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THE ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA

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THE

ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA

H. LING ROTH,

Fellow of the Anthropological Institute ; Author of ** The Agriculture and Peasantry of
Eastern Russia ; " The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo,'' (St., S'C,

ASSISTED BY

MARION E. BUTLER; and JAS. BACKHOUSE WALKER,
OF HoBART, Tasmania, with a Chapter on the Osteology by

J. G. GARSON, M.D.

PREFACE

EDWARD B. TYLOR, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Professor of A nthropolony at the University of Oxford ; Vice-President
of the Anthropological Institute, &c„ &c., &c.

ILLUSTRATED.

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with Map

HALIFAX (England):
F. KING & SONS, PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS, BROAD STREET

1899.

J -J J

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THE NEW YORK

PUBLIC LIBRARY

123301

ASTOfI, LENOX AND
TILOCN FOUNOATKMia.

R 1890 L

ERRATA.

p. 3 line i8 from top for Flinden fead Flinders.

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top for Carr read Curr.
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bottom for Lathom read Latham.

top for Natiirerkundige read Natuurkundige ; for Hol-
landische read HoUandsche ; for Vetenschappen read
Weten schappen .
bottom for Grateolet read Gratiolet.
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Ixxxix line 16 from top for proximity of read proximity to.

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PREFACE

To First Edition (1890)

EDWARD B. TYLOR, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

Profeiior of Anthtopology at the University of Oxford, Vice-President of the Anthropological Institute

of Great Britain and Ireland^ etc., etc.

TN the present work, the recorded knowledge as to the extinct native
^ race of Tasmania has been brought together with, I think, an
approach to absolute completeness.

If there have remained anywhere up to modern times men whose
condition has changed little since the early Stone Age, the Tasmanians
seem to have been such a people. They stand before us as a branch
of the Negroid race illustrating the condition of man near his lowest
known level of culture. Tribes who like them knew no agriculture nor
pastoral life are common enough, indsed this is the most convenient
definition of savages. Many tribes in the late Stone Age have lasted on
into modem times, but it appears that the aborigines of Tasmania,
whose last survivors have but just diied out, by the workmanship of
their stone implements rather represented the condition of Palaeolithic
Man. Years ago, the evidence already pointed towards this important
point in the history of civilization. In 1865, in comparing the imple-
ments of the Drift with those found elsewhere, I put on record as
follows : — ** The Tasmanians sometimes used for cutting or notching wood
a very rude instrument. Eye-witnesses describe how they would pick
up a suitable flat stone, knock off chips from one side, partly or all
round the edge, and use it without more ado ; and there is a specimen
corresponding exactly to this description in the Taunton Museum." *

The inforniation here given is on excellent authority, havmg been
obtained in answer to my inquiries of Dr. Joseph Milligan and other
representatives of Tasmania at the International Exhibition of 1862.
But it would not have been safe to assume without further information

• *' Early History of Mankind," London, 1865, p. 195.

VI H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

that the Tasmanians were not in the habit of making stone implements
of higher types for other purposes. Now, however, further evidence has
come in, showing that the implement in question (see Plate facing p.
137) is typical, and the description of the making fully to the purpose.
In the present work, the excellent dissertation published by Mr. R.
Brough Smyth in his ** Aborigines of Victoria " is condensed, and beside
his results is placed a statement of the evidence of Mr. James Scott,
Mr. Morton AUport, and other competent authorities, all agreeing that
the stone implements were shaped and edged not by grinding but
merely by striking off flakes, this being generally if not invariably done
on one side only. The implements thus bear a resemblance to those
flakes trimmed on one side, which are known to archaeologists as
scrapers. It is thus apparent that the Tasmanians were at a somewhat
less advanced stage in the art of stone implement making than the
Palaeolithic men of Europe, who habitually shaped many of their flint
implements into more regular and effective forms by skiltul alternate
flaking on either side. Moreover, it will be seen that these descriptions
of the Stone Age in modern Tasmania contribute evidence bearing on
the interesting problem, how the men of the Quaternary Mammoth-
period used their rude stone tools and weapons. Careful study of these
Palaeolithic implements, while clearly illustrating the practice of holding
them grasped in the hand (possibly often with a piece of hide or other
coating as a hand-guard), has not shown that they were ever fixed in
wooden handles. The question thus arises whether the art of hafting a
hatchet, which to us moderns seems so obvious, may have been un-
known to the primitive savages of Europe, and only have arisen toward
the Neolithic age. W.e are now able to say that such ignorance in
tool-craft was quite possible among the prehistoric Drift-men, for it
actually prevailed among the natives of Tasmania. According to the
testimony of numerous observers, they grasped their stone implements
in the hand, but never fixed them in a handle, unless where foreigners,
whether savage or civilized, had introduced this improvement. On the
whole, the life of the Tasmanians may give some idea of the conditions
of the earliest prehistoric tribes' of the Old World, allowing for a milder
climate on the one hand, but a want of the great animals on the other,
and remembering that the modern savage was in some arts below the
ancient, for there is no record of the Tasmanian having made a needle
for sewing his skin garments with his sinew thread, nor did he in
drawing or carving show anything of the artistic skill of the Cave Men
of Central France.

PREFACE. vn.

Looking at the vestiges of a people so representative of the rudest
type of man, anthropologists must join with philanthrophists in regret-
ting their unhappy fate, which fills a dismal page of our colonial history.
We are now beginning to see what scientific value there would have
been in such a minute careful portraiture of their thoughts and customs
as Mr. Howitt is drawing up of the Australian tribes just across Bass*
Straits. As this cannot be, at least it is necessary that the existing
information should be diligently collected and critically sifted. To this
task Mr. H. Ling Roth has devoted long and conscientious labour,
examining in all likely quarters so as to gather together the notices
scattered through voyages, histories, colonial documents, and other sources
from which first-hand information, however fragmentary, could be obtained.
Anthropologists, who have so often had to complain of the scantiness of
materials as to the native Tasmanians, will find with surprise that much
more is really known than was supposed, and will be glad to possess
this book, the more so that its object being technical rather than
popular, only a small number of copies has been printed.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE

TO SECOND EDITION, 1899.

During the nine years which have elapsed since the publication of the
first edition, I may observe that Mr. Ling Roth's diligent search for new
evidence bearing on the history, language, arts, and habits of the Tas-
manians, has been, as a comparison of the two editions will show, by
no means barren of result. Particular attention has to be called to the
progress lately made in the anthropological study of the Tasmanians. That
these rude savages remained within the present century representatives
of the immensely ancient Palaeolithic period, has become an admitted
fact. There may now be seen in the Pitt- Rivers Museum, in Oxford,
a collection of Tasmanian stone implements, illustrating the principal
types found on the surface of the fields, or in shell-heaps, which
are mostly shown by the evidence of eye-witnesses to be such as were
made and used by the natives up to colonial times. Some of the best
of these were sent by Mr. Alexander Morton of the Hobart Museum,
and my own collection, containing numerous formed implements and chips
of varied quality, was mostly procured for me by Mr. Williamson of Brown's
River. That the workmanship of the Tasmanians may be generally
taken as below that of the Palaeolithic Drift and Cave men, is apparent

VIU H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

from the absence of any native Tasmanian implement comparable to the
symmetrical pointed picks worked on both sides, characteristic of the
Mammoth Period in Europe. The typical tool of the Tasmanian, a flat
flake trimmed by striking off" secondary flakes or chips on one side only,
may be classed with the so-called scrapers which hold their place as
efficient tools even into the early metal age. At the same time, the
shaping which gives these tools a hand-grip on one side belongs to the
early stage of implement-making which preceded the introduction of
the wooden haft. Rude as the native Tasmanian tools are, they are
not devoid of skill, and within the last year or two some forms have
come imder view which are even remarkable for delicacy, such as is
seen in neolithic work. Concave scrapers suited for such work as
smoothing spears appear in Tasmanian collections, and Mr. J. Paxton
Moir, of the Shot Tower, Hobart, has made especial study of these, as
well as the gravers to which he gives the descriptive name ** duck-
bills." We thus see among the Tasmanian stone tools signs of special
development where needful. But judged by general character, their nearest
Old World relatives seem to be those oldest and rudest palaeolithic imple-
ments, the plateau-flints of Kent. To enforce this comparison, I may add
that it agrees with the opinions of the late Sir J. Prestwich, and of
General Pitt-Rivers. The reader will find in the present volume some
additional figures of implements, illustrative of these new points of argu-
ment, and I may add that the short remarks here made on them have
been carefully tested by me in conjunction with the Curator of the
Pitt-Rivers Museum, Mr. H. Balfour.

The view stated in the foregoing Preface that Palaeolithic Man
survived in Tasmania within human memory, has since received wider
extension. It is now many years since I called attention to the prob-
ability of the ground stone hatchets of the Australians having been
derived from the islands beyond Torres Straits. This was a theoretical
inference, but it now appears that an older state of things comparable
to that of Tasmania has survived in West Australia. Half a century
ago Mr. W. Ayshford Sanford brought home from the Perth District
mounted stone hatchets of Tasmanian type, and lately Mr. Alex. Morton
found natives on the Murchison River using unground implements of
similar nature, so that in this region the connexion with palaeolithic
natives has continued till now. It may be added that stone imple-
ments from New Zealand make it probable, that found with bones of
the Moa, palaeolithic conditions there prevailed among the race which

PREFACE. IX

preceded the Maori settlement. It is thus becoming clearer and clearer
that the anthropology of this remote district can give us clues to the
earliest state of civilization of which traces have reached us and which
has been thought to be lost in a past of almost incalculable antiquity.
Man of the Lower Stone Age ceases to be a creature of philosophic
inference, but becomes a known reality.

In the preparation of this second edition, Mr. Ling Roth has been
greatly assisted by Mr. James Backhouse Walker, the son of the late
George W. Walker, the companion of the late James Backhouse in their
joint mission to Australia and Tasmania, more than sixty years ago.
Mr. J. B. Walker's local knowledge of Tasmania, and his unwearying
labour, have been invaluable in the augmentation and revision of the
work.

E. B. T.

CONTENTS.

Chap. I. — Introduction. — Description of Tasmania. — Climate. — Discov-
ery and early voyages. —First Settlement. — Aborigines 'massacred. — The
Black War. — G. A. Robinson's Rescue. — Unsuitable Quarters. — General
Decay. — Return to Mainland.— Final disappearance of the aborigines.

Chap. II. — Form and Size. — Forehead. —Eyes. — Nose. — Mouth. — Lips.
— Teeth. — Jaws. — General development. — Limbs. — Two savages. — Natural
parts. — Fourteen aborigines. — Height. — Appearance of women. — Contrast
between married and single. — Peron*s description. — Method of suckling
infants. — Weight of children.— Comparison of European children. Phy-
siognomy. — Features flat and disagreeable. — General description. — A good-
looking native. — Calder*s account. — Features of women. — Pleasing among
unmarried. — Fine features of children. Hair. — Contradictory evidence as
to characSler. — Comparisons. — Description by Pruner-Bey and by Barnard
Davis. — Peculiarity in the individual hairs. — Growth abundant. — Tufted
pellets on whiskers. —Body hair. Colour. — Great disagreement as to
colour among eye-witnesses. — Petit*s description. Odour. — Peculiar smell.
Motions. — Methods of climbing trees. — Use of big toe in climbing. —
Manner of carrying children. — Posture in sitting, reclining, and in sleep.
— Standing. — Carrying spears with the toes. — Agility. — Feats performed
by chief. — Dexterity in avoiding spears. — Records of agility by Peron
and West. — Faculty of concealment by mimicry. — Carriage and gait. —
Accounts of climbing powers. — Joy. — Anger.— Bad habits. — Strzelecki*s
account. Pathology. — Withstanding cold. — Health and teeth. — Wounds.
— Condition after European settlement. — Pulmonary complaints. — Causes
thereof. — Catarrhal fever. Abnormalities. — Breast. — Teeth. — Navel.
Physical Powers. — Wrestling and running.— Dynamometrical hand tests.
— Vigour lacking. — Comparisons with other races. — Prolonged exertion. —
Agility in leaping. Senses. — Acuteness in hearing, smelling and seeing.
— Powers of tracking.— Ability to discover existence of water. Repro-
duction. — Statement as to paucity of children. — Contradii5lion of same. —
Children met with by early travellers. — Limits of child bearing.

Chap. III. — Psychology. —Low condition of intelledl. — Opinions of
settlers. — Comparison with Australians. — Mental incapacity accounted for.
— Favourable opinions. — On an equality with Europeans in own sphere.

Xll H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

— Comparison of children with Europeans. — Interviews with La Billardi^re.
— Timidity at first sight. — Interchange of presents. — Gestures. — Expression
of joy. — Confidence shown by a mother. — Indifference as to presents. —
Girlish intelligence. — Humorous trick played on a Frenchman.— Curiosity
as to sex of Europeans. — A promise kept. — Powers of imitation.— A
native on board ship. — Botanical knowledge. — Expressions of good will.
— Conclusion of La Billardi^re's narrative. — Interviews with P6ron. —
Surprise at fairness of European skin. — Curiosity at sight of boat. — In-
telligence. — Two females. — Their appearance. — Surprise at gloves. — A spirituel
girl.— Demonstrations of friendship. — Twenty females interviewed. — Effedl
of European singing. — Singing imitated.— A curious escort. — Ill-will of
husbands. — A welcome meeting. — Desire to ascertain sex of Europeans. —
Curiosity as to European's insensibility to pain. — Embracing unknown. —
Review of characSler by P6ron. — Women's afFedlion for offspring. — Dom-
estic affecSlion. — Love of country. — Pathetic scene. — Gratitude. —Kindness
to those in distress. — Humour. — Revenge. — Improvidence. Irksomeness of
civilization. — Memory. — Intelligence in military tadlics. — Contradicflory evi-
dence as to courage. — Interviews by Mortimer, Bass, Bligh, and Marion.
— An old settler's views. — Absence of curiosity. — Curious behaviour witnessed
by Bligh. — Explanation of indifference. — Variety of temper and talent.—
A chief attempts to comb his hair. Morals. — 111 treatment suffered by
women. — Jealousy of men.-^-Same contradi(5led. — Wives exchanged for bread.
— A peaceful, inoffensive race. — Preference of women for white protedlors.
— Maternal devotion. — Original friendliness towards whites. — Instances of
generosity and kindness. — P6ron*s experiences not satisfa<5lory. — Theft and
treachery. — Violence and ingratitude.— Narrow escape of Peron and party.
— Attitude towards settlers. — Euroj^ans the first aggressors. — Resentment
of wrongs. — Testimony of Gov. Arthur, — III treatment at hands of convi<5ls
and sealers. — Evidence in Government notice and in Report of Aboriginal
Committee. — Ingratitude and treachery. — A barbarous murder. — West's
testimony. — Occasional generosity towards enemies. — Ross's testimony. —
Friendly when well treated.— Gratitude.— Cruel treatment of animals.
Religion. — Belief in Supreme Being doubtful.— Good and bad spirit. —
Inferior spirits. — Women's religious chant. — The moon not a deity.— rPoly-
theism. — Bones as charms. Immortality of soul. — Name applied to spirits
of departed friends. — England the aboriginal Hades. — Fatalism. — Good
and bad spirits.— Future state.— Fear of darkness. — Devil believed to be
white. — Creation.— Future state. — Absence of idols. — Prophetic communica-
tions. — Vagueness of ideas. — Jump up white men.— No word for Creator.
— Apparent incantation.— Future existence. — Sacred stones. A sermon.
Government. — No elecfled or hereditary chief. — Chiefship falls to bullies.
— Prowess in war sole cause of supremacy. — Chiefs destitute of authority.
— Statement contradicfted. — Chiefs merely heads of families.— Friendly
relations with Europeans hampered by want of authority of chiefs —

CONTENTS. XUl

Respedl for boundaries of hunting grounds. — Trespass a casus belli, — No
"^armanent villages. — No individual property in land. — Quarrels settled by
duels, — A primitive pillory. — " Growling." Customs. — None remarkable.
— Kissing and embracing unknown between the sexes. — Handshaking. —
Dislike to kissing.— Manner of receiving friends and strangers. — Abandon-
ment of sick and infirm. Tabu. — Three sorts. — Names of deceased or
absent not mentioned. — Avoidance of burial grounds. — Abstinence from
certain foods. — No indications of totemism. Medicine. — Scarcity of in-
formation. — Laceration of body. — Decay a result of imprudence. — Severe
case of laceration. — Probable use of cautery. — Scarifications. — Rheumatism.
— Inflammations. — Leprosy. — Snake-bites. — Bones worn as charms. — Tri-
angle of bones against headache. — Stones for causing and counteracting
evil. — Mesembryantkemum eqiiilaUraU, — Women in labour.— Care of sick left
to women. — No regular doctors. — Eruptive disease due to over-eating. —
Illnesses in latter days ascribed to devil. — A native impostor. — Supersti-
tious belief. — Alleged specifics.

Chap. TV. — War. — Kelly's conflicfl. — Weapons of rudest description. —
Absence of throwing-stick and boomerang. — Use of sharp stones. — Shields
of wood? — Spears. — Their length and material. — Point hardened in fire. —
Sharpened with flints. — Jagged spear in use by northern tribes.— Poisoned
spears. — Way of storing spears. —Making spears. — The waddy. — Its length
and purpose. — Thrown with rotatory motion. — Its material. — The spear a
formidable weapon. —Skill in throwing it. — Victims pierced while running.
— Feats of a chief— Stone throwing. — Frequency of intertribal wars. —
Cause of wars after arrival of settlers — Women a source of strife. — Ex-
tremity of these feuds, — TacSlics and war march. — Personal quarrels settled
with waddie. — Native skulls inferred to be thicker than Europeans. — First
hostile encounter between natives and Europeans. — War challenge. —
Treacherous attacks on P6ron*s party. — Objecflion to be sketched. — Stones.
— War party seen by Capt. Hamelin.— Flight after hostile demonstration.
— Original inoffensiveness. — Probable real cause of original enmity towards
Europeans. — An unhappy mistake. — Tactics during War of Extermination
— Cunning. — Assaults on European dwellings. — Numbers of attacking par-
ties. — Methods of attack. — Robbery an obje(5\ of attack. — Women not
permitted to fight. — A notable exception. — Spears held between toes. —
Skill of war parties in concealing approach. — Europeans warned by native'
women. — Laplace's account of method of attack.— ** Diabolical '* patience,
— Spears thrown in at windows. — Tenacity of purpose and of life. —
Apparent friendliness of hostile approach. — Massacre of Hooper family. —
Evidence of Gov. Arthur. — Minutes of Executive Council, — Solitary in-
stance of open hostility. — Ashes of enemy's body used as amulets. —
Difficulty of pursuit of natives. — Skill displayed in eluding adversaries. —
Ideas of perfe(5lion of war. — A clever attack. — Assault on Mr. Jones's
premises. —Military obedience and tactics. — Dismay at death of chief.— A

XIV H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

greasy captive. — Warlike carriage. — Mutilations of European dead. —
Women's lives generally spared. — Merciful disposition of native women.
— Effe(5l of this on the men. — No mention of boomerang or throwing
stick. — Signs of friendship.

Chap. V. — Fire. — Supposed ignorance of art of producing fire. — Flint
implements mistaken for fire flints. — Fire drills. — Tongue and groove fire
sticks. — Stars tumble down. — Fire drill. — Torches. — Tinder. — Carrying fire.
— Native fires different to those of settlers. — " Smokes." — Legend of the
origin of fire recorded by Milligan. — Castor and Pollux. Food. — Original
dislike to European food and spirits. — Repugnance overcome. — Killing
sheep. — Objecflions to European cookery. — Enormous appetites. — Cause of
voracity. — Every variety of animal eaten. — Fat objecfled to. — Birds. — Fat
of soup smeared on head. — Stricflures with regard to consumption of
male or female wallaby. — White grubs. — Caterpillars. — Shell-fish. — Scale
fish never eaten. — La Billardiere's account of a repast. — Ross's account.
— Rayner's and Walker's. — Alkali ashes used as salt. — Primitive methods
of cookery. — Hearths of clay. — No native ovens. — Wide distribution and
antiquity of shell mounds. — Varieties of edible shell-fish enumerated. —
Shell mounds described. — Native cider. — Ignorance of art of boiling water.
— Varieties of edible sea- weed and vegetable food : sea-wrack, truffle,
punk, fern-tree, fern-roots, native potato, etc, etc, the canagong. Canni-
balism unknown. Hunting anp Fishing. — Hunting Kangaroos. — Grass
firing. — Use of dogs in hunting.— Description of a hunt by Lloyd. —
Capture of opossums by women. — Women's skill in climbing. — Da vies',
Lloyd's, and Backhouse's accounts of opossum hunting. — Special stone
used.— Fish-hooks unknown. — Diving of v/omen for shell-fish.— Use of
baskets in diving. — S/>a/w/a^.— Spearing scale fish for sport. — Lloyd's des-
cription. — Seal fishery. — Birds supposed to be caught with hands.— Jealousy
of hunting grounds.— Women not permitted to hunt. — Diving, beneath the
dignity of men. — No storage of food for future use.

Chap. VL — Nomadic Life. — A wandering race. — No fixed habitations.
— Statements by Rossel and Peron.--Marks of encampments.— No travelling
at night. — The objedt of the migration. — N.E. coast frequented by shell-
fish. — Direction of journeys. — Inadlivity in winter. — Statement by West. —
Periodicity of wanderings. — Average numbers to each party. — Respedl
accorded to tribal boundaries. — Women the beasts of burden. — Separate
fires for each family.— Encampments fixed near water— Reason for this.
Attachment to nomadic life a hindrance to civilization. Habitations.—

Trees hollowed by fire used as such Native huts Temporary nature of

same.— Ingenious construdlion of one seen by La Billardiere.— Further

account of huts.— Number of huts — Breakwinds Thatched huts on western

coasts.— Wicker work huts.— Number of huts seen together— Permanency of
same.— Kangaroo skin pillows mt headstools.— Curious strucftures described
by Walker and La Billardiere. Agriculture entirely unknown. Domestic

CONTENTS. XV

Animals.— None known.— Dogs obtained from Europeans.— Affedlion for

dogs.— Women suckle puppies.— Vermin A disgusting habit.— Courtship.

Unsupported statements.— Love affairs.— Social and Marital Relations.—
Wives stolen from other tribes.— Divorce allowed.— A succession of wives.
—Polygamy.— Evidence of West and Lloyd.— Exceptions to polygamy.—
Case recorded by La Billardiere.— Succession of husbands.— Conjugal
modesty.— Abjeift condition of women.— Ill-treatment by men.— Subordina-
tion to men,— Account of scene witnessed by La Billardiere.— Indolence
and selfishness of men.— Evidence of Davies, Lloyd, and Calder.— Huts
and canoes built by women.— Refusal of men to assist in fishing.— A
selfish father and an unselfish mother.— Domestic affedlion.— Instance related
by West.— Relations between sealers and native women.— Unwillingness
of women to re-join their native tribes. Relationships —Nothing known.

Education limited.— Obedience of children Affecflion of mothers.— Paternal

corred^ion.— Careless mothers. Initiatory Ceremonies.— Scarification of
males arrived at puberty. Phallism unknown.— Deformations — Extradlion
of front teeth.— Circumcision not pracflised. Burials.— Discovery of human
bones in ashes of native fire.— Remarkable tombs seen by Peron.— Struc-
ture and situation.— Characf^ers marked on inside of bark.— Scarcity of
monuments due to their perishable nature.— Rock tomb described by
Jorgenson.— Burial-place of a warrior.— Spear left in grave.— Reason for
this.— Methods of disposal of dead.— Burning.— Use of ashes as amulets.
Hollow trees converted into tombs.— Native graves.— Tree burial.— Body
fixed in upright position.— Funeral customs.— Preservation of skulls-
Ceremony observed at a death.— Lighting a funeral pyre.— Power of dead
to cure the sick.— Ashes of dead smeared over survivors* faces.— A man
ordering his own funeral pyre.— Curious idea. -Cremation recorded by
West.— Burning of two bodies witnessed by Robinson.— Binding the limbs
of corpse.— Haste in disposal of dead.— Erecfl posture in burial.— Mourn-
ing. — Ashes and laceration.

Chap. VII.— Method of wearing hair.— Use of red ochre and grease.
Men's hair drawn out in ringlets or rat-tails.— Heads of women generally
shorn.— Nicking off the hair with shells, glass, etc.— Time occupied in
shaving head.— Hamy's description from Petit's drawings.— Hair worn low
on the forehead.— Whiskers.— Destruction of vermin.— Beards smeared with
red ointment and allowed to grow long.— Cicatrisation.— Scarification a
general custom.— Evidence of several writers.— Use of charcoal. — Scars
made in symmetrical lines.— Observed oftener on men than on women.
—Cicatrices seen by La Billardiere.— None.— Destrudion of the cellular
membrane.— Ornamental Scars.— Scarification of males at age of puberty.
Description of method of making scars.— Painting.— Red ochre or earth.
—Bodies smeared with red ochre and grease.— An amusing story.— Charcoal
used as a paint.— Painting a protection against inclement weather.—
Experiences of Peron.— Ideas of beauty.— The painter painted.— Use of

XVI H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA..

mineral substances as paint. Clothing.— Nudity of natives.— Kangaroo
skins worn by women and used for carrying children.— Skins as cloaks
worn only in winter or in sickness.— Nakedness of most of aborigines
seen by La Billardiere.— Some exceptions.— Evidence of P6ron.— Nudity
of the women.— Women's indifference to clothing.— Imagined use of Alga
jnarina.— Use of loin-cloth mentioned only by Thirkell.— Alleged sewing

together of strings No head covering.— Mocassins.— Dislike to civilized

dress,, and discarding it at earliest opportunity.— Personal Ornaments.
Strips of skin worn as ornaments.— Flowers and feathers stuck in hair.
Necklaces of kangaroo teeth, berries, and shells.— Bones worn.— String
necklace,— Shell necklaces, and how they are made.— Metallurgy.- Total
ignorance of the art.

Chap. VIII.— Astronomy.— Time observed by apparent motion of the
sun. Arithmetic— Table of numerals.— Ability to count up to three and
up to five.— The word for ten.— Word for five same as word for man. Music.
— Effe(5l of the Marseillaise. — Softer airs less appreciated. — Effecfl of
European singing on the women. — Imitation of a European song. — Rapid
singing.— Indifference to a musical performance.— A violin solo and its
results.— Native Singing.— Its correctness.— Its sweetness — Bonwick's descrip-
tion.— A musical corrobory Kangaroo rugs used as drums or gongs.—

Softness and melody of songs.— Singing accompanied by dancing.— Songs
descriptive of hunting or war.— Hymn to Good Spirit(?) sung by women.
—No record Tasmanian music. Drawing. — Marks on bark.— Rude drawings

frequently met with Animal traced in charcoal.— A drawing at Belvoir

Vale. Tracings on bark of huts.— A native chef-d'oeuvre.— Description
by Bunce of a native drawing. A copy from life.— Origin of draw^ings
doubtful. Games and Amusements.— Corrobories or native dances the
favourite pastime. -Description by Backhouse.— Horse, Emu, thunder and

lightning dances.— Dances end with shouting Accounts by Walker and

Davies.— The kangaroo dance.— A violent kind of dance.— Other dances.—
Description by Lloyd.— A full moon corrobory.— Aboriginal full dress.—
• A warrior abused and defended.— Musical accompaniments.— Prominent
part taken by the women.— Kelly's description.— Throwing waddies and
spears as an amusement.

Chap. IX.— String.— Grass ropes used in climbing String plaited

from bark of a shrub.— Grass cords used in making rafts.— Rope of
kangaroo sinews.— Skins sown with bark threads.— Making string.— Basket
or Bag Work.— Baskets used in fishing.— Their manufacture by women,
—Drinking vessel or pitcher made of sea- wrack.— Only one method of
making or plaiting known.— A curious grass basket.— Stone Implements.
Johnston's description.— Detailed account by Brough Smyth.— Nature of
rocks whence obtained. -Manner of obtaining and treating them.— The
cutting edge flaked.—Skill shown in this.— Edge not serrated.— Manner of

CONTENTS. XVll

flaking.— Specimens left unchipped.— Two scalpriform implements.— Skilful
treatment of the same.— Weight of implements.— Absence of handles.—
Edges not ground.— Method of using stone knives described by James
Scott.— Stone implements found at Mount Morriston.— Method of holding
the flints.— Purposes for which they were used. -Number of stones dis-
covered at one locality.— Other stones described by Smyth.— Morton
Allport's colle<5lion.— Used without haft or handle.— Statements made before

Royal Society of Tasmania Scott's evidence.— Rollings' evidence.— Stone

knives used in skinning kangaroos.— Stones for hair-cutting.— A tomahawk.
—Stone implements never used as tomakawks by Tasmanians — The ques-
tion of ground stone implements.— TyIor'$ quest.— Ground stones referred
to by Barnard Davis— Ground stones in Brighton Museum.— G. A*
Robinson's and Milligan's mistake.— Tasmanians did not grind their stone
implements.— Discovery of native quarry.— Rayner's description of quarrying.
—Description of quarry.- Johnston's account of stones used by natives.—
List of localities where stones were obtained.

Chap. X. — Trade.— No known system of trade or barter.— Bartering
a woman for seals.— Women exchanged for bread.— Backhouse's account of
some bartering.— A girl traded for a dog.— Attempts to teach bartering.
Communications.— No roads but beaten paths.— Difficult paths.— Indicating
the dire<5lion in forests by means of broken branches.— Powers of tracking.
—Graphic description of this by Lloyd.— Natives employed as mounted
police. Navigation.— No boats or canoes met with by early explorers.

—Rafts or canoes.— Details of measurements.— Further descriptions Hobart,

Oxford, and Brit. Museum specimens.— Account by Mrs. Meredith

Rafts found on South and West Coasts only.— Natives sat on the canoes
(or raft).— Sticks employed as oars.— The natives good weather judges.
—Bon wick's account of a dugout.— Dove's mixing up of bark rafts (canoes)
and log rafts.— Log rafts. -No skin boats as described by Ratzel.—
Catamaran found by Lieut. Gunn.— Number of persons carried by canoes.
—Propulsion by swimmers on either side. Swimming.— Men inferior in
this art to women — Remarkable diving powers of women.— Account by
La Billardiere.— Submersion twice as long as any European diver.— The
women good swimmers.— Calder and Kelly the only authors who speak
of the men swimming.— Men wade in water to spear sting-ray. Topo-
graphy. — Accuracy of geographical knowledge. Natural Forms.— Primitive
nature of articles used.— Little ingenuity displayed in adapting natural
productions to wants.— Beauty of Boronia remarked. Natural History.
—Habits of wombat, hyaena, snakes, and porcupine, as described by
the natives.

Chap. XL— Infanticide.— Not practised before advent of Europeans.
—Prevalence in later years.— Dogs suckled in place of infants.— Abandon-
ment of children during dearth of food.— Rapid flights a cause of infanti-
cide.— Hatred towards half-caste children.— Their destruction oftener the

XVill H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

act of the tribe than of the mother.— Case recorded by West-
Duration of period for suckling infants. Population.— Robinson's estimates.
Milligan's view.— Numbers met with and estimates. - Statistical table of
population from 1817 to 1877.— Death of last representative of the race
in 1876. Tribes.— J. B. Walker's divisions.— Southern Tribes.— Western
Tribes.— Central Tribes.— Oyster Bay and Big River — Northern and North
Eastern.— Stony Creek, Port Dalrymple, Ben Lomond, North-East coast.
Contact with Civilized Races.— Nature of struggle between aborigines

and settlers.— Ruthless massacre of natives by a party of soldiers

Brutal murder of an infant.— Hunting the aborigines a favourite amuse-
ment.— Loss of hunting grounds resented by natives.— Cruelties towards
them denounced by the Governor.— Ill-treatment of native women by
stockmen ; this the alleged original cause of hostility.— Atrocious treatment
of women described by Parker.— A tub of native ears. —Decay at
Flinders Island.— Various causes.— Want of usual employment and nourish-
ment. -Home sickness.— Ill-treatment of native children by European
children.— George and John Briggs.— Strzelecki's views on telegony contra-
dicted by Lieut. Friend.— Description of first half-caste born in Tasmania.—
Beauty of half-caste children.— Half-castes of the present day.— Stephens'
account of them.

Chap. XII. — Language. — The thirteen known vocabularies.— Their
enumeration. — Sterlings and Wilkinson's lost vocabularies. —G. W.
Walker's vocabulary.— How obtained — Milligan's standard vocabulary.—
How obtained.— Difficulty in attaining accuracy for putting words to
paper.— Effects of hostility, superstition, gesticulation and carelessness of
expression.— Affixes — Shortcomings in syntax. —Dialects.— Abstract ideas.—
Elision, rejection and disuse of words. -Borrowed words.— Softness of
language.— Vowels.— Semi-vowels. — Diphthongs.— Consonants. — Adjectives. —

The suffix -wj.— Plural.— Personal pronouns.— Verbs.— Infinitive mood

Person and number.— Construction.— Agglutinating character of the lan-
guage,— Expression of the Singular, Negative, Magnitude, Diminutive

Word building.— Name given to Europeans.— Explanation ot word ** break-
wind. "—Paw7(6r^ Afrt6iy/«'.—Prefixes.~Interpolations.— Corrupted forms.

Chap. XIII. — Osteology. — Locality of existing skulls and skeletons.
— Memoirs on Tasmanian Osteology.— Stature. — Skull, and its peculiarities.
— Vertebral column. — Thorax. — Pelvis. — Limb bones. — Scapula. — Clavicle.
—Humerus.— Radius. — Ulna. — Hand. — Femur. — Tibia. — Foot. — Proportions
of entire extremities. — Intrinsic proportions of limbs. — Intermembral index.
AntibracheaJ index. — Tibio-femoral index. — Humero-femoral index. — Con-
clusion. — Topinard's measurements of Tasmanian skulls in Paris.-— Harper
and Clarke's skull measurements — Barnard Davis' skeleton measurements.
— W. L. H. Duckworth's skull measurements.

Chap. XIV. — Origin. — Views of various writers. — Huxley. — Fried.
Muller. — Brinton.— Earl.—Topinard. — Bon wick. — Flower. — Quatrefages and

CONTENTS. XIX

Hamy. — Garson. — Comparative study of the hair. — Barnard Davis and
Hickson. — Dampier's frizzly haired Australian. — Comparative study of the
language. — Fried. Muller and Latham. — Conclusion : Tasmanians the
aborigines of Australia.

Appendices.

A : Norman's Vocabulary. — B Vocabularies : Braim, Cook, Dove,
Gaimard, Jorgenson, La Billardiere, McGeary, Peron, Roberts, and Scott.
— C. Milligan's Vocabularies, Sentences, Names, Verses, and Two Songs.
D Phrases and songs after Braim. — E Walker's Vocabulary. — Two songs
and names. — F Tasmanian- English Vacabulary. — G Mrs. F. C. Smith
not a last living aboriginal. — H Tasmanian Fire-sticks.

Index.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

»•

»>

))

Wybalenna

Portrait of Patty ...

Wm. Lanney

Wapperty

Bessy Clark ...
Four Portraits of Aborigines
Portrait of Eydoux's Aborigine ...

** Shinev "
Skin mortuary ashes bag

M A A C «^ L l.C#fVo ••• ••■ ■•• ••• ••• ■»

Breakwinds

Marked pieces of bark
Artificial Scars

Ground Stone Implements (Australian)
String' necklace ...
Truncatella necklace
EUnchus necklace
The Taunton Stone Implement
Kelp pitcher

Pattern of basket or bag work, Tasmanian ..
,, „ „ Australian .

Stone Implements (i) (Hobart) ...

(2) (Tylor's Collection)

(3)

(4)
Aboriginal Quarry ...

Canoe and baskets (bags)

v^anoes ... ... >

Portraits of Half- Castes .

«^ J\ UA£ ••• •mm ••• •

and Cast of Interior

To face Title page.

»>

-Portrait of an Australian...
Portrait of Mrs. F. C. Smith ...

,, of Truganini
Profiles of Tasmanians
Profile of Mrs. F. C. Smith

n PP-

To face

»>

I
I

9
17 & 25

P- 33

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131
132

132

137
142

H4
145
145
145
H5
145
150
153
156

174
194

195
200

202

,, 203

„ 227

App. To face p. lxxxv\

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99
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LXXXVI.
n

r L OjL^ix^ i-.» !->» v^i A I .

ASTOR. LENOX AND
TKDlN FOvvNUATIONS.

ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

CHAPTER I. — Introduction.

TASMANIA, formerly known as Van Dieman's Land, is situated between
parallels of 40^33' and 43^39' S. Lat., and between 144^39' and I44°23'
Meridians E. Long, and corresponds with Southern France. It is irre-
gularly heart-shaped and occupies an area of 26,215 square miles ; nearly
the area of Scotland. The main axis of the Great Cordillera bordering
the eastern coast line of Australia may be traced across Bass Strait in
a chain of islands, which almost continuously link Tasmania with Aus-
tralia. Tasmania is wholly occupied with the ramifications of this chain
which in the western half of the island rises into an extensive plateau
with peaks attaining* a height of 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. The
island is beautiful in its scenery, with its open plains bordered by far
extending precipitous mountain tiers, its isolated shaggy peaks and wooded
ranges, and its many fine rivers and lakes. Its coasts, especially towards
the south, are bold and frequently indented by splendid bays and har-
bours, such as the Derwent on which stands Hohart the Capital. On
the western side the scenery resembles that of the Highlands of Ross
and Inverness. Settlement has principally taken place among the plains
and lower levels of the South Eastern, Midland, and North Western
parts of the island, and more recently in the mineral districfls of the
West and North East. The climate is exceptionally genial and is one
of the finest in the temperate zone {Johnston's Tasm, Official Record),

The island was discovered on the 24th November, 1642, by Abel Jans-
zoon Tasman, who named it after the Governor of the Dutch East In-
dies, Anthony Van Diemen. It does not appear to have been visited
by any European after Tasman until March, 1772, when Marion du
Fresne, in command of a French expedition, spent some days in exploring
the coast. A twelvemonth later it was visited by Captain Furneaux, in
the Resolution, during his temporary separation from Captain Cook during
the Second Voyage. The latter celebrated navigator visited the island in
January, 1777. He was followed by Captain Bligh in 1788 and again in
1792, Captain Cox in 1790, the French Admiral Bruny d'Entrecasteaux in
1792 and 1793, and Captain (afterwards Sir John) Hayes of the Bombay
Marine, in 1794. In the early part of year 1798 Dr. Bass in an open

2 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

whaleboat, entered Bass Strait from Sydney, and in the latter part of
the same year and in the beginning of 1799 Lieut. Flinders and Dr Bass
in the ** Norfolk " sailed through Bass Strait for the first time and circum-
navigated Van Dieman's Land. The French Captain Baudin visited the
island in 1802, and the first European settlement, consisting of a small
party was made under Lieutenant Bowen at Risdon on the Derwent,
some three miles above Hobart, in September, 1803. Lieut. Governor
David Collins' settlement was made at Hobart Town 20th February 1804.

The first Aborigine killed by a European was during a misunder-
standing between the natives and Marion's party. The first meeting of
English with the aborigines was Dr. Bass' interview with one man in
January 1799. The next meeting was with James Meehan who was en-
gaged in making short surveys in conne(ftion with Bowen's party but
some distance above Risdon, on the north bank of the river. This was
in February, 1804, Meehan's note book is preserved in the Tasmanian
Lands Office, and his words are as follows : ** Are here invested with a
considerable body of natives who endeavoured to surround us — had taken
one of my marking sticks — am obliged to fire on them ". . . . ** The
natives are in a considerable body — assembled again and endeavoured to
steal behind a hill — on which, fired another gun and they dispersed for
this night." "Tuesday morning.— The natives again assembled in a large
body on a hill over us — all around with spears and in a very menacing
attitude. They followed us a short distance and then stopped. They
appear to be very dexterous at throwing stones. Them who surrounded
us yesterday in such multitudes had no arms but a few waddys, but
several of them picked up stones. . . .

** In the first affray with the blacks, which was at Risdon, May, 1804,
the best evidence goes to show that very few were killed— perhaps five
or six. Future hostilities do not appear to have been caused by this
episode. The real fac5l is, that in the early years of the Colony, th^
blacks though regarding the whites with jealousy and mistrust, too often
well-founded, were on fairly good terms with the settlers; frequently
visiting their home-steads, and receiving food and other small presents.
Bodies of them, * Mobs' as they were called, often came to Hobart,
where they were always well treated and never sent away empty handed.
Occasional murders were committed by the blacks, when opportunity or
provocation tempted. Many cruelties were perpetrated on them by Convicfl
Shepherds and Herdsmen in isolated parts, but the stories told of brutal
murders by the settlers are," G. W. Walker believes, "gross exaggerations
or inventions, almost without exception." It was not till about 1825, that
the deadly feud began. It originated in the execution of some blacks for
killing some whites. The blacks at once retreated from the settlements, and
from that time never came near the settlers, except to murder and to burn.
Then the war became one of extermination. The reign of terror which
ensued in the remoter distriifls of the Colony has not yet faded out of local
memory. It is quite a mistake to suppose that the Colonists were nearly
driven out of the island, but enormous efforts were made to capture and
bring in the whole of the tribes, which then could only have numbered a
few hundreds. Governor Arthur called a general levy of the population, and
formed some five thousand men into parties constituting a line across

INTRODUCTION. 3

the island. His plan was for the parties to advance and drive the blacks
before them into the south eastern comer of the island, where it was
thought they would be trapped in Tasman Peninsula. As might have
been expe<5led from the wild and rugged nature of the country, the
thick forests and dense scrub in many parts, the ^^ Black Line'' was a
complete failure. The natives easily passed through the lines and only
one boy was captured. The ^^ Black War'' of Colonel Arthur cost the
English Government some ;^36,ooo.

** What five thousand armed men failed to do, was accomplished by
one man, unarmed and almost single handed. George Augustus Robinson,
accompanied by a few *tanie' blacks whose confidence he had gained, set
out to trace the miserable remnants of the tribes in their wild haunts.
Between the years 1831 and 1836, he succeeded in bringing in, by
persuasion alone, various parties numbering altogether two hundred and
three persons. With a few scattered exceptions, these were all the
surviving natives in the island. As they arrived in the settled distric5ts
they were transferred to Swan Island, then to Gun Carriage or Vansittart
Island, and finally in 1831, to Flinden Island. . . .

•* In 1832 Messrs. Backhouse and Walker found the natives at the
Settlement looking plump and healthy, notwithstanding that they had
been suffering from shortness of provisions. The arrangements for supplies
had been shamefully deficient. The white people had for some time
been living on oatmeal and potatoes, which were far from good. The
blacks, who abhorred oatmeal, lived on potatoes and rice. Fortunately
mutton-birds {Nectris brevicaudus) supplemented their scanty provision.
A little while before, when left in charge of Surgeon M'Lachlan on
desolate Gun Carriage, if it had not been for some potatoes they obtained
from the sealers, the unfortunate blacks would have been actually starved.

** The site of the settlement at *The Lagoons' was most unsuitable. It
was a narrow sandbank, running parallel with the shore, producing nothing
but fern and scrub. It was bounded on one side by the sea, and on the
other side by a salt lagoon bordered with thick tea-tree, and cutting off
access to the main.

" When first placed on the islands the blacks had been put under the
charge of most unsuitable officers — ignorant men, quite unfit for the diffi-
cult and delicate task of managing savages fresh from their native forests.
It was not therefore strange that at first there was much disorder, and
that quarrels between members of different tribes were of frequent occur-
rence. At this time, however, they were under the care of a commandant,
who threw himself into the work before him with an unselfish enthusiasm.
The commandant was Lieutenant William J. Darling, a young officer of
the 63rd Regiment, a brother of Sir Charles Darling, who was afterwards
(1863-66) Governor of Victoria. He was ably seconded by the surgeon,
Archibald M^Lachlan. The self-denying exertions of these two officers for
the welfare of the poor blacks cannot be too highly praised. To promote
their advancement in civilisation the Commandant and Surgeon spared no
pains. They treated them with uniform and patient kindness and consider-
ation. They seldom sat down to breakfast or tea in their own little
weatherboard huts without having some aborigines as guests, with the view
of exciting in them a desire for improvement in civilisation.

4 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

** Yet the arrangements for the aborigines, well meant as they undoubt-
edly were, seem to have been singularly injudicious. They were lodged
at night in shelters or * breakwinds.' These * breakwinds ' were thatched
roofs sloping to the ground, with an opening at the top to let out the
smoke, and closed at the ends, with the exception of a doorway. They
were twenty feet long by ten feet wide. In each of these from twenty
to thirty blacks were lodged. The fires were made along the centre of
the breakwind, and the people squatted or lay on the ground around them.
Blankets were provided for them to sleep in. To savages accustomed to
sleep naked in the open air beneath the rudest shelter, the change to
close and heated dwellings tended to make them susceptible, as they had
never been in their wild state, to chills from atmospheric changes, and
was only too well calculated to induce those severe pulmonary diseases
which were destined to prove so fatal to them.

** The same may be said of the use of clothes. In their wild state the
blacks had gone entirely naked in all weathers, protecfling their bodies
against the elements by rubbing them with grease. At the settlement
they were compelled to wear clothes, which they threw off when heated
or when they found them troublesome, and when wetted by rain allowed
them to dry on their bodies. In the case of Tasmanians, as with other
wild tribes accustomed to go naked, the use of clothes had a most mis-
chievous efFedl on their health. In their native bush the constant and
strenuous exertion which they were compelled to make in hunting wild
animals for necessary food kept them hardy and healthy. Cooped up in
the settlement and regularly fed, they lost the motive for exertion, and
sank into a life of listless inacflion, in which they lost their natural vigour,
and became an easy prey to any disease that attacked them. ... In
facfl, the unhappy captives pined and died from * home sickness.'

** How to treat the poor remnant of the native tribes was a difficulty,
perhaps an insoluble problem under the circumstances. If they could have
been left in possession of a portion of their ancient hunting-grounds— a re-
serve to which they could have been confined — they might have lived
healthily and even happily for a long period of years, though even that
would not have averted the final doom. But the feud between the two
races had been too deadly to permit of their being left in proximity, and
the seclusion of an island was imperative, as much for the prote(5lion of
the blacks as for the safety of the whites.

"To the credit of the authorities, it must be said that from the time
Lieut. Darling took charge in 1832, every possible effort was made to
secure the well-being of the few survivors of the native tribes. They
were well supplied with food, and they supplemented the ordinary supplies
by taking mutton-birds and their eggs, and, while the game lasted, by
occasional hunting excursions. . . . The care of the authorities extended far
beyond ensuring them plentiful food. No exertion was spared to drill
these children of nature into the habits of a civilisation unto which they
were not born.

The blacks, in 1833, "were removed to a place called by the sealers
Pea Jacket Point, then rechristened * Civilisation Point,' about fifteen
miles north of their old location. The village was named ' Wybalenna,*
signifying, in the language of the Ben Lomond tribe, * Blackman's Houses.'

INTRODUCTION. 5

. . . Wybalenna was a much better location than The Lagoons. There was
sufficient water, good pasturage, and land fit for cultivation as gardens.
The officers of the establishment had weatherboard houses, and about
twenty thatched wattle and plaster huts had been built for the blacks.
. . . They now had a regular instrucflor or catechist, who tried to instil into
their minds some ideas of religion. To aid in this work he had attempted
a translation of the first three chapters of Genesis into the language of
the Ben Lomond tribe ! The worthy catechist's version is obviously
worthless from a linguistic point of view, whatever effecft it may have
had on the native mind in other ways. The catechist made most perse-
vering efforts to instruct the blacks, and even succeeded in teaching some
of the boys and younger men to read a little.

** In 1835, George Augustus Robinson, who had just completed his mission
by bringing in the last party of wanderers, was sent by the Government
to take charge of the Flinders establishment. In a speech which he made
at Sydney some few years later, he gave a long account of his administration.
He boasted that his efforts to lead forward the blacks in the scale of
civilisation had met with flattering success. Their minds were beginning
to expand. In their intercourse with each other they were affable and
courteous. They were placed under no restraint, but enjoyed the fullest
degree of personal freedom. They were instru(5\ed in the Christian religion.
Two services were held on Sunday, and others during the week. The
services were condu(5ted in English, which the natives well understood.
Attendance was voluntary, yet all attended. He had established schools, —
a day-school for boys, a day-school for girls, an evening school, and a
Sunday-school. Periodical examinations were held, from which it appeared
that the youths were able to answer questions in the leading events of
Scripture, in Christian docflrine, arithmetic, geography, and several points
of general information. Some of them could write very fairly. The girls
were taught sewing and knitting, and could make clothes. The people
had neat cottages and gardens, and conformed in every respe(5l to Euro-
pean habits. He had formed an aboriginal police, and a court composed
of himself and three chiefs, who adled as constables. He had established
a circulating medium, and also a market to which the natives brought
their produce. The men had in three years cleared a considerable area
of ground, and had made a road nine miles long into the interior of the
island. He concludes with the remark, * The only drawback on the
establishment is the great mortality among them ; but those who survive
are happy, contented, and useful members of society.'

" A significant comment on his * flattering success ! ' While Robinson
and others were doing their best to make them into a civilised people,
the poor blacks had given up the struggle, and were solving the difficult
problem by dying. The very efforts made for their welfare only served
to hasten on their inevitable doom. The white man's civilisation proved
scarcely less fatal than the white man's musket. Yet it would be wrong
to estimate lightly the disinterested labours of men who perseveringly
worked for the fading race. Amongst these men the name of Mr. Robert
Clark, the catechist, stands first. From the time of his appointment to
Flinders Island in 1834 to his death in 1850 this estimable man gave
himself with an absolute devotion to the care of the unhappy remnant

6 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

of the captive tribes. The poor blacks on their part showed that they
were not * insensible to kindness, or devoid of generous feelings.* While
Mr. Clark lived they regarded him with a touching love and veneration.
When he died, after sixteen years spent in their service, they mourned
him as their one true and constant friend, and to the last the miserable
remnant of Tasmania*s native tribes affecflionately cherished the memory
of their beloved * Father Clark.'

" In 1838 the aborigines on Flinders, probably at the suggestion of
Robinson, who had been appointed Protedlor of the Aborigines in Port
Phillip, petitioned Governor Franklin to be removed to that colony. The
Home Authorities interposed and forbade the removal. On Robinson's
departure from Flinders, Captain Smith, and afterwards Mr. Fisher, took
charge of the settlement. In 1842 Dr. Jeannerett received the appointment
of Commandant from Sir John Franklin. Five years later, in 1847, . . .
in the face of considerable opposition from the colonists, the Government
resolved to remove the few survivors to Oyster Cove, in D'Entrecasteaux
Channel. Dr. James Milligan was appointed superintendent, and under
his care the transfer was effe(fted. Among the children thus removed
was Fanny Cochrane (now Mrs. Fanny Cochrane Smith, who is still
living on her farm at Port Cygnet, the sole survivor of the Flinders
Island settlement.) At Oyster Cove the blacks rapidly deteriorated. A
new phase of civilisation was here presented to them in the shape of
low whites and rum. The mortality was accelerated by the drunken habits
into which many of them fell. A few lingered on — a disgraced and degraded
remnant. In 1854 there remained only three men, eleven women, and
two children— sixteen in all. In 1865, Billy Lannee, the last male aborigine,
died, and only four women remained. Truganini, the last survivor of her
race, died in 1877.'" — (G. W. Walker, Trans. Roy. Soc. of Tasm., 1897).

CHAPTER IL — Physical Characters.

I^HE very remarkable differences in the descriptions of these people
handed down to us by eye-witnesses may perhaps induce the belief
that there was ocularly appreciable difference in the physiognomy^ of the
various members of the tribes. This belief finds support in the state-
ment of Kelly (Colonies and Slaves, p. 51), who states that "the tribes
to the southward and westward are a much finer race of men than those
to the eastward and northward." It also finds more limited support in
an examination of their portraits and photographs. The differences are
not very marked, but still they are appreciable. We will now give a
detailed description of the face, and follow it up with others of their
general physiognomy and other physical characteristics.

The forehead was high, prominent (Laplace, III. ch. xviii. p. 200),
narrow and running to a peak (Davies) ; the malar bones were prominent,
and the cheeks hollow (West, p. 77), and the faces massive (Dumoutier,
ix. p. 134).

£y«.— Their eyes were small (Prinsep, p. 79; Marion, p. 28), and
hollow (Laplace, p. 200; Prinsep, p. 79; Dumoutier, p. 134). Breton
says (p. 349) they were more deeply set than those of any other people,
and Milligan (p. 25) that the natives " had projecfiing eyebrows and
sunken orbits," agreeing herein with Leigh, who describes them as much
sunk in the head and covered with thick eyebrows (pp 242-3). According
to Laplace (p. 200) the eyes were yellowish, and according to Marion
(p. 28) of a bilious colour. Cook (Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) says they had
" good eyes," while Anderson records them as being of a middling size,
less clear than in us, and, though not remarkably quick or piercing, such
as give a frank cheerful cast to the countenance. This is very different
from Davies, who describes the eyes as dark, wild, and strongly expressive
of the passions. According to West (p. 77) the eyes are full, the eye-
lid drooping, the iris dark brown, the pupil large and jet black.

Nose. — This has been described as flat (Milligan, p. 25; Davies;
Marion, p. 28; and Leigh, p. 242), not remarkably flat by Cook (Voy.
Bk. I. ch. vi.), and as very flat by Widowson (p. 187). According to
Laplace (p. 200) it is short and flat, and Anderson says their noses,
though not flat, are broad and full. According also to Calder (J.A.I,
p. 20) the nose was broad. Prinsep (p. 79) describes the nose as broad
and short, and he speaks of the nostrils being widely distended. Davies,
as well as Leijgh (p. 242), says the nostrils were wide, and Widowson
(p. 187) that the natives had immense nostrils. Dumoutier (ch. ix. p.
134) tells us the nose was exceedingly big, being about the quarter of
the entire length of the face. Nostrils flat and distended says Walker

(P- 97)-

8 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Mouth. — Anderson considered the mouth rather wide ; Davies and
Widowson (p. 187) consider it wide; Marion (p. 28) gave them very
large mouths; while Dumoutier (ch. ix. p. 134) says the mouth was
extremely broad. Laplace says it was enormous; Prinsep (p. 79) that
it was uncommonly "Targe; while Calder's account is that the mouth
generally protruded extremely (J.A.I, p. 20). The lips have been described
as not remarkably thick (Cook, Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi. ; D umou tier. ch. ix.
p. 134); as thick (Laplace p. 200); as slightly thickened (Milligan, p. 35);
and as particularly thick (Widowson, p. 187). On the other hand,
(Loyd, p. 43) says the underlip was smaller than that of the negro; and
Davies, " the lips are not full, like those of the negroes, at least not
generally so." "Generally thick lips" (Walker, p. 97).

Teeth. — Cook (Voy. Bk. L ch. vi.) found their teeth tolerably even,
and Anderson broad, but not equal. Davies says their teeth were large,
strong and even, while Laplace (p. 200) describes them as ** pointed."
La Billardi^re tells us they* all had very good teeth (IL p. 39), and
Widowson that they were tolerably good (p. 187). According to Strzelecki
(p. 334j they were large and white ; according to Marion (p 28) very
white, and according to Lloyd of an "exquisite whiteness" (p. 43); while
Anderson describes their teeth, ** either from nature or dirt, are not of
so true a white as is usual among a people of a black colour."

Jaws. — Prinsep (p. 79), who was not by any means enamoured of the
race, states the jaws to have been elongated like those of the orang-
outan! According to Davies the jawbones are large, strong, and promi-
nent, and show a great width in front, agreeing herein somewhat with
Anderson's statement that the lower part of the face proje(5ls a good
deal. La Billardi^re (IL p. 39) makes the curious statement that "in
the children the upper jaw advances considerably beyond the lower, but
sinking as they grow up, both jaws are nearly even in the adult."

Development, Fornij Size. — " The native of V. D. Land possesses, on
the whole, a well-proportioned frame. His limbs, less fleshy or massive
than those of a well -formed African, exhibit all the symmetry and
peculiarly well-defined muscular development and well-knit articulations
and roundness which characterize the negro ^ (Strzelecki, pp. 334-336).
Cook (Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) thought the people slender, and Anderson
{ibid.) well proportioned; while Prinsep (p. 79) says they were "short
in stature, with disproportionately thin limbs and shapeless bodies," and
Mortimer (p. 19) that most of the party he encountered were of the
middle size, and though lean, were square and muscular. Laplace (III.
ch. viii. p. 200) speaks of the lanky limbs and inflated stomachs of the
native ; but Dixon (p. 22) agrees with the others that the limbs were
muscular and well proportioned. La Billardiere (ch. v. p. 222) mentions
a very tall and muscular savage, and elsewhere (ch. x. p. 73) he speaks
of a savage of middle size whose figure was very finely proportioned.
To Marion (p. 29) they " seemed to be generally slender, fairly well
made, broad-chested, and the shoulders thrown back." According to
Hamy (Anthrop, II. p. 610) Petit remarks that "the slender limbs are
an essential charadler of the race,"Qind W^est describes (p. 77) them with
" breast arched and full, the limbs round, lean and muscular, the hands
small, the feet flat and turned inwards." They had small natural parts

T- NEW VORK

TUBLIC LIBRARY.

ASTO«. ttNOX AND
TlUOtN FOUNDATIONS^

FORM AND SIZE.

(Marion, p. 29). Dr. Knox (Races of Men, Lond., 1850, p. 286) says:
** The reprodudlive organs in the Tasmanians are said to be quite peculiar
in men and women.'* He gives no authority, he makes no distincflion
between Australians and Tasmanians. In describing an interview with four-
teen of the Aborigines, Peron says, **The majority of them were young men
of about sixteen to twenty-five years of age ; two or three appeared to
be thirty to thirty-five years old; one alone, older than the rest, appeared
to be fifty to fifty-five years of age. . . Generally all the individuals
were of a stature proportionate to their age. Among those arrived at
manhood there was one who was not less than i metre 786 millimetres
(5 feet loj inches), but he was much thinner and slimmer than his
fellows. All the others were from i metre 678 millimetres to 732
millimetres (5 feet 6 to 8 inches) in height. One of them . . . was
a young man, twenty-four to twenty-five years of age, called Bara-Ourou,
with a much finer constitution than the others, although spoilt by the
same constitutional defecft common to all his race, that is to say, with
a well -developed head, ample and fleshy shoulders, broad chest, and very
muscular buttocks, all his extremities were slender and weak, particularly
his legs; his stomach* also, proportionately, was much too big" (ch. xiii.
p 280). One man killed by Marion's party was five feet three inches
in height! (Marion, p. 31). They are rather below the average stature
of Europeans. . . . Both sexes are stout and their limbs well-propor-
tioned (Walker p. 97). Near Port Davey, Kelly (p. 7) met some natives
** six feet high, their stomachs very large, legs and arms very thin " ; at
Retreat River some men were '* six feet high and very stout made "
(p. 8) ; at Cape Grim he says he measured a man six feet seven inches
high (p. 10). ** Robinson found some at Port Davey about six feet. In
1819, a man was killed six feet two inches high. Dr. Story informs me
that * the general size of the men was from five feet two inches to five
feet five inches ; the women in proportion to the men, of course smaller.'
He adds, * Balawenna was a fine athletic man, more than six feet. His
wife was in proportion'" (Bonwick, p. 119.)

Laplace (HI. ch. xviii. p. 202) deemed the women as repulsive [sic]
physique as the men,yand Lloyd (pp. 43-44) speaks of their attenuated
frames as "comparable only to animated skeletons. The spinsters, how-
ever, . . . presented a marked and pleasing contrast, . . . possessing a
tolerable amount of rounded limb . . . and sleekness of person." Widow-
son considered the women better formed than the men (p. 187). Of two
women P6ron writes (ch. xii. pp. 222-223) • ** ^^^ former appeared to be
forty years of age, and the large folds of the skin of her stomach showed
unmistakeably that she had been the mother of several children. . . .
The young woman of twenty-six to twenty-eight years of age, had a fairly
robust constitution, . . . her breast, already slightly withered, appeared
nevertheless fairly well formed. Of a party of some twenty aboriginal
females he writes (ch. xii. p. 252) : " Their forms were generally thin
and withered, their breasts long and hanging; in a word, all the details
of their physical constitution were repulsive. One must, however, except

• Probably from the indigestable food such as fern roots, &c.

t Old French measure.

lO H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

from this general description two or three young girls of from fifteen to
sixteen years of age, whose forms were fairly agreeable and their contours
rather pleasing, and whose breasts were firm and well placed, although
the end of the mamelles was rather too big and too long." Peron also
speaks (ch. xii. p. 223) of another female native about twenty-six to
twenty-eight years of age, who was still suckling her little girl : " her
breasts . . . appeared . . . sufficiently furnished with milk." While on
this subject we may mention Davies' remark to the efFecfl that as the
women ** suckle their children over their shoulders, the breasts of the
females are consequently preposterously long." This statement should
probably read : — Their breasts being long and pyriform they can con-
sequently suckle, &c. The following results were obtained by Hull, in
1849, when he weighed and measured the children then in the orphan
schools at Newtown. They showed " that they were shorter than the white
race of the same age, but much heavier. One young female, eleven
years of age, weighed one hundred and two pounds ; another of eight,
eighty-six pounds. The average weight of European children of these
ages is stated to be seventy-eight pounds and sixty pounds respedtively : —
sixty as compared to eighty-six ; seventy-eight as compared to one hundred
and two."

Physiognomy.

Several writers have given us anything but a flattering account of the
Tasmanians. We are told their lineaments were gross, flat, and forbidding
(Dixon, p. 22) ; their features were extremely disagreeable (Melville, p.
346) : they had a most hideous expression of countenance (Prinsep, p.
79) ; their features were flat and disagreeable (Breton p. 349) ; features
anything but pleasing (Widowson, p. 187). Lloyd speaks of the women
as being repulsively ugly (p. 43), and West that the women had masculine
features (II. p. 77). Peron's descriptions, unfortunately bearing, in general,
the impress of Rousseau's influence, runs thus : — ** Amongst these savages the
physiognomy is very expressive ; the passions depicft themselves with force,
and succeed each other rapidly. As changeable as their afledtions, all the
features alter and modify according to them. Their expression is fearful
and wild when roused ; restless and treacherous when in doubt ; and when
laughing, of a mad and almost convulsive gaiety. Amongst the aged the
expression is sorrowful, hard, and gloomy ; but in general, among all the
individuals, and whenever one looks at them, their expression has some-
thing fierce and sinister about it, which does not escape the attentive
observer, and corresponds only too completely with their characfter " (ch.
xiii. p. 280). On another occasion Poron speaks of a native whose
** physiognomy had nothing harsh or wild about it ; his eyes were lively
and spiriiuel^ and his air expressed at once good will and surprise " (ch.
xii. p. 221). On the other hand, Calder reports more mildly of them
(J. A. I. p. 20): "The features of neither sex were prepossessing, especially
after they passed middle age. ... In youth, some of the women were
passably good looking, but not so the most of them ; " and elsewhere
he says (Wars) : *' Our natives were not generally a good-looking race.

PHYSIOGNOMY. HAIR. II

. . . Some of the youths of both sexes were passable enough, and one
woman whom I remember . . . was remarkably handsome. Some of the
men, too, though very savage-looking fellows, were, in most respects, in
no way the inferior of the European. A native of one of the West
Coast tribes . . . possessed as fine and thoughtful features as any one
would desire to look upon." Lloyd speaks of the yet unmarried women
as having something winning about them (p. 44). Cook (Voy. Bk. I.
ch. vi.) says their features were far from disagreeable, and also that
many of the children had fine features {ibid,) ; he is supported by
Backhouse (p. 174), who found ** many of their countenances fine and
expressive," while Walker (p. 97) says, " many of their countenances are
pleasing, and very few of them forbidding," he also (p. 167) speaks of
a man with a black beard and moustache, and a " countenance decidedly
Jewish."

Hair.

There has been some difference of opinion as to whether the hair of
the Tasmanians was woolly or not, but this difference may have arisen
from the peculiar way in which the natives wore their hair. Bass (Collins,
p. 187) says of the black he saw at Derwent, ** His hair short and stiffly
curled, did not think it woolly," but in a note he says, ** Raven cut some
* undoubted wool ' from the head of a native in Adventure Bay ; " and
Flinders (p. 187) says, ** it had not the appearance of being woolly."
Milligan (Beacon, p. 25) speaks of the hair as being crisp. Peron (p. 252)
and Prinsep (p. 79) say it was frizzled, while Backhouse (p. 78), Breton
(p. 349), Calder (p. 22), La Billardiere (p. 38), Jeffreys (p. 125), Widow-
son (p. 187), Mortimer (p. 19), and Henderson (p. 144), all state it to be
black and woolly. Furneaux says, ** Their hair was black and as woolly
as that of any native of Guinea," while Da vies (p. 410) considers it
** black and woolly, but not so much so as that of negroes." Dixon (p.
22) compared it to that of the negro, but Lloyd (p. 43) only says it is
coarse, short and curly. "Their hair is uniformly black and woolly, like the
African negroes" (Walker p. 97). Henderson is very positive of "there being
no tribe, or individuals composing part of a tribe in V. D. Land who
have been found with the smooth black hair of the Asiatic." Strzelecki
says (p. 334) that some natives have it " soft and curling ; while with
others again it is of a woolly texture, similar to that of the Africans ; "
but as this writer makes no distincflion between the aborigines of Tas-
mania and those of the continent of Australia, his opinion in this matter
cannot be accepted.

Scientifically the hair has been thus described: "Two specimens from
V. D. Land, one black, the other yellowish-white, approach the hair
of the New Irelanders by their tresses, their diameters, and internal
dispositions. Diameters of the black hairs ^=25: 15; of the light hairs
= 25 : 15 to 27 : 20. The first has no medullary substance ; the second
has it much enlarged" (Pruner-Bey, p. 81).* The yellowish -white colour
to which Pruner-Bey refers, mast have been caused by the bleaching due

* For details of the hair as a ccmparison with that of other peoples see Chapter on Origin.

12 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

to the presence of Jime in the ochre, or other substances with which the
hair was plastered. ** The Tasmanians had hair growing in small cork-
screw ringlets. . . . The individual hairs . . . are fine, and, in sed^ion,
o£ a very eccentrically elliptical or flattened form. Upon this form depends
the tendency to twist, and the kind of curliness which is seen in these
small corkscrew locks. This peculiarity allowed them to load the hair with
red ochre, and make it thus hang down in separate small ringlets of
varying length. Such ringlets give a distinguishing characfler to all the
corre(5l portraits of the Tasmanians . . . The Tasmanians had no deficiency
of hair, but were well provided on the head, face, chest, pubes, and other
parts ; they had whiskers, moustaches, and beard ; but all of the same
slender character, inclined to twist into spiral tufts. On the borders of
the whiskers there were little tufted pellets of hair, like pepper-corns upon
the cheeks. The beard grew precisely in the same manner, and the pubic
hair was not difierent," so says Barnard Davis (pp. 9-10) who got his
information from Milligan or Robinson. According to table given by Peron
(see post p. 20) some natives had hair on their backs, and we gather
the same fadl from Petits' illustrations — (Hamy. Anthrop. II. p. 610).
La Billardiere tells us the men had the back, breast, shoulders and
arms covered with downy hair (II. pp. 59-60).

Colour.

Anderson says, ** Their skin was black. . . . The females were as
black as the men," and later on, ** Their colour is a dull black, and not
quite so deep as that of the African negroes.'* Peron (p. 252) says
their skin and hair was black, and so does Laplace (p. 200) and Calder
(p. 20) : ** Their bodies were naturally a dull black colour." Breton
(p. 349) describes them to have had a ** perfectly black complexion."
According to Milligan (Beacon, p. 25), ** they had a complexion and
skin of a dark brown, or nearly black colour," and according to Hen-
derson (p. 144), "The inhabitants of V. D. Land are slightly darker
coloured than those of Port Jackson ; and considerably more so than
those in the interior of N. S. Wales." Mortimer (p. 19) describes them
as of a dull black or dusky colour; Backhouse (p. 78) gives them a dark
olive colour; while Walker (p, 97) says, ** Their complexion is very dark,
almost black ; a few are of a lighter hue, approaching to the colour of
copper ; the soles of their feet are as light as those of Europeans who
go without shoes; the palms of their hands are also much lighter than
their bodies." West (II. p. 77) affirms that: ** The skin is bluish-black;
less glossy than the native of the continent ; " and Davies, ** There
colour is bluish -black, less black than that of the African negroes, but
slightly more so than Lascars," Peron also says they were black ; but:
La Billardiere on one occasion (I. p 222) says they were of a blackish
colour, and on another (II. p. ^S)j ** Their skin is not of a very deep
black." Hamy tells us (Anthrop. II. p. 610) that Petit describes the
skin colours as follows: — Violace in Bara Ourou ^^ toutefois cetU couUur
est attenuee et passe au violet rose; fuligineux in Ouriaga moins jaune que
dans r atlas; hrun violace in Grou-Agara ^ les hommes sont peints plus fonces
que Us femmes ; violace in Paraberi violace brundtre in Arra-Maida peint

COLOUR. ODOUR. MOTIONS. I3

plus clair in her child chocolat an lait in another person ; then teini du cuir
neuf in another child ; hrun ful gineux in a man and grisdtre on the sole
of his foot; hrun violace in a man, his lips brunatre rose and others with
a skin violace un peu brunatre. Finally, Jeffreys maintains (p. 125), ** Both
sexes are of a jet black, and not, as some writers have described them,
of a brown colour," but then he was a careless observer.

Odour.

Davies (p. 410) says : " The men grease their bodies

Unconnedled with this besmearing, a very peculiar odour proceeds from
theii bodies." Bon wick, writing apparently of his own experience (p. 123)
says : ** The odour proceeding from the natives, though not equally
offensive with that distinguishing the negroes, was sufficiently disagreea.ble,
though I have heard my friend Mr. Clark, the Flinders Island Catechist,
declare he could notice nothing of the sort."

Motions.

Climbing Trees, -^We have some good accounts of the manner in which
the natives used to climb trees, which are given in the chapter on Hunting.

Method of Carrying Children. — There appear to have been two methods
of carrying children common among the Tasmanians. The one described
by Widowson (p. 190), who says the children are generally carried (by
the women) astride, across the shoulders, in a careless manner ; and by
Calder (p. 22), *' The woman carried her infant, not in her arms, but
astride her shoulders, holding its hands." This carrying astride the
shoulders is perhaps illustrated in one of Peron's plates where the child
is seated astraddle on the mother's right shoulder, his right leg hanging
down her chest while his left leg encircles her neck and comes over
the left breast. The other as described by West (II. p. 79), who
mentions that a woman, with a new-born infant, followed the tribe ; the
infant was slung on the back, and suckled over the shoulder ; and by
Davies who only differs from West in saying that the infants were
carried in a kangaroo skin. [Kangaroo rats or bandicoots were slung upon
their backs or fixed to a stick like a rabbit man's in London (Ross,
p. 154).] In Peron's portrait of Arra Maida, the child appears to be
carried slung on the mother's back below the shoulders in a horizontal
position, its head showing under the right arm, which is thrown back
to support the child.

Sitting and Reclining. — Lloyd mentions (p. 113) coming unawares across
a group of natives seated in tailor-fashion, occupied in making spears.
Bligh states (p. 51), "They talked to us sitting on their heels, with
their knees close into their armpits;" and Peron repeats (pp. 226 and
251) that the natives squatted, on their heels. With regard to the
women, La Billardiere mentions (II. pp. 47-48), "We observed with surprise,
the singular posture of the women, when they sit on the ground. . . .
It appears to be a point of decorum with these ladies, as they sit with
their knees asunder, to cover with one foot what modesty bids them
conceal." Jorgenson also has said : " The females, always in a state of

14 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

nudity, would invariably, when sitting down, do so in a decent posture"
(Bonwick, p. 58). And Ross in describing an aboriginal meal which he
witnessed, says, '* These aborigines, I found, were quite ... classical
in adopting the Roman method of reclining at meals, lying round their
fire, resting on one elbow and holding the half-roasted leg of an opossum,
eating in the other.'* "At night they encircle themselves round a large
fire, and sleep in a sitting posture, with their heads between their knees"
(Widowson, p. 190).

Standing, Walking, and Agility, — According to Anderson (Cook's Sec.
Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.), " The posture of which they seem fondest is to
stand with one side forward, or the upper part of the body gently
reclined, and one hand grasping (across the back) the opposite arm,
which hangs down by the projecSling side," which account of their
peculiar mode of holding the arms is corroborated by La Billardiere (II.
p. 49) in the following : " The men followed with a grave pace, each
carrying his hands resting one against the other upon his loins ; or
sometimes the left hand passing behind the back, and grasping the right
arm about the middle." This holding of the upper limbs in this peculiar
fashion may perhaps have something to do in connection with their method
of carrying their spears by their toes so as to appear without weapons, for
we read (Meredith, p. 195), ** The aborigines, when they wished to
appear unarmed, had a habit of walking without any weapon in their
hands, but very adroitly trailing their spears, which they held fast by
their toes, along the ground after them, to be picked up at any moment
they were required;" and Davies says, ** If the ground is smooth upon
which they are walking, as a beach for instance, they have a habit of
trailing their spears after them, the point held in some manner between
their great toe and that next it ; this seems to be that they may have
their waddy ready to heave at any small objecfl that may appear. The
spear is transferred from the foot to the hand in an instant." It would
appear that this stealthy carrying of arms is a warlike precaution, for
Calder (pp. 21-22) says: "The Tasmanian aboriginal, in advancing on a
victim whom he meant to kill, treacherously approached . . . with his
hands clasped and resting on the top of his head, a favourite posture
of the black ; . . . but all the time he was dragging a spear behind
him, held between his toes, in a manner that must have taken long to
acquire. Then by a motion as unexpected as it was rapid, it was
transferred to the hand, and the victim pierced before he could lift a
hand or stir a step." The first white man, George Munday, who was
killed by an aborigine, fell a victim to this practice ; for, as Knopwood
relates (p. 53), "the native had a spear concealed, and held by his
toes, and as Munday turned from him, he caught up his spear and
threw it at him."

" They walk remarkably eredl, assuming a dignified mien, and in
all their movements exhibiting agility and ease" (Walker, p. 97). West
states (pp. 81-82) that the member of the tribe who had committed an
offence " had to stand while a certain number of spears were thrown at
him," but that, " the keenness of his eye, and the agility of his motions,
usually enabled him to escape a fatal wound," and Calder (p. 60) describes
similar agility when alluding to the inter-tribal wars in which they

MOTIONS. 15

engaged. These fights, he says, " often lasted for hours, but such was the
dexterity of the savage in evading the spears of his adversaries that
they seldom struck him. Without moving an inch from his post, he
would avoid a discharge of three or four well-dire(5ted spears sent at him
at the same instant. By a contortion of his body, a movement of his
head to the right or left, or raising his leg or arm, he seldom failed
escaping them all, any one of which would have transfixed the less agile
European with the most perfedl certainty." Their quickness is further
vouched for by an account of Peron (p. 221) during one of the excursions,
** We arrived at a small creek, at the end of which was a pretty valley.
. . . We had hardly set foot ashore before two aborigines showed them-
selves at the top of a hillock precipitous almost to the top. At the
signs of friendship we made them, one of them threw himself, rather
than descended, from the top of the rock, and in the twinkling of an
eye was in our midst." Rossel (I. ch. iv. p. 99) gives an account of a
woman who on being frightened slipped down from the top of a rock
on to the sea-shore, and La Billardiere adds (ch. v. p. 234), this precipice
was forty feet high, and that the woman ran away and was soon hidden
by the rocks below. Of their nimbleness in another direction West (p.
85) tells how some aborigines ** did " some Europeans : "A shooting party
approached a native camp near the Clyde, and found they had just
abandoned their half-cooked opossums and their spears; excepting a small
group of wattle bushes, at the distance of ten yards, the ground was
free of all but the lofty trees : the travellers immediately scoured this
thicket, but on turning round they, in great astonishment, discovered that
opossums and spears were all gone. It was the work of a moment, but
no traces of the aborigines were to be seen." They appear to have
possessed that extraordinary faculty common to nomadic savages in other
parts of the world of making themselves indistinguishable from the sur-
rounding scenery while still perfedlly visible. West quotes (p. 86) the
following from Ross : ** I remember a fellow of the Grimaldi breed ; he
undertook on a fine summer's evening, to place himself among the tree
stumps of a field, so that not two of a large party should agree as to
his identity. He reclined like a Roman on his elbow, projedled his arm
as if a small branch, and drew down his head. No one could tell which
was the living stump, and were obliged to call him to come out and
show himself." This art was no doubt more probably made use of in
hunting than in warfare, and the tribe would no doubt be aware of the
ta(5\ics of the enemy. ** Both the men and women hold themselves very
ere(5l; indeed the men, probably from the habit of balancing the spear,
throw back the shoulders so much as almost to make it appear a
deformity " (Da vies). Marion also states that they kept their shoulders
back, and Dixon (p. 22) that " the body was ere(5l and the gait firm
and stately." Bunce's party (p. 55) admired their upright and even elegant
gait. La Billardiere (IL p. 41) speaks on one occasion of their pace being
** sufficiently slow for us to follow them with ease." When they came
in conta(5l with the Europeans, their knowledge of the power of climbing
did not come amiss, for Meredith relates (p. 206) that ** a wounded native
woman having been shut up for the night in a hut, the latter was visited
in the early morning to see how the patient fared ; but, though the door

l6 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

had been closed and fastened, the chimney had not and up it the dark
lady had gone." This is, however, not so difficult an operation as appears
at first sight. In the old bush hut, even now common, there was a wide
fire-place, with a wide chimney of rough stones or perhaps of bark or
split palings ; the whole chimney was perhaps ten feet in height. On
an earlier occasion La Billardiere (II. pp. 39-40) found himself watched
from an unexpected quarter, thus : ** I had not perceived the young girls
for some time ; . . but, happening to look behind me, I saw, with sur-
prise, seven who had perched themselves on a stout limb of a tree, more
than three yards from the ground, whence they attentively watched our
slightest movements.*'

Bad Habits.— Oi one habit among one lot of men La Billardiere (II.
p. 72) says : ** We were much surprised to see most of them holding
the extremity of the prepuce with the left hand, no doubt from a bad
habit, for we did not observe anything of the kind among some others
who soon afterwards joined them." This habit may have been common,
as Peron gives an illustration of a group in which one man is drawn
with the left hand in the position named.

We cannot perhaps close this chapter better than with Count Strelecki's
summary of their motions (p. 336) : ** Compared with the negro, he is
swifter in his movements, and in his gait more graceful. His agility,
adroitness, and flexibility, when running, climbing, or stalking his prey,
are more fully displayed; and when beheld in the posture of striking,
or throwing his spear, his attitude leaves nothing to be desired in point
of manly grace." Of the first tribe Ross met, in 1823, he tells us, " We
could not help admiring their upright and even elegant gait, which would
be a pattern to any Bond Street lounger. Their air of independence
was quite charming (Bonwick p. 100).

Pathology.

Marion, who was in Tasmania in the middle of summer, found the
climate very cold, and as he says (p. 34) : ** We could not understand how
the natives could live there in their naked state." La Billardiere was also
astonished that the natives could live in such a climate without clothing ;
his words are (II. ch. x. p. 34): ** It appeared to us very astonishing,
that in so high a latitude, where, at a period of the year so little advanced
as the present, we already experienced the cold at night to be pretty
severe, these people did not feel the necessity of clothing themselves.
Even the women were for the most part entirely naked, as well as the
men." The same writer bears witness to the good general health enjoyed
by these savages. Thus (II. ch. x. p 47) : "I imagined that these people
passing most of their nights in the open air, in a climate of which the
temperature is so variable, must have been subjec5l to violent inflammations
of the eyes ; yet all of them appeared to have their sight very good
except one who had a cataracTt," and (ch. xi. p. 77), " We did not see a
single person who had the least trace of any disease of the skin." If
the state of a person's teeth may be taken as a standard of health, then
La Billardiere's evidence is still more emphatic. " We did not see one
among them [forty-two natives] in whom a single tooth of the upper jaw

Tin: r:E\v york

ASTOR, LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATIONS.

if:

a * 5

I « i

C M 5

8 s i

sis

PATHOLOGY. 1 7

was wanting ; indeed, they had all very good teeth " (ch. x. p. 39). On
the other hand, he remarks that their mode of life exposed them to wounds.
** These savages, going completely naked, are liable to wound themselves,
particularly in the lower extremities, when they pass through the woods.
We observed one who walked with difficulty, and of whose feet one was
wrapped up in a piece of skin " (ibid.). Widowson (p. 192), writing after
the settlement ot the Europeans had taken place, says : ** These people
are subje<fl to a disease which causes the most loathsome ulcerated sores.
... It is occasioned by a filthy mode of life. . . . Their having no
means of procuring vegetables, besides being constantly exposed to the
weather, together with their offensive habits of living, produce the disease
above mentioned with its fatal consequences." But this sweeping statement
must be taken with reservations, for in the chapter on Food it will be seen
that vegetables and fruits formed a large portion of their sustenance.
Robert Clark, in a letter to Bonwick (p. 84), said, " ' I have gleaned from
some of the aborigines, now in their graves, that they were more numerous than
the white people are aware of, but their numbers were very much thinned
by a sudden attack of disease, which was general among the entire pop-
ulation previous to the arrival of the English, entire tribes of the natives
having been swept off in the course of one or two days* illness.'. . . *The
Rev. Mr. Horton, in 1823, refers to scorbutic diseases, and remarks, * It
is, perhaps, occasioned by their extreme distress, and exposure to the
weather. I observed that the fronts of their legs, which, in the manner
they seat themselves round the fire, are mostly exposed to its heat, were
most disfigured by this dreadful eruption : * . . . and * in the Gazette of April
1826, there is an account of the trial of two natives for murder, in which
it is affirmed that one, the elder, was so covered with leprosy, as to be
kept apart from all in the court. A sort of catarrh now and then spread
among the people, as in 1827. Most of those who died in captivity were
affe<fted by consumption : the lungs were ever the weak part of their frame.* *'
{ibid pp. 87-8). In the Hobart Town Gazette, 1826, a party of aborigines
is specially referred to as being free from cutaneous eruption {ibid, p. 87.)
Backhouse, who visited these people as early as 1832, mentions (p. 105)
that the inhabitants on the west coast had scars which '* appeared to have
proceeded from irregular surgical cuts, and were principally upon the chest,
which is very likely to be affecSled by inflammation, that often speedily
issues in death. A large proportion of these people died from this cause,
in the course of the late inclement season.'* Da vies also refers (p. 417)
to the prevalence of disease of the lungs : ** Pulmonary complaints appear
to be by far the most prevalent, particularly rapid inflammation of the
lungs. Rheumatism is said to be common amongst them, as is likewise
face-ache.* They all suffer more or less from scabby sores. In the children
these are dreadful, and disgusting in the extreme; with them all parts
of the body are affe(5led : with the adults the sores are more confined
to the head : these are doubtless caused by their coarse living, aided by
their dirty habits.'* In contrast to their habits as mentioned above by
Marion and La Billardi^re, he says (p. 415): **The aborigines . . . cannot

• Rheuniatism is common amongst Europeans in Tasmania. The changes of temperature are

very sudden.

l8 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

. . . bear constant exposure to bad weather; when such sets in, they will
cower round their fires, under the lee of their break-winds, . . . until a
change takes place." Calder, who has gone more fully into the particulars
of their illnesses, writes as follows (J. A. I. pp. 14, 15) : ** Their rapid declen-
sion after the colony was founded is traceable, as far as our proofs allow
us to judge, to the prevalence of epidemic disorders. . . . The naked
savage soon discovered the comforts of clothing, and such things as blan-
kets and clothing were often given them by the settlers ; . . . but ... he
often kept his prize no longer than it suited the idle habits of the wanderer
to carry it. Hence he was wrapped up like a mummy one week, and
was as naked as a new-born infant the next. The climate of Tasmania is
a variable one, . . . there are very rapid changes of temperature, from
moderate heat to coolness. . . . Now any person, whether savage or civ-
ilized, who wraps up at one time, and goes perfecflly naked at another,
exposed to any frequent changes of temperature, ... is assuredly laying
the foundation of fatal consumptive complaints, from which (such was
the peculiar constitution of the Tasmanian savage) almost immediate death
was certain, and whenever he took cold it seems to have settled on his
lungs from the first. . . . Robinson says * they are universally susceptible
of cold, and unless the utmost providence is taken to check its progress
at an early period, it fixes itself on the lungs, and gradually assumes
the complaint spoken of, i.e, the Catarrhal Fever (Report, May 24, 1831)."
Again he says :. *' The number of aboriginals along the Western Coast has
been considerably reduced since the time of my first visit [1830] ; a
mortality has raged amongst them, which, , . . with other causes, has
rendered their numbers very inconsiderable (July 29, 1832)."

Abnormalities.

Under this heading we can only give some information colledled by
La Billardiere. In Vol. ii. ch. x. p. 49, he remarks : ** In one of them
[young women] it was observed that the right breast acquired its full
size, while the left was still perfedlly flat." In ch. xi. p. 76, he says :
** We observed some [natives] in whom one of the middle teeth of the
upper jaw was wanting, and others in whom both were gone," and in
the same chapter (p. 76), ** In many the navel appeared puffed up, and
very prominent, but we assured ourselves, that this deformity was not
occasioned by a hernia. Perhaps it is owing to the too great distance
at which the umbilical cord is separated from the abdomen."

Physical Powers.

■

P6ron seems to have taken considerable trouble to ascertain the true
state of the physical powers of the aborigines, and collecfted, so far as
he could, all the details which would in any way tend to throw light on
this subjecft. He records (pp. 235-236) that on one occasion Maurouard,
one of the midshipmen, on Bruny Island " had proposed to one amongst
them, who seemed the most robust, to wrestle with him ; and that the
V. D. Lander had accepted the challenge ; was several times thrown by
the French middy, and forced to acknowledge his inferiority." On another
occasion, also on Bruny Island, he relates (p. 256) : ** It was not long

PHYSICAL POWERS. I9

before we encountered two women, who, from the top of a neighbouring
hill, were dire(5\ing their steps towards the sea-shore. . . . My companions
started to pursue them, but had hardly gone 200 paces when the women,
^vhom they thought easily to overtake, were already out of sight : this
I had predicfled beforehand, having had several opportunities of convincing
myself that the inhabitants of these shores were in general much swifter
in running than we were." In describing an interview with fourteen
male aborigines, P6ron says (pp. 285-286) : ** Wishing at any cost to
repeat certain observations which I had already begun in the Channel
[d'Entrecasteaux] on the development of the physical powers of the people
of these regions, I had Regnier's dynamometer brought ^rom the boat,
where I had till then left it. I hoped that the form and use of the
instrument might perhaps fix the attention of the savages whom I wished
to submit to its test. I was not mistaken. They admired the instrument ;
all 'wished to touch it at the same time, and I had great trouble in
preventing its being broken. After giving them an idea of the objecit in
view by a series of attempts ourselves, we began to make the^n a(5l them-
selves on the instrument : seven individuals had already submitted, when
one of them, who had previously tried, and had been unable to make
the needle of the dynamometer go as far as I could, appeared indignant
at this impotence, and, as if to give the instrument the lie diredl, he
seized my wrist angrily, and seemed to defy me to disengage myself.
I succeeded, however, after a few efforts, and having in turn seized him
with all my strength, he was unable, in spite of all his endeavours, to
free himself, which seemed to cover him with confusion and fill him with
anger." Later on he continues (p. 449) : ** Nevertheless, all my [dyna-
mometrical] observations having been made on the best constituted
individuals of the nation, and the results being very decided and, above
all, certain, one can, without fear of mistake, apply these results to the
generality of the people of this race : they indicate a want of vigour
truly remarkable : in fa(5l, although my experiments had been repeated on
the most vigorous class of the population — those from eighteen to forty
years of age — not a single V. D. Lander was able to press the needle
beyond the 6oth degree, and the mean of the twelve observations which
I was able to make was only 50*6 kilogrammes. . . . The opposing
strength of man to man confirms these a priori returns of the instrument.
Our sailors always won when they wrestled with the savages, and the
latter were not luckier with one of our officers, Maurouard ; the one
amongst them that seemed to us the most robust . . . wished to provoke
him to wrestle ; the officer threw him easily, several times running, and
my own experience had like results." Poron's similar experiments carried
out among other people gave the following results for their manual force
expressed in kilogrammes (p. 456) : — v^

Van Diemen*s Landers ... ... ... ... 50-6

New Hollanders (Australians) 51-8

Natives of Timor ... ... ... ... ... 58*7

Frenchman ... ... ... ... ... ... 69*2

Englishman ... ... ... ... ... ... 71*4

** The ages given in the table, on p. 20, are only approximately corre(fl,
the numerical system of the people of Van Diemen's Land and New

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Holland not extending beyond three,* and the individuals here concerned
had not any idea of their age " (p. 476).

Contrary to Peron, La Billardi^re states (II. ch. x. p. 49) that the
European could run better than the natives, but the circumstances of the
race which we give tend to show that this was not a fair test : ** Four
young girls, also, were of the party . . . They ran races several times on
the shore . . . and some of us endeavoured to catch them ; when we had
the pleasure to see, that Europeans could frequently run better than these
savages." West (p. 36) says : ** They were swift of foot ; when they
possessed dogs,t they ran nearly abreast of them . . . and were generally

Power of Hands of Van DUmcn's Landers taken with Regnier's dynamometer.

No. of
Trial.

Age.

Name.

Strength In
Kilogrammes.

Remarks.

•

i8— 20

410

Of a fairly strong constitution
for the country.

20 — 22

•~—

400

Extremities thin and weak ;
stomach big.

22 — 24

600

Trunk fairly strong; limbs
weak.

24—25

—

500

Habit of body thin and miser-
able: stomach distended.

25—27

Ouriaga

570

Fairly well made; shoulders
large and strong.

28-30

Bara-Ourou

543

One of the finest constituted
individuals of the nation.

30—32

517

Feeble constitution ; legs very
weak.

32—34

—

46-2

Cruel face ; very strong baard ;
much hair on his back.

34-36

550

Savage physiognomy; habit of
body sluggish.

34—36

^"~

490

Back not very muscular; weak
limbs; stomach inflat^.

35-38

— ■

590

Savage face ; thick black beard ;
much hair on body.

38-40

440
Mean 50 6

Legs and arms very weak.

in at the death." La Billardiere also gives an account (II. ch. x. pp.
41-42), showing that the aborigines were not capable of continued exertion:
" At length we parted with our new guides, whose pace was sufficiently
slow for us to follow them with ease. It seemed as if they were not
accustomed to take a long walk without interruption ; for we had scarcely
been half an hour on our way, before they invited us to sit down, saying
mediy and we immediately stopped. This halt lasted but a few minutes
when they rose, saying to us tangara, which signifies, * let us set off.*
On this we resumed our journey ; and they made us halt again, in the
same manner, four times at nearly equal distances." This weakness is
corroborated by Davies (p. 415): ** The aborigines are capable of great

• See Chapter on Arithmetic.

t The aborigines possessed no dogs until after the arrival of the Europeans.

dingo was absent from Tasmania.

Even the

PHYSICAL POWERS. SENSES. 21

but not of lasting exertion. They cannot stand continued fatigue equal
to a hearty European." G. W. Walker ascribes their susceptibility to
fatigue to the facfl that in their native state they confined their excursions
to tradls not more than twenty or thirty miles in extent, and then moved
about without extraordinary expedition (MS. Jour). They travelled, how-
ever, on occasions with marvellous rapidity, for according to Laplace (III.
ch. xviii. p. 197) often, several farms [of the settlers] , though far-separated
from each other, are pillaged in one night by the same enemies [the
aborigines]." Rossel states (II. ch. x. p. 44): "These savages . . . and
we walked together along the beach. . . . Some trees, that lay on the
ground, . . . gave them an opportunity of displaying their agility to us
by leaping over them. But I believe . . . they would have found them-
selves excelled by a European tolerably expert at this exercise."

Senses.

Melville remarks (p. 348) : " They were naturally very keen-sighted,
. . . and their sense of hearing and smelling remarkably acute, and
all the writers who have touched on this subject confirm this fa(5l."
Captain Bligh (ch. iv. p. 51) says they ** had a very quick sight."
According to Davies (p. 413), ** their senses of hearing and seeing are
particularly acute, and a glance will suffice to tell them when there is
an opossum in the tree." In the Report of a Parliamentary Committee
(Evidence, Col. and Slav.), O'Connor states (p. 54) they are remarkably
keen -sighted, and Hobbs (p. 50) that they smell tobacco smoke at a great
distance. Backhouse (pp. 103, 104) gives the following account of their
keenness of vision : ** I observed a woman looking carefully about among
the grass, and inquired what she was seeking. Her companions replied,
to my surprise, * A needle.* ... A. Cottrell, who sat by, said, * You
will see she will find it : you have no idea how keen-sighted and
persevering they are ; * and after some time, she picked up her needle,
which was one of English manufacture, and not of large size ! " This
great acuteness of vision led to their possession of great powers of
tracking, of which Widowson (ch. xxi. p. 189) speaks thus : ** If they
[the natives] take to cattle, they are, beyond anything, quick in tracing
and finding those lost. So acute is their power of discrimination, that
they have been known to trace the footsteps of bushrangers over
mountains and rocks, and although the individual they have been in
pursuit of has walked into the sides of a river as if to cross it, to
elude the vigilance of his pursuers, and has swam some distance down
and crossed when convenient, yet nothing can deceive them. Indeed,
so remarkable is their discernment, that if but the slightest piece of
moss on a rock has been disturbed by footsteps, they will instantly
detecft it." According to Calder (Wars, ch. ii. p. 61) Robinson, in
hunting fugitive tribes, was much assisted in tracking them by friendly
natives. ** When he [Robinson] came on their footmarks at last, his
people — such was their acute knowledge of these faint imprints on the
grass, which a European Would not discern at all, that they at once
pronounced them to be those of the Big River and Oyster Bay tribes
united. * A female,' says he, * assured me they were the Big River

22 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

and Oyster Bay tribes. She knew them by their footmarks.' " Calder
also says (ibid.) : ** We learn from . . . Jorgen Jorgensen, that they
possessed a faculty for discovering water in situations where no European
would thing of looking for it, and that these strange places were their
favourite camping grounds."

Reproduction.

