Scopus

ISSN 0250-4162

SCOPUS

A publication of the
Bird Committee of the
East Africa Natural History Society

Edited by
Darcy Ogada
David Pearson

Volume 34, January 2015

>4

BirdLife

INTERNATIONAL

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Natur eKenya

The East Africa Natural History Society

Scopus 34, January 2015

Contents

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson. Systematic and taxonomic
issues concerning some East African bird species, notably those where

treatment varies between authors 1

Simon Thomsett. Eagle Hill, Kenya: changes over 60 years 24

Michael S.L. Mills and Callan Cohen. Birds of Somalia: new records,
range extensions and observations from Somaliland 31

Chacha Werema. Understorey bird abundance and diversity before and
after forest fire in Mangala Forest Reserve on the eastern slopes of the
Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania 40

Short communications

TillTopfer and Kai Gedeon. Red-billed Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus

breeding in hollow brickstone wall 47

Sarah Nachuha, Jimmy Muheebwa-Muhoozi, Dilys Ndibaisa, Micheal
Kibuule and Derek Pomeroy. Grey Crowned Cranes Balearica regulorum
in urban areas of Uganda 48

Micheal Kibuule and Derek Pomeroy. Avian mortality rates on a power
line near Kampala, Uganda 52

Marion R. Scena. Abyssinian Scimitarbill Rhinopomastus minor cabanisi in
Tanzania: a breeding record in a traditional beehive 55

Sandro Panzera and Giovanni Boano. Confirmed range extension of the
White-billed Buffalo Weaver Bubalornis albirostris in northern Tanzania
56

Washington Wachira, Colin Jackson and Peter Njoroge. Kenya Bird
Map: an internet based system for monitoring bird distribution and

populations in Kenya 58

Review 61

Obituary 62

Scopus 34: 1-23, January 2015

Systematic and taxonomic issues
concerning some East African bird species,
notably those where treatment varies
between authors

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

Summary

The taxonomy of various East African bird species is discussed. Fourteen of the non-
passerines and forty-eight of the passerines listed in Britton (1980) are considered,
with reference to treatments by various subsequent authors. Twenty-three species
splits are recommended from the treatment in Britton (op. cit), and one lump, the
inclusion of Jackson's Hornbill Tockus jacksoni as a race of T. deckeni.

Introduction

With a revision of Britton (1980) now nearing completion, this is the first of two pa-
pers highlighting the complexities that surround some East African bird species. All
appear in Britton in one form or another, but since that landmark publication our
knowledge of East African birds has increased considerably, and with the advances
in DNA sequencing, our understanding of avian systematics and taxonomy is con-
tinually moving forward. A tidal wave of phylogenetic studies in the last decade has
revolutionized our understanding of the higher-level relationships of birds. Taxa pre-
viously regarded as quite distantly related have been brought together in new clas-
sifications and some major groups have been split asunder (Knox 2014). As a result
we are seeing the familiar order of families and species in field guides and checklists
plunged into turmoil.

The speed at which molecular papers are being published continues at an unprec-
edented rate. We must remember, however, that while many molecular results may
indicate a relationship, they do not necessarily prove one. The evidence presented is
sometimes scant and the taxonomic sampling incomplete, so that further studies may
be required to resolve recommendations. Elsewhere we see some less well-researched
statements concerning species limits that appear to lack any real evidence or pub-
lished arguments.

This paper is intended to bring to the attention of all with an interest in East African
birds the advances in our knowledge of certain species that have been published since
Britton (op. cit.), and also to highlight issues that require additional and often urgent
attention in order to reach a reasonable conclusion. It is hoped that as a result of this
publication, others will be encouraged to offer comments and recommendations.

For species occurring in Kenya, the order of families, English names and nomen-
clature follow those used in the Checklist of the Birds of Kenya 4th Edition (EANHS
2009). For species that occur only in Tanzania or Uganda, names and nomenclature
follow the Birds of Africa volumes 1-7. Names shown in bold are those of East African

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

2

taxa for which full species status is recommended here. The sign > signifies cases
where a species name needs to be changed from that used in the Kenya Checklist.

Taxonomic issues

Family Phasianidae

Orange River Francolin Francolinus levaillantoides

> Archer's Francolin Scleroptila gutturalis

The acacia red-winged francolins of Africa have long been known under the name
Francolinus levaillantoides. Recent published changes / corrections include:

i) Correct spelling of the name to levalliantoides as originally spelt by Smith (1836).

ii) Change of genus from Francolinus to Scleroptila following Crowe et al. (1992).

The Orange River Francolin has long comprised all the southern African subspe-
cies of levalliantoides as well as the northern birds treated by Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (1957) under Francolinus afer as F. a. stantoni, F. a. friedmanni, F. a. archeri, F. a. lorti
and F.a. gutturalis. Hall (1963) regarded the red-winged francolins of the northern
and southern acacia steppe as conspecific, an arrangement followed by White (1965),
Snow (1978), Britton (1980), Zimmerman et al. (1996), Dickinson (2003) and Dickinson
& Remsen (2013).

In the northern acacia belt these francolins occur in much the same habitat as
southern birds, in sparse grass cover on rocky hillsides. In total there are five popula-
tions that range from Eritrea, Ethiopia and northern Somalia south to northern Kenya
and northwest Uganda. Northern Kenya birds in the Huri Hills and on Mt Kulal ap-
pear identical with the form friedmanni (Grant & Mackworth-Praed 1934, type local-
ity Bodessa, southern Ethiopia), while those collected on Mt Moroto in northeastern
Uganda in 1963 are similar.

The name gutturalis Riippell 1835 has date priority over levalliantoides Smith 1936.
Following the revised taxonomy and nomenclature of Crowe et al. (1992, 2006), and
as adopted by Dickinson & Remsen (2013), the species is therefore now known as
Scleroptila gutturalis, and comprises three northern subspecies ( gutturalis , lorti and
archeri ) and three southern ones (jugularis , pallidior and levalliantoides). Regarding
a common name it may be preferable to regard our East African birds as Archer's
Francolin rather than retain a purely southern African name, Orange River Francolin.

Family Procellariidae

Audubon's Shearwater Puffinus Iherminieri

> Tropical Shearwater Puffinus bailloni

Current taxonomy surrounding Indian Ocean shearwaters traditionally known as
Audubon's Shearwater P. Iherminieri has long been an issue of debate. Several forms
(including persicus, nicolae, colstoni and temptator) are all possible in East African wa-
ters. The Mascarene Shearwater P. atrodorsalis is not recognized, as DNA analysis has
revealed it to be indistinguishable from bailloni (Bretagnolle et al. 2000). Meanwhile
recognition of bailloni as a separate species from Iherminieri follows Austin et al. (2004),
Onley & Scofield (2007), Dickinson & Remsen (2013) and Safford & Hawkins (2013).

Family Laridae

Little Tern Stemula albifrons

[Saunders's Tern Stemula (a.) saundersi]

It is well known that the differences between Little and Saunders's Terns are minor.

3

Donald A. Turner and David }. Pearson

and that separation of the two is almost impossible except when dealing with speci-
mens or individuals in full breeding plumage, and that many East African records
could apply to either form. Some authors, notably Clancey (1982), were of the opinion
that the two are probably conspecific, and Cramp (1985), while treating saundersi as
a separate species, felt that reasons for splitting it from albifrons were poor. With the
two not always separable from one another (Hollom et al. 1987), many, if not most of
the features that supposedly distinguish saundersi actually intergrade with characters
of albifrons (Chandler & Wilds 1994), and second year albifrons in their post breeding
plumage will often appear very similar in the field to saundersi. Variation in albifrons
at the northern tip of the Red Sea is such that separation of the two forms is not pos-
sible unless in the hand (Itai Shanni pers. com), but when breeding, saundersi is always
exclusively marine in its choice of habitat (Chandler & Wilds 1994).

Cramp (op. cit.) believed that saundersi was characterized in adult breeding plum-
age by its smaller size, deep black outer primaries with only a faint grey bloom, black
outer primary shafts, more white on forehead and less above the eye making the fore-
head patch appear squarer, darker grey rump, and olive or brown feet with yellow
only on the rear tarsus and soles. While the above characters hold true for the Red Sea
population, they may not for all birds in other populations, and one out of six birds
from northern and eastern Arabia and three out of twelve Karachi breeders had the
colour of the outer primaries and shafts intermediate between saundersi and nominate
albifrons (Cramp op. cit.).

Given the degree of uncertainty that surrounds the positive identification of these
two forms in East African waters, together with the fact that intermediates do occur
(Olsen & Larssen 1995), it would seem that pending molecular evidence to the con-
trary, saundersi is currently best considered a race of S. albifrons.

Family Psittacidae

Brown-necked Parrot Poicephalus robustus

Clancey (1997), Symes (1999), Tfockey et al. (2005) and Perrin (2005) have all favoured
recognition of Poicephalus robustus as a distinctive Cape endemic, with East African
birds thus becoming Poicephalus Juscicollis suahelicus. Tfowever, others, including
Dowsett-Lemaire (2004), Dowsett et al. (2008) and Dickinson & Remsen (2013), prefer
to retain Poicephalus robustus with three distinct regional subspecies pending convinc-
ing evidence to the contrary.

Family Strigidae

White-faced Scops Owl Ptilopsis leucotis
[Southern White-faced Scops Owl Ptilopsis (/.) granti]

According to DNA evidence the White-faced Scops Owls are very different from typi-
cal scops owls of the genus Otus. As a result Koenig et al. (1999) placed them in a sepa-
rate genus Ptilopsis, on account of the much larger eyes, and ear-openings that are
twice as large as those of any Otus species. Koenig et al. (op. cit.) also followed van der
Weyden (1973) in considering the southern form granti worthy of species recognition
as geographical variation in the song would seem to parallel that of the sub-specific
division within leucotis. However, certain aspects of the voice of leucotis require fur-
ther investigation, notably the nature and precise area of any supposed transitional
dialect in Kenya and Uganda, and the existence of a reported secondary song in the
northern form. To date there are scant data from critical areas astride the equator
where the transition from one call to the other is alleged to take place. Pending fur-

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

4

ther molecular and vocal evidence to the contrary, southern birds would appear best
treated for now as a race of leucotis, following Dickinson & Remson (2013).

Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus

[Greyish Eagle Owl Bubo (a.) cinerascens ]

Koenig et al. (1999) separated cinerascens on the basis of size and eye colour. However
,the presence of both yellow- and brown-eyed birds around Chanler's Falls, Samburu
District and in the Lower Tana area suggests that many individuals, and particu-
larly the form known as tanae, may be the product of intergradation. This, together
with the absence of any vocal or other significant differences, suggests that cinerascens
is best retained as a race of africanus pending molecular evidence to the contrary, a
course followed by Dickinson & Remson (2013).

Fraser's Eagle Owl Bubo poeusis
[Usambara Eagle Owl Bubo (p.) vosseleri ]

Although B. vosseleri was treated as a full species by Zimmerman et al. (1996), Dowsett-
Lemaire (2006) showed that vosseleri produces guttural trills identical to those of nom-
inate poensis , referring also to Hunter et al. (1998) who successfully used recordings
of poensis from Rwanda to stimulate vosseleri in the Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania.
Pending convincing evidence to the contrary, treatment of vosseleri as a race of poensis
follows Dowsett-Lemaire (2006) and Dickinson & Remsen (2013).

Family Caprimulgidae

Fiery-necked Nightjar Caprinuilgus pect oralis
[Black-shouldered Nightjar Caprimulgus (p.) nigriscapularis ]

While the C. pectoralis complex remains the subject of debate, there is much agreement
that throughout its geographical range there appear to be no significant differences in
calls, and that any presumed morphological distinctions are not diagnostic (Louette
1990, Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Jackson 2013).
However, following Fry et al. (1988), Cleere (1995) and Cleere & Nurney (1998), some
still regard nigriscapularis as a separate species. Pending further molecular evidence,
it is felt that nigriscapularis remains best retained as the northern race of C. pectoralis
following Dickinson & Remsen (2013) and Jackson (2013).

Montane Nightjar Caprimulgus poliocephalus
[Ruwenzori Nightjar Caprimulgus (p.) ruwenzorii
Usambara Nightjar Caprimulgus (p.) guttifer]

Some authors consider C. poliocephalus monotypic, with species status given to both
ruwenzorii and guttifer, while others treat guttifer as a race of C. ruwenzorii following
Cleere & Nurney (1998). Vocal differences between all three forms appear to be no
more than dialectic, while morphologically there is a cline of decreasing white in the
outer tail feathers from nominate birds through ruwenzorii to guttifer (Louette 1990,
Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire 1993). Treatment of ruwenzorii and guttifer as races of C.
poliocephalus follows Dowsett et al. (2008), Dickinson & Remsen (2013) and Jackson
(2014).

Family Bucerotidae

Red-billed Hornbill Tockus erythrorhyuchus
[Ruaha Hornbill Tockus (e.) ruahae ]

While it has been proposed that the recently described ruahae be treated as a full spe-

5

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

cies, based on facial skin and eye colour, calls and displays, Hockey et al. (2005) con-
sidered it best retained as a subspecies, pending further study (as was initially sug-
gested by Kemp & Delport 2002). Without more conclusive evidence to the contrary,
treatment of ruahae as a race of the Red-billed Hornbill T. erythrorhynchus follows
Hockey et al. (op. cit.) and Dickinson & Remsen (2013).

Von der Decken's Hornbill Tockus deckeni

[Jackson's Hornbill Tockus (d.) jacksoni ]

Tockus jacksoni is often treated as a full species, but vocalizations are similar and dis-
plays are identical to those of Von der Decken's Hornbill. Pending conclusive molecu-
lar evidence to the contrary, treatment as a race of T. deckeni follows Kemp & Crowe
(1985), Kemp (1995, 2001) and Dickinson & Remsen (2013).

Family Picidae

Bennett's Woodpecker Campethera bennettii
[Speckle-throated Woodpecker Campethera ( b .) scriptoricauda ]

The status of scriptoricauda remains controversial. It has been variously treated as a
race of C. nubica or C. bennettii, or as a separate species C. scriptoricauda. The extent to
which it intergrades with either nubica or bennettii remains unclear, but it seems un-
likely that scriptoricauda will ever prove to be reproductively isolated, and both Short
(1973) and Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire (1993) recommended that it remain merged
with bennettii pending evidence to the contrary. Treatment as a race of C. bennettii fol-
lows Short (1988), Zimmerman et al. (1996) and Dickinson & Remsen (2013).

African Grey Woodpecker Dendropicos goertae

[Grey-headed Woodpecker Dendropicos (g.) spodocephalus ]

Prigogine & Louette (1983) and Winkler et al. (1995) both separated P. spodocepha-
lus (including rhodeogaster of Ethiopia, Kenya and northern Tanzania) from the more
lowland P. goertae (Uganda, northern and western Kenya). The lack of any known
intergradation between the two forms in East Africa may be due to the fact they do
not actually meet, though there is evidence of some interbreeding in Rwanda with
the Olive Woodpecker D. griseocephalus. The forms rhodeogaster and goertae are behav-
iourally, vocally, morphologically and ecologically very similar, and with many topo-
graphical and human-induced barriers separating them, there is little opportunity for
interbreeding (Short 1988). Treatment of both spodocephalus and rhodeogaster as races
of P. goertae follows Short (1988), Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire (1993), Zimmerman et
al. (1996) and Dickinson & Remsen (2013).

Family Platysteiridae

Forest Batis Batis mixta
Dark Forest Batis Batis crypta

Fjeldsa et al. (2006) presented morphological and molecular evidence to show that
Batis mixta consists of two very different species that may not even be closely related
to each other, with B. crypta near to birds of the Malawi Rift, and B. mixta clustering
with B. diops of the Albertine Rift. Meanwhile, reported vocal differences between
mixta in the northern Tanzania highlands and ultima in the Kenya coastal lowlands
and East Usambaras may itself be worthy of further investigation.

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

6

Eastern Black-headed Batis Batis minor
Western Black-headed Batis Batis erlangeri

Treatment of Batis erlangeri as a separate species from B. minor has been proposed by
Louette (2005), and indeed calls of Kenya coastal birds (B. m. minor) are very different
from those of erlangeri (Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 2014). Pending molecular evi-
dence to the contrary, the recognition of two species is recommended.

Family Malaconotidae

Tropical Boubou Laniarius aethiopicus
Coastal Black Boubou Laniarius nigerrimus

Recently it was demonstrated that the all-black birds on Manda Island, Lamu District,
are vocally and behaviourally quite distinct from black-and-white L.a. sublacteus
(Turner et al. 2011). Nguembock et al. (2008) in their phylogeny of some Laniarius
bushshrikes, showed that an all-black bird ( erlangeri ) from Somalia was not closely
related to L. aethiopicus, and pointed out that it warranted species status. Whether
the black boubous of coastal Kenya represent the same species as erlangeri can be bet-
ter determined when their DNA is compared. Although Nguembock et al. (op. cit.)
recommended separating both sublacteus and major from the traditional L. aethiopicus
complex, further study of vocalizations together with additional molecular work that
includes representatives of erlangeri, nigerrimus and somaliensis would seem neces-
sary to clarify relationships and species limits within this group of bushshrikes. In
the meantime Turner et al. (2013) have proposed that the all-black coastal boubous
in eastern Kenya at Kipini and Manda Island be separated from L. aethiopicus and
treated again as Laniarius nigerrimus (Reichenow 1879).

Family Taniidae

Common Fiscal Lanins collaris

Fuchs et al. (2011a) found that the Common Fiscal Lanius collaris as traditionally de-
fined does not form a monophyletic group, and that two clear lineages exist within the
complex. The authors recommend that a Northern Fiscal (including capelli, humeralis
and smithii) be given species status separate from a Southern Fiscal (including collaris
and marwitzi). This is similar to an earlier arrangement proposed by Harris & Franklin
(2000) on the basis of distinct vocal differences between the two groups. However
pending further supporting evidence, most notably from critical areas in southwest
Uganda and western Tanzania, continued recognition of two groups within a single
species may be more appropriate.

