bay, the tidal streams in
the entrance to Port Phillip attaining velocities up to 8 knots.

Laboratory Procedure

Each beach sand sample was dried and reduced in bulk with a Jones splitter to
about 50-75 g. Soluble marine salts and organic (weed) matter were removed by
decantation and, after drying, the material was sieved using Wentworth intervals.
A cumulative frequency curve and a histogram were constructed for each sample,
and the median diameter and Trask’s sorting coefficient were determined. Size
fractions were examined with a binocular microscope, recombined and treated with
dilute 1:2 hydrochloric acid to determine the weight percentage of acid-soluble
(mainly carbonate) material in each sample. Sieve analysis of the acid-insoluble
residue was carried out and the median diameter and sorting coefficient of the

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leached sand (free from shell fragments, etc.) were determined. A histogram was
constructed for each sample of acid-treated sand.

Heavy minerals were separated from the acid-treated 7; to + mm size-grades of
each sand sample using bromoform, and the weight percentage of heavy minerals
(index number) for this size range was determined. An Alnico hand magnet was
used to detect the presence of magnetite; its relative abundance was estimated and
the grains returned to the heavy mineral fraction prior to mounting in Canada
balsam for examination under the microscope. Heavy mineral species were identi-
fied under the petrological microscope and their relative proportions were deter-
mined by counting random fields of grains in each microscope slide. Percentages
were determined to the closest whole per cent; less than 3 per cent was recorded as
a trace. Types of rock fragment and the nature of composite grains in the beach
sediments were determined by microscopic examination.

Rock samples from coastal cliffs were crushed in a steel mortar and each
sample was reduced in bulk by coning and quartering to about 75 g. The weighed
sample was then soaked in water and completely disaggregated by wet crushing.
Clay and water-soluble salts were removed by decantation. The sample of dis-
aggregated rock (minus clay and soluble salts) was then sieved and the median
diameter and sorting coefficient were determined. Each size-fraction was examined
with a binocular microscope. After recombining these fractions, the sample was
treated with dilute hydrochloric acid and the weight percentage of acid-soluble
material was calculated. The acid-insoluble residue was sieved, and the median
diameter and sorting coefficient of this material was determined. Heavy minerals
were separated from the іе to 4 mm size-grades of the acid-treated sample with
bromoform and the index number determined. The heavy mineral grains were
identified and their relative abundance calculated.

Textural Composition of the Sands

Results of the mechanical analysis of the sands and their acid-insoluble residues
are presented in Table 1 and Figure 4.

Median Grain Size

Figure 2 shows the median grain size of the sands and their acid-insoluble
residues plotted against distance along the coast. The median grain size of the
sands ranges from a maximum of 0:83 mm at station 1 to a minimum of 0:18 mm
at station 11 (Rye). From station 1 to station 11 there is an almost continuous
decrease in median grain size. The decrease from station 1 (adjacent to grano-
diorite cliffs) to station 2 is particularly steep, and this trend continues to station 3,
indicating that appreciable S. drift of the larger sized particles does not occur. From
station 3 the median grain size coarsens slightly to station 4 and this coarsening
continues to station 5 (Md 0:62 mm) at The Rocks, Dromana. This local increase
in the median may be related to the occurrence of granite outcrops near station 5.
There is a sharp decrease in median grain size from station 5 to station 7 (Md
0:27 mm) near Rosebud Jetty, but the differences from there to station 11 are
less great. The comparatively small medians in the Rosebud-Rye region may be
related to low wave energies there, much of the wave energy having been expended
over the wide near-shore zone of shallow water with numerous sand bars.

From station 11 the median diameter increases to station 12 and continues to
coarsen W. to station 13 (Md 0:40 mm). The larger median at station 13 can be
related to an unusually great content of large shell fragments, presumably broken

6 A. W. BEASLEY

TABLE 1
Statistical constants of beach sands from Port Phillip Bay
Sample Md Q3 01 Acid-soluble
Мо. (mm) (mm) (mm) So per cent
1 0:83 1:70 0:26 2:56 4-0
1 ARR. 0-81 1:63 0.29 2-37
2 0:66 0:79 0-55 1:20 04
2 WIR. 0-64 0:76 0:54 1:19
3 0-55 0-71 0-44 1-27 0-5
3 AR. 0:55 0-71 0-44 1-27
4 0:58 0-64 0:49 1:17 0-5
4 ALR. 0-56 0-68 0-50 1-14
5 0:62 0:76 0-46 1-28 1-6
2 АДЕ. 0-62 0:73 0:48 1:22
6 0:48 0-57 0-42 1-16 82
6 AR. 0:47 0-56 0-40 1:18
Ёз 0.27 0-32 0:23 1-18 46
МШЕ. 0-27 0-33 0-23 1-20
8 0-30 0-36 0-26 1-18 15-2
8; АДЕ, 0-31 0:37 0:26 1-19
9 0.28 0-34 0:24 1-19 18-1
9 АЛА 0.28 0-32 0-25 1-14
10 0-21 0-24 0:17 1:17 28.6
10 AIR. 0-20 0:24 0:17 1-20
11 0-18 0-20 0-15 1-16 39.5
it ALR, 0-17 0-20 0-15 1-15
12 0:33 0-44 0-26 1:29 28.6
12 "АНЕ; 0-32 0-41 0-27 1-24
13 0-40 >4-00 0-23 >4:17 50-1
13. АДЕ. 0-29 0-40 0-16 1-60
14 0-33 0-46 0-26 1-34 31-8
14 ALR. 0-35 0-45 0-26 1-31
15 0.33 0.37 0-2 1-12 23-7
У SE 0:33 0-38 0.28 1-16
16 0.29 0-34 0-27 1-12 24-8
16 AIR. 0-32 0:37 0-28 1-14
17 0-52 0-59 0-42 1-19 22:2
17 AIR. 0.52 0.59 0-43 1-17
18 0-52 0-60 0-48 1-12 27-5
18 AIR. 0-52 0:56 0:47 1:10
19 0:26 0-33 0-23 1:19 38-1
19 AIR. 0:28 0:33 0:25 1-15
20 0:28 0-34 0:24 1-20 34-8
y me 0.28 0-31 0:24 1:13
21 0-22 0.26 0-19 1:15 50-1
СІ RER, 0-24 0-27 0-20 1-15
22 0-25 0-33 0-21 1-27 46-8
22^ KIR 0:26 0-31 0:23 1-14
23 0-30 0-35 0-25 1-18 36-6
49 AEN. 0-30 0:36 0:26 1-19

Key: Md = Median, Q3, Q1 = Quartiles, So = Sorting coefficient, A.LR.* — Acid-
insoluble residue.

and transported by fairly powerful waves. The median diameters at stations 14, 15
and 16 are all very close to that at station 12, suggesting similar wave energies and
similar source materials at these localities. There is a marked coarsening of the
sand at stations 17 and 18 (near Sorrento); this appears to be due more to higher
wave energy and the removal of finer fractions by wave and current action than to

BEACH SANDS OF PORT PHILLIP BAY 7

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8 A. W. BEASLEY

the presence of small fragments of dune-limestone in the sand. The median dia-
meters at stations 19 to 23 do not differ greatly from one another, that at station
23 (Point Nepean) being the coarsest of these five samples. а

The upper graph іп Fig. 2 reveals two regional characteristics. The first is the
occurrence of relatively coarse sand in the far E. part of the study region. Median
diameters at station 5 and all stations E. are greater than the other samples. This
coarseness appears to be due more to the proximity of source material (Mount
Martha Granodiorite) than to higher wave energies; wave energies are similar on
other sections of the coast. The second observation is that the sands from stations
7 to 23 do not have a wide range in median diameter, if those from stations 13,
17 and 18 are excluded. The similarities in median grain sizes along this stretch
of coast from Rosebud to Point Nepean suggest that the source materials of the
sand are essentially similar. The coarser sand at stations 13, 17 and 18 is probably
due to local variations in wave energies and current velocities at these localities.

In most cases the median grain size of the acid-insoluble residues is slightly finer
than that of the beach sand samples. However, treatment with acid resulted in a
marked decrease in the median of the sand from station 13. The median diameters
of the acid-insoluble residues of the sand from stations 17 and 18 are identical
with those of the untreated samples. The coarseness of the sand at these stations
therefore is not due to marine skeletal material or to fragments of dune-limestone.

Sorting

Trask's (1932) coefficient of sorting (So) of the beach sand samples and their
acid-insoluble residues are listed in Table 1 and are plotted against distance along
the coast in Fig. 3.

The sand from station 13 has a coefficient of sorting considerably greater than
that of any other sample and, adopting Trask's (1932) classification, is poorly
sorted. Sorting values of the other sand samples range from a maximum of 2:56 at
station 1 to a minimum of 1:12 at stations 15, 16 and 18; they are all well sorted
sands except that from station 1 which has moderate sorting. Sixteen of the 23
sand samples have sorting coefficients of 1:20 or less.

The occurrence of sand with only moderate sorting at station 1 may be related
to its location adjacent to cliffs of decomposed granodiorite. Sorting improves
markedly along the shore away from the granodiorite cliffs, but there is a local
decrease at station 5 (The Rocks, Dromana) near small outcrops of granite. From
station 6 (McCrae) to station 12 (White Cliffs) the sorting coefficients are almost
identical, and the sands are very well sorted. Poor sorting at station 13 may be
related to an unusually large shell content with shell fragments of various sizes.
This poor sorting indicates turbulent conditions, but it is only local in occurrence
and at station 14 the sand is well sorted. From station 15 to station 23 the sorting
values are all very similar.

The upper graph in Fig. 3 indicates that, apart from the marked improvement
in sorting from station 1 to station 2, there are no regional trends of sorting with
shoreline distance. The improvement in sorting in the far E. part of the study
region suggests that the direction of drift there is SW. along the shore.

There appears to be a relationship between the sorting coefficient of the beach
sand and its median diameter. Sands which are very well sorted usually have small
values for their median diameter, and a decrease in the degree of sorting commonly
corresponds with an increase in median grain size.

Most commonly sorting was improved slightly after removal of the acid-soluble

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Fic. 3—Sorting coefficient of sands (top) and their acid-insoluble residues (bottom)
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10 A. W. BEASLEY

fraction. However, the sorting coefficient of the acid-insoluble residue of the sand
from station 13 is considerably less than that of the untreated sand. After removal
of the acid-soluble fraction from each sample, the residues are all well-sorted sands
and most are very well sorted.

Histograms

In the histograms, weight percentage of material greater than 4 mm in size is
indicated by vertical lines, since it represents material retained on the coarsest
sieve used. In most cases none or very little material was retained on this sieve.

The sands from stations 1, 5 and 13 are bimodal but the other 20 are unimodal.
Sand from station 1 has a primary mode in the very coarse sand size-grade and a
lesser mode in the fine sand. Its large secondary maximum and spread indicate an
immature condition of sorting. Two sources for this sand are suggested by the
nature of the histogram; there appears to be loading with coarse material supplied
from the nearby granodiorite. A very conspicuous maximum size-grade occurs in
the coarse sand grade of the samples from stations 2, 3 and 4, and fine proximate
admixture exceeds coarse proximate admixture in each of them. The bimodal nat-
ure of the sand at station 5 suggests two sources, one of which is granitic rock
nearby. The maximum size-grade in the samples from stations 6 to 9 is medium
sand, but this maximum shifts to fine sand at stations 10 and 11. The histograms
reveal a coarsening in size and a lower degree of sorting at station 12, and show
that 30% of the sand from station 13 is greater than 4 mm in size. The bimodal
character of the latter sample is due to the mixing of finer quartzose sand with
coarser bioclastic material mainly of molluscan origin. There is a conspicuous
maximum in the medium sand grade at stations 14, 15 and 16. At stations 17 and
18 the maximum size-grade is coarse sand, but at stations 19 and 20 it has shifted
back to medium sand and fine proximate admixture is considerably greater than
coarse, The histograms reveal a decrease in size at station 21 and 22, but at station
23 (Point Nepean) the maximum is again in the medium sand grade and fine
proximate is the dominant admixture,

Of the 20 unimodal sands, five have the maximum in the coarse sand grade,
11 in the medium sand grade and four in the fine sand grade. It is a common
characteristic for the histograms to have few grades with a conspicuous maximum
size-grade towering above the neighbouring grades; the narrow spread indicates a
high degree of sorting. None of the samples west of station 13 have a secondary
maximum.

Acid-insoluble residues of the beach sands from stations 1, 5 and 13 are
bimodal like the sands, but the other acid-treated samples are unimodal. Since the
histograms for the acid-insoluble residue and the untreated sand from station 1 are
almost identical, shell content does not cause the bimodality of that beach sand.
Comparison of histograms also indicates that bimodality at station 5 is not due to
calcareous shell content, Histograms for most of the acid-insoluble residues very
closely resemble those for the untreated sand, but show that the acid-insoluble
residues commonly are slightly finer. Histogram shape for the acid-treated sand
from station 13, however, is very different from that for the untreated sand and,
although a wide spread still exists, a marked decrease in size is apparent.

Constituent Composition of the Sands

The constituent composition refers to the acid-soluble (mainly carbonate) con-
tent and the acid-insoluble content of the beach sediments. Some of the samples

50:10
2 4 8 16

X
16

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24 8

4 2

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40
20
о
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AT dE | IMM.
2466 48

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Fic. 4—Size-analysis histograms of sands and their acid-insoluble residues (A).

eu Y
24816
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MM: 2 |

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60
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12 А. W. BEASLEY

contain rock fragments, and a separate statement is made concerning them, since
they serve as important indicators of source and assist in tracing sediment drift
along the coastline.

Acid-soluble Content

The weight percentage of acid-soluble material in each sample is listed in Table
1 and these percentages are plotted against distance along the coast in Fig. 5. The
acid-soluble content ranges from a minimum of 0:4 per cent at station 2 to a
maximum of 50:1 per cent at station 13. From station 1 W. for 6 miles the acid-
soluble content is less than 8-5 per cent, but from there is rises steeply reaching
39-5 per cent at station 11 (Rye). Between Rye and Point Nepean it varies be-
tween 22:2 per cent and 50-1 per cent. There is, accordingly, a low content of
acid-soluble material in the sands from the E. part of the study region, and a rela-
tively high content in those from the central and W. parts.

Microscopic examination indicates that organogenic material makes up almost
all of the acid-soluble content. It comprises whole shells and shell fragments of
Holocene age as well as material derived from the disintegration of Pleistocene
dune-limestone, which is composed largely of shell fragments of sand size. It seems
likely that much of the shell material in the sand from Rosebud to Point Nepean
has come from disintegration of the dune-limestone which outcrops along the
coast. All size-fractions of the sand from this region contain shell material, and it
is common in most fractions. The low content of shell material in the sands east of
McCrae seems to have come mainly from organisms indigenous to the nearby
seafloor; it is present mainly in the coarser size-fractions of the sand. Microscopic
examination indicates that shell material greater than 2 mm in size in the other
sand samples is of similar Holocene origin. The presence of a large amount of shell
derived from the indigenous marine fauna in the sand at station 13 points to con-
siderable on-shore drift in the vicinity at certain times.

Rock Content

Fragments of granitic rock and hornfels occur in the sand at station 1. Appar-
ently they have come from local sources; hornfels occurs around the Mount Martha
Granodiorite as well as at The Rocks, Dromana (Baker 1938, Keble 1950). Much
of the granitic rock is of pebble size but the fragments range down through granule
to coarse sand size; most of the smaller fragments exhibit a fairly low degree of
roundness and it is clear that they have not been subjected to much transportation.
The amount of granitic rock at stations 2, 3 and 4 is considerably less than at
station 1, but at station 5 there is a slight increase apparently due to local outcrops.
Much less granitic rock is present at stations 6 to 9, and there is a decrease in
size and increase in roundness of the fragments as one proceeds W. Granitic rock
was not found at stations 10 and 11, but one small fragment was present in the
sample from station 12 and a few from station 13; it is probable that these came
from material used in the construction of retaining walls in the vicinity. No frag-
ments of granitic rock occur in the samples W. of station 13.

Dune-limestone fragments are present in all samples from station 12 (White
Cliffs) to Point Nepean but do not occur in the samples E. of White Cliffs. The
fact that fragments do not occur far distant from dune-limestone outcrops may be
related to the friable nature of much of this rock which is fairly easily disintegrated.
The absence of dune-limestone fragments from the sands E. of Rye, however, may

оё

ег

N w ~
o [9] o

ol
09

“Oy
о

PERCENTAGE ACID- SOLUBLE MATTER

G THE ROCKS „DROMANA
f

б McCRAE

SIEDROSIIBUDITJE TY

Ses UL

RYE

ЖН БОБИ

£l

E BLAIRGOWRIE

G THE SISTERS

NOILVIS WOUJ 1SVOD омоту GYVMLSSM
91

5 POINT Ме ARTHUR

o PORTSEA

e OBSERVATORY POINT

№
№

w POINT NEPEAN

Fic. 5— Weight percentages of acid-soluble material in beach sands plotted against
distance along coast.

14 A. W. BEASLEY

indicate that sediment drift from the W. and central parts of the study region E.
along the coastline is not very considerable.

A few granules and sand-size particles of ironstone occur in many of the samples.
Their amount is never great, but they are more common in the Dromana-Safety
Beach area than elsewhere.

Acid-insoluble Mineral Content

The acid-insoluble mineral content of the beach sands consists mainly of quartz.
This is chiefly the transparent to translucent variety originally of granitic origin,
but small amounts of opaque reef quartz occur. Feldspar grains are fairly common
in certain samples, rare in others and not recognized in some. White mica occurs
in minor amounts in the finer size-grades of certain samples.

The quartz grains are usually either colourless or yellowish and brownish from
a thin coating of limonite; occasionally they are coated with hematite and are pink-
ish. Most ironstained grains reveal films of secondary iron hydroxide or iron oxide
along cracks and flaws. Reef quartz grains are usually whitish-grey in colour, but
some are deeply ironstained to a reddish colour.

Most of the quartz grains at station 1 are colourless and subangular to sub-
rounded. Reef quartz is conspicuous there and feldspar is relatively common. Most
of the mineral grains at station 1 appear to have come from the granitic rocks
nearby and to have been transported little. The degree of roundness of the quartz
grains in the sands from station 2 (Safety Beach) to station 6 (McCrae) ranges
from angular to well rounded, but the majority are subangular to subrounded and
most grains are colourless. Some of the quartz grains in the coarser size-fractions
of the sands at these stations are angular; this points to a short detrital history,
since rounding of larger size particles occurs at a relatively rapid rate. The ratio of
ironstained quartz grains to colourless ones increases in a SW. direction along the
shore from Safety Beach to McCrae. There are a larger number of subrounded
quartz grains at station 7 (Rosebud) and station 8 (Rosebud West) than at the
stations to the E. Feldspar and reef quartz particles diminish in amount in a SW.
direction along the coast from Safety Beach.

From station 9 (Tootgarook) to Point Nepean colourless quartz grains are
more abundant than ironstained ones; the former are commonly subangular and
the latter are commonly subrounded. This fact suggests two different sources for
the quartz. The less rounded colourless grains may have come from granitic rocks
not far away, whereas the ironstained grains have a longer detrital history. The
ratio of colourless to ironstained quartz grains remains almost constant along the
central and W. parts of the study region. Some of the grains have frosted surfaces
and others are well polished.

Heavy Fractions

The index number for the +% to 1 mm size-grades of each acid-treated sand
sample is listed in Table 2. The weight percentages of heavy minerals (index
numbers) range from a maximum of 3:97 at station 3 (Dromana) down to a
minimum of 0:22 at stations 11 (Rye) and 12 (White Cliffs). The relatively high
values at Dromana and Safety Beach may be attributed to the location near the
E. end of the arcuate stretch of shore between Point Nepean and Martha Point.
Presumably the heavy minerals, transported by wave and current action, have
become more concentrated along the shore of Dromana Bay partly because of the
configuration of the coastline; they are prevented from moving northward by the
headland of Mount Martha Granodiorite which has steep cliffs and relatively deep

BEACH SANDS OF PORT PHILLIP BAY 15

water near-shore. Some of the heavy minerals in these sands have apparently been
derived from the granodiorite, and the higher index numbers may be partly due to
closer proximity to this source rock.

, 4m the central part of the region under consideration the index numbers are low
in value but typical of most beach sands. The index number is 0:55 at station 7
near Rosebud Jetty and, with the exception of the sample from station 13, the
values are all below unity until station 18 (Point McArthur) is reached. These
low values may be connected with low-energy wave conditions resulting from the
shallow near-shore topographic profile and the presence of sand bars subparallel to
the beach. The higher value at station 13 may be related to higher wave energy in
the vicinity connected with a steepening of the near-shore profile, greater heavy
mineral concentration being affected by more powerful wave action.

The index numbers of samples from the W. part of the region are usually higher
than those from the central (Rosebud-Sorrento) part, the value at station 23 (Point
Nepean) being 1:35. The higher values may be attributed to the interruption to
heavy mineral sand movement along and near the shore caused by the Rip, as well

TABLE 2
Mineralogical composition of heavy fractions (in % by number) and index numbers
= S 5 2 tà B [^] Е А
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16 A. W. BEASLEY

as to the close proximity of a source rock (dune-limestone) and somewhat higher-
energy wave conditions near the entrance to Port Phillip Bay. А

Magnetite is present in the heavy fraction of each sample. Its relative abund-
ance is listed in Table 2, estimated according to the following scale: A = very
abundant; a = abundant; С = common; о = occasional; r = rare; У = very
rare. Magnetite is classed as common in the heavy fraction of the sands from
stations 1 to 7, that is, from the E. part of the region under consideration. In all
samples W. of station 7 the relative abundance of magnetite is classed as occasional.

The mineralogical composition of the heavy fractions is given in Table 2. In
this Table, ‘others’ refers to grains which could not be positively identified, usually
because their weathered condition obscured diagnostic optical properties; it also
includes some composite grains. .

The heavy fractions of the sands from the E. part of the region (from station 6
E.) contain a granitic and metamorphic group of minerals, basaltic minerals such
as augite and olivine being absent or present only in trace amounts (less than +
per cent). Black opaque minerals (mainly magnetite and ilmenite) comprise more
than 50 per cent of the heavy fractions, and magnetite is more common in them
than in the other samples. This is also the case with brown opaque minerals (limo-
nite and other coloured opaque ferruginous minerals) and biotite. The nature of
the heavy mineral assemblages and the fact that many of the mineral grains do not
have a high degree of roundness suggest that they were derived from local sources
—mainly from granitic rocks nearby. Many of the zircon grains are euhedral and
subhedral, and tourmaline occurs commonly as prismatic crystals showing only
slight abrasion. Some grains of zircon, tourmaline, rutile and ilmenite are rounded
and well-rounded, and apparently have had a longer detrital history; they may have
come from the Tertiary sandstones exposed in coastal cliffs to the N.

The heavy fractions of the sands from W. of McCrae (station 6) contain
basaltic minerals (olivine, augite and iddingsite) as well as granitic and meta-
morphic minerals. The amount in the sands from McCrae to Rye is small, but it is
somewhat larger and remains nearly constant between Rye and Point Nepean. The
olivine and augite are commonly coarser grained than the granitic-metamorphic
group of heavy minerals. Some of the grains of basaltic minerals are angular and
many are subangular to subrounded. The relatively slight abrasion of so many of
these grains indicates that they have not had a very long detrital history. Black
opaque oxide minerals comprise more than 40 per cent of the heavy fraction of
the sands W. from McCrae, and ilmenite is more abundant than magnetite. Some
ilmenite grains show partial alteration to leucoxene, and the percentage of leuco-
xene grains is higher along this stretch of shore than along that to the E. The zircon
content of the heavy mineral assemblages does not vary greatly, but the amount of
tourmaline is less in the samples W. of White Cliffs.

Grain Characteristics of the Heavy Minerals

Anatase. The very rare grains are usually blue but a few are yellow. They are
commonly tabular and prismatic. Some grains show striations and zoning.

Andalusite. Occurs as pink and colourless grains which are elongate to irregular
in shape. Some grains are cloudy from alteration.

Apatite. This mineral is rare in the assemblages. It may have been partly or
wholly removed from the samples by acid digestion, since it is soluble in HCl. The
grains are colourless and usually rounded, although slightly worn elongate prismatic
ones are present.

BEACH SANDS OF PORT PHILLIP BAY 17

.Augite. Most grains are pale brownish-violet; some are greenish, greyish,

various shades of brown and almost colourless. Grains are often elongate cleavage
fragments of irregular shape, sometimes with dentate ends. Most particles do not
show a high degree of roundness, many being subangular. Grain size is commonly
Aer than most of the other heavy minerals. Some particles show corrosion
eatures.
. Віоійе. Occurs as brown and greenish-brown grains which are commonly
irregular in outline with jagged edges. Many flakes are fresh but some show partial
alteration to chloritic matter and others are bleached almost white. The flakes are
usually larger than most of the other heavy minerals.

Black Opaques. These grains are mostly magnetite and ilmenite. The degree of
roundness of the magnetite grains ranges from angular to well-rounded. Some
magnetite grains show edges of crystal faces and a few octahedra occur. Ilmenite
grains generally have a higher degree of roundness than magnetite; many are sub-
angular but most are subrounded. Some ilmenite grains are partly altered to
leucoxene.

Brown Opaques. These are mostly limonite but include other coloured opaque
ferruginous minerals. Most of these grains are subrounded and irregular in shape.

Chlorite. Occurs as greenish grains often of blotchy colour. The grains are
irregular in outline and often have a ragged appearance.

Epidote. The grains are pale greenish-yellow in colour and usually subangular
or subrounded. Pleochroism is weak.

Garnet. Most grains are pink, but some are colourless and a few brown. The
grains are often angular and subangular, and some show surface etching. Crystal
faces are seen on some grains.

Hornblende. Grains range in colour from green to brown, brownish-green ones
being most common. Grains are usually elongate cleavage fragments and many
appear relatively fresh. They are often larger than most of the other heavy minerals.

Iddingsite. Occurs as reddish-brown grains of irregular shape. Most grains are
subangular.

Kyanite. Grains are colourless and usually elongated with rounded ends. Traces
of cleavage at right angles to the length of the grains are common.

Leucoxene. Occurs as creamy-white, greyish-white and yellowish-white grains
with a dull lustre. Most grains are subrounded or rounded. The surface is some-
times minutely pitted. A few grains reveal remnants of residual ilmenite.

Monazite. Grains are pale yellow in colour. They are usually rounded and
faintly pleochroic.

Olivine. Most grains are colourless but some are pale yellowish-green. Many
appear relatively fresh but some show traces of decomposition and others are
clouded from alteration. Grains are commonly subangular and irregularly shaped;
some show edges of crystal faces. The grains are often larger than most of the
other heavy minerals.

Pyrite. The rare pyrite occurs as small pale brass-yellow crystals.

Rutile. The foxy-red variety is most common, yellow and yellowish-brown
grains being less common. Grains are usually elongate and subrounded; some show
edges of prism faces.

Sphene. The rare grains are pale-yellow and pale-brown. They are usually
subangular and irregular in outline. Some grains are clouded through decomposi-
tion.

Staurolite. Occurs as brown and brownish-yellow grains which are subangular

18 А. W. BEASLEY

and irregular in shape. Inclusions are fairly numerous in some grains.

Topaz. The grains are clear and colourless. They are mostly subangular and
irregularly-shaped.

Tourmaline. Brown varieties predominate but there are yellow, green, blue,
grey, pink and parti-coloured grains. Grains show all degrees of roundness. Elong-
ate prismatic crystals showing only slight abrasion are present, and some grains
are well-rounded. The well-rounded grains, some of which show a high degree of
sphericity, point to survival through more than one sedimentary cycle.

Zircon. Most grains are clear and colourless but a few are pale-yellow. The
grains range from euhedral and subhedral to well-rounded. Rounded grains in most
assemblages are approximately equal in number to those showing well-preserved
crystal edges and faces. A polycyclic origin is postulated for the well-rounded
grains. Inclusions are common in well-preserved crystals but the rounded grains
are generally free from inclusions. Zoning is sometimes observed, and some grains
have a dusky appearance due to the crowding of inclusions.

Zoisite. Occurs as colourless, prismatic grains which are usually subrounded.

Sources of the Sand Constituents

To enquire into the origin of the sand constituents, samples of dune-limestone
from White Cliffs (near station 12) and Point Franklin (near station 19) were
studied. Use is made of Baker's (1938, 1942) studies of the heavy minerals of
granitic rocks in the area.

The relative abundance of the mineral species in the heavy fraction of the Mount
Martha Granodiorite, as determined by Baker (1942) is: apatite (common), bio-
tite (very abundant), chlorite (very rare), garnet (very rare), hematite (rare),
hornblende (occasional), ilmenite (rare), limonite (very rare), magnetite (rare),
pyrite (rare), rutile (very rare), sphene (very rare), zircon (common). Baker
(1942) lists the heavy mineral assemblage of the Dromana Granite as: anatase
(very rare), apatite (occasional), biotite (common), chlorite (occasional), epidote
(rare), hornblende (common), magnetite (common), pyrite (occasional), sphene
(occasional), zircon (common), zoisite ( very rare).

It is clear that granitic rocks have been the primary source for most of the
detrital minerals in the beach sands, and it can be presumed that the Mount Martha
Granodiorite and the Dromana Granite have been important contributors. The
Mount Martha Granodiorite is decomposed and soft along the NE. shore of Drom-
ana Bay where erosion makes the rock an important source for supply of the sand
constituents. Fragments of granitic rock are not uncommon in the beach sands of
Dromana Bay but are rare or absent in the samples to the W. At station 1 particu-
larly a large proportion of the acid-insoluble constituents are coarse-grained and
have a relatively low degree of roundness, and the sand there shows only moderate
sorting. Apparently, many of the constituents have been derived directly from the
granodiorite. The mineral species in the heavy assemblages of the Dromana Bay
sands and the freshness and state of abrasion of many grains reflect the close
proximity of granitic rock. In particular, the presence of well-preserved zircon,
tourmaline and magnetite crystals and fresh brown biotite flakes in the samples E.
of McCrae indicates relatively recent liberation from granitic rocks.

The median grain size of the disaggregated dune-limestone from White Cliffs is
0:18 mm and that from Point Franklin is 0-17 mm; the sorting coefficients are
1:29 and 1:30 respectively. The median diameters are both somewhat smaller
than those of the sand nearby (at stations 12 and 19). The degree of sorting of

BEACH SANDS OF PORT PHILLIP BAY 19

the material composing the White Cliffs rock is identical with the beach sand
nearby, but the detrital constituents of the Port Franklin rock are somewhat less
well sorted than the beach sand from station 19.

The weight percentage of acid-soluble (mainly shell) material in the disaggre-
gated dune-limestone from White Cliffs is 63:9 per cent and that from Point Frank-
lin is 67-1 per cent. These percentages compare with 28-6 and 38-1 per cent in the
beach sands from near these two places.

