Nanotechnology: Engines On

NANOTEC^NOLOGY:

Engines On

nanowiki.info

ebook 201 1

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

»> tracking nanotechnology

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info | ebook 201 1

barcelona . february 201 1

CREDITS:

contributors: josep saldana cavalle, victor puntes
designer: joan escofet planas

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

Our most sincere thanks to Boaz Kogon, Ana de la Osa, Jordi
Arbiol, Jordi Pascual (ICN), Stephanie Lim, Eudald Casals,
Miriam Varon, Edgar Gonzalez, Isaac Ojea, Neus Bastus, Joan
Comenge, Zoe Megson, Lorena Garcia , Cecilia Lopez, Marti
Busquets and Ralph Sperling (ING-ICN), the Catalan Institute of
Nanotechnology and Nanoaracat.

ICN9 ICN

'smut Catalan Institute of Nanotechnology

"notecnologia WWWJCn.Cat

IMAGES:

Images on page 12 ("Van Gogh's Starry Night"), page 15 ("Pun-
tillado"), and page 27 ("I'm so scared!"), were taken by Miriam
Varon and Marti Busquets, from the Inorganic Nanoparticles
Group at the Catalan Institute of Nanotechnology. These images
were part of the 2010 National Scientific Photography Contest
(FOTCIENCIA www.fotciencia.es) organized by the Consejo Su-
perior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC) and the Fundacion
Espahola para la Ciencia y la Tecnologia (FECYT). Their use in
this book has been authorized by FOTCIENCIA.

Nanoaracat

nanoaracat www.nanoaracat.com

CNBSS

CNBSS™ Centre for BioNanoSafety and Sustainability

www.cnbss.eu /O^creativG

commons

®®(§)

Licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http://creativecommons.Org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/

^science

ISBN: 978-84-615-3293-3 UCOITllTlOnS

DepOSitO Legal: B-35653-201 1 http://sciencecommons.org

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

tahlft of mntfints

4 Nanotechnology: Engines On

5 Nanotechnology and Energy

6 From Candles to Little Stars

7 "A Huge Global Increase in Energy Use is Inevitable"

10 Energy In, Energy Out

1 1 Inside the Glass-House: C0 2 in the Short Term
14 Watching Plants Grow

16 Creating Energy from Sunlight

1 9 The Energy Store

21 Expands But Does Not Break

23 We Need Much More Thought

25 Sweet Electrons

26 Where Is the White Rabbit?
29 References

31 NEWS

32 Scientists as Artists in Nano Science and Technology

33 Contaminated site nanoremediation

34 Carbon Cycle 2.0

35 Crystal Sponges to Capture C0 2

36 Green Carbon Center

37 Unraveling the mysteries of photosynthesis

38 'Molecular Glass Fibre'

39 Energy Innovation Hub

40 Millennium Prize for Gratzel cells

41 Self-assembling photovoltaic technology that repairs itself

42 Turn windows into power generators

43 Car of the future powered by their bodywork

44 Next Solar Impulse aircraft and nanotechnology

45 Nanowires battery can hold 1 0 times the charge of existing Li-ion battery

46 Scanning probe microscopy reveal battery behavior at the nanoscale

47 World's smallest battery offers "a view never before seen" to improve batteries

48 Could 1 35,000 Laptops Help Solve the Energy Challenge?

49 Converting brownian motion into work

50 Self-Powered Nanosensors

51 A Delicious New Solar Cell Technology

52 Nanotechnology, climate and energy: Over-heated promises and hot air?

53 Turn carbon dioxide into useful energy

54 Nanotechnologies for future mobile devices

57 BIBLIOGRAPHY

58 Peer-Reviewed Papers
60 Institutions - Country

62 Authors List

63 EPILOGUE

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology and Energy

We would like to start the year by merging
and blending some thoughts on recent
news that appeared in on our Nanowiki
2010, following the positive experience
from last year's digest, "Nanotechnology,
Balancing the Promises" [1], on the ques-
tion of the unknown potential benefits to
human health and environmental risks of
nanotechnology. This year, the focus is on
energy.

The responsible implementation of Nano-
technology should be a balance between
the risks and benefits to society, as analy-
zed by a broad spectrum of stakeholders.
Our intention is to promote the debate
on the evolution of this young discipline,

nanotechnology, to ensure its safe and
responsible development.

The text is accompanied by a selection
of microscopy images which summarize
our efforts within the laboratory to explo-
re the world on the nanoscale during the
last year. We investigated the interaction
between nanoparticles and biological
systems, basically synthesizing building
blocks, metallic and oxide nanoparticles,
alloys, and hollow nanostructures and
studied their coating, which was either
unspecific or specially designed to mimic
biological structures or modify the biodis-
tribution of anticancer drugs.

nanowiki. info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

From Candles to Little Stars

To me, the alarm about the apparently
coming energy crisis rose with the obser-
vation of climate perturbation, increase
of atmospheric C0 2 , and loss of ice mass
some years ago. During this time we have
seen the rise and fall of both the hydrogen
and biodiesel miracles. Regarding hydro-
gen as an energy source, in my opinion,
everything is fine except we don't have
enough freely available hydrogen. On
one hand, the energy balance between
reducing water and oxidizing hydrogen is
negative. On the other hand, the idea of
the H-Bomb as a source of energy is so-
mehow useless as "cold" fusion or the like
is nothing but a dream. We hope that ITER
(originally the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor) may release man
from energy starvation but, they say [2], it
may take up to 1 5 or 20 years to know if
this will even be possible in the future. In
addition, H 2 is dangerously unstable and
has a low energy density when compared
with commonly used fuels. The second
miracle, biodiesel, is a renewed "fashion"
for one of the oldest and the most-used

energy sources in all growing civilizations:
burning wood (or its derivatives). It is a
way to take back the Sun's energy stored
in chemical bonds by means of photos-
ynthesis, recovered when aggressively
oxidized (thanks to the 20% oxygen con-
centration in the atmosphere). Apart from
the socioeconomic problems arising from
the substitution of forest and land used for
food with crops for biodiesel, the process
is, in the best case, C0 2 neutral, but as
there are always entropic losses, it will
probably not be neutral in reality. Besides,
there is probably not enough fertile land
to satisfy all of our energy hunger. Forests
close to long-lived urban areas have been
historically and systematically plundered,
and maybe it was the sustained preda-
tion of the environment that made the
"wanna-be-sedentary" men move from
valley to valley, depriving the environment
and colonizing the planet, as paleohisto-
rians suggest. But Neolithic man started
long ago and we are many, so we need
not only plenty of energy, but to evolve
as a society towards more sustainable
models. Otherwise, even dramatic popu-
lation shortages would only delay the final
crash. Apparently we can easily figure out
how to spend much more energy unless
we are forced not to do so. Maybe there
is much more oil than we think; I do not
know if we can scan the planet from space
and get a density map in which one can
unequivocally detect oil and carbon, even
that embedded in minerals, and then learn
how to deal safely with it (no pollution, no
C0 2 release). Maybe. Could we be wrong
and have many other serious problems to
contend with before this foreseen fossil-
fuel drama occurs? Even with increasing
population and high energy consumption?
Maybe.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

7

"A Huge Global Increase in Energy Use
is Inevitable"

4

838 m

Back to ITER; as one opens its web site,
the sentence: "a huge global increase in
energy use is inevitable" welcomes, and
disturbs, you. Maybe because of this, in
1996, when Richard Smalley obtained his
Nobel prize for the chemical synthesis of
the fullerenes, which he accepted as the
first Nobel Prize specifically on Nanotech-
nology, he put aside his previous scientific
career and openly used his pre-eminence
to promote a new message: Scientists
from all disciplines should focus on solving
the pressing energy demands, pollution,
and geopolitical issues before going back
to their regular concerns. He especially
focused on the use of the Sun's irradiation
to relieve mankind from energy starva-
tion. Years later, when Prof. Steven Chu
was appointed as Secretary of Energy,
the United States initiated a strong pro-
gram on energy with a significant focus on
nanotechnology, and thus special pro-
grams, centers, and offices have recently

been initiated around the globe. France
also presented its own program on nano-
technology for energy and Germany and
the EU followed later, which all indicates
the critical importance of nanotechnology
to solve our increasingly pressing energy-
related problems: increased demand and
pollution, quite apart from scarceness
of resources and geopolitical instability.
Thus, with peak oil approaching [3], when
the demand for oil will surpass our ability
to extract and distribute it, the need for
sufficient, clean, and safe (not depending
for its supply on politically unstable areas)
energy is becoming one of society's major
challenges. In many fields of energy (pro-
duction, conversion, and storage), nano-
technology is specially positioned to be a
fundamental piece of the energy solution,
as foreseen by many research institutions.
Japan and UK have also their own special
programs on nanotechnology for energy.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

8

Controlling climate change, abandoning
dependency on fossil fuels, and creating
the conditions for sustainable development
will require as great a transformation as
our ancestors accomplished over tens of
thousands of years in moving from agrar-
ian to urban societies. [4] When re-reading
the Origin of the Species by Darwin, on
its 150 th anniversary, one is struck by the
lucidity and humility of the argumentation
as well as the transformative power of its
conclusions. Yet the scientific theory of
evolution is still not widely understood or
accepted by most people. Arrhenius first
wrote about the impact of increasing C0 2
on global climate in 1896, and yet at the
highest level of government the issue was
still argued about until recently. Somehow
the ambitious enlightenment projects of
the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolu-
tion are still incomplete. Scientific knowl-
edge is not culturally appropriated. Many
people use cell phones for daily survival,
but could not explain the difference be-
tween a photon and an electron. Govern-
ments want high technology employment

growth, but don't see why you need theo-
retical or fundamental scientists. One of
the reasons for this is that common sci-
ence does not make common sense. An
interesting new development is a genera-
tion of artists that is collecting data about
their world using scientific instruments, but
employing the data for cultural purposes.
Not only are they making powerful art,
they are making science intimate, sensual,
and intuitive. They are mixing science with
the arts and humanities, which is essen-
tial to the cultural transformation neces-
sary within the next two generations [5].
Indirectly, art works and art practice also
train and nurture the brain. Artists project
what their brains interprets from the world
that scientist are trying to decode. Images
of the world are built on mirror neurons.
Thus, art becomes the Rosetta stone that
links the brain with the world, and the
supreme trainer. The emotions invoked by
art expand the experience of nature and
therefore promote knowledge and proxim-
ity of it, and care for it.

Roger F. Malina. Intimate Science and Hard Humanities.
LEONARDO, 42(3), 184-184, 2009

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Novel physical and chemical properties of
nanomaterials can be applied and engi-
neered to meet advanced material require-
ments in the new generation of energy
production, conservation, and conversion
devices. Nanomaterials have been familiar
within various fields of energy in the past.
For example, heterogeneous catalysts in
the form of nanosized particles dispersed
onto microporous supports have been ap-
plied to oil processing for many decades.
The tremendous advances in modern
nanotechnology are reflected in the ex-
panded ability to design and control mate-
rials, their size, shape, chemical composi-
tion, and assembly structure. Nowadays,
well-controlled synthesis of nanomaterials
and nanoscale characterization enables
us to unambiguously correlate the struc-
tural properties of matter with its physical,
chemical, and biological properties. For
example, fuel cells and batteries, such
as polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel
cells, solid-oxide fuel cells, and lithium
batteries are electrochemical systems for
conversion between chemical energy and
electricity. They consist of an anode and
a cathode separated by an electrolyte. A
pair of reduction and oxidation reactions
on the electrode surface results in electric-
current generation. Application of nano-
particles may significantly improve the
efficiency of fuel cells and the energy-stor-

age density of batteries. Thermoelectric
materials tailored at the nanoscale may ef-
ficiently convert waste heat generated by
combustion engines into electricity, which
improves the overall energy efficiency of
engines.

There are also examples of nanomaterial
use in lighting. Lighting uses about 20% of
the total electricity generated worldwide,
thus development of advanced lighting
devices with good luminous efficiency will
have significant impact on energy con-
sumption.

Catalysis also plays an important role in
the technologies for transportation, en-
ergy production from fossil fuels or alter-
native energy resources, bulk chemical
production, and pollution control, where
efficient and selective chemical conver-
sion processes are of great concern. Thus,
advances in nanoscience provide oppor-
tunities for developing next-generation
catalytic systems with high activities for
energetically challenging reactions, high
selectivity valuable products, and ex-
tended life times that improve efficiency
with respect to energy production and
consumption. The selective conversion of
biomass-derived carbohydrates into liquid
fuels and valuable chemicals is a key step
in the conversion of biomass. Additionally,
the technology thus developed can also
be applied to degrade persistent organic
pollutants in environmental remediation
[6].

nanowiki.info Nanotechnology: Engines On

10

Energy In, Energy Out

At present, developing efficient and clean
energy technologies is an urgent task that
is crucial to the long-term energy and en-
vironmental security of our society. Energy
conversion and transport in nanomaterials
differs significantly from those in bulk ma-
terials because of the difference in effect
of classical and quantum-size effects on
energy carriers such as photons, phonons,
electrons, and molecules. Nanoscience for
energy applications is now focused on tai-
loring these nanoscale effects for efficient
energy technologies such as photovolta-
ics, photochemical solar cells, thermoelec-
trics, fuel cells, photoelectrochemical cells,
batteries, and so forth. For example, solar
energy has been considered the cleanest
and most renewable energy source (under
ideal conditions, radiation power on a hori-
zontal surface is 1000 W/m 2 . High-energy
photons are absorbed in the atmosphere
leaving UV-visible light in the higher en-
ergy range). Efficient light absorption to
generate charge carriers - an electron or
its counterpart, a hole - in a solid occurs
on the scale of several hundreds of nano-
meters (equivalent to the wavelength of
visible light). Electrons travel short dis-
tances before being trapped. The mean
free path of the excited charged carrier is
much shorter than the wavelength of light.

To achieve efficient photon absorption and
collection of excited charge carriers in a
photovoltaic device, an optimal design
should be a low-dimensional nanostruc-
ture, such as semiconductor nanowires,
in which at least one dimension is larger
than the wavelength of light and another
dimension shorter than the mean free
path of the charge carriers, as is the case
in photosynthesis. While photovoltaic
cells directly convert photonic energy into
electricity by separating the excited elec-
tron-hole pairs in photovoltaic materials,
photoelectrochemical cells use the excited
electrons and holes to catalyze redox
reactions, which may split water or C0 2
to generate fuel. So far, photovoltaic and
photoelectrochemical cells have not made
a strong contribution to energy supply
because of their currently low conversion
efficiencies.

The research reported this year relating to
energy can be clustered into a few main
fields such as photovoltaic devices and
photosynthesis, batteries, fuel cells, and
carbon dioxide management. Carbon
dioxide may be responsible for climate
change and if the climate does change we
may require even more energy to survive,
unless we adapt.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

11

Inside the Glass-House
C0 2 in the Short Term

It makes sense, before focusing all our ef-
forts on substituting the energy system, to
deal with the consequences of the current
one if necessary. It would be irresponsible
to allow all the oil to be burned, just be-
cause it will not be as easily available for
much longer. Peak oil is indeed expected
to occur not very late in this century.

Earth's carbon cycle is overburdened. We
emit more carbon into the atmosphere
than natural processes are able to remove
- an imbalance with negative consequenc-
es. The Carbon Cycle 2.0 project [7] also

means collaboration 2.0; tackling one of
the greatest challenges facing the world
will require an urgent and more creative
take on the kind of cross-disciplinary
problem-solving needed to bridge the
gap between basic and applied research.
These are small steps worth taking. The
initiative aims to become an umbrella un-
der which all interested stakeholders can
meet and discuss, share and cooperate.