Family Dicruridae

Velvet-mantled Drongo Dicrurus modestus cor acinus

The true taxonomic status of coracinus remains unclear. Opinion as to whether this
African mainland forest form belongs with D. modestus of Principe Island or with
the Common Drongo D. adsimilis varies among authors. In all areas across equatorial
Africa coracinus is very much a forest and forest-edge bird, while adsimilis is typically
an open savanna bird, and while the two appear to behave as separate species where
they meet, intergrades do occur (Chapin 1954, Pearson 2000). In Kenya, birds attrib-
uted to coracinus are known only from Kakamega (though due to continuing forest
fragmentation there have been few if any post-1990 records), but in Uganda it is pres-
ent both in and at the edges of several southern, western and south-western forests in-
cluding forest edges along the northern shores of Take Victoria. Meanwhile, in north-

7

Donald A. Turner and David }. Pearson

east Tanzania, birds resembling and behaving like coracinus have been reported from
the Usambaras at Amani and Mazumbai, and these deserve further scrutiny. Pending
evidence to the contrary, continued treatment of coracinus as a race of D. modestus
follows Zimmerman et al. (1996), Pearson (2000) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Family Paridae

Rufous-bellied Tit Melaniparus mfiventris
[Cinnamon-breasted Tit Melaniparus (r.) pallidiventris ]

Sibley & Monroe (1990) treated pallidiventris as a separate species based on its dif-
ferent eye and belly colour. However, as noted by Hockey et al. (2005), belly colour
varies clinally while eye colour varies from yellow in rufiventris to dark brown in
pallidiventris , and pale brown in intergrades and intermediates. Dowsett & Dowsett-
Lemaire (1993) questioned the use of eye colour as a species isolating mechanism,
and later Dowsett et al. (2008) felt that with the distribution of the two forms con-
tiguous there was no reason to suppose that two species were involved. The race
masukuensis with its pale pinkish-cinnamon belly and pale yellowish-brown eyes may
represent an intermediate form. Placement of all Afrotropical tit species in the genus
Melaniparus follows Johansson et al. (2013) who despite recommending species sta-
tus for pallidiventris showed little divergence between it and rufiventris. Dickinson &
Christidis (2014) retain pallidiventris as a race of mfiventris.

Northern Black Tit Melaniparus leucomelas
White-shouldered Black Tit Melaniparus guineensis

The true systematic position of Parus niger, carpi , leucomelas , guineensis and insignis

has long been a subject of debate. The pale yellowish-eyed guineensis has often been
treated as a full species (Sibley & Monroe 1990, Harrap & Quin 1996), despite some
overlap with dark-eyed insignis in central Uganda where both pale- and dark-eyed
birds reportedly occurred in the same foraging groups. Johansson et al. (2013) found
that leucomelas and insignis were sister taxa, with guineensis divergent from both, and
so recommended recognition of a dark-eyed M. leucomelas (including insignis) and a
pale-eyed M. guineensis. Dickinson & Christidis (2014) follow Johansson et al. (op. cit.).

Family Hirundinidae

Black Saw-wing Psalidoprocne pristoptera
[Eastern Saw- wing Psalidoprocne (p.) orientalis ]

[Southern Saw-wing Psalidoprocne (p.) holomelas]

Treatment of East African birds under either P. pristoptera or P. holomelas has varied
between authors. Features such as wing length, depth of tail fork, shade of gloss on
the upperparts and colour of the underwing coverts have all played a part in deter-
mining which form belongs where. The under wing-coverts are brown or grey-brown
in massaica, mwenzori and holomelas , yet whitish in oleaginea and orientalis , and several
of these forms have been regarded as incipient species. Sheldon et al. (2005), while
leaving all options open, implied that more than one species may indeed be involved.
The ranges of several forms appear to overlap with one another, with orientalis, for
example, being recorded within the range of birds with brown under wing-coverts in
several parts of southern and eastern Tanzania, and small- winged birds occurring in
eastern and coastal areas of southeastern Kenya and Tanzania. Just how many such
records refer to resident breeding forms as opposed to southern migrants remains un-
clear. Pending detailed evidence to the contrary, the continued treatment of all forms
within P. pristoptera would appear most appropriate.

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

8

Family Alaudidae

Fawn-coloured Lark Calendulauda africanoides

[Foxy Lark Calendulauda (a.) alopex ]

East African birds (inter cedens) have long been treated as a race of Mirafra africanoides.
Recently, however, de Juana et al. (2004) and Hockey et al. (2005), restricted africanoi-
des to southern Africa, and treated east and northeast African birds as the Foxy Lark
Calendulauda alopex. With no molecular data to confirm the placement of intercedens
with alopex , and as divergence from the southern races is modest, treatment with C.
africanoides is maintained pending more conclusive evidence, a course also adopted
by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Spike-heeled Lark Chersomanes albofasciata
Beesley's Lark Chersomanes beesleyi

Beesley's Lark was formerly considered a race of C. albofasciata , but molecular evi-
dence now suggests it is worthy of species status, having separated from albofasciata
approximately three million years ago (Alstrom et al. 2013).

Somali Short-toed Lark Calandrella somalica
[Athi Short-toed Lark Calandrella (s.) athensis ]

In the absence of any convincing evidence, there appears no justification to treat ath-
ensis as anything other than a race of C. somalica.

Lamily Cisticolidae

Winding Cisticola Cisticola galactotes
[Heuglin's Cisticola Cisticola (g.) marginatus ]

[East Coast Cisticola Cisticola (g.) haematocephalus ]

The Cisticola galactotes species complex has been considered by various authors to
comprise 7-12 subspecies. Recent studies in northwest Zimbabwe found differences
between some subspecies in both call and behaviour, leading to the suggestion that C.
galactotes as currently defined represents a complex of three or more species each with
different song types (Hustler 2001). On the basis of voice alone, West and East African
birds may form the marginatus group (including among others amphilectus, nyansae
and suahelicus ); south central African birds (luapula) another group; with nominate ga-
lactotes of coastal KwaZulu Natal, southern Mozambique and Malawi a third group.
Finally, the Ethiopian highland form lugubris and the coastal East African haemato-
cephalus may both be considered worthy of monotypic species status (Hockey et al.
2005, Ryan et al. 2006). But just how much these vocal differences may simply reflect
local dialects remains unclear. A more thorough review of this complex is required,
including molecular information.

Tana River Cisticola Cisticola restrictus

Identified only from seven museum specimens collected in semi-arid bush in the
Lower Tana basin. This remains a taxon of uncertain validity, with a very limited
distribution in Tana River District at Sangole, Ijara, Mnazini, Garsen and Karawa
(Traylor 1967, Britton 1980). There is the possibility that it may be a hybrid between
Rattling Cisticola C. chiniana and Ashy Cisticola C. cinereolus (Dowsett-Lemaire &
Dowsett 2014). Despite extensive fieldwork throughout the Lower Tana, there have
been no recent records and there are no field or voice descriptions. Although con-
sidered distinct from both C. chiniana and C. cinereolus by Traylor (1967), specimens

9

Donald A. Turner and David }. Pearson

closely resemble those two forms. It is therefore recommended that a re-appraisal of
all specimens be undertaken.

Wailing Cisticola Cisticola lais

[Ly ires' s Cisticola Cisticola (/.) distinctus ]

In East Africa the Wailing Cisticola contains two well-defined races, distinctus, con-
sidered by some authors a separate species, and semifasciatus in southern Tanzania.
Dowsett & Dowsett-Lenraire (1993) found that the complex vocalizations of distinctus
with rattles, low trills and repetitions were exact replicas of the repertoire of lais, thus
clearly suggesting that the two forms are best considered conspecific. This treatment
is adopted by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Piping Cisticola Cisticola fulvicapilla
Long-tailed Cisticola Cisticola angusticauda

Although these are treated as two species by several authors, angusticauda is known
to hybridize with fulvicapilla in many parts of Zambia (Dowsett & Dowsett-Lenraire
1980, Irwin 1993, Dowsett et al. 2008), with no significant behavioural or ecological
differences. However, just what transpires at their mutual distributional boundaries
in eastern Tanzania is unclear. Both forms share song types but have distinct dialects,
and their voices reportedly differ where they meet. Behaviour and ecology are simi-
lar, but there are differences in wing and tail structure, and angusticauda has a distinc-
tive breeding dress (Tye 1997). Pending molecular and other evidence from critical
areas in eastern Tanzania, a two-species arrangement would at the moment seem the
most appropriate, a course followed by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Bar-throated Apalis Apalis thoracica
[Taita Apalis Apalis (t.) Juscigularis]

In East Africa the Bar-throated Apalis is characterized by several endemic subspecies,
and one, Juscigularis in the Taita Hills, is treated as a full species by several authors
(Collar et al. 1994, Ryan et al. 2006). However, while several populations may be mor-
phologically distinctive, all are genetically very closely related. In the Eastern Arc
Mountains of Tanzania a 'leap-frog ' pattern of distribution is seen with the wide-
spread "green-backed, yellow-bellied griseiceps" from the Udzungwas to the Ukagurus
being replaced by a "grey-backed, white-bellied pareensis" in the South Pares, but
then reappearing on Mts Meru and Kilimanjaro and in the Crater Highlands and the
Chyulu Hills. Meanwhile the melanic Juscigularis is restricted to the Taita Hills, while
an intermediate polytypic form murina occurs in the Usambaras and Ngurus and then
re-occurs further south in the southern Tanzania highlands and along the Malawi Rift
(Fjeldsa et al. 2010). Pending detailed molecular evidence to the contrary, treatment
as one highly variable species would seem the most appropiate, a course adopted by
Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Yellow-breasted Apalis Apalis flavida

The 'brown-tailed' dry country flavocincta appears sympatric with the 'green-tailed'
pugnax in some central Kenya areas where they behave as separate forms and are vo-
cally distinct (Lewis 1989). Hall & Moreau (1970) considered flavocincta an incipient
species, while Sibley & Monroe (1990) also treated 'brown-tailed' birds as a separate
species. However, with reported intergrades between flavocincta and neglecta, golzi
and pugnax, and also caniceps and golzi, reproductive isolation may not be complete
(Irwin 1997). Pending detailed molecular evidence to the contrary, the entire flavida

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

10

complex seems best treated as a single polytypic species. Such treatment is adopted
by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Buff-throated Apalis Apalis rufogularis

[Kungwe Apalis Apalis r. argentea ]

Hall & Moreau (1970) and Sibley & Monroe (1990) considered argentea an incipient
species contra Traylor (1986) and Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire (1993). Meanwhile a
comparison of sonograms of calls from western Uganda, Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda,
and the Mahale Mountains NP, western Tanzania (Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 1990,
Moyer et al. 2006) shows that without DNA evidence to the contrary, there is no rea-
son why argentea should be considered anything other than a race of rufogularis. This
treatment is adopted by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Family Pycnonotidae

Shelley's Greenbul Arizelocichla masukuensis

There are two subspecific groups: a grey-headed western group (kakamegae/ kungwen-
sis) and a green-headed eastern group ( masukuensis/roehli ), each considered an incipi-
ent species by Hall & Moreau (1970) and Sibley & Monroe (1990). Meanwhile, with
crucial vocalization material largely unavailable, both Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire
(1993) and Roy et al. (1998) recommended further investigation, and recently Moyer
(2006) found that the voice of kungwensis in the Mahale Mountains was indeed very
similar to that of roehli from the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. Treatment
of all forms as races of masukuensis appears to be the best course pending molecular
evidence to the contrary. A return to the genus Arizelocichla follows Johansson et al.
(2007) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Eastern Mountain Greenbul Arizelocichla nigriccps
Southern Mountain Greenbul Arizelocichla fusciccps

Revised treatment of the montane greenbuls follows Roy et al. (1998) and Johansson
et al. (2007) whereby the southern fusciceps complex (including chlorigula and neu-
manni) represents a distinct phylogenetic branch separate from the nigriceps popula-
tions in the Usambaras, Pares, Crater Highlands and Ngurumans (Fjeldsa et al. 2010).
A return to the genus Arizelocichla follows Johansson et al. (op. cit.) and Dickinson &
Christidis (2014).

Tiny Greenbul Phyllastrcphus dcbilis
Montane Tiny Greenbul Phyllastrcphus albigula

Fuchs et al. (2011b) have recommended that albigula be treated as a separate species
from debilis, based on significant biometric differences between the lowland ( rabai )
and montane (albigula) populations in the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania, with
genetic divergence having occurred between 2.4 and 3.1 million years ago. Dickinson
& Christidis (2014) follow Fuchs et al. (op. cit.), referring to albigula as the Green-
crowned Greenbul.

Sassi's Olive Greenbul Phyllastrcphus loreuzi

Status of this form (vagrant to western Uganda), remains under review, as it may be
nothing more than a very dark Icterine Greenbul P. icterinus (Fishpool 2006).

11

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

Green-tailed Bristlebill Bleda eximius
> Yellow-lored Bristlebill Bleda notatus

Following Chappuis & Erard (1992), the yellow-lored, dark-eyed notatus is treated as
a distinct species from B. eximius. Meanwhile, the East African form ( ugandae ), rang-
ing from the middle Congo River east to Uganda and the Minziro Forest in north-
west Tanzania has bright lemon-yellow eyes, and although included within notatus
by Chappuis & Erard (op. cit.) it may be worthy of further scrutiny.

Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus
[White-eared Bulbul Pycnonotus ( b .) dodsoni ]

The small and more scaly-patterned dodsoni has often been considered worthy of spe-
cies status despite much hybridization with P. b. tricolor in areas of contact. On the
slopes of the Kenya highlands there are populations (formerly known as peasei) that
appear intermediate between dodsoni and tricolor , and similar intergradation occurs
on the Kenya coast from Sokoke to Vanga. One option would be to consider dodsoni
as a separate species with peasei a hybrid form, the other to retain dodsoni (including
chyulu, teitensis, littoralis and peasei) as a subspecies. Pending more conclusive evi-
dence, continued treatment of dodsoni as a race of barbatus follows Fishpool & Tobias
(2005) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Family Sylviidae

Little Rush Warbler Bradypterus baboecala
Eastern Rush Warbler Bradypterus centralis

Alstrom et al. (2011) place the Kenya highland form elgonensis and northeast Nigerian
chadensis in a different Bradypterus lineage from southern African baboecala races,
demonstrating clearly that they represent a separate species. Indeed, elgonensis/centra-
lis birds in Uganda, Rwanda, northwest Tanzania and west and central Kenya differ
markedly in voice from moreaui / tongensis / msiri birds in the rest of Kenya, Tanzania,
Zambia, Malawi and South Africa, and also from abyssinicus in Ethiopia (Benson
1946). Dickinson & Christidis (2014) recognize B. centralis (including elgonensis and
chadensis ) as a full species, with sudanensis of South Sudan and western Ethiopia ten-
tatively placed here pending confirmation of voice. The B. baboecala complex may best
now be treated as comprising two species.

Southern Hyliota Hyliota australis
[Northern Hyliota Hyliota (a.) slatini]

Molecular data currently suggest that the hyliotas form a basal offshoot of the
Sylviidae, and they are placed immediately before the Stenostiridae in Dickinson &
Christidis (2014). Meanwhile, the position of the miombo Southern Hyliota H. aus-
tralis vis-a-vis the tropical forest birds further north ( slatini and usambara) requires
further scrutiny. With differing habitats and reported vocal differences (Dowsett-
Lemaire pers. comm.), it would seem that the widely separated northern forest birds
might warrant consideration for separate species status.

Family Muscicapidae

White-headed Black Chat Mynnecocichla amotti
[Ruaha Chat Myrmecocichla (a.) collaris]

The recently described Ruaha Chat was formerly considered an aberrant form of M.
amotti. However, Glen et al. (2011) showed that while all birds east of the Eastern Arc

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

12

Massif and southern highlands of Tanzania are nominate arnotti, those west of that
mountain divide could all be ascribed to collaris. Moreover, they suggested that this
taxon warranted full species status as the Ruaha Chat. This position has not been
adopted by Dickinson & Christidis (2014) who treat the M. arnotti complex under one
species, and also point out that an earlier name, leucolaema, given to a bird from the
Ngurus, supercedes collaris.

Bocage's Akalat Sheppardia bocagei
Alexander's Akalat Sheppardia insulana

Formerly placed in Cossypha , the position of the 'bocagei' and 'insulana' groups has
long been a subject of debate. While Prigogine (1987) maintained they were separate
species others, notably Keith et al. (1992) and Dowsett & Dowsett-Temaire (1993),
preferred to retain poensis (= insulana) within bocagei. Recent fieldwork on both sides
of Take Tanyanika has shown that while the two groups may appear almost identical,
their vocalizations and habitat choices are completely different. The song of kungwen-
sis in western Tanzania is virtually identical to those of kaboboensis on the DR Congo
side of the lake, and S. insulana granti on Mt Cameroon, yet very different from those
of S. bocagei ilyai, only 60 km away, and S. bocagei chapini in southwest Tanzania and
northern Zambia (Chappuis 2000, Moyer 2006, Moyer et al 2006, Plumptre et al 2008).
For the use of insulana rather than poensis see Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Pale Flycatcher Bradornis pallidas

[Wajir Grey Flycatcher Bradornis [p.] bafirawari]

The distinctive long-tailed and long-billed bafirawari is uniquely adapted to arid thorn
bush in eastern Kenya where it occurs alongside the very similar but larger African
Grey Flycatcher B. microrhynchus neumanni , and was accorded species status by
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1955). The two are so similar that Hall & Moreau (1962)
noted that one of the paratypes of bafirawari collected on the same day as the type
specimen had in fact been re-identified as a male B. microrhynchus neumanni. The long
bill of bafirawari might link it to subalaris, which is the nearest race of B. pallidus geo-
graphically, though bafirawari and subalaris replace each other along the Tana River
at Garissa and Bura respectively, without any suggestion of intergradation (Traylor
1970). More detailed scrutiny of both bafirawari and subalaris together with their rela-
tionships with B. microrhynchus neumanni, burae and taruensis would seem appropri-
ate, particularly in those areas of eastern and southeastern Kenya where their ranges
converge and in places appear to overlap.

Family Turdidae

Olive Thrush Turdus olivaceus

> Abyssinian Thrush Turdus abyssinicus

Bowie et al (2005) showed that the Olive Thrush complex includes species in two
divergent clades, a southern 'olivaceus' group and a northern 'abyssinicus' group. The
East African forms abyssinicus , baraka, bambusicola, deckeni , oldeani and nyikae appear
best treated as races of Turdus abyssinicus.

Taita Thrush Turdus helleri
Usambara Thrush Turdus roehli

Treatment as full species follows Bowie et al (2005). Both represent distinctive relict
populations with a basal position in the ''abyssinicus'' group compared to other East
African highland populations, and since they have been able to maintain their genetic
integrity are probably indeed best regarded as species (Voelker et al. 2007).

13

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

Family Nectariniidae

Eastern Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris mediocris
Usambara Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris usambarica
Fiilleborn's Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris fuellebomi
Moreau's Sunbird Cinnyris moreaui

Three double-collared sunbird forms, mediocris, usambarica, and fuellebomi, occupy
between them the Kenya highlands, the Crater Highlands of northern Tanzania, the
Eastern Arc Mountains and the southern highlands along the Malawi Rift. These have
until recently been treated as races C. mediocris (e.g., by Fry et al. (2000) and Dowsett
et al. (2008)). Moreau's Sunbird Cinnyris moreaui ranges from the eastern parts of the
Udzungwa highlands north to the Ngurus. It thus occupies an area between medioc-
ris and usambarica to the north and fuellebomi to the southwest. Molecular data have
shown that N. mediocris ( sensu latu) is paraphyletic, comprising three distinct clades,
each worthy of monotypic species status (Bowie et al. 2004). The same authors also
confirmed full species status for C. moreaui, itself sister to Loveridge's Sunbird C. lov-
eridgei of the Uluguru Mountains.