‚ Median grain size of the acid-insoluble residue from the disaggregated White
Cliffs dune-limestone is 0-20 mm, which is slightly coarser than the material before
acid treatment; but the median diameter of the acid-insoluble residue from the
Point Franklin material (namely 0:17 mm) is identical with that of the untreated
disaggregated rock.

. Median diameters of the acid-insoluble residues from the disaggregated dune-
limestones are both less than those of the acid-insoluble residues of the beach
sands from nearby stations (0:32 mm and 0:28 mm). This fact suggests that there
are contributors other than dune-limestone to the mineral composition of the beach
sands in this region.

. Sorting coefficients of the acid-insoluble residues of the disaggregated dune-
limestones from White Cliffs and Point Franklin are 1:27 and 1:21 respectively.
As with most of the sand samples, sorting improved slightly after removal of the
acid-soluble (mainly carbonate) content. The sorting of the acid-insoluble residues
of the disaggregated rocks is not quite as good as that of the acid-treated beach
sands from stations 12 and 19.

Microscopic examination of the various size-fractions of the disaggregated
dune-limestones shows that the rock is composed mainly of quartz grains and frag-
ments of marine skeletal material. Most of the quartz grains are subangular or
subrounded, but some are angular, rounded and well rounded. The quartz grains
closely resemble those in the beach sands, colourless grains being more abundant
than yellowish, ironstained ones. The colourless quartz grains are commonly sub-
angular while the yellowish grains tends to be subrounded. Some quartz grains
have a frosted surface. Marine skeletal material is common in all size-fractions.

Fragments of dune-limestone, derived from coastal erosion, are found in the
beach sands from White Cliffs to Point Nepean, and it is clear that this rock is an
important source of the sand constituents in this region. The relatively high con-
tent of marine skeletal material in the sands from Rosebud West to Point Nepean
may be related to the high content of bioclastic material in the dune-limestone. E.
of Rosebud, farther away from the coastal outcrops of dune-limestone, the content
of marine skeletal material in the beach sands is much lower.

The weight percentages of heavy minerals (index numbers) for the 5 to + mm
size-grades of the acid-treated disaggregated dune-limestones from White Cliffs and
Point Franklin are 0:42 and 0:45 respectively. These compare with index numbers
of 0-22 for the acid-treated beach sand from near White Cliffs and 0:52 for that
from near Point Franklin. The index numbers for the dune-limestones and nearby
beach sands thus are approximately of the same order of magnitude. They are
considerably smaller than the index numbers for the beach sands from the E. part
of the coastal region under consideration. The mineralogical composition of the
heavy fractions of the dune-limestone samples is very similar, and there is a close
similarity to that of the neighbouring beach sand samples. |

The present research indicates that the acid-insoluble mineral content of the
beach sands has been derived mainly from the rocks forming the cliffs and wave-

20 A. W. BEASLEY

cut platforms in the study region. The shell fragments, which make up most of the
acid-soluble content of the beach sands, have originated by comminution of mat-
erial derived from organisms indigenous to the nearby seafloor, as well as by dis-
integration of coastal outcrops of dune-limestone.

Conclusions

The beach sands of the S. shore of Port Phillip Bay consist essentially of
quartz grains and shell fragments. The relatively high content of shell fragments
in the sand W. of Rosebud is due largely to the disintegration of dune-limestone
which is composed largely of shell fragments.

The main source materials are the rocks which outcrop along the coast in the
study region. Dune-limestone is the major source rock. In the E. (Dromana Bay)
area the Mount Martha Granodiorite is an important source rock. This is why the
sand there is coarser and less well-sorted, and composed mainly of granitic min-
erals. Shell material derived from marine organisms living nearby is constantly
being added to the sands.

The beaches are relatively stable. Powerful waves generated by strong N. and
NW. winds erode sand from some of the beaches and deposit it off-shore, but
smaller waves generated by weaker winds transport sand back to the beaches. Sand
drift along the shore occurs in different directions at different times according to
seasonal weather. It does not have very considerable or markedly permanent effects
on the sandy beaches. Where the sand ridge bordering the shore is subjected to
wave erosion during stormy weather, ‘new’ material is made available to the beach.
In some places where coastal erosion has made the construction of rock sea-walls
necessary, тап appears to have been partly responsible for the erosion by inter-
fering with vegetation and removing portion of the sand ridge bordering the shore.
This is so particularly between Dromana and Rye, and it will be necessary to
guard against further human interference.

Heavy minerals are not common in the beach sands, but local concentrations
occur at the N. end of Safety Beach.

Results of the present research will be of value in any subsequent study of
sand drift.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to Mr M. J. Mooney, former Museum Assistant and
Mr J. K. Jamieson, Museum Assistant for help with the field and laboratory work
associated with this project.

References

BAKER, G., 1938. Dacites and associated rocks at Arthur's Seat, Dromana. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Vict. 50: 258-278.
sd Ва heavy minerals of some Victorian granitic rocks. Proc, Коу. Soc. Vict.
BEASLEY, А. Ws 1966. Bottom sediments of Port Phillip Bay. Mem. nat. Mus. Vict. 27: 69-

nn nb. Geology and geomorphology of Port Phillip Bay. Mem. nat. Mus. Vict.

Gostin, V. A., 1966. Tertiary stratigraphy of the Mornington district, Victoria. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Vict. 79: 459-512.

Hits, E. S., 1940. The question of Recent emergence of the shores of Port Phillip Bay. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict. 52: 84-105.

KEBLE, К. А., 1950. The Mornington Peninsula. Мет. geol. Surv. Vict. 17: 1-84.

TRASK, P. D., 1932. Origin and environment of source sediments of petroleum. Gulf, Houston.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

—
NI тан т А АГАДЫ Н Л.

а а а ка
~ о Бо

= n
AA

18.
19.
20.
РАБ
22.
23,

BEACH SANDS OF PORT PHILLIP BAY 21
Explanation of Plate

PLATE 1

1—View from station 1 showing the cliffed coastline cut in the Mount Martha Grano-
diorite which forms the N. shore of Dromana Bay.

2—Wave-cut beach scarp showing parallel layers of heavy mineral sand near station 1,
Safety Beach.

3—The Sisters (western headland) looking towards Sorrento. This headland of dune-
пије is undergoing erosion and supplying sand-size detritus to the neighbouring
eaches.

4—Sandy beach between Point King and Point McArthur, near Portsea. Vegetated cliffs
of dune-limestone rise steeply from the shore.

Appendix

Sample stations

40” S. of line of projection of S. boundary, Bruce Rd., m.s.* 70; s.w.t 52’, s.g. 6°.

300' SW. of line of projection of S. boundary, Wattle St., m.s. 90; s.w. 81', s.g. 6°.

310’ NE. of line of projection of S. boundary, Nepean Highway, m.s. 89; s.w. 87’, s.g. 5°.
350’ WSW. of line of projection of W. boundary, Verdon St., m.s. 89; s.w. 48’, s.g. 7°.

345’ WSW. of line of projection of W. boundary, Burrell Rd., m.s. 108; s.w. 62’, s.g. 3°.
300' WSW. of line of projection of W. boundary, Bartels St., m.s. 108; s.w. 87', s.g. 5*.

610' ЕМЕ. of Rosebud Jetty, m.s. 108; s.w. 250', s.g. 1°.

On line of projection of W. boundary, Brendel St., m.s. 127; s.w. 107’, s.g. 3°.

150” ESE. of line of projection of W. boundary, Truemans Rd., m.s. 127; s.w. 97', s.g. 3°.
21 bu by S. of line of projection of W. boundary, Romney Avenue, m.s. 126; s.w. 100',
SLDS

175’ W. of line of projection of W. boundary, Weir St., m.s. 126; s.w. 111’, s.g. 2°.

125” E. of line of projection of W. boundary, White Cliffs Rd., m.s. 125; s.w. 67”, s.g. 5°.

. 470' E. by S. of line of projection of W. boundary, Murray St., m.s. 125; s.w. 24’, s.g. 7°.

800” WNW. of line of projection of W. boundary, Inverness Av., m.s. 125; s.w. 84’, s.g.

49,
1180 М. by W. of line of projection of W. boundary, Hughes Rd., m.s. 104; s.w. 162’, s.g.
рді;
405’ SE. by E. of line of projection of W. boundary, St. Pauls Rd., m.s. 104; s.w. 43”, s.g.
6°

= NNW. of line of projection of N. boundary, St. Aubins Way, m.s. 84; s.w. 27’, s.g.
On line of projection of E. boundary, Hemston Av., m.s. 83; s.w. 56', s.g. 6°.

600” E. of Portsea Jetty, m.s. 83; s.w. 83”, s.g. 5°.

1024' ESE. of Quarantine Jetty, Portsea, m.s. 62; s.w. 36', s.g. 6°.

1170’ ESE. of Observatory Pt., m.s. 62; s.w. 98’, s.g. 5°.

On compass bearing 115° from base of Pt. Nepean Jetty, m.s. 62; s.w. 110’, s.g. 5°.

125” WSW. of most northerly part of Pt. Nepean, m.s. 62; s.w. 170', s.g. 1°.

* — Map sheet, Mornington Peninsula Area Base Map Series.
+ s.w. = shore width, s.g. = shore gradient.

MEM. МАТ. MUS, VICT. 29 PLATE 1

A FOSSIL CHELONIAN ОЕ PROBABLE
LOWER CRETACEOUS AGE FROM VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

By J. W. WARREN

Department of Zoology, Monash University, Victoria

Abstract

Р А fossil chelonian from Carapook, Western Victoria, originally recorded by Е. Chapman
is re-described. Due to the nature of the matrix it is concluded that the provenance of the
specimen is within the Lower Cretaceous Merino Group. The fossil possesses characters that
exclude it from any known family of Chelonia and it is described (Chelycarapookus arcuatus)
as a new genus within a new family (Chelycarapookidae) that is erected to include it,

Introduction

The single specimen described in this paper is housed in the palaeontological
collection of the National Museum of Victoria, (P13160). It was presented to the
National Museum by Mr J. S. Macpherson and has been illustrated and described
by Chapman (1919). He referred it ‘with some reservation” to the same species as
the extant Murray River tortoise, Emydura macquari, and suggested that it prob-
ably was of Pleistocene age. There is now some doubt about this age assignment
and, furthermore, it is clear from Chapman's published figure and his description
of what he thought to be impressions on the carapace of remains of the pelvic
girdle, that he misinterpreted several aspects of the morphology of the specimen.
For these reasons a re-description of this unique fossil is justified.

Occurrence

The exact provenance of this fossil cannot be established with absolute cer-
tainty; the museum label states that it came from an ironstone bed, three feet from
the surface, at Carapook, near Casterton. The community of Carapook, as well as
the entire Parish of Carapook, lies well within exposures of the Lower Cretaceous
Merino Group. In this region the Merino Group is a series of gently dipping arkosic
sandstones of Lower Cretaceous age (Kenley 1954, Evans 1961, Dettman 1963).
The interfluves are commonly tablelands capped by a thin layer of lateric ironstone
and the fossil, which is preserved as an ironstone cast with little bone remaining,
almost certainly came from this ironstone horizon.

Kenley (op. cit.) has shown that the ferruginous capping layer is not a strati-
graphic rock unit but most likely represents an old erosional surface and is, there-
fore, found in rocks of different age. In some areas the laterites are fossil soils
(referred to as the “Dundas laterites’) developed in Cainozoic deposits, while to
the W. along the Kanawinka and Weecurra faults, the Merino Group is bounded
by ferruginous Tertiary marine deposits. However, in the Parish of Carapook no
Tertiary sediments have been recorded, although the W. portion of the Parish has
been mapped in detail, and in at least one locality the ironstone horizon is seen to
transgress the bedding in the Merino Group (P. R. Kenley, pers. comm.) and is,
therefore, an alteration of that Group and of Lower Cretaceous age.

It is likely that the fossil tortoise came from this Lower Cretaceous ironstone
horizon for two reasons: (1) it is the only known source within the Parish of Cara-

24 1. W. WARREN

pook from which to derive a fossil preserved in ironstone, and (2) in thin-section
the matrix of the specimen is similar in its constituents and grain size to rock of the
ironstone horizon, which is predominantly limonite with about 20 per cent quartz
grains (Kenley, pers. comm.).
Description

The fossil is an internal mould of the shell of a chelonian with some bone re-
maining in the centre of the plastron and along the left margin and right posterior
quarter of the carapace (Plate 2). Impressions are present of vertebrae, ribs, some
of the sutures of the dermal bones, and the anterior buttress. There are no impres-
sions of scutes on the external surface of the bone. The matrix also contains frag-
ments of wood.

PLASTRON: The bones of the plastron are shown in Fig. 1. As the anterior

ent

1 hyo

) һуро
|

E РЧ
Р, 2

} xiphi

О
. | .

Fig. I—The plastral bones of the holotype of Chelycarapookus arcuatus sp. nov. (Nat. Mus.
Vict. P13160). Abbreviations are for entoplastron, hyoplastron, hypoplastron, and
and xiphiplastron. x 2/3.

portion is missing the shapes of the epiplastral bones and the anterior extension of
the entoplastron cannot be determined. However, it is clear that the posterior por-
tion of the entoplastron was wedge-shaped and intercalated between the anterior
regions of the hyoplastral bones. The hyoplastral and hypoplastral bones make up
most of the plastron with each hypoplastron extending slightly posteriorly to parti-
ally bound the lateral margin of the adjoining xiphiplastron. The posterior portion
of the plastron is missing, so nothing is known of the shape of the xiphiplastral
notch, nor can it be deduced if the pelvic girdle was attached to this area. There
are no mesoplastra.

CARAPACE: Sutures of the costals, a few neurals, and some of the peripheral
bones can be discerned. It is not possible to make out sutures of a proneural and,
as the posterior margin of the carapace is missing, any remnant of a pygal bone is
absent. There is no indication as to whether the pelvic girdle was attached to the
carapace or not.

Neurals are probably present between costals 1 through 4, though detail is not
well preserved in the anterior half of the carapace, so there may be some doubt
about this. However, neurals are clearly present between costals 4 through 7 and

FOSSIL CHELONIAN 25

these increase in size posteriorly (Plate 2). On the first pair of costals anterior to
the fusion of the ribs are a pair of fossae (f on Plate 2 and Fig. 2A). This area is
ee in other chelonians and the function of these unique depressions is not
clear.

Fig. 2--А. A reconstruction of a portion of the anterior buttress and the dorsal vertebrae
and ribs of the holotype of Chelycarapookus arcuatus sp. nov. Note the increasing
extension of the posterior ribs before their fusion with the carapace. B. The same
region of the extant chelid, Emydura macquari, for comparison. Abbreviations. b,
anterior buttress; f, fossae unique to C. arcuatus. x 3/4.

A peculiar feature of this fossil is the extension of the posterior sets of ribs to
result in their fusing to the costals a greater distance from the midline than do the
anterior ribs. A reconstruction of that portion of the vertebral column with ribs
associated with the carapace is shown in Fig. 2 along with the same region from
an extant Australian chelid tortoise, Emydura macquari. In E. macquari the last
few sets of ribs become slightly reduced in size and their points of fusion to the

26 ]. W. WARREN

carapace are not extended laterally. This is the case with all extant chelonians as
well as those fossils in which this area has been described. o el del

The lateral shift of the point of fusion to the costals of the posterior ribs is
accommodated on the carapace by the previously mentioned increase in size of the
posterior neurals.

There are no characters remaining on this fossil to indicate to which suborder,
Cryptodira, Pleurodira, or Amphychelydia, it may belong. Furthermore, the com-
bination of characters on the specimen does not fit the description of any family of
chelonians, and I therefore propose that a new family with the following systematic
position be erected to include it.

Class REPTILIA
Subclass ANAPSIDA
Order CHELONIA
Suborder uncertain
CHELYCARAPOOKIDAE fam. nov.

It is premature, with only a single specimen in hand, to provide a complete
diagnosis for the family. The description of the specimen as a new, monospecific
genus will suffice for this purpose until more material is uncovered.

Chelycarapookus gen. nov.
Type species: Chelycarapookus arcuatus sp. nov.

DIAGNOSIS OF GENUS: Chelonians possessing the following features: paired
fossae on the first costals at the dorsal end of the anterior buttress; a posterior
extension of the entoplastron to separate the anterior one-third of the hyoplastra;
hypoplastra projecting posteriorly on to the lateral margin of the xiphiplastra;
mesoplastra lacking; buttress narrow (less than one-quarter the overall length of
the carapace); neurals probably present between all costals, but certainly present
between costals 4 through 7 and increasing in size posteriorly beginning with num-
ber 5; point of fusion of the ribs to the costals becoming further from the midline in
passing from the 4th costal to the 9th.

ETYMOLOGY: From chelys, a turtle, and Carapook, the name of the Parish from
which the specimen was collected.

Chelycarapookus arcuatus sp. nov.
(PL2; Figi 1..2A)

HoLoTYPE: National Museum of Victoria P13160. This is a cast in ironstone
of the inside of a chelonian shell which shows most of the sutures of the dermal
bones and the positions of the ribs and vertebrae. No elements of the skull, girdles,
nor limbs are preserved and there is no trace of the scute pattern. There are no
referred specimens.

LOCALITY AND HORIZON: The holotype was collected by Mr J. W. Macpherson
at Carapook, Victoria. The exact provenance was not recorded at the time of
collection but it seems certain, due to the limonitic nature of the matrix, that the
specimen came from a known ironstone horizon in the Merino Group, which is of
Lower Cretaceous age.

FOSSIL CHELONIAN 27

DIAGNOSIS: The same as for the genus. The specific name refers to the bow-like
structure formed by the arcuate costals and extended ribs immediately anterior to
the sacral region.

Discussion

, Тһе existence of Chelycarapookus arcuatus sp. nov. in a fluviatile environment
in the Cretaceous of Australia does not throw much light on the ancestry of the
turtle fauna of inland Australian waters, which today consists of a single family of
pleurodires, the Chelidae. The fossil record of freshwater and terrestrial chelonians
in Australia is scant and may be summarized as follows. From the Merino Group
at Casterton, only 8 miles from Carapook, Krausé (1886) has recorded a fragment
of a turtle shell which unfortunately can no longer be located. Lydekker (1889),
de Vis (1897) and Longman (1929) have identified pieces of turtle shell from the
Pleistocene of Queensland as chelids though these are fragmentary and lack diag-
nostic generic characters. There is only one occurrence of chelids so far recorded
from the Tertiary of Australia (Warren 1969) though others are known and are
currently being studied by Mr E. S. Gaffney of the American Museum of Natural
History (Gaffney, pers. comm.). The described specimens are from Oligocene-
Miocene sediments of Tasmania and cannot be distinguished from the extant chelid,
Emydura macquari, which suggests a conservative evolutionary rate in this group.
The only terrestrial chelonian known from Australia is the Pleistocene amphycheli-
dian, Meiolania platyceps, recorded from Queensland and Lord Howe Island
(Anderson 1925).

Chelycarapookus arcuatus possesses a suite of characters that exclude it from
the Meiolaniidae, which probably had a reduced shell with fontanelles, and from
the Chelidae. It is possible that the Australian Chelidae could have evolved from
such an ancestor by the loss of neurals, which is characteristic of Australian chelids
with the exception of Chelodina oblonga where a variable number may be present
(Burbidge, pers. comm.), and by the reduction of the lateral extension of the
posterior ribs. This is, however, a premature speculation. The phylogenetic position
of Chelycarapookus arcuatus cannot be established with certainty until the anatomy
of the skull and cervical vertebrae are known and the relationship of the pelvic
girdle to the shell has been established, that is whether it was sutured to the cara-
pace and plastron as it is in most amphychelidians (but not in the more advanced
genus Meiolania) and in all members of the Chelidae.

References

ANDERSON, C., 1925. Notes on the extinct chelonian Meiolania, with a record of a new occur-
rence. Rec. Aust. Mus. 14: 223-242.

CHAPMAN, F., 1919. On a fossil tortoise in ironstone from Carapook, near Casterton. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict. 32: 11-13.

DE Vis, C. W., 1897. The extinct freshwater turtles of Queensland. Ann. Qd Mus. 3: 3-7.

DETTMANN, M. E. 1963. Upper Mesozoic microfloras from south-eastern Australia. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict. 75: 1-148. ; у 5

Evans, Р. R., 1961. А palynological examination of samples from the Мегіпо Group, Victoria.
Кес. Bur. Miner. Resour. Geol. Geophys. Aust. 1961/155. А ]

KrENLEY, P. R., 1954. The occurrence of Cretaceous sediments in south-western Victoria.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 66: 1-16.

Krause, F. M., 1886. Catalogue of specimens of rocks and minerals (collected in Western
Victoria). Rep. Min. Regissrars. Quarter ended 31st March 1886, Appendix E, pp.
78-82.

28 J. W. WARREN

LoNGMAN, H. A., 1929, Palaeontological notes: specimens from a well at Brigalow. Mem.
Qd Mus. 9: 247-252. "

LYDEKKER, R. C., 1889. Catalogue of fossil amphibians and reptiles in the British Museum
(Natural History), pt. 3.

WARREN, J. W., 1969. Fossil Chelid turtles from the Mid-Tertiary of Tasmania. J. Paleont.,
in press.

Explanation of Plate
PLATE 2
Dorsal view of the holotype of Chelycarapookus arcuatus sp. nov. (Nat. Mus. Vict. P13160).
Abbreviations: f, fossae (which appear as eminences in the internal cast); n, neural;

m, remnants of bony marginals; r, casts of ribs at point of fusion with costals; v, casts

of vertebrae; w, piece of wood in matrix. Note the increasing divergence of posterior
ribs from the midline.

МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 РГАТЕ 2

A LOWER MANDIBLE OF ZYGOMATURUS GILLI FROM THE
SANDRINGHAM SANDS, BEAUMARIS, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

By MicHAEL О. WOODBURNE
Department of Geological Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, U.S.A.

Introduction

Stirton (1957) described three diprotodontid specimens which had been recov-
ered from the Black Rock Sandstone of the Brighton Group (Kenley 1967), on the
shore of Port Phillip Bay near Beaumaris, Victoria. One of the specimens,
M.U.G.D. No. 2020, subsequently became the type of Zygomaturus gilli (Stirton
1967) and the second, N.M.V. P15905, was also assigned to that species (ibid.).
The third specimen, a fragment with the symphysis and part of the horizontal
ramus containing the alveoli of Рз, base of М, and most of М», was also discussed
by Stirton (1957), but at that time information on Tertiary diprotodontids was
insufficient for a close determination of its affinities. In 1967, Mr Colin Macrae
found the rear portion of a mandible containing M; and M, which proved to fit
perfectly onto the former specimen. With this surprising discovery, a nearly com-
plete mandible is represented, lacking only the angle, coronoid process, and anterior
tip of the symphysis. Now that this individual is more completely represented, it is
possible to compile a sufficiently adequate description to allow an analysis of its
affinities. Such is the purpose of the present report. The specimen originally des-
cribed by Stirton is catalogued as N.M.V. P15911A; the portion collected by
Macrae is P15911B. The complete specimen will be designated here as N.M.V.
P15911A-B.

I am grateful to Mr H. E. Wilkinson, Assistant Curator of Fossils, National
Museum of Victoria, for giving me the opportunity to describe this specimen. The
manuscript has been read and criticized by R. H. Tedford, Department of Verte-
brate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, and by
W. A. Clemens, Department of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley.
D. E. Savage, Director of the Museum of Paleontology, University of California,
Berkeley, gave permission for the specimen to be illustrated by Owen J. Poe, staff
artist. Responsibility for any statements made in this report rests on me alone.
Such measurements as could be made are presented in Table 1.

Gill (1957) has summarized the evidence showing that the specimen described
herein was derived from rocks of the Black Rock Sandstone which also yielded the
invertebrate fossils used by Singleton (1941) in defining the Cheltenhamian Stage.
Stirton, Tedford and Woodburne (1968) present a summary of the age determina-
tions proposed for the Cheltenhamian, and conclude that it is probably early Plio-
cene, but Kenley (1967), Darragh in Wilkinson (this memoir) and other authors
cited in Stirton, Tedford, and Woodburne (op. cit.) support a late Miocene age for
this Stage. N.M.V. P15911A-B apparently represents the lower mandible of Zygo-
maturus gilli. The general stage of evolution displayed by the lower mandible and
dentition is similar to that of the previously described upper dentition of this
species, i.e. more advanced than the Alcoota zygomaturines (Woodburne 1967a,
b) and more primitive than those from the Palankarinna fauna (Stirton 1967).

30 MICHAEL О. WOODBURNE

This tends to corroborate the post Alcoota-pre Palankarinna age assigned to the
Beaumaris fauna, as based on the phyletic position of Zygomaturus gilli (see Stir-
ton, Tedford, and Woodburne 1968, for a review). If the age of the Chelten-
hamian, and therefore that of the Beaumaris fauna, is late Miocene, the temporal
position of the older faunas found in the Northern Territory and South Australia
may need to be revised downward somewhat. It is also possible that both the
Alcoota and Beaumaris faunas could be late Miocene in age, with the Alcoota
being the older of the two.

Both parts of the specimen have a rich brown to yellowish brown colour, the
lingual surface of the symphysis is stained a deep maroon. Remnants of the drab
brown siltstone matrix are found on the antero-lingual surface of the symphysis and
partially filling the anteroventral portion of the pterygoid fossa above the antero-
lingual edge of the angular process. A small remnant of matrix remains on the
internal surface of the coronoid process lateral to the postalveolar shelf. The bony
surface of the mandible bears numerous small cracks and pits, and a large piece of
bone is missing from the ventral surface below M; and Ма. Most of the projecting
edges of the specimen are abraded and rounded to a variable extent. In particular,
abrasion has affected the anterior tip of the symphysial portion, the leading edge
of the coronoid process, the rear of the preserved portion of the angular process
and, to a lesser extent, the lingual edge of the postalveolar shelf and the entire
lingual side of the ventral edge of the horizontal ramus. A chip of bone about 22
mm long has been lost from this edge of the ramus immediately antero-ventral to
the pterygoid fossa. Another, flat, shallow flake of bone nearly 24 mm long is
missing from the ventral surface of the angle immediately ventral to the fossa. The
edges of the break along which the two parts of the mandible fit together are still
sharp, however, so it appears that most postmortem abrasion of the specimen was
sustained while it was all in one piece. There can be no doubt that the two pieces
form the partial right mandible of a single individual diprotodontid.

Zygomaturus gilli

Mandible. When the two parts are fitted together (Fig. 1A, C) the mandible
is of rather normal diprotodontid construction. The alveolar border and ventral
edge of the horizontal ramus are both moderately convex ventrally. Below М» and
M; the lateral surface is dorsoventrally convex, but becomes flatter anterior to Ma.
A nearly circular mental foramen is located about 9 mm below and slightly anterior
to the exposed anterior root of Ра. The vertically elongate, narrow, and slightly
concavo-convex posterior portion of the incisor root is visible immediately below
and medial to the mental foramen (see Stirton 1957, text-figure 5D). The incisor
root is open at this point which, to judge from most other Tertiary diprotodontids,
is not far from the tip. There is no evidence as to the nature of the pre-cheek tooth
diastema above the mental foramen, but below it the ventral edge of the symphysis
extends downward approximately 4 mm below the ventral edge of the horizontal
ramus. The masseteric fossa is partly preserved posteroventral to M,, and although
its leading edge is not preserved the coronoid process probably rose past the pos-
terior half of M,. The angle at which this took place is not determinable, however.
The ventrolateral surface of the ramus slopes sharply ventromedially below the
masseteric fossa. The faintly developed digastric process and post-digastric sulcus
is not visible in lateral view.

In occlusal view (Fig. 1B) both the labial and lingual surfaces of the horizontal
ramus are nearly straight, although they converge slightly anteriorly. The postal-

A LOWER MANDIBLE OF ZYGOMATURUS GILLI

31
postalveolar shelf
A АҒ > |
rJ BN AZ Уу mandibular
a ШҮ 5 2 сапа!
2 =
к, ~postdigastric sulcus
digastric fossa digastric process
postalveolar shelf B
mandibular
mental
foramen
root of

Fig. 1—Zygomaturus gilli, right mandible with symphysial and angular portions partly pre-
served, three fourths natural size. Nat. Mus. Vict. Р15911А (symphysis) and P15911B
(horizontal ramus). A. Lingual view. B. Occlusal view. C. Labial view.

32 MICHAEL О, WOODBURNE

veolar shelf has a nearly flat upper surface posterior to M4; its lingual surface is
smoothly continuous with that of the rest of the mandible, and curves quom
posteromedially toward the area of the pterygoid fossa. A strongly "e
postalveolar process was probably never present, but the lingual edge of the shelf
is slightly abraded so that there may have been a small process in this area. Upon
clearing away some matrix it was found that the mandibular canal is exposed
medial to the surface of the pterygoid fossa about 41 mm posterior to the rear
edge of the alveolus of M,. The foramen would then emerge from the pterygoid
fossa at some distance beyond the point in question and would lie well below the
plane of the upper surface of the postalveolar shelf. )

In lingual aspect (Fig. 1А) the anteroventral portion of the pterygoid fossa is
filled with matrix, and extends about 15 mm anterior to the exposed mandibular
canal. The ventral border of the fossa extends downward to a point within the
ventral one-quarter of the mandible. Below the fossa, the anterior portion of the
angle is incompletely preserved; it does not seem to have been strongly inflected at
this point. In Tertiary diprotodontids, the digastric process, when present, is usually
located below M,. In this specimen the critical area is abraded, but there seems to
have been a very small digastric process and a very shallow postdigastric sulcus
posterior to it. The digastric fossa extends anteriorly from the pterygoid fossa along
the ventral third of the horizontal ramus. The fossa becomes shallower and narrow-
er anteriorly and fades out entirely at a point below the anterior end of M;, about
30 mm from the genial pit. The latter is exposed beneath the posterior portion of
the mid-sagittal symphysial surface. The symphysis merges smoothly with the adja-
cent surface of the mandible. Except where it begins to curve downward posteriorly
the supra-symphysial surface extends forward in a nearly horizontal plane. The
posterior surface of the symphysis is smoothly convex and extends back to a point
below the middle of My.

Dentition. It is unfortunate that Pa is represented only by the tips of its roots
and that M, lacks the coronal surface because these two teeth are probably the
potentially most diagnostic elements of the lower dentition. To judge from the
preserved tips, the anterior root of Ра was smaller than the posterior and the
anterior portion of the tooth was narrower than the posterior portion. The available
evidence indicates that Pa was about 17 per cent shorter than M,. The length for Pa
given in the table of measurements is probably relatively close to the actual length of
the tooth in that the dimension was taken from the rear of the alveolus, to a point
directly above the foremost edge of the anterior root. In Teriary diprotodontids,
the anterior edge of the crown of Ра is commonly directly above, or only slightly
anterior or posterior to, the foremost edge of the anterior root. The anterior root
of Ра may be vertically emplaced or slant slightly anteriorly (see illustrations in
Stirton 1967, Woodburne 1967a, and Plane 1967).