Among the many proposals, "Crystal
Sponges to Capture C0 2 " is an interest-
ing one [8]. Scientists reported the "ulti-

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

12

mate porosity of a nanomaterial", which
achieved world records for both porosity
and carbon-dioxide storage capacity in
an important class of materials known
as MOFs, or metal-organic frameworks.
MOFs, sometimes described as crystal
sponges, have pores — nanoscale open-
ings which can store gases that are usu-
ally difficult to store and transport. Poros-
ity is crucial for compacting large amounts
of gases into small volumes and is an
essential property for capturing carbon
dioxide. The concentration of C0 2 in the
atmosphere is 388 ppm, by volume, in the

sponge it can be 478 000 ppm, over three
orders of magnitude greater, thus we only
need a piece of composite about the size
of one thousandth of an atmosphere to
capture it all; though we do not need to
do this, it is nice to know that the volume
of the atmosphere is a little over a quarter
of a trillion cubic kilometers (although the
distribution of C0 2 throughout the atmo-
sphere is not even).

Absorbing and capturing C0 2 , in sponges,
phytoplankton, or forests is necessary but
in my humble opinion it does not con-

Van Gogh's Starry Night. Image winner of the 2010 National Scientific Photography Contest (FotCiencia) organized by the Consejo Superior
de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC) and the Fundacion Espahola para la Ciencia y la Tecnologia (FECYT).

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Hi

nanowiki.info

nanowiki.info

tribute to solving the energy shortage,
although it could help to avoid the climate-
change drama. Research could lead to
cleaner energy and the ability to capture
heat-trapping carbon dioxide emissions
before they reach the atmosphere and
contribute to global warming, rising sea
levels, and the increased acidity of the
oceans, researchers have reportedly said.
Regarding rising sea levels, we have to
subtract the Arctic from the calculations as
it is effectively a giant ice-cube; since ice
it is less dense than water, it floats. From
childhood, we may remember how a glass
full of water with a floating ice cube does
not overflow when the cube has melted
to form extra water, because Archimedes
was right and ice is less dense than water.

Regarding the waste from managing C0 2
and other energy needs, a Green Carbon
Center has been created to bring together
the benefits offered by oil, gas, coal, wind,
solar, geothermal, biomass, and other
carbon energy sources in a way that will
not only help ensure the world's energy
future but also provide a means to recycle
carbon dioxide into useful products [9].
Scientists state that, whether or not one
believes in anthropogenic climate change,
humans are throwing away a potentially
valuable resource with every ton of carbon
dioxide released into the atmosphere. If
we learned how to turn carbon dioxide
into a useful molecule, this waste could be
transformed into raw materials. This initia-
tive addresses the very near future of ener-
gy with a focus on "green carbon" and the
technological know-how to back it up. In
the areas of more intense production and
consumption of fossil fuels, researchers
are better placed to address these issues.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

14

Watching Plants Grow

Photosynthesis is a marvellous example of
how to use and store energy from the Sun;
studying it will help us to better under-
stand energy processing, and therefore it
is a hot topic in current science. Photo-
synthesis is the process by which green
plants convert sunlight into electrochemi-
cal energy. Researchers have recorded
the first observation and characterization
of a critical physical phenomenon behind
photosynthesis known as quantum en-
tanglement [10]. When two quantum-sized
particles, for example a pair of electrons,
are "entangled", any change to one will be
instantly reflected in the other, no mat-
ter how far apart they might be. Though
physically separate, the two particles act
as a single entity. The results of this study
hold implications not only for the develop-
ment of artificial photosynthesis systems

as a renewable nonpolluting source of
electrical energy, but also for the future
development of quantum-based tech-
nologies in areas such as computing — a
quantum computer could perform certain
operations thousands of times faster than
any conventional computer. Fascinatingly,
entanglement can exist and persist in the
chaotic chemical complexity of a biologi-
cal system at room temperature. Scien-
tists have presented strong evidence for
quantum entanglement in noisy nonequi-
librium systems at high temperatures by
determining the timescales and tempera-
tures at which entanglement is observ-
able in a protein structure that is central to
photosynthesis in certain bacteria. Green
plants and certain bacteria are able to
transfer the energy harvested from sun-
light through a network of light-harvesting

pigment-protein complexes and into reac-
tion centers with nearly 100% efficiency.
Speed is the key; transfer of the solar
energy takes place so fast that little energy
is wasted as heat.

In related news, nanotechnologists used
the photosynthetic system of bacteria to
transport light over relatively long distanc-
es. They developed a type of "molecular
glass fibre" a thousand times thinner than
a human hair, made of light-harvesting-
complex proteins [1 1]. These proteins
transport the sunlight within the cells of
plants and bacteria to a place in the cell

where the solar energy is stored. We can
learn a lot from nature in experiments such
as this. When we understand how nature
works, we can then imitate it. Using the
Sun's energy, in increasing in quantity and
efficiency is a subject of intense research
and generates large and ambitious mul-
tidisciplinary collaborative projects. One
example of these is the ongoing Helios
Project that aims at using nanotechnology
in the efficient capture of sunlight and its
conversion into electricity to surpass cur-
rent economical fuel-production processes
[12].

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

16

Creating Energy from Sunlight

In order to replace fossil fuels, we need to
become a lot more proficient at harvest-
ing sunlight and converting it into forms of
energy that can be used for transportation
and other human needs. Nature provides
a model solution to this problem in pho-
tosynthesis. Together with Helios, a new
Energy Innovation Hub has been created
aimed at developing revolutionary meth-
ods to generate fuels directly from sun-
light [13], that is, to bring together leading
researchers in an ambitious effort aimed
at simulating nature's photosynthetic
apparatus for practical energy produc-
tion. The goal of the Hub is to develop an

integrated solar energy into chemical fuel
conversion system and move this system
from the bench-top discovery phase to a
scale on which it can be commercialized.
This broad and complex research will be
directed at the discovery of the functional
components necessary to assemble a
complete artificial photosynthetic system:
light absorbers, catalysts, molecular link-
ers, and separation membranes.

As stated, the most obvious energy source
is the Sun, the origin of almost all the
energy found on Earth. Simply, the bio-
sphere consists of a discontinuous layer

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

17

of organic matter spread onto a rock with
a melted core floating in space and be-
ing toasted by the Sun. The surface of the
Earth receives solar radiation energy at an
average of 81 ,000 terawatts, which ex-
ceeds the whole global energy demand by
a —mere — factor of over 5,000. Yet, we
are still figuring out a cost-effective way of
harnessing it to avoid driving Earth into ex-
treme cold and darkness in a future where
solar panels shadow the planet.

In addition, it is clear that if the energy
used to produce the "energy-source
device" is more than that the device will
deliver during its full life cycle, then the
device is not an energy source but sim-
ply an energy buffer and carrier. This may
happen when the energy employed purify-
ing silicon is greater than that recovered
during the full life of the photovoltaic cell
in which it is used. Thus, an important
advance was reflected in the 2010 Millen-
nium Prize to the father of third-generation
dye-sensitized solar cells [14]. Gratzel
cells, which promise electricity-generating
windows and low-cost solar panels, are a
third-generation photovoltaic technology.
Such cells have just made their debut in
consumer products. The excellent price/
performance ratio of these novel devices
gives them major potential as significant
contributors to the diverse portfolio of
future energy technologies. Gratzel cells
are likely to have an important role in low-
cost, large-scale solutions for renewable
energy. Beyond photovoltaics, the con-
cepts of Gratzel cells can also be applied
in batteries and hydrogen production. This
technology, often described as "artificial
photosynthesis", is a promising alternative
to standard silicon photovoltaics. The cells
are made of low-cost materials and do not

need elaborate apparatus to manufacture
them. They are based on a semiconduc-
tor formed by a photosensitized anode
and an electrolyte; a photoelectrochemical
system. Because it is made of low-cost
materials and does not require elaborate
apparatus to manufacture, this cell is tech-
nically attractive. Likewise, manufacture
can be significantly less expensive than
older solid-state cell designs. The cell can
also be engineered into flexible sheets and
is mechanically robust, requiring no pro-
tection from minor events like hail or tree
strikes.

One of the problems when dealing with
sunlight is that the Sun's rays can be high-
ly destructive to many materials. Sunlight
leads to a gradual degradation of many of
the systems developed to harness it. But
plants have adopted an interesting strat-
egy to address this issue: They constantly
break down their light-capturing mol-
ecules and reassemble them from scratch,
so the basic structures that capture the
Sun's energy are, in effect, always brand

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

18

new. Thus, researchers have proposed a
self-assembling photovoltaic technology
that repairs itself [15]. Their proposal is a
novel set of self-assembling molecules
that can turn sunlight into electricity;
structures that can be repeatedly broken
down and then reassembled quickly, just
by adding or removing an additional solu-
tion. Researchers were fascinated by the
extremely efficient repair mechanism of
plant cells. In full summer sunlight, a leaf
on a tree recycles its proteins about every
45 minutes. To imitate photosynthesis,
synthetic phospholipids that form discs
have been produced; these discs provide
structural support for other molecules
that actually respond to light, which re-
lease electrons when struck by photons
of visible light. The discs, which carry the
reaction centers, are in a solution where
they attach themselves spontaneously to
carbon nanotubes. The nanotubes hold
the phospholipid discs in a uniform align-
ment so that the reaction centers can all
be exposed to sunlight at once, and they
also act as wires to collect and channel
the flow of electrons created by the reac-
tive molecules. The system disintegrates
when a surfactant is added to the solution.
When the surfactant is removed by push-
ing the solution through a membrane, the
compounds spontaneously re-assemble
once again into a perfectly formed, reju-

Nanotechnology: Engines On

venated photocell. In the new assembly
damaged proteins will be excluded and
assembly misconformations removed. It
is likely that one would need to feed the
system new molecules from time to time...
as is the case in biological systems.

For the many materials proposed, there
persists the intention to explore the pro-
duction of thin films (organic or inorganic)
for photovoltaic technology. Of course, it
is the surface that is exposed to the Sun,
and the bulk is shaded from it. However,
I find the recurrence of the idea to turn
windows into power generators curious.
Why windows? Because they are very flat,
processable in decent sizes, present in
almost any building and exposed to the
Sun, I suppose. Researchers even remark
that a solar cell made of nanoparticles
is a thin film that absorbs only about the
1 0% of the visible light falling on it, and
acting mainly in the UV, so its is highly
transparent and allows the coverage of
many things without changing their aspect
[16]. Also, since it is a thin film that can be
coated onto large areas, it could become
very much cheaper than conventional
devices.

19

The Energy Store

In principle, an automobile is a nonsus-
tainable concept; Fordians dreams of one
man, one car require too much metal and
oil. But it is pretty well designed in many
respects. It uses the energy it generates,
and generates the energy it needs. Storing
fuel is easier than storing energy. However,
if the device can not host an energy-on-
demand production system as a combus-
tion motor, it will need to store it. Some-
times, energy has to be converted, stored,
and converted again, with significant
energy losses. One of the main research
activities of the last 12 months has been a
focus on batteries.

When thinking about the future, someone
of my age could have expected to have
flying cars by 2010, but in absence of that,
a car of the future powered by its body-
work is not that bad. A composite blend of
carbon fibres and polymer resin is being
developed that can store and charge more
energy, faster than conventional batteries
can [17]. At the same time, the material is
extremely strong and pliant, which means
it can be shaped for use in building the
car's body panels. Imagine a car whose
body also serves as a rechargeable bat-
tery; a battery that stores braking energy
while you drive and that also stores en-
ergy when you plug in the car overnight to

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

recharge. If those projects are successful,
there are many other possible applica-
tion areas. For instance, mobile phones
will be as slim as credit cards and laptops
will manage longer without needing to be
recharged. The composite materials be-
ing developed, which are made of carbon
fibres and a polymer resin, will store and
discharge large amounts of energy much
more quickly than conventional batter-
ies. In addition, the material does not
use chemical processes, which makes
it quicker to recharge than conventional
batteries. Furthermore, this recharging
process causes little degradation in the
composite material, because it does not
involve a chemical reaction, whereas con-
ventional batteries degrade over time.

It is worth remembering that among the
foremost challenges in the development
of hybrids and electric cars are the size,
weight, (toxicity) and cost of the current
generation of batteries. In order to deliver
sufficient capacity using today's technol-
ogy, it is necessary to fit large batteries,
which in turn exceedingly increases the
car's weight. But when thinking of light-
ness one thinks about flying, and a solar
plane that can flight at night seems to
be sci-fi [18]. The Solar Impulse aircraft,

which is powered only by solar energy,
triumphantly completed its first night flight.
The ultralight aircraft was airborne for a to-
tal of 26 hours — from 7 am on July 7 until
9 am the following day (Central European
Time) — before finally landing as planned
at Payerne airbase in Switzerland. This
aircraft is now officially the first manned
aircraft capable of flying day and night
without fuel, powered entirely by solar
energy. The latest cutting-edge technol-
ogy has been incorporated into this pro-
totype airplane, which has the wingspan
of a large airliner (63.40 meters) and the
weight of a midsize car (1 .600 kilograms).
Some 12,000 solar cells cover its surface
to run four electrical engines and store the
solar energy for the night in 400 kilograms
of lithium batteries. As was the case with
instant soup and Teflon, which were devel-
oped as sidelines from the Apollo project,
making things fly has important technolog-
ical consequences. Thus, other potential
derivatives from the Solar Impulse project
include innovative adhesives, rigid poly-
urethane foams for paneling in the cockpit
and engine, and extremely thin yet break-
resistant polycarbonate films and sheets,
in which carbon nanotubes and structural
control at the nanoscale are paramount.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

21

s But Does Not Break

Simple modifications may have large
impacts. Nanowired batteries can hold 10
times the charge of existing Li-ion ones
[19]. Researchers have found a way to use
silicon nanowires to reinvent the recharge-
able lithium-ion batteries that power lap-
tops, iPods™, video cameras, cell phones,
and countless other devices. Indeed, the
greatly expanded storage capacity could
also make Li-ion batteries attractive to
electric-car manufacturers. The electrical-
storage capacity of a Li-ion battery is
limited by how much lithium can be held
in the battery's anode, which is typically
made of carbon. Silicon has a much higher
capacity than carbon, but also has a draw-
back. Silicon placed in a battery swells as
it absorbs positively charged lithium atoms
during charging, then shrinks during use
as the lithium is drawn out of the silicon.
This expand/shrink cycle typically causes
the silicon (often in the form of particles
or a thin film) to pulverize, degrading the
performance of the battery. A new battery
gets around this problem with nanotech-
nology. The lithium is stored in a forest of
tiny silicon nanowires, each with a diam-
eter one-thousandth the thickness of a
sheet of paper. The nanowires inflate to
four times their normal size as they soak
up lithium. But, unlike other silicon shapes,
they do not fracture. It has been known
for years that, when compared to the bulk,
nanocrystals subjected to stress deform
rather than break, in part due to the high
energetic cost of a fracture (vacancies and
dislocations) in such a tiny crystal domain.

As industries and consumers increasingly
seek improved battery power sources,
cutting-edge microscopy is providing
an unprecedented perspective on how
lithium-ion batteries function at the nano-

Nanotechnology: Engines On

22

scale. Electrochemical strain microscopy
examines the movement of lithium ions
through a battery's cathode material in
nanometer volumes. By measuring volume
change, it is also possible to visualize how
lithium ions flow through the material [20].
Conventional electrochemical techniques,
which analyze electric current instead of
strain, do not work on a nanoscale level
because the electrochemical currents are
too small to measure. Besides, very small
changes at the nanometer level could have
a huge impact at the device level. For ex-
ample, size expansion and memory effects
at the nanoscale will be better understood.