Stuhlmann's Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris stuhlmanni

[Montane Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris ludovicensis ]

[Greater Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris afro]

The montane sunbirds of the Albertine Rift (largely treated within N. ludovicensis by
Britton 1980) continue to be the subject of debate. Prigogine (1979) discussed them
in some detail, preferring to consider most forms as races of stuhlmanni rather than
of ludovicensis. Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire (1993) were unconvinced that any were
worthy of specific status on grounds that all were vocally and behaviourally indistin-
guishable from the Nectarinia afra complex. Later, Fry et al. (2000), while considering
afra a southern African endemic, followed Prigogine (1979) in the recognition of stuhl-
manni for all Albertine Rift birds, as do Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Meanwhile, birds resembling C. ludovicensis/afra whytei from the Nyika Plateau,
northern Malawi, are reported to occur along the drier eastern forest edges of the
Udzungwa and Rubeho Mountains in southern Tanzania where they compete with
N. moreaui, and these may belong to the afra complex (Fjeldsa et al. 2010). Further de-
tails are awaited.

Little Purple-banded Sunbird Cinnyris bifasciatns
Tsavo Sunbird Cinnyris tsavoensis

The subspecific treatment of Cinnyris bifasciatus varies between authors, and is com-
plicated by the largely unresolved status of tsavoensis. This form has a much narrower
maroon breast band than bifasciatus and microrhynchus and appears also to differ in
lacking an eclipse plumage. It is treated as a full species by Fry et al. (2000), Cheke &
Mann (2001) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014) contra Zimmerman et al. (1996). While
the range of tsavoensis does bisect that of microrhynchus in Kenya, there is no evidence
to support the claim by Clancey & Williams (1957) that it is partly sympatric, and mo-
lecular evidence is still needed to confirm its full species status. Meanwhile Carswell
et al. (2005), following Fry et al. (op. cit.), attribute Uganda birds to C. b. strophium.
This race is not recognized by Cheke & Mann (op. cit.) or by Dickinson & Christidis
(2014), so birds in Uganda, western Kenya and southern Tanzania would return to
microrhynchus.

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

14

Family Passeridae

Kenya Rufous Sparrow Passer rufocinctus
>Rufous Sparrow Passer cordofanicus
[Shelley's Sparrow Passer (c.) shelleyi]

The rufous sparrows of Africa have been considered to represent one, two, four or
six species, and while there is a broad measure of agreement that they are all long-
isolated relicts of a formerly widespread single polytypic species, treatment has
varied among authors. The three East African populations cordofanicus, rufocinctus
and shelleyi were treated as races of the southern African motitensis by Britton (1980),
Summers-Smith (1988), Dowsett & Dowsett-Temaire (1993) and Dickinson (2003), but
as separate species by Fry & Keith (2004). Pending molecular evidence to the contrary,
East African birds appear best grouped together, but separate from those in southern
Africa. Dickinson & Christidis (2014) treat both rufocinctus and shelleyi under P. cordo-
fanicus, but admit full species status for P. insularis of Socotra.

Grey-headed Sparrow Passer griseus

Although traditionally treated as a single species, opinions have in recent years
largely favoured a multi-species approach (Fry & Keith 2004), despite limited hy-
bridization in zones of overlap. While in several areas some forms seem to behave
as separate species, elsewhere others occur alongside one another producing both
intermediate and indeterminate offspring. Currently in East Africa, the frequency of
these hybrid birds and lack of any obvious vocal or behavioural distinctions suggest
that all are best considered conspecific (Zimmerman et al. 1996). Meanwhile the status
of mosambicus, and whether best placed with griseus or the Southern Grey-headed
Sparrow P. diffusus remains unclear. While Pakenham (1979) and Dowsett-Lemaire &
Dowsett (2006) have provisionally regarded it as a race of P. griseus. Fry & Keith (op.
cit.) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014) treat it under P. diffusus.

Family Estrildidae

Black-crowned Waxbill Estrilda nonnula
Black-headed Waxbill Estrilda atricapilla

[Kandt's Waxbill Estrilda kandti]

Kandt's Waxbill E. kandti was originally described, from a juvenile specimen pre-
served in alcohol from Lake Kivu, eastern DR Congo, as a subspecies of the Black-
crowned Waxbill E. nonnula. It was later thought by Prigogine (1975) to be a form of
the Black-headed Waxbill E. atricapilla rather than nonnula, so that this name would
have precedence over E. a. graueri. This was despite the fact that Grote had earlier
re-examined the kandti type, reaffirming that it undoubtedly belonged with nonnula
(Chapin 1954). Prigogine (1980) further suggested that this form (graueri, renamed
kandti) was specifically distinct from both atricapilla and nonnula, with which there
was no evidence of hybridization. In the Kivu Highlands, Rwanda and southwest
Uganda kandti and nonnula often occur side by side in the same habitat, but on the
whole tend to be separated by altitude with kandti largely above 2100 m and nonnula
below that level. E. kandti has been recognized as a distinct species by Fry & Keith
(2004) and Payne (2010).

However, several authors, including Short et al. (1990), Dowsett & Dowsett-
Lemaire (1993), Zimmerman et al. (1996) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014) have not
been persuaded that kandti should be split from E. atricapilla, and have considered
that a third species within this complex is unlikely. Also that Prigogine's argument

15

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

for replacement of the name graueri is unconvincing. Pending further DNA evidence
to the contrary it therefore seems appropriate to leave the name kandti within E. non-
nula, and treat all montane populations within E. atricapilla. Thus, in East Africa we
would have two disjunct montane populations occurring from 2100 to 3300 m: E. a.
graueri in the Bwindi-Impenetrable-Virunga volcano region of southwest Uganda
and Rwanda; and E. a. keniensis on Mt Elgon, the Aberdares and Mt Kenya.

Black-faced Waxbill Estrilda erythronotos

[Black-cheeked Waxbill Estrilda ( e .) charmosyna ]

Formerly considered conspecific, with two southern African forms ( erythronotos and
soligena) widely separated from the northeastern African forms ( delamerei and char-
mosyna). While the two southern forms are black-bellied, in East Africa we have the
black-bellied delamerei (to the south) and the pale-bellied charmosyna further north,
which appear to be connected to delamerei by the grey-bellied kiwanukae (Wolters
1985). Fry & Keith (2004) separated E. charmosyna as a full species, but the reported
presence of some dark-bellied individuals within the range of charmosyna cannot be
fully explained, and there is evidence to suggest that birds at the base of the Ngong
Hills and around Olorgesaillie ( kiwanukae ) may be hybridizing with delamarei, and
that the entire population in the southern Rift Valley may involve hybrids. Pending
a full molecular analysis, a return to single species treatment would appear to be the
best option, and this course has been followed by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Family Motacillidae
Long-billed Pipit Anthus similis

Birds popularly referred to as the 'Nairobi Pipit' from Nairobi NP are very similar to
birds collected in similar habitat in the Chyulu Hills, and indeed all Long-billed Pipits
in Kenya are very closely related to each other irrespective of whether they occur at
forest edge or in rocky savanna habitats (Finch et at 2013). Meanwhile, in southern
Tanzania the true systematic position of winterbottomi in high altitude grasslands/
downs in the Njombe highlands, at Mt Rungwe and in the Matengo Highlands re-
mains unclear. It has been associated with Jackson's Pipit A. cinnamomeus latistriatus
(Clancey 1990) but is more likely a synonym of A.n. nyassae (Pearson 1992, Dowsett
2008). Further study appears warranted.

Buffy Pipit Anthus vaalensis goodsoni

The limits of Anthus vaalensis remain controversial, with some authors restricting it
to southern Africa. Clancey (1990), however, treated goodsoni and Ethiopian saphiroi
(earlier considered races of the Plain-backed Pipit A. leucophrys by Hall (1961) and
Pearson (1992)) within an expanded vaalensis. A. leucophrys zenkeri (including turneri)
approaches and may even meet goodsoni in parts of the Loita Hills and the eastern
Serengeti grasslands, and as yet there is no clear evidence of any intergradation. The
treatment of goodsoni within vaalensis is not without deep reservations, and it has been
retained within A. leucophrys by Dickinson & Christidis (2014).

Family Fringillidae

African Citril Cithagra citrinelloides
Southern Citril Crithagra hyposticta
Western Citril Crithagra frontalis

C. frontalis and the 'grey-faced' C. hyposticta have been treated as two species separate
from C. citrinelloides by van den Elzen (1985), Sibley & Monroe (1990) and Fry & Keith

Systematic and taxonomic issues concerning some East African bird species

16

(2004), but their ranges are contiguous, and any vocal differences may simply be dia-
lectical (Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire 1993). However, races brittoni and kikuyuensis
appear to overlap in a small area of western Kenya, and it seems appropriate for all
'grey-faced' forms to be grouped together, with brittoni treated as a race of C. hy-
posticta along with birds from the Imatong Mountains, South Sudan. Dickinson &
Christidis (2014) recognize three species, but with some reservation. This is currently
perhaps the best position, but clearly further studies are required to clarify relation-
ships within this complex.

Black-throated Seedeater Crithagra atrogularis
Reichenow's Seedeater Crithagra reichenowi

Reichenow's Seedeater is variably treated as either a race of C. atrogularis or as a spe-
cies C. reichenowi, with Erard (1974) and Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire (1993) treating
it within atrogularis, and Irwin (1964), van den Elzen (1985, 1999), Zimmerman et al.
(1996), Fry & Keith (2004) and Dickinson & Christidis (2014) all considering it worthy
of full species status.

Brimstone Canary Crithagra sulphurata

In East Africa there are three or four populations: one (frommi ) in southern and
south-west Tanzania from the Matengo, Njombe and Mbeya highlands and the Ufipa
Plateau north to the Iringa and Dabaga highlands; the second ( shelleyi ) in Uganda
and northwest Tanzania south at least to Ngara District, also from the western and
central Kenya highlands south to Nyanza, Nairobi, Narok, the Mara GR, Serengeti
and Loliondo; while a third population (sharpii) at south Kilimanjaro appears iso-
lated, with occasional wanderers reported from Moshi and the nearby Taita Hills.
Elsewhere birds reported from the southeastern Tanzanian coastal lowlands north to
Lindi District and not racially assigned, may be more closely allied to birds ( loveridgei )
in northern Mozambique rather than to those elsewhere in Tanzania. Although all
authors (including Dickinson & Christidis 2014) treat all East African birds within
sharpei (the oldest name available), there remains a case for closer scrutiny of all four
East African populations.

Stripe-breasted Seedeater Crithagra reichardi

> Northern Stripe-breasted Seedeater Crithagra striatipecta
Streaky-headed Seedeater Crithagra gtdaris

> Northern Streaky-headed Seedeater Crithagra canicapilla elgonensis

Two forms ( striatipecta and elgonensis) have in the past been treated as the northern-
most races of two species well known in southern Africa, C. reichardi and C. gularis
respectively. Zimmerman et al. (1996) examined this position, and despite consider-
able individual variation in ventral streaking, concluded that all Kenyan birds could
be assigned to one species or the other. That two similar seedeaters thus appear to
co-exist alongside each other in bushed and wooded savanna of northwest Kenya
and south Sudan is nonetheless remarkable. The absence of striatipecta from Uganda
may be real, but at the same time some sight records of elgonensis there may possibly
refer to striatipecta.

Turner (2013) has suggested that East African striatipecta be treated as specifically
distinct from the largely miombo endemic C. reichardi, and that the northern races ca-
nicapilla and elgonensis be treated under C. canicapilla, a separate species from the geo-
graphically distant southern C. gularis. This course has been followed by Dickinson
& Christidis (2014).

17

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

Streaky Seedeater Crithagra striolata
[Yellow-browed Seedeater Crithagra (s.) whytii \

Several authors, including Sibley & Monroe (1990), Fry & Keith (2004), Nguembock
et al. (2009) and Fjeldsa et al. (2010), treat the distinctive whytii as a separate species.
While Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire (1993) and Dowsett et al. (2008) disagreed on
grounds that the two were ecologically and vocally alike, Fry & Keith (2004) referred
to several structural differences that included a smaller bill, shorter wing and longer
leg than in striolata. Dickinson & Christidis (2014) retain whytii as a race of striolata.

Family Emberizidae

Cape Bunting Emberiza capensis
[Vincent's Bunting Emberiza c. vincenti ]

Fry & Keith (2004) treated vincenti as a separate species despite earlier reasons against
such a move from Lowe (1932). With song and call notes identical to those of South
African birds, there appears little justification for regarding vincenti as anything other
than a dark plumaged race of E. capensis (Irwin 2007, Dowsett et al. (2008), Dickinson
& Christis 2014).

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23

Donald A. Turner and David J. Pearson

Donald A. Turner

P.O. Box 1651 , Naivasha 20117 , Kenya. Email: mat@wananchi.com

David J. Pearson

4 Luyin Close, Reydon, Southwold, Suffolk IP18 6NW, UK. Email: dpearson251@gmail.com

Scopus 34: 1-23, January 2015
Received 17 February 2014

Scopus 34: 24-30, January 2015

Eagle Hill, Kenya: changes over 60 years

Simon Thomsett

Summary

Eagle Hill, the study site of the late Leslie Brown, was first surveyed over 60 years
ago in 1948. The demise of its eagle population was near-complete less than 50 years
later, but significantly, the majority of these losses occurred in the space of a few years
in the late 1970s. Unfortunately, human densities and land use changes are poor-
ly known, and thus poor correlation can be made between that and eagle declines.
Tolerant local attitudes and land use practices certainly played a significant role in
protecting the eagles while human populations began to grow. But at a certain point
it would seem that changed human attitudes and population density quickly tipped
the balance against eagles.

Introduction

Raptors are useful in qualifying habitat and biodiversity health as they occupy high
trophic levels (Sergio et al. 2005), and changes in their density reflect changes in the
trophic levels that support them. In Africa, we know that raptors occur in greater
diversity and abundance in protected areas such as the Matapos Hills, Zimbabwe
(Macdonald & Gargett 1984; Hartley 1993, 1996, 2002 a & b), and Sabi Sand Reserve,
South Africa (Simmons 1994). Although critically important, few draw a direct cor-
relation between human effects on the environment and raptor diversity and density.
The variables to consider are numerous and the conclusions unworkable due to dif-
ferent holding-capacities, latitude, land fertility, seasonality, human attitudes, and
different tolerances among raptor species to human disturbance.

Although the concept of environmental effects caused by humans leading to rap-
tor decline is attractive and is used to justify raptor conservation, there is a need for
caution in qualifying habitat 'health' in association with the quantity of its raptor
community. The examination of raptor guilds would be more insightful than focus-
ing on single species studies in proving this theory. The occurrence of Martial Eagle
Polemaetus bellicosus, Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus minor , Riippell's Vulture Gyps
rueppellii and Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus would infer that the habitat had
open savanna with wildlife, extensive cliff areas, and forest. More significantly, one
might conclude that the habitat had a low human occupancy, while maintaining good
populations of game birds, doves, small and large wild ungulates, small carnivores,
monkeys and forest- or thicket-dwelling small duikers. But they may be wrong. To
see a raptor without knowing its individual status within the community implies
very little. Such as seeing (as has been the case) all four of these species in the mid-
dle of Nairobi City where only one could possibly be resident as the habitat is totally
unsuitable for the other three (pers. obs.). Such observations can easily be the result
of rapid 'one off' assessments; a road count for example. The longer the time spent
observing a wildlife community, the more it is understood. Ideally a complete genera-
tion or more of observation is needed prior to understanding trends in a population
and this rigor should be applied to raptors.

25

Simon Thomsett

Single species studies may fail in accurately describing typical behaviour, habitat
needs, and foraging, since these conclusions are based in isolation from factors im-
posed upon them by congeners. A Peregrine Falcon is equally at home in Kenya on a
wild cliff top in the semi-arid desert, on cold wet moorlands, or in Nairobi city centre
(Thomsett 1988) but the effects imposed by Lanner Falco biarmicus and Taita Falcons
Falco fasciinucha upon them should be considered. There are many examples of single
raptor species occupying widely different environments, many of which are man-
made and support a small percentage of the original biota. Seen alone, some may be
poor 'indicator species'. Seen as an assemblage of multiple species, their biology is
better exposed.

In order to validate the generalization regarding the value of raptors as indicators
of habitat health, it is advisable to study many species and particularly those that
have: 1) specific habitat and food requirements and 2) slow reproduction and matura-
tion rates. Of all the species, eagles are perhaps the best group and they fit the above
conditions.

Study location

Eagle Hill, locally known as Kiritiri, in Embu District, Kenya is one of four unexcep-
tional hills rising 457m (1500ft) to a summit at 1524m (5000ft) within the 378km 2
study area of the late Leslie Brown. The upper wooded slopes were, and remain
gazetted 'protected' forests and the surrounding bush land in the 1950s was rich in
wildlife. Black Rhinoceros in particular, were common. Leslie Brown noted as early
as 1954 that most of the game which had 'abounded' only six years previously had
decreased rapidly (Brown 1956). Eagles survived longer, presumably by adapting to
feed on a different and smaller prey base.

Sixty years have elapsed since the first surveys were initiated in 1948 and it is not
surprising that the eagle population has decreased. But given that the hill tops remain
gazetted as 'forest' it would imply the protection of the eagles. Eagle Hill itself is some
10.8 km 2 and had 6 to 7 breeding eagle pairs, whereas neighbouring hills of 10.6 km 2
and 19.4km 2 had one pair each (Brown 1956). It is reasonable to assume that the suc-
cess of the protection afforded to the upper slopes of Eagle Hill could be gauged by
the number of nesting eagles found there today.

Results

Table 1. shows the number of nesting pairs of eagles between 1948 and 1979 in a
378 km 2 area of Embu. The data collected during this period and on more recent visits
to the site span 46 years.

By 1968 the human population had more than doubled and had destroyed much
of the riparian forest and cultivated land that in the 1950s was uninhabited (Brown
1976). Seventeen years after the first census the number of eagles had slightly de-
creased to 23 pairs of 8 species. Pairs had decreased by 12%, by about 1% per annum.
The number of species had declined by 20%.

Within the 17-year period (1951-1968) Brown (1976) speculated that the increase
in African Hawk Eagles Aquila spilogaster was the result of the increase in people and
their poultry. He noted with surprise the decrease of Wahlberg's Eagles A. wahlbergi,
"The total population and variety of species had altered surprisingly little, despite
drastic changes in land use" (Brown 1976).

Eagle Hill, Kenya: changes over 60 years

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27

Simon Thomsett

Brown (1976) assumed that the loss of stream dwelling/ riparian African Fish
Eagles Haliaeetus vocifer was a direct consequence of wood harvesting. The loss of the
last pair of Brown Snake Eagles Circaetus cinereus is significant as this species, in the
author's experience, appears to be particularly intolerant of human occupation for
nesting sites, but can be observed foraging or over-flying areas with moderate human
occupation.

The loss of the Verreaux's Eagle A. verreauxii was the result of its nest collapsing.
Although the species was seen in 1978, the farms had encroached to the base of its
cliff nest site making occupancy at that site impossible. Its reappearance, but non
breeding, in 1978 illustrates the need to be vigilant in determining the actual breeding
status of individuals, and not assume birds seen are resident. Not included in the ta-
bles, is the observation that the study area had five pairs of Secretarybirds Sagittarius
serpentarius in 1950, one pair in 1951 and none in 1952 (Brown 1956). There has been
none since.