Brough Smyth makes the following statement (II. p. 387) : " The
women were seldom accompanied by many children ; but there is no
reason to suppose that they were less prolific than people of other races."
With the latter part of his statement we have no cause to differ in so feu:
far, of course, as it relates to the aborigines before contadl with civilization ;
but the first part of the statement is quite opposed to the very complete
and reliable evidence of the early French voyagers. On the other hand
it does not follow because the children are not always mentioned, that
there were none. In the three interviews narrated below it will be
seen children predominated over the adults. P6ron states (ch. xii. pp.
225-226), "As soon as they [a family of aborigines] saw us, they .
. . . doubled their pace in order to rejoin us. Their number was
increased by a young girl of from sixteen to seventeen years of age,
by another little boy of from four to five years, and by a little girl of
three to four years. This family was composed therefore of nine people,
the elders being apparently the father and mgther: the young man and his
wife appeared to us to be at the same time * epoux et frere ' ; we
considered the young girl to be the sister of the latter ; the four children
must have been those of the young man and the young woman." La
Billardiore (II. ch. x. p. 37) encountered a party of forty-two savageF,
** seven of whom were men, eight women, the rest appeared to be their
children ; and among these we observed several marriageable -girls," and
further on {ibid, p. 54) he says : ** We had scarcely gone a mile before
we found ourselves in the midst of eight-and-forty natives ; ten men,
fourteen women, and twenty-four children, among whom we observed as
many girls as boys." Bonwick states (p. 85), ** Apart from the long
suckling, for three or even four years, the period during which their
powers of reproduction existed was much shorter than with Europeans.
Very few of them had children after thirty-five years of age, and the
majority perhaps, were barren before thirty."

CHAPTER III.— Psychology. ^

ANDERSON, the . first man who described these people, was not
favourably impressed with their intelledlual powers, and he records
his opinion as follows (Cook's Third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi. p. 45) : ** With
respedl to personal acflivity or genius we can say but little of either.
They do not seem to possess, the first in any remarkable degree, and
for the last, they have, to appearance, less than even the inhabitants of
Terra del Fuego, who, though furnished with the materials, have not

invention sufficient to make clothing for themselves Their

expressing no surprise at seeing men so unlike themselves, their indifference
to our presents, and their general inattention, were sufficient proofs of
their not possessing any acuteness of understanding." He continues :
** The inhabitants had little of that fierce or wild appearance common
to people in their situation ; but seemed mild and cheerful, without
reserve or jealousy of strangers." But some of the settlers looked upon
them as little better than wild animals. Thus Lloyd (ch. iv. p. 43)
says : " Their moral and intelle<5lual energies were of the most inferior
order." Prinsep says much the same (p. 79) : ** They are undoubtedly
in the lowest possible scale of human nature, both in form and intellect:,"
and Wentworth is equally emphatic (p. 11 5) in a like opinion: "The
aborigines of this country are, if possible, still more barbarous and
uncivilized than those of New Holland."

Dumoutier, who had, however, little opportunity for observation, says
of them (ch. xii. p. 217) : ** The Tasmanians, among whom the human
form is most degraded, must be placed nearly at the bottom step of
the ladder in the human race. One can say that there is not a trace
of any civilization. Thev are groups of savage men, living almost like
animals, unless contacfl with Europeans has exerted any influence upon
them;" while Jeffreys (pp. 118 and 126) only allows that they were less
barbarous than the natives of New Holland. Breton, on the other hand,
thinks the latter superior (pp. 348-349) : " They are very different to the
New Hollanders, and, if possible, even more barbarous, approaching
nearer to the * mere animal ' than the former. . . . From whatever
part of the world they may have come, these people must have deteriorated,
as a nation so utterly savage can scarcely be found elsewhere." '* Rev.
Mr. Horton says : * What I have seen and heard of the original
inhabitants of Van Diemen's Land convinces me that they are in every
resp6(fl the most destitute and wretched portion of the human family.
Indeed, the shape of their bodies is almost the only mark by which one
can recognise them as fellow- men ; and were it not for the . force of other
evidence besides that which their condition and habits present to the

24 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

mind of the beholder, I should, without hesitancy, affirm that they are
a race of beings altogether distincfl from ourselves, and class them amongst
the inferior species of irrational animals.*" (Bonwick, p. loo). Dixon
says (p. 22) : " They were sunk in the grossest barbarism, and apparently
had not made one move in the progress of civilization ; " but he immedi-
ately afterwards qualifies his opinion by stating on the following page :
** They have been designated as the lowest order of human beings,
removed but one shade from brutality ; but I think unjustly, . . .
their routine of life was so simple, and required so little ingenuity to
maintain it, that their exhibiting any intellecftual vivacity at all argued
the possession of a considerable amount of latent capacity." In like
manner Calder, Dove, and Ross (?) state that the aboriginal native was
much maligned, and that he was by no means the low animal he was
said to be. Calder 's words are (J. A. I. p. 19) : "It has been customary
to rank the Tasmanian savages with the most degraded of the human
family, and as possessed of inferior intelligence only. But fa(fts quite
disprove this idea, and show that they were naturally very intellecflual,*
highly susceptible of culture, and, above all, most desirous of receiving
instrudlion, which is fatal to the dogma of their incapacity for civilization.
. . . His ingenuity was seldom brought into exercise. His faculties
were dormant from the mere bounty of providence. His wants were few,
. . . and the country supplied them all in lavish abundance." Calder,
however, appears to be somewhat partial, for Tasmania is by no means
what can be designated a fertile country where nature is lavish in
abundance, and his opinion expressed elsewhere (Wars, pp. 54-55) is
perhaps more to the point : '* An idea prevailed which has not yet died
out, that they stood almost on a level with the brutes of the forest. .
. . This was not the case, for they ^vere naturally an intelledlual race,
with faculties susceptible of very easy culture, as they showed when in
their wild state, by the clever manner in which (after a brief association
with, firstly, the half-civilized Musquito,t and, secondly, with some other
domesticated blacks) they planned all their operations against the settlers,
in which they seldom failed of success ; and by the facility with which,
when in captivity, and under good guidance, they received instruction,
and accommodated themselves to European habits." Dove, who had charge
of them at the settlement, and therefore ample opportunity for observation,
remarks (I. p. 249) : ** The aborigines of Tasmania have been usually
regarded as exhibiting the human charadler in the lowest state of degra-
dation. . . . If we look, however, to the methods they devised of procuring
shelter and subsistence in their native wilds ; to the skill and precision
with which they tracked the mazes of the bush ; and to the force of
invention and of memory which is displayed in the copious vocabulary
of their several languages, they claim no inconsiderable share of mental
power and atflivity." Finally an anonymous writer (Hemy Melville) in
the V. D. Land Annual for 1834 (pp. 77-78) says : ** Although low in

* To talk of the Aborigines being intellectual is absurd. They appear to have been
imitative, with a desire for instrudtion and with a susceptibility for adopting the
outward appearance of civilisation, but they cannot be corre<5lly described as
intelle<^ual.

t A ruffian, ju<wt-civilized aboriginal of New South Wales.

TTE NEW YORK

F'JDIIC LIBRARY.

ASTOR. LENOX AND
TILDELN FOUNDATIONS.

s * *

£ ' >

° 8 H

V'-

» » S
s I '

PSYCHOLOGY. 25

the scale of human beings, sufficient had been presented by the occasional
intercourse between themselves and the Europeans to arrive at the con-
clusion that the nature of their intelledtual powers was by no means
questionable. They have frequently shown themselves endowed with great
quickness of perception, or an acuteness in the senses, not unusually
bestowed by Providence ... to supply other deficiencies." Elsewhere
(p. 348) he confirms this view. West's opinion of them, probably founded
on that of Backhouse and Walker, was (II. p. 88), ** their intelledlual
chara(5ler is low; yet not so inferior as often described. They appeared
stupid, when addressed on subjecfls which had no relation to their mode
of life ; but they were quick and cunning within their own sphere. Their
locomotion sharpened their powers of observation, without much increasing
their ideas." Backhouse's opinion was very similar (pp. 173-174), "After
having seen something ot the natives of V. D. Land, the convi(5\ion was
forced upon my mind, that they exceeded Europeans in skill, in those
things to which their attention had been dire(5led from childhood." W'hile
Walker reports : " We are perpetually reminded that in their taste for
amusements, and, in some respedts in their capacities, they are children.
But in many things that occur within the range of their knowledge and
acquirements, they shew a quickness of perception and powers of refle<5lion,
that prove them to be far from deficient in intelle(5l" (p. 105). In after
years, Bon wick (p. 4) writes: "When I saw the aboriginal boys and
girls in the Orphan School, near Hobart Town, I enquired of their
teacher in what respedl they differed from the children of the convic5\s
among whom they were thrown. All of the white race were very inferior
in point of physique and intellect to others of their age and colour, of
different parentage. They were, however, superior to the dark children
in facility of learning arithmetic and grammar, though not so in geography,
history and writing. Two of the coloured lads readily and cheerfully
answerec) my questions in geography, and indicated places on the map
with great correc5\ness." Walker speaks of an aboriginal boy at the Orphan
School, at Hobart, " who writes a very fair hand for any lad of his age.
The master informs me that with some exceptions these aboriginal
children are not inferior in capacity to European children (MS. Jour.
28th May, 1834)."

We are, however, indebted to two eminent Frenchmen for the fullest
details which throw light on the intelligence or of the want of it in these
natives. La Billardiere and Peron who visited the island within twelve years
of each other (1792 and 1803 respe(5lively) have left such minute records
of their intercourse with the aborigines of Tasmania before the days of
settlement that we cannot do better than reproduce their accounts as fully
as space permits of. Commencing with La Billardiere, the first explorer,
we find his companions had some difficulty in opening communication, as
on their approach the natives fled away with precipitation (I. ch. v. pp.
i8i-2ii). At last, "Two of the officers of our vessel . . . determined
to land. . . . They found four savages employed in laying fuel upon
three small fires. . . . The savages immediately fled, notwithstanding all
the signs of amity which they made them. . . . One of these savages
. . . having left behind him a small basket ... was bold enough to
come quite near to Cretin [one of the officers] in order to fetch it, with

26 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

a look ot assurance with which his bodily strength * seemed to inspire
him" (I. ch. V. pp. 221-222). Then when a boat landed, "the natives,
who, notwithstanding all the signs of amity they made them, would not
let them come within two hundred paces distance of him " (ibid. ch. v.
p. 223). Similar results were recorded the following day (ch. v. p. 225).
Finally we are told (ch. v. pp. 233-234), ** One of the officers . . . met
six of them [natives] walking slowly towards the south. . . . Their
surprise at so unexpected an encounter was visible in their countenances ;
but their numbers inspiring them with courage, they approached at the
invitation of the European, and bound round their heads a handkerchief
and neck-cloth which he offered them. They, however, appeared terrified
at the sight of his hanger, which he showed them how to use ; nor
were their fears quieted till he made them a present of it. He en-
deavoured in vain to persuade them to come to the place where our ships
lay at anchor; the savages walked away ... in a direction . . .
opposite to that which led to the shore. Some of our men, having landed
on the other side of the strait, came to a large fire round which eight
savages . . . sat warming themselves . . . They immediately ran away as
soon as they saw our people. On old woman, who had the care of
their provisions, which she did not choose to leave behind her, was
soon overtaken by some of the sailors. She accepted with an air of
satisfacflion a handkerchief which was given her, but was so terrified at
the sight of a hanger, which they presented to her, that she leaped
down a precipice more than forty [sic] feet in height, and ran away
amongst the rocks, where they soon lost sight of her.'* After this "they
discovered a number of the savages landing from a raft. As timid as
those we had seen before, they had hastened with all possible speed to
the land, where they made their escape into the woods*' (ch. v. p. 230).
It was, however, not until their second visit that the Frenchmen
succeeded in obtaining intervie^ys with the natives. La Billardiere then
relates (II. ch. x. pp. 32 — 66), "We advanced a few steps when a
sudden cry, arising from several voices united, issued from one spot,
and we perceived through the trees a number of natives, most of whom
appeared to be fishing on the borders of the lake. . . . We had
gone only a few steps before we met them. The men and youths were
ranged in front, nearly in a semicircle ; the women, girls and children
were a few paces behind. As their manner did not appear to indicate
any hostile design, I hesitated not to go up to the oldest, who accepted^
with a very good grace, a piece of biscuit I offered him, of which he
liad seen me eat. I then held out my hand to him as a sign of
friendship, and had the pleasure to perceive, that he comprehended my
meaning very well ; he gave me his, inclining himself a little. These
motions were accompanied by a pleasing smile. My companions also
advanced up to the others, immediately the best understanding prevailed
among us. They received with great joy the neck-cloths which we
offered them : the young people approached nearer us ; and one of them
had the generosity to give me a few shells of the whelk kind, pierced
near the middle and strung like a necklace. . . . This ornament was
the only one he possessed. ... A handkerchief supplied the place
of this present, gratifying the utmost wislies of my savage, who advanced

PSYCHOLOGY. 27

towards me, that I might tie it round his head for him, and who
expressed the greatest joy, as he lifted his hand up to feel it again and
again. . . The women were very desirous of coming nearer to us ;

and though the men made signs to them, to keep at a distance, their
curiosity was ready every moment to break through all other consider-
ations. The gradual increase of confidence, however, that took place,
obtained for them permission to approach. ... A pole-axe which
we used for cutting off some branches from the trees excited the
admiration of these people. As they perceived us willing to give them
anything in our possession, they did not scruple to beg it ; and when we
granted their request, they were overcome with joy. They were fully sen-
sible also of the value of our knives, and received a few tin vessels with
pleasure. When I showed them my watch, it attradled their desire,
and one of them, in particular, expressed his wish to possess it ; but
he quickly desisted from his request, when he found I was not willing
to part with it. The readiness with which we gave them our things
led them, no doubt, to presume that they might take anything belonging
to us, without asking for it : this obliged us to set bounds to their
desires ; but we found that they returned to us, without the least
resistance, such things as we could not dispense with for our own use.
. . . I wished to get a kangaroo skin ; among the savages about us
there happened to be only a young girl who had one. When I
proposed to her, to give it me in exchange for a pair of pantaloons,
she ran away to hide herself in the woods. The other natives appeared
truly hurt at her refusal, and called to her several times. At length
she yielded to their entreaties, and came to bring me the skin. . . .
She received a pair of pantaloons. . . . We showed her the manner
of wearing them ; but notwithstanding, it was necessary for us to put
them on for her ourselves. To this she yielded with the best grace
in the world, resting both her hands on our shoulders, to support
herself, while she lifted up first one leg, then the other, to put them
into this new garment. . . . We invited them all to come and sit
near our fire, and when they arrived there, one of the savages informed
us by unequivocal signs, that he had come to reconnoitre us during the
night. That we might understand he had seen us asleep, he inclined
his head on one side, laying it on the palm of his right hand, and
closing his eyes, and with the other, he pointed out the spot where we
had passed the night. He then acquainted us, by signs equally
expressive, that he was at the time on the other side of the brook,
whence he observed us. . . . We were desirous of showing these
savages the effecl: of our firearms. . . . They appeared to be a little
frightened at their report.*'

He continues, " I had not perceived the young girl for some time,
but happening to look behind me, 1 saw, with surprise, seven [women j
who had perched themselves on a stout limb of a tree, whence they
attentively watched our slightest movements. As they all squatted on the
bough they formed a pleasing group." Some of the savages accompanied
La Billardiere to the coast, and he says : ** They no doubt conceived it
to be our intention to return to Port D'Entrecasteaux, for we were twice
mistaken in che path, and they both times pointed out to us that which

28 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

led direclly to it. . . . We hoped to be able to prevail on some of them
to go on board with us ; but they were already leaving us to rejoin their
families. At our invitation, however, they deferred their departure. As
soon as the boat came, we invited some oi them to go on board. After
taking a long while to decide about it, three of them consented to get into
the boat ; but they got out again in great haste as we prepared to push
off from the shore. We then saw them walk quietly along by the sea,
looking towards us from time to time, and uttering cries of joy. The
next day we returned in a large party. Some of tlie natives soon came
to meet us, expressing by their cries the pleasure they felt at seeing us
again. A lively joy was depicted on all their features when they saw
us drawing near. The pains taken by one of the mothers to quiet her
infant, yet at the breast, who cried at sight of us, appeared to us very
engaging. She could not pacify him till she covered his eyes with her
hand, that he might not see us. None of these people appeared with
arms, but probably they had left them in the wood near ; for several of
us having expressed an intention of going into it, one of the savages
urgently entreated them not to go that way. Part of the crew, however,
walked a little way along the shore that they might enter the wood
unobserved by him ; but no sooner did one of the women perceive their
design, than she uttered horrible cries, to give notice to the other savages,
who entreated them to return towards the sea. Their confidence in us
was so great, that one of the women, who was suckling a child, was
not afraid to entrust it to several of us. When we departed for Port
D'Entrecasteaux, more than half these peaceful natives rose to accompany
us. Four young girls were also of the party, but they received with
indifference the garments we gave them, and immediately hung them on
the bushes near the path, intending, no doubt, to take them with them
on their return. As a proof they did not set much value on such presents,
we did not see on any of them a single garment which we had given
them the day before. All of them were of very cheerful disposition. No
doubt we lost much by not understanding the language of these natives,
for one of the girls said a great deal to us ; she talked a long while
with extraordinary volubility, though she must have perceived that we
could not comprehend her meaning ; no matter, she must talk. One of
the young girls having perceived a head at a distance, which the gunner
of the * Esp6rance * had carved on the stump of a tree, appeared at first
extremely surprised, and stopped short for a moment. She then went up
to it with us, and after having considered it attentively, named to us the
different parts, pointing them out at the same time with her hand. . .
'* The next day a great number of us landed near Port D'Entrecasteaux
to endeavour to see the savages again. It was not long before some of
them came to meet us, giving us tokens of the greatest confidence. They
first examined, with great attention, the insides of our boats, and then
they took us by the arm, and invited us to follow them along the shore.
W^e had scarcely gone a mile before we found ourselves in the midst of
eight-and-forty of the natives. The little children were very desirous of every-
thing shiny, and were not afraid to come up to us, to endeavour to pull
off our buttons. Their mothers, less curious with respedl to their own
dress than that of their children, held them up to us, that we might

PSYCHOLOGY. 29

decorate them with the ornaments which we had intended for themselves.
I ought not to omit a waggish trick which a young savage played one
of our people. The sailor had laid down a bag of shell fish at the foot
of a rock : the youth slily removed it to another place ; and let him search
a long while for it in vain ; at length he replaced it where the sailor
had placed it, and was highly diverted at the trick he had played him.
This numerous party was transported with admiration, when they saw the
effe(5ls of gunpowder thrown on the burning coals. They all entreated
us to let them have the pleasure of seeing it several times. Not being
able to persuade themselves that we had none but men among us, they
long believed, notwithstanding all we could say, that the youngest of us were
w^omen. Their curiosity on this head carried them further than we should
have expecfled, for they were not to be convinced till they had assured them-
selves of the fact. When we re-embarked these good people followed us
with their eyes for some time, before they left the shore, and then they
disappeared in the wood. Their way brought them at times to the shore
again, of which we were immediately informed by the cpes of joy with
which they made the air resound. These testimonies of pleasure did not
cease till we lost sight of them. . . . We saw with pleasure, that the
savages, who, at our last interview [the day before] had promised to
come near our anchoring place within two days, had kept their word.
We perceived a fire not far from our watering place. A great number
of us repaired immediately to the place of rendezvous. They soon quitted
their fire in order to come still nearer to us. We went to meet them ;
and when we were near them, they stopped, appearing well pleased at
seeing us come ashore. Being invited by some of our crew to dance in
a ring with them (they) imitated all their movements tolerably well. We
made them presents of a great number of things, which they let us
hang round their necks with strings, and soon they were almost covered
with them, apparently to their great satisfaction ; but they gave us nothing,
for they had brought nothing with them. A native, to whom we had
just given a hatchet, displayed great dexterity at striking several times
following in the same place, thus attempting to imitate one of our sailors
who had cut down a tree. We showed him that he must strike in
different places, so as to cut a notch, which he did immediately, and was
transported with joy when the tree was felled by his strokes. They
were astonished at the quickness with which we sawed the trunk in two ;
and we made them a present of some hand- saws, which they used with
great readiness, as soon as we had shown them the way. These savages
were much surprised at seeing us kindle the spongy bark of the Eucalyptus
resinifera in the focus of a burning-glass. He, who appeared the most
intelligent among them, was desirous of trying the effects himself, threw
the converging rays of the sun upon his thigh by its means ; but the
pain he felt took from him all inclination to repeat the experiment. We
let one of the natives see our ships through a good perspective glass,
and he soon yielded to our solicitations to go on board the * Recherche.'
He went up the side with a confident air, and examined the inside
of the ship with much attention. His looks were then directed chiefly
to such objects as might serve for food. Led by the similitude in shape
between two black swans on Cape Diemen and the Geese of Guinea,

30 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

which he saw on board, he asked for one, giving us to understand it
was to eat. When he came opposite our hen-coops, he appeared struck
with the beauty of a very large cock, which was presented to him ; and
on receiving it, he let us know^ that he would lose no time in broiling
and eating it. After having remained on board more than half-an-hour,
and been loaded with presents, he desired to return, and was immediately
carried ashore. We had taken an ape on shore with us, which afforded
much amusement to the savages ; and one of the crew took a goat with
him, which formed a subject of conversation for them for a long time,-
and to which they occasionally spoke, saying, tnedi (sit down). They
have given particular names to every vegetable. We assured ourselves,
that their botanical knowledge w^as unequivocal, by asking several of them,
at different times, the names of the same plants. The rest, before they
went away, gave us to understand, that the next day their families would
be at the place where we were ; but they appeared to apprehend our
meaning when we acquainted them that we should sail the same day,
and seemed to be much grieved at it."

At other meetings {tbid. ch. xi. pp. 72-75) ** from time to time, they
answered with shouts of joy to the shouts of our sailors. . . . Wlien we
were but a little way from the beach, they advanced towards us with-
out arms, their smiling countenances leaving us no room to doubt that
our visit gave them pleasure. Their joy was expressed by loud bursts
of laughter, while their countenances showed that they were well pleased
to see us. These savages expressed much thankfulness when we gave
them a few small pieces of stuffs of different colours, glass beads, a
hatchet, and some other articles of hardware. Several other savages came
out of the wood and approached us. An officer imagined that he should
not frighten them by letting them see the effects of our firearms ; but
they were alarmed at the report of the gun, immediately rose, and would
not sit down again. . . . We expressed our wishes to see them [the
wives and children] join us ; the savages informed us that we should
find them, after walking some time across the wood, in a path which
they immediately took, inviting us to follow them. This we did ; but it
was not long before they expressed their desire to see us return towards
our ships, and parted from us, frequently looking back to watch our
motions. On my pronouncing the word qnangloa, however, which signifies,
jijtll you come, they stopped, and I went up to them, with an officer of
the * Recherche.* They continued to lead us along the same path. In
this way we walked on for a quarter of an hour, holding them by the
arm, when on a sudden they quickened their pace, so that it was not
easy for us to follow them farther. It appeared to us that they wished
we should leave them, for some of them would not allow us to hold them
by the arm any longer, and walked by themselves, at some distance
from us. One of our crew, desirous of rejoining one of tlie fugitives,
ran after liim, bawling ; this alarmed all the rest, who immediately
hastened away and kept at a considerable distance from us. No doubt
they were desirous to reach the place where they had deposited their
weapons ; for they struck out of the path a little, and presently we saw
them with three or four spears each, which they carried away. They
then invited us to follow them, but we were not willing to go any farther."

PSYCHOLOGY. 3 1

Peron*s account now follows. " In looking in the dired^ion from which
cries had proceeded, we perceived two savages, who ran along the shore,
both making great gestures of surprise and admiration. . . . We answered
by some shouts, and tried to approach the bank ; but instead of waiting
for us, they dived into the forest and disappeared. In continuing our
journey, we arrived at a small creek, at the end of which there was a
pretty valley. We had hardly set foot ashore before two aborigines
showed themselves at the top of a hillock. At the signs of friendship
we made thehi, one ot them threw himself, rather than descended from
the rock. His physiognomy had nothing wild or harsh about it, his air
expressed at once goodwill and surprise. That which seemed to strike him
was the whiteness of our skin : wishing, no doubt, to assure himself that
this colour was the same on the whole of the body, he opened suc-
cessively our waistcoats and shirts ; and his astonishment manifested itself
by great cries of surprise, and, above all, by extremely rapid stampings
of the foot. Our long boat, however, appeared to occupy him even more
than our persons; and after having examined us for some moments, he
jumped into this vessel. There, without in the least troubling himself
about the presence of the sailors, he appeared as if absorbed in his new
examination ; the thickness of the ribs and timbers, the solidity of its
construcf^ion, its rudder, its oars, its masts, its sails; he observed every-
thing with that silence and deep attention which are the least doubtful
signs of interest and profound admiration. Just then, one of the oarsmen
wishing, doubtless, to add to his surprise, gave him a glass bottle full
of arrack, which formed part of the rations of the crew. The lustre of
the glass made the savage utter a cry of astonishment, he took the
bottle and examined it for a few moments; but his curiosity was soon
brou»;bt back to the boat, he threw the bottle into the sea, and then
returned to his former examination. Neither the cries of the sailor for
the loss of his bottle of arrack, nor the haste of one of his comrades
to jump into the water to save it, appeared to affe(5l him. He attempted
several times to push out the long boat; but the cable which held it
fast rendering his efforts useless, he was forced to abandon them, and
to return to us, after having given us the most striking example we
had ever seen of attention and reflection among savage peoples. Arrived
at the top of the hillock, we found the second aborigine ; he was an
old man, about fifty years of age ; his physiognomy, like that of the
youn^ man, was open and frank ; and despite some undoubted signs of
agitation and fear, one could easily distinguish candour and good nature.
This old man, having examined us both with as much surprise and
satisfacftion as the first one, and having verified, as he did, the colour
of our chests by opening our waistcoats and shirts, he made a sign to
two women, who held off, to approach ; they hesitated for a few moments,
after which the elder one came to us, followed by the younger more
timid and troubled one. The former appeared, like the old man, good
and well disposed. The young woman had an interesting physiognomy.
Her eyes had expression and something spiritneL [in them] which sur-
prised us, and which we have never found since in any other woman

32 . H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

of her nation;* she appeared, moreover, to dearly love her child [a girl],
and her care for it had that affe<5lionate and sweet charatfter which is
the particular attribute of maternal tenderness. At this juncture the young
woman had a surprise. One of our sailors had a pair of fur gloves
which he took off and put in his pocket on nearing the fire. On seeing
this the young woman uttered so loud a cry that at first we were
alarmed ; but we were not slow to understand the cause of this species
of fright, and by her expressions and gestures we could not doubt but
that she had taken the gloves for real hands, or for a species of live
skin, which could be taken off, put in one's pocket, and put on again
as one pleased*' (ch. xii. pp. 220-224).

Then, Peron continues, " The young girl made herself more remarked
every moment by the sweetness of her physiognomy and the equally
amiable and spirituel expression of her looks ; of a constitution much
feebler than her brother and sister, she was more lively and passionate
than they. M. Freycinet, who sat beside her, appeared to be more
especially the obje(5l of her enticing ways, and the least experienced eye
could have distinguished in the looks of this innocent pupil of nature
that delicate shade which gives to simple playfulness a more serious and
deliberate characfter. Even coquetry itself appeared to have been called
to the aid of natural attractions. Having taken some charcoal in her
hands, she in a moment made herself black enough to frighten one :
what seemed most singular to us was the complacency with which this
young girl appeared to regard us after this op>eratioD, .and the confident
air which this new ornament had spread over her face. While this was
going on, the little children were imitating the grimaces and gestures of
their parents, and nothing was more curious than to see these little
negroes stamping their feet for joy at hearing our songs; they had
unconsciously familiarized themselves with us, and towards the end of
the interview, they made use of our notice as freely as if they had
known us for a long time. Every little present we gave them filled
them with pleasure, and redoubled their regard for us; altogether they
appeared to us lively, frolicsome, and mischievous. Oure-Ouri had a
rush bag of an elegant and peculiar construction, which I very much
desired to have, as this young girl also showed me some very amiable
attentions. I ventured to ask her for her little bag; she immediately,
without hesitation, put it into my hands, accompanying the gift with an
obliging smile and some affectionate [sic] phrases, which I regretted to
be unable to understand. In return, I offered her a handkerchief and a
tomahawk, the ^ use of which I showed her brother, and which was a
cause of astonishment and exclamation to the whole family. As night
was approaching, we prepared to re-join our long boat ; the old mother
and the young woman with her children, except the biggest, remained
in the hut ; the others came with us ; the path along which we walked
bristled with shrubs and briars ; our poor savages, being quite naked,
seemed to have much to suffer from the scratches they received ; we
pitied Oure-Oure, but without appearing to perceive the numerous scratches

• Judging from the extravagant way in which this girl is spoken of later on, it appears
probable that the susceptible naturaUst was much smitten with her charms.

mmi^mmmMbA***

FIDLX UBRARY.

AdTOK, LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNOATIONi.

PSYCHOLOGY. 33

which covered her thighs and stomach, she walked bravely in the middle
of these thick brakes, chatting to Freycinet, without hope of making
herself understood, getting angry at not being so, and at not being able
to understand herself, accompanying her talk with enticing gestures and
gracious smiles, which coquetry could not have rendered more expressive.
In approaching our place of landing, we heard several musket shots,
which caused great fright to our good companions, poor Oure-Ouri, above
all, was horribly afraid ; her fears soon increased at the aspect of a
numerous troop of our companions from the * Naturaliste * who came to
meet us. After telling them of the good reception we had met with at
the hands of the aborigines, they hastened to load them with various
presents ; but nothing produced such a good effect as a long red feather
which Breton gave to the young OurS-Ouri ; she jumped for joy, she
called her father and brother, she cried, she laughed, in a word she
seemed intoxicated with pleasure and happiness. At last we boarded
our two long boats. The good V. D. Landers did not leave us for an
instant, and when we pushed out, their sorrow showed itself in a most
touching manner : they made signs for us to come and see them again ;
and as if to indicate the place to us, they lit a large fire on the little
hillock of which I have spoken, and it seems they even passed the night
there, for we saw a fire there until dawn. Thus ended our first inter-
view with the inhabitants of V. D. Land. All the details I have
described are given with the most rigorous exactitude. The sweet con-
fidence which the inhabitants had in us ; the affectionate proof of good
will which they lavished upon us, the sincerity of their demonstrations,
the frankness of their manners, and the touching ingenuousness of their
caresses, all concurred in developing in us feelings of most tender
interest" {ibid. ch. xii. pp. 227-231).

Later on he says : " On my return, I found that the little yawl of
the ' Geographe,' having gone to fish on Bruny Island, the aborigines
had appeared in large numbers, and that, loaded with presents by our
companions, they had passed the greater part of the day amongst them
(ch. ii. p. 235). Early in the morning of the 31st of January, I landed
on Bruny Island. I had already proceeded out of sight of the landing
place, when, having rounded a big point, I perceived about twenty
savages who were approaching me along the shore : I did not hesitate
to retrace my steps, and in thus withdrawing met Heirisson and Bellefin.
They offered to return with me to the savages in order to open com-
munications with them. We were already close to the troop, when,
suddenly, it entered the forest and disappeared ; without attempting to
pursue the aborigines, which their agility would have rendered quite
useless, we contented ourselves in calling them, showing them different
objects, and, above all, in waving our handkerchiefs. At these signs of
friendship the troop hesitated a moment, then stopped and decided to
await us. We then discovered we had to do with women ; there was
not a single male amongst them. We were preparing to join them, when
one of the oldest, separating herself from her companions, made a sign
to us to stop and sit down by calling out loudly, midi-midi (sit down,
sit down) ; she seemed also to beg us to lay aside our weapons, the
sight of which frightened them. These preliraiilary conditions having

34 H- I-ING ROTH. —ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

been fulfilled, the women squatted on their heels, and from that moment
appeared to abandon themselves without reserve to the liveliness of their
dispositions, all speaking at once, all questioning us at the same time,
appearing often to criticize us and to be laughing at our expense; making,
in a word, a thousand gestures and contortions as singular as they were
varied. Bellefin began to sing, and accompanied himself with lively and
animated gestures ; the women were immediately silent, observing his
gestures with as much attention as they seemed to give to his songs.
As soon as a couplet was finished, some applauded by loud shouts,
others laughed to splitting, while the younger, and no doubt more timid
girls, remained silent, showing nevertheless, by their actions and the
expression of their faces, their surprise and their satisfaction. Two or
three young girls, of from 15 to 16 years of age, had in the expression
of their countenances something most artless, affectionate, and sweet, as
if the better qualities of the soul must exist, even in the midst of the
savage tribe of the human race, as the especial appanage of youth.
Amongst the elder women, some had a coarse and ignoble face ; others,
fewer in number, a wild and sullen look ; but, in all, one observed that
air of uneasiness and dejection which misfortune and servitude imprint
on the forehead of every being who bears the yoke. One only had,
among all her companions, preserved great confidence, with much cheer-
fulness and gaiety. After Bellefin had finished his song, she began to
imitate his gestures and his tone of voice in a very original and funny
way, which greatly amused her companions. The deference we showed
these women, and perhaps also the fresh charms which we owed to
their cares,* seemed to increase their goodwill and their confidence in
us ; but nothing, however, could decide them to approach any nearer.
At the least movement which we made, or seemed to make, to break
the conditions imposed, tl)cy all jumped up in a hurry, and took to
flight : in order, therefore, to enjoy their presence longer, we were
obliged to conform entirely to their wishes. After having loaded them
with presents and caresses [sic] we judged it time to return to the
landing place ; and our V. D. Landers, appearing to be about to go in
the same direction, the two troops started ; but we were still obliged to
give in to these inexorable women, and were condemned to walk along
the flat shore, while they marched over the parallel sand-hills. Our route
all the time was not less lively than our interview; and from the top of
the sandhills many pleasantries and enticements were sent to us, to which
we endeavoured to respond as expressively as was possible. All at once,
one of the women uttered a loud cry, which the others repeated with
fright: they had discovered our small vessel and our companions. We
tried to calm their fears ; it was all useless, and the troop was already
plunging into the forest, when the woman, who almost alone had borne
the responsibility of our interview, appeared to alter her mind. At her
voice there was a movement of hesitation ; she spoke for a moment or two
to the others ; but being, as it seemed to us, unable to persuade them to
follow her, she descended alone from the sand-hills, and walking along the
shore at some distance in front of us, with much assurance, and even

* These women blackened the faces of their visitors.

PSYCHOLOGY. 35

with a kind of pride, she seemed to defy the timidity of her companions.
The latter, in their turn, appeared ashamed of their weakness ; little by
little they became bolder, and decided at last to return to the shore. It
was, therefore, with this numerous and singular escort that we arrived at
our ships, near to which, by a chance difficult to foresee, all the husbands
of these poor women had been assembled for some minutes. In spite of
the most unequivocal proofs of the goodwill and generosity of our fellow-
countrymey, they still preserved a disturbed and sullen expression ; their
looks were wild and threatening ; and in their whole attitude one distin-
guished an air of constraint, and malevolence, and treachery, which they
in vain sought to hide ; it seemed as though they were mortified at the
failure of their various attacks,* while at the same time they dreaded our
vengeance. A few days later I had the pleasure of meeting the same
woman who has so often been mentioned. I then learnt that her name
was Arra-Maida, Petit drew her portrait ; therein will be noted that '
character of assurance and dignity which so eminently distinguished this
woman among all her companions " (ch. ii. pp. 250-256).

During another excursion, says Peron, *' on approaching the bank, we
found a very great fire. Round about it, as if strewn by chance, were
nearly all the objecfls which we 'had given to the aborigines, or which
they had stolen from us even at the peril of their lives. We had pre-
viously found several other things, spread here and there in the woods,
and we were convinced that, having satisfied a childish curiosity, these
ignorant men, as if embarrassed by our favours, abandoned the objetft as
soon as it ceased to please or amuse them " (ch. xii. p. 257). Still later
Peron's party met, on the south side of Oyster Bay, fourteen aborigines
colle(5led round the fire, who received it with transports, expressive at
once of surprise, admiration, and pleasure. '"• Medi-medi' (sit down, sit
down) were the first words they spoke to us. We sat down : they grouped
themselves around us. The arms laid aside, we regarded each other mutually
for some moments. We were so novel each to the other ! The abor-
igines wished to examine our calves and our chests ; we allowed them
to do this as much as they desired, and cries, often repeated, were the
expression of surprise which the whiteness of the skin seemed to excite
in them. They soon wished to carry their examination further still : per-
haps doubting whether we were constituted like them, or wishing to assure
themselves with regard to our sex ; perceiving, however, our extreme
repugnance to such an examination, they only insisted with regard to one
of our sailors, who, on account of his youth, seemed better able to verify
their conje(5\ures or to dissipate their doubts. At my request, this young
man decided to give them this satisfaction, and the savages appeared
quite satisfied ; but hardly had they recognized that we were constituted
like themselves, than they began to shout so loudly together for aston-
ishment and joy, that we were stunned. After thus devoting some
moments to the examination of each other, Petit did some jugglery tricks
which greatly diverted them, and drew from them the most bizarre
demonstrations of pleasure and enthusiasm ; but nothing surprised them

* The aborigines had on several occasions thrown spears at P^ron's party, they themselves

being hidden in the forest.

36 H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

more than to see Rouget stick a pin into the calf of his leg without
showing the slightest pain, and without drawing a single drop of blood.
At this wonder, they looked at each other in silence, and then, all together,
they began to howl like madmen. Unfortunately for me, there were some
pins among our presents, which they had begged of us. One of the men,
wishing no doubt to ascertain whether I shared this insensibility which
they had just admired, approached me without saying anything, and gave
me such a dig in the leg with a pin that I could not restrain myself
from uttering a cry of p$in, all the sharper from the greatness of my
surprise. [He then says he obtained the native words for several adlions,
but he does not state what the native words are.] Generally, they
appeared to me to have much intelligence; they grasped my gestured
with ease; from the very first instant they seemed to perfedlly under-
stand their objedl ; they willingly repeated words which I had not been
able to seize at first, and often laughed to splitting, when, wishing to
repeat them, I made mistakes, or pronounced them badly. I must not
here omit to mention an interesting observation which I then made: it
was that they had no idea of the adlion of embracing. [He tried to
make them understand by pradlical demonstrations what an embrace is,
but as their sole response was ** Nidegd " (I do not understand), he con-
cluded that kissing and embracing were unknown to these people.] While
Petit and I were thus engaged in our investigations, we suddenly heard
loud cries in the forest. At these cries the savages rose precipitately,
seized their weapons, and looked towards the sea with an expression of
surprise and fierceness. They seemed very agitated when we perceived
a small boat from our ships running along the coast at a little distance
off. I do not doubt that this was the cause of their alarm, and that
it was signalled from various points by some sort of sentinels, perhaps
by their women. Soon, fresh shouts were heard, and as they no doubt
indicated that the boat was receding from the shore, the aborigines
appeared to calm down a little.'* [He relates that he managed to pacify
them so far as to get them to lay down their weapons, but neither he
nor Petit could continue their drawings and observations, because the
aborigines had become so restless and distradled.] (ch. xiii. pp. 278-283).
Reviewing the general condition of the Tasmanian aborigines, Peron
says (ch. xx. sec. i. p. 448) : " Without any form of regular government,
without any special arts, without any idea of agriculture, of the use of
metals, or the domestication of animals, without clothing, without any
fixed habitation or retreat other than a miserable break-wind of bark,
without any other weapons than the spear or club, always wandering,
the inhabitant of these regions unites without doubt all the characteristics
of a non-social man ; he is, par excellence, the child of nature, differing
how much though, both morally and physically, from the seductive pic-
tures created for him by imagination and enthusiasm."

We have seen above that Peron spoke of the affecflion one of the
women manifested for her offspring, and in the V. D. Land Annual for
1834 (p. 78), it is stated, ** They are extremely fond of their children,
and treat their women kindly." Backhouse relates (p. 83) that a sealer
came and took away a child that he had had by a native woman, now
married to a man of her nation ; its mother was greatly distressed at

PSYCHOLOGY. 37

parting with it;" and continues (p. 147), "When walking with J. Batman*
in the garden, he pointed out the grave of a child of one of the blacks
that died at his house. When it expired, the mother and other native
women made great lamentation, and the morning after it was buried,
happening to walk round his garden before sunrise, he found its mother
weeping over its grave ; yet it is asserted by some that these people are
without natural affedHon." West describes the following incidents (II.
p. 80) ; ** It was noon : the mother, her infant, a little boy, had been
without food all day ; the father refused any part of that he had pro-
vided. Another of the tribe was more generous : when he handed the
woman a portion, before she tasted any herself, she fed her child. . . .
They were sensible of domestic affections : the tribes were scattered by
the last war, some were captives, others fugitives, eleven were already
lodged at Richmond, when Gilbert Robertson brought up two others, a
man and woman ; they were recognized from afar by the part]^ first
taken ; these raised the cry of welcome ; it was a family meeting, and
deeply moved the spe(5lators. The parents embraced their fchildren with
rapture and many tears." " When a separation for a long period has
happened, on meeting again, they show all the attachment of relatives "
(Walker p. io8). At Flinders island when W. J. Darling brought in
some women, Jumbo one of the women already resident, called one of
these her sister, having belonged to the same mob as herself; I witnessed
the joy she evinced on hearing that this woman was , in the neighbour-
hood. A. Cottrell informed me that their first interview was very afFecSling.
Neither spoke for some time, but throwing their arms round each other's
necks, they remained in that attitude, the tears trickling down their
cheeks, until at length, these first emotions having somewhat subsided,
they began to talk and laugh, and exhibit all the demonstrations of
extravagant joy {ibid. 119). Nor was their affedlion limited to their
domestic circle, for West (II. p. 21) tells us: **Nor were they indifferent
to the charms of a native land. A visitor inquired of a native woman
at Flinders whether she preferred that place to several others mentioned,
where she had lived at times, and she answered with indifference ; but
when, to test her attachment to early haunts, the querist said, < and not
Ringarooma ? * she exclaimed with touching animation, * Oh yes ! Ring-
arooma I Ringarooma!* A chief accompanied the commandant to Launceston
in 1847. At his own earnest request, he was taken to see the Cataracfl
Basin of the South Esk, a river which foams and dashes through a narrow
channel of precipitous rocks. It was a station of his people. As he drew
nigh, his excitement was intense ; he leaped from rock to rock, with the
gestures and exclamations of delight. So powerful were his emotions that
the lad with him became alarmed, lest the associations of the scene
should destroy the discipline of twelve years* exile; but the woods were
silent; he heard no voice save his own, and he returned pensively with
his young companion." The same historian also states (II. p. 89) that
some captives became strongly attached to their gaoler who had treated
them with studious compassion, so that they left the prison with tears!

* John Batman, the founder of Melbourne, one of the principal persons employed in

capturing the Tasmanian aborigines.

3B H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Backhouse mentions (p. 90) that one of the natives, having been nursed
through an illness, " showed many demonstrations of gratitude. This
virtue is often exhibited among these people." Walker found (p. iii)
** that they are far from being insensible to kindness, but are susceptible,
on the contrary, of some of the best feelings of the heart." They also
showed kindness to those in distress, thus : ** Two white men were lost
in crossing a river on a raft before the tide was out. When some of
the native women saw them in danger, they swam to the raft and
begged the men to get upon their backs, and they would convey them
to the shore ; but the poor men refused, being overcome with fear. These
kind-hearted women were greatly affecfted by this accident " (Backhouse,
p. 147).

From the pracftical jokes they played on the Frenchmen there is no
doubt they possessed a considerable sense of humour. West says (II.
p. 88) : ** They were fond of imitation and humour : they had their drolls
and mountebanks: they were able to seize the peculiarities of individuals
and exhibit them with considerable force."

We have seen above (p. 33) that they received presents with great
joy, that they stamped their feet for joy (p. 31), and (p. 36) that the
natives laughed to splitting at ,the mispronounciation of their language
by Peron, that at friendly meetings and other occasions Backhouse (pp.
81-180) and Peron (p. 225) tells us they shouted for joy. Their joy was
expressed by loud bursts of laughter ; at the same time, they carried
their hands to their heads, and made a quick tapping with their feet on
the ground (La Billardiere, II. p. 72). According to Walker (p. 100),
" They appear to be a very sociable people, and a(5l remarkably in
concert. The occupation of one is generally the occupation of all,
whether in their amusements or engagements of a graver nature. If a
stranger accosts them in their own language, or by any other means
affords them gratification, they express their pleasure by a simultaneous
shout, so universal that one would imagine they were acftuated by the
heart of one man." Nevertheless, according to the same traveller (p. loi),
** They show some relucftance to hunt together, if the tribes that compose
the party have once been at warfare. . . . They seem to be aware that
these are times of high excitement, when they might be off their guard
and quarrels might ensue."

Backhouse mentions that under circumstances of rage among this people
it is common for them to seize a stick and brandish it about (p. 103).
During the war they naturally became vindictive. Desperate characfters,
who have absconded into the woods, have no doubt committed the
greatest outrages upon the Natives, and these ignorant beings, incapable
of discrimination, are now filled with enmity and revenge against the
whole body of white inhabitants" (Colonel Arthur, Col. and Slav., p. 5).
A Government Order says : ** It is evident, from the hostile spirit of the
natives, and from the cunning which Seems comn^on to all savages, that
they are not to be approached without some personal danger (ibid, p.
34), and for such behaviour as this no one can reasonably blame them."

Backhouse, Walker and Davies speak of their improvidence. The
first-named says (p. 175), **The W'allaby and Brush Kangaroo are become
scarce on Flinders Island, in consequence of the improvidence of the people

PSYCHOLOGY. 39

in killing all they can, when they have opportunity, and often more than
their wants require.'* Walker says : ** An aborigine has no idea of re-
straining his dogs so long as they will run and have plenty of game.
This kind of wholesale destru(5\ion has rendered the kangaroos extremely
scarce in the nei«;hbourhood of the settlement, though once very abundant.
(MS. Jour., 6 Dec. 1833.) Davies repeats this practically (p. 415).

Like many other savages they found civilisation very irksome. Back-
house mentions (p. 96), ** W. J. Darling had four natives that he brought
from Flinders Island, dressed in decent clothes, and he took them into the
town, where their cheerful intelligent appearance excited a favourable
impression in the minds of many who had knovvn little of the aborigines
but as exasperated enemies; also (pp. 480-481) that at the settlement on
Flinders Island they have left off their dancing and hunting, and are
acquiring the English language and useful arts, as well as an historical
knowledge, at least, of Christianity." Nevertheless, when they had the
opportunity, they preferred roaming about in their wild state. Hobbs
(Evidence, Col. and Slav., p. 50) says: "Our natives are not susceptible
of civilization ; their children, even if taken away when infants, would
return to their parents, like wild ducks, when they grew up.'* Prinsep
(p. 79) says : ** Great pains have been taken with those that are caught,
to civilize and educate them ; but, except learning a few English sentences,
it was to little purpose, as they invariably ran back to the woods when
an opportunity offered." West (II. p. 16) relates: "The children of abor-
igines, adopted by the whites, when they grew to maturity, were drawn
to the woods, and resumed the habits of their kindred. A black girl,
trained in Launceston, thus allured, laid aside her clothing, which she had
worn nearly from infancy. It was thus with many." Calder's researches
lead to a similar conclusion (J.A.I, p. 10): "Of firearms they learned
the use from men and women of their own race, who, having been taken
in early infancy by the settlers, were brought up in their own families,
mostly as their own children ; but they invariably left them when they
grew up, and rejoined their own people ; possessed, as the whole race
was, of most excellent memories, they never lost the language of our
country."

But while in the settlement they showed themselves apt pupils. Back-
house relates (p. 93) : " The four aborigines took tea with us in the
cabin ; they were very cheerful, and used cups and saucers with dexterity.
A large number of the native women took tea with us; they condudled them-
selves in a very orderly manner, and after washing up the the tea-things,
put them in their places, and showed other indications of advancement
in civilization. Another party of aborigines breakfasted with us. We
distributed among them some cotton handkerchiefs, and some tobacco.
Some of the women immediately commenced hemming the handkerchiefs,
having learned this art from the wife of the Catechist " (Backhouse, p.
170). J. B. Walker has in his possession a very well written letter of
Geo. Walter Arthur, of the Ben Lomond tribe, perhaps the aborigine
who had advanced furthest of any in civilization. They also improved
in the art of war during their last struggle for existence (Arthur, Col.
and Slav., pp. 22-23): "The aborigines have during a considerable period
of time evinced a growing spirit of hatred, outrage, and enmity against

40 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANU.

the subjedls of His Majesty, and are putting in pradlice modes of hostility,
indicating gradual, though slow advances in art, system, and method."
Laplace (III. ch. xviii. p. 197) is not quite corre<5l when he says: "These
islanders, whom the first European navigators described to us as men whose
intelledlual faculties were hardly superior to the instindt of animals, have
changed greatly ; for to-day, when excited by the thirst for vengeance or
for pillage, they show such an intelligence, such a craftiness, that the
colonists, whose dwellings lie farthest back at the edge of the forests,
among whom fear engenders superstition, believe them sorcerers." The
early travellers, such as Peron and La Billardi^re, spoke well of the
people; and the colonists, even the unfortunate lowest, never regarded
them as sorcerers, but certainly considered them as little better than wild
beasts. Dove's statement (p. 251) is a little too severe : ** Beyond the
construcflion of rude canoes, their ingenuity was rarely exercised in devices
of a useful or ornamental kind. Of a sluggish and phlegmatic tempera-
ment, they were aroused to adlion only by the pressure of want, or by
the joyousness which nature has connedled with muscular play." In fadl
they were very like human beings in general.

Regarding their courage, Laplace says (III. ch. xviii. p. 197): "They
make up for the courage and physical force which is lacking in them
by cunning and an incredible agility." Burnet (Arthur, Col. and Slav., p.
35) also says that they are quite undistinguished by personal courage.
Other evidence (Govern. Ord., signed by J. Burnet as Colonial Secretary,
see " Col. and Slav./* p. 66) would seem to confirm this : " The native
tribes of this island are well known to be, with few exceptions, extremely
timid, flying with precipitation at the appearance of two or three armed
persons, yet the numerous attacks they have made on defenceless habitations,
and the cruel murders they have committed with impunity on the white
population, have had the effecft of rendering them daily more bold and
crafty." But on the other hand Breton (p. 404) allows that: "It is uni-
versally admitted in the colony, that these children of the wilderness are
not deficient in courage, and are wont to show each other fair play, not
seeming at all inclined to avail themselves of any unfair advantage," and
Cook's people found them absolutely without fear, for, as Anderson records
(Third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) : "They approached us from the woods with-
out betraying any marks of fear, or rather with the greatest confidence
imaginable, for none of them had any weapons, except one, who held in
his hand a small stick. When, however, the officer of that party fired
a musket in the air, it sent them off with the greatest precipitation. [But
the next day] we had not been long landed, before about twenty of them,
men and boys, joined us, without expressing the least sign of fear or
distrust." Holman recording what he heard says : " They seem to have
but little fear of death" (IV, ch. xii. p. 405). Walker (p. 105) "Found
nothing servile or abjedl in their condudl when they are under the influ-
ence of fear. But during the war of extermination it was said (Minutes
Ex. Coun. Col. and Slav., p. 11): "Such is the distrust of the aboriginal
natives, that it seems they invariably fly from any two or three armed
persons."

We have seen how difficult the French discoverers found it to open
communication with the natives, nor were they at all singular in this

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

PSYCHOLOGY. 4 1

respecft. Mortimer, for instance, gives us the following account of an
interview* (pp. 18-7.0) : ** Our third mate on landing, saw several of them
[natives] moving off. He approached them alone and unarmed, making
every sign of friendship his fancy could suggest; but though they mimicked
his adlions exadlly, and laughed heartily, he could not prevail upon them
to stay. The next morning, as we approached the shore, we observed
several natives walking among the trees. When they perceived we had
landed, and were pretty near them, they began to chatter very loud and
walk away ; upon which we called to them, imitating their noise as well
as we could, and had the satisfadlion to see them stop at a little distance
from us. Several of them having long poles or spears in their hands,
we made signs to them to throw them aside, with which they immediately
complied ; and in return we put away our muskets. They now suffered
us to come so near them as to take some biscuit, a pen-knife, and other
trifles from us; but they took great care to avoid being touched. Some
of them, indeed, would not accept of anything unless it was thrown to
them; and the whole party kept edging off by degrees. They seemed
eager to procure everything they saw ; and had a great inclination for
our hats. Cox gave one of them a silk handkerchief, and in return he
threw him a fillet of skin which he wore tied round his head. The
party which we saw consisted of about fourteen or fifteen men and women,
but there were several more concealed among the trees. Upon the whole,
they seemed to us to be a timorous, harmless race of people, and afford
a fine pi(5ture of human nature in its most rude and uncultivated st£ite.
We spent some time in endeavouring to inspire these poor people with
confidence ; but though they appeared to be very merry, laughing and
mimicking our adlions, and frequently repeating the words, Warray Warruy
Waiy they kept retiring very fast, and we soon lost them among the
trees. Being willing to, if possible, see something more of these singular
people, we followed the track they had taken. We saw a smoke on the
opposite side of the island, and made all the haste we could to come
up with it ; but the natives had fled before our arrival." Bass's experience
was very similar : ** Their extreme shyness prevented any communication.
As soon as the boat approached the shore, they ran into the woods "
(Collins, ch. xv. p. 168). Captain Bligh was more fortunate when he
first met the natives (pp. 50-51), and the account he gives * of another
party, met by one of his associates, is as follows \ihid, p. 52) : ** The
account which I had from Brown was, that, in his search for plants,
he had met an old man, a young woman, and two or three children.
The old man at first appeared alarmed, but became familiar on being
presented with a knife. He, nevertheless, sent away this young woman,
who went very reluctantly." Lieutenant Marion's party did not find the
people at all shy. for he says (pp. 27-29) : ** The next day some officers,
soldiers, and sailors, went on shore without any opposition. The aborigines
seemed good-natured; they collecfled wood, etc., and made a kind of pile.
They proceeded to offer to those newly landed some branches of dry
wood, lighted, and appeared to invite them to set fire to the pile. The
savages did not seem at all astonished ; they remained round us without

At Oyster Bay. Maria Island (not Grelat Oyster Bay on the East coast).

42 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

making any demonstration either of friendship or hostility." In the Papers,
Roy. Soc. Tas. for Aug., 1873, is the following statement of an old
settler, whose testimony tends to show that later on some at least were
neither timid nor shy. ** Robert Thirkell, of Woodstock, near Longford,
arrived in Tasmania in the year 1820, and was constantly among the
natives. He found them a peaceable and inoffensive race of people, and
in no case had he to resort to force to prevent mischief. On the first
occasion the natives visited his place of residence on the Macquarie River,
about twenty men, and the same number of women and children came,
after which various numbers came at intervals. When he was engaged
building a house, the men came and curiously inspe(5led the work, and
would use gimlets and other tools. At other times, Thirkell states that
he met them in the bush, and in no case had he any cause to fear.
. . . He has met the chief, who would walk up and put his hand on
the horse's neck, talk as well as he could, and be quite friendly."

Their apparent want of curiosity seemed to arouse the astonishment
of many of the early explorers and settlers. Anderson remarks (Cook's
Third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) : ** They received every present we made
them without the least appearance of satisfa(ftion," while Marion's
historian reports (pp. 28-29) : ** We endeavoured to gain their goodwill
by giving them little presents : they rejedled with disdain all that we
offered them, even iron, looking-glasses, handkerchiefs, and pieces of
cloth. We showed them the fowls and ducks which had been brought
from the vessel, in order to make them understand that we desired to
purchase of them. They took these animals, which they showed they
did not know, and threw them angrily away." Bass narrates the
following incident : — ** In their [his and his companions] way up, a
human voice saluted them from the hills ; on which they landed,
carrying with them one of several swans, which they had just shot.
Having nearly reached the summit, two females .... suddenly
appeared at some little distance before them, snatched up each a small
basket, and scampered off. A man then presented himself, and suffered
them to approach him without any signs of fear or mistrust. He
received the swan joyfully, seeming to esteem it a treasure. With
some difficulty they made him comprehend their wish to see his place
of residence. He pointed over the hills, and proceeded onwards ; but
his pace was slow and wandering, and he often stopped under pretence
of having lost the track ; which led them to suspecft that his only aim
was to amuse and tire them out. Fearing, therefore, to lose the
remaining part of the Hood tide, . . they parted from him in

great friendship . . . He was a man of middle age, with a counten-
ance more expressive of benignity and intelligence than of that ferocity
or stupidity which generally characfterized the other natives . . . No
part of their dress attradled his attention, except the red silk handker-
chiefs round their necks. Their firearms were to him objedls neither
of curiosity nor of fear. . . . His frank and open deportment led
them to form a favourable opinion of the disposition of the inhabitants"
(Collins, ch. xvi. pp. 187-188) ; and Captain Bligh has the following
account of their strange behaviour when he offered them articles which
must have been unknown to them before: — "The natives not coming

PSYCHOLOGY. 43

near us, I determined to go after them, and we set out, in a boat,
towards Cape Frederick Henry. ... I found landing impradlicable,
and therefore came to a grapnel, in hopes of their coming to us. . .
Soon after we heard their voices like the cackling of geese, and twenty
persons came out of the wood, twelve of whom went round to some
rocks when the boat could get nearer to the shore than we were.
Those who remained behind were women. We approached within
twenty yards of them, but there was no possibility of landing, and I
could only throw to the shore, tied up in paper, the presents which I
intended for them. I showed the diflferent articles as I tied them up,
but they would not untie the paper till I made an appearance of
leaving them. Then they opened the parcels, and as they took the
articles out, placed them on their heads. On seeing this, I returned
towards them, when they instantly put everything out of their hands,
and would not appear to take notice of anything that we had given
them. After throwing a few more beads and nails on shore, I made
signs for them to go to the ship, and they, likewise, made signs for
me to land, but as this could not be eflfe(fted, I left them. . ...
When they first came in sight they made a prodigious chattering in
their speech. . . . They spoke so quickly that I could not catch one
single word they uttered " (pp. 50-51). When Bunce first met them
they scarcely deigned to look at his party (p. 55). Backhouse's later
experience at the settlement on Flinders Island throws a little light on
their apparent apathy. He relates (p. 81) : ** A considerable number of
the aborigines were upon the beach when we landed, . . . but they
took no notice of us until requested to do so by W. J. DarUng ; they
then shook hands with us very affably. It does not accord with their
ideas of proper manners to appear to notice strangers, or to be
surprised at any novelty. On learning that plenty of provisions had
arrived by the cutter, they shouted for joy. After sunset they had a
corrobery or dance round a fire, which they kept up till after midnight,
in testimony of their pleasure." ** When Jumbo [a native woman]
first came on board, she was shown a musical box construdled like a
musical snuff box. Having been brought up among Europeans, she
did not feign inattention to novelties, as is common with her country
people, but showed pleasure and astonishment in a remarkable degree "
(ibid. p. 93).

*' There is similar variety of talent and of temper, among the
Tasmanian aborigines, to what is to be found among other branches of
the human family," so says Backhouse (p. 174); while West (II. p. 89)
describes the natives as variable from ignorance and distrust ; probably
from mental puerility : thus their war whoop and defiance were soon
succeeded by shouts of laughter."

Backhouse narrates the following incident : " One of their chiefs took
a fancy to a japanned comb, such as he saw a woman use, that had
been among the sealers ; but when he obtained one, he was much
disappointed to find that he could not get it through his tangled hair,
which had among it knots of dried ochre and grease, notwithstanding
he had ceased for some time to use these articles and had tried to
wash them out. In this dilemma he applied to me ; and being

44 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

desirous to please him, I did my best, but was soon obliged to hold
the hair back with the one hand, and pull the comb with the other.
From this he did not shrink, but encouraged me in my work, saying
frequently, ^ Narra coopa^ very good.* And when the work was accom-
plished he looked at himself in a glass, with no small degree of pleasure.
He was a man of an intelligent mind, who made rapid advances in
civilization, and was very helpful in the preservation of good order at
the Settlement.*" (pp. 180-181).

Morals.

Like the majority of savages they did not treat their women well.
La Billardiere states (IL ch. x. p. 59): "It gave us great pain to see
these poor women condemned to such severe toil. We often entreated
their husbands to at least take a share in their labour, but always in
vain. They remained constantly near the fire, feasting on the best bits.*'
An old settler (John Lyne) has described to J. B. Walker, Dr. Milligan*s
coming to Swanport with Black Tom and some others: "They had three
women with them. The men sat in front and the women behind them.
Apples were given to the men, who ate the finest and tossed the little ones over
their shoulders to the women. As it happened the little apples were much the
best, which caused much amusement at the men's expense." And P6ron, des-
cribing a meeting with twenty female aborigines, says : " They were nearly all
covered with scars, the miserable results of the bad treatment of their brutal
husbands." These women accompanied him to his boat, being heavily laden
with fish, and here they found their husbands. The women appeared dismayed
"their fierce husbands looked at them with anger and fury, which did
not tend to reassure them. After having deposited the results of their
fishing at the feet of these men, who immediately divided it up without
giving them any, they proceeded to group themselves behind their hus-
bands ; (ch. xii. pp. 252-256). La Billardiere mentions an incident which
may tend to show that the women were chaste: "Two of the* young
girls followed the different windings of the shore without mistrust, at a
distance from the other natives, with three of our sailors, when these
took the opportunity to treat them with a degree of freedom, which was
received in a very different manner from which they had hoped. The
young women immediately fled to the rocks most advanced in the sea,
and appeared ready to leap into it and swim away if our men had
followed them. They presently repaired to the place where we were
assembled with the other savages ; but it seems they did not disclose
this adventure, for the most perfecft harmony continued to prevail between
us" (II. ch. X. p. 51). Bass thought the men jealous of their women.
He mentions encountering a native Tasmanian whose two women, on
Bass's approach, ran away, and who, on being requested to show them
his hut, assented, but led the way to it with so many stoppages, that
they, fearing to lose the tide, parted from him, and returned to their
boat. " The most probable reason of his unwillingness to be their guide
seemed his not having a male companion near him ; and his fearing th^t
if he took them to his women, their charms might induce them to run
off with them, a jealousy very common with the natives of the continent "

MORALS. 45

(ch. xvi. p. 187). On the other hand, when the aggressiveness of the
natives was making the life of the settlers fearfully unsecure, Brodribb
said, ** Fourteen years ago there was a constant communication between
the stock-keepers and the female natives, but that did not excite ill -blood
in the males ; the men would offer to give up their wives for bread :
but did not feel indignant at the intercourse they permitted.'* But here
again the evidence is contradicflory. Robert Thirkell "found them a
peaceful and inoffensive race of people. . . . He never considered it
necessary to carry firearms to protedl himself against them.
Thirkell considered any injury sustained by the white people was entirely
occasioned by their own ill-usage of the females." The Hon. C. Meredith
did not agree with the idea : ** Among the blacks there was no such
feeling as jealousy, and it was notorious to the early settlers that the
blacks were in the habit of forcing their gins to visit the whites in order
to obtain what they could from them " (Papers, etc., Roy. Soc., Tas.,
Aug., 1873). With regard to this matter, Calder (J.A.I, p. 10) says:
**The natural propensity of the domesticated black females to be with
their own people, operated on them, and they became the instrudlors,
in mischief at least, of the wild natives, and, strangely enough, were
foremost in every aggression on the whites, by whom, with hardly an
exception, they had been treated with unvarying kindness." Accepting
this statement as corredl, there can only be two reasons for such conducfl
on the part of the women, either they had not been treated well by the
whites or they wished to gain favour with their own men, who were
jealous at their freedom with the white men. The following instance of
maternal devotion given by Jeffreys supports my view of the case :
" Those [women] who have united themselves to our sailors have mani-
fested a faithful and afFecftionate attachment, and are extremely jealous
of a rival. This may be partially occasioned by their great dread of
being abandoned by the sailors to the mercy of their native tribes, who
never fail, on such occasions, to treat them with extreme severity. In
some instances, their young children, the offspring of their illicit inter-
course with Europeans, are forcibly taken from them and thrown into
the fire, where they are destroyed. An instance of this kind in which,
however, the child was saved by the affecftion and courage of its parent,
happened within the author's knowledge. One of these women, who had
been for many years attached to a sailor, one evening wandered from
her sealing party with a young child at her breast, and accidentally
falling in with a band of natives, was immediately attacked, her infant
was snatched from her and thrown into a large fire; this treatment
inspired the woman with the most desperate courage : she rushed with
the rapidity of lightning through the horde of barbarians, and in an
instant plucked her child from the devouring element, and ran off with
it into the woods, whither she was followed by the savages ; but she
contrived, aided by the shades of night, to conceal herself and her scorched
infant behind the thick trunk of a fallen tree. Considerable search was
made for her by the men, but finding it useless, they returned to their
fire, round which they lay down and went to sleep. The poor woman
observing this, quietly left her hiding place, and before morning reached
the town of Launceston, a distance of about ten miles, where she once

46 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

more found a comfortable home at the residence of a gentleman of that
place. The poor mother suffered greatly, as well from fatigue as from
the fire through which she had rushed to save her infant, and the child
itself was so much burnt, that an inflammation taking place, it shortly
after departed this life" (Jeffreys, pp. 118-124). At first, without doubt,
the natives were friendly. Rossel, referring to the difficulties his party
(same as La Billardiere*s) had with the natives, says (I. ch. iv. p. 76) :
" The apparent simplicity and gentleness of the inhabitants of V. D.
Land, seen at Adventure Bay by Capt. Cook, and Oyster Bay by Capt.
Cox, seem irreconcilable with the hostile behaviour of the natives witnessed
by the French vessels. Perhaps the superiority of the European arms,
which were unknown to them before the arrival of the French, of which
they made trial on the unfortunate occasion when they were obliged to
be used, has simply rendered them more cautious and timid ; which seems
to indicate the necessity to be constantly on one's guard, and to keep
them in check by fear." But natives were very friendly to this party
at first, and La Billardiere describes an interview in the following words :
** One of them had the generosity to give me a few small shells of the
whelk kind, strung like a necklace. This ornament was the only one
he possessed, and he wore it round his head. We were quitting this
peaceable party with regret, when we saw the men and four of the
youths separating from the rest, in order to accompany us. One of the
most robust presently went into the wood, whence he returned almost
instantly, holding in his hand two long spears. As he came near, he
made signs to us, that we might be under no apprehensions ; on the
contrary, it appeared as if he were desirous of prote<5ling us with his
arms. No doubt they had left their weapons in the woods when they
came to meet us in the morning, that they might give us no alarm "
(II. ch. X. pp. 33, 34, 40); and later on (II. ch. x. p. 42) he continues:
**The attentions lavished on us by these savages astonished us. If our
path were interrupted by heaps of dry branches, some of them walked
before and removed them to either side : they even broke off such as
stretched across our way from the trees which had fallen down. We
could not walk on the dry grass without slipping every moment ; but
these good savages, to prevent our falling, took hold of us by the arm,
and thus supported us. They continued to bestow on us these marks
of kindness : nay, they frequently stationed themselves, one on each side,
to support us the better."

Peron, who was the next explorer, did not, however, find them so
amiable. While as above narrated (p. 32), the surprise of one of the
women on seeing a sailor take off his fur glove caused the party to
laugh heartily, a native stole a bottle of arrack. ** As this contained a
large portion of our drink, we were obliged to make him return it, at
which he seemed to feel some resentment, for he was not slow in departing
with his family, in spite of all I could do to retain him longer " (ch.
xii. p. 224). The probable result of this little contretemps is described
by him thus (pp. 235-6) : ** On my return I found that the little yawl
of the * Geographe ' having gone to fish on Bruny Island, the aborigines
had appeared in large numbers ; that, loaded with presents by our com-
panions, they had passed the greater part of the day amongst them ;

MORALS. 47

that Maurouard, one of our midshipmen, had proposed to one amongst
them who appeared the most robust, to wrestle with him, and that the
V. D. Lander had accepted the challenge ; was several times thrown by
the French middy, and obliged to acknowledge his inferiority ; that from
that moment until their departure several hours had elapsed, without any
signs being shown that the confidence and friendship of the aborigines
had been weakened or altered, and that, loaded with presents by our
friends, even at the moment when the latter were re-embarking, it was
impossible to conceive the slightest suspicion of their intentions, when,
all of a sudden, a long spear, thrown from behind some neighbouring
rocks, struck Maurouard in the shoulder ; that this rude weapon had
been thrown with such force, that, after slipping along the whole surface
of the shoulder-blade, it opened a passage through the flesh of the
shoulder and of the neck. The crew of the yawl, indignant at this
perfidious cowardice and savageness, had wished to pursue the savages
in vengeance, but they had already disappeared among the rocks and
brushwood." Shortly after this event, Peron's party were much troubled
with the thefts committed by the natives. In describing an interview*
with fourteen savages, he says (ch. xiii. p. 279) : ** Rouget, to whom we
had confided the musket, placed it by his side, keeping it, however, well
in view, for fear that some aboriginal would snatch it up and flee with
it into the forest ; a sort of condu(5l, with which, with other objedls, we
had had some experience of in the Channel [D'Entrecasteaux] ." We
may here mention in parenthesis that there are very few cases of theft
brought against the aborigines, as Davies says : " They do not appear
given to pilfering, although instances have occurred." From this time
forth all friendly intercourse between the natives and the Frenchmen was
at an end, for, after describing a long, and so far very friendly interview,
with fourteen male aborigines, Peron narrates how the sight of a little
boat belonging to his [Peron's] vessels, cruising off the shore, threw them
into a state of angry terror, in which he had the greatest difficulty to
pacify them and to induce them to lay aside their arms. " Gradually
they appeared to become bolder, they spoke among themselves in an
excited way ; when they looked at us, their expression was gloomier and
more savage than it had previously been ; they appeared to meditate
some violence, but the musket of Rouget seemed to restrain them,
whether from curiosity or treachery, they worried him every minute to
begin shooting the birds in the neighbouring trees, but we judged our
position too critical to comply with their request. Their audacity grew
with their defiance. One of them wanted my waistcoat, the bright colours
of which had attrad^ed his attention. He had already several times
demanded it of me, but I had so positively refused that I did not think
he would return to the charge. However, one minute, when I was not
paying attention, he seized hold of me by the waistcoat and pointed his
spear at me, brandishing it furiously. I pretended to take his threats

* This interview took place at Maria Island, on the East coast, where the Blacks seem
to have been more hostile and suspicious (Oyster Bay Tribe) than those whom the
French had usually found so friendly at D'Entrecasteaux Channel in the extreme South.
The latter (Southern Tribes) are said to have been of a finer race. To these belonged
Wooreddy and Truganini.

48 H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

as a joke, but seizing the point of the lance, turned it aside, and showing
him Rouget, who had just aimed at him, I said this single word in his
language mata (dead) ; he understood me, and deposited his weapon with
the same indifference as if no hostile demonstration against me had escaped
him. I had hardly escaped this danger, when I found myself threatened,
if not perilously, at least as disagreeably. One of the large gold ear-
rings which I wore excited the desires of another savage, who, without
saying anything, slid behind me, cunningly slipped his finger through the
ring, and tugged so hard that he would undoubtedly have torn my ear
had not the clasp given way. It must be remembered that all these
men had been loaded with presents by us ; that we had given them
mirrors, knives, coloured glass beads, pearls, handkerchiefs, snuflf boxes,
etc. ; that I had stripped myself of nearly all the buttons on my coat,
which, being gilt copper, had seemed specially valuable to them on account
of their brightness. Further, it must be r'ecoUedled that we had lent
ourselves to all their desires and caprices, without asking anything in
return for our presents, and then one can judge how unjust and treacherous
their conducfl towards us was. I can, indeed, positively assert, that, but
for Rouget and his scarecrow, Petit and I would have fallen vi(5lims
to these fierce men. I must frankly declare that their adlions were of
such a treacherous and savage nature as quite to shock both myself and
my companions ; and remembering what had happened to several of our
companions in the channel, we came to the conclusion that it was
necessary to appear among these people with the means to restrain their
ill will or to repulse their attacks. Before leaving, I thought it advisable
to bestow upon them fresh evidences of our goodwill : hence I approached
the old man, took him aifecflionately by the hand, gave him a glass
bottle, a knife, two gilt buttons, a white handkerchief, etc. The old man
seemed the more pleased with these last gifts from the facfl of our being
about to leave him ; he smiled with a contented air, mixed, however,
still with something uneasy and savage. Meanwhile Petit, who wished
to possess a spear, had bought one for a mirror. I myself desired to
have a club, and I had already procured one, when the savages, thinking
better of it, suddenly seized their weapons afresh, and uttering loud cries
all together, they menaced us in such a threatening manner, that Rouget,
in order to restrain them, was obliged to shout loudly, at the same time
taking aim at the one who had shown himself the most furious against
me. After this last show of violence, there was not a moment to lose
in regaining the shore ; but fearing that these savages would overwhelm
us with stones or spears during our retreat, as they had done already
several times in the channel, we decided to retire very slowly, Petit and
I walking in front, while Rouget followed behind with his musket. These
precautions were successful, and we regained the boat without accident.
I have thought it proper to give the principal details of this long and
perilous interview in order to enable the reader to rightly judge of the
extent of the difficulties which arise when travellers communicate with
savage races, and how impossible it is to triumph over their natural
ferocity and their prejudices against us " (ch. xiii. pp. 283-287).

During the war of extermination a good deal of evidence was colleif^ed
regarding the attitude of the aborigines towards the white settlers, and

MORALS. 49

it is not astonishing to find that, with a few exceptions, the Tasmanians
are condemned as treacherous, aggressive, ungrateful, and cruel. The
following extradts confirm this statement : ** We are undoubtedly the first
aggressors, and the desperate characflers amongst the prison population,
who have, from time to time, absconded into the woods, have no doubt
committed the greatest outrages upon the natives, and these ignorant
beings, incapable of discrimination, are now filled with enmity and revenge
against the whole body of white inhabitants. . . . Even the inhabitants
of the settled districfts were insecure at their farms and homesteads, attacks
having recently been made upon them, and unoffending and defenceless
women and children having fallen vidlims to the cruelties of those wretched
people. In the atrocities recently committed by the natives, it was painful
to find they had, in several instances, manifested a desire to kill and
destroy the white inhabitants whenever they had dared to attack them,
and not for the purpose of plundering for food or property (Min. Exec.
Coun., Col. and Slav., pp. 5-10). The lawless convicfts . . . and the
sealers . . . have, from the earliest period, ad\ed with the greatest
inhumanity towards the black natives, particularly in seizing their women
. . . ; and these outrages have, it is evident, first excited, what they
were naturally calculated to produce in the minds of savages, the strongest
feelings of hatred and revenge. On the other hand, it is equally apparent
that the aboriginal natives of this colony are, and ever have been, a
most treacherous race ; that the kindness and humanity which they have
always experienced from the free settlers has not tended to civilize them
in any degree, nor has it induced them to forbear from the most wanton
and unprovoked adls of barbarity, when a fair opportunity presented itself
of indulging their disposition to maim or destroy the white inhabitants"
{ibid.f pp. 15-16).

In a Government Notice, mention is made of the ** series of outrages "
perpetrated by the aborigines, and the ** wanton barbarity in which they
have indulged by the commission of murder in return for kindness in
numerous instances shown to them by the settlers and their servants" (Col.
and Slav. p. 20). ** It is evident from the hostile spirit of the natives, and
from the cunning which seems common to all savages, that they are
not to be approached, even with a view to reconciliation, without some
personal danger " (Burnet, p. 34). ** They [the natives] were sacrificed
in many instances to momentary caprice or anger, . . . and they
sustained the most unjustifiable treatment in defending themselves against
outrages which it was not to be expec5ted that any race of men should
submit to without resistance, or endure wdthout imbibing a spirit of
hatred and revenge. . . . It is the opinion of the best -informed
persons . . . that the former [the native tribes] are seldom the
assailants : and that when they are, they adled under the impression of
recent injuries done to some of them by white people. . . . The
Committee . . . are, however, not prepared to say that the description
given by Lieutenant-Governor Sorell of the passive and inoffensive character
of the aborigines, unless when previously attacked, is entirely supported
by the evidence before them. . . . It is manifestly shown, that an
intercourse with them on the part of insulated or unproteifted individuals
or families has never been perfedlly secure. Although they might receive

50 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

with apparent favour and confidence such persons as landed, from time
to time, on various parts of the coast, or fell in with them in other
remote situations, yet no sooner was the store of presents exhausted, or
the interview from other causes concluded, than there was a risk of the
natives making an attack on those very persons from whom they had the
instant before been receiving adls of kindness, and against whom they
had up to that moment suffered no indication of hostility to betray itself.
. . . These adts of violence on the part of the natives are generally
to be regarded, not as retaliating for any wrongs which they conceived
themselves coUedlively or individually to have endured, but as proceeding
from a wanton and savage spirit inherent in them, and impelling them
to mischief and cruelty when it appeared probable that they might be
perpetrated with impunity " (Rep. Aborig. Com. pp. 36, 38). ** Natives
in V. D. Land are not so brave as those in N. S. Wales ; they are
more cruel and treacherous. If they were ever so well used, they
would turn upon those that fed them ; the women visit the stock huts
as spies, and then the men attack them " (Hobbs, p. 50). Evidence of
Kelly : ** Has been a great deal among the natives ; found they were
generally met by them in a friendly manner, but upon leaving them they
would attempt to spear them. . . . They were always friendly at
meeting, but treacherous at parting ; noticed this whenever he met them.
. . . At Port Davey the natives enticed a boat to put in ; received
bread from the crew, and when it was departing, threw spears at it,
and speared one man " (p. 51). ** The natives are grateful for kindness "
(Bedford, p. 51). " Brodribb was not inclined to think that the whites
were the first aggressors, nor did he think that the intercourse between
the native women and the whites caused any resentment in the minds
of the native men '* (p. 53). Evidence of the Rev. R. Knopwood :
** The first white man who was murdered by the natives was George
Munday ; he was out hunting ; I believe at that time if any person
had been surprised in the bush unarmed, the natives would have
murdered him. Munday had fed the man who speared him . . . ;
conceives this treacherous and ungrateful disposition prevailed amongst all
the natives " (p. 53). A chief, with nine other men, having been
induced to come to the house of Batman, were treated by him
** with the utmost kindness, distributing to them clothing and food ;
they were placed under no restraint. . . . Batman . . . was, with
his family, most assiduous in cultivating the best understanding ; but,
after remaining with him eight or nine days, they silently withdrew in
the dead of the night, robbing Batman of everything they could lay
their hands upon, and in their progress plundering every hut, and
spearing every white man who had the misfortune to encounter
them. . . . Eumarrah, the chief of the Stoney. Creek Tribe, was
captured two years ago ; for some time after his capture he was
narrowly watched, but by his apparently artless manner, and strong
protestations of attachment, he was gradually confided in more and
more. ... I have . . . personally satisfied myself that he fully
Miderstood that the wishes of the Government were those of kindness and
benevolence towards his race. ... I entrusted him to condu(5l a
party of natives, assuring him that they should be clothed, and fed, and

MORALS. 51

prote<5led ; but to my disappointment and sincere regret, he availed
himself of the first moment to abscond, and has, I fear, rejoined his
tribe, with the most hostile intentions*' (Arthur, Col. and Slav., pp.
58-59). " The aboriginal natives of this island not only are without
sense of the obligation of promises, but appear to be insensible to acfls
of kindness " (Min. Ex. Council, Col. and Slav., p. 64).

Melville says (p. 349) : ** Some of the tribes were much more
ferocious than others — the greater number were remarlcably quiet and
tracflable," and Lloyd : ** The men . . . were artful to a degree, and
possessed of a most unamiable and morose expression of countenance "
(p. 44). Holman (IV. ch. xii. pp. 404-405) states : ** An instance of
humane consideration among them is, that, in the gratification of revenge
for any injury they have received, they generally spare the children of
those whom they have destined to be their vicftims; but on p. 425 he
gives an account of a murder by some aborigines, in which no humane
consideration was shown : "A barbarous murder was perpetrated by
them . . . which will serve to show the savage nature of their
dispositions. A settler having left his hut to perform some work at a
little distance, his wife took a walk into the garden with a child in her
arms when some natives, who no doubt had watched the departure of
her husband, rushed forward, and instantly despatched both her and her
child with a shower of spears, after which they robbed the hut and
made their escape." Leigh says, the aborigines "are peaceable towards
those who use them well, but revengeful of injuries" (IIL p. 242), and
West (IL p. 89): "They were cruel in their resentment, but not prone
to violence ; . . . they were not ungrateful, especially for medical
relief. . . . The English were seen by some friendly natives to
draught the toad fish, which is poison, by which several have perished ;
the natives, perceiving its preparation for food, endeavoured to show,
by gestures, that it was not to be eaten, and exhibited its effecfts by
the semblance of death." La Billardiere mentions the case of a native
who expressed his gratitude for a cock given him by pointing to the
bird on his shoulder (IL ch. x. p. 66). The following three incidents
related by Backhouse show they had some sense of generosity for a foe,
and of gratitude, even if not often exercised : " We passed the remains
of a hut that was burnt about two years ago, by the aborigines of the
Ouse or Big River district. An old man named Clark lost his life in it :
but a young woman escaped ; she rushed from the fire and fell on her
knees before the natives, one of whom extinguished the flames which
had caught her clothes, and beckoned her to go away. They killed a
woman on the hill behind the hut (p. 30). Two white men . . .
were lost in crossing a river on a raft, before the tide was out. When
some of the native women saw them in danger, they swam to the raft, and
begged the men to get upon their backs, and they would convey them to
the shore ; but the poor men refused, being overcome with fear. These
kind-hearted women were greatly affedted by this accident (p. 147).
We visited Hugh Germain. . . . He came to V. D. Land . . .
at the first settlement of the colony, . . . [when] he says, he rarely
carried a gun, though he often fell in with parties of the aborigines,
in whom there was no harm" (p. 212). Dr. Ross found the natives

52 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

very friendly ; as he says : one day " I was alarmed by the appearance
of fires in three or four situations on the opposite side of the river,
and soon after, a scattered crowd of about sixty aborigines walked up
to my cottage. . . . I did my best to conciliate my guests — I made
them as welcome as possible. . . . After several fruitless attempts, I
succeeded in making one, who, I afterwards found, was a chief among
them, sensible of the loss I should sustain if the fire were allowed to
approach my corn or my dwelling, for it was already on my side of
the river, and spreading up the bank within a few yards. We were
doing our best to extinguish it, . . . but our efforts would have been
in vain, . . . had not the whole tribe of blacks all at once come
come forward to assist me. Even some hours afterwards, when the
flames again broke out in two or three places, they were on the alert
in a moment and put them out. I mention this incident, as it was
an adt of friendship on their part, and shows, that where they have
not been insulted, or had cause of revenge, and are able to discriminate
their friends from their foes, they are not wanting in reciprocal offices
of friendship and humanity. I am convinced that, had I wished it,
they would have stopped' with me several day^, and given me any
other assistance I might stand in need of, as well as dividing with me
the opossums and other game they had caught in the bush (Ross, pp.
145-146). On the day following this incident, when Dr. Ross was very
anxious concerning a convidt servant of his, named Cook, who had
already robbed him several times, and at whose hands he feared further
outrage, . . . these natives appeared again ; and for once I felt a
sort of security from having tkem beside me." After describing their
manner of cooking and eating a meal, he continues : " Their natural
politeness was constantly urging me to partake with them, and, not to
disoblige them, both I and my child each took a leg of nicely cooked
kangaroo- rat in our hands. . . . I had scarcely entered, when the
report of a gun among the natives made me hasten back. ... I
learned that a person, whom from the description ... I readily
recognized to be Cook, had been seen by the dull light of the fire,
standing among the trees a few yards behind. When he found himself
discovered by the natives, he shouldered his musket and fired it off,
pointed to the most crowded part, as they stood or laid roimd the fire.
Happily, it was without effe(5l. ... I was now joined by two of
my own servants, and we were all, to the number of about a dozen,
started in instant pursuit of the runaway. . . The night, however, was
very dark, . . . we were compelled, after running about a quarter of
a mile, searching all about, to give up the pursuit. Whether it was
from this little incident or not, I cannot say, but henceforth an un-
interrupted understanding and reciprocity of good offices subsisted between
me and these wandering and, as they afterwards proved to be, most
savage blacks. . . . They never once committed the smallest tres-
pass or annoyance on my farm, . . . and while the most dreadful
outrages were committed by them all round, they never once attacked
my farm or anything belonging to it" (ibid. pp. 153-155). Bonwick
informs us (p. 9), that : '* Dr. Jeanneret, once Superintendent on
Flinders Island, in a letter to me, hits off one of their weaknesses

MORALS. RELIGION. 53

thus : * My aborigines are happy and healthy, but so frail in purpose
that the most ordinary temptation suffices to throw them of the balance,
and few could be depended upon not to resort to that natural law of
revenge were they again ill-treated without redress.' " We should in all
probability have a poor opinion of them if they did not resort to the
natural law of revenge.

From the above accounts it is very clear that originally the aborigines
were by no means generally hostile. Wentworth, in fadl, lays the whole
responsibility of the hostility between the blacks and whites on an unfor-
timate occurrence which occurred in 1803, about thirty years before the
hostility reached its climax.* With regard to their treatment of animals,
Davies says : ** They appeared much to enjoy the tortures of a wounded
bird or beast, nor did I ever see them put such to death to relieve it
from its misery;" and West (II. p. 89) makes a similar statement.

Religion.

As will be seen with regard to their religion and to a belief in a
Supreme Being, authorities differ considerably. Widowson believed (p. 188)
it to be "generally supposed that they have not the slightest idea of
a Supreme Being." Breton (p. 349) says : ** They do not appear to have
any rites or ceremonies, religious or otherwise." If we may trust Jorgen
Jorgensen : ** Nothing has been elicited from them to give reason to believe
that they possess any sort of creed, or trouble themselves about anything
in the form of religion. They certainly have no religious rites" (quoted
by Bonwick p. 72). Bishop Nixon says : " No trace can be found of the
existence of any religious usage, or even sentiment, amongst them, unless,
indeed, we may call by that name, the dread of a malignant spirit, which
seems to have been their predominant, if not their only, feeling on the
subjedt." On the other hand, most writers who touch on this subjedl agree in
attributing some idea of religion to them. Thus, Leigh says (III. p. 243) :
"Their notions of religion are very obscure. However, they believe in
two spirits ; one, who, they say, governs the day, and whom they call the
good spirit; the other governs the night, and him they think evil. To
the good spirit they attribute everything good, and to the evil spirit
everything hurtful. When any of the family are on a journey they are
accustomed to sing to the good spirit for the purpose of securing his
prote(5lion over their absent friends, and that they may be brought back
in health and safety." This statement regarding a belief in a good and
bad spirit looks very much like an introduced religion ; Mr. Leigh was
a missionary. Speaking of the aborigines of both N. S. Wales and Tas-
mania, Henderson (Bk. II. p. 148) states: ** A common belief prevails in
both countries regarding the existence of inferior spirits, who conceal
themselves in the deep woody chasms, during the day ; but who wander
forth after dark, with power to injure or even to destroy. Their rude
encampments are frequently alarmed by these unearthly visitors, whose
fearful moanings are at one time borne on the midnight breeze, and at
another, are heard mingling with the howling tempest." Jeffreys is more

• See Chapter IV.

54 H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

positive as to their belief in a Godhead. His words are (p. 124): "It
frequently happens, that the sealers . . . are compelled to leave their
[native] women for several days together. On these occasions, these affec-
tionate creatures have a kind of song, which they chant to their imaginary
deity, of whom, however, they have but a very indistindl notion ; and
who, they say, presides over the day, an evil spirit or demon making his
appearance in the night. This deity, whomsoever it is, they believe to
be the giver of everything good, nor do they appear to acknowledge any
more than one God." But Lloyd, from their attitudes at their corroborries,
was inclined to think that they considered the moon a deity (pp. 48-49) :
** Amongst the neighbouring tribes of aborigines it was customary to meet
at some time-honoured trysting-place at every full moon, a period regarded
by them with most profound reverence. Indeed, judging from their extra-
ordinary gestures in the dance — the upturned eye and out-stretched arm,
apparently in a supplicating spirit — I have been often disposed to conclude
that the poor savages were invoking the mercy and protecftion of that
planet as their guardian deity." According to Bon wick's statement (p. 190)
" The sun was an objecfb of superstitious feeling, though not of worship ; "
then he says : ** The moon shared in the affecftions of the rude tribes,
. . . the dances held under her mild light were doubtless associated with
respe(5l for her" (p. 192): and again "As the moon was regarded by the
ancients as presiding over childbirth, the Tasmanian dances by moonlight
might be associated remotely and primarily with that sentiment" (p. 196).
There is no evidence that they were in awe of the sun, nor that they
associated childbirth wdth the moon. The native names for moon and fire
were very similar (see Milligan's Vocabulary). Bonwick in referring to
the moon is thinking of Hull's statement on the Victorian aborigines who
appear to have had a monthly corroboree in honour of the moon (Rep.
Aborigines Committee, Legislative Council, Melbourne, 1858-9, p. 9). Lyne
informed J. B. Walker that he once saw (at a considerable distance) a
corroboree of blacks at full moon ; he thought that it was a sort of
superstitious worship of the moon. He gave no reason for his so thinking.
The natives were greatly afraid of the dark, and would naturally choose
bright moonlight for a dance. (See Dances.)

Milligan gives us two versions of his experience regarding their religious
beliefs. The one in the voyage of the Beacon (pp. 29-30) runs thus :
" They were polytheists ; that is, they believed in guardian angels or
spirits, and in a plurality of powerful but generally evil-disposed beings,
inhabiting crevices and caverns of rocky mountcains, and making temporary
abode in hollow trees and solitary valleys ; of these a few were supposed
to be of great power, while to the majority were imputed much of the
nature and attributes of the goblins and elves of our native land. The
aborigines were extremely superstitious, believing most implicitly in the
return of the spirits of their departed friends and relations to bless or
injure them, as the case might be ; and they often carried about with
them one or other of the bones of the deceased as a charm against
adversity." The other account of Milligan, taken from Papers Roy. Soc.
of V. D. Land for Jan. 1855, is as follows: "Milligan said he had
ascertained that the Tasmanian aborigines, previous to their intercourse
with Europeans, distinctly entertained the idea of immortality as regarded

RELIGION. 55

the soul or spirit of man ; their legends proved also their belief in a
host of malevolent spirits and mischievous goblins, whose abodes were
caverns and dark recesses of the dense forests, clefts in rocks on the
mountain tops, etc. ; and that they considered one or two spirits to be
of omnipotent energy ; but that they do not seem to have invested even
these last with attributes of benevolence, although they reposed unqualified
trust in the tutelar agencies of the spirits of their departed friends and
relations. To these guardian spirits they gave the generic name War-
rawak,* an aboriginal term, like the Latin word umbra, signifying shade,
shadow, ghost, or' apparition." Calder relates that on one occasion,
** while the natives were making the funeral pile, Robinson took occasion
to extracfl from them what their ideas were of a future state, and where
they thought the departed went to. They all answered, ^ Dreeny,' that
is, to England, saying, * Parleevar loggernu uenee toggerer Teeny Dreenyy
mMerly Parleevar Dreeny' (native dead, fire; goes road England, plenty
natives England). He tried to convince them that England was not the
home of the departed, but did not argue them out of their belief. This
simple reply shows that they quite believed in a life . . . after the
destru(5lion of the body at the funeral pile. Robinson adds that they
were fatalists, and also that they believed in the existence of both a
good and evil spirit. The latter, he says, they called Raegoo wrapper, to
whom they attributed all their afflicftions. They used the same word to
express thunder and lightning" (J A.I. p. i8). Davies (p. 417) thought
it hard to believe that the natives have ^* no idea of a future state,
. . . and yet from every enquiry, both from themselves and from whites
most conversant with them, I have never been able to ascertain that
such a belief exists. They believe in the existence of an evil spirit,
called by some tribes Namma, who has power by night ; of him they
are much afraid, and never will willingly go out in the dark. I never
could make out that they believed in a good deity, for although they
spoke of one, it struck me that it was what they had been told ; they
may, however, believe in one who has power by day. I have never
been able to ascertain that they put either weapons or food in the tree
with the dead." But Davies' opinion that the natives did not believe
in a future state is contradicfted by several whom one would think should
know. According to West (II. pp. 89-90) : ** Their religious ideas were
exceedingly meagre and uncertain. To Horton's inquiries, in 1821, they
answered, * don't know,* with broad grins. They appear to have had no
religious rites, and few congenial ideas : they dreaded darkness and feared
to wander from their fires; they recognized a maligant spirit, and attributed
strong emotions to the devil [sic] . The feats imputed to his agency do
not much differ from the sensations of night-mare. They believed him
to be white — a notion, suggested by their national experience. They
ascribed extraordinary convulsions to his malignant power, and to his
influence they traced madness. Lord Monboddo might have contrived
their account of the creation : they were formed with tails, and without
knee-joints, by a benevolent being ; another descended from heaven, and
compassionating the sufferers, cut off the tail, and with grease softened

• Cf. Cox ante, p. 41.

56 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

the knees. As to a future state, they expecfied to re-appear on an island
in the Straits, and to jump up white men. They anticipated in another
life the full enjoyment of what they coveted in this. These scraps of
theology . . . are of doubtful origin ; nothing seems certain, except
that they dreaded mischief from demons of darkness. They had no idols."
G. W. Walker remarks likewise in their relucSlance to travel in the dark
.(p. 106).

Backhouse, who may be considered, with Dove, as a person likely
to have made good inquiries as to their beliefs, says (pp. 181-
182) : " These people have received a few faint ideas of the existence
and superintending providence of God ; but they still attribute the strong
emotions of their minds to the devil, who, they say, tells them this or
that, and to whom they attribute the power of prophetic communications
It is not clear that by the devil they mean anything more than a spirit;
but they say he lives in their breasts, on which account they shrink
from having the breast touched. One of their names for a white man
signifies a white devil or spirit ; this has probably arisen from mistaking
white men at first for spiritual beings. They have also some vague ideas
of a future existence, as may be inferred from their remarks resped^ing
the deceased woman on the Hunter Island. They also say they suppose
that when they die, they shall go to some of the islands in the Straits,
and jump up white men : but the latter notion may be of modem date."
Finally we give Dove's views in his own words (I. p. 253): "The moral
apprehensions which prevailed among them were peculiarly dark and
meagre. It is remarkable that a persuasion of their being ushered by
death into another and a happier state of existence was almost the only
remnant [sic] of a primitive religion which maintained a firm abode in
their minds. As might be expecfled, however, their ideas of a life beyond
the grave were entirely of a sensual kind. To be enabled to pursue the
chase with unwearied ardour and unfailing success, and to enjoy in vast
abundance and with unsated appetite the pleasures which they courted on
earth, were the chief elements which entered into their picture of an
elysium. While there was no term in their native languages to designate
the Creator of all things, they stood in awe of an imaginary spirit, who
was disposed to annoy and hurt them. The appearance of this malignant
demon, in some horrible form, was especially dreaded in the season of
the night. Two customs of a superstitious kind are still retained among
them; neither, however, bearing the slightest reference even to low and
misguided views of religious homage."

