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.^>-
HARVARD COLLEGE
LIBRARY
GIFT OF THE
GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF EDUCATION
3 2044 097 055 438
Latin Grammar
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
BY
J. H. ALLEN AND J. R GREENOUGH
REVISED EDITION
BOSTON
GINN AND HEATH
1877
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by
J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH,
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
Cambridge:
Press of John Wilson <Sr* Son,
PREFACE
TO THE REVISED EDITION.
The editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the
plates to make some improvements in the present edition, which
have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of
the book has been made. The principal changes are the following :
I. The matter of each part has been cast in chapters, with sub-
divisions by numbered paragraphs, the former sections being
indicated in the margin. 2. A very considerable expansion has
been given to several portions, especially to those on Phonetic
Changes and the Formation of Words; inflectional forms have
been more fully exhibited, and sections have been added on the
syntax of Pronouns and Particles. 3. Strictly philological matter,
not intended for class use, has been put in the form of marginal
notes. 4. The several topics of the syntax are introduced by
brief prefatory notes, suggesting what we consider to be the true
theory of the constructions : these are not designed for class use,
and are not included in the numbered sections. 5. Some impor-
tant additions and illustrations have been given in the Prosody.
The substance of the book remains as before. The form of
expression, however, has been carefully revised; and a few sec-
tions have been transferred to a different connection, such
changes being noted in the margin.
The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experienced
teachers, who have generously aided us by their criticism, and have
contributed many valuable practical suggestions.
Cambridge, August i, 1877.
NOTE.
For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out
special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to
consult original sources on the history and development of the
Latin, a list of works including the best and most recent author-
ities is here subjoined : —
BoPP : Vtrgleickende Grammatik des Sanskrit^ etc, [Indo-European lan-
guages]. 4 vols. 3d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70.
The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have cor-
rected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), Lx>ndon : 1862. The
best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel Br6al.
Paris: 1866.
Corssen: Aussprache^ Vokalismus und Betonung der iMUinischen Spraclie^
2 vols. 2d ed. Leipzig, 168.
The greatest work on Latin alone^ treating the language in reference to its own
individual devdopment, particularly as to the sounds {LautUhre), In the com-
parative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators.
CuRTius, G. : Gruftdziige der Grkchischen EtytnologU. 3d Ed. Leipsic :
1869.
Treats of Latin only by>comparison ; but is one of the most valuable works on
the general subject
Erlauterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed.
Prag. 1870. English translation (" Elucidations "), London : 1870.
Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the
doctrine of forms.
■ Das Griechische Verbum.
DelbrUck : Das Conjunctiv und Optativ^ im Sanskrit und Griechischen.
Halle: 1871. -
Ori^n of the Moods treated scientifically ; should be read in connection with a
notice m N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and '* Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive," by
J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870.
• Ablativ Localist Instrumentalis im indischen^ etc, Berlin : 1867.
Origin of the various Ablative constructions.
Ellis, A. J. : Practical Hints on the Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin,
London (MacMillan) : 1874.
Ferrar : Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit^ Greeks and Latin. London :
1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns. The work was left un-
finished at the author's death.
A convenient hand-book in English.
FiCK : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo- Germanischen Sprachen. Got-
tingen : 1870.
A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-
European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various Ian-
vi Note.
guages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, however,
IS safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes.
Hadley, James : Essays, Philological and Critical, New York (Hall &
Williams) : 1873.
Hoffman : Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln, Vienna :
i860 (Pamphlet).
KuHN : See Zeitschrift,
LiJBBERT : Die Syntax von Qitom, Breslau : 1870.
Neue : Formenlehre der Lateiniscken Spr ache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart: 1866.
Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text-
ual criticism. The standard work.
Papillon ; A Manual of Comparative Philology^ as applied to the Illustra-
tion of Greek and Latin Inflections. Oxford : 1876.
Behind the time, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of Forms.
Peile : Latin and Greek Etymology. 2d Ed. MacMillan : London and
Cambridge, 1872.
— Philology (pp. 164). New York (Appleton): 1877.
One of the series of the " Literature Primers " edited by J R. Green. A very
useful manual to those desiring a general acquaintance with the subject.
ROBY ; A Grammar of the Latin Languageyfrom Plautus to Suetonius.
MacMillan : London and New York : Vol. I. 187 1 ; Vol. H. 1873.
A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative
grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1872.
Schleicher : Compendium der Vergleichendeu Grammatik der Indo-Ger-
manischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866.
SCHWEiZER-SlDLER : Elementor- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen
Sprache, fUr Schulen. Halle: 1869.
The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to Latin
in short compass (137 pages).
Vanicek : Etymologisches Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig ;
1874.
Suggestive, but to be used with caution.
Westphal : Metrik der Griechen. 2d Ed. 1867. 2 vols.
The great authority on the metrical systems of the ancients, .with full literary and
musical illustration. A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found
in Schmidt's Rhythmik und Meirik^ now in course of translation by Prof. J. W.
White.
Williams : A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. 3d Ed.
Oxford: 1864.
A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which it is
difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage.
Zeitschrift fUr vergleichende Sprachforsckung. Edited by Dr. A. Kuhn.
Vols. I. to XXV. Berlin, 1851-1876, and still continued.
The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispensable
to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has an index ; and
there is also a general index to the first ten volumes.
CONTENTS.
PART I. — ETYMOLOGY.
PAGB
Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds i-8
Alphabet ; Classificakion, Phonetic Changes i-6
Pronunciation ; Quantity and Accent 7, 8
Chapter II. — Words and their Forms 9-13
Inflection ; Root and Stem 9
The Parts of Speech 10
Gender ; Number and Case 11
Chapter III. — Declension of Notcns 14-36
General Rules of Declension 14
First Declension 15
Second Declension 16
Third Declension : Mute Stems 19
Liquid Stems 20
Vowel Stems 21
Greek Forms 25
Rules of Gender 26
Fourth Declension 30
Fifth Declension 32
Defective and Variable Nouns 33
Proper Names 36
Chapter IV. — Adjectives 37-49
First and Second Declensions 37
Third Declension 39
Comparison 43
numerals 46
Chapter V. — Pronouns So-57
Personal, Reflexive, Demonstrative 50
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 54
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 56
viii Contents,
PAGB
Chapter VI. — Verbs 58-96
Structure : Voice, Mood, Tense 58
Personal Endings 63
Forms : Verb- Endings 6s
Esse and its Compounds . .- 67
Regular Verb : The Three Stems 70
The Four Conjugations 71
Formation of the Stems 72
First Conjugation j6
Second Conjugation 80
Third Conjugation ...'.... 82
Fourth Conjugation 86
Deponent Verbs - . . . 88
Irregular Verbs 90
Defective Verbs 93
Impersonal Verbs . 95
Chapter VII. —/'dJr/zVr/^j 97-106
Adverbs 97
Prepositions 100
Conjunctions 103
Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words 107-116
Roots and Stems ; Primary Suffixes 107
Significant Endings : Nouns, Adjectives 109
Derivation of Verbs 113
Compound Words 115
PART IL — SYNTAX.
Introductory Note 117
Chapter I. — The Sentence 1 19-144
Definitions: Subject and Predicate 119
Agreement : the Four Concords 122
Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement 123
Adjectives: Rule of Agreement 124
Special Uses 126
Pronouns : Personal and Demonstrative 129
Reflexive 131
Possessive 132
Relative . , , 133
Indefinite 136
Contents. ix
PAGE
Verbs : Subject-Nominative 138
Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negative ... . . 140
Questions 142
Chapter II. — Construction of Cases 145-183
Introductory Note 145
Genitive : With Nouns, Subjective 146
Partitive 148
Objective 150
With Adjectives 151
With Verbs of Accusing, &c.; of Memory . 152
Verbs of Feeling ; J mpersonals • • • • 153
Dative: Indirect Object 154
With Intransitives 156
With Compounds 158
Of Possession ; of Agency 160
Of Service ; of Fitness and Nearness . . . 161
Of Reference 162
Accusative : Direct Object 164
Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives . . . . 165
Idiomatic and Special Uses 166
Vocative 167
Ablative : its Several Uses 167
1. Of Separation and Privation 168
Source, Material, Cause 170
Of Agency; of Comparison . . . . 171, 172
2. Of Instrument, Means, Accompaniment . . . 173
Of Quality, Price, Specification . . . . 174,175
3. Locative: Special Uses 175
Ablative Absolute 176
Time and Place 177
Use of Prepositions 181
C^xvi^KlW, — Syntax of the Verb 184
Note on the Moods 184
Moods : Indicative 185
Subjunctive : General Use 186
„ Hortatory 187
„ Optative 188
„ Dubitative 189
Imperative v 190
Infinitive . 191
X Contents,
PAGB
Tenses :• Introductory Note 194
• Tenses of Continued Action 195
Tenses of Completed Action 198
Sequence of Tenses 200
Tenses of the Infinitive 202
Participles : Distinctions of Tense 204
Adjective and Predicate Use .... 205
Future Participle ; Gerundive .... 207
Gerund and Gerundive 209
Supines 212
Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences 214-226
Introductory Note 214
Protasis and Apodosis, 215 ; Classification of Forms . 216
Simple Conditions ; Future Conditions . ... . . . 217
Conditions Contrary to Fact 219
General Conditions 221
Implied Conditions 222
Use of Conditional Particles 224
Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions 227-257
Relative Clauses: Introductory Note 227
Clauses of Protasis 227
Clauses of Purpose 228
Clauses of Result 230
Clauses of Characteristic 332
Cause or Reason 233
Relations of Time 234
Substantive Clauses : Introductory Note .... 238
Infinitive Clauses 239
Clauses with ut : Purpose 240
Result 242
Clauses with quod 244
Indirect Questions 245
Indirect Discourse : Introductory Note 247
Narrative : Main Clause 248
Conditions, Questions, Commands 250
Intermediate Clauses . 251
Synopsis of Constructions * . . . .254
General Rules of Syntax 256
Contents. xi
PAGE
Chapter VI. — Arrangement 258-262
Normal Order 258
Emphasis 259
Special Rules 260
Structure of the Period 261
PART IIL — PROSODY.
Chapter I. — Quantify 263-270
Introductory Note 263
General Rules of Quantity 264
Quantity of Final Syllables 265
Quantity of Penultimates 267
Chapter II. — Rhythm 271-275
Measures of Rhythm : Feet 272
The Musical Accent 274
Chapter III. — Versification 276-291
The Verse 276
Dactylic Verse : Hexameter 277
Elegiac Stanza 279
Iambic Verse : Trimeter 280
Trochaic Verse 282
Mixed Measures 283
Logaoedic Verse 284
Metres of Horace 287
Miscellaneous 291
Early Prosody 292
Miscellaneous : Reckoning of Time 294
Measures of Value 296
Abbreviations 297
Glossary of Terms 298
Appendix: Latin and Kindred Tongues 301
Principal Roman Writers Z06
Index 307
PART FIRST.
FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY).
Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds.
Alphabet.
Note. — The Latin Alphabet, as usually written, is the same
as the English, except that it has no W. It consists, strictly, of
but twenty-three letters, J and V being used as the consonant
forms of I and U (see 4, below^). Cicero (N. D. ii. 37) reckons
only twenty-one. letters; Yand Z being added after his time, in
words derived from the Greek.
Classification of the I^etters.
1. The Vowels (litterce vocales) are a, e, i, o, u, y.
The combinations ae (^e), au, ex, eu, oe (ce), ui, are
called Diphthongs. In early Latin, ai, 01, and ou are
also found as diphthongs.
Note. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as in father.
Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate, we form in succession the
sound of B (a) and i {ee\ leading to the semi-vowel j {y). By contracting the
lips, we in like manner form the sound of o and u {00), leading to the semi-
vowel V (w). By contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound
of u, — in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is called the Vowel-Scale,
is of great service in tracing the modifications of. vowel-sound§. It may be
represented thus : —
Open A
Medial E O
Close I Y U
The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the rule of palatals ; and
was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural (kh), like the Greek x or the
Spanish j. Its later sound was very slight, and in most languages derived
from Latin has quite disappeared. Sometimes, as in aheneus {=:aeneus), it
seems to be used by modem copyists only to separate two vowels.
' The references are to the numbered paragraphs.
§1
l.a
Etymology: Letters and Sounds,
SONANT.
NASAL.
B
M
D
N
G
N adulterinum}
2. Consonants {JittercB eonsonantes) are classified
according to the organ of speech with which they are
spoken, as Labial (lip), Lingual {tongue), or Palatal
{palate) ; and according to the mode of utterance, as
Surd, Sonant, or Nasal : thus —
SURO.
5 Labial P
Lingual T
Palatal c, K, Q
3. The letters b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t (surds and sonants), are
called Mutes ; l, m, n, r, are called Liquids ; F, ph, th, h, s
(surd), and v, z (sonant), are Fricatives (Spirants), s and z being
also Sibilants ; X (cs) and z (ds or sd) are Double Consonants.
4. The letters i (j) and u (v) may be used before a vowel
in the same syllable, as in iuuenis {juvenis), and are then
consonants (sometimes called semi-vowels). The u in quis^
anguis, suavis, &c., forms a compound sound with the preceding
letter, and is strictly neither vowel nor consonant.
5. Vowels and Consonants are not separated by any sharp line
from each other, but form a continuous scale from the most open
vowel to the closest mute, as in the following Table.^ The ten-
dency of phonetic change has been from the extremes of open
vowel and close mute towards the fricatives and semi-vowels in
the middle.
K{ah)
A (hat) t{aw)
e {eh) o
i {ee) u {but) u {oo)
y (Eng.) r, 1 w
n
s
z
th
dh
d
t
LINGUAL.
Sonant.*
ing
Surd
h
III
t gh
kh
Sonan
Surd.
t' g
k
PALATAL.
Vowels.
wr Semivowels*
m Nasals,
f ) Fricatives
V ) (Spirants).
ph ) Aspirates
bh j (lost in Latin).
> Mutes.
LABIAL.
> Before a Palatal, as in ink^ thing. * Adapted from Professor W. D.
Whitney's Oriental and Linguistic Studies, 2d Series, page 286.
Early Forms; Phonetic Changes. 3
Early Forms.
6. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound
from G. After the distinction was made, C was still used con-
ventionally, as the initial of names {CaiuSy Cnaeus) beginning
properly with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of
K, which was retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial
letter of a few words, as Kalendae^ KarthagOy in which it
precedes a.
7. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never in good use
preceded in the same syllable by u or v ; but o was written
where later custom allows u : as in volt^ servos ^ quom (for cuni)
and quor (for cur\ or c was regularly used for QU in such words
as cum (for quum)^ ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus\ lo'cun-
tur (for hquuniur), and the like *, also in cotidie (for quotidie),
and a few other words.
8. At the end of a few words, — as sed^ apud^ illudy — T was
anciently written instead of D. In words ending in -s, final s was
often elided (sometimes with further change), as in qualist
{qualis est), pienu^ fidei (Cat. Maj. § i).
Phonetic Changres.
9. Letters are often changed according to general
laws of inflection and derivation ; or have been altered
through long use, securing an easier utterance {phonetic
decay y euphonic cltange). Thus,
10. Vowels are changed by —
a. Vowel-increase : as, /«r^, emi; l^go, legij dgo, egij pendo,
pondus; sdno, persdna; perfidusy ftdus, foedusj dUc-is, duco
(compare tell, told; felly fall; hindy band, hound),
b. Substitution, generally following the vowel-scale (see page i)
in the direction from A to i on one side, or to u on the other, but
sometimes across from o to E : as, factuniy confectum; agmen,
agminis ; capioy incipio ; canOy concino; legOy colligo; salioy ex-
sulto; pellOy pulsum; servos y serous ; eboris, ebur; vortOy verto.
c. Contraction or omission : as, obit (pbitt), cogo {co-dgo), nil
(ni^Ail), debeo {de'hdbeo)y coetus {coitus); — audacter {audaciter) ;
jurgium {jurigium), disciplina {discipulina),
d. Suppression of the semi- vowel (sometimes with contrac-
tion) : as, dbicit (pbjicit)y cunctus (co-junctusy i. e. conjunctus)y
contio (conventio)y rursus (reversus)y amarat {amaverat).
11
2. a
2.b
2.0
3.1
3. b
3.0
3. d
8.e
8.f
3.g
4 Etymology: Letters and Sounds.
u. Consonant changes are made by —
a. Substitution: as of R for s between two vowels, and
before m or n: as, in eram (root ES), generis (genus) ^ maereo
{maestus)^ diritno {dis-emd)y diribeo {dis-habeo\ vetemus (yeius-
nus) ; — or s for d or T, a smoother combination : as, casus
{cadntus\ cessum {fed'tum\ mansus {man-tu5\ passus {pai-tus),
missus (mit'tus), equester {equet-ter),
b. Omission: exdmen (exagmeh), caementum {caed-mentum\
simestris {ses-mesiris), lana (luc-na), deni {dec-ni), hdc (abl. for
hod'Ce), autumnus (auciumnus : root A.\5G), fulmen (Julg-men),
pergo iper-rego), lis (stlis)y cor (cord-), lac {lad-), pes ipeds).
c. Insertion : as, sumo, sumpsi, sumptum {sum-siy sum-turn) ;
hiems, hiemps (a transition sound, as in Thompson),
d. Transposition : as, stemo, stravi {sterui) ; spemo, sprevij
cemo, crevi; misceo, mixtus (misc-tus),
e. Dissimilation (to avoid repetition of a sound) : as, parilia
(from Pales) ; meridies {medi-dies),
f. Assimilation —
1. Partial : as, scriptus {scrib-tus\ actus {ag-tus), auxi {aug'si\
impero (in-pero)^ contero (com-tero), segmentum (sec-mentum)^
quantus (quam-tus),
2. Complete : as, cessi (ced-st)^ summus (sud-mus), sella
(sed'la), puella {puer{u)la), pressi {prem-si),
3. Especially of the final consonant of the preposition in
Compounds : as, accedo (ad-cedo), afficio (ad-facto)y occurro (pb-
curro)y corruo {com-ruo), effero (ec-fero), suppono {sub-pono).
Note. — The rules for this assimilation may be given as follows : ad is
assimilated before r, g^ /, t ; less regularly before /, r, 5, and rarely before m ;
while before/, «, f, the form ad is to he preferred ; — ab is not assimilated, but
may take the form «, au, or ads ; — in com (con, co), m is retained before 3, /, m ;
is assimilated before /, «, r; is changed to n before r, d^f^g^ j\ q^ j, v ; some-
times becomes n before/; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before /and r;
com loses the final m in conecto^ coniveo, conitoTy conubium ; — in usually changes
n to m before ^, m, p; before / the better orthography retains » ;— ob and sub
are assimilated before ^, /, g^ /, and sometimes before m; sub also before r / and,
in early Latin, d of these prepositions sometimes becomes / before s or /. The
inseparable amb loses d before a consonant^ and fn is sometimes assimilated ; —
CIRCUM loses m before i (often) ; — j of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before
a consonant is lost or assimilated ; — the d of red and sed is generally lost
before a consonant. In most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered
forms throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others,
which aire corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum)^ would better
be avoided. Lexicons vary in the spelling of these combinations.
Phonetic Changes; Combinations. 5
12. Variations of spelling occur as follows : —
a. Interchange of ci and Ti before a vowel : as, nuntiOy nuncio;
contio, concio; dicioy ditto; condicio, conditio; suspuio^ suspicio.
In these cases, the former is the more approved spelling, though
the latter may still be frequently found.
Note. — The substitution of c for t (or the converse) is an example of phonetic
decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, s, and in
Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of / in such combinations : as in nazioney
nacion. The sound of s or of sh traceable in them led gradually to the adoption
of this as the regular sound of c before e or i {assimilation),
d. Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes
without an initial H : as, arena or harena, erus or herus, umerus
or humerus^ Umor or humor. The combinations ph, th, are found
only in words taken from the Greek.
c. Many words are variously spelled in diJfferent editions : as,
adolescens, adulescens; anulus, annulus; caelum^ coelum; epistola,
epistula ; feminay foemina ; litera, littera; miliar millia; nequi-
quamy nequicquam, nequidquam; pauluSy paullus; quicquam,
quidquam; umquam, unquam; vertOy vorto; volnusy vulnus ;
also the gerund-forms -endus or -undusy and the superlative -imus
or 'Umus, The old form lubet is often used for libet.^
Combinations.
13. Two words are often united in writing, and
sometimes in sound. Thus —
a. Conjunctions or other particles are connected : as in eteninty
jamdiUy siquisy siquidem; also a few short phrases : as, quarCy
quamobreniy respublicay jusjurandunty paterfamilias,
b. The verb est, isy is joined with the preceding word, espe-
cially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by
elision : as, homosty periculumsty ausust (like thouVty Pve).
c. Similar contractions are found in vin^ (visne), scitC (scisne),
sis (si vis)y sodes {si audes). So in English, donHy wonU,^
' Many of the above variations are due to the practice of writing from dictation,
or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made, — a single
reader often dictating to numerous copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt,
and without authority. The tendency of the more approved editions is to restore
the forms of the late Republic or early Empire (the time of Cicero or Augustus),
so far as this can be determined by Inscriptions, &c. The choice among the
forms appears often to be arbitrary. ' Old English, woU not.
11
8.1&
8. 1
8.k
5.
6 Etymology : Letters and Sounds.
SyUablea.
14. In the division of syllables, a single consonant
between two vowels is to be written with the latter.
a. This rule is sometimes extended to double consonants, or
any combination of consonants which can be used to begin a
word : as, ko-spes^ ma-gnus, di-xit,
b. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est^
ob-latus, ^
c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called
pure, as/i us; when preceded by a consonant, impure, as constat,
d. An initial syllable ending, or any other syllable beginning,
with a vowel, is called open; otherwise, it is called close.
Kindred Forms.
15. In English words derived from the Latin, the original
letters are retained (as ambition from ambitid)^ But in true
English words which come from the same source as the Latin
(see Appendix), the original letters are rarely represented by
the same but usually by closely related letters, which regularly
correspond. Sometimes a consonant lost in the Latin appears
in the English word. Thus —
LATIN ENGLISH
c,k,qu H, wh: qui, who; cos, hone; QZx^Oy* harvest ; calo
(kalendae), hail ; cord-, heart,
g K, CH : genus, kin; genu, knee ; gusto, choose.
t TH : tu, thou; tres, three ; tenuis, thin.
T or D (rarely) : stare, stand \ torreo, dry,
d t: duo, two; dens, tooth; sedeo, sit.
p f: \i2iiGX, father ; ^mWms, foal; pauci,/!?^.
f (for bh) B : fero, bear; frater, brother.
f (for dh) D : fores {Bvpa), doors; fera (6rip), deer,
h G : veho, wagon; hortus, garden; hostis, guest.
i (J) ; '^ C*^) Y ; w : jugum, yoke; ovis, ewe.
Lost: (s)niv-, j«<?a// Q\)dJaAet, goose ; (s)nervO', snare.
Sounds of the I^etters.
Note. — The pronunciation of Latin is different in different
countries. Among us, it usually follows one of two ways, which
may be called the Roman (or Phonetic^ and the English,
» Many words, however, coming through the French follow French changes : as,
fashion^ fa^on ^f actio) ; chivalry, cheval {cabaUus) \ chimney, chemince {caminus).
Pronunciation, 7
16. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter
has always the same sound, as follows : —
Vowels : a as in fathers fi as in idea.
ezs ehf (prolonged) ; theyj hz&ehf (clipped).
i as in machines I. as in holiest.
6 as in hofys 5 as in obey.
u as ^^ in boot ; ii as ^^7 in foot.
N.B. — Vowels marked thus, a, e, i, 5, u, are longs marked
thus, fi, S, I, 5, ii, are short.
A long syllable is reckoned equal to two short ones.
Diphthongs : ae like ay^s oe like oys au like ow in now.
ei as in eights eu as ew^s ^ as we {pdee).
Consonants : c and g are always hard, as in come^ get.
a is always sharp, as in sea^ lips.
j is like/y v like w\ qu as in English.
ba is like /J y ch like ks ph Hke^:
Note. — In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from p by
being sounded with the lips only, instead of lip and teeth. In many words (as
abietis^ tenuis)^ I and u sometimes had the consonant sound, though usually
in such words reckoned as vowels. The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as
above, but early in the time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial
use the long sound of e. When two consonants come together (as in condo^
fnagnus)y or a consonant is doubled (as in annuSy uUus, mitto)^ care should be
taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronuncia-
tion of consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position {i%.d).
17. By the English method, the letters have the same
«ound as in English ; but —
a. There are no silent letters, each word having as many
syllables as there are vowels or diphthongs. '
b. Final a is pronounced as in Americas but in the mono-
syllables a, da, qua, sta, the long sound is sometimes given.
c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like es an like aws
ea like ews oi and ui like / in kites ea and (in plural words)
OS at the end of a word as in disease^ morose.
d. The consonants o and g are made soft (like s and j) l)efore
e, i, 7, ae, oe, en : ch is always hard, as in chasm ^ chemist.
Note. — The English method should be retained in the translation of Roman
names, as Julius Casar; and in the quoting of familiar phrases, as e fluribus
unutn; viva voce; a fortiori; venij vidi^ vicij &c.
^ As in the nautical ay^ ay^ sir. * As m/ew.
11
1. b
1. e
8 Etymology: Letters and Sounds.
Quantity and Aeoent.
18. The following are general Rules of Quantity: —
a, A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via,
nihil.
b, A diphthong is long : as in aedes.foedus,
c, A syllable formed by contraction is long : as nil {nikil),
d, A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants,
or a double consonant (x, a), is long: as in rictus, rexit Before
nf and na the vowel itself becomes long: as in tnfero, praesens.
e, A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute
with 1 or r is common ; i. e. it may be long in verse : as in
aldcris^ lat^brae.
N.B. — The sign - indicates that a vowel is usually long; G that
it is usually short. But the former is also used to denote any
vowel that is common.
19. The following are Rules of Accent : —
a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first
syllable.
b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the
Penult, if that is long : as, amicus ; if it is short or common,
then on the Antepenult : as, dcfminusy a'lacris, la'tebrae.
Definition: The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Ante-
penult, the last but two. (For exceptions, see 40. h^ 142. b,)
c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on
the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as,
did'que, dtndr^ve, tibUnCy itWque (and so), as distinguished from
ftdque^ (therefore). So (according to some authorities) ex^inde^
edquando^ &c.
NoTB. — The ancients recognized three accents, acute (•'), grave {^\ and
circun^x (^). Accent no doubt consisted in a change of pitch, — elevation,
depression, or both combined, — and not merely in a more forcible utterance
{ictus). But as, in all cases except in reading poetry (which was a sort of
recitative), the ictus and elevation coincided, the matter is unimportant in Latin.
Indeed, an accurate ear will distinguish the same thing in English, though much
slighter than probably existed among the ancients.
The Rules of Accent given above are the only ones which are recognized in
modem usage, or which it seems worth while to observe. But the circutn/lex
accent, including both acute and grave, was recognized by the ancients in all long
monosyllables (as mBs^ dds)^ and in a few other cases. The sign * is often written
merely to show contraction : as, nil {nihH)^ intrdrat (intraverat)^ or to mark the
long a of the ablative : as, Romd,
biflection ; Root and Stem, 9
Chapter II. — Words and their Forms.