Likewise, the length of М, given in the table of measurements may also closely
approximate the true length of the tooth although the anterior cingulum of the
crown commonly extends a millimetre or so beyond the immediately subjacent root.
M, was probably about 21 per cent shorter than My. Inasmuch as the anterior root
of M, is narrower than the posterior, the anterior moiety of the crown may have
been narrower than the posterior.

The surface of Ma is the most completely preserved of all of the cheek teeth,
but the labial and lingual surfaces of the protolophid and the lingual surface of the
hypolophid are abraded. However, I estimate that the actual widths of the proto-
lophid and hypolophid were approximately equal. The tooth is constricted at the

A LOWER MANDIBLE OF ZYGOMATURUS GILLI 33

transverse valley and apparently had a bilobed occlusal outline. An anterior cingu-
lum is present, but it is not thick anteroposteriorly. The presence of a weakly
developed paralophid is suggested by a slight bulge in the anteriolabial quadrant
of the protolophid. This is more pronounced in М» than in the corresponding part
of M;. The protolophid was apparently aligned transversely although it probably
had an anteriorly concave occlusal pattern, It is separated from the hypolophid by
a broadly V-shaped transverse valley in which the anterior wall is directed more
vertically than the posterior wall. This can be best seen in lingual view (Fig. 1А).
А moderately developed metalophid descends the anterior face of the hypolophid
in an anteromedial orientation, but is aligned more anteriorly when it reaches the
transverse valley. The metalophid blends into the posterior base of the protolophid
near the longitudinal midline of the tooth. The hypolophid is aligned slightly pos-
teromedially, rather than transversely as for the protolophid, and has an anteriorly
concave occlusal pattern. The posterior cingulum is highest at the longitudinal
midline of the tooth, but makes no conspicuous connection to the hypolophid.

The third molar is about 11 per cent longer than M», and has a bilobed occlusal
outline. Although the labial end of the protolophid and the lingual end of the
hypolophid are abraded, I estimate that the protolophid was at least 2 mm wider
than the hypolophid. As in М», the anterior cingulum in Mg is narrow antero-
posteriorly and apparently did not extend around to the labial or lingual sides of
the protolophid. Although much of the enamel is missing from the protolophid,
enough remains to show that the paralophid, if present, was not as well developed
as in M». The transverse valley separating the anterior and posterior moieties of
the tooth is broadly V-shaped with the anterior wall being more nearly vertical
than the posterior. If the features of the dentine reflect the basic configuration of
the enamel, the protolophid was aligned transversely to the long axis of the tooth.
As in М», the hypolophid is aligned somewhat posterolingually. The metalophid of
Ma is similar to that in M» except for more clearly demonstrating its anterior
orientation as it approaches the transverse valley. The posterior cingulum is similar
to that in Mo.

Only the posterior moiety is adequately preserved in M, although it is probable
that the greatest width of the tooth would have been measured across the proto-
lophid. Except for being about 5 per cent longer, the construction of M, is appar-
ently not significantly different from that of M;.

MEASUREMENTS:
Length Ра (approximate) 12:8 mm
Length M, (approximate) 15:4
Length M; 19:5
Width М, (posterior, minimum) 12:9
Length M; 21:9
Width M; (anterior, minimum) 15:1
Length M, 23:0
Width M, (posterior, minimum) 14-5
Length P5-M, ( measured at the alveoli) 93:1
Depth below alveolar border, anterior edge Mı 42:6
Depth below alveolar border, between Мз and M, 46:5

Comparisons. N.M.V. P15911A-B is a zygomaturine diprotodontid. This is
shown by its relatively long Ра and by its rather close resemblance to Kolopsis
torus, Plaisiodon centralis, and Zygomaturus keanei, as detailed below. Tertiary

34 MICHAEL О. WOODBURNE

nototherine diprotodontids have a characteristically short P, and labial cingula on
the lower molars which are incipiently or markedly developed depending upon the
genus in question. Palorchestine diprotodontids typically have relatively non-
bilobate lower molars, all of which have prominently to well developed paralophids
and metalophids, at least in faunas of late Miocene or later age.

The Beaumaris mandible closely resembles that of Kolopsis torus, described
(Woodburne 1967a) from the late Miocene Alcoota fauna of the Northern Terri-
tory. This similarity includes the position and orientation of the masseteric fossa
and leading edge of the coronoid process, the shape and configuration of the labial
and lingual surfaces of the horizontal ramus and symphysis, the position of the
mental foramen, the configuration of the digastric and pterygoid fossae, the hori-
zontal alignment of the supra-symphysial surface, the development of the postalve-
olar shelf, the probable position of the mandibular foramen, the poorly developed
digastric process and postgastric sulcus, and the general outline of the molars,
as represented,

Points in which the Beaumaris specimen differs from the Alcoota species are
the better developed metalophid and the asymmetrically V-shaped rather than
symmetrically U-shaped transverse valley of the molars, the relatively narrower
molar proportions, the more anterior position of the genial pits, the smaller dev-
elopment of the postalveolar process and the flattened, concavo-convex cross sec-
tion of the proximal root of the incisor.

The Beaumaris specimen also shows similarities to Plaisiodon centralis of the
Alcoota fauna. P. centralis differs from N.M.V. P15911A-B in that the ventral
border of the angle is straight in lateral view and rises sharply posterodorsally from
the ventral surface of the horizontal ramus. In the Beaumaris specimen this area of
the angle is smoothly curved. In addition, the mandibular canal would lie below a
horizontal line drawn along the lingual alveolar border below М.-М, in the Beau-
maris specimen, rather than at or slightly above such a line in P. centralis. More-
over, the anteroventral edge of the pterygoid fossa reaches down only to a point
located about midway between the dorsal and ventral edges of the ramus in P.
centralis, while in the Beaumaris mandible this part of the fossa lies well down in
the lower one quarter of the ramus.

The dentition of N.M.V. P15911A-B resembles that of P. centralis in the gen-
eral occlusal outline, the relative development of the metalophid, the shape of the
transverse valley, and in the somewhat narrower, more elongate proportions of the
molars. The posterior root of the lower incisor of P. centralis is bi-concave in cross
section, and the posterior tip is closed.

Kolopsis rotundus, of the middle Pliocene Awe fauna, New Guinea (Plane
1967), has the same relative molar proportions as К. torus and thus differs from
the Beaumaris specimen. K. rotundus is also distinguished from N.M.V. P15911A-B
in that the lower incisor displays a widely open root and extends posteriorly to the
rear of the symphysis. Further, in К. rotundus, the sulcus between the rear of M,
and the anterolingual surface of the coronoid process is broad, the postalveolar
process, digastric process and postdigastric sulcus are prominent, the ventral edge
of the pterygoid fossa reaches downward only to a point about halfway between
the dorsal and ventral edges of the mandible, the supra-symphysial surface rises
anterdorsally, genial pits are absent, and the metalophid is essentially straight,
although obliquely oriented. K. rotundus resembles the Beaumaris specimen in the
degree of development of the metalophid on the molars.

Kolopsoides cultridens (Awe fauna) differs sharply from the Beaumaris speci-

A LOWER MANDIBLE OF ZYGOMATURUS GILLI 35

men in that the jaws are more massive, the symphysis extends posteriorly to below
М», the digastric process is stronger, the genial pit is flat, and the metalophid of
the molars is formed from the protolophid as well as from the hypolophid. The
Ko, incisor has a subovate posterior cross section and the tip of the tooth is
closed.

The mandible of Zygomaturus keanei (Palankarinna fauna, Stirton 1967) is
considerably larger than the Beaumaris specimen, but if the dorsoventrally crushed
nature of the former is taken into account, it resembles the Beaumaris mandible in
general shape as well as in the position and nature of the genial pits, the slightly
developed postalveolar process, the occlusal proportions of the molars, the curved
metalophid, the absence of labial cingula and in the general shape and degree of
closure of the posterior tip of the incisor root.

TABLE 1
Kolopsis torus Zygomaturus gilli
= N OR SE 5 V ! ug” ig» Haeo en
Length 14 17:1-20:5 18:7 + 0:28 1-05 + 0-20 5:60 + 1:05 | 23-0а 1-28 20-4-25-6
Width across 13 13:7-15:8 15.1 + 0.20 0-73 = 0:14 4:83 = 0:95 17.4 0-83 15-7-19-1

paracone and
protocone
M2
Width, post. 9 17:8-21:4 19:3 = 0.38 1:15 = 0:27 5:96 = 1:40 |20-7 1:23 18:2-23:6
M3

Length 16 21۰5-25۰0 23-6 = 0-25 1.00 + 0:18 4:24 + 0-75 |27-7 1:17 25-4-30-0
Width, ant. 15 20-4-23.2 21-9 & 0-22 0-87 = 0:16 3-97 = 0:73 | 25:7. 1.02 23-7-27-7
M4
Length 16 21-2-25.3 23.6 + 0-27 1-08 = 0-19 4:58 = 0-81 27:0 1:10 24-8-29-2
Width, ant. 15 20-1-23.5 21:7 = 0-23 0:90 #0-16 4-15 = 0:76 |23:5 0-97 21-6-25-4
Kolopsis torus N.M.V. P15911A-B
N OR NS 5 V AAA
Ра
Length 21 12-3-15:5 14:0 + 0-17 0:78 + 0-12 5-57 = 0:86 |12-8 0:71 11-4-14-2
M
Length 12 17:2-19-0 18-0 ± 0:16 0:54 = 0:11 3:00 = 0:61 |15:4 0:46 14:5-16:3
M
Length 19 18-7-21:6 20-22: 0-19 0-83 = 0-13 4-11 = 0-67 |19-5 0-80 17-9-21-1
Width, post. 17 13-8-16:0 15-10-13 0:55 = 0:09 3:64 = 0-62 |12:9 0-47 12:0-13:8
M
Length 14 21-8-25-8 23-3 = 0-35 1-30 &0:24 5:58 +1:05|21-9 1-22 19-5-24-3
Width, ant. 13 16:4-19-7 18-2 = 0.25 0:90 + 0-17 4:95 + 0-97 15:1 0-75 13:6-16:6
M
Length 19 22.1-27-0 24-2 + 0-32 1-43 - 0:23 5-91 + 0-96 23-0 1:36 20-3-25-7
Width, post. 15 15-6-20:0 17:2 = 0-28 1:10 #0:20 6:40 = 1:17 14۰4 0:94 12-5-16:3

“X” + 24” = range of two standard deviations on either side of the “mean”. The
“mean” is taken as the dimension measured on 2. gilli and N.M.V. P15911A-B, "s"
being computed from V of K. torus. All measurements in mm.

a — approximate, ant. — anterior, post. — posterior, N — number of specimens,
OR — observed range, X — mean, s — standard deviation, V — coefficient of
variation.

36 MICHAEL О. WOODBURNE

COMPARISON OF SELECTED
DENTAL DIMENSIONS OF
Kolopsis torus (ALCOOTA
FAUNA) WITH THOSE OF
Zygomaturus gilli

“о

KEY
K. torus

range

one standard
deviation

mean

Zygomaturus gilli

dimension
range of
12 standard
deviations
computed
from V of
K.torus

Fig. 2—Comparison of selected dental dimensions of Kolopsis torus (Alcoota fauna) with
those of Zygomaturus gilli and a theoretical estimate of the range of these dimensions

for a population of Z. gilli.

A LOWER MANDIBLE OF ZYGOMATURUS GILLI 37

2. keanei differs from the Beaumaris specimen in its stronger digastric process
and postdigastric sulcus, anterodorsally inclined supra-symphysial surface, less
bilobate basal outline of its molars, and the fact that both the protolophid and
hypolophid contribute to the metalophid on M4.

As shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2, the upper teeth of 7. gilli are conspicuosly
larger than those of K. torus, except for the posterior width of М2, The lower teeth
of N.M.V. P15911A-B are generally smaller than those of К. torus, but overlap
does occur in the lengths of Ра, Ms, Ма, and M,.

Following procedures such as those indicated in Simpson, Roe, and Lewontin
(1960), the hypothetical value of the standard deviation (s) for the population to
which Z. gilli belongs can be computed from the coefficient of variation (V)
calculated for the K. torus sample. These values are presented in the statistical
summary below. The above procedure assumes that the dimensions observed for
Z. gilli represent the ‘mean’ for its population, and that the coefficient of variation
of the population would be similar to that of the closely related species, К. torus.
Simpson, Roe, and Lewontin (1960, p. 212) indicate that over 95 per cent of all
specimens in a population would theoretically fall within a range of plus or minus
two standard deviations from the mean.

As shown in Fig. 2, the hypothetical range in dental dimensions of a ‘popula-
tion' of Z. gilli would completely or nearly overlap the observed ranges of analo-
gous dimensions of the Alcoota population of К. torus. The fact that N.M.V.
P15911A-B is too small to occlude satisfactorily with the upper teeth of Z. gilli is
insufficient for taxonomic separation of the two groups of specimens. They could
represent individuals pertaining to different parts of a ‘normal’ population curve of
Z. gilli. Such a population would have approximately the same dental dimensions
as those of K. torus. In the absence of definitive contrary evidence, and in view of
its geographic and geologic proximity to the other specimens of Z. gilli, and because
it has a similar evolutionary position, N.M.V. P15911A-B is referred to that
species.

Conclusions

From the data summarized above, the mandible N.M.V. P15911A-B pertains
to Zygomaturus gilli. Although its tooth proportions are close to Plaisiodon, the
mandibular characters of the Beaumaris specimen are sufficiently divergent to
warrant separation from that genus. The mandible of N.M.V. P15911A-B is
closely similar to Kolopsis torus and, to a lesser degree, to K. rotundus. Except for
its narrower tooth proportions, the Beaumaris specimen is relatively close, dentally,
to K. rotundus. Kolopsoides cultridens is sufficiently divergent from the Beaumaris
specimen to be excluded from further discussion.

Allowing for the dorsoventral crushing of the specimen of Zygomaturus keanei
(late Pliocene), some of the features in which it differs from the Beaumaris mand-
ible, e.g. the deeper pterygoid and digastric fossae and prominent digastric process
and postdigastric sulcus, could be correlated with its large size. Such features are
commonly found in the larger more massive Tertiary diprotodontids such as Pyra-
mios alcootense, Meniscolophus mawsoni, and Z. keanei, but are not as promi-
nently developed in some of the smaller species.

The remaining differences between Z. keanei and N.M.V. P15911A-B, the
anterodorsal slope of the supra-symphysial surface and the somewhat less bilobate
basal occlusal outline of the molars, would not preclude referral of the Beaumaris

38 MICHAEL О. WOODBURNE

specimen to the genus Zygomaturus. The high, laterally compressed, and somewhat
open cross section of the proximal end of the incisor in the Beaumaris specimen
differs in detail from that of Z. keanei, but the proportions of the incisor cross
section, and the fact that the root remains open close to (if not at) the tip, is similar
in both. Of the Tertiary diprotodontids surveyed, a high narrow proximal incisor
cross section was also found in Plaisiodon centralis and Pyramios alcootense, the
latter being a nototheriine. In both of these, however, the root is closed, and
although the posterior cross section is bi-concave, it differs in detail from that in
Z. keanei (Stirton 1967, fig. 4B), and the Beaumaris specimen.

In summary, the combination of its mandibular characters, coupled with the
elongate proportions of the molars, the well developed arcuate metalophid, and
laterally compressed, but open proximal cross section of the lower incisor, permit
referral of N.M.V. P15911A-B to the genus Zygomaturus; for reasons presented
previously, the specimen is assigned to 2. gilli.

N.M.V. P15911A-B presents a mosaic of characters. Those which are more
advanced than K. torus are the more strongly developed and curved metalophid
and asymmetrically V-shaped transverse valleys of the molars, and the flattened,
essentially open posterior root of the lower incisor. The more primitive position of
the Beaumaris mandible with respect to Z. keanei is shown in its considerably
smaller size, the lack of a strong protolophid contribution to the metalophid of M,
and possibly the less prominent development of the pterygoid and digastric fossae,
and the smaller digastric process and shallower postdigastric sulcus.

The post K. torus—pre Z. keanei stage of evolution of the Beaumaris mandible
thus substantiates the post Alcoota-pre Palankarinna age assignment proposed for
the Beaumaris fauna, as based on evidence of the upper dentition of Z. eilli (Stir-
ton, Woodburne, and Plane 1967; Stirton, Tedford and Woodburne 1968).

Tentative expanded diagnosis of Zygomaturus gilli

Referral of N.M.V. P15911A-B to Z. gilli allows the diagnosis of the species
to be expanded beyond that given in Stirton (1967, p. 135) subject of course to
future discoveries: Size much smaller than Palankarinna species, roughly similar to
that of Kolopsis torus; mandible less robust than Z. keanei, with shallower ptery-
goid and digastric fossae; less prominent digastric process, postdigastric sulcus, and
postalveolar process; supra-symphysial surface nearly horizontal; lower molars with
more bilobate occlusal outline; no protolophid contribution to the metalophid on

References

GILL, E.D., 1957. The stratigraphical occurrence and paleoecology of some Australian Tertiary
marsupials. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melb. 21: 135-203.
KENLEY, P. R., 1967. Geology of the Melbourne District, Victoria. Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict. 59:

31-46.
PLANE, M. D., 1967. Two new diprotodontids from the Pliocene Otibanda formation, New
Guinea. Bull. Bur. Min. Res. Aust. 85: 105-128.
SIMPSON, С. G., ROE, A., and Lewontin, К. C., 1960. Quantitative Zoology. Harcourt, Brace
and Company, New York, 440 pp.
SINGLETON, F. A., 1941. The Tertiary geology of Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 53: 1-125.
STIRTON, v ee rad Tertiary marsupials from Victoria, Australia. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melb,
21: -134.
, 1967. New species of Zygomaturus and additional observations on Meniscolophus,
Pliocene Palankarinna fauna, South Australia. Bull. Bur. Min. Res. Aust. 85: 129-147.
. TEDFORD, R. H., and WooDBURNE, M. O., 1968. Australian Tertiary deposits con-
taining terrestrial mammals. Univ, Calif. Publ. Geol. Sci. 77: 1-30.

A LOWER MANDIBLE OF ZYGOMATURUS GILLI 39

, WOODBURNE, M. O., and PLANE, M. D., 1967. A phylogeny of the Tertiary Dipro-
todontidae and its significance in correlation. Bull. Bur. Min. Res. Aust. 85: 149-160.
WOODBURNE, M. O., 1967a. Three new diprotodontids from the Tertiary of the Northern
Territory, Australia. Bull. Bur. Min. Res. Aust. 85: 53-103.

, 1967b. The Alcoota fauna, central Australia, an integrated paleontological and
geological study. Ibid. 87: 1-187.

Cus.

CM T

DESCRIPTION ОЕ AN UPPER MIOCENE ALBATROSS FROM
BEAUMARIS, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA, AND A REVIEW OF
FOSSIL DIOMEDEIDAE

By Н. E. WILKINSON

Assistant Curator of Fossils

Abstract

. An incomplete bill of an albatross from Upper Miocene marine sands at Beaumaris,
Victoria, is shown to belong to the genus Diomedea, and to be distinct from all previously
described species of that genus. It is described as Diomedea thyridata sp. nov., and its rela-
tionships with living and fossil albatrosses are discussed. The fossil record of the family
Diomedeidae is reviewed, and the significance of this fossil for an understanding of the evolu-
tion of the family is demonstrated.

Introduction

The palaeontological collection of the late Dr G. B. Pritchard was purchased by
the National Museum of Victoria in 1950. It included a large number of vertebrate
fossils from Upper Miocene marine beds at Beaumaris, on the E. shore of Port
Phillip Bay, Victoria. Most of these came from the nodule bed at the base of the
Black Rock Sandstone. However, there were a few which had apparently been
collected in situ from above the nodule bed, as judged by the nature of the matrix
still adhering to them, and among these was the fossil described in this paper. There
is no reason to doubt that the fossil was collected by Dr Pritchard from Beaumaris,
but there was no information with it apart from the locality, so its exact proven-
ance is not known. When the fossil was prepared a sample of matrix was retained,
part of which was sent to Mr A. C. Collins (Honorary Micropalaeontologist) for
examination. His report (dated 25.2.1967) was: 'The washed material consisted
mostly of small angular quartz grains iron-stained and tending to aggregate in gran-
ules which did not break down in dilute HCl. There was some calcareous material
but not a large proportion, rare glauconitic grains, and very few forams, poorly
preserved and scarcely identifiable, mostly Elphidium sp. There is no positive evi-
dence of age. The material is similar in lithology to other Beaumaris material in
my possession, but differs in lacking the microfossil fauna. It could be from a
leached horizon.'

The foraminiferal evidence is inconclusive, but there are other reasons for
believing that this fossil came from the Black Rock Sandstone above the nodule
bed, and these are listed below.

1. It is not likely that the bill could have survived the conditions under which the
nodule bed formed. Fossils from the nodule bed are typically highly mineral-
ized, well worn and often highly polished, whereas the albatross bill is rela-
tively lightly mineralized, and although damaged before burial, is on the whole

well preserved. тат? s >
2. Scattered vertebrate remains with similar preservation and matrix are found

above the nodule bed. | Fr
3. The oxidized matrix and absence of carbonate cementation support this inter-

pretation.
41

42 Н. E. WILKINSON

Oligocene and Miocene in other parts of the world. This genus is absent from the
younger Kalimnan stage which has been traditionally correlated with the Lower
Pliocene.' It is reasonably certain then that the fossil came from the lower part of

fossil record of the family is reviewed in this paper, but it can be noted here
previously recorded occurrences are based on isolated post-cranial elements, so
direct comparison between them is usually not possible. Previous records of fossil
birds in Australian Tertiary marine rocks have been confined to the order Sphe-
nisciformes (penguins), and Simpson (1965) summarized their occurrence.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the following people for their help in preparing this paper.
Mr A. R. McEvey, Curator of Birds, assisted in searching out relevant literature,
made available albatross skulls from the collections, and gave advice on problems
associated with this paper. Mr K. G. Simpson, Victorian i ical Research
Group, provided information on distribution of living albatrosses. Mr T. A. Dar-
ragh, Curator of Fossils, provided a statement on the age of the Beaumaris outcrops.
Each of the above has read and criticized the manuscript, and discussions with
them have been helpful, although the author accepts responsibility. Professor G. G.
Simpson also read the MS during a visit to this Museum. Mr A. C. Collins exam-
ined a sample of the matrix for forams. The photographs were taken by Mr F. Guy
of Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology.

Systematic Description
Order PROCELLARIFORMES Fürbringer 1888

Family DIOMEDEIDAE (Gray) 1840
Genus Diomedea Linnaeus 1758
Diomedea thyridata sp. nov.
РІ. 3, fig. 1; Pl. 4, figs. 2, 5.
ETYMOLOGY: Gr. thyris, -idos f. dim., window or small door, in allusion to the
relatively small inner posterior aperture of the Antrum of Highmore.

MATERIAL: Holotype, N.M.V. P24172, С. B. Pritchard Coll.
ТҮРЕ Locatity: Beaumaris, Victoria, almost certainly from above the nodule
bed in the Black Rock Sandstone.

AGE: Uppermost Miocene (Cheltenhamian).

AN UPPER MIOCENE ALBATROSS FROM BEAUMARIS 43

DIAGNOSIS: A Diomedea comparable in size to the smaller living species, with
a bill of the melanophris group’ type, distinguished from all other species by the
following combination of characters: a high-crowned rounded culmenal ridge, rela-
tively large narial apertures, a bony floor to the apertures, nasal bone behind the
apertures with nearly vertical posterior border, and a width of about 10 mm, inner
posterior aperture of the Antrum of Highmore wider than high and relatively small,
dorsal outline of bill fairly strongly concave, nasal sulci more or less median in
position, slight expansion of the nasal processes of the premaxilla behind the narial
apertures.

DESCRIPTION: The fossil consists of the proximal two-thirds of the upper bill
of an albatross. The strongly hooked anterior portion (the unguis) is entirely lack-
ing, but the morphology of the preserved portion is so typical of the family that
there can be no reasonable doubt that the fossil bill bore such a hook in life. The
terminology used is that of Pycraft 1899, except for the addition of the term
*culmenal ridge’ for the structure formed by the fusion of the nasal processes of
the premaxilla.

Total length of the fossil is 68-5 mm, and comparison with living species sug-
gests that the length of the bill in life was between 100 and 105 mm. It has a
maximum width posteriorly of 19:5 mm, and when allowance is made for abrasion,
this gives an estimated width in life of 22 mm. At the same level, the fossil has a
maximum height of 26:2 mm. There is little evidence of any distortion during
fossilization, so these dimensions are probably meaningful. The culmenal ridge is
transversely rounded, and because of the near median position of the nasal sulci,
is a very prominent feature of the fossil bill. It is 8-1 mm wide just anterior to the
narial apertures, at which level the bill has a width of 15-8 mm. The culmenal
ridge consists of the fused nasal processes of the premaxilla, and behind the narial
apertures, the sutures between these and the nasal bones are just detectable on the
fossil. The maximum width of the nasal processes in this area is 8-5 mm, 1.е. there
is a slight expansion of the nasal processes behind the narial apertures.

When viewed laterally, (Pl. 3, fig. 2) the dorsal profile is quite strongly concave
and is roughly paralleled by both the nasal sulcus and ventral profile. The nasal
sulcus, which lies at the contact of the nasal and maxillary processes of the pre-
maxilla, is 2-5 mm wide, and rather wider and deeper than in related living alba-
trosses. The maxillary processes of the pre-maxilla are strongly-built plates, slop-
ing steeply downwards and outwards. The sharp flanges on the ventral edges of
these processes in living albatrosses are absent in the fossil, but this is certainly due
to abrasion before burial. The holorhinal narial apertures lie between the processes
of the premaxilla, and are bounded posteriorly by the nasal bones. They are
approximately 19 mm long and have a maximum height of about 6 mm. The
maxillary processes bend inwards below the apertures to form a shelf of bone
which merges imperceptibly into the nasal sulcus anteriorly. This bone shelf is at
least 3-4 mm wide. The depth of maxillary process below it, in the middle of the
aperture, is 9-4 mm, to which can be added 1-0-1 ‘5 mm for the missing flange at
its ventral border. The flange has broken away along a line of weakness visible on
the bills of living albatrosses. The measurement from the same position to the
centre of the culmenal ridge is 10:3 mm. Thus the base of the narial aperture is
very nearly in the midline of the bill. The minimum width of nasal bone behind
the narial apertures is 10 mm, its posterior border in this area being very nearly
vertical. The nasals extend onto the dorsal surface of the bill, and contact the nasal
processes of the premaxilla behind the narial apertures.

44 Н. Е. WILKINSON

Ventrally, (Pl. 2, fig. 2) the fossil has the deep palate and slit-like premaxillary
vacuity typical of the family. The latter is almost complete and is estimated to have
been 41 mm in length, with a width of 2:5 mm. The vacuity separates the ventral
portions of the maxillary processes of the premaxilla, but in the anterior portion of
the palate these fuse to form a bony palatal roof in living albatrosses. This anterior
region is only just represented on the fossil. In the vicinity of the anterior end of
the premaxillary vacuity, the ventral border of the maxillary processes forms the
apex of a triangular area which widens posteriorly, and faces outwards and down-
wards. Although considerably abraded, this area is recognizable on the fossil, and
its apex could make a reference point for a rough comparison of palate widths. In
the fossil the internal palate width at this point is 8:0 mm, the bill being 12:5 mm
wide.

The maxillo-palatines in albatrosses are concavo-convex lamellae which are
extensively fenestrated. On the palate they appear as a pair of thin processes lying
between the palatines, and pointing posteriorly. This region is represented on the
fossil, although it has suffered some abrasion, and in fact most of the adjacent
palatine bones have been removed by erosion, allowing a view of the inner portion
of the maxillo-palatine. The hollowed-out chamber which lies within the somewhat
scroll-like maxillo-palatines is the Antrum of Highmore. In living albatrosses, there
are generally three posterior apertures of this chamber; two lie vertically above
each other close to the outer surface, while the third (normally the largest) lies
internally to them. These apertures are taxonomically significant, and it is fortunate
that they are partly preserved in the fossil. The inner aperture is larger, wider than
it is high, and relatively small compared to those of its living relatives. The pala-
tines are barely represented on the fossil, and give no information of diagnostic
value. The ventral tip of the vomer is useful in distinguishing albatross species, but
is not preserved on the fossil.

Discussion

The osteology of birds is a subject which has been relatively neglected this
century when compared with the study of other vertebrate groups, and especially
when compared with the voluminous literature on most other aspects of orni-
thology. The albatrosses have been no exception. The two principal osteological
descriptions are those of Forbes (1882) and Pycraft (1899), but both are com-
parative descriptions of the family as a whole in relation to other Procellariiforme
birds. There has apparently been no study of the osteology of the family Dio-
medeidae at the species level, and this has been a considerable handicap in the
preparation of this paper. I have had access to skulls of the seven species which
include the Australian coastline within their wintering ranges but the non-Aus-
tralian species present a problem because illustrations of the living birds have the
various horny plates of the ramphotheca in place, and illustrations of the skulls are
not available. Very little can be deduced about their osteology, apart from gross
morphology, which of course bears some relationship to the arrangement of the
plates. Coues (1866) pointed out that the bills of albatrosses are diagnostic at the
specific level, and described those of several species. However, his work is of
limited value for the present purpose, because it is concerned with the appearance
of the bill in life, and contains little information on osteology. The following dis-
cussion is therefore based mainly on comparisons with the Australian albatrosses.

1. Generic Identity of the Fossil
Two genera of living albatrosses are recognized at the present time, namely

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46 Н. E. WILKINSON

Diomedea and Phoebetria, (Peters 1931, pp. 41-46). Other genera have been
proposed from time to time for various species of Diomedea, but the instability of
their nomenclature is in marked contrast to the stability of Phoebetria. This is not
surprising, because the similarities between the species of Diomedea are greater
than their differences, while Phoebetria is clearly distinct. Although grouping of the
species of Diomedea on bill characteristics is possible (see below), it 15 doubtful
whether the use of even subgeneric names is warranted. Phoebetria contains two
species, P. fusca (Hilsenberg) and P. palpebrata (Forster), which have in common
many features which set them apart from Diomedea. Murphy (1936) pointed out
that Phoebetria is distinguished by the dark plumage of adults, much larger tail,
cuneate form, and the persistence of a ‘primitive’ character in the bill, namely a
sulcus dividing the plates of the lower mandible. Before attempting to establish the
generic identity of the fossil, it was necessary to ascertain whether the generic
distinction between Diomedea and Phoebetria could be supported on characters of
the upper bill alone. It was found that P. fusca and P. palpebrata have in common
morphological features of the upper bill which clearly separate them from Dio-
medea spp. The most important of these are listed in Table 2.