As we need to try and fail, bake and
shake, laboratory models are very im-
portant. Thus, a bench-top version of
the world's smallest battery with an an-
ode consisting of a single nanowire, one
seven-thousandth the thickness of the
human hair, has been created [21]. This
single nanobattery offers "a never-before-
seen perspective" to improve batteries.
These experiments enable us to study the
charging and discharging of a battery in
real time and with atomic resolution, thus
enlarging our understanding of the fun-
damental mechanisms by which batteries
work. Because nanowire-based materials
in lithium-ion batteries offer the potential
for significant improvements in power and
energy density over bulk electrodes, more

stringent investigations of their operating
properties should improve new genera-
tions of devices and commodities (as/if we
need them).

Once again, the tin oxide nanowire rod
employed in these studies nearly doubles
in length during charging, which is far
more than the increase in its diameter —
a fact that helps to avoid short circuits
and degradation that shorten battery life.
The common belief of workers in this field
has been that batteries swell across their
diameter, not longitudinally. Researchers
followed the progression of the lithium
ions as they travel along the nanowire and
create what researchers christened the
"Medusa front" — an area where a high
density of mobile dislocations causes
the nanowire to bend and wiggle as the
front progresses. This web of disloca-
tions is caused by lithium penetration into
the crystalline lattice. These observations
proved that nanowires can sustain large
stress (>10 GPa) induced by lithiation
without breaking, which indicates that
nanowires are very good candidates for
battery electrodes.

Nanotechnology: Engines On nanowiki.info

We Need Much More Thought

As Alain Tourraine pointed out when re-
ceiving the Principe De Asturias price,
todays crisis is not a financial crisis but an
intellectual one. We need more, and better
ideas. To understand and master anything
we need to study, we can agree on that;
in addition to study, we have to guess and
speculate.

Firstly, to advance thoughts, one must do
a lot of thinking. As discussed in "Could
135,000 Laptops Help Solve the Energy
Challenge?", [22] both the Jaguar (equiva-
lent to 109.000 laptops) and Intrepid
(26.000 laptops) supercomputers are be-
ing utilized as part of a research consor-
tium to study and demonstrate a working
prototype of a rechargeable lithium/air bat-
tery. The lithium/air battery can potentially
store 10 times the energy of a lithium/ion
battery of the same weight. This interest in
massive computing finds echoes in the in-
dividuals who donate time on their person-
al computers for humanitarian projects by

registering on the World Community Grid,
and installing a free, unobtrusive, and
secure software program on their comput-
ers running either Linux, Microsoft Win-
dows, or Mac OS. When idle or between
keystrokes on a lightweight task, their PCs
request data from World Community Grid's
server, which runs Berkeley Open Infra-
structure for Network Computing (BOINC)
software. This project has the intention of
sharing idle computing time and thereby
helping scientists to solve humanitarian
challenges, many of them related, directly
or indirectly, to energy.

There was also news on converting
Brownian motion into work to suck energy
from the thermal bath [23]. The molecu-
lar motors on which life depends on are
driven by Brownian motion. In 1827, Rob-
ert Brown famously observed pollen grains
dancing as if alive, under his microscope.
At first he thought he might be observ-
ing the "elementary molecules of organic

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

bodies" — the life force itself. However,
when he repeated the experiment with
fine clays, he observed the same. At the
few-nanometer scale, molecular motors,
such as those responsible for tensing and
relaxing muscles, move in a particular
manner: they propel themselves forwards
despite — or thanks to — a continuous
bombardment of randomly moving mol-
ecules in their surroundings. This random
movement is called Brownian motion and
a well-constructed nanoscale motor actu-
ally makes use of it to generate a directed
movement (and therefore work). The
device introduced by the physicist Marian
Smoluchowski in 1912, as a Gedankenex-
periment, is a classical example of such a
motor. Obtaining work from a thermal bath
may sound like a dream, but it is the way
that mechanical work is done in molecu-
lar biology, how the messenger reaches
the receptor or the tree pumps water to
its highest leaf. This effect is probably
restricted to devices that are about one
order of magnitude larger than the size of
the solvent molecules and close in density,
and forces of femto-Newtons have to fit
in with complex machinery where random
motion becomes profitable.

Tiny energy for tiny devices is a very se-

ductive idea. Thus, as you can not plug a
nanosensor or nanodevice into a power
grid if it has to travel, scan, and report,
we need self-powered nanodevices. By
combining a new generation of piezo-
electric nanogenerators with two types of
nanowire sensors, researchers have cre-
ated what are believed to be the first self-
powered nanometer-scale sensing devices
that draw power from the conversion of
mechanical energy [24]. The new devices
can measure the pH value of liquids or
detect the presence of ultraviolet light
using electrical current produced from
mechanical energy in the environment. For
conversion of mechanical energy into elec-
tricity, piezos, such as devices in shoes
to feed mobile phones, already exist; with
nano dimensions, the density of units
increases thanks to miniaturization and the
performance increases due to increased
elasticity. The new generator and nano-
scale sensors open up new possibilities
for very small sensing devices that can
operate without batteries, which are pow-
ered by mechanical energy harvested from
the environment. Energy sources could
include the motion of tides, sonic waves,
mechanical vibration, the flapping of a flag
in the wind, pressure from shoes of a hiker,
or the movement of clothing.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Sweet Electrons

25

Finally, one of the sweetest ideas pre-
sented was "A New Solar Cell Technology
based on Doughnuts and Tea". It turns
out that these delicious little things con-
tain everything we need to make a simple
solar cell [25]. The resulting power may be
small, but it could charge a mobile phone
or sensor and it reminds us how close and
accessible nature is, through the knowl-
edge that we can produce electricity from
sun in the kitchen. In search of cheap ef-
ficient solar cells made from raw, available
materials, the authors presented how to
get solar cells from powdered doughnuts
(as a source of the semiconductor Ti0 2 )

and some passion tea (a dye) full of anth-
rocyanins that color the Ti0 2 and shift the
Ti0 2 absorbance from the UV to the visible
range and produce electricity when ex-
posed to the Sun.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

26

Where Is the White Rabbit?

Later in the year, the Friends of the Earth
(FOE) released a document entitled "Nan-
otechnology, climate and energy: Over-
heated promises and hot air?" [26]

In this document, FOE say: "despite
claims that nanotechnology can limit
climate change and promote energy ef-
ficiency, we've found that the use of
nanotechnology actually comes at a large
environmental cost, people to continue
with 'business as usual' and avoid seri-
ous improvements in energy efficiency and
behavioral changes". Whoa! Please, let
us do this right. I think they are going too
fast, and going too fast will turn work into
power and consequently increase energy
consumption. Slow down; urge is not
sustainable. Recently we published a little
paper about our experience in a European
project on Nanotoxicology, where some
company was already selling products
with bioactive nanoparticles while scien-
tists were still wondering how to deal with
them safely [27]. This is then not precisely

Nanotechnology: Engines On

a problem of science and knowledge (to
me it is a problem of ignorance, we should
better understand the world at is molecu-
lar and nanometric level to promote more
responsible technologies). It is a problem
of a social kind of hysteria. The "when do
we want it? — Now!" concept does not
fully apply to natural processes, civilization
building, or responsible technological de-
velopment. In fact, business is, as usual,
a social cultural problem and not really
scientific. To deny and obscure science
may be tempting to some who feel that
humans are not up to the challenge, but
such obscuring attitudes have never led to
any good.

The report also highlights how nanotech-
nology is primarily used in products that
do not provide energy savings, such as
clothing, cosmetics, and sporting goods.
This is true, but it is also "noise", which
should not distract us too much. To some
extent it could be as simple as allowing
regulation of technology by applying com-
mon-sense precautionary principles over
a reasonable period of time, while more
useful applications are being developed
beyond colloidal gold for the soul or bio-
cide nanoparticles as deodorants. Sense-
less panic and euphoria often parasitize
discovery and parasitizing is a natural
fingerprint of molecular biology.

Additionally, nanotechnology is not by its
nature expensive and energy consum-
ing, though some aspects of its study are.
However, in producing nanotechnology, it
depends if you use a laser beam to sculpt
out a nanometric figure in a high vacuum
chamber or if you add a mixture of salts
and surfactants in a controlled manner at
room temperature to produce amazing

nanowiki.info

nanoparticles at incredibly low raw-materi-
al prices.

In response to the FOE report, 350.org
founder Bill McKibben said, "Very few
people have looked beyond the shiny
promise of nanotechnology to try and un-
derstand how this far-reaching new tech-
nique is actually developing. This report is
an excellent glimpse inside, and it offers
a judicious and balanced account of a
subject we need very much to be thinking
about." I am not sure about what people

think and how far they look, but we hon-
estly hope Nanowiki will help people to
reflect upon all those important subjects;
not just the lay people, but also scientists
and all other citizens.

Victor Puntes

and the Inorganic Nanoparticles Group-
January 201 1

nanowiki. info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

28

The province of scientifically determined
fact has been enormously extended; theo-
retical knowledge has become vastly more
profound in every department of science.
But the assimilative power of the human
intellect is and remains strictly limited.
Hence it was inevitable that the activity of
the individual investigator should be con-
fined to a smaller and smaller section of
human knowledge. Worse still, as a result
of this specialization, it is becoming in-
creasingly difficult for even a rough general

grasp of science as a whole, without which
the true spirit of research is inevitably
handicapped, to keep pace with progress.
A situation is developing similar to the one
symbolically represented in the Bible by
the story of the Tower of Babel. Every seri-
ous scientific worker is painfully conscious
of this involuntary relegation to an ever-
narrowing sphere of knowledge, which is
threatening to deprive the investigator of
his broad horizon and degrade him to the
level of a mechanic.

In Honour of Arnold Berliner's Seventieth Birthday, Albert Einstein

References

29

[I] Nanotechnology: balancing the promises

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[2] ITER - the way to new energy

http://www.iter.org

[3] Oil Crash Observatory. La urgente necesidad
de cobrar consciencia

http://oilcrash.net/introduccion

[4] Roger F. Malina. Intimate Science and Hard
Humanities. LEONARDO, 42(3), 184-184,
2009

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/leonardo/summary/v042/42. 3. malina.html

[5] Scientists as Artists in Nano Science and
Technology

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[6] Contaminated site nanoremediation

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[7] Carbon Cycle 2.0

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[8] Crystal Sponges to Capture C0 2

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[9] Green Carbon Center

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[10] Unraveling the mysteries of photosynthesis

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[II] 'Molecular Glass Fibre'

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[12] Helios project. Solar Energy Research Cen-
ter (SERC)

http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-Programs/helios-serc/index.html

[13] Energy Innovation Hub

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[14] Millennium Prize for Gratzel cells

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[15] Self-assembling photovoltaic technology
that repairs itself

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[16] Turn windows into power generators

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

[1 7] Car of the future powered by their bodywork

http ://www. nanowi ki . i nf o

nanowiki.info

[18] Next Solar Impulse aircraft and nanotechnol-
ogy

http://www.nanowiki.info

[19] Nanowires battery can hold 10 times the
charge of existing Li-ion battery

http://www.nanowiki.info

[20] Scanning probe microscopy reveal battery
behavior at the nanoscale

http://www.nanowiki.info

[21] World's smallest battery offers "a view never
before seen" to improve batteries

http://www.nanowiki.info

[22] Could 1 35,000 Laptops Help Solve the En-
ergy Challenge?

http://www.nanowiki.info

[23] Converting brownian motion into work

http://www.nanowiki.info

[24] Self-Powered Nanosensors

http://www.nanowiki.info

[25] A Delicious New Solar Cell Technology

http://www.nanowiki.info

[26] Nanotechnology, climate and energy: Over-
heated promises and hot air?

http://www.nanowiki.info

[27] Antonietta M. Gatti and Victor Puntes. Scien-
tists still wondering - Industry already selling.
NANOMAGAZINE. Issue 12. June 2009.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

30

|»> tracking nanotechnology

hHb

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

31

32 Scientists as Artists in Nano Science and Technology

33 Contaminated site nanoremediation

34 Carbon Cycle 2.0

35 Crystal Sponges to Capture C0 2

36 Green Carbon Center

37 Unraveling the mysteries of photosynthesis

38 'Molecular Glass Fibre'

39 Energy Innovation Hub

40 Millennium Prize for Gratzel cells

41 Self-assembling photovoltaic technology that repairs itself

42 Turn windows into power generators

43 Car of the future powered by their bodywork

44 Next Solar Impulse aircraft and nanotechnology

45 Nanowires battery can hold 10 times the charge of existing Li-ion battery

46 Scanning probe microscopy reveal battery behavior at the nanoscale

47 World's smallest battery offers "a view never before seen" to improve batteries

48 Could 135,000 Laptops Help Solve the Energy Challenge?

49 Converting brownian motion into work

50 Self-Powered Nanosensors

51 A Delicious New Solar Cell Technology

52 Nanotechnology, climate and energy: Over-heated promises and hot air?

53 Turn carbon dioxide into useful energy

54 Nanotechnologies for future mobile devices

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Scientists as Artists

in Nano Science and Technology

Roger Malina, February 15, 2010

tags: art + Roger Malina + leonardo/isast

Image: 'mirror your neurons expressions' by Joan Escofet for context weblog

In looking at the interaction of nano
science and the arts it is interesting to
look at the interest of scientists in the
arts. These fall into two broad catego-
ries:

a) Scientists who have engaged in
artistic practice during their scientific
career, and this was important to their
creativity.

b) Scientists who have collaborated
with artists to create art works and
this influenced their research practice,
as well as creating art work exhibited
professionally.

In the first category, Leonardo Co
Editor Robert Root Bernstein wrote
a note about Nobel prize winning
chemist Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin.

Dodgkin was a talented amateur artist
and botanist who became a world au-
thority on Sudanese flowers, ancient
textiles and weaving techniques. She
also became an expert on mosaics.

DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN:
STRUCTURE AS ART

June 2007, Vol. 40, No. 3, Pages 259-261

© 2007 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Robert Root-Bernstein: Art Science
the Essential Connection

Department of Physiology, Michigan State Uni-
versity, East Lansing, Ml 48824 U.S.A.
E-mail: rootbern@msu.edu

Hodgkin credits her drawing practice
as being crucial to her development
ideas on symmetry groups and chemi-
cal structure. At the end her life she
drew many drawings.

"What she finished instead were stun-
ning images of natural structures too
small for the naked eye to perceive-
surely a form of art as creative and
inspiring as the mosaics, Celtic knots
and architectural innovations she
recorded in her earlier years."

With recent work on mirror neu-
rons, we are developing better
ideas of how the human mind
constructs mental models, and
often this involves kinesthetic
mirroring. Drawing and other
artistic practice can be strate-
gies for scientific creativity and
innovation.

Derrick de Kerchove in the recent
YASMIN discussion on "Simulation"
pointed out that it will also force us to
at art practice in a new way: "Though
still controversial, if the theory ( mirror
neurons) turns out to be verified, it
may have consequences for the study
of media, of performing arts and of
the growing practice of simulation in
general. The acting profession from
ancient Greek theatre to television,
cinema and virtual reality could be no
more and no less than a biological
strategy to introduce new and com-
plex human experience and behavior
in society. It would go at some length
to explain the manner by which the
spectator accesses emotions that are
quite literally projected into him or her
by the performance."