Inflection*
20. Inflection is a change made in the form of a
word, to show its grammatical relations.
a* Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of
a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination: as,
vox, a voice; vods, of a voice; v6co, / call; v5cat, he calls;
vocavit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched,
b. Terminations of inflection had originally an independent
meaning which is now obscured. They correspond nearly to the
use of prepositions, auxiliaries, or personal pronouns .in English:
thus, in v5cat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in
vocis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel
signifies a change of mood.
c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote
relations of tense or mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary
verbs in English : as, frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is break-
ing; fregit, he broke or has broken; frangat, let him break .^
Root and Stem.
21. The body of a word, to which the terminations
are attached, is called the Stem.^
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but,
in general, it cannot be used without some termination to express
them. Thus the stem v5c- denotes voice; with -b added it
becomes vox, a voice or the voice^ as the subject or agent of an
action ; with -is it becomes voois, and signifies of a voice. It
is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison
with other forms is necessary to determine it.
22. A primitive form, expressing the simple idea less
definitely, and common also to other words, either in
the same or other languages, is called a Root.^
* The only /r«?/tfr inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and
the changes here referred to are strictly changes of Stem.
* The name Stem is sometimes incorrectly given to that part of a word — as
serv' in servus — which is unchanged in inflection. This may, for convenience,
be called the Base.
* For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit iisihAmi^ Greek t<mifi*i
Latin sistere and stare^ German fte(^en, and English stand, (See Chap. VIII.)
§5
».
S. a
S. b
§6
2. b
%.e
». d
10 Etymology: Words and titeir Forms.
Thus the root of the stem v5o- is voc, which means not
to calif or /.call, or callings but merely callj and cannot be used
as a part of speech without terminations. With & it becomes
y5ca-» the stem of vocdre (to call) ; with fivi- it is the stem of
vocHvit (he called) ; with St6- it becomes the stem of vocdtus
(called) ; with atidn- it becomes the stem of voc&tidnis (of a
calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of
vox (a voice: that by which we call). This stem, again, with
alls added, means belonging to a voice; with iUa, a little voice.
Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a
very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese.
Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process
by which they are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds,
is called Stem-building,
23. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root : as in
dUc-is^fer-tj but is more frequently formed from the root —
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel, as in rig-is, voc-is;
2. By the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in tollo^pango
(from TUL, PAG ; here a vowel also is added : see 4) ;
3. By the addition of a terminal vowel, as \n /ugi-s^ fuga (fug) ;
4. By two or more of these methods, as in duci-tj
5. By derivation and composition, following the laws of develop-
ment peculiar to the language (see Chapter VIII.).
24. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by
combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading
to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see 32^).
Note. — A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix; one
beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close affix is joined to a con-
sonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as rexi for reg-si^ or a
vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But, in most cases, what is called a connecting
vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus^ regi^mus {seep. 72. «.).
The Parts of Speech.
25. Words are either Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns,
Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc-
tions, or Interjections. These are called Parts of
Speech.
a. Words like Casar, consul^ temple^ virtue^ which are names
of persons, things, or ideas, are called Nouns. Names of persons
and places are called Proper Nouns.
b. Words like brave^ loudy strong, which express qualities, are
called Adjectives.
Parts of Speech; Gender. il
c. Words which indicate any person or thing, without either
naming or describing, are called Pronouns. These include Per-
sonal, as /, thouy wSj he^ they; and Adjective, as these^ those
(Demonstrative), my ^ your (Possessive), wMo^ which (Relative or
Interrogative).
d. Words like buUd^ fights stand^ be^ suffer^ which express actions
or conditions, are called Verbs.
e. Words like conquering, goings g(»^t beaten, which describe by
means of actions or conditions, are called Participles.
f. Words like nobly y well^ very^ here^ now^ to-day, which define
an action or quality in manner, place, time, or the like, are called
Adverbs.
g. Words like for^ with, by, against^ which show the relation
between a noun and other words in the sentence, are called
Prepositions.
h. Words like and, or, if, but^ because^ which connect words
or sentences together, are called Conjunctions.
/. Some words, as where, while, till, nevertheless, both define
as adverbs and connect as conjunctions. These are called Ad-
verbial Conjunctions.
k. Words like ah / ho / alas / are mere exclamations, and are
not strictly parts of speech, but are called Interjections.
26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronoims, and Participles have inflec-
tions of declension, to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs
have inflections of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num-
ber, and person.
27. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called
Particles: these are Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections.
Note. — The term Partide is sometimes limited to such words as kum , -ne,
AN {inierrogaiive\ non, ne {negeaive), si {conditional), &c, which are used
simply to indicate the fonn or constructioii of a sentence. Interjections are not
properly to he classed among parts of speech, and di£fer little from inarticulate
sounds. For convenience, a list is given of those in most common use, following
the Conjunctions.
Gendor.
28. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or
grammatical.
a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object
denoted : as, puer, bcyj paella, girlj dSnnm, gift.
12 Etymology: Words and tfietr Fortns.
b. Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form :
as, cerviui, oenra, stag^ doe; cliSns, olienta, client; Tlotor, viotil:^
conqueror. Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor), usu-
ally though not necessarily male, are masculine.
c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex exists
in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective joined with
it: as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone; manoa mea (p.), my
hand.
d. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong-
ing to a class : as, mancipiiiiii tanm, your slave. Names of classes
'or bodies of persons may be of either gender : as, exercitas (m.),
aci§s (p.), and agmen (n.), army; and the feminine operae, work-
meny cSpiae, troops. Many pet names (as Paegnium, Glycerium)
are also neuter.
Note. — What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the
imagination at a rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a
River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a living creature, violent and strong, and so
is masculine ; a Month is a guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine ; and the
fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, which,
in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or
dty, seems the mother of its progeny ; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a
brooding bird her nest of eggs ; and, to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a
feminine pronoun.
Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is
masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ; while, among northern
nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon
(the appointer of works and da3rs) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender
only repeat and extend these early workings of the fancy.
29. Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, and Mountains, are
masculine; names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, and
Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract
Qualities, zx^ feminine.
Note. — Most of the above may be recognized by their terminations, according
to the rules of gender under the several declensions.
a, A few names of Rivers ending in a, with the Greek names
Let/te and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain.
Some names of Mountains take the gender of their termination :
as, Alpes (p.), Soracte (n.). ■ Names of Months are properly adjec-
tives, the masculine noun niensis being understood. ;
h. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine, as
Sulmo, Gabii (plur.) ; or neuter, as Tarentum, Illyricum, A few
names of plants and gems follow the gender of their termination.
Gender ; Number atid Case. 13
c. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : as,
fasy nihily gummij scire tuum^ triste vale; hoc ipsum diu,
30. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord-
ing to the sexf of the object These are said to be of Common
Gender : as, exsul, exiles bos, ox or cow,
a* If a noun signifying a thing without life may be either
masculine or feminine, — as, dioA, days finis, end^ — it is some-
times said to be of Doubtful Gender.
b. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, in-
dependent of sex. These are called Epicene. Thus-lepus, hare^
is always masculine, and vulpes, foXy is always feminine. To
denote a male fox we may s^y, vulpes mascula; or a female
hare, lepus fimina.
Number and Case.
31. Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives are declined in
two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases,
nominativey genitive , dative^ accusative^ vocative, ablative.
a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence
b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English
Possessive, or with the preposition of.
c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object : it may usually
be translated by the preposition to or for; but sometimes
corresponds to the English Objective.
d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object : it is used
with many of the Latin Prepositions.
e. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
f. The Ablative may usually be translated by from, by, with,
IN, or AT. It is also often used with prepositions.
g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be
used as object-cases ; and are sometimes called oblique cases.
^. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces
of another case (the locative), denoting the place where.
Note. — A more convenient arrangement of the cases is the
following (See Note, p. 145) : —
Direct Cases : Nominative, Vocative, Accusative,
Indirect Cases : Genitive, Dative^ Ablative,
14 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.
Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns.
32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin-
guished by the termination of the Genitive Singular,
and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem.^
Decl. I. Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic ft (anciently ft)
>» 2. „ i ,,5
It 3« n >• „ I or a Consonant
» 4. „ fi8(ui») „ tt
i» 5* w ®i „ 5
a. The stem of a noun may be found, If a consonant-stem, by
omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for
the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (ex-
cept in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding ».*
Note. — Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids, l, n, r, — the origina] s
(sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost through phonetic
decay. In some (as in servus) the stem-vowel is modified before the final s;
and in some, as in ager, pater ^ a vowel is inserted in the stem.
33. The following are general Rules of Declension :
a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative,
except in the singular of nouns in lu of the second declension.'
^. In neuters the nominative and accusative are always alike,
and in the plural end in ft.
' Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to
different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions
in the language have given rise to the several forms of declension ; but it is proba-
ble that originally there was only one form, with perhaps a few variations. The
original terminations (answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with
certainty, though some earlier forms may be known. Most of the case-endings, as
given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be
classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be
more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chapter IV.).
2 The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative SA, which is
found (with modifications) in the S^m^int personal pronoun ^ in the Greek article^
and in the English she,
8 In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the (modified) stem-
vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of Ihece forms ; and,
in practice, few other words have a vocative. It is given in the paradigms for tlie
sake of symmetry, but may well be omitted in declining.
First Declemion.
IS
c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always
ends in m, and the accusative plural in b.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the
others) the dative singular ends in L
e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.
/ The genitive plural always ends in um.
g. The final i, o, u of inflection are always long; the final a is
short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension ; the
final e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second
and third.
34. The case-endings of the several declensions are the follow-
ing, rare forms being given in parenthesis, Greek forms in italics : —
Dbcl. I. I
N. ft ?, iif , ?«. 'uSfOm, er os^ on, eus
G. ae (ai) is I (ius) d, m, ei
D. ae (ai) |d (i) ei, eo
A. am OM, In um on ea
& e id(i) er en
A a
Plur.
. V. ae
. arum, (umi)
. A. is (abus)
.as
€0
8 (or modified Stem )
Xa yos, is
em(im) in^yn d
(as nom ) I, ^
e(i),X yi
S8,a, ia
I a , .
drum (um, om) on um, ium
is (obus) I ibus
da Ids (is), a, la
U8,U
Ss
us(ai8)
ei(e)
1U(U)
di(«)
um, u
em
fl.^a
es
e
us,ua
68
uum
erum
Xbufl(ilbus)
ebus
1 us, ua
es
§2
FIRST DECLENSION.
Note. — The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends
in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem.
35. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus
declined : —
SINGULAR.
Nominative. steUa, a (or the) star.
Genitive. stellae, of a star.
Dative. stellae, to a star.
Accusative. stellam, a star.
Vocative. stoiX^ thou star /
Ablative. stella, with a star.
Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Femi-
nine. Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from
their signification : as, nauta (sailor). Also, Hadria (the Adriatic),
and a few family or personal names : as, Murina, Sulla,
36. Case-Forms, a. The genitive singular anciently ended
in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors : as, aulSL
The same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.
plural.
stellae, stars,
stellarum, of stars.
stellis, to stars,
Stellas, stars.
stellae, _y^ stars f
stellis, with stars.
§9
11
2.
§10
1.
1 6 ' Etytnology : Declension of Nouns.
b. There is also an old genitive in 5b, found in the word
familids used in certain combinations : as, pdter {m&ter^ ftlius,
filid) familias.
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for
the plural in is: as, RSmaOp at Rome; Athenu, at Athens,
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead of
anun, especially in compounds with -c51a and -gSna, signif3ring
dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum (heavenly ones), Troju-
genum (sons of Troy) ; with amphora and drachma,
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter,
— also, rarely, of several other words: as, liberta, freed-woman,
mula, she-mule, — end in an older form -fibus. But, except when
the two sexes (as in formulas, documents, &c) are mentioned
together, the form in ia is preferred in all but dea, filia,
N. B. For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV.
Greek Nonns*
37. Greek nouns of the first declension retain traces
of their Greek formation, and are thus declined : —
comet (m.).
&«r*/(F.).
jEneas (m.).
A nehises (m .).
NOM.
oometes (a)
daphne
Aengaa
Anohisea
Gbn.
oometae
daphnes (ae)
Aeneae
Anohisaa
DAT.
oozngtae
daphne (ae)
AenSae
Anohisae
Ace.
cometen (am)
Aeneftn (am)
Anohisen
Voc.
oometa
daphnS
Aeneft (&)
Abl.
oometft(e)
daphne (&)
Aenea
Anohiae (&)
These forms are found only in the singular; the plural is
regular: as, cometae, arum, &c. There are of this kind (besides
proper names) about thirty-five words, several being names of
plants, or names of arts : as, musice. Most have also regular Latin
forms in a : as, comita,
SECOND DECLENSION.
Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends
in 6 (as of vir, vird-, and of servus, servd-),^ The Nominative is
formed from the stem by adding a (in neuters m), the characteristic
6 being weakened to tt (see lo. b).
In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the s is not added, but
the o is lost, and e is inserted before r. Thus ager (stem agro-)
is the same as the Greek aypdy. The exceptions are hesperus,
humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus, taurus, virus.
' This form is an orirrinal 5-stem, to which the a-stem of the first declension is
the corresponding feminine.
Second Declension.
17
Sing.
slave (m.)
NOM.
serviia
Gen.
servi
DAT.
servo
Ace.
servnm
Voc.
servS
Abl.
servo
PlUP.
NOM.
servi
Gen.
servoniin
DAT.
servia
Ace.
servos
Voc.
servi
Abl.
sends
38. Latin nouns of the Second Declension are thus §^0
declined: —
boy (ja,). field {VL), man (u.), war (s.),
puSr agSr vir beUum
pueri agri viri belli
puero agro viro bell5
puemm agmm virum helium
puer ager vir belluni
puero agro viro bello
pueri agri viri bell&
puerorum agrorum virorum bellorum
pueris agris viria bellis
pueros agros viros bellS
pueri agri viri bell&
pueris agris viiis bellis
Note. — The old form os, om (for us» um), is sometimes used
after u or v : as, servos^ servom. The case-ending s or m is some-
times omitted in inscriptions, &c., as Cornelia^ for Cornelius or
Cornelium,
39. Gender. — Nouns ending in ns (os), er, ir, are
masculine ; those ending in run (on) are Neuter. But —
a. Names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Corinthus.
Also many names of Plants and Gems, with the following : —
arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly; carbasus, linen
(plural carbasa, sailSy N.) ; colus, distaff; humus, ground;
▼annus, winnowing-shovel,
b. The following in us are Neuter ; their accusative, as of all
neuters, is the same as the nominative: —
pelagus,! sea; vixma, poison ; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd
40. Case-Forms, a. The Locative form of this declension for
the singular ends in i : as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at
Corinth, For the plural, in is : as, PhiUppis, at PhilippL
b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends by earlier use with
a single i : as, fili, of a son; ingS'ni, of genius,^ The same con-
traction occurs with the genitive singular and the dative and abla-
tive plural of nouns in aius and eius : as, GrSis, PompeL
1 This has a Greek plural pelage : virus and vulgtts have no plural,
s The genitive in H occurs twice in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid. The accent
remains (as in ingeni) on the syllable preceding the contraction.
2
i8
Etymology : Declension of Nouns.
§10
4.
c. Proper names in itw lose e in the vocative, as Verg^li ; also,
fQius, son; genius, divine guardian. The possessive meus, my^
has mi : as, audi, m! f ili, hear^ my son.
d, Greek names in ius have the vocative ie; and adjectives
derived from proper names — as Lacedaemonius — also form the
vocative in ie.
^. In the genitive plural, um or (after v) cm is often found for
orum, especially in poets, and in certain words of money, measure,
and weight : as, nummum^ jugerum.
f, I>eua, godf has vocative deus ; plural : nominative and vocative
dei or 6x (dii) ; dative and ablative deis or dia (diis). For the geni-
tive plural deorum, divum or divom (from divus), is often used.
41. The following stems in 8ro-, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain e throughout : compounds in -far and -gar, as lucifer, -fSri,
light-bringer J armXgar, -gSri, armor-bearer. Also,
adulter, adulterer; ganer, son-in-law; puer, boy;
nooet, father-in-law ; Tesper, evening.
a. Some of these have an old nominative in 6ru8 : as, socerus.
b. Vir, many has the genitive vlii; the adjective satur, sated^
has sattiri ; vesper has abl. vespera (loc. vesperi).
c. lobar (a name of Bacchus) has genitive lobSri ; so, too, the
adjective liber, y>'^^, of which liberi, children^ is the plural.
42. The following insert e in the nominative and vocative : —
IXber, book.
magister, master.
minister, servant.
oleaster, wild-olive.
onager (grus), wild-ass.
BJgex, field. coluber, snake.
aper, boar. conger, sea-eel.
9xbit«t, judge. culter, knife.
auster, south-wind, faber, smith.
cancer, crab. fiber, beaver.
caper, goat. geometer, geometer, scomber (brus), mackerel.
N.B. For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV.
43. Greek nouns — including many names in eus —
are declined as follows in the singular, the plural being
regular : —
mocksvn {v.). Delos{v.). Athcs{v..).
pargUon Dglos Ath5s(d)
parelil DeU Athd(I)
pareiid Deld Athd
pareUon Delon(um) Ath5(dn)
pareUon D€le Athos
pareUd Del5 Ath5
/ableim.).
NOM.
mythos
Gbn.
mythi
DAT.
mythd
Ace.
mython
Voc
mythe
Abl.
mythd
Orpheus (m.).
Orpheus
Orpheos (ei)
Orphei
Orphea
Orpheu
Orphed
Third Declension: Mute-Stems. 19
a. Many names in es belonging to the Third Declension have
also a genitive in x, as Jhucydidis^ Ihucydidi (compare 52).
b. Several names in er have also a form in na : as, Teucer or
Teucrus, The name Panthus has the vocative Panthii,
c. The genitive plural of certain titles takes the Greek ter-
mination on : as, Geargicdn.
THIRD DECLENSION.
Note. — Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveniently
classed according to their stems, as ending either in a Vowel (i),
a Liquid (1, n, r), or a Mute. A few whose stems ends in u {^grus^
sus) are treated as consonant-stems. The Nominative (except of
neuters and of liquid-stems) is found by adding s to the stem.
1. — Mnte-Stems.
44. Masculine or feminine nouns, whose stem ends in
a Mute, form the nominative by adding s. If the mute
is a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before s ; if it is a
palatal (c, g), it unites with s, forming x. Neuters have
for nominative the simple stem.
Examples : op-is, ops ; custod-is, costos ; reg-is, rez.^
45. The vowel before the final consonant of the stem
is often modified : —
a. Labials. — Stems in Ip- have e in the nominative : as,
adip'is, adeps. Most stems in dp- are compounds of the root
CAP (in capio, take) : as, parttcip-is, particeps. In these the stem
sometimes has the form cup-, as aucup-is^ amceps.
b. LiNGUALS. — Stems in it- (m. or f.) have e in the nomina-
tive : as, kospit'tSy hospes. The neuter capit-is has caput. Neuter
stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in &t- (Greek
nouns), drop the final lingual : as, cord-is^ cor; poemat-is^ poema.
c. Palatals. — Stems in Ic- (short i) have the nominative in
ex,* and are chiefly masculine : as, apic-is^ apex. Those in xc-
(long i) retain i, and are feminine : as, carntc-is^ comix?
1 In these examples the genitive form b given to show the stem as it occurs in
practice.
a With a few exceptions (see 67. e),
* In ȣx, nivisy the nominative contains a palatal lost in the other cases
(original stem snig-^ compare ningit). SupelUx {juiUis) is partly a lingual, partly
§10
§11
iU.
1.
X
y
8.
20
Etymology: Declension of Nouns.
111.
46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sing, help (f.). king (m.). guide {c,), soldier (jsi). head (n.).
NOM.
Gen.
DAT.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl,
Plur.
NOM.
Gen.
DAT.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
[ops]i
opia
opi
opem
ops
ope
wealth,
opes
opum
opibus
opes
opes
opibus
rez
regis
regl
regem
rex
rege
reges
regain
regibos
reges
regSs
vregibus
doz
ducis
dud
ducem
dux
duce
duces
ducum
miles
militis
mlliti
militem
miles
milite
mllitSs
mill turn
ducibus mllitibus
duces milites
duces militSs
ducibus mllitibus
caput
capitis
capitx
caput
caput
capite
capita
capitum
capitibus
capita
capita
capitibus
47. In like manner are declined —
princeps, ipis (c), chief, aries, etis (m.), ram,
lapis, idis (m.), stone. apex, apicis (m.), peak,
custos, odis (c.), guard, corniz, icis (f.), raven.
comes, itis (c.), companion, poema, Stis {^,\poem (47. b),
a. Many apparent mute-stems, having the genitive plural in
ium, are to be classed with i-stems (54. c),
b, Greek neuters (as poema) ^ with nominative singular in a,
frequently end the dative and ablative plural in is, and the genitive
rarely in orum.
2. — liiqaid-Stems.
48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r),
the nominative is the same as the stem, except when
modified as follows : —
a. Stems in on- (m. and F.) drop n : as, in ledn-isy leoj legidn-is^
legio,
b. Stems in din- or gXn- (mostly feminine) have o in the nom-
inative : as, virgin-is, virgo. Other stems in In- have e : as,
comicin-is, cornicen (m.) ; carmin-is, carmen (n.).
an i-stem. Of apparent s-stems in Latin, as {assis) is an /-stem ; the original stem
of OS, ossiSy is osti- (cf. wrreov and Sanskrit asthi) ; while the others have either
(i) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of the cases, as Ju>nor, oris,
corpus, dris (see liquid stems) ; or (2) have broken down into /-stems, as moles
(cf. molestus), nOdes (Sanskrit ncU>kas), sedes (cf. eaos), vis {vires), &c.
' The singular (meaning help) is not used in the nominative, except as the
name of a divinity.
Third Declension : Liquid-Stems.
21
c. Stems in tx- have their nominative ter : as, patr-is^ pater.
d. Many neuter stems in er and or have the nominative in
U8 : as, oper-is, opus; corpor-isy corpus, A few masculine and
feminine stems also have the nominative in b as well as r: as,
honor-is^ honos (or honor) \ arbdr-is^ arbos (or arbor)>
e. Stems in U, rr (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nomina-
tive : as farr-is^ far; fell-is^ feL
49. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
consul (m.). li(fn (m.). maiden(,¥,). fiame (n.). body (n.).
consul leo vlrgo ndmen corpus
consulis leonla virginis nominia corporis
virgin!
virginem
virgo
virgine
Sing.
NOM.
Gen.
DAT.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
Plur.
NoM. consules
Gen. consulum
cdnsuli
consulem
consul
consule
leoni
le5nem
leo
leone
ndmini
nomen
nomen
nomine
corpon
corpus
corpus
corpore
leones virgines nomina corpora
leonnm virginum nominum corporum
DAT. consulibns lednibus virginibus nominibus corporibus
Ace. consules leones virgines nomina corpora
Voc. consules le5nes virgines nomina corpora
Abl. consulibns leonibns virginibus nominibtis corporibus
50. In like manner are declined —
pater, patris {vl.)^ father. arbor (os), oris (f.), tree,
ebur, oris (n.), ivory. honor (5s), oris (m.), hotior,
opus, eris (n.), work. aeqnor, oris (n.), plain.
The following apparent liquid-stems have the genitive plural in
ium, and are to be classed with i-stems : — imber^ linter^ uter,
venter; with the monosyllables fur^ glis, Idr^ mas, mils, [ren'] ;
also vires (from vis : see 6i).
3. — Vowel-Stems.
/ 51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i (as
^ ol turrisy turri' ; mare, mari-). The nominative, except
j in neuters, is formed by adding s to the stem.
a. Thirty-five nouns change X to e in the nominative."
1 These stems originally ended in s. (See Note 3i ps^e 19.)
2 These are acinSces, aedesy alcesy etudes^ catUes, clsdes, com^Sges, contages^
craieSy fafttes, feles^ fides, Idbes^ lues, miles, moles^ nubes, palumbes, prZles^ pro-
pagesy pubes, sedes, sepes, sordes^ sirSges^ strues, subdles, sudes, tabes, torques,
tudes, vStes, vehes, vepres, verres {aedes has also nom. is).
§11
ii.
LI.
22
Etymology: Declension of Nouns.
§11
1.2.
b. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add s,
but loses i, inserting e before r : viz., imber^ linter^ ater^ venter ($4).
j c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the
change of I- to »- (as in mare). But, when i is preceded by al or
or, the e is lost, as in animal (53. b),^
52. Nouns of this class are inflected as follows : —
Sing.
thirst (F.).
tower (f.).
cloud {¥.).
sea (N.).
animal (n.).
NOM.
sitda
turris
nQbee
mare
animal
Gen.
sitiB
turris
nubis
maris
animalia
DAT.
siti
turri
nubi
mari
animali
Ace.
si dm
turrem (im)
nubem
mare
animal
Voc.
sitis
turris
nubes
mare
animal
Abl.
siti
turre (i)
nube
mari (e)
animali
Plur.
NOM.
turrea
nubSs
maria
animalia
Gen.
turrium
nubinm
marium
animaliuxn
DAT.
turribua
nubibuB
maribuB
animalibua
Ace.
turres 0«)
nubSa (is)
maria
animalia
Voc.
turres
nubes
maria
animalia
Abl.
turribuB
nubibuB
maribus
animalibua
53. Nouns of this class include the following : —
a. All nouns of the Third Declension having the same number
of syllables in the nominative and genitive {parisyllabic), except-
ing /^r/^r, mater, f rater, accipiter. They end in the nominative in
is or es (mostly feminine), e (neuter).
b. Neuters in al and ar (originally adjectives in alis, iris), which
have lost a final e.^
54. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems
were originally i-stems.^ These are —
1 Except augurdle, colldre, focSle, mare, navdle, penetrSle, sctdSle, ttbidU;
alvedre^ capUlare, cochleare,
3 These are animal, bacchSnal, bidenial, capital, cervical, cttbital, lupercal,
minUtal, ptUeal, qtuzdranial, tared, tribunal, vecfigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar^
lacunar, laquear, lucar, lUminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular ; with
the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genualia, rdmalia, sponsalia ; cUtaria, planiaria,
specularia, tSlaria,
« The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it
stable at all periods of the language, the early language having i-forms which
afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in
adjectives to gain them. The accusative form {im) was most thoroughly lost,
next the ablative (t), next the nominative {is); while the genitive and accusative
plural {ium. Is) were retained in almost all.
Third Declension : Vowel-Stems,
23
1. Monosyllables iivith stem ending in two consonants : as, urhs^
mons (montis)^ nox (noctis)^ arxj together with imber^ linter,
liter, venter (51. b).
2. Stems in tat- (as civit&s, -atis)} or in d or t preceded by
a consonant (including participles used as nouns) ; the mono-
syllables dds, \Jaux\ fur, glis^ lis, mas, tnUs, nix, [rin\, strix, vis,
3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, origi-
nally adjectives (as Arpinas, dtis), with Penates and Optimaies.
They are thus declined : —
Sing, city (f.). night (f.). age (f.). mouse (m.). skower {u,).