The Martial Eagle nest sites were on very large trees on inaccessible slopes. They
and the African Hawk Eagle are partial to poultry and game birds, which also tend to
prosper in some human-degraded landscapes.

In 1978, I accompanied Leslie Brown and Peter Davey on two trips to this site.
Thirty years after the first census, nine pairs of five species remained. Pairs had de-
creased by 75%. The number of species had declined by 50%.

The 1979 survey by the Cambridge Kenyan Eagle Study Expedition acknowledged
incomplete coverage of the area. However, they did note, "People were no longer
indifferent to the eagles and claimed that the eagles were killing their chickens and
because of this the people cut or burnt down nests of some pairs" (Jackson et al. 1979).
Their study 31 years after the first census counted 8 pairs of 5 species. This represent-
ed a 69% decrease in the number of pairs and a 50% decline in the number of species.

These two independent surveys agree well with each other despite using differ-
ent methods and the 1979 survey did not cover all possible sites. Only the status of
the Wahlberg's Eagle is open to question, but the declining trend for the species was
consistent in both surveys.

In 1986 another university expedition found only one pair of Martial Eagles
(Johnson et al. 1986). Although this survey was incomplete, it did verify the existence
of one nest, formerly belonging to the single Crowned Eagle pair that collapsed in
1980, being acquisitioned by the Martial Eagle pair. They saw one Wahlberg's Eagle
but did not locate a nest. Their data, while inconclusive, suggest a pair decline of 92%
or more, and a species decline of 80% or more.

The majority of the loss appears to have happened in as short a period as two to
five years between 1977 and 1981. Perhaps significantly, the last known individual
Black Rhinoceros on Eagle Hill (and adjacent hills) also vanished in the earlier part of
the same period (pers. obs.).

In 1995 1 was awarded the Leslie Brown Memorial Grant to help build a library for
Gataka Primary School in the foothills; when I went there for that work, between 1995
and 1996, 1 observed one pair of Martial Eagles in the old Crowned Eagle nest and one
pair of Ayres's Hawk Eagle Acjuila ayresii in the original site. More importantly, I con-
firmed the extirpation of African Hawk Eagle, Crowned Eagle, Bateleur Terathopius
ecaudatus, Brown Snake Eagle, and other Martial Eagle and Ayres's Hawk Eagle nests
and/or occupation. Eagle density was 0.5/100 km 2 .

The status of Wahlberg's Eagle remains an enigma as they appeared to have de-

Eagle Hill, Kenya: changes over 60 years

28

dined dramatically from 11 pairs to fewer than 5 pairs in 1978, and to one pair in 1979.
One Wahlberg's Eagle was seen in 1986, while none was observed in 1995 and only
one in 1996. The same loss of Wahlberg's Eagles was noted on the entire route from
Nairobi to Embu, with four well known nests near Thika in 1978 having declined
to none in 1995. Why this happened is difficult to understand, although the trend is
widely observed throughout rural farmed and livestock-rearing parts of Kenya, de-
spite birds' liking for exotic eucalyptus trees.

Meanwhile, the Kamburu Dam, which flooded the former nesting trees of some
species, has offered new opportunities for African Fish Eagles with one new nest site
in the southern study area.

In 1999, 1 returned to confirm that the Martial Eagle pair at Kiritiri had gone. Farms
had reached the upper slopes and I observed no eagles at all. The raptors I was shown
by a Gataka School student were an African Harrier Hawk Polyboroides typus and its
nest, an African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro, and a Great Sparrowhawk Accipiter mela-
noleucus in the mango plantations of the farms.

In 1996 the Martial Eagle pair was not observed and the tall croton trees in which
they nested had been severely thinned. The Ayres's Hawk Eagle was not observed
either, but the nest tree remained. The Ayres's was observed in 2002, although its
breeding status was not verified. No other eagles were observed.

The primary school students informed me of the near total loss of all wildlife on the
hill and surroundings, with the loss of all wild ungulates due to poaching. Charcoal
burners had denuded the former closed canopy forests on the upper slopes, although
some large crotons remained. It is plausible that only the Ayres's Hawk Eagle is capa-
ble of remaining in this severely altered environment; rather ironic, as Leslie Brown
frequently drew attention to this species as a rarity.

Discussion and Conclusion

The effects of increased human disturbance appeared to exceed a threshold within the
large raptor community that led to rapid loss. Stability in the population after the loss
is predicted, but not observed, due to the continued rapid loss of habitat. The rapid
loss at a certain point during a steady human increase implies an ability by raptors
to withstand change, but a sudden collapse once those changes exceed a definable (if
theoretical) level. These records suggest a stratified tolerance level among species to
anthropogenic disturbance. These conditions may be expected to be duplicated else-
where in areas with similar human and habitat variables.

Today we are asked to predict the status of raptors and answer complex questions
regarding the rate of their decline for IUCN Red Data listings. In the time it takes
to acquire the information the status of the species under investigation may have
changed. Even if we do understand the biology of the species we must accept that,
regionally, raptors and people behave differently. It would be incorrect to suppose
that where one prospers it will do so wherever it is found.

Over 48 years, Eagle Hill fell from a place of extraordinary abundance of eagles,
6.9 pairs/ 100 km 2 , to an area of great paucity, 0.5 pairs/ 100 km 2 by 1996. The former
density of eagles at Eagle Hill was comparable to the density of eagles in two conser-
vation areas in Zimbabwe (Table 2).

29

Simon Thomsett

Table 2. Comparison of eagle densities in Kenya and Zimbabwe.

Location One nesting pair per

Eagle Hill, Embu, Kenya 14.5 km 2

Siabuwa Communal Land, Zimbabwe 31 .0 km 2

Save Conservancy, Zimbabwe 8.2 km 2

Source
Brown 1 956
Hartley 2002
Hartley et al. 2002

To have a study group of raptors and document their decline over time is invalu-
able. Unfortunately it is not possible to add local human variables to the equation
as accurate national data do not exist. If it were, it would indicate what we already
suspect, but find hard to prove — a catastrophic loss of large and sensitive raptors
in areas across Kenya that have undergone a similar transformation. The mechanism
that put this catastrophe in place is rural man armed with simple non-mechanized
farming implements, accompanied by his livestock. We accept that in the need for
food, fuel and protection of crops and domestic animals, wildlife will suffer and de-
cline. What we do not often appreciate is the extent of these losses, down to the very
last eagle.

What occurred on Eagle Hill is no different from what has occurred in some 50%
to 90% of Kenya in the same time span. Given that less than 10% of Kenya is effec-
tively protected within national parks, reserves and sanctuaries few would argue that
man has not used the majority of fertile areas for farming and the dry areas for rear-
ing livestock, resulting in biota impoverishment. The density of livestock inside our
protected systems is a major concern that further stresses already impoverished and
minimally sized areas. Outdated land policies that neglect to understand that 'idle
land' is, by definition, land with the greatest abundance of natural biomass, greatly
diminishes appeals made to protect land from overexploitation. As a measure of the
changes observed in Kenya, I know of no place, within or outside protected areas,
that holds the same density of raptors that Eagle Hill held in the late 1970s.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank The Peregrine Fund that financed the later surveys to Eagle Hill and Jeff Lincer
for providing the Leslie Brown Memorial Grant. The late Leslie Brown and the late Peter Davey
were my mentors on Eagle Hill.

References

Brown, L.H. 1956. Eagles. Tonbridge, UK: Tonbridge Printers.

Brown, L.H. 1976. Eagles of the World. New York: Universe Books.

Hartley, R.R., Bramford, D. & Fenn. T. 2002. Diversity and ecology of raptors in the Save
Conservancy. ELoneyguide 48: 153-166.

Hartley, R.R. 1993. The Batoka Gorges, haven for birds of prey. African Wildlife 47: 74-78.

Hartley, R.R., Hustler, K., & Mundy, P.J. 1996. The impact of man on raptors in Zimbabwe. In
Bird, D.M., Varland, D.E. & Negro, J.J. (eds) Raptors in human landscapes. London: Academic
Press.

Hartley, R.R. 2002. Raptor diversity in the Siabuwa Communal Lands. Unpublished report.

Neweon, 1. 1979. Population Ecology of Raptors. Berkhamsted, UK: T. & A. D. Poyser Ltd.

Sergio, F., Newton, I., & Marcuesi, L. 2005. Top predators and biodiversity. Nature 436:192.

Simmons, R.E. 1994. Conservation Lessons from one of Africa's richest raptor reserves. Gabar 9:
2-13.

Eagle Hill, Kenya: changes over 60 years

30

Thomsett, S. 1988. Distribution and status of the Peregrine in Kenya. In T.J. Cade, J. Henderson,
C.G. Thelander & C.M. White (eds). Peregrine Falcon Populations. Their management and recovery.
Boise, USA: The Peregrine Fund Inc.

Simon Thomsett

National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi, Kenya, 00100. Email: simonthomsett@gmail.
com

Scopus 34: 24-30, January 2015
Received 23 July 2013

Scopus 34: 31-39, January 2015

Birds of Somalia: new records, range
extensions and observations from
Somaliland

Michael S.L. Mills and Callan Cohen

Summary

Due to recent political instability and unrest across the Horn of Africa region,
Somaliland (the northwest sector of Somalia) is ornithologically little-known. This
is despite it being a peaceful and stable state, and its avifauna being summarized in
the recently-published Birds of the Horn of Africa (Redman et al. 2009). We present new
information on the ranges and dates of occurrence for 71 species in Somaliland, based
on our visit from 17 to 31 May 2010. These include three species not recorded before
from Somaliland, namely Von der Decken's Hornbill Tockus deckeni , Zitting Cisticola
Cisticola juncidis and Pale Flycatcher Bradornis pallidus.

Introduction

Shortly after independence, in 1960, the former colonial regions of British Somaliland
and Italian Somaliland were amalgamated into a single country called the Somali
Republic (hereafter Somalia), with its capital as Muqdisho. Following the breakdown
of governance of Somalia in 1991, a prolonged and on-going period of conflict ensued
in the previous Italian sector of the country (hereafter southern Somalia), making the
Horn of Africa region unsafe and consequently little-visited. The previously-British
territory located in the northwest of Somalia (hereafter Somaliland) declared inde-
pendence from Somalia in that same year and is now relatively peaceful and stable,
with its own government, capital (Hargeysa) and democratic election process that
saw a peaceful change of presidential power in 2010. Although not internationally
recognized as being independent from Somalia, Somaliland operates as an independ-
ent state, and this stability has allowed the first recent visits by ornithologists and
birders.

Prior to the onset of civil unrest in the 1990s, numerous ornithological visits to
Somalia resulted in the culmination of Ash & Miskell's (1998) comprehensive atlas
Birds of Somalia and contributed to the excellent new field guide Birds of the Horn of
Africa (Redman et al. 2009). However, our two-week-long visit to Somaliland in 2010
revealed that even during such a short period it was possible to add substantially to
the knowledge of this region. Here we present our general findings, which include
new records, range extensions, new dates of observation for migratory species and
observations of rare species. We have already highlighted the endemic and range-
restricted avifauna and birding potential of Somaliland (Cohen et al. 2011) and are
preparing a manuscript describing vocalizations of birds from the region (Mills &
Cohen, in prep.).

For consistency, we discuss our findings with direct reference to Ash & Miskell
(1998), using the same half-degree grid square naming procedure (a number and let-

Birds of Somalia

32

ter, emboldened in the text; Fig. 1) and all discussion herein is with reference to Ash
& Miskell (1998) unless otherwise stated. We also follow the species order of Ash &
Miskell (1998), although we use the more updated taxonomy and nomenclature of
Gill & Donkster (2008). Wherever possible we use the 'modern Somali' place names
of locations as given in Ash & Miskell (1998), although not all sites that we visited are
listed in their gazetteer; these sites are accompanied by geographic co-ordinates and
altitude on first mention.

Figure 1. Map of Somalia
showing the half degree
grid system, reproduced
from Ash & Miskell 1983.
The area of study is high-
lighted within the red rect-
angle.

Our visit to Somaliland from 17 to 31 May 2010 coincided with the main rains
and peak bird breeding season (Ash & Miskell 1998). We entered Somaliland over-
land from Djibouti, crossing the border at Lawyado (11.460° N, 43.258° E, 5 m; 2c) on
17 May and travelling along the coast to Say lac (2c). From here we travelled inland,
south and east to Hargeysa (19a) on 18 May, crossing the Geriyaad plains (9c) en route
and climbing up to the plateau. After this we first made a detour westwards to the
plains surrounding the Ethiopian-border town of Tog Wajaale (18a), on 19 May. From
Ffargeysa we headed north-east on 20 May for c. 50 km to some rocky hills here called
'Beira Hills' (9.74° N, 44.50° E, 1150 m; 20b) before continuing east to Burco (20b).
From Burco we travelled northeast to Ceerigaabo (13a) and the escarpment at Daalo
(13a) on 21 to 22 May, crossing en route the Ban Cade plains (9.52° N, 46.98° E, 795 m;
21b) near Garadag (21 d). At Daalo (23-24 May) we visited various sites along the top
of the escarpment and travelled down the escarpment and on to the coastal plain

33

Michael S.L. Mills and Callan Cohen

towards Maydh (3c), but turned c. 22km southeast of Maydh at 10.895° N, 47.286° E
(320m; 13a). From Daalo/ Ceerigaabo we retraced our steps to Burco on 25 May, be-
fore detouring to the southeast towards the Buuhoodle (28c) area on the Ethiopian
border (26-27 May). We turned c. 40 km north of Buuhoodle, and observed birds for
24 h on the red sands 10-25 km north of Qorulugad (8.55° N, 46.23° E, 840 m; 28a). The
final section of our journey saw us return to Burco and on 28 May visit the Aroori
plains (20c), about 25 km to the southwest of Burco, before continuing to Berbera (11c)
and Hargeysa, pausing c. 17 km southeast of Berbera near Busti (11c). On 29 and 30
May we again visited the plains of Tog Wajaale (18a) to search for Archer's Lark
Heteromirafra archeri (Spottiswoode et al. 2013, Mills et al. in prep.). Finally, on 31 May
we visited the Qorladey plains (9.13° N, 44.18° E, 1200 m; 19c) c. 50 km to the south of
Hargeysa, before returning to Djibouti by air.

Notes on species

Somali Ostrich Struthio molybdophanes

One female was seen on the Geriyaad plains (9c) on 18 May, a new square within the
previously-known range.

African Spoonbill Platalea alba

Two were seen at a wetland near Tog Wajaale (18a) on 29 May, a new square, with
the only other record from Somaliland from 19a. However, it is common in southern
Somalia.

Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus

One was seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square and the furthest
east record for Somaliland, the nearest record coming from the northwest of this in
square 20c. This appears to be the first record for May, anywhere in Somalia.

Scissor-tailed Kite Chelictinia riocourii

Two were seen on the plains c. 5 km south-west of Ceel Afweyn (22a) on 25 May, a
new square.

Short-toed Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus

One was seen and photographed near Busti (11c) on 28 May, and constitutes a new
record for Somalia (Cohen et al. in prep.). It has been recorded subsequently (N.
Borrow, in litt:, N. Redman, in lift.).

Black-chested Snake Eagle Circaetus pectoralis

One was seen c. 47 km north-east of Garadag in square 22a on 22 May, a new square.

Bonelli's Eagle Acjuila fasciata

A pair was observed and photographed at Daalo in square 13a on 22 May, a new
record for Somalia (Cohen et al. in prep.).

Gabar Goshawk Micronisus gabar

One was seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square although it had
been recorded immediately to the south (28b).

Greater Kestrel Falco rupicoloides

One was seen on the Ban Cade plains (21b) near Garadag on 22 May, a new square,
although it had been recorded in adjacent squares to the east (22a) and south (21d).

Birds of Somalia

34

Sooty Falcon Falco concolor

One perched bird was seen c. 9 km south-west of Burco in square 20c on 21 May. Only
the 14th record for Somalia and the 10th for Somaliland.

Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo

One was photographed in the Daalo area (13a) on 23 May, a new square.

Orange River Francolin Scleroptila levaillantoides lorti

These rare francolins were recorded on two consecutive days (22-23 May) near Daalo
(13a). This taxon is confined to Somaliland and adjacent northeast Ethiopia (Ash &
Atkins 2009).

Yellow-necked Spurfowl Pternistis leucoscepus

A few were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May, a new square, al-
though recorded from the adjacent squares to the south (28b) and east (28c).

Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius

Two were seen on the plains near Tog Wajaale (18a) on 19 May. This constitutes the
first inland record for Somaliland and a new square, and only the fourth record for
Somaliland, although it is common in southern Somalia.

Caspian Plover Charadrius asiaticus

One was seen on the plains near Tog Wajaale (18a) on 19 May. This is apparently the
first record from May, although there is a single June record.

Spur-winged Lapwing Vanellus spinosus

Birds were seen along the coast near Say lac (2c) on 17 May and in the Tog Wajaale
area (18a) on 19 May. The first record is new for the square, and these constitute the
seventh and eight records for Somaliland.

Black-winged Lapwing Vanellus melanopterus

A total of at least 10 birds was seen on the plains near Tog Wajaale (18a) on 19, 29 and
30 May, and another one was seen on the Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May. This is a
rare bird in Somaliland, with only three previous records. The last record is new for
the square.

Emerald-spotted Wood Dove Furtur chalcospilos

At least one bird was heard below Daalo (13a) on 23 May, a new square for the spe-
cies.

Mourning Collared Dove Streptopelia decipiens

We saw and heard several in the area surround Burco (20b) on 20 and 28 May, a new
square for the species and east of the previous range.

Red-bellied Parrot Poicephalus rufiventris

Recorded on both 26 and 27 May in the Qorulugad (28a) area, a new square, although
recorded in the adjacent square to the northwest (20d).

White-bellied Go-away-bird Corythaixoides leucogaster

A few were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May, a new square, al-
though recorded immediately to the north (21c) and northwest (20d).

Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus

Recorded in the Qorulugad (28a) area on both 26 and 27 May, a new square (28a),
although recorded from the square to the east (28b).

35

Michael S.L. Mills and Callan Cohen

Diederik Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius

Its distinctive call was heard in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square
although recorded from the square to the east (28b).

Pearl-spotted Owlet Glaucidium perlatum

Two were seen in a termite mound in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 May, in addition
to similar sightings of Little Owl Athene noctua in the same area. This is a new square
for the species, previously recorded only further west in Somaliland.

Little Owl Athene noctua

Two were seen along the roadside c. 15 km south-west of Ceerigaabo (13a) on 22 May
and still in the same square as Ceerigaabo. This is a new square for the species.

Donaldson Smith's Nightjar Caprimulgus donaldsoni

Seen and heard in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May. This is a new square,
although recorded from the square to the south (28c).

White-rumped Swift Apus caffer

One was seen near Daalo (13a) on 22 May, a new square to the west of the previous
two records in Somaliland. This constitutes only the third record for Somaliland and
the eighth for Somalia.