The following curious facfl is extracfled from West (p. 87) : ** A gen-
tleman, on guard during the black war, watched a small group in the
gaol yard round their night fires. One of them raised his hands, and
moved them slowly in a horizontal dire(5\ion ; and spreading, as if
forming an imaginary fan or quarter circle : he turned his head from
side to side, raising one eye to the sky, where an eagle hawk* was
soaring. The adlion was accompanied by words, repeated with unusual
emotion ; at length they all rose up together, and uttered loud cries. The
whole adlion had the appearance of an incantation," West's remarks

* One is inclined to ask does an eagle hawk soar during the night ^

RELIGION. GOVERNMENT. 57

(II, p. 90), are very just. We may distrust all accounts of their ideas
of a Supreme Being or of a future life. These were mere echoes of
what they had been told by Catechists and Teachers. The ** Black-
fellow jump up white man on an island in the Straits " is doubt-
less a late idea, after white men had come to them from over the sea.
Bonwick (p. 192) states: ** Druidical Rites were not unknown in Tasmania,"
and also " Circles have been recognised in Van Dieman's Land." For
the first statement there is no authority and as to the second, no
aboriginal stone or other circles have yet been discovered.

According to Bonwick (p. 181) ** My friend, Mr. Clark, the Catechist
of the Tasmanians, wrote to me thus: The greater portion, but not all of
them, believed that they were to live after the body died. Some of
them showed me the stars where they were to go to. Others imagined
they were to go to an island where their ancestors were, and be
turned into white people. The more western portion of the aborigines
had no idea of a future existence. They thought they were like the
kangaroo." He also intorms us that ** A friend of my own was recog-
nized by a Tasmanian tribe as one of their men, and treated accordingly."
(p. 185).

Regarding the use of a sacred white stone for use at the initiatory
rites of the boys, of which Bonwick gives a long description (p. 201) ;
it must be pointed out that the stone and the rite referred to are
Queensland institutions, and taken from A. H. Davis (whom Bonwick
has mistaken for R. H. Davies). Brough Smith (II. pp. 398-399) has
the following statement : ** It is said that they carried sacred stones,
with which they could cause diseases among their enemies, and cure
those that afflidled their friends; and that they had the same belief in
the evils that could be worked by any one who might possess himself
of a portion of their hair." This statement has been taken from
Bonwick (pp. 178, 194, &c.) and a similar statement is made by Sir
John Evans (The Ancient Stone Implements, 2nd Ed., 1897, P* 4^^)
likewise on Bon wick's authority, who has obtained it from A. H. Davis,
who is a Queensland writer, and wrote nothing about the Tasmanians.
Backhouse writes (p. 104) : ** One day we noticed a woman arranging
several stones that were flat, oval, and about two inches wide, and
marked in various dire(5\ions with black and red lines. These we learned
represented absent friends, and one larger than the rest, a corpulent
.woman on Flinders Island, known as Mother Brown." Out of this
statement, Bonwick evolves (p. 193) the possibility that **The Tasmanian
was communing with the spirits of her friends lost in the Black War."

Lloyd gives (pp. 254-256) a sermon which was written down by a
converted native in English in 1838, and preserved by Robinson. There
is nothing of any note in this produ(flion.

Government.

According to Dove (I. p. 253) : ** Instead of an elective or hereditary
chieftancy, the place of command was yielded up to the bully of the
tribe." This statement is confirmed by Hackhouse (p. 105), who says :
** The chiefs among these tribes are merely heads of families of extra-

58 H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

ordinary prowess;" and also by Davies (p. 418), who tells us that, "Each
tribe, or portion of a tribe, is under a chief, who does not appear to be
hereditary, but to obtain his rank from his daring in war." Breton (p. 349)
and Dixon (p. 22) both state that each tribe had its own chief or leader ; but
it is evident that their position can have had but little, if any, dignity
or authority attached to it, for La Billardiere observes (II. p. 61): that
"during the whole of the time we spent with them, nothing appeared to
indicate that they had any chiefs. Each family . . . seemed to us to
live in perfe<51 independence." P6ron authoritively remarks (p. 448), that
"the aborigines were without any chiefs, properly so called, without laws,
or any form of regular government." We have, on the other hand, the
opinion of Lieut. Jeffreys, who considered the statement that the Tasnia-
nians were without any chiefs to be an erroneous one ; and thought they
had persons to whom they paid a kind of homage and obedience. He
quotes (pp. 1 30- 1 31), in support of this view, the following incident:
" Some time ago a number of bushrangers took it into their heads to
run away with a Government boat ; being driven on shore, . . . they
soon fell in with a number of natives. A person of the name of Howe
had the command of the bushrangers ; and one of the natives, perceiving
by his gestures, and the condu(5\ of the rest of the men, that Howe
maintained a sort of authority over his fellows, stepped forward a little
from his companions, and showed a disposition to have some personal
intercourse with him, refusing at the same time to hold anv conversation
with the others. . . . Howe ordered his men to go and drag the boat
up . . . The native, seeing this, beckoned to his men also to go and
assist Howe's men, . . . but held Howe himself by the collar, intimating
that they should neither of them suffer their dignity to be lessened by
themselves rendering the men any assistance in so servile a piece of
labour. This anecdote sufficiently proves that the native tribes of V. D.
Land do, in fatft, observe a degree of obedience to those whom they
considered to be their chiefs or heads." Such an anecdote from such a
source requires corroboration. West observes (p. 81) that their chiefs
were merely heads of families, . . . and were thought to possess very
trifling and uncertain control. He adds : "Little is known of their policy
and probably there was but little to be known :" while Robinson, the
special friend of the aborigines, was only " of the opinion that they
were divided into various tribes under chiefs occupying particular distri(5ls"
(Col. and Slav., p. 10) ; but he has left us no further definite information
as to the amount of authority and influence possessed by these leaders.
Walker (MS. Jour.) observes " A sort of Patriarchal authority under
certain limitations has been exercised by the chiefs of the respecflive tribes;
but they have been far from exadling an implicit obedience to their
commands, and in many respecls it appears to have been little more than
nominal. " This, apparently probable, entire absence of any form of gov-
ernment among the Tasmanian tribes increased the difficulties attending
upon the establishment of friendly relations between them and the English,
to no inconsiderable degree; thus in the Minutes of Exec. Counc. p. 11,
we find it stated that, " The independence of the several tribes one of
another would make a separate communication with each necessary. . . .
And, after all, ... so totally do they appear to be without government

GOVERNMENT. 59

amongst themselves, that the Council much doubt if any reliance could
be placed upon any negotiation which might be entered into with those
who appear to be their chiefs, or with any tribe collecftively. " And
again on p. 64, this same difficulty is referred to in similar terms,
making it evident that these so-called ** chiefs *' possessed but the minimum
amount of recognized authority among the tribes to which they belonged.
We have no dire(5\ evidence to show that they were ever in the habit
of meeting in council, to discuss matters concerning the tribes. The
boundaries of various hunting-grounds belonging to each tribe were res-
pe(rked, and, as we shall see,* trespass was equal to a declaration of war ;
but being an entirely nomadic race, '* they had no permanent villages, and,
accordingly, no individual property in land" (West, p. 20).

The settlement of personal quarrels was effec^ted by a primitive, but
striking, description of duel. ** If an offence be committed against the
tribe, the delinquent has to stand while a certain number of spears are,
at the same time, thrown at him ; these, from the unerring aim with
which they are thrown, he can seldom altogether avoid; although from
the quickness of his sight, he will frequently escape unhurt ; he moves
not from his place, avoiding the spears merely by the contortions of his
body." (Davies, p. 419). The Tasmanians varied this form of punishment
by another, which closely resembled that of the pillory, Davies informing
us, that their custom was, ** to place the offender upon the low branch
of a tree, point at and jeer at him.'*

Two men of the Western or Port Dairy mple tribe exhibited before
Backhouse and Walker **the manner in which quarrels are decided amongst
them ; or it may be described as the mode of giving vent to those feelings
of irritation which, among Englishmen, would terminate in a pugilistic
encounter. The parties approach one another face to face, and folding
their arms across their breasts, shake their heads (which occasionally
come in contadl) in each others faces, uttering at the same time the
most vociferous and angry expressions, until one or the other of them
is exhausted, or his feelings of anger subside. This custom is called by
them * Growling,' and from the specimen afforded us by the Western
lads, will not probably issue in anything worse than a bloody lip or
nose*'* (Walker, p. loi). ** At Flinders Island on one occasion one of
the men differed with his wife, because she had broken a bottle, or some
other article which he highly prized. Instead of showing his displeasure
by taking a stick and retaliating on the offender, he arose and cut
deliberately the feet of seven women who happened to be lying near him
asleep, but offered no kind of violence to his wife. After this burst of
rage, his anger was appeased and they became reconciled. The aborigines
on occasions of this sort, do not generally shew a disposition to retaliate
on the person who thus wreaks his vengeance on them ; they rather
endeavour to get out of the way. This circumstance, however, came to
the Commandant's ears, and he thought proper to notice it, and infli(fl
some punishment on the man who thus injured so many innocent women.
He caused him to be brought before him, and made him to understand
that he was much displeased ; and as the women through his misconduct,

*See Chapter on War.

6o H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

were unable to bring their quantum of water from the well, the offender
was required to bring all the water himself. Without saying a word or
making the least difficulty, the man set about his task, which he soon
completed, and there the whole affair ended. A quarrel originating in
one of their superstitious customs fell out thus : A married woman had
selected a certain tree, according to their pracftice when in the bush, which
tree, in such case, is considered the representative of the person who
makes choice of it, and is regarded as their inviolable property, at all
times to be held sacred. Through some accident this tree, which had
been seled^ed by Roomtyenna, was pulled down or mutilated by a party
of her countrymen, which she so violently resented that, snatching up
a fire-brand, she ran in amongst them and dealt her blows very freely
around. Her husband, who was of the party, at length struck her on
the head and drew blood ; on which Roomtyenna desisted, but was greatly
displeased, as may be supposed, with her consort. When he saw that
she bled, he was apparently as disconcerted as she was, and would
have gladly made it up, for they are a remarkably affedlionate couple,
and in most things shew a more than ordinary degree of intelligence ;
but it was some time before Jackey (Trygoomypoonaneh) could regain
the smiles of his wife, who for the rest of the day was quite in a pet,
though he certainly evinced much sorrow at the event " (Walker, pp.
102-103). Biickhouse (p. 103) mentions that to seize a stick, and brandish
it about, **is common under circumstances of rage among this people."
Beyond this, however, we know nothing concerning either the nature
of the offences, considered as such by the aborigines, or of the punish-
ments which they inflidled for the same.

Customs.

No very remarkable customs are recorded as having prevailed among
the Tasmanians. We are told by Pcron (p. 221), that kissing and
embracing were seemingly unknown to them as salutations, for having
thus saluted one of the natives, Peron adds : " From the air of indifference
with which he received this proof of our interest, it was easy to judge
it had no meaning for him ; '* while in another place (p. 282) he says :
" I must not omit to mention an interesting discovery I then made [in
an interview with fourteen aborigines] ; it was, that they had no idea of
the adlion of embracing." He then proceeds to describe how he en-
deavoured to make them understand by pracf^ical demonstrations, but
that their only response was Nidego (I do not know), leading him to
believe that the custom of embracing was unknown to these people.
He adds ; ** I must, however, guard myself from stating this to be a
positive facfl, only adding here that I have never seen a savage, either
in V. D. Land or New Holland, embrace [? kiss] one of their own, or
one of the opposite sex." According to La Billardiere (H. p. 33), the
at^lion of hand-shaking was not unfamiliar to them, judging from the
following incident which he has recorded. A party of natives having been
met with, '* I hesitated not," he says, ** to go up to the oldest, who
accepted ... a piece of biscuit. ... I then held out my hand
to him as a sign of friendship, and had the pleasure to perceive, that

CUSTOMS. TABU. 6l

he comprehended my meaning very well : he gave me his, inclining him-
self a little, and raising at the same time his left foot, which he carried
backward in proportion as he bent his body forward." The indifference,
and possibly dislike, of the Tasmanians, to kissing, is amusingly illustrated
in the following anecdote narrated by West (p. 89) : ** A little boy,
captured by a surveyor in 1828, ... on entering a room where a
young lady was seated, was told to kiss her ; after long hesitation, he
went up to her, laid his fingers gently on her cheek, then kissed them,
and ran out ! " While they appear to have been demonstrative in their
reception of friends, strangers were treated with indifference. Thus Back-
house (p. 81) says: "A considerable number of the aborigines were upon
the beach when we landed . . . but they took no notice of us until
requested to do so by W. J. Darling; they then shook hands with us very
affably. It does not accord with their ideas of proper manners to appear
to notice strangers, or be surprised at any novelty." On a subsequent
occasion, however. Backhouse (p. 180) tells us, that ** On approaching
this place, we were discovered by some women . . . they now recog-
nized us as old acquaintances, and gave us a clamorous greeting . . .
with such a noise as, had we not known that it was the expression of
friendship on the part of the people, would have been truly appalling."
Peron also describes a friendly greeting on the part of some aborigines
whom he had previously met. He slates (pp. 225-226) that : ** As soon
as they saw us they raised great shouts of joy, and doubled their pace
in order to rejoin us. . . . The old man taking Freycinet, made the
sign for us to follow, and conducfled us to the miserable cabin we had
just left. The fire was lighted in an instant ; and after having repeated
several times medi, tnedi (sit down), which we did, the savages squatted
on their heels," etc., etc.

The Tasmanians, like some other savage races," were in the habit
of abandoning the sick and infirm ; Widowson informing us (p. 191),
that "those who are aged or diseased, are left in hollow trees, or under
the ledges of rocks, to pine and die. Backhouse confirms this (p. 84),
and further tells us that, ** when any of these people fall sick in their
native state, so as to be unable to accompany the others in their daily
removals, they are furnished with . . . food . . . and a bundle
of the leaves of Mesemhryanthemum equilaterale^ . . . which the natives
use as a purgative ; and they are left to perish, unless they recover in
time to follow the others." This custom was but the 'necessary result
of their wandering life ; for as West points out (p. 90), " their tribes
could neither convey them, nor wait for their recovery." He adds,
that ** this custom was modified by circumstances, and sometimes by
the relatives of the sufferer."

Tabu.

We know of three forms of tabu, as pradHsed among the Tasmanian
aborigines. These were the absolute exclusion from conversation of
the names of all deceased, or even absent, relatives and friends; the
avoidance of their burial-places ; and abstinence from certain kinds of
food, such as the wallaby and scaled fish.

62 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

Milligan (Papers, Roy. Soc. Tas. III. p. 281) says: ** It was a
settled custom in every tribe, upon the death of any individual, most
scrupulously to abstain ever after from mentioning the name of the
deceased — a rule, the infradlion of which would, they considered, be
followed by some dire calamities : they therefore used great circumlocution
in referring to a dead person, so as to avoid pronunciation of the name —
if, for instance, William and Mary, man and wife, were both deceased,
and Lucy, the deceased sister of William, had been married to Isaac,
also dead, whose son Jemmy still survived, and they wished to speak of
Mary, they would say, * the wife of the brother of Jemmy's father's wife,'
and so on." Calder (J.A.I.) observes that " they never spoke of the dead,
nor ever again mentioned their names." Braim likewise states (II.
p. 267), ** Nothing could offend an aborigine so much as to speak of,
or inquire about, his dead friends or relations." We have further
the testimony of Dove (I. pp. 253-254), who, after referring to this
curious ** fear of pronouncing the name by which a deceased friend was
known, as if his shade might be thus offended," goes on ta say :
** Nothing is more offensive to them than a. departure from the rule
which they have prescribed to themselves on this point, by the white
people with whom they may be drawn into converse. To introduce,
for any purpose whatever, the name of any one of their deceased
relatives, calls up at once a frown of horror and indignation " It
would appear from the following incident, recorded by Backhouse (p. 93),
that this strange avoidance of the pronunciation of names extended to
those of the living absent, as well as the dead ; for he tells us that,
" W^hen on the island one of the women threw some sticks at J.
Thornloe, on his mentioning her son, who is at school at Newtown.
The mention of an absent relative is considered offensive by them, and
especially if deceased." W^e are also told by Walker (p. 108)^: Great
dislike is shown to allusions to the absent, whether the separation be
caused by difference of situation or death. If the name of the
individual who is merely absent by distance be mentioned, it is custom-
ary with them, when with Europeans, to signify their dissatisfacflion by
signs, as if they considered it unpropitious." But, judging from anala-
gous customs amongst other races, it is not probable that the tabu on
mentioning the name of one deceased is due to " delicacy to the feelings
of the survivors " (Bon wick, p 97). What particular fear or super-
stition was involved in this practice we have no evidence to show.

With regard to their dread of passing by burial-places, we have it on
the authority of Braim (II, p. 267) that : '* W^henever they approached
places where any of their countrymen had been deposited, they would
on all future occasions avoid coming near such spots, and would rather
go miles round than pass close to them."

Concerning their rejecftion of certain kinds of food, Davies (p. 414)
states, that *' Some tribes, or portions of tribes, will not eat the female
wallaby, others will not eat the male : to what superstition this is
attributable, I am ignorant. Others will not eat scaled fish ; and it
appeared to me, when at Flinders Island, that the western natives
would not eat the smooth-shelled haliotis, though the easterns did."
Backhouse, whom Davies was perhaps quoting (p. 171) also informs us

TABU. MEDICINE. 63

that some of the natives only eat the male wallaby, others only the
female ; and adds : ** We were unable to learn the reason of this ; but
they so stridlly adhere to the pracflice, that, it is said, hunger will not
drive them to deviate from it." His companion, G. W. Walker repeats
(p. no) his statements and adds: ** The morning we arrived at Pea-
jacket, a wallaby was taken by Tommy, at a time when meat was by
no means plentiful ; he however gave the whole of it away, nor could
I induce him to taste it. It was a male, and the only answer I
could get from him was, he never eat the male of that animal. The
rest of the party partook of it.*' We further learn from Calder (J. A. I.,
1873) that no fish, except shell-fish, ** would any native of Tasmania
ever touch ; whether it was from natural aversion or superstition, is not
known ; but scale-fish of any kind " was an abomination to the entire
race. This tabu of male and female wallaby, as the case may be,
may probably be akin to similar tabu pracflised by other totemistic
uncivilized races; but with regard to the Tasmanians, we do not appear
to have any indications of totemism.

Medicine.

We have very little information under this heading. According to
Calder, Robinson says : ** ; . . The savage of Tasmania was more
than ordinarily liable to attacks (of epidemic disease), which ... he
knew no remedy for, and sought only to relieve his pain by . . .
the excessive laceration of his body with flint [sic] , or glass if he could get
it, which, by producing weakness, made death only the more speedy
and certain. I quite believe that the original cause of their decay lay
in their own imprudence generating fatal catarrhal complaints, from
which ... by proper remedial measures, resorted to early, (they)
would have recovered. These imprudences were . . . pra(ftised only
by a few tribes inhabiting the settled distridls, but the consequences,
which are epidemic, infe(5^ed all before long" (J.A.I, p. 15). Robinson
also relates of a sick woman who was afflidted, according to her hus-
band, with sick head, breast, belly : — ** On each of these parts incisions
had been made with a piece of glass bottle. The forehead was much .
lacerated, the blood streaming ,down her face. Her whole frame was
wasted; she had a ghastly appearance" (Calder, J.A.I, p. 16). La
Billardi^re remarks (II. ch. x. p. 57) : ** One of the savages has
several marks of very recent burns on his head. Perhaps they employ
the adlual cautery in many diseases." Holman says much the same
(IV. ch. xii. p. 405) : ** Bleeding by scarification is a mode of treat-
ment in general use among them, in cases of sickness." G. W.
Walker often told his son that the natives used to make cuts on their
bodies, with a piece of glass ** to let the pain out." ** Truganina,
finding her husband in much pain, from a swollen thigh, made six
incisions, which produced much sloughing, and cured him in nine days.
Tight bandages, kept wet, relieved pain in the head and stomach,"
(Bonwick, p. 89.) West records (II. p. 90) that "they suffered from
several diseases which were often fatal. Rheumatism and inflammation
were cured by incisions ; the loathsome eruption,, called the native leprosy,

64 H, LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES

they relieved by wallowing in ashes: the catarrh was very destruiflive
in certain seasons. . . . Their surgery was simple : they cut gashes
with crystal." Dove's evidence is similar (pp. 252-3). Backhouse,
noticing that the inhabitants of the west coast did not mark their
bodies with same regularity as those on the east, considered that the
scars upon those on the west coast appeared to have proceeded from
irregular surgical cuts, and were principally upon the chest " (p. 1051.
They treated a snake bite by boring the wound with a charred peg :
stuffed it with fur, and then singed off the surplus to the level of the
skin" (West, II. p. 90). "The aborigines . . . often carried about
with them one or other of the bones of the deceased [friend or relation]
as a charm against adversity. Bones of the leg, arm, foot, and hand, the
lower jaw, and even the skull, have in this way, and for this purpose,
been found suspended round the necks of individuals amongst them "
(Milligan, Beacon, p. 30}. , Walker (p. 98) also relates the application
of the bones of deceased relatives, for the purpose of easing the pain
of the part applied to; and
in his MS. Journal he
states that " RoometitymJ-
enna,# the wife of a chief,
carries constantly, on her
bosom, the skull of an
infant. They conneifl some
superstitious notions with
the pra»ftice, evidently re-
garding it in the light of a
charm."'. " The aborigines
use charms, and they wear
the dead bones of their
friends slung round their
necks as such. Those that
I have seen have been
most commonly the jaw-
bone, or the bone of the
thigh ; as also the skulls
of children, the latter wrap-
ped up in a skin. These
l>ones are worn by people
in perfeijl health, most
probably as mementos of
deceased relations ; but if
Kc. TOP AND siiiE VIEW, supposEu SO, they Icud them to others
cEs OF HUMAN BONES. THE KLAT of their own ttibe when ill,
BOBABLv DUE TO i-ACKiSG. D]A. who Wear them as charms
74 INCHES.— BRIT. Mus. found their necks" (Davies,

p. 416-417). When being
conveyed to Flinders Island, " Mr. Batman, commanding the colonial brig
' Tamar,' describes them as reconciled to their fate, though during the
whole passage tbey sat on the vessel's bulwark, shaking little bags ol
human bones, apparently as a charm against tlie danger to which they

MEDICINE. 65

felt exposed'" (Stokes, Vol. II., p. 466). * Dove also refers (pp. 252-253)
to their "anxiety to possess themselves of a bone from the skull or the
arms of their deceased relatives, which, sewed up in a piece of skin, they
wear round their necks, confessedly as a charm against sickness or prema-
ture death." * According to Robinson, quoted by Bonwick (p. 10) Mana-
lagana had the jawbone of a friend covered over with native string, and
hung upon his chest." In the British Museum pi(5lure of Wooreddy by
B. Dutureau, the jaw-bone is hanging by the condyles. A story is told
of a child, belonging to the Oyster Bay tribe of Eastern Tasmania, being
buried in a blanket provided by a kind-hearted settler. The tomb was
observed next day to have been disturbed, and, upon investigation, the
head was found to be missing. In two days* time the skull of the little
one was seen upon the broad chest of a native (Bonwick p. 179). He
adds the following without quoting his authority. ** It was not only by
the application of the bone to the seat of pain, but scrapings from it
were especially valuable ; even the water in which the sacred relic had
been steeped had charming properties." Barnard Davis says these charms
were suspended by *' fine native cords " (Osteology, p. 9). Backhouse,
while considering them worn as tokens of affecftion, also found them used
as charms, for he relates : ** A man who had a head-ache to-day had
three leg bones fixed on his head, in the form of a triangle, for a charm "
(ch. vii. p. 84).

" When any of these people fall sick, in their native state, so as to be
unable to accompany the others in their daily removals, they are furnished
with a supply of such food as the party happens to have, and a bundle
of leaves of Mesemhryanthemum equilaterale—a. plant known in the colony by
the name of Pig-faces, — which the natives use as a purgative, and they are
left to perish, unless they recover in time to follow the others " (Backhouse,
p. 84). ** When a woman was taken in labour, the tribe did not wait
for her, but left her behind with another woman, and afterwards followed
as she best could" (Davies, p. 412). The office of watching over the
sick and dying was left to the women (Dove, p. 252). According to
Dove, (p. 252) : ** No one presumed to be more qualified than another to
suggest or administer a cure," but West says (II. p. 90), "There were
some who pracftised more than others, and therefore called docftors by the
English." i From Backhouse we have the following accounts : ** An eruptive
disease prevailed among the aborigines at this period : it was attended
with fever fpr about four days, and was supposed to have arisen from
feeding too freely from young mutton-birds. One of the men suflfering
under it, and covered with sores as large as a shilling, lay by a fire,
and was literally wallowing in ashes, having covered himself with them
from head to foot. This, we are informed, was one of their common
remedies" (p. 90). He also mentions (p. 103) meeting a woman who was
the last of the tribe, and "on inquiring what killed them all, an aged
man, one of their dodlors, replied, *The devil.' I desired to know how
he managed. The women began to cough violently, to show me how
they were affecfted. The old do<5^or is affecfted with fits of spasmodic
contra(5lion of the muscles of one breast, which he attributes, as they do
all other diseases, to the devil ; and he is cunning enough to avail him-
self of the singular effe6i produced upon him by this malady, to impose

66 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

upon his country people, under the idea of Satanic inspiration. The
doiflor had his instruments lying by him, consisting of pieces of broken
glass ; with these he cuts deep gashes in any part affedled with pain.' "
And Backhouse ends up this subjedl with : ** Lately one of the women
died. The men formed a pile of logs, and at sunset, placed the body of
the woman upon it. They then placed their sick people around it, at
a short distance. On A. Cottrell inquiring the reason of this, they told
him that the dead woman would come in the night and take the devil
out of them" (p. 105).

According to Bon wick (p. 89) : " A bath in salt water was the pre-
scription for cutaneous affecftions. Drinking plentifully of cold water, and
then lying by a fire, adled as a wet sheet for promoting perspiration.
Alum was an important article in their pharmacopoeia. Shampooing,
especially with the utterance of favourite charms, was held efficacious in
various disorders. Cold water was sprinkled on the body in cases of
fevers. A decodlion of certain leaves was applied to alleviate acute pain.
Ashes were used for syphilitic sores, and the oil of the mutton-bird for
rheumatism. Blood was staunched in severe wounds with clay and leaves,
while women constantly poured water over the part. Leaves of the Ziera
(Stink- wood) worn round the head relieved pain. Magnetism, in gentle
fridtion of the limbs, was applied, and passes used. The urine of females
was a specific. . . . Soft whisperings of magical words reached the
ear of the believing invalid. The blood of another was often employed
as a healing draught." The student must ascertain for himself the correct'-
ness of the use of these specifics not mentioned by other writers.

68 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

ordered his men to give us a volley of stones, which they did, he giving
the time in most beautiful order, swinging his arms three times, and at
each swing calling ** Yah ! yah ! yah ! " and a severe volley it was. I
had a large pair of duelling pistols in my pocket, loaded with two balls
each, and seeing there was no alternative I fired amongst them, which
dispersed them ; the other I fired after them as they ran away. Two
of them dragged Briggs along the ground a little distance to get the
swans from him, but were not successful. The chief and his men ran
into the bush, and were quickly out of sight. On looking round after
they had all scampered we found the six feet seven inches gentleman
lying on his back on the ground. We thought, of course, he was dead,
but on turning him over to examine his wounds, found he had not a
blemish on him. His pulse was going at 130. It must have been the
reports of the pistols which frightened him. We set him on bis feet tg
see if he could walk ; he opened his eyes and trembled very much. We
led him a few feet towards the bush ; he stood up straight, looked round
him, and took one jump towards the scrub — the next leap he was out
of sight. As soon as he was lost to our view, the hills around echoed
with shouts of joy from the voices of men, women, and children. We
measured the first jump the old man took, it was exadlly eleven feet;
but the second must have been more, for they were more like the jumps
of a kangaroo than a man. We found several marks of blood on the
stones in the dire(5lion that the natives ran away when the pistols were
fired. Some of them were most probably wounded. We then got into
our boat. Just as we were pulling away, we received a large volley of
stones and spears frpm the natives. One spear went through the side
of the boat, but luckily no one was hurt. We landed on a small rock,
covered with birds. They were laying, and we got six buckets full of
eggs — a good supply. This seemed to offend the natives, as a number
of women came down on a point of rocks and abused us very much
for taking their eggs."

It is very remarkable that the Tasmanians, who developed in their
last struggle for life and liberty such remarkable warlike powers, should
originally have been armed only with the very crudest weapons. We are
distindlly told that these people had neither throwing-sticks (wommeras)
nor boomerangs (Jeffreys, p. 126; Breton, p. 355; Da vies, 419; Wentworth,
p. 115). According to Marion (p. 28): ** The men were all armed with
pointed sticks, and some stones which appeared to us to have cutting
edges, similar to the iron one of hatchets," while Calder (J.A.I, p. 21)
says : ** When his [the Tasmanian*s] other weapons failed him, he fought
with stones, and even with these was a very formidable opponent." One
authority (Meredith, Papers Roy. Soc, Tasm., Aug., 1873) says they had
no shields. But Thirkell (ibid,) says, ** They used a shield made of a
piece of flat wood." The shield would probably have been introduced
by the Sydney aborigines in later times. Their weapons were thus
limited to the spear, waddy, and stones.

La Billardiere (I. ch. v. p. 233) speaks of javelins sixteen or eighteen
feet in length, and says of them (II. ch. x. p. 25), " This weapon was
no more than a very straight long stick, which they had not taken the
pains to smooth, but which was pointed at one end." Melville describes

WAR. 69

the spear as " a straight stick, varying in length from five to eight feet,
usually made of curri-john, or the tea tree, with the bark scraped off
and pointed at the thickest end" (p. 347). Widowson (p. 190) describes
it as ** about twelve feet long, and as thick as the little finger of a man:
the tea tree supplies them with this matchless weapon ; they harden one
end, which is very sharply pointed, by burning and filing it with a
flint prepared for the purpose."

Fumeaux (Cook, Second Voy. Bk. I. ch. vii.) thought the spear was
made sharp by means of a shell or stone. Mortimer (p. 20) says, "Their
only weapon seems to be a rude spear, or lance, which is cut or scraped
to a point at one end, but Calder (J.A.I., p. 21) says, "The spear was
pointed at both ends, and ten feet long or more." Henderson describes
the weapon as follows (Bk. II. pp. 150- 151) : ** Their principal weapon
is the spear, which is commonly six feet in length, and about the thickness
of a man's finger. Straight boughs of several descriptions of shrubs are
sele(5led for the purpose of preparing them ; and these, after being dried
to hardness over a fire and carefully pointed, require but little strength
in order to infli(5l a very severe wound." According to Davies (p. 419)
the spear was made of the wood of Uptospermum or fnelaUuca, hard heavy
woods. In the Report Roy. Soc., V. D. Land for 1852, p. 325, there
is the following statement : ** Milligan presented a waddie and six hunting
spears of the aborigines of Tasmania, measuring between ten and fifteen
feet in length, and made of a tall straight -grained Leptospermum^^ * tea
tree,* of the colony.*" Backhouse states (p. 172): ** In dressing their
spears they [the aborigines] use a sharp flint or knife ; in using the latter
for this purpose, they hold it by the end of the blade. They straighten
their spears till they balance as accurately as a well-prepared fishing rod,
performing this operation with their teeth.** J. Scott (Papers Roy. Soc.,
Tasm. July, 1873) also says : ** The ends of the spears were hardened
by being a short time in the fire.*' Thirkell speaks of the spears being
jagged at the sharp end (Papers Roy. Soc. Tasm. Aug., 1873), ^"^ ^^
reference to this statement we find {ibid.)^ ** In the eastern distri(5ls, with
which MereditH was familiar, the blacks never jagged their spears, nor
did they make use of a shield. The jagged sf>ears and shields would
therefore appear to have been used more particularly by the northern
tribes, which were specially referred to by Thirkell.** + The only reference
to a poisoned spear is by Melville (p. 109), who, in the course of a
fight, refers to a heavy barbed spear thirteen feet in length, "fatally
poisoned by plunging it into some decomposed carcase.*' Calder (J.A.I.)
quotes the following from an official letter from W. B. Walker : " At
their places of rendezvous, the natives keep a large stock of spears and
waddied. The spears are carefully tied to straight trees with their points
at some distance from the ground.*' Bonwick says the spears were made
of she-oak and smoothed with flint and glass (p. 42). They cannot,
however, be made of she-oak, as this wood does not grow long and
straight enough, and there is no flint in Tasmania; the glass may have
been used in later years. Lyne has informed J. B. Walker that " the

• Bunce says (pp. 23-24) it was L. lanigerum.
t It is quite possible jagged spears may have been introduced from Australia.

yO H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

spears were ten or twelve feet long and made of tea tree lepiospermnm
or melaleuca. After the bush has been burnt the tea tree grows up in
long straight shoots. It was these that were used for spears. The green
wood was held over, or passed through, the fire to soften and supple
it. It was then straightened and scraped ; sharpened at the end and
the point hardened in the fire." It is said that in straightening their
spears the natives used their teeth as a vice to hold them. On the
borders of creeks the tea tree grows in dense scrubs, very tall and straight
and yet slender enough for spears ; the wood is very tough, hard and
heavy. In the Museum at Hobart there are ten spears, all apparently
of tea tree {melaUtica), measuring from ten to fourteen feet in length.
They are carefully scraped smooth, and scraped to a rather blunt point.
Most taper rapidly from the middle to the hinder end, which is often
not thicker that the thin end of a riding whip. This confirms Mr. Lyne's
statement that they were made of the young shoots of tea tree, growing
up after a bush fire. The shortest is ten feet long ; diameter at thickest
part, three quarters of an inch, tapering to one quarter of an inch. The
thickest, eleven feet eleven inches long. Thickest part (twenty inches
from point), three inches in circumference. In the middle, two and a
quarter inches in circumference. From the middle it tapers rapidly, and
two inches from the hinder end is only half an inch in circumference.
G. Raynor, a very old resident, writes me that they made their
spears of the tea tree shoots. ** I'hey would select the finest and
straightest of them, pull them up and burn off the roots, they would
place the thick end on the fire again till it was slightly burned, and
then they would rub off the burnt part with a rough sandstone ; they
would repeat that till they made a sharp point, the fire of course would
make the point very hard ; and by working the spear through a crevice
in a sandstone rock all roughness would be removed, and by rubbing it
with a little grease it would shine as if newly varnished."

Their other weapon, " the waddy, was a short piece of wood, reduced
and notched towards the grasp and slightly rounded at the point " (West,
p. 84). Henderson speaks of it as about two feet, long and ** this they
are in the habit of employing for the purpose of despatching a wounded
vicftim " (Bk. II. p. 151). Thirkell says it is ** about two feet six inches
long," while Backhouse speaks of it (p. 90) as a short ** stick about an
inch in thickness, brought suddenly to a conical point at each end, and
at one end a little roughened, to keep it from slipping out of the hand.
This, they throw with a rotatory motion and with great precision." **The
waddy was made of the leptospermitm and melaleuca^ the hard, heavy woods
used for making spears" (Davies, p. 419); and, according to Hull (Proc.
Roy. Soc, V. D. Land, vol, i. p. 156), ** The young wood of Pittosporum
bicolor was formerly in high estimation among the aborigines of Tasmania,
on account of its combined qualities of density, hardness, and tenacity,
as the most suitable material of which to make their warlike implement
the waddy." Bligh (p. 51) speaks of the natives being armed with a
** small stick, two or three feet long," which was probably a waddy.
Breton (p. 356), Melville (p. 348), and the V. D. Land Annual, 1834
(p. 78) also mention the waddy. Lyne told J. B. Walker that the waddy
was about thirty inches long, about one and three quarters thick at

WAR. *ji

the heavy end and tapering to one and a quarter inches. The heavy
end was sometimes knobbed. It was made of waddy wood pittosporum
hkolor ; native box, hursaria spifwsa ; and perhaps also of he-oak, casiiarina
suberosa. In the Hobart museum there are two waddies apparently
of nielaleuca, but doubtful. The larger one is two feet one inch in length.
Thickest part three and a quarter inches in circumference ; tapering to
three inches just above the roughened part. The other is one foot ten
and three quarter inches long. They are scraped smooth, except three
inches at thinner end, which is hacked rough.

According to Mortimer (p. 20), who met some natives on an expedition,
*' Mr. Cox made signs to one of them to throw his spear, which he did,
to a considerable distance, and with a good deal of force; but I cannot
conceive them to be a dangerous weapon." But, as we shall see, Mor-
timer is the only writer who doubted the effecfliveness of the Tasmanians'
weapons, although Wentworth does say of their spears (p. 116): "In using
them they grasp the centre ; but they neither throw them so far nor so
dexterously as the natives of the parent colony" [New South Wales].
Mrs. Prinsep in her letters, has the following statement (p. 80): "You
will not wonder at our anxiety to avoid a recontre with them and their
formidable spears; a weapon they wield with deadly eflfe(5l. We had seen
six or seven kept as prisoners in Hobarton . . . They threw the
spear for our amusement. This is merely a slender stick, nine or ten
feet long, sharpened at the heaviest end ; they poise it for a few seconds
in the hand, till it almost spins, by which means the spear flies with
great velocity to the distance of sixty yards, and with unerring aim."
Dixon (II. p. 23) speaks of the personal agility and dexterity of the
natives in wielding their weapons; and Jeffrey says (p. 126): "They
discharge the spear itself from their hands and are excellent marksmen."
Regarding the distance to which they could throw their lances, Lloyd
says (p. 45) : " Forty yards was the extreme range of corre(5l aim, with
either spear or waddie, by the blacks of Tasmania." Breton (p. 353)
says : " That they throw the spear by the hand alone, and yet will strike,
a small objedl at a distance of from forty to fifty yards," and of the
waddy, it is "a formidable instrument, as it is sent with almost unerring
aim, and with such force that any person struck by it would receive a
dangerous contusion or even a severe wound. It can be thrown with
ease forty yards, and in its progress through the air goes horizontally,
describing the same kind of circular motion that the boomerang does,
with the like whirring noise" (ibid.). Of the spear Calder says (J. A. I.
p. 3i) : It " was thrown from the hand only, with great force and pre-
cision, having a range of, I believe, about sixty or seventy yards," and
of the waddy, " It was held by the thinner end and was used either
as a club or missile. Used for the latter purpose, it was hurled with
awful force and certain aim." According to the anonymous author in
the V. D. Annual (1834, p. 78): "They are so extremely dexterous in
the use of the spear ; as seldom to miss a mark, even at a consider* -
able distance; and in managing their waddies also,, they display great
skill and prowess," while Melville (pp. 347-9) speaks as follows : " They
were extremely dexterous in the use of the spear ; in throwing these to
a considerabte distance, or in using them when spearing fish in the water^^

72 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

they seldom missed the obje<5l aimed at," and of their waddies : " These
they would throw with considerable force and extraordinary dexterity."
** In throwing the spear they are very expert " (Widowson, p. 190). ** A
shower of their spears, which they send through the air with a quivering
motion, would be terribly destru(5live" (Backhouse, p. 172). Meredith, in des-
cribing the murder of one of his father's stockmen, named Gay, by the
blacks, says : "About four hundred yards from the hut was a creek, in which
the body of Gay was found, covered over with sticks ; on being drawn out,
many spear wounds were discovered, and one spear remained in one of
the feet, having been driven through his thick boot-sole into the foot ; but
for this one spear, he might probably have escaped, being a very swift
runner, and this fatal weapon must have struck him when flying at full
speed from his murderers** (Home in Tasmania, p. 204). Ross mentions
(p. 151), that on one occasion one of the stock-keepers was pursued by
a party of natives, who "struck him as he ran with five or six spears,"
three of which " had struck him in the back," and " one especially had
penetrated his loins several inches.*' When Peletega, a chief, was confined
in Hobart Gaol, in the year 1830, "he took up an old broom stick,
whilst standing at a distance of about twelve yards, threw it in the
manner of casting a spear, right through a small hole, although the
aperture was scarcely half an inch larger than the stick that passed
through it. At another time, taking up a small bit of lath, which
some gentlemen trying to throw could not cast half the distance, he
struck it diredlly through and through the middle of a hat, set up
thirty yards off" (Parker, p. 34).

As we have seen above stones were used as weapons, and Kelly,
on more than one occasion,, mentions the showers of stones with which
the aborigines were wont to attack their enemies. As we shall see
diredlly, Marion's party was attacked by a shower of stones. G. Ray-
nor writes me that the waddy, the spear, and "a round stone about
two inches in diameter, formed their weapons of war and chase." To
throw stones at any one was also an evident sign of displeasure
(Walker, p. no).

Of their inter-tribal wars, and the causes thereof, we have necessarily
only the meagrest accounts. The V. D. Land Annual (1834, P* ^^) says ;
" They were perpetually engaged in conflidls between rival tribes, and
we are told that these were frequently attended by fatal issues. . . .
Some of these tribes are infinitely more savage . . . than others,
and more skilled in the arts of war,** and Milligan (Beacon, p. 26),
" The numerous tribes of which the population of the island consisted
were constantly at war with one another." Davies reports similarly
(p. 419) : ** Each tribe occupied certain tracfts of country, but they
were constantly invading and at war with each other.*' ** The natives
far to the southward and westward take part with the natives in the
interior ; those on the northern and eastern coasts do not take part
with the tribes in the interior" (Kelly, p. 51). According to G. Robertson
(Col. and Slav., pp. 47-48), many of the Oyster Bay mob have been
killed by the Port Dalrymple natives. The Oyster Bay and - Big
River tribes were hostile to the northern natives." Of the cause of
these wars we have not far to look, the chief cause beilig probably

WAR. 73

the pressing presence of the Colonists, as Melville (p. 349) states :
" Ever after the arrival of the English, they were at war with each
other — tribe against tribe ; and this was owing to their having been
forced to trespass on each other's hunting-grounds, being driven from
their own by the white population.** West, the historian, also ascribes,
the inter-tribal wars to this cause (II. p. 85). ** The wars among them
latterly, provoked by driving one tribe on the boundaries of another,
were not infrequent ; as everywhere, women were the cause and obje<5^
of strife. . . . Those [tribes] on the east of the Launceston Road
were confederate. Towards the last, the Oyster Bay tribe committed
their children to the care of the Big River tribe, many of whom had
been slain by the Western tribes, as well as by the English." Calder,
who has gone through Robinson's voluminous reports, speaking of their
internecine wars, says Q.A.I, pp. 24-25) : '* Animosities ran high amongst
them, and their quarrels never died out except with the extincflion of
their enemies. They made long marches to surprise them ; and to come
on them unperceived, if possible, was their constant objecft. But it was
most difficult to approach them thus, the greatest circumspedlion being
necessary, for such was their vigilance, that it was rare to catch them
oflF their guard. . . . There seems to have been an hereditary feud
between the men of the east and the west, and whenever their captor,
Robinson, met them, they were either on the march to meet their
ancient enemies, or were returning from a vidlory ; for I do not recolledt
a single instance in which they ever acknowledged defeat. Their march
was described to me as a very regular one, and that they stepped
pretty well together, singing or shouting some war-chant, and rattling
their spears as they went along, striking the ground with great force
with the foot every third or fourth step. The look of each was deter-
mined and ferocious beyond expression," and on p. 27 : ** The Big
River and Oyster Bay tribes and the Stoney Creek tribe were the most
ferocious and predatory of all the natives."

** If any quarrel took place among the men of the same tribe, it
was the waddy that decided their affairs of honour" (Melville, p. 349).
" When they meet with the intention of fighting, it is the custom for
one to receive a blow on the cranium, and then to return the blow
on that of his adversary " (Breton, p. 355). " When they fight among
themselves, the chief weapon is the waddy, which they flourish in
the air for some time, with boisterous threats and gestures, and then
ffirfl to in good earnest. . . . Their skulls are thicker [sic] than those
of Europeans. They had need be so, to receive the blows that are
inflidled on these occasions, as they sometimes appear heavy enough to
fell an ox [sic]** (V. D. Land Annual, 1834, p. 78).

The first Tasmanian blood spilled by Europeans occurred during
Marion's exploring visit. His party had landed and established friendly
relations with the natives. But ** when Marion landed, a savage detached
himself from the mob, and came to present him . . • with a fire
brand to light a little pile. The captain, thinking it was a ceremony
necq^sary to show that he came with peaceful intentions, did |iot hesitate
to set fire to the pile; but it soon appeared to be quite tbP contrary,
and, that accepting the brand signified the accepting of a challenge, or

74 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

declaration of war. As soon as the pile was lighted, the savages retired
precipitately on to a hill, from which they threw a shower of stones,
wounding Marion and another officer with him. . . . Everybody re-
embarked. . . . The savages conveyed their women and children into
the woods, and followed the boats along the shore. When we wished
to land, they opposed our doing so. One of them uttered a fearful shout,
and immediately the whole mob discharged their pointed sticks, by which
a black servant was wounded in the leg. The wound was not a great
one, and the rapidity with which it healed proved that these javelins of
wood were not poisoned. We replied to their shower of spears by firing,
which wounded several and killed one. They fled into the woods, howling
fearfully, carrying with them those who, being wounded, were unable to
follow" (Marion, pp. 29-31). Why the lighting of the pile should have
been the cause of the attack is not explained. The next party to come
to blows with them was Peron*s party, and on this occasion also the
encounter seems to have been caused by a misunderstanding. He relates
that, on one occasion, when they had unwittingly given offence to a large
body of aborigines by one of their number being wrestled with and
overthrown by a middy named Maurouard, as they were in the acft of
re-embarking, ** all of a sudden a long spear, thrown from behind some
neighbouring rocks, struck Maurouard in the shoulder ; this rude weapon
had been thrown with such force that, after slipping along the whole
surface of the shoulder-blade, it opened a passage through the flesh of
the shoulder and the neck. The crew . . . wished to pursue the
savages in revenge, but they had already disappeared among the rocks
and brushwood. ... A few days afterwards, in another part of the
channel [D'Entrecasteaux] , there was a fresh attack, in which the savages
rained a storm of pebbles down upon us ; fortunately no one was hit "
(Peron, ch. xii. p. 236). Another time he states: **A short time after our
return, the Commander himself came back from a short excursion which
he had gone to make on the mainland [Tasmania] with Captain Hamelin,
Lechenault and Petit. These gentlemen had again encountered the
aborigines, and the interview had again terminated in a violent attack
on the part of the latter. The fact was. Petit, having sketched several
of the savages, the party was preparing to return to the ship, when
one of them [savages] threw himself upon the artist in order to take
from him the drawings he had just made ; upon his trying to defend
himself, the savage became furious and took up a log, with which he
would have killed our weak companion, if the others had not run to his
rescue. Far, however, from seeking to revenge such audacity, they were
pleased to shower new presents upon the aggressor, in the hope, no
doubt, of calming his fury by such generous condudl, and to gain the
goodwill also of his fellow-countrymen ; but hardly had these savage men
seen our party occupied in re-embarking, than they re-entered the forest,
and a moment afterwards there came a shower of stones, one of which
struck the Commander in the back, causing a large and painful contusion.
Our comrades, in spite of this treachery, did not wish to cease being
magnanimous. It was in vain that the savages exposed themselves to
their shots, by provoking them from the top of the bank they had just
quitted; vainly they brandished their spears and multiplied their threatening

WAR. 75

gestures; not a single shot was fired at them. * These last hostilities,'
says our botanist, Leschenault, *were committed by the aborigines without
our having given them the slightest provocation ; on the contrary, we had
loaded them with presents and kindnesses, and nothing in our condudl
could have offended them.' . . . The morning after the attack 1 have
just spoken of, Captain Hamelin started in his yawl to reconnoitre the
bank, and approached sufficiently near to observe what was going on.
It seemed that the event of the previous day had made the savages
uneasy, or that they intended to attack us should we descend on their
shores; for the Captain saw thirty-six men marching along the shore,
in squads of five or six individuals, one in each group of which carried
a bundle of spears; and at the head of this little army a man, with a
flaming brand in his hand, set fire at intervals to the brushwood which
covered the ground. Did this precaution seem necessary to them for
observing us from a distance, or to take away from us the means of
hiding ourselves and surprising them ? " (ch. xii. pp. 237-239).

Later on, ** Freycinet and I landed [some distance up the Derwent,
the R. du Nord of the French,] to engage in some intercourse with the
natives. Their ways on this cape seemed to be even wilder than those
in the Channel . . . ; it was impossible to get near them ; at sight
of us they all fied into the forest. . . . Having crossed the little
bay, ... we saw a sight similar to that of which I have spoken
at our entry into the north-east port. Black clouds of smoke rose on
all sides ; the forest was everywhere on fire ; the wild inhabitants of the
region appeared to wish to drive us from their shores at this cost.
They had retired on to a high mountain, which itself looked like an enormous
pyramid of flame and smoke; from this they made their shouts heard,
and the assembly of individuals seemed numerous. . . . As we approached
the top of the mountain, the shouts redoubled, and we soon exped^ed to
be under the necessity of sustaining or repelling an attack. All of a
sudden the ^ cries ceased. We arrived, and saw with surprise that the
aborigines had fied, abandoning their miserable huts. After having col-
le<5led several weapons which they had forgotten, we followed this route
for some time . . . without meeting a single one of the aborigines"
(Peron, ch. xii. pp. 244-246). Again, during another excursion, ** We were
about to land at Maria Island in order to pass the night, when we
perceived a mob of 25 or 30 savages, who, armed with long spears,
advanced towards us with loud shouts. . . . We should have been
obliged, with such hosts, to pass the night under arms ; we resolved,
therefore, to go further up the bay, being convinced the savages would
not follow us. In reality, they continued their route to the west, and soon
disappeared" (Peron, ch. xiii. p. 277). But on the last occasion of meeting
an armed party at Oyster Bay, Maria Island, Peron's company landed
and found fourteen savages colledied around a large fire, and who received
him with friendship. ** They were armed for the most part with long
spears; the others had clubs in their hands; these they deposited by
their side" (ch. xiii. p. 278).

After these accounts of Marion and Peron, and allowing on the other
hand for the fadl that Cook's party had none but friendly intercourse
with them, it sounds strange to read as follows in Wentworth (pp. 116-

76 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

117): "They have seldom or never been known to a<5l on the offensive,
except when they have met some of their persecutors singly. Two persons
armed with muskets may traverse the island from one end to the other
in the most perfedl safety."

Perhaps the following account by Calder, compiled from the sources
already mentioned, gives the best conception of the methods and tad^ics
adopted by the aborigines in their final struggle with the Europeans.
This account appears in the Journ. Anth. Inst. 1873, PP' 7-^'» ^^^ ^^
supplement it by important extratfts from other sources. " Tribal
dissensions, causing mutual destru(flion (for such were their jealousies
and hatreds, that they fought one another all the time they were
thrashing the whites), contributed to their decrease in some degree. .
. . Beyond all doubt, they [the settlers] were no match for the blacks
in bush-fighting, either in defensive or offensive operations. ... If
it had been possible to bring the savage into fair and open fight, with
something like equal numbers, this would have been reversed. But the
black assailant was far too acute and crafty an enemy to be betrayed
into this style of contest, and never fought till he knew he had his
opponents at a disadvantage to themselves. He waited and watched
for his opportunity for hours, and often for days, and when the proper
moment arrived, he attacked the solitary hut of the stock-keeper, or
the hapless traveller whom he met in the bush, with irresistible numbers,
taking life generally singly, but often ; the largest number I read of
his destroying on one occasion being four persons. In these assaults
on the dwellings of his enemy he contrived his attacks so cleverly as
to insure success at least five times in six, and if forced to abandon
his enterprise, his retreat, with few exceptions, was a bloodless one.
The natives so managed their advance on the point of attack as not
to be seen until they were almost close to the dwelling of their vi<5lim.
They distinguished between a house and a hut, and seldom approached
the former. . . . They never attacked except in parties of twenty,
fifty, a hundred, or even greater numbers. Their mode of assaulting a
dwelling when there were several inmates at home, which they knew by
previous watching, was to divide into small gangs of five, ten, or more,
each concealing itself, . . . their approach being so quiet as to
create no suspicion of their presence, to which the woody and uneven
nature of the country is eminently favourable. Then one of these
parties, which was prepared for instant retreat, made its presence known,
either by setting fire to some shed or bush fence, or by sending a
flight of spears in at the window, shouting their well-known war-whoop
at the same time. This never failed of bringing out the occupants,
who, seeing the authors of the outrage, now at a safe distance, but in
an attitude of defiance, incautiously pursued them. . . . The blacks
then retreated just as quickly as the others advanced, keeping out of
gunshot, and defying them, generally in good English, to come on. . .
Having decoyed their pursuers to a safe distance into the woods, and
generally with rising ground between them and the hut, the others
sprang from their cover, and rushing into the place, plundered it of its
contents, often finishing their work by burning it to its foundations;
first, however, killing or leaving for dead, any unfortunate persons —

WAR, 77

mostly a mother and her children — who chanced to be left behind.
They then fled with their booty, re-uniting with the decoy party at
some distant point. In their first systematized assaults . . . their
principal objeifl was murder, but in later times, plunder. . . . They
took everything that was useful, and often what was of no use at all
to them, . . . such, for example, as clocks, workboxes, etc. . . .
But provisions of all sorts, and, above all, blankets, firearms, and
anununitipn, were the articles they prized most ; of which latter they
eventually surrendered many stand to the Government, pistols, muskets,
fowling-pieces, powder and ball, all perfe<5lly clean and dry, and in
excellent order. Of these latter it was found that they knew not
only the use, but were also pra<5lised in using them ; but their is no
instance of their bringing them into the field, though they afterwards
assured Robinson that they meant to have done so, but to the last
they seem to have preferred their own arms in both fight and chase —
namely, the spear and waddy. . . . Notwithstanding the ancient
customs of the blacks, not to permit the women to take any part in
adlive war, these individuals could not be restrained from joining in and
sometimes leading the attack. One of these persons, ... a woman
of one of the East Coast tribes, . . . planned and executed nearly
every outrage that was committed in the distri(5ls bordering on the
north and north-western coast. In the days of their decay, she colle<5ted
the poor remnants of several tribes into one hostile band, of whom she
was the leader and chieftainess." On p. 20, ibid.y Calder continues :
•* They never permitted their wives or children to accompany them in
their war expeditions, either against the whites or enemies of their own
race, but left them in places of security or concealment," and on pp.
21-22, ibid, : <* The Tasmanian aboriginal, in advancing on an unsuspect-
ing vidlim whom he meant to kill treacherously, approached apparently
quite unarmed, with his hands clasped, and resting on the top of his
head, a favourite posture of the black, and with no appearance of a
hostile intention. But all the time he was dragging a spear behind
him, held between his toes, in a manner that must have taken long
to acquire. Then, by a motion as unexpe(5^ed as it was rapid, it was
transferred to the hand, and the vi<ftim pierced before he could lift a
hand or stir a step.'*

Regarding these surprise ta<5^ics, in a long account of the hostilities
carried on between the natives and a man named Thomas Tucker, Calder
(Wars, pp. 99-100) narrates the following: "The Cape Portland tribe
were still here, though not close to the harbour. But as the day advanced
some indications of their approach which no European would observe,
reached the ears of the black woman [an ally with Tucker] ; but she
said nothing. . . . The land, all along the north-eastern shores, is
very open, so that with the commonest vigilance there was no danger
of any sudden surprise. All at once, however, the woman started and
whispered to Tucker, * Here are the black fellows,' pointing at them at
the same. He looked round just in time to see the head of one of them
peering at them over a low rise, which was withdrawn diredlly, and not
a vestige of the hundreds who were creeping stealthily on them, to
surround them, was to be seen. Our natives managed their attacking

V-

78 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

movements with uncommon skill, and hundreds are the instances of their
surrounding dwellings, in perfedl swarms, without their exciting the
smallest suspicion of their being at hand. No more subtle race could
be than the Tasmanian savages." Similarly : •* In several instances, the
lives of white people were saved by the native women, who would often
steal away from the tribe to give notice of an intended attack. On one
occasion, one of our boat's crew had landed for the night on the shore
of Great Swan Port, made their preparations for supper, and lighted a
fire, when two native women came stealthily to them, warning them to
hurry away, as the tribe was hidden behind the nearest bank, only
waiting till the moon rose to make a descent upon them. Accordingly,
the men hastily gathered up their paraphernalia, and decamped to their
boat, but had scarcely pushed out into deep water before they saw the
enemy come stealing down, one black figure after another gliding past
their fire, evidently with the intention of surrounding them " (Meredith,
p. 201). Laplace's accounts run to the same tune : ** When the dwelling
which they desire to ransack appears to them too large, or too well
guarded to be attacked by the ordinary means, that is, by surprise, or
violent force favoured by the darkness, then they employ a patience and
a cunning truly diabolical. . . . The farmer, in spite of his restless
vigilance, often passes close to the trunks of trees without perceiving the
savages, who now, drawn back against the branches blackened by the
flames, or now, imitating by their attitude and perfedl immobility those
which the axe has cut off, await, often during whole days, the moment
when he sets out, with all his convidls, to work in the fields. Hardly
has he gone away, before they surround his farm, massacre his wife and
children without pity, and have already conveyed their booty far away,
when the flames, rushing above the buildings, foretell to the unfortunate
colonist the extent of his misfortune. The aborigines do not wait always
to shed the blood of Europeans till a proje(ft for ravaging some house
has brought them together. Often one among them approaches inhabited
places alone, glides along the paling fence surrounding the houses, till
just by the lower room where the family of the proprietor is assembled.
In an instant, his body is pierced by a spear, and his wife, as well as
the child which she held to her breast, fall also, stricken dead by an
invisible hand. The blood-thirsty savage, having satisfied his cruelty,
disappears into the woods, and rejoins his tribe. ... A convicfl,
employed in guarding flocks, whose barbarity the natives had experienced
more than once, was traversing the forest with a companion. He encoun-
tered a native, who, hidden behind the trees, threw a spear at him,
missed him, and took to flight. The convidt, exasperated, pursued and
overtook him, and, after an obstinate struggle, the V. D. Lander, his
head fradtured by the blows of the club, was left for dead upon the
ground ; but hardly had the viclor taken a few steps, before his vicflim
raised himself, armed himself with a new spear, pierced with it the heart
of his enemy, and disappeared into the thickest part of the wood" (Laplace,
III. ch. xviii. pp. 197-199). These accounts appear somewhat coloured
and could only be noted by Laplace on hearsay. ** The blacks, when
they came in secret to attack a hut, always did so by ambuscade, watching
whole days and nights together for an opportunity to pounce upon their

WAR. 79

prey. And even should they approach openly, with a hostile intention,
they still did so under the cloak of friendship, coming up from different
sides, and dragging their long spears, held between their toes, unperceived,
through the grass, so as to have those deadly weapons ready at a
moment's warning to dart upon their victim " (Ross, p. 87).

In the case of the massacre of the Hooper family : ** A black woman
some time after told the whole of their plans and schemes to achieve
this terrible murder : she said that a party of them had. for three days
kept watch unseen on one of the rocky hills close to the cottage, in-
tending to wait there until Hooper went out to work without his gun.
. . . One unhappy day he did go out without it, and instantly the
descent was made and the massacre effedled with the terrible success they
anticipated" (Meredith, ch. xii. p. 212). The first white man who was
murdered by the natives was George Munday : ** the native had a spear
concealed and held by his toes, and, as Munday turned from him, he
caught up his spear and threw it at him '* (Knopwood, p. 53 ; Parker,
p. 28). This cunning is well summed up in Colonel Arthur's Despatch
(Col. and Slav., p. 61) : ** Although their [the natives'] natural timidity
still prevents them from openly attacking even two armed persons, how-
ever great their number, yet they will, with a patience quite inexhaustible,
watch a cottage or a field for days together, until the unsuspe<5ling
inhabitants afford some opening, of which the savages instantly avail
themselves, and suddenly spear to death the defenceless vidlims of their
indiscriminate vengeance. . . . Two Europeans who will face them
will drive fifty savages before them, but still they return and watch until
their unerring spears can bring some vi<5lim to the ground," and further,
in Minutes Exec. Council (ibid, p. 63): "The Council cannot but remember
the repeated proofs it has had before it of the skill with which the
natives have availed themselves of the facilities presented to them . . .
to make their hostile approaches unperceived, of their patience in watching
for days the habitation of those whom they design to attack, and of the
frightful celerity with which they avail themselves of any unguarded
moment to fall upon the inmates and put them to a cruel death ;
nor can it forget those instances in which they have effe<5led their pur-
pose by means of the most consummate and deliberate treachery, by
sending some of their people, sometimes women, sometimes unarmed men,
who have approached huts with apparently the most friendly disposition,
and have succeeded in engaging the attention of the inmates, or in
alluring some of them to a distance, and thus enabling their armed con-
federates to fall suddenly upon their unsuspeifiing vidUms and destroy
them." ** The facility and rapidity with which they moved to some secret
hiding-place, after committing any atrocity, rendered pursuit in most
instances fruitless" (Memorandum, ibid. p. 72).

Against this, what may be called the silent system of attack, there
are a few records of a party of natives declaring open hostility. In
narrating one of his pursuits of the hostile aborigines, Robinson says :
** * The wild natives had assembled on the opposite bank of the river.
Here they continued to exhibit the most violent gestures, and were
exceedingly boisterous in their declamations, threatening to cross the
river and massacre us.' Robinson also learned that it was their intention

8o H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

to have killed the whole of the party except the women. But for him-
self was reserved a special fate, namely, the mutilation and burning of
his body, *and my ashes,' he says, *made into Ray-dee or Num-re-mur-
he-kee,' ».^., amulets to be worn by the natives ' " (Calder, Wars, p. 70).
The natives invariably run away if one man be shot ; an instance of
this happened at the Coal River; the body was left, but a wounded
man was taken away (Hobbs, p. 50). In their mode of warfare^ "Parties
in pursuit can only come upon them in the morning by watching their
smokes ; they leave their women and children behind them, when they
go upon their plundering excursions ; they are more shy and difficult to
come up with than the kangaroo" (Hobbs, p. 50). On one occasion
Gilbert Robertson was within four miles of them for four days near
the Blue Hills ; * they beat round and round him like a hare ; he
had natives with him, who had been captured, to trace them, and
whom he could trust. In July he was upon the track of from 100
to 200 natives at the Blue Hills ; he supposed there were two tribes,
one party going towards Oyster Bay, the other towards the westward ;
the party he followed to the westward suddenly disappeared, and he did
not know by what means they hid their tracks. He continues : " They
cannot be surrounded by several parties coming upon them ; they have
no rendezvous except where game is plentiful ; they go over the whole
island; they always keep regular sentries, and pass over the most
dangerous grounds, and by the brinks of the most dangerous precipices;
they leave their women and children behind them, and send out parties
to commit depredations ; . . . the natives do not move by night ;
they are afraid of the moon " (Col. and Slave, p. 47). West, the his-
torian, gives the following accounts of hostile encounters with the natives:
" In the estimation of Europeans their pracflice in war was savage or
cowardly ; ' they do not, like an Englishman,' complained a colonial writer,
*give notice before they strike.' The perfeiflion of war, in their esteem,
was ambush and surprise; but an intelligent observer sometimes saw
considerable cleverness in their tadlics. Franks was on horseback, driving
cattle homeward ; he saw eight blacks forming a line behind him, to
prevent his retreat, each with an uplifted spear, besides a bundle in
the left hand. They then dropped on one knee, still holding the weapon
in menace ; then they rose and ran towards him in exadl order ; while
they distradled his attention by their evolutions, other blacks gathered
from all quarters, and within thirty yards a savage stood with his spear
quivering in the air. This weapon, ten feet long, penetrated the flap of
the saddle, and the flesh of the horse four inches, which dropped on
his hind quarters. The rider was in despair; but the spear fell, and
the animal recovered his feet and fled. The servant, less fortunate than
his master, was found some days after, slain. The attack was well
planned, and exhibited all the elements of military science. A tribe,
who attacked the premises of Jones, in 181 9, at the Macquarie, were
led by a chief six [sic] feet high ; he carried one spear, of a peculiar
form, and no other kind of weapon ; this he did not use, but stood

* Near Bothwell ; there is a place of the same name south of Little Swan River on

the East Coast.

WAR. 8l

aloof from the rest, and issued his orders with great calmness, which
were implicitly obeyed. They formed themselves into a half moon ringy
and attacked the English with great vigour. The chief was shot; they
were struck with dismay, and endeavoured to make him stand ; * they
made a frightful noise, looked up to heaven, and smote their breasts. ' "
West also relates : "A party, under Major Grey, went out in pursuit ;
overtook a few blacks ; one was seized ; but was so smeared with grease,
that he slipped through the hands of his captors. . . . They were
bold and warlike in their carriage, and when exhibiting spear exercise,
commanded the admiration of the specflator."

** After killing a white man, the natives have a sort of dance and
rejoicing, jumping and singing, and sending forth the strangest noises
ever heard. They do not molest the body when dead, nor have I heard
of their stripping or robbing the deceased" (Widowson, p. 191). Other
authorities, however, do not agree with Widowson as regards the non-
mutilation of the dead. Calder expressly states (J.A.I, p. 21): ** In
fight, the vengence of the savage was not appeased by the death of an
enemy. The mutilation of the body, and particularly of the head, always
followed, unless the vi(ftor was surprised or apprehended surprise. This
was done either by dashing heavy stones at the corpse or beating it
savagely with the waddie." When Meredith's father's stockman was
killed, "All his finger-joints were broken, and his body brutally muti-
lated, according to the usual custom of the blacks, when not hurried
or disturbed in their deeds of horror " (ch. xii.) ; and when the Hooper
family was killed, the same author gives the following account : at ** the
cottage, where, lying all round, frightfully mangled and full of spears,
were the dead bodies of Hooper, his wife and all their children. They
had hammered their bones in pieces, broken their fingers, etc., etc.

Occasionally they seem to have spared women ; thus Backhouse
mentions the following incident : " We passed the remains of a hut
that was burnt about two years ago, by the aborigines of the Ouse or
Big River district. An old man named Clark lost his life in it, but
a young woman escaped ; she rushed from the fire and fell on her
knees before the natives, one of whom extinguished the flames which
had caught her clothes, and beckoned to her to go away. They killed a
woman on the hill behind the hut. A few weeks after they surrounded
the house of G. Dixon, who received a spear through his thigh, in
running from a barn to his house " (p. 30). Calder states (Wars, p.
56) : ** They [the aborigines] were naturally opposed to taking the life
of a female." ... A Mrs. Cunningham having been murdered by
Le-ner-e-gle-lang-e-ner, chief of the Piper's River tribe, " a Cape Port-
land native, who was staying at the time with the Piper's River fellows,
. . . when he heard of the death of this woman, spoke very
disapprovingly of it, adding that * the men of his tribe never killed a
white woman.' " If, on the one hand, there was an inclination on the
part of some males to spare white females, so there was on the other
hand a disposition on the part of the Tasmanian females to save life
where [Possible. We have already seen in this chapter two cases where
the native women did so save life ; and with regard to the murder of
Parker and Captain Thomas, Calder says : ** The demeanour of the

82 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

women . . . was only what they always displayed on occasions like
this. They were seldom present at a fight, unless it was an unexpecled
one, being always left behind, as many have thought, for their safety,
but really because their presence was embarrassing to their husbands ;
for, with rare exceptions, they were against excessive violence being done ;
and it would not be difficult to give instances where their interposition
in stopping it was more successful than it was at this time " (Wars,
p. 83).

No account says anything of a boomerang, and West states they
had no throwing sticks (II. p 84). It is certain they had neither
boomerang nor throwing stick.

Speaking of some aborigines at Retreat River, who at first appeared
hostile, but were propitiated by a present of black swans, Kelly (p.- 8)
says they ** went away holding up one hand each as a sign of friend-
ship ; " at Cape Grim some decidedly hostile natives were " holding up
both hands as if they did not mean any mischief" (p. 9).

S8 ?

84 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

common in these trees, and with this dust he filled the crack in the
log. He then chose a dry stick, and shaped it a little at one end until
it roughly fitted the crack. Inserting the stick in the crack, he then
rubbed it vigorously and firmly up and down. After steadily persevering
for some time, the dust began to smoke and eventually took fire.
Another informant of James B. Walker, a Lieut. Pascoe (who visited
Flinders Island in the schooner " Vansittart," attached to H.M.S. Beagle,
when commanded by Captain Stokes, 1837-43) said that when he (Pascoe)
was out with a black on a mountain in Flinders, he asked the black
to make fire by rubbing wood, but the black could not understand him,
and said they never did it ; this black said ^* star tumble down, make
fire" (see below Fire Legend). "They procured fire from the fri(ftion
of a stick, rapidly moved between the palms of their hands, with the
point bedded in a piece of soft bark ; but as it was difficult at times
to obtain fire by this means, especially in wet weather, they generally,
in their peregrinations, carried with them a fire-stick, lighted at their
last encampment" (Melville, p. 347). Their fire-sticks consisted in pieces
of decayed wood lighted at one end and burning slowly (La Billardiere,
II. X. pp. 26, 63), or of a "sort of lighted bark torch" (Peron, p.
220). Lyne, a third informant of J. B. Walker, informed him that the
Tasmaliians ** carried torches, or rather firesticks of the thick fibrous
bark of the stringy bark {Eucalyptus obliqua) ; also that they carried
large pieces of an epithytic fungus which grows on the Eucalyptus,
and is locally known as * punk.' This punk, when dry, burns like tinder,
and will smoulder for a whole day." Lyne says that "in wet weather
the aborigines squatted and kept fires going." Mrs. Meredith says, that
when the natives crossed over to Maria Island, " they provided a little
raised platform on the raft, on which they carried some lighted fuel to
kindle their fire when they arrived there" (p. 139). "They always
made very small fires, and from a peculiar art in laying the sticks,
the smoke, in calm weather, would rise like a coiling pillar ; few, if
any, of the whites could imitate them in this respe(5l, and native fires
were, at all times, easily distinguished from those of bushrangers, or
settlers exploring or hunting " (Melville, p. 346). Smokes are still used
for telegraphing by half-castes in the Straits, and even by whites. There
is a regular code, well understood, according to the number and position
of the smokes. Kelly, in the Boat Expedition, refers to the smokes
as signals ; in Banks Straits (p. 14), he writes : " Smokes were made
on the beach inviting us to come over, according to promise ; " on p.
15 he makes a similar remark, and when he left that coast he writes
" The natives made three smokes to say good bye."

Legend as to Origin of Fire.

" The following is the legend of the origin of fire and of the Apotheosis
of two Heroes, by the aborigines of Tasmania, as related by a native of
the Oyster Bay Tribe : * My father, my grandfather, all of them lived a
a long time ago, all over the country ; they had no fire. Two black
fellows came, they slept at the foot of a hill — a hill in my own coun-
try. On the summit of a hill they were seen by my fathers, my

FIRE. FOOD. 85

countrymen, on the top of the hill they were seen standing : they threw
fire like a star, — it fell among the black men, my countrymen. They
were frightened — they fled away, all of them ; after a while they
returned, — they hastened and made a fire, — a fire with wood ; no more
was fire lost in our land. The two black fellows are in the clouds :
in the clear night you see them like two stars.* These are they who
brought fire to my fathers. The two black men stayed awhile in the
land of my fathers. Two women (Lowanna) were bathing ; it was near
a rocky shore, where mussels were plentiful. The women were sulky,
they were sad ; their husbands were faithless, they had gone with two
girls. The women were lonely ; they were swimming in the water,
they were diving for cray fish. A sting-ray lay concealed in the hollow
of a rock — a large sting-ray ! The sting-ray was large, he had a very
long spear; from his hole he spied the women, he saw them dive; he
pierced them with his spear,— he killed them, he carried them away.
Awhile they were gone out of sight. The sting-ray returned, he came
close in shore, he lay in still water, near the sandy beach ; with him
were the women, they were fast on his spear — they were dead !

** * The two black men fought the sting-ray ; they slew him with their
spears ; they killed him ; — the women were dead ! the two black men
made a fire — a fire of wood. On either side they laid a woman — the
fire was between : the women were dead !

" * The black men sought some ants, some blue ants (puggany eptietta) ;
they placed them on the bosoms {parugga poingta) of the women. Severely,
intensely were they bitten. The women revived, — tthey lived once more.
Soon there came a fog {maynentayana), a fog dark as night. The two
black men went away, the women disappeared : they passed through the
fog, the thick, dark fog ! Their place is in the clouds. Two stars you
see in the clear cold night ; the two black men are there, the women
are with them : they are stars above ! " ' (Milligan, Papers, etc., Roy. Soc.
of Tas., III. p. 274).

Food.

With regard to European food Cook says : " When some bread was
given them, as soon as they understood it was to be eaten, they returned
or threw it away, without tasting it" (Third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi. p. 39).
On one occasion La Billardiere's party left them some ships' food, and
he thus reports the result : "It appeared that they had made use of the
bread and water which had been left for them on the preceding day ;
but the smell of the cheese had probably given them' no inclination to
taste it, as it was found in the same condition in which it had been
deposited " (ch. v. p. 225). Later on he tells us : ** We did not know
to what to ascribe their repugnance to our viands, but they would taste
none that we offered them. They would not even suffer their children
to eat the sugar we gave them, being very careful to take it out of

* Castor and Pollux.

t The revival of apparently dead human beings by means of the bites of ants is not

uncommon in Australian Legends,

86 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

their mouths the moment they were going to taste it" (II. ch. x. p. 47).
Nor did the natives originally like spirits, for the same Frenchman relates
(11. ch. X. p. 39): "One of the sailors, who accompanied us, thought he
could not regale them better than with a glass of brandy ; but, accustomed
to drink nothing but water, they quickly spat it out, and it seemed to
have given them a very disagreeable . sensation." During the war,
according to O'Connor (Col. and Slav., p. 55) : ** The chief thing they
want is bread, and they prefer getting a sack of flour by robbing a hut
to himting opossums." And Thirkell says they "were much pleased to
get potatoes from the white people." ** None of the sheep killed by the
savages were eaten ; spears were left in some of them " (Espie, p. 47) ;
but this statement is not quite corredl. ** They wantonly kill sheep, but
never eat them " (Brodribb, p. 52). " The natives frequently have speared
sheep, and if they were taught to skin them, would soon eat them "
(O'Connor, Col. and Slav., p. 55). The natives did not care for European
cooking, for according to La Billardiere, ** We invited them [the natives]
to eat with us some oysters and lobsters which we had just roasted on
the coals ; but they all refused, one excepted, who tasted a lobster. At
first, we imagined that it was yet too early for their meal time, but in
this we were mistaken, for it was not long before they took their repast.
They themselves, however, dressed their food, which was shell -fish of the
same kinds, but much more roasted than what we had offered them."

Regarding their appetites, O'Connor (pp. 54-55) says: "They have
very great appetites ; saw a child of eight months old, then at the -breast,
eat a whole kangaroo rat, and then attack a craw-fish." In the V. D.
Land Almanac for 1834 (p. 78) it is stated they devour their food "with
greediness." Dixon (p. 22) speaks of their food being " devoured vora-
ciously," and says, " As their subsistence was precarious, their gluttony
was great;" and Widowson (p. 190) writes of them: "They eat voraciously,
and are very little removed from the brute creation as to choice of food,
entrails, etc., sharing the same chance as the choicest parts." But Davies,
to a certain extent, explains their voracity as follows : — " They were often
a long time without food, and then ate it in large quantities. When
they are short of food, they tighten a string of kangaroo sinews, which
they wear round their middle. The enormous quantity of food which
they are capable of eating, when they have an opportunity, would scarcely
be credited. A native woman, at the settlement at Flinders Island, was
one day watched by one of the officers, and seen to eat between fifty
and sixty eggs of the * sooty petrel ' {Proccllaria, sp.), besides a double
allowance of bread ; these eggs exceed those of a duck in size " (p. 414).
At one of the meetings of the Royal Society of Tasmania the following
remarks bearing on the aboriginals' power of gorging were reported: —
"Ogilby stated it to be no uncommon circumstance for an individual [of
the aborigines] , at a single meal, to eat twelve pounds of meat, and
wash it down with a gallon of train oil. These were, however, only
occasional gorges. Breton observed that Ogilby must surely have meant
his remarks to apply to the aborigines of some other country,, as those
of Tasmania never had the opportunity of obtaining train oil'^ (Tasm.
Journ. III. p. 238). There seems little doubt that they lived upon all
the animals they could kill. Davies says (p. 413): " W^ith respecft to

Food. 87

the general nature of their food, that depends in a great measure on
their locality. The western portion of the island is more mountainous,
wet and thickly wooded than the rest ; kangaroos are more difficult to
obtain, and the natives live, consequently, more on shell-fish, than on
the eastern coast ; these are principally the haliotis and crayfish, which
they obtain by diving. . . . The tribes in the interior subsist upon
kangaroos, wallaby, and opossums ; more particularly the latter." Where
Bass and Flinders landed they . " fell in with many huts along the shores
of the river, . . . but with fewer heaps of mussel shells lying near
them. The natives of this place probably draw the principal part of their
food from the woods ; the bones of small animals, such as opossums,
squirrels, kangaroo-rats, and bandicoots, were numerous round their
deserted fire-places " (Collins, p. 188). Peron found in one place, near
some huts, remains of kangaroos and birds (ch. xii. p. 243), and Milligan
says (Beacon, p. 26), " They lived chiefly on animal food ; the kangaroo,
wallaby, bandicoot, kangaroo rat, the opossum, and the wombat ; nearly
every bird and bird's egg that could be procured, and in the case of
tribes near the sea, cray-fish and shell-fish, formed the staple articles of
their diet." " The craw-fish and oysters, if immediately on the coast,
are their principal food. Opossums and kangaroos may be said to be
their chief support " (Widowson, p. 190). Cook found they were fond of
birds (Third Voy. Bk. I. ch: vi.), and Flinders mentions that meeting
with a native and offering him a black swan, '^ it was accepted with
rapture" (sec. iv. p. 187). "All of them were particularly fond of the
flesh of the deadly snakes and guana" (Melville, p. 346). Backhouse
mentions that the natives so abhor fat that " they even rejedl bread cut
with a buttery knife," and on some soup being offered them, ** they
skimmed the floating fat off with their hands, and smeared their hair with
it, but would not drink the soup!" (p. 166). The animals that inhabit the
forest especially the kangaroo and wallaby are generally lean (G. W.
Walker, p. no). In his MS. Jour. Walker says: "They are fond of
most European food, but tea and potatoes are their favourite diet. The
former they like extremely sweet, and they seem as if they could drink
any quantity. Butter, and food that is fat or greasy, they show an
aversion to, though several have overcome it." Later, he adds: "Aborigines
becoming fond of milk. Also prefer mutton and beef to the salt meat,
and even to kangaroo, which is becoming scarce." Backhouse also says
I p. 171), " Several wallabies were killed by the natives who accompanied
us. Some of these people only eat male animals, others only the females.
We were unable to learn the reason of this, but they so stridlly adhere
to the practice, that, it is said, hunger will not drive them to depart
from it." These statements about the native dislike to fat, and the eating
of wallabies, are repeated by Davies (p. 414). " When at Moulting Bay,
. . , we counted fifty-six black swans, in pairs. . . . Formerly, a
tribe of aborigines resorted regularly to this neighbourhood, at this season
of the year, to coUedl swans' eggs" (Backhouse, p. 219). "Mutton-
birds (sooty petrels) and penguins are the principal birds used by them,
emus being very scarce. There are some other birds, however, that are
considered good eating, as the swan and the duck ; but these they
cannot often catch, unless it be the young swans. They are very partial

88 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

to their eggs [i.e. swans] . ^The emus are considered a great delicacy,
which may be one reason that emus are said to be more numerous now
than a few years ago, when the number of aborigines in the bush was
greater " (Walker MS. Jour.)* Speaking of the large white grubs, which
were found in old dead or dying trees, Mrs. Meredith tells us, " The
aborigines eat them greedily, and I have heard that some English people
do so, and say they taste like nuts or almonds " (p. 232).! Melville also
says (346) : ** The wood grub was to them a great delicacy." Davies
mentions (p. 414) that ** A large white caterpillar, about two inches in
length, found in rotten wood and in the Banksia, together with the eggs
of the large ants, are considered luxuries."

Although Holman (IV. ch. xii. p. 405) speaks of " their expertness
in spearing the finny tribe," it appears very probable that they never
touched scale fish. Melville (p. 346) certainly says : ** Those near the
sea-shore lived almost entirely upon fish ; " but then he makes in the
context no reference to shell-fish, and from what follows he probably
means the latter. Lloyd states most emphatically (p. 51) : "Through-
out my hunting experience with the aborigines, I never saw them
capture an edible fish excepting of the shelly species." Collins, describing
Bass's discoveries (ch. xv. p. 169), while speaking of the shell-mounds,
says : ** No remains of fish were ever seen." Rossel (I. ch. iv. p. 56),
speaking likewise of the mounds, says : ** We perceived, moreover, no
debris of fishes ; " but La Billardiere says (IL ch. xi. p. 77) : " They
acquainted us that they, as well as the other inhabitants of Cape Diemen,
lived upon fish." The reader will notice that La Billardiere does not
say they lived on fish, only that they said they did. Cook reports
(Third Voy. Bk. L ch. vi. p. 39) : ** They also refused some elephant
fish, both raw and cooked." And, finally, in describing the settlement
at Flinders Island, Calder says (J.A.L, p. 16): **Of shell-fish there
were few or none, and no other fish would any native of Tasmania
ever touch . . . ; they would rather starve than eat it." West (IL
p. 89) mentions that the natives warned some Europeans that the toad
fish was poisonous (which it certainly is), but can such warning imply
that they did eat scaled fish ?

Their method of eating is thus described by La Billardiere : ** About

noon we saw them [forty-eight savages] prepare their repast. Hitherto

we had had but a faint idea of the pains the women take to prepare

the food requisite for the subsistence of their families. They quitted

the water only to bring their husbands the fruits of their labour, and

frequently returned almost direcflly to their diving, till they had procured

a sufficient meal for their families. At other times, they stayed a little

while to warm themselves, with their faces towards the fire on which

their fish was roasting, and other little fires burning behind them, that

they might be warmed on all sides at once. It seemed as if they
were unwilling to lose a moment's time, for while they were warming

themselves, they were employed in roasting fish ; some of which they

• Since the above was written the emu has become extin<ft in Tasmania.

t J. B. Walker knows several people who eat them and say they have a very pleasant
nutty flavour when roasted in ashes. Many school-boys are fond of them.

FOOD. 89

laid on the coals with the .utmost caution : though they took little care
of the lobsters, which they threw anywhere into the fire, and when
they were ready, they divided the claws among the men and children,
reserving the body for themselves, which they sometimes ate before
returning to the water. Their husbands remained constantly near the
fire, feasting on the best bits, and eating broiled FucuSy or fern roots.
Occasionally they took the trouble to break boughs of trees into short
pieces to feed the fire. Their meal had continued a long time and we
were much surprised that not one of them had yet drank ; but this
they deferred till they were fully satisfied with eating. The women and
girls then went to fetch water with vessels of sea-weed [see basket work] ,
getting it at the first place they come to, and setting it down by the
men, who drank it without ceremony, although it was very muddy and
stagnant. They then finished their repast " (II. ch. x. pp. 57-60).

Ross, describing a visit paid him by sixty aborigines, says : " They
made a small cooking fire on an eminence behind my cottage, and
squatting round it by turns, while others walked about and hunted here
and there, they continued cooking and eating, more or less, from nine
o'clock in the morning to about four in the afternoon, when they all
of a sudden . . . rushed into the broadest and deepest part of the
river in front of my cottage, and splashed and gambolled about for at
least an hour." On another occasion his old visitors, the blacks,
reappeared. " They encamped on the same spot they had formerly done.
About an hour before sunset, the hunters having returned home, some
with one opossum, others with two or three kangaroo-rats or bandicoots.
. . . They had begun cooking, and had nearly finished dinner, for
these aborigines I found were quite fashionable as to their dinner hour
as well as classical in adopting the Roman method of reclining at meals,
lying round their fire, resting on one elbow, and holding the half- roasted
leg of an opossum eating in the other. They evidently knew the
advantage of not overdoing their roast meat, but, by the process they
adopted, retained all the best of the gravy. The fiames of the fire
having burned down, the animals, with all their natural coats upon them,
were thrown on the live embers, occasionally turned from side to side,
till not only all the fur was singed off, but the entire carcass tolerably
well done throughout. It was then taken off, cut up with a sharp flint
or stone, or, if their intercourse with Europeans had enabled them to
procure that march of civilization — a piece of glass— quartered and dis-
jointed. Occasionally they would dip the savoury flesh into the alkali
ashes of the fire, instead of salt, before putting it to their mouth. As
I stood with my little child watching with much interest this aboriginal
scene, their natural politeness was constantly urging me to partake with
them, and, not to disoblige them, both I and my child each took a
nicely-cooked leg of a kangaroo-rat in our hands. Not liking, however,
to eat it down, with my best expressions of gratitude I moved gradually
away till I reached my house, when 1 gave the pieces to Danger and
Juno [the dogs]" (Ross, pp. 146 and 153-154). In this account it will
be noticed that the natives made use of a substitute for salt, an article
which is not referred to by any other writer. Backhouse's account of
a meal off a kangaroo-rat, witnessed by him, runs : ** The animal was

90 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

thrown into the ashes till the hair was well singed off, and it became
a little distended by the heat ; it was then scraped., and cleared of the
entrails, after which it was returned to the fire till roasted enough.
This is the common mode of cooking practised by the aborigines, who
find, that by thus roasting the meat in the skin, the gravy is more
abundant. In eating, they rejedl the skin " (p. 85). Bunce's description
of their cooking is almost the same as that given by Backhouse (pp.
55'5^)' ^' Raynor writes me that ** their method of cooking was to
throw the opossum on the fire, whole, till the fur was burnt off and
the skin began to crack ; shortly after, it was taken off, and the entrails
removed with a sharp flint." In roasting mutton-birds " the plan
they adopt in cooking them is, to throw the bird on the fire until
all the feathers are singed off, when it is withdrawn and gutted.
When several are prepared in this manner, they are spitted on a stick
between two and three feet in length, one end of which is run into the
ground, while the other enables the person who is standing by to turn
the birds, or give them such a diredtion towards the fire as ensures
their being properly cooked A choice part was separated from one. of
the birds and presented for our acceptance, which in courtesy we could
not decline, as nothing pleases these children of nature more than to
accept, and appear gratified with, that which is offered by them '*
(Walker, p. 98).

W^e have above recorded La Billardiere's and Ross's account of their
meals, including a few words on their cooking. Of this art, Peron says
(ch. xii. p. 226) : ** The fire was lighted in an instant, . . . the
cooking was neither a long nor a tedious operation. The large shells
were put on the fire, and there, as if on a dish, the animal cooked ; it
was then eaten without any other seasoning or preparation. On tasting
shell-fish prepared in this way, we found them very tender and succulent."
On another occasion (ch. xii. p. 243) his party came upon ** fourteen huts
or wind-shelters ; . . . several fires were still burning before these huts.
. . . In front of them there were several bones of kangaroos and
birds ; and some flat stones warm and greasy, on which it seemed to
me meat had been broiled." Lloyd tells us (p. 51): **The task of gathering
and cooking the latter description of food devolved entirely upon the
gins. The culinary arrangements of those children of nature were most
primitive. They lived in happy ignorance of any cooking apparatus save
the bright red embers engendered from the wood of their native trees."
** The manner of cooking their vidluals is by throwing it on the fire,
merely to singe off the hair" (Widowson, p. 190). "They used to half
cook the opossums whole " (Thirkell). Backhouse describes the cooking
of limpets and bandicoots thus (p. 86) : ** The bandicoot and limpets were
cooked, the latter being pitched by the natives, with great dexterity, into
the glowing embers, with the points of the shells downward : their con-
tents, when cooked enough, were taken out by means of a pointed stick."
*' Having thrown the carcase, without any preparation upon the fire, when
but just heated, the limbs were torn asunder, and devoured voraciously"
(Dixon, p. 22j. Only one settler testifies to the cleanliness of their
cookery : ** They scrape their kangaroo and opossum very clean before
they roast them" (O'Connor, p. 55).

FOOD. 91

" The hearths of clay which Anderson noticed at Adventure Bay, at
the foot of trees hollowed out thus [by fire] , are not, I believe, the
work of the natives ; for the trees which we saw rooted up and thrown
down, had dragged along with them layers [couches] of clay mixed with
stone, so hardened by the fire that one could easily have been deceived
and taken them for masonry. The natives, indeed, use these hearths
to broil their shell-fish ; fragments of shells have been found among the
ashes at the foot of these 'trees" (Rossel, I. ch. iv. p. 63). With
reference to the hearths La Billardiere states (I. ch. v. pp. 175-176):
" Most of the large trees near the edges of the sea have been hollowed
near their roots by means of fire . . . They seem to be places of
shelter for the natives whilst they eat their meals. We found in some
of them the remains of the shell-fish on which they feed, and frequently
the cinders of the fires at which they had dressed their vicfluals. . . .
Anderson speaks of hearths of clay made by the natives in these hollow
trees . . . ; but . . . the natives of this country do not make their
fires upon hearths, but kindle them upon the bare ground, and prepare
their vi6tuals over the. coals.*' Bonwick's statement (p. 19) that, "Ovens
are occasionally met with on the Tasmanian island " is probably founded
on Anderson's supposition ; at least he gives no authority for his state-
ment. The trees were not hollowed out artificially by means of fire.
The hollowing out is the ordinary effect of successive bush fires eating
into the heart of the gum tree, the heart being softer than the out-
side wood.

Backhouse says (p. 79) : "They daily removed to a fresh place, to
avoid the offal and filth that accumulated about the little fires which
they kindled daily." ** By the considerable heaps of shells we met with
from time to time, we judged that the ordinary food of the savages
consisted of mussels, wing-shells, scallops, chama, and other similar shell-
fish '* (Marion, p. 34). Furneaux follows withHhe remarks (Cook's Second
Voy. Bk. I. ch. vii.) : ** Landed with much difficulty, and saw several
places where the Indians had been, and one they had lately left where
they had a fire, with a great number of pearl-scallop shells round it,
. . . with some burnt sticks and green boughs. . . . Mussel, pearl-
scallop, and cray-fish, I believe to be their chief food, though we could
not find any of them ; " and Anderson reported : ** But it was evident
that shell-fish, at least, made a part of their food, from the many heaps
of mussel-shells we saw in different parts" (Cook, Third Voy. Bk. L
ch. vii. p. 41). After Anderson came Bass, who relates (Collins, ch. xv.
p. 169): "The large heaps of mussel-shells that w^ere found near each
hut proclaimed the mud banks to be a principal source of food." He
also mentions {ibid, p. 172), " that having landed on an island off the
north-east coast, * the whole of which wore an aspecft of poverty,' yet
they found * this place was inhabited by men, as was shown by the old
fire-places, strewn round with the shells of the sea-ear,' " and so also
did Flinders (p. 165) : " Mussels were abundant, . . . and the natives
appeared to get oysters by diving, the shells having been found near
their fire-places." La Billardiere likewise noticed them (I. ch. v. p. 212),
" The heaps of shells which we found near the sea-shore showed that
these savages derive their principal means of subsistence from the shell-

92 H. LING ROTH. — ABORI&INES OF TASMANIA.

fish which they find there.*' Rosse], who was with La Billardiere, remarks
(I. ch. iv. p., 56), **They appear to subsist upon shell-fish only, for large
heaps of shells were found in the neighbourhood of places where they
must have been living ; " and Backhouse says (p. 348) : ** At Little Swan
Port we visited the mounds of oyster-shells left by the aborigines, who
formerly inhabited this country. . . . They must have been the
accumulation of ages." It is, however, strange that we have been unable
to find any reference to these shell-mounds in Peron, otherwise the
testimony regarding the widespread nature of this food is universal.
Mortimer mentions, that on Maria Island, they saw trees hollowed by
fire, "and great quantities of shells heaped about them" (p. 17). Mrs.
Meredith thus describes the mounds : " Enormous quantities of dead
[oyster] shells are found, forming large banks, forty feet high, on two
low isthmuses, one of which unites the two groups of the Schouten
Mountains, and the other joins the northernmost of these with the main-
land. Similar banks are also found at Little Swan Port. After high
winds, both live and dead shells are thrown up on the two former shell
banks, but not on any other beach in the vicinity. This having doubt-
less been the case for centuries, the aboriginal inhabitants would be
accustomed to resort thither for the oysters, and very probably added
to the shells thus naturally collecfled. . . . They would convey the
oysters to the nearest shore for the purpose of eating them, . . .
and the banks there would gain perpetual additions from their ample
repasts. ... In Little Swan Port, beds of living oysters now exist,
and on the adjacent shore are high banks of shells; . . . but there
is no surf or *wash' in the still waters of this estuary, to cast up shells,
so that, unless the one kind of 'natives' consumed the other to such
an extent as to account for the accumulation, the banks must have been
upraised from the sea. ... At East Bay Neck, a low isthmus
between Forestiers Peninsula and the mainland, large banks of cockle-
shells appear, in the same manner as those of oysters at Swan Port,
at about four or five yards above high -water mark, and are now overgrown
with grass and rushes" (pp. 137-140). And Lloyd, who spent seventeen
years in the Colony, referring to the early days of settlement, says
(pp. 78-79) : "In those primitive times, almost every particle of lime used
in the colony was obtained by burning oyster shells, firmly knit beds of
which were discovered on the bay shores of my uncle's farm, to the
extent of one chain (twenty-two yards) from high-water mark, and vary-
ing in depth from six to eight feet, imbedded in rich black sandy loam.
. . . On closely examining the oyster-shells, there was nothing to
indicate their having been thrown up by any volcanic agency or extra-
ordinary acftion of the sea ; on the contrary, they were promiscuously
mixed together like to those opened at an oyster-eating rendezvous; thus
affording, in my humble opinion, incontrovertible evidence that Tasmania
has been peopled from time immemorial ; and many other places along
the shores of that colony exhibit the same proof in support of such a
suggestion. . . . The banks wherein those large deposits of shells
were found are fifteen or twenty feet above the level of the sea; and
many an oyster-roasting feast have I gladly joined in with the natives,
on those very spots whereon their ancestors must have revelled in like

FOOD. 9^

riunions for ages past." R. Gunn was the first to undertake a scientific
examination of these shell mounds. He reports (II. pp. 332-335), "The
aborigines of Tasmania appear at all times to have derived a considerable
portion of their food from the sea; . . . the testaceae and crustaceae
constituted the principal and almost only supply they drew from that
element. ... In cooking, the shells appear in all instances to have
been merely roasted in the simplest manner, as I never could trace any
indications of ovens, or stones arranged to be heated. ... In the
majority of cases, they consumed their food as near as possible to the
fishing stations ; occasionally going a little inland to avail themselves of
a spring or stream of water. I have, however, observed in a great
number of instances, that there were unusually large accumulations of
shells on proje(5ling points, headlands and places commanding extensive
views — even where not apparently the most eligible for cooking; whence
I have supposed that they adopted these sites for their repasts, to prote<5l
themselves from the sudden attacks of hostile tribes. . . . Heaps and
mounds of shells, of sizes varying from what might be supposed to be
the debris of a family dinner to accumulations several feet in thickness,
and many yards across, abound on all our shores, and upon every indenta-
tion of the coast ; the species of which these heaps are composed
varying according to locality. . . . On the estuary of the Derwent
these remains are found for several miles above Hobart, towards New
Norfolk, until they disappear altogether at about three miles from the
latter town. On the Tamar they are found at still less distance from
the sea; and it does not appear that the aborigines at any time were
in the habit of carrying their shell-fish many miles inland ; the farthest
I have observed being two to three miles. The principal kinds of
Testaceae used by the aborigines as food were two species of Haliotis
(if. iuherculata ? and laevigata), which both attain a large size. . . .
They were removed from the rocks (to which they closely adhere)
by means of a wooden spatula-shaped instrument. . . . The
Mussel {Mytilus sp.) ... is very common on the Derwent, on the
Tamar, the north-west coast, etc. . . . The heaps on the Derwent
and Tamar consist principally of this shell. Oysters (Ostrea sp.) : these
are now rather scarce in many places where their remains are abundant.
The Warrenah {Turbo sp.), which is very common in many situations,
seems to have been a very favourite article of food." At Cape Grim
there is a heap, several feet in thickness, of this shell, formed on the
top of the Cape. Limpets {Patellae sp.) : on the south and west coasts,
these attain to a very great size. Fasciolatia trapezium : this shell I saw
principally in the small heaps on the north coast ; it is there abundant.
A species of Purpura occurs occasionally in the heaps near Circular Head.
A species of Cardium, and some of the smaller bivalves, were used on
the Derwent, where these shells are common. . . . The period of time
which has elapsed since the shells were removed from the sea (in most
cases the latest must be upwards of thirty years), joined to their partial
calcination by the aborigines in roasting, has caused their decomposition
to be considerable."