TABLE 2

Osteological characters of the bill which can be used to separate the genera Diomedea
and Phoebetria

Character

Inner posterior aperture of
Antrum of Highmore

Diomedea

Always present; larger than
two outer apertures

Phoebetria

Usually obsolete; if present,
very small

Depth of outer border of >10 mm. <7 mm.
maxillary process of pre-
maxilla below middle of
narial aperture

Width of culmenal ridge as 43-57% с. 65%

% bill width just anterior (i.e. relatively broad)

of narial apertures

Nature of palate Much deeper than in Dio-
medea relative to palate

width

Not as deep as in Phoe-
betria relative to palate
width

Comparison of the data in Table 1 with Table 2 clearly shows that D. thyridata
sp. nov. differs from species of Phoebetria in the same features as species of Dio-
medea do, and has no close affinity with the former. On the other hand, there is no
character on the fossil which cannot be at least approximately matched in some
species of Diomedea. Its specific distinctness is based on a unique combination of
characters within that genus. Furthermore the fossil belongs to one of the two
main groups within Diomedea, as will be shown below. Clearly there could be no
possible justification for the erection of a new genus.

2. Comparison with living species

The two species of Phoebetria are excluded from further discussion, because
they can be separated from the fossil on generic characters, as shown above. Coues
(1866) rejected the splitting of Diomedea s. 1. prevalent in his time (and main-
tained by many other workers until well into this century), but introduced the
concept of ‘groups’ of albatrosses based on bill characters, which I have followed

AN UPPER MIOCENE ALBATROSS FROM BEAUMARIS 47

in preference to formally re-introducing the appropriate generic names as sub-
genera. This must await a really detailed study of the family as a whole, but the
groupings on bill characters do seem to indicate something of the relationship
within the genus Diomedea.

(a) D. melanophris group

This group includes the majority of the smaller albatrosses, and is virtually
confined to the S. Hemisphere at present. Two sub-groupings are possible, but these
are not sharply differentiated, and the fossil shows affinities with both. More speci-
fically it shows relationships both to D. melanophris Temminck (Pl. 3, fig. 3; Pl. 4,
figs. 3, 6) the ‘typical’ member of one sub-group, and to D. chlorohynchos Gmelin
(Pl. 3, fig. 1; Pl. 4, figs. 1, 3) which belongs to the other. The melanophris sub-
group includes D. chrysostoma Forster and D. irrorata Salvin, and is characterized
by a prominent, high-crowned culmenal ridge, large narial apertures and relatively
narrow maxillary processes. The placing of D. irrorata here is tentative, but in
describing it Salvin (1883) said ‘It appears to come next to D. melanophris having
the bill similarly constructed . . . . but the bill is much larger’. Illustrations of the
living bird certainly support such an affinity, but little else can be said about it
here. D. chrysostoma has a lower crowned culmenal ridge than either D. melano-
phris or D. thyridata sp. nov., and partly bridges the gap to the chlorohynchos
sub-group, which is characterized by expansion of the maxillary processes of the
premaxilla with correspondingly low-crowned culmenal ridges. Affinities with D.
thyridata sp. nov. are shown by the presence of a bony floor to the small narial
apertures, and a relatively wide expanse of nasal bone behind them. Included in
this sub-group is D. bulleri Rothschild, of which I have seen neither specimens nor
a good illustration, but it is apparently closely related to D. chlorohynchos and
certainly seems to have a similar bill structure. D. cauta Gould belongs here also,
but its larger size and more robust nature of its bill distinguish it from its smaller
relatives.

Basically, D. thyridata sp. nov. is most closely related to D. melanophris. Apart
from the features mentioned above, it shares with that species a characteristic slight
expansion of the nasal processes of the premaxilla posterior to the narial aper-
tures, and a premaxillary vacuity of similar length. This in turn suggests a bill of
similar length, because the vacuity in D. chlorohynchos is several millimetres long-
er, due to the more elongate bill. It is not unlikely that D. thyridata sp. nov. repre-
sented the ancestral form which gave rise to D. melanophris and that the affinities
with D. chlorohynchos place it close to being the common ancestor of both. Cer-
tainly it indicates that the *melanophris group' as a whole has a history dating back
atleast to the Upper Miocene.

(b) D. exulans group

This includes the two largest living species, D. exulans Linné and D. epomo-
phora Lesson, and D. albatrus Pallas. Coues (1866) also included D. nigripes
Audubon, but this species is somewhat atypical in certain respects. The bill of
D. exulans is readily distinguished from the fossil by its much greater size and
more robust character, coupled with distinctive morphological differences, which
include broad low-crowned culmental ridge, deep but wide palate, and more out-
ward sloping maxillary processes of premaxilla. It is the only species of this group
of which I have seen specimens, but illustrations of the other species show that
D. thyridata sp. nov. has no close affinity with this group. D. epomophora is

48 Н. Е. WILKINSON

closely related to D. exulans, but has a bill which is even broader than that of
D. exulans (Murphy 1936). D. albatrus has a bill of the ‘same fundamental char-
acters’ as exulans, according to Coues, but differs in having a much less concave
dorsal outline. In fact, it is almost straight to the midpoint, where it flattens, and
hardly rises to the unguis. D. thyridata sp. nov. has a smooth continuous curve in
a fairly concave outline. D. nigripes has a bill which is relatively short, with an
almost straight dorsal outline, reminiscent of Phoebetria. The dark plumage is
another character shared with that genus, as is the relatively short bill, with
narrower maxillary processes than in typical Diomedea, but the depth and robust
form of the bill in nigripes apparently ally it to the D. exulans group. Figures of the
bills of D. nigripes and D. albatrus given in Scebohm (1890, pp. 260-3) show these
characters. D. immutabilis may belong to this group also, because in his descrip-
tion of the species Rothschild (1893) says “This albatross belongs to the typical
section of Diomedea as limited by Mr Salvin', and the 'typical group' was based on
D. exulans, type species of the genus. Thus it can be seen that D. thyridata sp. nov.
has no close relationship with this group, whereas it is clearly of 'melanophris
group' type, as shown above.

3, Comparison with fossil Diomedeidae

The fossil record of the family is very meagre indeed. There are two Lower
Tertiary fossil birds which Brodkorb (1963) doubtfully referred to the Diomedei-
dae. The oldest of these is Gigantornis eaglesomei Andrews (1916) based on an
incomplete sternum from the Middle Eocene Ameki Formation of the Omobialla
District of S. Nigeria. The bird it belonged to was thought by Andrews to have
been about twice the size of D. exulans. There is no certainty that Gigantornis was
an albatross, and even if it were it is most unlikely that it had any close relation-
ship with the genus Diomedea.

The other Lower Tertiary species is Manu antiquus Marples (1946) which was
based on an incomplete furcula from the Upper Oligocene (Duntroonian) Maera-
whenua Greensand from near Duntroon, N. Otago, S. Island of New Zealand. It is
much more likely that this was a true albatross, as its furcula was comparable to
that of D. exulans in some respects, being fairly close in size, though the latter *has
a slightly greater angle between the rami’. Marples concluded that the specimen
differed generically from Diomedea, so whether a true albatross or not, it obviously
bore no close relationship to D. thyridata sp. nov. Marples also recorded shaft
fragments of an ulna and radius from the same deposit ‘which might have belonged
to the same or a slightly smaller species’.

There are two records of Miocene albatrosses from М. America. The first was
recorded by Loye Miller in 1935 from the Upper Middle Miocene Temblor Forma-
tion at Lomita, California, U.S.A. An impression of ‘the wrist and proximal bones
of the hand’ was referred to the Diomedeidae by Miller on the characters of the
carpometacarpus and of the pollex. The specimen was ‘slightly smaller than D.
nigripes and slightly greater than D. immutabilis. This would seem to suggest that
the albatross from Lomita was smaller than the other N. American Miocene
species, D. californica, which Miller described in 1962. This species was based on
a distal portion of a left tarsometatarsus from the Temblor Formation at Shark-
tooth Hill, Kern County California. Unfortunately, comparisons were limited to
D. albatrus, D. exulans and the English Pleistocene species D. anglica Lyddeker
(1891a). He showed that the tarso-metatarsus of D. anglica was slightly larger
than that of D. albatrus, although the width across the trochleae was the same in

AN UPPER MIOCENE ALBATROSS FROM BEAUMARIS 49

both. That of D. californica was larger and stouter than either, and very much
shorter than that of D. exulans. Comparisons of his figure with tarso-metatarsi of
the albatross species available to me, but not considered by Miller, indicate that
only that of D. cauta approaches the fossil in size and proportions. However,
there is no close resemblance, since the trochleae are relatively shorter in D. cauta,
and the shaft is narrower. The length of the bone is only about two thirds of that
of Lyddeker's figure of D. anglica, so clearly D. cauta has no close affinity with
D. californica or D. albatrus. On the other hand, comparison with the tarsometa-
tarsus of Macronectes giganteus (Giant Petrel) revealed a striking similarity in
appearance and proportions, and in particular in the morphology of the shaft and
length of the trochleae. The principal difference is the greater width of the inner
trochlea of the fossil, which is one of the features on which Miller separated the
fossil from D. albatrus. This casts some doubt on the generic and family assign-
ment of D. californica, although it should be pointed out that Macronectes is vir-
tually confined to the S. Hemisphere at the present time. The giant petrels have
large, strongly built bills somewhat reminiscent of those of albatrosses, but have
united nostrils on the top of the bill like all members of the order Procellariiformes,
other than the family Diomedeidae.

D. thyridata sp. nov. has lateral, separate nostrils, showing that this feature
was present as far back as the Late Miocene at least. Even if the re-examination
of the type of D. californica showed it to be a true Diomedea, the similarities to
Macronectes are certainly interesting, and require some explanation. It is not likely
that californica bore any close relationship to D. thyridata sp. nov. especially if its
affinities do lie with D. albatrus, as Miller suggested.

There are two records of Pliocene albatross fossils, one from N. America, and
one from England. The former is from the Lower Pliocene Bone Valley Formation
of Pierce, Polk County, Florida, U.S.A., and was recorded by Wetmore (1943) as
D. anglica, although this was regarded as doubtful by Brodkorb in his catalogue of
1963. The English specimen is from the Upper Pliocene Coralline Crag of Foxhall,
Suffolk, England, and consists of an ulna of albatross type, tentatively referred to
D. anglica by Lyddeker (1891b). It cannot be directly compared to the type of
that species and its identity is therefore unknown.

Diomedea anglica Lyddeker (1891a) was based on a right tarsometatarsal and
associated proximal phalanx of digit iv from the Lower Pleistocene Red Crag of
Foxhall, Suffolk, and was said by its author to be intermediate in size between D.
exulans and the smaller living species. Miller (1962) has pointed out that the
tarsometatarsus is like that of D. albatrus, although relatively more elongated. The
tarsometatarsi of D. cauta and Macronectes giganteus were compared to Lyddeker's
figure of D. anglica, but the former is a shorter, relatively stouter bone, while the
latter is more like it in proportions, but is a little shorter, and differs in morpho-
logical details. It would appear that D. anglica is a true Diomedea, and probably
directly ancestral to the living D. albatrus, or perhaps could even be conspecific,
if a sufficient range of specimens were examined. In any case, there is no obvious
relationship with D. thyridata sp. nov.

Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene albatross fossils are presumably all of living
species, and are not of any importance for this discussion.

4. Significance of D. thyridata sp. nov.

This is the first record of a fossil Diomedea from the S. Hemisphere, and the
oldest undoubted record of the genus, if the Macronectes affinities of the slightly

50 Н. Е. WILKINSON

oider D. californica are sustained. D. thyridata sp. nov. shows that the ‘melanophris
group’ of Diomedea had evolved by the Upper Miocene, and that this predomi-
nantly Antarctic-Subantarctic group was present in the $. Hemisphere then. The
‘exulans group’ has a N. Hemisphere fossil record going back to the Miocene also,
if D. californica is a true Diomedea. The affinity with Macronectes of this fossil,
and that of D. nigripes with the more ‘primitive’ Phoebetria, suggest that the ‘exu-
lans group’ is closer to the ancestry of albatrosses, and that the ‘melanophris group’
may have evolved from it. This is highly speculative, and would need a much
better fossil record for proof. It is clear that the separation of the two groups
extends well back in time. Furthermore, as suggested above, D. thyridata sp. nov.
is probably ancestral to the sub-groups within the ‘melanophris group’ itself.

The partial bill from Beaumaris is also the first record of cranial material of a
Tertiary albatross. It shows that the albatrosses were already essentially modern
in appearance, if bill structure is any guide to this. Lateral nostrils and prominent
nasal sulci demonstrate that the physiologic mechanisms for salt elimination were
probably similar to those of living albatrosses. The nasal glands lie above the
orbits, and their secretions pass through the nostrils and along the sulci to drip off
the end of the bill. It is certain that the origins of this mechanism lie much further
back in time than the late Miocene.

Finally, it can be noted that the Black-browed Albatross is a comparatively
frequent visitor to Port Phillip Bay at the present time, in contrast to its more
purely oceanic relatives, and the presence of remains of its Miocene ancestor at
Beaumaris is therefore quite understandable. This is analagous to the situation in
California where Miller (1962) noted that D. albatrus was much more frequently
seen near shore than D. nigripes, and it is therefore not surprising that D. cali-
fornica shows closer affinities to the former. It is much more likely that an albatross
of habits similar to D. melanophris would come close enough to shore to be incor-
porated in shallow water sediments like those at Beaumaris.

The shoreline was not more than a few miles E., and faunal evidence suggests
at least a partially enclosed bay (T. A. Darragh pers. comm.). D. chlororhynchos
is rarely seen in Victorian waters, but is commoner further W. towards the Indian
Ocean (K. G. Simpson pers. comm.). If D. thyridata was really ancestral to both,
then obviously some kind of geographical separation would have been necessary
for speciation to occur. In this connection, it is of interest to note that the breeding
ranges of D. melanophris and D. chlororhynchos are mutually exclusive at the
present time.

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Coues, E., 1866. Critical review of the family Procellariidae Pt. V embracing the Diomedeinae
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‚ 1962. A new albatross from the Miocene of California. Condor 64: 471-2.

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PETERS, J. L., 1931. Check-list of birds of the world I. 8 vo. Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

IE арык p 1899. On the osteology of the Tubinares. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. for 1899:

Котнѕснир, W., 1893. Description of new species of albatross in report of meeting for 17th
May, 1893. Bull. Br. Orn. Club. 1(48): 58-9.

SALVIN, O., 1883. A list of the birds collected by Captain A. H. Markham on the west coast
of America. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. for 1883: 430.

, 1896. Catalogue of Birds. Brit. Mus. (N.H.) 25: 440-454.

SEEBOHM, J., 1890. The birds of the Japanese Empire. 4 vo., London.

SIMPSON, С. G., 1965. A new fossil penguin from Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 79: 91-93.

SINGLETON, F. A., 1941. The Tertiary geology of Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 53: 1-126.

STIRTON, К. A., WOODBURNE, M. O., and PLANE, M. D., 1967. A phylogeny of Diprotodontidae
and its significance in correlation. Bur. Min. Resour. Aust. Bull. 85: 149-160.

WETMORE, А., 1943. Proc. New Engl. zool. Club. 22: 66-67. (Not seen.)

———————, 1956. A check list of the fossil and prehistoric birds of North America and the
West Indies. Smithson. misc. Collns. 131 (5), Publ. 428.

Explanation of Plates
АП figures approx. nat. size
PLATE 3
Lateral views of fossil and its living relatives
Fig. 1—Diomedea chlororhynchos Gmelin, B704, figured specimen, living, Queenscliff, Vict.

Fig. 2—Diomedea thyridata sp. nov., P24172, holotype partial bill, Black Rock Sandstone,
U. Miocene, Beaumaris, Vict., G.B. Pritchard Colln.

Fig. 3—Diomedea melanophris Temminck, B9678, figured specimen, living, Portland, Vict.
PLATE 4
Ventral and dorsal views of the specimens in Plate 1
Figs. 1-3—Ventral views of B704, P24172 and B9678 respectively.
Figs. 4-6—Dorsal views of ditto.

MEM. NAT. MUS. УІСІ

FIVE LARGE AUSTRALITES FROM VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA,
AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO OTHER LARGE FORMS

By GEORGE BAKER

Abstract

Fifteen of the 17 known australites with weights over 100 g have been recorded from the
SW. portion of the vast Australian tektite strewnfield of 2,000,000 square miles. Only two
are on record from the south-central portion (ie. in S. Australia), and none from the E. or
SE. portion. Recently, four large australites from Victoria have been noted in the National
Museum of Victoria, and a fifth is privately owned, so that the distribution of the larger forms
is by no means as confined as originally thought. These additional five specimens constitute
the 10th, 11th, 13th, 14th and 17th largest among the 22 largest forms so far brought to
scientific notice.

The largest Victorian specimen is a boat-shaped form from Port Campbell, followed by
an oval core from Gymbowen, near Goroke, a round core from Lower Norton, near Horsham,
then a dumbbell from Laing, and finally a round core from Lake Wallace, near Edenhope.
Large australites characteristically show natural solution etch grooves (gutters) and etch pits,
and usually reveal a flaked equatorial zone arising from subaerial exfoliation of the aero-
thermal stress shell generated during hypervelocity passage through the earth's atmosphere.

Introduction

The recent recording of eight large specimens, each weighing over 100 g, from
the SW. part of W. Australia (Baker 1961, 1962, 1963, 1966, 1967; McCall
1965), taken in conjunction with the nine large forms recorded earlier by Fenner
(1955) from W. Australia (7) and S. Australia (2), makes it worthy of note that
four equally large australites from Port Campbell, Gymbowen, Lower Norton, and
Lake Wallace in W. Victoria, each weighing over 100 g, are lodged in the collec-
tion of the National Museum of Victoria, and a fifth, privately owned large form
has been recently examined from Laing in W. Victoria. None of these specimens
has been previously recorded. Their addition to those already recorded from W.
Australia (15) and S. Australia (2) increases to 22 the total of large australites
known among the 45,000 to 50,000 specimens so far found.

The sites of discovery of specimens weighing over 100 р are shown in Fig. 1
relative to the N. limits of the australite strewnfield. About 32 per cent occur
towards the SE. portion of the strewnfield, i.e. in SW. Victoria and SE. S. Aus-
tralia. The remainder occur in the SW. portion of the strewnfield, in SW. W. Aus-
tralia some 900 miles distant, these two principal regions of occurrence being
separated by the Great Australian Bight. The most westerly discovered large
specimen, a thick-waisted dumbbell-shaped form from Cuballing, W.A. is a little
over 1,350 miles distant from the most easterly discovered, a boat-shaped form
from Port Campbell, Victoria. No large specimens have yet been reported from
the northern portion of the australite strewnfield, i.e. from areas N. of latitude 30°S.
Furthermore, no large specimens are known $. of latitude 39^S., although smaller
specimens have been collected from as far S. as latitude 43°30'S. (ie. in S. Tas-
mania). None has been recovered from the ocean floors or continental shelf
regions S., W., or E. of the strewnfield.

54 GEORGE BAKER

From area to area within these two principal regions where large specimens
have been found, and also from major region to major region, there are marked
differences in the degree of preservation, some showing the effects of natural solu-
tion etching more than others, and some being more affected by abrasional weather-
ing. This is to be expected over so vast a strewnfield over which the present climate
varies significantly (40^ of latitude and 26^ of longitude). The area has been
subjected to marked climatic changes in the immediate geological past. Further-
more, some specimens have been exposed to subaerial agents longer than others
according to the times of release from the enclosing soils. The large, boat-shaped
form from Port Campbell, Victoria (Pl. 5), which is the tenth heaviest of all
known Australian tektites and the largest Victorian specimen, possesses the best
preservation.

Fic. 1—Sketch map of Australia showing (broken heavy line) the N. limit of the
australite strewnfield and sites of discovery in SW. Western Australia, SE. South
Australia, and SW. Victoria of the 22 known australites weighing over 100 g.

KEY: B—Babakin, W.A. C—Corrigin, W.A. CU—Cuballing, W.A. E—Edenhope,
V. EG—Eastern Goldfields, W.A. G—Gymbowen, V. GR—Graball, W.A.
H—Horsham, V. K—Karoonda, S.A. KA—Karoni, W.A. L—Between Low-
alda and Karoonda, $.А. LB—Lake Buchan (? Buchanan of earlier litera-
ture), W.A. N—Newdegate, W.A. NA—Narembeen, W.A. NO—Norseman,
W.A. O—Ongerup, W.A. P—Port Campbell, V. SG—Salmon Gums, W.A.
T—Laing, V. W—Warralakin, W.A. WG—Western Goldfields, W.A. Y—
Lake Yealering, W.A.

FIVE LARGE AUSTRALITES 55

Descriptions of Victorian Forms

de Boat-shaped form. The large boat-shaped form (Pls. 5, 6) from Port Camp-
bell, Victoria (Fig. 1) was found in the Sherbrook River area some three miles E.
of Port Campbell township. It was presented to the National Museum of Victoria
(M11402) on 2nd November 1910 by Mr A. Wishart, a local farmer. The date
of presentation is approximately a quarter of a century before the author discov-
ered the first specimen of a collection now totalling a little over 2,000 australites
from the Moonlight Head—Princetown—Port Campbell —Peterborough coastal
region in W. Victoria, and in which the heaviest specimen weighs approximately
56 р. Statements of having seen other large forms (round, mainly) are made from
time to time by the local inhabitants, but the specimens have not been produced.

The weight of the specimen is 141:575 g, its length 86:2 mm, width 41:3 mm
at the widest part (Pl. 5A), and depth 30:5 mm. It is the heaviest and largest
australite for the Victorian part of the australite strewnfield. The specific gravity of
this large boat-shaped form is 2:414, which is 0:017 above the average SG. value
(2:397) for 573 australites (Baker 1956, p. 90) from the Port Campbell district.
The width of the flaked equatorial zone (Pls. 5B, 6B) is 6 mm. This zone was
produced by later spallation of the aerothermal stress shell generated on the for-
wardly directed surface of the australite during hypervelocity entry through the
earth's atmosphere, much of the exfoliation evidently occurring as a consequence
of subaerial effects brought into operation after landing on the earth's surface,
although some spallation may have occurred during the final phases of atmospheric
flight earthwards. In proportion to its size, this specimen has evidently lost the
least amount of peripheral glass by spallation compared with other australites
weighing over 100 g, and its flaked equatorial zone is proportionately the narrow-
est. In these respects it is closely matched by a smaller boat-shaped australite from
Corop. Victoria, which weighs 88:5 gms, measures 64 mm by 35 mm by 25 mm,
and is lodged in the University of Melbourne geological collection. The narrow
flaked equatorial zone reveals etch grooves which cross the equatorial portion of
the anterior surface and terminate abruptly at the rim separating the posterior and
anterior surfaces.

Five well-defined, relatively smooth flow-swirled areas on the posterior surface
of the Port Campbell large boat-shaped form (Pls. 5A, 8B) measure 49 mm by 27
mm, 21:5 mm by 15 mm, 16:5 mm by 7:5 mm, 14 mm by 9 mm, and 5 mm by
3 mm respectively. With three additional but indistinctly defined flow-swirled areas,
the overall group of flow swirls occupies a little over half of the posterior surface,
the remainder of which is lightly etch-pitted in places, densely pitted elsewhere,
with sub-circular to oval and occasionally elliptical etch pits (Pls. 5A, 8B). The
oval etch pits pass, along the trend of the flow schlieren that have become exposed
by natural solution etching, into elongated, narrow gutters approximately the same
depth as most of the pits (Pl. 8B).

А depressed area with relatively regular symmetry and 2 to 3 mm deep on the
posterior side of the otherwise sharply defined rim (Pls. 5B, 8A) on one side of
the specimen, measures 8 mm long and 5 mm wide, and is evidently a depression
left by a flattened bubble after some exfoliation, rather than being an early-devel-
oped spall-mark subsequently modified by natural solution etching in moist soil.
The sharply marked rim of the specimen (Pls. 5B, 6B) separates the flow-swirled
and etch-pitted posterior surface from the spalled and subsequently etch-grooved
anterior surface, and it delimits the zone of exfoliation of the aerothermal stress

56 GEORGE BAKER

shell for which spallation was more pronounced, leaving a more noticeable flaked
zone, around the equatorial regions of the boat-shaped form.

Natural solution-etch gutters (Pl. 8A) are confined to the surface exposed after
loss by spallation, and their trends have been largely determined by the very nature
of the exfoliation process itself, relative to the curvature of the anterior surface.
These gutters average 0:5 mm in width, range from 1 mm to nearly 15 mm in
length, and are up to 0:5 mm deep. They are typically U-shaped in cross section,
while longitudinally they mostly follow the general curvature of the anterior sur-
face. Rather lighter etching of the glass forming the surface between the gutters
has revealed the complex, fold-like character of the sub-surface schlieren, and the
general overall trend of the schlieren is thereby shown to extend fundamentally in
the direction of the longer axis. Schlieren are also well-exposed on the walls and
floors of the gutters (Pl. 8A). Those on the floors represent a lower level in the
sub-surface flow-line pattern than those higher up on the walls of the gutters and
on the surface between the gutters. All the exposed schlieren are nevertheless part
of the complex system of internal flow lines.

The radii of curvature for the posterior (R5) and the anterior (Ry) surfaces
have been determined across the width of the specimen, from enlarged silhouettes,
as being Ry = 23:2 mm, and Ry = 23:2 mm. From graphical reconstruction, it
is deduced that the forwardly directed surface during atmospheric entry, lost a
maximum depth of 14:6 mm of glass by the combined effects of (a) ablational
processes, (b) exfoliation of the aerothermal stress shell, and (c) some subsequent
etching by subaerial processes of the surface exposed by the spallation process,
provided that the original ellipsoidal form from which the ablated form was devel-
oped was biaxial and had a circular cross section normal to the long axis of the
ellipsoid.

The specimen provides no evidence to indicate that a circumferential flange
was developed at any stage of its aerodynamic history. This applies to all of the
large forms weighing over 100 g without doubt, and in fact to all australites exam-
ined that weigh over 15 or 20 g. No flange fragments are ever found that would be
large enough to fit the larger australites, and no large forms have been observed to
possess flanges, remnants of flanges, nor the flange bands that result when circum-
ferential flanges become detached by fracture. Evidently there is an optimum weight
and size for australites above which circumferential flanges cannot be generated.

2. Oval core. A large oval core (Pl. 7A-D) from Gymbowen, near Goroke,
Victoria (Fig. 1), was presented to the National Museum of Victoria (M11401)
by G. T. Hause on 26th May 1911. The weight of the specimen after cleaning in an
ultrasonic vibrator is 135:09 g, its length — 55:0 mm, width — 51:4 mm, and
depth — 36:3 mm. The width of its well-marked flaked equatorial zone (Pl. 7B-C)
ranges from 12 mm to 15 mm. The SG. was determined as 2-417. The artificial
removal of a chip from towards one end of the posterior surface, evidently before
lodgement in the National Museum collection, has left a conchoidal fracture sur-
face (Pl. 7A, right-hand end) which measures 14:4 mm by 11:3 mm and shows
well developed sub-concentric ripple fracture marks and a highly vitreous lustre,
but no flow schlieren since they only appear after natural solution etching. Six flat-
bottomed depressions on the anterior surface of the specimen (Pl. 7D) are evi-
dently percussion produced or else represent small spall structures; they are ap-
proximately circular in outline with a diameter of 3 mm and a depth of about
0:5 mm.

FIVE LARGE AUSTRALITES 57

The rim between the posterior surface and the flaked equatorial edge of the
anterior surface is quite sharply defined (Pl. 7, B-C) and a remnant of non-spalled
surface glass is left in the otherwise almost completely flaked equatorial zone
(right-hand end of Pl. 7C). The flaked equatorial zone reveals a few gutters pro-
duced by natural etching (about four or five are showing in Pl. 7B-C), and these
gutters trend up and down across the flaked zone. A few short solution-etch gutters
on the anterior surface (left-hand side of Pl. 7D) are like those on the anterior
surface of the larger boat-shaped form from Port Campbell (Pl. 6A) and resemble
the stitching on a softball.

A. depression on the posterior surface measures 7 mm by 6 mm (top of Pl. 7C,
7A, bottom right) and is either an original deformity or the site of a pre-existing
gas bubble. The posterior surface is otherwise generally smooth (Pl. 7A), with a
dull lustre, occasional scratch marks of subaerial origin, and a few etch pits up to
1 mm across. Most of these pits seem to be etched spall marks of small size and of
the ‘chatter-mark’ type.

Radii of curvature (Ry and Ку) determined across the width and along the
slightly greater length were Ер = 36:8 mm and Rp = 32:1 mm across the width,
апа Ка = 42:9 mm, Ry = 34:3 mm along the length. Even though there is a
difference of only 3:6 mm between the width and length of the specimen, an accur-
ate reconstruction of the primary ellipsoid from which the secondary ablated form
was developed could not be guaranteed, as it can with more truly spherical prim-
ary forms, hence the calculation of the amount of glass lost from the forwardly
directed surface could be grossly erroneous. On the basis that the arc of curvature
across the width of the specimen is more nearly part of a circle than that provided
by the arc of curvature along the greater diameter (ie. — length) of the oval-
shaped core, and with the Ry measurement for this direction being 32:1 mm, then
the calculated loss of glass from the front surface along the line of the front to rear
poles (i.e. the depth of ablation in the stagnation region) would be 31:4 mm. This
figure would include loss of glass by subsequent exfoliation and a little further loss
by natural etching, and it is almost equal to the present depth of the core (no. 11,
Table 1) and appears to be excessive. On this basis, it may be that the primary
form was a triaxial ellipsoid, in which event a cross section through the primary
form taken normal to its length would not have been circular as it would have been
if the primary form was that of a biaxial ellipsoid.

3. Round cores. The two large round cores, one from Lower Norton via Hor-
sham, and one from Lake Wallace near Edenhope, show no structural nor sculp-
tural features of significance over and above those described herein for other large
forms. Their dimensions, weights, and specific gravity values are listed in Table 1.
The round core from Lower Norton was found on the banks of a dam and pre-
sented to the National Museum of Victoria (E2730) on 29th August 1961 by
Mrs M. Hannan. The round core from Lake Wallace was discovered about 1936
and is N.M.V. E1986.

4. Dumbbell-shaped form. The large dumbbell-shaped australite from Laing
in W. Victoria (Pl. 9-10) was brought to notice per favour of the Assistant Direc-
tor, Mr E. D. Gill. The specimen was found by Master Andrew Halford in 1966,
in a low cutting some 2 ft 6 in. high, on the S. side of the Allansford-S. Ecklin
road on the N. side of Buckley's Creek, Laing. The site of discovery is 1:1 miles
W. of the Terang-Curdie Vale road. The specimen was partially exposed on red-
dish-brown soil 6-9 in. below ground level and thus within the plant root zone. It

58 СЕОКСЕ ВАКЕК

weighs 115:752 р after cleaning, using 1:1 НСІ to release iron-rich clay partially
cemented in some surface pits and gutters. Its SG. was determined on a Walker's
Steelyard as 2:467. This is unusually high for Victorian australites generally, but
consistent results were obtained on repeating the determinations.