NOM.
orbs
nox
aetSs
mOs
imber
Gen.
urbis
noctis
aetatls
muris
imbris
DAT.
urln
nocti
aetati
muri
imbii
Ace.
urbem
noctem
aetatem
murem
imbrem
Voc.
urbs
nox
aetas
mus
imber
Abl.
urbe
nocte
aetate
mure
imbre Ql)
Plur.
NOM.
urbes
noctes
aetatSs
murSs
imbres
Gen.
urbium
noctium
aetatinm (am]
Setatibus
murium
imbrium
DAT.
urbibns
noctibus
muribus
imbribus
Ace.
urbes (is]
noctes (is]
\ aetates (is)
mures (is)
nnbres (is)
Voc.
urbes
noctes
aetates
mures
imbres
Abl.
urbibnB
noctibus
aetatibna
muribus
imbribus
N.B. — The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in
no respect from that of consonant-stems, and in the plural in no
respect from that of vowel-stems.
55. Vowel-Stems show the i of the stem in the follow-
ing forms : —
a. All have the genitive plural in -ium (but see 59).
b. All neuters have the nom. and ace. plural in -ia;
.c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is often written -is ;
d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (56) ;
e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines
' and feminines, ends in -i (see 57).
4t^Cafle Fonng.
56. The regular form of the accusative singular (m. or
F.) would be im : as of sitis, sitint ; but in most nouns
this is changed to em.
1 These, however, more commonly have the genitive plural in um.
§11
1.
3.a
ill
1.3
3.b
8.C
8.d
24 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.
a. The accusative in im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers ;
2. In buris^ cucumis^ r&vis, sitisj tussisy vis;
3. In adverbs in tim (being accusative of nouns in tiB), as
partim; and in amussim,
b. The accusative in Im is sometimes found mfebris, restis,
turrisy securis, sementisy and (in a few passages) in many other words.
57. The regular form of the ablative singular would be
i: as of sitis^ siti; but in most nouns this is changed to e.
a. The ablative in I is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in im (56) ; also secUrisj
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aegudliSy annalisy
aqualiSy consulariSy gentlliSy moldrisy prltnipil&risy tribulis j
3. In neuters (nominative in ^, aly ar) : except baccar^ jubar^
and sometimes (in verse) marey rite,
b. The ablative in i is sometimes found —
1. In avisy cldvisy febriSy finis y ignis y^ imbery n&viSy ovisy
'Pdvisl sementisy (^irigilis,yurris,
2. In the following adjectives usea as nouns : afflnis, bipennisy
canalis^ fahtiliarisy nataliSy rivdlisy sapiens y trirSntiSy voc&lis,
c. The ablative of fames is always fame. The defective mane
has sometimes ablative manl (probably locative).
d. Most names of towns in e, — as Praeneste, Caerey — and the
mountain Soractey have the ablative in e.
58. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is rarely
found. The regular accusative is is common, but not exclusively
used in any word. An old form for both cases is eis (diphthong).
'^ 59. The following have um (not lum) in the genitive plural :
canisy juvenis (original consonant-stems) ; umbdgesy volucrisj also
(sometimes) apis, caedeSy clddeSy mensisy sides, struesy subolesy vaUSy
and (very rarely) patrials in dSy dtis; Is, Itis, m%
6.— PecuUar Formg.
60. In many nouns the stem is variously modified in
the nominative or other cases. Thus —
a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, add a in the nominative, and are
inflected like mute-stems : grils has also a nominative gruisj sils
has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural.
* Always aqtid et igni inierdlci.
Third Declension : Greek Forms. 25
b. In bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 5 {bds^ bdvis).
In nav- (nan-) an i is added (ndvis, is). In J6v- (= Zcw) the
diphthong becomes u in Ju-piter {pdter), gen. Jdvis, &c.
c. In iter, itineris (n.), jecur^ jecinoris (n.), supellex^ sufiellec-
tilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; so
that diese words show a combination of two distinct forms. The
shorter form is found in jecor-is,
d. Qi the many original B-stems, only vas, vSsis (n. pi. vdsa^
drum), retains its proper form in the nominative (see 48. d),
61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined —
SlnfiT.
ox,c
old many M. flesh, f.
3<FMr, N.
forctt F.
smitUyC.
N.,V.
bos
Bdnez
caro
08
yXb
BUB
Gbn.
bOvis
Bonis
oamiB
obbIb
vlB(rarc)
BUiS
DAT.
bovl
BenI
camX
OBti
BUi
Acc
bovem
senem
camem
OB
vim
Buem
Abl.
bove
Bene
came
esse
vi
Bue
Plur.
caUU.
shrengtk.
N., A.,
V.
boves
Benes
oames
OBsa
vireB
Bues <
Gbn.
boom
Benum
oamium
OBBimn Yirinin
Buum
Dat.,
Abl
. bobus
senibuB
oamibuB
OBBibuB viribuB
BiibuB
(btUDuB
f
(BUibUB)
62. The LocAxrvE form for nouns of the third declension ends
indifiFerently like the dative or ablative : as, ruri, in the country;
Carthagixu or Carthagine, at Carthage; TraUibus, at Tralles.
The singular form in 8 appears to have been first used in poetry.
6. —Greek Forms.
63. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper
names — retain Greek forms of inflection.
a. Stems in in- (i long) : delphinua* i (m.), has also the form
delphin, inia; Salamis, is (f.), has acc. Salamina; Phorcys has
gen. PhorcyoB and Phorcydos.
b. Most stems in Id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of
i-stems : as, tigris. Idia (idoa) or is ; acc. Idem (Ida) or im (in) ;
abl. Xd6 or i But many, including most feminine proper names,
have acc. idem (ida), abl. Xde, — not im and L (These follow the
forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent,)
c. Stems in 9n- sometimes retain n: as, AgamenmSn (or
Agamemno), finis, accusative 5na.
d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in 5n : as, horizon, Xenophon ;
but a few are occasionally latinized into on- (nominative 0} : as,
Draco, onis.
§11
iii.4
26
Etymology : Declension of Nouns.
§11
iiJ.6
IT.L
e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in Ss, Is : as, adimlSii, antis;
SimoiB, entia. So a few in ant- (contracted from oent-) have ub;
as, Trapeana, ontia. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is
also found : as, Atlana, elephSna.
f. Case Forms. — Many Greek nouns (especially in the poets]
have gen. 6a, ace. &; plur. nom. 9a, ace. fta : as, aSr, aethSr, oittter,
h5r5a (5ia), lampaa (ftdia or ftdoa), lynx (oia or cSa), nala (idea),
Orphena (eoa : see 43).
g. A few in ya have ace. jxl^ voc. y ; abL y» : as, ohelya, yn, y ;
Capya, yoa, 3^ yn, y, y».
h. Several feminine names in 5 have gen. sing, lia, all the other
cases ending in 5 ; they may also have regular forms : as. Dido,
gen. DidSnia or Dld^ ; dat Didoni or Dido, &c.
64. Some of these forms are seen in the following
examples : —
sing', kere^ m. iorchy r. iase^ r, t^grer, c.
N.,V. hSrds lampas basis ticris
Gbn. hgrdis lampados biuie6« tlfpria (idot)
Dat. hfirdi lampadl basi Ugxl
Ace. her6a lampada basin tigrin(ida)
Abl. h€r6e lampade baidt tlgxl(ide)
Flnr.
N. v. hfirMs lampadta bases tlgr$8
Gbn. herdum lampadum basimn tigiium
D., Abl. hSrdisln lampadibus basibus tigribus
Ace. herOfts lampadfts bads (els) tigxis Id&s)
PROPBR NAMBS.
Nom. AflSs DIdO Slmois Oapys
Gbn. Atlantis Diddni8(us) Bimoentis Capyos
Dat. AtlanU DIddnI(5) SimoentI Capyl
Ace. Atlanta DId5neni(5) Bimoenta Capyn
Voc. Atlas Dld5 Simois Capy
Abl. Atlante Did5ne (5) Bimoente Capye
Note. — The regular Latin forms can be used for most of the above.
7.— Bnles of G«nder.
65. The following are general Rules of Gender of
nouns of the third declension, classed according to the
termination of the nominative}
nftis ohelys
nftidos
naidi
nftida ohelyn
nftide V. ohely
nftidfis
n&idnin
nfiidibua
naidfts
Daplinis
Daphnidis
DaphnidX
Daphnim (in)
Daphnl
Daphnl
1 Rules of Gender are mostly only rules of memory, as there b no necessary
connection between the form and gender. But the preference of masculine and
feminine (especially feminine) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare long
A of 1st declension). Some affixes also prefer one or another gender: as, tor
(originally tar), mascu/im; Ti, feminine; men (originally man), neuter.
Third Declension : Rules of Gender. 27
a. Masculine endings are o, or, Sb, er, 8s (gen. Xdls, XtiB).
b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (following
a consonant) ; also, do, go (inis), lo (abstract and collective), and
us (udis, atis).
c. Neuter endings are a, e, 1, 7 ; c, 1, t ; men (minis) ; ar, ur,
iis (Sris, 9ria).
66. The following are general Rules of Gender of
nouns of the third declension, classed according to their
stems.
a. Vowel Stems. — Stems in i-, having s in the nominative, are
Feminine, except those mentioned below (67, a). Those having
nominative in 8, or which drop the e, are neuter.
b. Liquid Stems. — Stems in 1- are Masculine, except «7,^/,
mel, and sometimes sal (n.). Those in min- are Neuter, except
homo^ nemo, flatnen (m.). Others in in- are Masculine, except
pollen, unguen (n.). Those in Sn- are Masculine. Those in
din-, gXn-, ion- (abstract and collective) are Feminine. Others in
on-, with cardo, margo, ordo. Unto, senio, quatemio, are Mascu-
line. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except
about 30 given below. Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are
Masculine, except soror, uxor^glos, tellUs, f. ; eras, jus, pus, rus,
tas (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), N.
e. Labial Stems (no neuters). — Stems in b and m are Femin-
ine, except chalybs. Those in p are chiefly Masculine (excep-
tions below).
d. Lingual Stems. — Stems in Sd-, 8d- Id-, nd-, fid-, and-, are
Feminine, except dromas,pes, quadrupes, obses, praeses, lapis (m.).
Those in at-, lit-, are Feminine, except patrials (as Arpfnds), with
penHtis and optim&tes{iA.). Those in 5d-, it-, are Masculine, except
merces and quies with its compoimds (p.). Those in 8t-, It-, are Mas-
culine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (f.), and those which are
Common from signification. Those in at- are Neuter ; those in
nt- various (see List) ; those in It-, rt-, Feminine. (For a few
isolated forms, see List.)
e. Palatal Stems. — Stems in c preceded by a consonant or
long vowel are Feminine, except calx, decunx, phoenix, storax,
vervex, m. Those in c preceded by a short vowel are chiefly Mas-
culine (for exceptions, see List) ; those in g, Masculine, except
\,frux\ lex, phalanx, syrinx; also nix, ntvis (p.).
iT. 1
§n
It. 3
28 Etymology : Declension of Nouns.
67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of
nouns of the Third Declension, classed according to
their Stems : —
a, VOWEL-STEMS.
Ss,is: — about 35 nouns (see list 51. ii)) Feminine, except tudes^
vdtes^ verres^ m.
is, ia : — about 100 nouns, chiefly Feminine.
Exc. — aediiist amniSf unguis t c, anndlis^ antes, assis, axis,
bilriSf callis, c, canltlis, c.y cants, c, cassis, caulis, clvis, c, clunis,
c, collis, crinis, c, ensis, fascis, finis, c, follis, funis, c^ fusiis^
hostis, c, ignis, juvenis, c, lactes c, lares, mdnes (pl.)i ntensis^
molaris, ndtdlis, orbis, pdnis, pedis, c, piscis, postis, sentis, c,
soddlis, testis, c, torris, unguis, vectis, vepres, c. (pl.)> vermis^ M.
[Those marked c are sometimes feminine ; the rest are masculine.]
S, is : — upwards of 20 nouns, all Neuter.
&1, alia ; ar, aria : — 24 neuter, with several used only in the plural
(see list, 53. b : for those in ar, ftria, see Liquid Stems).
8r,ria : — imber, linter, Uter, venter, — all M. except linter, which is
commonly f. [For other apparent consonant-stems see below.]
Peculiar : — grus, gruis, f. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum\ m. ; sus,
suis, c. ; hirds, hirdis, M. ; misy,yos, F. ; oxys,yos, F. ; cinnibdri,
gummi, sindpi (indecL), N. ; ckelys, yn, y, F. ; bos, bovis, c.
b. LIQUID-STEMS.
1, lia: ~9 nouns. Masculine, except sil, and (sometimes) saly n.
Sn, enia : — \ren\ splen; hymen (Jnis), M.
Sn, Xnis : — 10 nouns, M., exctpl pollen, unguen, N.
mSn, mXnXa (verbal) : — about 60 nouns, N. ; hMt fldmen, M.
on, 5nia (Greek) : — canon, daemon, gndmon, m. ; — aidon, alcyon^
ancon, sindon, F.
o, onia : — about 70 nouns, all Masculine ; with many family
names, as Cicero,
io, ionia (material objects, &c.) : —about 30 nouns, Masculine,
io, Ionia (abstract and collective) :— upwards of 180, Feminine,
including many rare verbal abstracts.
o, Xnia : — homo, turbo, nimo, Apollo, M.
do, dXnia : — nearly 50 nouns, Feminine except cardo, ordo, M.
go, gXnia : — about 40 nouns, Feminine ; with margo, M. or f.
ar, &ria : — baccar, jubar, nectar, N. ; lar, salar, m.
fir, ria : — accipiter, f rater, pater, M., mater, F.
6r, eria (Greek) : -^crater, halter, prester, M., ver, n.
Third Declension : Forms of Inflection, 29
gr, gris : — acipenser,{&er\ aether ^ ^gg^i anser, asser, aster, cancer,
career, later, passer, vesper, vomer, m. ; — mulier, F. ; — a4:er,
cadaver, deer, laver, papdver, piper, slier, siser, sUber, tuber,
tuber, uber, verber, N.
Is, Sris : — cinis, cueUmis, pulvis, vomis, M.
6r (os), oris : — nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the
Agent, formed upon verb-stems), all M., except soror, uxor, f.
6r, firis : — castor, rhetor, m. ; arbor, F. ; ador, aequor, marmor, N.
OS, oris : — Jlos, mos, ros, m. ; glos, F. ; os, N.
tir, 6riB : — ebur, femur, jeeur, robur {us), N.
iir, tlriB : — 9 Masculine ; with/«^«r, murmur, sulfur, N.
us, SriB : — ■ 20 Neuter ; also, Venus, F.
us, Oris : — 14 nouns, Neuter, except lepus, M.
us, urls : — mus, M. ; tellus, F. ; crus, jus, pus, rus, tus, N.
Peculiar : — delphin, tnis; fur, furisj sanguis {eft), Xnis;
senex, senis, iiL.j caro, carnis, F. ; a£s, aerisj far, f arris j fel,fel''
lis ; mel, mellis; iter, itinerisj jeeur, jeeindris (Jecdris), N. ; glfs,
gliris, M.
C, LABIAL.
bs, bis ; —^ chalybs, M. ; plebs, trabs, urbs, F. ; scrobs, c. scobs,
ms, mis : — hiems (often written hiemps), F.
ps, pis: — 15 nouns, Masculine, except \daps\ merops, ops, slips,
F. ; forceps, stirps, c.
d, LINGUAL.
&I. Sdis (Greek) : — 14 nouns, Feminine, except dromas, vas, M.
es, edis : — cupes, 'hires, praes, m. ; merces, F.
es, 6dis : — pes, quadrupes, M. j compes, F.
es, XcUb : — obses, praeses, c.
Xs, Xdis : — nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greek), F. ; lapis, M.
OS, odis : — custos, c.
OS, 5tis : — nepos, M. ; cos, dos, f. ; sacerdos, c.
us, Qdis : — incus, palus, subscus: 'rn'Oafraus, laus, pedis (iidis), F.
S, &ti8 (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns. Neuter.
as, atis: — about 20 (besides derivatives), F. ; also, anas (dtis), c.
es, etis : — celes, lebes, magnes, m.; quies, requies, inquies, F.
es, Stds : — aries, paries, m. ; abies, seges, teges, F. ; interpres, c.
gs, Xtds : — about 20 nouns. Masculine or Common.
U3, iitis : — juvenius, salus, senectus, servitus, virtus, F.
ns, ndis : — frons, glans, juglans, F.
ns, ntis : — nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns),
Common ; dens,fons, mons,pons, m. \ frons, gens, lens, mens, F.
§11
It. 8
§11
Iv. 3
§12
1.
30 Etymology : Declension of Nouns.
rs, rtis (originally l-stems) : — ars^ cohors^f&rSy mors, sors, F.
ys, ydis ; s, ntda (Greek) : — chlamys, F. ; Atlas, antis, M.
Peculiar : — as, assis, m. ; lis, litis j nox, noctis j puis, pultis,
F. ; caput, itis; cor, cordis; hepar, atisj os, ossisj vas^ vasis^ N. ;
also, compounds of -pUs, -pddis, m., Gr. tot pes (foot).
e. PALATAL.
az, &ciB : anthrax, corax, frax (pi.), Panax, scolopax, M. ; fa^,
styrax {storax), F.
ax, acia : — cnodax, cordax, Itmax, thorax, M. ; pax, F.
ex, dcis : — alex, m. or f. ; vervex, m.
ex, Icla : — upwards of 40 nouns, Masculine, except carex, for/ex,
flex, imbrex, nex (jnicis), pellex, F.
ix, Icia : — appendix, coxendix, filix, fornix, larix, salix, struix,
varix, f.
ix, iclB : — about 30 nouns, Feminine ; besides many in trix, regular
feminines of nouns of agency in tor.
ox, 5cia : — celox, vox, F.
ux, ttcia : — dux, c. ; crux, nux, F.
fix, ucia : — balux, lux, F.
X, cis : — arx, calx,falx, lynx, merx (def.), F. ; calyx, calx, M.
X, gis : — conjux (jix), grex, remex, rex, M. or c. ; frux (def.), lex,
phalanx, f., with a few rare names of animals.
Other nouns in x are nix, nivisj nox, noctisj supellex, ectilisy f. ;
onyx,ychis, M.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in
u. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and
feminine nouns form the nominative by adding a ; neuters have
for nominative the simple stem, but with u (long).
68. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as
follows : —
Sing.
hand {v.).
lake (M.).
knee (n.).
NOM.
manuB
lacuB
genfl
Gen.
manus
lacus
genu (us)
DAT.
manui
lacui
genu
Ace.
manum
lacnm
genu
Voc.
manus
lacus
genu
Abl.
manu
lacu
genu
Fourth Declension. 31
Plur.
NOM.
manua
lacus
genna
Gen.
manuum
lacaam
genuum
DAT.
manibus
lacnbuB
genibus
Ace.
manna
lacus
genua
Voc.
manus
lacus
genua
Abl.
manibus
lacnbns
genibus
Note. — The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form
in uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex : as, tnanHs.
69. Gender. — a. Most nouns in us are Masculine. The
following are Feminine : —acus, antis^ coins, domus, fdus (pi.),
manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus, socrus, tribusy with a few
names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcusy pemiSy specus,
b. The only neuters are comu, genu, pecu (def.), veru^
70. Case- Forms. — a. A genitive in os (an earlier form) is
sometimes found : as, senStuosj and an old prregular) genitive in
i is used by some writers.
b. The nominative plural has rarely the form uua
c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into um.
d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural
in. iibua : artus, partus, partus, tribus, veruj also dissyllables in
-cua, as l€u:us (but sometimes /^r^ii^i^r, vertbus),
e. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also forms of
the second declension.
f. Domna, kouse, has two stems, ending in n and o, and is
declined as follows : * —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
NoM. domua domus
Gen. domus (domi, loc.) domuum (domorum)
DAT. domui (dome) domibus
Ace. domum domda (domua)
Voc. domus domus
Abl. domo (domfl) domibua
71. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb-
stems, with the suffix -tua (aua) : as, cantua, song, from c&no,
sing; caaus (for cad-tua), chance, from odAo^fallj exaulatua,
exile, from ezaulo, to be an exile (ezaul). Many are formed
either from verb-stems not in use, or by false analogy : as, con-
sulatus, senatus, incestus.
^ Some others are mentioned by grammarians, and the form ossua, as from
ossu, occurs in inscriptions.
' The forms in parenthesis are less common. The form domt is r^[ularly
locative, genitive only in Plautus ; domui is also locative ; domorum is poetic
§12
4. a
fl3
1.
32 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.
a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or
dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in tus (sua) : as, audituni^
memoratu,
b. Of many only the ablative is used as a noun: as, jussu
(meo), by my commands so injnasa (popnli), without the
people's order. Of some only the dative : as, memordtui^ divisuu
FIFTH DECLENSION.
Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in 5,
which appears in all the cases. The nominative is formed from
the stem by adding s.
72. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are thus de-
clined : —
sniG./Awi^
F.) PLUR.
SING. Jay (m
)PLUR.
/aiih{T.)
NOM.
res
res
dies
dies
Hdes
Gen.
rSii
remm
dia(die)
dienim
fidSi
DAT.
rSi
rebus
diei(die)
diebus
fidSi
Ace.
rem
res
diem
dies
fidem
Voc.
res
res
dies
dies
fides
Abl. re rSbus die diebus fide
73. Gender. — All nouns of this declension are feminine, ex-
cept dies (usually m.), and meridies (m.). Dies is sometimes
feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed
time, or time in general : as, longa dieSy constitute dies also in the
poets : as, pulcra dies.
74. Case- Forms. — a. The genitive singular anciently ended in
es (cf. as of first declension) ; and ©[ was sometimes contracted
into i or e, as in dii (^En. i. 6^6)y and in the phrase plebi-scitum
(Fr. plebiscite). An old dative in i or e also occurs.
b. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the
first, of which this is only a variety : as, materia^ -ies, saevitia, -ies,^
The genitive and dative in ei are rarely found in these words.
' The e is usually shortened in the gen. and dat singular mjidesy speSy res,
a Nouns in ies (except dies) are original A-stems. The others are probably
(excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles^ moles-ius; dies, diurnus; spes,
spero. Some vary between this and the third declension : as, requies, saties
{satiasy dtis\ plebes {pleifSy pleins), fame {famesy is) ; with others, as saiies (for
saHeias)y &c.
Fifth Declension; Defective Nouns. 33
c. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, as
in hodie, to-^yj perendie, day-after-to-marrowj die quarto
(antiquated qnarti), the fourth day; pridie, the day before,
d. The only nouns of this declension complete in all their
parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, which is, how-
ever, found in the nominative and accusative in the following:
acieSf effigies, eluvies, fades, glades, series, species, spesX
I>efective Noniuu
75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular
number only. These are —
1. Proper names : as, Caesar, Casar; Oallia, Gaul,
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass {con-
tinual : as, woavijsi, gold j' far, comj aer, air,
3. Abstract nouns : as, ambitio, ambitions fortitudo, courages
calor, heat.
But many of these can be used in the plural in some
other sense. Thus —
a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or
places, and so becomes strictly common : as, duodeoim Caesares,
the twelve Ccesars s Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Trans-alpine) ;
CastQres, Castor and Pollux s Joves, images of Jupiter,
b. Particular objects or kinds of a thing may be denoted : as,
aera, brazen utensils s nives, snow-flakes s calSres, frigora, times
of heat and cold,
c. The plural of Abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances
of the quality, or the like : as, quaedam ezcellentiae, some cases
of superiority s otia, periods of rest,
76. Some are commonly found only in the Plural : —
1. Many proper names, including names of Festivals and
Games: 2c&,'^9Xi^^tiSiXi9}&Si, festival of BcLCchus s QuinquHtrus, y^J-
tival of Minerva s ludi Romani, the Roman Games,
2. Names of Classes : as, optimates, the upper classes s >na-
jores, ancestors s liberi, children s penates, household gods,
3. Words plural from signification : as, arma, weapons s artus,
joints s divitlae, riches s scalae, stairs s valvae, folding-doors s
fores, door-way.
1 The fonas facierum, s^cUrum, speciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited; also
spires^ speribus.
3
§13
6.
§14
l.a.
1.1».
514
i.t».
l.c.
9.1
34 Etymology : Declension of Nouns.
These often have a corresponding singular in some
form or other, as nouns or adjectives : —
a. As nouns, to denote a single object : as, Bacchanal, a spot
sacred to Bacckusj optixnas, an aristocrat.
b. As adjectives : as, Cato Major, Cato the Elder.
c. In a sense rare or obsolete: as soala, a ladder y valva,
a door; artna, a joint (Lucan).
77, The following are defective in Case-Forms : —
1. Indeclinable nouns : /Sj, nefOSy instar, necesse, nihil, opus
(" need "), secus.
2. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) -. glds (¥,\
infitias (f.), mane (n. nom., ace, and abl.), nauci (n.), pondo
(n.*), suppeti&s (F.), dlcis (gen.).
3. In two cases only {diptotes) : astus, u {VL,^ y dicam, Ss (p.),
fords^ fs (F.),/ors,^rte (f.), sponjisj e (f.), venui, um (m.).
4. In three cases (triptotes) : grdtiae, as, fs (f.), impetusy um,
a (m.), jugeray um, ibus (n.), lues, em, e (f.).
5. The following are defective only in the singular: antbdge
ij?.), fauce (f.), obice (m. or f., nom. rare), cassem, e {u,\precemy
/, e (f.), sordem, e (f.), opis, em, e (dat. rare), dapis, i, em^ e
(f., nom. rare), dicidnis, i, em, e {v.),frugis, i, em, e (f,),
6. The following are defective in the plural : jura, rura (n. nom.
and ace.) ; sentis, em; is, ibus (m.), vicis, em, e; is, ibus (f.). Cor,\
cdSyfax,faex, lUx, nex, 6s, p&x, praes, ros, sal, sdl, tOs, v&s, verj
are not found in the genitive plural (see also 74 d; 75).
Some other forms of these words are rarely found.
Variable Nouns.
78. Some nouns have two or more forms of Declen-
sion (heteroclites)} These are —
Colus, with many names of plants (f. of second or fourth
declension) \ femur, oris, or inis (n.) ; jugerum, i (n.), abl. e, pi.
a, um; Mulciber, beri, or beris (m.) ; mUnus, eris (n.) ; pubes,
eris, em, e (m.) ; penus, i, or oris (n.) ; saevitia, ae; "ies, iem;
'itUdo, inis (f.) ; sequester, tri, or tris; with many in ia or ies
(see 74 b), and a few other rare forms.
* These variations often result from the confusion of two stems from the same
root: as, domi (astern), domui (M-stem). Compare such words as iter, itineris ;
jecur^jecoHs, or J ecinoris. The gender is an accidental peculiarity.
Variable Nouns.