• In Milligan's Vocabulary Warrenah is given as the name for Haliotis or Ear Shell.

94 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Milligan has remarked " that shell -mounds were of two sorts. Shell -
beaches, which fell under the domain of the geologist ; and shell-mounds
proper, formed by aboriginal inhabitants. Shell-beaches were usually not
far from the shore. In Tasmania and the adjacent islands, the elevation
of the land had left a succession of terraces ; one about fifteen to sixteen
feet above present high-water mark yields thick beds of shells, now
quarried out and burned for lime, chiefly of a pectunculus still extant in
the sea below. On the soft sunny sides of river banks, and by the
grassy margins of springs of water near the sea, heaps of shells occurred
under conditions which stamp them as the feeding places of the aborigines.
A main feature of difference between shell-mounds proper and shell-beaches
was, that in the former the shells had all undergone the process of
roasting, and he had accordingly observed that they had gone fast to
decay. When the refuse-mounds consisted of oysters, mussels, cockles,
and other bivalves, flint knives were usually found in them. On the
other hand, where the food had been derived from univalves, round stones
of different sizes were met with — one, the larger, on which they broke
the shells, the other and smaller having formed the hammer with which
they broke them. The aborigines had assured him that these stones and
flint implements would always be met with in such mounds; and, upon
examination, he had found it so. Bones would also probably be found
in artificial shell-mounds ; as it was not reasonable to suppose that
aborigines would live on shell-fish, in a country where kangaroo, wallaby,
opossums, wombats, and other animals are abundant. Accordingly their
custom was to sojourn chiefly in the interior, and only occasionally, by
way of variety, to visit the sea-coast, whence they would make hunting
excursions inland, carrying back to the scene of their feasts on the sea-
shore the produce of the chase ; thus mingling bones with the exuviae
of the shell-fish on which they fed *' (Trans. Ethn. Soc. II. 1863, p. 128).

Peron describes a family which was returning from fishing; nearly all
the individuals were loaded with shell-fish belonging to that large variety
of oreille de mer peculiar to these shores (ch. xii. p. 226), and [ihid. p.
254) his meeting with some twenty female aborigines, ** as they were
returning from fishing, they were all laden with large crabs, craw-fish,
and shell-fish grilled on the charcoal, which they carried in their rush
baskets."

Bunce states (p. 47) that " the natives obtained from the cider-trees
of the Lakes (Eucalyptus resinifera) a slightly saccharine liquor, resembling
treacle. At the proper season they ground holes in the tree from which
the sweet juice flowed plentifully. It was collecfled in a hole at the bottom
near the root of the tree. These holes were kept covered over with a
flat stone, apparently for the purpose of preventing birds and animals
coming to drink it. . . . When allowed to remain any length of
time, it ferments and settles into a coarse kind of wine or cider, rather
intoxicating if drunk to excess."

** I should not omit to notice their extreme fondness for tobacco. .
. . When not occupied in hunting, cooking &c , they are rarely without
a pipe. One pipe is made to serve several. After the husband has
taken a few whiffs, it is passed to the wife, and then to others, If a

FOOD. 95

stranger is present nothing is more likely to please them than to take
a few whiffs from their pipe." (Walker MS. Jour.)

Davies was of opinion that "before their intercourse with Europeans
they do not appear to have had any knowledge of boiling water."
Walker indeed states (MS. Jour.) "They seem to have been acquainted
with no other mode of cooking than that of roasting. Boiling was quite
strange to them, and meat prepared in that way appears less agreeable
to them than the other."

As was to be expecfled of a race in their condition, the Tasmanians,
appear to have availed themselves largely of the edible vegetable pro-
ducflions which abounded in their island. La Billardiere noticed that
they made use of fern roots, sea-weeds, fungi, etc. (II. ch. v. p. 235 ;
ch. X. p. 14 ; ch. X. p. 50). The sea-wrack (Fuais palmatus) they broiled,
and when it was softened to a certain point, they tore it to pieces to
eat it, . . , and the ficoides they eat without preparation. Rossel
also refers (I. ch. iv. p. 99) to the fern roots eaten by the natives ;
and Melville says : " And at certain seasons they procured, in great
abundance, what is called the native bread, a kind of truffle " (p. 346).
Gunn (I. p. 47) describes the large white fungus, called in the Colony
* punk,' which grows from the stringy bark, and is said to have been
eaten by the aborigines when fresh. Milligan, after describing their fish
diet, continues : *' With these they mingled the core or pith of the fern
trees, Cihotium Billardieri and Alsophila Australis (of which the former is
rather astringent and dry for a European palate, and the latter, though
more tolerable, is yet scarcely equal to a Swedish turnip) ; the young
shoots of the Pteris esculenta, common ferns, as they emerge from the
ground full of viscid mucous juice and various epiphytic fungi, of which
one of the most important is that which grows on the Eucalypti, and
is known, when dry, under the name of Punk, and used as tinder in
the Colony. Punk, when young, is nearly snow-white, soft, and to the
taste insipid, with a distant flavour of • mushroom ; in this stage they
eat it freely, either raw or slightly roasted. The Cyttaria of the myrtle
tree, a small morelle-looking, honey-combed fungus, growing upon a fine
pedicle, was a great favourite ; but that which afforded the largest
amount of solid and substantial nutritious matter was the native bread,
a fungus growing in the ground, after the manner of the truffle, and
generally so near the roots of the trees as to be reputed parasitical.
Several mushrooms were also eaten by them ; the onion-like leaves of
some orchids, and the tubers of several plants of this tribe, were
largely consumed by them, particularly those of Gastrodi sessamoideSy the
native potato, so called by the colonists, though never tasted by them.
. . . The green seed-vessels of Acacia sophora, A, maritima^ and several
others were eaten freely by them, after having been half- roasted by the
fire ; the amylaceous roots of the bulrush were roasted and eaten by
them, together with the carrot-like roots of some small umbelliferae. Of
berries and fruits of which they partook, the principal were those of
Solatium laciniatumj or kangaroo apple, when dead ripe, of Leucopogon
gnidium and ericoides, of certain species of Coprosmaf of the Gualtheria
hispida^ the Billardiera longijiora, of Cyathodes, etc. Besides these, the
leaf of the larger kelp, whenever it could be obtained, was eagerly

96 H. LING ROTH.— ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

looked for and greedily eaten, after having undergone a process of
roasting and maceration in fresh water, followed by a second roasting,
when though tough, ... it is susceptible of mastication" (Beacon,
pp. 26-28). Another account says (Proc. Roy. Soc. V. D. Land, I. p.
164), ** The pith in the uppermost part of the column of a young and
vigorous Alsophila is soft and succulent^ and, as compared with that
from the common Tasmanian fern tree (Cihotium Billarderi), is devoid of
astringency, and has a bland sweetish taste. The pith of both tree
ferns was formerly eaten in a half-roasted state by the aborigines, but
that from the Alsophila was preferred. Their maxim was, that the pith
of the Cihotium must be eaten along with the flesh of the kangaroo,
etc. ; while that from the Alsophila was considered so good that it
might be partaken . of alone.*' Backhouse records, ** We saw many of
the tree ferns, with the upper portion of the trunk split and one half
turned back. This had evidently been done by the aborigines to obtain
the heart for food, but how the process was effecfled I could not
discover. It must certainly have required considerable skill." In the
Appendix to his book he adds a list of native plants, from which I
extrac5l particulars of those made use of by the natives for purposes of
food. " Geranium parviflorum : the aborigines were in the habit of digging
up the roots of this plant, which are large and fleshy, and roasting
them for food. It was called about Launceston, native carrot. This
species is very widely distributed over the Colony, and is usually found
in light loamy soil. Although we possess about sixty species of this
[pea] family, exclusive of the AcaciaSy none of them yield good edible
seeds. The aborigines were in the habit of colIecSling the ripening pods
of Acacia^ Sophora, or the Boohialla, and, after roasting them in the
ashes, they picked out the seeds and eat them. Orchidaceae : a number
of plants of this family have small bulbous roots, which were formerly
eaten by the aborigines. Xanthorrhoea Australis ? Grass tree: The base
of the inner leaves of the grass-tree is not to be despised by the
hungry. The aborigines beat ofi* the heads of these, singular plants by
striking them about the tops of the trunks with a large stick ; they
then strip off" the outer leaves and cut away the inner ones, leaving
about an inch and a half of the white tender portion, joining the trunk;
this portion they eat, raw or roasted ; and it is far from disagreeable
in flavour, having a nutty taste, slightly balsamic. The most extensively
diffused edible root of Van Diemen's Land is that of the Tara-fern.
This plant greatly resembles Pieris aquilinay the Common Fern, or Brake
of England. . . . The Tasmanian plant is Pteris esculentay and is known
among the aborigines by the name of Tara.* . . . The root is not
bulbous, but creeps horizontally, at a few inches below the surface of
the earth, and where it is luxuriant, attains to the thickness of a man's
thumb. . . . The aborigines roast this root in the ashes, peel off" its
black skin with their teeth, and eat it with their roasted kangaroo,
etc., in the same manner as Europeans eat bread. Cyhotium Billardieri,
Tree Fern : The native blacks of the Colony used to split open about

• None of the vocabularies give the name Tara for a fern. The name had probably
(like many other words used at Flinders) been imported from elsewhere.

FOOD. CANNIBALISM. HUNTING AND FISHING. 97

a foot and a half of the top of the trunk of the Common Tree-fern,
and take out the heart, a substance resembling the Swedish turnip,
and of the thickness of a man's arm. This they also roasted in the
ashes, and eat as bread ; but it is too bitter and astringent to suit an
English palate. It is said the aborigines preferred the* heart of another
species of tree-fern, AlsophUa Australis^ found at Macquarie Harbour and
in other places on the northern side of Van Diemen*s Land. Mylitta
Australisy Native Bread : this species of tuber is often found in the
Colony, attaining to the size of a child's head ; its taste somewhat
resembles boiled rice. Like the heart of the Tree-fern, and the root
of the native potato, cookery produces little change in its characfler.
On asking the aborigines how they found the native bread, they
universally replied, * A Rotten Tree.' " Gunn says the Mesembryan-
themum aequilaterale (pig faces) is the canagong of the aborigines : ** The
pulp of the almost shapeless, but somewhat ob-conical, fleshy seed vessel
of this plant is sweetish and saline " (I. p. 48), and Gell also refers to
this {ibid, II. p. 323). Lists of plants that could have been used for
food by the aboriginal Tasmanian natives have been made out, but it
is not necessary to repeat them here.

Cannibalism.

" They were great flesh-eaters, but not cannibals, and never were :
some of them, being incautiously asked if they ever indulged in this
pracflice, expressed great horror at it. They never named the dead, and
certainly never ate them" (Calder, J.A.I.). Holman (IV. p. 404) remarks:
** It is certain fhey are not cannibals : " and Melville (p. 346) further
confirms the above by telling us that : " Those who suffered most from
thfir warfare, and were, consequently, likely to attribute to them their
worst propensities, never charged them with cannibalism." Bonwick says
(p. 22) : ** Several cases have been narrated by early voyagers of bones
of' men having been found with burnt pieces of flesh still hanging to
them, it was at once concluded that this was decided evidence of can-
nibalism. But as the blacks of that southern coast were accustomed to
burn their bodies, and bury the ashes, the proof of the custom is far
from being established. Two excellent authorities, Mr. G. A. Robinson
and Mr. Mckay who spent so much time among the race deny the
impeachment." It may, therefore, be safely accepted as a fadl that can-
nibalism was not one of their customs.

Hunting and Fishing.

The occasional firing of the grass in order to induce fresh growth to
tempt the approach of kangaroos appears to have been a common pradlice
among the aborigines (Meredith, Home in Tasmania, ch. vii. p. 109 ;
Backhouse, p. 112). "Their usual method of killing kangaroos was by
surrounding a scrub, setting fire to it, and spearing the kangaroos as
they came out" (Davies, p. 412). This method is thus described by
Holman, the blind traveller (IV. ch. xii. pp. 405-6) : ** One of their modes
of hunting the kangaroo is generally as successful as it is ingenious.

98 • H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Having discovered a spot to which they know a number of these animals
resort, they make a fire round it, taking care to leave two or three
openings by which they may endeavour to escape ; they then station
themselves at these places, and on the animals attempting to pass, they
spear them with such dexterity, that few are ever permitted to escape.
They use similar means when any of these animals are found on a small
hill, by making a fire round its base. This pradlice, however, is rather
negledled of late, since they have become acquainted with the use of
dogs, . . . which they invariably treat w^ith great kindness from a
consciousness of their value." West says (II. pp. 85-86), regarding the
chase by aid of dogs, the aborigines ran nearly abreast of them : stimu-
lated them by imitating the cry of the kangaroo, and were generally in
at the death. Entrapping by fire was not their only method of capturing
the kangaroos. White (Evid. Col. and Slav., p. 53) reports that once
in May, 1803, while hoeing near a creek, he saw ** 300 of the natives
come down in a circular form and a flock of kangaroos hemmed in
between them ; . . . they had no spears with them, only waddies ;
they were hunting."

Lloyd's account of such a hunt is quite graphic : ** When but a boy,
I passed many happy days in following the chase with those primitive
children of the woods, who took great delight in teaching me to wield
the quivering spear and whistling waddie. . . The method of

capturing the forest kangaroo . . . was exceedingly interesting and
exciting. On sighting their prey, the most skilful hunter instantly
dropped to the earth, and creeping alternately on hands, knees, and
stomach, behind trees and stumps . . .—now insinuating his supple
body through the high grass, like a wily snake, until he^ had successively
arrived within thirty or forty yards of the unwary vid^im — he would
carefully raise himself up behind the trunk of a tree presenting the best
point of attack, when, poising the fatal weapon, he bounded towards his
prey with the agility of a panther, and hurling the spear, seldom failed
in transfixing the poor animals. Their mode of hunting in the ferns,
scrubs, and underwood, was by clearing a patch of about twenty feet
square. Men, women, and children then distributed themselves in a large
circle, and advancing towards the cleared space drove the game — brush,
kangaroo, wallaby, and bandicoot — indiscriminately to the slaughter " (p.
45). The catching of an opossum was a more difficult matter. West
(II. p. 85) says ; ** The opossum was hunted by the women, who by a
glance discovered if the animal were to be found in the tree," and
Backhouse (p. 172) refers to such a hunt in the following terms: "The
climbing of the lofty smooth-trunked gum trees, by the women to obtain
opossums, which lodge in the hollows of decayed branches, is one of the
most remarkable feats I ever witnessed." Davies (p. 413) describes the
capture in this way: "The natives, especially the women, get opossums
by climbing trees. Their senses of seeing and hearing are particularly
acute, and a glance will suffice to tell them when there is an opossum
in the tree. They always carried with them a small rope, made of
kangaroo sinews, and their mode of climbing the trees was as follows :
They first, as high as they could conveniently reach, cut a notch with
a sharp stone in the side of the tree, then threw the bight of the rope

HUNTING AND FISHING. 99

up, and leaning back, it held against the tree by their weight, until
with its assistance the climber got his right great toe into the notch
that had been cut ; then grasping the tree with his left arm, the rope
by a sudden jerk is thrown higher up the tree, a fresh notch is cut for
the left toe, and so the climber proceeds. If branches interfere, they are
a hindrance to the climber, but he then throws the end of the rope
over it, and holding both ends raises himself up." According to Lloyd
(pp. 46-47) : ** The method of catching the climbing opossum ... is,
notwithstanding the imminent danger which attends it, an extremely
interesting sight to mere bystanders. The thrilling exclamation of * Wah !
Wah ! Wah ! * denoting that traces had been discovered of the cat-taloned
animal having very recently ascended the tree, soon brought other
natives to the spot : whereupon — the most cunning in such matters
deciding in council that the impressions made on the smooth bark were
of the preceding night — one of the boldest and most agile of the hunters
prepared to ascend the formidable- looking blue gum. The flint tomahawk
and the strong hay-band supplied the want of a ladder. . . . The
strong wire-grass rope, made into close three-strand plait, being passed
round the tree and tied in a loop sufficiently large, the native placed
himself within it ; then with his tomahawk he made a slightly roughed
score in the bark, into which, inserting his muscular great toe only, he
steadily and unerringly raised himself upright. The band was then
dexterously jerked higher up the trunk ; another score made and so on,
until he had succeeded in reaching the required height. The scores or
steps were never less than three feet and a half apart. Having scaled
the tree, the next feat was to follow the tracks of the opossum along
some bare projecfling bi;anch; upon which the native walked upright and
confident, as if he also resided amidst the boughs of towering gums.
The snug domicile of the opossum being discovered, the ticklish operation
came of thrusting in the bare arm into the hollowed branch, pulling him
out by the tail, and tossing him from the dizzy height into the midst
of the eager hunters who were assembled round the tree. Frequently,
however, the wary little animal . . . would retreat from its nest,
and perching itself ... at the extreme end of the branch, would
remain till fairly shaken off by its ruthless pursuer." ** When the
opossum was got out of a hole in the tree, they would knock its head
against the tree and throw it down. Those below would catch it up if
not dead " (Thirkell). Bass, although he did not see an opossum hunted,
considered that the trees were climbed by means of the rope, ** for once,
at the foot of a notched tree, about eight feet of a two inch rope made
of grass was found with a knot in it, near which it appeared to have
broken " (Collins, p. 169). He also had seen notched trees (ibid., p. 188).
Tasman and his crew, in 1642, had also seen these notches, and reported
them to be five feet apart (Gell. H. pp. 323-325). Thirkell (Papers, Roy.
Soc. Tas., Aug., 1873) states: ** The mode of climbing trees was to get a
grass band twisted, put it round the tree, and hold the two ends in
one hand, and then with a sharp flint stone they would chip the bark
downwards and make a notch for the big toe, then change hands and
do the same on the other side." Backhouse's description is of all the
best. ** The climbing of the lofty, smooth -trunked gum trees, by the

1^3301

too H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

women, to obtain opossums, which lodge in the hollows of decayed
branches, is one of the most remarkable feats I ever witnessed. This
is effecfled without making any holes for the thumbs or great toes, as
is common among the natives of New South Wales, except where the
bark is rough and loose, at the base of the tree. In this a few notches
are cut by means of a sharp flint or hatchet ; the latter being preferred.
A rope, twice as long as is necessary to encompass the tree, is then
thrown around it. In former times this was made of tough grass, or
strips of kangaroo-skin, but one of hemp is more generally used. The
left hand is firmly twisted into one en€l of the rope, the middle of
which is tightly grasped by the right, the hatchet is placed on the
bare, closely-cropped head, and the feet are placed against the tree : a
step or two is then advanced, and the body, at the same time, is
brought into a posture so nearly exa(5l as to admit the rope, by a
compound motion, to be slackened, and at the same moment hitched a
little further up the tree. By this means a woman will ascend a lofty
tree, with a smooth trunk, almost as quickly as a man would go up
a ladder. Should a piece of loose bark impede the ascent of the rope,
the portion of rope held in the right hand is taken between the teeth,
or swung behind the right leg and caught between the great and the
fore toe and fixed against the tree. One hand is thus freed, to take
the hatchet from the head, and with it to dislodge the loose bark. On
arriving at a large limb, the middle of the rope is also secured in the
left hand, and the loose end is thrown over the limb by the right hand,
by which also the end is caught, and the middle grasped, till the left
hand is cleared. This is then wrapped into the middle of the rope,
and the feet are brought up to the wrinkles of the bark, which exist
below the large limbs. One end of the rope is then pulled downward,
and this causes the other to ascend, so that, by an effort of the feet,
the body is turned on the upper side of the limb of the tree. In
descending, the woman places one arm on each side of the limb of the
tree, and swings the rope with one hand till she catches it with the
other : she then turns oh the limb, and swings underneath it, till she
succeeds in steadying herself with her feet against the trunk, around
which ^he then throws the loose end of the rope. Having secured this,
she lets go the portion by which she was suspended under the limb,
and descends in the manner in which she ascended. Although this is
done with ease by women in vigour, one who had been out of health,
but seemed recovered, could not get many steps off the ground, so
that not only skill, but a considerable measure of strength, appears
necessary to ascend the gigantic gum-trees.'* J. B. Walker was informed
by E. O. Cotton that the latter possessed " a water- worn ironstone
* paving stone ' broken into just the tool (without handle— to lie on top
of head) for making the bruises in gum-tree bark, lor toe-grip to go up
to an opossum hole. The trees so marked were not infrequent near
Kelvedon (Swansea, east coast) once."

Widowson's account (p. 190), on the other hand, describes a method
of climbing trees which is accomplished without the use of the rope:
" They are extremely expert in climbing, and can reach the top of the
largest forest trees, without the aid of branches : they effecfl this by

HUNTING AND PISHING. lOI

means of a small sharp flint, which they clasp tightly in the ball of
their four fingers, and, having cut a notch out of the bark, they easily
ascend, with the large toe of each foot in one notch, and their curiously
manufadlured hatchet in the other." * Widowson wrote in 1829, and
was therefore one of the earliest writers, but his statement omitting any
mention of rope, can only apply to slender trees, as it is hard to believe
it possible that a large smooth gum tree can be climbed without rope.
Milligan told Tylor, at the International Exhibition of 1862, that he
had seen women, even dressed, go up trees 200 feet high. To English
readers the height of the tree, let alone the height reached, may appear
an exaggeration, but W. Botting Hemsley informs me that in Miiller's
Eucalyptographia ** three species of Eucalyptus^ namely : E, obliqua, E.
amygdalina and E, globulus are recorded as occasionally reaching a height
of 300 feet in Tasmania."

Under the heading of food it was shown that the Tasmanians did
not eat fish. On this subje(5l Anderson remarks (Capt. Cook's Third
Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.): "They were ignorant of the use of fish-hooks.
. . . We did not see any of them employed in catching fish, nor
observe any canoe or vessel in which they could go upon the water " ;
and La Billardiere states (II. ch. x. p. 63) : " From the manner in
which we had seen them procure fish, we had reason to presume that
they had no fish-hooks ; accordingly we gave them some of ours."
According to Wentworth they ** have no knowledge whatever of the art
of fishing" (p. 115). Barnard Davis (p. 6) is evidently wrong in saying the
a^rigines had fishing nets; and so is Brough Smyth (II. p. 392) in
statmg the aborigines used nets, and fish-hooks made of bone or shell;
no authority, except Bonwick (p. 15), mentions these, and his account
evidently refers to the Flinders Island period, but even for this he brings
no evidence. It is possible that there the aborigines had some super-
stition about the "nurse," a shark {Odontaspis Atnericanus) which grows
about ten feet long. Jas. F. Young (a connecflion of G. A. Robinson)
who lived in Bass Straits Islands informed J. B Walker that he believes
the aborigines, when on Flinders Island, used to eat fish, and were
particularly fond of the " parrot-fish " and the " blue fish." Fumeaux
(Cook's Third Voy. I. ch. vii.) uses the word " nets," but the context
clearly shows fish nets were not meant, but " some bags and nets made
of grass, in which I imagine they carry their provisions and other
necessaries." The women dived for holiotis and crayfish. " They take
down with them a small grass basket, slung round their waist, into
which they put their shell - fish " (Davies, p. 413); and P^ron and La
Billardiere frequently refer to this method of obtaining food from the
sea {see Food). " Adhering to the rocks . . . the Mutton-fish are
met with abundantly. These are often taken in deep water by the
native women, who dive for them, and force them from the rocks by
means of a wooden chisel. They put them into an oval bag, and bring
them up suspended round their necks" (Backhouse, p. 103). The same
author continues, on another occasion : "In the afternoon we went . .

* It has been said that the notches cut in the trees were about 3} feet apart (Tasman's

Journal : 5 Dutch feet).

I02 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

on a fishing excursion. . . . Some of the women went into the water
among the large sea-tangle, to take crayfish. These women seem quite
at home in the water, and frequently immerse their faces to enable
them to see objecfls at the bottom. When they discover the objecSl of
their search, they dive, often using the long stems of the kelp to
enable them to reach the bottom ; these they handle as dexterously in
descending as a sailor would a rope in ascending" (Backhouse, p. i68).
Walker's account (p. 170) is very similar to Backhouse's, but he adds
" they appear to float with their heads in an upright position above
water without eiFort," and also that ** seizing the crayfish by the back,
they ascend promptly to the surface, where, they readily disengage them-
selves from the kelp and weed, and throw the prey to their companions on
shore." A. O. Cotton says the women swam certainly well at times ; in
diving for shell-fish and crayfish they were very expert and persevering
(communicated to J. B. Walker) [see Swimming] . One of the French
explorers saw the wooden chisels being made. ** We observed some of
the savages employed in cutting little bits of wood in the form of a
spatula, and smoothing them with a shell, for the purpose of separating
from the rocks limpets or sea-ears, on which they feast " (La Billardiore,
II. ch. X. p. 52).

At times fish were speared for sport only, and such pastime is thus
described by Lloyd (pp. 50-52) : ** On one of these occasions [corroboree]
. . . the black and white auditory were informed by the head warrior
that a * big one fish spear um * (fish hunt) would come off on the
following morning, . . . not with the objec5l of obtaining food, but
merely as a matter of sport. . . , The locality chosen for the sport
was called Sweet Water Bay. At high-water its greatest depth did not
exceed three feet for upwards of one-third of a mile from the shore.
Its waters literally teemed with the dangerous ray-fish. The preparation
for the onslaught upon the finny monsters commenced by simultaneous
entry into the water of the whole assembled tribes, men, women, and
children, numbering upwards of 300, who, dividing, entered at two different
points, distant from each other about 250 yards, and continued to wade
out until they had formed themselves into a half circle ; then, with their
long sticks furiously beating the water, accompanied with frantic yells,
and other unearthly sounds, they generally succeeded in retaining within
the goal numbers of the dreaded fish. The serried cordon having so far
completed their work, a few of the most acftive and skilful young savages,
each armed with the keen-edged tomahawk and two heavy barbed spears,
boldly entered the scene of acflion. Quickly discovering their devoted prey,
they cast the deadly weapon ; the awkward fish, writhing and plunging,
darted along the surface of the water ; . . . but the firmly-planted
spear once grasped by the muscular hand of the excited hunter, the
vic5\im was soon hauled to the shore and finally despatched. . . .
After having satisfied their warrioi:-propensities by destroying numbers of
those dangerous creatures, the hunters would retire to their camp-fires
and regale themselves upon the usual coast fare, oysters and steaming
opossum." A. O. Cotton told J. B. Walker that the oborigines speared
the sting-ray on the flats, but he does not know of their ever eating
fish. Melville also refers to fish spearing (p. 347).

HUNTING AND FISHING. IO3

In Banks Straits the catching of seals was thus described by Kelly
(p. 14) : ** We gSLve six women each a club that we had used to kill
the seals with. They went to the water's edge and wet themselves all
over their heads and bodies, which operation they said would keep the
seals from smelling them as they walked along the rocks. They were
very cautious not to go to windward of them, as they said, * a seal
would sooner believe his nose than his eyes when a man or woman
came near him.' The women all walked into the water in couples, and
swam to three rocks about fifty yards from the shore. There were about
nine or ten seals upon each rock, lying apparently asleep. Two women
went to each rock with their clubs in hand, crept closely up to a seal
each, and lay down with their clubs alongside. Some of the seals lifted
their heads up to inspedl their new visitors and smell them. The seals
scratched themselves and lay down again. The women went through the
same motions as the seal, holding up their left elbow and scratching
themselves with their left hand, taking and keeping the club firm in
their right ready for the attack. The seals seemed very cautious, now
and then lifting up their heads and looking round, scratching themselves
as before and lying down again ; the women still imitating every move-
ment as nearly as possible. After they had lain upon the rocks for nearly
an hour, the sea occasionally washing over them (as they were quite
naked, we could not tell the meaning of their remaining so long) ; all
of a sudden, the women rose up on their seats, their clubs lifted up at
arms' length, each struck a seal on the nose and killed him ; in an
instant they all jumped up as if by magic and killed one more each.
After giving the seals several blows on the head, and securing them,
they commenced laughing aloud and began dancing. They each dragged
a seal into the water, and swam with it to the rock upon which we
were standing, and then went back and brought another each, making
twelve seals."

Regarding the capture of birds, Anderson reported (Cook's Third Voy.
Bk. I. ch. vi.) : ** There are several sorts of birds, but all so scarce and
shy, that they are evidently harassed by the natives;" while La Billardi^re
has the following (II. ch. x. pp. 42-43) : ** A trifling incident gave us
reason to presume that they sometimes catch birds with their hands.
A paroquet . . . flew by us, and pitched on the ground at a little
distance. Immediately two of the young savages set off to catch it, and
were on the point of putting their hands upon it, when the bird took
wing."

According to O'Connor (p. 55), " The natives are as tenacious of their
hunting grounds as settlers of their farms." Robinson told Calder (J. A I.
p. 23), that though their wives went with them in their hunting excur-
sions, they did not allow them to participate in the sport, and that they
acfled only as drudges, to carry their spears and the game ; but that the
fishing (for shell-fish only, obtained by diving) was resigned wholly to
them. The men, he said, considered it beneath them.

** They lay up no stores of provisions, and have been known in
winter time to eat kangaroo skins " (Brodribb, p. 52).

CHAPTER VI.

Nomadic Life.

** HTHEY were of wandering habits, yet they seldom advanced beyond
A the boundaries which marked their own respe(flive possessions —
their place of encampment depended on the food they had obtained in
hunting or fishing — as it was their custom to make their sojourn where
they procured their prey and took their last meal " (Melville, p. 346).
Furneaux (Cook's Sec. Voy. Bk. I. ch. vii.) thought they were nomadic :
** They lie on the ground, on dried grass ; and I believe they have no
settled habitation (as their houses seemed built only for a few days),
but wander about in small parties from place to place, in search of
food, and are actuated by no other motive. We never found more
than three or four huts in a place, capable of containing three or four
persons each only." The following extra<5ls from Rossel (I. ch. iii. p.
51 ; ch. iv. pp. 69 and 82) confirm Furneaux's supposition : " I found
near the stream the remains of some encampments of the natives of
the country. The oyster-shells and limpets, pieces of burnt wood, and
the down-trodden grass near, assured me that they had stayed there.
, . . At a short distance from the shore, three huts, which were
abandoned, made us think that the natives of the country came to live
on this little island during certain seasons of the year. This island
[La Haye] is covered with trees ; at every step, there, we came across
oyster-shells, and recent traces of. fire, which seemed to show that it
had been inhabited by the natives of their country, and that they could
only have abandoned it very recently " [time of year, May] . Breton
says (p. 349) ** they lead a wandering life," and Widowson (pp. 189-190),
that " they have no appointed place or situation to live in ; they roam
about at will. . . . They rarely move at night." " They are not
fond of travelling in the wet, nor will they do so but in cases of
necessity. They show the same relucfiance to travelling in the dark.
As soon as it is dusk they take care to admonish you that it is time
to rest " (Walker, p. 105). P6ron (ch. xx. sec. i. p. 448) speaks of their
** always wandering," and states (ch. xvi. pp. 337-33^) • "From what I
have elsewhere narrated of our dealings with the inhabitants of Van
Diemen's Land, it can be seen that, not only those on Bruny Island
belong to the same race, but, further, that they migrate alternately from
the one region to the other. It is probable that at the time of our
anchorage in Adventure Bay they were on the mainland ; for we could
not discover any traces of their ac5lually living there. It would appear,
likewise, that this part of Bruny Island is less frequented by them
than that opposite V. D. Land ; which seemed to me to arise from
scarcity, in Adventure Bay, of the large Haliotis, big Turbos^ and oygte*^

NOMADIC LIFE. I05

which constitute the principal food of these people. To make up for
this, however, the Bay, daring summer, when the channel is dried up,
supplies them with all the water which they need." According to
Holman (IV. ch. xii. p. 405): "Migration from one part of the island
to another is usual with the respedlive tribes, according to the season
of the year ; the attainment of food appearing to be their principal
objecfl in the change of place."

Governor Arthur mentions that the north-east coast df V. D. Land
was continually frequented by the natives for shell-fish, and also on
account of its being the best sheltered and warmest part of the island,
and remote from the settled distridls" (Col. and Slav. p. 4). Brodribb
(ibid, p. 52) mentions that "The natives from the eastward do not go
further west than Abyssinia,*' and amongst certain places visited by
them ** there is one in the Campbell Town districfl, where they go to
obtain flint. The natives remain more stationary in the winter than in
the summer . . . they are then comparatively inacflive." The Rev.
R. Knopwood (ibid, p. 53) understood that the natives cross the country
from east to west in the month of March. O'Connor (ibid. p. 54) states :
'* They are never seen in winter ; . . . they then retire into tlie
interior." It is strange Jeffreys (p. 127) should say, "They but seldom
visit the coast," for all other writers refer to such visits, and we have
the evidence of the recent shell-mounds. He, however, continues : " Their
excursions, in the autumn, are supposed to be from west to east, and
in the spring from east to west." There can be no doubt from all the
above that the migrations of the aborigines were periodical, and West
(II. p. 20) sums up the question thus ; " The tribes took up their
periodical stations, and moved with intervals so regular, that their
migrations were anticipated, as well as the season of their return. The
person employed in their pursuit by the aid of his native allies, was
able to predi(5l at what period and place he should find a tribe ; . . .
and though months intervened he found them in the valley, and at the
time he foretold," adding (II. p. 83), *• During the winter, the natives
visited the sea-shore : they disappeared from the settled districfts about
June, and returned in 0<5lober."

From Furneaux's account it did not seem that they moved in large
numbers ; but Prinsep (p. 78) says : ** They move in large bodies, with
incredible swiftness, forty or fifty miles in one night." This statement
contradi(5ls that of Widowson, as regards travelling at night ; but as
regards numbers agrees with O'Connor (p. 54), who says they " travel
in parties of ten, twenty, and thirty." " Though they rarely remain two
days in a place, they, seldom travel far at a time. Each tribe keeps
much to its own districfl " (Backhouse, p. 104). According to Walker
each tribe confines itself generally to a districl seldom exceeding twenty
or thirty miles in its widest extent. Their principal journeys were those
made in the summer season to the high lands from the lower tracfls
(the haunts of the game) which were their resort in the winter" (MS.
Jour.) We have seen above that Melville also says they keep within
their boundaries ; but both statements appear to contradicfl the reasons
usually described as the cause of their intertribal feuds (see War).
According to Laplace (III. ch. xviii. p. 201), in their constant journeys

lo6 H. LING ROTH. — AfeORlGlNES Of TASMANIA.

NOMADIC LIFE. HABITATIONS. IO7

it was the women who had **to carry the hunting or fishing utensils,
the provisions, and the children unable to walk."

" Each tribe of the aborigines is divided into several families, and
each family, consisting of a few individuals, occupies its own fire '*
(Backhouse, p. 104). Lloyd (p. 137) says also: ** Wherever a tribe of
aborigines locate themselves, each family kindles its separate fire at
fourteen to twenty yards apart.*' ** They never kindle large fires, lest
their haunts might be tracked, but choose retired situations, and generally
where food and water are easily attainable " (V. D. Land Annual, 1834,
p. 78). "Their encampments were always formed on the margin of a
stream or lagoon. To be within reach of a natural reservoir was of
prime importance to a people who had no means of digging wells, or
of carrying about with them, for any considerable distance, a stock of
water" (Dove, L p. 250). Colonel Arthur refers to "The migratory
habits of the aborigines, and their attachment to their savage mode of
life, as raising difficulties in the way of their settling down in any one
distridl " (Col. and Slav. p. 4) ; and Dove, years afterwards, makes the
same complaint : " Such is the force of habit and association, that even
yet these children of the forest gladly quit the neat and substantial
cottages which have been built for them, for the luxury (as they account
it) of wandering over the bush, and of reclining under the shade of a
roofless break- wind. In the hour of sickness and death, they often
breathe a wish to meet the issue of their maladies amidst the wilds of
Nature" (L p. 249),

Habitations.

Cook and Anderson were both under the impression that the natives
hollowed out, by means of fire, the lower part of tree trunks in order
to make use of such openings for habitations (Third Voy. Bk. L ch.
vi. pp. 41-45). Mortimer (pp. 17-18) also mentions these burnt-out hollows.
Rossel held similar views, and they were confirmed by the fa(5l that these
burnt-out hollows were always on the east side of the trees (L ch. iii.
pp. 51-53; ch. iv. pp. 55, 61-62). Marion (p. 34) "saw no signs of any
houses, only some break-winds, rudely formed of branches of trees, with
traces of fires near them," and according to Dixon (p. 22), it "was only
in the coldest weather that they thought of erecfling a shelter. This was
always of the rudest strucflure, being a few upright sticks, leaning together,
and scantily covered with strips of bark; but as soon as the fine weather
returned, the frail habitation was deserted." Furneaux thus describes the
huts (Cook's Sec. Voy. Bk. L ch. vii.) : "The boughs of which their
huts are made are either broken or split, and tied together with grass
in a circular form, the largest end stuck in the ground, and the smaller
parts meeting in a point at the top, and covered with fern and bark,
so poorly done that they will hardly keep out a shower of rain. In the
middle is the fire-place, surrounded with heaps of mussel, pear-scallop,
and cray-fish shells. ... I believe they have no settled habitations,
as these houses seemed built only for a few days." Bass's description is
somewhat different: "Their huts, of which seven or eight were frequently
found together like a little encampment, were construcfled of bark, torn

Io8 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

in long strips from some neighbouring tree, after being divided transversely
at the bottom, in such breadths as they judge their strength would be
able to disengage from its adherence to the wood, and the connecfling
bark on each side. It is then broken into convenient lengths, and placed,
sloping wise, against the elbowing part of some dead branch that has
fallen off from the distorted limbs of the gum tree ; and a little grass
is sometimes thrown over the top part. But, after all their labour, they
have not ingenuity sufficient to place the slips of bark in such a manner
as to preclude the free admission of the rain" (Collins, p. i68). ** Dr.
Ross saw some huts in V. D. Land which he compared to a teacup
broken in half, and set upon its mouth. His description of those he
observed upon the Shannon, in 1823, runs as follows: *They stood
irregularly within a few yards of each other, and we counted seventeen
of them. From the appearance of the fires, we guessed they had been
inhabited about a week before. The wigwams, or huts, were built en-
tirely of bark, supported here and there by a piece or two of dry wood.
The bark which had been stripped oft the trees, was piled in upright
lengths close to each other, rudely joined together at the top ; the whole
forming but a segment of a globe, open to the east. We had the curiosity
to enter two or three of these huts, and miserable indeed must have been
the shelter they afforded ' " (Bonwick, p. 49). " Mr. Robinson relates
having fallen in with a similar charadler of edifice, when near Macquarie
Harbour. These had a framework of wattles, and a thatch of reeds in
regular and beautiful tiers, commencing at the bottom. The orifice for
the door was small. Each hut would hold from twenty to twenty -five
persons " {ibid). Against this we have La Billardiere's testimony, which
says (H. ch. x. p. 10): **The ingenuity with which they had disposed
the bark that covered its roof, excited our admiration ; the heaviest rain
could not penetrate it. It can be supposed that the different tribes did
not all build their huts or break-winds on exa(fHy the same pattern."
Flinders mentions that Cox saw ** a hut, or rather hovel, neatly con-
strudled of branches of trees and dried leaves" (Sec. IV. p. 91): and
from Mortimer's remarks it is to be inferred he also met with huts
constructed of leaves and branches, without bark (pp. 17-18). The spongy
bark of the Eucalyptus resinifera, which peels off naturally, seems also to
have been used for coverings for the huts (La Billardiere, I. ch. v. p.
174), and the same author tells us that, in fixing up the framework,
the branches were fixed into the ground by both ends {ibid, pp. 179- 191).
The illustration on p. 106 (after Petit) shows the break- wind nature of
these construcflions, and Peron's own words will bear out the illustration.
Describing one of these he says (ch. xii. p. 225) : " It was simply a
wind shelter of bark, arranged in a semi-circle, and leaning against some
dry branches. The sole objecft of such a frail refuge could only have
been to protecfl the man from the acflion of the very cold winds. I
observed that its convexity was opposed to the effecfl of the S.E. winds,
which on these shores are the most constant, the most impetuous, and the
coldest." Some huts that Calder met with (J.A.I, p. 20-21) *' in the
Western Mountains, seemed to have been construdled in a great hurry,
and were composed of a few strips of bark laid against some large dead
branches that were used just as they had fallen from the trees above,

HABITATIONS. lOg

Others that I have seen had evidently been occupied for several nights.
These were also of bark, supported on sticks driven a little into the
ground. . . . These huts were closed only on the weather side, and
perfe(5\ly open in front, some large enough for several persons, others less."
The west coast tribes do seem to have had better shelters than the
other tribes, owing perhaps to the wetter climate on that coast. J. B.
Walker was informed by Lyne ** that their huts were mere break- winds
of sheet or bark, set up against a stick or branch placed in a slanting
diredlion. The fire was placed to leeward of the break- wind. When they
camped without putting up a break-wind, they would have several small
fires round and would sleep in the centre." Geo. Eyles overseer to
W. A. B. Gellibrand, informed the latter that "their shelters were formed
of sheets of bark (stringy bark*) laid against a large fallen tree, making
a sort of kennel into which they crept." This was in 1836, at the London
marshes, near Marlborough, not far from the river Nive, on the central
plateau, west of lake Echo (communicated by W. A. B. Gellibrand to
J. B. Walker). In later days when hunted they were probably content
with the slightest shelter.

** It was only on the west coast, between Port Davey and Macquarie
Harbour, that huts were in use continuously, for periods of about six
months together ; these huts were conical, and thatched with grass, having
an opening on one side, to answer the double purpose of door and chimney;
(Milligan, Beacon, p. 25). It would seem this account is taken from
Jorgenson (a romancer) out of Eliiston's Almanack, 1838 (p. 69): "They
were very neatly built and well thatched ; they appeared much in the
form of a beehive, and would with ease contain thirty persons.** Another
description of these huts runs : " Three pieces of timber are placed in
an oblique position with their ends sunk a little into the ground, and
meeting in a point at the top, where they are fastened by a cord of
bark. Two of the three sides of this dwelling are then filled with wicker-
work, like their canoes ; and the whole is completely secured from the
inclemency of the weather by a covering of long grass" (Jeffreys, pp.
128-129). Jeffreys is a somewhat random writer and his statements must
be accepted with caution. The term wicker-work as applied to huts and
canoes is misleading, as it conveys the idea of osier or willow — basket-
work in fadl. A more accurate expression would be ** wattled " perhaps,
but that would only be approximately correct. The work could only have
been roughly interlaced branches or strips of bark (as shown in illustration).
Speaking of the break-winds, West says (II. p. 82.): "These huts formed
rude villages, and were seen from seventeen to forty together. The former
number being raised by a tribe of seventy, from four to five must have
lodged under one shelter. Some, found at the westward, were permanent ;
they were like beehives, and thatched; several such were seen by Jorgenson,
on the western shore — strong and apparently eredled for long use." In
their camping places "some of them sat on kangaroo skins, and some
others had a little pillow, which they called roSrSy near a quarter of a

* •' Stringy bark " (Eucalyptus ohliqva) has a very thick fibrous bark known as " bulls
wool." By hacking the bark at the base of the tree and loosening it at the bottom,
long broad sheets may be stript off,

no H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

yard long, and covered with skin, on which they rested one of their
elbows" (La Billardiere, II. ch. x. p. 47).* In the Journal of the first
Chaplain at the Derwent, Rev. R. Knopwood,. under date 21st June, 1804,
there is an account of the visit of Mr. William Collins to the Huon
river. ** He was conducfled to the town (sic) by some of them {i.e, the
blacks), where there were about twenty families ; he stayed all night with
them." There is no description of their habitations.

Curious Structures, — **A curious account of one of their places of meeting
is preserved in an official letter, written by Mr. W. B. Walker, dated
December 24, 1827, from which the following is taken: — * Some time since,
Mr. W. Field had occasion to search for a fresh run for some of his
cattle, in the course of which he found a fine tradl of land, to the west
of George Town, in which is an extensive plain, and on one side of it
his stock-keepers found a kind of spire, curiously ornamented with shells,
grass-work, etc. The tree of which it is formed appeared to have had
much labour and ingenuity bestowed upon it, being by means of fire
brought to a sharp point at the top and pierced with holes, in which
pieces of wood are placed in such a manner as to afford an easy ascent
to near the top, where there is a commodious seat for a man. At the
distance of fifteen or twenty yards round the tree are two circular ranges
of good huts, composed of bark and grass; described as much in the
form of an old-fashioned coal-scuttle turned wrong side up, the entrance
about eighteen inches high, five feet or six feet at the back, and eight
feet or ten feet long. There are also numerous small places in the form
of birds'-nests, formed of grass, having constantly fourteen stones in each.
The circular space between the spire and the huts has the appearance
of being much frequented, being trod quite bare of grass, and seems to
be used as a place of assembly and consultation. In the huts and the
vicinity were found an immense number of waddies, but very few spears.
. . . There are two others, but of inferior construdlion, one about five
miles from the Supply Mills, and the other west of Piper's Lagoon, north
of the Western River. He [my informant] has frequently met small
parties of natives on their way to and from the two last-named places. * "
(Calder, J.A.I, pp. 23-24). This was on the banks of the Tamar, and
not the west coast, and the period some twenty-five years after the
aborigines had been in European contac^^. The evidence for huts as
distinguished from break- winds having been built by blacks in their wild
state, rests upon the unreliable testimony of Jorgenson, and this only for
the west coast. Bon wick's statement (p. 50), " When so harassed by
Europeans, they left off building huts and were satisfied with break-
winds," would imply that huts were originally built, which, however,
is as mentioned very doubtful. La Billardiere describes a curious struc-
ture of another sort (ch. v. pp. 178-179): ** We found on the skirts of
the forest a fence construdled by the natives against the winds of the

* His words are: — " et quelques autres avoient un petit oreiller qu'ils nomment ro^rrf, long
d'environ deux decimetres, et couvert de peau sur lequel ils appuyoient un des
coudes" (II. p 43); but Prof. Ratzel (Volkerkunde, Leipzig, 1894, 2nd Ed., |. p. 351)
translates areiller into kopfschemel, i.e. headstool which is manifestly not correcft. It
is not at all improbable that this oreilUr is the kangaroo rug rolled up for using as
a drum as described by Lloyd (ch. iv. p. 50).

HABITATIONS. AGRICULTURE. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. COURTSHIP. Ill

bay, in consisted of strips of the bark of the Eucalyptus rcsinifera^
interwoven between stakes fixed perpendicularly into the ground, forming
an arch, of about the third of the circumference of a circle, nine feet
in length and three in height, with its convex side turned towards the
bay. . . . We found another of the fences above described on the
skirt of the forest. It was of the same construcflion and height as the
former, but twice as long.**

Agriculture.

Of agriculture in all its branches the Tasmanians appear to have been
absolutely ignorant, for we find no mention anywhere of their possessing
any knowledge of the cultivation of the soil.

Domestic Animals.

Davies (p. 418J remarks: "They have no domestic animals, unless a
young tamed kangaroo could be esteemed such ; and it is much to be
doubted, whether, in their wild state, they even had . this. Of later years
they have had dogs." These dogs, according to Backhouse (p. 85), "were
highly valued by their owners, who obtained them from Europeans, there
being originally no wild dogs in V. D. Land." Widowson also tells us
(p. 190) that the aborigines " roam about at will, followed by a pack of
dogs, of different sorts and sizes, which are used principally for hunting.
He adds (ibtd,) a curious fadl in conne<5\ion with their fondness for these
animals, namely, that the " females are frequently known to suckle a
favourite puppy instead of a child." According to Walker (pp. 99 and
167) they are all excessively fond of their dogs, hugging them like children,
carrying them in their bosoms, and allowing them to lick their faces."
In 1816, at Banks Straits, Kelly states the aborigines had "at least
fifty dogs" with them (p. 14).

W'ith regard to the question of vermin, we have the following state-
ment by La Billardiere (II. p. 55): "These people are covered with
vermin. We admired the patience of a mother, who was a long while
employed in freeing one of her children from them ; but we observed
with disgust, that, like most of the blacks, she crushed the^e filthy inse<5ls
between her teeth, and then swallowed them."

Courtship.

West has the curious statement: "It is said they courted with flowers"
(II. p. 78). Bonwick (p. 69) gives a long account of the courtship, but
it is evidently Australian, probably Vidlorian, for writing in 1870, he says
that the account was given by a black fifteen years before, and that only
two years before he had visited the same black at his mountain hut.
Therefore it could not be a Tasmanian black. Bonwick also says: (p. 71)
" A lock of hair was not an unknowoi present among Tasmanian maidens
to some heart chosen one of the foreign sex." He gives no authority for
the statement. Lloyd (p. 45) says females were betrothed from childhood,
nevertheless there must have been occasionally some romance, judging by a

112 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

love affair reported by Walker (p. 103). It runs as follows : Pannehrooneh
had long felt an affedlion for Pellonnymyna, but no persuasions of his
could induce her to become his wife. One day they were crossing a river
along with many more of their countrymen, when Pellonnymyna was
suddenly seized with an attack of illness, and became unable to support
herself. The faithful lover was at her side. Seizing her in his arms,
he bore her to a place of safety, and during her indisposition, which was
tedious, he nursed her with the greatest attention, and most affe<5lionate
assiduity. She at length recovered, when, overcome with gratitude, she
declared that none but Pannehrooneh should be her husband ; and from
that time they have become united by the most inviolable attachment."

Social and Marital Relations.

No marriage ceremony seems to have been described or even witnessed
by any European.

** It was rarely the custom amongst them to seletfl wives from their
own tribes, but rather to take them furtively, or by open force, from
neighbouring clans ; .they were monogamous, but the pradlice of divorce
was recognized, and acfled upon, on incompatibility of disposition and
habits, as well as on grosser cause given. Tasmanian lords had no diffi-
culty, and made no scruple, about a succession of wives, and would
thus occasionally, after temporary separation, readjust differences, and live
happily ever after with their first loves : still they never kept more than
one wife at one time" (Milligan, Beacon, p. 29). Calder also speaks as
though they were a monogamous people : "It is nowhere stated . . .
that polygamy was pracflised by the Tasmanian ; but as the man Joe
. . . had two wives at the same time, it cannot be said the prad^ice
was unknown to them" (J. A. I., p. 22). Peron mentions meeting with a
family of aborigines, " two members of which, a young man and a young
woman, appeared to us to be at the same time epoux et freres " (ch. xii.
p. 226). There is, however, plenty of evidence to show that the natives
were polygamous. West says (II. p. 78): "Polygamy was tolerated;
women were, latterly, bigamists." Lloyd settles the question in favour
of polygamy thus (pp. 44-45) : ** Plurality of wives was the universal law
among them. Amongst the Oyster Bay tribe, in 1821, I scarcely ever
knew an instance of a native having but one gin. On the contrary, two
or three were the usual allowance. I have known a grey-headed old
savage to possess three wives of the respe(5\ive ages of thirty, seventeen,
and ten years, all betrothed to him from childhood, who from the time
of their betrothal, became members of his family circle, entirely dependent
on him for support." In spite of Lloyd's experience, there were doubtless
exceptional cases when monogamy prevailed, for on one occasion during
an interview La Billardiere reports : " Two of the stoutest of the party
were sitting in the midst of their children, and each had two women by
his side. They informed us by signs that these were their wives, and
gave us a fresh proof that polygamy is established among them. The
other woman, who had only one husband was equally careful to let us
know it. It would be difficult to say which are the happiest; as the
most laborious of their domestic occupations devolve upon them, the former

SOCIAL AND MARITAL RELATIONS. II3

had the advantage of a partner in them, which perhaps might sufficiently
compensate their having only a share in their husbands aifedtions" (II.
ch. X. p. 60). Bonwick (p. 74) says as follows of the wife : " Even
when divorced she was by no means free, as the tribe exercised juris-
di(5lion in the woman's affairs, and the disposal of her person. She soon
came under bondage again to another man, though perhaps to a younger
than her first affianced one ; as the young fellows were in most instances
supplied with their first partners from the overflowing establishments of
their seniors, or by the grant of a cast-off bit of property." There is
no evidence that there were any overflowing establishments — three wives
being the greatest known number of women attached to one man. He
continues : ** My friend Truganina, in the course of her rambles with the
Conciliatory Mission of Mr. G. A. Robinson, seems to have changed her
partners in a free way. One of the women attached to Mr. Robinson's
party acftually went a distance of seventy miles from her residence to
catch a husband in an alien elan."

We have seen above that the women had a sense of modesty. G. A.
Robinson and Catechist Clark, at Flinders Island, who lived for years
with the aborigines, both declare their convidtion of the modesty of the
young females" (Bonwick p. 60). The latter spoke to Bonwick (p. 12)
"of their observance ot cleanliness in such private duties, their decency
in the conjugal relation." Jorgenson had this good word for them :
** Notwithstanding a few instances to the contrary, the aboriginal females
were modest in their discourse, and discreet in their manners ! Adultery
was punished by blows or , leg-spearing. The Moore River blacks gave
a man so many spears at his legs, but allowed the females of the tribe
to sit on the adulteress, and cut her body about with flints" (Bonwick
p. 60).

Dove considers that from the fadt of polygamy prevailing, the condition
of the women must have been abjed^ (I. p. 252). Regarding their
treatment by their husbands, Peron, describing an interview with some
twenty females aborigines, says ; ** They were nearly all covered with
scars, the miserable results of the bad treatment of their brutal husbands"
(p. 252). These scars may perhaps have been only the cicatrices with
which they adorned themselves. The manner in which the men took the
food from the women, giving them only the remnants, has been described
in the chapter on food. On one occasion some twenty women had
deposited the results of their fishing at the feet of the men, **who imme-
diately divided it up, without giving tliem any ; they proceeded to group
themselves behind their husbands, who were seated on the back of a large
sand-bank ; and there, during the remainder of the interview, these unfor-
tunates dared neither to raise their eyes, speak, nor smile." Such condud\
is perhaps explained by La Billardiere's statement (II. ch. x. p. 61) that
the women showed the greatest subordination to their husbands : It
appeared that the women were careful to avoid giving their husbands
any occasion for jealousy." The men are very indolent, and make the
women their beasts of burden, and do all their servile operations, such
as cooking, etc. . . . While the men are taking it easy in front, the
women follow at some short distance behind, sweltering under a load of
one or two children on their backs, a couple of puppy dogs in their

il4 H. LING ROTM. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

arms, and a variety of miscellaneous articles slung around them. The
men are extremely selfish ; if, after being short of food, one kills a
kangaroo, he does not divide it with the others of the party, but, after
his wife has cooked it, and taken her place behind his back, he satisfies
himself with the choicest parts, handing her from time to time the half-
devoured pieces over his shoulder ; this he does with an air of the
greatest condescension, without turning round*' (Davies, p. 415). Lloyd's
account is very similar (p. 44) ; ** Hard labour is the matrimonial inheri-
tance of the poor ^m [woman]. In travelling, the task of carrying her infant,
the food, and all the worldly goods and chattels of the family, devolved
upon the wretched woman ; whilst her lord, with head erecfl, unburdened
except with the spear, the shield, and waddie, walked proudly in advance
of his frail tottering slave;" and so is Calder's (J.A.I, p. 20): ** They
[the men] did not allow their wives to participate in the sport, . . .
they ac5ted only as drudges to carry their spears and game ; but the
fishing (for shell fish only ... J was resigned wholly to them. The
men considered it beneath them, and left it, and all other troublesome
services, to them, who, in nine cases out of ten, were no better than
slaves. If a storm came on unexpe(51edly, the men would sit down while
the women built huts over them, in which operation, as in all others of
a menial nature, the men took no part." ** The construcflion and pro-
pulsion of the catamaran, or boat of the native, was always the work of
the women " (ibid. p. 22). In Peron's drawing of the canoe it is pro-
pelled by men. La Billardiere relates (II. ch. x. p. 59) that it gave him
and his party great pain to see the poor women condemned to the severe
toil of diving for shell-fish, . . . and often entreated their husbands
to take a share in their labour at least, but it was always in vain.
The men remained constantly near the fire, feasting on the best bits."
" Horton records an instance of unkindness, perhaps not general, nor very
uncommon ; it was noon : the mother, her infant, and little boy, had been
without food all day ; the father refused any part of that he had provided.
Another of the tribe, however, was more generous ; when he handed the
woman a portion, at Ilorton's request, before she tasted any herself, she
fed her child" (West, II. p. 79). The V. D. Land Almanac for 1834,
p. 78, says the men treat their women kindly.

The arrival of the first white men, chiefly sealers, without any female
companions, naturally led to close relations between the aboriginal women
and the sealers. ** These connecftions became so common, that the
Governor, . . . thinking to do an adt of justice by setting these
women at liberty, ordered them to be sent back to their tribes ; but the
magistrates charged with the carrying out of the decree were so moved
by the despair and the prayers of these poor creatures, that they demanded
fresh orders, and things remained as before" (Laplace, III. ch. xviii.
pp. 202-203), and in Jeffreys (pp. 118-119), we find the following words
bearing on these liaisons : ** The author had several opportunities of
learning from the females, that their husbands acfl towards them with
considerable harshness and tyranny. These women are known sometimes
to run away from that state of bondage and oppression to which they
say their husbands subject them. In these cases they will attach them-
selves to the English sailors. . . . They give their European proted^ors

RELATIONSHIPS. EDUCATION. INITIATORY CEREMONIES. II5

to understand that their own husbands make them carry all their lumber,
force them out to hunt, and make them perform all manner of work ;
and that they find their situation greatly improved by attaching them-
selves to the sealing gangs."

l^ELATIONSHIPS.

"In Australia and Tasmania men were held relatives of their mothers'
relatives," so says Bonwick (p. 62). We really know nothing of such
relationship amongst the Tasmanians.

Education.

** Pracflising throwing small spears, and other savage exercises, appear
to be the whole education and employment of the children." Beyond
this statement of Davies (p. 412) we have no knowledge of the way in
which their children were brought up. La Billardiere ** observed in the
children the greatest subordination to their parents" (II. ch. x. p. 60).
The women had the entire care of the children, and the natives were
extremely fond of their offspring (V. D. Land Almanac, 1834, P* 7^)'
Bonwick (p. 78) adds, ** boys were preferred to girls," A French party
alarmed some children, upon which La Billardiere remarks (II. ch. x. pp.
54-55) : "The least of the children, frightened at the sight of such a number
of Europeans, immediately took refuge in the arms of their mothers, who
lavished on them marks of the greatest affe(5lion. The fears of the
children were soon removed ; and they showed us, that they were not
exempt from little passions, whence arose differences, to which the mothers
almost immediately put an end by slight correction ; but they soon found
it necessary to stop their tears by caresses." " I shall not pass over in
silence the corre(5lion a father gave one of his children for having thrown
a stone at the back of another younger than himself : it was merely a
light slap upon the shoulder, which made him shed tears, and prevented
him doing so again" (ibid, II. ch. x. p. 48). On the other hand, it is
reported (Widowson, p. 190) : ** So , careless are they of their children,
that it is not uncommon to see boys grown up, with feet exhibiting the
loss of a toe or two, having, when infants, been dropped into the fire
by the mother."

Initiatory Ceremonies. *

Nothing is known concerning any initiatory rites pracflised by the
Tasmanians. Davies (p. 412) tells us that when "the males arrive at
the age ot puberty, they are deeply scarified on the shoulders, thighs>
and muscles of the breast."

Bonwick after describing Australian initiatory ceremonies, continues
(p. 202) " From all that I was able to gather in my enquiries among
very old residents in V. D. Land, it is my opinion that the customs
here described, in connetflion with young-men-marking in New Holland,
existed more or less with the different tribes of the Tasmanians."

Il6 ' H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Phallism.

Bonwick states, ** the phallic idea was not unknown in Tasmania "
(p- 195); 3.nd again ** the corrobories of the Tasmanians, which elsewhere
are shown to have a mystic meaning were some of them evidently of
a phallic design." ** The Broad Arrow, evidently connedled with ancient
phallic rites was known in the very early times of V. D. Land, as marks
made by Aborigines and not by runaway convi(5ls. The capture parties
describe its being in the almost inaccessible Western Tasmania " (p. 196).
An examination of any of the published accounts of the corrobories does
not show any phallic design about them.

Deformations.

Some natives were observed, in " whom one of the middle teeth of
the upper jaw was wanting, and others in whom both were gone. We
could not learn the objedl of this custom ; but it is not general, for
the greater part of the people had all their teeth " (La Billardiere, IL
ch. xi. p. 76). Henderson says: (Bk. H. p. 148): "The extradlion of
one of the front teeth from the males is not pra(5lised in V. D. Land."
Barnard Davis tells us the skulls ** of the man and woman in the
Museum of the Roy. Coll. of Surgeons have had teeth punched out at
an early age. This custom of knocking out the front teeth is not known
to have been pradlised by Tasmanians, and is not attributed to them
in any account 1 am acquainted with. Still the condition of the
skeletons named leaves no doubt whatever that it has prevailed. The
male skeleton at the College had had the two middle upper incisors
punched out in this manner, and what is more singular, that of the
woman, also, has had the whole four upper incisors knocked out in
the same manner. The alveolar process in both is absorbed and wholly
effaced. Among the Australian tribes this pradlise is spread generally.
It must have been exceedingly rare among the Tasmanians, most likely
confined to one tribe, as nothing is known ot such a custom by those
best acquainted with the Tasmanians" (p. 18).

Marion mentions that the natives he saw were not circumcised (p.
28), and he is the only author who refers to circumcision.

Burials.

As the members of d'Entrecasteaux's expedition, with one exception,
did not anywhere come across human bones, they concluded that the
natives buried their dead (Rossel, I. ch. iv. p. 56). Some human bones
were once found amongst the ashes of a fire made by the natives.
Several bones of the pelvis were pronounced by their form to have
been part of the skeleton of a young woman ; some of them were still
covered with pieces of broiled flesh (La Billardiere, L ch. v. p. 205).

It was left to Peron to make the remarkable discovery at Cape
Maurouard, of the verv curious way in which the aborigines buried
some of their dead. ** On a large piece of green sward, under the

i i

BURIALS. 1 17

shadow of some old Casuarinas, a cone was raised, roughly made of
bark, fixed into the ground at the lower end, and joined at the top
by a band of the same materials. Four long poles, fixed at one end
in the ground, served to support all the bark under which they were
placed : these four poles seemed also intended to serve as an ornament
to the strucfture ; for instead of being united at the top like the bark,
and so forming a simple cone, they were crossed at a little more than
half of their length, that is to say, precisely at the point of their
projection beyond the roof of the monument. From this arrangement a
sort of tetragonal pyramid resulted, on the apex of which appeared an
inverted cone. ... At each of the four sides of this pyramid there
was a broad strip of bark, of which the two ends were bound below
by the big band which bound all the others at the top. The result
was, that each of these four strips formed a sort of bow, more pointed
at the lower end, and large and rounder on the top ; as each of these
bov/s corresponded with one of the sides of the pyramid, it can be
easily imagined what elegance and picfturesqueness such an arrangement
would offer. ... I took off some of the thick pieces of bark and
easily penetrated right under the cover. The whole of the upper portion
was free; at the bottom there was a large flattened cone, formed of a light
and fine grass, arranged, with much care, in concentric and very deep layers.
. . . Eight small wooden wands, crossing one another at the top of this
cone. of grass, served to hold it together; every wand had its ends pushed
into the ground, and was held down by a large piece of flat granite.
. . . Hardly had I raised some of the upper layers of grass when I
perceived a large heap of white ashes which appeared to have been
colledled with care ; I plunged my hand into the middle of them ; I
felt something which resisted more strongly ; I wished to draw it out ; it
was a human jaw-bone, on to which some shreds of flesh were still adhering. .
This verdure, these flowers, the protecfiing trees, the deep layer of young
grass which covered the ashes, all united in convincing me that • I had
just discovered a tomb. As I removed ' the ashes, I noticed a very
black, friable, and light charcoal ; I recognized animal charcoal ; at the
same moment I drew out a portion of a femur with some shreds of flesh ;
one could still distinguish fragments of large arteries full of calcined
blood, reduced to that state at which this fluid resembles a resinous
substance. These first bones were succeeded by others no less recog-
nizable ; vertebrae, fragments of the tibia, humerus, tarsal and carpal
bones, etc., they were all much changed by fire, and were easily reduced
to powder. . . . These bones were not lying, as I had at first
thought, simply on the surface of the earth ; they were colledted at the
bottom of a circular hole, 40 to 48 centimetres (15 to 18 inches) in
diameter, and 21 to 27 centimetres [8 to 10 inches) deep. ... At
the foot of the hill on which this monument was eretfled, there was a
brook of sweet, fresh, and limpid water. . . . This monument, the
only one we had been able to discover on these shores, appeared to
have been a memorial strutflure. . . . The tomb which I had just
been observing was situated in that part of Eastern Bay which alone
could have afforded us fresh water ; at this same point, also, the large
shell-fish, which formed the aborigines' daily food, was more abundant.

Il8 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

This presumption with regard to the deliberate choice of the position
of the tomb was strengthened by an observation I made on the following
day in Oyster Bay, regarding a similar strucflure, which was also
placed on an eminence, at the foot of which ran a fresh-water stream,
the only one we had been able to discover along the whole stretch of
the latter bay. The same feeling, therefore, which consecrated these
monuments, caused them to be erecled in the most interesting and
cherished spots, and where, brought thither frequently by his wants,
man would most strongly experience the desire for commemoration. . .
The drawing of this tomb, made with great exadlitude by Petit and
finished by Lesueur, leaves nothing to be desired regarding the details
of this strucflure and the pleasant view front the hill on the top of
which it was situated. I have ^ spoken of a second tomb which we
visited next day in Oyster Bay. ... I will describe in a few words
its peculiarities. Placed on a slight eminence, at the foot of which ran
a fresh-water stream, . . . this second monument differed in the main
but little from the one I have just described ; but being older than the
former, its shape was less regular ; the poles which should have supported
the bark had fallen with it ; the grass covering the ashes was greatly
changed by the moisture of the atmosphere : otherwise, the bones and
ashes were arranged in much the same way as those in the tomb at
Eastern Bay. The only peculiarity deserving of careful note was, that

on the inner surface of some of the
best and largest pieces of bark some'
charaiflers were crudely marked, simi-
lar to those which the aborigines
tatued [sic] on their forearms.

" From the nature of these monu-
ments one must not be surprised at
MARKED PIECES OF BARK FOUND NEAR THE the sttiall numbcr of them met with.
TOMBS DRAWN BY PETIT. ^^^ ^^^^ protec^iug them is soon

destroyed by the acflion of the atmosphere or dispersed by the winds.
The tender grass which covers the ashes is not long in decomposing ;
and the ashes themselves, partially scattered, would soon present the
appearance of a fire having been recently lighted there ; and, as the
bones had been coUetfted at the bottom of a hole, they remain naturally
buried, and would not be met with on the surface of the earth. Added
to which, the thorough burning they had been subjecfled to necessarily
hastened their decomposition and complete annihilation " (Peron, ch. xiii.
pp. 265-273).

The only other account of a sepulchre is given by Braim (II. ch. vi.
pp. 266-269), taken from Jorgensen's Journal : ** Mungo, our black guide,
conducted us to a number of large rocks . . . extremely
difficult of access. Under one of these projecling rocks, we found a species
of cave, where Mungo pointed to a heap of flagstones, round which were
placed, in a very compact manner, pieces of gum-bark, the whole appearing
as a small pyramid. This was a grave, and in the middle of it was
deposited a spear, pointed to the depth of two feet, and the upper end of
it pointed with a human bone. We opened the grave with our bayonets,

BURIALS. 119

and, in so doing, met with several layers of flat stones. ... At the
bottom, we found some human bones, which, from the state they were
in, clearly indicated that they had for a long time remained in the grave.
. . . Mungo did not behold unmoved our . sacreligious invasion of the
solemn and silent repository of one of his countrymen, whom he described
as a great warrior from the circumstances of his burial. When I asked
Mungo the reason of the spear being struck into the tomb, he replied
quietly, * To fight with when he is asleep.' He also confirmed the opinion
that the aborigines buried their dead in an eredl position." This account
by Jorgensen cannot be accepted except with every reserve ; he is not
usually accepted as trustworthy, and in this case the reference to flagstones
and a spear pointed with a human bone must put him out of court. Mil-
ligan (Beacon, pp. 30, 33) says : ** Some of the tribes were in the habit
of burning the remains ; in which cases the ashes were sometimes taken up
very carefully, and carried about as an amulet, to ward off" sickness, and to
insure success in hunting and in war [V. anU, p. 64] . Other tribes placed
their dead in hollow trees, surrounded with implements of the chase and
war, building them in with pieces of wood gathered in the neighbourhood ;
while others would look out for natural graves, made by the upturn of
large trees, and there deposit the bodies of their dead, leaving them but
slightly covered with stones and loose earth.'* It should be remembered
that the aborigines had only sticks to dig with, and would have found
considerable difficulty in digging a grave with such tools. According to
Holman (IV. ch. xii. p. 404) : " If they cannot find a tree which decay
has fitted for their purpose, they, by the use of fire, procure a cavity
sufficiently large for the occasion."* ** Other tribes, again, when it was
not convenient to carry off" the dead body to some place of interment,
would put it into some hollow tree, in as upright a position as possible ;
and to preserve him in this position, a spear was stuck through his neck
into the tree. . Another spear was left with the dead" (Braim, II. ch. vi.
p. 268). Meredith, in describing the only instance he knew of in which
a native lost his life at the hands of the whites, says : " The man who
had the gun fired at the foremost native, and shot him dead : the others
ran to their fallen companion, and our men escaped." Afterwards these
Europeans ** returned to the place where the black was shot. The other
natives had dragged his body into a hollow tree, and covered it with
dead wood, but none of them were then to be seen" (pp. 199-200). This
may probably refer to the skirmish which Lyne lately related to J. B.
Walker. Lyne once, when in company with Rayner and another man,
was attacked by blacks on the East Coast, ^he blacks threw spears,
and Rayner shot one of them. On returning afterwards to the place
where tlvs native had been shot, they found that the body had been
placed in a hollow tree. It was doubled up, covered with boughs of the
" native cherry " (Exocarpus cupressiformis). Dead wood was piled over all.
Gilbert Robertson's words (Col. and Slav. p. 48) are to the same effect.
Davies (p. 417) does not quite agree with the above accounts; he

• Very large hollow gum trees (Eucalyptus) are exceedingly common in the bush. Some
of them will accommodate quite a number of people at once. Bush fires often eat into
the trunks of the gum trees and thus the tree is hollowed out, the heartwood being
the softest.

I20 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

says : ** When a death occurs in a tribe, they place the body upright in
a hollow tree, and (having no fixed habitations) pursue their avocations.
When some time has passed, say a year or upwards, they return to the
place and burn the body, with the exception of the skull; this they carry
with them, until they chance (for I do not think they lose much time
in seeking it) to fall in with a cemetery, in which a number of skulls
are heaped together, when they add the one with them to the number,
and cover them up wdth bark, leaves, etc. They do not bury them in the
ground. I have never been able to ascertain that they put either weapons
or food in the tree with the dead." The same author continues (p. 418):
" During the whole of the first night, after the death of one of their tribe,
they will sit round the body, using rapidly a low continuous recitation
to prevent the evil spirit from taking it away. They are extremely
jealous of this ceremony being witnessed by strangers ; but I had, upon
one occasion, an opportunity of being an ear-witness of it the whole
night." Lyne says skulls of natives were often found in the bush, while
Cotton also tells J. B. Walker that he has known two skulls ploughed
up, and has seen a fragment of one, and an oyster shell inside it, wash-
ing in the mouth of the Sandspit River. Professor Ratzel in his Volk-
erkunde, 2nd Edition, Leipzig 1894 i. p. 352 speaks of the mummifying
(mumifiziercn) of the body. There is no authority for such a statement.

The lighting of a funeral pyre is thus described by Backhouse, who
was on the spot shortly after the event occurred at the aboriginal settle-
ment on Flinders Island. He says (p. 105) : ** One of the women died.
The men formed a pile of logs, and at sunset placed the body of the
woman upon it, supported by small wood, which concealed her, and formed
a pyramid. They then placed their sick people around the pile, at a
short distance. On A. Cottrell, our informant, inquiring the reason of
this, they told him the dead woman would come in the night and
take the 'devil' out of them. At daybreak the pile was set on fire,
and fresh wood added as any part of the body became exposed, till the
whole was consumed. The ashes of the dead were collecfted in a kangaroo
skin, and every morning, before sunrise, till they were consumed, a portion
of them was smeared over the faces of the survivors, and a death song
sung, with great emotion, tears clearing away lines among the ashes. The
store of ashes, in the mean time, was suspended about one of their necks
[K. aniCy pp. 64, 119] .. . A few days after the decease of this woman,
a man, who was ill at the time, stated that he should die when the sun
went down, and requested the other men would bring wood and form a
pile. While the work was going forward, he rested against some logs that
were to form part of it, to see them execute the work: he became
worse as the day proceeded and died before night. The pfacfWce of
burning the dead is said to have extended to the natives of Bruny Island ;
but those of the east coast put the deceased into hollow trees, and fenced
them in with bushes. They do not consider a person completely dead
till the sun goes down ! "

As the account given by A. Cottrell to G. W. Walker is somewhat
different to that related by Backhouse, it will be as w^ell to insert it
here : The western tribes appear to have been generally in the prac5lice
of burning their dead. The body is placed in an upright posture on

BURIALS. I'll

logs of wood, which are also piled around it till the super-strudl:ure
assumes a conical form. The pile is then fired, and occasionally re-
plenished with fuel, till the remains are consumed to ashes ; these are
carefully collecfled by the relatives of the deceased, and are tied up in
a piece of kangaroo skin, and worn about their persons, not only as
tokens of remembrance, but as a charm against disease and accident.
It is common for the survivors to besmear their faces with the ashes
of the deceased. Those who labour under the complaint of which they
died, resort to the same pradlice as a means of cure. It is also cus-
tomary to sing a dirge every morning for a considerable time after the
death of their friends. The chief relative takes the most prominent part
on these occasions ; but it is not confined to relatives, many others join
in the lamentation, and exhibit all the symptoms of unfeigned sorrow.
A singular idea prevails among them, that no one fairly dies until the
sun sets. If the parties are dead in point of facfl, survivors profess to
regard the symptoms as mere indications, that life will depart as soon
as the sun goes down, and until that period do not treat them as
dead (Walker, p. 120).

According to West (II. p. 91): ** A group of blacks was watched in
1829, while engaged in a funeral. A fire was made at the foot of a
tree ; a naked infant was carried in procession, with loud cries and
lamentations ; when the body was decomposed in the flames, the skull
was taken up by a female, probably the mother. The skull was long
worn, wrapped in kangaroo skin.'* On one occasion Robinson, the pro-
te(5lor, found on his return that a woman having died, her body had
been immediately burned by her husband. He mentions that the body
was placed in a sitting posture. The husband's turn was soon to come.
This dying man had a keen perception of his approaching end, and when
he knew it was at hand, his last desire was to be removed into the
open air to die by his fire. Robinson says he was busy preparing for
his departure for Hobart Town for medical assistance, when the groans
of this man ceased, and with them the noise of the other natives. *' A
solemn stillness prevailed. ... I went out when he had just expired.
The other natives were sitting round, and some were employed in gathering
grass. They then bent the legs back against the thigh, and bound them
together with twisted grass. Each arm was bent together, and bound
round above the elbow. The funeral pile was made by placing some
dry wood at the bottom, on which they laid some dry bark, then placed
some more dry wood, raising it about two feet six inches above the
ground ; a quantity of dry bark was then laid upon the- logs, upon which
they laid the corpse, arching the whole over with dry wood, men and
women assisting in kindling the fire, after which they went away, and
did not approach the spot any more that day. The next morning I
went with them to see the remains . . . ; they were then collecfled
and burnt. I wished them to have burnt the body on the same spot
where his body had been burnt, . . . but they did not seem at all
willing, so I did not urge it. After the fire had been burnt out, the
ashes were scraped together, and covered over with grass and dead sticks"
(Calder, J.A.I., pp. 16-18). This haste to get the dead bodies of their
friends burned as soon as possible is referred to by Braim (II. ch. vi.

122 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

p. 226) : ** Those to the south were burned, a large pile of wood having
previously been heaped up and set fire to ; for scarcely was the body
dead before it was placed among the flames, and even when it appeared
that a native could not long survive, preparations were made for con-
suming the body the very moment life had fled." He adds : " The
aborigines could assign no other reason for burying their dead in an
eredl posture except custom." Lyne told J. B. Walker he knows nothing
of the burning of their dead by the aborigines.

'* Among themselves they have no funeral rites" (Widowson, p. 191).
This is the only reference I have found relating to funeral rites.

Mourning.

Bonwick (p. 97) tells us that the women in mourning plastered their
heads with pipeclay, lacerated their bodies, &c., &c., but such mourning
customs are distinclly Australian. Walker, (MS Jour.) says : " Besmearing
the face with the ashes of the deceased is generally an accompaniment
[of these dirges] , and tears may be observed frequently streaming down
the cheeks of the mourners. This traveller (p. 108) was " assured that for
those who are removed by death, they are in the habit of setting apart
a certain portion of the day to indulge in lamentation ; near relatives
are said to keep up the pradtice for months after the decease of their
companions."

CHAPTER VII.
Method of Wearing the Hair.

rHE following accounts describe the method of wearing the hair.
Anderson (Cook's third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) says '* Their hair is
perfecftly woolly and clotted, or divided into small parcels, with the use
of some sort of grass, mixed with a red paint or ochre,* which they
smear on their heads," and Backhouse (p 78), ** The men clotted their
hair with red ochre and grease ; and had the ringlets drawn out like
rat tails.*' According to Davies, ** The men allow their hair to grow
very long, matting each lock separately with grease and ochre."
Judging from drawings, etc., the V. D. L men appear to have dressed
their hair into thin spiral ringlets about three to four inches long, and
described as follows by various travellers. Marion^ speaks of it being
tied in knots — pdotons (p. 28). *' The men allowed their hair to grow
very long, and plastered it all over very thickly with a composition of
red ochre and grease, and when it dried a little their locks hung down
^so as to resemble a bundle of painted ropes," (Calder J. A. I. p. 20).
While Backhouse says (p. 79) : " The men clotted their hair with red
ochre and grease, and had the ringlets drawn out like rat-tails." ** The
men wore it long, and gave it a mop-like form and appearance by
smearing it with fat of the wombat and kangaroo, and then daubing it
full of red ochre, by which it was made to hang in corkscrews all
around, and over the face and neck down to the shoulders '* (Milligan,
Beacon, p. 28). Lyne informed J. B. Walker that ** they used \o work
their locks, by means of red ochre and grease, into little pellets like
peas. When they shook their heads, these rattled in a way that was
much admired." All the drawings by the French, by Thomas Bock,
and others, however, show that the description of the long stringy
locks was the usual (if not exclusive) fashion of male adornment.
There is no drawing showing pellets of hair. According to Bonwick
(p. 25) ** a rebellion nearly burst out on Flinders Island, whither the
remnant of the Tasmanians were removed, when orders were once issued
forbidding the use of ochre and grease." W^alker in his MS. Jour,
says this grease and red ochre is called balldowinny.

The women wore their hair differently to the men, thus, according
to Anderson : ** The females differed from the men, that though their hair was
of the same colour and texture, some of them had their heads com-
pletely shorn ; in others this had been done only on one side ; while

•The red ochre was probably obtained from an ore of iron found in various places in

the island, e.a. Tamar and Sorell.

124 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

the rest of them had all the upper part of the head shorn close,
leaving a circle of hair all , round " (Cook's Third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.)
Backhouse p. 79) also states that ** the women cropped their hair as
close as they could with sharp stones or shells.*' Da vies' description
is much to the same efFecfl : ** The hair of the female appears more
woolly than that of the male ; this is probably owing to the female
keeping her hair cut extremely close, leaving a narrow circle all round,
as if a basin had been put over the head, and the hair inside of it
cut away." In describing a friendly meeting with twenty female
aborigines, Peron (p. 252) says, " Their hair was short, frizzled, black
and dirty, reddened in some with ochre." Calder says (J. A. I. p. 20) :
*' The women appeared to great disadvantage, by their fashion of
shaving the head quite closely, which in their wild state was do with
flint and shells, and afterwards with glass." The women ** carefully
prevent the hair from growing to any great length, by cutting it off
with the sharp edges of two pieces of broken crystal (Jeffreys, p. 119).
Speaking generally Lloyd thus describes their toilet customs (pp. 43-44) :
** During the summer months it was cut singularly close to the skin by
means of sharp flint stones ; but, latterly, with the more artistic
appliances of broken glass bottles. The tedious ceremony was accomplished
by severing ten or twenty hairs at each incision. A similar process was
adopted in native shaving and performed with such skill and precision
as seldom, if ever, to excoriate the skin ; but it occupied the sable
barber at least three hours to turn off a moderate-sized head in proper
trim for a grand cotrohoree or dance." ** They never suffer their hair to
grow very long. This they prevent by cutting it off frequently with
sharp shells or pieces of broken crystal" (Leigh, IIL p. 243). Bonwick
(p. log) when stating that the women practised depilation probably
meant close cropping. La Billardiere (IL 59-60), in describing how the
natives break pieces of wood over their heads, says : " Their hair forms
a cushion, which diminishes the pressure, and renders it less painful. . . .
Few of the women, however, could have done as much ; for some had
their hair cut pretty short, . . . others had only a simple crown of
hair. We made the same observation with respect to several of the
children, but not as to the men." Hamy tells us (Anthrop. IL p. 610)
that according to Petit's illustrations the hair was teints en rouge on
Bara Ourou, that Grou Agara had a moustache Ugvre, La cheveliire est
coupee raSy mats il teste tout autour une handellette de cheveux plus lofigs
formant comme une hordure de petits glomerules capillaires, que Von voit a peine
Uuiiques daus la planche, Ce mode de coiffure parait avoir etc ires usite chez
les Tasmanians rencontres pas V expedition ;'' one man had cheveux crepus tres
courts ; another had les cheveux ras, en forme de calotte hordee d'une handeletic
etroite and cheveux plus longs. Quelques poils de moustache ; harhtche and favoris
courts, Une certaine quantite de poils a la naissance des epaules an niveau des
omoplattes ; another case he describes of calotte chevelure circonscrite par une
handelette de cheveux plus longs; a third case of chevelure rasee ronde autour
de la ti'te avee hordure de cheveux tenus un pen plus longs, ici la handelette
de glomerules capillaires est double ; then a man with cheveux et sa haihc
entiere ; one with tete rasre, sauf deux vtroites couronnes concentriques de
glomerules de cheveux, harhe entiere pen fournic, poils a la naissance du dos ;

METHOD OF WEARING THE HAIR. CICATRISATION. 125

a man with cheveux en glomeruUs^ pas de barbe and finally a child with
all its hair on.

Milligan (Beacon, p. 25) speaks of the hair growing remarkably low
upon the forehead, and extending down, in both sexes, on each side of
the temples, in the shape of a whisker."

Strzelecki tells us (p. 334) : ** The hair is subject to filthy customs.
I allude to the anointing of the head with a mixture of clay7 red
ochre, and fish grease, in order to prevent the generation of vermin."
There seems to be no proof that the greasing and the colouring of the
hair noticed also by Cook (as above), Widowson (p. 187), Flinders (Sec.
iv. p. 187), Melville (p. 346), La Billardiere (II. ch. xi. p. 73), P6ron (ch.
xiii. p. 280) and Marion (p. 28), was resorted to on account of the cause
ascribed by Strzelecki.

Furneaux refers to the men smearing their beards with a red
ointment, and Poron (p. 222) refers to an old man whose beard was
partly grey. La Billardiere (I. p. 222) says some had long beards, and
later on (11. p. 38) that they let their beards grow. The beards of the
men are shown in most illustrations.

Cicatrisation.

Most of the early travellers refer to the peculiar scars with which
these people adorned themselves. Marion speaks of some sorts of designs
incrusted in their skin on the chest (p. 28), and says (p. 31) that one
savage had his chest gashed like the Mozambique Kaffirs. Flinders (sec.
iv. p. 187), while sailing up the Derwent River, met with a native who
had marks raised upon the skin. Bligh speaks (p. 51) of their skin being
scarified about the shoulders and breast. Mortimer (p. 19) observed
** several of them [fifteen natives] to be tattooed [sic] in a very curious
manner, the skin being raised so as to form a kind of relief." ** The
shoulders and breasts were marked by lines of short raised scars, caused
by cutting through the skin and rubbing in charcoal. These cuts some-
what resembled the marks made by a cupping instrument, but were much
larger and further apart " (Calder, J.A.I, p. 20). Milligan (Beacon, p.
29) tells us of the ** symmetrical lines of scars raised by incisions made,
and long kept open, across the chest, and upon the arms and thighs,
a pra(ftice to which the women appear often to have submitted, though
more chara(51eristic of the men their masters." Lyne examined the body
of a recently shot aboriginal and found *' the hips were marked with
gashes or scars ; the upper part of the arms was similarly marked '*

(communicated to J. B. Walker). Similar scars are
shown in Peron*s plates viii. ix. and x., and in La
//IW Billardiere, plates vi. (woman) and vii (man). According

fCff/ to Hamy (Anthrop, II. p. 610) in Petit's illustra-

tions, the chest of one man has two lines of vertical
cicatrices while another man has two vertical incisions
at the joint of the left arm. Davies (p. 414) says he has seen the
women scarified, " but whether for ornament, or from surgical treatment,
I know not." Anderson (Cook's Second Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) relates
they are " masters of some contrivance in the manner of cutting

126 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

their arms and bodies in lines of different lengths and direcflions, which
are raised considerably above the surface of the skin, so that it is
difficult to guess the method they use in executing' this embroidery
of their persons;" and Cook himself says (ibid.): ** They wore no
ornaments, unless we consider as such some large pund^ures or ridges
raised on different parts of their bodies, some in straight, others in curved
lines. . . . The women had their bodies marked with scars in the
same manner." La Billardiore, in speaking of a party of natives (II.
ch. xi. p. 76), says : *' Almost all of them were tatued [sic] with raised
points, sometimes placed in two lines, one over the other, much in the
shape of a horse-shoe ; though frequently these points were in three
straight and parallel lines on each side of the breast : some were observed,
too, towards the bottom of the shoulder-blades, and in other places."
He also speaks (p. 73) of a man so *♦ tatued [sic] with great symmetry."
The reader will perhaps see it is incorred^ to term this class of orna-
mentation tatuing. Previous to this La Billardiere has related (II. ch.
X. p. 38) : ** On their skin, particularly on the breast and shoulders, may
be observed tubercles symmetrically arranged, exhibiting sometimes lines
four inches in length, at other times points placed at different distances.
The application, by which these risings w^ere produced, had not destroyed
the cellular membrane, however, for they were of the same colour as
the rest of the skin." Backhouse (p. 84) describes these ornamental scars
thus : ** The blacks make symmetrical cuttings on their bodies and limbs,
for ornament. They keep the cuts open by filling them with grease,
until the fiesli becomes elevated. Rows of these marks, resembling neck-
laces around the neck, and similar ones on the shoulder, representing
epaulets, are frequently seen. Rings representing eyes are occasionally
seen on the body, producing a rude similitude of a face." Walker's
account is very similar (p. 97). *' When the males arrive at the age of
puberty, they are deeply scarilied on the thighs, shoulders, and muscles
of the breast, with a sharp flint or glass. When 1 witnessed the opera-
tion, a female wa.< the operator, and such, I believe, is always the case.
The sul)je(fl was a young man named Penderoine^ brother to the celebrated
western chief Weymerrickc ; the instrument was a piece of broken bottle,
and, although the fat of his shoulder literally rose and turned back like
a crimped fish, he was, during the whole operation, in the highest glee,
laughing, and continually interrupting his operatrix by picking up chips
to fling at our party, in play. These scarifications are intended as
ornaments" (Davies, p. 412). BonwMck states: ** One, who saw the
inflicl:ion of the adornment upon a girl, describes her screams of agony from
the torture. Her head was secured betwe(Mi the legs of a strong fellow,
while another operated on her. The boys would emulate each other in
standing unflinchini^ly the long deep cuts made l)y the sharp stone or
bit of glass. The wound was kept open with wood ashes ; and when
healing, the raised scar remained for life. A gash is described in a girl
whirh was an inch long and three-sixteenths in depth, and half an inch
from its neighbouring wound " (p. 124).

La I^illardiere met some women wliose abdomen was marked with
three semicircular risings, one above the other (II. ch. x. p. ^'j).

PAINTING. 127

Painting.

" Their bodies appear to be daubed with a kind of dirty red paint
or earth" (Mortimer, p. 19). **The young men . . . draw a circle
round each eye, and waved lines down each arm, thigh, and leg, which
give them a frightful appearance to strangers" (Leigh, III. p. 243).
Anderson thought (Cook's Sec. Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.) that they "sometimes
heightened their black colour by smutting their bodies, as a mark was
left behind on any clean substance, such as white paper, when they
handled it," and Flinders met a savage on the Derwent River whose
face was so blackened (Sec. iv. p. 187). Marion (p. 31) tells of a savage
who on washing turned reddish, and it was seen that it was only smoke
and dirt which made him appear so black. According to Bligh (p. 51),
** One of them was distinguished by having his body coloured with red
ochre, but all the others were painted black, with a kind of soot, w^hich
was laid on so thick over their faces and shoulders, that it is difficult
to say what they were like," and Bass describes meeting with a native
whose face was blackened, and the top of his head was plastered with
red earth (Collins, ch. xvi. p. 187). Backhouse thus describes the painting
of a party of sixteen natives (pp. 165-166), "They were smeared from
head to foot with red ochre and grease ; and, to add to their adornment,
some of them had blackened a space of about a hand's breadth on each
side of their faces, their eyes being nearly in the centre of each black
mark," and he tells the following funny story: "John R. Bateman, master
of the brig Tamar, once had some soup made for a party of these people
whom he was taking to Flinder:> Island. They looked upon it com-
placently, skimmed off the floating fat with their hands, and smeared
their hair with it, but would not drink the soup ! " Elsewhere (p. 104)
he says, " These people not only smear their bodies with red ochre and
grease, but sometimes rouge the prominent parts tastefully with the
former article, and they draw lines, that by no means improve their
appearance, with a black, glittering mineral, probably an ore of antimony,
above and below their eyes," He believed that this greasing and colour-
ing had other uses than mere ornamentation, for he tells us (p. 79),
**To enable them to resist the changes ot the weather, they smeared
themselves from head to foot with red ochre and grease." Da vies (p. 140)
gives a like explanation ; " The men grease their bodies, and streak them
with red ochre, and a variety of plumbago ; this is partly done for
ornament, but they say that it in a great measure protedls them from
the inclemency of the weather." " Oure-Oure [Peron's friend] showed us
for the first time the kind of paint in these regions, and the manner of
its application. Having taken some charcoal in her hands, she reduced
it to very fine powder ; then, putting it in her left hand, she took some in
her right, rubbed first of all her forehead, and then both her cheeks,
and in a moment made herself black . enough to frighten one : what
seemed to us most singular was the complacency with which this young
girl appeared to regard us after this operation, and the confident air
which this new ornament had spread over her physiognomy " (Peron,
pp. 227-228). At the Retreat River, Kelly (p. 60) records meeting some

128 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

aboriginal men whose faces were "greased and blacked." In describing
the twenty females already referred to, Peron remarks : " Their skin
was black and disgusting from the fat of the catfish . . . their faces
daubed with charcoal" (p. 252). They delighted in smearing the faces
of the early explorers, and both Peron's and La Billardiere's friends
suffered under their hands. Peron thus describes the scene (ch.
xii. pp. 252-253) : " The woman who had just been dancing had
hardly finished, when she approached me with an air of kindness, took
out of her rush basket. . . . some charcoal which was in it, crushed
it in her hand, and began to apply to me a coating of the ordinary
paint of these regions. I lent myself willingly to this friendly caprice.
Heirisson . • . received a similar mark. We then appeared to be an
objecft of grand admiration to the women ; they seemed to regard us with
a sweet satisfacSlion and to congratulate us on the new ornaments which
we had acquired." This is La Billardiere's account of the operation
performed on one of his party (IL ch. x. p. 48): "The painter to the
expedition expressed to these savages the wish to have his skin covered
with powder of charcoal. His request . . . was favourably received,
and immediately one of the natives selected some of the most friable
coals, which he ground to powder by rubbing them between his hands.
This powder he applied to all parts of the body that were uncovered,
employing nothing to make it adhere beside the rubbing of the hand,
and our friend Peron was presently as black as a New Hollander.*
The savage appeared highly satisfied with his performance, which he
finished by gently blowing off the dust that adhered very slightly, taking
particular care to remove all that might have got into the eyes."
According to Hamy (Anthrop, H. p. 610) Petit's illustrations indicate red
dabs on a child's cheeks and eyelids, on a child's forehead and cheeks,
and on a woman's cheekbones, chin and forehead.

With regard to the material used by them : on one occasion at a
meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania, Gunn " exhibited specimens
of Iron Glance, obtained by Joseph Milligan, from near the Housetop
Teir, Hampshire Hills, being the only locality known in the Island. This
mineral was used by the aborigines of Tasmania for the purpose of
colouring themselves, and from its scarcity much valued by them."
Peron records (ch. xiii. p. 300), "Amongst the mineral produdtions of
Maria Island one must mention a sort of oxidized iron ore, of a beautiful
reddish colour, with an earthy grain and a clayey look, which is found
on different parts of the island, and which furnished the aborigines with
the chief ingredient which they used for dyeing [sic] their hair red."