The form is that of a slightly distorted, thick-waisted dumbbell having one
gibbosity (36 mm wide and 29:7 mm thick) a little larger than the other gibbosity
(35 mm wide and 26:3 mm thick), and a distinctly marked dimple measuring 15
mm by 14 mm situated in the waist region of the posterior surface (Pl. 9A-B).
Radius of curvature measurements across the widths of the gibbosities are Rp =
21:2 and 21:5 mm for the smaller and larger gibbosities respectively, with Rr =
18:8 mm and 26:7 mm, where B — the posterior surface, and F — the anterior.
If cross sections through the gibbosities of the primary form were circular prior to
modification, the depths of ablation in the stagnation regions (i.e. front polar
regions) of the larger and smaller gibbosities were respectively 11:8 mm and 18:1
mm, without allowing for glass lost subsequently by subaerial spallation and weath-
ering.

A flaked equatorial zone has been developed on one edge only of the specimen
(Pl. 10B), and it varies in width from 10 mm where developed on the smaller
gibbosity to 18 mm where produced on the larger gibbosity. A depression on the
flaked equatorial zone of the waist region (Pl. 10B) measures 17 mm by 12 mm
in area, and is up to 3 mm deep. It is of a somewhat similar nature to the depres-
sion on the side of the large boat-shaped form from Port Campbell (Pl. 5B), and
evidently represents a somewhat compressed, elongated bubble exposed by exfolia-
tion of the aerothermal stress shell. Its presence would weaken the glass in this zone
and probably contributed to more ready spallation of the equatorial zone on the side
of the tektite carrying the bubble (cf. Pls. 9B, 10B for comparison of the two edges,
one non-spalled, the other spalled). Etch pits are approximately equally developed
(РБ. 9-10) on all surfaces except the flaked equatorial zone which was evidently
a much later exposed surface. The etch pits range in diameter from 0-25 mm to
2:0 mm. Etch gutters occur on all surfaces except that of the flaked equatorial
zone, again indicating that the spallation was a relatively late event. The gutters
range up to 15 mm in length, 0-75 mm in width, and 0:5 mm in depth. They are
typically U-shaped in cross section. Their trends are largely across the width (i.e.
approximately normal to the long axis) of the specimen on the anterior and pos-
terior surfaces (Pls. 9A, 10A), but they take on complex patterns on the two ends
(Pls. 9C, 10C) and on one side (Pl. 9B). Some of the gutters reveal outward
radiating arrangements from two or three of the etch pits (Pl. 9A, top centre and
right, 9B bottom left).

Internal schlieren exposed on some surfaces by etching are best seen under
higher magnifications on the walls and the floors of etch pits and etch gutters, being
largely normal or oblique to the trends of the gutters, but sometimes parallel to or
trending more acutely to the gutter trends, Smaller etch pits are occasionally present
on the floors of the gutters and even on the floors of some of the larger of the etch
pits; sometimes the larger pits interrupt the trends of some of the gutters (Pl. 10A),
sometimes they terminate a gutter. Where the larger diameter etch pits lie athwart
the trends of the etch gutters, they are invariably more deeply etched into the glass
than the gutters, sometimes being up to nearly twice as deep. Intersecting gutters
with different trends are also somewhat different in depth at the points of inter-
section (PI. 9B left-hand end, 9C central portions). In plan, some gutters are more
or less straight (Pls. 9A, 10A, C), but some are curvilinear (Pl. 9B central por-

FIVE LARGE AUSTRALITES 59

tion, 9C), but in the third dimension, all are slightly curved in that they follow the
curved outer surfaces. The glass between the etch pits and etch gutters reveals
under higher magnifications a distinct, very finely pitted ‘orange-peel’ effect through
which flow schlieren can be only vaguely traced compared with those shown on the
more lustrous walls and floors of the pits and gutters.

Aspects of Production of Surface Sculpture

The etching of different parts of the tektite to form natural solution pits, gutters,
and feathery’ schlieren lines is a function of several factors, including (a) slight
variations in the chemical composition of the tektite glass from place to place,
(b) variability in the strength and nature of the etchants from time to time and
from place to place on the tektite surface, (c) differences in the time the etchants
lie in contact with different parts of the specimen, (d) the variable nature of the
curvature of the external surface and (е) whether one particular surface always
remained directed upwards to be in contact with soil while buried, and exposed to
atmospheric agents after soil deflation, while the other surface was always down-
wardly directed to and hence always in contact with the soil, or whether the tektite
has been turned over, as for example by release from the soil, transportation down
a slope, and reburial at a lower topographic level, or even by tipping more or less
in situ during disturbance of the enveloping soil.

Further to the above factors concerned with the natural solution etching, it is
known from thin section examinations under the petrological microscope that
differences in the refractive index of different schlieren point to differences in chem-
ical composition, some schlieren being richer in silica than others, and some richer
in iron, hence they are liable to differential dissolution. The effects of differential
dissolution can be demonstrated experimentally by immersing fractured tektites in
4 per cent hydrofluoric acid. In a matter of hours, pits, gutters, and flow schlieren
can be brought out on the freshly fractured glass surfaces. These are surfaces that
were smooth apart from concentric and ripple fracture patterns, and they showed a
highly vitreous lustre prior to immersion in the acid. Where tektites are found, such
potent acids are not available in the requisite amounts and strengths for such a
rapid reaction, but soil etchants are nevertheless present and the time factor is
highly favourable, for tektites have been lying in a soil environment for at least a
few thousand years in the Australian strewnfield. The strength and nature of soil
etchants enveloping a tektite will vary according to variations in the supply of
downward percolating rain water and the circulation of subterranean solutions.
Also there are variations in the nature and supply of etchants from plants. In some
places the tektites lie within the root zone, while in others they are found in semi-
arid to arid terrains which were much more humid in the immediate geological
past. Hence all the tektite specimens are liable to have been exposed to biochemical
attack by the soil biota.

As to differences in the time that etchants lie in contact with particular parts of
а tektite surface, great variations can have occurred during the thousands of years
that australites have lain on the earth’s surface. At present, the overall effect is
controlled in the first place by alternate wetting and drying of soils, more especially
in the temperate regions of the strewnfield. During the drying out process, solu-
tions are likely to lodge longer in small depressions on the tektite surface, provided
the specimen lies in a favourable position. Furthermore, plant roots and fungal fila-
ments in actual contact with the tektite could be potent factors in supplying as well
as directing the attack by etchants on the glass. Once pits and gutters become

60 GEORGE ВАКЕК

established, some widening and overdeepening continues. In course of time, soil
constituents become cemented to their walls and floors, sometimes relatively
loosely, sometimes quite firmly, mostly by secondary iron hydroxide. Even after
excavation by soil deflation, most of the cemented materials remain, as in the
specimen from Laing. Tektite glass not covered by cemented soil is subjected to
dulling (e.g. Plate 9A) by atmospheric agents, and the lustre of such surfaces con-
trasts sharply with the highly vitreous lustre revealed on cleaning out the cemented
soil. Evidently soil constituents remained in contact with the walls and floors of the
pits and gutters all the time that differential solution was progressing, until the
cementation was sufficient to protect the surface.

Notes on the 22 Large Australites

Thirteen of the large australites were listed in an earlier publication giving their
weights, SG. values (where available) and dimensions (Baker 1966, Table 1).
This list is re-cast (Table 1) to accommodate the nine additional large australites
now reported. The discovery sites of these large specimens are shown in Fig. 1.

For dumbbells in Table 1 (nos. 5, 8, and 14) the numbers in brackets are
measurements of the waist regions. For no. 1, Table 1, the number in brackets is
the present length resulting from artificial fracturing. The weight of the fractured
form is 238 g, while the original weight has been calculated as approximately 265
g (allowing for a relatively large piece artificially spalled off with a crowbar when
the specimen was unearthed in a post hole). Some of the forms classified as round
cores are slightly oval in plan aspect, but since their two diameters are only 1 or 2
mm different, this is evidently a consequence of terrestrial weathering. The size
measurements in the fifth colum of Table 1 are given in the order: length, width,
depth (— thickness) for the elongated specimens, and in the order: diameter,
depth (= thickness) for forms that are round in plan.

Grouping of Large Forms according to Shape Types

Large round cores. The two Victorian specimens from Lower Norton and
Lake Wallace weighing 115:92 р and 111:25 р respectively are the fourth and
sixth heaviest recorded round cores. Heavier round cores have been described
from Newdegate, W.A. (243:08 р, McCall 1965), Lake Yealering, W.A. (218 р,
Fenner 1955, Pl. 7, 1-2), Graball, W.A. (168-28 g, Baker 1963, Pl. 1, figs. A, B),
and from between Karoonda and Lowalda, S.A. (113 р, Fenner 1955, Pl. 7, 7-8).

Three other round cores weighing over 100 g have been found at Norseman,
W.A. (111 g, Fenner 1955, Pl. 8, 14), at Salmon Gums, W.A. (102.37 р, Baker
1967), and on the Eastern Goldfields, W.A. (108-30 g, Baker 1967). Two large
forms weighing 147 g and 116 g from Corrigin, W.A. and Lake Buchanan, W.A.,
are recorded (Fenner 1955) but neither the shape types nor illustrations were
given for these specimens, and they have not been examined by the author.

Large oval cores. The Victorian oval core from Gymbowen, near Goroke,
weighing 135:09 g (Pl. 7) is the third heaviest oval core recorded from Australia.
The two heavier specimens of oval cores are from Warralakin, W.A. (265 g, Baker
1962, Pl. SA-D), and from an unspecified locality in the W.A. Goldfields (154-3 р,
Fenner 1955, PI. 7, 5-6).

'Two other oval cores weighing over 100 g have been found at Karoni, W.A.
(101 р, Fenner 1955, Pl. 8, 15-16), and at Babakin, W.A. (112-9 р, Fenner
1955).

Large boat-shaped australites. The large form from the Sherbrook River area

FIVE LARGE AUSTRALITES

6661 | | |
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62 СЕОКСЕ ВАКЕК

Е. of Port Campbell, Victoria, is the second largest boat-shaped australite (Pl. 5-6)
known. It is a very well preserved specimen and although a little longer than the
biggest boat-shaped form from Karoonda, S.A. (Table 1, 4), it is narrower and
thinner. Its weight of 141:575 g is approximately 67 g less than the biggest boat-
shaped form which is an abraded specimen measuring 82 mm by 46:8 mm by 37:9
mm and weighing 208:9 2 (Fenner 1955, Pl. 7, 3-4).

The only other known boat-shaped form weighing over 100 g is a specimen
from Narembeen, W.A. which measures 64 mm by 37 mm by 30:5 mm and weighs
107:457 g (Baker 1961, Pl. 5A-E).

Large dumbbell-shaped forms. Three large dumbbell-shaped australites each
weighing over 100 g and typically possessing thick waist regions have been found
at Cuballing W.A. (176 g, Baker 1966, Fig. 1, A-F), at Ongerup, W.A. (151 g,
Baker 1967), and at Laing, V. (115:75 g, Table 1). These three specimens con-
stitute the fifth, eighth, and fourteenth largest of the 22 large australites. For con-
venience, a grouping of these 22 large forms in four shape types is given in Table
2, along with the symbol used on the distribution map (Fig. 1), and the locality
of occurrence. This reveals that six large round cores have been found in SW.
Western Australia, one in S. Australia, and one in Victoria, while four large oval
cores come from W. Australia and one from Victoria. One large boat-shaped form
has been found in each of the three states W. Australia, S. Australia, and Victoria,
and two large dumbbell-shaped forms come from W. Australia, with one from
Victoria.

TaBLE 2
Grouping of shape types of australites weighing over 100 g
Shape types | Symbol on Locality
Fig. 1
~ —
1. Large round cores (in order N | Newdegate, W.A.
of decreasing size—N to SG) Ж Lake Yealering, W.A.
GR Graball, М.А.
H Lower Norton, Horsham, V.
L Between Lowalda and Karoonda, S.A.
E Lake Wallace, Edenhope, V.
NO Norseman, W.A.
EG Eastern Goldfields, W.A.
SG Salmon Gums, W.A.
II. Large oval cores (in order of Ww Warralakin, W.A.
decreasing size—W to KA) WG Western Goldfields, W.A.
G Gymbowen, V.
B Babakin, W.A.
KA Karoni, W.A.
III. Large boat-shaped forms (in K Karoonda, 5.А.
order of decreasing size—K ғ Port Campbell, У.
to NA) | МА Narembeen, W.A.
MD eu шн ы
ТУ. Large dumbbell-shaped forms CU Cuballing, W.A.
(in order of decreasing size 10) Ongerup, W.A.
—CU to T) Г Laing, У

——— a € г. ЕГЕ ЧЕ 8 ЕІ 522.

Among these shape groupings (Table 2) of the large australites (1) no particular
shape group is confined to any particular region. (2) no australite over 100 g has
been brought to notice for the following shape groups: buttons, lenses, canoes, tear-

FIVE LARGE AUSTRALITES 63

drops, discs, aberrants. (3) none of the large forms possess circumferential flanges.

and ср where surface features are not destroyed flaked equatorial zones are
present.

. There seems to be no significance in the fact that the known 22 largest austra-

lites occur between latitude 30^S. and 3995. and between longitude 116°E. and
143°E. Smaller specimens are known in greater numbers (45,000 to 50,000)
throughout the two million square miles of the australite strewnfield.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to the Director of the National Museum of Victoria, Mr
J. McNally, for making available for study the four large australites (M11401,
M11402, E1986 and E2730), and to the Assistant Director, Mr E. D. Gill, for
obtaining the loan of a fifth large australite in the possession of a private owner.

References

BAKER, G., 1956. Nirranda strewnfield australites, southeast of Warrnambool, Western Vic-
toria. Mem. nat. Mus. Vict. 20: 59-172.
; 1961. A naturally etched australite from Narembeen, Western Australia. J. Proc.
К. Soc. West. Aust. 44(3) : 65-68.
, 1962. The largest known australite and three smaller specimens from Warralakin,
Western Australia. J. Proc. R. Soc. West. Aust. 45(1): 12-17.
, 1963. Round australite core from Graball, Western Australia. J. Proc. R. Soc.
West. Aust. 46(2): 57-62.
, 1966. The largest known dumbbell-shaped australite. J. Proc. R. Soc. West. Aust.
49(2): 59-63.
— 1967. A second large dumbbell-shaped australite, Ongerup, Western Australia, with
notes on two other large australites. J. Proc. R. Soc. West. Aust. 50(4): 113-120.
FENNER, C., 1955. Australites Part VI. Some notes on unusually large australites. Trans. R.
Soc. S. Aust. 78: 88-91.
McCazz, С. J. H., 1965. The heaviest recorded australite. Aust. J. Sci. 27: 267.

Description of Plates
PLATE 5
Large boat-shaped australite from Port Campbell, V. (x 1.64.)

A. Posterior surface showing smooth, flow-swirled areas with high degree of lustre, sur-
rounded by variously etch-pitted glass.

B. Side view (representing bottom edge of Pl. 5A) showing circular spalled area or burst
bubble at the rim separating the posterior surface (uppermost) from the anterior surface.

C. End-on view (representing right-hand end of Pl. 5A) showing residual ‘bung-like’ char-
acter resulting from spallation. Posterior surface uppermost.

PLATE 6

Large boat-shaped australite from Port Campbell, V. (x 1.64.)

A. Anterior surface, showing solution-etch gutters, occasional flow lines, and few etch pits.

B. Side view (representing top edge of Pl. 5B) showing solution-etch gutters in the flaked
equatorial zone terminating abruptly at the well-defined rim. Posterior surface uppermost.

C. End-on view (representing left-hand end of Pl. 5A, i.e. right-hand end of Pl. 6B) show-
ing etch pits and flow swirl on posterior surface, solution-etch gutters on surface exposed
by exfoliation. Posterior surface uppermost.

PLATE 7

Large oval core from Gymbowen, V. (x 1.4.)

A. Posterior surface, showing oval outline, conchoidal fracture and vitreous lustre of arti-
ficially chipped area at right-hand side, 'dimple' in surface at bottom right (Pl. 7C), and
generally smooth character of surface, with few etch pits (? etched ‘chatter-marks’).

B. End-on view for the shorter diameter of oval specimen, showing well-developed flaked
equatorial zone and some natural solution-etch gutters on surface exposed after spalla-
tion, Posterior surface uppermost.

о $

GEORGE BAKER

Side view for the longer diameter of oval specimen, showing well-developed flaked equa-
torial zone except at right-hand end where some of the aerothermal stress shell remains
as a partial ‘indicator’ of the secondary, aerodynamically shaped anterior surface devel-
oped prior to terrestrial exfoliation. Pronounced ‘dimple’ shown in right central region of
posterior surface (uppermost). 4

Anterior surface showing six percussion spall marks (circular to ovate areas) and осса-
sional short, natural solution-etch gutters developed on surface exposed by exfoliation and
shedding of aerothermal stress shell.

PLATE 8

Enlarged photographs of portions of large boat-shaped australite from Port Campbell, V.

Depression interrupting the sharp rim that separates pitted and flow-swirled posterior
surface (uppermost) from flaked and subsequently grooved equatorial zone and anterior
surface (lowermost) (x 5.2). {
'Contorted' contact zone of two flow-swirled areas on the posterior surface, showing flow
schlieren in the smoother flow-swirled areas and etch pits of elongated to short gutter-
like character between the two flow swirls (x 5.5).

PLATE 9

Large dumbbell-shaped australite from Laing, V. (x 1.65.)

Posterior surface showing marked waist constriction on one side only of specimen and
'dimple' in centre (cf. 'dimple' on posterior surface of oval core shown in Pl. 7A);
—— un gutters trend partly across width of specimen, while etch pits are sporadically
istributed.

Side view (representing lower edge of Pl. 9A) showing constricted waist region, edge-on
view of 'dimple' in Pl. 9A, and etch gutters trending in several directions (Posterior
surface uppermost).

End-on view (representing left-hand end of Pl. 9A-B) showing straight and curvilinear
etch gutters sometimes intersecting, and a few scattered etch pits.

PLATE 10

Large dumbbell-shaped australite from Laing, V. (x 1.65.)

A.
B.

Anterior surface showing etch gutters extending partly across width of specimen, and
etch pits sporadically distributed.

Side view (representing bottom edge of Pl. 10A) showing relatively smooth-surfaced
flaked equatorial zone with depression resulting from exposure on spallation of a com-
pressed, elongated bubble. Fine flow lines representing internal flow schlieren brought out
by natural n E of surface exposed by spallation, can be detected on bubble
walls and parts of smooth flaked equatorial zone.

End-on view (representing left-hand end of Pl. 108, right-hand end of Pl. 10A) showing
slightly deeper etch gutters trending mainly from left to right, and a few scattered etch

pits.
АП Photographs by С. J. Squance.

MEN

. NAT, MUS, VIGT. 29 PLATE 5

MEM. NAT. MUS. МІСТ. 29 PLATE 6

МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 7

29 PLATI

MUS. VICT

NAT

MEM

MEM. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 9

1
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МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 10

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA, LAKE EYRE REGION,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By GEORGE BAKER

Introduction

Two hundred and seventy-five specimens of markedly worn to severely worn
australites from the Mulka district, via Marree, Lake Eyre region, S. Australia,
have been examined in detail, and their weights and specific gravity values deter-
mined for comparison with statistically significant numbers of similar determina-
tions for australites from other concentration centres in widely separated regions
of the Australian tektite strewnfield. In addition, 414 severely worn specimens
from the same area have been examined but not weighed.

. Marree is approximately 25 miles from the SE. end of Lake Eyre, and is
situated on the Adelaide-Oodnadatta railway line at long. 138°19’E. and lat.
29^48'S. The australies from Mulka, 130 miles NNE. from Marree, along the
Birdsville stock route, come from a region of low relief and scant rainfall. The
specimens have been subjected to such a degree of desert erosion that they have
lost virtually all of their pre-existing surface sculpture patterns and much of their
original shape and structure. Many of the specimens show the lacquer-like lustre
called “desert varnish’.

The 275 specimens for which specific gravity values have been determined are
from three separate collections (1) S. R. Mitchell collection (60 specimens in
N.M.V., reg. nos. E3133-3191), (2) R. D. Croll collection (51 specimens), and
(3) University of Melbourne geological collection (164 specimens). All were
obtained in 1930 from Mr George Aiston of Mulka, who collected them on sur-
faces bared by sand drift during a particularly dry period. Many were found on or
around aboriginal camp sites, and have come to be regarded by some as 'magic-
stones' because of aboriginal beliefs in their curative and lethal powers; no particu-
lar specimen, however, can be definitely proved to have been in use as a 'magic-
stone”.

The author is indebted to the iate Mr S. К. Mitchell of Frankston, Vict. to
Mr Е. Р. Croll, of Balwyn, Vict. and to Mr Alfred A. Baker of the Geology
Department, University of Melbourne, for making available the australites from
Mulka for examination. The 414 non-weighed australites were inspected in the
National Museum of Victoria, by courtesy of the Director, Mr J. McNally; 264 of
these specimens, all with the same register number (11701), were purchased from
Mr Aiston in 1935. The remaining 150 (nos. E2800-E2854, E2858-E2952) con-
stituted part of the ethnological collection of the late Mr H. R. Balfour of Toorak,
Vict., which was left to the National Museum in 1962.

Of the total of 689 australites from Mulka in the five collections examined, the
better of the generally poorly preserved specimens became lodged in the Mitchell
and Croll collections, and it is these only that have been used for purposes of
illustration in this paper (Pls. 11-15). А [

Among the australites listed in private collections by Fenner (1935), 20 speci-
mens are in the possession of Mr Aiston, and Fenner states (1935, p. 127) that

об GEORGE BAKER

Aiston reported having ‘collected and distributed many hundreds, perhaps thousands
of australites, The evidence of other collections bears this out, according to Fenner,

Proportions of shape types

The shape types of the 275 weighed australites from Mulka are listed in Table
1, and 111 of the specimens are shown in Pls, 11-15 , All are worn, some bein
much more eroded than others, largely from sand-blasting by wind-borne вап
under arid conditions, but also by other subaerial agents, Some specimens were
fractured early, and subsequently worn, while some worn specimens reveal evi-
dence of recent fragmentation which has exposed relatively fresh conchoidal frac-
ture surfaces with secondary ripple fracture patterns and vitreous lustre, Specimens
i MiGente of controlled pressure flaking (РІ. 15, figs, 17-21) were prepared by
aborigines,

As а consequence of relatively severe erosion, circumferential flange structures
have been much chipped (PI, 11, figs, 2-10) or completely removed, Most мм
mens have had the 9 паре patterns either completely erased, or so worn down
that only a few reveal indistinct remnants (Pl, 11, figs, 2b, 3b, 4b, 7b, 10b, 22b).
The seulpture patterns represented are entirely of tertiary origin, due to terrestrial
erosion exposing and etching inner portions of these tektite glass bodies (e.g. РІ.
12, figs, 9a, b), after removal of pre-existing surfaces,

Based on the better preserved of the worn specimens and long experience, it
has been possible to arrive at the grouping of specimens into the shape categories
set out in Table 1 and arranged іп Pls, 11-15, A few of the worst weathered and
fractured specimens were not readily classifiable, and discrimination between the
remnant cores of certain oval-shaped and boat-shaped specimens from Мика (e.g.
PI, 12, figs, За, b, compared with Pl. 13, figs, 11а, b), had to be based on an
assessment of the nature of the equatorial zone fracturing and the overall degree
of erosion of each specimen, for better preserved boat-shaped forms have approxi-
mately parallel longer edges (ef, РІ, 13, figs, 13-15).

The proportions of the shape types are listed in Table 1, along with the range
in Weight, average weight, range in specific gravity and average specific gravity
values for each shape group, In view of the degree of wear by natural processes,
the weights of individual specimens are now much less than the original weights,
hence ton in Table 1 are minimal values,

The total weight of the specimens listed in Table 1 is 1,135:58 p, and the
average Weight of just over 4 y, is 1:5 times as ре as the average weight (2 734
n 3 412 Beary complete to complete forms of Port Campbell australites (Baker

956, p, КЗ),

After careful ar, ench specimen. was enim weighed in air and in
deionized water (7 = 21-4"C.) to the nearest 0-0005 р for determination of the
I gravity values, The results were checked and re-checked, particularly for
those specimens. yielding the higher and lower values, The average S.G. values
determined for the various shape groups show a range (Table 1) from 2 402 to
2:455, excluding the hollow forms which have an average specific gravity of 2-060.

The differences in the average S.G, point to compositional variations among
the various shape groups, and since the S.G, of tektite glass varies sympathetically
with SiO, content, the flanged ovals are evidently the more siliceous s ape types
among the groups of australites from Мија, These are followed by small oval
cores, larger oval cores, aberrant ‘nut-like’ forms, canoes, teardrops, boats with
rims and/or flange remnants, button cores and ‘lenses’, larger ovals, boat-shaped

—————— ———

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA

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I aTav]L

68 GEORGE BAKER

cores, dumbbells, ‘peanuts’ and ‘ladle-like’ forms, aberrant ‘pod-like’ form, core
fragments, round cores, buttons, and finally the conical cores, in that order
(aboriginal flakes omitted because from various shape groups).

From the silica—S.G, curve for tektites (Baker 1959a, р, 56), the small ovals,
with the lowest average specific gravity, have a silica content of approximately 75
per cent, while the conical cores, with the highest specific gravity, have a silica
content of approximately 71 per cent, The round (in plan aspect) and elongated
forms of Mulka australites reveal differences in average weights, average S.G.
values, and in the proportions of these two major shape groups. These relationships
are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2

Comparison of proportions, average weights, and average S.G. values of round and elongated
australites from Mulka

Per cent ,
Number of (based on three | Average weight Average S.G.
specimens collections ) | 5
Round forms 107 (а) 39 3.528 2:434
Elongated forms 1680) 61 4-500 2:427

(n) 14 Mitchell coll., 17 Croll coll., 76 Melbourne University coll,
(b) 46 Mitchell coll., 34 Croll coll., 88 Melbourne University coll.

The round forms, having a lower average weight (Table 2), have the slightly
higher average S.G. value for the Mulka australite concentration centre (excluding
the obviously hollow specimens of specific gravity less than 2:350). In terms of
silica content, the difference between the two average S.G. values indicates that the
clongated forms are approximately 1 per cent richer in silica than the round forms.

Another feature of note is the dominance of elongate forms relative to round
forms (Table 2). The reverse has been noted for 571 well-preserved specimens
from Port Campbell (Baker 1955b), where 71 per cent of the australites are round
forms, and 29 per cent are elongated forms. There are thus 1:6 times as many
elongated as round forms at Mulka, and 2-4 times as many round forms as clong-
ated forms at Port Campbell. This is regarded as a fundamental difference between
these two australite concentration centres, and is not to be interpreted in terms of
жане errors’ (ће, involving differential collecting) or іп terms of difference in
degree of erosion (which is principally desert erosion at Mulka, and temperate zone
erosion at Port Campbell). Different proportions of round and elongate australites
оссиг within these two widely separated concentration centres, because different
proportions were precipitated from the one australite shower at the time of infall.
The shape populations have not been affected by the activities of aboriginal man.

Whereas only 13 per cent of the Mulka australites reveal flange remnants, 63
per cent of the australites collected by the author from the Port Campbell district
are flanged. Furthermore, flanged specimens usually possess a greater volume of
preserved flange glass at Port Campbell compared with Mulka. In terms of numbers
only, the fact that there are nearly five times as many flanged specimens recovered
from Port Campbell is a true reflection of the less severe erosion of tektite glass
there, for it is doubtful that detached flange fragments (Pl. 11, fig. 11) were largely
overlooked by collectors in the Mulka concentration centre, The actual volume of
flange glass preserved in the Port Campbell concentration centre is more nearly 20
or 30 times as great as that at Mulka,

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA 69

Distribution of S.G. values

The frequency distribution of 271 of the 275 S.G. determinations made of the
Mulka australites is shown in Fig. 1, where the mode of distribution is 2:44. Four
values for hollow forms, ranging from 1:509 to 2:286, are not plotted. The
arithmetic mean is 2: 433, but the bias in distribution is towards the higher S.G.
values, as evidenced from Fig. 1, where 162 values are 2:43 and over, and 109
values are under 2:43.

деуін
er ава
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NUMBERS
N
ы

|
|

N
کے‎

2392 2:38 2:44 2:50

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Fic. 1—Frequency polygon showing distribution of S.G. values for 271 australites
from Mulka,
The S.G. values for specimens in the Mitchell coll. are represented by the stippled
area, those in the Croll coll. by solid black, and those in the Melbourne University
coll. by diagonal lines.

The average S.G. of approximately 1,125 g of australite tektite glass from
Mulka, represented by 271 specimens (four hollow forms excluded), is approxi-

70 GEORGE BAKER

mately 2:44. By way of contrast, the average S.G. is 2:397 for a total of nearly
800 g of australite glass represented by 555 specimens from Port Campbell (Baker
and Forster 1943). The difference of about 0:04 between these two averages is
quite significant in terms of variation in chemical composition, inasmuch as the
effects of internal cavities in each separate australite population has been mini-
mized, as far as practicable, by not utilizing individual S.G. values under 2:350 in
calculating the averages.

From the S.G.—silica curve for tektites (Baker 1959a, p. 56), the difference
in the average S.G. values is found to represent nearly 4 per cent less SiO; in
Mulka, compared with Port Campbell tektite glass. Inasmuch as (a) secondarily
formed flange glass is more dominantly preserved in the Port Campbell region, and
(b) flange glass generally has a lower average specific gravity value than core glass
in australites, thus being more siliceous, this may partially explain the overall lower
S.G. values at Port Campbell relative to Mulka (800 miles NNW.). Apart from
this, there is a distinct difference in chemical composition between the two concen-
tration centres, as evidenced by 126 core specimens from Port Campbell having a
lower average S.G. value (2:408) than 156 core specimens from Mulka (average
S.G. — 2:429).

Hollow forms

S.G. determinations have revealed that five of the 275 weighed australites from
Mulka possess internal cavities that are not connected to the external surfaces by
narrow channelways or fine capillaries. All are differently shaped forms in which
the internal cavities are sufficiently large to significantly lower the S.G. value of
each well below the average (2:44) for australite glass from Mulka, as shown in
Table 3, where the specimens are listed according to an order of increasing S.G.

TABLE 3

Hollow australite shape types from Mulka having S.G. values significantly lower than the
average of 2:44 for the tektite glass.

Shape type S.G. value Weight in g
1. Ball-like (button) form* 1-509 3.564
2. Lenticular form (button core) * 1-900 2-090
3. Teardropt 2-259 3.134
4. Oval core* 2.286 2.204
5. Oval* 2:347 5.811
AVERAGE 2.060 3.361

* Melbourne University coll.
+ Mitchell coll.