As we look at the way that nano
scientists and nano technologists are
involved in the arts we need to under-
stand the retro active of their art mak-
ing on themselves and their creativity
, as well as the way the art works
produced allow viewers to access new
domains of the natural world. They
in effect are developing new forms
of sensuality for sensory awareness
mediated by scientific instruments.
Source: Via Leonardo/ISAST coopera-
tion with NanoWiki.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

33

Contaminated site nanoremediation

josep saldana, August 3, 2009

tags: nanoremediation + waste + nanotoxicology

Total no. of sites = 294,000 Total = $209 billion

Estimated number (%) of U.S. hazardous waste sites (A) and estimated cleanup costs [bil-
lions US$ (percent of total)] for 2004-2033 (B). UST, underground storage tanks. Adapted
from U.S. EPA (2004).

Map of remediation sites listed in Supplemental Material, Table 2. Project on Emerging Nano-
technologies 2009.

While industrial sectors involving
semiconductors, memory and storage
technologies, display, optical and pho-
tonic technologies, energy, biomedi-
cal, and health sectors produce the
most nanomaterial-containing prod-
ucts, nanotechnology is also used as
an environmental technology to pro-
tect the environment through pollution
prevention, treatment, and cleanup.
This paper focuses on environmental
cleanup and provides readers with a
background and overview of current
practice, research findings, societal
issues, potential environment, health,
and safety implications, and future
directions for nanoremediation. We
do not present an exhaustive review
of chemistry/engineering methods of
the technology but rather an introduc-
tion and summary of the application
of nanotechnology in remediation.
Nanoscale zero valent iron is dis-
cussed in more detail. We searched
Web of Science for research studies
and accessed recent U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) and
other publicly available reports that
addressed the applications and impli-
cations associated with nanoremedia-
tion techniques. We also conducted
personal interviews with practitioners
about specific site remediations. Infor-
mation from 45 sites, a representative
portion of the total projects underway,
was aggregated to show nanomateri-
als used, type of pollutants cleaned
up, and organization responsible for
the site.

Nanoremediation has the po-
tential not only to reduce the
overall costs of cleaning up large
scale contaminated sites, but it
also can reduce cleanup time,
eliminate the need for treatment
and disposal of contaminated
soil, reduce some contaminant
concentrations to near zero— all
in situ. Proper evaluation of nano-
remediation, particularly full-scale
ecosystem wide studies, needs to
be conducted to prevent any poten-
tial adverse environmental impacts.

Source: From Nanotechnology and
In situ Remediation: A review of
the benefits and potential risks

by Barbara Karn, Todd Kuiken, Martha
Otto. This article has been reviewed
by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication.

The Project on Emerging Nano-
technologies has produced a map
- Nanoremediation map - showing the
location of sites at which nanotech-

nology has been used as a remedia-
tion technology and providing some
information about each site.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

34

Carbon Cycle 2.0

josep saldana, October 25, 2010
tags: energy + climate

Earth's carbon cycle is overburdened.
We emit more carbon into the atmo-
sphere than natural processes are able
to remove - an imbalance with nega-
tive consequences. Carbon Cycle 2.0
is a Berkeley Lab initiative to provide
the science needed to restore this bal-
ance by integrating the Lab's diverse
research activities and delivering
creative solutions toward a carbon-
neutral energy future.

Carbon Cycle 2.0 means collaboration
2.0: tackling one of the greatest chal-
lenges facing the nation and world will
require an urgent and more creative
take on the kind of cross-disciplinary
problem solving needed to bridge
the gap between basic and applied
research. In the spirit of what made
Berkeley Lab great, the entire Lab
community must take initiative and en-
gage on CC2.0 for it to be a success.
Source: Berkeley Lab - Carbon Cycle
2.0

Carbon Cycle 1.0: relatively stable geochemical cycles

50,000 BC- 1750 CE
average net atmospheric gain: 0.0 ± 0.02 gigatons carbon per year

Carbon Cycle 1.x: An increasingly perturbed system

Gigatonnes of carbon per year

Net flux of C due to human activity ~100X natural geological flux

Carbon Cycle 2.0: Restoring balance to the carbon cycle

Balance can be restored while allowing for growth in population and wellbeing

Frames from Director Alivisatos's Climate Change Presentation.
January 201 1

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

35

Crystal Sponges to Capture C0 2

■

josep saldana, July 18, 2010
tags: nanomaterial + climate + energy

Crystal structure of MOF-200, in UCLA's blue and gold.

Atom colors: UCLA blue = carbon, UCLA gold = oxygen, orange = zinc. Optical image of
MOF-200 crystals. (Credit: UCLA Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; UCLA-Depart-
ment of Energy Institute of Genomics and Proteomics).

Chemists from UCLA and South Korea
report the "ultimate porosity of a
nano-material," achieving world
records for both porosity and
carbon dioxide storage capac-
ity in an important class of materials
known as MOFs, or metal-organic
frameworks.

MOFs, sometimes described as
crystal sponges, have pores — open-
ings on the nanoscale which can store
gases that are usually difficult to store
and transport. Porosity is crucial for
compacting large amounts of gases
into small volumes and is an essential
property for capturing carbon dioxide.

The research could lead to cleaner
energy and the ability to capture heat-
trapping carbon dioxide emissions
before they reach the atmosphere and
contribute to global warming, rising
sea levels and the increased acidity of
oceans.

"We are reporting the ultimate poros-
ity of a nano-material; we believe this
to be the upper limit or very near the
upper limit for porosity in materials,"
said the paper's senior author, Omar
Yaghi, a UCLA professor of chemis-
try and biochemistry and a member
of both the California NanoSystems
Institute (CNSI) at UCLA and the
UCLA-Department of Energy Institute
of Genomics and Proteomics.

With lead author Hiroyasu (Hiro)
Furukawa, co-author Jaheon Kim and
colleagues, Yaghi reports on two ma-
terials that not only break the porosity
record, but do so by an extremely
large margin. The materials are MOF-
200, made at UCLA by Furukawa, a
postdoctoral scholar in Yaghi's labora-
tory, and MOF-210, made at Seoul's
Soongsil University in South Korea by
Kim, a chemistry professor and former
graduate student in Yaghi's laboratory,
and colleagues.

Invented by Yaghi the early
1990s, MOFs are like scaffolds

made of linked rods, with nano-
scale pores that are the right
size to trap carbon dioxide. The

components of MOFs can be changed
nearly at will, and Yaghi's laboratory
has made several hundred MOFs, with
a variety of properties and structures.

Since 1999, MOFs have held the
record for having the highest porosity
of any material. MOFs can be made
from low-cost ingredients, such as
zinc oxide, a common ingredient in
sunscreen, and terephthalate, which is
found in plastic soda bottles. "If I take
a gram of MOF-200 and unravel
it, it will cover many football
fields, and that is the space you have
for gases to assemble," Yaghi said.
"It's like magic. Forty tons of MOFs

is equal to the entire surface area of
California."

Yaghi, Furukawa and Kim also report
a record for carbon dioxide storage
capacity. MOF-200 and MOF-210
take up the highest amount of
hydrogen, methane and carbon
dioxide, by weight, ever achieved.
Source: World records by UCLA
chemists, Korean colleagues enhance
ability to capture C0 2 by Stuart Wolp-
ert. This work is detailed in the paper
Ultra-High Porosity in Metal-Organic
Frameworks by Hiroyasu Furukawa,
Nakeun Ko, Yong Bok Go, Naoki Ara-
tani, Sang Beom Choi, Eunwoo Choi,
A. Ozgur Yazaydin, Randall Q. Snurr,
Michael O'Keeffe, Jaheon Kim, Omar
M. Yaghi.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

36

Green Carbon Center

Green Carbon Center

josep saldana, October 26, 2010
tags: energy + climate

Rice University has created a Green
Carbon Center to bring the benefits
offered by oil, gas, coal, wind, solar,
geothermal, biomass and other energy
sources together in a way that will not
only help ensure the world's energy
future but also provide a means to
recycle carbon dioxide into useful
products.

Whether or not one believes in anthro-
pogenic climate change, the fact is
humans are throwing away a poten-
tially valuable resource with every ton
of carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere, said James Tour, Rice's
T.T. and W.F. Chao Chair in Chemistry
as well as a professor of mechanical
engineering and materials science and
of computer science. Far from being
a villain in the global warming debate,
carbon will be a boon if the world can
learn to use it well, he said. "The key
is to turn carbon dioxide into a useful
material so it's no longer waste," he
said. "We want the center to partner
with energy companies — including
oil, natural gas and coal — to make
carbon a profitable resource."

A number of strategies are detailed in
a paper. Tour said the paper presents
a taste of what Rice's new center in-
tends to be: a think tank for ideas
about the future of energy with
a focus on green carbon and
the technological know-how to
back it up. As part of Rice's Richard
E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale
Science and Technology, the Green
Carbon Center will draw upon the
combined knowledge of the univer-
sity's nanotechnology experts, for
whom the development of clean and
plentiful energy is a priority.

"Eighty-five percent of our country's
energy comes from fossil fuels, and
Houston is the world capital of the
industry that makes and produces
and transports those fossil fuels to
all of us," Colvin said. "So we are in a
unique position as the leading univer-
sity in Texas to transform that industry,
to develop it in a green way, to make
it sustainable and to teach people that
just because it's carbon doesn't mean
it has an environmental consequence,
but it can in fact help us transition to
a renewable energy economy of the
future."

Source: From Green Carbon Center
takes all-inclusive view of energy. Rice
University think tank will strategize on
environmentally sound policies on oil,
gas, coal by Mike Williams. A number
of strategies are detailed in the paper
"Green carbon as a bridge to re-
newable energy" by James M. Tour,
Carter Kittrell & Vicki L. Colvin.

Abstract

A green use of carbon-based resources
that minimizes the environmental impact of
carbon fuels could allow a smooth transi-
tion from fossil fuels to a sustainable energy
economy.

Carbon-based resources (coal, natural gas
and oil) give us most of the world's energy
today but the energy economy of the
future must necessarily be far more diverse.
Energy generation through solar, wind and
geothermal means is developing now, but
not fast enough to meet our expanding
global energy needs.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Unraveling the mysteries
of photosynthesis

josep saldana, May 12, 2010

tags: milestone + photosynthesis + energy + nanophotonics

V J

The schematic on the left shows the absorption of light by a light harvesting complex and the
transport of the resulting excitation energy to the reaction center through the FMO protein.
On the right is a monomer of the FMO protein, showing its orientation relative to the antenna
and the reaction center. The numbers label FMO's seven pigment molecules.
Image by Mohan Sarovar and Akihito Ishizaki.

The future of clean green solar power
may well hinge on scientists be-
ing able to unravel the mysteries of
photosynthesis, the process by which
green plants convert sunlight into
electrochemical energy. To this end,
researchers with the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE)'s Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab)
and the University of California (UC),
Berkeley have recorded the first ob-
servation and characterization of
a critical physical phenomenon
behind photosynthesis known as
quantum entanglement.

Previous experiments led by Graham
Fleming, a physical chemist holding
joint appointments with Berkeley Lab
and UC Berkeley, pointed to quantum
mechanical effects as the key to the
ability of green plants, through photo-
synthesis, to almost instantaneously
transfer solar energy from molecules in
light harvesting complexes to mole-
cules in electrochemical reaction cen-
ters. Now a new collaborative team
that includes Fleming have identified
entanglement as a natural feature of
these quantum effects. When two
quantum-sized particles, for example
a pair of electrons, are "entangled,"
any change to one will be instantly re-
flected in the other, no matter how far
apart they might be. Though physically
separated, the two particles act as a
single entity.

"This is the first study to show
that entanglement, perhaps
the most distinctive property of
quantum mechanical systems,
is present across an entire light
harvesting complex," says Mohan
Sarovar, a post-doctoral researcher
under UC Berkeley chemistry profes-
sor Birgitta Whaley at the Berkeley
Center for Quantum Information and
Computation. "While there have been
prior investigations of entanglement
in toy systems that were motivated
by biology, this is the first instance in
which entanglement has been exam-
ined and quantified in a real biological

system. "The results of this study hold
implications not only for the devel-
opment of artificial photosynthesis
systems as a renewable non-polluting
source of electrical energy, but also for
the future development of quantum-
based technologies in areas such as
computing - a quantum computer
could perform certain operations
thousands of times faster than any
conventional computer.

What may prove to be this study's
most significant revelation is that con-
trary to the popular scientific notion
that entanglement is a fragile and ex-
otic property, difficult to engineer and
maintain, the Berkeley researchers
have demonstrated that entangle-
ment can exist and persist in the
chaotic chemical complexity of
a biological system. "We present
strong evidence for quantum entangle-
ment in noisy non-equilibrium systems
at high temperatures by determining
the timescales and temperatures for
which entanglement is observable in
a protein structure that is central to
photosynthesis in certain bacteria,"

Sarovar says.

Green plants and certain bacteria are
able to transfer the energy harvested
from sunlight through a network
of light harvesting pigment-protein
complexes and into reaction centers
with nearly 1 00-percent efficiency.
Speed is the key - the transfer of
the solar energy takes place so fast
that little energy is wasted as heat. In
2007, Fleming and his research group
reported the first direct evidence that
this essentially instantaneous energy
transfer was made possible by a
remarkably long-lived, wavelike elec-
tronic quantum coherence.
Source: From Untangling the
Quantum Entanglement Behind
Photosynthesis: Berkeley scien-
tists shine new light on green
plant secrets by Lynn Yarris. This
work is detailed in the paper Quan-
tum entanglement in photosyn-
thetic light-harvesting complex-
es by Mohan Sarovar, Akihito Ishizaki,
Graham R. Fleming & K. Birgitta
Whaley.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

o

Illuminated arec

Observed area

josep saldana, July 1 1 , 2010

tags: photosynthesis + nanophotonics + energy

Here we report the first observation of long-
range transport of excitation energy within a
biomimetic molecular nanoarray constructed
from LH2 antenna complexes from Rhodo-
bacter sphaeroides.

Nanotechnologists have discovered
that the photosynthesis system of
bacteria can be used to trans-
port light over relatively long
distances. They have developed
a type of 'molecular glass fibre',
a thousand times thinner than a hu-
man hair.

All plants and some bacteria use
photosynthesis to store energy from
the sun. Researchers from the MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology of the
University of Twente have now discov-
ered how parts of the photosynthesis
system of bacteria can be used to
transport light. In their experiments
the researchers used isolated proteins
from the so-called Light Harvesting
Complex (LHC). These proteins trans-
port the sunlight in the cells of plants
and bacteria to a place in the cell
where the solar energy is stored. The
researchers built a type of 'molecular
glass fibre' from the LHC proteins that
is a thousand times thinner than a hu-
man hair.

In the experiment the researchers
fastened the proteins onto a fixed
background. They positioned them
in a line, and in this way formed a
thread. They then shone laser light to

one point in the thread, and observed
where the light went to. The line
with the LHC proteins did not only
transport the light, but transported it
over much longer distances than the
researchers had initially expected. Dis-
tances of around 50 nanometres are
normally bridged in the bacteria from
which the LHC proteins were isolated.
In the researchers' experiments the
light covered distances at least thirty
times greater.

According to Cees Otto, one of the
researchers involved, we can learn a
lot from nature in experiments such
as this. "The LHC proteins are the
building blocks that nature gives us,
and using then we can learn more
about natural processes such as
the transport of light in photo-
synthesis. When we understand how
nature works, we can then imitate it.
In time we will be able to use this prin-
ciple in, for example, solar panels."