35
79. Some nouns are found of more than one Gender
(heterogeneous),
a. The following have a masculine form in as and a neuter in
nin: — balteusy caseusy clipeus^ collumy jugulum^ pileus^ Urgumy
valluniy with many others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have the plural in a different gender from the
singular : — balneum (n.), baineae (p.) ; caelum (n.), caelos (m. ace.) ;
carbasus (f.), carbasa, orum (n.), delictum (n.), diliciae (f.) ;
epulum (n.), epuUu (j^) ; frenum (n.), freni (m. or frinay N.) ;
jocus {yi.\joca (n. ox joci, m.) ; rostrum (n.), rastri (m.) ; ^n^
(m.), loca (n. : ^ri, M., is usually topics or detached spots),
c. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the
singular or plural : as,
^ aedes, is (f.), temple;
^ aqua (f.), water;
^ auxilium (n.), help;
^ bonum (n.), a good;
career (m.), dungeon;
^ castrum {yi^yfort;
codicillus (m.), bit of wood;
comitium {ii,)y place of assembly ;
y copia (¥.)y plenty;
fides (f.), harp-string;
y finis (m.), end;
^fortuna (y,), fortune;
^ gratia {v.), favor;
hortus (m.), a garden;
^ impedimentum (n.), hinderance;
^ littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ;
^ 16cus (m.), plcLce [pi. loca (n.)] ;
Indus (m.), sport;
natalis (m.), birthday;
opera (f.), tctsk;
^ opis (f. gen.), help;
pars (p.), apart;
plaga (f.), region [plaga, blow'\ ;
^ rostrum (n.), beak of a ship;
sal (m. or N.), salt;
tabella (f.), tablet;
aedes, ium, house,
aquae, a watering-place.
auxi^a, auxiliaries,
bona, property,
carc^res, barriers {fA race-course),
castra, camp,
codicilli, tablets,
comitia, a political assembly,
copiae, troops,
fides, lyre,
fines, boundsy territories,
fortunae, possessions,
gratiae, thanks,
horti, pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, baggage,
litterae, epistle,
loci, passages in books, (In early
writers this is the regular plur.).
ludi, public games,
natales, descent,
operae, day-laborers (^< hands ").
opes, resources, wealth,
partes, part (on the stage), /ar^^.
piagae, snares,
rostra, speaker's platform,
sales, witticisms,
tabellae, documents.
36 Etymology: Proper Names.
seatertiiui (m.) means the sum of 2>i asses, = about 5 cents,
sestertiiun (n.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $50.
decies sestertium (sc. centina millia) means the sum of 1000
sestertia, =■ 150,000 (nearly).
d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected : as, jus-
jurandum, jartajflraiidl, oath; respublica, relpubllcae, common-
wealth.
Proper Names.
80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting
Ha^persoUy the gens, and the family.
. a. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have Marcus,
the prcendmen, or personal name ; Tullius, the nomen (properly
an adjective), i.e. the name of the Gens, or house, whose original
head was TuUus ; Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often
in its origin a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or
small pea.
b, A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was sometimes
given. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus jEmilianusj Africanus, from
his exploits in Africa ; jEmilianus, as adopted from the iEmilian
gens.
c. Women had no personal names, but were known only by that
of their Gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his
daughter Tullia, A younger sister would have been called Tullia
secunda or minor ^ and so on.
d. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated ; —
A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.
C. (G.) Gains (jCaius), M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus {Cneius), W. Manius. Sex. Sextus.
D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
K. Kaeso. N. Numerius. T. Titus.
App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius.
e, A feminine praenomen is sometimes abbreviated with an
inverted letter: as, 3 for Caia or Gaia, ^
Inflection of Adjectives.
37
Chapter IV. — Adjectives.
• INFLECTION.
Note. — Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and
declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in their use. In
accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different
forms in the same word, corresponding with their nouns in gender^
number^ and case. They are (i) of the First and Second Declen-
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.^
1.— First and Second Declensions.
81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions
(o-stems) have the feminine in a; they are declined like
servus (m.), stella (f.), bellum (n.) : as,
"■ FKM. NBUT.
bonae boni
bonae bono
bonam bonum
bona bonum
bona bond
Sing.
MASC
NOM.
bonus
Gen.
boni
DAT.
bono
Ace.
bonum
Voc.
bon6
Abl.
bonS
Plur.
NOM.
boni
Gen.
bonorum
DAT.
bonis
Acc.
bonos
Voc.
boni
Abl.
bonis
bonae bonS
bonanun bonorum
bonis bonis
bonas bonS
bonae bonS
bonis bonis
a. The masculine genitive of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and
the vocative in ie; not in i as in nouns : as, LacedaemoniuSy ii^ ie.
But the possessive meus, wy, has the vocative masculine mi
b. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of this form by changing
the case-ending to e : as, valide, strongly (from validus) ; misere,
wretchedly (from miser : see 82).
1 Most Latin adjectives and participles are either tf-stems with the cor-
responding feminine a-stems (originally & and d), or /-stems. Many, however,
were originally stems in 1^ or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of
their cases, into the /-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Com
pare the endings es and \s of the third declension with the Greek e^ and as ; ndvis
(nominative) with the Greek vhSki Pf>ax^^ w^th brevis ; cornu with bicornis ;
lingua with bilinguis; cor^ corde, corda^ with discors^ -di, -dia^ -dium; sudvis
with yfiv<ii ferens^ -entia, yiith ^ifnav, -ovra.) A few, which in other languages
are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, veius — iro^. Comparatives also retain
the consonant form in most of their cases.
§16
§16
l.a.
1.1k
38 Etymology: Adjectives.
82. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by 8 or a
consonant (also satur), the masculine nomii^tive is formed like
that of ro- stems of the second declension (ctpuer^ ^ger) : as,
Slnff.
Miser, wreUhed,
Niger, Hack,
N. miser
miaera
miaenim
nicer
nisra
oignun
G. miseil
miserae
miaerl
nisil
nilErae
nigri
D. miaerd
miaerae
miaerO
niffrO
nigrae
nigro
Ac. miseram
miaeram
miaenim
nigrum
niffPftin
V. miser
miaera
miaenim
niger
nigra
nigrum
Ab. miserO
miaerft
miaerd
niffrO
nigrfi
nigrd
Flur.
N. miaerl miaerae miaera nigrI nigrae nigra
G. miaerdnim miaeraram miaerdrom nigrdram nigrftrum nigrorum
D. miaeria miaexia miaexia nigria nigria nigila
Ac. miaeroa miaeraa miaera nigrda nigraa nigra
V. miaeri miaerae miaera nigrl niisrae nigra
Ab. miaeria miaeria miaeria nigiia nigria nigria
a. Stems in ero (as procirus)^ with morigHruSy propifrus^
postiruSy have the regular nominative in us.
b. Like miser are declined asper^ gibber^ lacer^ liber, miser,
prosper (erus), satur (ura, urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and
-ger; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem ;
but in dexter it is often syncopated : dextra, dextrum.
c. Like niger are declined aeger, &ter, creber, faber, glaber,
integer, ludicer, macer, niger, noster, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer,
scaber, sinister, titer, vafer, vester.
d. The following feminines lack a masculine singular nomina-
tive in classic use : — cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are
rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases : as, postero
die, A feminine ablative in o is found in a few Greek adjectives,
as led fed octapkdro (Verr. v. 11).
83. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the
genitive singular in iub and the dative in i in all the genders : —
filiiiB (n. aliud), other, totua, whole, alter/ other (of two),
nullus, none. ullua, any. neuter,- trius, neither.
851us, alone. tinus, one. titer,- trius, which (of two).
' The suffix TER, in alter ^ uter^ neuter, is the same as the Greek comparative
suffix -rtpo{^). The stem of alius appears in early Latin and in derivatives as
ALI-, in the forms alis^ alid (for aliud)^ alitery &c. The regular forms of the
genitive and dative are also found in early writers. Instead of alius (genitive),
alterius is commonly used, or (for the possessive) the adjective alienus.
These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pronouns, which accords
with the pronominal forms of the genitive in ius, the dative in 1, and the neuter
Inflection of Adjectives.
39
a* Of these the singular is thus declined ; —
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
H.
NOM.
unua
•fiyii^.
f^TiiiTn
liter
utra
utrum
Gen.
iinius
iinias
uniuB
utrius
utrius
utiiua
DAT.
uni
fini
uni
utriL
utri
uixi
Ace.
•fii^nwn
■Qni^Tin
fiTiiifn
utram
utram
utrum
Abl.
uno
VTlg.
uno
utro
utra
utro
NoM.
aUua
alia
aUud
alter
altera
alterum
Gkn.
aliuB
aliua
aHus
alteriua
alteriua
alteriua
DAT.
alii
alii
alii
alteri
alteri
alteri
Ace
^iiiiiTn
aliam
aUud
alterum
alteram
alterum
Abl.
alio
alia
alio
altero
altera
altez6
b. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonua
2.— Third Declension.
84. Adjectives of the third declension having stems
in i — distinguished by being /^rwy/A2^ic — have prop-
erly no distinct form for the feminine, and hence are
called adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter the
nominative ends in e. They are declined as follows : —
Sing:.
M., F. light, N.
M. keen
u F.
X: W-
N.,V.
16vis
16ve
acer
acrlB
acre
Gen.
levis
levis
acria
acris
acris
DAT.
levX
levi
acri
acri
acri
Ace.
levem
leve
acrem
acrem
acre
Abl.
levi
levi
acri
acri
acri
Plur.
N., V.
leves
levia
acres
acres
acria
Gen.
leviom
levium
Cerium
acrium
acrium
DAT.
levibua
levibus
acribus
acribus
acribus
Ace.
leves ^)
levia
acres (Is)
acres (is)
acria
Abl.
levibua
levibus
acribus
acribus
acribus
a. The following stems in -ri have the masc. non^. in er : cicer^
alacer^ campester, celeber^ equester^ faluster^ pedester^ puter^ salu-
ber^ Silvester^ terr ester ^ volucer. Also, celer^ celiris^ celire; and,
in certain phrases, the names of months in -ber (compare 51. b).
Note. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in tiie poets, and in
early Latin, dther the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was used
for both genders. In others, as iUustris^ lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is
no separate masculine form.
d in aliud. The / in the genitive -ius, though long, may be made short in verse ;
and alterius is generally accented on the antepenult. In compounds — as aUeriiter
— sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter.
fl6
8. b.
40 Etymology: Adjectives.
b. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain i in
the ablative singular, the neuter-plural ia, the genitive plural inm,
and often in the accusative plural ia. For metrical reasons, an
ablative in e sometimes occurs in poetry.
c. When ceier is used as an adjective, it has the regular genitive
plural in ium; as a noun, denoting a military rank, it has celirum;
as a proper name, it has the ablative in e.
d. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the third declension
with the ending ter or iter : as, leviter, lightly; prudenter, ivise-
lyj ioriter, eagerly (see Oiap. VII).
85. The remaining adjectives of the third declension
(except comparatives) are consonant-stems, but have the
form of i-stems in the ablative singular i, the plural
neuter ia, and the genitive ium. In other cases they
follow the rule of consonant-stems.
a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the
nominative singular is alike for all genders ; hence they are called
adjectives of one termination.^ Except in the case of stems in I
and r, it is formed from the stem by adding 8 (compare 44) : as,
Sing.
M., F. Jierce. N.
M., F. needy. n.
N., V.
atroz
egena
Gen.
atrocia
egentia
DAT.
atroci
egenti
Ace.
atrocem atrox
egentem egena
Abl.
atroci or atroce
egenti or egente
Plur.
N., V.
atrocea atrdcia
egentea egentia
Gen.
atr5ciam
egentlum
DAT.
atr5cibua
egentibua
Ace.
atroces (is) atrocia
egentea (is) egentia
Abl.
atrocibus
egentibua
* The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages,
would end in ia: this form does not appear in Latin adjectives, but is found in
the abstracts amentia^ desidia, sdcordia, 6-^:., and in proper names, as Fldrsntia
(cf. Greek 4)tpova-a for ^eporr-ia). The neuter would regularly have in the nomina-
tive and accusative singular the simple stem as caput, cor{d\ allec^ Greek ^cpot'C?) ;
but in all except liquid stems, the masc. form in s has forced itself not only upon
the neuter nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal.
Inflection of Adjectives.
41
Sing.
VI., Y. going, N
N. V.
lens
Gen.
eunds
DAT.
eunti
Acc.
euntem iens
Abl.
eunte (I)
M., Y. fertile.
N. M., F. old, N.
fiber
vetuB
uberis
veteris
uberi
veteri
uberem uber
veterem vetus
ubere
vetere
uberea ubera
veteres vetera
uberum
vetemm
uberiboB
veteribuB
b. Other examples are the following : —
M.,F., equal, N. M., F. headlong. N.
par praecepB
paris praecipitift
pari praecipiti
parem par praecipitem praeceps
pari praecipite (i)
PlUP.
N.,A.,V. euntoB euntla pares paria praecipites praecipitia
Gen. euntiam parium praecipitium
D., Abl. euntibns paribus praecipitibns
Sing. M., F. rich, N.
N., V. dives
Gen. divitis
Dat dlviti
Acc. divitem dives
Abl. divite
PlUP.
N.,A.,V. divites [^tla]
Gen. divitum
D., Abl. dlvitibus
€, A few of these words, used as nouns, have a feminine form
in a: as, clienia^ hospita^ with the appellative Juno Sospita,
8. — ComparatlTefl.
86. Comparatives are declined as follows : —
M., F. more, N.
plus
plurls
plus
plure
plures plura
plurium
pluribns
plures (is) plura
pluribus
a. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os, which
became or in all cases except the neuter singular (n., a., v.), where
s is retained, and 6 is changed to ii (compare hondr, oris; corpus,
Ms). Thus they appear to have two terminations.
d. The neuter singular accusative of comparatives is used as an
Adverb: as, melius, better ; acrius, more keenly.
Sing.
M., F. better, N.
N., V.
melior melitia
Gen.
melioris
Dat.
meliori
Acc.
meliorem melius
Abl.
meliore or meliSri
Plur.
N., V.
meliores meliora
Gen.
meliSnim
DAT.
melioribus
Acc.
meliores (is) meliora
Abl.
melioribus
§16
3. a.
3.b.
§16
3.C.
8. d.
42 Etymology: Adjectives,
c. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun ; the genitive
(rarely ablative) , as an expression of value. The dative is not
found in classic use. Its derivative, complnres, several^ has
sometimes the neuter plural oomplQxia. All other comparatives
are declined like melior.
Gafle-Forms.
87. In adjectives of consonant stems the following
case-forms are to be remarked: —
a. Their ablative singular commonly ends in S; but, when used
as nouns (as, superstes, survivor), they have e. Participles in
na used as such (especially in the ablative absolute), or as nouns,
regularly have e ; but as adjectives, regularly 1 So adjectives in
ns, as in the phrase, me itnprudente.
b. In the following, e is the regular form of the ablative : —
^ciulesy compos^ deses^ dives, hospesy pauper, particeps, praeceps,
supersteSy supplexj 2dso in patrials (see § 44), with stems in at-,
it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes as adjectives.
c. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium; the accusative
often ends in Is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to
the i-declension.
d. In the following, the genitive plural ends in um: —
1. Always in dfve s^ compos, inops, praepes, suppiex , and com-
pounds of nouns which have am, as quadru-pes, bi-color,
2. Sometimes, in poetry, of participles in ns.
e. In vetus (Ms), pubes (Jfris), fiber (Jfris), which did not be-
come 1-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular ; but aber and veins
rarely have the ablative in L
/. Several adjectives are declined in more than one form : as,
gracilis (us), hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indeclinable
or defective : as, damnas (esto, sunto), fruz i (dat. of advantage),
exspes (only nom.), exlex (nom. and ace), mactus (nom. and voc),
negtjjim (indecl.), pernox (pemocte), potis, pote (inded. or M. F.
Potis, N. pote), primoris, seminici, &c.
Special Uses.
88. The following special uses are to be observed : —
a. Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construc-
tion of nouns : as, amicus, a friend; aequalis, a contemporary j
majores, ancestors (see Note p. 37).
b. Many adjectives, from the signification, are used only in the
masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common
Comparison of Adjectives. 43
gender. Such are adulescens, youthful; deses, Xdis, slothful;
inops, ^^^s^poor; sospes, itds, safe. So senez and javenia may
be called masculine adjectives.
c» Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare Syntax
of adjectives) : as, pedes, a footman or on foot; especially nouns
in tor (m.) and triz (f.), den^ng the agent: as victor ezercitus,
the conquering army; victriz causa, the winning cause.
d. Certain cases of many adjectives are regularly used as
Adverbs. These are, the accusative and ablative of the neuter
singular: as, multam, multo, much; the neuter of comparatives
(see 86. b) : as, melius, better; ISvius, more lightly. Adverbs
ending in § from o-stems, and ter from i-stems, were also originally
cases : as, carS, dearly; leviter, lightly; acerrime, most eagerly.
COMPARISON.
Besvlar Gompiurison.
89. The Comparative is formed by adding, for the
nominative, ior (neuter ius^), and the Superlative by
adding issixnns (a, um) to the stem of the Positive,
which loses its final vowel : as,
cams, dear; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest,
ISvis, light; levior, lighter; levissimus, lightest.
feliz, happy ; felicior, happier; felicissimns, happiest.
hebes, dull; hebetior, duller; hebetissimus. dullest.
a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rlmos to
the nominative ; the comparative is regular : as,
acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus ;
miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.
So vetus (veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form
veter; and, rarely, mdturrimus (also maturissimus) is formed
from mdtUrus. For comparative of vetus^ vetustior is used.
b. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its
vowel : facilisy difficilisj similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis
(comparative regular) : as, facilis, easy; facilior, facillimus.
' The comparative suffix (earlier los) is the same as the Greek I'wi', or the Skr.
tyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double form, but what is the com-
bination is not certain ; perhaps it stands for ios-timus (comparative and superla-
tive), or possibly for ist-iimus (two superlatives). The endings -limus and -rimus
are formed by assimilation from -timus and -sitnus. The comparative and super-
lative are thus formed upon new stems, and are not to be strictly regarded as
forms of inflection.
44 Etymology: Adjectives.
c. Compounds in -dXcos {saying), -floua {doing\ -vQIub {wtlling\
take the forms of corresponding participles in ns, which were
anciently used as adjectives : as,
maledicus, slanderous; maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
malevolua, spiteful j malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely have
forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs magiB^
more; mazinie, most : as,
idoneus,yf/y magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.
Most derivatives in -Xous, -Xdus, alio, -aria, fUa^ ttlua, -undus,
-timua, -inua, -ivua, -orua, with compounds, as degener^ inopSy are
also compared with magia and maxime. Pius hzs piissimus,
e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared :
2C&^ patientior, patientissimus J apertior^ apertissimus.
Note. — Many adjectives — as aureus^ golden — are from thdr meaning
incapable of comparison; but each language has its own usage in this respect.
Thus niger, black, and Candidas, white, are compared; but not ater or albas,
meaning absolute black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior),
f. A form of Diminutive is made upon the stem of some com-
paratives : as, majuacnloa, somewhat larger.
Irregalar and Defecttve Comparison*
90. Several adjectives are compared from different
stems, or contain irregular forms : as,
bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best,
mSluB, pejor (peior), pessimus, bad, worse, worst.
magnuB, major (maior), maximus, great, greater, greatest.
parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least.
multus, plus (n.), plurimus, much, more, most.
multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most.
nequam (indecl.)j nequior,^ nequissimus, worthless.
frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy.
dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy.
91. The following are formed from roots or stems not
used as adjectives : —
cis, citra : citerior, citimus, hither, hithermost.
in, intra : interior, intimus, inner, inmost.
prae, pro : prior, ^timMs, former, first.
prope : propior, proximus, nearer, next.
ultra: ulterior, }jX\XmMS, farther, farthest.
Comparison of Adverbs. 45
a. Of the following the positive forms — themselves originally
comparative — are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in
the plural) : —
eztems, exterior, extremus (extimus), outer^ outmost.
infenis, inferior, infimus (imus), lower^ lowest.
posterus, posterior, postremus (postumus), latter, last.
Buperas, superior, supremus or summus, higher^ highest.
The plurals, ezteri, foreigners; poster!, posterity j super!, the
heavenly gods; infer!, those below^ are common.
b. From javenis, youth, senez, old man, are formed the com-
paratives junior, younger y senior, older. Instead of the superla-
tive, the phrase minimus or maximus ndtU is used (natu being
often understood), as also major and minor in the comparative.
c. In the following, one of the forms of comparison is wanting : —
1. The positive is wanting in deteriar, deterrinius; odor, ocissi-
mus; potior, potissimus.
2. The Comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius, falsus, fidus,
inclutus (or inclitus), invictus, invttus, novus, pius, sacer, vafer,
vetus. "^
3. The Superlative is wanting in actudsus, agrestis, alacer, arcd-
nus, caecus, diutumus, extlis, ingen s, jejUnus, longinquus, obliquus,
oplmus, proclivis, propinquus, satur, segnis, serus, suptnus, surdus,
taciturnus, tempesttvus, teres, vicinus, and some in His.
Comparison of Adverbs*
92. Adverbs formed from adjectives are compared as
follows (see 81. d, 84. d) : as,
carus, dear : care, carius, carissime.
miser, wretched: misere (miseriter), miserius, miserrime.
levis, light: leviter, levius, levissirae.
audaz, bold: audacter (audaciter), audacius, audacissime.
honua, good: bSnS, melius, optime.
mains, bad: malg, pejus (peius), pessime.
Also, in like manner —
dill, long (in time) : diutius, diutissime.
potius, rather; pot\ssim\im,frst (or chief) of all.
saepe, often : saepius, saepissime.
bbXAb, enough ; ^2X\\3&, preferable.
sScus, otherwise; secius, worse.
multum (multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most.
46 Etymology: Numerals.
Slgnifioation.
93. Besides their regular signification, the forms of
comparison are used as follows: —
a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree
of a quality : as, brevior, rcUher short; audacior, too bold. It is
used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of.
b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high
degree of a quality without a distinct comparison : as, maximTiB
namerufl, a very great number. With quam, it indicates the
highest degree : as, quam plurimi, a^ many as possible; quam
mazime potest (quam potest), a^ much as can be.
c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification:
thus the phrase ditlBsimas quisqae means, all the richest; primuB
quisque, all the first (each in his order).* Two superlatives with
quisqae imply a proportion : as,
sapientissimus quisqae aeqaissimo animo moritar, the
wisest men die with the greatest equanimity (Cat. Maj. 23).
d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as
adm5duni, valde, very ; or by per or prae in composition : as,
permagnos, very great; praealtas, very high (or deep).
e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition : as, sub-
rosticas, rather countrified; or by xxiinas, not very ; miaime, not
at all; param, not enough; non satis, not much.
f. The comparatives majSres and minores have the special
signification of ancestors and descendants.
NUMERALS.
Cardinal and OrdinaL
94. Cardinal Numbers answer to the interrogative
quot, how many ? Ordinal Numbers^ to quotus, which
in order, or one of how many ? They are as follows : —
' As in taking one by one o£f a pile, each piece is uppermost when you take it.
2 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed by means of the
same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decttnus (compare the form injimus) may be
regarded as the last of a series of ten ; primus is a superlative of pro; the forms
in -tus {quartus^ quintuSj sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek
forms in ^o« and wpoiTo?, superlative of irp6; nanus is contracted from novimus;
while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the exceptions,
secundus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative form (compare repoi
in Greek). The multiples of ten are compounds of the unit with a fragment of
decern : as, viginti — dvi-ginti {dui-decem-ti).
Numerals.
47
CARDINAL.
1. Onus, una, unum, one.
2. duo, duae, duo, two.
3. tres, tria, t/tree, 6r*c.
4. quattuor
5. quinque
6. sex
7. septem
8. octo
9. novem
10. decern
11. undecim
12. duodecim
13. tredecim
14. quattuordecim
15. quindecim
16. sedecim
17. septendecim
18. duodevTginti (octodecim)
19. undevTginti (novendecim)
20. viginti
21. viginti unus or unus et viginti
30. tnginta
40. quadraginta
50. quinquaginta
60. sexaginta
70. septuaginta
80. octoginta
90. n5naginta
100. centum
200. ducenti, ae, a
300. trecenti
400. quadringenti
500. quingenti
600. sexcenti
700. septingenti
800. octingenti
900. nongenti
1000. mille
5000. quinque millia (rallia)
10,000. decern millia (milia)
100,000. centum millia (milia)
OKXnNAL. ROMAN NUMSRALS.
primus, a, waxyjirst. i.
secundus (alter), second. n.
tertius, third. iii.
quartus iv.
quintus v.
sextus VI.
Septimus vii.
octavus VIII.
nonus IX.
decimus x.
undecimus xi.
duodecimus xii.
tertius decimus xiii.
quartus decimus xiv.
quintus decimus xv.
sextus decimus xvi.
Septimus decimus xvii.
duode vices imus xviii.
undevicesimus xix.
vicesimus (vTgesimus) xx.
vicesimus primus, etc, xxi.
tricesimus xxx.
quadragesimus XL.
quinquagesimus L.
sexagesimus lx.
septuagesimus Lxx.
octogesimus Lxxx.
ndnagesimus xc.
centesimus c.
ducentesimus cc.
trecentesimus ccc.
quadringentesimus cccc.
quingentesimus id, or D.
sexcentesimus DC.
septingentesimus DCC.
octingentesimus Dccc.
nongentesimus Dcccc.
millesimus Clo, or M.
quinquies millesimus idd.
decies millesimus ccidd.
centies millesimus CCCIDDO.
§18
1.
48
Etymology: Numerals.
S18
1.
a* For the inflection of unuB, see 83. a. It often has the
meaning of same or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as
also to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una
castra, one camp. So fini et alteri, one party and the other.
b. Duo/ two^ and ambo, bothy are thus declined : —
NoM. duo duae duo
Gen. duorum duarum duomm
DAT. du5bus duabuB duobos
Ace. duds (duo) duas duo
Abl. duobos duabus duobua
c. Tres, tria, three^ is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like
the plural of levis (see 84). The other cardinal numbers, up to
centum (100), are indeclinable. The forms octodecit^, novendecim^
are rare, undevfginti, duodeviginti, &c., being more common.
d. The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems,
and are regularly declined like the plural of bonos.
e. Mille, a thousand, is an indeclinable adjective. In the plural
(milia or milUa, thousands) , it is used as a neuter noun, with
a genitive plural : as, cum duobus milibus hominum?
Note. — The singular mille is also sometimes found as a noun in the nomina-
tive and accusative : as, mille homtnum misit; but in the other cases only in con-
nection with the same case of millia : as, cum octo miUibus pedUum^ mille equitum.
Dlgtrlbutlves.
95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural
of bonus. They answer to the interrogative quoteni,
how many of each, or at a time : as,
I.
singuli, one by one.
13.
terni deni, &c.
200.
duceni
2.
bini, two-and'two.
18.
duodevTceni
300.
treceni
3.
terni, trini
19.
undeviceni
400.
quadringeni
4.
quaterni
20.
vTceni
500.
quingeni
5-
quini
30.
triceni
600.
sesceni
6.
seni
40.
quadrageni
700.
septingeni
7.
septeni
50.
quinquageni
800.
octingeni
8.
octoni
60.
sexageni
900.
nongeni
9-
noveni
70.
septuageni
1000.
milleni
10.
deni
80.
octogeni
2000.
blna millia
II.
undeni
90.
nonageni
10,000.
dena millia
12.
duodeni
100.
centeni
100,000.
centena millia
* This form in -<? is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin,
but is found in cognate languages. 2 Or, in poetry, cum bis mille Iwminibus.