The total weight of these five specimens is 16:803 g.

Variability in S.G. of the five hollow forms (Table 3) can be detected in some
of the specimens as due to enclosed cavities of various sizes. This is determined by
holding such specimens up to a strong source of illumination, when the trans-
lucency of the australite glass in thicker parts away from the edges of the speci-
mens, reveals the presence of a sizable internal cavity in each form. The specimens
with the higher S.G. values of 2:286 and 2:347 respectively (Table 3) did not
reveal the property of translucency in the thicker parts of the specimens, hence
(a) the internal cavity is much smaller than in the forms with lower S.G., or (b)
the absence of detectable translucency, taken in conjunction with the relatively low

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA 71

S.G., indicates the presence of a number of smaller cavities scattered through the
interior of the glass.

A unique specimen is the hollow ball-like form (No. 1 in Table 3), which has
the largest internal cavity of all these hollow specimens. It shows remnants of a
circumferential flange structure, and evidently represents a worn, distended austra-
lite button. Its external dimensions are 19 mm by 14 mm, and when held to a
strong light source, the internal cavity can be approximately estimated as just under
14 mm in diameter, so that parts of the walls must be relatively thin. The speci-
men is lodged in the Melbourne University coll. (2685). It was purchased from
Mr G. Aiston (who collected it), and later presented to Mr G. A. Ampt by
Mr R. H. Croll with a view to having the pressure and composition of the gas in
the internal cavity determined. This was not accomplished, and the specimen was
ultimately lodged by Mr Ampt in the Melbourne University coll. in March 1934.
This hollow form is only one third the size of the sliced, perfectly developed hollow
australite from Horsham, Vict. (Baker 1961c). In external appearance it resembles
the solid ball-like form shown in Pl. 12, figs. 7a, b, but is 2:5 mm larger.

S.G. determinations of some of the 264 Mulka specimens obtained from Mr
Aiston by the National Museum of Victoria were made by Dr Dean R. Chapman
and Mr Howard K. Larson of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion during their visit to Melbourne in December 1962. This revealed that two
specimens were hollow, one a worn oval form, and the other a worn cylindrical
form with tapered ends. On holding these specimens to a strong source of light,
one of them revealed distinct, the other faint translucency. The oval form, meas-
uring 16:1 mm long, 15:0 mm wide and 11:2 mm thick, and weighing 2:262 g, has
a S.G. of 2-072. The cylindrical form, measuring 19:4 mm long, 10:8 mm wide
and 10-0 mm thick, and weighing 2-433 g, has a S.G. of 2:255. Taken in conjunc-
tion with the five hollow forms listed in Table 3, the average S.G. for the seven
hollow forms is 2-090 and the average weight is 3:071 g. The internal cavity in the
oval form is 4 to 5 mm across and situated nearer the posterior surface. The smaller
internal cavity in the cylindrical form is very close to the posterior surface.

Relationships of the Mulka concentration centre

The average S.G. of the Mulka australites fits satisfactorily into the scheme of
provincial distribution of australites according to chemical composition as reflected
by the trend of increasing average S.G. from SE. to NW. across the strewnfield
(Summers 1909, Baker and Forster 1943). This trend is shown in Table 4 and
plotted in Fig. 2, where it is seen that Mulka occupies an approximately central
position relative to (a) spatial occurrence, and (b) the average S.G. range. Centres
of concentration from which statistically significant numbers of S.G. determina-
tions have been made, and the regions in which they occur, are listed in Table 4
in order of increasing S.G. The total approximate weight of the specimens listed in
Table 4 is 7,000 g. |

A further 185 S.G. values are available in addition to those in Table 4, but
they are from approximately 40 widely scattered localities each with one to nine
determinations. These have not been considered in Fig. 2, and are not included in
Table 4. Only centres with over 20 determinations are included, except for Bal-
moral and Peake Station (Table 4), which are relatively near to other concentra-
tion centres. . :

Since the publication 20 years ago of considerable numbers of australite S.G.
determinations, scattered parts in the Australian strewnfield (Baker and Forster

GEORGE BAKER
TABLE 4

Cross-continent trends of australite S.G., based on average values for statistically significant
populations occurring in nine major regions

Number of
S.G

| Average S.G.

Rexicb Combined concentration G.
ы centres determinations
A. | S.coast of W. Victoria | Port Campbell 573 | 2-402
Nirranda 366 j 939
Bc. ш Central part of W. Harrow
Victoria Telangatuk E.—Kanagulk— | 35
Toolondo 48
| Nurrabiel 34 163 2:411
Balmoral 4
Caramut—Kaniva—Mt. 1
William—and other У. 34
m Victoria specimens
C. E. part of S. Australia Oakvale | 24 2-417
D. Lake Eyre, NE. part Мишка 271
of S. Australia William Creek 96 379 2-430
| Peake Station 12
E. SW. part of S. | Ooldea 28 2-434
Australia |
Е. 5. раг! ofN. Territory | Charlotte Waters 29 2-439
G. SE, part of №. | Transcontinental 24 2-441
Australia | Railway Line
H. S. -Central part ofW. | Coolgardie—Bulong— 52 2-443
Australia Kalgoorlie—Norseman
E E -Central part of W. "Wingellina 135 2-460
Australia
TOTAL Grand
Г = 1,773 Average
determina- = 2-416
tions of
specimens

1943), many additional determinations have been made. In Table 4, 862 such are

included, viz:

(a) those from Nirranda (Baker 1956), Harrow (Baker 1955a), Nurrabiel
(Baker 1967), and Wingellina (Baker 1961b)

(b) most of those from Telangatuk E.—Kanagulk—Toolondo (Baker 1959b)

(с) a further 111 from Mulka

(а) several additional values for Port Campbell (Baker 1944, 1946, 1961а,
1962).

The additional values substantiate the trends established from the earlier S.G.
values (Summers 1909, Baker and Forster 1943). There are other concentration
centres of australites in the Australian strewnfield, but statistically significant num-

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA 73

bers of S.G. determinations have yet to be made. The positions of the major regions

and the average S.G. values for the concentration centres within those regions are
shown in Fig. 2.

Са ат N.S. M. ў

south
AVERAGE SPECIFIC
2-417 GRAVITIES FOR KNOWN
С) REGIONS WITH AUSTRALITE
2 CONCENTRATION CENTRES

Біс. 2—Sketch map of Australia showing increase from SE. to NW. of average
australite S.G. values in the concentration centres of nine widely separated regions.

Port Campbell—Nirranda region 939.

Horsham—Nurrabiel—Harrow—Telangatuk E.—Kanagulk—Toolondo—Balmor-
al—Caramut—Kaniva—Mt. William region 163.

Oakvale Station region 24.

Mulka—William Creek—Peake Station region 379.
Ooldea region 28.

Charlotte Waters region 29.

Transcontinental Line region 24.
Coolgardie—Bulong—Kalgoorlie—Norseman region 52.
Wingellina region 135.

"Horton wp

74 GEORGE BAKER

The difference between the end members of these statistically significant average
S.G. values points to a difference of some 5 to 6 per cent of SiO, in the average
silica contents as deduced from the S.G. values. Differences in the silica contents
of analyzed australites range up to approximately 11 per cent, but these are single
determinations only, some of which were made about 100 years ago.

It should be noted that the known australite strewnfield extends for a further
400 miles to the SE. and a further 700 miles to the NW. The distance included
between the end members of the regions shown in Fig. 2, i.e. from Port Campbell-
Nirranda region in the SE., to the Wingellina region in the NW., is approximately
1,250 miles. The full range of silica variation is unlikely to be represented by the
limits shown in Fig. 2. It is not yet known how much further the strewnfield extends
into the Tasman Sea and Indian Ocean, so the range in silica content of end-
member australites may be significantly greater than is indicated by the presently
determined average S.G. values.

The distinct trend of decrease in silica content to the NW. across the continent
is not consonant with the random variability in the composition of surficial geologi-
cal formations. So marked a chemical distribution is not explicable in terms of the
fusion of terrestrial substances. No known terrestrial process could produce such a
chemical gradient. Resort is therefore made to an extraterrestrial means of distribu-
tion as adequate for producing a chemical gradient in australites across 2,500
miles of the continent. Such a gradient also calls for only one shower of australites
(Baker and Forster 1943), and the fact that some specimens "look older' than
others is purely an expression of different degrees of erosion.

Special forms

Although the Mulka australites, because of their setting in an arid milieu, are
relatively worn compared with specimens recovered from the more temperate
regions of the strewnfield, they are in a better state of preservation than many
specimens from other arid regions such as Wingellina, W.A. (Baker 1961b),
Norseman, Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie and Bulong, W.A. Among them are two types
of which sufficient shape and structure remain to indicate rather unusual shapes
hitherto not figured in the literature. The posterior surface and side aspect of a
canoe-shaped form is shown in Pl. 14, figs. 20a, b, and an enlarged silhouette trac-
ing of the plan aspect and end-elevation are shown in Fig. 3, nos. 1, 2.

The posterior and anterior surfaces of a ridged 'nut-like' aberrant type are
illustrated by two specimens shown in Pl. 15, figs. Па, b, and 12a, b, while en-
larged silhouette tracings of the end-elevations are shown in Fig. 3, nos. 3, 5, and
the side-elevation of the smaller of the two specimens is shown in Fig. 3, no. 4.
Two other rather more worn specimens allied to the distinctly ridged 'nut-like'
forms are shown in Pl. 15, figs. 13a, b and 14a, b, but the ridges are practically
all removed by weathering.

The worn canoe-shaped australite (Pl. 14, figs. 20a, b and Fig. 3, nos. 1, 2)
is unusual in that it provides evidence of a type resembling Fenner's (1934 fig. 2)
postulated primary form with two constrictions separating tear-shaped extremities
from a larger elongated central core. All other known canoe-shaped australites
reveal tapering ends (in plan) that are curved backwards (in side-elevation). This
australite is the only known specimen in which the extremities spread out again
beyond the two waist-like constrictions. The extremities also recurve backwards
towards the posterior surface of the specimen (Pl. 14, fig. 20b), and reveal some
thickening of the worn, broken ends. The radii of curvature of the posterior (Ry)

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA 75

=
!Omm. Готт,

je ea Ши"
ІОтт.

Fic. 3—Outline shapes of canoe-shaped and ‘nut-like’ australites from Mulka traced
from enlarged silhouettes. P = posterior surface. A = anterior surface,

1. Plan aspect of canoe-shaped form showing a constricted ‘waist’? near each ex-
tremity (Pl. 14, fig. 20a).

2. End-elevation of canoe-shaped form depicted in no. 1 (above), showing lenticular
outline comparable to a section taken normal to the long axis through its thickest
portion.

3. End-elevation of ‘nut-like’ australite showing cross-sectional aspect of the longi-
tudinal flow ridges revealed in Pl. 15, fig. 11b. The side-elevation silhouette reveals
a small incipient flange-like process on one edge, just discernible on the posterior
surface, near the top pointed extremity in Pl. 15, fig. 11a.

4. Side-elevation of smaller ‘nut-like’ form shown in Pl. 15, figs. 12a, b.

5. End-elevation of smaller ‘nut-like’ australite depicted in no. 4 (above), showing
fewer flow ridge crests than the larger form in Fig. 3, no. 3.

and anterior (Rz) surfaces of this form are numerically equal, and the two arcs of
curvature intersect in such a manner that the short cross section through the speci-
men is that of a bilaterally symmetrical lens (Fig. 3, no. 2).

Unless rounded by erosion, as in some specimens (e.g. Pl. 15, figs. 13, 14), the
‘nut-like’ type of australite has tapered ends and shows distinct longitudinal flow
ridges that converge towards the pointed extremities (Pl. 15, fig. 11b). The speci-
men is evidently an entity in itself, and not a result of a peculiar type of fracturing.
Comparable longitudinal flow ridges are infrequently revealed on more elongated
australites like the ‘pod-shaped’ aberrant form illustrated in Pl. 14, figs. 19a, b. It
seems possible that the ‘nut-like’ forms may have had a shape parentage linked
with that of the ‘pod-like’ forms with tapered ends, and a similar secondary, but
independent, atmospheric flight-shaping history. | |

The secondary shaping effects of such types, and their behaviour on aero-
dynamic heat treatment during ultrasupersonic transit through the earth’s atmos-
phere, are debatable. Close examination of the better preserved specimens (Pl. 15,
figs. 11a, b), reveals the possibility that the more extensive, slightly convex surface
free from longitudinal flow ridges (Pl. 15, fig. 11a) and surface marked P in Fig.
3, no. 3, is most likely the posterior surface. The posterior surfaces of australites
remained directed back along the flight path during aerodynamically stable orienta-
tion whilst high speeds of entry prevailed. For longitudinal flow ridges (of ‚the pat-
tern shown) to be developed from thin films of secondary melt glass (periodically

76 GEORGE BAKER

produced by aerodynamical heating), it appears that the specimen would have to
possess a rocking motion through the earth’s atmosphere with the axis of sway
passing through the pointed ends. This would be a rare and most unusual type of
motion (Baker 1958).

The distribution of the longitudinal flow ridges over the anterior surfaces of the
ridged ‘nut-like’ australites is shown by the sectional aspects through their crests in
Fig. 3, nos. 3, 5. The sharpness of the crests of the ridges is over-emphasized in
Fig. 3 for the purposes of illustration, and it is possible that in Fig. 3, no. 5, the
specimen should have been rotated to make one surface (designated A) the pos-
terior surface, and the other (designated P) the anterior surface. This specimen
did not possess a sculpture pattern that would ordinarily provide evidence diag-
nostic of the posterior surface. The larger form shown in Fig. 3, no. 3 reveals the
presence of an odd number (11) of longitudinal flow ridges, whilst the smaller
form represented in Fig. 3, no. 5 shows an even number (10). The intervening
flow troughs are slightly variable in width on the same specimen, but are rather
more symmetrically disposed on the smaller one. Only half the number of flow
ridges show up in the silhouette representing the side-elevation (Fig. 3, no. 4) of
the smaller *nut-like' form, and the position and distribution of the ridges in the
flow pattern are not as clearly displayed. The ridges are undoubtedly remnants of
a pre-existing flow pattern, and not peculiarities of terrestrial fracturing and erosion.
Weathering removes them in course of time, as evidenced by the remnant 'stumps'
of two longitudinal flow ridges still extant on the specimen depicted in Pl. 15, fig.
14b, and their complete erasure from another much worn ‘nut-like’ form shown
in PI. 15, fig. 13b. An indication that these ‘nut-like’ forms developed circumferen-
tial flanges, is provided by the small remnant of a flange structure on one of the
specimens (Pl. 15, fig. 11a, top of photograph).

Normal forms

All of the other 270 australites from Mulka listed in Table 1 have the typical
shapes characteristic of Australian tektites, but they are variously chipped, flaked,
etched and worn. Features of interest are included in the descriptions of Pl. 11-15.
Certain grooves and markings on some of the specimens (e.g. Pl. 11, figs. 12, 18;
Pl. 13, figs. 3-4, 8, 11-12) are due to differential solution-etching effects (Baker
1961d), and are not the work of aborigines as sometimes suggested. Specimens
poe ri flaked and probably used as stone implements are illustrated in Pl. 15,

gs. 17-21.

Variations in the sizes of the gibbosities and in the thicknesses of the waist
regions of the dumbbell-shaped forms are evident in Pl. 14, figs. 1-18. Among the
group of dumbbell-shaped forms, the aberrant ‘peanut-like’ forms were evidently
subjected to considerably less ablation during high speed aerodynamic entry, for
their end-elevations are approximately circular in outline, and their plan aspects
and side-elevations are very similar. However, they have been worn smooth (Pl.
14, figs. 15a, b) by subaerial agencies.

Variations in the size and shape of the gibbosity in the teardrop-shaped forms,
and variations in the degree of attenuation, amount of recurvature, and amount of
tail-portion preserved after erosion, are shown in Pl. 15, figs. 1-10. Surface bubble
craters are exposed in the tail regions of the posterior surfaces of two of the tear-
drop-shaped specimens (Pl. 15, figs. 8a, 10a).

The best preserved specimen, a complete flanged button illustrated in Pl. iT;
figs. 1a, b, reveals so much better shape and structural characteristics compared

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA 77

with the rest of the specimens from Mulka, that it is likely to have come from a
more temperate zone where the state of preservation is usually much better. It is
in the collection of the late Mr S. R. Mitchell who acquired the 60 Mulka austra-
lites from Mr George Aiston 33 years ago. Mr Mitchell agreed that this specimen
could be an extra-Mulka specimen that had become accidentally incorporated, but
he was unable to suggest its origin. This complete flanged button, with excellently
preserved sculpture patterns and well-developed secondary shape, is retained
among the illustrations herein, in order to provide a contrast with the poorly
preserved to severely weathered australites (Pls. 11 to 15) definitely known to
have come from the Mulka district. The specimen measures 23:5 mm in diameter,
9:8 mm in thickness, and the width of its complete circumferential flange is 4 mm.
It weighs 5:639 g, and has а S.G. value of 2:437 (T H,O = 21:4°C.). The radius
of curvature of the posterior surface (R5) is 12:71 mm, and of the anterior surface
(Ер) 13:28 mm. The original spherical (or near-spherical) form measuring 25:4
mm in diameter was ablated for a depth of 15:6 mm. This means that the original
front polar regions of the primary spherical form migrated under aerodynamical
heating to beyond the position of the original centre of the primary form before
the process of ablation was arrested.

Silhouette tracings were made of all specimens in the Mitchell collection, and
of some іп the Croll collection. Radii of curvature of the posterior (Ry) and
anterior (Rr) surfaces were determined graphically from these silhouettes (Baker
1955b) for several of the flanged buttons and button cores in these two collections.
The details of these determinations are not presented because of the advanced state
of weathering of the specimens. The results from the measurement of such worn
specimens yield values over the true radius of curvature of the original posterior
surface (Ry), so that the diameters of the original spherical forms, and the depths
of aerodynamic ablation in the stagnation point regions, give greater values than
for well preserved forms of comparable size (Table 5).

Some of the characteristics of the flanged buttons from Mulka are compared
in Table 5 with those of the much better preserved specimens from Port Campbell
(Baker 1962a).

TABLE 5
Comparison of some characteristics of flanged buttons from Mulka and Port Campbell

Mulka | Port Campbell

Number of flanged australite buttons 10* 23
Average weight 3.614 g 5.297 g
Average S.G. | 2.449 | 2-402
Average diameter | 20.7 пип | 22:5 mm
Average depth (= thickness) 9.3 mm | 10-5 тт
Average width of flange 2-5 mm 3.5 mm
Average Кв 10:30 mm | 10:10 mm

(range = 8-0

to 12-7 mm) лб

R 11-00 mm | -10 mm

Average Rr oe Dre

to 11-7 mm) |
Average diameter of primary form 20:6 mm | 20.1 mm
Average depth of ablation 11:2 mm 9.5 mm

(range — 5:5

to 16-5 mm)

* 7 from Mitchell coll., 3 from Croll coll,

78 GEORGE BAKER

In Table 5, the lower values for the averages of the weight, diameter, depth,
flange width, and К» of the Mulka australites are largely a result of the AE iY
and eroded character of the specimens. Weathering effects have increased the calcu-
lated average values for Ry, and hence also the values for the diameter of the
primary spherical form, and the depth of ablation. Because the Mulka specimens
are so worn, further calculations such as the average volume loss by ablation and
the average volume of the circumferential flange were not carried out. The values
of these average volumes for the 23 excellently preserved Port Campbell flanged
australite buttons are 44:9 per cent average volume loss by ablation of the primary
form, and 15:3 per cent average volume of the circumferential flange (Baker
1962a).

The higher average S.G. value for the flanged buttons from Mulka is signifi-
cantly so much greater that the increase cannot be attributed in toto to the larger
volume and the better state of preservation of the Port Campbell specimens.

References

BAKER, G., 1944. Flanges of australites. Mem. natn. Mus. Vict. 14 (1): 7-22.
› 1946. Some unusual shapes and features of australites (tektites). Mem. natn. Mus.
Vict. 14 (2): 47-51.
— — ——, 1955a. Australites from Harrow, Victoria. Min. Маг. 30: 596-603.
, 1955b. Curvature-size relationships of Port Campbell australites, Victoria. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict. 67: 165-219.
‚ 1956. Nirranda strewnfield australites, southeast of Warrnambool, Western Vic-
toria. Mem. natn. Mus. Vict. 20: 59-172.
, 1958. The róle of aerodynamical phenomena in shaping and sculpturing Australian
tektites. Ат. J. Sci. 256: 369-383,
------, 1959a. Tektites. Mem. natn. Mus. Vict. 23: 5-313.
‚ 1959b. Australites from Kanagulk, Telangatuk East and Toolondo, Western Vic-
toria. Mem. natn. Mus. Vict. 24: 69-89,
, 1961a. A complete oval australite. Proc. Roy Soc. Vict. 74: 47-54.
------, 1961b. Australite von Wingellina, West-Australien. Chemie Erde. 21: 118-130.
—— — , 1961c. A perfectly developed hollow australite. Amer. J. Sci. 259: 791-800.

">= de Einige Erscheinungen des Atzverhaltens der Australite, Chemie Erde. 21:
‚ 1962a. Volumen beziehungen von wohlerhaltenen Australit-Knöpfen, -Linsen und
-Kernen zu ihren primären formen. Chemie Erde. 21: 269-320.
, 1962b. The present state of knowledge of the 'age-on-earth' and the 'age-of-forma-
tion' of australites. Ga Miner Newsl. 15: 62-83.
T 1967. Australites from Nurrabiel, Western Victoria. Mem. natn. Mus. Vict. 26: 47-
, and Forster, H. C., 1943. The specific gravity relationships of australites. Ат. J.
Sci. 241: 377-406.
FENNER, C., 1934. Australites Part I. Classification of the W. H. C. Shaw collection. Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 58: 62-79.
› 1935. Australites Part II. Numbers, forms, distribution and origin. Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust. 59: 125-140.
Summers, Н. 5., 1909. Obsidianites. Their origin from a chemical standpoint. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Vict. 21: 423-443.

Explanation of Plates
PLATE 11
Mulka Australites
In all plates a — posterior surfaces, b — anterior surfaces (x 0.87).

1. Relatively well-preserved australite button showing circumferential flange and flow-
lined posterior surface (1a), and anterior surface (1b) with concentric flow ridges.
2-10. Worn australite buttons with chipped flanges and solution-etched surfaces. 8a shows a
worn bubble crater.

AUSTRALITES FROM MULKA 79

Worn flange fragment.
Severely worn cores of australite buttons, some with minute remnants of flanges. 12

PLATE 12

11b, is an oblique side view, and 14b, 18b, 19b, 20a are side views (x 0.87).

1-7.

8-15.

(1, 3-4,

Worn ovals with flanges all removed by erosion. 1b shows a chipped anterior surface,
7 is a slightly oval ball-like form, 5a shows V-shaped (in sectional aspect) solution-
etch grooves. The small bubble crater in 3a is 1-1 mm deep, 4b shows the remnants
of a broken hollow form (top edge), the walls of which are much dulled and worn.
Worn round cores. Schlieren (ie. flow streaks) on 8a and 10a are in the form of
flow swirls, 9 is the “indicator” type showing still attached remnants of the outer edge
of the form, 11 is abraded and pitted.

Worn oval cores. 18a shows a worn bubble crater, 18b shows the worn nature of the
flaked equatorial zone.

Worn conical cores.

Worn, irregular fragments of cores.

12-15, 17, 21 Croll collection; 5, 6, 8-11, 16, 18-20, 22, 23 Mitchell collection).

PLATE 13

“Worn boat-shaped forms and boat cores, No. 1а shows remnants of the circumferential

flange along the parallel longer sides of a broader form, 3-4 show deep solution
grooves, 6 shows a fractured edge (left-hand side), 8a has a large, shallow crater 0-8
mm deep, 12a shows a cluster of short solution grooves, and 13-15 are smoothed by
wear.

7, 10-15 Mitchell collection; 2, 5-6, 8-9 Croll collection.)

PLATE 14

20b is a side view (x 0.87).

1-18.

19.
20-22.

Worn dumbbell-shaped forms. 4 shows a slender waist, 5, 9, 14 show thick waists.
15-16 are ‘peanut-like’ forms, with rounded extremities in 15 and pointed extremities
in the rather less weathered specimen 16. 17-18 are ‘ladle-like’ forms with gibbosities
of different size at opposed extremities on each specimen. A flange remnant is visible
along one side (right-hand side) in la, and is the same width in the waist region as
around the gibbosities. 8 shows broader gibbosities relative to the width of the waist
region, compared with other dumbbell-shaped forms. 13b shows flaked ends.

Worn aberrant form, cylindrical, ‘pod-like’ with tapered ends and indistinct longi-
tudinal ridges on all surfaces. б

Worn canoe-shaped forms. 20 shows ‘splayed-out’ extremities and flow streaks
(brought out by natural solution-etching) trending parallel with the outline of the

form.
(1-4, 9-16, 18, 20-22 Mitchell collection; 5-8, 17, 19 Croll collection.)

PLATE 15

5-6 are reversed, 17-21 are mainly fracture surfaces (x 0.87).

1-10.

11-14.

15-16.
17-21.

Worn tear-drop-shaped forms. 1 has the low S.G. of 2:259, 6 is smoothed by abrasion,
8, 10 show bubble craters 1:4 and 1-6 mm deep respectively, 10a reveals portion of a
flaked equatorial zone. J th f
Worn ‘nut-like’ forms. 11 shows pointed extremities and has longitudinal flow ridges
relatively well-preserved, 12-14 show indistinct longitudinal flow ridges. These forms
are approximately circular in end-elevation. 13, 14 are much more worn than 11, 12.
Worn, nondescript fragments. A. ү"

Aboriginal flakes showing fresher fracture surfaces of artificial origin, and remnants
of the worn outside surfaces. The conchoidal and subsidiary ripple fracture patterns
of the glass are shown by several photographs. 19 is flaked from a round or slightly
oval australite, 18, 20-21 are from distinctly oval- or boat-shaped forms.

(1-6, 11-12, 17 Mitchell collection; 7-10, 13-16, 18-21 Croll collection.)

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МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 11

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23b
| 22b
© 25b 26a 26b 27a 27b
28a 28b 29a 3Oa 30b

МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 12

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: 3a 3b
a Ib 20 2b 40 4b

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MEM, NAT. MUS.

VICT, 29 PLATE

I2b

МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 14

МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 15

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и I5b ба 16b

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RADIOCARBON DATE FOR ABORIGINAL REMAINS АТ MAROONA,
VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

By EDMUND D. GILL

Assistant Director

Abstract

_ The organic fraction of aboriginal skeletal fragments from Maroona, Victoria, gave a
radiocarbon age in 8th cent. AD.

Introduction

A radiocarbon date of 1190 + 90 years B.P. (GaK-1059) has been obtained
for aboriginal skeletal fragments from Maroona, 9 miles $. of Ararat, Victoria.
The site is a sand and gravel quarry operated by the Shire of Ararat, and is in the
Parish of Kiora (No section, C.A. 15A). It is reached by travelling 9 miles S. from
Ararat to Maroona, then about 1 mile W. to the property owned by Gleeson
Brothers. The quarry is on the S. side of the road opposite Mr R. Gellie’s home-
stead. This area has been geologically mapped by the Mines Department of Vic-
toria as can be seen in their map of the Langi Logan Lead System (Hunter 1909).
The sand pit is on the left bank of a creek which flows into the Hopkins River.
The quarry reveals horizontally bedded sand and gravel which is very poorly sorted
and with current bedding. Most of the rock is rather angular granitic detritus. There
are also some pebbles of milky quartz up to two inches in diameter, some buckshot
gravel, a few pieces of non-magnetic iron oxide, and a few pieces of mica schist;
one piece of granite was seen. Thus the sand and gravel came mostly from the
granites to the north, with minor contributions from bedrock and basalt. Where
tested with acid, no sign of carbonates was found. The coarseness of the sediments
and the current bedding show that the deposits were laid down by rapidly moving
waters, and probably do not represent a very long period of sedimentation.

An imperfect but fairly well preserved calvaria (Maroona 1) was brought to
the National Museum by Mrs Margaret Smith for her father Mr T. N. Muntz,
engineer to the Shire of Ararat. A site was indicated by the Shire engineers in the
SE. corner of the quarry where the imperfect cranium was found at a depth ‘be-
tween four and five feet’ by the bulldozer excavating sand and gravel. On the NW.
side of the pit another locality was shown where, at a depth ‘between six and seven
feet’, the bulldozer removed a skeleton. Fragments of this skeleton were collected
by me and used for the radiocarbon dating. It was not possible to determine
whether the remains had been stratified or had reached their position by some other
means. Mr Muntz kindly donated all the specimens found to the National Museum.
Their preservation is similar.

Stratigraphy
The fluviatile sediments in which the quarry is excavated present the following
succession:
0-3 in. Light brownish grey top soil (10 YR 6/2).
3-21 in. Light reddish-brown sandy gravel ((5 YR 6/4).
81

2 EDMUND D, GILL

21-70 in, Yellow (10 YR. 7/6) sandy gravel, not strongly compacted,
70-76 in, ' Strong brown very compact (over 1 ton per а t) sand of variable
colour, but chiefly 7.5 YR 5/6, with some off-white patches,

The colour references are to the Munsell Chart.

Alter investigating the site, 1 believe that all that can be said with certainty is
that these skeletal remains came from the five feet of yellow sandy gravel from 21
in, to 70 in, from surface in the quarry described, As the radiocarbon dating was
carried out on the organic fraction ol these bones. (not on the carbonate), the
result may be considered reliable, The date is on the bones of Maroona II,

Anatomy

Professor L, J, Ray of the Department of Anatomy, University of Melbourne,
kindly examined the bones, These have been determined as follows:

Maroona I, Calvaria with heavy supraorbital ridges (М.М.М. X72,227). The
facial bones and the mandible are absent, although some of the
fragments collected could belong to this specimen. The post-cranial
bones include a hip bone which is male, The age of the individual is
estimated to have been 45 + 5 years (РІ. 16, fig. 2).