The research was carried out in part-
nership with the University of Shef-
field, and fully financed by NanoNed.
Source: MESA+/University of Twente
nanotechnologists create 'molecular
glass fibres'. This work is detailed
in the paper Long-Range Energy

Propagation in Nanometre Arrays of
Light Harvesting Antenna Complexes
by Maryana Escalante, Aufried Len-
ferink, Yiping Zhao, Niels Tas, Jurriaan
Huskens, Neil Hunter, Vinod Subrama-
niam and Cees Otto. "Here we report
the first observation of long-range
transport of excitation energy within a
biomimetic molecular nanoarray con-
structed from LH2 antenna complexes
from Rhodobacter sphaeroides."

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Energy Innovation Hub

josep saldana, September 17, 2010

tags: photosynthesis + energy + national initiatives + video

«4 ^

Photosynthesis

Artificial Photosynthesis

As part of a broad effort to achieve
breakthrough innovations in energy
production, U.S. Deputy Secretary of
Energy Daniel Poneman announced an
award of up to $122 million over five
years to a multidisciplinary team of top
scientists to establish an Energy
Innovation Hub aimed at devel-
oping revolutionary methods
to generate fuels directly from
sunlight.

The Joint Center for Artificial Pho-
tosynthesis (JCAP), to be led by the
California Institute of Technology (Cal
Tech) in partnership with the U.S. De-
partment of Energy's Lawrence Berke-
ley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab),
will bring together leading researchers
in an ambitious effort aimed at
simulating nature's photosyn-
thetic apparatus for practical
energy production. The goal of the
Hub is to develop an integrated solar
energy-to-chemical fuel conversion
system and move this system from the
bench-top discovery phase to a scale
where it can be commercialized.

JCAP research will be directed at the
discovery of the functional compo-
nents necessary to assemble a com-
plete artificial photosynthetic system:
light absorbers, catalysts, molecular
linkers, and separation membranes.
The Hub will then integrate those
components into an operational solar
fuel system and develop scale-up

strategies to move from the labora-
tory toward commercial viability.

The ultimate objective is to drive the
field of solar fuels from fundamental
research, where it has resided for
decades, into applied research and
technology development, thereby
setting the stage for the creation of a
direct solar fuels industry.

The Hub will be directed by Nathan S.
Lewis, Cal Tech. Other members of the
Hub leadership team include: Bruce
Brunschwig (Cal Tech), Peidong Yang
(UC Berkeley/Berkeley Lab), and Harry
Atwater (Cal Tech). In addition to the
major partners, Cal Tech and Berkeley
Lab, other participating institutions
include SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory, Stanford, California; the
University of California, Berkeley; the
University of California, Santa Barbara;
the University of California, Irvine; and
the University of California, San Diego.

Learn more information on the Hubs.
Source: From Caltech-led Team
Gets up to $122 Million for
Energy Innovation Hub. Caltech
will partner with Lawrence Berkeley
Nat. Lab. and other CA institutions to
develop method to produce fuels from
sunlight

In response to the announcement,
Berkeley Lab director Paul Alivisatos,
an authority on nanocrystals for solar
energy applications and founder of the

Helios: Solar Energy Research Center,
said, "In order to replace fossil fuels,
we need to get a lot more proficient
at harvesting sunlight and convert-
ing it into forms of energy that can
be used for transportation and other
human needs. Nature provides a
model solution to this problem
through photosynthesis. We want
to emulate this process but do it with
artificial materials that could be much
more efficient and use much less land.
The ultimate goal would be to deploy
an artificial photosynthetic system
across a large geographical area, at a
level of efficiency that could provide
the United States with a significant
alternative fuel source."
Source: From Berkeley Lab Part of
California Team to Receive up to $122
million for Energy Innovation Hub to
Develop Method to Produce Fuels
from Sunlight.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

josep saldana, June 14, 2010

tags: milestone + energy + nanoparticles + photosynthesis

Licht

Anode

ITO Glas
^ Farbstoff- Elektronenspender

Kathode

ITO Glas mit PPy beschichtet
Ti0 2 - Elektronenfanger

Principle of the Gratzel cell

by Sebastian Spohn, Dietmar Dr. Scherr

The 2010 Millennium Prize Laureate
Michael Gratzel is the father of third
generation dye-sensitized solar cells.
Gratzel cells, which promise electric-
ity-generating windows and low-cost
solar panels, have just made their
debut in consumer products.

"For his invention and development
of dye-sensitized solar cells, known
as 'Gratzel cells'. The excellent price/
performance ratio of these novel
devices gives them major potential as
significant contributor to the diverse
portfolio of future energy technolo-
gies. Gratzel cells are likely to have
an important role in low-cost, large-
scale solutions for renewable energy.
Besides photovoltaics, the concepts
of Gratzel cells can also be applied in
batteries and hydrogen production,
all important components of future
energy needs." - International Selec-
tion Committee

One of mankind's greatest challenges
is to find ways to replace the diminish-
ing fossil fuel supply. The most obvi-
ous energy source is the sun, origin of
almost all the energy found on Earth.

The surface of the Earth receives
solar radiation energy at an average of
81 ,000 terawatt - exceeding the whole
global energy demand by a factor of
5,000. Yet, we are still figuring out a
cost-effective way of harnessing it.

Solar cells, converting energy from the
sun into electricity, were first used in
the 1950s to power orbiting satel-
lites and other spacecraft. Applied to
power generation on Earth, the price
does matter. Selected silicon based
technology was - and still is - expen-
sive, even if the cost of photovoltaics
has declined steadily since the first
solar cells were manufactured.

Gratzel's innovation, the dye solar cell
(DSC), is a third generation photo-
voltaic technology. The technol-
ogy often described as 'artificial
photosynthesis' is a promising
alternative to standard silicon
photovoltaics. It is made of low-
cost materials and does not need an
elaborate apparatus to manufacture.
Though DSC cells are still in relatively
early stages of development, they
show great promise as an inexpensive

alternative to costly silicon solar cells
and an attractive candidate for a new
renewable energy source.

In the 1980s Gratzel was working
doing basic research on nanotechnol-
ogy. They were the first to make
nanoparticles from titanium
oxide. The properties of the new
material were examined in many ways.
"That was a fundamental study, just
driven by our curiosity. Nobody had
done it before. However this experi-
ments provided important insight in
the sensitization process that formed
the scientific basis for the subsequent
realization of dye sensitized solar
cells."

Source: Millennium Prize - PROFES-
SOR MICHAEL GRATZEL: DEVEL-
OPER OF DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR
CELLS. The original landmark paper
presenting an entirely new paradigm in
photovoltaic technology: A low-cost,
high-efficiency solar cell based
on dye-sensitized colloidal Ti0 2
films by Brian O'Regan & Michael
Gratzel.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Self-assembling photovoltaic
technology that repairs itself

josep saldana, September 6, 2010

tags: photosynthesis+ energy + self-assembly + nanophotonics

Membrane
scaffold protein Sodium cholate
lipid rmceHe

Plants are good at doing what scien-
tists and engineers have been strug-
gling to do for decades: converting
sunlight into stored energy, and doing
so reliably day after day, year after
year. Now some MIT scientists have
succeeded in mimicking a key aspect
of that process. One of the problems
with harvesting sunlight is that the
sun's rays can be highly destructive
to many materials. Sunlight leads to a
gradual degradation of many systems
developed to harness it. But plants
have adopted an interesting strategy
to address this issue: They constantly
break down their light-capturing
molecules and reassemble them from
scratch, so the basic structures that
capture the sun's energy are, in effect,
always brand new.

That process has now been imitated
by Michael Strano and his team of
graduate students and researchers.
They have created a novel set of
self-assembling molecules that
can turn sunlight into electricity;
the molecules can be repeatedly
broken down and then reassem-
bled quickly, just by adding or
removing an additional solution.
Strano says the idea first occurred to
him when he was reading about plant
biology. "I was really impressed by
how plant cells have this extremely ef-
ficient repair mechanism," he says. In
full summer sunlight, "a leaf on a tree
is recycling its proteins about every 45
minutes, even though you might think
of it as a static photocell."

One of Strano's long-term research
goals has been to find ways to
imitate principles found in nature
using nanocomponents. To imitate
photosynthesis, Strano and his team
produced synthetic molecules called
phospholipids that form discs; these
discs provide structural support for
other molecules that actually respond
to light, in structures called reac-
tion centers, which release electrons
when struck by particles of light. The
discs, carrying the reaction centers,

• Single-walled
carbon
nanolube

Surfactant
removal

Surfactant
addition

Photosynthotic
reaction centre

Single-walled

Photosynthetic
reaction centre

Schematic of self-assembled photoelectrochemical complexes.

are in a solution where they attach
themselves spontaneously to carbon
nanotubes. The nanotubes hold the
phospholipid discs in a uniform align-
ment so that the reaction centers can
all be exposed to sunlight at once, and
they also act as wires to collect and
channel the flow of electrons knocked
loose by the reactive molecules.

The system Strano's team pro-
duced is made up of seven different
compounds, including the carbon
nanotubes, the phospholipids, and
the proteins that make up the reaction
centers, which under the right condi-
tions spontaneously assemble them-
selves into a light-harvesting structure
that produces an electric current.
Strano says he believes this sets
a record for the complexity of
a self-assembling system. When
a surfactant is added to the mix, the
seven components all come apart and
form a soupy solution. Then, when the
researchers removed the surfactant by
pushing the solution through a mem-
brane, the compounds spontaneously
assembled once again into a perfectly
formed, rejuvenated photocell.

"We're basically imitating tricks that
nature has discovered over millions
of years" — in particular, "reversibility,
the ability to break apart and reassem-
ble," Strano says. The team came up
with the system based on a theoretical
analysis, but then decided to build a
prototype cell to test it out. They ran
the cell through repeated cycles of
assembly and disassembly over a 14-
hour period, with no loss of efficiency.

Strano says that in devising novel

systems for generating electricity from
light, researchers don't often study
how the systems change over time.
For conventional silicon-based photo-
voltaic cells, there is little degradation,
but with many new systems being de-
veloped — either for lower cost, higher
efficiency, flexibility or other improved
characteristics — the degradation can
be very significant. "Often people see,
over 60 hours, the efficiency falling to
10 percent of what you initially saw,"
he says.

The individual reactions of these
new molecular structures in
converting sunlight are about
40 percent efficient, or about
double the efficiency of today's
best commercial solar cells.
Theoretically, the efficiency of
the structures could be close
to 100 percent, he says. But in the
initial work, the concentration of the
structures in the solution was low, so
the overall efficiency of the device was
very low. They are working now to find
ways to greatly increase the concen-
tration.

Source: New self-assembling photo-
voltaic technology that repairs itself
by David L. Chandler. This work is
detailed in the paper Photoelectro-
chemical complexes for solar en-
ergy conversion that chemically
and autonomously regenerate
by Moon-Ho Ham, Jong Hyun Choi,
Ardemis A. Boghossian, Esther S.
Jeng, Rachel A. Graff, Daniel A. Heller,
Alice C. Chang, Aidas Mattis, Timothy
H. Bayburt, Yelena V. Grinkova, Adam
S. Zeiger, Krystyn J. Van Vliet, Erik K.
Hobbie, Stephen G. Sligar, Colin A.
Wraight & Michael S. Strano

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Turn windows

into power generators

josep saldana, August 23, 2010

tags: energy + nanoparticles + architecture + video

Images depicting the inside of the deposition chamber taken when scientists are depositing the insulating
film. The different colours are due to the different gases being used.
Credit: Prof. Chris Binns, University of Leicester.

An international team of scientists and
industrialists is to meet at the Univer-
sity of Leicester to develop a revolu-
tionary new technique for harnessing
green energy. Norwegian company
EnSol AS has patented a ground
breaking, novel thin film solar
cell technology which they seek to
develop commercially by 2016. The
company is now working with experts
in the University of Leicester Depart-
ment of Physics and Astronomy to
develop the revolutionary new type of
solar cell material that could be coated
as a thin film on, for example, win-
dows in buildings to produce power
on a large scale.

Professor of Nanotechnology at the
University of Leicester, Professor
Chris Binns, said the collaboration
offered a tremendous opportunity to
develop a new method for harnessing
solar energy: "The material has been
designed by EnSol AS and is based
on nanoparticles that can be synthe-
sised in Leicester. In fact, following
some initial investment by the com-
pany, the equipment we have here at
the University of Leicester is uniquely
suited in the world to produce small
amounts of the material for proto-
types. The work is important since
the solar cells are based on a new
operating principle and different to Si
solar cells. One of the key advantages
is that it is a transparent thin film that

can be coated onto window glass so
that windows in buildings can also
become power generators. Obviously
some light has to be absorbed in order
to generate power but the windows
would just have a slight tinting (though
a transmission of only 8-10% is com-
mon place for windows in the "sun
belt" areas of the world) . Conversely
the structural material of the building
can also be coated with a higher de-
gree of absorption. This could be side
panels of the building itself, or even in
the form of "clip-together" solar roof
tiles. Also since it is a thin film that can
be coated onto large areas it could
become very much cheaper than
conventional devices. Photovoltaics
are destined to form a key power
generating method as part of
a low carbon economy and the
new technology will bring that a
stage closer."

The material is composed of metal
nanoparticles (diameters ~ 10 nm)
embedded in a transparent composite
matrix.

A spokesperson for EnSol AS said:
"The basic cell concept has been
demonstrated, and it will be the objec-
tive of this research and development
project to systematically refine this
PV cell technology to achieve a cell
efficiency of 20% or greater. A thin
film deposition system with nano-

particle source, will be designed and
constructed in collaboration with the
University of Leicester for the fabrica-
tion of prototype cells based on this
design. This experimental facility will
be designed to produce PV cells with
an active area in excess of 16 cm 2 (40
mm x 40 mm) deposited onto stan-
dard glass substrates. These proto-
type cells will subsequently be char-
acterised and tested in collaboration
with our academic partners. EnSol's
next generation PV cell technol-
ogy has tremendous potential for
industrial scale, low environmen-
tal impact, cost effective pro-
duction via standard "spray on"
techniques."

Source: New technique announced
to turn windows into power genera-
tors. Norwegian company EnSol AS
to develop unique patented technol-
ogy in collaboration with University of
Leicester

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

43

Car of the future powered by their
bodywork

josep saldana, October 1 , 201 0
tags: carbon nanotubes + energy

Imperial College

> Demonstration of new type of battery technology

Imagine a car which body also
serves as a rechargeable bat-
tery. A battery that stores brak-
ing energy while you drive and
that also stores energy when
you plug in the car overnight to
recharge. At the moment this is just
a fascinating idea, but tests are cur-
rently under way to see if the vision
can be transformed into reality. Volvo
Cars is one out of nine participants in
an international materials development
project.

Among the foremost challenges in the
development of hybrids and electric
cars are the size, weight and cost of
the current generation of batteries.
In order to deliver sufficient capacity
using today's technology, it is neces-
sary to fit large batteries, which in turn
increases the car's weight.

Earlier this year, a materials develop-
ment project was launched by Imperial
College in London that brings to-
gether nine European companies and
institutes. Volvo Cars is the only car
manufacturer participating in the proj-
ect. With the help of 35 million SEK
(approx. 3.5 million EURO) in financial
support from the European Union
(EU), a composite blend of carbon
fibres and polymer resin is be-
ing developed that can store
and charge more energy faster
than conventional batteries can.
At the same time, the material

is extremely strong and pliant,
which means it can be shaped
for use in building the car's body
panels. According to calculations, the
car's weight could be cut by as much
as 1 5 percent if steel body panels
were replaced with the new material.

The project will continue for three
years. In the first stage, work focuses
both on developing the composite
material so it can store more energy
and on studying ways of producing
the material on an industrial scale.
Only in the final stage will the battery
be fitted to a car.