Numeral Adverbs. 49
Distributives are used as follows : —
a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side: as, sin-
gula Bingolis, one apiece j agri aeptena jugera plebi divisa sunt;
i. e. seven acres to each citizen.
b. Instead of Cardinals, when a noun is plural in form but
singula? in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra
would mean two forts). But the plural Sni is used (instead of
aingoU), and txini (not temiX to signify one and three (See 94. a).
c. In multiplication: as, bia bina, twice two; ter aeptenia
dieboa, in thrice seven days, i.e. in three weeks.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numba-s, particularly where
pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina haatilia, two shafts (each
person usually carrying two).
Kmneral Adverbs.
96. The Numeral Adverbs answer to the interrogative
qnotiena (quoties), how often. They are used, in combination
with miUe, to express the higher numbers : as, ter et tricies
{centena milHd) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces.
1. semel, once. 12. duodecies 40. quadragies
2. bis, twice. 13. terdecies 50. quinquagies
3. ter, thrice. 14. quaterdecies 60. sexagies
4. quater 15. quindecies 70. septuagies
5. quinquies (ens) 16. sedecies 80. octogies
6. sexies 17. septiesdecies 90. nonagies
7. septies 18. duodSvicies 100. centies
8. octies 19. undevicies 200. ducenties
9. novies 20. vTcies 300. trecenties
10. decies 21. semel et vicies, &c. 1000. millies
11. undecies 30. tricies 10,000. decies millies
97. The adjectives simplex (single)^ duplex, triplex, quadru-,
quincu', septem-, decern-, centu-, sesqUi- {\%\ multi-plex, are
called Multiplicatives. They are compounds of -plXco (as in English
two-fold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination.
Other derivatives are —
a. Proportionals : duplus, triplus, &c., twice or thrice as great.
^ b. Temporals: bimus, trimus, of two or three years' age; biennis,
triennis, lasting two or three years ; oimestris, trimestris, of two or three
months ; biduum, biennium, a period of two days ox years.
c. Partitives : binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts,
d. Fractions : dimidia pars (dimidium), a half\ tertia pars, a third.
e. The following : unio, unity; binio, the two (of dice); binarius,
consisting of two; primanus, of the first (legion) ; primarius, of the first
rank ; denarius, a sum of lo asses ; binus (mstrib.), double^ &c.
819
«.
3. a
3.b.
50 Etymology: Pronouns,
Chapter V. — Pronouns.
Penonal and BefleziTe*
98. The Personal Pronouns of the first person are
egO| /, noBp we; of the second person^ tn, thou^ vos,
ye or you.
FIRST PERSON. - SECOND PERSON.
Noif. ago, / n5«i we tfi, thou Y^Sthye or you
Gen. m^ <^m« n5«trttm (tti), ^nrj tid ▼estmm (tri)
DAT. mihl, to me n5bu» to us tibi v5bui
Ace. me; me n5a» kj te vSs
VOC. — ta VOB
Abl. mS, ^ me nobis, iy us tS vobis
a. These pronouns are also used 'refiexively : as, ipse te
nlmluin laudas, you praise yourself too much,
b. The personal pronouns of the third person — he^ she, it, they
— are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used.
c. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (referring to the
subject of the sentence or clause, and hence used only in the
oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural : viz.,
Gen. Bid, of himself, herself themselves,
Dat. sibi, to ,, „ „
Ace. 85(8686) „ „ „
Abl. 8S(8e8e),^ „ „ „
d. The plural no8 is often used for the singular Ij the plural
V08 never for the singular tu.*
99. In the meaning and use of these Pronouns it is
to be observed that —
a. For the genitive of possession (Subjective), the Adjectives
meus, tuus, suus, nosier, vester {vaster), are to be used, declined
as in 82. But meus has the vocative singular masculine mi
(rarely meus),
b. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted genitive
plural of the possessives noster, vester, (So in early and late
Latin we find una vestrdrum,) They are MS^d partitively : as,
unoequisque nostnun, each one of us.
1 There is an old form of genitive in is 1 as mis^ tis^ sis ; also an accusative
and ablative nud^ ted, sed. The earlier form vostrum, vostri, b sometimes used
for vestrum, vestri.
Pronouns: Demonstrative, 51
c. The genitives mei^ tut, sut, nostri, vestriy are the genitive
singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my, your,
our, interest or concern, and chiefly used objectively : as,
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us,
d. The reciprocal (ecLch other) is expressed by inter se or alter
. . . altenun : as, inter se amant, they love ecLch other,
e. The preposition com, with, is joined enclitically with the
ablative of these pronouns : as, tecnm loquitur, he talks with you,
f To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns
enclitics are joined for emphasis : — met to all except tu (nom.) ;
-te to tu {tute, also tutimet) ; .-pte to the ablative singular of the
adjectives, and in early Latin to the others : as,
▼osmetipBOs proditls, j^^?!^ betray your own very selves.
Buopte pondere, by its own weight,
I^emonstratlTe*
100. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, this ;
is, ille, iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and
idem, same,^
a, me is a later form of oUus (olle), which is sometimes used
by the poets ; a genitive singular in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste.
b, Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c.,
with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the i of ipse and ille
is very often found shortened,
c, Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same
root as potis), meaning self The former part was originally de-
clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsos
occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem.
101. These demonstratives are used either with nouns
as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns ; and, from their
signification, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They
axe thus declined : —
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o and i-stems, which are 'not clearly
distinguishable. HIc is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative
069 which appears in full in early Latin {hice)^ and when followed by the enclitic -ne
{Aicine). In most of the cases oe is shortened to c^ and in many lost ; but it is
appended for emphasis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early
Latin c alone is retained in some of these {ktfrunc). Hie and iste are sometimes
found with the same enclitic : illic, Ulaec, iUuc; also ilioc (ace. or abl. : loi. a).
52
Etymology: Pronouns,
1 20
Sing.
M.
r.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
hie
haeo
h5o, this.
ia
ea
id, thai.
Gen.
h^jos
hiyos
h^jua
ejus
ejus
ejus
DAT.
hnlc
hnlo
hulo
ei
ei
ei
Ace.
hnnc
hanc
h5o
eum
earn
id
Abl.
hSo
hSo
hoc
ed
ea
e5
Plnr.
NOM.
U
hae
haec, these.
il(rf)
eae
ea, those.
Gen.
hSrnm
hgmtw
eSmm eSmm
edmm
DAT.
his
his
his
eisoriis
Ace.
h58
has
haeo
e58
eSs
ea
Abl.
hu
his
hu
eiB or
lis
Note. — For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old forms
hibns and ibos
are sometimes found
; also
rarely) haeo for haa
Sing.
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
iUe
ilia
iUud, that.
ipse
ipsa
ipsum, self.
Gen.
ilUns
iUioa
imns
ipsioa ipsins
ipsins
DAT.
iUi
ilU
ilH
ipei
ipsi
ipsi
Ace.
||1w|iT[
iUam
iUnd
ipsnm ipsam
ipsnm
Abl.
iUo
ilia
illo
ipso
ipsa
lps5
PInp.
N.,V. illi illae ilia Ipu ipsae ipsa
Gen. illorum illamm ill5rum Ipsonun ipsamm ipsomm
DAT. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis
Ace. iUos iyas ilia ips5s ipsSs ipsa
Abl. illis illis illis ipus ipsis ipsis
Sing.
N. idem e&dem Idem
G. ejnsdemejusdemejnsdem
D. eidem eidem eidem
A. eundem eandem Idem
A. eSdem eSdem eodem
the same. Plur.
iidem (ei-) eaedem e&dem
eSmndem eanmdem edmndem
eisdem or iisdem
e5sdem eSsdem e&dem
eisdem or iisdem
a. Iste, ista, istnd, that (yonder), is declined like ille. By
combination with the demonstrative -ce,* ille and iate have the
following forms : —
Sing. M. p. N.
NoM. inio maeo iUdo(illuo)
Ace. iUuno illano illdo(illuo)
Abl. illdo illao illdo
Plur.
NoM. or Ace. iUaeo
M. F. . N.
istfo(i8thic) istaeo i8tOo(i8tuo)
istiuio istano istoodatuc)
istoo istao iBtdo
istaeo
1 The intensive ce is also found in numerous combinations : as, kujusce,
huncce^ Aorutue, hdruncCt hosce^ hisce^ illiusce^ iisce; also with the interrogative
-NE, in AocifUf hoscine, isiucine, illicine, &c. The enclitic pse is found in the
fonns ea^se (nom.), eumpsty tampse, edpse^ eUpse (abl.) ; also in redpse {ri ipsd).
Pronouns: Demonstrative; Relative. 53
b. The normal forms illij isti (gen.), and illaef istae (dat.), are
found ; also the nominative plural istctecty illaece (for istaey illcte).
c. The forms iidtm^ itsdemy are often written idem^ fsdem.
Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for ei)^ and etibus or ibus (for its),
d. By composition with ecce or en, behold/ are found eccum,
eccam^ eccos^ ecccLs; eccUlum^ ellum^ ellam^ ellos^ ellasj eccistam.
These forms are dramatic and colloquial.
e. The combinations hujusmodi (hujuscemodi), ejusmodi, &c.,
are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to tUis, such : as,
rea ejuamodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort : compare 215).
102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be
observed that —
a, Hio is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place,
thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative
of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself;
sometimes for ** the latter " of two things mentioned ; more rarely
for " the former."
b, lUe is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to
mean " the former ; " also (usually following its noun) of what is
famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean
" the following."
c, Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness :
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the
demonstrative of the second person. It especially refers to one's
opponent (in court, &c.), and frequently implies contempt.
^. la is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting
any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a
personal pronoun (see 98. b) ; and is often merely a correlative to
the relative qui : as, eiim quern, one whom; eum conBulem qui
non dubitet (Cic), d consul who will not hesitate,
e. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person,
as noB ipsi (noBmetipsi), we ourselves; or independently (the
verb containing the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsi
adestis,j^^72^ are yourselves present ; or with a noun, as ipsi fontes
(Virg.), tlie very fountains.
Note. — In English, the pronouns himself^ &c, are used both intensively (as,
he will come himself) or reflexivdy (as, ^ will kill himself) : in Latin the former
would be translated ipse \ the latter 869 or sese.
§21
1.
54 Etymology: Pronouns.
B^IatlT6» lalerrogAtlYc* and Ind«fliilte»
Note. — The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns
are originally of the same Stem, and the forms for the most part
are the same (compare 103 with 104) ; viz., qui, quis^ {who^ whof
any), with their compounds and derivatives.
103. The relative pronoun qui is thus declined : —
SINGULAR.
who,
which.
PLURAL.
NOM.
qm quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen.
clijns cujus
CUJUB
qu5nun
quSrum
quorum
DAT.
cui oni
cui
qulbns
quibua
quibua
Ace.
quern quam
quod
qu5fl
quSs
quae
Abl.
quo quS
quo
quibuB
quibuB
quibuB
104. The interrogative or indefinite quis (qui) is de-
clined in the singular as follows (plural as above) : —
who f which f any.
NoM. quia (qui) quae quid (quod)
Gen. cujus cujus cfijus
Dat. cui cui cui
Ace. quem quam quid (quod)
Abl. qu5 qua quo
Case Forms. — a. The Relative has always qui and quod in
the nominative singular. The Interrogative and Indefinite have
quia, quid, substantive, and qui, quod, adjective. But quia and
qui are sometimes used for each other. Thus —
quis vocat? who calls? quid vidSa? what do you see? but —
qui (or quis) homo vocat? quod templum vides?
nescio qui bib, I know not who you are,
b. Old forms for the genitive and dative are quoius, quoL
c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and
all genders ; but especially as an adverb {how, by which way, in
any way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or
indefinite relative.
d. A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early
Latin. The dative and ablative quis (stem qu6-) is old, but not
infrequent.
' The stem has two fonns, qao« and qui-* From the latter are formed qtds,
quid, qtiem, quibus, qui (abl.) ; while qui^*quae, are probably lengthened forms of
qia, qua (see 32, decl. i), made by the addition of the demonstrative particle !•
Pronouns: Relative and Interrogative. 55
e. The preposition 011m is joined enclitically to all forms of the
ablative, as with the personal pronouns : as, quocum^ quicum^ qui-
buscum.
f. The accusative form qaum (cum) is used only as a conjunc-
tion, meaning when or since,
105. The Stems quo- and qni^ are thus compounded :
a. The suffix -ctimque (-ounque) added to the relative makes
an Indefinite Relative, which is declined as the simple word : as,
qmcumque, quaecumqae, quodcomque, whoever^ whatever.
This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any
relative : as, qualiBCumque, of whatever sort; quandocumque
(qnandoque), whenever; ubicumque, wherever,
b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite
relative : as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher-
ever). Of quisqula both parts are declined, but the feminine is
wanting in classic use : as,
NoM. quisquis (qniqui) quldquid (quicqoid)
Acc. quemquem quidquid (quioquid)
Abl. qu5quo quSqua quoquS
Plur. NoM. qmqui Dat., Abl. quibnaqulbus
This compound' is rare, except in the forms quisquis j quicquid,
and qudqud. The case-form quamquam is used only as a conjunc-
tion. Qulqul (nom. sing.) is an early and quHqud a, late form. The
grammarians give also a regular genitive and dative. Cuicuimodi
appears as a genitive, but is probably locative.
c. Indefinite Compounds are the following : —
quidam, a, a certain; quispiam, any;
qoivia, quilXbet, any-you-please; - quisquam, any^t-all.
Of these, the former part is inflected like qtds, qui, with quid or
quod in the neuter.
^. In aliquifi, any ; axquis, if any ; neqidSi lest any ; ecqids,
numqids, whether any, the second part is declined like quia, but
with qua for quae, except in the nominative plural feminine. The
simple form quia, any, is rare except in these combinations ;
and the compounds qniapiam, aliquis, are often used in these,
being rather more emphatic (si qnis, if any one; si aUquis, if
some one). The forms aliquae, ecquae (nom. sing.), occur rarely.
$6 Etymology: Pronouns; Correlatives.
These compounds are thus declined : —
Sinf^. some, Plur.
N.
allqulu aliqua aliquid
aUqnl aliquae aliqua
G.
alicujos
allquSnim aliquarom aUquomm
D.
aUcul
aliquibns
A.
aliqoos allquaa aliqua
A.
aliquo aliqui aliqud
aUquiboa
Note. — Aliquin is compounded with all-, old stem of alius,
but with weakened meaning. As an adjective^ the form in quod is
used instead of quid : as,
aliquod bonuzn, some good thing ; but —
aUquid boni, something good {something of good).
e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal :
as, quisque, every one; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of
two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the com-
pound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined, and
sometimes separated by other words. Quotus quisque has the
signification how many pray f often in a disparaging sense.
/. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective
oQjus (a, um), whose/ and a patrial cujSs (cujat-), of what country.
g. Quantus, how great, quails, of what sort, are derivative
adjectives from the same stem, and are used as interrogative or
relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis.
Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding
to the adverbial case-form tarn, so.
h. Quisquaai, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any-
where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional
sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without; vix, scarcely.
i. Quisnam is emphatic : pray, who f Ecquis and numquis
are compounded from the indefinite particle en and the interroga-
tive num; they mean noi^ho, but any : as,
ecquis nos videt ? does any one see us f
nmm quid hoc dubitas, cbyou at all doubt this f
CorrelatiTefl.
106. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and
adverbs have corresponding forms, as demonstrativey
relative, interrogative, and indefinite. These are called
Correlatives. They are shown in the following Table :
Correlatives,
57
DEMONSTR.
RELAT.
INTERROG.
XNDEF. REL
INDBF.
is, that
qui
quis ?
quisquis
aliquis
tantos, so great
quantus
quantus ?
♦
aliquantus
^i^such
qualis
qualis ?
«
ibi, there
ubi
ubi?
ubiiibi
aUcubi
eo, thither
qu5
quo?
quoqud
aliqud
ea, that way
qua
qua?
quaqua
aliqua
inde, thence
unde
unde?
«
alicunde
tonii then
quum, cum
quando?
«
aliquando
tot, so many
quot
quot?
quotquot
aliquot
toties, so often
quoties
quoties?
«
aliquoties
* Compounds with -comqae*
a. The forms tot (originally toti), quot, aliquot, totidem, are
indeclinable, and may take any gender or case : as,
per tot annos, tot proeliia, tot imperltores (Cic), so many
commanders, for so many years, in so many battles,
b. The correlative of the second member is often to be rendered
simply as : thus,
tantom argenti quantum aeria, as much silver as copper.
c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives qno
or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with
comparatives (rendered in English the . . . the) : ^ as,
quo magifl conaria, eo longius progrederis, the more you try,
the farther on you get.
107. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are
used correlatively, serving as conjunctions : as,
ut (rel.) . . . ita, sio (dem.), <w {while) . . . so (yet).
tain (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) , , . as.
cum (rel.) . . . tnm (dem.), both , . . andy while . , . so also.
Compare et . . . et, both . . . and; ant (vel) . . . aut (vel),
either . . . or; sive (sen) . . . sive ; utrum ... an, whether . . . or.
Note. — For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax
(203). .
' In this phrase the is not the definite artide, but a pronominal adverb, being
the Anglo-Saxon instrumental case, thy.
§22
S8 Etymology: Structure of the Verb.
Chapter VI. — Verbs.
I.-STRUCTURE OF THE VERB.
Taloe^ Mood, Tense*
108. The inflections of the Verb denote Voice, Mood,
Tense, Number, and Person.
a. The Voices are two, Active and Passive.
b. The Moods are four, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative,
and Infinitive.^
c. The Tenses are six, viz. : —
1. Present, Imperfect, Future (of continued action) ;
2. Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect (of completed action).
d. Person and Number. — There are separate terminations
for each of the three Persons —- first, second, and third — both
in the singular and in the pluraL
Noun and A4Jeetive Forms.
109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are
also included in the structure of the Latin Verb : —
a. Four Participles,* viz..
Active : the Present and Future Participles ;
Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.'
b» The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second
declension, used only in the oblique cases of the singular, its
nominative being supplied by the Infinitive (see 114. n.).
c. The Supine : this is in form a defective noun of the fourth
declension (see 71. a).
Defective Forme.
110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting
in certain parts of the verb, viz. : —
1 The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of
the verb ; but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it is properly
treated as a part of the verb.
* The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see 25. <), but
have the power of Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
> The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity or dtdy
(see 113. </). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle.
Verds : Voice and Mood. 59
a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future
Perfect^ In some constructions, these tenses are supplied by the
future participle with corresponding tenses of the verb signifying
TO BE : as, cum BeeiltflTua ait, since he will follow.
b. In the Passive voice, the cases of completed action (Perfect,
Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect Parti-
ciple with corresponding tenses (present, imperfect, and future) of
the verb signifying TO be : as, oocwns est, he was killed.
c. In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and
the Future.
d. In the Infinitive mood only the Present and the Perfect are
formed by inflection. A future is also regularly formed by the
Future Participle with the infinitive signifying TO BE : as, aecii-
tSma ease, to be about to follow.
111. The active and passive Voices in Latin are
equivalent to the corresponding English forms, except
that the tenses of the passive are used with more
exactness. Thus —
a. In the Present : domua aedlficitnr means, not the house is
builty but is [in course of] being built.
b, \n the Perfect: domna aedificata eat; the house is built,
i. e. the building is now completecj ; or, the house was built; i. e.
at some time indicated.
Note. — i. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning :
as, indultor veatem, he puts on his [own] clothes.
2. Many verbs are only used in the passive form, but with an
active or reflexive meaning. These are called Deponents, 1. e.,
as laying aside {deponere) the active form and passive meaning.
Moode.
112. The Moods of the Latin verb are used as
follows : —
a. The Indicative Mood is used for direct assertions or interro'
gallons: as,
▼aleane? Taleo, Are you wellt I am well,
^ These are wanting, because the original meaning and most of the uses of the
Subjunctive are future.
6o Etymology : Structure of the Verb.
y b. The Subjunctive Mood is idiomatically used in commandsy
cenditions^ and various dependent clauses. It is frequently trans-
lated by the English Indicative ; sometimes by the Potential, with
the auxiliaries may^ mighty wouldy should; sometimes by the
rare Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and is often used
for the Imperative, especially \xl prohibitions : as,
aamuB, let us go,
8i adeases, if you were [now] here,
cum vSnisset, when he had come,
adftom ut videam, / am here to see {that I may see),
tu ne quaesieria, do not thou inquire,
nSmo est qui ita ezistimet, there is no one who thinks so*
NoTS. — The Latin Subjunctive is often translated, formally, by the English
potential forms, may, might, could, wotdd, &c., to distinguish it from the Indica-
tive, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the subjunctive
is used in many cases where we use the indicative ; and we use the potential in
many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb. Thus, / may write (except
when it follows ut^ in order thai) \s not wribam (subj. ), but licet mihi scrl-
bere) lean wriu is poflsnm scriberei / would write is scribam^ ^ribe-
renif or scribere vellm (vellem) ; / should write, if, &c., scriberem si
. . . , or (implying duty) oportet me 8cribere« A few examples of the use of
the subjunctive may be seen in the following : —
1. beatus sis, may you be blessed,
2. no abeat, let him not depart,
3. quid morer, why should I dday t
4. sunt qui putent, there are some who think.
5. imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write.
6. nescio quid scribam, I knew not what to write,
7* licet ^^&,you may go; cave cadas, donU fall,
8. vereor ne eat, I fear he will go.
9. vereor ut eat, I fear he will not go.
10. si moneam audiat (pres.), if I should warn, he would hear,
11. si vocarem audiret (imperf.), if I were [now] calling, he would hear,
12. quae cum dixisset abiit, when he had scud this, he went away,
c. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command; but
its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive.
d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as
the subject or object of another verb ; but in special constructions
it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that
mood in English (see " Indirect Discourse ").
Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see pp. 184-204.
The Verb: Participles, 6 1
Parttdplafc
113. The Participles of the Latin verb are used as
follo.ws : —
y^ a. The Present participle (ending in na) has commonly the
same meaning and use as the English participle in ing : as, vo-
cauB, calling; legentes, reading. (For its inflection see 85.)
^ b. The Future participle (ending in -urns) is oftenest used as
an adjective, to express what is likely or about to happen : as,
urbs est cSsura, the city is about to falL^
It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose : as,
vSnit andxtunui, he came to hear,
y- c. Th« Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses of the
passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning : as,
vocatoa est, he was (has been) called; tectoB, sheltered;
acceptUB, acceptable; ictus, having been struck.
Note. — There is no petfect active or present passive participle in Latin. The
perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as
seentiiSf having followed. In other cases some different construction b used for
these missing participles : as, cnm venisset^ having come (when he had come) ;
eqnitatn praemisso^ having sent forward the cavalry (the cavalry having
h&SD. sent forward) ; dmn verberatnr^ while being struck (== Tvrrr6it.tvo^),
^ d. The Gerundive (ending in ndus) has, as an adjective, the
^meaning ought or must : as, audiendus est, he must be heard,^
But, in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it
were an active participle, governing the word it agrees with : as,
ad petendam pacem, to seek peace.
^ e. The Participles may all be used as simple adjectives, and the
present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjec-
tives : as, amantior, more fond; dilectissimas, dearest,
f. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often
,/used as nouns, especially in the plural : as, regentes, rulers (those
ruling) ; mortui, the dead,
g. As an adjective, the participle is often used to describe some
special circumstance : as,
morituri vos salutSmus, we at the point of death salute you.
1 In this construction it is used with the tenses of the verb to be, forming
what is called the ** First Periphrastic Conjugation '* (see page 'j'j),
3 The Gerundive, used as a predicate with the verb to be, forms the '' Second
Periphrastic Conjugation."
62 Etymology: Structure of the Verb.
Ctemnd and Supine*
114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : —
a. The Gerund is, in form, the neuter singular of the Gerund-
ive. It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English "participial
infinitive " in -INO : as, loquendl causa, y27r the sake of speaking.
Note. — In this use the Gerund is found only in the oblique
cases. The nominative is supplied by the Infinitive : as,
8orn>ere est Utile, writing (to write) is useful j but,
ars Boribendi, the art of writing,
^ b» The Supine is in form a noun of the Fourth declension,
found only in the accusative (ending in turn, Bum) and ablative
(ending in tU, bu), which are sometimes called the Former and
the Latter Supine. The former is used after verbs and the latter
after adjectives: as,
1. vSnit spectatum, he came to see.
2. nurabUe dlotu, wonderful to tell.
TenMt.
115. The tenses of the verb are of two classes, viz, :
1. Of continued action.
1. Present : BCribo, I am writing.
2. Imperfect : BCxlbSbam, / was writing.
3. Future: Borftoun, / shall write.
2. Of completed action.
4. Perfect : Boripsi, / have written.
5. Pluperfect: bqiA^vt^xel, I had written.
6. Future Perfect: BciipAero, I shall have written, y"
a. The tenses have, in general, the same meaning as the cor-
responding tenses in English ; but are in some cases distinguished
more accurately in their use. Thus —
1. The Future or Future Perfect is used where we may use the
Present in subordinate clauses : as^
Bi quid habebo dabo, iff have [shall have] any thing, I will give.
cum venero scrlbam, when I come [shall have come], / will write.
2. The Present and Imperfect are used to express continued
action where English uses tenses of completed action : as,
jam diu aegroto, I have long been [and still am] sick.
Here the Perfect, aegrotavi, would imply that I am now well.
Tenses ; Personal Endings. 63
b. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote past
time ; the former to tell a simple fact, the latter to describe a
continued or customary action, or a condition of things} Thus —
Perfect : Bcripait, he wrote.
Imperfect : soribebat, he was writing, or used to write.
c. The Perfect has two separate uses, Histinguished as definite
and historical, corresponding to the Perfect (compound) and the
simple Past (or preterite) in English : as,
Bcripsit, he has written (definite) ; he wrote (historical).
d The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in
dependent clauses, following the rule of the Sequence of Tenses ;
but have also special idiomatic uses (see S3mtax).
Personal Endlnss*
116. Verbs have regular terminations for each of the
three Persons,^ both singular and plural, active and
passive, viz. : —
Sing. ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
1 . m, o, or i * : am-o, / love, r : amo-r, / am loved.
2. 8 : ama-8, thou lovest. ria or re : ama-ris, thou art loved.
3. t :^ ama-t, he loves, tur : ama-tur, he is loved.
Plur. . ACTIVE. PASSIVE,
1. mua : ama-mus, we love, mur : . ama-mur, we are loved,
2. tis : 2L£cizrM^you love, mini : ama-mini, j^{7m are loved,
3. nt : ama-nt, they love, ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved.
* In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as Italian and French),
there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Preterite {aoHst) which merely states
that ike fact took place ; and the Imperfect, which is used for description^ or to
indicate that ike action was in progress i as, longius prosequi yuTuiT, quod loci
naturam ignorabat (B. G. v. 9). In the Northern languages (Germanic or
Gothic, including English), the same tense serves for both.