Blue-naped Mousebird Urocolius macrourus

The distinctive call was heard in the Tog Wajaale (18a) area on 19 May, a new square,
although previously recorded from those immediatly east (18b) and south (18c).

Narina Trogon Apaloderma narina

One was heard calling from a forested gorge on the Daalo escarpment (13a) on 23
May, a new square, although it had previously been recorded from the escarpment to
the west and east of here. It is rare in Somaliland.

Little Bee-eater Merops pusillus

A couple were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 May, a new square.

Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus

A group of c. 10 birds was seen on 18 May near Say lac. This record comes from mar-
ginally outside of the period 26 April-12 May reported for Somaliland.

European Roller Coracias garrulus

Two were seen flying over the plains near Tog Wajaale (18a) on 19 May, slightly out-
side the northward passage dates of 17 April to 14 May.

Von der Decken's Hornbill Tockus deckeni

One was seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, perhaps the first record for
Somaliland and a long way west of the only other records in northern Somalia. It is,
however, widespread in southern Somalia.

Somali Lark Mirafra somalica

Seen at various places from c. 17-43 km north-east of Garadag in squares 21b and 22a
on 22 May, both new squares for the species but from within the known range.

Blanford's Lark Calandrella blanfordi

A few were seen on the Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May, a new square and the fur-
thest west record to date.

Birds of Somalia

36

Thekla Lark Galerida theklae

At least one was seen and heard on the Ban Cade plains (21b) on 22 May, a new
square for the species.

Golden Pipit Tmetothylacus tenellus

At least four full-plumaged males were seen on the Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May,
a new square.

Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris

Large numbers (probably more than 30) were seen in display on the plains c. 5 km
southwest of Ceel Afweyn (22a) on 25 May, a new square for the species, and on the
Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May. These records suggesting that the species is a regu-
lar and widespread breeder, with display activity previously overlooked.

White-browed Scrub Robin Erythropygia leucophrys

Common in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 May and 27 May; a new square for the
species, although recorded previously from the square to the east (28b).

Rufous-tailed Scrub Robin Erythropygia galactotes

A bird was observed in full song below the Daalo escarpment at c. 330 m altitude (13a)
on 24 May, which constitutes a new square within the previously-documented range.

Somali Wheatear Oenanthe phillipsi

Seen on both 26 and 27 May in the Qorulugad (28a) area, a new square for the species,
although recorded immediately to the north (21c) and east (28b).

Red-breasted Wheatear Oenanthe bottae

One was seen and photographed on the plains just to the west of Tog Wajaale (18a) on
19 May, a new record for Somalia (Cohen & Mills, in prep.)

Blackstart Oenanthe melanura

One was active around a deep erosion gully on the Ban Cade plains (21b) on 22 May,
a new square.

Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

One was seen in a small wetland en route from Hargeisa to Tog Wajaale, c. 2 km east
of Gabiley (18b) on 19 May, a new square, although recorded immediately to the west
(18a). There are few records, with only 20 previouly for Somalia.

Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis

Four and then one were recorded (heard and seen) on the plains near Tog Wajaale
(18a) on 19 and 29 May, respectively, and at least one other was seen on the Qorladey
plains (19c) on 31 May, alongside Desert Cisticola Cisticola aridulus. These appear to
be the first records for Somaliland, although the species has been recorded in south-
ern Somalia along the Webi Shabeelle River (N. Borrow, in littr, N. Redman, in litt.).

Desert Cisticola Cisticola aridulus

This species was heard in display on the plains c. 5 km southeast of Ceel Afweyn (22a)
on 25 May and seen and heard on the Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May. Both squares
are new for the species.

Yellow-breasted Apalis Apalis flavida viridiceps

At least six birds were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May, a new
square for the species.

37

Michael S.L. Mills and Callan Cohen

Grey Wren-Warbler Calamonastes simplex

The species was quite vocal in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May, where at
least four were also seen. This is a new square, although it has been recorded imme-
diately to the north (21c) and east (28b).

Yellow-vented Eremomela Eremomela flavicrissalis

Four were seen in dense thickets in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square
for the species, although it had been recorded immediately to the south (28c).

Northern Crombec Sylvietta brachyura

Two singles were seen in bush on the escarpment in the Daalo area (13a) on 23 and 24
May; this is a new square for the species.

Philippa's Crombec Sylvietta philippae

We had two different sightings totalling four birds c. 13-14 km east of Inaafmadow
(9.148° N, 45.950° E, 870 m) in square 21a, a new square for the species. It was previ-
ously recorded from only three other squares in Somaliland.

Arabian Warbler Sylvia leucomelaena

Two were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square for the species,
although it has been recorded immediately to the north (21c).

Pale Flycatcher Bradornis pallidus

In the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May we found several of these birds. This consti-
tutes a new record for the country with all previous records coming from the south
of Somalia. In order to rule out other species of flycatcher, we exhibit a recording of
the vocalizations made by these birds, which can be downloaded from www.birdsan-
gola.org/ downloads or requested from the authors via email. Further details will be
published elsewhere (Cohen & Mills, in prep.)

Pygmy Batis Batis perkeo

Two were seen and heard in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May; a new square for
the species, although it had been recorded immediately to the east (28b). This is only
the second square in Somaliland from which it has been recorded.

Scaly Chatterer Turdoides aylmeri

Two groups totalling at least 8 birds were found in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27
May; a new square for the species, although had been recorded immediately to the
northwest (20d).

Acacia Tit Parus thmppi

One bird was seen and later heard in the Daalo area (13a) on 23 and 24 May, a new
square within the known range.

Mouse-coloured Penduline Tit Anthoscopus musculus

One was seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May; a new square, although it had
been recorded immediately to the south (28c). There are only 22 previous records for
Somalia.

Red-naped Bushshrike Laniarius ruficeps

This species was quite vocal in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May; a new square for
the species, which had previously been recorded in Somaliland only from squares
20a, 20b and 20c.

Birds of Somalia

38

House Crow Corvus splendens

This introduced species was abundant along the coast in the Say lac area (2c) on 17
and 18 May and was also seen around Berbera (11c) on 28 May. It must have become
more widespread in the last 15 years, since it appears to have been recorded previ-
ously only once at Berbera (11c) in 1988 and once at Raas Ceseyr (7a) in 1950.

Wattled Starling Creatophora cinerea

A flock was seen on the Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May, a new square for the species
within its previously-documented range.

Nile Valley Sunbird Hedydipna metallica

More than 10 birds, including males, were seen below the Daalo escarpment at c.
330 m altitude (13a) on 24 May, which constitutes a new square. This lies midway
between the two previously-documented areas of occurrence in the north, suggesting
that it probably occurs along the entire northern coast.

Hunter's Sunbird Chalcomitra hunteri

One full-plumage male was seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square
for the species, although it had been recorded to the immediate north (21c), east (28b)
and south (28c).

Marico Sunbird Cinnyris mariquensis

Two were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 May, a new square for the species,
although it had been recorded to the immediate south (28c).

Lesser Masked Weaver Ploceus intermedins

About eight birds were seen around their nests in our hotel grounds in Burco (20b) on
21 May, a new square for the species. Apparently there are only 10 previous records
from Somaliland.

Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea

A flock was seen on the Qorladey plains (19c) on 31 May, a new square for the spe-
cies, although it had been previously recorded to the immediate north (19a) and west
(18d).

Swainson's Sparrow Passer swainsonii

Several were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May, a new square for
this widespread species which had been recorded from the square immediately north
(21c).

Somali Sparrow Passer castanopterus

One was active and vocal around a deep erosion gulley on the Ban Cade plains (21b)
on 22 May, a new square within the previously-documented range.

Yellow-spotted Petronia Gymnoris pyrgita

A few were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 26 and 27 May, a new square for the
species, although it had been recorded to the immediate north (21c), east (28b) and
south (28c).

Green-winged Pytilia Pytilia melba

Two were seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a new square for the species,
although it had been recorded to the immediate north (21c), east (28b) and south (28c).

39

Michael S.L. Mills and Callan Cohen

Black-cheeked Waxbill Estrilda charmosyna

One was seen in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May, a long way east of all previ-
ous records in Somaliland. It appears to be rare, with only 20 previous records for
Somalia.

Northern Grosbeak-Canary Crithagra donaldsoni

At least four males were singing in the Qorulugad (28a) area on 27 May. This species
appears to be quite rare in Somalia, with only 25 previous records.

Acknowledgements

Julian Francis generously made a major contribution to the funding of this trip. Many thanks to
Julian Francis, Clide Carter and Gus Mills for their company and patience in the field. We are
grateful to John Miskell and Thigh Buck for information they provided prior to the trip.

References

Ash, J. & Atkins, J. 2009. Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Tondon: Christopher
Helm.

Ash, J.S. & Miskell, J.E. 1983. Birds of Somalia: their habitat, status and distribution. Scopus Special
Supplement Number 1. Nairobi: Ornithological Sub-Committee, EANHS.

Ash, J.S. & Miskell, J.E. 1998. Birds of Somalia. Robertsbridge, UK: Pica Press.

Cohen, C., Mills, M.S.L. & Francis, J. 2011. Endemic and special birds of Somaliland. Bulletin of
the African Bird Club 18: 86-92.

Cohen, C., Mills, M.S.L. & Francis, J. In prep. New country records for Somalia: Bone lli's Eagle
Hieraaetus fasciatus, Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus and Red-breasted Wheatear Oenanthe
bottae. Bulletin of the African Bird Club.

Gill, F. & Donsker, D. (eds) 2008. IOC world bird names (version 2.1). www.worldbirdnames.
org (accessed 14 February 2012).

Mills, M.S.L, Cohen, C., Spottiswoode, C.N. & Francis, J. In prep. A survey for the Critically
Endangered Liben Lark Heteromirafra archeri in Somaliland, north-western Somalia. Ostrich.

Redman, N., Stevenson, T. & Fanshawe, J. 2009. Birds of the Horn of Africa. London: Christopher
Helm.

Spottiswoode, C.N., Olsson, U., Mills, M.S.L., Cohen, C., Francis, J.E., Toye, N., Hoddinott, D.,
Dagne, A., Wood, C., Donald, P.F., Collar, N.J., & Alstrom, P. 2013. Rediscovery of a long-
lost lark reveals the conspecificity of endangered Heteromirafra populations in the Horn of
Africa. Journal of Ornithology 154: 813-825.

Michael S.L. Mills

Birding Africa, www.birdingafrica.com; and DST/NRF Centre of Excellence in Birds at the Percy
EitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa. Email: michael@
birdingafrica. com

Callan Cohen

Birding Africa, www.birdingafrica.com; and DST/NRF Centre of Excellence in Birds at the Percy
FitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa

Scopus 34: 31-39, January 2015
Received 27 April 2014

Scopus 34: 40-46, January 2015

Understorey bird abundance and diversity
before and after a forest fire in Mangala
Forest Reserve on the eastern slopes of the
Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania

Chacha Werema

Summary

In July 2010 an assessment of abundance and diversity of understorey birds was un-
dertaken in Mangala Forest using mist netting. However, in October 2010 a non-in-
tentional fire burned the entire forest and this event provided a good opportunity to
assess the extent to which birds were affected. Assessment, using mist netting, was
carried out one week, three months and eight months after the fire, and compari-
sons made with data obtained before the forest was burned. In total, 28 species were
recorded. Of these, the number recorded before the fire, one week post-fire, three
months post-fire and eight months post-fire was 22, 3, 3 and 11 species respectively.
The understorey bird species diversity before the forest was burned was substantially
higher than diversities found afterwards. The results confirm that forest burning can
have a severe negative impact on bird abundance and species richness and should be
halted. Because fires start from the surrounding farmland, there is a need to construct
and maintain fire breaks around entire forests.

Introduction

Fire is one of the major disturbance agents in forest ecosystems (Kreisel & Stein 1999).
It is among the major threats facing most of the forest reserves and national parks
in Tanzania. In the Eastern Arc Mountains, it is among the main causes of loss and
fragmentation of the forests (Newmark 1998) and has been identified as the primary
threat facing their long term survival. Fires can start outside the forest in prepara-
tion of land for agriculture (Svensen & Hansen 1995, Werema, 2014) but can also be
started by forest user groups such as loggers, charcoal burners and hunters (Burgess
et al. 2005). In the Uluguru Mountains, fires are particularly frequent in the foothill
woodlands (Svendsen & Hansen 1995, Werema 2014). They result in tremendous de-
struction of the vegetation each year (Tulandala 1998), particularly the understorey
layer and canopy cover.

In the Eastern Arc Mountains, the effects of forest fires on avifauna, especially on
forest interior bird species, have received little attention. In the Ulugurus the author
has reported the negative affects of fire on understorey forest birds in the lower alti-
tude Kimboza Forest Reserve (Werema 2014), but is aware of no other direct compari-
sons of forest bird abundance and diversity before and after fire.

The original objective of a study in Mangala Forest, which began in July 2010,
was to compare the diversity of understorey birds between cold and hot seasons.
However, in October 2010, a fire that spread from surrounding agricultural land
completely burned the entire forest reserve. This provided a good opportunity to

41

Chacha Werema

assess the extent to which birds were affected. This paper presents and discusses the
findings from a mist netting study of understorey birds from before and up to eight
months after the forest was burned. The main focus was on understorey birds, which
are good indicators of disturbance in tropical forests (Newmark 1991).

Materials and methods

Location

Mangala Forest Reserve is located in the eastern part of the Uluguru Mountains,
Tanzania (06°58' S, 37° 45. 5' E, Fig. 1). The Ulugurus form one of the component blocks
of the Eastern Arc Mountains and rank second among these in their number of endem-
ic vertebrate and plant species (Burgess et al. 2002, Rovero et al. 2014). Mangala Forest
Reserve was gazetted in 1914 with 35 ha, but due to encroachment its current size is
28.5 ha. The forest covers Mangala Hill between 420 m and 640 m above sea level. The
reserve is owned by local government and is currently under Participatory Forest
Management in which adjacent communities (villages) are involved. The southern
and western parts are very steep compared to the northern and eastern slopes (Fig.
1). At the top of the hill on the northern side the greater part is bracken Pteridium aq-
uilinum and a few trees, especially Julbernardia globiflora and Brachystegia spiciformis.
The closed forest is found on the western and eastern sides, where the dominant trees
are Tabemaemontana pachysiphon , Bombax rhodognaphalon, Khaya anthotheca, Newtonia
buchananii, Terminalia brownii, Albizia gummifera and Sorindeia madagascariensis. The
coolest months are from May to September.

Figure 1. Location of
Mangala Forest Reserve
in the eastern foothills
of Uluguru Mountains,
Tanzania.

Understorey bird abundance and diversity before and after forest fire

42

Methods

In October 2010, a non-intentional fire spread from the farms surrounding Mangala
Forest Reserve and burned all 28.5 ha of the reserve area. The understorey birds had
already been surveyed in July 2010, prior to the fire. Fifteen mist nets, each 12 m long
and 2.6 m high, with 4 shelves and a 16 mm mesh size, were set, from the edge towards
the middle of the forest, for three consecutive days. After the fire mist nets were set
in the same locations with the same sampling effort maintained. Three sessions were
conducted, one week post-fire (in October 2010), three months post-fire (in January
2011) and eight months post-fire (in July 2011). In each session, one day was used to
clear lines and set the nets. The following three days (36 daylight hours) were used
to run the nets (6480 metre-net hours each visit). They were checked every hour but
more frequently during the morning and evening, and were closed during the night.
The general habitat characteristics, including the understorey and overstorey cover,
were noted each visit.

Data analysis

Because mist nets were used to sample birds it implies that only species that forage in
the understorey were surveyed. Understorey birds were divided into three groups:
forest-dependent species (FF species), forest generalists (F species) and forest visitors
(f species) (Stuart & Jensen 1985, Newmark 1991, Bennun et at. 1996). FF species (forest
specialists) are True' forest birds of the interior undisturbed forest and F species are
those which can occur in undisturbed forest but are most often found in forest strips,
gaps and edges. Forest visitors (f species) are birds that can be recorded in forest but
are not dependent on it. To assess the impact of the fire, the bird species diversity
and abundance before the burn event was compared with data obtained one week,
three months and eight months afterwards. For each session, species diversities were
computed using the Shannon-Wiener diversity index. Comparisons of Shannon-
Wiener diversities were performed using a t-test described by Hutcheson (1970).

Abundance data were assessed to determine whether they were normally
distributed (Shapiro & Wilk 1965). A Kruskal- Wallis test was used because the data
were not normally distributed. All statistical tests and comparisons were computed
using a software package: PAST (Hammer et al. 2001). Throughout this paper bird
nomenclature follows Stuart & Jensen (1985).

Results

Habitat characteristics

Before the fire the forest had closed understorey and overstorey layers. After the fire,
all seedlings and saplings in the shrub layer were killed, creating an open forest floor
with dead saplings in the understorey layer. The leaf litter was completely burned.
Shrub mortality was apparent in the entire forest. The canopy formed from large
and tall trees 20-30 m high was incompletely burned. Three months post-fire, the
understorey began to recover after the short rains in December 2010. This recovery
continued such that 8 months post-fire there were more seedlings and saplings. The
overstorey recovered quickly after the short rains.

Bird abundance and diversity

In total, 108 individuals of 28 species were netted (Table 1). Half these captures
(50%) were made in the pre-fire session, followed by 31.5% eight months post-fire.

43

Chacha Werema

Only 6% and 13% respectively were contributed by the sessions one week and three
months post-fire (Table 1). There was a highly significant difference in the number
of individuals mist netted among sampling sessions (KW = 25.27, df = 3, p< 0.001).
Numbers of species mist netted pre-fire, one week post-fire, three months post-fire
and eight months post-fire were 22, 3, 3 and 11 respectively (Table 1). Species diversity
was significantly higher before the fire than in any post-fire sampling session (Tables
1 & 2). None of the FF species was caught one week or three-months post-fire (Table
3) and less than half were caught eight months post-fire.

Table 1 . Birds mist netted at Mangala Forest. FD = forest dependency: FF = Forest-dependent
species, F = Forest generalists and /= forest visitors.