Clothing.

Cook found the aborigines quite naked, adding, " The females wore
a kangaroo skin tied over the shoulders and round the waist. But its
chief use seemed to be to support their children when carried on their
backs, they being in all other respedts as naked as the men." This

• The explorers all considered the aborigines of Tasmania of the same race as the

Australians.

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMAI

mf^

'I' L. \:\-:\v YORK
r:i?i:C LIBxRARY.

A'^TOn, LCNOX AND
TUO..N FOUN

CLOTHING. 129

surmise of Cook is supported by Peron, who says he met with ** two
female aborigines, who were absolutely naked, except that the younger
one had on a kangaroo skin in which she carried her little girl " (p. 223).
Bligh (p. 51), Marion (p. 28), Prinsep (p. 79), and Mortimer (p. 19), say
the natives were entirely naked ; the latter qualifying his remark by
excepting some of the women who, had a kind of cloak or bag thrown over
their shoulders. A certain minimum amount of clothing appears to have
been used at times. Flinders recorded seeing ** two natives, a man and
a woman, who had something wrapped round them which resembled
cloaks of skin" (p. 155). Bass mentions that ** he saw two females,
who had a short covering, hanging loose from their shoulders " (Collins,
p. 187) ; while Laplace also says : ** For defending themselves against the
cold and wet, they have only a cloak, made of skin, sewn together
with threads of bark. This coarse and disgusting clothing hardly covers
the back" (III. p. 201). Widowson observes, that ** their only covering
is a few kangaroo skins, rudely stitched, and thrown over the shoulders ;"
and he adds, that ** more frequently they appear in a state of nudity "
(p. 187); while Lloyd tells us (p. 48) that "the thick, woolly-haired
skins of the large opossum, and the skin of the kangaroo, formed the
only description of garment patronized by the aborigines." Other writers
attribute the little clothing they wore to the absolute necessity of
protecting themselves against the cold. Leigh's evidence is to the fact
that, " In the winter the men dress themselves in the dried skins of
the kangaroo. The females are clothed in the same kind of garment,
with the addition of ruffles, made also of the skin, and placed in front
of the garment. The dress is fastened on by means of a string over
the shoulders and round the waist. In the summer season their clothing
is useless, and therefore cast off till winter returns" (III. p. 243).
Jeffreys confirms this statement (pp. 125-126) thus: ** During the winter
season the natives dress themselves m kangaroo skins, and the females
are always partially clad in a robe of the same kind, cut and decorated
with lesser pieces in front, the whole fastened over the shoulders with
a sort of string, and round the waist with a similar band." Milligan
' says : ** They wore no clothing whatever, except only in case of illness,
when a kangaroo skin was put on, with the fur inwards, laced together
in a way to fit the body " (Beacon, p. 25). With regard to the women,
this writer tells us ** they went about usually quite bald, and devoid of
covering. . . They wore a strip of the skin of the wallaby or kangaroo
under the knee or around the wrist or ankle " {ibid. pp. 28-29). La
Billardiere describes most of the savages seen by him and his ship's
company as being absolutely naked ; but on one occasion he met with
some who had the skin of a kangaroo wrapped about their shoulders
(I. p. 22?.). In another place he says : ** Some of our men came to a
large fire, around which eight savages, each of whom had a kangaroo
skin wrapped round his shoulders, sat warming themselves. . . . An
old woman . . • had the skin of a kangaroo wrapped about her
shoulders; she had likewise another of these skins bound round her
waist in the form ot an apron " (I. pp. 234-235). At a subsequent
interview with a party of the natives, he describes their dress [?] as
follows : ** The women were for the most part as entirely naked as the

130 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

men. Some of them only had the shoulders and part of the back
covered with a kangaroo skin, worn with the hair next the body ;
and among these we noticed two, each of whom had an infant at the
breast. The sole garment of one was a strip of kangaroo's skin, about
two inches broad, which was wrapped six or seven times round the
waist ; another had a collar of skin round the neck, and some had a
slender cord bound several times round the head" (11. pp. 34-35).
Peron says : ** The absence of clothing did not seem to cause the women
any embarrassment even in the presence of strangers," and the same
author mentions that ** another young girl, called Oure-Ourey was, like
her parents, perfecftly naked, and did not seem in the least to suspect
that there could be possibly anything immodest or indecent in this
absolute nudity " (p. 227). In describing another meeting with twenty
female aborigines, his words are : ** With the exception of kangaroo
skins, which some of them wore on their shoulders, all these women
were perfecftly naked ; but without appearing to regard their nakedness
in the least, they so varied their attitudes and postures that it would
be difficult to form a just idea of the bizarreness and picturesqueness
which this meeting afforded us" (p. 252). A third party of savages
whom Peron met with was also perfedlly naked. One alone, older than the
rest, had a kangaroo skin on his shoulders (pp. 279-280). According to
Hamy (Anthrop. II. p. 610) Petit's illustrations show that the skin in
which the child is carried is turned inwards ; in another case the skin
covering the man is also turned inwards ; in another a skin is on right
shoulder ; one man simply covered with a skin ; a fifth with a band of skin
forming a ** couronne " ; a sixth covered w^ith a skin. Rossel says :
** Some of the sailors saw some savages, . . . among whom was a
w^oman, who, ... a remarkable circumstance, had the throat and
the private parts covered." Like the others, he suspected the severity
of the season, rather than decency, caused the one seen to take this
precaution (I. pp. 99-100). Rossel also mentions (I. p. 60) the finding
in a hut of a piece of dried Alga marifM, which he thought was
designed to cover the natural parts, but we know this alga was used
as a drinking vessel. From R. Thirkell we learn that ** the natives had
merely a piece of kangaroo skin round their loins, or rather hanging in
front, with no other covering," this being the only reference we have
to a loin cloth. By G. W. Walker (MS. Jour.) we are told ** neither
sex wear any article of clothing — unless a few strips of fur, which are
sometimes tied round their limbs, generally in the thickest part, can be
called such."

It will be observed that Widowson alone talks of skins being sewn
together by string of bark, while Milligan at Flinders Island speaks of
lacing the skins together. Both methods were probably learned from
Europeans.

The natives appear not to have been in the habit of using any
covering for the head, La Billardiere remarking, that their heads were
constantly bare, and often exposed to all weathers (II. p. 59).

As regards any coverings for the feet, we have only W^est's testimony
(p. 85) : ** The tribes . . . from South Cape to Cape Grim . . .
wore mocassins on travel."

CLOTHING. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS.

131

The Tasmanians, like many other savage races, never took kindly
to the civilized dress of Europeans. When the English first established
a colony in V. D. Land, many efforts were made to induce them to
make use of clothing as a matter of decency, but they were almost all
unsuccessful. Widowson tells us, they never avail themselves of the
purposes for which apparel is given them (p. 188); while Breton relates:
** They show no small aversion to clothing their sable-like bodies in a
Christian-like manner, and availed themselves, when taken, of the earliest
opportunity to escape, at the same time throwing away their clothes
the moment they got into the bush " (p. 352).

•»iaj»»*3

t^ £

Personal Ornaments.

Although Cook says they wore no ornaments,
he states : ** Some of the group [men] wore loose
round their necks three or four folds of small cord,
made of the fur of some animal ; and others of
them had a narrow slip of kangaroo skin tied round
their ancles" (Third Voyage Bk. I. ch. vi.) ; and
Backhouse says : ** They sometimes ornamented
themselves by strips of skin with the fur on, which
they wore round the body, arms or legs " (p. 79). Some
of their necklaces were formed of kangaroo sinews, one
twisted round another so as to resemble braid, and then
dyed with red ochre, their favourite colour (Walker p.
no). According to Dove a love of ornament was dis-
played in the flowers and feathers with which the
heads of both sexes were generally found to be attired "
(I. p. 252) ; while Milligan (Beacon, p. 28) observes
of the women : ** They wore a fillet of gay flowers,
of festoons of showy berries, or strings of shells
upon their bare heads." " The young men fasten
to their woolly locks the teeth of the kangaroo,
short pieces of wood, and feathers of birds, which
give them a savage appearance" (Leigh, IIL p.
243). ** They wear necklaces formed of kangaroo
sinews rolled in red ochre, and also others of small
spiral shells. They likewise wear the bones of de-
ceased relatives around their necks, perhaps more as
tokens of affedlion than for ornament. . . . The
shells for necklaces are of a brilliant pearly blue :
they are perforated by means of the eye-teeth, and
are strung on a kangaroo sinew ; they are then
exposed to the acftion of pyroligneous acid, in the
smoke of brushwood covered up with grass ; and in
this smoke they are turned and rubbed till the
external coat comes off, after which they are polished
with oil obtained from the penguin or the mutton-
bird " (Backhouse, p. 84). G. W. Walker (p. 36)
quite confirms Backhouse — this was in 1832. Davies

132 M. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

says the shells were polished with grease and sand (p. 418). According
to Calder (J.A.I, p. 23) in their captivity to get rid of the outer crust
" they used vinegar. I think a moderate heat was necessary in removing
this outer covering, for, on visiting their, huts when they were preparing
them, a woman handed me a saucer of them, which she took from the
fire-place." The necklaces are thus described by Mrs. Meredith (p. 146) :
** A pretty little white Columhellay common here, used
to be much collec5led by the female aborigines, for mak-
ing necklaces ; some of which were several yards long,
formed of these little shells neatly bored, and strung tasmanian

closely on kangaroo sinews, and were worn by their necklace, shells

sable owners twisted many times round the neck, and °^ truncatella
, . , . , ,. marginata, kuester.

hangmg low over the breast. brit. mus.

The shells composing the necklaces are strung together as shown in
the illustration, being perforated with rough and large holes, one only
in every shell. The string passes through
the artificial hole and the natural aperture of
the shell so that the stringing together is
of the simplest possible kind, and the shells
do not lie in any fixed or symmetrical position
with regard to one another, but lie quite irregu-
larly. The British Museum and the Oxford
Museum both possess specimens of the shell tasmanian elknchus shell
necklaces, and in both cases the shells are necklace.

Elenchus and not Columhella (p. 145). Brough Smyth had in his pwDssession
a necklace eighty-nine inches long and consisting of 565 of these shells
{Elenchus hellulus). In the Tasmanian Museum, at Hobart, there are two
necklaces ; one of light coloured shells, the other of a dark lustrous
green : the latter measures 6 feet 4 inches doubled, i.^. the single string
of shells is 12 feet 8 inches long. The shells which are abundant on
the long giant Kelp (not the Bull-Kelp) and elsewhere are locally known
as ** warrener " or ** mariner " shells. No native name for shell necklaces
is on record.

Metallurgy.

Furneaux found the natives without any knowledge of the metals
(Cook's Sec. Voy. Bk. I. ch. vii.), and Cook found they set no value on
iron or iron tools (Third Voy. Bk. I. ch. vi.). Subsequent writers make
no mention of the use of metals by these people, and it seems certain
they had no conception of their uses.

134 H- LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

itself is incorredl for 5, then pugga-na marah may probably be the numeral
five, being literally fnan one (pugga, man ; «a, singular ending ; mara, one).
Backhouse (p. 104) says the aborigines could only say one, two, plenty,
and in order to state the number of persons present on any occasion
gave their names.

Music.

Peron's party, being -desirous of seeing the effecfl of music on the
Tasmanians, on one occasion sung the Marseillaise. ** At first the savages
appeared more troubled than surprised, but after some moments of un-
certainty, they lent an attentive ear ; the repast was suspended, and the
proofs of their satisfacflion manifested themselves in such bizarre contor-
tions and gestures, that we could hardly restrain ourselves from laughing.
. . . Hardly was a verse finished than great shouts of admiration
escaped simultaneously from all mouths ; above all, the young man was
as if beside himself; he clutched his hair, he scratched his head with
both hands, he shook himself in a thousand ways, and repeatedly pro-
longed his shouts. After this strong and warlike music, we sang some
of our light and little tender airs; the savages appeared to grasp the
true sense, but it was easy to see that sounds of this sort had a very
slight effecfl upon their organs " (pp. 226-227). ^^ another occasion
Bellefin, one of his companions, ** began to sing, and accompanied him-
self by lively and animated gestures ; the women were immediately silent,
observing his gestures with as much attention as they appeared to give
to his songs. As soon as a couplet was finished, some applauded by
loud shouts", others laughed to splitting, while the young girls, no doubt
more timid, remained silent, showing nevertheless, by their a(5lions and
the expression of their faces, their surprise and satisfadlion. After
Bellefin had finished his song, one of the women began to imitate his
gestures and the tone of his voice in a very original and funny way,
. . . she then herself began to sing, so rapidly that it would have
been difficult to reproduce such music within the ordinary principles of
our own" (tbid, p. 51). The other French parties were not so successful
in their attempts to get the natives to listen to European music. La
Billardiere (II. ch. x. p. 45) tells us: ** Our musician had brought his
violin on shore ; . . . bul his self-love was truly mortified at the
indifference shown to his performance. Savages, in general, are not very
sensible to the tones of stringed instruments." Later on, a similar attempt
had a very comical ending (ibid. p. 55) : " We knew already that these
savages had little taste for the violin ; but we flattered ourselves that
they would not be altogether insensible to its tones, if lively tunes, and
very distincfl in their measure, were played. At first, they left us in
doubt for some time ; on which our musician redoubled his exertions ;
. . . but the bow dropped from his hand, when he beheld the whole
assembly stopping their ears with their fingers, that they might hear no
more." According to this traveller the natives attempted " more than
once to charm us by songs, with the modulation of which I was
singularly struck, from the great analogy of ^he tunes to those of Arabs
in Asia Minor, Several times, two of them sung the same tune together

MUSIC. 135

but always one a third above the other, forming a concord with the
greatest corrediness " {ibid, p. 50). Backhouse (p. 93) mentions that when
** Jumbo," a native woman, was shown a musical box, ** listening with
intensity, her ears moved like those of a dog or horse, to catch the
sound."

Respecfling their singing Geo. Hull says : ** It was, I think, in the
year 1824 or 1825, that some ten or twelve natives appeared on the
west bank of the Tamar, opposite Launceston. They * coo-ed ' and
made signs to be taken across, which was instantly complied with.
There was not a man or boy among them. . . . We made signs to
them to sing and dance. . . . They sang, all joining in concert, and
with the sweetest harmony ; the notes not more than thirds. They
began, say, in D and E, but swelling sweetly from note to note, and
so gradually • that it was a mere continuation of harmony — very melan-
choly, it is true. It was like what it would be if you began one
chord on the organ before you took your fingers from the keys of the
other " (Smyth, II. pp. 390-391). Dr. Ross says, in the Courier of 1832,
** they sang several of their national songs ; but their music is of the
rudest kind, being little more than a frequent repetition of the same note
in soft, liquid syllables. The general characfler of their music may be
described in words almost as intelligibly as by dotting the notes down.
They begin by singing a third from the key-note several times, and finish
with a third above the key-note. They sometimes vary it by suddenly
running into the octave. Their music bears a close resemblance to the
monotonous chant of the Highland bagpipe " (Bonwick, p. 30). While
Bonwick (p. 30) writes : ** Walking out in the evening by the sea-
shore of D'Entrecasteaux Channel, I heard a low chanting tune of
the Tasmanian old women of the station, which had a peculiarly mournful
sound, and in which I detecfted a droning hum with a shriller note."
' In describing a corrohoru of the natives which took place at full
moon, Lloyd says (ch. iv. p. 50) : ** Their minor tones and monotonous
voices they accompanied by playing upon greasy kangaroo rugs, which
were rolled up in some peculiar manner, so that, when struck by the
open hand, the sound resembled that of a muffled drum. Others joined
in the rude concert by beating time with two short dried sticks, and
that with a precision adapted for an orchestra." He adds that often
** an inspiring allegretto movement of the thumping band had a very
invigorating effect on the dancers. Leigh found their song may
be listened to with pleasure, their voices being sweet, and the melody
expressive (HI. p. 243). Backhouse gives an account of their sing-
ing, as follows, on an occasion when he once visited the huts. The
natives were lying around a central fire : ** On our entering the people
sat up, and began to sing their native songs— sometimes the men, at
other the women— with much animation of countenance and gesture.
This they kept up to a late hour ; they are said often to continue
their singing till midnight. To me, their songs were not unpleasing ;
persons skilled in music consider them harmonious*^ (p. -83). ** A fire of
sticks, or boughs, that make a lively blaze, was made, around which
of expressions frequently repeated, and uttered in a drawling monotone,
the men formed a circle, and began a kind of song, consisting [but

136 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

more like a chant than singing" (Walker, MS. Jour.)]. ** The subjecfls of
these songs are various ; sometimes the pursuits of hunting and the
enumeration of the animals that become a prey to their dexterity and
prowess ; at other times the feats of war and their sanguinary conflicts
with adverse tribes. . . . They sung two of their songs. The
first was sung by the chief of the Port Dalrymple tribe. I
observed that the same words were repeated many times in succession,
accompanied by many impassioned gestures, and so much exertion of
breath as was almost painful to witness. Occasionally he gave a short
sigh, as if his breath was spent, in which the rest united with one
accord. The shout that succeeded allowed the performer a moment's
pause, when he resumed the song with great animation. A great deal
of charadler was displayed in the course of this exhibition, the chief
often becoming highly excited, pointing significantly with his finger, and
showing remarkable expression in his countenance, as if the subject of
the song was one of a most important nature, the people meanwhile
listening with profound attention. A short time after the chief had
concluded, the women began a song in chorus, which showed a greater
knowledge of music ; and I was very much surprised to hear some sing
tenor, while others sang treble, which to those who know anything of
music will appear strange, because the power of doing so denotes some
advancement in the art. It was a hunting song, enumerating the animals
that the young married woman is wont to chase (Walker pp. 99-100- 10 1).
Davies simply says (p. 416) ** their singing is far from unmusical ; "
that ** they commence singing in a low monotonous tone, and rise
to a higher key as they get excited. According to Jeffreys
(pp. 124-125), " their song is accompanied with considerable grace-
fulness of action, and is poured forth in strains by no means
inharmonious ; on the contrary, the voice of the singer, and in
many parts the sweetness of the notes, which are delivered in pretty
just cadence, and excellent time, afford a species of harmony to which
the most refined ear might listen with pleasure." Melville (p. 348)
speaks of their dancing ** to the tune of a monotonous yet expressive
song and chorus, in which old and young took part." Their songs, as
seen under heading Games and Amusements, were generally sung at
corrobories. Robinson says : " They ahvays retired to rest at dusk,
rising again at midnight, and passing the remainder of the night in
singing, ... in which they all join. This is kept up till daylight."
. . . After he became acquainted with the hostile tribes, he says
that the most popular of their songs were those in which they recounted
their attacks on and their fights with the whites (Calder J.A.I, p. 18).
According to Bonwick (p. 29) Protector Robinson remarks of the ** Black
War" period of Tasmanian history: ** At this time several of the most
popular songs of the hostile Aborigines consisted in relation of the
outrages committed by Blacks on the Whites, in which they repeat in
minute details their predatory proceedings, such as taking away fire-
arms, tea, sugar, &c., and kneading flour into bread." Both Leigh and
Jeffreys (as quoted above) state the women sang a hymn or song to a
good spirit to secure the safety of absent husbands or friends ; but
Melville, in opposition to Robinson (when speaking of their singing),

» -sf

I C S "

liil^

III!

MUSIC. DRAWING. I37

says (ch. xiv. p. 348) : ** They never kept late hours, for. no sooner
was the sun down than they huddled round their fires, and went to
sleep."

On p. 31 Bon wick publishes what he calls ** a true Tasmanian
tune." It is copied from Freycinet. It is, however, an Australian tune
as is very clearly indicated in Peron's work. From what Bonwick States
(p. 32) as regards Bermilong's song, which he reprints, the reader would
understand that the song is Tasmanian ; it is, however, not so, as can
be seen by a reference to Edw. Jones* Musical Curiosities (London, 181 1).

Drawing.

In the tomb discovered by Peron (ch. xiii. p. 273) the inner surfaces
of some of the best and largest pieces of bark were crudely marked
with charadlers similar to those which the aborigines cut on their
fore-arms. (See illustration, p. 118)

" In several parts of the colony rude drawings have been discov^ered.
Cattle, kangaroos, and dogs, were traced in charcoal. These attempts
were exceedingly rude, and sometimes the artist was wholly unintelligible.
At Belvoir Vale, the natives saw the Company's two carts, drawn by
six oxen ; they drew on bark the wheels and the drivers with their
whips. .They were the first that ever passed that region " (West I. p.
89). Similarly on the first occasion of some carts of the V. D. Land
Company passing Mount Cleveland, Bunce says (pp. 49-50) : " It appears
that some natives had observed this ; and, a short time afterwards,
one of the Company's servants passing that way, found in one of their
rudely constructed huts, a piece of the bark of a tree, with a rough
drawing of the whole scene. The wheels of the carts, the bullocks
drawing them, and the drivers with the whips over their shoulders,
were all distinctly depicted in their rude but interesting manner." It
is quite possible West's account Js a periphrase of Bunce's. The V. D.
Land Company's first establishment (on the north coast) was in 1826-27;
so that there is a possibility that the drawings had been made by
Europeans. According to Bonwick (p. 47). ** Mr. G. A. Robinson saw
drawings of men and women, with some curious hieroglyphics, like the
totems* of tribes, when he was on the west goast, in 1831 ; " and that
** Dr. Ross relates his discovery of geometrical figures, as squares and
circles, on the bark in the valley of the Ouse." Bonwick also (p. 191)
speaks of ** the red hand, marked on trees and rocks alike in Tasmania
and Australia ; " no mention is made as to the locality where this hand
is seen nor on whose authority the statement is made. Calder
(Tasmanian Journ. p. 419) mentions some huts, and ** on the bark that
covered them, were some extraordinary charcoal drawings ; one representing
two men spearing an animal, which, from its erect position, was, I
presume, meant for a kangaroo ; though the artist, by a strange over-
sight, had forgotten the animal's tail, and had made the forelegs about
twice as long as the hinder ones. There was also an outline of a dog,

* Would Robinson know anything of totems ?

138 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

and an emu, really not badly done ; and some other designs, the exa(5\

meaning of which I was not able to make out.'* Elsewhere (J.A.I.

p. 21) he states : ** But the chef-d'auvre was a battle-piece — ^a native

fight — men dying and flying all over it."

The whole question of the existence of drawings by aborigines before

European advent is pra<5lically an open one, for as seen above the

evidence is not satisfacSlory. It should be mentioned that Milligan in

his vocabulary gives " Depict — draw in charcoal : macoolana" This at

first sight seems conclusive. But in this same vocabulary he gives

other words for objects not known to the natives in their wild state —

e.g. 'bread,' * spaniel,' * gun ' and 'gunpowder.'

Games and Amusements.

On one occasion Backhouse reports (p. 81) : " On learning that plenty
of provisions had arrived by the cutter, they [the natives] shouted for
joy. After sunset they had a corrobory or dance round a fire, which
they kept up till after midnight, in testimony of their pleasure." ** The
corrobory, or native dance, was their favourite pastime, and seemed to
excite them considerably " (Melville, p. 348). Of these corrobories we
have four separate detailed accounts, each account giving a different
version of the dance.

According to Backhouse (p. 82) : '' In these dances the aborigines
represented certain events or the manners of different animals ; they had
a horse dance, an emu dance, a thunder and lightning dance, and many
others. In their horse dance they formed a string, moving in a circle,
in a half- stooping posture, holding by each other's loins, one man at the
same time going along, as if reining in the others, and a woman as
driver, striking them gently as they passed. Sometimes their motions
were extremely rapid, but they carefully avoided treading one upon the
other. In the emu dance they placed one hand behind them, and alter-
nately put the other one to the ground and raised it above their heads,
as they passed slowly round the fire, imitating the motion of the head
of the emu when feeding. In the thunder and lightning dance they
moved their feet rapidly, bringing them to the ground with great force,
so as to produce a loud noise, and make such a dust as rendered it
necessary for spedlators to keep to windward of the group. Each dance
was ended with a loud shout, like a last effort of an exhausted breath.
The exertion used made them very warm, and occasionally one or other
of them would plunge into the adjacent lagoon. One of their chiefs
stood by to dired^ them, and now and then turned to the bystanders
and said, Narra coopa corrobory — very good dance — evidently courting
applause."* "A very frequent manoeuvre during most of their * corrobories '
is, to leap from the ground whilst running in a' circle round the fire,
and in descending, to turn their faces to it, crouching at the same time

• The word Narra sounds like a corruption of " very," as does coopa of " good," and
corrobory is an Australian and not a Tasmanian word. The horse dance they call
barracoota (G. W. W. — MS. Jour.), but it is the common local name for a large fish
— in the latter sense perhaps of West Indian origin (J. B. W.). According to Jor-
genson, horse = &atr coutanot and to Norman sparcouttnar.

GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS. 139

to the ground on their haunches and striking the earth with their hands.
The exercise attendant on these diversions is often very violent, occasioning
individuals to drop out of the ring, bathed in perspiration, until they
have recovered. The good humour they exhibit throughout the amusement,
which generally lasts for some hours, often till midnight, is remarkable,
considering the excitement that prevails. Sometimes one will jostle against
another, and perhaps occasion a fall to both, which is sure to be succeeded
by a general laugh. Though their exhibition in a state of nuidity must
necessarily offend the eye of a European, there is not the slightest adlion
or gesture that would offend the modesty of the most scrupulous"
(Walker, p. 99).

Davies's account (p. 416) runs thus : ** Their principal amusement
consists in their corrobories or dances. These are sometimes held in the
day-time, but far more generally at night ; they light a large fire, round
which, quite naked, they dance, run, and jump, keeping time to their
own singing, which is far from unmusical. These songs are various,
each having its own peculiar dance, intended to illustrate some a(5lion
or effedl from causes. One is called the kangaroo dance, and is, along
with some others, most violent ; in this the party (I have seen as many
as ninety joined in one corroborie) commence walking round the fire
slowly, singing in a low monotonous tone. After this has continued for
some time, they begin to get excited, singing in a higher key, walking
faster, striking their hands upon the ground, and springing high in the
air. By degrees their walk becomes a run, then solitary leaps, a series ;
their singing, perfect shrieking ; they close upon the fire, the women
piling fresh branches upon it. Still leaping in a circle, and striking the
ground with their hands at every bound, they will spring a clear five
feet high, so near to the fire, so completely in the flames, that you
fancy they must be burnt. Excited to frenzy, they sing, shriek, and
jump, until their frames can stand it no longer, and they give up in
the uttermost state of exhaustion. Some of their dances are evidently
lascivious ; some are medicine, etc. ; though had I not been told by them-
selves that intended to represent making bread, taking such was the
case, I never should have perceived any analogy."

The following is Lloyd's account (pp. 49-50) : " The assembling of the
tribes [at full moon] was always celebrated by a grand cortoboree, a species
of bestial bal masque . On such occasions they presented a most grotesque
and demon- like appearance; their heads, faces, and bodies, liberally greased,
were besmeared alternately with clay and red ochre ; large tufts of bushy
twigs were entwined round their ankles, wrists, and waists; and these
completed their toilet. They would then retire in a body to a short
distance from the spot selected for the festive scene. At the extreme
end of the tabooed space might be seen, squatted in Turkish fashion,
the dark * Sultanas ' of the respective tribes. When the preliminaries of
fire-making and slightly brushing round the sacred spot were completed,
forth strode ... a sorry loquacious old beldame, taunting some noted
warrior for his woman -like cowardice at the top of her screeching voice ;
in bitter terms challenging him to appear and answer to the charge.
. . . Stung to the quick by her foul aspersions, he bounded in fierce
rage through the midst of a flaming brushwood fire, proclaiming aloud

140 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

with frantic gestures his many deeds in war and the exciting chase.
When he paused from sheer exhaustion, the lay was taken up by his
female admirers. They soon turned the tide against his wretched accuser,
and in loud and solemn chant recounted and confirmed his heroic career.
Their minor tones and monotonous voiges they accompanied by playing
upon greasy kangaroo rugs, which were rolled up in some peculiar manner
so that, when struck by the open hand, the sound resembled that of a
muffled drum. Others joined in the rude concert by beating time with
two short dried sticks, and that with a precision adapted for an orchestra.
Frequently, upon some inspiring allegretto movement of the thumping
band, thirty or forty grim savages would bound successively through
the furious flames into the sacred arena, looking like veritable demons,
. . . and after thoroughly exhausting themselves, by leaping in imita-
tion of the kangaroo around and through the fire, they vanished in an
instant. They were as rapidly succeeded by their lovely ginSy who, at
a given signal from the beldame speaker, rose en masse, and ranging
themselves round the fresh -piled flames, in a state unadorned and genuine
as imported into this world, contorted- their arms, legs, and bodies into
attitudes that would shame first-class acrobats. The grand point with
each . . . was to scream down her sable sister. Thus was the savage
reunion kept up till one and two o'clock in the morning."*

In Bank's Straits, after a capture of some seals, Kelly witnessed a
dance as follows (p. 15) : "The whole mob of them — about three hundred
in number — formed a line in three divisions, the men and women
forming two of them, and the children another. Tolobunganah then gave
the signal to commence the dance, and it was a most singular one.
The women in the centre division began a song, and joining their
hands, formed a circle, dancing round the heap of dead seals. They
then threw themselves upon the ground, putting themselves into the
most grotesque attitudes, beating the lower parts of their bodies with
their hands, and kicking the sand over each other with their feet. The
loud laughter of the men and children evidenced their gratification with
the sport ; and the women having sat down, the children went through
a similar dance. The men then commenced a sort of sham fight with
spears and waddies, dancing afterwards round the heap of seals, and
sticking their spears into them as if they were killing them. This
game lasted about an hour. Tolo (the chief) then informed us that the
dance was over."

Another amusement of the male aborigines was the throwing of
waddies and spears at grass-tree stems, set up as marks, which they
frequently hit. They still [i,e, in the settlements] strip off their clothes
when engaged in this amusement (Backhouse, p. 172). John Radford
told E. O. Cotton, who in turn told J. B. Walker ** that they would
practise spearing at a ball made of kelp— of the large stems of that
variety which grows on tocks on the edge of the sea. The ball

* According to Bonwick (p. 187), the "solemn" dances were held at the spring
of the year and (p. 198), "the spring likewise was the festival of eggs with the
Tasmanians." Hull in his Report, Victorian Aborigines (Legislative Council,
Melbourne, 1858-9, p. 9), says these people- had grand corrobories in the spring.

GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS. I4I

bounces well, and would be bowled swiftly passed them. And they
would stand out a boy in an open space, and drive pegs on either side
his feet, and then spear at him, two or three at a time. He was to
dodge the spears without moving his feet, and would do so with great
coolness, letting spears pass between arms and side, just wringing the
body enough to escape being struck." This looks very much like
practice for future emergencies, and reminds one of Davies* account of
punishment. (See Government).

H. UNC ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

e 5 "^ c

i ><' ? u I

"i'll't

ft *" ^ = '

sleii

144 **• LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

plant, which she split with dexterity, and after having divided them into
strips of proper width, softened by drawing through the fire*' (p. 103).
La Billardiere speaks of clumsy baskets made of a reed called Juncus
acutus (I. ch. V. p. 211), while Rossel (I. ch. iv. p. 56) found some
** baskets, woven with strips of the bark of trees, very straight and
slender, and twisted nevertheless with some skill, fastened like a bag
with a string of the same material.

Another little kind of bag, made of a dried Alga marina and very
hard, seemed designed to draw water with, and to serve as a cup "
(see p. 142), regarding the manufadlure of which. Backhouse* (p. 102)
says they either open an oblong piece, so as to form a flat bag, or run
a string through holes in the margin of a circular piece so as to
form a round one. Mortimer (p. 20) evidently refers to these bags
when he speaks of certain ** small buckets for holding of water, made
of a tough kind of sea-weed, and skewered together at the sides." La
Billardiere evidently refers to these (II. ch. x. pp. 57-60) when he
speaks of the women carrying " water in vessels of sea- weed, Fucus
Palmaius " (see supta food), and also elsewhere (ch. v. p. 169), and
so doeb Peron (ch. xii. p. 229). Bon wick speaks (p. 18) of close
plaited vessels used for carrying water, but gives no authority. Milligan
in the vocabulary gives the native name of water-pitcher as moirunah.
Bunce (p. 30) says baskets were made of the leaves of the Anther icum
semibarbata as well as of the Dianclla.

The illustrations (facing p. 143) are from a basket or bag in the
Tasmanian Museum, Hobart. The basket consists, as shown diagram-
matically in Fig. i, of a series of upright pieces of reed held parallel
in position by means of two pieces of twisted fibre, which two are again
twisted into each other in such a manner as to enclose
at every twist one of the upright reeds. This method of
manufacture is identical with basket work or tissue made
in several parts of the world ; thus it is similar to
some fabric from Kobenhausen and Wangen (Swiss
Lake-dwellings), the same as bast mats and bags made
by the Ainus of Japan, and the same as a variety fig. i.

of baskets and bags from various parts of Australia.
In Petit's drawing of a basket, he shows the two pieces of twisted
fibre doubled, so that it looks as though the woofs a and b in Fig.
I. were placed close together at intervals instead of quite apart as
they really are. There are ten similar specimens in the museum
at Hobart, all made of a species of JuncuSj none of Dianella,

In the first edition of this work, two other forms (Fig. 2.) of basket
were illustrated but although Milligan had obtained these from G. A.
Robinson, it is extremely doubtful whether these baskets are Tasmanian ;
G. A. Robinson became afterwards protedtor of Aborigines in Vi(5loria
(Australia), so that it does not follow that articles coming from him
must necessarily be Tasmanian ; the two baskets are of a form very
common in Australia. I am the more inclined to believe that the
Tasmanians only made one class of basket, as shown in Fig. i. as in
Petit's original drawing, of which I have a copy, this pattern only of
a Tasmanian basket is given.

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THE NEW YORK

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BASKET OR BAG WORK. • 1 45

Bass gives the following curious description of a basket : ** The

single utensil that was observed lying
near their huts was a kind of bas-
ket made of long wiry grass, that
grows along the shores of the river.
The two ends of a large bunch of
this grass are tied to the two ends
of a smaller bunch ; the large one is
"G. 2. then spread out to form the basket,

PATTERN OF BASKET WORK WITH AND while the Smaller answers the purpose
WITHOUT THE HORIZONTAL STRAND ; ^^ ^ j^^^^j^ ^j^^j^ apparent use is to

THESE FORMS ARE MET WITH IN v n /• 1 r i_

QUEENSLAND (WALTER E. ROTH, OTing shcll-fish from the mud banks
"ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES*'). AND IN where they are to be colle<5led " (Collins,

CENTRAL AUSTRALIA (BALDWIN SPEN- pp^ i68-I6q).
CER AND GILLBN, "NATIVES OF C. A.")

Stone Implements.

Johnston in his Geology of Tasmania (pp. 334-335) thus describes the
" flints " of the aborigines : ** The rudely chipped flints of the Tasmanian
aborigines are of the simplest chara(5ler, rarely symmetrical, and are
more like the earliest Palaeolithic flint implements of Europe. . . . One
of the scalpriform hatchets in the author's collecflion weighs 2 lbs. It
is semicircular in form ; the base of the arch is nearly 2 inches thick ;
length of base, 7 inches ; greatest depth at centre of arch, 44 inches.
The circumference of arch has been skilfully chipped to a fine strong
cutting edge. The smaller stone knives vary in size from ij inches by
I inch to 4 inches by 2^ inches,'* and he compares them to those
figured in the M6moire of M. de Ribeiro which appeared in the Proc.
of the Congres Inter. d'Anthr. et d'Archeol. Prehist (Comp. Rend. 6th
Session, Brussels, 1872), published 1873.

Since Brough Smith has gone as thoroughly into the subje(5l of
stone implements as circumstances will allow, it is as well to lay
the matter before the reader in his own words. Having described how,
for the purpose of investigation and comparison, several stones used by
the Tasmanian aborigines, and now in the Tasmanian Museum, were
lent by him, he continues : " They are nearly all chert or cherty
varieties of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, obtained, probably, from
the neighbourhood of granite or porphyry. Cosmo Newbery agrees with
me in the opinion that, while some of them have been split by hand
from larger blocks, others are fragments of rocks occurring naturally,
and selected because they were of suitable form. These fragments , .
. have been treated in one way only ; having selecfled that which
appeared to be the best for a cutting edge, the native has improved it
by simply striking off" small flakes all along the edge, from one side of
the edge only. This has been done, however, with so much skill, in all
cases, as to keep the line straight. It is not a serrated edge. It would
appear that the fragment was held in the palm of one hand, with the
edge outwards, and that with a piece of stone in the other hand, blows
were given towards the palm and away from the edge, until flakes

146 ' H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

were detached in such a manner as to leave it even and sharp. Some
specimens, however, have been detached by one blow from a larger rock.
These exhibit a semiconchoidal fra(5lure, and having a good edge, have
not been subsequently altered by chipping. . . . Amongst R. Gunn's
specimens, there are two scalpriform implements, very skillfully made.
One, the best, of a triangular shape, and with a remarkably sharp
cutting edge, has been improved by striking off flakes — in size from a
sixteenth of an inch to a quarter of an inch — from the base of the
triangle ; and the other, a smaller stone, about three inches in length,
and two inches in breadth, formed in the same way, is scarcely
inferior. These were evidently struck off by hand from some larger
blocks, and afterwards improved in the manner described. The first was
found near Westbury, and the other near Ross. . . . The largest
stones do not weigh more than six or seven ounces, and the smallest
are not much heavier than the chips of black basalt used by the
natives of Victoria for cutting and cleaning skins. . . . None of them
were provided with a handle, and it is not probable, judging from the
shape of them, that the native had even the protection of the opossum
skin for his hand. . . . The greater number — nearly all of them —
may be classed as fragments of metamorphosed rocks, cherts, and
porcelain ites. Owing to having been buried for a lengthened period,
many are coated with a thin yellowish-brown or grey skin. I can state
with certainty that not one of them has been ground, nor in any cise
has been attempted to give an edge by grinding."

Smyth then quotes the following statement of Scott, received through
Gunn ; — ** * Memorandum of the Stone Implements used by the Aborigines
of Tasmania, found at Mount Morriston, eight miles south from Ross,
on the east bank of the Macquarie River, on Lot 78, Parish of Peel,
County of Somerset : The space over which they were found is about
three by five chains, or one acre and a half, in a sheltered bend of
river, at the head of a deep lagoon, above one mile long, the Saltpan
Plains lying to the west, and the hills rising suddenly to the east. The
original place where these were first obtained by the aborigines is
between the Split Rock and the west shore of the Great Lake, about
forty miles distant, where Pitt has seen the ground covered with stones,
partly broken and shaped — * like a workshop ' — by his statement to me.
. . . In using the flints, the thumb was placed on the flat surface,
and held by the other fingers resting in the palm of the hand, and the
sharp edges used to cut the notches in the trees for climbing, cutting
spears, and making the handles of the waddies rough, so as not to slip
from the hand. They devoted much time to chipping the edges of the
flints, and the small pieces broken off show very distinctly in good
ones ; the pieces not so marked, and smaller, are probably the pieces
left in making them into ship-shape at first. Whilst the flints were
used to cut notches in the trees for the great toe to rest in, for
climbing, the body was supported against the tree by a strong grass rope,
passed round the tree and the body, held by one hand, whilst with the
other they used the flint. . . . The number of stones of the same
material (but different shades in colour) which I found at that spot was
upwards of 218. . . . Adjoining the spot where the flints were found

' STONE IMPLEMENTS. I47

there were also some common water-worn stones, broken in the edges,
as if used for chipping, but of no interest otherwise. Jas. Scott,
Surveyor,* '* Smyth says of some other specimens he received from the
Royal Society of Tasmania that " they are of the same characfter as
those already described. One — a heavy thick stone, with a rough edge
was probably used for cutting wood. It is a fragment of a dark bluish-
grey siliceous rock. Small flakes have been struck off to form a cutting
edge. Another — a thinner and broader fragment, and triangular in shape
— is formed of the same kind of rock, and the cutting edge is in like
manner made by striking gff thin small flakes. The weight of each is
a little less than seven ounces" (II. pp. 402-407).

Some fifteen years ago Morton Allport sent some stone implements
to the Anthropological Institute, London, and accompanied them with the
following letter : *' The stone implements are of the rudest make, but
are frequently met with near old camping places and shell -mounds, often
very far from the parent rocks. In one locality, on the high
table-land in the centre of Tasmania, large numbers of these rough
implements appear to have been manufactured, as chips of the rock, knocked
off so long ago as to present weatherworn surfaces, abound, and cannot
otherwise be accounted for. Many of the old residents in the country
assure me they have frequently seen natives using these stones, both
for skinning animals and for cutting notches in the thick bark of the
eucalypti, while climbing. The stones were invariably grasped in the
hand, never fixed in any kind of handle." What became of Allport*s
coUecftion is not known.

At a meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania, in June, 1873, Jas.
Scott volunteered the following information received from his late brother,
Thos. Scott, who had had many opportunities of observing the habits,
etc., of the aborigines : ** I may state that I never learnt that they used
the flint implements as tomahawks, but invariably held them in their
hands with the thumb resting on the flat surface, and turning the stone
as found convenient to get the cutting edges where required. He had
seen the men sitting for an hour or so at one time, chipping one flint
with another, so as to give them the peculiar cutting sharp edges. The
flints were used principally for cutting and sharpening spears, waddies,
and for making notches or rough edges on the end of the waddies, for
the hand to grasp firmly, in order to prevent slipping when in the act
of throwing, etc. They were also used for cutting notches in the bark
of trees to enable the natives ' to climb. ... I have found them
[flint implements] . . . always in the shape used by holding in the
hand, never in the shape of a tomahawk. . . . Some years ago I
sent to England a round stone chipped all round to a circle about seven
inches diameter, and one inch and a half thick in the centre, to one
inch thick at the edge. On this the females broke the bones of animals
for the marrow, using another stone about six inches in diameter for
striking." In the same journal (Papers, etc. Roy. Soc. of Tasm. July,
1873) it is stated the aborigines ** merely used sharp-edged stones as
knives. These were made sharp, not by grinding or polishing, but by
striking off flakes by another stone till the required edge was obtained.
As a very general, if not invariable, rule, one surface only was chipped

148 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

in the process of sharpening. They werq made from two different kinds
of stone — the one apparently an indurated clay rock, the other con-
taining a large proportion of silex." Robt. Thirkell also adds his testi-
mony to the facfk that the stones were used without handles of any sort
{ibid, Aug. 1873). Jas. Rollings, in a letter addressed to Dr. Agnew,
dated 5th May, 1873, says that in his youth he was constantly in the
habit of seeing the aborigines of Tasmania, . . . and that he had
many opportunities of seeing how they used their stone knives and
tomahawks. ** The knives [referred to] when used for skinning kangaroos,
etc., were held by the fore-finger and thumb, and the arm, being extended,
was drawn rapidly towards the body. The carcase was afterwards cut
up, and the knife was held in the same way. In cutting their hair,
one stone was held under the hair, another stone being used above, and
by this means the hair was cut, or rather, by repeated nickings, came
off." He then continues, ** A larger stone, well sele(ffced, about four or
five pounds in weight, was used for a tomahawk, a handle being fastened
to it in the same way as a blacksmith fastens a rod to chisels, &c.,
for cutting or punching iron, being afterwards well secured by the
sinews of some animal. The handles were strong saplings of wattle or
curryjong."

Regarding the handle mentioned above and by Lloyd (pp. 50-52), at
the meeting of the Fellows of the Royal Society of Tasmania, in June,
1873, above referred to, after full discussion, Dr. Agnew reported "it
appeared the general belief of the Fellows present was, that the stone
axe with the handle attached was never used by our natives until taught
by those from the neighbouring continent.*' The evidence at this meeting
set the question at rest. But there was another question still unsolved,
and that was as to whether the Tasmanians ground any of their stone
implements. As pointed out by Prof. Tylor (On tiie Occurrence of Ground
Stone Implements of Australian type in Tasmania, Jour. Anthrop Inst,
xxiv. 1894, pp. 335-340) Thirkell, in a letter to Dr. Agnew (Papers, Roy.
Soc. of Tasm., Aug., 1873) direcflly states that he knew them to grind
their implements. " Their mode of climbing trees was to get a grass band
twisted, put It round the tree and hold the two ends in one hand, and
then with a sharp flint stone they would chip the bark downwards and
make a notch for the big toe, then change hands and do the same on
the other side. They had no handle to the stone, merely an indent for
the thumb, and the edge ground as sharp as they could against another
stone.'' Tylor continues : " After a long quest, made to ascertain whether
specimens could be found to justify the statements that stone axes ground
and handled were known to some aborigines, and, if so, what was their
make, I found a paper * On the Osteology and Peculiarities of the
Tasmanians* by the eminent anthropologist, Dr. J. Barnard Davis. In
this little-known paper, published in the * Nat. Hist. Trans, of the Dutch
Society of Science,* he mentions as Tasmanian works of art * a few
exceedingly rude stone chippings or implements, made from a dark coloured
chert, probably of volcanic origin, exadlly like that employed by the
Kanakas of the Sandwich Islands.* Dr. Barnard Davis continues as
follows : * I have a more finished stone implement of an oblong form
with one extremity slightly sharpened by grinding, which was employed

STONE IMPLEMENTS. I49

by the women without any handle in notching the bark of trees, up
which they climbed in an ingenious manner in search of the opossum.*
With some difficulty I was able to ascertain that Dr. Barnard Davis's
collecflions were sold at his death, and had passed into the hands of a
gentleman at Brighton from whom the three implements (J.A.I. Plate
XVII., Figs. I, 2, 3) were purchased by the Corporation and placed
in the Town Museum. Their proofs of authenticity are absolute. Figs.
2, 2«, 3, 3«, vouched for by tickets * Tasmanian, G. A. R.' must have
come from G. A. Robinson, the first Prote(5\or of the Tasmanian
aborigines, the survivors of whom he brought in after the war ; the oblong
shape and slight edge at the end of Figs. 2, 2a, identify it as the one
mentioned by Barnard Davis as grasped in the hand for tree-notching.
A written card, proved by its mention of the weight to refer to the
specimen, Fig. i, la, is photographed at the back of Fig. i. * Tas-
manian stone axe. Weighs 2lbs. 90Z. av. Used by the native women
without haft for notching the fibrous bark of the trees they were in the
habit of cliinbing. It is still red from the ferruginous ochre with which
they painted themselves. Presented by Jos. Milligan, M.D., (and Lady
Franklin). See his let. of Sep. 5, 1864, and that of G. A. Robinson,
of Feb. 16, 1865.'

'' It would thus appear that the three were collecfled by G. A. Robinson,
that they passed from him to Dr. Milligan, who died in London some
years ago, and that from him Dr. Barnard obtained them.

** On inspedlion of these implements it may be said without hesitation
that they are of tlie Australian type of ground stone implements. The
two shown in Figs, i and 3 are described as made to grasp in the
hand, and with this agrees the thumb indentation, particularly well seen
in Fig. 3. Such notching stones made with a thumb indentation for
grasping in the hand, and edged by grinding against another stone,
correspond exactly with what Mr. Thirkell describes the natives making
to climb witli. Such implements grasped in the hand are known in use
among the Australian natives. Mr. A. W. Howitt states that the
natives of Cooper's Creek do not fasten wooden handles to the stone,
but they grasp the tomahawk with the fingers and thumb, holding the
blunt end in the hollow of the hand, and use it in cutting exacflly as
the Tasmanians used the chips of chert which served them as hatchets
(Smyth, I. p. 358 ; 11. p. 304). Some of the Australian hand choppers
have been recognised by the thumb-indents by Mr. H. Balfour in the
Pitt Rivers Museum. It is thus probable that Dr. Barnard Davis's
three ground implements were either made by Australians or by Tas-
manians, who had learnt the craft from them."

The following account of the re-fixing of the locality of a native
quarry in a communication to me, from J as. B. Walker, will be read
with interest : ** Leaving the Plenty Station and proceeding in a S.S.W.
direction, we work upwards across the spurs which run steeply down
to the left bank of the Plenty. A walk of less than two miles brings
us to the ridge of a spur some 400 feet above the level of the Der-
went. The top of the Native Tier is high above us to the right
front. The hill side on which we stand is thinly timbered, and looking
through the trees, we see below to the S.E. the Derwent Valley, here

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

a S ^

sis

STONE IMPLEMENTS I5I

about a mile and a half wide. The sheep and cattle runs are diversi-
fied by small agricultural farms and orchards with homesteads, and the
valley is bounded on each side by steep hills.

"The steep hill side on which we stand is lightly wooded with the
prevailing ** gum,'* but affords fair feed for sheep. The underlying forma-
tion is a mud-stone (Upper Paelaeozoic) which crops out irregularly over
a considerable area. Walking a little distance further our guide, Mr.
G. Rayner, makes a halt and points out to us the so-called quarry.
He tells us that his father was one of the early settlers, deported from
Norfolk Island to Tasmania in the year 1808. Somewhere between the
years 181 3 and 181 8 he was making his way by the bush track from
Hobart to his location near Hamilton (formerly called Lower Clyde).
The track passed round the Native Tier, and at this spot Mr. Rayner
(Senior) suddenly came upon a mob of blacks, busily engaged in breaking
stones from the hill side. There were twenty or thirty of them ; men,
women, and children. Nosily chattering, they were breaking the stones
into fragments, either by dashing them on the rock or by striking them
with other stones, and picking up the sharp edged ones for use. One
old fellow he describes as dashing his stone upon another one on the
ground and leaping up and spreading his legs out at the same time,
to avoid as much as possible being struck by the splinters. This is all
he observed, for even in those days— long before the great feud between
black and white — the two races were, as a rule, shy of each other, and
did not often cultivate a closer acquaintance than was necessary. At
first sight there was little to distinguish the * quarry* from other parts
of the hill side. Early this summer a heavy bush fire had swept
over the hill, and had done its best to obliterate the natural features
of the place. There was no quarry or excavation, except two or three
small and shallow holes, which might well have been caused by the
uprooting of gum-trees, but which may probably enough have been due
to the removal of pieces of rock eighty years before. On examining
the ground more closely, we found in the fragments of stone lying
about a certain difference of form from those which are ordinarily
the result of natural disintegration. Just at this point, and apparently
at this point only, the mudstone had been altered, doubtless by the
action of heat caused by the intrusion of an igneous rock, and con-
verted into a hard flinty chert. It had a crystallised structure, and
was capable of being split into flakes, very different from the irregular
cubical fragments resulting from breaking the unaltered stratified mud-
stone. The ground was strewn with flakes and wedg^-like pieces of stone;
many of the flakes having an edge sharp enough to serve for a black-
fellow's scraper. It seemed plain that these fragments were not the
result of natural disintegration, but were due to the hand of man."^
Unfortunately, just at the point where the flinty rock cropped out,
where the shallow holes occurred, and where the broken fragments were
thickest, there lay the burnt remains of a large deadwood fence of logs,
forming the boundary between the estates of ' Charlies Hope ' and ' Glen

* Some of the Specimens sent me show distinct evidence of artificial chipping along the

edge.— H.L.R

152 H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Leith.* The ground for a considerable distance was strewed with burnt
debris, with branches and gum leaves, which were a great hindrance to
our investigations. The chips were scattered over a space of perhaps
half an acre to an acre, being less numerous as we left the central
point. They were of various shapes and sizes ; some mere chips with
a sharp edge, some larger flakes, and some large pieces of stone showing
where flakes had been struck off.

" With respecfl to the chara(5ler of the stone of which the * flint *
implements were manufadlured, I can add little to the description
given by Mr. R. M. Johnston in his * Geology of Tasmania,' p. 334,
There is no flint, properly so called, in Tasmania. Mr. Johnston men-
tions one instance of one implement made from a fragment of opalised
fossil wood, such as is found near New Norfolk. With this exception,
I believe, all are manufacflured from a hard dark coloured cherty rock :
an altered mudstone. In various parts of the island extensive beds
of mudstone occur. These mudstones, according to Mr. Johnston, belong
to the Upper Palaeozoic series. At a number of points there have been
intruded through the mudstone, at a later geological epoch, dykes or
masses of an eruptive greenstone or basalt. Where such intrusions
have occurred the adjacent mudstones have been altered, and have become
crystalline in strucflure. In its unaltered state the mudstone is not very
hard, shows stratification, and its fracflure is cubical. But where it has
been altered, it is crystalline in charadler, of flinty hardness, and its
fradlure is conch oidal. Mr. Johnston mentions the following places
where this altered mudstone occurs ; and most, if not all of these places
seem to have been resorted to by the blacks for the sake of the * flints '
afforded ** : —

1. Between the * Split Rock* and the western shore of the * Great
Lake ' (on the Central Plateau) which is mentioned by Mr. Scott
as a resort for * flints.' See * Geol, of Tas.* pp. 336-37.

2. * Stocker's Bottom,' on Mount Morriston Estate, Macquarie River
— Near here the * Scott coUecflion ' of flints (now in the Tasmanian
Museum) was obtained.

3. * The Tea Gardens,' Macquarie River, eight miles South of
No. 2.

4. * Hunter's Mill,' Native Point ; on the South Esk, near Perth.
The intrusion is here very plainly marked. The name implies
that it must have been a favourite resort of the natives.

5. Pipe Clay Lagoon, South Arm.

6. Oakhampton, near Spring Bay.

7. On the Tamar River. To these may be added : —

8. Native Tier, River Plenty.

9. Mt. Communication, Saltwater River, Tasman's Peninsula.

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CHAPTER X.
Trade.

OWING to the entire lack of information on the point, we know
nothing about any regular system of trade or barter being in use
among the Tasmanian tribes. During the latter part of their existence,
however, when they had been brought into conta(5l with Europeans, we
have a few words showing that they bartered with the colonists ; thus
we read in Hobb's Evidence (Col. and Slav. p. 50), that **the native
men would sell a native woman for four or five carcases of seals."
And again, in Brodribb's Evidence (ibid. p. 52), we find it stated that,
" the men would offer to give up their wives for bread." Backhouse
(p 170) tells us on one pccasion when his party distributed among the
aborigines some cotton handkerchiefs and some tobacco, they presented
his friends with *' some spears, and shell necklaces in return." He also
mentions the following incident (p. 58) : ** One of them [the aborigines]
exchanged a girl of about fourteen years of age, for a dog, with the
people at the Pilot Station ; but the girl, not liking her situation, was
taken back, and the dog returned."

G. W. Walker remarks on the difficulty the Commandant found in
inducing the blacks to preserve the wallaby skins, it being their invariable
custom to singe oflf the hair. Presents were made to those who brought
wallaby skins, but they could not be taught the idea of barter, or to
look beyond the immediate moment (MS. Jour.)

Communications.

The Tasmanians were without roads of any kind, except simple
beaten paths, trodden down by them in various places in the course of
time. La Billardiere (H. p. 23) tells us that : *• On the borders of the
sea we had observed many paths, which the natives had cleared ; but
nothing gave us any intimation that they had ever come into the midst
of these thick forests." In another place (I. p. 233) he mentions that
one of the officers of the ' Recherche,' following a beaten path made
by the savages through the wood, met six of them walking slowly
towards the south. We further learn from the same writer (II. p. 25)
that the aborigines did not shrink from using a route because of any
difficulties it presented ; he says : ** We were soon obliged to climb
over steep rocks, at the foot of which the sea broke in a tremendous
manner. This road, notwithstanding its difficulty, was frequented by the
natives, for we found in it one of their spears." Cook (Sec. Voy. Bk.
I, cb. vii.) noticed a path which led from a place the aborigines had

154 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

just left, through the woods; and Rossel (I. p. 83) mentions seeing a
hut, at which several beaten paths met.

According to Backhouse (p. 121) they adopted the following method
for finding their way through the intricacies of the forest. ** Many of
thfe small branches of the bushes were broken and left hanging ; by this
means these people had marked their way through the untracked
thicket." A somewhat similar device is also mentioned in the evidence
of Brodribb (p. 52), who tells us that a man " saw some sticks placed
in the bush, near the Green Ponds, in a track of the natives, in such
a position as denoted, as he supposed, that they had come from the
westward."

A graphic account of the power possessed by these aborigines in
tracing the steps both of animals and men is given us by Lloyd (pp.
53-54). He says : *' The aborigines possessed the faculty ot tracing the
footprints of men and animals to an extraordinary degree. Frequently I
have enlisted a sharp-eyed native in search of strayed sheep. . . .
By the first gleam of morn we had traversed miles of hills, green
forests, and fields. . . . Suddenly, the galvanic exclamation * Wah !
wah ! ' would imply traces of the wandering sheep — so slight as to be
almost invisible even to my pradlised eye, but so obvious to my
aboriginal companion that he could instantly declare the hour of the night
or morning on which the impression had been made. Once found, he
would follow on their track at a quick-march pace — no matter what
description of country the animals might have travelled over — until, lo !
to my great joy there stood the truants, perched on the very summit
of some rocky, sugar-loaf-shaped hill, gazing at us as if in perfedl
astonishment at having been discovered. . . . Such, indeed, was the
skill of the natives in tracing footprints, that during the eventful days
of Busbranging . . . The government employed several of them as
mounted police. In that capacity they are of infinite value."

Navigation.

When the Hummock Island Flinders (Sec. iv. p. 171) was much
puzzled to know how the Tasmanians got there, for he was certain the
natives at Port Dairy mple had ** no canoes nor any means of reaching
islands lying not more than two cable lengths from the shore," and the
island in question was incapable of supporting permanent subsistence. It
would also seem certain that the aboriginals visited the Maatsuyker
Islands on the stormy south coast, the nearest of which is three miles
from the main land, for Flinders noticed that the scrub and grass land
had been burnt (I. Intro, p. clxxx). Kelly found they visited Hunter's
Island, north of Cape Grim. Bass was similarly puzzled. He met with
no canoes anywhere (Collins pp. 169, 180, 188), nor did he see any trees
so barked as to indicate canoe making, yet he found that the De Witt
Isles, and, in fadl, all the islands in Frederick-Henry Bay, had evidently
been visited. Neither did Furneaux nor Cook meet with boat or
canoe or any vessel to go upon the water. Nevertheless the natives
did contrive constructions which served them in their navigations.

La Billardiere speaks (I. ch. v. pp. 230-231) of native rafts ** which

NAVIGATION. 155

are only fit for crossing the water when the sea is very tranquil ; other-
wise they would soon be broken asunder by the force of the waves.'*
In describing one rude raft found on the western shore of Adventure
Bay, he says (II. ch. xi. pp. 80-81): "It was made of the bark of trees;
in shape nearly resembling that which is represented in the plate [in
his book] , being as broad, but not so long by more than a third. The
pieces of bark that composed it were of the same strucflure as that of
the Eucalyptus resinifera, but its leaves were much thinner. These pieces
had been held together by cords, made of the leaves of grasses, forming
a texture of very large meshes, most of which had the form of a pretty
regular pentagon.'* Rossel who was La Billardiere's companion, describes
them thus (I. ch. iv. p. 93) : " On the shore of our little bay we found
some sort of canoes {pirogues)^ seven to nine feet long, equally flat above
and below. Their width was from three to four feet in the middle,
diminishing to each of their two extremities, which ended in a point.
They were made of very thick bark of trees, joined parallelly, and
fastened together with reeds, or other fibrous grasses. They were, indeed,
but very small rafts, to which had been given the form of a canoe."
P6ron (ch. xii. p. 225) speaks of the canoe being ** formed of three rows
of bark roughly joined together and held by thongs of the same nature "
(i.e. not of grass). The drawing he gives is almost identical with La
Billardiere's. Freycinet describes the canoe as follows : ** Three rolls of
Eucalyptus bark formed the body. The principal roll or piece was 4m.
55cm. (14ft. iiin.) long by im. (3ft. 3in.) broad, the two other pieces
being only 3m. 90cm. (12ft. 9in.) long by 32cm. (i2iin.) broad. These
three bundles, which bore a fair resemblance to a ship's yards, were
fastened together at their ends ; this made them taper and formed the
whole of the canoe. The scarfing was made fairly compacfl by means
of a sort of grass or reed. So completed the craft had the following
dimensions: length inside, 2m. 95cm. (9ft. Sin.) ; outside breadth, 89cm.
f2ft. iiin.); height, 65cm. (ift. 3iin.) ; depth inside, 22cm. (Sjin) ; thick-
ness at the ends, 27cm..(ioJin.). Five or six savages can get into these
canoes, but generally the number is limited to three or four at a time.
Their paddles are simple sticks from 2*50 metres (8ft. lin.) to 4 and 5
metres (13ft. and 16ft. 3in.) long, by 2 to 5 centimetres (Jin. to 2in.)
thick. Occasionally when the water is shallow they make use of these
sticks to propel themselves as we do with poles. Generally they sit
down when working their canoes and make use of a bundle of grass as
a seat ; at other times they keep standing. We saw them crossing the
channel [d'Entrecasteaux] only in fine weather ; it is quite conceivable
that such frail and imperfedl vessels could not make progress or even
maintain themselves in a rough sea. It seems also they have never tried
to make longer journeys than to navigate from one promontory to another,
or to cross a bay or port in the channel. They always place a fire at
one end of their canoes, and in order to prevent the fire from spreading
they place underneath it a sufficiently thick bed of earth or cinders "
(Peron's Voyage redige par Freycinet, Paris, 1815, pp. 44-45).

Bonwick writes (p. 51) : ** Mr. Roberts, formerly of the Bruni Salt-
works, described to me the mode of constructing catamarans in the
channel. They were of thick bark, interlaced ^ like a beehive with

156 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Corrijong bark string, and were strong enough not only to carry men across

that stormy sea, but even on the Southern Ocean to De Witt and

other islands, which were visited by the natives on sealing excursions.

The head and stern were raised high alwve the water like horns. Each

boat would hold from four to six men. Long sticks, or spears, or bark

paddles, plied first on one side, then on the other, supplied the place

of oars, and propelled this rude

contrivance as quickly as an

English whaleboat. At each

s c u stroke the rowers uttered a

B. < J loud ' Ugh," like a London pavior.

jj 2 3 The boats have been known to

" s K live in very rough seas. An old

„ I £ whaler told me he had seen one

^^ S j_ o of them go across to Witch

^^» ° ^ Island, near Port Davey, in the

■* E S midst of a storm. No cata-

5 u ^ marans were used on the northern

^ * B side of Tasmania."

a X a li> the Hobart Museum there

X ^ * sre three small models of canoes

. y 2 made by aborigines. Each of

s S ^ the three is made of three

Q » K bundles of bark — thick in the

J, o z middle and tapering to each end,

w * o like a Tenerlffe Cigar. One of

■ z !^ these cigar-shaped bundles forms

H ^ J. the floor or keel ; another bundle

°- ^ . of similar shape and size is on

^ ^ CO each side of the keel and raised

K ' K above it, to form the sides.

M H ^. The three bundles are firmly

§ S 5 bound together with coarse tough

" g ' grass fibre, partly knotted, form-

< - ►- ing a sort of rough open net-

< H work, very irregular. The bow

< w "^ and stern are finished ofT with
^ 5 g thin projecting rolls of bark,
° § g bound to the main part with
HJ " a tough grass, tightly served round
c them (See Peron Col'd. Plate

xiv). In the largest model,
the two side rolls or bundles
{which are slightly curved on the
inches; the beam measurement is 6 inches;
stem and stern projet'i 6 inches and 13 inches respeiflively from the
body of the canoe. I cannot say which is the stem, and which is the stem.
The two largest models are made of bundles of the thick fibrous
bark of the " Stringy -bark Eucalyptus" (£. Obliqua) and bound with

floor piece) measure

NAVIGATION. 157

grafts. This grass is very tough and course, and resembles the ** cutting
grass," (Cladium Psittacorum. Nat, Ord, Cypetaceae), but is smooth, with-
out the cutting edge of that plant. The smallest model is evidently
very much older than the others. It measures 23 inches in length over
all, and has very little proje(5\ing stem or stern (like the largest figure
in Peron*s Col'd Plate). It is formed of three bundles of the velvety
bark of the paper-barked tea tree {Leptospermum), and is bound together
with a network of fibre, partly knotted, in the same manner as the
others. But in this model the fibre is not of grass, but of strips of the
bark of a shrub — ^probably ** Currijong " {Plagianikus Sidoides).

The model canoe in the British Museum was obtained from Dr.
Milligan, in 185 1, and is made of three bundles of bark of leptospermum
and melaleuca roughly bound together by an extremely crude sort of net-
work of partially twisted grass, the grass being merely wound round the
bark and partly knotted. Length, 2 feet 6 inches.

Mrs. Merediths says (p. 139): "They were formed of many little bundles
of gum-tree bark, tied with grass, first separately, and then bound
together in the required form, thick and fiat, without any attempt
at the shape of a boat or canoe, and not keeping the passenger above
water when used, but just serving to float him on the surface. In, or
rather on, these, the natives sat and paddled about with long sticks, or
drifted before the wind and tide ; and in calm weather frequently crossed
over from the mainland to Maria Island ; on such occasions they pro-
vided a little raised platform on the raft, on which they carried some
lighted fuel to kindle their fire when they arrived there." Robinson,
who, according to Calder, called this raft a machine, said it was only
used by the natives of the south and west coasts. He describes it as
**of considerable size, and something like a whale-boat, that is, sharp
sterned, but a solid strucflure, and the natives in their aquatic adventures
sat on the top. It was generally made of the buoyant and soft velvety
bark of the swamp tea-tree (MelaUucay sp.), and consisted of a multitude
of small strips bound together. . . . Common sticks, with points
instead of blades, were all that were used to urge it with its living
freight through the water, and yet I am assured that its progress was
not so very slow. My informant, Alexander M'Kay, told me they were
good weather judges, and only used this vessel when well assured there
would be little wind and no danger, for an upset would have been
risky to some of the men, who . . . were not always good swimmers "
(Calder, J. A. I. pp. 22-23). In Knopwood^s Diary (21st June, 1804),
describing the visit of Collins to the Huon river, we read that three of
the natives in " cathemarans or small boats made of bark that will
hold about six of them."

Bonwick reproduces (p. 50) an account given him by a convicfl, in
which it is stated that a handled axe was used in order to get sheets
of bark off the tree, out of which a real canoe was made. But all the
above authorities state that the vessels were made of bundles of bark,
and from their descriptions are not canoes at all. and their testimony
is safer than that of Bonwick's informant, who, by his mention of a
handled axe, shows that he could not have been speaking of Tasmanians,
Excepting such as had been in contacf^ with imported Australians and

158 H. LING ROTH, — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

their methods. G. W. Walker (MS. Jour. 5, Dec. 1832) mentions that
at the Arthur River, a large and deep river, when Cottrel was trying
to induce a tribe to surrender, a Sydney native^ made a rude canoe of
bark to cross the river.

According to Dove (I. p. 251), a species of bark or decayed wood,
whose specific gravity appears to be similar to that of cork, provided
them with the means of constructing canoes. The beams or logs were
fastened together by the help of rushes or thongs of skin. This sounds
something like Jeffrey's account. He says : " Their canoes have been
very inaccurately described, but in fadl, they do not appear to have
very frequent use for these vessels, as they but seldom visit the coast.
. . . When, however, . . . they come to . . . the sea, a large river,
or a lake, they make canoes from the adjoining woods. These, when
formed, are not unlike a catamaran, and are sufficiently large to support
from six to ten persons in crossing the largest rivers. These canoes are
formed by the trunks of two trees about thirty feet long, and laid in
a parallel direcfiion, at a distance of five or six feet from each other,
and are kept in that position by four or five lesser pieces of wood,
fastened at each end by slips of tough bark. In the middle is a cross
timber of considerable thickness, and the whole interwoven with a kind
of wicker-work. This flat and completely open canoe, or rather float,
is made to skim along the surface of the water, by means of paddles,
with amazing rapidity and safety. The natives are frequently seen on
them near the southern mouth of the Derwent, between Isle Brune and
the main, when the canoes are often found deserted, after they have
answered the immediate purpose for which they were construdled " (pp.
126-128). But Dove's account appears to be made up out of two
accounts, one as to making the vessels out of bundles of bark, and one
as to the making out of logs. It seems to be probable that the abori-
gines made use of logs in crossing rivers and narrow straits, and may
occasionally have fastened two together. The Eucalyptus wood is too
heavy to float, and few Tasmanian woods have sufficient buoyancy to
serve for rafts unless very dry. In any case, Jeffrey's wicker-work must
be a touch of imagination, or very superficial examination as at a distance
the illustration might possibly give the impression of wicker-work to a
careless observer, and the speed he speaks of is extremely doubtful. Cotton
informs J. B W^alker : ** 1 never heard of a canoe. We were told by
our elders that the aborigines got dry Oyster Bay Pine logs each,
and a leafy branch, and w^hen the wind favoured, crossed thus the
Schotten Passage to Schouten Island, and also to Maria Island. I always
heard that in crossing a river the aborigines used a bundle of bark, or
a suitable log if procurable." Ratzel's statement (Valkerkunde, 2nd Germ.
Ed. I. p. 352) that the aborigines had small canoes made of ^outspread
skins [Kleine Kahne aus ausgespannten Fellen) is unsupported by any authority.

West tells us (II. pp. 76-77) : ** Lieut. Gunn found and preserved
for several months, a catamaran, sufficiently tight and strong to drift
for sixteen or twenty miles: each would convey from four to seven
persons ; " . . . and that " Taw, the pilot of Macquarie Harbour, saw
the natives cross the river ; on this occasion a man swam on either side
of the raft, formed of the bark of the * swamp tree.' " The latter mode

NAVIGATION. SWIMMING. 1 59

of propulsion is also recorded by Backhouse when speaking of the rafts
(p. 58) : " On these, three or four pers9ns are placed, and one swims
on each side, holding it with one hand."

Swimming.

We have just seen above that in the use of their floats a native
swims on each side, holding the float with one hand, and under the
heading fishing we have read of some of their powers of swimming
and diving. Calder says (J.A.I, p. 23): "Some of the men, unlike the
women, were not always good swimmers, though most of them were
perfect." La Biilardiere ** wishing to know whether these islanders were
expert swimmers, one of our officers jumped into the water, and dived
several times ; but it was in vain that he invited them to follow
his example. They were very good divers, however, . . . for it is
by diving that they procure a considerable part of their food" (II. ch.
X. pp. 51-52). Later on he was more successful, and thus describes a
diving scene : " Hitherto we had but a faint idea of the pains the women
rake to procure the food. . . . They took each a basket, and were
followed by their daughters, who did the same. Getting on the rocks
that projected into the sea, they plunged them to the bottom in search
of shell-fish. When they had been down some time, we became very
uneasy on their account. ... At length, however, they appeared,
and convinced us they were capable of remaining under water twice as
long as our ablest divers. An instant was sufficient for them to take
breath, and then they dived again. This they did repeatedly till their
baskets were nearly full " (II. ch. x. p. 57). In Banks Straits Kelly
(p. 13) records the old chief, Tolobunganah swimming out to his boat.
Backhouse mentions that ** two whitemen being in danger of drowning
on a raft, some of the native women . . . swam to the raft, and
begged the men to get upon their backs, and they would convey them
to the shore ; but the poor men refused, being overcome with fear "
(p. 147) ; and on another occasion that " two women waded and swam
from Green Island to the settlement — a distance of three miles" (p. 8g).
Meredith mentions that " a native woman, to avoid being captured,
rushed into the sea, where she swam and dived for some time, before
she could be induced to come ashore" (p. 205). Davies speaks of the
women ** being generally, if not at all times, the divers" (p. 413). With
the exception therefore of Calder, no writer speaks of the men as
swimmers.

As telated above Lloyd saw a party of aboriginals in the water
spearing sting-ray tor sport. Ross, in *' Hobart Town Almanack, 1836 "
(p. 146), describes a mob of blacks, about sixty in number, cooking and
feasting from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., " when they all of a sudden, naked as
they were, rushed into the broadest and deepest part of the river, in
front of my cottage, and splashed and gambolled about for at least an
hour." The river was the Shannon, one of the northern tributaries of
the Derwent, and the tribe was the Big River tribe.

l6o H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Topography.

" Their geographical knowledge of the country in which they lived is
remarkably accurate and minute. The relative bearings and distances of
its more prominent headlands, bays, mountains, lakes, and rivers are
distindlly impressed on their minds. When at any time a chart of
Tasmania is presented to them, it seems, at least, in the case of the
older and more intelligent aborigines, only to embody the pi(5lure of its
form and dimensions which their own fancy had enabled them to sketch**
(Dove, I. p. 251).

Natural Forms.

The very primitive nature of the Tasmanians is perhaps best exhibited
by the unartificial use they made of articles supplied them by nature.
They occasionally made use of caverns as habitations (West, II. p. 82).
They used large shells (Dove, I. p. 250), oyster-shells (La Billardiere,
II. ch. X. p. 43), and the Fucus palmatus (ibid, ch. v. p. 169 ; Peron,
xii. p. '229), as drinking vessels. Their stone implements were of a
palaeolithic character, showing in several specimens artificially chipped
edi{es to improve them ; their spears were simple sticks, having the
thicker end sharpened and hardened in the fire (Backhouse, p. 90).
We have also seen that their habitations were chiefly only break- winds,
made of bark, and put together in the rudest fashion. Their canoes
did not show much more ingenuity. It may indeed be said they made
use of what nature provided them, with the minimum amount of labour
compatible with adapting them to serve their purposes.

Bunce mentions that from the rare beauty of thp Boronia variabilis
the natives were in the habit of naming their wives and daughters
after it" (p. 26).

Natural History.

The following curious notes on the habits of some of the fauna of
Tasmania were related to Milligan by the aborigines :

** Wombat (Phascolomys Vombatus), — The aborigines of Tasmania state
that, though this animal often crosses streams of water, it never does
so by swimming, however deep they may be ; but that it walks along
the bottom of the water channel from the side at which it enters to
that where it emerges.

^^ Hycena {Thylacinus cymcephalus),— The aborigines report that this animal
is a most powerful swimmer ; that in swimming he carries his tail
extended, moving it as the dog often does, and that the nose, eyes, and
upper portion of the head are the only part usually seen above water.

** Stiakes, — The aborigines inform me that snakes often climb lofty trees
in order to plunder the nests of parrakeets and feed upon their young;
and that when disturbed, they drop from a great height, and move off
apparently uninjured by the fall. They say that snakes often feed, and
even gorge themselves, upon the fruit of the native currant tree (when

NATURAL HISTORY. l6l

dead ripe). The aborigines describe a tail-less snake whose bite is they
say most deadly " (Papers, Roy. Soc. V. D. Land, 1852, p. 310).

** One of the aborigines of Tasmania reports having often discovered
the nest of the Echidna setosa, porcupine or ant-eater of the colony ; that
on several occasions one egg had been found in it, and never more"
(Proc. Roy. Soc. V. D. Land, L p. 178).

CHAPTER XI.
Infanticide.

** T HAVE no reason (says Davies, p. 412) to suppose that infanticide
^ existed amongst the aborigines in their former wild state ; there is
little doubt, however, but that it was common of later years, driven to
't, as they in all probability were, by the continued harassing of the
whites, . . . dogs became so extremely valuable to them, that the
females have been known to desert their infants for the sake of suckling
the puppies." Laplace's words are very similar (II. ch. xviii. pp. 201-
202) : " The women are only too happy if . . . the little beings, who
owe to them their birth, are not snatched from their arms ; for, in the
times of dearth, to which, through a too dry or too wet year, these
savages, who are completely destitute of foresight, are exposed, it
frequently happens that the children are abandoned in the middle of the
woods, because their father dreads hunger, or prefers to keep the dog
which aids him in hunting down the game." Chas. Meredith (pp. 201-
202) attributes infanticide to somewhat different causes: **The disappearance
of all the young children among the natives compels us to the inference that
they were destroyed, doubtless on account of the difficulty of conveying them
about in the rapid flights from place to place which the blacks now
pradiised in the perpetration of their murders. No white people ever
found or killed any children that I am aware of,* and few after this
time were seen with the tribes ; the dreadful conclusion seems therefore
unavoidable." Leigh (p. 243), without stating that infanticide existed
says: "They are careful not to increase their number greatly. To prevent
this they have been known to sell their female children." But Dove's
words are more positive (I. p. 252) : " The force of the parental instindl
was usually strong enough to render the maintenance of their offspring
a care and a delight. Instances, however, have occurred in which the
child has been wantonly sacrificed to the dread of famine."

According to Calder (J.A.I, pp. 13-14), "The decadence [of the race]
cannot be traced to infanticide, at any rate of children of their own
blood, of whom the mother was passionately fond ; though it seems
possible that the peculiar exigencies of their state may have sometimes
produced a forced, but certainly most unwilling, abandonment of them.
Instances of infanticide did, indeed, come within Robinson's knowledge ;
but then the viiftims were half-castes, whom the savage woman both of
Australia and Tasmania is known generally to have hated. In the cases
m question, a mother suffocated two of her offspring by thrusting grass
into their mouths till they died."

♦ Aborigiual children were killed by Europeans — vide infra, Contadt with Civilisation.

INFANTICIDE. POPULATION. 163

To Robinson's testimony we must add that of West (II. pp. 80-81):
** The half-caste children were oftener destroyed. A woman, who had
immolated an infant of mixed origin, excused herself by saying it was
not a pretty baby ; this was, however, far from universal, and more
commonly the acfl of the tribe than the mother. A native woman, who
had an infant of this class, fell accidently into the hands of her tribe :
they tore the child from her arms, and threw it into the flames. The
mother instantly snatched it from death, and quick as lightning dashed
into the bush, where she concealed herself until she made her escape."*

We are told by Bonwick (p. 76) that abortion was frequently prac-
tised, ** to preserve elegance of figure " The reason he gives is not
credible ; he gives no authority for the statement. He repeats his state-
ment as to the prevalence of abortion on p. 85.

Population.

** In his various reports, Robinson always maintained that this people
was nothing but a remnant of the six or eight thousand who were living
in 1804, and his reports of their strength he had from the most accurate
sources, viz. the natives themselves (who, though they had no words to
express numbers higher than units, could repeat the names of the
individuals of the tribes), and thus he learned their real force, which he
never rated higher than seven hundred — that is, after 1803 ; and year
after year his estimates decreased as they died out, and he then reports
five hundred, and finally three hundred or four hundred, and when he
got the last of them, they had sunk to about two hundred and fifty **
(Calder, J.A.I, p. 13). Backhouse considered there were ** probably never
more than 700 to 1000 " Tasmanians, ** their habits of life being unfriendly
to increase" (p. 79); while Melville estimated ihem in 1803 at nearly
20,000 (p. 345). Whatever the original number may have been, at the
end of the war only 203 were captured (West, II. p. 72).

Although it is quite useless at the present day to try to estimate
the native population at the time of the advent of the Europeans,
Milligan's remarks in reference to this question are well worth listening to.
He says : ** When V. D. Land was first occupied by Europeans . .
. its aboriginal population, spread in tribes, sub-tribes, and families,
over the length and breadth of the island, from Cape Portland to Port
Davey, and from Oyster Bay to Macquarie Harbour ; and their aggregate
number at that time has been variously estimated at from 1500 to 5000.
. . . We receive with some allowances the higher estimates formed
of the aboriginal population of this island, at or about the time of its
discovery. Assuming that the number of tribes and sub-tribes throughout
the territory was then about twenty, and that they each mustered of
men, women, and children fifty to two hundred and fifty individuals,
and allowing to them numbers proportioned to the means of subsistence
within the limits of their respecftive hunting-grounds, it does not appear
propable that the aggregate aboriginal population did materially, if at
all, exceed 2,000. For it is to be borne in mind, that on the western
side of the island, . . . physical conditions most unfavourable to a

• Davies (p. 412) believed the women suckled the children for upwards of two years.

164

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

natural abundance of animal life prevail; while our traditionary know-
ledge of the tribes . . . along the east and centre is sufficiently
accurate to enable us to form a close approximation of their actual
strength '* (Milligan, Papers, etc., Roy. Soc. Tasm. III. pp. 275-276).

Bonwick has colle<5ted various statements as to the number of abori-
gines seen at different times (p. 83) : — ** Mr. G. A. Robinson thought in
1832 there were but 700 alive. An old man told me he saw 300 in
one mob near the Derwent in 1820 ; another saw 200 at once in 18 19
on Mr. Archer's run ; 500 have been known to assemble at a grand
hunt; Robert Jones saw 200 in 1819; and another speaks of 160 at
Birch's Bay in 1825. A party of 300 tried to cut off some seamen
watering at Brown's River in 1806. A writer in 181 5 estimates the
native population then at 7,000. In 181 8 at Oyster Bay 500 were seen.
In October, 1829, there were assembled 300 near Ellenthorpe Hall, and
300 at Tamar River. Mr. Sams, (Under Sherifl) informed me he had seen
300 together. Mr. Carr, in 1830, spoke of 400. Old Dutton told me
he saw 400 in Governor Davey*s time. Kelly reports (p. 14) meeting
with 200 men, women, and children in Bank's Straits, in 1816." On
reading the above figures one is inclined to ask whether in any one case
these mobs were individually counted ?

From Hull's * Statistical Summary of Tasmania,' published in 1866,*
and other sources. I extra(5l the following concerning the numbers of
the aboriginal population :

Year,

Number.

Year,

Number

1803

... 20,000 estimated (a)

1840

... 58

1803

... 6,000 or

8000

(h)

1841

... 49

1803

700 to

1000

{c)

1842

... 51

1803

500 to

660

[d)

1847

... 48 (/)

1824

... 340 +

1848

... 38 («)

1825

32b

1854

... i6

1826

320

1855

... 15

1827

300

1856

... 16

1828

280 •

1857

... 15

1829

250

1858

1830

225

1859 .

... 14 (n)

1831

... 190 {e)
... 176 (/)

i860 .

.. ri (o)

1832

1861 .

1833

... 112(g)

1862 .

1834

... Ill (k)

1863 .

1835

... iii(»)

1864 .

.. 6 iP)

1836

... 116

1865 .

■■ ^(r)

1837

1869 .

1838

... 82(;)

[1877 ■

1839

• Bonwick says : — " Old settlers have not much belief in his figures as to early times
though public records gave to him statistics for later years (p. 84).

t This is the number of the known tribes [180 males, 160 females? J

(a) [Melville (p. 345).]

(b) [Calder (Jour. p. 13).]

POPULATION. 165

(e) [According to Bonwick (" Last of Tasm." p. 222) Robinson in his
report of June, 1831, states he had communicated with 236 aborigines.]

(/) [Walker says about 250 (p. 119).]

ig) [It was said at this date that the proportion of male to females
was six to one (V. D. Land Annual, 1834, pp. 79-80).]

(h) [S5 males, 56 females ; Walker's MS. Journ., 15th Jan., 1834.]

(1) [Strzelecki says (pp. 352-355) that in 1835 there were at the
Settlement on Flinders Island 210 natives, and in 1842 only 54. During
the seven years interval between his visits only 14 children had been
born.]

(/) [According to Dumont D*Urville 42 males and 40 females ; and
West says of this number 14 were children.]

(/) [10 children.]

(m) [12 men, 23 women, and 8 children, (Barnard, Papers, Roy. Soc.
of Tasmania, I. 1849, p. 105), making a total of 43.]

(n) 5 males, 9 females.

(0) 4 males, 7 females.

iP) I male, 5 females.

(r) All females.

The last representative of the race, a female, died in 1876.

Tribes.
(From a Paper by Jas. B. Walker in the Proc. Roy. Soc. of Tas., 1898).

"Of the tribal organisation of the aborigines pradlically nothing is
known, and the limits of the tribal divisions cannot be laid down with
any approach to certainty. G. A. Robinson and other writers use the
word * tribe ' with a good deal of laxity. Sometimes it is used to
designate a small sub- tribe living in one community— ^.^., the Macquarie
Harbour tribe, numbering thirty souls only — sometimes to indicate a whole
group — eg. the Oyster Bay and Big River tribes, which included several
sub- tribes and a Considerable population. As the whole group in some
cases took its name from a prominent sub- tribe {e.g.. Oyster Bay) it is
often doubtful whether the group or the sub-tribe is intended.

" G. W. Walker says that the members of the same • tribe ' spoke
of each other as • brother ' and * sister.* Kelly, in his Boat Expedition,
1815-16, says that the chief, Laman-bunganah, at Ringarooma Point on
the North-east Coast, told him that he was at war with his *' brother"
Tolo-bunganah, a powerful chief at Eddy stone Point, on the East Coast.
The term translated 'brother' must therefore have had a wide applica-
tion, being used with relation to tribes or sub-tribes which were hostile,
as well as to those which were friendly.

** In 1830, Robinson stated that he had been in communication with
sixteen * tribes.* As this was long after many of the native hunting-
grounds had been invaded by the whites, and the original tribal
organisation had consequently been much disturbed, it is probable that
the number of tribes was originally greater. As we have seen, Milligan
conjecturally puts the number at twenty. Although Robinson dignifies
the tribes with the name of * nations,* they were known to the settlers
by the designation of * mobs.* This conveys a more correcft idea of

l66 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

their numerical strength, which in many tribes was as low as 30, and
probably in no case exceeded 200, or at the most 250.

** These * mobs * or sub-tribes group themselves into several broad
divisions, more properly deserving the name of * tribes.' In these larger
divisions separate languages or dialedls were spoken, the vocabularies of
which were widely different, as appears from Milligan's Vocabulary.
Minor differences of dialecfl must have been numerous, for Rol>ert Clark,
the catechist, states that on his arrival at the Flinders' Settlement in 1834,
eight or ten different languages or dialed^s were spoken amongst the 200
natives then at the establishment, and that the blacks were * instructing
each other to speak their respec5live tongues.'

** Robinson, as already cited, says that there were four main languages.
Of these Milligan gives us the vocabularies of three ; viz. : — (i) South ;
(2) West and North- West ; and (3) East Coast. To these we may add
(4) North -East tribes.

** We may now proceed to consider these four main groups more in
detail.

I. Southern Tribes.

* Tribes about Mount Royal, Brun6 Island, Recherche Bay, and the
South of Tasmania.* — Milligan's Vocabulary,

** These tribes occupied both shores of D'Entrecasteaux Channel and
the coast of the mainland as far as South Cape. The French voyagers
in 1792, and again in 1802, had opportunities of observing these natives
in their primitive states. They found them friendly and well disposed.
La Billardiere and Peron have preserved many interesting particulars
respecting them. In the more southerly part of the district the mountains,
heavily wooded, nearly approach the shore, and here the blacks must
have been mainly dependent on the sea for their food. Further north,
towards the mouth of the Huon, at Port Cygnet, North-West Bay, and
North Bruny, the country was more open and favourable for game. The
banks of the Upper Huon were too heavily timbered to afford much
subsistence. The Bruny Blacks were numerous, especially on the lightly
wooded northern part of the island, which was a favourite hunting-ground.
It seems to have been visited by the mainland natives, who crossed the
channel in canoes. The natives were numerous on the west bank of
the Derwent — at Blackman's Bay, Brown's River, &c. At the latter
place 300 were seen in 1806. In all this country wallaby, kangaroo and
opossum would be fairly plentiful. It cannot be determined how far these
tribes extended to the northward. They may possibly have occupied the
present site of Hobart, and even further up the western shore of the
Derwent, but it is also quite possible that this country was claimed as
a hunting-ground by the Big River tribe. There is nothing in the
features of the ground to forbid either alternative, and there is no
evidence to decide the point. Kelly (Evidence, Aboriginal Committee) says
that the Southern natives were a finer race than those in the interior,
and also that they * took no part * with the latter.

TRIBES. 167

2. Western Tribes.

* North-West and Western Tribes.' — Milligan's Vocabulary.

** The natives on the west of the island must have been mainly con-
fined to the sea coast, where they could draw their support from the
sea, the country inland being generally unsuitable for game. Kelly, whose
boat voyage was made at midsummer, 181 5, found natives at various
places all along the coast, from a point opposite the Maatsuyker Islands
off the south coast to beyond Cape Grim in the north-west. From the
nature of the country we may conclude that those to the east of South-
West Cape belonged to the Western tribes rather than to the Southern
group established at Recherche Bay. They were bold enough to cross
to the Maatsuykers, which lie three miles from the main, for Flinders in
1798 noticed with surprise that the scrub on the largest island had been
burnt. There was a small tribe at Port Davey, and another at Macquarie
Harbour, which according to Stokes and Backhouse numbered some thirty
souls only, the latter had canoes of bark in which they crossed the harbour.
They made an attack on Kelly's party.

'* At Trial Harbour, near Mount Heemskirk, there are very large
extensive shells mounds. Further north, on the Pieman and Arthur
Rivers, there were either one or two tribes, probably near the coast,
though here and there are occasional tradls which would support game.
In 1832, Robinson speaks of four tribes, numbering colledlively 100 souls,
between Port Davey and Cape Grim. It is not clear whether he meant
to include the Cape Grim natives. The latter were a strong and fierce
tribe. In 181 5, Kelly fell in with a mob of fifty on the largest of the
Hunters' Group, ».^., Robbins Island. They made a fierce attack on his
party. It is said that the natives visited all the islands of the Hunters'
Group by swimming, no doubt with ' the help of logs or canoes. They
probably reached Albatross island, seeing that they had a name for it,
TangaUma, Though the mainland is in many places densely timbered,
there are open downs at Woolnorth and other spots where game would
be fairly plentiful.

** There were tribes at Circular Head and at Emu Bay. Most of the
hinterland was covered with dense, almost impenetrable, forest, but the
high downs of the Hampshire and Surrey Hill and Middlesex Plains
were favourite resorts Other patches of open country at intervals would
probably afford to these tribes the means of inland communication with
their kinsmen on the west, as well as the more circuitous route by the
coast. These open spaces were formerly more numerous, being kept clear
by burning. Many of them have become overgrown with timber since
the removal of the natives.

** Hobbs (Boat Voyage, 1824) says that the natives travelled along the
coast between Circular Head and Port Sorell, keeping the country burnt
for that purpose. This group of tribes may possibly have extended as
far east as Port Sorell, though the Port Sorell blacks were more probably
connected with the Port Dalrymple tribe.

" Kelly (Evidence, Aboriginal Committee) states that the West Coast
natives were a finer race than the tribes in the interior, and had no

l68 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

intercourse with them. The southern and western groups appear to have
been quite isolated from those on the eastern side of the island.

3. Central Tribes.

'Tribes from Oyster Bay to Pittwater.* — Milligan's Vocabulary.

" The interior and eastern parts of the island were occupied by two
powerful tribes — the Oyster Bay and the Big River. Their northern
boundary may be roughly described as an irregular line beginning on the
East Coast south of St. Patrick's Head, passing along the ranges to
the south of the South Esk River to a point at St. Peter's Pass (north
of Oatlands), and thence to the Great Lake. It was these two tribes who
were the most implacable enemies of the settlers, and it was against
them almost exclusively that Colonel Arthur's " Black Line " operations
were direc5led.

(a) — The Oyster Bay Tribe.

" The Oyster Bay tribe or group of tribes occupied the East Coast,
and extended inland to the central valley. They took their name from
Oyster Bay (Great Swanport). The long extent of coast, following the
inlets and peninsulas from north of Schouten Main (Freycinet's Peninsula)
to Risdon on the Derwent, abounds in cray-fish and in oysters and other
shell-fish, affording an abundant supply of their favourite food. On the
East Coast the hills lie some distance back from the sea, and the
country yielded a supply of game. Here the natives were numerous,
especially at certain season. It is said that as many as 300 have been
seen in one mob. Robinson mentions two tribes on the coast — the Oyster
Bay proper and the Little Swanport tribes. Their canoes were seen at
Schouten and Maria Islands. The latter was a favourite resort, and here
Baudin's expedition (1802) fell in with a large mob, who showed them-
selves decidedly hostile. Marion came into collision with them at Marion
Bay in 1772. They roamed as far south as Tasman's Peninsula, resort-
ing to a spot near Mount Communication to obtain ' flints.' Tribes
belonging to this group occupied the country behind the East Coast
Tier — Eastern Marshes, Native Plains, and Prosser's Plains. They were
numerous in the Pittwater district — comprising Coal River and Richmond,
Sorell and South Arm. Mobs of 100 were seen at South Arm and also
at Kangaroo Point (opposite Hobart), and 300 at Risdon, in 1804. To
this same group of tribes doubtless belonged the natives who occupied
the fine hunting country in the Jordan Valley, about Bagdad, Green
Ponds, and Lovely Banks, towards the great central divide. The names
Hunting Ground, Native Corners, Native Hut River, and others, indicate
some of their ordinary resorts. Brodribb (Evidence, Aboriginal Committee)
says that the eastern natives did not go further west than Abyssinia,
near Bothwell.

{b) — The Big River Tribe.

** The country to the west of the Central and Jordan Valleys was
occupied by the Big River Tribe. They took their name from the Big
River, the early name of the river, now known as the Ouse. They

TRIBES. 169

occupied the valley of the Derwent, — with its tributaries, Ouse, Clyde,
and Shannon, — and the elevated plateau of the Lake Country, 2000 to
2500 feet above sea level. They travelled westward to Lake St. Clair
and Mount King William, and probably still further west beyond Mount
Arrowsmith. All this distridl abounds in game— kangaroo, wallaby, and
opossum. At Split Rock (near the Great Lake), at the London Marshes
(near Marlborough), and at the Native Tier, on the River Plenty, they
found stone suitable for their rude inpiplements. From the great central
plateau they seem to have made descents into the distridl between
Bothwell and Oatlands. We cannot determine the boundary between
them and their eastern neighbours, the Oyster Bay tribes. Brodribb
(Evidence, Aboriginal Committee) says that he considered the Oyster Bay
and Big River natives were one tribe, though the eastern natives did
net go further west than Abyssinia. When harried by the whites the
two tribes made common cause against the strangers, and finally the
Oyster Bay natives took refuge in the Lake Plateau, where Robinson
captured them, not far from Lake St. Clair or Mount Arrowsmith. It
cannot, however, be concluded that they were not originally distincfl
tribes. They were hostile to the northern tribes. Gilbert Robertson
(Evidence, Aboriginal Committee) states that either the Stony Creek or
Port Dalrymple natives had killed many of the Oyster Bay natives.

4. Northern and North-Eastern Tribes.

"There remain to be considered the tribes of the North and North-
East. The language of the Ben Lomond tribe is described as a distindl
()jale<5l by Kelly, Walker, Backhouse, and others. Kelly (Boat Voyage,
I$i5) states that Briggs, the sealer, could speak the language of the
North-East Coast tribes fluently. We may infer that this was the fourth
language of which Robertson speaks, and it may have been common —
^ith more or less variation — to the North -East Coast and Ben Lomond
natives. It is difficult to determine the relationship of the tribes of the
North Centre, the Port Dalrymple, and the Stony Creek tribes. The
balat^ce of probabilities inclines us to the belief that they were related
ra^l^er to the North-Eastern group than to their Southern neighbours of
the Pyster Bay tribe (with whom we know they were at fued), or to
the tribes of the North-Webt. There is no mention of these tribes
using canoes.