S These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose signification is
thus added to that of the Verb-stem (compare page 14, Note i ).
s The present indicative of the active voice has lost the m^ and ends in the
modified stem-vowel O9 except in sum and inquam. Here o stands for m
blended in sound with a preceding vowel {amo ^=^ ama-m). The perfect, future
perfect, and the future in bo have also lost the m.
4 All Latin words ending in t^ except at (ast), aut^ sat, et, -met, post, tot;
quot, ut, caput, and their compounds, are verbs in the third person ; all in nt are in
the 3d person plural. In dumtaxat, licet, and the indefinite pronouns in -libet
the meanings of the verbs are disguised (See also 8, p. 3).
64
Etymology : Forms of the Verb,
PASSIVE.
ama-re, be thou loved.
ama-tor, let him be loved.
a. The perfect Indicative (active voice) has the special termina-
tions : —
Sing. 2. -sti: zm^y-i-nlti, thou lavedst*
Plur. 2. -Btis: 2LXi\2i\-i'B\^, you loved.
3. -erunt or -ere : amav-enint (ere), they loved.
b. The Imperative has the following terminations :
Sing. ACTIVE.
2. — : ama, love thou, re :
3. to : ama-to, let him love. tor
Plur.
2. te, tSte : ama-te, love ye. mini : ama-mini, be ye loved.
3. nto : ama-nto, let them love, ntor : ama-ntor, let them be loved.
2.- FORMS OF THE VERB.
117. All Latin Verb-forms are made up of three
parts, viz. : —
1. The Root (see 22) ; often variously modified, so as to form
what is called a Stem.
2. The Signs of Tense or Mood.
3. The Personal Endings.
Thus in the word voca-vi-t, the Root is voc, modified into
the verb-stem voc5-, which by the addition of iii (vi) becomes the
perfect tense vocavi; and to this is added the personal ending
(t) of the third person singular.
Nature and Origin of Verb-Forms.
In the Indicative and Subjunctive Present, in the Imperative, and, in some
cases, in the Futiire, the terminations are added directly to a modified form of the
Root, called the Present Stem. This Stem, in three out of four methods of
conjugation (the ist, 2d, and 4th conjugations), also appears in all parts of the
verb, including the noun and adjective forms, and is accordingly called the Verb-
Stem. In the Present Subjunctive of all the conjugations, and in the Future of
the 3d and 4th, however, there are modifications of the verb-stem of various origin.^-
In the Perfect in a few verbs, the terminations are added directly to a
different modification of the Root, called the Perfect Stem \ 2&\n do^ dedi.
1 These modifications, in the ist conjugation, and the Future of the 3d and
4th, are caused by the addition of a verbal form (optative from the root ya, to go) to
the Stem. In the other cases, then: origin is not certain ; but it is supposed to be
the same as that of the stem-vowels themselves, corresponding to that found
in the Greek Subjunctive. (See Note, p. 72 ; p. 74 : 126. a-d).
Note on the Verb-Stems. 6$
AU other true verb-forms are oompoimded vdth a suffix (auxiliary), originally a
verb, which already contained the personal endings : as vocd-bat^ vocd-M, vocd-ret^
vocd-verai, vocd-^erit^ vocd-visset. Thus the signs of mood and tense appear to
be inserted between the Verb-stem (or Root) and the personal endings, though
strictly they were not so inserted. But the first person of the Perfect, whether
formed by a modification of the root as in de-di^ or a verbal suffix as in vocd-vi^
man-H^ loses its final vowel, and is treated as a new stem, to which other verbal
suffixes are added, likewise containing the personal endings.
The Perfect and Future Participles, and the Supine, though strictly noun-
forms with separate suffixes, agree in having the first letter of their suffix (t) the
same, with the same phonetic changes, as cds-um (for cad-tum)^ cds-urus.
These forms naturally divide into three groups, in which in fact they appeared
to the Romans themselves, who had very early become unconscious of their deriva-
tion. Hence, verbs may be formed upon three Stems (partly real, partly supposed)
by adding Verbal Endings, which include signs of Tense and Mood as well as
Personal Endings, and (in the case of the Infinitive and Participles) even noun
and adjective terminations. These Stems are the Present, the Perfect, and
the Supine Stem.
Yerb-Bn€lins:§.
118. The scheme of Verb-Endings,^ as they are formed
by suffixes, together with personal endings, is as follows :
1 The origin and meaning of some of these verb-endings may be given as
follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of bhu, which appears in /»/, fuiurus^
fiOy the Greek ♦««, and English be; — rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunc-
tive imperfect of ss, which appears in sum, tiiU, am^ &c ; — bo is a future, and
Yi a perfect, of bhu ; — gi is a perfect of es, and is kindred with the aorist-
ending o-a, though not of the same formation ; — erim is an optative form or
subjimctive present of es, the same form originally as sim | — ero (for e8>lo) is
the future of esse % issem = essem % isse — esse* Thus these terminations are
seen to have the same force as Auxiliary verbs in English.
The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long (ei^ i, e) except
before mns, is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem,
as it is in dedi, steti^ where it takes the place of the vowel a« In the suffixes
vi (=flii) and si (=Skr. Jja), and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems
to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and
tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es $ but it may be,
like the others, of pronominal origin.
The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive) form, made by adding
se to the forms of the active voice, with some abrasion of their endings (the
original form of se^ sva, like self, was not limited to the third person). Thus
amor ^ amo^se, atnaris = amasi-se, amatur = amati-se. The above view seems
the most probable, in spite of some objections. The ending mini in the second
person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the
Greek -i^vii supplanting the proper form, which does not appear in Latin.
66
Etymology: Forms of the Verb.
$28
]
[. — Ferftcrt B'orms.
8.a
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
INDIC
SUBJ. PiMent. INDIC SUBJ.
Sing, I.
o»
ml
or
r
2.
3.
s
t
s
t
ris^rre %i
. tur X%
ris or re
tur
Plur, I.
2.
mus
tis
.152
mus
tis
mur ^.g
mini fa
mur
mini
3.
nt
^^«
nt
ntur ^
ntur
Imperfect.
Sing, I.
barn*
rem
bar
rer
2.
bas
res
baris (re)
reris (re)
3.
bat
ret
batur
retur
Plur, I.
bamua
remus
bamur
remur
2.
batis
retis
baminl
remini
3.
bant
rent
Fufe
bantur
ore.
rentur
i.ii.
iil.iv.^
Ijll
L ii. iii iv.
Sing. I.
bo
am'
bor ax^
••
2.
3-
/'/«r. I.
bis /s
bit e\.
bimus Anus
beris (re) itv& (re)
bitur ^ur
bimur Anur
II
2.
bitis
/tis
bimini /mini
3-
bunt
eiA ]
buntur Atur
Perl
iBOt.
i'l)*^. I.
i
erim
sim
2.
isti
eris
sis
3.
it
erit
sit
/'/wr. I.
2.
imus
istis
erimus
eritis
«.: /*«^ (sumus
^^ i sunt
simus
sitis
3.
erunt or ere erint
sint
Plupe
rfoet.
Sing, I.
2.
eram
eras
issem
isses
*"■"> (erat
essem
esses
3.
erat
isset
esset
Plur, I.
eramus issemus
n /*-« (eramus
-*'(^0 eratis
'^^ ( erant
essemus
2.
eratis
issetis
essetis
3.
erant
issent
essent
Fntme
Perfect.
5w^. I.
2.
3.
ero
eris
erit
-tus(ta, (*''■?
/'/wr. I.
2.
erimus
eritis
**> (erunt
3-
erint
1 For some changes of Stem see 126.
Forms of the Verb ; The Verb esse. 67
ImpezstiYe.
Sing, 2. —
3. to
Plur, 2. te, tote
3. nto
re
tor
mini
ntor
Pres. re (Pres. stem)
Perf, isse (Perf. stem)
Fut, turus (a, um) esse
2. — J^oiten and AcifecHve Forms.
InflnitlTe.
i u. iv. n, iii 1 (old rier, ier)
tus (ta, turn) esse
tum in (see 147. c)
Participle.
Pres. ns, ntis
Perf.
Fut, turus, a, um
tus, ta, tum
Ger. ndus, a, um
Supine, turn, tu
ESSE and its Compounds.
119. The verb esse,^ to be^ is both irregular and de-
fective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle
but the future.
1 The root of the verb esse is es-, which m the imperfect is changed to br-
(see IX. a\ and in many cases is shortened to s-. Some of its modifications, as
found in several languages more or less distinctly related to Latin, may be seen in
the foDovdng Table; — ^tlie ** Indo-European '' being the primitive or theoretic
form, and the form sydm corresponding to the Latin sim {stem) : —
Ind^Ew.
SanskrU.
Greek,
Latin.
Lithuanian.
as-ml
as-mi
sydm (opt.)
%mu\
s-um
es-mi
as-si
as-i
syds
^<r«rrt
es
es-i
as-tl
as-ti
sydt
^crrf
es-t
es-ti
as-masi
s-mas
sydma
4ir/jL4r
s-iimus
es-me
8-tha
sydta
4<rr4
es-tis
es-te
a»4mtl
8-anti
syus
t Old Form
s-unt
es-ti
The Perfect and Supine stems, fni, flitiiro-9 are kindred with the Greek «^v, and
with the English be.
The present participle, which should be sens (compare Sanskrit sant\ appears
in that form in abuflenSf prae-eens % and as ens (compare ^v) in pot-ens«
The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a parti-
ciple or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entf a, things which are.
68
Etymology: The Verb esse.
§29
PRESENT.
INFIX. *BRF. FUT. PART.
Principal Pabtts: sum
6886 foi fdtums.
Indicative.
Pregent. Subjunctive.
Sing. I, B\ua,/am.
2. 9b, tAou art (you are).
Bis, be thouy or may you be.
3. est, he (she, it) is.
Biti let him be (may he be).
Plur. I. BumuB, we are.
Buniui, let us be.
2. esX^you are.
BitdB, beye^ or may ye be.
3. Bvaat, they are.
Bint, let them be (may they be).
:
[mperfeot.
Sing. I. BTBmf/was.
eBBBm, I should be.
2. exaA,you were.
eaaes, you would be.
3. erat, he [shey it) was.
CBBOt, he would be*
Plur. I. eramuB, we were.
eBBemuB, we should be.
2. eratd8,j/^« were.
dBBetlB, you would be.
3. enuit, they were.
OBBent, th^ would be.
Fitlure*
Sing. I. Bxo, I shall be.
[faturoB Bim see note, p. ']'j'\
2. bt\a, you will be.
3. vAt, he will be.
Plur. I. erimus, we shall be.
2. eM^ you will be.
3. want, they will be.
Perl
rect.
Sing. I. Im, I was {have been).
Itierim (see Note below)
2. ffoHB^you were.
ItieriB
3. fuit, he was.
fuerit
Plur. I. faimus, we were.
fnerimuB
2. tfoUBX^you were.
fneritlB
3. fnemnt, they were.
faerint
1 The translations of the subjunctive here given show the most frequent mean-
ings of their forms when used independently. For the numerous dependent
meanings of the subjunctive, see Syntax. The most common may be seen in the
following table : —
1. sit) let him be (in apodosis, he would he) ; si sit (in protasis), if
he should be ; cum sit, since he is.
2. essetf he would be; si esset, if he were; cum esset, when (or
since) he was.
3. faeritf suppose he was (or hcLs been) ; si fuerit, if he should have
been ; cum fuerit, since he was ; ne fueris (prohib. ), be thou not.
4. fnissetf he would have been ; si f uisset, if he had been ; cum
fuisset, when (or since) he had been.
The Verb esse and its Compounds.
69
Sing, I. faiesraxn, I had been.
2. faeras, you had been.
3. fnerat, he had been.
Plur.i. fasx^LmxMfWehadbeen.
2. faet^tiBt you had been.
, 3. fuerant, they had been.
Pluperfect.
foisBem, / should have been.
fmBS^B.you would have been.
fuisset, he would have been.
foiBsSmus, we should have been.
fvAoM^tiB, you would have been.
faissent, they would have been.
Future Perfect.
Sing. I. fiiero, I shall have been.
2. faeTiB,you will have been.
3, fnerit, he will have been.
Plur. I. faerimns, we shall have been.
2. fx^sA^^you will have been.
3. fiieriiit, they will have been.
Imperative.
Present. ^ be thou. wX»,beye.
Future. eeXo, thou shall be. eBXJote,ye shall be.
eato, he shall be. sunto, they shall be.
Inflnltive.
Present, esse, to be.
Perfect, fuisse, to have been.
Future, fore or faturus esse, to be about to be.
Future Participle, futunis, a, um, ctbout to be.
Rare Forms. — Indicative : Future, escit, escunt (strictly an
inchoative present). Subjunctive : Present, siem, sies, siet, sientj
fuam^fuas^fuat^fuantj V^tiQci^ fuvimusj Fluperfeci, fuvisset.
For essemy etCy /bremf /ores, foret^ forent are often used.
120. The forms of the verb esse appear in the follow-
ing compounds : —
a. Esse is compounded, without any change of inflection, with
the prepositions ab, ad, de, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (prod), sub,
super. In the compound prodesse, to profit^ pro retains its
original d when followed by e: as, prosum, prodes, prodest,
prosnmns, prodestis, prosunt
b. It is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote, ahle^
in the verb possa Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is given
in the following : —
§29
§29
b.
§27
5.
70 Etymology: The Regular Verb.
posBQin, / can, poMim
potes, you can, poBsis
potest, he can. poBsit
posBumus, we can. possimus
potestis, j/^71^ can, possitiB
posBunt, they can. possint
prosum,/^^. prosim
prddes prSsis
prSdest prosit
prosumua prosimus
prodestiB pr5BitiB
proBont proBint
ImperliBOt.
^Xcram, I could, possem | prSdmram prodoBBem
Z^tiire*
potero, / shall be able. \ prodero, / shall help.
Tertect.
potud, / could. potaerim | pxUfoi, / helped, proftierixn
Pluperfect,
potueram potniBBem | prSfneram profoiBBem
Fntiire Perfect.
potuSro, / shall have been able. \ , profiiSro, / shall have helped.
ImperatlTe.
I prodeB, prSdeBto, &c.
Inflnltive.
PR. posse Perf. potaisae Pr. prSdesse Perf. proftdsse
Parttdples.
potens (adj.), powerful. \ prSfatOras, about to help,
m
3.-THE REGULAR VERB.
The Three Stems.
121. The parts of the Latin verb may be formed upon
three different stems/ called the Present, the Perfect,
and the Supine Stem (see 117).
a. The tenses of continued cLction^ both active and passive,
together with the Gerund and Qerundive, are formed upon the
Present Stem.
b. The tenses oi completed action in the active voice are formed
upon the Perfect Stem.
c. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed
upon the Supine Stem.*
1 In most verbs of the ist, 2d, and 4th conjugations, the Present Stem is used as
the Verb-Stem, from which the others are derived in the manner hereafter shown.
3 Strictly these have no common stem, but are formed with special suffixes
(to^ taro^ ta«). As, however, the form to which they are added is the same
for each, and as the suffixes all begin with t^ it is usual to give the name supine
The Four Conjugations. 71
The Four Can^ngtMona,
122. There are in Latin four principal forms of Present
Stems, ending respectively in !, 9, j(, L With this
difference of stem most of the other differences of
conjugation coincide.
a. Verbs are accordingly classed in four regular Conjugations,
distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the
Present Infinitive Active.
d. The Principal Parts of a verb which determine its conju-
gation throughout are —
1. The Present Indicative ) showing the present stem
2. The Present Infinitive > and the conjugations
3. The Perfect Indicative, showing ^^ perfect stem ;
4. The Supine, showing the supine stem,
c. The regular forms of the conjugation are seen in the following :
1. amo, amare, amSvi, amatom, to love.
Present and Verb-stem, amd-^ Perfect stem, amdv-, Supine stem, amdt-,
2. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to destroy.
Present and Verb-stem, dele-^ Perfect stem, delev-, Supine stem, detet',
3. tego, tegSre, tezi, tectum, to cover.
Root TBG : Present stem, tegt-y Perfect stem, tex-^ Supine stem, tect-,
4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, to hear.
Present and Verb-stem, audi-^ Perfect stem, audiv-^ Supine stem, audU-,
In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic e rarely
appears in the perfect and supine : thus the t3rpe of this conjuga-
tion is — 2. moneo, monere, monul, monitom, to warn.
d. In many verbs the principal parts take the forms of two or
more different conjugations (See 134, p. 87) : as,
1. 2. domo, domare, domui, domitom, to subdue.
2. 3. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, to remain.
3. 4. peto, petere, petivi, petitom, to seek,
4. 3. vindo, vincire, vinzi, vinctum, to bind.
In these the conjugation is denoted by the first or present stem.
Note. — The conjugation of verbs used only in the Passive
(deponents) Is determined by the passive form of the infinitive ;
thus patLor, pati, paBBus is of the Third conjugation.
stem to the form in t« The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal to«-;
that in tnro* is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as victor^
TfeCnnis) ; that in tv» is an abstract noun of the fourth declension (see 125).
§30
5. a
5.b
p. 76
5. c
§30
72 Etymology: The Regular Verb.
l^roflont Stem*
123. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in
all regular verbs in one of the following ways : ^ —
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a
long vowel (fi, e, i) to the Root whose vowel is sometimes changed :
as, voca-re (voc), mone-re (men, orig. man), sopi-re (sop).
b. In the Third conjugation, by adding a short vowel (S, X) :
as, tegi-rey alX-tis. This may be preceded —
1. By «, /, scy or J/.-* as, tem-ne-re (tem), cresce-re (cre).
2. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see 126. c.) :
as, fug'i'Oy fug'i-re (fug).*
c. The root may also be changed -=■
1. By lengthening the vowel : as, dlc-e-re (dic), caed-e-re (cad).
2. By reduplication : as, gi-gn-e-re (genX
3. By inserting m or n (nasal) : as, find^e-re (fid) ; tang-e-re (tag).
d. Some verbs are formed from a noun-stem irregularly treated
as a Root \ as, statu-e-re {status^ aestuare {aestu-s).
e. A few isolated forms have the simple root : as, fer-re, fer-tj
es'se^ vel-let vul-t A few have roots ending in a vowel.
Perfect Stem.
124. The Perfect Stem * is formed as follows : —
* The so-called * * connecting vowd * * is really a part of the stem. The long vow-
els Sf gf ij of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, are different corruptions
of a sufifix AYA, which in the original language was added to Roots in one form of
Present Stems. The i of the Third conjugation comes from an original A, or some
other suffix ending in A added to the Root to form other kinds of Present Stems
{fero=^bharSmii ferimus =^bharamas) : as, capio^ toUo (ya), temno (na), mitto
(TA). These suffixes may be traced in the following parallel inflections ; —
I. vach-ayS-mi
vach-aya-si
vach-aya-ti
2. Tah-2l-mi
vah-a-si
vah-a-ti
veh-o
veh-i'S
veh'i-t
3. pa^-yS-mi
pag-ya-si
pa§-ya-ti
spec-i-o
spec-is
spec-i-t
Tach-ay^-mas
vach-aya-tha
vach-aya-nti
vocS-mus
voc-a-tis
voc-a-ni
vah-a-mas
vah-a-tha
vah-a-nti
veh-i-mus
veh-i-iis
veh-u-nt
pag-yS-raas
paj-ya-tha
pag-ya-nti
In all other cases where there appears to be a connecting vowel, it comes from a
verb-stem being used irregularly as a Root, — just as in /inxi (root fig, present
fingo\ the N of the present has forced itself into the perfect : as in soni-His^
moni-4us^ ori-tHrus (compare or-tus: so dami-tar compared with ardtor)\
feri-mus (compare /rr^), edi-mus (compare est^^edt). ^ As^ pel-io lor pel-yo.
• For the verbs thus formed, see p. 83. The i stands for an original y sound.
^ The final i of the Perfect is probably to be regarded as a part of the stem.
Its origin, however, is doubtful ; and it may be more convenient in practice to
take for the Stem the part preceding the tense endings 1, eram^ era, &c.
Formation of Teftses, 73
a> The suffix v (u) is added to the stem : as, vocS-v-i, audl-v-i;
or to the root : as, son-u-i {sona-re)^ mon-u-i (jnone-re).
Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and
lengthened : as, stra-v-i {sterno, star), spri-v-i (spemo^ spar).
b. The suffix 8 is added to the Root : as, carp-s-i^ tex-i (teg).
Note. — The modifications of the present stem, or a lost or
imaginary stem, sometimes appear in the perfect : as, finx-i (fig),
sanX'i (SAC), pett-v-i (pet).
c. The Root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant —
generally with S, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-i (cado),
to-tond-i (Jonded),
Note. — In fid-i {findo)^ scid-i (scindo), the reduplication has
been lost, leaving the root merely.
d. The root-vowel is lengthened : as, ig't{dg-d),fag-i {fUgio).
e. The root has the same form as in the present: as, vert-i
(vert6)y solv'i {solvo).
Snplne Stem*
125. The Supine Stem^ is formed by adding t (or
euphonically s) —
a. To the verb-stem : as, amd-t-umy dele-t-um^ audl-t-um.
b. To the Root, with or without I : as, cap-t-um (capid), moni-
t'Um (moned), cds-um (for cad-t-um).
Note. — The modifications of the present stem, or a lost or
imaginary one, sometimes appear in the Supine : as, tinc-t-um
{tingo\ tenS'Um (Jendd), petf-t-um {petd).
Formation of the Tenses.
Note. — The tenses of the regular verb may be formed upon
the several verb-stems by adding to these stems the verb-endings
(p. ^), making in the Present stem the changes indicated below.
126. The forms in the several conjugations, as deter-
mined by the Present Stem, with the regular formation
of the Perfect and Supine stems, and the changes of the
stem-vowel, may be given thus : —
a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a to the
root to form the present stem, as ama-rej with a few whose root
1 For the modifications of the Supine Stem, see 121. ^, Note.
74 Etymology: iThe Regular Verb.
ends in a.* In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add
V, t, to the present stem : ^ as, amd-v-i, amcL-t-um, The stem-
vowel a is lost before o (as amo^^ama-o\ and in the present
subjunctive is changed to e : as, ame-s^ ami-mus,
b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add 8 to
form the present stem : as, moni-re; with a few whose root ends
in e.* In a few the Perfect and Supine stems add ▼ (u), t : as,
deU-V'i^ dele-t'Um; but, in most, they are added to the root in the
perfect, and to a weaker stem in I in the supine: as, mon^u-iy
moni't'Um.* In the pres. subj. a is added : as, mone-ds, mone-amus,
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular)
which add 9 to form the Present stem: as, tegi-re, capi-re ; with a
few whose root ends in 8 : as, se-re-re} All the forms of the per-
fect and supine stems are found in this conjugation.' The stem-
vowel 8 is lost before o, becomes vl before nt, and I before the other
endings of the indicative and imperative : as, tego^ tegity teguntj in
the imperfect indicative it becomes e: as, tegibamj pres. subj., a.
Verbs in io retain i before a, o, n, and e : as, capiat^ capiunt,
capiebaty capies, capiet; but lose it elsewhere : as, capity caperet.
d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i : as,
audi-re,'* In these the Perfect and Supine stems regularly add
V, t, to the verb-stem : as, audl-v-iy audi-t-um? The endings of
the third conjugation are added in the 3d person plural of the pres-
ent (indie, and imperat), in the imperf. and fut. indicative, and in
the pres. subjunctive : as, audi-unty audi-ebaty audi-etisy audi-at.
e. The Imperative (2d person singular) is the same as the
Present Stem : as, amdy moniy tegiy audi. But verbs in io of the
Third conjugation omit i : as, cape,
/. The tenses of completed action are all regularly formed by
adding the tense-endings (given on p. 66) to the Perfect Stem : as,
amdV'iy amdv-eranty amdv-ero, amdv-erimy amdv-issemy amdv-isse,
g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are
formed by adding to the Perfect Participle the corresponding
tenses of continued action of the verb esse : as. Perfect, amdtus
sum J Plup. amdtus eramy etc.
' Viz., dd-rey fS-riy fid-rcy nd-rcy std-re. * The present stem is thus the
verb-stem. For exceptions, see p. 79. * These zx^fie-rey ne-rey re-ri. * For
exceptions, see p. 81. ^ Reduplicated from si (cf. sdtum). ^ See Lists, pp.
84, 85 ; the perfect, however, is never formed from the present stem. ' A few
are formed from noun-stems, as fint-rey and a few roots end in i ; but these are
not distinguishable in form. ' For exceptions, see p. 87.
Synopsis ; Special Forms, 75
127. A Synopsis of the forms of the Verb (regular
of the first conjugation), arranged according to the
severar Stems, may be given as follows : —
Present Stem, ama- Active Voice. Perfect Stem^ amav-
PRES. IMPERF. PUT. PERF. PLUPERF. FUT. PERF.
Indic. amo amabam amabo amavi, amaveram, amavero
SuBj. amem amarem — amaveiim, amavissem
Imper. 2. ama amato
Infin. amare amaviBse
Passive Voice. Supine Stem, amat-
Indic. amor amabar amabor amatuasum, — eram, — ero
SuBj. amer amarer amatus Sim, — essem
Imper. 2. amare amator
Infin. amari amatua eaae — amatum iri
Special Forms.
128. The following special forms are found in the
conjugation of many verbs: —
a. In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, ▼ between two
vowels is often suppressed, and (unless a or e follows i or v) the
second vowel is merged in the first: as, ainaii8e=amavisae;
fleatis 3= fl§vl8tia ; audieram = audiveram ; noase = novisae.
This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conjugation,
and is regular in the compounds of eo : as, abiit for abivit.
b. In many forms a with its vowel is suppressed in like manner
when it would be repeated : as, diztd for diadatL
c. Four verbs — dice, duco, facio, fero — with their com-
pounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making
die, due, fSo, fSr ; but compounds in -ficio retain it, as confice.
The forms ^ce, duce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
d. For the Imperative of acio, the future form acito is always
used in the singular, and acitote usually in the plural.
e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry : —
1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -xbo for -iebam, -iam (fut.).
2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim, re-
tained in religious formulas (compare sim, velim).
3. In the perf . subj. and fut. perf. -so, -aim : as, faxo, faxim,
4. In the passive infinitive -ier : as, vocdrier for vocdri,
5. A form in aaaere is found as a future infinitive.
§30
5. b
7.
p. 87
1^
Etymology : The Regular Verb,
$31
First Conjugation. —-u Active Voice.
Principal Parts:
Indicative.
amo, / love.
zxcM^you love.
amat, he (shey it) loves,
amamns, we love.
amatlB, j^^tf love.
amant, they love.
amabam, / loved.
amabas,^^!^ loved.
amabat, he loved.
amabamuB, we loved.
amabatis, j'^i^ loved.
amabint, they loved.
amabOy / shall love.
amabifl,^^!^ will love.
amabit, he will love.
amabimns, we shall love,
amabitiB,^^!^ will love.
amabont, they will love.
amivi, / loved,
amavisti,_y^« loved.
amavit, he loved.
amavimuBi we loved.
amaviatiSf^^TM loved.
amaverunt (§re), they loved.
amo amare amavi amatum
Subjunctive.