FD

Species

Pre-fire

One week
post-fire

Three months
post-fire

Eight Months
post-fire

F

Lemon Dove Aplopelia larvata

1

0

0

0

FF

Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria

0

0

0

5

FF

Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum

1

0

0

3

f

Brown-hooded Kingfisher Flalcyon albiventris

0

0

1

0

F

Pygmy Kingfisher Ispidina picta

1

0

0

0

FF

African Broadbill Smithornis capensis

1

0

0

1

FF

Pale-breasted llladopsis llladopsis rufipennis

1

0

0

0

FF

Shelley’s Greenbul Andropadus masukuensis

1

0

0

0

FF

Stripe-cheeked Greenbul Andropadus milanjensis

4

0

0

1

F

Little Greenbul Andropadus virens

11

0

0

0

F

Grey-olive Greenbul Phyllastrephus cerviniventris

1

0

3

2

FF

Yellow-streaked Greenbul Phyllastrephus flavostriatus

4

0

0

0

FF

White-chested Alethe Alethe fuelleborni

7

0

0

5

f

Bearded Scrub Robin Cercotrichas quadrivirgata

0

0

0

1

f

White-browed Robin Chat Cossypha heuglini

1

0

0

0

FF

White-starred Robin Pogonocichla stellata

2

0

0

5

FF

Sharpe’s Akalat Sheppardia sharpei

1

0

0

0

FF

Orange Ground Thrush Zoothera gurneyi

5

0

0

0

FF

Forest Batis Batis mixta

1

0

0

0

F

African Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis

1

0

0

1

FF

Blue-mantled Crested Flycatcher Trochocercus cyanomelas

2

0

0

0

FF

Square-tailed Drongo Dicrurus ludwigii

1

0

0

0

F

Collared Sunbird Anthreptes collaris

0

1

0

0

F

Olive Sunbird Nectarinia olivacea

3

1

10

0

FF

Dark-backed Weaver Ploceus bicolor

1

0

0

0

F

Peters’s Twinspot Flypargos niveoguttatus

3

0

0

1

F

Green-backed Twinspot Mandingoa nitidula

0

0

0

9

f

Bronze Mannikin Lonchura cucullata

0

4

0

0

Total number of individuals

54

6

14

34

Total number of species

22

3

3

11

Species diversity (Shannon-Wiener index)

2.720

0.868

0.759

2.097

Understorey bird abundance and diversity before and after forest fire

44

Table 2. Comparisons of species diversities between pre- and post-fire mist netting sessions.

Comparison t-value d[ p value

Pre-fire vs one week post-fire

t = 5.349

8.27

<0.001

Pre-fire vs three months post-fire

t = 7.567

26.97

<0.001

Pre-fire vs eight months post-fire

t = 3.002

81.26

<0.001

Table 3. Effect of fire on species richness in each forest dependency category.

Sampling session FF species F species f species Total

Pre-fire 14 7 1 22

One week post-fire 0 2 13

Three months post-fire 0 1 2 3

Eight months post-fire 6 4 1 11

Discussion

The results show that understorey bird species diversity was significantly higher
before the forest was burned than in any of the post-fire periods. This can be attributed
to the creation of an open understorey layer. This agrees with the findings of Slik
& Van Balen (2006) in Borneo, Indonesia, and Lee et al. (2011) in South Korea, who
concluded that decreased bird species diversities after fire were probably the result
of the understorey layer becoming too open to support forest-dependent species. At
Mangala, the open understorey layer apparently inhibited use by forest-dependent
species one week and three months post-fire. Similar results have been reported by
Barlow et al. (2002) in the Amazonian forests of Brazil, and also by Werema (2014)
in the lower altitude Kimboza Forest Reserve, eastern Tanzania. Barlow et al. (2002)
and Werema (2014) found that the number of captures per unit mist netting effort
was significantly reduced in burnt compared to unburnt forest, and attributed this to
changes in the composition and physiognomic structure of the vegetation community.

Contrary to the findings of this study, Adeney et al. (2006) found an increase in
bird species richness after fire in Sumatran forests. They attributed this to the fact that
birds of the open fields tended to replace interior forest specialists. At Mangala, this
could explain the presence of Brown-hooded Kingfisher Halcyon albiventris, Eastern
Bearded Scrub-Robin Cercotrichas cjuadrivirgata and Bronze Mannikin Lonchura
cuculata in the forest eight months after the fire. While reducing suitability for forest-
dependent understorey species fire disturbance can create new microhabitats for non-
forest species. In general, however, the findings of this forest study are opposite to
some of those from grasslands and woodlands where fire has led to an increase in
bird species richness (Nkwabi et al. 2011, O'Reilly et al. 2006).

The increase in abundance and diversity of understorey birds eight months after
the forest was burned compared to values one week and three months post-fire show
that some of the species concerned are able to perform local movements and reuse the
forest after only partial recovery from disturbance. Similar mobility is shown by forest
species known to make seasonal altitudinal movements (Burgess & Mlingwa 2000).
The presence of Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum, Stripe-cheeked Greenbul
Andropadus milanjensis, White-chested Alethe Alethe fuelleborni and White-starred
Forest Robin Pogonocichla stellata in Mangala Forest eight months post-fire could have
represented short cold season visits since these species are known to make seasonal
altitudinal movements (Burgess & Mlingwa 2000.). However, the pre-fire and eight
months post-fire sampling sessions were conducted during the same month of the

45

Chacha Werema

year (i.e., July) in subsequent years and provide a comparison independent of any
seasonal movements. They clearly show a decrease in bird abundance and diversity
after the fire during the same cold season.

Conclusion and recommendation

Forest fires have negative impacts on the diversity of understorey forest birds.
Conservation interventions are necessary and measures against forest fires are
needed. There is a need to construct and maintain fire breaks around entire forests.
This has been found to be effective against fires in some of the Eastern Arc Mountains
forests. It is hoped that this study will spur others to follow effects on understorey
forest avifauna for several years after a forest fire. Longer term studies are needed to
determine the trajectory of the response of these bird communities to forest fires in
East Africa.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania for permission
to do research in the forest in the Uluguru Mountains. I am grateful to World Bank CIBI Project
through the College on Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Dar es Salaam for financial
assistance. I wish to thank Messrs R. Bartazar, M. Mbilinyi and F. Rudolf for assistance in
setting and monitoring mist nets for the entire study period. Special thanks are due to the
village chairmen of Milawilila and Ludewa Villages for their cooperation and guidance. Finally,
I thank two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript.

References

Adeney, J.M., Ginsberg, J.R., Russell, G.J. & Kinnaird, M.F. 2006. Effects of ENSO-related fire on
birds of a lowland tropical forest in Sumatra. Animal conservation 9: 292-301.

Barlow, J., Haugaasen, T. & Peres, C.A. 2002. Effects of ground fires on understorey bird
assemblages in Amazonian forests. Biological Conservation 105: 157-169.

Bennun, L., Dranzoa, C. & Pomeroy, D. 1996. The forest birds of Kenya and Uganda. Journal of
East African Natural Elistory 85: 23-48.

Burgess, N.D. & Mlingwa, C.O.F. (2000). Evidence for the altitudinal migration of forest birds
between montane Eastern Arc and lowland forests in East Africa. Ostrich 71: 184-190.

Burgess N.D., Doggart, N. & Lovett, J.C. 2002. The Uluguru Mountains of eastern Tanzania: the
effect of forest loss on biodiversity. Oryx 36: 140-152.

Burgess, N., Kilahama, F., Madoffe, S., Munishi, P., Doody, K., Nyagawa, S., Kaitemela, A. &
Nderumaki, M. 2005. What are the main threats facing the Eastern Arc forests and how
serious they are? Arc Journal 19: 16-17.

Hammer, 0., Harper, D.A.T., & Ryan, P.D. 2001. PAST: Paleontological statistics software
package for education and data analysis. Paleontologica electronica. 4(1), 9 pp.

Hutclieson, K. 1970. A test for comparing diversities based on the Shannon formula. Journal of
Theoretical Biology 29: 151-154.

Kreisel, K.J. & Stein, S.J. 1999. Bird use of burned and unburned coniferous forest during winter.

Wilson Bulletin 111: 143-152.

Lee, E., Lee, W., Son, S.H. & Riiim, S. 2011. Differences in bird communities in postfire silvicultural
practices stands within pine forest of South Korea. Landscape and Ecological Engineering 7:
137-143.

Lulandala, L.L.L. 1998. Meeting the needs of the people through species domestication: a basis
for effective conservation of the Eastern Arc Mountain forest biodiversity. Journal of East
African Natural History 87: 243-252.

Understorey bird abundance and diversity before and after forest fire

46

O'Reilly, L., Ogada, D., Palmer, T.M. & Keesing, F. 2006. Effects of fire on bird diversity and
abundance in an East African Savanna. African Journal of Ecology 44: 165-170.

Newmark, W.D. 1991. Tropical forest fragmentation and local extinction of understorey birds in
the Eastern Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Conservation Biology 5: 67-78.

Newmark, W.D. 1998. Forest area, fragmentation, and loss in the Eastern Arc Mountains:
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History 87: 29-36.

Nkwabi, A.K., Sinclair, A.R.E., Metzger, K.L. & Mduma, S.A.R. 2011. Disturbance, species loss
and compensation: Wildfire and grazing effects on the avian community and its food
supply in the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania. Austral Ecology 36: 403-412.

Rovero, F., Menegon, M., FjedsA, J., Collet, L., Doggart, N., Leonard, C., Norton, G., Owen,
N., Perkin, A., Spitale, D., Ahrends, A. & Burgess, N.D. 2014. Targeted vertebrate surveys
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Biometrika 52: 591-611.

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Svendsen, J.O. & Hansen, L.A. (eds). 1995. Report on the Uluguru Biodiversity Survey 1993. Sandy,
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Werema, C. 2014. Effects of fire on understorey birds in Kimboza Forest Reserve in the eastern
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Chacha Werema

Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, University ofDar es Salaam. P.O. Box 35064, Dar

es Salaam, Tanzania. Email: cwerema@yahoo.co.uk

Scopus 34: 40-46, January 2015

Received 15 April 2014

47

Short communications

Short communications

Red-billed Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus breeding
in a hollow brickstone wall

Red-billed Hornbills Tockus erythrorhynchus usually choose natural cavities, wood-
pecker or barbet holes in trees, and even bee-hive logs as breeding sites (Williams
1978, Kemp 1995, 2001, Poonswad et ah 2013). Although some hornbill species, in-
cluding the Red-billed, accept artificial nestboxes in trees (Diop & Treca 1993, 1996,
Kemp 2001), to our knowledge breeding in man-made buildings has not yet been
reported for Red-billed Hornbills.

During a trip to southern Ethiopia on 13 May 2012 we found a nest of a Red-billed
Hornbill in a large hollow brick of an unplastered wall of a small outbuilding in a hos-
pital area in the town of Dida Hara, Oromia Regional State (4°48 / 39 ,, N, 38°19'33"E).
The entrance hole was situated at a height of about 80 cm on the outer side of the wall
(Fig. la) and was sealed in the typical manner of hornbills, leaving a small slit of ap-
proximately 6 x 2.5cm (Fig. lb). Apparently, the nest was occupied with a breeding
female of which we could see the bill tip when standing close to the wall. A feed-
ing male approached several times with various food items, predominantly locusts
(among them slant-faced grasshoppers Acridinae and bush-crickets Phaneropterinae;
Fig. lc, d). We could not find out if young had already hatched.

Figure 1. a) Nesting site of the
Red-billed Hornbill Tockus eryth-
rorhynchus in a hollow brick stone
wall of the small building on the
left, the fence on the right was
used by the male for perching
before approaching the nest; b)
sealed entrance slit of the nest in
a hollow brick stone, the female's
bill tip can be seen; c) the male
waiting to approach the nest, car-
rying a slant-faced grasshopper
(Acridinae); d) the male clings to
the wall while feeding the female
(Photos: K. Gedeon; Dida Hara,
Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia,
13 May 2012).

Since the ongoing deforestation of Ethiopian savanna habitats causes further loss
of natural breeding cavities in trees, it appears likely that the plasticity of breeding
behaviour and the tolerance of man could lead to a closer affiliation of Red-billed
Hornbill breeding sites to human settlements just as observed on this occasion.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks go to Okotu Dida and Tesfaye Mekonnen for their assistance during the

Short communications

48

field work and for enabling communication with local people. We cordially thank Dirk Berger
for the identification of locusts taken as food by the hornbills. We also wish to thank Norbert
Bahr for kindly supplying literature.

References

Diop, M.S. & Treca, B. 1993. Nichoirs artificiels utilises par le Petit Calao a bee rouge Tockus
erythrorhynchus. Malimbus 15: 81-88.

Diop, M.S. & Treca, B. 1996. Distribution of nest preparation tasks between mates of the
Redbilled Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus. Ostrich 67: 55-59.

Kemp, A.C. 1995. The Hornbills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kemp, A.C. 2001. Family Bucerotidae (Hornbills). In }. del Hoyo, A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (eds).
Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 6. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.

Poonswad, P., Kemp, A.C. & Strange, M. 2013. Hornbills of the World. A photographic guide.

Singapore: Draco Publishing and Distribution & Hornbill Research Foundation.

Williams, A.A.E. 1978. Notes on Tockus hornbills breeding at Lake Baringo, Kenya. Scopus 2:
21-23.

Till Topfer

Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig , Adenauer allee 160, 53113 Bonn, Germany

Kai Gedeon

Saxon Ornithologists' Society, P.O. Box 1129, 09331 Hohenstein-Ernstthal, Germany

Scopus 34: 47-48, January 2015
Received 24 September 2013

Grey Crowned Cranes Balearica regulorum
in urban areas of Uganda

The greatest threat to birds in tropical Africa is habitat change; often a result of unsus-
tainable agricultural practices (BirdLife International 2013a) and this certainly applies
to Grey Crowned Cranes Balearica regulorum, whose primary breeding habitat — sea-
sonal swamps — is increasingly being converted into cultivation and other land uses.
Cranes are also caught, often as small young, for the wild bird trade, and to be kept
as pets by individuals as well as hotels and other institutions (Muheebwa-Muhoozi,
2001). Less often, some are caught for traditional uses. Cranes typically roost on tall
trees, and feed in a wide variety of open habitats, where human disturbance is also
increasing. In recent years, cranes have found places to feed, roost and even breed in
urban parts of Uganda, where they seem to have adapted to human disturbance.

Grey Crowned Cranes in Uganda are found most commonly in the steep valleys
of the south-west and the very shallow valleys of the south-east (Gumonye-Mafabi
1989, Muheebwa-Muhoozi 2001, Olupot et al. 2009). But over the past 30-40 years,
their population in Africa has declined by about 70% (Beilfuss et al. 2007), and prob-
ably by a similar amount in Uganda (SN unpublished data), and the species is now
considered to be Endangered (BirdLife International 2013b).

This study was conducted at two feeding and roosting sites: 1) Kiteezi, which is
the Kampala landfill site located at about 12 km north of the city, from September
2010 to December 2014 and 2) the main campus of Islamic University in Uganda lo-
cated at Nkoma approximately 3 km from Mbale Town, 26 May 2013 to 28 July 2014.
Total counts of birds were made at these sites.

49

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Observations in Kampala

Grey Crowned Cranes remain widespread in central Uganda, although usually in
small numbers. However, during the 1970s, a flock of more than one hundred was
regularly seen at two large farms about 20 km north of Kampala (Pomeroy 1980a),
and some bred in nearby swamps then. Kampala has now grown into a city of some
1.7 million people (www.ubos.com), and in recent years a flock of up to 96 birds has
frequented the main Kampala landfill site at Kiteezi, about 12 km north of the city
centre (Fig. 1). These birds also spend time in a nearby valley, where they forage in the
pasture, and at night most

■2012 O 2013

2014

Figure 1 . Numbers of Grey Crowned Crane at Kiteezi landfill.
Gaps indicate months when surveys were not conducted.

of them roost on high
voltage pylons 2-3 km
to the west of the land-
fill site. From the study
of 2012 to 2013, this flock
at Kiteezi included up to
five fully-grown imma-
ture birds. There are no
recent records of cranes
roosting on trees in the
Kampala area, but a few
birds also roost on pylons
near the Kampala north-
ern bypass.

The habit of feeding
on Kampala's rubbish
dumps dates back to the
1970s (Ssemmanda & Pomeroy 2010), and up to 25 birds were found roosting on py-
lons in central Kampala in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Therefore this habit also
dates back about 15 years. Roosting birds always select the highest arms of the py-
lons, which are much higher than any nearby trees. It is perhaps for the height, with
its presumed safety from possible predators that attracts them. Before roosting, they
often fly around the pylons, and move from one to another, but, unlike Marabou
Storks Leptoptilos crumeniferus, manage to avoid fatal collisions with the power lines
(Kibuule & Pomeroy 2015). In addition to Grey Crowned Cranes, some 7000 Cattle
Egrets Bubulcus ibis currently roost in central parts of Kampala, and small numbers
of Pink-backed Pelicans Pelicanus rufescens have also roosted there in the recent past.

In the early 1970s, flock sizes of cranes north of Kampala varied seasonally
(Pomeroy 1980a), being somewhat smaller in the main breeding seasons of October to
December, and again from April to June. It was assumed that the cranes bred in near-
by seasonal wetland areas at the times of year when these wetlands are drying up. In
our recent counts (Fig. 1), numbers were a little lower from September to November,
but not in April to June. However, in 2013, cranes were discovered to have bred in
two wetlands in the northern outskirts of Kampala, and at one of these, Walufumbe,
two newly-hatched young were found in July, suggesting egg-laying in June. Both
young survived for at least two months, when observations there ended. Two young
were also fledged by a pair at Tubigi swamp, being well-grown by November and
thus with a similar egg-laying date to the other pair.

Short communications

50

Crane and other species sightings in Mbale

In Mbale, a town in eastern Uganda with a population of only 0.44 million people
in 2012 (www.ubos.org), a number of species have often been recorded roosting to-
gether at the campus of the Islamic University in Uganda, which is only 3 km from
the town centre. For example, one large mvule tree Milicia excelsa had the following
birds roosting on it as recorded in a single count on 26 May 2013: 24 Grey Crowned
Cranes, 2 Pink-backed Pelicans, 25 Marabou Storks, at least 150 Open-billed Storks
Anastomus lamelligerus, 8 Yellow-
billed Storks Mycteria ibis , 12 African
Spoonbills Platalea alba, 16 Sacred
Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus, 15 Black-
headed Herons Ardea melanocephala
and 5 Little Egrets Egretta garzetta
(Fig. 2). However, these observations
were made during the university va-
cation; when students returned, and
the area around the tree became very
busy, numbers of roosting cranes
progressively reduced to two, sug-
gesting that their tolerance of people
is limited, compared to the other spe-
cies, whose numbers did not decline.

Of the species mentioned above.

Marabou Storks and Pink-backed
Pelicans also nest successfully in various towns and villages in Uganda (Pomeroy
2002, Nachuha & Quinn 2012), although the pelicans must sometimes fly considerable
distances to feed, whilst the Marabous mainly feed in towns.

Conclusions

The occurrence of Grey Crowned Cranes and other large waterbirds in urban areas
dates back at most 50 years, and presumably results from the birds feeling more se-
cure in these urban centres than in the surrounding rural areas. When feeding at the
rubbish dump, cranes can be as close as 10 m to the people working there; to a large
extent, birds and people ignore each other, although a few birds with damaged legs
and other injuries suggest that occasionally sticks or other objects are thrown at them.

Although cranes may feed and roost safely in urban areas, they find very few
places to breed, because undisturbed swamps used for nesting and protecting the
young before they can fly are becoming increasingly rare. It is likely that the loss of
secure breeding sites contributes significantly to the steep decline in crane numbers.
To halt this decline, more suitable wetlands need to be protected. It is estimated that
only 20-30 pairs of cranes nest in Uganda's National Parks, with a few more in wild-
life reserves, but together these constitute a very small proportion of the population
in the country as a whole, currently estimated at about 13000 (Muheebwa-Muhoozi
unpublished data). Conservation must therefore focus on unprotected areas and in
the southwest of Uganda, conservationists, working with local communities, have
been very successful in getting people to provide this protection with fledging suc-
cess increasing from 1.2 per pair in 2007 to 1.7 in 2011 (Muheebwa-Muhoozi unpub-
lished data).