(a) — The Stony Creek Tribe,

"** The pastoral distri(5l now known as * The Midlands,' lying in the
centre of the island, to the north of the Oyster Bay and Big River
natives, was occupied by the Stony Creek tribe. They took their name
from 1^ small southern tributary of the South Esk, near Llewellyn, to
the north of Campbell Town. They occupied the Campbell Town and
Ross di§tri(5ls, going south to Blackman's River, Salt Pan Plains, and
Antill Ponds, and up to the foot of the Western Mountains, probably
ipcluding the valleys of the Macquarie, I sis, and Lake Rivers. A mob
of -^too were seen on the Macquarie River in 18 19. It is stated that
about 1829, under their chief Eumarrah, they frequented Norfolk Plains

170 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

on the lake River. If so they must have been allies of the Port
Dalrymple natives. The country they occupied abounded in game, being
lightly timbered and well grassed. They had excellent 'flint* quarries
at Stocker*s Bottom and Glen Morriston, to the south-east of Ross. In
the Tasmanian Museum there is a fine colle<5lion of stone implements
procured at Glen Morriston by the late Mr. Scott. It is said that the
Oyster Bay natives also obtained 'flints' from the same localities. The
Stony Creek natives were a strong tribe and gave much trouble to the
settlers. Part of their distridl was included in the ' Black Line*
operations.

{b)—The Port DalrympU Tribe.

"The country to the north of the Stony Creek natives — including the
neighbourhopd of Perth, Evandale, Launceston, the North £sk, and
probably bqth banks of the Tamar — was occupied by the Port Dalrymple
tribe.* They are said to have mustered in large numbers on various
occasions. Once 200 of them proceeded from the neighbourhood of
Launceston, by way of Paterson's Plains (Evandade) tb the Lake River,
Native Point, near Perth, a favourite haunt. Here they got stone for
their implements. They probably roamed westward as far as Long-
ford and Westbury, if not further. The districts they occupied are
some of the finest in Tasmania ; in its native state, a well grassed
country with abundance of game. Their relation to other tribes is
uncertain. They appear to have been in league with their Southern
neighbours—the Stony Creek natives— and were, probably, also related to
the North-Eastern group. The tribes as far as Port Sorell, and even
as far as the Mersey, may have belonged to this group. But there is
no evidence to show how far to the eastward the North-Western group
of tribes extended. Possibly, the boundary may be placed in the forest
country on the west bank of the Mersey. But it is uncertain to which
group the Mersey and Port Sorell natives belonged. The evidence of
language is not of much assistance. The Tamar was Panrahbel ; the
Mersey was Paranapph or Piritiappl. The variation is hardly sufficient to
establish either difference or consanguinity.

" Kelly (Evidence, Aboriginal Committee) states that the tribes of the
North and East take part with the tribes in the interior. He probably
means that the Port Dalrymple natives (North) were in league with
those of Stony Creek ; and the Oyster Bay natives (East) with those
of the Big River.

{c) — The Ben Lomond Tribe,

**The Ben Lomond natives occupied the fertile valley of the South
Esk, abounding in game. Their neighbours to the west were the Stony
Creek tribe. They may have had access to the sea coast at Falmouth,
by St. Mary*s Pass, though this was a dense forest. They took their
name from the great Ben Lomond range, rising to an elevation of over
5000 feet. The valleys of the mountain were probably too densely
wooded to afford much game, but that they roamed over the highlands

* The settlements on the Tamar were at first known under the name of Port Dalrymple.

TRIBES. CONTACT WITH CIVILIZED RACES. 171

• • '

is shown by their having given the name of Meenamaia to the lagoon
on the plateau at the summit of the mountain. Perhaps the strongest
proof of the saparateness of the North-Eastern tribes— or, at least, that
of Ben Lomond — is afforded by the variation in the word for "river."
The South Esk was Manganta limta. Elsewhere the word was linah:
e.g., Huon, Tahuni linah (South); Jordan, Kutah linah (S. interior).

(d) — North-East Coast Tribes.

"We find mention of tribes or sub-tribes along the whole stretch of
coast from George's Bay, on the East Coast, to the entrance to the
Tamar (Port Dalrymple), on the North. On various occasions mobs were
met with at George's Bay and George's River; at the Bay of Fires
and Eddystone Point ; at Cape Portland, in the extreme north-east ; at
Ringarooma Point ; at Foresters River ; at Piper's River ; and on the
east side of the mouth of the Tamar. In 1806, a mob of 200 natives
came to the first settlement at George Town, just within the entrance
to Port Dalrymple, on the east bank of the Tamar. In the north-east
part of the island the country is, in many places, open for some miles
inland from the coast, and in such places there would be game. The
interior is mountainous and heavily timbered, and, very probably, was
not occupied by the natives.

" In conclusion, to sum up the result of our enquiry, we find, (i)
That the aboriginal population probably did not exceed 2000 : (2) that
there were four main groups of tribes; viz.— (a) South; (b) West and
North- West; (c) Central and East; {d) North and North East : (3) that
these groups were divided by strongly marked differences of language:
(4) that the Southern and Western tribes were completely isolated from
those on the eastern side of the island, and that a similar separation
existed between the North and North-Eastern tribes on the one hand,
and those of the Centre and East on the other : (5) that within the
groups each tribe and sub- tribe probably occupied a definite distridl which
was recognised as its special territpry: (6) that the tribes within each
group, though generally leagued together, were at times at feud with
each other: (7) that in later years, after the European occupation, the
tribes— especially those of the east and centre of the island—laid aside
their differences, and made common cause against the white intruders."

Contact with Civilized Races.

In Chap. IV. when treating of war, we showed how desperately the
aborigines fought for life and independence. That they should have
been more successful in their struggles with Europeans than other races
better provided for such struggles, was hardly to have been expecfted.
Whatever may have been the ideas entertained on the subje<5l by the
natives, the war between the two races was considered by the colonists
as one of extermination.

Brough Smyth quotes the following from Hull, whose word is often
much doubted. Hull says : " A friend once described to me a fearful
scene at which he was present. A number of blacks, with the women
and children, were congregated in a gully near town . . . and the

172 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

men had formed themselves into a ring round a large fire, while the
women were cooking the evening meal of opossums and bandicoots; they
were surprised by a party of soldiers, who, without giving warning, fired
upon them as they sat, and rushing up to the scene of slaughter, found
there wounded men and women, and a little child crawling near its
dying mother. The soldier drove his bayonet through the body of the
child, and pitchforked it into the flames. < It was only a ckild^ he said !
It is stated also,'* Mr. Hull adds, "that it was a favourite amusement
to hunt the aborigines; that a day would be sele<5led, and the neighbour-
ing settlers invited, with their families, to a pic-nic. • « . After
dinner, all would be gaiety and merriment, whilst the gentlemen t>f the
party would take their guns and dogs, and accompanied by two or thite
convidl servants, wander through the bush in search of black fellows.
Sometimes they would return without sport ; at others they would succeed
in killing a woman, or. if lucky, mayhap a man or two. ... As
the white settler spread his possessions over the island — over the natives*
favourite camping-grounds, driving away their kangaroos, and replacing
them with bullocks and sheep — the natives objedled, in their own way,
to the inroad. In many cases, no doubt, the blacks were sacrificed to
momentary caprice and anger, and suffered much wrong. Indeed, one
of the Governor's proclamations states, that cruelties had been perpet-
rated repugnant to humanity and disgraceful to the British people."
Hull, in his MS. notes, states that dne European had a pickle tub in
which he put the ears of all the blacks he shot. From his account no
mercy was shown on either side.

Ross, quoted by Bunce (p. 57), mentions meeting a half-starved
stockman who had got * bushed ' while running after a female black
who had escaped the bullock-chains with which he had bound her. He
adds : '* There is little doubt, indeed, but such, and even worse treat-
ment than this, by the white stock-keepers, in the earlier periods of the
colony, was the chief and original cause of the hostility which the
aborigines have since indiscriminately shown to the whites."

Parker relates (p. 29) that *' a man named Carrots killed a native in
his attempt to carry off his wife, and having cut off the dead man's
head, he obliged the woman to follow him, it suspended round her
neck, and to use it as a plaything ! The second is that of Harrington,
a sealer, who procured ten or fifteen native women, and placed them
on different islands in Bass's Straits, where he left them to procure
skins; if, however, when he returned, they had not obtained enough, he
punished them by tying them up to trees for twenty-four to thirty-six
hours together, flogging them at intervals, and he killed them not
infrequently if they proved stubborn."

But while acflual warfare and convicfls' brutality were direcfl means
towards the extermination of the Aborigines, there were other equally
powerful causes at work in wiping them off the face of the earth.

According to Calder, a rapid and remarkable declension of the numbers
of the aborigines had been going on long before the remnants were
gathered together on Flinders Island. ** Whole tribes (some of which
Robinson mentions by name as being in existence fifteen or twenty
years before he went amongst them, and which probably never had a

CONTACT WITH CIVILIZED RACES. 1 73

shot fired at them) had absolutely and entirely vanished. To the causes
to which he attributes this strange wasting away ... I think
infecundity, produced by the infidelity of the women to their husbands
in the early times of the colony,' may be safely added. . . . Robinson
always enumerates the sexes of the individuals he took ; . . . and
as a general thing, found scarcely any children amongst them ; . . .
adultness was found to outweigh infancy everywhere in a remarkable
degree. . . . Their rapid declension after the colony was founded is
traceable, as far as our proofs allow us to judge, to the prevalence of
epidemic disorders ; which, though not introduced by the Europeans,
were possibly accidentally increased by them. Many of the tribes par-
ticularly of the Western and South -Western coast districts, which were
known to be very strong in numbers, long after the first colonization
of the country, were not exposed to contacfl with the whites, and yet,
when taken, they hardly ever consisted of twenty persons, and when
larger numbers were brought in at any one time, they were always of
more than one family ** (Calder, J.A.I, pp. 10-15). When once settled
on Flinders Island, their rapid mortality was iattributed by Robinson to
the injudicious system of changing their food and manner of life, by
which catarrhal and pneumonic attacks were induced (Calder, J.A.I, p.
25). His evidence is supported by that of James Allen, a surgeon to
the aboriginal settlement. He thought that **a residence in an open and
somewhat exposed situation, after having grown up in the recesses of the
forest, is uncongenial to them ; and that their remaining very constantly
on the settlement (which they are encouraged to do, in order to promote
more rapidly their civilization), instead of making frequent excursions,
for a few days together, into the bush, also tends to deteriorate their
health" (Backhouse, p. 491).

West, with the settlement before his eyes, gives a most pathetic
account of their decay : ** Towards the last days of their savage life the
sexes were disproportionate, although the balance was partly restored by
associating the women who had been longer in captivity with the men
whose wives had died; but many of these women had become licentious,
and by an extraordinary oversight the Government permitted unmarried
convi<5\s and others to have them in charge ; . . . the result need
not be told. The infant children had perished by the misery and con-
trivance of their parents; thus, in 1838, of eighty-two there were only
fourteen children, and of the remainder eight had attained the usual term
of human life. Many who surrendered were exhausted by sickness,
fatigue, and decrepitude. They were the worn-out relics of their nation,
and they came in to lie down and die. The assumption of clothing
occasioned many deaths; they were sometimes drenched with raiur—
perspiration was repressed, and inflammatory diseases followed ; the licen-
tiousness, and occasional want of the last few years, generated disorders,
which a cold brought to a crisis. . . . The abundant supply of food,
and which followed destitution, tended to the same result ; it was a
different diet. The habits of the chase were superseded, and perhaps
discouraged ; the violent ad^ion to which they had been accustomed ; the
dancing, shouting, hurling the waddy and spear — climbing for the opossum
—diving, and leaping from rock to rock — assisted the animal funcftions,

K. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

Note— The man in moleskin- trousers in front is believed to have had a. half-cast mother-.

CONTACT WITH CIVILIZED RACES. 1 75

and developed muscular power. To continue them required the occasion,
as well as the permission ; but the stimulus was gone. . . . There
were other causes. The site of the settlement was unhealthy : they
were often destitute of good water. ... It is admitted that they
frequently suffered this lack ; but it is stated that they had sufficient
allowed them when sick ! It is, however, clear that many perished by
that strange disease, so often fatal to the soldiers and peasants of
Switzerland, who die in foreign lands from regret of their native country.
They were within sight of Tasmania, and as they beheld its not distant
but forbidden shore, they were often deeply melancholy ; to this point
the testimony of Mr. Robinson is decisive." His words are (Bonwick,
p. 90) : " It is my opinion that the inhabitants of this island suffer much
from mental irritation. Various circumstances produce this effecft ; and
though the deaths of the aborigines at Flinders Island may be ascribed
to other causes, as catarrh, inflammation, &c., still it will be found that
mental irritation accelerated, * if not the disease, the sufferings of , the
patient, and, in too many cases has proved fatal. When the aborigine
is first affedted, either from cold or otherwise, he immediately desponds,
refuses natural sustenance, and gives himself up to grief: mental irrita-
tion follows, and at length he dies in a state of delirium. And I think
I am borne out in my opinion by the sudden dissolution of the wife
after the death of her husband, although at the time she may be in
apparent health ; and that of the husband after the decease of the wife *'
(West repeats this II. pp. 72-74).

According to Surgeon Barnes (Pari, Papers, quoted by West), "more
than one-half have died, not from any positive disease, but from a
disease physicians call home-sickness" Davies also thought change of living
and food conducive to low birth- and high death-rate, but attributed
their decline more ^* to their banishment from the main land of V. D.
Land, which is visible from Flinders Island; and the natives have often
pointed it out to me with expressions of the deepest sorrow depicfled on
their countenances. The same thing has occurred on board the vessel
when passing some part of the coast with which they were acquainted "
(p. 419).

Of the aboriginal children at the Orphan School near Hobart, Bon-
wick states (p. 4) : ** They were not kindly treated amidst the many
rough boys and girls of the large establishment of Hobart Town, and
seemed depressed, troubled and sickly. Death rapidly delivered them
from their sorrows at the school/'

Kelly, the circumnavigator of Tasmania, tells us (p. 13): *'The custom
of the sealers in the straits was that every man should have from two
to five of these native women for their own use and benefit, and to
seledl any of them they thought proper to cohabit with as their wives ;
and a large number of children had been born in consequence of these
unions — a fine a<5live hardy race. The males were good boatmen, kan-
garoo hunters, and sealers ; the women extraordinarily clever assistants
to them. They were generally very good looking, and of a light copper
colour." In the course of his narrative he frequently refers to a sealer
of the name of George Briggs, an able man, who in 1816 had two
native women, one a daughter of the chief Lamanbunganah, and five

176 H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

half-caste children (p. 12). Curiously, Brough Smyth (I. pp. 94-95)
gives an account of a half-caste Tasmanian called John Briggs, as
follows : " John Briggs, a half-caste Tasmanian, who intermarried with
a half-caste Australian, has had ten children, of whom eight are now
living — three boys and five girls. John Briggs was born in one of the
islands in Bass's Straits. His wife is the daughter of an Australian
woman, who, with her sister, was taken to Tasmania at the time that
Buckley was removed from Port Phillip to that colony. His eldest son
is between seventeen and eighteen years of age, and the youngest child
is two months old. He says he was married in 1844. ^^ ^^ ^^ intelligent
man ; tall and well-formed, but weather-beaten in appearance. His hair
is grey ; his complexion yellow — dull yellow ; his teeth large, and not
close together ; his hair woolly, somewhat like that of a negro ; his eyes
dark-brown ; his nose arched and almost Roman ; his forehead well-
shaped — not harsh and bony, but curved, and the lines are good : the
frontal sinuses are not prominent. He is the only half-caste Bass's
Straits man I have ever had the opportunity of closely examining. He
is very different from the half-caste Australian, and is also, unlike the
half-caste negro."

The well-known views of Strzelecki with regard to certain supposed
fadts in reproducftion were controverted by Lieut. M. C. Friend, who
has recorded two instances upsetting Strzelecki's arguments. In one case
**& black woman named Sarah, who had formerly four half-caste children
by a sealer with whom she lived, has had since her abode in Flinders
Island, where she married a man of her own race, three black children,
two of whom are still alive. The other, a black woman named Harriet,
who had formerly, by a white man with whom she lived, two half-
caste children, and has had since her marriage with a black man, a fine
healthy black infant, who is still living" (Tasm. Jour., III. pp. 241-242).
It may not be out of place to note here Jeffreys' statement that the
first child borne by a native woman to a white man in V. D. Land,
** was, like all the other children since produced by an intercourse
between the natives and the Europeans, remarkably handsome, of a light
copper colour, with rosy cheeks, large black eyes, the whites of which
are tinged with blue, and long well-formed eyelashes, with the teeth
uncommonly white, and the limbs admirably formed " (p. 123).

At the present day there are a considerable number of half-castes
living on the Furneaux Islands in Bass' Strait. Edward Stephens,*
the superintendent on Cape Barren Island, states that the present in-
habitants are not the descendants of those aborigines who were deported
there from the mainland of Tasmania in 1835. Mr. Stephens states
that those who show most of the European nature in their physique
succumb readiest to disease in the same way that those who show ** a
taste for learning, a liking for requirements of civilization, and a stronger
attachment to religious duties are the first to sicken and die. This is
so well understood by the survivors as to make them rather indifferent
to the efforts made to raise their mental and moral standard." They
can copy but not originate, and are soon tired of new ideas; altogether,

* For a copy of his notes I am indebted to the kindness of the Bishop of Tasmania.

CONTACT WITH CIVILIZED RACES. 177

in the eyes of the Europeans, they appear listless. Stephens once
aroused them from their apathy by repeating snatches of an Australian
corrobory. In fadl, he says, civilisation is to them irksome if not
offensive. They are fairly good boatsmen, but will not venture out to
sea if the weather be at all rough, and mostly lose their boats in
consequence of defecftive moorings. They are very improvident. There
is not only European blood in these p>eople, but also that of Australian
and Maori, introduced into Tasmania in the early days of settlement.

CHAPTER XII.— Language.

^PHE vocabularies of the Tasmanian language which have come down
1 to us are thirteen in number. In vol. ix. of the Jour. Roy. Geograph.
Society, Dr. Lhotsky published a vocabulary, (which fell into the
hands of a lady at Sydney) by a man named McGeary (i), who lived
many years in contact with the aborigines, and attributed to Peron,
whose vocabulary (2) is not the same. The Tasmanian Journal in 1842
(vol. i.) published a long vocabulary by Jorgen Jorgensen (3), compiled
from documents in the Colonial Secretary's Office at Hobart. Tlhs list
included three other separate vocabularies, one (4) from a locality not
indicated, and a second made by the Rev. Dove (5) at Flinders Island, and
the third. La Billardit-re's (6) vocabulary taken during d'Entrecasteaux's
expedition in 1792, which the naturalist published in his account
of that voyage. Braim's is apparently a copy of Jorgen Jorgensen's,
and if so, contains transcription errors. Cook (7) has given us ten
words, and Gaimard (Dumont D'Urville, Philologie, pp. 9-10) gathered
some words (8) at Port Dalrymple from the lips of a native Tasmanian
woman. E. M. Curr, in his ** Australian Race," has published two
vocabularies which hitherto had not seen the light, namely, one by
Roberts (9), and another by the Rev. Jas. Norman (10). Milligan
issued a small vocabulary (11) by Thomas Scott, an old Tasmanian
squatter, made in 1826, and one drawn up by Milligan {12) himself,
which is by far and away the completest vocabulary of the Tasmanian
language.' Since the first edition of this work w^as published, my friend
J: B. Walker, of Hobart, has discovered in the MS. Journ. of his
father, one more vocabulary, prepared about fifteen years before
Milligan's, making the thirteenth on record.

According to Jorgensen the vocabularies ** might be considerably in-
creased by that of a young man named Sterling, who made the native
language his study ; his vocabulary was taken away at the death of its
author by a person ignorant of its value." (Tasm. Jour. I. p. 309) :
In the above mentioned MS. Jour., G. W. Walker states that Thos.
W' ilkinson, catechist, of Flinders Island, ** had composed a considerable
vocabulary of words." What has become of it ?

In the appendix will be found : (a) Norman's vocabulary ; (b) a

' It must be remembered that, as was once pointed out by E. B. Tyler (Early Hist.
of Mankind, 3rd ed. p. 78), many words in this vocabulary appearing as one are,
in reahty, several joined together ; thus :

noonalmeena father (lit. noonal-mee-na)

father my
ncingmena mother (lit, neing-me-na)

mother my

LANGUAGE. I 79

vocabulary which I have compiled of those of Dove (Braim and
Jorgen Jorgensen), Cook, Gaimard, La Billardi^re, McGeary, Peron,
Roberts, and Scott ; {c) Milligan's, and (d) Walker's vocabulary.

J. W. Walker wrote as follows in his journal at the Flinders Island
aboriginal settlement, on 15th Oct. 1832 : ** Several of the aborigines
were invited into the commandant's hut for the purpose of enabling me
to take down a few words as specimens of the language, which I had
already commenced doing. The plan I adopted was to point to different
objecfls, which they named, several repeating the word for my better
information. At a subsequent period, I uttered the words in the hearing
of others with whom I had had no communication on the subject of
their language. If these understood my expressions, and pointed to the
objedl the word was intented to represent, 1 took for granted I had
obtained with tolerable accuracy the word used by them for that pur-
pose. When I read to them in their own language one of their native
songs, they were beyond measure astonished and gratified ; following the
words with their voices, and frequently interrupting me with shouts of
approbation. Their language appears to me to be far from inharmonious,
and when accompanied by a chanting tune, as in the songs of the
women, is pleasing to the ear. On the other side I propose giving a
few specimens reduced to writing. There are some objecfts, and these
very numerous, for which every tribe or mob, has a different name.
There are also some peculiarities (of dialecfl we may suppose) in the
languages of tribes dwelling in remote situations, that render them not
easily, if at all, understood by each other. Several individuals, particu-
larly G. A. Robinson, and his colleague, Anthony Cottrell, are able to
converse with tolerable fluency in the native dialecfls, but I understand
that no one has reduced the language to writing, which is to be
regretted. . . . " It is extremely difficult," he continues *' to come
at the idiom, as every tribe speaks a different dialedl, it might
almost be said a different language, and even among the individuals of
the same tribe a great difference is perceptible. The pronounciation is
very arbitrary and indefinite. The literal translation is confined in great
measure to the verbs and nouns. It is not clearly ascertained whether
prepositions or conjunctions or anything analagous to the expletives in
use with us are contained in the aboriginal tongue. Some of the
aboriginal terms have a very indefinite and extended meaning ; as in the
words ctackny and pomleh. The former means to be, to exist, to rest, to
sit down, or lie down, to stop, remain, dwell, sleep, and I know not
how many more significations. The latter is used in a great variety
of ways, but more particularly where art, or ingenuity, or an exertion
of power is applied to the producStion of anything. Everything that has
required any sort of manipulation has been ^pomleh,' i.e., made, or put
together, or called into existence. It is also remarkable that they have
hardly any general terms'. They have not even a term to represent
* trees' or * animals ' generally."

The description given by Milligan as to the manner in which he
obtained his vocabulary, and the great care he took to insure correcflness,
is better given in his own words. It much resembles the method
originated by Walker. He wrote about the year 1847 : —

l8o H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

** In order that ethnologists and others interested in the vocabulary
of aboriginal dialecfts [of Tasmania] may be inclined to put perfecfl con-
fidence in their accuracy, T have to explain that every word before being
written down was singly committed to a committee (as it were) of several
aborigines, and made thoroughly intelligible to them, when the corres-
ponding word in their language, having been agreed upon by them, was
entered. . . . On being completed the manuscript was laid aside for
two or three years, when it was again submitted verbatim et seriatim^ to
a circle of aborigines, for their remarks. A revision which led to the
discovery and corre<5lion of numerous blunders originating in misappre-
hension, on the part of the aborigines in the first place, of the true
meaning of words which they had been required to translate. But I
found the fault had oftentimes been my own, in having, failed to seize
the exa(fl and essential vocal expression, which on being repeated to the
aborigines at any time afterwards, would infallibly reproduce the precise
idea which it had been stated to imply in the first instance.

" The circumstance of the aboriginal inhabitants of V. D. Land being
divided into many tribes and sub-tribes, in a state of perpetual antagonism
and open hostility to each other, materially added to the number . . .
of the elements and agents of mutation ordinarily operating on the
language of an unlettered people : to this was super-added the effedl of
certain superstitious customs everywhere prevalent, which led from time
to time to the absolute rejedtion and disuse of words previously employed
to express objedls familiar and indispensable to all, thus . . . tending
arbitrarily to diversify the dialedls of several tribes. The habit of ges-
ticulation, and the use of signs to eke out the meaning of monosyllabic
expressions, and to give force, precision, and characSler to vocal sounds,
exerted a further modifying effedl, producing, as it did, carelessness and
laxity of articulation, and in the application and pronuciation of words.
The last-named irregularity, namely, the distindlly different pronunciation
of a word by the same person on different occasions, to convey the same
idea, is very perplexing, until the radical or essential part of the word,
apart from prefixes and suffixes, is caught hold of. The affixes, which
signify nothing, are la, lahj le^ lehy leahj na, ne^ nah, ba, be, beak, bo, ma,
me, meah, pa, poo, ra, re, ta, ie, ah, eh, ih, etc.*^ Some early voyagers
appear to have mistaken the terminals la, le, etc.^ as distinction of sex
when applied to men, women, and the lower animals. The language,
when spoken by the natives, was rendered embarrassing by the frequent
alliteration of vowels and other startling abbreviations, as well as by the
apposition of the incidental increment indifferently before or after the
radical or essential constituent of words. To defedls in orthoepy the
aborigines added shortcomings in syntax, for they observed no settled
order or arrangement of words in the constru(5\ion of their sentences, but
conveyed in a supplementary fashion by tone, manner, and gesture, those
modifications of meaning which we express by mood, tense, number, etc.
. . . Barbarous tribes, living in isolated positions, antagonistic . . .
to each other, would each, within its own sphere, yield to various

* As will be shown, Milligan was not quite corredl here, for some of these suffixes bad
pronominal and other meanings.

LANGUAGE' l8l

influences, calculated to modify language, and to confirm as well as to
create dissimilarity. . . . Rude, savage people often adopt the most
arbitrary and unmeaning sounds through caprice or accident, to represent
ideas, in place of words previously in use ; a source of mutation, as
respecfls the various diale(5ls spoken amongst the aborigines of V. D.
Land, fertile in proportion to the number of tribes into which they were
divided, and the ceaseless feuds which separated them from one another.
Hence it was that the numerous tribes of Tasmanian aborigines were
found possessed of distincft diale(5ls, each differing in many particulars
from every other.

" It has already been implied that the aborigines had acquired very
limited powers of abstracflion or generalization. They possessed no words
representing abstracfl ideas; for each variety of gum tree and wattle tree,
etc., etc., they had a name, but they had no equivalent for the expression
" a tree " ;* neither could they express abstradl qualities, such as hard,
soft, warm, cold, long, short, round, etc. ; for ** hard " they would say
" like a stone ; " for ** tall *' they would say ** long legs," etc. ; and for
"round"! they said **like a ball," "like the moon," and so on, usually
suiting the a<5\ion to the words, and confirming, by some sign, the
meaning to be understood.

•* The elision and absolute reje(flion and disuse of words from time
to time has been noticed as a source of change in the aboriginal
dia]e<5ls. It happened thus : The names of men and women were taken
from natural obje<5\s and occurrences around, as, for instance, a kang-
aroo, a gum tree, snow, hail, thunder, the wind, the sea, the Waratah
— or Blandifofdia or Boronia, when in bloom, etc. ; but it was a settled
custom in every tribe, upon the death of any individual, most scrupul-
ously to abstain ever after mentioning the name of the deceased, — a
rule, the infradlion of which would, they considered, be followed by some
dire calamities. . . . Such a pracflice must, it is clear, have
contributed materially to reduce the number of their substantive appellations,
and to create a necessity for new phonetic symbols to represent old
ideas, which new vocables would in all probability differ on each occasion,
and in every separate tribe ; the only chance of fusion of words between
tribes arising out of the capture of females for wives from alien and
hostile people. . . . "

La Billardiere (II. ch. xi. p. 73) states that the words they learned
from one tribe were found useful in communicating with others, but it
must be remembered that the people he met with were all more or less
in one distri(5l. Davies confirms Milligan as regards the inability of the
eastward and westward tribes to understand each other when brought
together at Flinders Island, and so does Dixon (II. p. 22). Jorgensen
says (Tasm. Jour. I.) : ** Those who are not of the same tribe appear
to converse in broken English." Stokes (II. 461) says: "The Arthur
River's people's language was not understood at Flinders Island by the
other tribes." That the dialecfls are all of the same language does not

* Davies, on the other hand, says : "I much doubt their ever having separate names
for all the different kinds of birds with which they were conversant; yula (a bird)
appeared to answer for most."

t For "round" and iov . '' tesUt" he gives the same word matta.

l82

H. LING ROTH.-^ABORIGINBS OF TASMANIA.

admit of a doubt. This is proved by the numerous similar words
expressing the same objecfl found throughout the vocabulary. A good
example, showing the affirmity of constru<5^ion of the dialects spoken,
can be made up from Milligan's vocabulary, thus:

According to Bonwick (p. 153), Robinson declared : The different
tribes spoke quite a different language ; there was not the slightest
analogy between the languages. When a captured woman from Cape
Grim, to the north-west, was brought to Flinder's, it was found that
she was as ignorant of the dialacft of the rest as they of hers. It was
this ignorance of each other's language that kept alive those tribal
jealousies and antagonisms, which so often threatened the peace of the
Strait settlement. When, however, they had construtfted, by force of
circumstances, a sort of lingua franca — a common language — their friendship
grew, and local feeling improved. Mr. Clark, the catechist, thus wrote
to me of the condition of linguistic affairs then : The languages spoken
were different ; so much so, that, on my first joining them in 1834, I
found them instrucfling each other to speak their respedlive tongues.
There were at one time eight or ten different languages or dialecfls
spoken by about two hundred persons who were domiciled at Flinders.'*

Dr. Lathom in the appendix to "Jukes' Voyage of the Fly" (p. 319)
says : — {a) ** The Tasmanian language is fundamentally the same for the
whole island although spoken in not less than four dialedls mutually
unintelligible. (b) It has affinities with the Australian. (c) It has affi-
nities with the New Caledonian. It is doubtful whether the affinities
between the Tasmanian and Australian are stronger than those between
the Tasmanian and New Caledonian."

Jorgensen tells us in the introduction to his vocabulary : ** It is difficult
to imagine the rapid and ever-changing corruptions to which an oral
language is subjedl in the mouths of a savage tribe ; and in the present
case many words, borrowed from the English, have added to. the con-
fusion produced by the irregular and careless pronunciation of the
aborigines. Thus picamni, a child ; huckelou or bacala, bullocks ; tahlety
corrupted from travel, to go, which again was contracfled into iahlee, are
all from the English. Luhra is a word introduced by the English from
the Sydney natives (who do not at all understand the languages of our
aborigines), and it appears to have been substituted for lurga or lolna^
a woman."

English.

Oyster Bay and
Pitwater Tribes.

Mount Royal and Bruni
Island, Recherche Bay
and South Tasmanian
Tribes.

eye

eyelash
eyelid
to see
dizzy (faint)

mongtena
mongtalinna
moygta genna
mongtone
mongtantiack
1

nubre or nubrenah
nubre tongany
nubre wurrine
nubratone
nubretanyte

LANGUAGE. 183

To Crozet (Marion, p. 29) their language appeared harsh, and they
seemed to draw their sound from the bottom of the throat. On the other
hand, Robinson (Calder, J.A.I, p. 28) found it ** peculiarly soft ; and
except when excited by anger or surprise, was spoken in something of
a singing tone, producing a strange but pleasing effedt on the sense of
the European." Davies considered the language soft and liquid, and
Breton (ch. vi. p. 355) describes it as musical and soft. According to
Meredith the vowels are sounded peculiarly full and round.

Vowels.

a as in cat, rap. a as in potato (also written e by Milligan). e as
m the. e as in thee, see, me. % when before a vowel, as in shine, riot.
i as in sigh, fie {ei is pronounced as in Leipsic). y as in holy, glibly.
as in flow, go. 00 as in moon, soon, u as the French use, usage,
fumier, usuriej, but never like the u in flute, u as in musk, bump,
lump.

Semi- Vowels,
y as in yonder, yellow.

DiphiJumgs,
aa as aw in lawn, oi as in toil, ou as in noun.

Consonants.

^f ^ [? *]> ^> A (only at the end of words), ky /, tn, «, /, q (qu)
[? k]f r, t [w] , ch and gh (pronounced as in German hochachten).
There appears to be no d, /, v, 5, or z,

Milligan uses a i in the words gdulla acid, and mannaladdy cough,
also in lowide scab, and in tendyagh (or tentya) red, and rhomdunna (or
romtena) star ; it is of course conceivable that the Tasmanians used
occasionally the soft equivalent for t so common among them. But as
they had no hisses or buzzes, it is not probable that they had a th,
which Milligan places in the words elaptJmiea beauty, flne, ree-mutha flst,
pothyack no, and riaputhaggana tame. The absence of the th is confirmed
by Milligan's spelling of the words ree-muttay hand, and poyenna pottatyacky
vanish, where the t takes the place of the th, Norman has th in several
words. McGeary is the only writer who systematically uses a Vy but he
uses this letter where others use a w or te/, thus:

McGeary, mutton bird yavla, Roberts, black man wihar

Braim, ,, youla, Milligan, ,, weiha, •

McGeary, night levira, McGeary, moon vena,

Braim, „ leware, Roberts, „ too-weenyer

McGeary, black-man vaiba.

As Milligan, who has been so careful in the compilation of his vocabulary,
completely ignores the letter v, we are no doubt correcft in stating the
Tasmanians did not know the letter. The letter z is used by La
Billardiere in rizlia. (hand), but this is evidently a misprint for rialia,
Milligan has a f, which apparently reads like an s (and not like k)y thus:
oghnamilce (ask). This is probably also a misprint.

In the V. D. Land Almanac for 1834, it is stated that the letter
r is sounded ** with a rough, deep emphasis, particularly when excited

184 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

by anger or otherwise." Braim says (II. p. 257) that to meet the corre6i
pronunciation the soft h should be added where any words end in a.
As an illustration of their inability to pronounce certain hard letters,
Davies mentions they cannot say do<5tor and sugar, but say instead togata
(or iokata) and tugana.*

Words largely commence with a consonant ; the consonants conjoined
at the beginning of a word are : —

cr- (Ay-), /r-, and also tr-, all very common; br'-j gr-y ng-, pi-, and
gH' very rare.

Conjoined consonants are otherwise met with, as br, gr, kr, ng, nt
(very common) ; rare are chtj ghr, ght, gl, kn, Ih, mp, ngh, ngl, ngt, nky
nr, pr, rk, rn, rt^ and tr.

Words largely end with a vowel, and the soft aspirate, unless they
terminate in -ack, -ak, -tacky -yaky etc. (Where most of the vocabularies
make the words end in -a -ahy Norman makes the same words end in
-flr, -^).t

The adjecflive is placed after the noun, thus:

pannogana malittye\\ Iowa maleetya\\

earth white {i,e. clay) woman adult

The suffix -na denotes the singular.

The plural may perhaps have been expressed, as La Billardiere states,

by the suffix lia, thus:

tagara-lia family. iria-lia hands (La Billardiere).

cuengi'lia ears. \ria-na hand (Milligan).

Or the plural may have been formed by reduplication, thus:

inubra-na eye. [kardl five.

\nubru-nubere eyes. [karde-karde ten.

lori-lori fingers.

It is possible the plural may have been expressed by simply omitting
the singular termination na, but this is merely surmise.

Personal Pronouns.
I vn-na (nue-na) Dative mi- to,

you (thou) ni-na (nee-na) ,, ni-to (nec-to).

he, she, narrar (Norman),

they, he, her, nard (Milligan and Braim).
it 9tiggur (Norman),

we warrandur.

The first person also takes the form mi-a in the dative case when
conjoined to the verb, thus :

teeanymta'PCy give me.
The suffix 'to {-too, -tUy -ta) denotes ih6 dative case, thus:
nanga-tOy to the father. Icnu-too (<«), to the hut.

The first personal pronoun in the possessive case is expressed by
mi-a ; thus

• This is something like the South-Sea Islanders, most of whom say BokkU for Box.
t All that relates to the vowels, etc., and their pronunciation, is based on Milligan ;

what follows, so far as " Construdlion," is largely based on Fr. Miiller's chapter

on the Tasmanian language in his Sprachwissenschaft.

'■ This word is also translated as beautilnl, white, and adult.

LANGUAGE. I 85

nanga - mia numbe
father my here

But when the first personal pronoun is conjoined to the verb, it takes
the same form, thus: ntia-tyan, I give. There does not appear to be any
special form for the possessive case of the second personal pronoun ; thus

S"* """ ^ 1 (- husband).

your

Verbs.

In his vocabulary Milligan gives no indication of an infinitive mood,
the verbs quoted having a variety of terminations; it is therefore to be
inferred that they underwent some modification, but in what manner is
not clear. On the other hand, in the few short sentences quoted by
Milligan, the verbs mostly end in -pe or -bea {-beah), Fr. Miiller thinks
these terminations indicate the imperative mood, and that these termina-
tions may occasionally be dropped.*

Person and number are indicated by the pronoun, which is sometimes
affixed to the verb, thus :

noia mee-ah'teang mu-na nee-to linah (li-na)

not I give I you (dative) water

Occasionally the pronoun is placed between the root of the verb and
its termination, thus :

tyen-na-mi'beah wee-na

give I (nom.) stick

And occasionally the pronoun is not conjoined at all, thus:

loi-nu tyen-na-beah mi-to
stone give me (dative)

As examples of the Imperative, Fr. Miiller has drawn out the
following :

onna-bea nanga-to
tell father (dative)

tied wee pella haeeia

take stick beat dog

The sentence, monna langarrape^ translated by Milligan, I like to drink
water, Fr. Miiller divides up into:

m-onna lia-ngara-pe

I like [? ask] water drink

Lia is the root for water, thus :

lie-na eleebana;\ lye-tta ; lie-nna wittye (wuttya)

water fresh ; rollers on sea-beach ; water salt (i.e. the ocean)

ngara is a corruption of nugara, drink. Perhaps the verb langara (based
on the root of lia) is the further corrupted form, although in common

• Perbaps this can be explained by the fadl that in Milligan's work the translation of
the short sentences is very loose and certainly not so carefully done as the vocabu-
lary, and Fr. MilUer's supposition appears to be corre<5l. For instance. Milligan
translates tyenna-mi-beak wee-na as: we will give you a stick; but it should be:
give me a stick.

t Also translated as long.

1 86 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

use, as Braim and McGeary give lugana, La Billardiere and Peron laifuty
for to drink.

tugganna luna-mea [mia] -tah [to]
walk hut my (dative)

lotta monte mee-tia cotU

^ tree see [eye] I yesterday

lowa-na olle tubbra-na

woman makes basket

Construction.

The following examples will help to show how the words are con-
strucfled and prove the agglutinating characfter of the language.

Perhaps the suffix -yenna has the same signification as -»fl, it is very
common, thus :

Adult man (? your husband) Pugga-na nunymna

Adult woman ( ? your wife) Lowall minyenna

Ant eater and Porcupine Mungyenna

Bird Puggunycnna

Bat Peounyenna

Boy (a small child) or Son Melangyenna {Maldngena)

Brushwood Weena-keetyenna

Hair Poinglycnna

Opossum (ringtail) Tarripnyenna

,, (mouse) Lowowymna

Penguin Tomenyenna

Sole of foot Lug-yenna

This interpretation of yenna is perhaps confirmed by the phrase :

malang pia-wah

child two
where there is no termination -yenna.

We have seen above that the negative is expressed by the word
noia. There is,, however, another method of expressing a negative, by
means of the suffix -iack, thus :

leaf porruiyS leafless porrutyS-mayeck

tooth wugherina toothless wugherinna normyack

to see mongtone dizzy numgtangiack

never nooeack
and so on.

The Mount Royal tribes use timy (no) instead of tacky thus :

never ttmeh or timy

bachelor lowatimy (lit. womanless)

barren woman Iowa puggatimy (lit. woman manless)

beard cowinne

beardless cowintimy

leaf proie

leafless paroytime-na

The suffix 'iack^ however, does not always mean a negative, it very
often expresses general unpleasantness, thus :

acid nowieack

LANGUAGE.

187

apparition
hot

ashamed
bitter
carcase
rage
catarrh
cold
dirty
effluvia
stomach
hungry
. stomach ful ( ? unpleasantly)

krottomien toneack

peooniack

leiemtonnyack

laieriack

tniak hourrack (merack hourack)

neoongyack

teahnonyak

tunack

mawpack (mahack)

memhreac

plotter

pionerpurtick

plonerhoniack

But there are also cases where the termination -iack appears to have na
particular signification, thus :

another tabbouiack

asleep tugganick ( ? tugna go, ick the negative)

black maback (mawpack)

dine prooloogoorack

The word bourrack also appears in widely different significations, thus i

to clutch niack bourrack to drown iong bourrack

to cry neagh hourrack dead miaek bourrack

heal riack bourrack ripe crang boorack

plant mellang hourack

Magnitude is expressed by the suffix lang-ta, thus :

f wood

I large timber

J stone

j rock

water deep

wte-na
wyee-langhta
lo-na
loe-langta
loa-magga langta

i wind rawlina

\ gale raa-langtfi

speak loudly kuka-na langhta
heavy rain prugga langta

The Mount Royal Tribes used proie-na to express size, thus :

wind high

large

log of wood

loud (to speak)

fat woman

rallinga proiena
proina nughaba
weea proingha
kanne proine waggaba
Iowa proina

The Diminutive is expressed by the kaeeia.

kaeeia

kaeeta boena

loatta keeta-na

weena keetyenna

lowa-na keetanna

lowa-fta kaeetanna

kauta-na mallangyenna

manenge keeta-na

manaee keeiannah

manenya keetanna

kaeto kekrabanah

teggremony keetanna narra long-
bromak

spaniel, dog

gosling

twig {loatta tree)

brushwood (wi-na, wood)

girl

young (little) girl

„ II boy

brook

river (little)
creek

barren woman
twilight

i8d

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

It is very evident kauto and keeta are the same word, and that they
are diminutives. The Tasmanians had no dogs or geese, and they may
have applied the word kaeeto to these animals to signify their smallness.
The following illustrates the method of making a new word by tacking
on to one word another word or a syllable. In some cases the first
word undergoes a slight modification in the process :

knee

I tremble

I tumble

kill (deprive of life)

fight

battle

war

war (skirmish, one or two kiHed)

war (battle, all killed but one or two)
(mahhele many)

hot

fever (lit. I hot)

excrement my

intestines

pain I (evidently some bowel
I sick t complaint)

spear

testes or scrotum

penis

hill (little one)

peak (a hill)

tor (a peaked hill)

point (of a spear)

nipple (^parooqualla dug; parugana wo-
man's bosom)

foot

step (lit. foot one)

instep my

sole of foot

paw

claw

talon)

footmark of black man

footmark of white man

The two last-named words formed from pus^ga-na for (black) man, and

ria-na for European. The name for finger is rie-na, and there appears

to be no name for toe (Norman gives lugarner for toe, which is of course

identical with luggana). The Tasmanian name for black man is pugga-na^

the same as the word for five, and as the Europeans on first arrival

all wore boots, which look like one toe (or finger), it is not improbable

that the aborigines a(5\ually called Europeans the ** One-toe (people)."*

* A native of Muhangiro, south west of Vidoria Nyanza thus speaks of his first seeing white
people: "They had large black clubby sort of feet, their toes, unlike ordinary people's,
were all together in one" (R. P. Ashe: Two Kings of Uganda, London, 1889, p. 216).

a, mun-na
mieani-tuack
mun-touka
tnienemiento
mienmengana
mienyengana
moi mengan nmhele
moemntte
moemabhyle

h, peooniack
mie-mpeooniack

c. tia-mena

tia-crackena

crackanyeack
mi'Crackanyeack

d. perenna
fnattah
tnatiah-prenna

e. poimena
poymalangta
poymalyetta
poyeenta
prugga poyeenta

/. luggana

luggana marah

lugga poola mena

lugyenna

lugganlereena

kurluggana

{kuluggana

Puggaluggana

rialusgona

LANGUAGE.

189

g, wurrawena

ria-wuyrawa\

wurrawa lowanna

kukanna wurrawhina
h. lennoy line

nialunne, line

pune line

(Punna

lieeminetta

palinna

Una wughta rotaleehana

(Oyster Bay) apparition

(Mount Royal) apparition

widow (lit. apparition woman)

echo

house or hut, place

nest (birds)

nest (little birds)

bird)

eagles' nest

? eggs (contraction of puna Una)

encampment (lit. hut earth long)

It has been shown on pp. 107-111, that the natives construdled two
sorts of huts or break-winds, those which, on the ramblings of small
partfes, were to last for a night only, and those more permanent ones
to last a season ; hence the last-named explains itself.

nuore nubre-na

eye

nubre-tongany

eyelash

nubre wurri-ne

eyelid

nubre rotte

wink

neHubra latai

fury

nubretantye

dizzy

nubretone

see (behold)

pugga-nubra-na

sun {pugga, man)

palla-nubra-na

„ {palla, man)

panubre

»>

panubre roeelpoerack

sunrise

panubra tongoeieera

sunset {tongf sink, dive, etc.)

panubratone

dusk

panubre mabbyle

fornicatrix

The words for sun thus seem to be made up of the words pugga-na
and palla-wah, both meaning black man {i.e. Tasmanian native), and
nubre y eye ; panubre is evidently the corrupted form of palla-nubra-tui. We
may perhaps consider that the Tasmanians looked upon the sun as a
man, and this, may help to explain the meaning of the expression
panubre mabbyle {mabbyle, many).

k. kanna {ka-na)
palla-kanna
kukanna wurrarena
kukanna wallamonyiack
ka-walla (corrupted form of

above)
ka-kanina

kuggana (ku-ka-na) langhta
purra kantia
kukana lengangpa
luona kunna
granna kunna

talk

to shout, yell {palla man)

noise

to shout, yell

mouth

to talk loud {langhta much)

to whistle

to whisper, speak low

to belch

to yawn

t Compare this with ria above; the aborigines appeared to have thought at one time that
Europeans were apparitions.

«2

190 H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

tegryma kannunya to wail (tagara tear)

kukunna poypuggeapa to displease (make angry)

hohoUeny hongua to demur (grumble)

temeta hunna creak (fridlion of limbs of tree)

fia-cunah song (Wa, European)

kukanna wurrawina echo (wurrawinna^ apparition)

Prefixes are not so easily distinguishable as suffixes, but that they
exist we have evidence in such words as kakanina mouth, he-nubra latai
fury, in which the prefix appears more like reduplication.

Of an interpolated syllable the word palahamahhyle^ conflux, is a good
example ; palla, man, and mabbyle, many, being joined by the syllable
ba. Perhaps another interpolation exists in the word loufa lloo-manyetu
pregnant, thus : Iowa woman, lloo (lu) interpolated syllable, and manyene
adult (big).

Corrupted forms are seen in the words panubere sun : from pallanuhrana ;
palina nest, from pune Una ; ka-walla shout, from kukana ; wallamonyiack
noise, and so on.

CHAPTER XIII.
Osteology, by J. G. Garson, M.D.

•

TT was only very shortly before the Tasmansians became extincfl, that
*• the importance of preserving their osteological remains, seems to Havp
been recognized, and means taken to secure what specimens were still
available. The largest colleiflion of these is lodged in the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons of England. This consists of specimens
procured from various sources at various times by the College itself,
and of the coUecflion made by the late Dr. Barnard Davis, acquired by
the College in 1880. The specimens collected by the College of Surgeons
consists of two complete skeletons and seventeen skulls. Of the former,
one is the skeleton of an adult male, the other that of an adult female.
The male skeleton was obtained from a grave on Flinders Inland, where
the remnant of" the aboriginal population, when removed from Tasmania,
was located between 1832 and 1847. The female skeleton is that of
one of the last survivors of the race," Betsy Clark, described in Bonwick's
" Last of the Tasmanians,** 1870, where a portrait of her, from a photo-
graph taken in 1866, is given, who died at Oyster Cove on the 12th of
February, 1867, at an age of probably forty years. The other specimens
are the skulls of six adult males, six adult females, and three young
specimens. Besides these there is an adult male skull and that of a
young person reported to be Tasmanians, but regarding their being
authentic there is great doubt. The Barnard Davis colletftion comprises
a complete skeleton of an adult male, the skulls of eight adult males*
and five adult females, three young skulls, and the cast of an adult
male and female skull. The Natural History Museum at South Kensing-
ton possesses one complete skeleton of an' adult male, which was formerly
the property of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
In the Musee d*Histoire Naturelle, Paris, the skulls of five males, three
females, and one child are preserved. In the Museum of the University
of Oxford there are seven skulls ; in the Museum of the University of
Cambridge there are two skulls ; in the Museum of Science and Art
in Edinburgh there is one skull ; the Museum of Netley Hospital
possesses two skulls ; the Museum of the Roy. Coll. of Surgeons, in
Dublin, has one dried head. Mr. James Bonwick possesses one skull
in his collecflion of Tasmanian relics ; one skull is preserved in the

* There seems to be some doubt ah to two of these being skulls of Tasmanians.

192 H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Museum of Breslau ; the Museum of Vienna also contains one skull.
In the Museum of the Royal Society of Tasmania there were reported
to be two skeletons and sixteen skulls, but in a recent paper by Messrs.
Walter R. Harper, and Arthur H. Clarke,* they give the number of
genuine Tasmanian crania as twelve, of which six are those of males
and six those of females ; besides these there are three doubtful specimens
which in their opinion are the crania of half-castes. They make no
mention of the skeletons, but their paper, it should be noted, deals only
with crania.

As far as I am able to ascertain, these appear to be all the osteological
remains now extant of this interesting people. Added together, this list
comprises four or six complete skeletons, and not more than about seventy
skulls, including the young specimens.

Several of these specimens have been described already, and some of
their measurements recorded; thus Dr. Barnard Davis in 1874 published
a valuable paper on the Osteology and Peculiarities of the specimens in
his Colle(5lion in the " Naturerkundige Verhandelingen der Hollandische
Maatschappij der Vetenschappen, 1874;" Sir William Flower has descrited
the specimens in the Royal College of Surgeons' Colle<5lion previous to
the incorporation of the Barnard Davis specimens, in his ledlures on
Anthropology, published in the "British Medical Journal," Vol. I. 1879,
and the principal measurements are recorded in his edition of the Cata-
logue of the " Osteological Series, Part I. of the College of Surgeons'
Museum." The Paris colleiflion has formed the subjedl of a valuable
monograph by Dr. Paul Topinard, in the " Memoires de la Soci6te
d' Anthropologic," Vol. III. p. 307, and it has also been described by
Quatrefages and Hamy in the ** Crania Ethnica." The specimens preserved
in the museum at Hobart are described as stated above by Messrs.
Harper and Clarke.

The measurements given by these authors unfortunately differ consid-
erably owing to the various systems of measurements which have been
followed. The most extensive series of observations on the dimensions
of the skulls are those given by the three French authors on the Paris
specimens, whose tables I shall include in this monograph, and have
taken as the basis of measurements of the specimens in British museums,
which I have been able personally to measure. In measuring the long
bones I have followed the directions laid down by Topinard and Hamy.

Stature, — The materials at my disposal for estimating the stature of
the skeleton are very inadequate for the purpose, consisting as they do of
only three articulated male skeletons, and one female skeleton. I have
been unable to ascertain the measurements of the two skeletons in the
Museum of the Royal Society of Tasmania, as they do not appear to
have been published.

The male skeleton (No. 1096 in the Catalogue of the Royal College
of Surgeons' Museum) measures 1607mm. in height; that in the Bar-
nard Davis Collection 1640 mm.; and that in the Natural History'

* Notes on the Measurements of the Tasmanian Crania, in the Tasmanian Museum, Hobart :
by Walter R. Harper and Arthur H. Clark, M.R.C.S., Proc. of the Royal Soc. of
Tasmania, 1898.

OSTEOLOGY. I93

Museum 1635 mm. The average stature of the three male skeletons
therefore is 1627 mm. The female skeleton in the Royal College of Surgeons'
Museum measures 1422mm. The question will naturally be asked : What
do these measurements of the height of the articulated skeletons represent
in the living subject ? A series of observations made in Paris on twenty-
four bodies measured before and after dissecflion showed that the difference
between the height of the entire subjecfl and of the articulated skeleton
is . 34 mm.* Adding this difference to the measurements of the male
Tasmanian skeletons, the stature of the three when in life would average
i66j mm., the shortest being 1641mm., the tallest 1674 mm., and the
intermediate one- 1669 ™"^' ^^ the same way the female skeleton would
represent a woman 1456 mm. in height. These calculations from the
skeleton, of the stature of the person when in life, depend upon the
manner of articulation, which differs very much, and are therefore
probably not to be relied on so much as the estimates of height deduced
from the lengths of the lower limbs, which will be discussed when
treating of the measurements of the appendicular parts of the skeleton.

Let us now compare the average and individual statures of the
skeleton with the records of observations made by travellers on the
living. Dr. Barnard Davis states that the stature of twenty-three
Tasmanian men measured by G. A. Robinson varied between 1548 mm.
and 1713 mm., the average being i6i8mm. Peron, on the other hand,
states that the usual stature of the Tasmanian ranges between 1678 mm.
and 1732 mm. The mean of the average statures of Robinson and Peron
is 1 66 1 mm., which is exacflly the same as the average stature we have
shown the three skeletons would probably have during life. Marion gives
the measurement of one man as 1600 mm. Dr. Barnard Davis states
that Robinson found the height of 29 women measured by him ranged
from 1295 mm. to 1630 mm. and averaged together 1503 mm.

The Skull, — The localities from which most of the skulls in the
Royal College of Surgeons' Collecftion were obtained are unknown.
Particulars regarding the locality of skeletons have already been given.
The cranium numbered in the Museum Catalogue iioi was marked
"Tasmanian warrior killed at Brushy Plains;" No. 1106 is from
Port Dalrymple ; No. 1108 is from a grave in Bruni Island; No. 11 13,
the cranium of an infant, was also obtained from Port Dalrymple.
Three of the Barnard Davis specimens, Nos. 1414, 141 5. 141 7» were
obtained on the north-west side of the island, in the distridl of the
Surrey Hills ; the localities whence the other specimens in his colledlion
came from is unknown. Several of the skulls appear to have been
obtained when the natives were being removed from place to place,
shortly before they finally became extincft. The skulls in the Paris
Colle(5lion were obtained from the voyages of the Astrolabe and the Zelie
to the South Pole and Oceania, during the years 1826-1829, and of the
Favorite during 1830- 1832, and from the expedition of M. Jules Verreaux
in 1843. Five of the specimens were obtained from the south side
of the island, three of these were procured from the neighbourhood of
Hobart during the voyage of the Favorite by M. Eydoux ; the other

* Topinard ; " Elements d' Anthropologic G6n6ral," pp. 1032- 1065.

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA

196 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

two from Lake St. Clair, the source of the Derwent, were brought home
by M. Dumont D'Urville in the Astrolabe and Zelee expedition. Four
of the specimens were obtained from the north side of the island in
the basin of the Tamar ; two of these, from Launceston, were colledled
by Verreaux ; a third came from Port Dalrymple, collecfled by Dumont
D'Urville , and a fourth, that of a young subjedl, from the distri(5l of
Furneaux, collecSled by M. Dumontier during the voyage of the Astrolabe
and Zelee,

Some differences have been observed between skulls from the north,
south, and north-west parts of the .island by Quatrefage and Hamy in
the *' Crania Ethnica," and these authors have accordingly described
separately the skulls from each districfl. While some skulls from one
districfl are shorter than others from another distridl, the small number
of specimens at their disposal from each districfl does not, in my opinion,
justify such importance being attached to the variations observed, as to
render it necessary, or advisable, to follow them in separating the skulls
into different groups, according to the locality whence they were obtained,
although I admit there may have been influences, such, for example, as
conta<5l at one part of the island with neighbouring people of one race,
and at another part with an entirely different race, which may have
caused slight variations in the population of particular parts of the
island. For pracflical purposes, however, all the specimens may be classed
together, so long as the different sexes are kept separate.

Dr. Topinard describes the skulls in the Paris Colle<5lion very fully
in his monograph referred to. He states their general configuration is
sufficiently charac'leristic to enable a pracflical eye to distinguish them
from those of other races. When viewed from above, the vault of the
cranium presents the appearance of a regular oval, narrow in front,
widening rapidly till it attains its greatest breadth at the level of the
parietal eminences, and then decreasing suddenly. The narrowest part of
the frontal region is about 25 mm. above the root of the nose, and
8 mm. above the ophryon. At this place there is a transverse depression
more or less marked, from which the frontal bone rises and curves
backwards without presenting any noteworthy prominence or crest : but
2 or 3 cm. in front of the bregma, a convexity of oval form begins to
appear ; this narrows, and after passing the bregma, resolves itself into
an antero-posterior crest, depressed in the middle line for the sagittal
suture ; it then seems to become double, and terminates about midway
between the anterior and posterior fontanelles. On each side of this
crest, about i cm. in front of the coronal suture, two grooves running
from before backwards appear, which become deeper as they extend
backwards ; these terminate gradually about the middle of the parietal
bones. Lastly, quite outside are situated the parietal bosses very much
developed and even conical. This characfleristic carinate appearance is
constant in varying degrees in all the Tasmanian skulls in Paris. The
posterior part of the parietal region is smooth, and recedes gradually at
first, but rapidly afterwards, towards an elliptical convexity, the long
axis of which is transversely placed, formed by the supra-occipital region.
The inion is feebly marked, corresponding to an average of No. i of
Broca. The sides of the cranium present an important characfler. They

OSTEOLOGY. I 97

are rounded in the region of the spheno-temporal suture, their upper
limits being defined by a rather feebly developed temporal crest.

The characflers of the cranium may be summed up as follows :
Globular in form, sub-dolichocephalic, without notable transverse depression
as to the rise of the forehead, broadening rapidly from before backwards,
with rounded sides and large conical parietal bosses. The frontal crest
is absent, but a characfleristic disposition of the vault termed keeled is
present. The posterior parietal region is receding.

Compared with Parisian skulls the supra-occipital portion of the
Tasmanian cranium is 17 mm. shorter, and the difference between the an-
tero- posterior maximum and iniac diameters shows that the cerebellum
is not so much covered by the cerebral lobes as in the Parisians.
The basio-iniac radius on the other hand is 19 mm. longer in the
Tasmanians, showing that their cerebellum is notably larger. The anterior
central lobes have nearly the same relative development in both
Tasmanians and Parisians, the anterior part of the posterior central lobes
is somewhat less developed in the former than in the latter. The
cerebellum is larger in the Tasmanians by a quantity approximatively
equal to the diminution of the other parts.

The facial portion of the skull is as charadleristic as the cranium.
The first thing which strikes one is the wild and sinister appearance
which invests the whole physiognomy, and which may be attributed to
the depth of the orbits and the form of the notch of the nose. These
peculiarities are due firstly to an excessive development of all the facial
portion of the frontal bone, and secondly to a backward recession en bloc
of the superior ends of the nasal bones and ascending processes of the
superior maxilla, the curve of the frontal bone being prolonged down-
wards to meet the nasal bones at their inferior and anterior extemity.

The superciliary ridges on approaching the median line swell, curve
inwards below, and, by their union, produce a strongly marked glabella
which divides the supra-nasal region into two parts, namely a superior,
occupied by an important depression which extends to the base of the
frontal, where it marks the point of demarcation between the cranium
and the face ; the other part is inferior and forms part of the notch of
the root of the nose ; this notch, which, relative to its small height, is
deeper than Topinard has observed in any other skulls in the Paris
Collecflion, is formed above by the inferior plane of the glabella diredted
backwards at an angle of 30° to 40° with the horizontal, and below by
the backs of the nasal bones sharply curved forwards and upwards. Its
real depth varies from 6 to 10 mm. The external orbital processes of
the frontal bone play the same role with respedt to the orbits as the
glabella does to the root of the nose, that is to say, by being strongly
developed in all but one instance, they augment the depth of the orbit
and give an exceptional prominence to the superior orbital borders,
causing them to projedl from 2 to 6 mm. beyond the inferior borders.
The openings of the orbits are small and thin, and their transverse axes
are only slightly inclined downwards and backwards, so that the two
eyes are visible in the same line; their form is that of a parallelogram
transversely elongated and generally of regular outline. The orbital index

198 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

is 77*8. The orbital depth from the posterior margin of the optic foramen
to the anterior part of the superior orbital border is 55 mm.

A second marked chara(5ler of the face is the heaping up of the
bones in the median line producing shortening of the vertical diameter
and ag appearance as if the facial skeleton had been forced outwards
by pressure direcfled from below, the effe(5l of which is first visible at
at the union of the root of the nose and frontal bone, as a semi-luxation
backwards of the nasal bones and of ascending apophyses of the maxillae.
The facial length of the Tasmanian is considerably shorter than that of
the French, while both are of about the same breadth. Each se<5lion
of the median portion of the face, except the supra-nasal, contributes
to this shortening in the Tasmanians. The inferior bi-maxillary and the
bi-malar diameters are greater, while the bi-zygomatic diameter is smaller
than in the French skull. The malar bones are of small dimensions,
their two surfaces are placed edgeways and form either a slightly obtuse
angle or a right angle ; the inferior border is exatftly horizontal and
the zygomatic apophyses are direcfled horizontally backwards.

The measurements of the mandible are diminished in every case ;
thus the symphyses is vertically short, the bigonial width is diminished,
as well as the height of the posterior branch. The prognathism of the
face is moderate, and in all cases considerably less than in the Australians.
The borders of the palatine vault diverge behind, that is to say, the
palate is parabolic, but there is a tendency to inflexion of its posterior
ends in some cases. The teeth are in a good state, and in one skull
are well set ; but in another the incisors have been split or broken,
without doubt during life ; the crowns of the molars are ground down.

The most notable characflers of the face may be summarized as
follows : — short, relatively broad, and unusually developed in the supra-
and inter-orbital parts, giving to the orbits, the notch of the nose and
the inter-superciliary space, special characflers ; the superior maxillary
shortened vertically, broadened transversely, and as it were thrust under
the cranium, the lower jaw small in every proportion ; the malars small,
moderately wide apart, placed edgeways, the anterior surface looking well
forwards, and their external surface well outwards ; prognathism moderate.
Dr. Topinard considers the Tasmanian skull is constru<5\ed on a uniform
type, recognizable at first sight, and that it is the skull of the Melan-
esian surmounted with the parietal bones of the equatorial Polynesian.
The face, moreover, is not homogeneous. Dr. Topinard's opinion regarding
them is that while they present certain characters which would lead us to
consider them as the remains of an autochthonous race originally pure,
and very distincfl from their neighbours, there are others which seem to
favour their multiple origin.

The average measurements of the skulls are given at the end of
this chapter.

Quatrefages and Hamy distinguish as ** Tasmanians of the south" the
former inhabitants of the basin of the Dervvent and Huon rivers. From
this distridl three of the male and two of the female skulls in the Paris
Colle(51ion were obtained. Their antero-posterior diameters are relatively
a little shorter than those of the north and north-west of the island,
their cephalic index being 77* i ; while those of the north are 76-34,

OSTEOLOGY. 199

and of the north-west 76* i6. Upon this ground these authors place
them in a separate group. Taking the skull which has been reproduced
in Figs. I and 2, they proceed to call attention to the carinate form
of the cranial vault, which they state appears to be constant in the
adult Tasmanian.

The frontal bone is more elongated (measuring over the curve
138 mm.), also more oblique and depressed (the bregma being only
131 mm. above the anterior border of the occipital foramen), likewise a
little narrower at the base (the minimum frontal diameter being 97 mm.),
than that of the Papuans of Rawak, which in some respecfls it resembles,
whilst the maximum diameter of both is the same (118 mm.). The
superciliary arches are large, and their size is exaggerated by the sunken
appearance presented by the upper part of the face situated immediately
below them. The frontal bosses are well marked, while the median
portion is expanded as a convex surface of oval form, which extends
beyond the bregma and is fused with a kind of parietal crest, the sides
being separated from the eyebrows by a slight depression and from the
median boss by a flat portion which is continuous with that which bounds
the sagittal convexity of the parietals. The temporal line is feebly
marked, and the portion of the frontal which forms part of the temporal
fossa is moderately flat.

The curves and planes of the frontal bone just described are con-
tinued on to the parietal bones as far as the level of their tubera,
which are strongly marked, almost conical in shape, and situated
equidistant from the coronal and lambdoidal sutures in the course of the
temporal line. The antero-posterior median convex * surface is prolonged
as far as the middle of the sagittal suture, which is situated in a slightly
undulating groove, and is separated from the tubera by two depressions
very nearly symmetrical and fairly well marked. It is the presence of
these three crests and two intermediate concavities which gives the
carinate appearance resembling the keel and sides of a ship to the
cranium. Beyond the bosses the antero-posterior curve changes suddenly :
the median elevation completely disappears, as well as the lateral
depressions, and there remains only a convex plane slightly flattened in
the centre which ceases at the lambda. From the tubera the parietals
descend without bulging, but converge slightly below, especially in front
towards the squamosals, which are greatly reduced in size. The great
wings of the sphenoid are short, and do not articulate with the parietals.

The central part of the occipital bone is short and narrow, and
markedly convex from above downwards ; the occipital protuberance is
feebly marked. The cerebellar part is relatively large, the two pro-
minences corresponding to the cerebellar lobes are well marked, and the
muscular attachments are strongly developed, as are also those of the
base.

The sutures are simple and generally somewhat more occluded in
front than behind. The bones are dense and polished ; the skull is
heavy, although its walls are of moderate thickness. The impressions
of the convolutions on the interior surface are relatively clear and deep,
particularly at the base, a condition which Grateolet has shown to occur
charadteristically in lower races.

200 H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

The face is charadleristic not on account of size, which is not
exceptional, but owing to its shortness, and its particularly brutal
appearance. The malar bones are depressed at their superior angles.
The nose is of moderate length, but very broad, and is deeply pressed
in at the root. The nasal bones proper are concave in profile, some-
what flattened, very convex, and pinched together (especially above the
ascending branches of the maxillae which support them), and are
alternately concave and convex from above downwards, and from without
inwards. The inferior border of the nasal opening is rounded and
elevated in the middle line. The nasal spine is double. The orbital
openings are horizontal and of elongated square form. The canine fossae
are deep, and the anterior alveoli are visible on the surface of the
dentary arch as large rounded swellings.

tasmanian skull in b. davis' collection,
drawn by dr. garson, almost exactly
one fourth size.

Fig. 4.

The prognathism is moderate, and affe<5ls the whole face, but is not
very marked in the sub-nasal region. The disposition of parts resembles
that found in the Mintiras, a true Negrito race. The prominence of the
lower part of the forehead is considerable, so that the facial angle, measured
by taking the supraorbital point as the upper end of the facial line,
attains 75°, although the upper jaw taken by itself shows a projedlion
corresponding to a very much smaller angle. The alveolar angle is 66°,
and the dentary angle is 59°.

The palate is deep and elongated, and the difference between its
breadth in front and behind is much less than usual. The teeth are
very large, the molars and premolars are marked by having very distincft
and sharp tubercles, the canines are prominent and thick (11 mm.); the
incisors, especially the central ones, attain quite an exceptional development,
being spade-like, 11 mm. broad by 13 mm. in length to the neck, and
projecft forwards,

OSTEOLOGY. 20I

The mandibular arc is ellipsoidal, the thickness of the horizontal
branch is considerable, the external surface is somewhat rough, the
mental fossettes are deep and well marked ; the chin is of irregular form,
arched, and of considerable height, the mental angle 73°, notwithstanding
the alveolar projection. The projecftion is more accentuated on the internal
surface where the superior genial tubercles are very large, and the mylo-
hyoid ridge is strongly marked. The ascending rami are feeble, and
present a marked contrast to the stronger horizontal branches. The
surfaces for the insertion of the temporal muscles are feebly marked ;
the same has been already noted in respedl of the surfaces of origin on
the cranium, indicating that these muscles were feebly developed, as the
other muscles of mastication also appear to have been. The ascending
branch is high, but narrow and very slender ; the coronoid process is
short and sharp, the condyle is very slender, twisted on the inside and
below, and is supported by a very short neck. The sigmoid notch is
little hollowed out. The posterior angle is rounded, and does not present
the least trace of a prominence, and the mandibular angle is very obtuse.

This description, Quatrefages and Hamy state, is applicable in general
to all the other Tasmanian skulls, though in some specimens the muscular
ridges are more fully developed, while in others they are feebler. In
one case the frontal bone articulates direc511y with the temporals.

The female skulls they state do not differ from those of the males
except in those charadlers which differentiate generally the skulls of the
two sexes. The form of the cranium, while differing little in its propor-
tions from the general type, is very appreciably softened down, but
within relatively narrow limits.

The specimen taken as the basis of the description of the Tasmanian
skull by Quatrefages and Hamy, shown in Figs, i and 2 of the present
work, was brought home to Paris as an entire head preserved in
spirits, and after being photographed was disse(fled and prepared as
a dry specimen by Prof. Gervais some years ago. On opening the
cranium, it was found that the encephalon was greatly altered, and indeed
was reduced to an amorphous mass, so that its morphological charadlers
could not be studied, but a cast was made of the cranial cavity and
corredled very carefully with the brain itself while still covered with the
dura mater, so that it might be as exacfl a representation of the external
form of that organ as possible. The cast is illustrated in Fig. 3. It
measures 163 mm. antero-posteriorly, and its maximum width is 132 mm.,
while the transverse diameter of its anterior part is 93 mm. When
compared with the encephalon of a Bushwoman studied by Cuvier and
de Blanville immediately after death, it is seen to possess characflers of
an entirely different type. The length of the Bushwoman's encephalon
measures 160 mm., its maximum breadth 125 mm., and the breadth of the
anterior part 100 mm. The brain of the Tasmanian is more arched, and
consequently more elevated, than in the Bushwoman, agreeing in this
respecfl with the form of the brain of Europeans. The middle meningeal
vessels are less marked than in the Bushwoman, notwithstanding her sex.
The antero-posterior part of the middle lobe is more voluminous, and
appears to be proportionately more convoluted than in the Bushwoman ;

202

H. LING ROTH. ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

indeed, the correspondiDg portion of the cerebral dura mater indicates a
condition of parts more approaching what obtains in the white races.

The characflers of the skulls preserved in the Museums of this country
agree very closely with the specimens in Paris which have been so well
described by Quatrefages, Hamy, and Topinard. In some specimens the
markings distindlive of the Tasmanian skull as set forth by those authors
are less pronounced than in others, but the range of variation is very
small. The general measurements also agree very closely, and the wood-
cuts, Fig. 5, 6, and 7, from Topinard's work, give a very good average
representation of the male skulls in the College of Surgeons Museum.

FIG. 5. — SKULL OF TASMANIAN AFTER TOPINARD.

There are one or two instances in which the degree of prognathism is
considerably in excess of any of the Paris specimens, especially in the
skull belonging to the skeleton of the male in the Barnard Davis collec-
tion. This skull having some of its characters much exaggerated, it has
been thought desirable to give an illustration of it in Fig. 4, as the
only other published drawing of it in the Thesaurus Craniorum is somewhat
too small to convey to the mind an adequate idea of its charadlers.
The original drawing, of which the illustration in Fig. 4 is a reducf^ion
by photography to one-fourth the natural size, was made direcflly from
the specimen itself by means of Broca's stereograph, and is geometrically
accurate representation of the skull, except that the zygomatic arches
are thicker than they should be. The prognathism of this skull exceeds
that of any of the Australians, and the teeth are of larger size than in
any skull in the Museum The incisors are also very wide, and markedly
of the shovel-shaped pattern mentioned by Quatrefages and Haray. The

OSTEOLOGY.

203

Figs. 6 and 7.— »koxl of tasmanian after tornard.

204 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

small size of the coronoid processes of the mandible is noteworthy, all
of it being seen some distance below the zygomatic process of the malar
bone. The illustration also shows the mastoid processes to be of small
size. The form of the glabellar region is more rounded than usual in
this specimen, but all the charadleristic features of the Tasmanian are
well marked.

As regards the general characters of the cranial portion of the skull,
the angular form, the prominent median ridge, and the flattened upper
parietal region already described, are generally well marked. The parietal
eminences are developed to a greater or less degree in all the specimens.
Seen from behind the brain -case appears five sided. The glabella is
prominent, and overhangs the nasals in every case, even in the females.
The mastoid inion and the muscular ridges are rarely much developed.
The skull of the skeleton in the Natural History Museum, and that of
an old woman in the College of Surgeons CoUecflion have the median
frontal suture unobliterated, that is to say, they are metopic. In no
case does the squamosal bone meet the frontal at the pterion, though
they almost meet in several specimens. The size of the skulls appears
to be about the same as those in Paris, judging from the measurements
of circumference, height and the cranial capacity. Sir William Flower
has noted those in the College of Surgeons CoUeiflion to be smaller,
while those in the Barnard Davis Colletflion are larger than the Paris
specimens ; but when the measurements of the two former series are
united, their average measurements agree with those of the Paris skulls.
In about 20 per cent, the height of the cranium is greater than the
maximum breadth, but the average breadth-index is greater than the
altitudinal index.

The face is very short from above downwards between the nasion
and alveolar point, and the depression of the upper part, upon which
Dr. Topinard lays so much stress, is well marked. The orbits of the
males are low, elongated, of quadrilateral shape, and their upper margins
projecfl greatly beyond their lower,' as ' Topinard has noted in the Paris
specimens. Between the orbits of the males and females there is a
marked difference, contrary to what has been noted in the Paris
specimens. In the females the orbits are more rounded and open, owing
to the upper margins being less strongly developed ; consequently the
orbital index is higher. The nasal portion of the face agrees very
closely with that of the specimens in Paris already described. In some
cases the nose is not so broad as in others, and a few specimens are
mesorhine ; but the mean nasal index is 56 — 57, which places them in
the platyrhine group. Sir William Flower has noted an interesting
point regarding the teeth in which the Tasmanians seem to differ from
all other kindred races, namely, ** the tardy development and irregular
position of the posterior molars. These teeth are generally of large
size, but there appears to be too little room for them in the jaw, so that
only in two out of eleven adult skulls in which their condition can be obser-
ved are all of them normally placed ; in all the others one or more of the
wisdom teeth are either retained beneath the alveoli or are in oblique

OSTEOLOGY, 205

or irregular positions." * In estimating the size of the teeth that author
measures the length in a straight line of the crowns of the five teeth
of the upper molar series in situ between the anterior surface of the
first premolar and the posterior surface of the third molar, which he
designates as the dental length. + As this absolute length is hardly
sufficient for the purpose ot comparing races, since the size of the in-
dividual . and of the cranium generally should be taken into account, he
takes as a standard length to indicate the general size of the cranium
the distance between the basion and the nasion— the basio-nasial length
— as the most convenient with which to compare the dental length and
so form a dental index. In the Tasmanians the dental length averages
in the males 47-5 and to the females of 48* 7. These indices show
them to have 'proportionately the largest teeth of any race known, the
nearest approach to them being the dental index of the Andamanese
and Australians : in the former the dental index of the males is 44*4,
and of the females 46-5 ; and in the two sexes of the latter 44*8 and
46*1 respedHvely.

A point of interest and perhaps of importance, from a sociological
aspecft, is the absence of the two upper central incisors of the male
skeleton and of the four upper incisors of the female skeleton in the
College of Surgeons Collecftion. The teeth have been lost during life,
and the alveolar border where they formerly were situated is so atrophied,
that there is no trace of the sockets remaining. This points to the
facfl that the teeth have been lost a considerable time before death.
On comparing the male skull with the skulls of Australians, in which
the upper central incisors are absent, owing to their having been knocked
out of the head as part of the Initiation Ceremonies through which the
youths are put on reaching manhood, the appearance presented is exacftly
similar. It would seem from the condition of this skull that such
ceremonies may have also existed among the Tasmanians, though it is
difficult to account for the loss of the teeth of the women in this way.

Regarding the skulls in the Tasmanian Museum, Harper and Clarke
state that the keel-shaped vault already mentioned is noticeable in all cases
and is specially well marked in some. " The parietal eminences are well
defined and prominent in every case, and the root of the skull is
markedly obovate in shape. Six of the skulls have the obelion depressed.
The parietal foramina are very minute in most cases, but are present
in all the skulls. Viewed sideways the rounded form of the skulls in
the region of the squamosals is striking in all the crania, and in the
majority the temporal fossae are deep and extensive. The temporal ridge
is well marked, especially so in the male crania." As regards the
characfter of the face, ** All the skulls show the depressions at the root
of the nose, and the projecflion of the glabella and supra-orbital ridges
noticed by Dr. Topinard and others." " The malar bones as a rule
are small if anything, and their front thrown well forward. The anterior
nares are broad at their base and narrow very gradually ; in some of
the skulls they appear almost retflangular. The nasal spine is almost

• Flower, On the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean, Royal Institution Lectures,. 1878.

t Flower, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Nov. 1884, p. T83.

2o6 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

obliterated in most of the skulls, Id the remainder it is distin(5lly double.
The nasal bones, when present, are high and very concave at the ends,
and then sink somewhat abruptly and at the root have that pinched
appearance noted by Topinard. The superior maxilla adds to the con-
tracfled appearance of the face ; the ascending process dips backwards,
and further, just below the inferior border of the orbit and near its
juncflion with the malar bone, quite a well is formed in the majority
of the skulls.*' From the measurements of these skulls it would appear
that the superior border of the orbits do not in all cases, though
usually, projedl over the inferior border. ** In all the skulls the orbits
are re(5langular in shape; in the males this is particularly noticeable,
in fadl iq three or four they are almost perfedlly oblong. In all the
male skulls the palate is parabolic in shape, but the females* palates
show the U formation." The coronal suture is simple, and the com-
plexity of the sutures increases as we go backwards. Wormean bones
are frequently found in the lambdoidal suture and at the pterion epipteric
bones are present in several specimens. In none of the skulls is the
frontal suture open, and the obliteration or closure of the sutures
increases from before backwards. The mandible is small and the condylar
height exceeds that of the coronoid in every case except one. The
teeth are unfortunately incomplete in all the specimens, having been
lost alter death in most cases.

The cranial capacity is small, averaging 1281 cc. in three males, and
1089 cc. in five females, according to the way in which this measurement
was made on these skulls. These figures are not, however, stridlly
comparable with those of the specimens in Paris or London Museums,
which were ascertained by other methods than those used by the authors.

The cephalic index of the six male skulls averages 74*0, and varies
from 73* I to 75*6; in five females it averages 77*0, and varies from
75-4 to 78-5.

The height to length index averages 70*0 in the males, and 72*5
in the females. The orbital index in the males averages 79*4, and in
the females 84'8. The nasal index averages 540 in the males, and 55*2
in the females, which is higher somewhat than in the specimens in
London and Paris. The relative proportions of the Basio-alveolar length
to that from the basion to nasion averages 107 '5 in the males, and
io2'7 in the females. The facial index of Broca, that is the relative
proportion of the ophryo-alveolar length to th^t of the bizygomatic diameter
averages 72*6 in the males, and 69*7 in the females.

In some respecfls the series of Tasmanian crania at Hobart shows
slight differences from those we have in Europe, but in the main they
closely agree in possessing the same characfieristic features.

The Vertebral Column. — The length of the vertebral column from the
upper surface of the atlas vertebra to the under surface of the last
lumbar vertebra (neglecfting the dorsal lumbar and sacral curves) averages
in the three male skeletons 511mm.; the length of the female spine is
459 mm. Topinard gives the length of the trunk from the spinous process
ol the seventh cervical vertebra to the apex of the sacrum as averaging
474 mm. in three skeletons, and shows that in respedl to the length of
the spine the Tasmanian differs from the European in being both

OSTEOLOGY. 207

absolutely and proportionately shorter to the total stature, and it agrees
with the measurements of the spine in the Australians and Negritos.

Prof. Cunningham of Dublin has studied with great minuteness the
curve of the lumbar vertebrae of different races. If the sum of the vertical
heights of the posterior surfaces of the bodies of the five lumbar vertebrae
equal the total of the individual measurements of the anterior surfaces of
these vertebrae, it is evident the lumbar portion of the spine would be
straight Cunningham has shown that in the Europeans the index formed
by the sum of the posterior measurements is less than those formed by
the anterior measurements, and he expresses the difference by means of
the Lumbo- Vertebral index. Taking the anterior measurements as the
standard, he finds that in Europeans the Lumbo- Vertebral index is 95*8,
which indicates that the convexity of the curve is dire(fted forwards. In
the Tasmanians the Lumbo- Vertebral index averages 108*5 in the males,
and 104*7 in the females, and in the Australians 110*1 in the males,
and 103*1 in the females; and in the Andamanese 106*3 ^^ ^^^ males,
and i02'4 ^^ ^^^ females, This shows that in these latter races the
vertebrae are thicker behind than in front, and that if they were placed
together without the intervening discs, the lumbar region would have
a curve in an opposite direcflion to what obtains in the European.
In this chara<5ler they resemble the Apes, in which the Lumbo-
Vertebral ^ index is always over 100. But it may be asked, has
the moulding of the vertebral bodies any relation to the degree of
lumbar curvature, and is a low lumbo-vertebral index associated with
a high degree of curvature and vice versa ? Cunningham has shown that
there is a general correspondence, and that the bodies of the vertebrae
in the lumbar region are found in a more or less marked manner in
accordance with the degree of the lumbar curve, though the difference
in height between the anterior and posterior surfaces of the lumbar
vertebrae is so slight that it has little or no influence in determining
the curve. The differences in height between the anterior and posterior
surfaces of the lumbar vertebrae he considers must be looked upon
as the consequence but not the cause of the curve. ** The cause is a
hereditary one, and it has originated from influences operating upon
the bodies of the vertebrae, as the lumbar curve has become in successive
generations more and more firmly established."* In the savage state
he explains this ape-like condition of the lumbar vertebrae is retained
in connecflion with the habits of life of the people, where flexibility
of the spine is more necessary than stability. In the European, on the
other hand, the manner of life for generations past has developed
stability, as it is evident that the deeper the bodies of the vertebrae
become in front, the more permanent, stable and fixed the curve will
become, and the more restricted will be the power of bending forwards
at this region. In the Tasmanians, Australians, and other low races
whatevre lumbar curve there may be, is entirely produced by the inter-
vertebral discs, and in no way by the vertebrae.

The Thorax, — The average antero- posterior diameter of the thorax of
the males is 185 mm., and the transverse diameter 297 mm., giving a

• Cunningham, Memoirs Roy. Irish Acad. No. ii. 1886.

2o8 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

thoracic index of 160-5, the antero-posterior diameter being taken as 100.

The last rib is well developed, measuring on the average along the
curve 8 cm.

The Pelvis, — The only Tasmanian pelvis which has been described is
the specimen in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Dr.
Barnard Davis has given a few of the measurements of the pelvis in
this country. With the exception of those (if such exist), in the Tas-
manian Museum at Hobart the only specimens that remain of this portion
of the skeleton is that of a male, just mentioned, in Paris, and
the three male pelves and one female pelvis belonging to the skeletons in
this country. But before describing this small series, I may state Dr.
Verneau's conclusions regarding the specimen in Paris, which I had an
opportunity of measuring a few years ago. He says the height of the
pelvis is somewhat small in proportion to its breadth, the iliac crests
are farther apart behind than in Melanesian pelves, the anterior curve
of the crests is very considerable. The ilii are less developed than in
Europeans, and are very little hollowed out or twisted outwards. The
transverse diameter of the brim is greatly diminished. Owing to the
broken state of the sacrum the dimensions of the pelvic outlet could not
be ascertained. The symphyses pubes are short, measuring only 33 mm.
The pubic arch forms an angle of 65°. The lower part of the pelvis
is a little smaller than in Europeans. The sciatic spines are situated
very low, and the distance which separates them from one another is
greater than in Europeans. The obturator foramena and the cotyloid
cavities are small, the height and breadth of the latter are equal. The
sacrum is narrower throughout, and at its base is 16 mm. narrower than
in Europeans.

The following are the principal measurements of the pelves taken as
I have recommended in my monograph on Pelvemetry ^ (see page 209) :

For purposes of comparison 1 have placed side by side with the
column of the average measurements of the Tasmanian male pelves the
corresponding averages of seventeen New Caledonian and forty European
male pelves, neither of which I have previously published ; the European
pelves are chiefly English and French. The sacrum is largest both in
length and breadth in Europeans ; its shape is also different, as shown
by the sacral index, which is considerably higher in the Europeans,
indicating that the sacrum is proportionately broader in the the latter
than in the Tasmanians or New Caledonians. In respe(5l to the meas-
urements of the sacrum and several other pelvic measurements, it is
curious how closely each of the four Tasmanian specimens agree in many
instances. I was not aware of this fadl till I came to write out in
tabular form the measurements made at various times and at different
institutions in which the specimens are preserved. I was still less prepared
to find the averages of the Tasmanian and New Caledonian male pelvis
correspond so exactly as they do. Sir. W. Turner f gives the mean sacral
index of thirteen Australian males as 98*5 ; in the Negro it is 106, and
Sir William Flower's measurements show that eight male Andamanese

* Journ. of Anat. and Physiol, vol. xvi. p. 106.
t •• Challenger " Reports, pt. xlvii. p. 47.

OSTEOLOGY.

209

had a sacral index of 94. The Tasmanians in respecfl to their
sacrum agree with the New Caledonians, and occupy a middle position
between the Andamanese on the one hand and the Europeans on the
other, and are not far removed from the Australians. From the meas-
urements between the antero-superior iliac spines, the maximum crest
width and the maximum length of the innominate hone, it will be seen
that the pelvis in the Tasmanians and New Caledonians is as a whole
smaller than in the European. The breadth-height and height -breadth
index averages 124-9 ^"^ ^o*» according as we follow Topinards or
Verneau and Turner's method of estimating it. In this respecfl the
proportions are very nearly the same in the European, Nevv Caledonian,
and Tasmanian. The Brim measurements are perhaps those to which
most interest attaches. The antero-posterior diameter of the brim is.

•-• R. C. Surgeons
P ' specimen 1096.
Male.

B. Davis
specimen 1406
Male.

•-I Skeleton in
^ Nat. Hist. Mus.
Male.

Paris

Specimen.

Male.

Averaj^e of the
4 Male Tasma-
nian Pelves.

Average of 17,

Male New
Caledonians.

Average of 40

Male

European

Pelves.

Sacral length

104

^^^^

104

106

1
no

, , breadth . .

103

Ill

102

1047

107

119 '

,, Indfx

1067

—

1007

lOI

108 2 1

Width between antero-superior iliac

spines

213

215

207

212

215

241 1

Maximum crest-width . .

247

255

256

251

254

277 1

Maximum length of Innominate bone

209

195

198

201

2007

205

222

Height-breadth Index

846

789

776

807

80 I

Breadth-height Index

Ii8 I

1266

1237

127-3

124-9

128

^25 ;

Breadth of ilium (maximum transv.) . .
Width between the centre of the one

155

144

150

151

^50

151

165 ;

postero-superior spine to the other.

727

75 t

Width from posterior edge of the ace-

tabulum to the symphyses. .

104

106

107

107-5

114

^25 !

Distance from top of pubis to ischium

(vertical)

937

103

Antero-posterior diameter of Brim .

lOI

104

107

loi 5

106

lOI j

Transverse diameter of Brim . .

114

105

109

108

109

112

129

Brim Index

88-6

982

93 I

946

78-31

Antero-posterior diameter of outlet,

sacro-pubic diameter

115

107

—

1093

' 115

1 107 1

Transverse diameter of outlet . .

95 •

889

, ^9

102

Sub-pubic angle . .

55°

60°

64°

61^

' 60''

1 64" ■

; 1

according to my measurements, almost identical on the average in the
European and Tasmanian males, but a notable difTerence occurs in the
measurement of transverse breadth, the Tasmanian being considerably
narrower than the European ; consequently there is a considerable
difference in the Brim-index of the two races, that of the former being
93*1, while in Europeans it is only 78*3. In seeking for the affinities
of the Tasmanian m this respec^t, we find the Brim-index of the
Australians is 98 according to Turner, that of the Andamanese 98 8 by
Flower. The Tasmanians therefore in this respecU hold an intermediate
position between the Europeans on the one hand and the Australians
and Andamanese on the other, and agree very nearly with the New
Caledonians, in whom the Brim-index is 94'6. This is unfortunately the

2IO H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

only Melanesian group of which there are sufficient pelves to give any-
thing like valuable data. The sub-pubic angle is more obtuse in the
Europeans than in Tasmanians and New Caledonians, in whom it
averages 6i° and 60° respeclively.

From the measurements of the Tasmanian pelvis we conclude that
in its essential form it occupies an intermediate position between the
European pelvis on the one hand, and the Australian and Andamanese
(the latter being taken as a type of the Negrito race) on the other,
and agrees very closely in all its important measurements with the New
Caledonians.

Limb Bones. — The only Tasmanian limb bones I have l")een able to
measure are those of the skeletons. It may be stated regarding them
generally that they are well dexeloped and as robust as those of Europeans.
In this respect they differ very materially from the slender lx)nes of the
Australian natives. As an example of this I may say that I have
confirmed Dr. Barnard Davis*s observation that while the circumference
of the most slender part in the centre of the shaft of the femur averages
in the three Tasmanian skeletons 84 mm., in the Australian male it is
only 75 mm., which is exactly what the minimum circumference of the
female Tasmanians measures, while in two Australian females it averages
70 mm. The other bones show a similar proportion.

The Scapula, — The form of the scapula in the Tasmanians differs
most unexpecledly from that of the other black races, the average
scapular index (which expresses the relation of the breadth of the bone
to the length) and the infra-spinous index (which shows the relation
between the breadth and infra-spinous portion of the bone) being much
lower than in Europeans, while in the black races it is always higher
than in Europeans. The scapular index of the Tasmanian skeletons in
the Royal College of Surgeons averages 60* 3, and the infra-spinous index
81*4. In the skeleton in the Natural History Museum these indices are
still lower, reducing the average scapular index down to 59'0. In
Europeans they average 65 and 89 respectively, in Australians 88*9 and
92*5, and in Andamanese 69-8 and 927. In the Apes these indices are
considerably higher than in man, while in Bats, in which the scapula
fun<5^ions as a basis for the attachment of the muscles of flight, the
indices are lower than in man. Tiie peculiar character of the scapula
in the Tasmanians then is its vertical shortness in proportion to its

breadth.

The Clavicle, — The length of the clavicle in the three males averages
145 mm., and in the female 130 mm. In two of tiie males the left clavicle
is the longer, and in the female both are of ecjual length.

The Humerus, — The average length of the male humerus is 319 mm.,
and of the female 174-5 mm. The right humerus is slightly longer than
the left in all cases except the female, in which the left is i mm.
longer than the right. There is no instance of an olecranon foramen
being present in any humerus.

The Radius --This bone averages in the three males 255 mm., and in
the female 214*5 mm. The left radius is on an average 2 mm. shorter
than the right, in one instance the bones are equal, but in the female
the right is 5 mm. shorter than the left.

OSTEOLOGY. 211

The Ulna, — The average length of the ulna in the males is 277 mm.,
the right being the longer bone in two instances, and in the third the
bones are of equal length.

The Hand. — Measured from the tip of the middle finger to the top
of the OS magnum measures in one male 171 mm., and in the other
180 mm. ; in the female the bones are wanting to enable it to be measured.

The Femur, — The left femur is in each of the males the longer, its
average length being 460*5 mm., while the right is 457 mm., the average
of both femurs being 459 mm. In the female the right and left bones
are equal, measuring 397 mm.

The Tibia, — Unlike the femur the right tibia is in each case the
longer, the average length of the right tibia being 387 mm. and 384mm.
of the left ; thus the diminished length of the right femur is counter-
balanced by the increased length of the right tibia and vice versa in
the case of the left femur. The average length of the right and left
tibiae is 386 mm. In the female the average length of the right and
left tibiae is 314 mm., the right measuring 318 mm.

The Foot. — The length of the male foot averages about 220 mm.

Proportions of the entire Extremities. — By adding the length of the

humerus to that of the radius and the length of the femur to that of

the tibia, we are able to compare the lengths of the limbs (less their

terminal segments, the hand and foot) with the stature and with one

another. We found that the average stature of the three male skeletons

averaged 1627 mm.; taking this as 100, we found that the length of the

upper extremity (as represented by the added lengths of the humerus

and radius) is as 35*4 to 100, and that of the lower limb (as indicated

by the lengths of the femur and tibia together) is 51*9; in the female
these relations are 34*3 for the upper limb, and 50-0 for the lower.

Topinard gives the relations in the New Caledonians of the upper and

lower limbs to the stature as 35-5 and 51*7 respectively in the males,

and as 34*6 and 52'6 in the females. In Europeans Topinard states the

relations as 35'o and 49-4 respe(5lively in males, and as 34*1 and 49*5

respectively in females. From these results we see that while the upper

extremity in the Tasmanians bears almost the same relations to the

stature as it does in Europeans, the lower extremity is somewhat longer

proportionately in the former than in the latter.

The Intrinsic Proportions of the Limbs. — Relative to the average stature

which is taken as 100, the proportions of the limb bones are as follows :

in the males, the humerus 19*6, the radius 15*7, the femur, 28*2, the

tibia 23'7 ; and in the female, the humerus 19*2, the radius i5'o, the

femur 27*9, the tibia 22*1. In 8 male New Caledonians the proportions

are: humerus 20*2, radius, i5'3, femur 27*9, tibia 23*8. In European

males Topinard gives these relations as humerus 20-7, radius 14*3, femur

27*1, tibia 23-3 ; and in females, humerus 19*8, radius 14*3, femur 27*4,

tibia 21*8. These results seem to show that, with the exception of the

humerus, the limb bones are somewhat longer in proportion to the

stature in the Tasmanians of both sexes than they are in Europeans,

The very limited number of specimens from which the averages are

derived in the case of the Tasmanians reduces considerably the value of

these figures.

212 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Intey-membral Index, — The relation which the upper limb bears to the
lower in the Tasmanians is as 68-o to loo ; in Europeans the relation
is 69'3, in the Andamanese 68-3.

The Aniibracheal Index. — The relation which the radius bears to the
humerus, in the Tasmanians, is 79*9 in the males, and 78' i in the
females ; while in Europeans it is 73-0 in males and 72-4 in females ;
in the African Negro 79*0, and in the Negress 78*3 ; in Andamanese
81-7 and 8o'6 in males and females respetflively ; in Australian males
76-6 ; in New Caledonian males 76'0, and in females 75'8. The
forearm of the Tasmanian therefore agrees with the black races in being
much longer in proportion to what it is in Europeans, and consequently
more simian in chara(5ler. It will be noticed that this index in the
Tasmanians corresponds more closely with that of the Andamanese and
Negros than the Australians and New Caledonians.