Present.
amem, may I love /
amis, love thou.
amet, let him love.
amemuB, let us love.
ametis, love ye.
ament, let them love.
Imperfect,
atnarem, / should love.
amareB,_y^« would love.
amaret, he would love.
amarSmuB, we should love.
atnaretaB,^^» would love.
amarent, they would love.
Fntnre.
[amaturua aim]
amaveram, / had loved.
amaver58,j^<7« had loved.
amaverat, he had loved.
amaveramus, we had loved.
amaveratiSy j'^tf had loved.
amaverSnt, they had loved.
Future
amavero, I shall have loved.
amaveris,j^^« will have lo%>ed.
amaveiit, he will have loved.
amaverimuB, we shall have loved.
amaveiitia,^^« will have loved.
amaverint, they will have loved.
Perfect.
amaverixn (see note, p. (i^)
amaveris
amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amaverint
Pluperfect.
amavissem, I should have loved.
amaviBses, you would have
amavlBset, he would have
amaviBBemna, we should have „
amaviBBetiB,j^^» would have
amaviBBent, they would have
Perfect.
First Conjugation; Active Voice, 77
Singular. Imperative. Plural.
amate, love ye.
amatote, j^^ shall love.
amanto, they shall love.
Pres. 2. ama, love thou.
FuT. 2. amato, thou shall love.
3. amato, he shall love.
Noun and A4|ectiTe Fomu.
Infinitive.
Present, amare, to love.
Perfect, amfivisse, or amasse, to have loved.
Future. amatOrua ease, to be about to love.
Participles.
Present, amana, antia, loving.
Future, amatams, a, um, about to love.
Gerund.
Gen. amandx, of [the act or state of] loving.
DAT. amanda^r loving (with adjectives).
Ace. atnandam, loving (with ad and inter).
Abl. aimnd5, by loving.
Supine.
amatnm, amatu, to love,
129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formed by
combining the tenses of esse with the Future Participle (supine-
stem)* and with the Gerundive (present-stem) : as,
First Peripbrastlo Coi^iis^tion.
Indicative. Subjunctive.
Pres. amatums sum . . . aim, / am about to laife.
Imperf. amaturus eram . . . esaem, / was about to love.
FuT. amaturua erd; / shall be about to love.
Perf. amaturua fui ... fuerim
Plup. amaturua fueram . . . fuiaaem (F. P. not used.)
Second Periphrastic Coi^iigratlon.
Pres. amandus aum . . . aim, / am to be loved.
Imperf. amandua eraxn . . . ew&eiOt I was to be loved.
FuT. amandua ero, / shall be [worthy] to be loved.
Perf. amandua fui ... fuerim
Plup. amandua fueram . . . fuiaaem F. P. . . fuero
" This is often necessary in the subjunctive, which has no future form : thus,
cum Tentums sit^ since he wUl come {is aJboiU to come).
§31
78
Etymology: The Regular Verb.
f31
First Conjugation.-- 2, JPassive Voice.
Principal Parts: amor amari amatus sum
Indicative.
amor, / am loved,
amarla {re), you are loved.
amatur, he is loved,
amamur, we are loved,
amainini,^^^ are loved,
amantur, they are loved.
amSbar, / was loved.
aiDabaris (re), you were loved,
amabatur, he was loved,
amabamur, we were loved,
amabamini,^^!^ were loved.
amabantur, they were loved.
Subjunctive.
Present.
amer, may I be loved.
ameria (re), be thou loved.
ametor, let him be loved.
amemur, let us be loved.
amemini, be ye loved.
amentur, let them be loved.
Imperfect.
amarer, T should be loved,
amareria {t^\you would be loved,
amaretur, he would be loved.
amaremur, we should be loved.
amareminifj'^tf would be loved,
amarentur, they would be loved.
amabor, I shall be loved.
future.
[futurum sit ut amer]
amaberis (re), thou wilt {you will) be loved.
amabitor, he will be loved.
amabimnr, we shall be loved.
amabiminiij^^tf will be loved.
amabuntur, they will be loved.
Perfect.
amatns sum, / was loved.
amatus eik^you were loved.
amatus eat, he was loved.
am at! sumiia, we were loved.
amati eeML^^you were loved.
amati sunt, they were loved.
amatus aim (see note, p. 68).
amatus ais
amatus ait
amati aimus
amati aitia
amati aint
Pluperfect.
amatus eram, / had been loved.
amatus erSa.^^^ had been loved.
amatus erat, he had been loved.
amati eramua, we had been loved,
amati erati8,^^« had been loved.
amati erant, they had been loved.
Future Perfect.
amatus ero, / shall have been loved.
amatus erla, you will have been loved,
amatus erit, he will have been loved,
amati erimua, we shall have been loved,
amati eAX^you will have been loved,
amati eront, they will have been loved.
amatus eaaem, / should v
amatus eases, j^^w would
amatus esset, he would
amati eaaemua, we should
amati essetis,^^» would
amati essent, they wouldt
have
Jbeen
laved.
First Conjugation; Passive Voice. 79
Singular, Imperative. Plural,
Pres. 2. amare, be thou laved, amamini, be ye loved,
FuT. 2. 2JDS.tox, thou shall be loved,
3. amator, he shall be loved, amantor, they shall be loved.
Noun and AdJectlTe Fomuu
Infinitive.
Present, amari, to be loved.
Perfect, amatua esse, to have been loved.
Future. amStum iri (amatua fore), to be about to be loved.
Participles.
Perfect, amatus, loved {beloved, or having been loved).
Gerund, amandna, a, um, to-be-loved {lovely).
Supine.
Ablative, amatu, to love or to be loved (with adjectives) -
130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation,
most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, to
which they generally give the force and meaning of an active
verb : as, armo, to arm (arma) ; caeco, to blind (caecua) ; ezsulo,
to be in exile (ezsul). Their conjugation is usually regular, like
amo; though of many only a few parts are found in use.
Those verbs which form their Perfect and Supine stems differ-
ently are the following. Those marked f have also regular forms,
and those preceded by a hyphen are found only in compounds : —
neco, t necui, t nect-, kill.
crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound.
cubo, cubui, cubit-, lie down.
do, dare, dedi, daX-^give [da].
domo, domui, domit-, subdue,
frico, fricui, tfrict-, rub.
juvo (ad-juvo), juvi, \^\-J^help,
labo, avi (no sup. ), totter,
mice, micui, fitter.
plico, t-plicui, t-plicit-,_/WI/.
poto, potavi, t pot-, drink,
seco, secui, sect-,'«tf.
sono, sonui, ^ovSx.-} sound.
sto, steti, Stat- (-stit-), stand.
tone, tonui, tonit-, thunder,
veto, vetui, vetit-f forbid.
> Yana&va 'Siurus.
Note. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms :
crepo : dis-crepui or crepSvi.
do : circum-^ inter'^, pessum-y satis-j super-, venum-do, dedi, dot-, of the ist
conjugation ; other compounds are of the 3d {-dere, -didi, -dit-).
mico : di-micdvi, micdt- ; e-mtcui, micdt-.
plico: re-, sub- {sup-), multi-plico, plicSvi, plicdt- ; ex-plico (unfold), ui,
it' ; (explain), ^/, St-; impU-co, dvi{ui), dtum {itum),
sto: con-sto, stiti, stit- {stdt-) ; ad-, re-sto, stiti, — ; ante- {anti-\ inter-,
super-sto, steti, — ; circum-sto, steti (stiti), — ; dt-sto, no perf . or sup.
8o
Etymology: The Regular Verb.
Second dmjugation.
Principal Parts : Act. moneo monere monui monitum
Pass, moneor moneri monitus snm
INDia ACTIVE. SUBJ.
Present.
INDIC PASSIVE. SUBJ.
moneo, I warn.
moneam
moneor
monear
moneA, you warn
moneSa
moneria (re)
monearia (re)
monet, he warns.
moneat
monetur
moneatur
monemuB
moneamua
monemur
moneamnr
monStia
moneatia
monemini
moneamini
monent
moneant
monentor
moneantur
Imperfect.
monebam
monerem
monebar
monerer
monebas
monSrea
monebaria (re
)monereria (re)
monebat
moneret
monebator
moneretur
monebamns
moneremua
monebamnr
moneremur
monebatia
moneretda
monebamini
moneremini
mon6bant
monerent
Fat
monebantur
nret
monerentor
monebo
monebor
monobia
moneberia (re
)
monebit
monebitur
monebimuB
monebimur
monebitia
monebimini
monebnnt
Perl
monebuntnr
rect.
xnoDuf
monuerim
monitaa aum
monitus aim
monuiati
monueria
monitus ea
monitus sia
monuit
monuerit
monitus eat
monitus ait
monuimua
monuerixDua
moniti aumua
moniti aimoa
monuiatia
monueritia
moniti eatia
moniti Bitia
monuSnmt (re)
monuerint
Plupe
moniti aunt
rfect.
moniti Bint
monueram
monuiaaem
monitus eram
monitus eaaem
monueraa
monuiasea
monitus eraa
monitus eaaea
monuerat
monuiaaet
monitus erat
monitus eaaet
monueramua
monuisaemua
moniti eramua moniti eaaemna
monuerStda
monuiaaetia
moniti eratia
moniti eaaetda
monuerant
monuiaaent
moniti erant
moniti easent
Future
Perfect.
monuero
monitus ero
monueria
monitus eria
monuerit
monitus erit
tnonuerimua
moniti erixnuB
monueritia
monit! eritia
monuerint
moniti erunt
Second Conjugation.
8r
ACTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
PASSIVE
Sing.
Plur, Sing.
Plur,
Pr. mone
monete
monere
F. moneto
monetote
monetor
monetx>
monento
monetor
monentor
INFINITIVE.
Pr. monere Pf. monuisse i Pr. moneri Pf. monitus esse
F. monituros esse I F. monitum iri (monitus fore)
PARTICIPLES.
Pr. monSns FuT. monitums | Pf. monitus Ger. monendus
G. monendi, do, dum Supine, monitum, monitu
131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation,
most of them denominative verbs of condition^ having a corre-
sponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive
in -SCO : as, caleo, oalor, oalidus, oalesco ; timeo, timor, timidus.
Mostof the verbs' of the second conjugation form their perfect
and supine like moneo. The following have evi and etum :
deleo, destroy; fleo, weep; neo, spin; vieo,/^// and compounds
of -pleo, fills -oleo, grow. The remainder are : —
algeo, alsi, he cold.
ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn.
audeo, ausus sum, dare.
augeo, auxi, aact-, increase,
caveo, cavi, caut-, care.
censeo, censui, cens-, vcdue.
cieo, civi, cit-, excite.
doceo, docui, doct-, teach.
faveo, fiivi, izMt-^ favor.
ferveo, fervi (ferbui), glcw.
foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish.
f rigeo, frixi, be cold.
falgeo, fulsi, shine.
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rgoice.
haereo, haesi, haes*, cling.
indulgeo, induisi, indult-, indulge.
jubeo, jussi, juss-, order.
Jangueo, langui, be faint.
Hqueo, l^ui (-licui), melt.
luceo, luxi, -luct-, shine.
lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn.
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait.
misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mix.
mordeo, momordi, mors-, bite.
moveo, movi, mot-, move.
mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe.
mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-),
milk.
niveo, nivi (nixi), wink.
paveo, pavi,ySar.
pendeo, pependi, pens-, hang.
prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
rideo, risi, ris-, laugh.
sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit.
soleo, solitus sum, be wont.
sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi ), sorpt-, suck.
spondeo, spopondi, si^oxiS-, pledge.
strideo, stridi, whis.
suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.
teneo (-tineo), tenui, tent-, hold,
tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe.
tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear.
torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist.
torreo, torrui, tost-, roast.
turgeo, tursi, swell.
urgeo, ursi, urge.
video, vidi, vis-, see.
voveo, vovi, vot-, vow.
Note. — The following (perfect in ut) have no supine stem:
arceo, calleo, egeo, fidreo, korreo^ pateo, sileOy studeo, timeo. A
few (including maereo) have neither perfect nor supine.
6
82
Etymology: The Regular Verb.
Third Conjtigation.
Principal Parts : Act. tego teggre texT
tectum
Pass, teg
OT tegi tectuB
sum
INDIC ACTIVE. SUBJ.
INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ.
Present.
tego, / cover.
tegam
tegor
tegar
tegiB,you cover.
tegaa
tegeria (re)
tegSria (re)
tegit, he covers.
tegat
tegitur
tegatur
tegimna
tegamua
tegimur
tegamur
tegitis
tegatia
tegimini
tegamini
tegnnt
tegant
teguntur
tegantur
Imperfect.
tegebam
tegerem
tegebar
tegerer
tegebas
tegerea
tegebaria (re)
tegereria (re)
tegebat
tegeret
tegebatur
tegeretur
tegebamus
tegeremua
tegebamur
tegeremur
tegebatis
tegeretia
tegebamini
tegeremini
tegebant
tegerent
tegebantur
tegerentur
Future.
tegam
tegar
tegea
tegeria (re)
teget
tegetur
tegemua
tegemur
tegetis
tegemini
tegent
Pen
tegentur
feet.
tead
texerim
tectua aum
tectus aim
texisti
texeria
tectua ea
tectus aia
texit
texerit -
tectua eat
tectus ait
teximus
texerlmua
tecti Bumua
tecti aimua
texistis
texeritia
tecti eatia
tecti aitia
texerunt (re)
texerint
PlniK
tecti aunt
irfect.
tecti aint
texeram
texiaaem
tectus eram
tectus eaaem
texeras
texiaaea
tectus eraa
tectus eaaea
texerat
texiaaet
tectus erat
tectus eaaet
texeraxnua
texiaaemua
tecti eramua-
tecti eaaemua
texeratia
texiaaetia
tecti eratia
tecti eaaetia
texerant
texiaaent
tecti erant
tecti eaaent
Fntore
Perfect.
texero
tectus ero
texeria
tectus eria
texerit
tectus erit
texerlmua
tecti erimua
texeritia
tecti erltia
texerint
tecti erunt
Third Conjugation,
83
ACTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
PASSIVE.
Sing^
Plur.
Sing,
Plur,
PR.
2. tege, cover, tegite
tegere
tegimim
F.
2. tegito
tegitote
tegitor
3. tegito
tegtinto
tegitor
tegtintor
INFINITIVE.
PR.
tegere
Pp. texisse
Pr. tegi
Pp. tectus esse
F.
tectOnia
esse
F. tectum in (tectus fore)
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. tegens FuT. tectums | Perf. tectus Ger. tegendus
Ger. tegendi, do, dum Supine, tectum, tectu
Verbs ending in io.
capio capere cepi captnm ,
capior cap! captus sum
Present.
capio, I take,
ca,piB,you take,
capit, he takes.
capiam
capias
capiat
capior
caperis (re)
capitur
capiar
capiaris (re)
capiatur
capimus
capitis
capiunt
capiamus
capiatis
capiant
Impe
captmur
capimini
capiuntur
rfect.
capiamur
capiamini
capiantur
capiebam
caperem
Fat
1 capiebar
ure.
caperer
capiam.
capies
capiet
capiemus
capietis
capient
capiar
capieris (re)
capiptur
capiemur
capiemini
capientnr
Perf. cepi
ceperim
captus sum
captus Sim
Plup. ceperam
captus eram
captus essem
F. P. cepero
cepissem
captus ero
Imp. cape
capito
capito
capite
capitote
capiunto
capere
capitor
capitor
capimini
capiimtor
Infin. capere
cepisse
capi
captus esse
FvT. capturus
esse
captum iri
Part, capiens
captiirus
captus
capiendus
Sup* oaptum, ta
Note. — Verbs of the 3d conjugation ending in io are the
following : capio, cupio, facto, fodio, fugio, jacio, pario, quatio,
rapio, sapto, with compounds of -cutio, -lido, -spicio. For their
Principal Parts, see the following list.
§33
84
Etymology : The Regular Verb.
132. The following list includes most simple verbs of the third
conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect stem.
a. Forming the Perfect stem in s (x) : —
ango, anxi, anct-, choke.
carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pliuk,
cedo, cessi, c^s&-t yield,
cingo, cinxi, cinct-, bind,
claneo, clanxi, sound,
claudOy clausi, claus-, shut.
clepo, clepsi, clept-, steed,
como, compsi, compt-, comb, deck.
coquo, coxi, coct-, cook.
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake,
demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away,
dico, dixi, diet-, say.
divido, divisi, divis-, divide,
duco, duxi, duct-, guide,
figo, fixi, ixx.-,fix,
fingo [figJ, finxi, dct-, fashion.
fiecto, flexi, flex-, bend,
fluo, fluxi, RvLX'tJlozo.
frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash.
frigo, frixi, frict- (frix-),/r>^.
gero, gessi, gest-, carry,
laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt,
-licio, -lexi, -lect-, entice (elicui, cit-).
lingo, linxi, linct-, tick.
ludo, lusi, lus-,//a^.
mergo, mersi, mer S', p/untge,
mitto, misi, miss-, send, [weave,
necto [necJ, nexi (nexui), nex-, to
nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry,
pecto, pexi (pexui), pex-, comb.
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on.
cado, cecidi, czs-yfall.
caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut,
cano, cecini, cant-, sing.
curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
disco [dig], didici, (discit-), /«zr».
-do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, &c.,
with credo, vendo),/«/ [dha].
fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive,
pango [pag], pegi (pepigi), pact-,
fastetiyfixy bargain.
parco, peperci, parcit-, spare.
pingo [pig], pinxi, pict-,/fli«/.
plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud.
plecto, plexi (xui), plex-, braid.
premo, pressi, press-, press.
promo, mpsi, mpt-, bring out.
quatio, [-cussi], quass-, shake
rado, rasi, ras-, scrape.
rego, rexi, rect-, rule,
repo, repsi, rept-, creep.
r5do, rosi, ros-, gnaw.
sarpo, sarpsi, sarpt-, prune.
scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape.
scribo, scripsi, script-, write.
serpo, serpsi, serpt-, crawl.
spar^o, sparsi, spars-, scatter.
•spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view.
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench.
stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind.
struo, struxi, struct-, build.
sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-, take.
surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise.
tego, texi, tect-, shelter.
temno, tempsi, -tempt-, despise.
tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe,
tingo, tinxi, tinct-, stain.
trano, traxi, tract-, drag.
trudo, trusi, trus-, thrust.
uro, ussi, ust-, burn.
vado,-vasi,-vas-, go,
veho, vexi, vect-, draw,
vivo, vixi, vict-, live.
b. Reduplicated in the Perfect : —
pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), to
bring forth.
pello, pepuli, puis-, drive.
pendo, pependij pens-, weigh.
posco, poposci, (posciturus,) de-
mand.
pungo [pug], pupugi, punct-,/nV^.
sisto [sta], stiti, stat-, stop.
tango [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch.
tendo (ten), tetendi (-tendi), tens-
(tent-), stretch, \heat.
tundo [tud], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-).
c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root : —
alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. \ colo, colui, cult-, dwelU HH-
-cello, -cellui (-culi), -cels-,/«jA,
cerno, -crcvi, -cret-, decree.
compesco, compescui, restrain.
consulo, lui, consult-, consult.
Third Conjugation,
. 85
cresco, crevi, cret-, increase, [down,
-cumbo [cub], cubui, cubit-, lie
depso, depsui, depst-, knead.
fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar.
furo, furui, ra^e.
gemo, cemui, gemit-, groan.
gigno ^enJ, genui, genit-, beget,
meto, messui, mess-, reap.
molo, molui, molit-, grind.
occulo, occului, occult-, hide.
pasco, pavi, -g^st-.feed.
pono, [pos], posui, posit-, /«/.
quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest.
d. Adding iv to the verb-root :
arcesso, Ivi, arcessit-, summon,
capesso, capessivi, undertake.
cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire,
incesso, incessivi, attack.
lacesso, lacessfvi, lacessit-, provoke.
rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize.
scisco, scivi, scit-, decree,
sero, sevi, sat-, sow,
sero, serui, sert-, entwine,
sino, sivi, sit-, permit.
sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn.
sterno, stravi, strat-, strew.
sterto, stertui (sterti), snore.
strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound.
-suesco, -suevi, -suet-, be wont.
texo, texui, text-, weave.
tremo, tremui, tremble.
vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit.
peto, petivi, petit-, seek.
quaero, auaesivi, quaesit-, seek.
rudo, ruaivi, rudit-, bray.
sapio, sapivi (sapui), be wise,
tero, trivi, trit-, rub.
e. Lengthening the vowel of
ago, egji, act-, drive.
capio, cepi, capt-, take.
edo, edi, esum, eat (see 140).
emo, emi, empt-, buy.
facio, feci, fact-, make.
fodio, fodi, foss-, di^.
frango [frag], fregi, fract-, break,
fugio, fugi, fugit-,jfefA
fundo [fud], fudi, fus-, pour.
jacio, jeci, jact-, throw, (-icio, -ject-
the root : —
lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash (reg.
of I St conj.)»
lego, legi (intel-lexi), \tct-, gather.
lino [liJ, levi (livi), lit-, smear.
linquo [Lie], -liqui, -lict-, leave.
nosco [gno], novi, not- (co-gnit-),
know.
rumpo [rup], rupi, rupt-, burst,
scabo, scabi, scratch.
) vinco [vic], vici, vict-, conquer.
f. Retaining the Present stem
argue, ui, iitum, accuse.
bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink.
-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle,
cudo, -ciidi, -cv^-, forge.
facesso, facessi, facessit-, execute,
-fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off.
findo [fid], fidi,i fiss-, split,
ico, ici, ict-, hit.
lambo, Iambi, lambit-, lap,
luo, lui, luit-, Tvash.
mando, mandi, mans-, chew.
nuo, nui, nuit-, nod.
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open.
or verb root : —
pinso, si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), bruise.
prehendo, di, prehens-, seize.
ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-),/i//.
scando, scandi, scans-, climb.
scindo fsciD], scidi,* sciss-, tear,
sido, sidi (sedi), -sess-, settle.
solvo, solvi, solut-, pay, loose.
strido, stridi, whiz.
vello, velli (vulsi), "vmXs-, pluck.
verro, verri, vers-, sweep.
verto, verti, vers-, turn.
viso [vid], visi, vis-, visit.
volvo, volvi, volut-, turn.
Note. — The following have no Perfect or Supine : — claudo^
(limp), fatiscoy fido, {ftsus), fulgo, glisco^ glUbo^ kisco, rabo,
tollo {susiuliy subldtum), vergo.
1 In these the Perfect Stem is the same as the verb root, having lost the redu-
plication. The reduplication is also lost in most compounds : as, ap-peUo^ ap-puli ;
con-ctdo {eado)f concidi.
§33
8.
86
Etymology : The Regular Verb.
Fourth Conjugation,
Principal Parts: Act. audio audire audivi auditum
Pass, audior audirl audltus snm
INDIC. ACTIVE. SUBJ.
INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ.
Present.
audio, /^^^r.
audiam
audior
audiar
audiB, you hear*
audias
audiris (re)
audiaria (re)
audit, he hears.
audiat
auditur
audiatur
audimus
audiamuB
audimar
audiaxnur
auditds
audiatis
audimiui
audiamini
audiunt
audiant
audiuntur
audiantur
Imperfect.
audiebam
audirem
audiebar
audirer
audiebas
audires
audiebarifl (re
) audireria (re)
audiebat
audiret
audiebatur
audiretur
audiebamua
audiremua
audiebamur
audiremur
audiebatis
audiretis
audiebamini
audirexnini
audiebant
audireut
Fut
audiebantar
ure.
audirentur
audiam
audiar
audiea
audieris (re)
audiet .
audietur
audiemus
audiemur
audietia
audiexnim
audient
Per
audientur
feet.
audivi
audiverim
audltus sum
audltus Sim
audlviati
audlveris
audltus es
audltus 818
audivit
audlverit
audltus eat
audltus sit
audlvimuB
audiverimuB
audit! aumua
auditi simus
audlvistis
audiveritis
audltl estia
auditi Bitis '
audlvernnt (re)
audlverint
Flap<
audit! sunt
Brfeot.
auditi aint
audiveram
audivissem
audltus eram
audltus esaem
audlveras
audivisaea
audltus eras
audltus esses
audiverat
audiviaaet
audltus erat
audltus esset
audiveramua
audivisaemaa
auditi eramua
auditi essemus
audiveratis
audivissetis
auditi eratis
auditi essetia
audiverant
audiviasent
auditi erant
auditi essent
Future
Perfect.
audlvero
audltus ero
audlveria
audltus eria
audlverit
audltus erit
audlverimus
auditi erimua
audiveritis
auditi eritis
audiverlnt
auditi erunt
Fourth Conjugation; Parallel Forms.
87
ACTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing,
Plur.
Sing.
Pr. 2. audi
audite
audire
F. 2. audito
auditote
auditor
3. audito
audiiinto
auditor
PASSIVE.
Plur.
audimini
audiontor
INFINITIVE.
Pr. audire Pf. audivisae i Pr. audiri Pf. aucfitns ease
F. audituniB esse I F. auditam iri (aucHtns fore).
participles.
Pr. audiens Fut. auditunis | Pf. aaditus Ger. audiendua
Ger. audien^ do, dum Supine, auditum, auditu
133. There are — besides a few deponents and regular deriva-
tives in tlrio — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large propor-
tion of them being descriptive verbs : like —
crocio, croak, gannio, yelp,
cucurio, crow. glutlo, gulp,
ebullio, bubble, grunnio, grunt,
fritinnio, twitter, ninnio, neigh.
hirrio, snarl,
mugio, bellow,
muttio, mutter,
singultio, hiccup.
scaturio, gush,
tinnio, tinkle.
tussio, cough,
vagio, cry.
Those verbs not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the follow-
amicio, amixi (cui), amict-, clothe,
aperio, aperui, apert-, open.
comperio, peri, compert-,y?«//.
farcio, farsi, farct-, f-tum), stuf,
ferio, strike (no perfect or supine),
fulcio, f ulsi, fult-, prop.
haurio, hausi, haust- (haus-), drain,
operio, operui, opert-, caver,
raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse.
reperio, reperi, xt,'^tx\',find.
salio (-silio), salui (salii), salt-, leap.
sancio (sac), sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch,
sarrio, ivi (ui), itum, hoe.
sentio, sensi, stns-t/eel,
sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in,
singultio, ivi, singultum, sob,
venio, veni, vent-, come.
vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind.
Note. — The following have no supine stem (perfect regular) :
caecutio, to be purblind.
dementio, to be mad
ferocio, to.be fierce.
gestio, to be overjoyed.
glocio, to cluck (as a hen),
ineptio, to play the trifler.
Parallel Forms.
134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms,
of which only one is generally found in classic use ; as,
lavo, lavare, or lavSre, to wash,
Boateo, scatere, or scatSre, to gush forth.
ludifico, are, or ludificor, ari, to mock.
88.
Etymology: Deponent Verbs.
DEPONENT VERBS.
135. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive
Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : as,
1. n^or, mirari, miratus, admire,
2. ▼ereor, veren, veritus, /2?£jr.
3. sequoxi sequi, secutus, /bZ/c^ze/.
4. potior, potiri, potitna, possess.