Sites for feeding, roosting and breeding are the three main requirements of cranes.

Figure 2. Balearica regulorum roosting on a Milicia
exclesa tree located in close proximity to the IUIU
main gate. Photograph taken on 8 June 2013 at
18:25.

51

Short communications

and among these the last remains the biggest problem, which is unlikely to be solved
without better protection of the important wetlands. But the adaptability of cranes as
shown in this article suggests that it may be possible to halt the decline of Uganda's
national bird. However, more effort will be required if the species is to remain a famil-
iar bird over most of the country. The Species Action Plan for Grey Crowned Crane,
currently being prepared in co-operation with Nature Uganda, could take account of
these findings.

Acknowledgements

Bird counts in Kampala were supported by grants to DN and MK from the African Bird Club,
and JM's work was supported by the Whitley Fund for Nature, Dohmen Foundation, the
International Crane Foundation and North Carolina Zoo; we are most grateful for the support.
Genevieve Jones kindly commented on a draft of the article.

References

Beilfuss, R.D., Dodman, T. & Urban, E.K. 2007. The status of cranes in Africa in 2005. Ostrich 78:
175-184.

BirdLife Internationaf 2013a. State of Africa's birds 2013: outlook for our changing environment.

Nairobi: Birdlife International.

BirdLife Internationaf 2013b. Species factsheet: Balearica regulorum. Downloaded from http:/ /
www:birdlife.org on 14/ 05/2-13.

Gumonye-Mafabi, P. 1989. Some aspects of the ecology of the Grey Crowned Crane in eastern
Uganda. MSc thesis, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

Kibuule, M. & Pomeroy, D. 2015. Birds and power lines in Uganda. Scopus 34: 53-56.

Muheebwa-Muhoozi, J. 2001. The status of the Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum in
Uganda, with special reference to breeding. Ostrich Supplement 15: 122-125.

Nachuita, S. & Quinn, J.L. 2012. The distribution of colonial waterbirds in relation to a Ugandan
rice scheme. Waterbirds 35: 590-598.

Olupot, W., Mugabe, H. & Plumptre, A.J. 2009. Species conservation on human-dominated
landscapes: the case of Crowned Crane breeding and distribution outside Protected Areas
in Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 48: 119-125.

Pomeroy, D.E. 1980a. Aspects of the ecology of Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum in Uganda.
Scopus 4: 29-35.

Pomeroy, D.E. 1980b. Growth and plumage changes of the Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regu-
lorum gibbericeps Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 100: 219-223.

Pomeroy, D. 2002. Breeding populations of Marabou Storks and Pink-backed Pelicans in
Uganda. Uganda Journal 48: 115-120.

Ssemmanda, R. & Pomeroy, D. 2010. Scavenging birds in Kampala since 1973-2009. Scopus 30:
26-31.

Sarah Nachuha

Department of Environmental Science , Islamic University in Uganda , P.O. Box 2555, Mbale, Uganda.
Email: snachuha@yahoo.com.

Jimmy Muheebwa-Muhoozi

Community-based conservation of cranes and wetlands project in Uganda; NatureUganda, P.O. Box
27034, Kampala, Uganda

Dilys Ndibaisa

A Rocha Uganda, P.O.Box 10946, Kampala, Uganda

Micheal Kibuule and Derek Pomeroy

Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda. Email: derek@imul.com

Scopus 34: 48-51, January 2015
Received 11 January 2014

Short communications

52

Avian mortality rates on a power line near Kampala, Uganda

Among the most spectacular birds in Uganda is the Marabou Stork Leptoptilos cru-
meniferus, which nests very conspicuously in Kampala, and the Grey Crowned
Crane Balearica regulorum, the national bird and also globally red-listed by IUCN as
Endangered (BirdLife International 2014). These two species frequent the main land-
fill site for Kampala's garbage, at Kiteezi, some 12km north of the city centre, as do
many other birds, including a number of Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus, also
globally Endangered and declining quite rapidly in the Kampala area (Ssemmanda
& Pomeroy 2010).

Running close to the Kiteezi dump are two sets of power lines, the 240-kV Bujagali
power line carried on tall metal pylons, and a smaller 33-kV line, with three conduc-
tors supported on wooden poles, and running about 20 m to the side of and parallel
to the high voltage line. For at least twenty years, storks, cranes and vultures have
roosted on high voltage pylons in various parts of Kampala, including the Bujagali
power line since it was erected in 2011. The cranes also feed in a grassy valley close to
the landfill site. Most of the Marabou Storks visiting this area come from the Kampala
breeding colony, which contained about 740 nests in the 2013-14 breeding season
(DP unpublished data), whereas there are only occasional records of the cranes and
vultures nesting in the Kampala area (Carswell et al. 2005 and unpublished records).
Given (i) the propensity for these birds to roost on utility structures, and to fly regu-
larly in the vicinity of the associated power lines, and (ii) the size and behaviour of
the species in question, which probably exposes them to increased risk of colliding
with the lines and/ or of being electrocuted on live infrastructure (Lehman et al. 2005,
Jenkins et al. 2010), we postulated that the power lines near to the Kiteezi dump site
could be a significant source of mortality for these large birds. While there is consider-
able literature on bird mortality associated with power lines (e.g. Lehman et al. 2005,
Jenkins et al. 2010, Edison Electric Institute 2012), we know of only one such study
from East Africa (Smallie & Virani 2010), which reports on potential mortality risk
rather than detailing actual deaths.

In order to determine the avian fatality rate on the power lines at Kiteezi, we made
walked surveys along the route of the power lines running adjacent to the landfill site
over the year from November 2012 to October 2013. Our survey area extended along
the route of the two sets of lines, to the east and west of the landfill site, and included
the pylons on which cranes and vultures roosted at night (and sometimes rested dur-
ing the day). There is a 30 m way-leave on either side of the high voltage lines, where
people are allowed to cultivate low-growing crops such as maize and beans, and it is
easy to walk through this area (there are good footpaths), looking for any dead bird
that may have fallen to the ground, and recording details of the identity and location
of any likely to have been killed in collision or electrocution incidents; birds previ-
ously noted, if still present, were excluded from the count.

A total of ten counts were made (Table 1), each covering a distance of about 6 km,
divided into two sections, namely the eastern section, with ten pylons, as far east of
the landfill site as the Kampala-Gay aza road at Kyanja, and the western section of
nine pylons, extending west to the Kampala-Bombo road. At the same time, local
people met along the way were asked for any evidence they had of bird strikes. We
also conducted monthly counts of birds at the landfill site, which covers about 15 ha
and, with the permission of the local authority, it was simple to walk around the
whole area, making a total count (Table 2). This also included those few birds which
might be perched on nearby trees or buildings.

53

Short communications

Table 1. The distribution of dead birds found along the surveyed sections of the Kiteezi power
lines 6 km surveyed, and some responses from residents. No other species was found dead.

Date

Section

Dead birds recorded

Comments by residents of the area

2012-

Marabou

Grey Crowned

Hooded

2013

Stork

Crane

Vulture

All interviewed residents had seen dead birds

27 Nov

E

1

0

0

due to collision or electrocution, strikes are
common in big birds

19 Jan

F

3

0

0

Electrocution occasionally happens to Grey

Crowned Cranes

16 Mar

1

0

0

It is common with Marabous, sometimes birds

L

fight while standing on the electric lines.
Both small and big birds die due to

30 Mar

w

1

0

0

electrocution, but Marabous and Grey
Crowned Cranes are more vulnerable

Birds’ death due to electrocution is

18 Apr

F

1

0

0

independent of the size of bird. Activity

L_

including mating and fighting on the electric
lines makes some birds more vulnerable

Few cases are observed where a Marabou
survives death after collision. Two residents

27 Apr

W

0

0

0

reported that birds’ deaths due to collision are
responsible for power shortages in the area,
“when a Marabou knocks an electric wire,
sometimes power goes off’’

20 May

E

3

0

0

Most frequently these accidents happen to
Marabous

22 May

W

0

0

0

Deaths occasionally occur

22 Jun

E

1

0

0

Death was caused by “electric collision”

23 Jun

W

0

0

0

Deaths mostly occur to Marabous. Some
birds fly away with injuries after the accident

30 Jul

E

4

0

0

Electrocution mostly kills big birds, i.e.
Marabous

31 Jul

W

0

0

0

Accidents rarely occur

27 Aug

E

0

0

0

Electrocutions are common during wet
seasons

28 Aug

W

0

0

0

Electrocution occurs to big birds like
Marabous

25 Sep

E

2

0

0

At times, bats and doves also get
electrocuted

25 Sep

W

0

0

0

54 Grey crowned cranes were recorded
roosting on the pylons

24 Oct

E

6

0

0

Electrocution happens mostly after rainfall
and during evenings

26 Oct

W

0

0

0

59 cranes found roosting on the pylons

Short communications

54

Table 2. Numbers of large birds frequenting the Kiteezi landfill site during the study period.

Species

Period

Average

Highest

Lowest

Range

Hooded Vulture

Nov-Sep

26

59

9

50

Grey Crowned Crane

Nov-Sep

54

66

37

29

Marabou Stork

Nov-Apr

941

1420

650

770

We recorded a total of 23 bird casualties, all of which were Marabou Storks, which
is by far the commonest of the three species, with numbers exceeding ten times those
of the other two species combined. They also have the largest wingspan, of 226-
263 cm (Pomeroy 1977), compared to about 150 cm for Hooded Vultures (C. Barlow,
pers. comm.) and 192cm for the Grey Crowned Crane (Pomeroy 1980). And cranes
are the most agile in flight, often turning sharply as they fly, and might thus be less
vulnerable.

All the carcasses were found lying below the main power lines, mostly near but
not usually beneath the pylons themselves, and all but one along the eastern section
(Table 1). Although we made no observations at night, this would be consistent with
collision as the main cause of death, particularly amongst young birds at night, when
the conductor wires would have been hard to see. Residents reported that other birds
are also killed, mainly large birds, and that these fatalities sometimes led to a cut in
the power supply, implying that some birds were electrocuted, but this would appear
to have been uncommon.

The present study has identified a clear bird mortality hotspot on the transmis-
sion line running adjacent to the Kiteezi landfill site, which is resulting in significant
casualty rates for important birds in the area, possibly including globally threatened
species, which must be considered to be at risk — cranes were mentioned twice in
this connection by local people. We shall recommend to the electricity authority that
markers (either static bird flight diverters or dynamic 'flappers') be placed along the
power lines for at least 2-3 km east of the Kiteezi landfill site, and that bird guards are
installed at offending pylons to deter birds from perching in high risk areas, close to
live hardware on the pylons. Provided that they are clearly seen at night, these mark-
ers should ensure that both avian mortality rates, and the frequency of costly power
outages, are substantially reduced.

Acknowledgements

We thank the African Bird Club and The Peregrine Fund for financial support to Michael
Kibuule, and the Kampala Capital City Authority for permission to make counts of birds at the
Kiteezi Landfill site. Andrew Jenkins made many helpful suggestions for improving an earlier
version of the manuscript.

References

BirdLife International. 2014. Species factsheet: Balearica regulorum. Downloaded from http://
www.birdlife.org on 06/11/2014.

Edison Electric Institute. 2012. Reducing avian collisions with power lines: the state of the art in 2012.
Edison Electric Institute, Washington DC, USA.

Jenkins, A.R., Smallie, J.J. & Diamond, M. 2010. Avian collisions with power lines: a global review
of causes and mitigation with a South African perspective. Bird Conservation International 20:
263-278.

Lehman, R.N., Kennedy, P.L. & Savidge, J.A. 2007. The state of the art in raptor electrocution
research: a global review. Biological Conservation 136: 159-174.

55

Short communications

Pomeroy, D.E. 1977. The biology of marabou storks in Uganda. I. Some characteristics of the
species, and the population structure. Ardea 65: 1-24.

Pomeroy, D.E. 1980. Growth and plumage changes of the Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulo-
rum in Uganda. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 100: 219-223.

Smallie, J. & Virani, M.Z. 2010. A preliminary assessment of the potential risks from electrical
infrastructure to large birds in Kenya. Scopus 30: 32-39.

Ssemmanda, R. & Pomeroy, D. 2010. Scavenging birds in Kampala: 1973-2009. Scopus 30: 26-31.

Micheal Kibuule and Derek Pomeroy

Department of Environmental Management , Makerere University , P.O. Box 7298, Kampala, Uganda.

Email: derek@imul.com

Scopus 34: 52-55, January 2015

Received 5 December 2013

Abyssinian Scimitarbill Rhinopomastus minor cabanisi
in Tanzania: a breeding record in a traditional beehive

On 27 December 2013, between the Tarangire National Park entrance and Makuyuni,
Tanzania, at 3°33'S, 36°04'E, altitude 1073 m, I stopped at 11:00 to photograph an aca-
cia tree with nine traditional beehives in it. To my amazement I saw two Abyssinian
Scimitarbills Rhinopomastus minor entering a hole on the bottom of one of the bee-
hives. Each had food in its bill, apparently insects or larvae. I watched for about ten
minutes during which each bird separately made three to four visits to the beehive
and entered it. Two days later both birds were again there and the same behaviour
was noted. I recorded that two beehives had holes in the bottom of them. That with
the nest was approximately 5 m above the ground, its dimensions approximately
90 cm x 40 cm x 35 cm. The opening to the nest on the lower surface of the beehive was
4 cm in diameter. On 7 February 2014 1 passed the site again. The birds had gone but I
was informed by local Maasai youths that bees had already left that tree and moved a
few kilometres away in September 2013. During my three visits I saw no bees and no
other species of birds on the tree.

In Tanzania, Abyssinian Scimitarbill of the race cabanisi is a sometimes common
resident of open bushed and wooded habitats in lower rainfall areas east of Lake
Victoria (Britton 1980, Zimmerman et al. 1996). There are scanty breeding records but
Brown & Britton (1980) indicate a strong preference for the dry season, possibly peak-
ing in December in Region D. The species is a monogamous, solitary nester. The typi-
cal nest is in a natural hole or fissure, or a hole excavated by another species, in a dead
or living tree, 0.5-2 m above ground (Fry 1988). There is a record of parasitisation by
Greater Honey guide Indicator indicator (Madge & Cunningham van Someren 1975).

The Abyssinian Scimitarbill is described as insectivorous, eating mostly adults
and larvae of insects: beetle larvae, caterpillars, ants, flies and wasps; occasionally
seeds and berries (Fry op. cit.). It does not eat honey and yet is parasitized by the
Greater Honeyguide, which does eat honey. The fact that our birds were nesting in
an unused beehive raises interesting questions about the relationship of the species to
the Greater Honeyguide and to bees.

Short communications

56

Acknowledgements

Neil and Liz Baker are thanked for responding to my questions about this bird and for
providing further information. I am also grateful to the four Maasai youths who offered their
local knowledge.

References

Britton, P.L. (ed) 1980. Birds of East Africa. Nairobi: East Africa Natural History Society.

Brown, L.H. & Britton, P.L. 1980. The breeding seasons of East African birds. Nairobi: East Africa
Natural History Society.

Fry, C.H. 1988. Family Phoeniculidae in The Birds of Africa. Vol. 3. London: Academic Press.

Madge, S.G. & Cunningham-van Someren, G.R. 1975. Back-throated Honey guide and Abyssinian
Scimitarbill. East Africa Natural History Society Bulletin, Pp. 130-131.

Zimmerman, D.A., Turner, D.A. & Pearson, D.J. 1996. Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania.

London: A & C Black.

Marian R. Scena

P.O. Box 510, Singida, Tanzania. Email: marianscena@yahoo.com

Scopus 34: 55-56, January 2015
Received 12 April 2014

Confirmed range extension of the White-billed Buffalo Weaver
Bubalornis albirostris in northern Tanzania

The genus Bubalornis is represented by two similar species, one with an almost en-
tirely black with few white patches (males) or brownish (females) plumage, the Red-
Billed Buffalo Weaver B. niger and the White-billed Buffalo Weaver B. albirostris. The
main diagnostic characters are the bill and leg colours, and the bill morphology. The
two species are highly social and breed communally in large multi-chambered nests,
and are mainly resident in dry woodlands and savannas in a large part of sub-Saha-
ran Africa.

The distribution of the two taxa is parapatric and for this reason, until recently,
they were normally considered conspecific. B. niger is distributed in eastern and south-
ern Africa from southern Ethiopia to central Tanzania (race intermedius), and from
western Angola to southwest Mozambique south to the northern provinces of South
Africa (race niger), whereas B. albirostris inhabits a strip from southern Mauritania and
northeast Guinea-Bissau east to western Ethiopia and northwest Kenya (del Hoyo et
al 2010).

One of us (SP), during a recent visit to Serengeti National Park, on 11 November
2013, observed and photographed at least three different individuals of B. albirostris
searching for food near the visitor centre at Naabi Hill Gate (02°49'56" S, 34°59'54" E,
1729 m; Plate 1).

In the Serengeti area only Bubalornis niger is normally seen (Schmidl 1982, Sinclair
& Arcese 1995), and almost all the eastern African bird guides (Zimmerman et al.
1999, Stevenson & Fanshawe 2002), handbooks (del Hoyo et al. 2010), and also the
updated ABC checklist (Dowsett et al. 2014) do not report B. albirostris for Tanzania
(or southern Kenya). Only Sinclair and Ryan (2010) indicate the species in northeast
Tanzania with a single cross symbol (x) used for extra-limital or vagrant records. This
is referred to as the first record for Tanzania, obtained exactly in the same location on
2 March 2005. At the time it was considered an odd record of a bird well outside its

57

Short communications

normal range, observed in a well-watched area (J. Stenback in litt. in Lindsell & Fisher
2009).

Plate 1. Three different individuals of Bubalornis albirostris at Naabi Hill Gate, Serengeti
National Park, 11 November 2013 (Photos S. Panzera).

Even without any recorded evidence, breeding activity in the area now seems
probable, considering the overlap of observations at the same site some years apart,
the mainly sedentary habits of the species, as well the suitability of the surrounding
habitat (Sinclair & Arcese 1995, del Hoyo et al. 2010).

Research in other localities in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya is obviously
needed to verify if the Serengeti harbours a truly isolated population or if this appar-
ently isolated spot is connected with its main range through other colonized sites.
Further research in areas where the two taxa live in sympatry is certainly warranted
on taxonomic, ecological and ethological grounds.

Acknowledgments

We thank Marco Pavia (Turin) for useful suggestions.

References

del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D. 2010. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 15. Weavers
to New World Warblers. Barcelona: Tynx Edicions.

Dowsett, R.J., Atkinson, P.W. & Caddick, J.A. 2014. Checklist of the birds of Tanzania. Downloaded
from www.africanbirdclub.org. 6 November 2014.