The Tihio-femoral Index. — This shows the proportion which the distal

segment of the lower limb bears to the proximal in the same way as

the antibracheal index does those of the segments of the upper limb.
It averages 84-1 in the male Tasmanians, and 79*1 in the female. In

Europeans this index averages 81 -i in males and 8o-8 in females; in
New Caledonian males 83' i and in females 82-3; in African Negro 82-9,
in Negress 84-4, in Andamanese 84*4, in males and females respeclively
in Australians 84. The tibiofemoral index of the Tasmanian, Andam-
anese, and Australian males is practically the same. The index being
higher than in Europeans shows that the distal segment of the limb is
longer than the proximal.

The Hmncro-femoral Index, — In the Tasmanian males it averages 69"5,
and in the female 69*0^; in Europeans 72-5 in males, in Andamanese
males 70* 3, and in females 69*2 ; in Australian males 71*4- The humerus
of the Tasmanians therefore is relatively shorter in proportion to the
length of femur than in Europeans.

Conclusions.

Having now discussed the various points connedled with the osteology
of the Tasmanians as far as materials will permit, there remains to be
considered the relations of the Tasmanians to other races. Throughout
the previous pages references have been made to the Australians,
Andamanese, New Caledonians and other races resembling the Tasmanians
in one or more respei5\s, in order to ascertain generally the relationship
between their various morphoiogical characflers, so as to be able to form
some conclusions regarding the stock from which the Tasmanians are
descended. The want of material from various islands in the Australasian
and Pacific Archipelagos which still exists is a serious drawback to
being able to study the Tasmanians to most advantage.

The race to which the Tasmanians might naturally be thought most
allied from their geographical position is the Australian, but many
points in the morphological charac5lers of the two races are so totally
unlike as to render this relationship problematical. Topinard and others
have tried to show that there is a woolly-haired race in Australia as
well as the type familiar to us with straight or wavy hair. Most

OSTEOLOGY.

213

authorities agree 111 regarding the Australians as a homogeneous race
peculiar only to Australia, not showing affinities to any of the popula-
tions of the neighbouring islands. In some respecfls the Tasmanians
resemble very closely the Negrito race, not only in the charadler of
their hair, but in some of their osteological chara(5lers. Their relation-
ship to the Polynesians, though suggested, has not received much support.
The Melanesian race has by many persons been claimed as that to
which the Tasmanians are most nearly allied, and many of their mor-
phological charadters support this hypothesis. Unfortunately, the material
at our disposal for an exhaustive study of the Melanesians from the
various groups of islands is very limited, and indeed insufficient for an
adequate determination of the question, the best represented being the
New Caledonians ; they are, however, probably tinged, to some extent,
with Polynesian blood. From the osteological charadlers and those of the
hair, skin, etc., it appears as if the Tasmanians were most allied to the
Negrito and Melanesian types. In any case the Tasmanians have
remained for a long period isolated from other races, as evidenced by
the uniformity of their osteological charadlers. It may seem somewhat
difficult to relate the Tasmanians to the two races just named so far
separated under the present existing geographical distribution of land
and water. The Negritos appear to have been much more widely spread
than at present, and give every evidence of being a very primitive type ;
so that, as Flower has suggested, they may be the primitive stock from
which the Melanesians on the one hand and the African Negroes on
the other have been derived. Such an hypothesis of the relationship
of the Negrito to the Melanesian would explain perhaps the similarity
of morphological charadlers found to exist between these races and the
Tasmanians. Should this be the case, the Tasmanians would, like the
Andamanese, be the remnants of a primitive stock from which the other
Melanesians have sprung.

In order to give a full list of the different measurements of the
skull the series of measurements made by Topinard of the Paris speci-
men has been subjoined.

Tasmanians in Paris.
The Head as a Whole.

1 Vertical maximum projedlion

2 Diam. trans. Max. or Bizygomatic

Index of the ist to the 2nd

Circumference
Antero-
posterior

Transverse
Circumference

Horizontal
Circumference

Skull

Cerebral part of frontal
' Parietal
Supra-occipital
Sub-occipital . .
Length of foram, mag.
Basio-supraorbital radius
Total circumference
Supra auriculo-bregmal curve
Circ. or diam. trans, supra-auric.
Total circumference
Anterior curve, pre-auricular
Posterior curve, post-auricular .

6 Males.

2 Females

190-

171-

130-4

123-5

1457

137-6

ii6*6

110-5

126-5

121-

57-

53*

54'

51-

34'

32.

1094

105-

497-8

472-5

3033

284-

122-

1205

4253

4045

2425

237

281 I

269

5236

506

a 14

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF

««

Antero-post. diam. max.

Diam. bi-parietal max

Cephalic index^ horizontal
Vertical diam. (basio-bregmal)
Index cephalic vertical
Diam, trans, frontal, min. f taken on the

M supr. \ crest, temp.
,, ,. maximum (proper)

„ occip. (bi-asteric) • .
,, antero postiniac ..
Approx. relation of the eftter. volume
Capacity ..
Basilo-ophryal radius
Basilo-mental
Max. fiacial angle

Max. facial length from ophryon to chin
Max. facial br^uith, (bizygomatic)
Index of max. L. and- B.
Bist. o( supr. orb. p<Mnt to line of min. icont. diam

to root of nose
to sup. alvelor point
to Bub-naaal pomt .
Diam trans, ext. bi-orbital median (bi-malar sup.)
., bimalar (des pommettes)
,« inferior

Orbital height

,, breadth . . . . .•

Oitntal index . . • .

Dapth of Orbits

Overhang of sup. orb. border beyond infr.
Interorbital width

Depth of naaal notch

Length of nasal bones (median)
Ntision to sub-nasal point

Vutd breadth

Minimum height of sub. maxillae
Minimum sup. maxillary breadth

Length ci palate vault

lieight 0i symphyses of mandible
Height of posterior branch

Bigonial width

Honz. dist. from p. supra orb. to p. sub-nasal

p. 9UD-nasal to p. alveol sup.
M p- sAv. sup. to incisor summit

M .. p. iucis. sammit to p. alv. infer.

.. M P- slIv. inf. to sub-mental p.

Prognathism alv. dent. sup.

•I »> mi. • •

Angle facial max. (Camper)
,1 „ median

,, ,, mm. . .

Difference of max. and mim. . .

Different Measurements.

Horizontal axis of Broca

Height of occ. for. (ant bord. above the axis)

Breadth of occ. foramen

Index of occ. for. L = loo

Basilo-iniac radius

Basilo-lambdoidal radius

Basilo-nasial radius
Basilo-subnasial radius . .
Basilo-alveolar sup. radius

TASMANIA.

1 6 Males

2 Females

184-5

175-5

142-8

131-5

774

749

1312

1205

7£I

687

945

92*2

107-

io6-

III-2

107-

1098

103-5

180-3

174-

1 1035

9670-

1376

1103-

1094

105-

115-1

99-

69^

72°

1266

I20'

130-4

"3-5

973

968

i6-6

185

803

8o-

66-8

63-

1073

103-

IIO-8

98-

914

95-

29*9

30-

39-

37-

766

8i-

535

23-6

21-

14*6

135

488

435

275

265

146

14'

666

62-

52'

30-

25-

54-

39'

933

92-

iO'4

4-2

—

2*5

75°7

8o°3

69°5

72°I

63°7

—

12°

195-9

184-

, IO-8

281

26-

855

81-2

876

84-

"34

104

966

103-

968

100-4

59-

OSTEOLOGY.

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H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

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at8

H. LING ROTH.^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Measurements of Six Tasmanian Crania from the Oxford University

M u SE u M. — (Pitt-Rivers* Collection).

By dr. GABRIEL FARMER, Department of Human Anatomy.

The Seventh skull was not obtainable.
Catalogue No.

1017
1019
1020
1021

Date of receipt.
January 8th, 1864
January 8th, 1864

No.

No. I. — Tasmanian Skull

No. 2. — Tasmanian Cranium

No. 3. — ^Tasmanian Cranium Rev. W. W. Spicer, Donor.

No. 4. — Skull Tasmanian (?) said to have been brought back

by Capt. Cook, and to be Polynesian. Appears to

be Tasmanian from Dr. Ridd*s catalogue. G. R.

Ch. Ch.
No. 5.— Tasmanian Cranium (Ruxton). Pitt-Rivers' Collection,

1887.
No. 6. — Tasmanian Cranium (Ruxton). Pitt- Rivers' Collection,

1887.

6 Craniam appears to be the only one which can be said to be female (adult) ;

the rest are probably all male (adult) crania.

I02IA

I02IB

No. I

1
No 2

No 3

No. 4,

No 5'

No. 6

cc.

cc,

Cubic Capacity

II60

1 120

1 100

1200

1 120

1025

All Microcephalic

mm.

mm. ,

mm.

Glabellar occipital length

183

170

180

170

171

160

Ophryo occipital length. .

184

170

177

170

169

162

Basi bregmatic

123

132

X2I

129

127

125

Vertical Index

667

77*5

75-5

7«

No. I & 3 = Tapein-

scephalic.
No. 4 & 5 =s Metrio-

cephalic.
No. 2 & 6 = Akro-

Minimal frontal diam. . .

Stephanie ,.

102

103

112

lOI

Artinonic

1035

105

104

Greatest breadth

130

128

140

134

130

cephalic.

Cephalic Index

705

8i-5

No. I & 3 = Dolico-

Horizontal circumference

504

490

495

507

495

470

cephalic.

Frontal longitudinal arc.

130

125

124

130

lao

No. 2 &5=Mesati-

Parietal ., ,, . .

125

118

128

118

112

cephalic.

• WW » »

Occipital „ „ ..

112

105

J115

107

112

105

No. 4 & 6sBrachy-

i Total

367

34«

' 364

365

350

332

cephalic.

Vertical transverse arc . .

290

280

300

297

285

1 Length of Foramen mag..

335

Hasi- nasal length

Dasi-alveolar length

103

101

! Gnathic Index

lOI

106

101

103

100

No. 2 = Prognathous

Tnterzygomatic breadth.

123

128

126

127

126

' 120

the rest meso^ath-

1 Inter malar

III

114

117

116

1 "3

109

ous.

! Ophryo-alveolar length . .

Naso-alveolar length

1 56

Facial Index

586

59-3

63-5

59 5

67-5

, Nasal height

"^l

j Nasal width

1 26

' Nasal Index

62-8

5«

58-5

All Platyrhine.

Orbital width

; Orbital height

. Orbital Index

7^-5

«i-5

All Microseme.

ralato-maxillary length.

' 52 ?

i 55

ralato-maxillary breadth

' 63

1 *ALATO- MAXILLA k Y

1
1

Ini)i:x...

112- 7

103

121

112

|iio-5

OSTEOLOGY.

219

Mandibles of No, 1 and No, 4.

Symphysial height

Covenoid

Condyloid

27
55
48

26
58
42

Genio — Symph. length . .
Intergonial width
Breadth of asc. ram.

94
76

95
85
38

Table of Measurements of Articulated Tasmanians,

J. Barnard Davis.

(All MbASURBMBNTS in MlLLBMBTfeSS).

1. Height of the Skeleton, from the Vertex to the

prominence at the base of the Os Calcis

2. Length of the Vertebral Column, from the upper

surface of the Atlas to the lower surface of the
last Lumbar Vertebra

3. Length of the Os Sacrum, in a right line

4. Breadth of the Os Sacrum

5. Height of the entire Pelvis, from a line on the level

of the top of the Cristas Ilii to another on a level
with the lower surface of the Tuberosities of the
Ischia '

6. Distance between the Cristae Ilii, inside

7. Distance between the Anterior Superior Spines of

the Ilia, inside ^

8. Transverse diameter of the superior opening of the

Pelvis

9. Conjugate diameter of the superior opening of the

Pelvis

10. Pelvic Index, or ratio of conjugate to transverse

diameter, taken as unity

11. Transverse diameter of the outlet of the Pelvis, in-

side the Tuberosities of the Ischia

12. Conjugate diameter of the outlet, from the lower

edge of the Symphises Pubis to the tip of the
Sacrum

13. Breadth of the shoulders from the outside of one

Acromion to that of the other

14. Length of the Humerus, extreme length

13. Length of the Ulna, extreme length

16. Length of the Radius, extreme length

17. Length of the Hand, from the upper arch of the Os

Lunare to the point of the middle finger . .

18. Length of the wnole upper extremity

19. Length of the Femur, extreme length

20 Length of Tibia, extreme length

21. Lengtli of Fibula, extreme length . .

22. Length of Foot, extreme length

23. Length of the whole lower extremity

24. Proportion of the length of the Arm to that of the

L^ =100, of No. 18-23

25. Proportion of the length of the Radius to that of

the Humerus — 100

26. Proportion of the length of the Tibia to that of the

Femur = i-oo

27. Proportion of the length of the Femur to the Stat-

ure

28. Angle formed by the arch of the Pubis

No, 1 761
(f aet.
c. 30.

mm.
1640

523

107

175
234

208
107

lOI

•94
76

109

302
312
274

251

167

725
463
383
370
215

893
81

■80

•82

28
62°

Anthrop

Inst •

S aet.

c 30.

mm.
1584

533
107

192
234

208

109
104

•95

117

302

302
265

246

178

710

434
380

360

234
875

81
80

•87

27*4
68-

R. C. Surgeons.
England.

? aet.
c. 25.

mm.
1612

477

102

185
243

233
114

104

112

368
312
284
265

190

755
458

395
338
231
898

84
•86

283
70^

? aet.
c. 25.

mm.
1408

459
95
99

151
237

214
120

•83
105

117

315
266

266
234

208?

622

388

309

317
177

743
■81

•78
80

28
92°

Now in Nat. Hist. Mus , South Kensington.

220

H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Dimensions of the Skulls of Aborigines of Tasmania from the

Cambridge University Collection.

Measurements made by W. L. H. Duckworth, Esq., Jesus College, Cambridge

20th, 1893.

Oaober

Skull No.

1095

1096

B t

Skull No.

1095

1006

B ,

Sex

Male

Male'

^<j

Age

Adult

Aged !

Palato maxiliary brea-

Cubic Capacity

■ •

1 130

(•PP)-

dth
Horizontal circumfer-

• •

Maximum length

• •

180

180 '

ence

. .

499

502

Ophryo-occipital len-

1
1

Supra auricular arc

290

282

285 ,

gth

• •

174

177

Oblique parietal arc

• •

347

340 ,

Ophryo-iniac length

• •

172

177

Frontal arc

125

124

124 '

Occi pi to-spinal length

• •

184

■ ■ 1

Parietal arc

121

128

Occipito-alveolar len-

Occipital arc supr.

gth

• ■

192

• •

Occipital arc, infr.

a •

■ «

Maximum breadth

« a

I33P

130PI

Jugo- nasal arc ,

103

104

.. 1

Bi-asterical breadth

• *

109

105

Bi -auricular breadth

112

118

118 '

— ™ __

- -,

Bi-stephanic breadth

107

100

96?

Lower Jaw. No.

1095

• . 1

Mmimum frontal brea-

dth

88 '

Symphysial Height

. . 1

External biorbital

105?

Coronoid Height

« *

breadth

104

103

Condylar Height

. .

Minimum interorbital

Gonio-symphysial

breadth

length

• •

Jugo nasal Breadth

• > <

Intergonial breadth

.. 1

Bi-malar breadth

108

Intercoronoid breadth

, .

Bi-zygomatic breadth

• ■

124

' ' 1

Intercondylar breadth

Bi-maxiliary breadth

. . 1

external

105

103

• a

Ophryo-mental length

129?

■ •

Intercondylar breadth,

Ophryo-alveolar len-

internal

a ■

gth

Breadth of Ascending

Naso-mental length

102

K •

• ■ 1

Ramus

• •

Naso -alveolar length

Angle of Ascending

Basi-mental length

■ ■

Ramus

108°

114-

Basi -alveolar length

103

Basi -nasal length

Basi-bregmatic length

123

.. 1

Indices, No.

1095

1096

Basion-obelion length

• ■

118

- —

— - -

Basion-lambda length

• •

107

Cephalic

• •

73 9

723

Basi-iniac length

• •

Vertical

« •

684

• •

Basion-opisthion len-

Alveolar

1132

103 15

• ■

gth

• a

Orbital

763

784

a •

Breadth of Foramen

Nasal

634

649

• •

Magnum

Palato maxiliary

105

1235

• •

Orbital Height

Superior Facial (Bro-

Orbital Breadth

ca)

• ■

70- 2

• •

Nasal Height

Superior Facial (Koll-

Nasal Breadth

mann)

« ■

468

a a

Palato maxiliary len-

Stephano zygomatic

■ •

806

• • 1

gth

• •

Naso malar

no 75

iiO'6

Note. — The mandible with No. 1095 does not appear to really belong to it.

CHAPTER XIV.
The Origin of the Tasmanians.

A GREAT deal has been written about the Origin of the Tasmanians,
and we seem gradually to be nearing a definite settlement of the
question of the origin of the lost race. As many writers of eminence
have interested themselves in this subjedl, it will not be out of place
here to give a recapitulation of their views. In this recapitulation the
views of early writers and explorers have not been included, for the
reason that they are mostly guesses based on erroneous or quite
insufficient knowledge, nor do they in any way help in the inquiry.

Prof. Huxley (J.E.S. ii. pp. 130- 131), while pointing out that the type of
Australian man is quite distinct from that of the Tasmanian, considered
it ** physically impossible that the Tasmanian could have come from
Australia, and apparently the only way of accounting for the presence
of the Tasmanian was to assume his migration from New Caledonia and
the neighbouring islands. It would appear that at one time a low Negrito
type spread eastwards and reached Tasmania, not by means of direct
and uninterrupted land communication between New Caledonia and Tas-
mania, but rather by means of broken land in the form of a chain
of islands now submerged, similar to that which at present extends
between New Caledonia and New Guinea.'* In a later paper, ** On
the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Man-
kind '* {ibid p. 404), Prof. Huxley classifies the Tasmanians as one of the
group belonging to the Negroid type and to which the name Negrito is
given : ** In the Andaman Islands, in the Peninsula of Malacca, in the
Phillipines, in the islands which stretch from Wallace's line eastward
and southward, nearly parallel with the east coast of Australia, to New
Caledonia, and, finally, in Tasmania, men with dark skins and woolly
hair occur who constitute a special modification of the Negroid type —
the Negritos. Only the Andamans have presented skulls approaching or
exceeding -an index of 80 ; all the other Negritos, the crania of which
have been examined, are dolichocephalic. But the skulls ot the eastern
and southern Negritos present, as I have mentioned,* a remarkable ap-
proximation to the Australioid type, and differ notably from the ordinary
African Negroes in the great brow ridges and in the pentagonal norma
occipitalis. The best known and most typical of these eastern Negritos
are the inhabitants of Tasmania and New Caledonia, and those of the

* *' No skulls are, in general, so easily recognizable as fair examples of those of the
Australians, though those of their nearest neighbours, the inhabitants of the Negrito
Islands, are frequently hardly distinguishable from them."

222 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

islands of Torres Straits and of New Guinea. In the outlying islands
to the eastward, especially, in the Feejees, the Negritos have certainly
undergone considerable intermixture with the Polynesians; and it seems
probable that a similar crossing with Malays may have occurred in New
Guinea."

Prof. Fried. M tiller (ii. p. 182), without acflually stating that the
Tasmanians are allied to the Australians, or even showing that any
analogy exists between these two, classifies the Tasmanians under the
heading of Australian races. He calls the Australians smooth, straight-
haired (straf'shlichthaartg) races. He ignores altogether that the Tas-
manians were a pronounced woolly-haired race.

Dr. Brin ton's classification, is tabulated as follows :*

Scheme of Insular and Litoral Peoples.

I. Negritic Stock. — i. Negrito Group: Mincopies, Aetas, Schobaengs,

Mantras, Semangs, Sakaies. 2. Papuan Group : Papuas, New Guin-
eans. 3. Melanesian Group : Natives of Fiji Islands, New Caledonia,
Loyalty Islands, New Hebrides, &c.

II. Malayic Stock. — i. Malayan Group: Malays, Sumatrese, Javanese,

Battaks, Dayaks, Macassars, Tagalas, Hovas (of Madagascar). 2.
Polynesian Group : Polynesians, Micronesians, Maories.

III. AusTRALic Stock. — i. Australian Group : Tasmanians, Australians.
2. Dravidian Group : Dravidas, Tamuls, Telugas, Canarese, Malayalas,
Todas, Khonds, Mundas, SantAls, Kohls, Bhillas.

According to Brinton, therefore, there is no connecflion between the
Nigritos and the Tasmanians. Speaking of the Australians, he continues (p.
240). *• Their appearance differs considerably, although it is generally con-
ceded that they speak related idioms, and originally came from one lineage
or language. The Tasrhanians had quite furry or woolly hair, and according
to reliable observers, corresponded closely in habits and appearance to
the Papuas," and in a foot note he adds : ** This is the positive state-
ment of Geo. W. Earl, who had seen Tasmanians." I think, however,
there is some mistake here, for while Earl says+ the Tasmanians " are
Papuans in their general characSleristics ; indeed their habits and appear-
ances correspond with those of the Andaman Islanders," he does not
say he ever saw a Tasmanian, nor is there any record that he visited
any but the northern portion of the Australian continent.

Topinard, publishing in 1871 (Mem. Soc. d'Anth. vol. iii. p. 322), and
in summarizing his study of the crania of the Tasmanians, stated that
the skulls of Australians and Tasmanians examined by him differed con-
siderably, and he gave it as his opinion that these two peoples were
distinct races. He then made comparisons with other peoples, and said
(P' 323) the black New Caledonians are not closely allied to the
Tasmanians, but are closely allied with the Australians, and on p. 324
that amongst the Australians and New Caledonians the face resembles
the Tasmanians, whilst amongst the Polynesians of Tahiti and the Mar-

• Races and Peoples, New York, 1890.
t The Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, Papuans, London, 1853, p. 188.

ORIGIN. 223

quesas it is the skull which resembles that of the Tasmanians. He
places (p. 325) the Tasmanians between the Australians, New Caledonians,
New Hebrideans, Torres Islanders and natives of Papua generally on
the one hand, and between the New Zealanders, Tahitians and Northern
Polynesians on the other. His general summary is (p. 126), that if
there are certain reasons for considering the Tasmanians to be
the remains of an autochthonous race, originally pure and very distin(5l
from those who surrounded them, there are equally valid reasons for
considering them to be of multiple origin ; in the latter case they would
be the fixed product of a cross between the black autochthonous race
and of one of the invading groups of the great Polynesian family."

Although Topinard did not publish his paper until the end of 1871,
it was really written two years previously, and he had before then
communicated his views to Bonwick.* In so far as I am able to under-
stand Bonwick, he considers the whole of Eastern Australia to have
been originally peopled by the late Tasmanians as an autochthonous
race which was exterminated by the Australians, who, however, not
having the means to invade New Guinea, New Caledonia or Tasmania,
has left us the aboriginal races in these islands (Journ. Ethn. Soc. vol.
ii. N S. 1870, p. 121).

Sir Wm. Flower, writing in 1878, and after a general comparison of
the Tasmanians with the Australians, says : ** The view, then, that I am
most inclined to adopt of the Origin of the Tasmanians is that they
are derived from the same stock as the Papuans or Melanesians; that
they reached V. D. Land, by way of Australia, long anterior to the
commencement of the comparatively high civilization of those portions of
the race still inhabiting New Guinea and the adjacent islands, and also
anterior to the advent in Australia of the existing native race, char-
a(fterized by their straight hair and the possession of such weapons as
the boomerang, throwing-stick, and shield, quite unknown to the
Tasmanians. But these speculations on the relations, history, and migra-
tions of the people who inhabit South-Eastern Asia and Australasia,
require for their confirmation far more minute examination and comparison
of their languages, customs, beliefs, and as I think, most important of
all, their physical characflers, than has yet been bestowed upon them."
(Royal Institution Ledlures, 1878.) Seven years later in his presidential
address, he says: ** The now extinift inhabitants of Tasmania, were
probably pure but aberrant members of the Melanesian group which have
undergone a modification from the original type, not by a mixture with

• In a foot note (p. 328) at the end of the table of measurements Topinard speaking
of the publication of Bonwick's book " The Daily Life of the Tasmanians," says:
"It contains a list of measurements, which I have placed at his disposal, and a
note which I did not intend for publication. They were only simple notes, a pre-
liminary enquiry for further verification. Since then I have had to discard from
my series one cranium of doubtful origin ; I have added two others and I have
replaced some of the measurements for others which are more corredl.

" In conclusion the opinions expressed in the present m^moire are the only ones
I am prepared to uphold, as resulting stridlly from the analysis of my eight certain
skulls. It is my intention to compare them shortly with other Tasmanian series»
especially those of Barnard Davis, and to draw common conclusions from them."

224 H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

other races, but in consequence of long isolation, during which special
characters have gradually developed. Lying completely out of the track
of all civilization and commerce, even of the most primitive kind, they
were little liable to be subjecfl to the influence of any other race, and
there is in fad\ nothing among their chara<5lers which could be accounted
for in this way, as they were intensely, even exaggeratedly Negroid in
the form of nose, proje<5lion of mouth, and size of teeth, typically so in
character of hair, and aberrant chiefly in width of skull in the parietal
region. A cross with any Polynesian or Malay races sufficiently strong
to produce this would in all probability have left some traces on other
parts of their organisation " — J.A.I.

De Quatrefages and Hamy state (p. 238): *'From whatever point we
may look at it, the Tasmanian race presents such very special char-
acteristics that it is quite impossible to discover any well-defined affinities
(affiniies etroiUs) with any other existing human race. Placed in certain
respecfls between the groups studied above [the Negritos and the Negrito-
Papuans] and those to be studied next [the Papuans] , it detaches itself
completely from both, and the anthropologist who studies it with attention
soon convinces himself that from among the negro races it forms quite
a division to itself. It is, however, less remote from the races we just
studied [Nigritos and Nigrito-Papuans] than from those we we are about
to study [Papuans] ."

Abstract of Genealogical Table after De Quatrefages, to show the
Relationship between the Tasmanians and other

Negroid Families.

Negro or Ethiopian.

)-M«

Austro- African. Australian. Indo-Melanesian

African

{aberrant

type).

Saab. Kamr. Negritic. Nubian. Negrillo

Papuan. Tzismanian. Negrito,

Australians Australians Negrito- Papuans. Dravi- Negrito,
proper. Neanderthalo'ides. dians.

Andaman-
ese.

In a later publication De Quatrefages (Introdudlion a 1' Etude des
Races Humaines, Paris, 1889, p. 343) again places the Tasmanians
between the Negrito-Papuans and the Papuans, but he also enlarges
considerably against his previous view by giving a very definite opinion
as to the relationship between the Tasmanians and other races. He
says (ibid. p. 364) : ** All philologists who have studied the Tasmanian
language have described therein grammatical affinities which conne<5l
them with those of Australia. Maury unites them both in one family;
Jukes recognises still closer relationship between the languages of

ORIGIN. 225

Tasmania and of New Caledonia — an opinion agreeing with that of Logan.
These results throw some light on the ancient past of this unhappy race.
They permit of an insight into the ancient relationships between these
various groups, and seem to indicate the route taken by the Tasmanian
race in reaching the island where it was to develop and to extinguish
itself. Moreover, they justify the conjecfture I am about to make
regarding the Australians." . . . He then goes on to point out that
in Australia there are two distindl types, which he calls Australians
proper and Australians neanderthaloides — a small group occupying the
country about Adelaide, and having among other chara<5\eristics hair which
closely resembles the woolly hair of the negro ; and he points out that
the existence of this small group is analogous to similar grouping found
among the Dravidians. ** This facft [of the existence of Australians with
woolly hair] can be accounted for by presuming that true negroes formerly
occupied the whole or a part of Australia ; that they were invaded by
a black race with straight hair; and that it is to a blood mixing that
the differences in the hair must be attributed. It is very probable that
the Tasmanians furnished this negritic element. Their former existence
in Australia has nothing about it which may not be very natural, and
their facial characfleristics occasionally approximate closely enough to those
of the Australians to allow of the probability of this hypothesis. An
examination of the skulls of Australians with woolly hair from the
southern tribes would probably solve the question. Finally, if my con-
je<5lure be well founded, we must admit that the crossing must have
taken place at a very remote period, and that the woolly hair could
only reappear more or less modified by atavistic phenomena'' (pp.

368-369).

Dr. Garson says : ** From the osteological charadlers, and those of
the hair skin, etc., it appears as if the Tasmanians were most allied to
the Negrito and Melanesian types. In any case the Tasmanians have
remained for a long period isolated from other races, as evidenced by
the uniformity of their osteological charad^ers. It may seem somewhat
di^fficult to relate the Tasmanians to the two races just named so far
separated under the present existing geographical distribution of land and
water. The Negritos appear to have been much more widely spread
than at present, and give every evidence of being a very primitive
type ; so that, as Flower has suggested, they may be the primitive
stock from which the Melanesians on the one hand and the African
Negroes on the other have been derived Such an hypothesis of the
relationship of the Negrito to the Melanesian would explain, perhaps,
the similarity of physical characters found to exist between these races
and the Tasmanians. Should this be the case, the Tasmanians would,
like the Andamanese, be the remnants of a primitive stock from which
the other Melanesians have sprung.*'

Regarding the hair : Barnard Davis (J.A.I, ii. p. 100) speaks of
the delicate ribbon-like hair of the Tasmanians and Andaman islanders,
and on the same page he states : ** The Tasmanian hair and that of
the Mincopies [Andamans] is the same." The method of wearing the
hair by the male Tasmanians resembles that of Papuan and Negro and
Negrito tribes. But this is mere - custom, and from the following

226

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

comparative study of the hair of Tasmanians, Australians, Andamanese,
and Papuans, for which I am indebted to Prof. Sydney J. Hickson,
F.R.S., it will be seen that in the chara<5leristics of the hair the
Tasmanian is more nearly allied to the Andamanese than any other race.

Prof. Hickson states :

" The hair of the Tasma-
nians is of a light golden-brown
colour, curly, and very flat in
transverse se(5lion. Comparing
it with the hair of other races,
I find that it is lighter in colour
than the hair of the Anda-
manese, which is of a rich
brown colour ; of the Papuans
of the South Coast (New Gui-
nea) which is of a dark -brown
to almost black colour ; or of the
Australians, which is quite black.

" The curliness of the hair
of the Tasmanians is less than
that of any of the Papuans or
Andamanese, but more than
that of the Australians. Thus
the average diameter of the
curl of the Andamanese is 2 mm.
of the Papuan 3 mm., of the
Tasmanian 5 mm., but in the
curliest hair of the Australians
the curls are 10 mm. in diameter
and the average must be nearly
15 mm.

** As to flatness. The hairs
of the Tasmanian and Anda-
manese are much flatter than
those of the Australian and
^apuan. The hair of the
^apuan is flatter than that of
the Australian, but is remark-
ably round for a curly-headed
race. This applies only to the
Papuans of the South Coast
« «rT.vro ^*e (Ncw Guiuea). The hair of

SECTIONS OF HAIR OF AUSTRALIANS, PAPUANS, TAS- ^, _ . • i. j i

MANiANs. AND ANDAMANESE AS A COMPARATIVE the Papuaus mvestigatcd by

STUDY. Prepared and drawn by Prof. S. J. Pruner Bey seems to have been

Hickson, F.R.S. The hair of the Tasmanians much flatter. The hair of the

examined was taken from the colleaions of MM. Tasmanians is finer than the

Eydoux and Demoutier. and kindly placed at ^^.^^ ^^^ ^^^ Papuans and Aus-
my disposal by Dr. Verneau, of the Muse6 1 ^ ^ n ^,

d'Anthr. Jardin des Plantes. Paris. The others tralians, but not SO fine as the

from Prof Moseleys Collection. hair of the Andamanese."

-Tc

asmanians. —

— /? nittm aneSC:—

THE NEW YORK

PUBLIC LIBRARY.

ASTOR. LENOX AND
TILDLN FOwNDATIONS.

ORIGIN. 227

As to the existence of woolly haired Australians we may refer to
Dampier's Voyages (I. p. 464) wherein describing, in 1668, the aborigines
of the west coast he says : " Their hair is black, short, and curl'd,
like that of the negroes, and not long and lank like the common
Indians." Earl (p. 189) tells us : ** Frizzled hair is, however, very
common among several aboriginal Australian tribes more especially those
of the north and north-east coasts, and from the rough appearance of
their uncombed locks when cut short, travellers have on several occasions
been led to suppose that their hair resembled the wool of negroes, until
undeceived by a close inspeiftion. But the peculiar tufted hair ef the
Papuan has never, so far as the writer*s own experience goes, yet been
dete(5led among the aborigines of the continent of Australia."

As to Language : Fr. Miiller (iv. p. 39) says : " The language of
the Andamans shows no affinity either with the Papuan languages or
the idioms of the Nicobar islanders, or with the language of any of the
island inhabitants of the Indian Ocean. We must acknowledge it as
quite a peculiar isolated idiom ; ... in constru(ftion it belongs to the
agglutinating languages." . . . According to A. J* Ellis (Trans. Philol.
Soc. 1882-84, p. 48), " It will be observed the South Andaman language
is very rich in vowel sounds, but is totally deficient in the hisses /, tk,
s, sh, and the corresponding buzzes v^ dh, z^ zh" Further on he tells
us (p. 51): "The word constru<5lion is twofold, that is, they have
affixes and prefixes to the root ot a grammatical nature. The general
principle of word constru(ftion is agglutination pure and simple."

On turning to the chapter on Tasmanian language we find that it
is agglutinating with suffixes, and apparently also with prefixes, in its
word construdlion, and wanting in those hisses and buzzes similarly
wanting among the Andamans As to any particular idiom I have not
been able to distinguish it. From this it will be seen that the Tas-
manian language is not only distiniftly non-Papuan, but that it has
Andamanese charadlers. This is opposed to Latham's view {v. supra,
p. 182).

A comparison of the profile of a South Queensiander, photographed by Mr.
J. J. Lister, of Trinity Coll., Cambridge, as shown on opposite page, will
show how very closely such profile approximates to that of the Tasmanians.

It would therefore appear that, from comparisons made between
Tasmanians and Negritos, we find close relationship as regards the
osteology, the hair, and the language, and we are, perhaps, not far
wrong in concluding that this Nigritic Stock once peopled the whole of
the Australian continent and Tasmania, until annihilated and partly
assimilated by the invaders now known as Australians. The evidence
of a neolithic invasion, brought forward by Professor Tylor at the Bristol
Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, appears
to give further support to the theory.* Furthermore, it may possibly
be that some of the now known Australian ceremonies have been
borrowed by the invaders, for we are told by Spencer and Gillen that
f a wne rly the Australian women were allowed more cognisance of the

* Oil the Survival of Palaeolthic Conditions in Tasmania and Australia, with Special
Reference to the Modern Use of Unground Stone Implements in West Australia.

228 H, LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

mysteries than at present, and as even in savage warfare women are
rather captured than killed, the conquering Australians may have adopted
some Tasmanian customs. Some of our meagre accounts of Tasmanian
customs show a possible likeness to Australian customs, always bearing
in mind the possibility that the records may be mixed ; such Tasmanian
customs are the corrobories, the curious strudlures, fire legends, ants
reviving dead people, the use of a separate fire by each family, and
the alleged use of mocassins, the latter possibly the same as the feather
tracking shoes of the Australians. Pra(ftically, however, although these
customs may show a link between the incoming Australians and the
ancestors of the Tasmanians on the island continent, we know too little
of them to give a definite opinion. Nevertheless, the fanSi that we find
Tasmanoid features (hair, shape of skull, unground stone implements) amongst
the Australians, but no Australoid features (lank or curly hair, throwing-
stick, hafted ground stone implements, boomerangs, and shields) among
the Tasmanians, supports the theory that the Tasmanians were the
aboriginal inhabitants of Australia. The sad and untimely destru<5lion
of this interesting primitive race is one of the greatest losses Anthropology
has suffered, for the race, while' living, carried with it all possibilities 4ag.
for such studies as for years past have been made with ever increasing
success amongst the Australians, but which, in the case of the Tasma-
nians, we have unfortunately negledled.

APPENDIX A.

NORMAN'S VOCABULARY.

**'PHE following vocabulary, which has never been in print, was
1 forwarded to me by the late J. E. Calder. It was colledted by
the late Rev. James Norman, at Port Sorrell, Tasmania, at which place
he resided for many years as minister. In what tribes the words
recorded were in use is not known." — (Curr, Vol. III.)

English

Ant (large)
Ascend (v)

Back (s) ...
Bark, to ...
Bark (s) ...
Baskets (native)
Be quiet ...
Beef
Big

Birthplace ...
Bite, to
Black beetle
Blood

Blow, to ...

Bone

Bread

Break, see Kill

Breasts

Bring, to ...

Bring water

Bush

Calf (of leg)

Caress, to ...

Cat (domestic)

Catamaran (raft)

Chief

Child (black)

tyanermlnner, wayenennfir
taccarnar, tangaruar

karmurar, kamdurrenar

tSlarnter

moomSre

tringherar, poakilar, meerar, parnellar

carranSr

parkallar

jack^rdmSnar

moledderner

leeanner

tarrargar, noonghenar, wollibbfimer

myagurmeener, wyatSrmeener, pentSrwar-

tener
IScoonghenar, loangare
trarmenar, triannar, pSnarthenar
tooreelier

narrargoonar, trarw€rlarner, tSburcarlodner

worrar

mokenur, woorunar

meethSnar, pungalannar

warkellar

kayerpangurner, kamerminner

wyarningherwunghemer

lodcrapperner

nS&ndrarner

p56rnethenar

NORMAN S VOCABULARY.

Climb, to

Clothing

Cockatoo

Cold

Come

Conveyance

Convalescent

Copulate ...

Cramp

Crow

Cry, to

Cuts in skin (ornamental)

Cut, to

Dead

Deception ...

Descend, to

Dig, to

Dirty

Dive (v) ...

Dog

Drink, to ...

Dull — stupid

XZtfdl ... ...

Earth

Exclamations of surprise
Exclamation to draw attention
Evil spirit...
Excrement...
Expression of Salutation

jL i/ y ^ • « • • • •

Fall down...
Fiddle

A 1 i C^ • • ■ • • ■

Fire-tail (a bird)
P'ire a gun, scourge
Flatulent ...

Fold up ...

Food

Foot

Forehead ...

Frightened

Frog

Flv

Give away, to
Go, to

tarrarnarrar, croanghinnfee

tuemar, tuernarnar

toonanarnee

krarwarlar

teeaner

leearmoorar

taggurpeelar, numenopeetar

trokenur

worgoodiack

lunyer, mokerer, teeanderoodenar triunyur

terrar

potthenar

tatraanghiner, oongurterpooler

blagurdediur, wordiock

parmereuco, garhSrehobere

mabberkennar, congurlunhiner

martielcootenar, nonermeenar

pleggurlermlnner, triagurbugherne

togurlongurberner

moograr

temokenur

toanner

teemurladdenane

triagurbugurne, plegurlarner

tegurner

allar ! nomebeu !

nee ! nee !

lagueropperne

tvaner, teethanSr

peulTnghenar, plegagenar

plegurlethar, nebbelteethenar, neurikeenar

nabberallick, nayendree

lagapack, lagrerminner, langamark

partroller

pootherenner

llnghenefi

tickarnar, teeagurnaunerne

neunar

languenee

glbbly

langoonar

monur, noonghiner

terrewartenar

roUaner

neboolyunar, marnar, marpooemartenar

parragonee, teaghener, rappee
tagurner, trarwernar

NORMAN S VOCABULARY.

Ill

Go back, to

canghene

topeltee

Go away ...

parrarwar

Goat

martillarghellar

Good

narrarcooper

Ciood-bye . . .

woUighererpernarner

Grape

turrurcurtar, turrocurthenar

Grass

rorertherwartener

Grass (long)

troonar, nungurminner

Grub, found under the roots

narnar, narnarnanne

of trees

Gum

• • • • • ■

marnar, mdonar

Gum-tree ...

• • • ■ • •

warterooenar, planduddenar

Hair

• • ■ ■ • •

lagurnerbarner

Han^^ (execute)

• ■ • • ■ •

troguiligurdick, wartherpoothertick

Hand

• • • • • ■

rajurner, narneruienner, partererminner

He, she

• > • ■ • ■

narrar

Head

• • • • • «

neucougular, neugolar, peecarkerleinarmer

Here

• • • ■ • ■

lumbe

Horse

■ » • • • •

parcoutenar

House

• ■ ■ • • •

leebrerne, lopenarne

Hungry (stomach

empty) . . .

plonerpurtick

Hut

■ • * • • •

peungurnee, nartick

Iguana [sic]

« ■ • • « •

martherrddenar, leenar, peelena, meethenna

• • • • • ■

niggur

Jaw (under)

• • • • * ■

camuner

Jaw (upper)

« » • • ■ •

naarwinner

Kangaroo . . .

• • • • • •

terrar, woolar, iilar, pleathenar

Kangaroo rat

• • « • • •

keuperrar

Kangaroo sinew

• « • * • •

laerpenner

Kill or break

• • • • • ■

crackerpucker, tamur

Kiss, to

• • * • • •

melikener, pigurner

Knead, to ...

• • • • • •

trallerpereener, benghernar, narrynar

Knee

■ ■ • • • ■

narnerpenner, pleanerpenner

Laugh

• • • • • •

pilleurmolar, pickernar, mackererpillarne

Lazy

• ■ • • • •

warterpoolyar, nemeener

Leg

• • • ■ ■ B

plegurner, lurerener

Lips

• ■ • • • ■

wurlerminner

Look !

• ■ • • « ■

tronecartee !

Look, to ...

• • • • • •

labberar

Look at me

• • • • ■ •

labberar meener

Magpie

■ • « • • •

callecotoghener, trubrarnar

Man (White)

• ■ « • « •

loderwinner

Man (Black)

■ ■ • • • *

wibar

• • • • • •

meener

NORMAN S VO<"ABULARY.

Mimosa (prickly)
Moon see Sun
More
Mouth
Move
Music

Mushroom (not eaten by the
Blacks)

aVA LXsJVC^L «•« •«• •»•

Al USS6i ... ... ...

Mosquito ...
Mutton

i^ aus ... ... ...

Nprk

^ ^ V./'V' AV •«• ••• •*•

Nice or palatable ...

^ ^ v.' A*. •■• •••

No good ...

x^ v#s^ •.• «•« •••

X-^ &AVr/ •.• ••■ ••.

open
Opossum ...

Jk V^ d^^ » M ■•• ••• ••■

Peppermint-tree

Pie

Pigeon

Pidture

Plenty

Posteriors ...
Pregnancy ...
Presently ...
Prick, to ...
Pull to (a boat)
Put or place (v) ...
Put on (v)

XVdlll ... ... ...

Raw (relating to meat)
Roast, to ...
Rub, to
Run, to

Salt-water or sea ...
Scorbutic complaint, name of
Seaweed

^j^^\> ••• *.« >••

Sirk
Sing, to

pavem Inner, rapprinner

weemintr

mOkerlecbrer

lingurninne

nayameroocamee, neberle, carnee

plennar, neerar, neeraik, nieerorar

partrollarne (see Fire), leunar, loeen ir
poackerler, parnellar, warkeller
niokerer

mart. liar

teuniincr, mar there roomenar

plea. .« I .rdbberner, loorener

leek ' ler, troanghener

nuiM'iierv/ar

noiul'Mrk

maiiC A urrar, moonar

niarit rv an, borar, parmere
lce.:r av, leeangwullerary
wo In niemer, tarrarnderrar

wari( roorarnar, beemguoganar

meet erbenar, moighenar

com* artlnguner, probrithener

lariui:, larrenar

neeni.rteekener, loteebemeenemer, loteeghe-

nai
pannerprar

catorar, warbererteener
trairardlck, nomercurtick, planewoorask
parroniack, peemar
trounglienne

parijonee, wayabbemer, lucroppener
plangener
toan()hinnee, mokenurminner

toorar

pleenduddiack, mancar

meer rrr, marngumer

newmertewghenar

nounqhenar

mokenur, trarwerlar

peunerminner, leallerminner

penneagurner, neoonendenar

neunkenar

loneroner, memunrack

carnerwelegurner

NORMAN S VOCABULARY.

Sit down ...

Shake hands

Shake, to

Shut

Skin

Sky

Sleep, to

Smoke

Soldier (a corruption)

Song, sung by women in a

standing posture
Sprat

Speak, to ...
Spear
Spit, to
Stare or track
Starfish
Stay
Stone

Stomach . . .
Stomachful
Strike
Strong
Suck
Sun and Moon (left undis

tinguished)
Swim, to ...

Take off, to

Thighs

Tiger (native)

Toadstool ...

Tobacco

Toe

To-day

Tooth

Tongue

Touch, to ...

Trinket
Three

There

Throw, to ...

Two

Unfinished...
Urine

Vomit, to ...
Waddy (club)
Walk, to ...

crackemee

namermeriner, parlerlerminer

peeng wartenar

pomeway, pewterway

neeamurrar, loantagarnar, moomtenar

tooreener

logurner

noon wartenar, eularmmnSr

tooyar

mazgurickercarner

pellogannor, ploo-criminnur

carmee

arlenar, peeamer, pleeplar

mamerminner, petherwartenar

lamgerner

maenkdo, maarkanner

ulvugheme

teewartear, lamar, peurar, noeenar

ploner, plaangner

plonerboniack

lurgurnarmoonar, riagurner

noomeanner

marrarwar

tooweenyer, larthelar, warkellenner, larther-

tegumer
tringhener

licanghener, licdorar

trungermarteenar, kaarwerrar

crimererrar

pyagumer

mayerkeperlarlee

lagurner

larthertegurner

leeaner

trarwerner, kanewurrar

narnerminner

derenner, neandramer

wyandirwar

marnder

perrerpenner, lugurpemeller

pyanerbarwar

permayniertick
moonghenar

neugonar, wyangurner, penagherermeener

Hilar

podplanghenack, warkcrdoner

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Wash, to ...

legumer

Water

mookenner

Wattle-tree

mdonar

Wind

linghenar, teeverluttenar, langumeiiai

Wipe, to ...
Wing of bird

nagunner, nabruckertarner
podrunnar, paranerrar

warrander

Woman, anything appertaining to
Wombat ...

teebrarmokenur
probriddener

Wood

• • «

ft • •

weenar, weenarname

Wood ashes

• • •

weentiennar, protroltiennar

Whistle, to
Whiskers . .

• • •

• ■ •

■ ■ •
• * ■

peucannor, ploogaminner, peunoonghener
carmeener

Yes
You

• • *
■ • •

• • •

paruxar, parwarlar
neener

Names of Natives given in the Rev. Mr. Norman's Vocabulary.

Ben Lomond Mob.

Leemogannar, the Chief.

Women's Names.

Teemee

Mayt^enner

Mallangarparwarleenar

Prlgnapannar

Parthernerpennener

Teetherwubbelar

Teeturterar

Treearpanner

Tinghererperrar

Teewerlerpooner

Tarthertildrer

Rangurmanner

N eandererpooner

Keeterpooner

Teelutterar

Teugurerpanner

Morennar

CuppSrlangunar

Peurupperleenar

Py'angurerterrar

Peuneroonerrooner

Carnerleetenar

Neemgurannar

Planegarrartoothenar

Teewerlerpooner

Poorooneenar

Pennererpurwurlennar

Naggurpanner

Pennerooner

WarFlierlookertennar

Plengurrerterrar

Men's Names.

Poorertenn€r
Pebberpooter

Teetherpooner

Terrerpeenfirlangiimar

Larwarlarparwarleenar

Tewterpunnar

Ting'urerperrar

ParlerterwopittSner

Carwerterwinner

Lar'gunnar

TeethermobbSrlar

Pennerooner

Trallarpeenar

Plaanneroon€r

Meemoolibbemer

May'ennar

Troon'etherpodner

Leenereleanghener

Larkigunar

Puunerweeghunar

Loonerminner

Poothererterrar

Pring'urtoolerar

Teethermoopelrar

Eb'belranner

Laartennar

Peb'beranar

Pling'thodtenar

Par'lerpeupgrtertenar

War'ternammertinn^r

NORMAN S VOCABULARY,

Mowfirtennar
Treegurpanner
NeenSrcleener
Wart€rl66k€rtennar

Trar'nereener

NamekSranner

WartermeeluttSrweener

Note. — Sexes of the Big River Tribe not distinguished.

Big River Mob,
Montfirpeelyarter, the Chief,
Perrerparcootenar Tereetee.

APPENDIX B.

VOCABULARIES.

Dove, J

orgen-Jorgensen & Braim.

Cook.

Gaimard

•

La Billardi^re.

McGeary.

Peron.

Roberts.

Scott.

Doubtfu

I (owing to errors in transcription).

Able or Strong

• • •

relipianna (D)

Afar off
Albatross

■ ■ •
• ■ •

renene (P)
tarrina (D)

All round ...

1 • •

• • «

metaira (M)

Ankle

• • •

lure (P) fpena (S)

Arm

• ■ •

regoula (G), womena (R), alree (D), naniiii-

Arm, Fore-

• • ■

anme (G)

Arms

• * •

gouna Ha (L), abri (\V) (M), guna-lial (P)

Ashamed (to be)

■ • •

vadaburena (M)

Back

• • •

tabrina (R)

Bad

t ■ •

• a ■

carty (D), katea (M), poamori (R), pein-
driga p)

Badger

• • •

publedina (D), napanrena (M)

Bandicoot ...

« • •

lennira, padina (D), padana (M)

Bark

• ■ •

une bura ? (P)

Bark of a tree

• ■ •

toline (L)

Basket

• • •

terri (L), tareena (R), terri (P)

Basket of sea-weed

containing

their water

k • ■

• • •

regaa (L)*

t lia appears to be a plural termination (P).

Vlll

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

.^jdi\^l\ ••• ••• •••

.J^CcLUd ••« ••• •••

.^jCckHX ••• ■•• >••

Beat (to) ...
Bellv

Bird, a small ; a native of
the woods

* * * * v& ••• ••■ ■••

Birth ... ...

Bite (to)

X^ldli^XV ••• ••■ «•«

Black-man

.X-^Ax^wVA •■• •■• •••

Blood

Blow (to) ...

Blow-flies ...

Blush

j3oai ... ... ...

Boat, native

Bone

Bottle

^^Xjy ••• •«• ■••

Boy (a little)

Branch

Xjicau ... «•• ...

Break-wind or hut ...

Break wind (to)

J3I6aSl ... .a. ...

Breast (of a man) ...

Breast (of a woman)

Brother

Bullocks

Bum oneself (to) ...

Buttocks

By-and-bye and soon

Call (to)

Canoe, see Catamaran, see Boat
Cape Grim
Casuarina, truit of . . .
Cat

Cat (native)

Catamaran, see Boat, see Canoe
? Cereopns ...

Charcoal reduced to powder, with
which they cover their bodies

minna (D)

perelede (P)

kongine (P), coquina (R), conguine (L),

kide (G)
lane (G), kindrega (P)
maguelena (G), lomodina (R), kaviranara

(W) (M), miulean, cawereeny (D)

lae renne (C)

muta-muta (P), greigena (R), mouta mouta

(L), iola (G), darwalla (S)
aya (R)
iane (G)

wadene wine (G)
palewaredia (D)
keena teewa (D)
balouina (G), balooyuna (S)
bure (P)
mounga (D)
wadebeweana (D)
luirapeuy, lallaby (D)
pokak (D)

pnale (G), toodna (R) teewandrik (D)
luga (P)

plerenny (D), plireni (M), leuna or luena (R)
cuckana hudawinna (D)
porshi (P)

taoorela (S) towereela (D)
tama leeberinna (D)
tanina (L)*
wagley (D), voyeni (M), lere (P), pouketa-

lagna (G), potelakna (G)
ladine (L)
here (L)

pleragenama (D), pleaganana (M)
benkelow (D)
laguana (Pj

nune (L)*, wabrede (G)
pairanapry (D)

toni (P), tadkagna (G)
lukrapani (M), nenga (P)
pellree (B), pilni (M)
lubada (P)

largana (D), neperana (D)
lila (E) (M)
nungana (R)
ronenan (G)

loira (L) loira (P)

VOCABULARIES.

Cheek

Cherries

Chief

Chier

Child

Children

Chin

Circular Head

Cloak of kangaroo skins

Cloud

Cockatoo ...
Cockatoo (white)
Cockatoo (black)
Coition, see Propagation
Cold
Come

Come (to) ...

Come ? will you

Corrobory ...

Country (The) all around

Country

Covering ...

VyO iV ... « • a

v^raL) • • > ...

Crayfish

Crooked

Crown of Shells
Cry (to)
Crying
Crystal
Cut (to)

neprane (G) nobrittaka (D)

poaranna (R)

bungana (D), bungana (M)

tiouak (G)

pugyta (R), louod (G), badany (D), leewoon (D)

looweinna, pickaninny (D)

onaba (L), coomegana (S), congene (R|,
kamnina (M), onaba (P), camena (D)

makita (M), martula (D)

boira (P)

bagota (R), limeri (M), white y pona (D),
blacky roona (D)

eribba (D)

ngarana (R)

moingnana (R)

drogue (G)

malanii (R), mallareede (C)

todawadda (R), tepera (D), ganemerara (D),
tarrabilye (D)

tipera (M)

canglonao (P), quangloa (L)

terragoma (D)

wallantanalinany (D)

walana-lanala (M)

legunia (D)

cateena (D)

renorari (P)

nubena (R)

powena (D)

kella-katena (M), nanapatta (D), lina (D)

canlaride (L)

targa (D)

taarana (R)

keeka (D), heka (D)

rogueri, toidi (L), rogeri, tordi (P)

Dance
Day

Day (a)

Day (fine) ...

Day (to)

Dead

Death (to die)

Den

Devil

Dine (to)
Distance, at a
Diver

galogra (G), ledrae (P)

tridadie (G), tagama (R), megra (M), lanena
(D), loyowibba (D), loina (D)

magra (D)

lutregela (D), lutregala (M)

waldeapowt (D)

moingaba (R), lowatka v, (D), lowakka p, (D)

mata (L), krag baga (G), mata (P)

lewnana (D)

comtana, nama (W), rediarapar(s) (M),

comtena, patanela, rargeropper (D), talba

(D), namneberick (D)

bugure (P)
renaue
morana (R)

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Doe (forest)
Dog

Dog (native)

Door

Down there, a long way off ...

Drake

Drake (wild)

Dress or covering

Drink (to) ...

t)ry

Eagle
Ear

M.^tCLm O ••« ••* •••

Earth or ground
Earth or sand
Eat (to)

Eat, I will ...

Eat, let us go and ...

^m'^^ ... ••• ...

A_/ 1 OOAnf *.• .•• .••

£«II1U ... ... ...

Evacuate (to)

Eucalyptus tree

Eucalyptus, branch^of the, with

its leaves
Eucalyptus resinif^a, seed of the
Eucalyptus, trunk of . . .

Mm^ It ^? ••• ••• •••

Eyebrow . . .
Eyebrows ...
Eyes

Eyelash

Face

Fall (to)
Family (my)
Father

Feather
Feathers . . .

ragana (D)

moukra (G), booloobenara, kuayetta (S),
mooboa (D), comtena (D),

leputalla (E) (M), ioputallow (D), lowdina (D)

temminoop (D)

renave (L)

malbena (M), lamilbena (D)

malbena (D)

legunia (D) ^

lugana (D), laina (L), kible (G), lugana (M),
laina (P)

katrihiutana (M), catrebuteany (D)

nairana (R)

tiberatie (G), roogara (S), pitserata (M),
cuengi-lia (P), cowanrigga (D), koy'gee (C)
pelverata (D), towrick (D)

cuengi-lia (L), wegge iR), pelverata (D),
lewlina (D)

gunta (D), natta (M)

emita (D)

kible (G), teegera (C), newinna (giblee),
meenawa (D)

made guera (L), madegera (P)

mat guera (L), matgera (P)

komeka (G), palinna (D)

rowella (D), rowella (W) (M)

padanawoonta (S), ngananna (R), rekura (D),
rakana (M)

legana (D), legard (M), tere (P) *

tara (P), tara (L)

poroqui (L)

monouadra (L), monodadro (P)

p6rebe (L), pirebe (D)

elpina (G), nubrana (R), everai (C), name-
ricca, lepena (D), lepina (M), nubere (P),
poollatoola (D), lemanrick (D)

tipla (W) (M), bringdeu (D)

blaktera (G)

nubru nubere (L), nepoogamena (S), polla-

toola (D)
leelberrick (D)

niparana, manrable (D), niperina, manarabel

(W) M)

midugiya (P)

tagari-lia L), tagari-lia (P

nimermena (G), munlamana (D), tatana D),
mumlamana (M)

kaa-oo-legebra (S)

munwaddia (D)

VOCABULARIES.

Feminina ? see also Uterus and
Vagina ...

Fern tree ...
Fight (to) ...
Fighting ...

Finger

M/ ultf CI 9 •*. •«• ...

Fire

^ XwIa •** ••• •*•

Fishes (smalt) of the species of

^rcMcivO ••• •■• •••

Fist

^ft> AiJ^ ••• •■• •••

JL. A V ^7 ••• ••» •••

X^ i A 1116 ••• ••• ••»

•A Iwdll ••• ■** ■■•

Flint, or a knife

X^ l(/^nr 6X ••• ••• •••

X^ tj \ci) • • • • • • • • •

Flying

F 06LUS ••• ••• •••

•1 ^^n ••• ••• >>•

JL ^/\^L ••■ ••* •>*

Forehead ...

X^ (^I C&L «•• ••• •••

Friendship...

X^ 1 ^w ••• ••• •••

X 1 x^w L ••• ••• ■••

Fucus palmatus

Oannet
Get

^JXX * •■• ■»• ••*

Girl (little) ...

Give me

Go home ...

Go and eat

Go, I will ...

Go, I will, or I must be gone...

Go away ...

Go away, let us

Gone, I must be, or I will go ...

Good

Good, yes ...

Go on

Goose

vJ&dSS • . • • • •

tibera (M), megua (P)

tena (L)

memana (D), menana (M)

monganenida (R)

patarola (D)

anme (G) ; fore-finger, motook (D)

lori lori (L), reena (R)

une (D, padrol (G), nooena (S), ouane (R),
lopa, unee, leipa (D), lope (M), une (P)

breona (R), pinounn (G)

pounerala (L), punerala (P)

trew (D), reannemana (D)

karde (G)

lopatin (D)

cragana (R)

teroona, trawootta (S)

paraka (D)

oelle (L), oille (P), mounga (D;

pinega (M), pinega (D)

leward (J)

mina (M), muna (D)

dogna (G), lagarra (R), lula, labricka, (D),
langana (M) (D), labittaka (D)

rouna (G), druan a malla (S), rougena (R)

loviegana (M)

caradi (R)

pulbena (M) (D)

ounadina (R), ulta (D), oltana (M)

rugona (P)

crupena (R)

mengana (D), mengana (M)

deeberana (R), ludineny (D), sudinana (M)

cuckanay (D), ludineny

noki (L), noki (P), muru-manginie (D)

tackany (D), kabelti (M), haku-tettiga (D)

mat guera

ronda (L)

toga*-rago (C)

tagara (R)

tangara (L;, tangara (P)

toga*-rago (C)

paegrada (R), naracoopa (D), pandorga (D)

erre (P)

tabelty (D)

robenganna (D), robengana (M)

poene (L), rawinuina (S), rodidana, myria,

megra, rodedana, publi (M), poene (P),

neena (D)

H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Grass tree (Xanthorrhaa)

Grease the hair (to)

Ground

Gull

Gum-tree ...

Gun

Hair

Haliotis
Hand

Hands

Handsome...

Handsome (very), or very* good

Hawk

Hawk (black)

Hawk (eagle)

Hawk, see Sparrow-hawk

XX edu ... ••• •••

Heart
Heaven

\ XCwx • • • • • •

Here, or this

High

Hill

Horse

House

Huitrier noir

Hunger

Hunt, I will go and

Hut

JL • • • ••• ••• •••

I, or me, or mine...

Insec5l of the order Circeftdela

Island

Island (large)

Jump (to) ...
Kangaroo ...

Kangaroo Boomer ..

Kangaroo Brush

Kangaroo Pouch

Kangaroo Rat

comthenana (D), komtenana (M)
lane poere (L), tane poere (P)
gunta, longa, nata (D), gonta (M)
rowennana (D), rowenana (M)
greeta iR)
lila, lola (D)

cethana, palanina, pareata, parba (D), zitina
(M), ciliogeni (P), pelilogueni (L), kide
(G), nukakala (S)

caene (P), caene (L

dregena, reegebena (S), nuna (R), anamana,
rabalga (D), anamana (M), ri-lia (P)

riz-lia (L)

marakupa (M)

naracoopa (D)

ingenana (M) pueta (D)

putuna (M)

eugenana (D), coweena (D) cockinna (D)

eloura (G), neeanapena (S), pathenanaddi,
pulbeany, ewucka (D), cuegi (P) awit-
taka (D)

retena (G)

renn hatara (G)

rigl (G), laidcSga (P)

nuka (D)

vatina

neika (D)

baircutana (D)

lineda (R)

lele (G)

tigate (G)

mena malaga latia (M), poopu (D)

leprena (D), temma, poporok (D), tama
leberinna (D)

mana (P)

mena (D), manga (D)

paroe (L),* paroe (P)

lewrewagera (D), lirevigana (M)

laibrenala (D)

w^aragra (P)

lalliga (D), lelagia (W) (M), leina (R) tara-
mei (G), male^ lemmook (D), female^
lurgu (D

rena (S)

lena (S)

kigranana (D), krigenana (M)

reprenana (D), riprinana (M)

VOCABULARIES.

Kangaroo skin

Kernel of Eucalyptus resinifera ...

Kick (to) ...

XvUl ... >.. ...

XvALIk •.* •.■ ...

A^AwO ••■ ■•» ...

X^UCC ••• ••• *•«

Kneel (to) ...

Knife, see Flint
Know (to) ...
Know, I do not

Lad

X^cllgC ••• ••■ ••■

Laugh (to)
Laughing ...

^^ wC»X ••• ••» •••

^^ wfif ••• ••* ••■

1 #CwO ■•• ■■« •••

Let us go . . .
Lie (verb) ...
Light
Lightning

J-^*L9w ••• ... ...

jL'irtie ... ... ...

Lobster

Long way or time ...

Louse

Low

Magpie

ivx an ... ... ...

Man (black)
Man (old) ..

Man (white)

Manchot bleu

Many ... ..:

Marrow of a bone ...

Me or mine, or I

Me (for) ...

Mersey (river)

Moon

Morning

boira (L), bleagana (S)

manouadra

vere (P)

wanga (D)

bungana (D)

modamogi (R) [lips ; mogudi]

ienebe (G), nannabenana (D), minebana (M),

ranga-lia (P)
guanera (P) ■

ragua-lia (L)

tunapee (J), tunepi (M), manga-namraga (D)
nideje (P)

plerenny (D), marinnook (D)

elpenia, elbenia (G)

pigne (G), tenalga (D), drohi (P)

binana (R)

driue (P)

langna (G), leurina (R), lathanama (D), leea
(D), latanama (M)

tavengana (M)

tangari

kateena (D)

unamenina (R)

une bura (P) nammorgun (D)

mogude lia (L), mona (G), mogudi lia (P)

bodenevoued (G), moboleneda (R), canara or

curena (D), lavara (M)
nude (L), nuele (P)
mannta (D)
nure (P)
liutece (M)

kenara (M), canara (D)

looudouene (G), nagada (R), penna (D),
wybra, ludowing (D), lusivina (M)

wibia, palewaredia (B), vaiba (M)
lowlobengang, pebleganana (D), lalubegana
(M)

ludowing, numeraredia (D), ragina, ragi,
rytia (S), reigina, begutta (R)

penewine (G)

nanwoon (D)

moomelena (S)

mana (L), pawahi (P)

mena (D)

paouai (L)

pirinapel (M), paranaple (D)

tegoura (G), wee-etta (S), weethae (R), weipa
(D), lutana, weena, webba (D), vena (M)

nigrarua (R)

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Mortal (that is)
Mosquito ...
Moss
Mother

Mountain ...
Mouth

Mouth, teeth, or tongue
Mussel (sea)
Mutton bird

Nails

Nails on the feet

Nails on the hands

Name of a man

Name (another) of

Navel

Neck

Night

No
Nose

a man

Nurse

Oak

Oar

Ochre

Old

One

One side

Opossum

Other

Oyster

Oysters

Oyster-shell

Parrakeet .
Parrot

Pelican

Penis, see Virilia

Petrel (black)

Phalanger . . .

Pillow (little) on which the
men support themselves ...

PinP

mata enigo

redpa (D)

manura (P)

blemana (G), tattana (M), powamena (D),

pamena (D)
meledna (G), trdwala (M), truwalla (D)

mona (G), moonapena (S), canina (R), you-
tantalabana, canea (D)

ka'my (C)

mire (L)

yavla (M), youla (D), laninyua (D)

reerana (R), nil (G)

pere lia (L)

toni lia (L), toni lia (P)

mara (L)

mera (L)

lue (L), Hue (P)

oinhlera (G), loobeyera (S), lepina, denia
(W) (M), lepera (D), denia (D)

livorc (G), luena (R), burdunya (P), levira
(M), leware (D), crowrowa (D), rorook

neudi (L), poutie (G), nendi (P), pootia (D)

muguiz (L), medouer (G), megrooera (S),

mudena (R), muidje (C), minarara (Si),

mugid (P), mena, rawarriga (D), rowick

(D)
makrie-meenamru (D)

lemena (M), lemana (D)

panna (D)

mallaue (L)

petebela (M), petibela (D)

pammere (G), marai (P), par-me-ry (D)

mabea (M)

milabaina (M), milabena (D)

naba (D)

tarlagna (G), rauba (R), lonbodia (P)

taralangana (D)

luba (P), louba (L)

mola (P)

girgra (P), mola (L), carraca (D), murrock

(D)
treoute (G), trudena (M), trewdina (D),
lanaba (D)

line (L)*, pelgana (G)

iola (G)

lognenena (G)

roer6 (L)

menk (D)

VOCABULARIES.

Play (to) ...
Plenty
Plunge (to)

Polishing (the acftion ot) wood
with a shell

Porcupine ...

Porpoise

Port Sorrell

Posteriors ...

Propagation (the acfi of), see
Coition

Put wood on the fire
Rain

Rain -drops...

Raven

Red

River

River (large)

River (very large) ..

Rivulet

Round turn
Run (to) ...

Salt water...

fc^dllU ... ... ...

Sand or earth

Sapling

Scar, a, or mark on the arm

Scars elevated on the body ...

Scelerya (a species of very large)

%_^V^v.^AVX •■• •■• ••■

w_7^^Cl «■* •«• ■■«

Sea- swallow

Sea-weed (dried) which they
eat after having softened it
in the fire

Sea- weed (Fucus ciliatus)

Sea-weed (jointed)

Seal

Seal (otarii)

^3CC ...

Sexual organs, see Feminina,
see Penis

Sharpen ...

wI711dA ■•■ »•• ■••

pass (P)
nanwoon (D)
bugure (L)
rina (L), rina (P)

tremana (M), trewmena, milma, menna (D)

parappa (D)

panatani (M) panatana (D)

wobrata (M), nunc (L)

loidrougera (L)*

treni (V)

manghelena (G), boora (R), talawa (D),
taddiva (D)

rinadena (D)

trenn houtne (G)

bolouine (G)

nabowla (D), waltomana (Mj

warthanina (D)

waddamana (D)

montumana (D), montemana (M)

megog (M)

mabea (D)

moltema, mella, tagowawinna (D), moltema^
mella (M), tablene pinikta (G)

lena (R)

gune (P)

emita (B)

prebena (R)

troobenick (S)

no'onga (C)

leni (L)

kenweika (D)

legana (G), neethoba (D), nirripa (D)

mole (G)

rauri (L), rori (P), roorga (D)

roman inou (L)

nowalene (L)*, roenan inu (P)

marina (R), cartela (D), kateila (M)

oulde (G)

lamunika lapree (D), manga-namraga (D)

quendera rL), rendera (P)

nemewaddiana (D), rulemena (D)
keekawa (D)
kaa-ana (S)

itvi

H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Shell-fish ...

Sheoak (a species of fir-tree) ...

Ship or boat

i3XllU ••* .•• •«•

Shout 'to ...

Sing (to)
Singing
Sit down

Sit, see Stand

%^ JVA&I ••• ••• ••■

Skv

Slap (to)
Sleep (to) ...

Small

tOII10J\6 ... •«. ••<

OllcLKe ••. ... ..i

Snow

Soon, by-and-bye

Sparrow-hawk, see Hawk

Speak (to)

^peai • • • ... • . I

Spear (to) ..."

Spit (to)

^^L/llllC ••• ... ••!

Stand, sit, stop or stay

Star

Stars (little)

Star-fish
Stay, see Stand
Stone (a) ...

Stop, see Stand

Stop (to) ... ... '

Storm

Stout

Strangle (to)

Stringy bark

Strong or able

ouiivy ... ... ..

Sultry

Sun (the) ..

Swam
Swimming ...

barana (R)
lube(R)
luiropony (D)
tedeluna (R)

carney (D), ca walla |D), kami (M)
meena (D)

kanewedigda (G), ledrani (P)
tiana (R)

medi (L), crackenicka (D), meevenany (D,)
mevana (M), medi,medit6 (P), crackena (D)

kidna (G), tendana (R)
poiedaranina (R)
loila (D)
noeni (P)

malougna (L), nenn here (G), loagna (R)

makunya (F), roroowa (D)
teeboack
boorana (R)

powranna (D), katal (M)
oldina (D,^ oldina (M)
pairanapry (D)
gan henen henen (G;
kane (G)

preana (S), preena (R), raccah, rugga (D)
kie (P)

pinor bouadia (G)
crackbennina (R)
crackena (D)

murdunna (D), potena, marama (M)
pa Ian a, marama (D), daledine(R), moorden (D)

lenigugana (D)
oneri (P)

loTne (L), lenn parena (G), peoora (S), nannee
(D), nami (M), loine (P), lenicarpeny (D),
longa (D)

neckaproiny (D), mekropani (M), crackena (D)

tihourata (G)

canola (M)

lodamerede (P)

toilena (R)

ralipianna (D)

ratairareny (D

ratavenina (M)

panumere (L), tegoura ? (G), paganubrana
(S), pannubrae (R), petreanna, nabageena
loyna (D), piterina (M), panubere (Pk
loina (D)

robigana, publee, wybia, cocha (D), rowen-

pugara (R [dana M

VOCABULARIES.

XVll

Talk

Tattoo (to)...
Tattooing ...
Tear (to) ...
Teeth

Tell, I, you

Ten

Testicle

Testicles ...

That

That or them, or they, he, her

That belongs to me

That kills . . .

They

Thigh

Thirst

This

This way ...

Three

Throw (to)...

Thumb

Thunder . . .

Tie

Tiger

Time (long) or long way ...

To-morrow

Tongue, The, see also Teeth . . .

JL X ^7^? •■• ••• •••

^ X C^CO ••• •■• •••

^ wjf\J ■•• ■•• •••

Two, A higher number than

palquand (R)
palere (L)
palere (L)
ure (P)

pegui (L), beyge (R), yanna, yannalople,
cawna (D), yana (M), pegi (P), or mouth
or tongue ka*my (C), iane (G)

mena lageta (M)

karde karde (G)

kewatna (G)

mada lia (L) *

avere (P;, av6re (L)

nara (D)

patourana (L), paturana (P)

mata e nigo (P)

nara <D)

teigna (R), tula (D), tula (M)

kabrouta (G)

lonoi (P), nicka (J)

lone (P), lomi (L)

aliri (P)

pegara (Li, (P)

manamera, tagina (S), rennitta (R), wan (D)

bura (P), nawaun (D)

nimere (P;

lowerinna (D)

manuta (D)

ligrame (R)

mene (L), guenerouera (G), mene (R) mene
(R), mena, tullana, mamana (D), mina
(M), mene (P), or mouth or teeth,
ka'my (C)

moumra (G), weena (R), lupari (P), tor-
onna (D)

moogootena (S)

kateboueve (G), cal-a-ba-wa (D), bura (P)

car-di-a (D) - .

Understand, I do not
Untie (to) ...
Upset (to)...
Uterus

Vagina, see Feminina

Valley

Virilia, see Penis

Waddie

\ V aice . • • • • •

Walk (to) ...

Walking

nidejo (P)
laini (P)
moido-guna (P)
tioulan (G)

megua (L)
logowelae (R)
lipi (M)

rocah (D), lorina 'R), lerga (D)
lowenruppa (D)
tagna (G), tabelti (M)
tablety (D), tieriga, tablue (D)

kviii

H. LING ROTH^ — ABORIGINBS OF TASMANIA.

Wallaby ...
Warm . ...
Warm oneself (to) ...
vv as •.* ...

Water

Water-bag...
Water (fresh)

Water (salt)

Water (to make)

Way (long) or a long time

Weapon ...

Weep (to) ...

What do you call this ? )

What is your name ? )

White

Whiting

White-man

Whistle (to) " ...

Wife

Wind

Wing
Woman

Woman (black)
Woman's ...
Woman (white'
Wombat ...
Wood

Wood (fire)

Wood Dead- ■ ...

Wound

Yellow ochre
Yes! good!
You

. .

tarana (R), tana (D)

lagarudde (R)

gagvui (P)

tanah (D)

boue lakade (G), mookaria (S), leni, moga
(mocha) (D)

nitipa (Dj

l^ana, moka (D), lugan4y moga (M), lia (P),
leena (R), mogo, lerui (D)

moahakali (M)

tiouegle (G)

manuta (D)

le(P)

tara (P), gnaiele (G)

wanarana (P)

lore (G)

pinougna (G)

mimeraredia (D

menne (P)

cuani (P)

tegouratina (G), ragalanae (R), ioyorajina (D),
leewan (D)

lappa (D)

quani (L), loubra (G), !quadne, lolna lubra»
(D), lowlapewanna (D), lurga (D)

louana (R)
le'pa (D)

reigina loanina (R)
rogeta (R), quoiba (D)

moumbra (G), mouna (R), moomara, weela
(D), mumanara (E) (M), gui (P

walliga (B)
weegena (S)
barana (G)

malane (P)

erre (P)

nina (L), nina (P), nena ninga (D)

APPENDIX C.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

List of Short Sentences.

List of Aboriginal Names of Places.

Lists of Names of Men and Women.

Aboriginal Verses in Honour of a Great Chief.

Sung as an Accompaniment to a Native Dance or Hiayei.

Fragments of Two Songs.

By JOSEPH MILLIGAN, F.L.S.

(From Papers and Proceedings Roy. Soc. of Tasmania, Vol. III., Pt. II., 1859).

Tribes about Mount Royal,

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay

Brune Island, Recherche

North -west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

Abscess

Lieemena

Limete

Wallamale

Absent

Malumbo

Taggara

Wakannara

Abstain

Miengpa

Parrawe

Wannabea Tough

Abstra<5\ (to dedutft)

Nuna-mara

Accompany

Taw6

Tawelea Mepoilea

Acid (taste)

No-Wieack

Noilee

'Gdulla

Acrid (taste)

Peooniack

Mene wutti or mene
ruggara

Across (to put or place)

Prolon-unyere

Wuggara Tungale

Tienenable poingh

Add to or put

Prolone

Poggona nee Wughta

Poilabea

Adult man

Puggana Minyenna

Pallawah

Pahlea

Adult woman

Lowalla Minyenna

Nienate and Lowanna

Noallea

Afraid

Tianna Coithyack

Tiennawille

Camballat6 ,

Afternoon

Kaawutto

Nunto-ne

Kaoonyleah

Aged (literally rotten -
boned
Agile

Tinna-triouratick

Nagataboye

'Gnee-mucJcle

Menakarowa

Narra arraggara

Ah!

Mile-ne !

Air

Oimunnia

Rialannah

Albatross

Pookanah

Tarremah

Aloft

Muyanato

Crougana Wughata

Altogether

Nimtyemtick

Mabbyle

Amatory (rakish)

Rinnyowalinya

Lingana looa renowa

Anger

Miengconnenechana

Poine moonalane

Angle (crooked like the

Wien-powenya

Wiena and Wienenna

elbow)

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pitwater.

Ankle
Anoint
Another
Answer (to)

Ant, large blue

Ant, small black, strong

smelling
Ant, largest black veno

mous
Ant, red body, black

head and tail
Ant-eater (Echidna

setosa)
Apparition

Aquiline (Roman-
nosed)

Arm

Ashamed

Aha I you are sulky all
of a sudden

Ashes

Ask

Asleep

Awake (to open the
eyes)

ditto

Awake him, rouse him

Awake (rouse ye, get
up)

Ay (yes)

Azure (sky)

Babe

Bachelor

Back (the)

Backward

Bad (no good)

Bald -coot f Pofphyrio

melanotus)
Bandy-legged
Bandicoot (Parameles

ohesula)
Bark (of a tree)
Bark of a tree (flapping)
Barren (woman)

Ditto, ditto
Baskets
Bat

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Bnine Island. Recherche
Bay. and the South of
Tasmania.

Munnaghana
Yennemee
Tabboucack
Ouneeprape

Pugganeiptietta
Ouiteitana

Tietta

Nowateita

Mungyenna or Moy-

nea
Wurra-wena, Krot-

tomientoneack
Muunna puggawinya

Wu'hnna
Leiemtonnyack
Annyah ! Teborah ! ^

Tontaiyenna
Ongheewammena
Tugganick
Cranny-mongthee

Wennymongthee
Lientiape
Lientable, tagga

muna!
Narramima
Noorbiack

Cottruluttye

Pugganara mitt ye

Me-inghana

Lenere

Noweiack

Leah.Tyenna

Lackaniampaoick
Tiennah or Tienyenah

Poora, poora-nah
Poorakunnah
Kaeeto Kekrabonah
Nangemoona
Tughbranah
Peounyenna or Pug-
wennah

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Munna-wanna
Ruggara
Neggana

Oghnemipejm^ Ogh-
nerope

Moy berry

Tite

Lalla and Loattera

Munnye or Meemmah

Ria-wurrawa

Maitingule

Wu'hnna
Lienute

Keetrelbea-noomena,
peniggomaree !
Toiberry
Oghnamilce
Longhana

N unneoine-roidukate

Nawate, pegrate,
wergho !
Narrawa
Warra-ne

Puggata riela

Lowatimy

Talinah

Talire

Noile

Tipunah

Rentrouete
Tenghanah or Tenna,
or Leningha
Warra

Lowarinnakunna
Lovva puggatimy
Loakennamale
Trenah
Lerinah or Lueekah

Roughtuly ne

Onabeamabbele

Nenarongabea

Illetiape
Takkawugh ne

Narra baro
Loaranneleah

Rikent6

Paponnewatte

Teerannelee-leah

Kelabatecorah

Ee-ayngh-la-leah

Lugoileah Mungo-
inah leah
Poora leah

Lopiteneeba

Tille

milligan's.

XXI

Vocabulary

OF Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of

Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay

Brune Island, Recherche

North-west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

Battle

Miemyenganeh

Mialungana

Mungymeni leah

Beard

Comena purennah

Cowinne

Comen6-waggel6

Beardless

Comena-ranyah

Cow-in-timy

Cominerah leah

Beat (to strike)

Legganegulumpte

Lugguna

Menghboibee rate

Beau (coxcomb)

Pugganatereetye

Pallowah-tutte

Papponne tughte
leah
Noa noughanoatte

Beauty (fine looking

Lowanna-elapthatye

Nire-lowa

woman)

Ditto, ditto

Lowanna - eleebana -
leah

Loa-minery

Bed (sleeping-place in

Oortrackeomee

Orragurra wurina

the bush)

Ditto

Noonameena

Orragurra nemony

Before

M eal t et r iangul ebeah

Prungee

Behind

Mealtitta lerrentitta

Talina

Belch (to)

Luonna-kuima

Loona kanna

Belly

Tree-erina

Lomate

Big (large)

Teeunna

Papla

Bill (birds)

Meunna

Peegra

Bird

Puggunyenna

Punna

Bite

Ralkwomma

Rebkarranah

Bitter

Laieeriack

Poina noily

Blandfordia mhilis

None in the District

Remine

Black

Mawback or Maw-
banna

Loaparte

Blood (my)

Warrgata nieena

Coccah

Blossom

Maleetye

Nannee Purillaben-
annee

Blow-fly

Mongana

Monganah

Blow (with the mouth

Loyune

Loinganah

forcibly)

Boil {Furunculus)

Lieemena

Lieematah

Bosom (woman's)

Paruggana

Parugganah

Bosom (man's)

Puggamenyera ' Parrungyenah or li-

atiiny

Boy (Small child)

Malengyenna Puggatah Paw-awe

•

Boy (large ditto)

Cotty-mellitye

Poilahmaneenah

Bread

Pan n a boo

Pannaboo-na

Bread (give me some)

Tienna miape panna-

Tiengana ma panna-

Tunghmbibe tunga-

boona

boo

ringalea

Breast (chest)

1 Meryanna

Toorinah

Brook

Manenge-keetanna

Wayatinah

Broom (a besom)

Perruttye | Beroieah

Brother (little)

Nietta mena or niet-: Piembucki
arrana

Brother (big)

, Puggana Tuantittyah Peegennah

Brow (forehead)

Rogoona ' Roi-runnah

Brushwood

Weena-keetyenna

Looranah

Burn (hurt by fire)

Punna ineena

Wuggatah

Bury (to)

Purrawe peanglunta-

Pomanneneluko

poo

1
1

XXll

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Buttock

Buzz (like a fly ; also
name of fly)
By and bye

Come along, I want
you
Call

Canoe (Catamaran)
Carcase

Cat (large native)
Cat (small native)

Catarrh
Catarrh

Ditto with Dyspnoea
Caterpillar (small)
Cavern
Caul

Cease (to)

Charcoal

Chase (to)

Chirrup (to)

Chin

Chine (backbone

Chiton (sea shell)

Cider from Eucalyptus

Circle

Claw (talon)

Clay

Clean

Climb (to)

Clutch (to)

Cobbler's Awl (a bird;

Cold

Come (to)
Ditto

Conflux (crowd)

Conflagration

Conversation (a great
talking)
Ditto
Ditto

Cord (a small rope)

Corpse (a dead carcase)

Correct

Cough

Coxcomb (a fine-look-
ing fellow)

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pitwater.

Liengana
Mongana

Piyere

Talpyawadyno Tu-
yena-cunnamee
Ronnie
Mallanna
Miackbourack
Luyenna
Pringreenyeh

Teachrymena

Teaknonyak

Takkaruttye

Rianna

Lielle wollingana

Roongreena

Myeemarah
Maweena
Rhinyetto
Tetyenna
Comnienna
Myingana-tenena
Puggamoona
Way-a linah
Lowamachana
Kurluggana
Pannogana Malittye
Pannyealeebna
Krony6
Tiackboorack
Ya-warramakunnya
Tunack

Tal pey awadeno
Tallya-lea
Tirranganna menya
Kawaloochta
Rhineowa mungonag
unea poj^gana karn(
Karnyalimenya
Karnalirya
Metakeetana
Myack boor rack
Onnyneealeeby(?
Tachareetya
Puggana tareetya

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brune Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Nunnah
Monganah

Gunnyem waubera-
boo

Tattawattah onga-
neena

Ronnypalpee
Nunganah
Miepoiyenah
Luyennr
Lapuggana

Manah

Tekalieny

Manah larree

Peenga

Poatina

Meena, or Loarinah

Parrawfc

Loarra

Lerypoontabee

Telita

Wahba

Turarunna

Taroona

Way-a-linah

Riawunna

Kuluggana

Pappalye Mallee

Mallea

Kroanna

Tigyola

Memma

Mallane

Tutta watta

Palabamabbylfc
Loiny or Una paroina
Poyara kanna

nuemena
Karnamoonalane
Karnalare
Mite

Moye or mungye
Nirabe
Mannaladdy
Pallawah tutty

Tunnakah makun-
nah talmatieraleh

Nunghuna

Lunna or Laboib*^
Labaggyna, or Na-

boineenele
Teachreena
Teeakunny
Poorannacalle

Mena lowallina, or
Kuttamoileh

MILLIGAN S.

XXlll

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Coxcomb
Cockatoo, white

Cockatoo, black

Crab (largest)
Crazy (cranky)

Crevice or fissure in

rocks
Creek
Cross
Crow
Cry (weep)

Ditto
Cut (to) [guage)

Cape Portland (Ian-
Creak (from fri(flion of

limbs of trees)

Dance

Dark

Daughter

Daylight

Dead

Deaf

Deep (water)

Demon

Demur (grumble)

Den (of wild animals)

L>epi6\ (draw a design

in charcoal)
Deplore (to lament, as

at an Irish wake)
Desire (to)
Desist (to)
Devil (Daayurus ursintts)
Dine (to)
Dirt (mud of a whitish

colour)
Dirt (mud dried)
Dirt
Dirty

Displease (to make
an^ry)

Dispute (to)
Distant

Tribes from Oyster Bay,
to Pitwater.

Puggatimypena
Weeanoobryna or Oi

ynoobryna
Menuggana or Meno

kanna
Wugherapunganah
Tagantyenna or Mug

gana Puggoonyack

Liellowullingana

Manenya keetanna
Oeilupoonia urapoonie
Lietenna or Lieetah
Naoutagh bourack
Tagara toomiack
Logoone
Tebrycunna
Temeta kunna

Rianna riacunha
Taggremapack
Neantymena
Taggre marannye
Mientung bourrack

and merack- bourack
Guallengatick guan

ghata

Loa Maggalangta
Mienginya
Kokoleeny konqua
Lienwollingena
Macooboona

Tagrunah kamulug-

gana
Oonacragniack
Parrawureigunepa
Poirinnah
Pooloogoorack
Panogana maleetya

Pengana rutta
Pengana
Mawpack
Lieneghi miaweroor

Kukunna poipug-

geapa

Rinnea guannettya
Manlumbera

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brune Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Pallawahpamary
'nghara or Oorah

*nghara rumna or
Nearipah

Tannatea

Riengeena

Liapota
Poire tungaba
Taw wereiny or Linah
Moi luggata
Tarra toone
Toagarah

Retakunna

Rialangana

Nune meene lareaboo

Loggatale meena

Luggaraniale

Moye

Wayeebede

Kellatie

Ria warrawah nolle

Riengena Poatina
Pallapoirena

Moalugatta Kanna-
proie

Poykokarra
Parawuree
Tarrabah
Tuggara nowe
Mannana Mally6

Mannana rulle
Mannana
Mawpa
Poinawalle

Kanna Moonalane
Kantoggana webbery

North-west and Western
Tribes

Wayenoeele or Poi-
etanatc' or Konga-
tun€ or Kongatueele

Pawtening-eelyle

XXIV

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Dive (to)

Diversion (sport, play

Dizzy

Dog

Dove (wild pigeon)

Draw (to pull)

Dream

Drink

Drop (water)

Drown

Drowsy

Dry

Ditto
Duck (gender not dis-
tinguished)
Dug

Dull (stupid dolt)
Dumb

Dung (excrement)
Dusk
Dust
Dwarf
Dysentery or Diarrhoea

East Bay Neck
Eagle Hawk Neck
Eagle

Eagle's nest
Ear

Early (in the morning
at twilight)
Earth (mould)
Earthquake
Earthworm
Eat heartily
Eat (to)
Eat (to)
Eagle (Osprey)

„ (Wedge-tail)
Echo
Eel
Effluvia

Elbow

Elf or fairy (fond of
children and dances in
the hills, after the
fashion of Scotch fai
ries)

Eloquent (talkative)

Ember (red hot)

Tribes from Oyster Bay,
to Pit water.

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brune Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania

Tone lunto

Leenyalle

Mongtantiack

Kaeeta

Mongalonerya

Ko-ulopu

N each a puggaroamee

Lougholee

Liemkaneack

Tong bourrak

Tugganemenuiack

Rongoiulongbourrack

Roungeack

Wiekennya

Paroogualla

Koullangtaratta

Manemmenena

Tiamena

Kaoota

Pughrenna

Wughwerra paeetya

Tiaquennye

Lueenalangta

Teeralinnick

Gooalanghta

Lieemunetta

Mungenna

Tuggamarannye

Pengana

W ug h y r a n n iack

Lollah

Telbeteleebea

Tughlee

Tuggana

Tortyennah

Kuynah

Kukanna wurrawina

Lengomenya

Mebreac

Liena punna

Wieninnah

Nang-inya

Munkanniira walah
Toneetea

Togana Lea-lutah

Luggara Riawe

Nubretanyt6

Panoine

Moatah

Menghana

Neaggara

Nugara

Mikany

Tong Poyere

Nueen6dy

Karnaroid e

Woaroir6

Paruggana

Poyetannyte

Menawely

Tiena

Panubratone

Nuggatapawe
Tiamabbyl6

Lueenalanghta

Teralinna

Weelaty

Lieewughta

Wayee

Nunawenapoyla

Mannena
Munna Potrunne
Lollara

Tughrah
Tuggranah
Neathkah
Korunah
Kannamayete
Lingowenah
Poine noile
Pateenah
Wayeninnah
Nungheenah or noilo-
wanah

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Kannamoonalan6
W'eealuttah

MILUGAN S

XXV

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Embowel (to dis-j
Embrace (Platonic)

Emmet (small ant)
Emu (bird)
Encampment

Enfeeble (to)
Ditto
Enough (sufficient)
Entrails

Evening
Exchange

Excrement
Expectorate
Extinguish
Exudation

Exu via (skin of a snake)

Eye

Eyebrow

Eyelash

Eyelid

Eyry

Falmouth and George's

River
Face

Face (fine)
Facetious
Faint
Fairy

Falsehood

Fang (canine tooth)

Far
Ditto

Fat

Fat man
Fat woman
Father

Feast

Feather

Feces

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pitwater.

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brune Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Parrawe tiakrangana
Talwattawa
Rugana wurranaree
Ramuna reluganee
Ouyeteita
Punnamoonta
Lena wughta rota-

leebana
Miengotick
Mienkomyack
Miemeremele
Regana Tianna or

Tiakrangana
Kaoota
Tientewatera nente or

Tiangtete-wemyna
Tiamena
Teagarea kraganeack
Parliere
Wailina or Wallenah

or Wallamenula
Lierkanapoona or

Liekapoona
Mongtena
Lyeninna poorinna
Mongtalinna
Moygta genna
Malanna meena

Kunawra Kunna

Neingheta

Niengheta elapthatea
Poigneagana
Mongtaniack
Murrumbuckannya

or Nanginnya
Maneentayana
Wugherinna Rugo-

toleebana
Tongoomela
Lewatenoo or Nan-

gummora
Niennameena
Poonamena moonta
Nienna langhta
Noonalmeena

Tuggely pettaleebea

Puggerinna

Tianana

Parratibe
Tallawatta

Lallah
*ngunannah
Line rotali

Mungawele

Narramoiewa
Poine

Kawootah
Tayenebe or Tayene

nyelutera
Tiannah
Manna merede
Patingunabe
Wialine

Liergrapoinena

Nupre or Nubrenah
Leeininne
Nubre tongany
Nubre wurrine
Linenah

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Moilatena

Noienenah

Neiena nire

Pane or Penamabbele

Nubretannete

Murrumbukannya

Laninga noil6
Payee rotyle or Coo-

rina
Lomawpa
Tomalah

Pangana wayedee
Pallawah proina
Lowa proina
Nanghabee or Nan-
ghamee
Tuggety proibee
Lowinne
Tianah

XXVI

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OP TASMANIA.

Vocabulary • of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

iTribes about Mount Royal,
Tribes from Oyster Bay I Brune Island, Recherche

to Pit water.

Feeble

Feel (to pinch)

Fern

Fern -tree

Fetch (to bring)

Fetch (a spirit)

Fever

Few

Fiend

Fight

Filth

Fin (of a fish)

Finger

Fire

Fire-tail [Estrelda hello)

Fire in the bush grass

Firm (not rotten)

Firmament (sky)

Fish (a)

Fish (cray)

Fist

Five

Flambeau

Flank

Flay

Flea

Fleet (swift)

Fleece (or fur of ani-
mals)

Flesh (meat)

Fling

Flint
Ditto (black) -

Float (to)

Flog

Flounder (flat fish)

Flow (as water)

Fly (like a bird)

Fly (inse(f\)

Foam (froth)

Fog

Foolish (or fool)

Foot

Foot (right)

Foot (left)

Footmark of black man

Footmark of white man

Ford, of a river

Forehead

Tuggemboonah

Wughanne

Lawitta-brutea

Nowarracomminea

Kunnywattera

Preolenna

Miempeooniack

Luowa [mienginnya

Winnya Wainettea or

Miamengana

Lenymebrye

Wunha

Ri-ena

Tonna

Lyenapon tendiah

Kawurrinna

Weerutta

Warratinna

Mungunna

Nunnya

Ree-Trierrena

Pugganna

Poorena Maneggana

Poolominna

Relbooee trawmea

Lowangerimena

Wurrangata

poonalareetye
Pooeerinna

Wiangata

Peawe

Trowutta

Lia ruoluttea
Luggana Poogarane
Lerunna
Lia tarightea
Koomeela
Mongana
Kukamena-mena
Mainentayana
Mungana paonyack
Luggana

Luggana eleebana
Luggana aoota
Puggalugganna
Ria luggana
Teeatta kannawa
Raoonah or Rogoun-
im Lienya

Bay. and
Tasmania.

the South of

*ngattai
Winghanee
Tughanah
Lapoinya
Kanna watta

Mie luggrata

Potalughye

Winneluaghabaru

Moymengana

Line poine noil6

Purgha lamarina

Rye-na

'ngune'

Lyekah or Layngana

Lienah

Weerulle

Warrangale Lorunna

Peeggana

Nube

Ree-mutha

Mar ah

Leewurre

Poolum ta and Tiawal6

Lergara Leawarina

None

Loongana

Longwinny

Palammena

Pakara

Mungara

Mora trona

Puggata or Rannyana

Lunghana

'ngupota-metee

Lia teruttena

Coaggara

Monga

Lia laratame

Warratie

Noiiee

Lugganah

Lugga worina

Lugga Oangta

Pallowa lugganah

Reea lugganah

Penghana

Roee Roeerunna

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Reeleah
Winnaleah

Nubyna

Lann6

Pulangale

Louneeate

Lugh

Malleeare

oolatyneeale

Pah lug

Matyena lugh

Rioona

MILLIGAN S

XXVll

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pit water.