"Our role is to contribute expertise on
how this technology can be integrated
in the future and to input ideas about
the advantages and disadvantages in
terms of cost and user-friendliness,"
says Per-lvar Sellergren, development
engineer at the Volvo Cars Materials
Centre.

Initially, the car's spare wheel recess
will be converted into a composite
battery. "This is a relatively large
structure that is easy to replace. Not
sufficiently large to power the entire
car, but enough to switch the engine
off and on when the car is at a stand-
still, for instance at traffic lights," says
Per-lvar Sellergren.

If the project is successful, there are
many possible application areas. For

instance, mobile phones will be able to
be as slim as credit cards and laptops
will manage longer without needing to
be recharged.

Source: From Tomorrow's Volvo car:
body panels serve as the car battery

The researchers say that the compos-
ite material that they are developing,
which is made of carbon fibres and a
polymer resin, will store and discharge
large amounts of energy much more
quickly than conventional batteries.
In addition, the material does not
use chemical processes, making
it quicker to recharge than con-
ventional batteries. Furthermore,
this recharging process causes
little degradation in the com-
posite material, because it does
not involve a chemical reaction,
whereas conventional batteries
degrade over time.

For the first stage of the project, the
scientists are planning to further de-
velop their composite material so that
it can store more energy. The team
will improve the material's mechanical
properties by growing carbon nano-
tubes on the surface of the carbon
fibres, which should also increase the
surface area of the material, which
would improve its capacity to store
more energy.

Source: From Cars of the future could
be powered by their bodywork thanks
to new battery technology

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Next Solar Impulse aircraft
and nanotechnology

josep saldana, August 13, 2010

tags: nanomaterial + carbon nanotubes + energy + video

Illustration of the Solar Impulse prototype. Credit: Solar Impulse/EPFL Claudio Leonardi.

The Solar Impulse aircraft, which is
powered only by solar energy, has
triumphantly completed its first night
flight. The ultralight aircraft was air-
borne for a total of 26 hours - from 7
am on July 7 until 9 am the following
day (Central European Time) - before
finally landing as planned at Payerne
airbase in Switzerland. It is now of-
ficially the first manned aircraft
capable of flying day and night
without fuel, powered entirely by
solar energy.

"We extend our sincere congratula-
tions to Bertrand Piccard and Andre
Borschberg of Solar Impulse, and
are delighted to be part of this terrific
achievement," says Patrick Thomas,
CEO of Bayer MaterialScience. "This
is a further milestone on the way to
the first solar-powered circumnaviga-
tion of the globe. We are proud to be
an official partner of the Solar Impulse
project and to make a further positive
contribution to climate-friendly mobil-
ity with our innovative materials."

In 2013 a second prototype is sched-
uled to fly right round the world in five

stages, each lasting five days, travel-
ing at an average speed of 70 km/h.
Source: BAYNEWS - The Bayer Press
Server - Solar Impulse aircraft suc-
cessfully completes its first night flight.
Bayer MaterialScience contributes
innovative materials to long-range
solar-powered aircraft

Bayer MaterialScience has become
an official partner of the Solar Impulse
project. Its founders Bertrand Piccard
and Andre Borschberg are develop-
ing the first manned aircraft aiming
to fly around the world day and night
without fuel, propelled by solar energy
only. The latest cutting-edge technol-
ogy is incorporated into the prototype
airplane, which has the wingspan of
a large airliner (63.40 meters) and the
weight of a midsize car (1 .600 kilo-
grams). Some 12,000 solar cells cover
its surface to run 4 electrical engines
and store the solar energy for the night
in 400 kilograms of lithium batteries.

Bayer MaterialScience will support the
Swiss-based Solar Impulse initiative
with technical expertise, high-tech
polymer materials and energy-saving

lightweight products. Bay tubes®
carbon nanotubes from Bayer
MaterialScience, for example,
could increase battery perfor-
mance and improve the strength
of structural components while
keeping their weight to a mini-
mum. Other potential applications
include innovative adhesives, poly-
urethane rigid foams for paneling in
the cockpit and engine, and extremely
thin yet break-resistant polycarbonate
films and sheet for the cockpit glazing.

Bertrand Piccard, Initiator of Solar
Impulse, says support from Bayer
MaterialScience is a significant boost
for the project. "I've always been
fascinated by nanotechnology.
Now, with Bayer MaterialScience as
an official partner, we will be able to
make our airplane even lighter and
more efficient. We look forward with
great enthusiasm to being able to tap
into the company's renowned exper-
tise and innovative materials."
Source: Bayer MaterialScience
becomes official partner for Solar
Impulse.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Nanowires battery can hold 1 0
times the charge of existing Li-ion
battery

Ijosep saldana, December 14, 2010
tags: energy

Researchers have found a way to
use silicon nanowires to reinvent
the rechargeable lithium-ion
batteries that power laptops, iPods,
video cameras, cell phones, and
countless other devices.

The new technology, developed
through research led by Yi Cui, as-
sistant professor of materials science
and engineering at Stanford, produces
10 times the amount of electricity of
existing lithium-ion, known as Li-ion,
batteries. A laptop that now runs
on battery for two hours could
operate for 20 hours, a boon to
ocean-hopping business travelers.
"It's not a small improvement," Cui
said. "It's a revolutionary develop-
ment."

The greatly expanded storage
capacity could make Li-ion bat-
teries attractive to electric car
manufacturers. Cui suggested
that they could also be used in
homes or offices to store elec-
tricity generated by rooftop solar
panels.

"Given the mature infrastructure
behind silicon, this new technology
can be pushed to real life quickly," Cui
said.

The electrical storage capacity of a
Li-ion battery is limited by how much
lithium can be held in the battery's
anode, which is typically made of
carbon. Silicon has a much higher
capacity than carbon, but also has a
drawback.

Silicon placed in a battery swells as
it absorbs positively charged lithium
atoms during charging, then shrinks
during use (i.e., when playing your
iPod) as the lithium is drawn out of
the silicon. This expand/shrink cycle
typically causes the silicon (often in
the form of particles or a thin film) to
pulverize, degrading the performance
of the battery.

Photos taken by a scanning electron microscope of silicon nanowires before (left) and after
(right) absorbing lithium. Both photos were taken at the same magnification.
Courtesy Nature Nanotechnology.

Cui's battery gets around this prob-
lem with nanotechnology. The lithium
is stored in a forest of tiny silicon
nanowires, each with a diameter one-
thousandth the thickness of a sheet
of paper. The nanowires inflate four
times their normal size as they soak
up lithium. But, unlike other silicon
shapes, they do not fracture.

Research on silicon in batteries began
three decades ago. Chan explained:
"The people kind of gave up on it
because the capacity wasn't high
enough and the cycle life wasn't good
enough. And it was just because of
the shape they were using. It was just
too big, and they couldn't undergo the
volume changes." Then, along came
silicon nanowires. "We just kind of put
them together," Chan said.

Cui said that a patent application has
been filed. He is considering formation
of a company or an agreement with a
battery manufacturer. Manufacturing
the nanowire batteries would require
"one or two different steps, but the
process can certainly be scaled up,"
he added. "It's a well understood
process."

Source: From Nanowire battery can
hold 10 times the charge of existing
lithium-ion battery By Dan Stober. This
work is detailed in the paper "High-
performance lithium battery anodes
using silicon nanowires" by Candace
K. Chan, Hailin Peng, Gao Liu, Kevin
Mcllwrath, Xiao Feng Zhang, Robert A.
Huggins & Yi Cui .

Abstract

There is great interest in developing
rechargeable lithium batteries with higher
energy capacity and longer cycle life for
applications in portable electronic devices,
electric vehicles and implantable medi-
cal devices. Silicon is an attractive anode
material for lithium batteries because it has
a low discharge potential and the highest
known theoretical charge capacity (4,200
mAh g -1). Although this is more than
ten times higher than existing graphite
anodes and much larger than various
nitride and oxide materials, silicon anodes
have limited applications because silicon's
volume changes by 400% upon insertion
and extraction of lithium which results in
pulverization and capacity fading. Here,
we show that silicon nanowire battery
electrodes circumvent these issues as they
can accommodate large strain without pul-
verization, provide good electronic contact
and conduction, and display short lithium
insertion distances. We achieved the theo-
retical charge capacity for silicon anodes
and maintained a discharge capacity close
to 75% of this maximum, with little fading
during cycling.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Scanning probe microscopy reveal
battery behavior at the nanoscale

A new electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM) technique developed at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory can map lithium ion flow through a battery's cathode material. This 1 micron x 1
micron composite image demonstrates how regions on a cathode surface display varying
electrochemical behaviors when probed with ESM.

josep saldaha, October 4, 201 0
tags: microscope + energy

As industries and consumers increas-
ingly seek improved battery power
sources, cutting-edge microscopy
performed at the Department
of Energy's Oak Ridge National
Laboratory is providing an un-
precedented perspective on how
lithium-ion batteries function.

A research team led by ORNL's Nina
Balke, Stephen Jesse and Sergei Kali-
nin has developed a new type of scan-
ning probe microscopy called electro-
chemical strain microscopy (ESM) to
examine the movement of lithium ions
through a battery's cathode material.
Balke, Jesse and Kalinin are research
scientists at ORNL's Center for Nano-
phase Materials Science.

"We can provide a detailed picture
of ionic motion in nanometer vol-
umes, which exceeds state-of-the-art
electrochemical techniques by six to
seven orders of magnitude," Kalinin
said. Researchers achieved the results
by applying voltage with an ESM
probe to the surface of the battery's
layered cathode. By measuring the
corresponding electrochemical strain,
or volume change, the team was able
to visualize how lithium ions flowed
through the material. Conventional
electrochemical techniques, which
analyze electric current instead of
strain, do not work on a nanoscale
level because the electrochemical
currents are too small to measure,
Kalinin explained. "These are the first
measurements, to our knowledge, of
lithium ion flow at this spatial resolu-
tion," Kalinin said.

Lithium-ion batteries, which power
electronic devices from cell phones
to electric cars, are valued for their
low weight, high energy density and
recharging ability. Researchers hope
to extend the batteries' performance
by lending engineers a finely tuned
knowledge of battery components and
dynamics.

"We want to understand - from a

nanoscale perspective - what makes
one battery work and one battery fail.
This can be done by examining its
functionality at the level of a single
grain or an extended defect," Balke
said. "Very small changes at the nano-
meter level could have a huge impact
at the device level," Balke said. "Un-
derstanding the batteries at this length
scale could help make suggestions for
materials engineering."

Although the research focused on
lithium-ion batteries, the team expects
that its technique could be used to
measure other electrochemical solid-
state systems, including other battery
types, fuel cells and similar electronic
devices that use nanoscale ionic mo-
tion for information storage.

"We see this method as an example of
the kinds of higher dimensional scan-
ning probe techniques that we are
developing at CNMS that enable us
to see the inner workings of complex
materials at the nanoscale," Jesse
said. "Such capabilities are particularly
relevant to the increasingly important
area of energy research."

Source: ORNL scientists reveal battery
behavior at the nanoscale. This work
is detailed in the paper Nanoscale
mapping of ion diffusion in a lithium-
ion battery cathode by N. Balke, S.
Jesse, A. N. Morozovska, E. Eliseev,

D. W. Chung, Y. Kim, L. Adamczyk, R.

E. Garcia, N. Dudney & S. V. Kalinin.

Abstract

The movement of lithium ions into and out
of electrodes is central to the operation of
lithium-ion batteries. Although this process
has been extensively studied at the device
level, it remains insufficiently characterized
at the nanoscale level of grain clusters,
single grains and defects. Here, we probe
the spatial variation of lithium-ion diffu-
sion times in the battery-cathode mate-
rial LiCo02 at a resolution of -700 nm by
using an atomic force microscope to both
redistribute lithium ions and measure the
resulting cathode deformation. The rela-
tionship between diffusion and single grains
and grain boundaries is observed, revealing
that the diffusion coefficient increases for
certain grain orientations and single-grain
boundaries. This knowledge provides
feedback to improve understanding of
the nanoscale mechanisms underpinning
lithium-ion battery operation.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

World's smallest battery offers
"a view never before seen"
to improve batteries

josep saldana, December 12, 2010
tags: energy + microscope

vire before charging

" Bl1 "

Sn()2 nanowire after charging, elongation 90%, diameter expansion 35%,
volume expansion 25(1%

The Medusa twist: formerly unobserved
increase in length and twist of the anode in
a nanobattery. (Courtesy DOE Center for
Integrated Nanotechnologies)

A benchtop version of the world's
smallest battery — its anode a single
nanowire one seven-thousandth the
thickness of a human hair — has been
created by a team led by Sandia Na-
tional Laboratories researcher Jianyu
Huang. To better study the anode's
characteristics, the tiny rechargeable,
lithium-based battery was formed
inside a transmission electron micro-
scope (TEM) at the Center for Inte-
grated Nanotechnologies (CINT), a
Department of Energy research facility
jointly operated by Sandia and Los
Alamos national laboratories.

Says Huang, "This experiment
enables us to study the charg-
ing and discharging of a battery
in real time and at atomic scale
resolution, thus enlarging our
understanding of the fundamen-
tal mechanisms by which batter-
ies work." Because nanowire-based
materials in lithium ion batteries offer
the potential for significant improve-
ments in power and energy density
over bulk electrodes, more stringent
investigations of their operating prop-
erties should improve new generations
of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles,
laptops and cell phones.

The tiny battery created by Huang and
co-workers consists of a single tin ox-
ide nanowire anode 100 nanometers
in diameter and 10 micrometers long,
a bulk lithium cobalt oxide cathode
three millimeters long, and an ionic
liquid electrolyte. The device offers the
ability to directly observe change in
atomic structure during charging and
discharging.

An unexpected find of the researchers
was that the tin oxide nanowire rod
nearly doubles in length during charg-
ing — far more than its diameter in-
creases — a fact that could help avoid
short circuits that may shorten battery
life. "Manufacturers should take ac-
count of this elongation in their battery
design," Huang said. (The common
belief of workers in the field has
been that batteries swell across their
diameter, not longitudinally.) Huang's
group found this flaw by following the
progression of the lithium ions as they
travel along the nanowire and cre-
ate what researchers christened the
"Medusa front" — an area where high
density of mobile dislocations cause
the nanowire to bend and wiggle as
the front progresses. The web of dis-
locations is caused by lithium penetra-
tion of the crystalline lattice. "These
observations prove that nanowires can
sustain large stress (>10 GPa) induced
by lithiation without breaking, indicat-
ing that nanowires are very good can-
didates for battery electrodes," said
Huang. "Our observations — which
initially surprised us — tell battery
researchers how these dislocations
are generated, how they evolve during
charging, and offer guidance in how
to mitigate them," Huang said. "This
is the closest view to what's happen-
ing during charging of a battery that
researcher have achieved so far."

"The methodology that we developed
should stimulate extensive real-time
studies of the microscopic processes
in batteries and lead to a more com-
plete understanding of the mecha-
nisms governing battery performance
and reliability," he said. "Our experi-

ments also lay a foundation for in-situ
studies of electrochemical reactions,
and will have broad impact in energy
storage, corrosion, electrodeposi-
tion and general chemical synthesis
research field."

Source: From World's smallest bat-
tery created at CINT nanotechnology
center. This work is detailed in the
paper In Situ Observation of the Elec-
trochemical Lithiation of a Single Sn0 2
Nanowire Electrode by Jian Yu Huang,
Li Zhong, Chong Min Wang, John P.
Sullivan, Wu Xu, Li Qiang Zhang, Scott
X. Mao, Nicholas S. Hudak, Xiao Hua
Liu, Arunkumar Subramanian, Hongy-
ou Fan, Liang Qi, Akihiro Kushima and
Ju Li.