Tindsell, J. & Fisher, D. 2009. East African Rarities Committee report and change of remit.
Scopus 29: 23-27.

Schmidl, D. (1982). The Birds of the Serengeti National Park , Tanzania: An Annotated Check-list (No.
5). British Ornithologists' Union.

Sinclair, A.R.E. & Arcese, P. (eds) 1995. Serengeti II. Dynamics, Management, and Conservation of
an Ecosystem. Chicago University Press.

Sinclair, I. & Ryan, P. 2010. Birds of Africa south of Sahara. 2 edition, CapeTown: Struik.

Stevenson, T. & Fanshawe, J. 2002. Field guide of the birds of East Africa. Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi. Tondon: T. & A.D. Poyser.

Zimmerman, D.A., Turner, D.A. & Pearson D.J. 1999. Birds of Kenya & Northern Tanzania. Tondon:
Helm Field Guides.

Sandro Panzera

Museo di Storia Naturale del Salento, Calimera LE, Italy

Giovanni Boano

Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Carmagnola TO, Italy. Email: g.boano@gmail.com

Scopus 34: 56-57, January 2015
Received 8 November 2014

Short communications

58

Kenya Bird Map: an internet-based system for
monitoring bird distribution and populations in Kenya

Background

Data collection for the first Kenya Bird Atlas started in the 1970s and continued until
1984, and also included pre-1970 data mainly from museum specimens. Over 200
contributors, mainly Kenyan citizens, were involved in the data collection (Lewis &
Pomeroy 1989). The sources of data were: published records, museum skins, contri-
butions received directly from observers, nest record cards submitted to the EANHS
Nest Record Scheme, and data from the Ringing Scheme of eastern Africa.The data
were analysed and published in the book A Bird Atlas of Kenya by Lewis & Pomeroy
(1989). This atlas used half degree cells, which were 30 min x 30 min, or 54 km x 54 km
(Lewis & Pomeroy 1989). The authors noted that, "Its coverage is certainly not com-
plete, but we believe nevertheless that it gives a fair indication of Kenya's avifauna,
especially during the main atlas period of 1970-1984" (Lewis & Pomeroy 1989).

Lewis & Pomeroy (1989) provided a good idea of the distribution of birds in Kenya
at the time. Bird distributions have changed over the intervening period, primarily
because of habitat destruction, but it is not known to what extent. Over the same pe-
riod, noticeable changes in long-term weather patterns may also have affected bird
distributions (see, for example, Humphrey 2004). Since 1989, several attempts to doc-
ument bird distribution records in Kenya have been made. During the 1990s the then
Department of Ornithology at the National Museums of Kenya regularly published
range extensions of birds in the now discontinued Kenya Birds. From 2006 to 2013,
the Kenya BirdFinder Project (http://www.worldbirds.org/v3/kenya.php), based
on BirdFife International's World Bird database, kept records of bird observations
in Kenya. These initiatives had a few shortcomings as they failed to provide compre-
hensive answers to the three questions on which the conservation status of a species
hinges, i.e. Where are they? How many are they? and What is their trend? (Underhill
& Gibbons 2002). The protocol of the Kenya BirdFinder did not allow for robust data
analysis as it focused on records from 'hot spots' only. Birders primarily visited the
major birding sites, and there were no committed attempts to visit uncovered areas
to enable mapping of bird distributions. Furthermore, vetting of records was a major
challenge and the data could not be used for scientific purposes without a significant
amount of cleaning up.

The Kenya Bird Map (http:/ /kenyabirdmap.adu.org.za) is an internet-based bird
distribution database that employs citizen science to map the location of birds and
describe their distribution in real time. The database will map observations using a
finer scale than the previous atlas and the methodology allows for robust statistical
analysis of the data. Specifically, birds are recorded in the order they are seen or heard
together with a count of the number of species observed per hour, which provides
an index of the relative abundance of each species. So rather than just providing an
index of the presence or absence of a species (as the previous atlas did), this atlas will
provide a measure of abundance for each species based on the presence of other spe-
cies and the location where it was recorded. By pooling the efforts of many citizen
scientists, the Kenya Bird Map will record the distributions of Kenya's birds and in so
doing, provide a powerful tool for conservation.

The Kenya Bird Map employs a finer scale of mapping using 5 min x 5 min (c.

59

Short communications

9km x 9km) cells, referred to as a 'pentad'. There are 36 pentads in each Quarter
Square Degree (QSD) and 8208 pentads in Kenya, as compared to 228 QSDs in the
first atlas. This smaller grid cell means that the distribution maps produced will be of
far finer resolution and allow for better analysis of species distribution in relation to
other variables such as habitat, altitude and human impacts. The pentads are linked
to Google Maps and are accessible on the Kenya Bird Map website. The pentad maps
allow participants to easily pinpoint their pentad and to identify pockets of different
habitats within each pentad that might hold additional species. Data collection is by
citizen scientists — volunteer observers who visit the sites and pentads of their choice
anywhere in Kenya to map birds.

Mapping protocol

A key strength of the Kenya Bird Map lies in its simple yet robust sampling protocol,
which produces data that can be used with confidence for analyses. The main proto-
col, termed the 'Full protocol' is summarized as follows:

• Spend a minimum of two hours observing and recording birds within a pentad.
Fist all the bird species observed in the order that they are encountered. Make a
note of the cumulative number of birds seen at the end of each hour.

• Additional survey time can be added to the same pentad for up to five days from
the start of a survey. Add any new species (in the order that you encounter them)
to your initial list until the end of the fifth day. A new list should only be started
for the same pentad after the end of the five-day period (i.e. on day six).

An additional protocol, the 'ad hoc protocol', is used to map a species' distribu-
tion and record the time of year when it was seen, but the records are not used for a
species' reporting rate or its abundance. The ad hoc protocol is used when adherence
to the full protocol cannot be met, i.e. when the observer is birding for less than two
hours within the same pentad. This protocol is simply to submit a list of records for
a given pentad on a given date. Observations of interest can be submitted as an 'inci-
dental' observation for a single species such as an unusual species, or a large group of
birds, or out of season records.

Entering records into the database is also simple for anyone who is computer liter-
ate and has reasonable access to the internet. An offline database management system
is being developed that will allow for easier submission of data when internet access
is poor, and an application for use in smart phones is planned. Guidelines for in-
putting data via the website are available at http:/ /kenyabirdmap.adu.org.za/ docs/
kbm_ho wto .pdf.

Proper validation of the data is clearly crucial for them to be useful for analyses.
The system is set up to automatically vet data once an initial vetting and validation
of species in each pentad has been done by a select committee of experienced birders
and ornithologists. The initial vetting is therefore quite time intensive, but rapidly
reduces as subsequent records are self-validated.

Expected Impacts

The distribution of a species is the most basic information required in order to con-
serve any species. A dynamic atlas such as the Kenya Bird Map is therefore an in-
valuable conservation tool. With data available for free, the atlas can be conveniently
used by researchers, tourists, policy-makers, etc. The new atlas will provide a clear

Short communications

60

and real-time distribution map of bird species that will be comparable to the first
Bird Atlas of Kenya data, which will be added to the website. After five years we will
analyse the data collected and compare them to the first atlas to show changes in a
species' distribution over the 30-year period since the first atlas. Potential applications
of the atlas data include:

• An early warning system for environmental change by tracking changes in bird
distribution and relating them to environmental degradation, climate change, etc.
(see for example, de Villiers 2009 and http://www.adu.org.za/docs/climate_
change_booklet.pdf)

• Tracking of the timing and patterns of bird migration

• Monitoring population sizes and trends of threatened and endemic bird species
(see Robertson et al. 1995)

• Provide evidence of bird species' abundances in Kenya (see Gibbons et al. 2007)

The Kenya Bird Map may also encourage development of atlases for other taxa,
such as reptiles, mammals, butterflies, etc. (see http:/ /vmus.adu.org.za/).

References

de Villiers, M.S. (ed) 2009. Birds and environmental change: building an early warning system in
South Africa. Pretoria: SANBI.

Gibbons, D.W., Donald, P.F., Bauer, H., Fornasari, L. & Dawson, I.K. 2007. Mapping avian dis-
tributions: the evolution of bird atlases. Bird Study 54: 324-334.

Humphrey, Q.P.C. 2004. The impact of climate change on birds. Ibis 146: 48-56.

Lewis, A. & Pomeroy, D. 1989. A Bird Atlas of Kenya. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.

Robertson, A., Simmons, R.E., Jarvis, A.M. & Brown, C.J. 1995. Can bird atlas data be used to
estimate population size? A case study using Namibian endemics. Biological Conservation
71: 87-95.

Underhill, L. & Gibbons, D. 2002. Mapping and monitoring bird populations: their conservation
uses. In K. Norris & D. Pain (eds). Conserving Bird Biodiversity: General principles and their ap-
plication, Conservation Biology 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Washington Wachira

Ornithology Section, National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 40658-00100, Nairobi, Kenya. Email:
washingtonwachira@gmail.com

Colin Jackson

A Rocha Kenya; P.O. Box 25924, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya

Peter Njoroge

Ornithology Section, National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 40658-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

61

Review

Review

Birds of the Serengeti and Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Adam Scott Kennedy

2014, Princeton University Press, Wild Guides, ISBN 978-0-691-15910-2, 224 pp.,
full colour Price: US$27.95 / £17.95

Birds of the Serengeti (and its sister publication, Birds of the Masai Mara) is a new type of
field guide for us in East Africa. It is a guide to the birds most likely to be seen, rather
than all species recorded. The birds are grouped by habitat, rather than taxonomy; the
author uses photographs, rather than drawings; and the birds are set in their natural
surroundings. So the birds are 'as you see them' in nature — or at least, as you usu-
ally see them.

The book starts by introducing its novel approach and the habitats, which include
sections on birds of the air, night birds and Take Victoria specials. The grouping of
birds by habitat is obviously most suitable for a local guide, where the habitats are
limited and the species' preferences well known. Each habitat is represented by a
magnificent photograph, a description with examples of sites, and smaller photos of
a couple of characteristic birds. The birds of each habitat are then featured in detail.

Each bird is shown as a large colourful photo that includes the typical vegetation
— or sand, water, blue sky. With some computer trickery, similar species are com-
pared side by side in their habitat. The computer wizardry can be confusing at times,
with the birds grouped together in their leafy or grassy habitat, but their names and
descriptions scattered across two pages.

The text is peppered with useful tips for identifying birds. For instance, three 'col-
lared doves' are shown in a composite image at a bird feeder: Ring-necked, Red-eyed
and African Mourning Doves ( Streptopelia capicola, semitorquata and decipiens). In ad-
dition to a brief description of their appearance, habits and songs, there is a section on
telling these three doves apart, very useful for a beginner. Names used in other parts
of Africa are often included, a help to the confused traveller. And for those moments
when there are no birds to be seen, there are fun facts to educate and entertain non-
birding companions.

The result of this innovative approach is superb. It guides the layman on where
to look for birds and what to look for. I wish there was such a field guide for every
Important Bird Area (IB A) in East Africa! The only drawback is the price, obviously
out of reach for most local communities.

Fleur Ng'weno

Obituary

62

Obituary

John Sydney Ash (1925-2014)

John's long ornithological life had many facets. But he will be remembered particular-
ly for his role in revealing the damaging impact of agrichemicals in southern England
during the 1950s and 1960s, for his contribution to studies of bird migration, and for
his pioneering work in the 1970s and 1980s on bird distribution in northeast Africa.

Born at Gosforth, Northumberland on 26 May 1925, John's bird-watching career
began in Northumberland. From an early age he was recording nests and ringing
birds across the county. A Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis ringing programme he started
on the Fame Islands later led to a long-term University of Durham project. After at-
tending school in Yorkshire he studied agricultural entomology at Durham (1942-45),
then joined the RAF for two years' national service. Returning to post-graduate re-
search at Imperial College he met and married Helen Jonquil Gudgeon.

In 1951 he joined the newly formed ICI Game Research Station at Fordingbridge
in Hampshire and soon completed a PhD thesis on Mallophaga and other avian para-
sites. Over the next few years, with the late Terrance Blank, he carried out a long-term
study of the ecology and pathology of Grey Partridges Perdix perdix which resulted in
several important papers. By 1952 they were documenting instances of oganophos-
phate poisoning in partridges and other farmland birds. They urged further research
into the harmful effect of agricultural sprays and drew attention to the avian mortal-
ity caused by dieldrin seed dressing. When ICI closed down its game research sta-
tion in 1961 John helped set up a small membership-based unit, the Game Research
Association, of which he became director in 1966. Here he encouraged research on
avian diseases and parasites and continued to produce evidence of the harmful im-
pact of toxic chemicals on wildlife. For his work at this time and services to the British
Trust for Ornithology he was awarded their Tucker Medal in 1967.

Throughout these years John had pursued his interest in bird migration. He
helped set up Portland Bird Observatory in 1960, carried out a study of the Red-
backed Shrike Lanius collurio, and travelled increasingly, to Europe, the Middle East
and Africa. He was a leading member of spring expeditions to Jordon (1963), Morocco
(1965) and Fake Chad (1967), studying premigratory fattening and weight loss prob-
lems in passerines crossing the Sahara. But it was in northeast Africa that his main
contribution to the ornithology of the continent was to be made.

In 1969 he joined the United States Naval Medical Research Unit No. 3 (NAMRU-3),
based in Addis Ababa, to investigate the role of migratory birds in the transmission
of parasites and blood-borne pathogens. Together with Jonquil and their daughter
Caroline he spent nine years in Ethiopia, and travelled widely, catching local and
migrant birds to collect samples and material. He used this unique opportunity to
embark on a pioneering atlas project based on a V 2 0 x V 2 0 grid, and often working
single-handedly managed to visit over 70% of the squares in Ethiopia. His consider-
able stamina and resourcefulness were often tested during travel in hot and remote
areas, and his cheerful diplomacy was to prove vital in situations where security was
precarious. He organized and inspired an Ethiopian ringing scheme during the 1970s,
when over 45000 Afrotropical and 15000 Palaearctic birds were ringed, the majority
by John himself ( Scopus 4: 85-101). His many notable records included discovery of

63

Obituary

a new species, the Ankober Serin Crithagra ankoberensis ( Ibis 121: 1-7). The informa-
tion he gathered on the routes, migration times and weights of Palaearctic birds in
Ethiopia has been vital in the broader appraisal of migration along the East Africa-
Middle East flyway.

Forced to leave Addis quickly in 1977 when Ethiopia changed allegiance to the
Soviet Union, John spent a year at the Smithsonian Institution organizing and docu-
menting his material. But he was soon back in Africa working with the FAO Quelea
Control Programme in Somalia. Based at Mogadishu from 1978 to 1981 he was able
to extend his atlassing work in a country that had been neglected by ornithologists
for many years. He found another new species, Ash's Lark Mirafra ashi ( Bulletin of the
British Ornithologists' Club 102: 106-114), and added over 50 species to the country's
list (Scopus 7: 54-79). He formed an alliance with John Miskell with whom he visited
remote northeastern parts of the country, and together they produced a revised ch-
ecklist of the birds of Somalia (Scopus Special Supplement No. 1). During an addi-
tional year with FAO in Uganda, with further scope for travel, John was able to make
a substantial contribution to the ongoing Atlas of Uganda.

Retiring in 1983, John and Jonquil divided their time between their New Forest
home, where he continued to order and analyse material from his many projects, and
further travels abroad. Prolonged visits to the Maldives, Bali and Nigeria produced
valuable records and accounts, and on a return to Ethiopia in 1993 he rediscovered
the Ethiopian Serin Crithagra flavigula. His continued interest in migration between
Africa and the Middle East took him on several expeditions with Gerhard Nikolaus,
to Northern Sudan, then in the 1990s to Oman and Saudi Arabia. His affection for
southwest France led to extended summer camping visits during which he renewed
his old interest in seabirds. In 1997 he was awarded the Union Medal of the British
Ornithologists' Union. His work in the Horn of Africa culminated in the production
of two major distributional books. Birds of Somalia (with John Miskell) in 1998 and
Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea (with John Atkins) in 2009.

John died on 6 January 2014, only three days after Jonquil. He will be remembered
by his many friends and colleagues for his patience, generosity and good humour as
well as for his remarkable enthusiasm and determination. His freely given advice and
encouragement have inspired many a young ornithologist setting out on an African
enterprise.

David Pearson

SCOPUS

Scopus is published twice a year, or as a combined annual volume, by the
Bird Committee of the East Africa Natural History Society. For information
on current subscription rates and modes of payment, contact Nature Kenya
P.O. Box 44486, G.P.O. 00100, Nairobi, Kenya, tel. +254 20 3749957, Email:
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subscriptions in Uganda contact Nature Uganda, P.O. Box 27034, Kampala,
Uganda, tel. +256 41 540719 or Email: eanhs@imul.com or visit www.
natureuganda.org.

Cover illustration from a gouache painting by P.A. Clancey.

Editors

Darcy Ogada darcyogada@yahoo.com
David Pearson dpearson251@gmail.com

Editorial board

Graeme Backhurst
Leon Bennun
Norbert Cordeiro
Luc Lens
Jeremy Lindsell
Muchai Muchane
Derek Pomeroy
Don Turner

Notes for contributors

Scopus welcomes original contributions on
all aspects of the ornithology of eastern
Africa, encompassing the area from the
Sudan south to Mozambique and including
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Contributions include original (full)
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References cited in the text: Cite multiple
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(continued)

Cordeiro, N.J. & Githiru, M. 2000.
Conservation evaluation for birds of
Brachylaena woodland and mixed dry forest
in north-east Tanzania. Bird Conservation
International 10: 47-65.

Stuart, S.N., Jensen, F.P., Brogger-Jensen,
S. & Miller, R.I. 1993. The zoogeography
of the montane forest avifauna of eastern
Tanzania. Pp. 203-228 in Lovett, J.C. &
Wasser, S.K. (eds) Biogeography and ecology

of the rainforests of Eastern Africa. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Urban, E.K., Fry, C.H. & Keith, S. (eds)
1986. The birds of Africa. Vol. 2. London:
Academic Press.

Both English and scientific names of
birds should be given when the species is
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Rare birds in East Africa

Records of rare birds from Kenya, Tanzania
and Uganda are assessed by the East Africa
Rarities Committee. Records from other
countries in the region can also be submitted

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Ringing scheme of eastern Africa

This covers several countries in the area.
Qualified and aspiring ringers should
contact the ringing organizer, Bernard
Amakobe, Ornithology Section, Zoology
Dept., National Museums of Kenya, P.O.
Box 40658, 00100-Nairobi, Kenya.

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EANHS Nest Record Scheme

Details of most kinds of breeding activity
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record cards may be obtained free of charge
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The BirdLife International Partnership in
eastern Africa

Through its national partners, the BirdLife
International Africa Partnership Secretariat
in Nairobi co-ordinates bird conservation
work in the region and produces
several other publications of interest to
ornithologists.

Ethiopian Wildlife & Natural History
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Ethiopia. Tel.+251-(0)2-l 83520
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