Maroona П. Calotte, probably of a female, whose age is estimated to have been
55 years or more (N.M.V, X72,236),

Maroona IH, A right third molar tooth showing relatively light attrition was
found, The wear is so light, especially for an aborigine, that it is
усве to belong to а person much younger than Maroona I or II,
lowever, the tooth is much more worn on the left side and so with-
out the upper jaw to show the position of wear, one cannot be cer-
tain, but this tooth may represent a third individual,

Dating

When examining a range of aboriginal skeletal material in the National
Museum, I was struck by the fact that, according to the labels, two mutually
exclusive periods of time are represented, viz. (1) fossils many thousands of years
old, and (2) recent burials, Belleving that bones of the intervening period must be
available, it was decided to date by radiocarbon a few skeletons in order to discover
if this were so, The first test was on the Mitiamo Skeleton from М. Victoria (GaK-
703) which gave a date of approximately 5540 years (Gill 1967), The second
test was made on bone fragments from Maroona which gave an age of about 1190
years, These assays indicate that the aboriginal bones which formerly were regarded
as recent burials may well cover a considerable period of time, Aboriginal bones
from Keera Station west of Mildura that once would have been regarded as ‘recent
burials’ have given radiocarbon ages of 4170-5900 y, В.Р, Examination of ‘recent’
bones shows a range in preservation which is greater than would be expected simply
by reason of the fact that the bones have been buried under different climatic
conditions and in different substrates,

Mortar

The bulldozer excavated a large basalt mortar (Reg, No, X72, 228) from near
Maroona Il, This is a good example of this type of artifact, and has two deep
depressions, one on each of two ee sides of the piece of basalt, As the mortar
was found in association with the dated skeleton, it may well be of approximately the

ABORIGINAL REMAINS AT MAROONA 83

same age. Basalt is available in the nearby countryside, so the piece of rock need
not have been brought very far. It measures approximately 53" X 7" X 44”, and
weighs 12 Ibs 6oz. (Pl. 16, fig. 1).

Conclusions

About 1200 years ago an adult aboriginal, probably a woman, lived in the
Maroona district of Victoria. Part of the territory of these people was the flood
plain of the stream which flows into the Hopkins River, a good place for food
gathering. The only direct cultural evidence is the double mortar which was found
associated with the dated skeleton. Judging by the deep depressions in this piece of
basalt, the stone had been in use for a long time, presumably for milling grass
seeds and pounding roots. Search failed to reveal any other evidences of aboriginal
occupation.

References
GiLL, E. D., 1967. Australian aborigine 5540 years old from Mitiamo, Victoria, Australia.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 80: 289-293.
HUNTER, S., 1909. The deep leads of Victoria. Mem. Geol. Surv. Vict. 7.
Explanation of Plate
PLATE 16
Basalt mortar and aboriginal calvaria from Maroona, Victoria.

МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 16

CATALOGUE OF BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES IN
THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

By R. L. JENsz
Honorary Associate in Invertebrates
and B. J. SMITH
Curator of Invertebrates

Abstract

W. Baldwin Spencer described 96 new species, one subspecies and two varieties of earth-
worms between 1892 and 1900. His earthworm collection was donated to the National
Museum of Victoria in 1916. The species are catalogued with the number and condition of
the type specimens, the locality, reference, previously unpublished Spencer serial numbers
and habitat data. Lectotypes for 45 species are designated.

Introduction

Between 1892 and 1900 Professor (later Sir) W. Baldwin Spencer, Professor
of Biology at the University of Melbourne, and later Director of the National
Museum of Victoria, described 96 new species, one subspecies and two varieties of
earthworms from Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. He also amassed a large
collection of Australian earthworms in the Zoology Department at the University.
This collection was donated by Spencer to the National Museum on 23 March
1916. As a recent search in that department and in other Museum collections in
Australia failed to reveal any Spencer earthworm material, it is concluded that the
entire collection was donated at this time. Before the present study, the types of 41
species were known, including those of four species questionably so. A complete
cataloguing of the Spencer earthworm collection was undertaken to locate all prob-
able type material, to document it, and to assess its value for future study. Spencer's
original notes, with an unpublished key to his specimen numbering system, were
located in the Museum archives and these gave an accurate guide as to which
specimens were used in the descriptions of his species. As a result, the type speci-
mens of 41 species previously so labelled have been confirmed as types, including
the questioned type specimens of four species. In addition, type material of a
further 28 species has been found. Of the 69 species for which type material exists,
15 are represented by material in such poor condition that all further work on it is
impossible. Type specimens of the 30 remaining species are presumed lost. АП
material has been transferred to fresh 70 per cent alcohol.

The original generic names are used, arranged alphabetically, and under each
genus the specific names are so arranged. In the original descriptions, Spencer did
not designate types. He gave exact localities and habitats, both in his papers and
on his labels, and these were of considerable assistance in identifying type material.
However, the principal means used was the series of numbers included with each
specimen. The catalogue also includes specimens determined by Spencer, but which
had not been collected at the time his papers were written, or were present but not
used in the preparation of those papers. If the Spencer number with a specimen
shows it to have been used in the type description, plus the agreement of the type

86 К. L. JENSZ and B. J. SMITH

locality, collector's name, date of collection, and species name all in Spencer's
handwriting, the specimen is accepted as type material. As no primary types were
designated by Spencer, all such specimens are syntypes. A lectotype has been
chosen from the syntypes when (a) In good or reasonable condition, (b) Complete
(dissected, when available), (c) Documentation adequate. Lectotypes have been
separated from paralectotypes. When none of the type material complies with the
above criteria the series is left as syntypes.

The condition of the specimens is defined as follows:
Good—suitable for detailed study, including dissection
Reasonable probably suitable as above
Fair—doubtfully suitable for detailed study and of limited use for dissec-
tion
Poor—little use for study
Bad-—no use for study
Details аге given of specimens other than types, but identified by Spencer.
Unless otherwise stated, the specimens were collected by Spencer. Page numbers
given with the Spencer number or in brackets in the text in the catalogue refer to

the pages in Spencer's notes. The abbreviations for States are as follows: Vict. —
Victoria, Tasm. — Tasmania, Od. — Queensland.

Genus Cryptodrilus Fletcher, 1886
Cryptodrilus campestris Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict, 7: 39, figs. 13-15.

SYNTYPES: G48, a dissected entire worm, four complete specimens and one
fragment. Poor (shrivelled).

LocaLrry: Parattah, Tasm., in damp earth under logs, collected February
1893.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 6 T (p. 8).

Cryptodrilus cooraniensis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 42-43, figs. 34-36.

SYNTYPES: G43, one complete specimen, questionably a syntype. Reasonable.
G44, a dissected entire specimen and a number of fragments. Bad. G45, specimen
completely fragmented. Bad.

LocatrrY: Cooran, Qd., collected October 1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: G43, Peri sp 8 ? (Not listed in Spencer notes). G44, C sp
4 Q; G45, C sp 8 Q (p. 7).

Notes: None has been previously recognized as type material. G44 was used
in MS preparation (p. 7). The remaining specimens are included here as they were
collected at the same time and in the same locality. While G45 appears to have
been used in MS preparation there is no indication that G43 was. The latter
assumes importance as it is the only original specimen in reasonable condition.
Unfortunately its position is ambiguous as the number is not recorded in the
Spencer notes whereas a similar number, Peri sp 8 O, does appear under the genus
Diporochaeta (p. 28).

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 87

Cryptodrilus dubius Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 136-137, figs. 13-15, 67.

LECTOTYPE: G35, an entire specimen. Length in spirit 108 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1434, three entire specimens and three fragments form-
erly included with G35. Good.

LocaLrtY: Vict., given on an original label. Spencer writes (p. 137) “This
probably comes from Croajingolong but the distinct locality other than Victoria is
not noted”. It appears that Spencer did not collect the specimens. The types of
three other species were collected at Croajingolong in January 1889, during an
expedition of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. Perhaps Spencer had reason
to believe that these specimens were collected on the same expedition.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp ? 5 (p. 7).

NOTES: Specimens G35 were previously recorded as type material although
the original label (C sp ? 5) is now missing. The label is not located with any other
specimen in the collection and is probably correctly identified with G35.

Cryptodrilus ellisii Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 42-43, figs. 22-24.

SYNTYPES: G32, four dissected entire specimens and two complete specimens.
Poor. G33, specimens missing from collection, presumed lost.

LocaLrrY: Dee Bridge, Tasm., under logs and stones, collected January 1893.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 9 T and C sp 10 T (p. 8).

Notes: The National Museum label records specimens G32 as questionably
type material. This doubt probably arose from the date of collection on the museum
filing card “Тап. 1895', coupled with the fact that the type description was read in
March, 1894, and published in January, 1895. An original label (which appears
to be by Spencer) shows the date poorly written but probably ‘Jan. /93'. This date
would be consistent with Spencer's collecting trip ‘early part of 1893’ (p. 33). It is
suggested here that the correct date is 1893, that the 3 has previously been misread
as a 5, and that these specimens are types. Specimens G33 are types not previously
recognized as such but are now missing. They have been lost since coming to the
museum as a filing card notes that five specimens were in the jar.

Cryptodrilus frenchi Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 135-136, figs. 10-12, 66.
TvPE SPECIMENS: Not present in National Museum, presumed lost.
LocarirY: Croajingolong, E. Gippsland, Vict.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp? a (p. 7).

Cryptodrilus gippslandicus Spencer, 1892

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 132-133, figs. 1-3, 63.

LECTOTYPE: G57, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 90 mm. Reason-
able.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1405, two complete specimens and two fragments, one of
which has been dissected. These were formerly included with G57. Reasonable.

LocaLiTv: Croajingolong, E. Gippsland, Vict. The specimens were collected
January 1889.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp ? 3 (p. 7).

88 R. L. JENSZ and В. J. SMITH

Cryptodrilus hobartensis Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 37-38, figs. 10-12.
LECTOTYPE: G50, a complete, undissected specimen. Length in spirit 28 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G49, a dissected entire specimen, seven complete specimens
and five fragments. Poor to fair (dried). G51, four complete specimens, one partly
dissected. Fair (dried).

LocaLIiTY: G49, Mt Wellington, Tasm., collected by A. Morton, July 1892.

G50 and G51, Parattah, Tasm., G50, January 1893 and G51, February 1893.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 5 T (p. 8). АП three jars bear this code number.
Notes: None has been previously recognized as type material.

Cryptodrilus insularis Spencer, 1895

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 41-42, figs. 19-21.

LECTOTYPE: G39, a complete undissected specimen. Length in spirit 26 mm.
Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: None.

LocarirY: Parratah, Tasm., collected February 1893.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 8 T (p. 8).

NoTE: The specimen has not been previously recognized as type material.

Cryptodrilus intermedius Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 133-134, figs. 4-6, 64.
І.ЕСТОТҮРЕ: G58, а dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 100 mm. Reas-
onable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1406, seven complete specimens formerly included with
G58. Reasonable.

Госашту: S. Warragul, Vict. collected by W. Mann, July 1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp? 12 (p. 7).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G86 contains 10 complete specimens and a fragment, from
the type locality dated July 1892, and found ‘In black, very heavy swamp soil, about
12 inches down'. Their condition is fair but several are fragmenting badly. These
specimens were found after the original paper was read and so were not used
therein. However, they are listed in the Spencer Notes (p. 7) as ‘MSS’, perhaps in
error. Their number is C sp ? 11. G72 is questionably referred to this species.
There are two specimens thought to be different forms or at different stages. There
is no included data and their condition is reasonable.

Cryptodrilus irregularis Spencer, 1895

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 34-35, figs. 1-3.

ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G46, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 145 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: None, although the description suggests that more than one
specimen was found.

LocaLity: Table Cape, Tasm., found under logs, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 1 T (p. 8).

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 89
Cryptodrilus lucasi Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 143, figs. 28-30, 72.
TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.

d LocaLiTY: Goulburn River, Tallarook, Vict., collected by A. H. S. Lucas, no
ate.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp ? V (p. 7).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G84 is the only representative of this species in the collec-

v It contains two fragments in fair condition, without record of locality, date or
collector.

Cryptodrilus macedonensis Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 138-139, figs. 16-18, 68.

ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G47, an undissected complete specimen. Length in spirit 56 mm.
Reasonable.

RS ДЕ G1407, four fragments formerly included with G47. Reas-
onable.

LocaLity: Mt Macedon, Vict., collected by Н. В. Hogg and Spencer in June
1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp ? 6 (p. 7).

Cryptodrilus minor Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 144, figs. 31-33, 73.

LECTOTYPE: G56, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 110 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1435, two complete specimens and two fragments formerly
included with G56. Reasonable.

Locariry: Ellinbank, South Warragul, Vict., collected by W. Mann in August
1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp ? 14 (p. 7).

Cryptodrilus mortoni Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 36-37, figs. 7-9.
SYNTYPE: G83, one entire dissected specimen. Poor to fair (dried).
LOCALITY: Dee Bridge and Mount Wellington, Tasm., under logs and stones.
G83 was collected by A. Morton in 1892, the locality being recorded as “Tasmania”.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp4 T (p. 8).
Nores: The specimen has not been previously recognized as type material.

Cryptodrilus narrensis Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 142, figs. 25-27, 71.
SYNTYPES: G53, dissected entire specimen and two complete undissected speci-
mens. Poor.
LocaLiry: Narre Warren, Vict, very abundant under logs in wet weather,
collected by C. French and Spencer, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp ? 15a (p. 7).

90 К. L. JENSZ and В, J. SMITH

Notes: There is no label recording presentation to the National Museum as
part of the Spencer Collection, but other labels agree in form and writing with
those of this collection. The Spencer Notes also refer to specimens registered as
'C sp 7 Narrewarren' which it appears were used with the above specimens to
prepare the type description. There are no specimens with this label.

Cryptodrilus officeri Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 44-45, figs. 28-30.
TYPE SPECIMENS: G80 is recorded on a catalogue card as having four speci-
mens. However, the jar is now empty and the specimens are presumed lost.
Т LocaLrrY: King River Valley, Tasm., collected by C. S. Officer in January
94.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp X 4 King R T (p. 8).

Cryptodrilus polynephricus Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 35-36, figs. 4-6.

LECTOTYPE: G41, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 97 mm. Reason-
able.

PARALECTOTYPE: G1436, four complete specimens formerly included with
G41. Reasonable. G40, one entire dissected specimen. Bad (dried).

LocaLitY: Mt Wellington, Tasm. G41 was collected by A. Morton in July
1892. The type locality is extended by Spencer to include Hobart and Parattah.
G40 contains two labels stating the localities as Mt Wellington by A. Morton in
February 1892 and Parattah 1892.

SPENCER NuMBER: G40 and G41 both contain the same number, C sp 3 T
(p. 8).

Nores: The specimens were not previously recognized as type material. G40
includes two Spencer labels: C/sp 3 T — Parattah Feb./'92 and C sp 3 T (Mt
Wellington) AM/'92,

Cryptodrilus queenslandica Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 41-42, figs. 31-33.

ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G593, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 270 mm.

Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1448, two complete dissected specimens, six complete
specimens and six fragments, formerly included with G593. Reasonable. G68, five
complete specimens and five fragments. Poor. G69, 11 complete specimens and two
fragments. Fair. G70, one complete specimen. Fair.

Locarirv: G593, Dundergan, near Maryborough, Od., collected by P. R. A.
O'Brien, no date. G68 was collected at Toowoomba, Od., by D. Le Souef in Octo-
ber 1891. G69 was collected at Jandina, Od., and G70 was collected at ‘Scrub be-
hind Gayndah', Od., also in October 1891 presumably by D. Le Souef.

SPENCER NUMBERS: G593, Mega 1 X О (p. 7). G68, G69 and G70, all under
Crypto sp ? 5 Q (p. 7).

NorEs: The specimens have not previously been recognized as type material.

G68, G69 and G70 are included with the type material as they are noted in Spen-
cer's Notes (p. 7) as C sp? 5 О in MSS.

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 91

OTHER SPECIMENS: G79, Spencer number C sp 5 Q, is referred to as not in
MSS (p. 10). It was found at Cooran, Qd., in October 1891 and contains two
fragments in fair condition,

Cryptodrilus shephardi Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 40-41, figs. 28-30.
ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G34, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 157 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1409, two complete specimens formerly included with
G34. Reasonable.

Loca ity: Horsham, Vict., collected by J. Shephard in October 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp la V (p. 7).

OTHER SPECIMENS: One jar, G74, from which the specimen is missing, bears
the same Spencer number as the type material. It contained one specimen collected
by D. Le Soeuf on 3/10/1892 at ‘Mallee district in Dimboola, Victoria’. Although
it would appear to have been included in the MSS, the type description does not
refer to this collector or date.

Cryptodrilus tanjilensis Spencer, 1892

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 134-135, figs. 7-9, 65.

LECTOTYPE: G54, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 160 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G55, one dissected entire specimen, one complete specimen
and one fragment. Reasonable to good.

Госатлту: Tanjil Track, near the source of the Yarra River, Vict., collected
November 1890.

SPENCER NUMBERS: 654, С sp 2 (p. 7). 655, C sp 9 (= sp 1). See note
below.

NorEs: G54 was previously known to be type material. Other specimens appar-
ently used in the MSS were “С sp ? 9” and “С sp 5a У (p. 7). Much of the ‘5’ in
the latter number is missing but the remains suggest ‘5’. No specimens bearing
either number are in the collection now. Another jar, G55, which is considered
here to contain paralectotypes bears the label C sp 9 (— sp 1). It is possible that
this is the missing specimen C sp ? 9. Whether this is so or not, the material appears
to have been collected by Spencer at the type locality and was identified by him.

Cryptodrilus tesselatus Spencer 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 40-41, figs. 16-18.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
Locariry: Mount Olympus, Lake St. Clair, Tasm.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 7 T (p. 8).

Cryptodrilus victoriae Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 139-140, figs. 19-21, 69.
LECTOTYPE: G36, a large dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 102 mm.
Reasonable.
PARALECTOTYPES: G1410, a small complete specimen formerly included with
G36. Reasonable.

92 R. L. JENSZ and В, J. SMITH

LocaLrrY: Warburton, Yarra Valley, Vict., collected by Dendy, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp? 1 (p. 7).

OTHER SPECIMENS: Two jars in the collection are not considered to contain
type specimens as their locality differs from that published, but the dates of collec-
ton are later. Some confusion is caused by Spencer's notes implying that they
were used in the MSS. The specimens concerned are G71 (C sp 2X) which con-
tains one entire dissected specimen, five complete specimens and three fragments
in reasonable condition, and G73 (C sp X3) which contains two complete speci-
mens in good condition. The former were collected at Mt Baw Baw in 1893 by
Frost, and the latter were collected at Mount Arnold (collector unknown) in 1894.
The Mount Arnold specimens have with them a note in Spencer's handwriting
which does not appear to have been published previously. It is quoted here in
full, but two words could not be read and three are questionable. ‘Mt Arnold, Vic-
toria near Marysville. Under and in rotten logs, length crawling 51 inches, setae
e. s dorsal surface purplish brown (7) getting gradually lighter as pass back,
ventral surface reddish in front of clitellum dull flesh colour behind. Moves (?)
body about like (?) a perichaete when irritated. Clitellum not distinguishable
when alive. Setae visible as white spots, body round not angular, male opening
pink accessory in front of and behind. Accessory visible in living as white glandu-
lar eclipse with darker centre.

b. с. (Body cavity?) fluid white in spirit.’

Cryptodrilus victoriae var. a Spencer, 1892

Proc, Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 140, not figured.

ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS OF VARIETY: G37, a dissected entire specimen and а long,
median, post-clitellar fragment. Reasonable.

Locality: Тап)! Track, Thompson Valley, Vict., collected November 1891.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp? IO (p. 7).
Nores: This may be a subspecies but must await revision to elucidate its status.

Cryptodrilus victoriae var b Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict. 4: 140, not figured.
TYPE SPECIMENS OF VaRIETY: G38, a dissected entire specimen and a long,
median, post-clitellar fragment. Reasonable.

LOCALITY: Vict, ‘exact locality not known’. This suggests that Spencer was
not the collector, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp? 7 V (p. 7).

Norrs: This may be a subspecies but must await revision to elucidate its
status.
Cryptodrilus wellingtonensis Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 43-44, figs. 25-27.
SYNTYPE: G75, one entire dissected specimen. Poor (hardened).

Locality: Hobart, Tasm. The specimen was collected by A. Morton іп Aug-
ust 1892. The type description specifies Mt Wellington as the locality, while the
label in Spencer’s handwriting refers to Hobart.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 11 T (p. 8).
Norrs: G75 has not been previously recognized as type material. In the same

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 93

jar as the specimen is an unattached metal tag bearing the number “TMS 1048”.
Its significance is not known.

Cryptodrilus willsiensis Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 140-141, figs. 22-24, 70.
SYNTYPES: G52, five fragments, four of which have been dissected. Reasonable.
Locariry: Mt Wills, Vict., collected by T. Lidgey, no date.
‚ SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 16 а? (p. 7). The original Spencer label is no longer
with the specimen.
Genus Digaster Perrier, 1872
Digaster brunneus Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 66, figs. 103-105.
TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LocaLITY: Gayndah, Qd., no collector or date.
SPENCER NUMBER: D sp 3 О (p. 13).

Digaster gayndahensis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 67, figs. 106-108.
Rec. Aust. Mus. 26: 96-98, figs. 3A-B.
" LECTOTYPE: G99, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 65 mm. Reason-
able.

PARALECTOTYPE: G1449, a small dissected entire specimen formerly included
with G99. Reasonable.

LocALITY: From scrub behind Gayndah, Qd., collected in October 1891.
SPENCER NUMBER: Digaster sp ? 1 О (p. 13), 699). D sp? 2 Q (p. МЕ2);

Notes: Jamieson (1963) worked with these specimens and noted “һе dissected
specimen is the holotype and the undissected specimen a paratype’. However, as
Spencer did not designate a primary type, no holotype can exist. In his notes Spen-
cer records both ‘Digaster sp 2 1 Q’ and Digaster sp ? 2 Q' as being this species.
G100 bears the Spencer number Digaster sp ? 2 Q’ but Jamieson records G100 as
the type of Digaster minor (see below) and records a Spencer number of “Digaster
sp. 2 Q”. The Spencer notes were not available to him and it is likely that he over-
looked or did not know the significance of the question mark in the number. In
the Spencer notes (p. 13) the number for D. minor is M sp 2 Q. Specimens with
this number are not present in the collection. Jamieson assumes G100 to be type
material of D. minor and uses it to extend the type description and reinforce it as a
separate species. In view of the newly rediscovered Spencer notes, this must now
be doubted and G100 be considered as the questionably syntype material of Digas-
ter gayndahensis.

Digaster minor Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 65-66, figs. 100-102.
Rec. Aust. Mus. 26: 105-106, fig. 6.

ТҮРЕ SPECIMEN: None present. Jamieson records G100 as type material of
this species but it is now considered the type material of Digaster gayndahensis
(see above).

LocaLiTv: Gayndah, Qd., no date or collector.

SPENCER NUMBER: M sp 2 О (p. 13). G100 Digaster sp ? 2 Q.

94 К. L. JENSZ and B. J. SMITH

Genus Diplotrema Spencer, 1900
Diplotrema fragilis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 31-32, figs. 4-6.
SYNTYPES: G31, two complete specimens and two fragments. Fair. G101, three
complete specimens. Fair, ,
Locatity: G31, Gayndah, Qd., collected September 1891. G101, Cooran,
Od., collected October 1891.
SPENCER NUMBER: G31, Crypto sp 6 О (p. 7). 6101, С7вр760 (p. 15).
Nores: The specimens were not previously known as type material.

Genus Diporochaeta Beddard, 1890
Diporochaeta arnoldi Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 61-62, figs. 88-90.

LECTOTYPE: G203, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 60 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1411, seven complete specimens formerly included with
G203. Reasonable.

LOCALITY: Mt Arnold near Marysville, Vict., under logs and sheets of bark in
a small swamp. Collected February 1894.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 5 (p. 29).

NOTES: An original descriptive note is included with the lectotype: 'Mt Arnold,
near Marysville, Victoria. Length 3 ins. dull purplish brown dorsally, darker anter-
iorly. Clitellum dull yellow-brown. Setae fairly clear. Dirty dark flesh colour ven-
trally, extent shows through. Under log. Male pore visible as slit on papilla with 2
other papillae to outer side. b.c. fluid white. Feb./94.*

Diporochaeta davallia Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 52-53, figs. 61-63.

LECTOTYPE: (121, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 200 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPE: G1412, one complete specimen and one posterior fragment
formerly included with G121. Reasonable.

LOCALITY: Fern Tree Gully, Vict., no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: “с” or ‘Diprochaeta c Fern Tree Gully’ (p. 16).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G587 contains one dissected specimen in reasonable condi-
tion, but without information.

Diporochaeta euzona Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 55-56, figs. 70-72.

LECTOTYPE: G120, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 160 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: None, but the type description suggests that more than one
specimen was collected.

LocariTY: Warrandyte, Vict., collected by C. M. Maplestone, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: 3? (p. 16).

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM ТҮРЕ$ 95
Diporochaeta frosti Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 62-63, figs. 91-93.

LECTOTYPE: G117, a dissected, entire specimen. Length in spirit 45 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: None.

LocALıtyY: МЕ Baw Baw, Vict., collected by C. Frost in January 1893.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 8 (p. 16).

NOTES: The specimen has not previously been recognized as type material.

Diporochaeta grandis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 63-64, figs. 94-96.

TvPE SPECIMENS: None, presumed lost.

Locariry: Upper Endeavour River, Qd., collected by C. French and D. Le
Soeuf, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Not known.

OTHER SPECIMENS: G184 records material collected at Cairns, Od., and dona-
ted to the National Museum 24 April 1909. This material is now missing and pre-
sumed lost.

Diporochaeta lindti Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 54-55, figs. 67-69.
TvPE SPECIMENS: None, presumed lost.
LocaLrrY: Black Spur, Vict., found under logs at 2,000 ft, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp a (p. 16).

Diporochaeta manni Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 60-61, figs. 85-87.

LECTOTYPE: (118, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 74 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1423, five complete specimens and three fragments form-
erly included with G118. Reasonable.

LocaLrTY: S. Warragul, Vict., collected near a creek in black alluvial soil by
W. Mann, July 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 10 (p. 29).
Nores: The specimens have not previously been recognized as type material.

Diporochaeta maplestoni Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 64-65, figs. 97-99.
SYNTYPES: G122, several fragments, probably no longer determinable. Bad.
Госашту: Warrandyte, Vict., collected by C. M. Maplestone, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: 1° Warrandyte (р. 16).

Notes: The specimens were questionably regarded as type material but are
now considered original type material.

96 К. L. JENSZ апа B, J. SMITH
Diporochaeta mediocincta Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 53-54, figs. 64-66.

LECTOTYPE: 6124, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 55 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: None, although the description suggests more than one
specimen was found.

LocaLrTY: S. Warragul, Vict., collected by W. Mann, July 1892.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 1 a V (pp. 16, 29).

Diporochaeta nemoralis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 59-60, figs. 82-84.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: None, presumed lost.
LocaLiTY: Neerim, Vict., found under logs in the eucalypt forests, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 13 (pp. 16, 29).

Diporochaeta notabilis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 57-58, figs. 76-78.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: None, presumed lost.
LocaLrrY: Dimboola, Vict., no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 2 a V (pp. 16, 29).
Diporochaeta richardi Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 58-59, figs. 79-81.

LECTOTYPE: 6220, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 93 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPE: GI413, one complete specimen formerly included with G220.
Reasonable.

LocaLiTY: Loch, Vict., collected July 1891.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 13 (pp. 16, 29).
Diporochaeta telopea Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 56-57, figs. 73-75.

ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: G119, not present, presumed lost.

LocaLiTY: Waratah Bay, Vict., collected by W. Mann, January 1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 34 (pp. 16, 29).

Nores: A filing card indicates that a single specimen, known to be the type,
was in the National Museum under G119.

Genus Fletcherodrilus Michaelson, 1891

Fletcherodrilus unicus major Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 44, (no fig.).

LECTOTYPE: GI16, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 215 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1437, two dissected entire specimens and two fragments,
formerly included with G116. Reasonable,

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 97

LocaLiTY: Gayndah, Qd., collected from cedar scrub October 1891.
SPENCER NUMBER: Crypto sp 1 О (p. 9).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G115 contains one dissected fragment, two entire speci-
mens and five fragments in good condition from ‘Queensland’.

Genus Megascolex Templeton, 1844
Megascolex andersoni Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 44-45, figs. 37-39.
LECTOTYPE: G105, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 110 mm.
Reasonable.

PaRALECTOTYPES: G1414, five complete specimens, formerly included with
G105. Reasonable.

LocaLrrY: Gerangamete, Vict, no date. The original label reads ‘Keranga-
mete”.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 11 (pp. 22, 29).

Megascolex fardyi Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 46-47, figs. 43-45.

ЗУМТУРЕ5: G107, three complete specimens. Reasonable.

LocaLrtY: Heathcote Range, Vict., collected at 900 ft by T. Lidgey, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 1 X (pp. 22, 29).

Notes: These are not the type specimens of the MSS as the latter were col-
lected at Heathcote by J. H. Fardy and Spencer. However, it is reasonable to
assume they are syntypes as they are from the type locality, identified by Spencer
and the Spencer Number agrees with that of the original material. The latter
appears to be lost as there is no record of it in the National Museum.

Megascolex illidgei Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 50-51, figs. 58-60.

SYNTYPE: G110, one entire specimen. Reasonable.

LocaLITY: Gayndah, Qd., collected on September 23 1891. The type descrip-
tion records Cooran, Od., as the locality.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri s ? Q (pp. 22, 29).

NoTEs: This specimen has not previously been recognized as а type and is
recorded here as a questionable type material because of the locality.

Megascolex larpentensis, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 45-46, figs. 40-42.

LECTOTYPE: G106, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 55 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1415, five complete specimens, formerly included with
G106. Reasonable.

LocaLiTY: Gerangamete, Vict., collected by К. Anderson in June 1894, The
original label is spelt “Kerangamete”.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 12 (pp. 22, 29).

Notes: The museum filing card notes “8 specs’ which suggest that some of the
material has been lost.

98 К. L. JENSZ апа B. J. SMITH

Megascolex lobulatus Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 48-49, figs. 52-54.

LECTOTYPE: G229, one dissected specimen in two parts. Length in spirit 45
mm. Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1432, nine complete specimens and two fragments form-
erly included with G229. Reasonable.

LOCALITY: Nar-Nar-Goon, Vict., collected by H. Giles in October 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 6 (pp. 22, 29).

NorEs: The specimens have not previously been recognized as type material.

Megascolex minor Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 49-50, figs. 55-57.

SYNTYPES: G103, seven complete specimens and one fragment. Poor (dried).
G104, Several fragments. Poor (fragmented ).

Loca.ity: Cooran, Qd., collected in October 1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 3 Q (p. 29). Both sets of specimens bear the same
number and information.

NoTES: The specimens have not previously been recognized as type material.
Further type material ‘Peri sp 7 О” has not been found in the National Museum
and is presumed lost. The filing card for G103 records ‘14 specs’. The whereabouts
of the missing specimens is not known, but are presumably also lost. The number
originally present in G104 was three, which are now indeterminable.

OTHER SPECIMENS: G102 contains two poor specimens bearing the Spencer
number ‘Peri sp 3 ? О”, collected from Gayndah in 1891.

Megascolex montanus Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 48, figs. 49-51.

LECTOTYPE: G109, a dissected anterior fragment and a dissected posterior
fragment, which appear to be from the same specimen. Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPE: G1416, one complete specimen, formerly included with
G109. Reasonable.

LocaLiTY: Mount Baw Baw, Vict., collected by C. Frost in January 1893.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 7 (pp. 22, 29).

Megascolex pritchardi Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 47, figs. 46-48.