Abstract

We report the creation of a nanoscale elec-
trochemical device inside a transmission
electron microscope— consisting of a single
tin dioxide (SnOJ nanowire anode, an ionic
liquid electrolyte, and a bulk lithium cobalt
dioxide (LiCoOJ cathode— and the in situ
observation of the lithiation of the Sn02
nanowire during electrochemical charging.
Upon charging, a reaction front propa-
gated progressively along the nanowire,
causing the nanowire to swell, elongate,
and spiral. The reaction front is a "Medusa
zone" containing a high density of mobile
dislocations, which are continuously nucle-
ated and absorbed at the moving front. This
dislocation cloud indicates large in-plane
misfit stresses and is a structural precur-
sor to electrochemically driven solid-state
amorphization. Because lithiation-induced
volume expansion, plasticity, and pulveriza-
tion of electrode materials are the major
mechanical effects that plague the perfor-
mance and lifetime of high-capacity anodes
in lithium-ion batteries, our observations
provide important mechanistic insight for
the design of advanced batteries.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Could 135,000 Laptops Help Solve
the Energy Challenge?

josep saldana, December 8, 2010
tags: energy + climate + video

U.S Energy Secretary Steven Chu
announced the largest ever awards
of the Department's supercomputing
time to 57 innovative research projects
- using computer simulations to
perform virtual experiments that
in most cases would be impossi-
ble or impractical in the natural
world. Utilizing two world-leading
supercomputers with a computational
capacity roughly equal to 135,000
quad-core laptops, the research
could, for example, help speed the de-
velopment of more efficient solar cells,
improvements in biofuel production,
or more effective medications to help
slow the progression of Parkinson's
disease. Specifically, the Department
is awarding time on two of the world's
fastest and most powerful supercom-
puters — the Cray XT5 ("Jaguar") at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and
the IBM Blue Gene/P ("Intrepid") at
Argonne National Laboratory. Jaguar's
computational capacity is roughly
equivalent to 109,000 laptops all
working together to solve the same
problem. Intrepid is roughly equivalent
to 26,000 laptops. Awarded under the
Department's Innovative and Novel

Computational Impact on Theory and
Experiment (INCITE) program, many
of the new and continuing INCITE
projects aim to further renewable
energy solutions and understand
of the environmental impacts of
energy use.

One award for improving battery
technology is profiled below in brief
summary.

Understanding the Ultimate Bat-
tery Chemistry: Rechargeable
Lithium/Air

Principal Investigator: Jack Wells, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory
Utilizing both the Jaguar and Intrepid
supercomputers, the research con-
sortium will study and demonstrate a
working prototype of a rechargeable
Lithium/Air battery. The Lithium/Air
battery can potentially store ten times
the energy of a Lithium/Ion battery
of the same weight. Realizing this
enormous potential is a very challeng-
ing scientific problem. If successful,
this will enable rechargeable batteries
that compete directly with gasoline,
making fully electric vehicles practical
and widespread.

Read the full listing of awards, with
detailed technical descriptions [among
others: Petascale Modeling of Nano-
electronic Devices, Probing the Non-
Scalable Nano Regime in Catalytic
Nanoparticles with Electronic Struc-
ture Calculations, Electronic Structure
Calculations for Nanostructures].
Source: Could 135,000 Laptops Help
Solve the Energy Challenge?. Depart-
ment of Energy Supercomputers to
Pursue Breakthroughs in Biofuels,
Nuclear Power, Medicine, Climate
Change and Fundamental Research

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Converting brownian motion
into work

Ijosep saldana, June 22, 2010
tags: nanodevice + nanomachinery + energy

(top) The thought experiment is brought to
life in a granular gas: the experimental setup
(left) and the device in operation (center and
right).

(left) Smoluchowski's thought experiment
with the vanes on the right, the cog on the
left and in the middle a pulley with a weight.

O

Researchers from the Foundation for
Fundamental Research on Matter and
University of Twente in the Nether-
lands, and the University of Patras in
Greece have for the first time experi-
mentally realised, almost a century
later, an idea dating from 1912. In
that year the physicist Smoluchowski
devised a prototype for an engine
at the molecular scale in which he
thought he could ingeniously convert
Brownian motion into work. The team
of scientists have now successfully
constructed this device at the much
larger scale of a granular gas. More-
over, they have shown that an intrigu-
ing exchange takes place between the
vanes of the engine and the granular
gas: once the vanes have started
rotating, they in turn induce a rotating
motion in the gas, a so-called convec-
tion roll. This reinforces the movement

of the device and allows for a virtually
continuous rotation. Molecular motors,
such as those responsible for tensing
and relaxing your muscles, move in a
strange manner: they propel them-
selves forwards despite - or thanks
to - a continuous bombardment of the
randomly moving molecules in their
surroundings. This random move-
ment is called Brownian motion
and a well-constructed motor at
the nanoscale actually makes
use of this to generate a di-
rected movement (and therefore
work). The device introduced
by the physicist Marian Smolu-
chowski in 1912, as a thought
experiment, is a classical exam-
ple of such a motor.
Source: From Classical thought exper-
iment brought to life in granular gas.
This work is detailed in the paper Ex-

perimental Realization of a Rotational
Ratchet in a Granular Gas by Peter Es-
huis, Ko van der Weele, Detlef Lohse,
and Devaraj van der Meer. "We con-
struct a ratchet of the Smoluchowski-
Feynman type, consisting of four
vanes that are allowed to rotate freely
in a vibrofluidized granular gas. The
necessary out-of-equilibrium environ-
ment is provided by the inelastically
colliding grains, and the equally crucial
symmetry breaking by applying a soft
coating to one side of each vane. The
onset of the ratchet effect occurs at a
critical shaking strength via a smooth,
continuous phase transition. For very
strong shaking the vanes interact
actively with the gas and a convection
roll develops, sustaining the rotation of
the vanes."

See movies of the experiment.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

50

Self-Powered Nanosensors

josep saldana, April 12, 2010
tags: energy + detection

Figure shows (a) Fabrication of a vertical-nanowire integrated nanogenerator (VING), (b)
Design of a lateral- nan nowi re integrated nanogenerator (LING) array, (c) Scanning electron
microscope image of a row of laterally-grown zinc oxide nanowire arrays, and (d) Image of
the LING structure. Credit: Zhong Lin Wang.

By combining a new generation of
piezoelectric nanogenerators with two
types of nanowire sensors, research-
ers have created what are believed to
be the first self-powered nano-
meter-scale sensing devices that
draw power from the conversion
of mechanical energy. The new de-
vices can measure the pH of liquids or
detect the presence of ultraviolet light
using electrical current produced from
mechanical energy in the environment.

Based on arrays containing as many
as 20,000 zinc oxide nanowires in
each nanogenerator, the devices can
produce up to 1 .2 volts of output
voltage, and are fabricated with a
chemical process designed to facili-
tate low-cost manufacture on flexible
substrates. Tests done with nearly
one thousand nanogenerators - which
have no mechanical moving parts -
showed that they can be operated
over time without loss of generating
capacity.

"We have demonstrated a robust way
to harvest energy and use it for power-

ing nanometer-scale sensors," said
Zhong Lin Wang, a Regents professor
in the School of Materials Science and
Engineering at the Georgia Institute of
Technology. "We now have a technol-
ogy roadmap for scaling these nano-
generators up to make truly practical
applications."

For the past five years, Wang's
research team has been developing
nanoscale generators that use the
piezoelectric effect - which produces
electrical charges when wires made
from zinc oxide are subjected to
strain. The strain can be produced by
simply flexing the wires, and current
from many wires can be constructively
combined to power small devices. The
research effort has recently focused
on increasing the amount of current
and voltage generated and on making
the devices more robust.

The new generator and nano-
scale sensors open new pos-
sibilities for very small sensing
devices that can operate without
batteries, powered by mechani-

cal energy harvested from the
environment. Energy sources could
include the motion of tides, sonic
waves, mechanical vibration, the flap-
ping of a flag in the wind, pressure
from shoes of a hiker or the movement
of clothing.

"Building devices that are small isn't
sufficient," Wang noted. "We must
also be able to power them in a
sustainable way that allows them to
be mobile. Using our new nanogen-
erator, we can put these devices into
the environment where they can work
independently and sustainably without
requiring a battery."
Source: From Self-Powered Nano-
sensors: Researchers Use Improved
Nanogenerators to Power Sensors
Based on Zinc Oxide Nanowires by
John Toon. This work is detailed in the
paper Self-powered nanowire devices
by Sheng Xu, Yong Qin, Chen Xu,
Yaguang Wei, Rusen Yang & Zhong
Lin Wang.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

51

A Delicious New Solar Cell
Technology

josep saldana, May 8, 2010
tags: educational + energy

Researchers demonstrate a new solar
cell technology: How To Make a Solar
Cell with Donuts and Tea.

"It turns out these delicious little things
contain everything we need to make a
simple solar cell," said Blake Farrow,
a Canadian scientist who filmed the
video while visiting Prashant Kamat's
lab at the University of Notre Dame.

Notre Dame's YouTube Channel

Frames from the video A Delicious New Solar Cell Technology, researchers demonstrate a
new solar cell technology based entirely on powdered donuts and passion tea.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

52

Nanotechnology,

climate and energy: Over-heated

promises and hot air?

Nanotechnology, climate and energy:
over-heated promises and hot air?

josep saldana, November 17, 2010

tags: public opinion + concerns + climate + energy

Friends of the Earth groups around
the world released the report, Nano-
technology, climate and energy:
Over-heated promises and hot air?,
debunking the promises made by the
nanotechnology industry about its
ability to increase energy efficiency
and alleviate climate change.

The report delves into the complex
issues raised by nanotechnology and
concludes that nanotechnology fails to
exhibit much potential as a solution to
global warming, resource depletion or
pollution.

"Despite claims that nanotechnology
can limit climate change and promote
energy efficiency, we've found that
the use of nanotechnology actually
comes at a large environmental cost,"
said Ian llluminato of Friends of the
Earth U.S., a coauthor of the report.
"Rather than substantively reducing
our environmental footprint, it in-
stead allows people to continue with
'business as usual' and avoid serious
improvements in energy efficiency and
behavioral changes."

"Worse, the report reveals that
the world's biggest petrochemical
companies have established a joint,
U.S.-based, consortium to use nano-
technology to find and extract more oil
and gas, which would have extremely
adverse environmental impacts."

According to the report, nano-
technology has the potential to
transform the way we harness,
use and store energy. However,
the manufacture of nanotechnology
products requires large amounts of
energy, and the products may not
deliver promised energy. The report
also highlights how the technology is
primarily used in products that do not
provide energy savings, such as cloth-
ing, cosmetics and sporting goods.

In response to the report, 350.org
founder Bill McKibben said, "Very few
people have looked beyond the shiny

promise of nanotechnology to try and
understand how this far-reaching new
technique is actually developing. This
report is an excellent glimpse inside,
and it offers a judicious and balanced
account of a subject we need very
much to be thinking about."

"Nanotechnology has been the
focus of considerable 'green-
wash' and industry has promoted
it as is a solution to environmen-
tal concerns. It is important the
public understands that many
nanotechnology applications
actually come at a high environ-
mental cost. Worse, at a time
when we need to reduce our
reliance o n fossil fuels, there is
growing investment in nanotech-
nology to find and extract more
oil and gas," said report coauthor
Georgia Miller, of Friends of the Earth
Australia.

Source: Nanotechnology's true climate
and energy cost exposed. Report
reveals large net energy cost and other
environmental threats posed by nano-
technology by Friends of the Earth

Andrew Maynard over at his 2020
Science blog takes a first look at
the report, which provides a cursory
breakdown and appraisal of the report
in order to assist readers in forming
their own opinion on its importance
and implications. "I've only had the
chance to skim through the report so
far, and so don't have detailed com-
ments on it. But on my initial skim a
number of things struck me:

• The report is written from a spe-
cific perspective that questions the
validity of claims made of nano-
technology - especially that it will
"deliver energy technologies that are
efficient, inexpensive and environ-
mentally sound"

• It is pretty comprehensive, covering
nanotechnology and solar energy,
wind energy, hydrogen energy,

O Friends c
the Eart

Friends of the Earth new report cover

oil and gas extraction, batteries,
supercapacitors, nanocoatings and
insulators, catalysis and reinforced
parts for airplanes and cars.

• However, it doesn't cover all nano-
applications in the energy sec-
tor. Two examples are the use of
heterogeneous catalysts in vehicle
exhausts and to reduce the energy
overheads of a multitude of pro-
cesses, the use of nanomaterials to
develop more efficient power lines.

• The report also tends to focus on
areas where it is easier to construct
position statements challenging
statements on the positive use of
nanomaterials.

• Nevertheless, it appears to be
a significant and well-written
counterbalance to publications
that promote the benefits of
nanotechnology in the energy
sector without deep and criti-
cal evaluation of the pros and
cons of the technology.

Are the issues raised valid and in need
of further exploration? It's worth read-
ing for yourself to decide."

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Turn carbon dioxide
into useful energy

Scientists have developed a green
catalytic cycle that could help
solve some of the world's big-
gest challenges— global warming
and renewable energy.

Carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) is a major factor
in global warming and the bete noire
of climate change scientists. But if
scientists at the A*STAR have any say
in the matter, it could soon be turned
into useful energy in a simple, inex-
pensive and eco-friendly way. A team
at the Institute of Bioengineering and
Nanotechnology (IBN) led by principal
researcher Yugen Zhang has invented
a method for converting C0 2 to into
methanol (CH 3 OH) using an organo-
catalyst system based on a class of
compounds called N-heterocyclic
carbenes (NHC). In recent years, de-
mands for alternative energy sources
to replace fossil fuels have been
growing against the backdrop of rising
concern about climate change, and
methanol has great potential in the
alternative energy arena as a biofuel.
"C0 2 is a major greenhouse gas and a
major cause for global warming. The
energy crisis is also an urgent issue
to tackle. If we can convert C0 2 to
energy in a cost-effective manner, it
would solve two problems in one shot.
That is the motivation of our research,"
says Zhang. Carbon dioxide is highly
stable and difficult to break down,

and many researchers and companies
have examined systems employing
metal catalysts in combination with
suitable reductants such as hydrogen
gas (H 2 ) to convert it to other prod-
ucts. However, these efforts have
been plagued with problems associ-
ated with the catalyst's short usable
life, its susceptibility to degradation
by oxygen, and the huge amounts of
energy required to reach the high tem-
peratures and pressures needed for
the reactions to proceed. On the other
hand, most organocatalysts, as Zhang
points out, are tolerant of oxygen and
active at room temperature and mod-
erate pressures. "Because we have
selected the right catalyst and the
right system, we can make the reac-
tion happen under mild conditions," he
says. Despite the promising results so
far, many obstacles still remain to be
overcome before Zhang's organocata-
lytic reaction can be applied industri-
ally. According to the team leader, the
most pressing challenge is not the
scaling up of production or reducing
the cost of the catalyst itself, but find-
ing alternatives for the costly hydrosi-
lane substrate. One candidate for this
role is hydrogen gas, suggesting the
tantalizing possibility of a tie up with
other researchers working on splitting
water into hydrogen and oxygen using
light-activated catalysts. "If we can
use the hydrogen to react with carbon

dioxide, the whole system would work
nicely. That is what we are proposing,"
says Zhang.