Forest ground

Forget

Four

Fragrant (smell)

Freestone

Fresh water
Friend

Frigid (cold)

Fright

Frog

Frost

Frost (hoar)

Fuel

Full (after a meal)

Full (a vessel filled)

Fun (sport)

Fundament

Fur of animals

Fury

Gale

Gannet (5»/a Australis)
Gape

Ghost
Giri

Glutton

Good Person

Good (things)

Goose (Cape Barren)

Cereopsis Nov. Holh '
Gosling
Grandmother
Grass
Great-bellied (with

child)

Green (thing)
Greeting (a)
Grin (to make faces)

Grinder (back tooth)

Gristle

Groin

Ground

Teeatta kannamarra-

nah
Poeenabah
Pagunta
Noya leebana
Boatta or potha mal-

leetye
Liena eleebana
Kaeetagooanamenah

Tunnack
Tian-cottiack
Rallah
Parattah
Parattiana
Wielurena
Riawaeeack
Rueeleetipla
Riawena
Leieena
Pooerinna

Leenangunnye or ko-
ananietya

Ralanghta

Rooganah
Grannacunna

Wurrawana
Lowana keetanna or

Kottomalletye
Lemyouterittya
Kekanna elangoonya
Tawe

Noona meena
Weienterootya or

Wientalootya
Keeta boena
Lowan kareimena
Rouninna
Lowallaomnena

Norabeetya
Yah ! Tahwattywa
Moonapaooniack
paoreetye

Wuggarinna Ryana
Comyenna
Mungalarrina
Pvengana [?]

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brune Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Wayraparattee

Wannabayooerack
Wullyawa
Poine nire
Potta mallya

Lienir6

Lapoile lu nagreenah
moolanah
Mallane
Tianawilly
Tattounepuyna
Oorattai
Oorattai

Ooeena or Winna
Ma teelaty
Kanna
Luggara
Loie Loinmge
Longwinny
Liapooneranah

Rallana proiena

Rahra

Granna canaibee

Riawarawapah
Longatyle

Pamoonalantutte

Niree

Takavvbee

Ooraimabile

Nove.

[Wyemena
Ooaimena or
Nemone

Puggata Lovvatta
lutta
Nobeetya mallya
Yah ! Nun'oyne
I MoyetungaH

I Payelughana
Weyale
Tramina
Mannina

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Pallanyneen6

Lyinneragoo

Polimganoanate
Poningalee

Lie nonghate
Matete loguattame

*Ptunarra
Micumoolaka
Lora
Oolrah

Ooee

Mapilriagunara
Yeackanara
Riawe

Waggele
Neenubru-latai

Loweeny Rulloi leah
or Loweeny loileah

'ngana kankapea ool-
ralabeah capueeleah
Teeananga winne
Noamoloibee

Tuggattapeeatto
Kanna noangate
Tawe
Noonamoy
None,

Neenambee

Probluah

Lomallee

Mallabeabu

Yah!

Boabenneetea

Yennaloigh
Pengai
Tarrant
Nattie

xxvm

H. LING ROTH.— -ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay

Bniae Island, Kecherche

North-west and Western

to Pit water.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

Grow (as a tree, child)

Myallanga bourack

Mangapoiere

Mallacka

Growl

Nanneaquanhe

N un n aq uannapeiere

Dyekka namenera

Grub

Menia or Mungwenya

Larraminnia

Langw6

Gull [Larus Pacificus)

Lueeteianna

Lieppetah or 'ngawah

Payngh

Gulp (to)

Tongwamma

Tongane

Tonnabea

Gum (wattle tree)

Munganna

Reeatta

Reeattawe6

Gum tree [Eucalyptus)

Lottah

Moonah

Loyke

Gums (of the mouth)

'ngenna

Carena

Kattamoy

Gun (musket)

Leryna or le langta

Pawleena

RuUe

Gunpowder

Lerytiana

Paw4eenatiana

Lughtoy

Glow-worm or phos-

Pugganga lewa or

Payaleena

phoresence

Monghtamena

HaliotU (ear shell)
H. tvbercalata

I Yawarrenah

Netepah
Lorokukka

H. glabra

Magranyah

Hail

Pratleratta

Turelai

Hair

Poinglyenna

Poiete longwinne

Ditto (matted with

Poinghana

Poina

ochre)

Halo (round the moon)

Weetaboona

Panoggata

Halt (limp on leg)

Ungunniack

'nganee

Ham or Hough

Pryenna

Tabba

Hamstring (the)

Metta

Tapmita

Hand

Kiena

Reenmutta

Harlot

Pugganatingana or
meneteruttye

Patingana

Hastily (quickly)

Lemya or tuggana

Cothe

Hawk ihraddea)

Nierrina

Pengana

Ditto small (Astur

Nowarra nenah

Toeenah

at>proximans

Heron (Egret) white

Yennenah

[Her dtas sytmaio-

phofiis)

Heron (blue crane)

Lunga nua wah

(Ardea Nov. Holland.)

Head

Oolumpta

Poiete

Head-ache

Oongena Hack

Poiete merede and
poingata

Heal

Raick bourrack

Nire

Heap (to make a)

Prolmy nunty menta

Teeate

Hear (to)

Toienook boorack

Wayee

Hen (native)

Mienteroony6

Riacoone

Reeakallingalle

Hold your tongue, be

My-elbeerkamma or

Kanna moona lane

Wannabee or kan

patient, by and bye

Mealkammah

mentakuntiby or
Konnyab

nebo

Heart

Teeackana warrana

Teggana

Heat

Peooniack

Lughrah

Heave (to pant)

Tengoonyack

Teggalughrata

Heavy

Miemooatick

Moorah

Heel

Tokana or Toggana

Tokana

MILLIGAN S.

XXIX

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Help

Hide (to conceal
kangaroo)
Hide one's self
Hill (little one)
Hill (mountain)

Hit

Hither and thither

Hoar-frost

Hoarse

Hole (like wombat

burrow)
Honey- sucker (Melip-

Jiaga Australasiana)
Hot

House or hut
Howl (in distress like

a dog)

Humid (wet damp)
Hunger
Husband

Hurt ^with spear)
Hurt (with waddie)

Ice

Iguana (lizard)

111 (sick)

Imp

Impatient
Inacflive (indolent)
Indolent (lazy)

Infant

Ditto female
Infant, newly born
Inform (to tell)

Ditto (tell me)
Instant (quick)
Instep
Intersedl
Intestines
Intimidate
Invigorate

awbone
ealous

Tribes from Oyster Bay,
to Pitwater.

Nelumie
Lyeemena kamei

Mur kamiah
Poimena
Poimena tylenkan-

ganarrah Tineare-

warrah
Menny
Pughawee nyawee

Tyeebertia
Lonypeack
Lowa lengana

Liapatyenna

Peooniack
Lenna or Leprena
Tuggermacama or

Myluggana
Malleeack
M eeoongy neack
Puggan neena
Mayannee rayeree
Payalee

Paratta

Lyennah

Crackanaeeack

Winya waumetya
Telwangatea leah
Meallee tonerragetta
Mimooneka nentaca
nepoony
Malangenna

Cotruoluttye

Oana

Oana mia

Krottee

Lugga poola mena

Unginnapuee

Tiacrakena

Tiencootye

Neingtera teroontee

Yangena
Pachabrea longhe

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brun6 Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Lagrah
Muggrah

Muggrah
Layete paawe
Layete proigh

Merrhe

Takra, tungal^,

tungale
Warattai
Lonnabeeade
'ngeanah

Tarrerikah

Lughrata

Line

Cockata

Layekah
Teecotte
Pah -neena
Roaddah
Loipune

Rullai ungaratin6
Toorah

Merede and merydy-
neh

Ria warappe nolle
Kannamoonalann6
Rannah moorinah
Rannah moorinah

Puggetta
Lowa luggata
Puggata Riale
Oanganah
Ongana meena
Koatte

Lugga umene
Poany puere
Lomatina
Tienweale

Wahba and wabranna
Mahrewealai and
poinewealai

Lanne

Lebrina or Leebra

Ralloileah
Monaganurrah

Lapoitale or Lapoit-
[endayl6

Ninenna leah

XXX

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,

^ ~

T7rk«iicK 1 Tribes from Oyster Bay
*^"^"^"* to Pitwater.

Brun^ Island, Recherche

North-west and Western

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

■ erk

)o-ule

Cokura

" uice of a plant, red

Miangatentye

Miengaleena

Ditto, white Tuggara maleety6

Taramena

unip
] uvenile

Wughallee

Warrakara

Croat ta meleetye

Kangaroo (forester)

Newittye

Tarrana

Tarraleah

Ditto (bush)

Ooaleetya Ree-enna
or Lyenna

Lazzakah or Lenah

Kuleah

Kangaroo, j oey (young )

Tumnanna

Rarryna

Piaclumme

Kangaroo rat Nienyennah

Koonah

Keep

Tialapue

Tiagarra

Kill (deprive of life)

Mienemiento

Lungana

Kingfisher {Alcyone

Teepookana

Turrah

Diemenensis)

Kiss (to) Miewalle

Moee Mire

Knee Mienna

Ranga

Rawinna leah

Kneel

Mealle mianaberre

Leetarangah

Wannabya ramin-
naerybee

Knuckle

Reekateninna

Ria puggana

Releenulah leah

Lad

Puggan naereebana

Pa-ga-talina

Lake (lagoon)

Miena, mena

Lia mena

Lame

Playwarrungana

Luggamutte or Rag-
gamuttah

Lance (wooden spear)

Perenna or Prenna

Pena

Large I big)

Paw pel a

Proina nughabah

Last (to walk last in

Loente wamla

Mituggara murawa-

file)

mena

Laugh

Poeenyeggana

Pcenghana

Pen inn a

Lax (Diarrhoea)

Tiacroinnainena

Tia noileh

Lazy (see Indolent)

Mienoyack

Ruete

Rudanah

Leaf

Poruttye

Proie

Parocheboina

Leafless ! Poruttye-mayeck and

Paroytimena

Parochyateemena

; paruye noyeinaeck

Lean Tughenapoonyack

'Ngattai

'ngatta

Leap (see Jump) \\ ughalleh

Wurragara

Leech Pyenna

Pangah

Liawena

Left hand Riena-aoota

'N gotta

Oottamutta

Leg, left Leoonyana

Luggunagoota

Luggrangootta

Leg, right Leoonya eleebana

Warrina niro

Lugra-nire

Lick (with the tongue) Neungulee

Nugra inainre

Lie (falsehood)

Manengtyangha
. Tyangamoneeny

Linughe noile

rappare

Light of a fire | Tonna kayinna

Unamayna

Lightning , Poimettye

Poimataleena

Rayeepoinee

Limp (see Lame) right \\ ughnna eleebana

foot

Ditto, left foot

Playwuglirena

Raggamuttah

Limpet

A'attah

Tangah

MILLIGAN S

XXXI

Vocabulary

OF Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of

Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,',

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay,

Brun6 Island, Recherche

North-west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

Lips

Mounah

Moye

Little birds

Wurramatyenna

Lizard

Preeatenna or Priet-

Runnawenah or Pry-

tah

aminna

Load

Mahgeluhwa

Munghe mabblely

Lobster, freshwater

Tayatea

Tay-a-teh

Locust (V.D.L.)

Ganammeny6

Ganemtnanga

Log (wood)

Wyee langhta

Weea proingha

Long

Rogoteleebana

Rotuli

Long way

Murramanattya Ona-

Noina inuttaina or

Rowe leah

marumpto

Maantah

Look (to gaze)

Reliquamma

Lutubreneme

Loud (to speak)

Kuggana langhta

Kanne proine wag-
gaba

Low

Lunta

Pranako

Magpie

Poirenyenna

Reninna

Curraillyle

Maim

Mennanwee

Man (black)

Pugganna or Weiba

Pallawah or Wiebah

Pah-leah or Pahly-

Ditto (white)

Rianna •

Ludowinn6

Namma [ekka

Many (a great number)

Luawah

Mabbolah

Marrow

Moomelinah

Lebrana

Mina [ena

Meenah or Manah

Menstruate

Teebra wanghatam-

Mid-day (or noon)

Tooggy malangta

Toina wunna

Milk (of aboriginal

Proogwallah

Prooga neannah

woman)

Milt of fish

Lowalinnamelah

Perina

Mirth

Leeneale

Penamoonalane

Mischief

Puoynoback

Tannate

Mole — cricket

Nawywemena

Moon

Wiggetena

VVeetah

Weenah leah

Moonlight

Wiggetapoona

Weetapoona

Weenapooleah

Moss

Lagowunnah

Mother

Neinginena

Neeminah

Neena Moygh

Moth [punctata)

Commeneana

Mountain Buck (Anas

Lonna mutta

Opah

Mouse

Terangate Munug-
gana

Pugganarottah

Ptoarah leah

Mouth

Kakannina

Kaneinah

Kapoughy leah

Mud, sediment

Kokeree Kokeleetye

Manannywayleh

Murmur

Mannyaquanee

Kanaroiluggata

Mushroom

Neatyranna

Nearanna

Musk Duck (Biziura

Tenghyenna

Rangawah

lohata)

Mussell (shell fish)

Paraganna

Teeoonah

Mutton bird (sooty

Yolla

Petrel)

Mutton fish, smooth

Magrannyah

Lorokukka

(Haliotis)

Mutton fish (rough)

Yawarrenah

Netepa

XXXll

H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay

Brun6 Island, Recherche

North-west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.
Ryeetonye

Nail (finger)

Tonye or Pounye

Wante leah

Nail (toe)

Peyerrena

Lugga-tonny6

Perrarunne

Native hen

M iengterawinny a

Tiabunna

Native cat, large (Da-

Pungeranyah

sytirus maculatus)

Ditto, small {D. viv-

Luvennah

Roonah

errinus)

Navel

Mienanuggana

Tunoh or Lughi

Nautilus shell (Argo-

Wietatenana or Wie-

Weettah or Wibalen-

Weena runnah

naut)

tenah

gah

Near

Malumnyella

Rene

Neck

Pilowettah

Lorainah

Nettle

Miatowunnameena

Miny i

Nest (birds)

Malunna

Line

Nest (little birds)

Pun6, Line

Never

Noye myack or Nooe-
ack

Timeh or Timy

New (not old)

Croatte

Boile

Night

Tagrummena

Nun6 Dayna leah

Nip (to pinch)

Reloye Tonyere

Redeekatah

Nipple

Prugga poyeenta

Pruggapogenna

Parra garah

Timeh or Timy or

Mallya-leah

Pothyack

Noise

Kukanna wallamony-
ack

Kanna

Nose

Mununa

Muye or Muggenah

Muanoigh

Now (at this time)

Croattee

Ochre (red)

Ballawinne

One

Marrawah or Mara

Marrawah or Merah

Opossum, black {Phal-

Neoolangta or Nual-

Tony t ah or Toarkale

Temytah Temyta

angista fulginos)

aiigtamabbena

Malughlee

Ditto, ringtailed (P.

Tawpenale or Tarri-

Pawtella or Nangoo-

Pawtelluna Nuckel-

Cookii)

pnyenna

nah

Opossum mouse (Ph,

Logongyenna or Lo-

Leena or Namtapah

Paponolearah

nana)

woyenna

Ore of iron. Iron

Latta

Lattawinne

Glance (used by the

aborigines as a black

paint

C)rphan

Kollyenna

Wah-witteh

Outside

Tulenteena

Pratty-toh

Owl, large {Strix Cast-

Tryeenna or Terrin-

Kokatah or Rrukah

Tayeleah

anops

nyah

Owl, small {Athene

Laoona or Luggana

Wawtronyte or Taur-

Kokannaleah

Boohook)

nienyah

an or Tannah

Oyster

Looganah

Ledderakak

Pain

Crackanyeack

, May rude

Palm of the hand

Rielowolingana

1 Reea-rarra

milligan's

xxxiii

Vocabulary of Diali-xts of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Koyal,

Englisti.

Tribes from Oyster Bay

Brun6 Island, Recherche

North-west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

' Parrot (Co. green)

Cruggana

Cruddah

Ditto (Rosehill)

Pruggana

Parakeet (swift)

Welleetya

Wellya

Ditto (musk)

Walya noattye

Marraryka

Ditto {Eiiphema chry-

Mungananenah

Kenganuowah

sostoffte)

Paw

Luggantereena

Togga-ne

Peak (a hill)

Poymalangta

Letteene

Pebble, rolled quartz

Kughaweenya

Tramutta

Pelican

Treeontalalangta or

Toy no or Lazz'leah

Troountah

[waredekah

Penguin {Spheniscus

Tomenyenna

Teng- Wynne or 'nga-

mifwr)

Penis

Lubra, M attah-prenna

Leena or Leenai

Perspire

Regleetya

Laywurroy

Periwinkle (sea shell)

Winnya

Rannah

Pet (pettish)

Lowabereelonga

Poyneh

l^ewit, wattled {Lohiv-

Tarranyena

(melius lohiaus) [ed)

Poogharottya

Pigeon (bronze-wing-

Mooa

oonya or

Mootah or Lappa

Place (a)

Lenna

Lineh

Place, this

Linepoynena

Plant

Mellangbourack

Platypus {Omithorhyn-

Ongyennah

Oonah

chus paradoxus)

Play

Lyaneh*

Luggarrah

Point of spear

Poyeenta

Poyeenna

Pool or Lagoon

Mienameena

Kannah

Porcupine

Mungyenna

Mungye [onyah

Mungynna Kangale

Porpoise

Minga-oinyah

Poyrennahor Weno-

Pregnant

Lowalloomanyenea

Loinatilutta

Prickly

Mona-meenee

Moynena

Punk

Wullugbetye

Rarra

Pubes {mons veneris)

Maga

Magana or Megah

Quaff (drink)

Lowelly

N ugar a h [or Tee wah

Quail {Cotarnix pector-

Terranguatta

Tena Terrangutta

Tena Teewarrah

alts)

[Maytee Kantimbeh

Quiet

Coamnyena

Maytee Pangrutta or

Rage

Neoongyack

Leecote

Rail {Rallus pectoralis)

Ria lurinah

Neekah

Rain

Pokana or Pogana

Porrah

Moka

Rain (heavy)

Progga-langhta

Porra

Rainbow

Weeytena

Wayatih

Rascal

N owetty e-eleebana

Pawee

Rat

Lyinganena

Tooarrana

Ditto water or musk

Renah

Moinah

{Hydromis chrysogas-

ter)

Ditto long-tailed

Lung

anenah

Luringah

XXXIV

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary op Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay

Brun^ Island. Recherche

North-west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania.

Ditto long bandicoot

Tarrangha munukana

Wierah

Ray (Stingaree)

Leranna

Pireme or Lourah

Red

Tendyagh or Tentya

Koka

Red-bill

Lutyenna

Tikah

Red-breast, Robin

Poughynyena

Tenganeowah

Repair

Trulee

Peruggareh

Respire

Tyackanoyack

Taykalyngana

Retch (to vomit)

Nutyack

Nukatah

Rib [with red ochre

Tolameena [bana

Tene

Ringlets (corkscrews

Pow-ing-arootelee-

Poeena

Poenghana

Rise

Takumuna

Peggaruggarua

Ripe

Crang-boorack or Pn-
nelongboorack

Pegarah

River riittle)
Rock (large)

Menaee Keetannah

Lia-pootah

Lonah or Loelanghta

Loynee Broyee

Rod (small)

Weenah Keetannah

Weea Pawee

Roll (to) [on sea-beach

Wangana weepootah

Rollers or breakers

Lyeltya

Panaminna

Roe of fish

Leena bunna

Root (tree)

Remeenye

Monalughana or

Pughweady

Rotten wood

Treoratick

Tawnah

Rough

Payralyack

Rulle

Round like a ball

Mieawiack

Mattah

Row (a long one)

Raondeleeboa

Reekara

Rub (rub in fat)

Mungannemoee

Ruggarra

Ruddy cheeks

M iy pooeetany ack

Koka

Ditto

Mientendyack

Run

Rene

Legara

Run together

Rene nunempte

Loongana

Rush

Roba

Salt on the rocks by

Lienowittye

Ditto [the sea-side

Liopackanapoona

Sand

Mungara mena

'nguna

Sand-lark {Hiaticula

Tetaranyena

Ruwah

Sap \ruficapilla

Miangatentya or Mi-
angmalleetya

Ditto (milk white)

Poorwallena

Scab

Loryomena or Loir-
mena

Lowide

Scales (of fish)

Poerinna

Lowinna

Nangennamoi

Scar

Trugatepoona

Mungarapoona

Toolengennaleah

Scarify

Lowoone

Towatte

Scent

Mebryack

Poanoile

Scratch

Larre

Sea (ocean)

Lienna wuttya and

Pan am una

Leah le

lialeetea

Sea-horse {Hippocam-

Layanunea

Poolta

pus)

MILLIGAN S

XXXV

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Seal (Phoca) on sandy
beach

Ditto, black on rocks
Ditto, white-bellied
See (to behold)
Serious (sad gaze)
Serpent (black snake)

Ditto (diamond snake)
Sexual intercourse

Sexual organs : —
Male, penis

„ scrotum
Female, fnans veneris
,, vagina
Shallow
Shadow

Shag, cormorant black
{Phalacrocorax corboi-
des)

Ditto, white -breasted
ditto {P. leucogasUr)
Shark

Sharp (like a knife)
Shave, to (with flint)
She-oak tree
Ship

Shore

Shore (sandy beach)
Go ashore
Shoulder

Under ditto (arm -pit)
Shout (yell)
Shower (of rain)
Shrike (magpie) {Gym-
norhina organUum)

Ditto, black (magpie)
(Strepera fuliginosa)
Shrub
Sick-

Ditto
Side (the)

On one side, aside
Sinew (Kangaroo)
Sing (to hiss or fizz in

the fire)

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pitwater.

Tribes about Mount Royal.l
Brun^ Island, Recherche North-west and Western

Naweetya

Pienrenya

Prematagomoneetya
Mongtone
Relgany-quoriga
Loiena or Lounabe Of
Loyganah

Preawintaroetta
Loanga metea or Po-
anghametea

Matta-prenna <?y Lu-
Mattah [bra

Mahgana
Teebra poynghta
Waylearack
Wurrawina Tietta
Pooragana, Poora-
kanna, or Moorah

Moogana

'ngunna
Lyetta

Poyngha runnyale
Luggana-brenna
Lotomalangta loome-
na

Malompto
Koynaratingana

Puggarenna or Tolu-
nah

Luranah

Kukanna wurrarenna
Pokanna kuanna
Toongyenna

Pocerrenyenna

Tarra coonee

Micrackanyach

Miycracknatareetya

Lietelinna

Mebbya

Metah (met-ah)

Lyenny

Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Wayanna

Nubratone
ManattaTulla
Loina or Luthgah

Pawerak

Leena or Leenai
Matta

Magana or Megah
Teebra poyngta
Rohete
Maydena

Cabarrarick or Moor-
ah

Moorak or Moorah

Meningha

Nenah

Poynghate ranayal6

Luh-be

Lune poina makkaba

Loccota

Tawe loccota
Parangana or Parang-
he
Kawdah
Palla-kanna
Tungatinah

Reninna

Tarrara manne
Mimerede

Tribes.

Rau-anah or Rounah
or Rawannah or
Pallawaa - royanah
or Roallabeah

Belanyleah

Loallyb^

Taynna

Mitah
Lyenne

Kawallah

Mawbya

XXXVl

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

[Tribes about Mount Royal,

Tribes from Oyster Bay , Brun6 Island, Recherche

to Pit water. | Bay, and the South of

Tasmania.

Sing a song
Sink
Sister
Sit down

Skeleton (bones of)
Skin

Ditto of Kangaroo
Skull

Sky (cloud in)
Sleep

Sleep (very sound)
Smile
Smoke
Smooth
Snail
Sneeze
Snore
Snow

Sole (of foot)
Song
Soon
Son
Sour

Spaniel (dog) |

Spark

Ditto, fire
Spawn (of frogs)
Spear (wood)
Spew (to)
Speak
Spider
Spine
Spirit of the dead

Ditto, of evil — the
devil [tive power

Ditto, of great crea-
Spit

Sport (play)
Spring (wattle blossom
Scjuall [season

Stamp (with the foot)
Stand (stand up)
Star

Starlight
Shooting star
Steal

Step (foot-step)
Stomach
Stone

Lyenny riacunna '
Tomla, tome, boorka '
Nowantareena |

Mealpugha or craek-
ena !

Terynah !

Tarra meenya i

Trameeneah
Pruggamoogena '

Mienteina ,

Lonny

Pughoneoree i

Progoona or prooana |
Panninya

Lonughutta

Teakanarra loneah

Paratta or Parattianah

Lugyenna

Riacunnah

Leemya

Malengena

No-wiyack

Kaeeta or Mookra

Tonypeprinna

Tonna

Manughana

Perenna

Nuka

Puellakanny

Tangana

Myinguna terrena

Wuirawena

Mieng-inya

Tiggana Marrabona

Tyackaree-meena

Riawena

Pewenya paeena

Ralangta

Taoontekiipe

Tackamuna

Teahbrana

Teahbertyacrackna

Puggareetya

Maneena langatick

Luggana marah

Teenah

Loantennina

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Cracka-nekah

Terannah

Leewur6
Poetarunnah
Warrena and Warren
Longana [tenna

Panapawaweab^

Poodah

Temlih

Mengana

Lonolarre

Roggara

Turrana

Lugga-lunnah

Luna-raibe

Kothe

Puggatah

Noile

Mookrah

Powitte

'Ngun6

Manunghana

Pe-na

Nukara

Poeerakunnabeh

Waytanga

Tuherarunnah

Warrawah

Namma or Namne-

boorack or Rigga-

[ropa
Kamena meena
Riawe

Luggarato paw6
Rallana proee
Taoontekape
Cracka-wughata
Romtenah
Oarattih
Pachareah
Maneenah Layawe
Luggacanna
Teena
Loinah, Louna, or

Loin6

Nunabeah [leeto
Nunabeah temaru-

Liaiarragonnah

Rienalbughy

Riacannah

va.c
Pughweenyna wein:-
Lopah or Lxyhah 'r
rPatrdia
Poena, Pilhah
Nugrynna
Pooracan nabeh

Comptena

Kaimonamoee
Riawe wayboree
Lughra pawee
Raali poyngnah

Pegrette wergho
Rhomdunna or

[MeabeemcDai:

Teenah
Noanyale

MILLIGAN S

XXXVll

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

Tribes about Mount Royal,

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay,

Brun6 Island, Recherche

North-west and Western

to Pitwater.

Bay, and the South of

Tribes.

Tasmania

Stoop

Puggana narratyack

Puggana Narrangbe

Stop

Poyeer6

Kuneeame

Straight

Ungoyeleebana

Tunghabe

Strike

Luggana golumpt6

Lunghana

Lanne

Strong

Oyngteratta or Rel-

RuJla, Rullanih

Ramana-rule or Rel-

beah

beack

Stump of a tree

Pomya kunnah

Ortawenah

Weealynghana

Stupid

Koa-langatick

Oyelarraboo

Wayeelarraboo or
Puggytomoorah

Suck

Mole

Mokra prugh

Sullen

Lowattobeolo kakan-

Poininna or Keetrel-

nene or Monna Pe-

bya

rinna or Lowaperee

longha

Summer

Wingytellangta

Lughoratoh

Sun

Pugganoobranah or

Panubere or Pallanu-

Panubryna or Ton-

Pukkanebrenah

branah

ah-lea

Sunrise

Puggalena parrack

Panubre roeelapoe-

boorack

rack

Sunset

Wietytongniena

Panubra tongoieerah

Suspiration (sigh)

Teangonyack

Takone

Survivor

Lugga poerannea

Swallow (a bird)

VVaylelimna

Papalawe

Swallow (adl of deg-

Tonyquamina

Tonganah

lutition)

Swan

Kelangunya or Rob-
eegana

Pugherittah .

Korah or Puble

Sweat (to perspire)

Malleeack Regleetya

Leghromena or Lee-

or Regooleetya or

wurra-moina

Regleepoona

Swell

Lienyack

Lin eh

Swim

Puggely

Pughrah

Swiftly

Oaranghate

Rangare

Switch, a

Tarra koona

Tarraweenah

Tarrawinne

Tail

Manna poona

Pugghnah

Take

Nunn6

Nunnabeh

Talk

Pueelcanne

Poieta kannabeh

Ditto (too much

Kukanna liereah or

Kukanna moonalane

Kunrar6 or Kun-

speaking)

Mealpeal kamma

moonera

Tall

Takkaro deleeaban
righ-eleebana

Rotulih

Talon

Kuluggana

Kubluggana

Tame

Riaputheggana

Tiagrapoineena

Tarantula (large spider)

Ne-ungalangta

Temmatah

Taste

Wughne

Weene

Teal

Ryennatiabrootea

Weah wangh rutah

Tear (a)

Tagarrena

Tarragatte

Teat

Pruggana

Testes

Matta

There

Nekah

Nekaleh

XXXVlll

H, LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay-
to Pitwater.

Thigh

Thirsty

Throw

Throw or put away

Thrush, spotted

Ditto, dense forest
Thumb
Thumb-nail
Thunder

Tick (parasitic inseifl)
Tide (low water)

„ (high water)
Tie (a knot)
Tide
Tiger V. D. L. {Thyla-

cinus cynocephalus)
Timber (large)

Ditto (small)
Tired
Toad or frog

Toe

Toothless
Tooth
Tongue

Top

Topaz (crystal)

Tor (a peaked hill)

Torch

Touch

Touch - wood (rotten

wood)
Tough
Track (footmark)

Trample (to)
Transfix (to)

Travel

Tree (gum tree)

Ditto (Blackwood)
Tree (fall of a)
Tremble
Trickle

Triton (sea-shell)
True

Try (to) [or line)

Tug (to, at a rope
Tumble
Turn (to)

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brun^ Island. Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Nungunna

Kukannaroonyack

Miengy

Parraw6

Noyennah

Lemarrcootya

Rianaoonta

Tony6

Poimettya

Loangaritea

Kukannaboee

Luggatick

Lagunta

Wielangta
Wiena

Pryennemkoottiack
Leawinnawah or Ral-
lah

Mengha
Wugherinna noimyak
Wughrinna
Kayena

Tulendeena

Tendeagh

Poymallyetta

Poorena moneggana

Neungpa

Wei tree ouratta

Lughteeac
Puggataghana and

Tughanaloumeno
Teentiah
Myenny-pingaterrelu-

teo
Tackamoona
Loatta
Rialimme
Poengboorack
Mienintyak
Kukkamena meena
Tullah

'N gony neealeebya
W ugh nee
Koyule
Mientonka
Wughannamee

Tughrah

Rukannaroiet6

Menghana

Moneerah

Peggarah

Ryanaootta

Toiena

Papatongun^

Pranimanah

Payaw6

Pilangootah
Lughruttah
Ka-nunnah or Laoon-
ana

Wee-a-proinah
Weeapawe
Kakara Wayale
Talleh

Payeatimy
Pay-ee-a or Pa- y ana
Menn6 or Mayna or

Maynenah
Wughata
Mughra mallee
Layatinnah
Leewure
Winganah
Weeawanghratta

Rulli
Luggaboin6

Teeantibe
Nenavitete

Tackramoonena
Lott6 or lote

Moona Pungana

Tieneweleh

Truggara

Tunah

Ughana kanna nire

Ween6

Kottub6

Moonapangana

Miewangana

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Nowam of Noamma

Loarinnah

Yennaleah
Tullah

MILLIGAN S

XXXIX

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

[Tribes about Mount Royal,
Tribes from Oyster Bay, \ Brun6 Island, Recherche

to Pitwater.

Tusk (canine tooth)

Twig

Twins

Twilight

Twirl (twist)

Twitch (pluck)

Two

Typha, Bulrush, a na-
tive marsh plant, roots
yield arrowroot

Ugly

Urine

Uxorious

Vale or Valley

Vanish

Vassal (serf)

Venomous

Venom

Vent

Vertex (crown of head)

Volute, large {V. mani-
illa)

Volute, long, (F. fust-
for mis)

Wade

Waddie, a truncheon-
like weapon used as
a missile in war and
hunting

Wake

Wail, to lament

Waist

Wait

Walk

Wallabee {HalnuUurus
Billardieri)

War

War (skirmish, one
or two killed)

War (battle, all killed
but one or two)

Warm

Warratah {Tolopeai-
runcata)

Wart

Wash (to)

Water (fresh)

Wuggerinna rotalee-
Loatta keetana [bana
Maiynabyeck
Teggrymony Keetana

narra longboorack
Wughannemoe
Kole
Pia wah
Plinemlena

Nowatty nieealbana

Mungana

Lowa puggelanny6

Ma-ra comenya
Poyena potattyack
Pueetoggana mena
Ree punnere nungha-
Mana mena [pa

Loa lingana
Toganee
Mebryna

Krayarena

Moimenniac

Lergah or Lughrana

Lientiack

Tegryma kannunya
Pooalminna
Myelpoyere
Tahlpoonere
Lukangana or Rak-
anguna

Rennamoimenya
Marana

Moeelughawa

Peoonyack
Kiuntah

Kr6man poona
Nonelmoi

Liena or Lin'-Elee-
bana

Bay, and the
Tasmania.

South of

Payee, a rotyle
Weea wunna
Meinna-na
Nun-to-neenah

Oaghra
Ko-kra
Pooalih
Poi-erinna

Noallee nuggabah
Munghate mungha-

[beh

Mara- way -lee

Tienbugh

Potaigroee nara-na

Nunghboorack nung-

Kamona moina [abah

'ngeenah

Togari

Poirah

Moorleah

Mowerrenah
Lughrana

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Wee winna

Weeny

Meeluggrana

Pooariumena

Krattabe

Tawtaboorana

Taranna or Tarra

Moi mengan mabeli
Moeemutt6

Moeemabbyle

Lughreto

Ta-winn6
Nunu gra
Liawenee

Luttibeah

Tabbelte

Noguoyleah or Tan-

[ah

Lia winne and Lil-
eah

H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pit water.

Water (cold)
(warm)

„ (salt)
Water-pitcher (made

of the leaves of the

large kelp)
Wattle bird

Ditto smaller
Wattle-tree

Ditto sea- side {Acacia
Wave [marititna)

Weak
Weed
Weep

Well (spring)
Wet (rainy)
Whale

What ? what's that ?
When and where
Whisper, speak low,

let nobody hear

WMiistle

White

Whiz (like a ball, etc.)

Whore, fornicatrix
Wherry (sea-shell)
Widow

Wife, newly married
Will-o'-the-wisp {Ignis

fatuus)
Wind

Ditto, high
W^indpipe {Pomum Ad-
Wing \ami)

Wink
Winter
Witch or female goblin

said to be clothed in

grass or fibrous bark
Woe's me ! ah me !
Woman

Ditto, handsome

Ditto, young girl
Ditto, adult
Ditto, aged, old
Ditto, white

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brun^ Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Lietinna

Liena peoonya or Li
ena peoonyeck
Lia noattye
Moirunah

Toorittya
Leewurenyenna
'Nghearetta
Boobyallah
Legleetya mengena
Koomyenna
Pannabon bruttye
Tagarramena
Loy-ulena
May-niack
Mitawennya
Telingha ? Tebya ?
'gnamela Mayleh ?
Kukkanna lenagangpa
or nunte pateinuyra
or Kukanapunyepara
Purra Kanna
Malleetye
'Ngona Kunna

Wurrawa-noattye
■ Wurrawa Lowanna
Kroatta langunya
Packareetea

Rawlinna
Raalanghta
Lonna
Poilinna
Mentroiack
Tunna

Murrambukanya
lowana

Pagra ! Kum leah !
Lowanna or Lowa
Loanna eleebana and
loa niry

Krotto melleetye
Puggya malleetye
Payanna
Ria lowana

Liawenee
Lialughrana

Moirunah or Moirah

Manna
Boobyallah
Leaturi or Pan nam -
Mia wayleh [ena
Tallarattai
Tarra wayleh
'Ngyena
Lay-ka
Parrabah

Pallawaleh ? or An-
Wabbara ? [neah
Poeta Kanna paway

Munnakanna
Mallee ofMalluah
Payngunnana or Po-
yngunna Kunna
Panubr6 Mabbyle
Leeka
Nena tura tena

Poya lanune
Puckarenh

Rallinganunne
Rallinga proiena
Lonna and Loarinna
Maykana Pounghna
Nubra rott6
Turra

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Wayleabeh [na

Ne-eanta and Lowan-
Loa-nire lyady wayack

Loalle puggana
Longatallinah
Nena ta poiena

Kourah

Mokah or Mogga or
[Moggana
Tarraginna ?

Onabeah dayaleah

Plubeah

M ungyanghgarrah

Nangoinuleah

Waggapoonynurrah

Lewan
Lewanhock

Loyorunna

Taqueate
Nowaleah

MILLIGAN S

xli

Vocabulary of Dialects of Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

English.

Wombat {Phascolomys
vomhatus
Wood, firewood

Wren, blue-headed
{Malurus longicaudus)
Wrinkle
Wrong
Wrist

Yawn
Yes

Yesterday

You

Young (little) boy

Ditto (little) girl

Tribes from Oyster Bay
to Pitwater.

Raoompta, Raoomata

Wiena and Winna

Poitenena

Niangte nepoony

Miengana

Rapoolmena

Granna Kunna
Narramoona, Narra-

wallee
N6ntegga Menyawa
Neena
Kaeetenna Mallangy-

enna
Lowanna Kaeetenna

Tribes about Mount Royal,
Brun6 Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of
Tasmania.

Rowitta

Muggrawebe and
mattaweb6
Lueena

Pelanypooneh

Nuyeko

Riapoolumpta

Leakanny

Narrawarrah, Nar-
rawe, Narraluawah
Neea nunnawa
Neena or Nee
Puggata paweena

North-west and Western
Tribes.

Koeebah or Problat-
tena
Moomerah

Narro-barro or nar-
rapa

Short Sentences in the Native Language.

Give me a stone

Give him a stone

I give you some water

I will not give you any water

You give me food

You do not give me food

Give me some bread

We will give you a stick

We will not give you a stick

Give me some bread to eat, I am
hungry

This is my hand
This is not my hand
Sing a song
Where is your father?
My father is here
He is my father
He is not my father
Tell your father of this
We go to see the river
I like to drink the water
I make the boat go fast
The ship goes upon the sea

Lonna or Loina tyennabeah mito

Lonna tyennamibeah

Lina tyennamibeah

Noia meahteang meena neeto linah

Tyennabeah tuggen6

Noia meah teang meena neeto tuggen6

Tyenna miape pannaboona or Teengan-
ana ma pannaboo or Tunghmbib^ tun-
garingaleah

Tyennambieah weena

Noia tyennambieah weena

Teeanymiape tuggane, Meeongyneeome
or Teeanymeiape teeacottpm'na or Tee-
ampiap6 Matughala Mapilrecottai

Reena or Riena narrawa !

Mi-ang-unnah

Lyenne riakunna or Rialinghana

Ungamlea i\ang6ena

Nangamea numb6

Miangunnana

Onnabea nangato

Nialomiah manaiah

Monna langarrap6

Parapetaleebea malanna talea warrangat6

Tiretya teeakalummala

xlii

H. LING ROTH.-^ABORIGINBS OF TASMANIA.

f»

}»

The waves make the sea rough

You see the sea over the hill

Go down from the hill

Run over the ground

Do not run along the road

The man feeds the dog

The woman makes a basket

The woman is very fair

The child eats his food

The child is small

A horse

The horse runs on the ground

The horse kicks the child

A cow or ox

Numerals — One

Two

Three

Four

Five

I shall go to my house
I strike the horse
Touch his hand
Do not touch his hand
Cut down the tree
Tell him to go to the house
Speak to the man
He is in the house
They jump over the river
They walk through the river
Run along the side of the river
They swim in the river
They sink in the river
We drink water
He cuts his hair with Rint
My brother has a long arm
My sister is very tall
He has two children
Take a stick and beat the dog
The dog is beaten with a stick
The sun is rising
The sun is set already
The moon is risen
The moon is not seen
The moon is behind the cloud
You stand behind the tree
They climb up the tree
The swan swims in the water
The water is very warm
The water is not warm
Salt water

Leea leetyah poinummeah

Roogoomale linoiyack

Rongtane Tyungerawa

Ringapyanganawebere

Parrawe ringapa

Ty^nnabeah kaeetebeah

Lowanna 0II6 tubbrana

Lowa maleetya

Teeana malangeebeah

Malangeebeah

Pangooneah

Pangoonea rene pateleebea

Pangoonea paraingumenah

Packallah

Marrawah ,

Piawah

Luwah

Pagunta wulliawah

Pugganna marah

Tugganna lunameatah

Pell a pangooneah

Rientonnabeah

Tell6 talle parrawe

Ugana puye lot6

Talle lenuttoo, or Talle leebraluto

Oonah beah

Lunaretah

Wuggala menaye

Yang6 menaye

Tawe rante webere

Puaw6 menaye

Tonge menaye

Lao \\y€

Tugganna pugheranynee trautta

Nietta mena oon root' eleebana

Nienta mena tuggara root* eleebana

Malang- piawah

Tial wee pella kaeeta

Pella kaeeta naoota mena

Puggule6na pare^bara

Pugguleena toomla pawa

Ooeeta or Weeta poona

Ooeeta mayangti byeack

Ooeeta toggana warratena lunta

Mangana lutena

Cronge lotta

Kalungunya tagumena liyetitta

Lia pyoonyack

Lia tunnack

Lia noattye

MILLIGAN S VOCABULARY.

xliii

Fresh water
He is a good man
He is a bad man
Come and drink the water
This water is salt
That water is fresh
Milk comes from the cow
Send him to get milk
I saw the tree yesterday
I have cut my finger
He limps with one leg
He sees with one eye
My face is very black
Make the horse run fast
When the warm weather is come
It is now cold weather
They are white men (the men are
white)

This woman is very white
Bring him and put him down here

Come along, I want to speak to
you

Aha ! you are sulky all of a sudden

Hold your tongue — be patient— by
and bye

Come here

Walk naked

Go ashore

Make a light, I want to see you

Run together (a race)

Stay or keep a long way off

Awake, rouse up, get up

Don't wake him, let him sleep

Whisper, speak low, let nobody
hear
Hither and thither

Lian eleebana or liana eleebana

Puggana tareety6

Tagantyaryack

T'alle le loolaka lia

Lia noattye

Liana eleebana

Prughwullah packalla

Rang6 prughwullah

Lotta mont6 meena cotte

Ri6 poye pueningyack

Raggamuttah

Raggunnah

Raoonah mawpack

Pangoonya ren6 wurrangate

Nente pyoonta

Tunna

Riana Rianowitty6

Lowana eleebana

Nunnalea pooranamby or Kannawattah,
ponnawe or Kannawuttah ponnapoo

Talpyarwodeno tuyena kunnamee, or
Tutta wuttah onganeenah, or Tunneka
makunna talmatieraleh

Any ah ! Teborah ! Keetrelbya noomena
peniggomaree

Mealkamma or metakantibe, or kannyab
mielbeerkammah, or kanna moonalane,
Wannabee kannybo

Tia nebere, or Tialleh

Tia reea lungungana

Tawe locata

Men6 le monghatiaple monghtoneel6, or
matangunabee nubratonee
Rene nunempte or leongana

Onamarrumnebere, or crackn6 lo maba,
or kleaba row6

Tientable taggamunna, or nawatty peg-
raty ! wergho ! or takka wughra

Tialenghpa lontun-narra, or Kunuyam
tilanga bah, or Kunnyam narraloyea

Kukkana lengangya nunty pateinuyero
or Onabeah dayaleah

Tack way bee Tutta watta or etc.

Some Aboriginal Names of Places in Tasmania.

Cape Portland Distridl
Country extending back from Ringa-
rooma Township
Douglas River
Nicholas's Cap

Tebrakunna

Warrentinna

Leeaberryaek or Leeaberra

Mita winnya, Kurunna poima-langta

xliv

H, LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Dodlor's Creek (East Coast)

Long Point

Salt Water Lagoon, near the Coal
Mines

Governor's Island

George's River Districfl

Maria Island

Mount Royal and Port Cygnet,
country lying between

Oyster Bay

High lands behind ditto

** St. Valentine's Peak, on Surrey
Hills, Peak like a Volcano" of
Flinders

Piper's River Distridl

Port Davey

East Bay Neck

Eagle Hawk Neck

Hampshire Hills Distri(5l, in the
North-west

Barren Joey Island

Glamorgan Districft

Port Arthur

Macquarie Harbour

Recherche Bay

Port Esperance

South port

Brune Island

South Arm

Huon Island

Betsy Island

Three-hut Point

Tinder-box Bay

Brown's River

Arch Island

Tamar River

Piper's River

Swan Island

Arthur River

Schouten Island

Cape Grim

Mount Cameron (West Coast)

Mount Hemskirk

Mount Zeehan

Circular Head

Frenchman's Cap

Albatross Island

Hunter's Island

Pieman's River

District north of Macquarie Har-
bour

Wuggatena menennya
Wuggatena poeenta

Mungarattya
Tittanariack
Kunarra-kunnah
Toarra-marra-monah

Talun6

Poyanannupyaek
Pothy munatia

Naton6

Orramakunne

Poynduc

Lueene langhta Muracomyiack

Teeralinnack or Tera-linna

Pateena

Roobala mangana

Tebranuykunna

Pr6maydena

Parralanogatek

Leillateah

Raminea

Lamabbele

Lunawanna-alonnah

Reemere

Prahree

Temeteletta

Taoonawenna

Renna kannapughoola

Promenalinah

Poora tingale

Ponrabbel

Wattra Karoola

Terelbesse

Tunganrick

Tiggana marraboona

Kennaook

Preminghana

Roeinrim or Traaoota munatta

Weiawenena

Monattek or Romanraik

Mebbelek

Tangatema

Reeneka

Corinna

Timgarick

MILLIGAN S VOCABULARY.

xlv

Lake St. Clair

Huon River

Satellite Island

Derwent River

Mount Wellington

Clarence Plains

Crooked Billet and on to the Drom-
edary

Range of Hills between Bagdad
and Dromedary

Jordan River

Lovely Banks

Ben Lomond

South Esk River

Lagoon or summit of Ben Lomond

St Patrick's Head

Track on the Coast between De-
tention River and Circular Head

Small Island half-way between
Maria Island and main land

Leeawulena

Tahune-linah

Wayaree

Teemtoomel6 menennye

Unghanyahletta or Pooranettere

Nannyeleebata

Unghanyenna

Rallolinghana

Kuta linah

Tughera wughata

Toorbunna

Mangana lienta

Meenamata

Lumera genena wuggelena

Purreka

Lughretta

Some Names of Aborigines of Tasmania.

Mannalaggana

Tonack

Wureddy or Ooareddy

Pooblattena (literally, Wombat)

Kakannawayreetya (literally, Joey
of the Forester Kangaroo)

Bonep

Kellawurumnea

Lanney

Kunnarawialeety6

M eenapeckameena

Maywedick or Maywerick

Redaryioick

Reeamia puggana

Menepackatamana

Paloona

Rienaebuhye (literally, snow falling)

Rialim

Laranah

Noblatigh

Mooltea langana

Rawaeleebana

Noteningunna

Men.

A native of Macquarie Harbour
Native of North-West Distri^

A native of Oyster Bay

A native of Macquarie Harbour

A native of Pit water

A native of the North-West

A native of Oyster Bay

A native of Lovely Banks

A native of Circular Head Distri(5l

A native of Port Davey

A native of Pitwater — the only capture

when **the line" was out in 1830
A native of the Derwent River Distri(5l
A native of Circular Head Districfl
A native of same Distridl
Ditto
A native of Cape Grim interior

These two last-named were of the fam-
ily captured in 1842 or 1843, and no
wild aborigines have been seen on the
mainland since.

A native of Launceston Districfl

A native of Bay of Fires

A native of Port Sorell

xlvi

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

M unghepuganna

Punghabonyena

Rawanegh

Lannamena

Pennabookh

Tarooltigh

Kaeetapanna

Lekamughn6

Monopeletto

A native of the District about Bothwell
and Oatlands

A native of St. Paul's River Distritft

A native of North-West Distridl

A native of Ben Lomond

A native of Circular Head Distridl

Ditto

A native of Oyster Bay

A native of Districft of Circular Head

A native of Distri(5> of Derwent River

Women.

Taenghanootera (literally, weeping
bitterly)

Worromonoloo (literally, boughs)

Rammanaloo (literally, little gull)

Wuttawantyenna (literally, nausea)

Plooranaloona (literally, sunshine)

Tenghanoop

Trooganeenie*

Metakartea

Tiabeah

Koonya

Pueelongmeena

Unghlottymeena

Rayna

Penghanawaddick

Oattamottye or Wattamottye

Rhomdy6

Kittawa

Mialughtena

Kannabootya

Tialeawe

Poingana-comyena

Mooreenunga

Pooratamena

Tangaragootta

A native of George's River

A native of the Piper's River Road

A native of Cape Portland [Distridl

A native of East Bank of Tamar River

A native of George's River

A native of Port Davey

A native of Mount Royal

A native of North -East Quarter

A native of Bruni Island

A native of Sorell

A native of Oyster Bay

A native of North-East

A native of Pieman's River

Ditto

A native of the valley of the Tamar

A native of Oyster Bay , [River

A native of Districfl near Detention
River and Circular Head

A native of Campbell Town Districft

A native of North- West interior

A native of Port Sorell

A native of Pitwater [Head

A native of North-West near Circular

A native of George's River

A native of Banks of the Derwent River

Aboriginal Verses in Honour of a Great Chief, sung as an
Accompaniment to a Native Dance or Riawe.

Pappela Rayna 'ngonj^na, Pappela Rayna 'ngonj'na,

Pappela Rayna 'ngonyna !
Toka mengha leah, Toka mengha leah,

Toka mengha leah !
Lugha mengha leah, Lugha, mengha laah,

Lugha mengho leah !

* This woman was the last representative of the race.

MILLIGAN S VOCABULARY

xlvii

Nena taypa Rayna poonj^na, Nena taypa Rayna poonjrna

Nena taypa Rayna poonyna !
Nena nawra pew^llah Pallah nawra pewyllah,

Pellawah, Pellawah !
Nena nawra pewyllah, Pallah nawra pewyllah,

Pellawah, Pellawah !

Fragment of another Song.

K5lah tunname neanymS

Pewyllah pugganarra ;
R5onah Leppaka malamatta

. . . Leonalle
Renape tawna newurra pewurra
Nomeka pawna pool&pa Lelapah,
Ndngane mayeah melarootera
K5abih remawurrah
&c., &c., &c.

Fragment of another Song.

WannUpS Wappere tepara,
Nenname pewyllah kellape

Mayngatea
Maynapah Kolah maypelea
Wappera Ronah Leppakah
&c., &c., &c.

APPENDIX D.

PHRASES AND SONGS AFTER BRAIM.

English.

I love you.

1*11 go and hunt.

I see a vessel on the water sail-
ing fast ; but she is a long way at
sea.

When I went hunting, I killed no
less than one wallaby, one kangaroo,
two badgers, and one black swan,
and being hungry, I felt in my
pocket for my fireworks, in order
to make a iire and cook some of
my game, but I found none. I
therefore had to walk home before
I broke my fast.

When I returned to my country
I went hunting, but did not kill
one head of game. The white men
make their dogs wander and kill all
the game, and they only want the
skins.

Tasmanian.

Mena coyetea nena.
Mena mulaga.

Mena lapey lucropey tackay pen-
ituta mocha carty manuta.

Mena mulaga laveny powa par-
mera, tara, lathakar, catabewy, pro-
bylathery, paniery, haminen, trairna,
pooty, lapry, patrol a, pomely, pooty,
ribby, mena, leprena, meena.

Malanthana- mena - tackay mulaga,
pooty, nara pamery, lowgana, lee
calaguna, cracky, carticata, ludarn-
ny, parobeny, nara moogara nara
mena loewgana, reethen tratyatetay
tobantheelinga nara laway, rel-bia
mena, malathina mobily, worby, pua-
yunthea.

xlviii

H, LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Song.

Poo-ye-carne-koon a meta
Num-ba, keta-rel-ba-ena
Too-ya-wa-ta-loo-ta-warra
Koon-a-meta-panta-warra
A ka-la-leba-iony-eta
A ka-ba-mar-keen-a

Song.

A re-na-too
Ket-a-ta-e-vepa
Mel-re-pa-too
A re-na-too.

Song.
Taby-ba-tea-mocha-my boey-wa
Taby-ba-tea-mocha-my boey-wa
Taby-ba-tea-mocha-my boey-wa
Lonia-ta-roch-a-ba-long-a ra
Loma-ta-roch-a-ba-long.a ra.

Song.
Ne-par-me-ry-wa
Ne-cat-a-ba-wa
Ne-par-me-ry-wa
Ne-cat a ba-wa.

Portions of Genesis, by Thos. Wilkinson, at Flinder's Island.

Genesis — Chapter I.

1. In the beginning God created
the heaven and the earth.

2. And darkness was upon the face
of the deep.

3. God said, Let there be light,
and there was light.

4. And God saw the light that it
was good, and God divided the
light from darkness.

5. God said. Let the earth bring
forth grass, and it was so.

16. God made two great lights, the
greater light to rule the day. and the
lesser light to rule the night. He
made the stars.

17. God set them in the firmament
of heaven to give light upon the
earth.

21. God made great whales, and
every living creature that moveth,
which the water brought forth abun-
dantly.

25. And God made the beast of
the earth, and He saw it was good.

26. And God said, Let us make
man in our own image, after our
own likeness.

27. And God created man in His
own image.

31. And God saw everything He
had made, and, behold, it was very
good.

Translation.

1. Trota, Godna pomable heavena
coantana.

2. Lewara crackne.

3. Godna carne, tretetea, tretetea,
crackne.

4. Godna capra tretetea lawarra.

5. Godna carne coantana, nigane
rothana rotana tibra.

16. Godna pomale cathebewa tre-
tetea lackrana wahalenna narra po-
male purlanna.

17. Godna propara narra wealicatta
tringane trecktea.

21. Godna pomale lackrane penun-
ganna, cardea, penungana.

25. Godna pomale panalla, ilia, ta-
bela, sheepana, Godna, capra narra
coopa

?.6. Godna carne, mena pomale, wi-
beelicka mena.

27. Godna pomale wibalicka narra. .

31. Godna capra, cardea, narra po-
male, narra carne-narra coopa ! coo-
pa.

G. w. walker's phrases and songs. xlix

Commenting on this translation, G. W. Walker (MS. Jour.) says :
" Those words commencing with an English syllable are such as the
aborigines have none, expressing the idea in their own language.
Thus they seem to have no idea of a presiding power, nor any term
corresponding with such a sentiment in their vocabulary. The English
word has therefore been adopted by the translator with the native ter-
mination added, making * Godneli.' The same with respe(ft to several
others. Several of these anglified terms are now in such common use
among the natives that they may be considered as incorporated in the
language. The word * grassneh ' for * grass,' is more frequently used
among those at the settlement than the original term given above. It
is doubtful whether ** myneh ' for * me * or * I,' may not be traced to
the same origin."

II.

Song of Ben Lomond Tribe.

From Davies (p. 411), who says: "I cannot translate it, nor could
I do so, is the subjecfl very selecfl ? " —

Ne popila raina pogana

(Every line is repeated three times)

Thu me gunnea

Thoga me gunn6a

Naina thaipa raina pogana

Naara paara poivella paara,

Ballahoo, Ballahoo,

Hoo, Hoo !
(Their war whoop very gutteral).

APPENDIX E.

Vocabulary.

Two Popular Songs, and Names of Men and Womkn ;

after
G. W. Walker, (MS. Joiir.)

The sounds of our own language, represented in the upper line, are
expressed in theirs by the nicxle of spellinj^ adhered to in the line
below it.

English sound of ... a e i o u - a (as in hall),

Tasmanian orthography e y i o u - au

\palc),
English ... a (as in har)^ e (as in Ujt), lon<; sDund of a (as in
Tasmanian a eh ai

Other sounds according to English modes of spelling.

H. LING ROTH.— ABORIGINES OF TASWAiOA.

[The long and short marks appiear
quantity. J.B.W.]

Paninn^wathlnnSh

Plennfirrehwarreh

jLehpehneh

Minnerreh warreh

Kehmyneh

KehmQnngh

TukkehkuUa

Yaneh

Myneh

MoDeh

Kythinneh . .

Nyleh

TShnyneh ..

Bullehbyneh

LoorennSh

Langehneh

'LangehnSh pyn'Sh-wathinnSh

Anneh minneh

MekkehthinnSh pepp^neh

TrehnythS wathinn^

Topplete

PokSrrakany

Noonggnneh wangen dunnSh

LungShby nany ...

JL^ariiy .*• ... ...

v./a aCKH Y •.. ... ...

Ningenneh

Lj^prenny

Lygunnjreh

Trarty

Kepehginngh

Tringeginneh

Gibleh

Tyweh rattjrneh ...

Wakeh lenna

Nuggeli lenna

Lingenneh bunneh

Woomerreh (Australian)

Coantanneh

Wlber

LooberrSh (Australian) . . .

Potya

Alle

Alia

Arpee

Nickeh

Tr^mepa

Gad^eh

to indicate accent rather than

the head

the ear

the eyes

the nose

the cheek

the chin

the thigh

the teeth

the tongue

the lips

the skin or hair

the eyelash

the nail

the bones

the leg

the foot

the toes

the hand

the finger

the blood

to walk

to talk

to run

to strike

to beat

to sit down or rest

to bring

a house

skin or exterior covering

stupid

to eat

to swallow

to eat

the wind blows

the sun shines

it rains

a swan's egg

wood

the ground

a black man

blackwoman

yes

this or the

take it

plenty or many

G. W. WALKER S PHRASES AND SONGS.

L5d6wini3j^

Lrooneh

Myneh

M jneh

NamSnnolunny

Narreh coopeh .

Pjnicketta

Pan6h peckinninneb

Lackyra

a white man

white or black woman, or ghrl

I or me

thou or you

they or them

very good

quickly

a little boy

fern root *

March terrennSh .
The white kangaroo-rat.

Lookoothinneh . .
The ring-tailed opossum.

Aboriginal Song,

Sung by the women in chorus, by various tribes of the natives of

V. D. Land.

Nikkfih ninggh tibreh nickSh mdll^ga pdllyla . . .
The married women hunts the kangaroo and wallaby.

Namu rj^kenneh trehgana . . .
The emu runs in the forest.

NabSh thinninneh trShgana
'I'he Boomer runs in the forest.

Nehnaneh k^hgrenna . . . nynabythinneh . . .
The young emu. The htde kangaroo.

Tringgh guggSrra . . . Pyathtnneh . . ..
Little Joey (or the suckling kangaroo). The Bandicoots

Nj^nabj^thinneh-kdobryneh . . .
The little kangaroo-rat.

P^athinna pungathinneh . . .
The little opossum.

Mytoppyneh . . . Trj^noonfih
The big opossum. The tiger-cat.

WathSrrungmna . . . MarSh bunna
The dog-faced opossum. The black cat.

A Popular Song

among all the aboriginal tribes, of which I have not obtained the mean-
ing, being involved by them in some mystery.

Poppjla-renung onnyna-Poppj^la, &c,, Poppjla, &c. . .

temingannyS-lemingannya-lemmg, &c.
Taukummingannj^a Taukummingann5'a, &c., &c.

Nyna tepe rena ponn^na, nyna, &c., nyna, &c. . .
Nyna nar apewilly para, Nyna nara, &c., nyna nara, &c. . .

Nara pewiUj^ pallawoo ! pallawoo ! *'
Nyna nara pewilly para nara pewTlly pallawoo ! pallawoo !

Nyna nara, &c. Nyna narll, &c., &c.

[Compare this song with the one given by Milligan on p. xlvi. H.L.R.]

The following are a few of the Aboriginal Names of men and women
adopting their own appellations. Those who have wives are men-
tioned together, the wife's name being the last.

TobSlahngta and Roomehtymj^Sna, (chief of the Oyster Bay Tribe and
his wife.)

M6nn6p€liyata and Mellonnfihmetya, (chief of the Big River tribe and
his wife.

H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Tr5olpaneh and LegehnyminnSh, (chief and his wife, of the tribe infest-
ing Port Dalrymple and region around Launceston.

Trygoomypoonaneh and Roomtjenna.

Pannehrooneh and Pell6nnym5'na. Roolpanehny, a great warrior of the
same tribe — the chief w-as also renowned as a warrior.

Ramehlal5onehny. (Munro's Woman * Jumbo.')

K5onehbonneh and Mynalalteii}'. LabryehnynanJ' and Mymehlannyehnany.
Notyehkehprenna (a female), Wathylaccotyy (a female.)

Tronegrehbch, Llllchloeh and Waw^, are three young men of Port
Dalrymple tribe, who subsequently proceeded with the commandant
in the * Charlotte ' to the Hunters Island.

APPENDIX F.

Tasmanian-English Vocabulary.

AS all the vocabularies handed down to us are English -Tasmanian and
none are Tasmanian-English, it was suggested to make a compilation of
one Tasmanian-English vocabulary from all the vocabularies. The initiative
is due to Mrs. E. B. Tylor. In preparing this vocabulary I have
attempted to simplify the spelling as follows where I have felt that I
could safely do so without impairing the integrity of the word : —

For oo the letter u with Italian pronunciation has been substituted ;
thus for boorana, burana is used ; for Kaaoolegebra read Ka-u-legebra.
For ee the Italian i is used, thus for keeta read kita ; for kaeeta
read kaita ; for lia, liah, lya, leah, lea read lia ; for leh read le ; for c
and ck read k; for y read i, and for ya read ia. All duplications of
consonants are dropped, thus for erre read ere ; for kroatte read kroate.
The conjoint consonants of which the pronunciation is not clear, such
as th, ch, etc. are left as printed. B}; the adoption of this method
words of same meaning but of widely different and, therefore, misleading
spelling have been brought together, and the work of the student much
simplified.

Abri

Arms

Balawine

... Ochre (red)

xVia • • • • • •

Birth

Baluiuna

... Blood

xVia, x\ie>.> ...

Yes

Barana ...

. Wound ; shell-fish

Aliri

Three

Beige

... Teeth

Anamana, Ane-

Hand

Belanilia

... Shadow

mine

Beguta ...

... Man (w^hite)

Ania ! tebora ! . .

Aha ! you are sulky

Beroia . . .

... Broom (a besom)

all of a

sudden

Binana ...

... Laughing

Ania

. What ?

What's

Blaktera...

. . Eyebrows

that?

Bleagana

... Kangaroo Skin

Anme

. Finger,

Forearm

Blemana

... Mother

Arpu

. Yes

Boabenetia

... Grin (to make faces)

Avere

. That

Boata

... Freestone

A witaka ...

. Head

•

Bodenevoued

... Little

Badani ...

Child

Boile ...

... New (not old)

Bagota ...

Cloud

Boira

... Kangaroo Skin,

Bairkutana

. Horse

also cloak of K.S.

TASMANIAN-BNGLISH VOCABULARY.

liii

Bolouina

Blood ; red

'Gnamela Mail6?

When and where

Boue lakade ...

Water

'Gni-mukl6

Aged (literally rot-

Breone ...

Fish

ten-boned)

Bringdeu

Eyebrow

Grana Kuna or

Yawn, gape

Bubialah

Wattle tree (sea-side) Kanaibi

(Acacia maritifna)

Greigena

Bird

Bugure

Plunge (to) ; dine

Grita

Gum-tree

(to)

Gualangta

Eagle

Bukalo ...

Bullocks

Gualengatik gua-

Deaf

Bulebine

Bones

ngata

Buliibenara, kua-

Dog

Guanera ..

Kneel (to)

ieta

Guenerouera ...

Tongue, the

Bungana

Chief, King

Gui

Wood

Bura

Two

Guna-lia

Arms

Bura

Thunder; rain

Gune ...

Sand

Burana ...

Smoke

Guniem waubera-

By and Bye

Bure

Blow (to)

Burdunia

Night

Gunta, gonta ;

Earth or ground

Daina Hah

Night

gunta longa

Daledine . .

Stars

Haku-tetiga

Go home

Darwala...

Bird

Heka

Crystal

Deriia ...

Neck

Here

Breast (of a woman)

Diberana

Girl

lane

Teeth ; to bite

Dieka namenera

Growl

I-aing-la-lia

Bad (no good)

Dogna ...

Foot

lenebe ...

Knee

Dregena ...

Hand

Iletiape ...

Awake him, rouse

Driue

Leaf

him

Drogue ...

Coition

Ingenana

Hawk

Drohi

Laugh (to)

lola

Bird, black petrel

Druan a mala . . .

Forehead

Ka-ana ...

Shell

Elbenia ...

Large

Kabararik

Shag, cormorant

Eloura

Head

black {Phalacro-

Elpenia ...

Large

corax corhoides)

Elpina ...

Eye

Kabelti ...

Emita ...

Sand or earth

Kabrouta

Thirst

Ere

Yes ! Good !

Kakbenina

Spittle

Eriha

Cockatoo

Kaene

Haliotis

Eugenana

Hawk (Eagle)

Kaita

Dog

Everai ...

Eye

Kaitaguanamena

Friend

Ewuka ...

Head

Kaitena Malang-

Young (little) boy

Gadi6

Plenty or many

iena

Gagvui ...

Warm oneself (to)

Kaito Kekrabona

Barren (woinan)

Galogra...

Dance

Kaimonanio'i

Spit

Ganameni6, gane-

• Locust

Kal-a-ba \va

Two

manga

Kakanina

Mouth

Ganemerara

Come

Kakara waiale . . .

Tired

Gan henen hener

I Sparrow-hawk

Kambalate

Afraid

'Gdula ...

. Acid (taste)

Kamena...

Chin

Gible

Eat

Kamena mina ...

Spit

Girgra

Parrot

Kamnina

Chin

H. LING ROTH. — ^ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Kamonamoina..
Ka*ini

Kana

Kana munalane

Kana muna lane
mentakuntibi

Kanamaiete
Kana noangate
Kanara ...
Kanara ...
Kana roilugata
Kana wata
Kane
Kanebo ...

Kaneina, Kanea,
Kanina [aba

Kane proine wag-
Kanewedigda . . .
Kanglonao
Kanlaride
Kanola ...
Kantogana weberi
Ka-nuna

Kapougi lia
Karraca ...
Karadi ...
Karde

Karde karde
Kar-di-a...

Karena ...
Karnalaif

Karnam una lane
Karnaroide

Karnialimenia,

Karnalirya
Kami
Kartela ...
Katal

Venom

Mouth, teeth, or

tongue
Pool or Lagoon ;

full (a vessel filled)
noise

Impatient; to dis-
pute ; eloquent,

talkative
Hold your tongue,

be patient, by and

bye
Echo

Good person
Magpie
Little
Murmur
Fetch (to bring)
Speak (to)
Hold your tongue,

be patient, by and

bye
Mouth

Loud (to speak)

Sing (to)

Come ? will you

Crown of shells

Stout

Distant

Tiger V. D. L.lJAy-
lacinus cynocephalns)

Mouth

Parrot

Friendship

Five

Ten

Two, a higher num-
ber than

Gums (of the mouth)

Conversation (a
great talking)

Conversation (a

Dry
great' talking)

Conversation (a
great talking)

Shout (to)

Seal

Snake

Katamoi
Katia, Kart6
Kateboueve
Katina ..
Katina . . .
Kateila . . .
Katribiutana,
Katrebutiani
Kaviranara
Kaiena ...
Ka-u-legebra
Ka-unilia
Ka-uta ...
Kawaluchta
Kawala ...
Kawala ...

Ka wda . . .

Kawerini
Kawna ...
Kawurina

Kawuto ...
Kekana elangunia
j\eiva ... ...

Kelabate Korah
K61angunia
Kela-katena
Kelatie ...
Kemunn6
Kemin6 ...
Kenara ...
Kenganuowa

Ken weika

Kep6gine

Kita boena

Kethana...

Kewatna

Kible

Kide

Kidna

xvl\? • • • • • ■

Kigranana
Kikawa ...
Kina tiwa
Kindrega
Kithin^ ...
Kitrelbia

... Gums (of the mouth)
... Bad
... Two
... Lie (verb)
... Cow
... Seal
Dry

... Belly

... Tongue

... Feather

... Afternoon

. . . Evening ; dusk

... Conflagration

. . . Shout (to)

... Shoulder, under

(atm-pit)
... Shoulder, under

(arm-pit)
. Belly
... Teeth
... Fire in the Bush

grass
... Afternoon, evening

Good person

Crystal

Backward

Swan

Crow

Deep (water)

Chin

Check

Magpie \

Parakeet (Euphema
chrysostofne)

Scold

Eat

Gosling

Hair

Testicle

Eat (to) drink (to)

Hair, beard

Skin

Spear (to)

Kangaroo Pouch

Sharpen

Bleed

Beat (to)

Skin or hair

Sullen

TASMANIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

Kitrelbia- nume- Aha ! you are sulky
na, penigomari ! all of a sudden
Kiunta ... .. Warr3itah(Tolopea-

truncata)
Koagara ... Fly (like a bird)

Koa-langatik ... Stupid
Koamniena ... Quiet
Koananietia ... Fury
Koantane .. Ground

Koat6 ... ... Instant (quick)

Ko'iba ... ... Wombat {Phascolo-

mys vomhatus)
Koi*gi ... ... Ear

Koinaratingana Shore (Sandy-beach)
Koiule, Ko-ule, Tug (to, at a rope)
Kocha ... ... Swan

Koka ... ... Red, blood, ruddy

cheeks
Kokanalia ... Ovf\^sm3\\{Anthene

Boohook)
Kokata ... Howl (in distress

like a dog)
Kokatah... ... Owl, large {Strix

Castanops)
Kokeri Kokelitie Mud, sediment
Kokina ... ... Hawk, (eagle)

Kokolini konkua Demur (grumble)

Ko-kra Twitch (pluck)

Kokura ... ... Jerk

Kokuina ... Beard

Kole ... ... Twitch, (pluck)

Koliena ... .. Orphan

Komeka... ... Egg

Komen6-wagel6 Beard
Komena-purena Beard
Komena-rania ... Beardless
comineralia

Komeneana ... Moth
Komniena ... Chin

Komptensl, Kom- Spirit of evil— the

tanor devil ; dog

Komtenana ... Grass-tree
Komiena ... Gristle

Kongatuile, Kon- Crazy, Cranky
gatune [guin6
Kongine, Kon- Beard
Kongene ... Chin

Koniab ... Hold your tongue,

be patient, by and

bye

Koruna ... ... Eagle (wedge-tail)

Kothe ... ... Soon, hastily,

quickly
Koti-meliti6 ... Boy (large child)
Kotomaletie ... Girl
Kotrulutie, Kot- Babe, newly bom
ruolutie infant

Kotube ... ... Tug (to, at a rope

or line)
Kowanriga ... Ear
Kowin6 ... ... Beard

Kow-in-timi ... Beardless
Kowina ... Hawk (eagle)

Ko-ulopu Jerk, draw, pull

Kraka-neka, Sit down, rest

Krakn6
Kraka-wugata .. Stand (stand up)
Krakena .. ... Stand, sit, stop, or

stay
Krakanieak ... Pain, ill, sick
Kragana... ... Flesh

Krag baga ... Death (to die)
Kraiarena ... Volute, long (V, fu-

st formiz)
Krani-mongthe6 Awake (to open the

eyes)
Krang-burak ... Ripe
Kratabe... ... Wait

Kreman puna ... Wart
Krigenana ... Kangaroo Pouch
Kroana ... ... Climb (to)

Kroate ... ... New (not old) ; now

(at this time)
Kroata meliti6 ... Juvenile
Kroata langunia Wife, newly mar-
ried
Kroti ... ... Instant (quick)

Kroto m6liti6 ... Woman, young

girl
Krotomientoneak Apparition
Kronie ... ... Climb (to)

Krowrowa ... Night

Krudah Parrot (Green)

Krugana ... Parrot (Green)

Krougana wugata Aloft
Krupena... ... Gannet

Kuadne, Kuani... Woman, wife
Kuangloa ... Come? will you

Kuegi ... ... Head

Kuendera ... See, I

Ivi

H. LING ROTH. ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Kuengi-lia
Kugana langhta
Kugawinia

Kuina ...
Kukana

Kukana lieria ...
Kukana hudawina

Kukana muna-

lan6
Kukana puniepara

or lenagangpa

Kukana walamo-

niak
Kukana wurarena
Kukana wurawina
Kukanaroiete
Kukanaboi
Kukamena-mena

Kukuna poipug-

iapa
Kulia
Kulugana, Kurlu-

gana, Kublugana
Koulangtarata ...
Kumegana
Kumila ..
Kumiena
Kuna
Kunawra Kuna...

Kuniame

Kuniwatera

Kunmunera

Kunrare

Kuoiba ...
Kura
Kourah ...

Kurailih;
Kurena ...
Kurina ...
Kutainoile

Ears

Loud (to speak)

Pebble, rolled

Quartz
Eagle (Wedge-tail)
Girl (little)
Talk (too much)
Boy (a little)

speaking)
Talk (too much

speaking)
Whisper, speak

low, let nobody

hear
Noise

Shout (yell)
Echo
Thirsty
Tie (a knot)
Foam (froth),

trickle
Displease (to make

angry)

Kangaroo (brush)
Claw (talon)

Dul^ (stupid dolt)

Chin

Fly (like a bird)

Weak

Kangaroo rat

Falmouth and

George's River
Stop

Fetch (to bring)
Talk (too much

speaking)
Talk (too much

speaking)
Wombat
Swan
Water-pitcher

(made of the thick

leaves of the large

Kelp)
Magpie
Little

Fang (canine tooth)
Caul

Labagina

Laboib6

Labitaka, labrika

Ladine ...

Lae rene

Lagana, lagara . . .

Lagarude

Lagra

Lagowuna

Laguana

Lagunta

Laianunia

Laiatina
Laibrenala
Laid6ga
Laieka ...
Laiiriak ..
Laiete pawc
Laiet6 proig
j...^ai *iva ...
Laina
Laingana

Laini
Laiwuroi
Lakaniampaoik
x^aia ...

Lalabi ...
Lalubegana
Laliga ...
Lamilbena
Lamunika
Lanaba ...
Lane poere

Lanena ..
Langna ...
Langana, langeno
Langeno pin 6 wa-

tinc
Langwe . .
Laninga noile ...
Laniniua
Lapa

Cat (small native)

Cat (large native)

Fo^t

Breast (of a man)

Bird, a small

Foot

Warm

Help

Moss

Burn oneself (to)

Ticrer V.D.L.

{Thylacinus cynoce-

phalus)
Sea-horse [Hippo-

C'lmPus)
Tor (a peaked hill)
Island (large)
Heel

Humid (wet damp)
Bitter

Hill (little one)
Hill (mountain)
Wet (rainy)
Drink (to)
Fire-tail (Estrelda

helh)

Untie (to)
Perspire
Bandy-legged
Emmet (Ant), red

body, black head

and tail
Boat

Man (old)
Kangaroo
Drake
See

Pelican

Grease the hair (to)
Hit, strike, flog.
Day [beat

Leo"
Foot
Toes

Grub
Falsehood
Mutton bird
Pigeon (bronze -
winged), wing

ENGLISH-TASMANIAN VOCABULARY.

\vn

Lapoile lunagrina

L Friend

Lemiouteritia

... Glutton

mulana

Lemuk ...

... Kangaroo (male)

Lapoinia

Fern -tree

Lena

... House or hut, place

Lapoitale, lapoit-

Infant, newly born

Lena wugta rota- Encampment

endail6

libana

Lapri

See

Lena

... Brush Kangaroo

Lapugana

Cat (small native)

Lena, leni

... Salt-water, fresh

Laraminia

Grub

water

Largana...

Cat

Lenere ...

... Backward

Larni

Beat

L6ngomenia

... Eel

Lare

Scratch

Leni

... S(:/^r//a fa species of

Lata, latawin6 ...

Ore of Iron, Iron

very large)

Glance (used by

Lenigugana

... Stars (little)

the aborigines as

Lenikarpeni

... Stone (a)

a black paint)

Lenimebri6

... Filth

Tiatanama

Leg

Leninga ...

... Bandicoot (Parame-

Launa ...

Owl, small {Athene

Us obesula)

Booiook)

Lenira ...

... Bandicoot

Launana

Tiger V.D.L. {Thy-

Len parena

... Stone (a)

lacinus cynocephalus)

Lepena . . .

... Eye

Lavara ...

Little

L6p6n6 ...

... Eyes

Lawita-brutia . . .

Fern

Lepera . . .

... Neck

Kangaroo (brush)

Lepina ...

... Neck

Laz'lia

Pelican

Leprena...

... House or hut

Lebrana ...

. Marrow

Leputala

... Dog (native) [?]

Ledrae . .

Dance

Lerana

... Ray (Stinj^aree)

Ledrani...

Sing (to)

Lere

... Breast

Lederakak

Oyster

Lerga . . .

... Waddie, a trunch-

Legana ...

Water (fresh), sea

eon-like weapon,

Legana, legara . . .

Evacuate (to)

used as a missile

Leganegulumpte

Beat (to strike)

in war and hunt-

Legara ...

Run

ing.

Legara liawarina

Flay

Lerina ...

... Bat *

Leglitia mengena

. Wave

Lerina ...

... Gun (musket)

Legromena

Sweat (to perspire)

Leripuntabi

... Chase (to)

Legunia

Dress or covering

Leritiana

... Gunpowder

Leiemtoniak

Ashamed

Lerui

... Water (fresh)

Leiina

Fundament

Leruna ...

... Flounder (flat-fish)

Leina

Kangaroo

Letin6 ...

... Peak (a hill)

Liinine

Eyebrow

Levira ...

... Night

Leipa

Woman's

Leuna ...

... Boy

Leipa

Fire

Leuniana

... Leg, left

Leiagia

Kangaroo

Leunia elibana Leg, right

Lelangta

Gun (musket)

Leurina ...

... Leg

Lele

. Huitrier noir

Lewan ...

... Wind

Lemanrik

Eye

Lewanhok

... Wind, high

Lemar kutia

Brush , dense forest

Leward ...

... Foetus

Lemena ...

. Oak

Leware ...

... Night

Lemia

Hastily (quickly),

Lewatenu

... Far

soon

LewHna...

... Ears

»5

iviii

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Lewnana
Lewrewagera . . .

^^^ • ■ • • * ■

T fa

Lia

Liakani ...

j-#ia ic ... . . .

Lialaragono
Lia laratame
Lialitea ...
Lialugrana
Lia mena
Lia noatie
LiaTiel6 ...
Liapatiena

Liapunerana
Liapota, liaputa
Lia ruolutia
Lia tarigtia or
terutena
Lia tiena

Liatimi ...

Liaturi ...

Liawena

Lia wen ie, lia wine

Liawinawa

Libra, lebrina ...

J— /icKa . • . . • .

LielowuUngana

lielle woUingana
Lieltia ...

Liemkaniak
j.^i6na ... ...

Liena puna
Liena wutia
Liena pe-unia ...
Liena pe-uniek ...
Liena elibana ...
Liena
Liena
Lienapontendia

Lienegi miawero

X^lvf uc ... ...

Den
Island
Weapon
Leg

Water (fresh)
Yawn
Sea (ocean)
Sneeze
Foam (froth)
Sea (ocean)
Water (warm)
Lake (lagoon)
Water (salt)
Play

Honey-sucker (Mel-
iphaga A ustralasiana)
Fury

Creek, small river
Float (to)
Flow (as water)

Bald-coot, (Porpky-

rio melanotus)
Bosom (man's)
Wave
Leech

Water (fresh, cold)
Toad or Frog
House or hut [bella
Fire- tail {Estrelda
Crevice or fissure in

rocks, caverns
Rollers or breakers

on sea-beach
Drop (water)
Fire in the bush

grass

Egg

Sea (ocean)
Water (warm)
Water (warm)
Fresh water
Iguana (lizard)
Kangaroo (brush)
Fire -tail (Estrelda

bella)
Displease (to make

angry)
Sing (to hiss or fizz

in the fire)

Liengana
Lieniak ...
Lienina purina ..
Lienir6 ...
Lieni riakuna ...
Lie nongate
Lienowitie

Lientable, taga
nmna !
Lientiak...
Lientiap6

Lienute ...
Lienwolingena ...
Liepeta ...

Liergrapoinena

Lierkapuna,lierk-
anapuna
j_#ieia ... • . .
Lietelina
Lietina ..
Liimata liimena

Liimena kamei

Liimuneta

Liinganena

Liita, lietena ...

Liiwugta

Ligrame...

Ligunie

JL^lKa • • « • • •

Likot6 ...

ji_#iia ... ■ . .

Lilberik...

Lilia

Limeri ...

Limete ...

Lina buna

Lina

Lina, linai
Linangunie
Lina
Line

Buttock

Swell

Eyebrow

Fresh water
Sing a song

Fresh water

Salt on the rocks by

the seaside
Awake (rouse ye,

get up)
Wake
Awake him, rouse

him

Ashamed [mats)
Den (of wild ani-
Gull {Larus Pact-

ficus)
Exuvia (skin of a

snake)
Exuvia (skin of a

snake)
Sharp (like a knife)
Side (the)
Water (cold)
Boil {Futunculus)

abcess
Hide (to conceal

kangaroo)
Eagle's nest
Rat
Crow

Eagle's nest
To-morrow
Skin or exterior

covering

Wherry (sea-shell)
Rage
Cat, gun
Eyelash
Water (fresh)
Cloud
Abscess
Roe of Fish
Opossum mouse

(Phalangista nana)
Penis
Fury
Crow
Nest (birds), house

or hut, place, smell

ENGLISH-TASMANIAN VOCABULARY.

lis

Line

Lineda ...
Linelibana
Linena ...
Linepoinena
Lin6 poine noil6
Line rotali
Lhneraga
Lingana lua re-
nowa
Lingen6 bune ...
Lingowena
Liniale

Linug6 noiI6

Liopakanapuna . . .

Lipi

Lipreni ...
Lirevigana
Litaranga

Liue

Liutece

Livore

Li wun

Li-wuramoina ...

Liwur6

Liwure

Liwureniena
Loagna ...
Loakenamal6 . .
Loale pugana ...
Loalib6 ...
Loa lingana
Loa Magalangta
Loa-mineri

Loana elibana ...
Loanga metia ...
Loangaritia

Loa niri . . . [iak
Loa-nir6 liadiwa-
Loantenina
Loaparte . .

Loara
Loaranelia
Loarina ...

Penis
House

Water (fresh)
Eyry

Place, this
Filth

Encampment
Forget
Amatory (rakish)

Swan's egg
Eel

Mirth, Diversion
(sport, play)
Lie (falsehood)

Salt on the rocks
by the seaside

Virilia

House

Island

Kneel

Navel

Low

Night

Child

Sweat (to perspire)

Flambeau

Skin of kangaroo

Wattle bird smaller

Sleep (to)

Barren (woman)

W^oman, young girl

Ship

Vent

Deep (water)

Beauty (fine-looking
woman)

Woman, handsome

Sexual intercourse

Tick (parasitic in-
sect)

W'oman, handsome

Woman, handsome

Stone

Black

Charcoal

Azure (sky)

Caul, windpipe
(Popum Adami)

Loarina ...

Loata . . .
Loata kitana
Loatera . . .

Lobah . . .
Lodamerede
Lodowine
Loelangta
Loente wamla

Logatal6 mina
Logongiena

Logowelae
Logune ...
Lognenena
Loidroug6ra

Loi6 loining6
Loigana . . .

Loik6

Loila
Loina

Loina, loiena

Loina, loine
Loini Broyi
Loingana

Loiorana
Loioruna
Loiowiba .
Loipune . . .
Loira

Loirmena
Loi-ulena
Loiun6 ...

Lokota ...
Lola

Lola, lolara
Loina
Lomali6 . . .

... Tiger V.D.L. (Thy-

lacinus ciinocephalus)
... Tree (gum-tree)
... Twig
.. Ant, red body, black

head and tail
... Spark, fire
... Strangle (to)
... Man (white)
... Rock (large)
... Last (to walk last

in file)
... Daughter
... Opossum mouse

(Phalangista nana)
... Valley
... Cut (to)
... Phalanger
... Propagation (the

a<5l of)
... Fundament
... Serpent (black

snake)
... Gum-tree (Eucafyp-

tns)
... Sky

... Sun (the), day, con-
flagration
... Serpent (black

snake)
... Stone
... Rock (large)
... Blow (with the

mouth forcibly)
... Wind
... Wing
... Day

... Hurt (with waddie)
... Charcoal reduced

to powder
... Scab

... Well (spring)
... Blow (with the

mouth forcibly)
... Shore
... Gun
... Earthworm
... W^oman
... Great-bellied (with

child)

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Lomatiluta
Lomawpa
Lomodina, loma-

tina, lomate
Lomi
Lona

x^ona • . • • . •
Lonabiad6
Lonbodia
Lona muta

Lone

Lonoi

Longa ...

Longana, lonrly

Longatalina

Longatyle

Lonipak

Longwini

Lonolare

Lonuguta

Lopa

LfOpatin ...

Lopiteniba

Loputal . .

j-^Oi a • • • . • >

Loraina ...

Lore

Lori lori...

Lorina ...

Loriomena

Lorokuka

Lota, lotte

Lotomalangta lu-

mena
Louana ...
Louba ...
Lougoli ...
Louna ...
Lounabe
Louniat^
Louod ...
Loura
Lourfgana
Lowa, lowana ...
Lowana-elaptha -

ti6 or elibanalia

Pregnant

Far

Belly, intestines

This way

Windpipe

Rock (large)

Hoarse

Oyster

Mountain Duck
{Anas Punctata)

This way

This

Stone (a)

Sleep, asleep

Woman, adult

Girl

Hoarse

Fleece (or fur of
animals)

Sneeze

Fire, spark

Flame

Barren (woman)

Dog (native)

Frog

Neck

White

Fingers

Waddie

Scab

Mutton fish, smooth
(Haliotis)

Gum-tree (Eucalyp-
tus) y tree

Ship

Woman (black)
Oyster-shell
Drink

Stone [snake)

Serpent (black
Foolish (or fool)
Child

Ray (Stingaree)
Forest
Woman

Beauty (fine-looking
woman)

Lowana Kaitena Young (little) girl
or Kitana

Lowan kareimena Grandmother
Lowa lugata ... Infant, female
Lowa Miniena... Adult woman
Lowala omnena Great -bellied (with

or umanienia
Lowlapewana . .
Lowajjroina
Lowa pugatimi .
Lowa pugelanie
Lowarinakuna ..

Lowatimi
Lowa lengana ..

Lowaberilonga .

Lowalinamela ..

Lowamakana ..

Lowangerimena

Lowaperi longha Sullen

Dead
Dead
Sullen

child)

Woman

Fat woman

Barren (woman)

Uxorious

Bark of tree (flap-
ping)

Biachelor

Hole (like wombat

burrow)
Pet (pettish)
Milt of fish)
Circle
Flea

Lowaka (/>)
Lowatka (v)
Lowatobeolo ka-

kanene
Lowdina
Lowell ...
Lowenrupa
Lowerina
Lowide ...
Lowini loilia or

ruloi
Lowina . .
Lowine ...

Dog (native)

Quaff (drink)

Wake

Tiger

Scab

Gale

Scales (of fish)
Feather

Lowlobengang ... Man (old)

Lowun6 ..
Lowoiena

Luawa ..

Luba
Lubada .
Lube

Lubeiera
Lubere ..

Scarify

Opossum mouse
{Phalangista nana)
Many (a great num-
ber)

Oyster-shell
Casuarina, fruit of
She oak (a species
of fir-tree)
Neck
Woman (black)

Lubra [Australian W^oman

ivord]
Lubra, matah- Penis

prena

ENGLISH-TASMANIAN VOCABULARY.

Ixi

Lu-be ...

Ludineni

Ludowine

Liidowing

Lue

Luika

Luena . . .

Lug, lugana

Lugana a-uta or

aguta or oangta

or anguta
Lufra worina or

eiibana
Lugaboine
Lugana mara or

kana
Luga-luna, lugie-

na
Luga umene or

pula

Luga tonie
Lunganterina . . .
Lugamute
Luga poerania ...
Luga
Lugana ...

Lugana ...
Lugana nienia ...

Lugana-brena ...
Lugana Pugaran6
Lugara ...
Lugara Riawe ...

Lugaraniale
Lugatik ...
Lughi
Lugorato
Lugoilia mungoi-

na lia

Lugra lugrata ...
Lugra-pawi, lug-

arato pawe
Lugrana...

She-oak tree
Girl (ITttle)
Man (white)
Man (white)
Navel
Bat
Night
Foot
Foot (left)

Lugra-nire

Foot (right)

Track (footmark)
Foot-step

Sole of foot

Instep

Nail (toe)

Paw

Lame

Survivor

Bottle

Water (fresh) to
drink

Oyster

Owl, small (Athene
Boohook)

She-oak tree

Flog

Fun (sport), play

Diversion (sport
play)

Daylight

Tide

Navel

Summer

Bandicoot {Parameles
ohesula)

Heat, hot

Spring (wattle-blos-
som season)

Waddie, a trunch-
eon-like weapon,
used as a missile
in war and hunt-
ing

Leg (right)

Lugreto ..
Lugruta...
Lugtiak ...
Lugtoi ...
Luguna golumpte
Luiena ...

Luina

Lumalangta
Luiroponi, luira-

peni
Luiteiana

Lukangana

Lukrapani

ji_#uia ... « . •

Luna

Luna-riab6

Lune poina mak-

aba
Luna kana
Lune

Lungana

Lungebi nani ...
Lunga nua wah

Lunganena
Lunta
Luona-kuna
Luow^a ...
Lupari ...
Lurana ...

Lure

Lurene ...
Lurga
Lurgu
Luringa ...
Lusivina
Lutana ...
Lutibia ...
Lutiena ...
Lutga

Warm
Tide
Tough
Gunpowder
Beat, to strike
Native cat, small
(Dasyurus viverrinus)
Wren, blue-headed
(Malurus longicaudus)
East Bay Neck
Ship or boat

Gull {Larus Puci-
ficus)

Wallabee (H alma-
turns Btllnrdieri)
Canoe
Foot

Cat (large native)
Song
Ship

Belch (to)
Woman or girl

(white or black)
Fleet (swift), run

together
To flog, to strike,

to kill
Strike

Heron (blue crane)
(Ardea Nov, Holland)
Rat (long-tailed)
Low

Belch (to)
Few
Free
Shoulder (under

arm-pit), brushwood
Ankle
Leg
Woman

Kangaroo (female)
Rat, long-tailed
Man
Moon
Wake
Red-bill
Serpent (black

snake)

Ixii

H. LING ROTH. — ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

Lutregala

Day (fine)

Maluna ...

Nest (bird's)

Lutubreneme ...

L4)ok (to gaze)

Maluta ...

Circular Head

Luiidouene

Man

(locality)

Luweina

Children

Mamana

Tongue, the

Mabia ...

One side, round

Mana

I, me

turn

Mana

Wattle-tree

Mabil^ ...

Altogether

Mana

Catarrh

Mabola

Many (a great num-

Mana lari, man-

Catarrh with Dys-

ber)

naladi

pnoea, cough

Mada lia

Testicles

Mana m6rede . . .

Expedlorate

Madeguera, mad-

■ Eat, I will

Mana mena

Venom

egera

Mana puna

Tail

Maga, magana ..

Pubes {tnons venetis)

Manamera

Thumb

Magra ...

Day (a)

Manana, nianena

Dirt, earth, mould

Magrania

Haliotis tjlahra.

Manana Mali6 ...

Dirt (mud of a whit-

smooth, mutton-

ish colour)

fish

Manana rul6

Dirt (mud dried)

Maguelena

. Belly

Mananiwaile

Mud, sediment

Mainentaiana ...

Fog

Manata rula

. Serious (sad gaze)

Maiinabiek

Twins

Manemen^na ...

Dumb

Maitingule

. Aquiline ( Roman -

Manina langatik,

Steal

nosed)

or laiawe

Makrie-minamru

Nurse

Manintaiana

Falsehood

Makubuna

. Depidl (draw a de-

Manenge or Man-

Brook

enia kitana

Makunia

Sleep (to)

Manengtianga,

Lie, Falsehood

Malabeabu

Green (thing)

Tiangamonini

Malaka

Grow (as a tree,

rapar6

child)

Manga ...

. I, or me, or mine

Malana

Canoe (Catamaran)

Mangapoiere

Grow (as a tree.

Malana mina ...

Eyry

child

Malane ...

Yellow ochre

M anga-namraga

Know (to), see

Malan6, molanii

Frigid (cold)

Mangelena

Rain

Malangiena

Boy (small child).

Mangeluwa

Load

infant

Manina ...

Ground

Malaride

Cold

Manlumb^ra

Distant

Malbena

Drake (wild)

Manrable

Face

Malia

Clean

Manta

Long way or time

Mali

White

Maniakuani

Murmur

Maliak ...

Humid (wet damp)

Manouadra

Kernel of Eucalyptus

Malliak reglitia...

Sweat (to perspire)

vestttifera

Maliare ...

Foot (right)

Manugana

Spawn (of firogs)

Malitie ...

White, blossom

Manura ...

Moss

Malengena

Son

Manuta

. Way (long) or long

Malia-lia

time

Maloinpto

Shore

Mapilriagunara ..

Full (after a meal)

Malua ...

White

Mara

Name of a man

Malougna

Sleep (to)

Mara, marawa,

One

Malumbo

Absent

marai

Malumniela

Near

Mara

Five

TASMANIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

1. • .
Xlll

Ma-ra komenia..
Marakupa
Marama...
Marana ...

Maranek

Mara-wai-li

Mararika

Marewialai

Marina

Marinuk ..

Martula...

Mata
Mata e nigo

^Vl dla . • • • • ■

^viaia ... ...

Mata-prena
Mataweb6
Matet6 loguatame
Mat guera, mat-
gera
Matiena lug

Matilati...
Mawbak
Mawbana
Mawina ..
Mawpa, mawpak
Mawbia...
Maiani raieri ...
Maidena

Maikana poungna
Maina, moinena
Mai-niak
Mairude...
Maiti Kantimbe
or pangruta
Mebia ...
Mebriak
Mebrina...

Medi, medito ...

Medouer

Mega, megna ...

Megog ...
Megra ...
Megruera

Vale or Valley

Handsome

Stars

War (skirmish, one

or two killed)
Burn oneself (to)
Vale or Valley
Parakeet (musk)
Jealous
Seal
Lad
Circular Head

(locality)
Death (to die)
That kills, that is

mortal

Round like a ball
Testes, scrotum
Penis

Wood, firewood
Friend
Eat, let us go and,

go and eat
Footmark of white

man

Full (after a meal)
Black
Black
Charcoal
Dirty

Side, on one, aside
Hurt (with spear)
Shadow
W^ing
Tongue
Wet (rainy
Pain
Quiet

Side, on one, aside
Effluvia, scent
Volute, large V,

mamilla)
Sit down
Nose
Pubes (mofis veneris),

vagina
Rock

Day, grass
Nose

Meina-na
Me-ingana
Meketine pepine
Mekropani
Mela

Melangburak ...
Meledna...
Mema

Memana...
Mena, mene
Mena

Mena rawariga ...
Mena lowalina ...
Mena

Mena lageta
Mena malaga la-
tia
Mena

Menai Kitana ...
Menakarowa
Menanwi
Minawa...
Menaweli
Mene

Meno rugara
Meneterutie
Men6 wuta
Menia ...
Meni
Meninga
Menga ...
Mengana

Mengana

M engboibi rat6 . .

M enokana

Mentroiak

Menugana

Mera

Merak-bourak ..

Merhe ...

Merede ...

Meriana...

Meridine

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