LECTOTYPE: G108, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 58 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1417, six complete specimens and a short fragment form-
erly included with G108. Reasonable.

LocaLiTY: Mornington, Vict. An original label notes the locality as Morning-
ton?’. The specimens were collected by С. B. Pritchard in 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp X 2 (pp. 22, 29).

NoTEs: The museum filing card notes ‘11 specs’ which suggests that some of
the material has been lost.

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 99
Megascolex terangiensis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 51-52, (not figured).
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LOCALITY: Terang, Vict., no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 33 (p. 29).

Genus Megascolides McCoy, 1878
Megascolides attenuatus Spencer, 1892

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 155, figs. 61-62, 82.

LECTOTYPE: G176, an undissected specimen. Length in spirit 128 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1438, two dissected specimens, one complete specimen
and eight fragments, formerly included with G176. Fair to good.

Госатлту: Warragul, Vict., collected on 22nd April 1888 “from gullies some
distance underground and found with other species of Megascolides’.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 8 (p. 23).

Notes: The Spencer number is not with the specimen nor is it with any other
specimen in the collection. A label in Spencer's hand-writing bears the name.

Megacolides bassanus Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 46-47, figs. 34-36.
TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LocaLrtY: King Island, Bass Strait, Tasm., no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 3-2 (p. 23).

Megascolides cameroni Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. 4: 144-145, figs. 34-36, 74.

LECTOTYPE: G167, an undissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 215 mm.
Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1439, six dissected fragments which may be from a single
specimen and one complete specimen, formerly included with G167. Good.

LocaLity: Croajingolong, Vict., collected in January 1889.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? (1) (p. 23).

МОТЕ5: A label in the jar indicates type material. This is over-looked on the
filing card.

Megascolides diaphanus Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 32-34, figs. 7-9.

SvNTYPES: G179, two complete worms and several fragments, some of which
have been dissected. Fair.

LocaLity: West Dimboola, Vict., near Mission Station. The specimens were
probably collected in October 1892. The type description (p. 34) notes locality
thus: *Near to the Ebeneezer Mission Station, Mallee District, Victoria. Found in
very moist earth on flats close to the River Wimmera . . . . The Flats on which the

worm was found are liable to be flooded at rainy seasons but at other times per-
fectly dry’, while the label in Spencer’s writing notes the locality: ‘Smaller worms

100 R. 1. JENSZ апа В. J. SMITH

from side of pool near station (Dimboola) many of them from mud under the
water, all in damp clayey earth’.
SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 4a V (p. 7). Missing from the jar.

Megascolides eucalypti Spencer, 1900

Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 35-36, figs. 13-15.

LECTOTYPE: G185, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 140 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1440, three dissected specimens, eight complete specimens
and one long fragment, formerly included with G185. Reasonable.

LocariTY: Noojee, South Warragul, Vict., no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp XI (p. 23).

Notes: The specimens have not been previously recorded as type material.

Megascolides hulmei Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 147-148, figs. 40-42, 76.

TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.

Loca.ity: Dandenong Ranges, Vict., collected by J. Hulme, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 7 (p. 23).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G165, collected by C. Pioneer in 1891, is also missing
and is presumed lost. Although it had been given the same Spencer number as the
type, it is not type material as its locality is recorded as Victoria, and the collector
differs.

Megascolides incertus Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 151-152, figs. 52-54, 80.

ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.

LOCALITY: Vict., exact locality not known.

SPENCER NUMBER: Not known.

OTHER SPECIMENS: G174 contains many specimens. The condition is poor as
the specimens are generally fragmenting. There is no further information available.
This could be type material. G175, one dissected specimen and two entire speci-
mens from Black Spur, Vict., collected October 1895. This is in good condition
but could not be type material.

Megascolides insignis Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 146-147, figs. 37-39, 75.

SYNTYPES: 0166, two dissected specimens, two entire specimens and two frag-
ments. Reasonable.

LocaLity: (From the type description) Dandenong Ranges, Vict., collected
by J. Hulme, no date. Specimens G166 were collected by C. Pioneer on 30 Octo-
ber 1890, the locality being given as “Victoria”.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 3 (p. 23).

Notes: No specimens have been previously recognized as type material. Speci-
mens G166 were not collected by Hulme and may not have come from the Dande-
nong Ranges, but they have been identified by Spencer and appear to have been

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 101

considered in the preparation of the MSS as they bear the appropriate Spencer
number.

Megascolides manni Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 149-150, figs. 46-48, 78.
ГЕСТОТУРЕ: G158, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 250 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1441, a dissected entire specimen, one complete specimen
and one fragment, formerly included with G158. Good.

Госатлту: S. Warragul, Vict., collected by W. Mann in J uly 1891.
SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 13 (p. 23).

Megascolides manni variabilis Spencer, 1892
Reference: as for stem species.

SYNTYPES: G163, a number of fragments. Bad (hardened, shrivelled, black
fragments).

Госашту: S. Warragul, Vict., collected by W. Mann, July 1891.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 12 (p. 23).

OTHER SPECIMENs: G164, collected in S. Warragul, Vict, by W. Mann in
July 1892; contains 15 complete specimens and four fragments.

Megascolides obscurus Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 148-149, figs. 43-45, 77.
TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
Locarirv: Dandenong Ranges, Vict., collected by J. Hulme, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 4 (p. 23).

Megascolides punctatus Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 37-38, figs. 19-21.

LECTOTYPE: G180, an undissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 145 mm.
Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1442, two dissected entire specimens, eight complete
specimens and three fragments, formerly included with G180. Reasonable to good.

LocariTy: Warrandyte, Vict., no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega 2? (p. 23).

Megascolides roseus Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 153-154, figs. 58-60, 81.
'ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.

LocaLiTY: Warragul, Vict., found by Spencer about one foot underground, no
date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp 8a (p. 23).

Megascolides simsoni Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 45-46, figs. 31-33.

ГЕСТОТУРЕ: G182, an entire undissected specimen. Length in spirit 45 mm.
Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: None present.

102 К. L. JENSZ апа В. J. SMITH

LOCALITY: Launceston, Tas., collected by A. Simson in February 1892.
SPENCER NUMBERS: Mega sp 1 Tas., C sp 2 Tas. (p. 23).

Мотев: The specimen has not previously been recognized as a type but bears
the Spencer number C sp 2 Tas.

Megascolides sinuosus Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 152-153, figs. 55-57.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
Locarıty: Dandenong Ranges, Vict., collected by J. Hulme, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp ? 6 (p. 23).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G177 contains one specimen and numerous fragments in
very bad condition. They were collected by C. Pioneer in October 1890 and bear
the Spencer number of the type material. They could therefore have been consid-
ered in preparation of MSS but no locality is recorded.

Megascolides steeli Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 34-35, figs. 10-12.

LECTOTYPE: G168, an entire, dissected specimen. Length in spirit 125 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1418, two fragments, formerly included with G168. Reas-
onable.

LocatrrY: Warragul, Vict., collected by T. Steel in April 1892.
SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp la V (p. 23).

Megascolides tisdalli Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 36-37, figs. 16-18.

LECTOTYPE: G178, an entire dissected specimen. Length in spirit 85 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: None present.

LocariTY: Walhalla, Vict., collected by Н. К. Hogg in July 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: C sp 2a V (pp. 7, 23).

Notes: The filing card refers to ‘specs.’. Any other specimens that may have

been present are now missing. The position of the gizzard is incorrectly noted in the
text (p. 37) due to a misprint. Fig. 17 is correct in this respect.

Megascolides victoriensis Spencer, 1892
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 151, figs. 49-51, 79.
SYNTYPES: G181, many fragments. Very bad.

LocaLiTY: Vict., collector unknown, January 1890. Spencer wrote: ‘Victoria
(Locality? )' and ‘Left at Uni. at time of A.A.A.S. Јап./90'.

SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp 11а (р. 23).

Megascolides volvens Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 39-40, figs. 25-27.
SYNTYPES: G590, three complete specimens. Bad. (dried).

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 103

LocALıTy: (From description) River Yarra, Vict., collected by С, Frost, no
date. G590, Yarra Track, Vict., collected by E. Anderson, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: С 3a V (pp. 7, 23).

Megascolides warragulensis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 38-39, figs. 22-24.
TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LocaLITY: S. Warragul, Vict., no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Mega sp X2 (p. 23).

Genus Perichaeta Schmarda, 1861

Perichaeta alsophila Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 17-19, figs. 10-12.

SYNTYPES: G291, one dissected entire specimen, two complete specimens and
two fragments. Poor (hardened and shrivelled).

LocaLrTY: Fern Tree Gully, Vict., collected March 1892.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 32 (p. 28).

Perichaeta copelandi Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 2-3, figs. 52-54, 76.
LECTOTYPE: G186, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 83 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1443, two dissected entire specimens, two complete speci-
mens and two fragments, formerly included with G186. Good. G187, three com-
plete specimens and one fragment. Good. G188, three complete specimens and
three fragments. Reasonable. G189, one large undissected specimen. Reasonable.
G190, three fragments, one dissected. Reasonable.

LocaLity: Warragul Dist., Vict. G187 collected Warragul, no date; G188 col-
lected Warragul (?), no date; G189 collected Warragul, September 1892; G190
collected Loch, S. Gippsland, July 1891; G186 collected Ellinbank, S. Warragul,
July 1891; G186 collected by W. Mann; the remainder are assumed to have been
collected by Spencer.

SPENCER NUMBERS: Peri sp? 6 = G190, Peri sp? 8 = G186, Peri sp? 15 =
G187 and G188 (p. 28). No number is included with G189.

Notes: None of the material has been previously recognized as type material.
Four jars bear Spencer numbers which suggest that they have been used in the
preparation of the MSS. Three specimens are questionable types because of the
locality. G189, while not having a Spencer number (probably lost), was collected
from the type locality, identified by Spencer and has (included in the jar) the
following note by Spencer: ‘Dorsal surface purple. Clitellum pink, very distinct.
Ventral surface dull cream. Setae distinct, especially in front of clitellum as white
spots. Length crawling, 8 inches, width 4 inch.’

OTHER SPECIMENS: G192 includes two complete specimens and two fragments
collected in the type locality, no date or collector being recorded. G191 contains
one specimen and a fragment with no locality, date or collector. G206 contains one
dissected specimen from S. Warragul, no date or collector recorded.

104 К. L. JENSZ and B. J. SMITH

Perichaeta dendyi Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 12-13, figs. 49-51, 77.
TvPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
Locatity: Healesville, Vict., collected by А. Dendy, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: P sp ? 20 (p. 28).

Perichaeta dicksonia Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 16-17, figs. 7-9.
ЗУМТУРЕ: 0221, one dissected anterior fragment. Poor (badly hardened).
LOCALITY: G221 was collected from Dandenong by Hill on March 9th, 1892.
The type locality is Fern Tree Gully, under logs, no date or collector recorded.

SPENCER NUMBER: P sp 31 ? (p. 28). This number is not with specimen G221
nor has it been found with any other specimen in the collection.

Perichaeta dilwynnia Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 50-51, figs. 46-48.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LocariTY: Dee Bridge, Tasm., no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: P sp 4 T (p. 27).

Perichaeta dubia Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 14-15, figs. 46-48, 67.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LocaLiTY: S. Warragul, Vict., collected by W. Mann, по date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 18 (p. 28).

Perichaeta fielderi Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 19-20, figs. 19-21, 64.
LECTOTYPE: G224, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 100 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1444, two dissected specimens and one fragment, form-
erly included with G224. Good. G222, two complete specimens. Good. G223, two
complete specimens and nine fragments. Good. G225, three dissected entire speci-
mens, 18 complete specimens and 11 fragments. Good.

LocaLiTY: Spencer named three localities, all in the same general area of
Victoria:

l. Fern Tree Gully, collected by W. Fielder and W. Mann, May 1891 (G224).

2. Narre Warren, collected July 1891 (G223, G225), also by C. French and
Spencer.

3. Sassafras Gully, collected by J. Shephard, November 1891 (G222).

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 3, Peri sp ? 9 (p. 28). G224 bears the number
"Реп sp ? 3” which is probably synonymous with “Peri sp 3” while the number with
G225 is now missing. G222 and G223 have no Spencer number.

Notes: The specimens have not previously been regarded as type material.
There is slight doubt in one, due to *? in the Spencer number and in the others due
to the absence of Spencer numbers. Spencer is known to have collected type mat-
erial from Narre Warren at about the time recorded, and Shephard from Sassafras
Gully. It is probable that this is the missing material “Peri sp ? 9”.

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 105

OTHER SPECIMENs: G226 has two entire dissected specimens, two whole
specimens and a fragment. They are in reasonable condition and were collected by
Hennell in July 1892 at Dandenong Creek, Vict. G227 contains one entire dis-
sected specimen and seven fragments with no data.

Perichaeta frenchii Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 9-10, figs. 31-33, 79.

ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G210, one dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 70 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G212, one dissected entire specimen, 15 complete specimens
and seven fragments. Poor. G1445, one entire dissected specimen, six complete
specimens and 11 fragments, formerly included with 210. Reasonable.

LocaLirY: The type locality is given as Loch, S. Gippsland, the collector is
assumed to be Spencer, no date recorded; Narre Warren, collectors Spencer and
C. French, no date; Waratah Bay, collector Mann, no date. Localities of specimens
in the collection are as follows: G212 Loch, S. Gippsland, Vict., collected July
1891; G210 Narre Warren, S. Gippsland, Vict., collected July 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 21 (p. 28). G212 bears this number. G210 has
the number ‘Peri sp? 17 Narre Warren’, not recorded in the Spencer notes as ‘in
MSS'.

NorEs: The specimens have not previously been known to be type material.
While the Spencer notes suggest that G212 was the material used (at least in
part) for preparation of the MSS, it would appear reasonable, from the broad type
locality, that he also made use of the material in G210. The latter specimens
assume some importance as they were collected and identified by Spencer from
the type locality, and they are the only remaining material in reasonable condition
from this locality.

OTHER SPECIMENS: G209 contains one specimen in reasonable condition from
Gembrook, Vict., collected by D. le Souef, March 1892. G213 contains several
specimens in very bad condition, and said to be immature, but no other data is
included.

Perichaeta frosti Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 20-21, figs. 13-15, 71.
TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
Loca.ity: Croajingolong, E. Gippsland, Vict., no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 4 (p. 28).

Perichaeta goonmurk Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 21-23, figs. 16-18.
ГЕСТОТУРЕ: G228, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 95 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTYPES: G1421, one complete specimen and one fragment formerly
included with G228. Reasonable.

LocaLiTYy: The description notes: ‘Locality Croajingolong, Vict. Under logs
at head of gully, elevation about 3500 feet'. Collected January 1889.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 2 (p. 28).

106 К. L. JENSZ and В. J. SMITH

Perichaeta hallii Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 7-8, figs. 40-42, 69.

SYNTYPE: G205, one specimen. Very bad.

Гослитү: Mt Barker, near Castlemaine, Vict., collected by T. S. Hall, no
date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 32 (p. 28).

NorEs: The museum filing card records ‘4? specs’. If there were four, three of
the specimens are now lost.

OrHER SPECIMENS: G201 contains two entire dissected specimens and four
complete specimens in reasonable condition collected at Derrinal, Vict., collector
and date unknown. G202 contains one entire dissected specimen and eight com-
plete specimens collected at Big Hill, W. Bendigo, Vict., by Spencer (7) August
1892. 'They are in good condition. G204 contains a fragmented specimen collected
at Maldon, Vict., by D. le Soeuf. The Spencer number is “Peri sp ? 33' but the
specimen is of little value.

Perichaeta hoggii Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 6-7, figs. 28-30, 80.

ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G199, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 95 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1446, eight complete specimens formerly included with
G199. Good. G198, 11 complete specimens and three fragments. Reasonable.
G200, one dissected entire specimen and four complete specimens. Reasonable.

LocaLity: G198 and G199 were collected from Mt. Macedon, Vict, by
Spencer and H. R. Hogg, June 1891. G200 were collected from Healesville, Vict.,
by Dendy in January-February 1892. The type material was collected by Dendy
but it is not certain that this is the same as specimens in G200.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 29 (= G198 and G199), Peri sp ? 19 (—
Healesville specimens ?) ( p. 28), Peri sp ? 26 (— G200) (Not listed).

Nores: The specimens have not been previously recognized as type material.
Healesville material bearing either of the above Spencer numbers recorded for the
MSS is no longer in the collection and is presumed lost. However G200 bearing
the number ‘Peri sp 2 26’ is included here as type material because it was obtained
by the original collector in the same locality about the same time.

Perichaeta irregularis Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 53-54, figs. 52-54.

LECTOTYPE: G288, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 90 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: None present.
LOCALITY: King River, Tasm., collected by С. G. Officer in J anuary 1894.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp. X 15 (p. 28).
Perichaeta lateralis Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 11-12,, figs. 55-58.
LECTOTYPE: G214, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 80 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1424, nine complete specimens and one fragment, form-
erly included with G214. Good.

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 107

Госатату : Castlemaine, Vict., collected by T. S. Hall, no date. Spencer records

a е syntype locality—Goulburn Valley, Tallarook, collector А. Н. S. Lucas,
no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 12 ? (p. 28). Specimens G214 have the Spencer
number ‘Peri sp 12’ which is not recorded in the notes.

Notes: There is some doubt that these specimens are the original types, al-
though the Spencer number may be an error. They were collected by the original
collector in the type locality and identified by Spencer.

OTHER SPECIMENs: G215 contains one dissected entire specimen and three
complete specimens in good condition collected at Mt Barker, Castlemaine, Vict.,
by T. S. Hall, no date or Spencer number recorded.

Perichaeta lochensis Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 13-14, figs. 1-3.

TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.

LocatrtY: Loch, S. Gippsland, Vict., collected by Spencer, no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 28 (p. 28).

Perichaeta moroea Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 49, figs. 40-42.
SYNTYPE: G292, one dissected entire specimen. Poor (hardened).
LocariTY: Lake St Clair district, Tasm., collected January 1893.
SPENCER NUMBER: P sp 2 T (p. 27).

Perichaeta obscura Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 3-5, figs. 4-6, 70.
ГЕСТОТҮРЕ: G195, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 68 mm. Good.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1447, one entire specimen and two fragments, formerly
included with G195. Good. G196, eight complete specimens and three fragments.
Good. G197, one complete specimen. Good.

Loca.ity: Warragul, Vict. The specimens G195 were collected by Spencer,
(no date), G196 collected February 1892, and G197 collected S. Warragul by
W. Mann, 1892.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 22 (p. 28).
NoTEs: The specimens have not been previously known as type material.

Perichaeta richea Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 49-50, figs. 43-45.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LOCALITY: Mt Olympus, Tasm., collected under logs in a beech forest, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: P sp 3 T (p. 27).

Perichaeta rubra Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 8-9, figs. 25-27.
SyNTYPES: G207, one dissected entire specimen, two complete specimens and
two fragments. Reasonable.

108 К. L. JENSZ and B. J. SMITH

LocaLrry: Tallarook, Vict., collected by A. Н. S. Lucas. G207 does not in-
clude the original label with collector's name.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp V (p. 28). This number is not with specimen
G207, nor is it with any other specimen in the collection.

Notes: This is questionable type material. The original label (including col-
lector and Spencer number) is no longer with the specimens. While there is reason-
able probability that this is the original type material, it cannot be considered cer-
tain in the absence of the original label.

OTHER SPECIMENS: G208 contains two complete specimens and two fragments
in reasonable condition, collected by W. Shephard in October 1892.

Perichaeta scolecoidea Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 51-52, figs. 49-51.
LECTOTYPE: G290, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 28 mm.
Reasonable.

PARALECTOTYPES: G1422, two complete specimens formerly included with
G290. Reasonable.

LOCALITY: King River Valley, Tasm., collected by C. б. Officer, January 1894,
and recorded as being very abundant.
SPENCER NUMBER: P sp X 14 T (р. 28).

Perichaeta steelii Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 10-11, figs. 37-39.
TvPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LocariTY: Woodend, Vict., collected by T. Steel, no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp 33 (p. 28).

Perichaeta sylvatica Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 5-6, figs. 34-36, 38.
ТҮРЕ SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.
LOCALITY: Fern Tree Gully, Vict., no date.
SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 30 (p. 28).

Perichaeta tanjilensis Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 24-25, not figured.

TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost. Ж

LOCALITY: Four Victorian localities are given: Gembrook, Fern Tree Gully,
Dandenong, and Tanjil Track (Warburton).

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri 5°, Peri sp ? 57, Peri sp? 10 (p. 28).

OTHER SPECIMENS: G235 contains a single specimen in near liquid condition,
collected Tanjil Track, July 1891. The label bearing the Spencer number is missing
from the jar; probably a syntype but its condition is so bad that it is of little scien-
tific value.

Perichaeta tasmanica Spencer, 1895
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 47-48, figs. 37-39.
SYNTYPES: G289, two dissected specimens, three complete specimens and one

BALDWIN SPENCER EARTHWORM TYPES 109

fragment. Poor (hardened, although the dissected specimens are slightly better than
the others).

LocaLrrY: Emu Bay, Tasm., collected January 1892.
SPENCER NUMBER: P sp 1 T (p. 27).

Perichaeta walhallae Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 15-16, figs. 43-45, 66.

TYPE SPECIMENS: Not present, presumed lost.

A quem Walhalla, Vict. The single mature specimen was collected by Dendy,
no date.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 36 (p. 28).

Perichaeta yarraensis Spencer, 1893
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 23-24, figs. 61-63, 74.

z Era G232, a dissected entire specimen. Length in spirit 130 mm.
оод.

‚ PARALECTOTYPES: 01426, two complete juvenile specimens, formerly included
with G232. Poor (hardened).

Госашту: Warburton, Vict. G232 was collected by A. Dendy, no date. Other
syntype localities are Tanjil Track near Woods Point and Warragul in Victoria.
Specimens from the last two localities are presumed lost.

SPENCER NUMBER: Peri sp ? 7 (= G232), Peri sp ?16, Peri sp ? 1, (p. 28).

NorEs: The specimens were not previously recognized as type material. Al-
though Dendy is not mentioned as collector in the original description the presence
of the correct Spencer number is taken as an indication that they were used in the
preparation of the MSS.

OTHER SPECIMENS: G233 bears a number indicating that the material was
used in the preparation of the MSS (Peri sp ? 16). However, it is not type material
as Spencer points out that these specimens differ from the type. He regarded the
material as questionable subspecies. G230 contains an entire, dissected specimen
and a complete specimen in good condition collected at Fern Tree Gully, March
1892. G231 contains a dried specimen in fair condition collected at Dandenong,
June 1892. G234 contains a complete specimen in good condition collected by J.
Shephard, November 1891.

Genus Trichaeta Spencer, 1900
Trichaeta australis Spencer, 1900
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 13: 30-31, figs. 1-3.
SYNTYPES: G131, three complete specimens and two dissected specimens. Poor
(hardened).

Госашту: Narre Warren, Vict. The type material was collected from under
logs in damp soil. A note on the filing card for specimen G131 states “This appears
to be a figured specimen but has no locality—is probably the type specimen’.

SPENCER NUMBER: Sp ? 6 a or Peri sp ? 6 a (p. 29).

Моте5: This material has previously been regarded as questionable type mat-
erial. The Spencer label with the specimens reads ‘Peri ? sp ? 6a’. While this differs

110 К. 1. JENSZ and B. J. SMITH

from those noted above, the specimens were identified by Spencer. Absence of loc-
ality is a more serious difficulty.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Miss Leonie Convey, Museum Assistant in the Invertebrate
Department, for her valuable assistance in the re-registration and re-bottling of
specimens, and Mrs N. Wortley for her patience in typing the manuscript.

References

JAMIESON, B. С. M., 1963. A revision of the earthworm genus Digaster (Megascolecidae,
Oligochaeta). Rec. Aust. Mus. 26: 83-111.
SPENCER, W. B., 1892. Preliminary description of Victorian earthworms. Part 1—The genera
Cryptodrilus and Megascolides. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 4: 130-156.
, 1893. Preliminary notice of Victorian earthworms, Part II. The genus Perichaeta.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 5: 1-26.
2 1895. Preliminary notes on Tasmanian earthworms. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 7: 33-
, 1900. Further descriptions of the Australian earthworms, Part I. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Vict. 13: 29-67.

THE SPAWN AND EARLY LIFE HISTORY OF CACOZELIANA
GRANARIA (KIENER 1842) (GASTROPODA: CERITHIIDAE)

By FLORENCE V. MURRAY*
# Honorary Associate in Invertebrates.

Abstract

. The spawn of С. granaria is described, recording for the first time that of an Australian
cerithid. It resembles the egg masses of the N. hemisphere species so far recorded in consisting
of a gelatinous thread containing encapsulated eggs which hatch as planktotrophic veligers.
It follows the pattern of Bittium reticulatum in being deposited as a flat coil but differs from
it in being coiled in a clockwise direction.

Introduction

Although many members of the Cerithiidae inhabit Australian waters there are
no known records of their reproduction or early life histories (Anderson 1960).
Some N. hemisphere species have been examined, namely the Hawaiian Clava
obeliscus (Ostergaard 1950), the Bermudian Cerithium ferruginum (Lebour
1945), the Jamaican Cerithium algicola (Davis 1967), the Mediterranean C. vul-
gatum (Lo Bianco 1888) and the British Bittium reticulatum (Lebour 1936) all
of which lay their eggs in gelatinous tubes, or strings, attached to a substratum,
either as a tangled mass or a flat coil. The eggs of all five species hatch as plankto-
trophic veligers.

The present study was undertaken as part of a project designed to discover
whether this mode of reproduction pertains to Australian species and is perhaps
indicative of a typical pattern for the family.

Genus Cacozeliana Strand
Cacozeliana granaria (Kiener)
Cerithium granarium Kiener, 1842. Coq. Viv., p. 72, Pl. 19, fig. 5.

The ‘Granulated Creeper’, Cacozeliana granaria, is a small but common cerithid
occurring along the coasts of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, S. Australia
and S. Western Australia. The shell is elongated with many whorls, a short, wide
anterior canal and a brown, horny, paucispiral operculum. The whorls are orna-
mented with spiral, tuberculate ribs, and the colour varies through brown, red-
brown, and cream with or without maculations. It may reach up to 20 mm in
length.

The body of the animal is basically translucent scattered with opaque white
flecks; dark markings occur on the ‘snout’, tentacles and upper part of the foot,
and there is a black eyespot at the base of each tentacle.

The species lives mostly in shallow water on sand banks where there is a
growth of algae, or in rock pools on reefs in the intertidal zone. As far as is known
they are general detritus feeders.

Material and Methods
Three specimens, averaging 12 mm in length, were collected from rock pools
Wa

112 FLORENCE V. MURRAY

on the ocean reef at Flinders, Victoria, in November 1964, and transferred to a
four-gallon glass home aquarium equipped with a filter and containing sand, stones,
sea-bed debris, ‘lettuce weed’, (Ulva lactuca), and some other molluscs whose
spawning habits were known.

Five days later (1/12/64) one of the specimens crawled up the front wall of
the aquarium and began to spawn. The animal worked continuously for six hours
extruding a gelatinous, egg-packed thread which it attached to the glass in a flat

"— 45

Fig. 1—C. granaria. Apex of juvenile specimen showing the smooth, rounded whorls of the
larval shell.

coil. Progressing in a clockwise direction it placed the thread closely beside that
already laid down, constantly changing the position of its foot and body generally
in order to maintain the spiral pattern. Throughout the whole procedure the
animal's radula could be seen rasping the glass as it pushed forward presumably
preparing the surface (substratum) for the attachment of the thread.

The Spawn

The egg-mass (Pl. 17) when completed, was roughly circular in shape and
measured 20 mm at its widest diameter. The gelatinous thread composing it was
wound in a tight, flat spiral attached to the substratum and was packed with irregu-

EARLY LIFE HISTORY OF CACOZELIANA GRANARIA 113

larly spaced encapsulated eggs. It was transparent, with an average diameter of
0:5 mm, and was coiled in a clockwise direction thus providing an interesting con-
trast to the anti-clockwise spiral described by Lebour for Bittium reticulatum.
An examination of the contents of the acquarium (stones, old shells etc.) re-
vealed a similarly coiled gelatinous egg-mass on the inner surface of an empty mus-
sel valve, and a specimen collected in April 1966 spawned in the same manner in a
glass dish. In each case the egg mass was similar in detail to that described above.
The eggs were white, spherical and averaged 0:085 mm across, each being contained
within a spherical, transparent covering, or envelope, 0:100-0-125 mm in diameter.

Development

Within a few hours, at a water temperature of 15:5°C (60°F), the eggs began
to cleave, those in the centre of the coil reaching the 4-cell stage before those to-
wards the outside had commenced to divide. A solid gastrula was formed in 48
hours and within another 48 hours an early veliger was rotating within the egg
envelope. After 8 or 9 days the veliger emerged from the envelope and dissolving
gelatinous thread, and entered the water. Except for two black eye spots the veliger
is colourless with small rounded velum lobes. Its shell is horn-coloured and aver-
ages 0:125 mm across. Some of the veligers were maintained in a small jar of
sea-water and many continued to swim for up to 10 weeks, during which no
apparent changes in growth were detected.

An examination of the apex of adult shells indicates that the embryonic shell
grows during its planktonic life to 23 whorls before settling and changing to the
adult type of shell sculpture. Figure 1 shows the early whorls to be transparent and
smooth (presumably the larval shell) followed by the sculptured whorls of the
post-larval shell, with a definite line of demarcation between the two. From this it
may be assumed that the free-swimming veliger of C. granaria spends a consider-
able time as a constituent of the plankton, and that this may be a contributory
factor to the widespread distribution of the species.

Three juvenile specimens showing larval whorls have been placed in the Nat-
ional Museum collection (F26387); also sample of veliger shell (F26388).

References

ANDERSON, D. T., 1960. The life histories of marine prosobranch gastropods. J. malac. Soc.
Aust. 4: 16-29. |

Davis, CHARLES C., 1967. Emergence of veliger larvae from eggs in gelatinous masses laid by
some Jamaican gastropods. Malacologia 5: 299-309.

LEBOUR, M. V., 1936. Notes оп the eggs and larvae of some Plymouth prosobranchs. J. Mar.
biol. Ass. U.K. 20: 547-565.

, 1945. The eggs and larvae of some prosobranchs from Bermuda. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond. 114: 462-489. |

Lo Branco, S., 1888. Notizie biologiche riguardente specialmente il periodo di maturita sessuale
degli animale de Golfo di Napoli. Mitt. zool. Sta. Neapel. 8: 385-440. |

OSTERGAARD, 7. M., 1950. Spawning and development of some Hawaiian marine gastropods.
Pacific Sci. 4: 75-115.

РГАТЕ 17

C. granaria depositing an egg-ribbon on the glass wall of an aquarium. The displacement of
4 the tend was caused by a nassarid which crawled on to the egg mass and disturbed
the spawning cerithid, x 5.

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МЕМ. NAT. MUS. VICT. 29 PLATE 17

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Full text of "Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria"

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