Source: Organocatalysts turn
carbon dioxide into useful en-
ergy - A*STAR Research. This work
is detailed in the paper Conversion
of carbon dioxide to methanol with
silanes over N-heterocyclic carbene
catalysts by S. N. Riduan, Y. Zhang &
J. Y. Ying.

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Nanotechnologies

for future mobile devices

josep saldana, April 14, 2010

tags: nanomaterial + nanoelectronics + detection + energy + video

Morph concept technologies. The Morph concept device is a bridge between highly ad-
vanced technologies and their potential benefits to end-users. This device concept showcas-
es some revolutionary leaps being explored by Nokia Research Center (NRC) in collaboration
with the Cambridge Nanoscience Centre (United Kingdom) - nanoscale technologies that will
potentially create a world of radically different devices that open up an entirely new spectrum
of possibilities.

Since 2007 the Cambridge arm of
the Nokia Research Center has been
keenly hunched over the microscope,
exploring the possibilities of
pioneering nanotechnology.
NRC's tight-knit collaboration with
Cambridge University saw the Morph
concept emerge from the laboratory,
and now the teams are exploring the
nanotechnology that could breathe life
into this concept device of the future.
However this fascinating research into
nanotechnology isn't locked in an sub-
terranean vault. In fact the research
team are so keen to share their stud-
ies that its published a book called
'Nanotechnologies for Future
Mobile Devices'.

The book highlights much of the ongo-
ing research that's being investigated
within the NRC team in Cambridge,
and details the exploration of some
pretty exciting concepts, such as
using nanoscale engineering tech-
niques to alter the construction of new
materials and the surfaces of devices
in the future. Plus, it delves into the
details on battery capabilities and
using nanoelectronics in the creation
of sensors and radios. And those are
just a handful of examples from the
mountain of information explored in
'Nanotechnologies for Future Mobile
Devices'.

Recently, the Nokia Research Center
in Cambridge was awarded the UK
Nordic Business award for Research
and Development by UK Trade and
Investment for its pioneering studies in
the use of nanotechnologies in mobile
devices.

Source: Nokia researchers publish
book on nanotechnology

Copyrighted Materia

NANOTECHNOLOGIES
for FUTURE MOBILE

DEVICES Tapani Ryhanen,

Mikko A. uusttalo, Olli ikkala
and Asta Karkkainen

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

56

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

58

Peer- Reviewed Papers

Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin: Structure as Art

by Robert Root-Bernstein 1

Leonardo, MIT Press Journals. Vol. 40, No. 3, 259-261 (2007). doi:10.1162/leon.2007.40.3.259
1 Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Ml 48824 U.S.A

Nanotechnology and in Situ Remediation: A Review of the Benefits and Potential Risks

by Barbara Karn 1 , Todd Kuiken 2 , Martha Otto 1

Environ Health Perspect 117:1823-1831(2009). doi:10.1289/ehp.0900793

1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA

2 Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, Washington, DC, USA
Ultra-High Porosity in Metal-Organic Frameworks

by Hiroyasu Furukawa 1 , Nakeun Ko 2 , Yong Bok Go 1 , Naoki Aratani 1 , Sang Beom Choi 2 , Eunwoo Choi 1 , A. Ozgur Yazay-
din 3 , Randall Q. Snurr 3 , Michael O'Keeffe 1 , Jaheon Kim 2 , Omar M. Yaghi 1 - 4
Science. Vol. 329 no. 5990 pp. 424-428 (2010). doi: 10.1 126/science.1 192160

1 Center for Reticular Chemistry at the California NanoSystems Institute, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.

2 Department of Chemistry, Soongsil University, Seoul 156-743, Korea.

3 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.

4 UCLA-Department of Energy (DOE) Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, UCLA, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East,
Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.

Green carbon as a bridge to renewable energy

by James M. Tour 1 , Carter Kittrell 1 , Vicki L. Colvin 1

Nature Materials. Vol. 9, pp 871-874 (2010). doi:10.1038/nmat2887

1 Department of Chemistry, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, and the Green Carbon Center,
Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA

Quantum entanglement in photosynthetic light-harvesting complexes

by Mohan Sarovar 12 , Akihito Ishizaki 2 - 3 , Graham R. Fleming 2,3 , K. Birgitta Whaley 1,2
Nature Physics. Vol. 6, pp 462-467 (2010). doi:10.1038/nphys1652

1 Berkeley Center for Quantum Information and Computation, Berkeley, California 94720, USA

2 Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA

3 Physical Bioscience Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA

Long-Range Energy Propagation in Nanometre Arrays of Light Harvesting Antenna Complexes

by Maryana Escalante 1 , Aufried Lenferink 2 , Yiping Zhao 3 - 4 , Niels Tas 4 , Jurriaan Huskens 3 , Neil Hunter 5 , Vinod Subrama-
niam 1 , Cees Otto 2

Nano Letters, 10 (4), pp 1450-1457 (2010). doi: 1 0.1 021/nl1 003569

1 Nanobiophysics MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede,
The Netherlands

2 Medical Cell Biophysics MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede,
The Netherlands

3 Molecular Nanofabrication MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede,
The Netherlands

4 Transducers Science and Technology MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE
Enschede, The Netherlands

5 Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, U.K.

A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal Ti0 2 films

by Brian O'Regan 1 , Michael Gratzel 1

Nature 353, 737 - 740 (1991). doi:10.1038/353737a0

1 Institute of Physical Chemistry, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland

Photoelectrochemical complexes for solar energy conversion that chemically and autonomously re-
generate

by Moon-Ho Ham 1 , Jong Hyun Choi 2 , Ardemis A. Boghossian 1 , Esther S. Jeng 1 , Rachel A. Graff, Daniel A. Heller 1 , Alice
C. Chang 1 , Aidas Mattis 3 , Timothy H. Bayburt 3 , Yelena V. Grinkova 3 , Adam S. Zeiger 4 , Krystyn J. Van Vliet 4 , Erik K. Hob-
bie 5 , Stephen G. Sligar 3 , Colin A. Wraight 3 , Michael S. Strano 1
Nature Chemistry, Vol. 2, pp 929-936 (2010) doi:10.1038/nchem.822

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

59

1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA

2 School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, Birck Nanotechnology Center, Bindley Bioscience Center,
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA

3 Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA

4 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02139, USA

5 Polymers Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA

High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires

by Candace K. Chan 1 , Hailin Peng 2 , Gao Liu 3 , Kevin Mcllwrath 4 , Xiao Feng Zhang 4 , Robert A. Huggins 2 , Yi Cui 2
Nature Nanotechnology 3, 31 - 35 (2008). doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.41 1

1 Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA

2 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA

3 Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, 1 Cyclotron Road, Mail Stop 70R108B,
Berkeley, California 94720, USA

4 Electron Microscope Division, Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc., 5100 Franklin Drive, Pleasanton,
California 94588, USA

Nanoscale mapping of ion diffusion in a lithium-ion battery cathode

by N. Balke 1 , S. Jesse 1 , A. N. Morozovska 2 , E. Eliseev 3 , D. W. Chung 4 , Y. Kim 5 , L. Adamczyk 5 , R. E. Garcia 4 , N. Dudney 5 ,
S. V. Kalinin 1

Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 5, pp 749-754 (2010). doi:10.1038/nnano.2010.174

1 The Center for Nanophase Materials Science, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831 , USA

2 Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Ukraine 41, pr. Nauki, 03028 Kiev, Ukraine

3 Institute for Problems of Materials Science, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Ukraine 3, Krjijanovskogo,
03142 Kiev, Ukraine

4 School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Illinois 47907, USA

5 Materials Sciences and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831 , USA

In Situ Observation of the Electrochemical Lithiation of a Single Sn02 Nanowire Electrode

by Jian Yu Huang 1 , Li Zhong 2 , Chong Min Wang 3 , John P. Sullivan 1 , Wu Xu 4 , Li Qiang Zhang 2 , Scott X. Mao 2 , Nicholas S.
Hudak 1 , Xiao Hua Liu 1 , Arunkumar Subramanian 1 , Hongyou Fan 5 , Liang Qi 6,7 , Akihiro Kushima 7 and Ju Li 6,7
Science. Vol. 330 no. 6010 pp. 1515-1520 (2010). doi: 10.1 126/science.1 195628

1 Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA.

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.

3 Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA.

4 Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA.

5 Advanced Materials Lab, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA.

6 State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials and Frontier Institute of Science and Technology,
Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China.

7 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.

Experimental Realization of a Rotational Ratchet in a Granular Gas

by Peter Eshuis 1 , Ko van der Weele 2 , Detlef Lohse 1 , Devaraj van der Meer 1
Phys. Rev. Lett. 104, 248001 (2010). doi:1 0.1 103/PhysRevLett.1 04.248001

1 Physics of Fluids, University of Twente, Post Office Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

2 Mathematics Department, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece

Self-powered nanowire devices

by Sheng Xu 1 , Yong Qin 1 , Chen Xu 1 , Yaguang Wei 1 , Rusen Yang 1 , Zhong Lin Wang 1
Nature Nanotechnology 5, 366 - 373 (2010). doi:1 0.1 038/nnano.201 0.46

1 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, USA

Conversion of carbon dioxide to methanol with silanes over N-heterocyclic carbene catalysts

by S. N. Riduan 1 , Y Zhang 1 , J. Y Ying 1

Angewandte Chemie International Edition, Volume 48, Issue 18, pages 3322-3325 (2009).
doi:1 0.1 002/anie.200806058

1 Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, The Nanos, Singapore

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On

60

Institutions - Country

Advanced Materials Lab, Sandia National Laboratories

Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA.

Berkeley Center for Quantum Information and Computation

Berkeley, California 94720, USA

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories

Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA.

Center for Reticular Chemistry at the California NanoSystems Institute,

and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles (UCLA)

607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.

Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA

Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University

Evanston, IL 60208, USA.

Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA

Department of Chemistry, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science,
and the Green Carbon Center, Rice University

Houston, Texas 77005, USA

Department of Chemistry, Soongsil University

Seoul 156-743, Korea.

Department of Chemistry, Stanford University

Stanford, California 94305, USA

Department of Chemistry, University of California

Berkeley, California 94720, USA

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University

Stanford, California 94305, USA

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.

Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield

Sheffield S10 2TN, U.K.

Department of Physiology, Michigan State University

East Lansing, Ml 48824 U.S.A

Electron Microscope Division, Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc.

5100 Franklin Drive, Pleasanton, California 94588, USA

Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Richland, WA 99354, USA.

Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab

1 Cyclotron Road, Mail Stop 70R108B, Berkeley, California 94720, USA

Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Richland, WA 99354, USA.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

Institute for Problems of Materials Science, National Academy of Science of Ukraine

Ukraine 3, Krjijanovskogo, 03142 Kiev, Ukraine

Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology

31 Biopolis Way, The Nanos, Singapore

Institute of Physical Chemistry, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland

Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Science of Ukraine

Ukraine 41, pr. Nauki, 03028 Kiev, Ukraine

Materials Sciences and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA

Mathematics Department, University of Patras

26500 Patras, Greece

Medical Cell Biophysics MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente

P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

Molecular Nanofabrication MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente

P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

Nanobiophysics MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente

P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

Physical Bioscience Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Berkeley, California 94720, USA

Physics of Fluids, University of Twente

Post Office Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

Polymers Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA

School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University

West Lafayette, Illinois 47907, USA

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, USA

School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, Birck Nanotechnology Center,
Bindley Bioscience Center

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA

State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials and Frontier Institute of Science
and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University

Xi'an 710049, China.

The Center for Nanophase Materials Science, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA

Transducers Science and Technology MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente

P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Washington, DC, USA

UCLA-Department of Energy (DOE) Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, UCLA

607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies

Washington, DC, USA

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines

62

^Authors List

Adamczyk, L.

Mattis, Aidas

Aratani, Naoki

Mcllwrath, Kevin

Balke, N.

Min Wang, Chong

Bayburt, Timothy H.

Morozovska, A. N.

Beom Choi, Sang

O'Regan, Brian

Birgitta Whaley, K.

O'Keeffe, Michael

Boghossian, Ardemis A.

Otto, Cees

Bok Go, Yong

Otto, Martha

Colvin, Vicki L.

Ozgur Yazaydin, A.

Cui, Yi

Peng, Hailin

Chan, Candace K.

Qi, Liang

Chang, Alice C.

Qiang Zhang, Li

Choi, Eunwoo

Qin, Yong

Chung, D. W.

Riduan, S. N.

Dudney, N.

Root-Bernstein, Robert

Eliseev, E.

Sarovar, Mohan

Escalante, Maryana

Sligar, Stephen G.

Eshuis, Peter

Snurr, Randall Q.

Fan, Hongyou

Strano, Michael S.

Feng Zhang, Xiao

Subramaniam, Vinod

Fleming, Graham R.

Subramanian, Arunkumar

Furukawa,Hiroyasu

Sullivan, John P.

Garcia, R. E.

Tas, Niels

Graff, Rachel A.

Tour, James M.

Gratzel, Michael

van der Meer, Devaraj

Grinkova, Yelena V.

van der Weele, Ko

Ham, Moon-Ho

Van Vliet, Krystyn J.

Heller, Daniel A.

Wei, Yaguang

Hobbie, Erik K.

Wraight, Colin A.

Hua Liu, Xiao

Xu, Chen

Hudak, Nicholas S.

Xu, Sheng

Huggins, Robert A.

Xu, Wu

Hunter, Neil

Yaghi, Omar M.

Huskens, Jurriaan

Yang, Rusen

Hyun Choi, Jong

Ying, J. Y

Ishizaki, Akihito

Yu Huang, Jian

Jeng, Esther S.

Zeiger, Adam S.

Jesse, S.

Zhang, Y

Kalinin, S. V.

Zhao, Yiping

Karn, Barbara

Zhong, Li

Kim, Jaheon

Kim, Y

Kittrell, Carter

Ko, Nakeun

Kuiken, Todd

Kushima, Akihiro

Lenferink, Aufried

Li, Ju

Lin Wang, Zhong

Liu, Gao

Lohse, Detlef

Mao, Scott X.

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

63

epilogue

" I was a third year medical student and from several
books I had learned the details of the phenomenon
mentioned, but these texts did not attract my attention
although I felt they contained strong currents of thought.
But when one of my friends, Mr Borao, Assistant of
Physiology, kindly showed me the movement in the
mesentery of the frog, in the presence of the sublime
spectacle, I felt like I had a revelation. I was excited
and touched to see red and white blood cells turn as
pebbles to the momentum of the stream; seeing as,
by virtue of their elasticity, the red cells stretched and
passed laboriously through the finest capillaries and,
the obstacle overcome, suddenly recovering their form
in the manner of a spring, with a warning that, at the
lowest obstacle in the current, joints of the endothelium
would relax ensuing hemorrhage and edema; to notice,
finally, how the heartbeat, weakened by the excessive
action of curare, shook loose the stuck red blood cells
... it seemed like a veil was drawn back in my mind, and
the belief in I do not know what mysterious force that
was then attributed to the phenomena of life went away
and was lost. In my enthusiasm I burst into the following
statement, not knowing that many, notably Descartes,
had expressed it centuries before: "Life resembles a
pure mechanism. Living bodies are perfect hydraulic
machines that are capable of repairing the disorders
caused by the momentum of the stream that feeds
them, and producing, under Generation, other similar
hydraulic machines. "

Reglas y Consejos sobre Investigacion Cientifica,
Santiago Ramon y Cajal, Nobel Laureate 1902, Physiology,

Nanotechnology: Engines On

Nanotechnology: Engines On

nanowiki.info

m

nanowiki.info

Nanotechnology: Engines On