IndicatlTe.
vereor sequor
vereria (re) sequeria (re)
veretur seqnitur
Pres. n^or
mlrarla (re)
miratixr
miramur
mlramini
mirantur
iMP'x.mlrabar
FuT. mirabor
Perf. miratuB auxn
Plup. miratua eram
F. P. miratua ero
veremur
veremini
verentor
verSbar
verebor
veritua aum
veritua eram
veritua ero
sequimur
sequimini
sequuntur
sequebar
sequar
secutua aum
secutua eram
secutua ero
potior
potiria (re)
potitur
potimur
potimini
potiuntur
potiebar
potiar
potitua aum
potitua eram
potitua ero
Pres. mirer
Imp't. mirarer
Perf. miratua aim
Sul^aiictiTe.
verear sequar potiar
vererer sequerer podrer
veritua aim secutua aim potitua aim
Plup. miratua eaaem veritua eaaem secutua eaaem potitua eaaem
Imp. mirare, ator verere, etor sequere, itor potire, itor
iNFiN.mirari vereri sequi potiri
Fut. miraturua eaae veriturua eaae secuturua eaae potitiirua ease
Pf, miratua eaae veritua eaae secutua eaae potitua esse
Part.
Pres, mirans verena sequena potiena
Fut. miraturua veriturua secuturua potiturua
Perf. miratua veritua secutua potiltua
Ger. mlrSndua verendua sequendua potiendua
Ger. mirandum verendum sequendum potiendum
Sup. mlratum, tu veritum, tu secutum, tu potitum, tu
a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : as,
sec^eim, following ; aecuturua, about to follow.
aecutua, having followed; aequendua, to-befollowed.
b. The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often
passive : as, mercatua, bought; sAeptas, gained {or having gained).
c. The future infinitive is always to be given in the active form :
thus of aequor it is aeouturua eaae (not aecutum iri).
Etymology: Deponent Verbs,
89
^. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in
transitive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally : as,
hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged,
morienduin eat omnibus, all must die,
e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning,
corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice.
f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa-
tion : as, criminor, / accuse or / am accused,
g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both
active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, / deserve,
h. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation,
and all of these are regular. The following list contains all the
irregular deponents : —
adsentior, iri, adsensus, assent,
apiscor, (-ip-),i, aptus (-eptus),^<f/.
exper^scor, i, -perrectus, rouse,
expenor, Iri, expertus, try, [con/ess.
fateor (-fiteor), eri, fassus (-fessus),
fruor, i, fructus (fruitus), enjoy.
fungor, i, iwnciMS, fulfil,
gradior (-gredior), i, gressus, step,
irascor, i, Iratus, be angry,
labor, i, lapsus, y^/.
loc^uor, i, locutus (loquutus), speak.
-miniscor, i, -mentus, think,
metior, Iri, mensus, measure, {die,
morioFji (iri), mortuus,(inoriturus),
nanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus),yf»dr.
nascor, i, natus, be bom.
nitor, i, nisus (nixus), strive,
obliviscor, i, oblitus,/<7r^/.
opperior, iri, oppertus, await.
ordior, iri, orsus, begin. [rise.
orior (3d), iri, ortus, (oriturus),
paciscor, i, pactus, bargain, [suffer.
patior (-petior), i, passus (-pessus),
-plector, i, -plexus, clasp,
proficiscor, i, profectus, set-out,
queror, i, questus, complain.
reor, reri, ratus, think.
reverter, i, reversus, return, [low.
sequor, i, secutus (sequutus), fol-
tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend.
ulciscor, i, ultus, (avenge.
litor, i, usus, use, employ.
Note. — The passive form comperior, iri, compertus, is rarely
found for comperio. The perfect, &c., of reverter^ until the time of
Augustus, had regularly the active form, reverti, reverteram^ &c.
i. The following deponents have no supine stem : —
devertor, ti, turn aside (to lodge),
diffiteor, eri, deny,
liquor, i, melt (neut.).
medeor, eri, heal,
reminiscor, i, ccdl to mind
vescor, \, feed upon.
Seini-I>eponents.
136. A few verbs having no perfect stem form the
tenses of completed action like the passive: these are
called semi-deponents or neuter passives y viz.,
audeo, audere, ausus, dare, gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice,
f ido, f idSre, f isus, trust, soleo, solere, solitus, be wont.
90
Etymology: Irregular Verbs.
a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive perfect auaim.
The form sddea (for ai audea), an thou wilt, is frequent in the
dramatists and rare elsewhere.
b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged^ and venire, to be
sold (venom vc%go to sale)^ having a passive meaning, are some-
times called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri (see
142), to be made, and ezaulare, to be banished (live in exile).
Note. — The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-
deponents : juro, jur&tus; nubo, nupta; placeo, piacitus.
[For the regular Derivative Forms, see page 114.]
Irresrnlar TertMB.
[For eaae and its compounds, see pp. 67-70.]
137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings
of the present tense directly to the root, or combine two
roots in their inflection. These are called Irregular
Verbs. They are, besides esse, the following.
138. Vole and its compounds : viz.,
1. vole, velle, volui,^ to wish,
2. nolo (non volo), nolle, nolul, to be unwilling,
3. male (magis or mage volo), malle, malui, to wish rather.
These three are inflected as follows : —
PRESENT.
INDIC SUBJ.
volo velim
yr%R\SoxvoU) veliB
vult {voU) velit
volumus velimus
vultis ivoUis) velitis
volunt velint
vQlebam vellem
volam, voles, etc.
INDIC.
n51o
ndnvis
ndnvult
ndlumuB
nonvultis
ndlunt
SUBJ.
nolim
noUs
nolit
ndlimuB
ndlitlB
ndlint
INDIC
malo
mavis
ma vult
maluxnus
mavultis
malunt
SUBJ.
malim
maUt
malimus
malitis
malixit
volui
volueram
volaerim
IMPERFECT.
ndl3bam ndllem.
FUTURE,
ndlam, ndles, etc.
PERFECT.
nSixjl ndlaezim
malebam millem
malam, males, etc.
malul
PLUPERFECT,
volaissem ndlueram ndluissem mSlueram
maluerim
malaissem
FUTURE PERFECT,
voluero ndluero maluero
' The supine stem appears in vtdtus.
Irregular Verbs: Fero, Edo.
91
XMPBRATIVB.
ndU, nolite, <^iMtf.
nolitO, nolitOte, thou shalt not^ ye shall not,
nolitO, nolxmtO, he shall mat, Jh^jhalltuL
Pres, velle voluisse
Pres. volens, wi7/tVi^.
Ger. VOlendl (late).
INFINITIVB.
ndlle noluisse
PARTiaPLBS.
n61exi8, unmUliMg,
xxujle xnaluisso
139. Fero, ferre, tfili, latum,^ to bear.
Pres,
Imperf,
Fut,
Perf,
Plup.
F,Perf.
Imp. Pres, for
Fut. ferto
ferto
Inf. Pres. ferre
ACTIVE.
INDIC
fero
fera
fert
ferimus
fertda
ferunt
ferebam
feram
tiUi
tnleram
tiilero
PASSIVE.
SUBJ.
feram
feraa
ferat
feramua
feratis
ferant
ferrem
tulerim
tulisaem
ferte
fertote
feninto
Perf. tulisae
INDIC.
feror
ferris
fertur
ferimur
ferimini
feruntur
ferebar
ferar
lattis sum
latuB eram
latuB ero
ferre
fertor
fertor
Pres. ferri
SUBJ.
ferar
feraria (re)
feratur
feramor
feramini
ferantur
ferrer
latus Sim
IStua easem
ferimini
feruntor
Perf. latua eaae
Fat. laturua eaae Fut. latum iri (latua fore)
Part. Pres. ferena Fut. laturua Perf. IStua Ger. ferendua
Gbr. ferendi, d5, dum Sup. l&tum, tu
140. Edo, edere, edi, eaum, to eat (regular of third conjuga-
tion), has also some forms directly from the root (ed) without a
characteristic vowel : viz.,
INDIC ACTIVE. SUBJ.
Pn
edo edam (edim)
edis (ea) edas (edia)
edit (eat) edat (edit)
edimus edamus (edimua)
editis (eatia) edatis (editia)
edunt edant (edint)
INDIC PASSIVE. SUBJ.
edor
edar
ederis (re)
edaris (re)
editur (eatur)
edatur
edimur
edamur
edimini
edamini
eduntur
edantur
1 The perfect lull is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), from tul in tollo ;
the supine latum for tlatum (cf. rKtfr^y
§37
92
Etymology: Irregular Verbs.
Imperfect.
edebar ederer
edebaris (re) edereris (re)
edebatur ederetur (eBsetor)
edar, ederis, edetur, etc.
edebam ederem (essem)
edebas ederes (esses)
edebat ederet (esset) etc.
FuL edam, edes,^edet, etc.
Perf, edi ederim
Plup, ederam ediss^m
F, Perf. edero
Imp. ede (es) edite (este)
edito Testo) editote (estote)
edi to (esto) edunto
Part. Pres. edens Fut. esurus
141. Bo, ire, ivi, Itum, to go,^ The forms of eo are used
Impersonally in the passive ; the infinitive iri with the supine in
um making the future infinitive. They are also found in veneo,
to be sold (i. e. venum eo, go to sale).
The compounds adeo, ineo, and some others, are transitive, and
are regularly used also in the passive.
esus sum
esus Sim .
esus eram
esus essem
esus ero
edere
edimini
editor
editor
eduntor
Perf, esus
Ger, edendus
XNDICATIVB.
Pres, S.
P.
Imperf,
SUBJUNCTIVB.
earn, eaa, eat
eamus, eatis, eant
Irem, ires, iret
iremuB, iritis, irent
Future
Perf.
Pluperf.
iverim (ierim)
ivissem (issem)
eo, is, it
imus, itis, eant
ibam, ibas, ibat
ibaxQua, ibatis, ibant
ibo, ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt
ivi (ii)
iveram (ieraxn)
Fut, Perf, ivero (iero)
Imperat. i, ito, ito ; ite, itote, eunto
Infin. Pres, ire P^Vf: ivi»8© (isse) Fut. itiirtiB esse
Part. Perf, iens, euntis Fut, iturus Ger, eundum (-eundos)
142. Facio, facere, feci, factum, to make^ is regular, with these
peculiar forms : future perfect fazo, perfect subjunctive faadm, im-
perative fac. It has for its passive
f io, fieri, factus smn, to be made, or become,
of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con-
jugation, but with the subjunctive imperfect fierem.
1 Root I, cf. «I/Ai ; the e stands for el produced by vowel-increase from L
Irregular and Defective Verbs. 93
INDICATIVB. SUBJUNCnVB.
Pres, S, f 10, f is, fit fiam, f ias, fiat
P, f imus, f itis, f iunt f iamuSf f iatis, f lant
Imp. f iebam, f iebas, etc. fierem, fieres, etc.
Put fiam, f ies, etc.
Petf. factua sum factua aim
Plup, faotus eram fiactus essem
Put, Perf, factua ero
Imperat. f i, f ito, f ito ; f ite, f itote, f iunto
In/in. Pres. fieri Perf. lactus esse
Part Perf. factus Ger. iaciendus
a. Most compounds of fado with prepositions change S to X
(present stem), or S (supine stem), and are inflected regularly : as,
oonfioio, conficfire, confed, confectum, to finish.
b. Other compounds retain a, and have -f io in the passive : as,
bene-facio (-f&'cia), -feci, -factum ; pass, benef io, to benefit.
c. A few isolated forms of -f io occur in other compounds : viz.,
QO-aSiX^ it happens, defit, ii lacJks. iaUt, he iegins (to sptak).
oonfiet
denunt
infiunt
oonfiat
denet
effieri, to he effected.
oonfieret
denat
interfleri, to perish.
oonfien
defieri
interfiat, let him perish.
Defective Verbs.
143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and
use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are in-
flected regularly. They are —
a. Coepi,^ / began/ Infin. coeplsse; Fut. Part, coepturus.
A passive participle coeptua is used with the passive infinitive.
For the Present, inoipio is used.
b. Odi, / hate ; • with the participles osus, hating or hated
(perosus, utterly hateful), Ssiirus, likely to hate.
c. Memini, / remember; • with the Imperative memento, me-
mentote ; Part, meminens.
Note. — Odi and memini, having a Perfect form with a present meaning,
are caW&di preteritiiie verbs.
' Root co-AP as in apiscor. * Root OD in Hdium.
S Root MEN, as in mens.
94 Etymology: Defective Verbs.
144. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in
many the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear
in the compounds. Some occur very commonly, but
only in a few forms: as,
a, Aio,* I say :
Indic. Pres, aio, ais, ait ; Slant
Imperf, aiebam, (sobam), aiSbaa, &c.
SUBJ. Pres, aiSa, aiat, aiat.
Imperat. ai. — Part, aiena
b, Inquam, say (used only, except in poetry, in direct quota-
tions, as the English quoth^ which is perhaps from the same root) :
Ind. Pres, inquam, inquis, inquit
iuquimuB, inquitia (late), inquiunt
Itnperf, inquiebat. — Fut. inquiet. — Ferf. inquisti, inqnit.
Imperat. inque, inquito.
c, Pari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : as,
fatUB sum, eram, &c. It has also —
Ind. Fres, fatur, fantur. — Fut. fabor, fabitur.
Imperat. fare. — Infin. fari. — Part, fanti (with the com-
pound infana, usually as a noun).
Gerund, fandua, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan-
dua, nefandua, unspeakable, abominable), — Supine, fatu.
Several compounds with the prepositions ex, prae, pore, inter,
occur : as, praefatur, affari, profdtus, intetfatur, &c.
d, Quaeao, / ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has —
quaeao, qaaeattmua, quaeaere, quaeaena.
e, Ovare, to triumph, has the following :
ovat, ovet, ovaret ; ovana, ovandi, ovataa, ovatiirua.
/. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative : as,
aalve, aalvete, hail! also aalvere (from aalvua).
ave (or have), avete, aveto, hail or farewell.
cede, cedite (cette), give, telL
apage! begone ! (properly a Greek word).
1 Root AGH found in adagium and in nego, which has passed into the first
conjugation.
Defective and Impersonal Verbs.
95
g, Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot^ are conjugated like eo. They
are rarely used except in the Present. ^
Pres,
Imperf,
Fut,
Perf.
Plup.
Infin.
Part.
queo
quia
quit
qmmuB
quitis
queunt
quibam
quibat
quibant
quibo
qmbont
quivi
quivit
quiverunt
queam
(regular)
quirem
quiret
quirent
quiverit
nequeo
nonquia
nequit
nequimus
nequitis
nequeunt
nequibam
nequibat
nequibant
> nequibunt
nequivi
neqmvisti
neqiuvit
nequiverant
SUBJ.
nequeaxn
(regular)
nequirem
quissent
quire quivisse (quiase) neqmre
quiens, queiintis nequiens
[A few passive forms occur in old writers.]
nequlBset
nequivifwe
Impersonal Verlw.
145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in
the third person singular^ with the infinitive ^nd gerund.
These are called Impersonal Verbs.^ Their synopsis
may be given as follows : —
i. U is^lain.
iL U is allowed.
iii. U chances
. iv. U results.
Pass. i. U is fought.
constat
licet
accidit
evenit
pugnatur
constabat
licebat
accidebat
eveniebat
pugnabatur
constabit
licebit
accidet
eveniet
pugnabitur
constitit
licuit
accidit
evenit
pugnatum est
constiterat
licuerat
acciderat
evenerat
pugnatum erat
constiterit
licuerit
accident
evenerit
pugnatum erit
constet
liceat
accidat
eveniat
pugnetur
constaret
liceret
accideret
eveniret
pugnaretur
constiterit
licuerit
acciderit
evenerit
pugnatum sit
constitisset
licuisset
accidisset
evenisset
pugnatum esset
constare
licere
accidere
evenire
pugnari
constitisse
licuisse
accidisse
evenisse
pugnatum esse
-staturura esse liciturumesse
eventurum esse pugnatum iri
1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no rep-
resentative in Latin, though id^ hoc, iUudy are often used nearly in the same way.
98 Etymology: Particles.
fi. Ablative forms : conird, guij aliguu
y. Datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, ^uo, adeo, ultro, citro, retro
(the last three being comparatives of «/j, «>, re) ; Uloc^ illoce, weakened
to illuc.
9. Locative forms : id$\ ubi, peregre [peregri)^ hie, f'nterim, deinde, tammy
and the compounds extrinsecus, hodie, perendU^dlim (o'/us),
€. Feminine Accusatives : statim, saltim (generally in the form saltern)^
pcUatn^ perperanty tarn, quam^ nam (which may be neuters).
f. Plural Accusatives, neuter or itm\Ti\iit,frustrd,{}) aiids, fords,
i|. Of uncertain formation : (i) those in -tus (usually preceded by /),
as: penitusy funditusy divinitus, — which are ablative in meaning; (2)
those in -detfiy -dam, -do (in quan-do^ do-nee), dutn, jam (perhaps from the
same root with dies, diu, &c.).
6. Phrases or Clauses which have grown into adverbs : anted (ace.
pi. or abl.), postmodo, denuo (de novo), prorsus, quotannis, quamobrem^
obviam, pridem, forsan, forsitan (fors sit an), scilicet (scire licet),
[For Numeral Adverbs, see p. 49.]
Classiflcatlon.
149. Adverbs, other than those regularly formed from
adjectives, are classified as follows : —
a. Adverbs of Place.i /
hic, here hue, hither hinc, hence hac, by this way
ibi, there eo, thither inde, thtnce ea, by thcU way
istic „ istuc „ istinc „ ista „
illic „ illuc „ illinc „ ilia (iliac) „
ubi, where quo, whither unde, whence qua, by what way
slicubi, somewhere aliquo, /e?, &c. alicunde,^^wi, &c. aliqua,^, &c.
ibidem, in the same place todem „ indidem „ eadem „
alibi, elsewhere alio „ aliunde „ alia „
ubiubi, wherever qu5qu5 „ undecunque „ quaqua „
ubivTs, anywhere quovis „ undique „ quavis „
sicubi, if anywhere siquo „ sicunde „ siqua „
necubi, lest anywhere nequo „ necunde „ nequa „
usquam, anywhere ; nusquam, nowhere ; ultro, beyond (or freely, i.e.
beyond what is required); citro, to this side; intro, inwardly;
porro, further on,
quorsum (quo voTsum, whither turned) ? to what end? hoxsMUi, this way ;
prorsum, forward (prorsus, utterly) ; introrsum, inwardly ; retror-
sum, backward; sursum, upward; deorsum, downward ; seorsum,
apart ; aliorsum, another way.
' The demonstrative adverbs hic, ibi, istic, illic, and their correlatives, corre-
spond in signification with the pronouns hic, is, iste, ille (see 102), and are of ten
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde =■ ab eo, &c. So the rela-
tive or interrogative ubi corresponds with qui {quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, tebiubi
with quisquis, si-cubi with siquis (see 104, 105, with the table of Correlatives
in 106). All these adverbs are originally case-forms of pronouns.
Adverbs. 99
b. Adverbs of Time.
quando? when? (interrog.) ; cum (quom, quum), when (relat.); ut, as,
nunc, now; tunc (turn), then ; mox, presently ; jam, already ; dum, while*
primum (primo), first ; deinde (postea), next after ; postremum (post-
remd), finally ; posteaquam, postquam, when [after that).
umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always.
aliquando, atsomeiime^ at length ; cjuandoque (quandocumque), whenever,
quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, so often; aliquotiens, a number
quotidie, etfery day ; in cues, from day to day, [of times,
nondum^ not yet ; necdum, nor yet; ybidum, scarce yet ; quam primum,
as soon as possible ; saepe, often ; crehro ffre^tdently,
c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause.
quam, how, as ; tam, so ; q^uamvis, however much, although ; quomodo,
cur, quare, why ; quod, quia, because ; eo, therefore, [how.
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how ; utut, utcumque, however,
quamquam (quanquam), a/M^»^^, and yet ; et, etiam, quoque, even, also.
d. Interrogative PartTcles.
an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether,
nonne, annon, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all (ecquid
intellegis ? have you any idea ?)
utrum (num)i -ne, whether ; ... an (annon, necne), or,
— „ ... an, -ne „
e. Negative Particles.
non, not (in simple denial) ; baud (hau, haut), minime, not (in contradic-
tion) ; ne, not (in prohibition) ; neve, neu, nor ; nedum, much less,
ne, lest ; neque, nee, nor / ne . . . quidem, not even.
non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo . . sed ne . . quidem, not only not . . but not even,
si minus, if not; quo minus (qu5minus), so cu not.
quin (xq\2X.), but that ; (mitxrog.), why not f
ne, nee (in compos.), not; nescio, / know not; nego, I say no (aio, I say
yes) ; nemo (ne h5mo), no one ; ne quis, lest any one ; necopinatus,
unexpected; neque tmm, for , , , not.
150. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : as,
nemo non audiet, every one will hear,
a. This is especially frequent with compounds of non : as, non-
nnllua (»=aliqui8), some (at any rate); nonnihil (s»aliqiiid),
something; nonnSmo (^^aUquot), sundry persons; nonnom-
quam (=aliqaotien8), sometimes; necnon, also,
b. On the other hand, nemo non, nullua non, every one; nihil
non, every thing; numquam non, always^ &c,
151. The following require special notice : —
a. Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and usually precedes
the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as,
tenet etiam nos ac minatur (Rose. Am. 40), us also he terrifies and
threatens,
hoc quoque maleficium (id.), this crime too.
icx) Etymology: Particles.
b. Nunc means definitely the present time; jam, already (or,
with the future, presently) \ with negatives, no longer^ with refer-
ence to the past. Tunc, then^ is a strengthened form of turn,
which is correlative with onin, when : as,
non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room far mercy,
quod jam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice,
nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lael. 4), now \^tis true) she
[Greece] is ruined^ then she was in her glory,
tum cum regnabat, at the time [when] he reigned,
c. Certs means certainly; certe (usually), at any rate; as,
certo Bcio, I know for a certainty; ego certe, I at least,
d, V'nssL\aa^ first (first in order ^ ox for the first time), is usually
followed by deinde, tum, . . . denique. Thus —
primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de impera-
tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of war, next of its
magnitude, then of the choice of commander.
The adjective forms of primus are used of persons and things
with respect to other persons and things. Primum and prime
(adverbs) rather modify the predicate: primum, as first of a
series ; prime (more unconnected), giving prominence to the
change of time.
e, Quidem, indeed, emphasizes, and often has a concessive
meaning, especially when followed by aed, autem, &c. : nunc
quidem, now, ^tis true. With no . . . quidem, not even or not
, , . either, the emphatic word must stand between : as,
senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), an old man has not
any thing to hope for even.
sed ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), but Jugurtha wof fwt
quiet EITHER.
2. -PREPOSITIONS.
152. The Latin Prepositions are regularly used with
some special case of a noun or pronoun, either the accu-
sative or the ablative.^
' Prepositions are not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean-
ing, but only specialized in use, as above. Most of them are true case-forms : as,
contra, infrS, supra (comparative abl.), circum^ coram, cum (ace), circiier, prae-
ier (compare 88 d). Of the remainder, versus is a participle of verto, rarely used
without another preposition; adversus is a compound; while the origin of the
brief forms ab, ad, de, ex, ob, trans, is obscure and doubtful.
Prepositions, 10 1
a. The following are used with the Accusative : —
ad, to, erga, towards. post, after,
adveraua, against, extra, outside, praeter, beyond,
adversum, towards, infra, below, prope, near,
Bute, before, intexy among, pioptet, on account of,
apud, at, near, intra, inside, aecondanx, nextto*
circa, or jiu^ta, near, aupra, above,
circum, around, ob, on account of, trans, across,
circiter, about, penes, in the power, ultra, on the further side,
cis, citra, this side, per, through, versus, towards,
contra, against. pone, behind,
b. The following are used with the Ablative : —
a, ab, abs, away from, by, e, ex, out of,
absque, without, but for, prae, in comparison with,
coram, in presence of, pro, in front of for*
cum, with, sine, without,
6&,from. tenos, up to, as far as,
c. The following may be used with either case, but strictly with
a difference in meaning : —
in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, indicate motion to,
when by the Ablative, rest in, a place.
153. Some idiomatic uses of the prepositions may be
seen in the following : —
A, ab* AWAY FROM * (opposite of ad) : — prope ab urbe, near (not far
from) the city ; liberare ab, to set free from ; occisus ab hoste (periit ab
hoste), slain by an enemy ; ab hac parte, on this side; ab re ejus, to his
advantage; a republica,/?f the interest of the state.
Ad, TO, TOWARDS, AT, NEAR ; — ad tempus, at the (fit) time; adire ad
rempublicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace ;
ad hunc modum, in this -way ; quern ad modum, how, as ; ad centum,
near a hundred ; ad hoc, besides ; omnes ad unum, all to a man.
Ante, IN FRONT, BEFORE : — ante urbem captam, before the city was
taken; ante diem quintum (a.d.v.). Kal., the fifth day before the Calends
(the 3d day before the last of the month) ; ante quadriennium,yiwr^^arr
before or ago; ante tempus, too soon,
Apud, at, by, AMONG, rarely of places : — apud populum, before the
people ; apud aliquem, at one's house ; apud se, cU home, or in his senses ;
apud Ciceronem, in Cicero (in his works).
' ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker j com-
pare de and ex.
I02 Etymology: Particles.
Circum, eirca, circiter (stem as in circuSy circle)^ about, around :
circum haec loca, hereabout; circa se habent, they have with them. Of
time or number, r/rra or circiter (not circum)', — circa eandem horam,
about the same hour ; circiter passus mille, about a mile.
Contra (abl. comp. of cum), opposite, against i — contra Italiam,
over against Italy ; haec contra, this in reply ; contra autem, but on the
other hand (adv.) ; quod contra, whereds on the other hand (adv.).
Cum, WITH (together in place or time) ; — cum malo suo, to his own
hurt; confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy ; esse cum telo, to go
armed ; cum silentio, in silence,
De, FROM, DOWN FROM, CONCERNING : — unus de plebe, one of the
people ; qua de causa, for which recuon ; de improviso, of a sudden ; de
industria, on purpose ; de integro, anew; de tertia vigilia, /«j/ at mid-
night (starting at the third watch) ; de mense Decembri navigare, to
sail as early as December,
Ex, e, FROM (the midst, opposed to in), out of: — ex hoc die, from
this day forth ; ex consulatu, right after his consulship ; ex ejus sententia,
according to his opinion; ex 2itq}io, justly ; ex improviso, unexpectedly ;
ex tua re, to your advantage ; magna ex parte, in a great degree; ex equo
pugnare, to fight on horseback ; ex usu, expedient.
In with ace, into (opp. to ex) ; — amor in (erga or adversus) patrem,
love for his father; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps or
merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ; in longitudinem, in length ; in haec
verba jurare, to swear to these words ; hunc in modum, in this way ; oratio
in Catilinam, a speech against Catiline ; in perpetuum,/^ ever ; in pejus,
for the worse ; in diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth. With abl.,
IN, on, among: — in urbe esse, to be in town ; in tempore, in season; in
scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, / have it in mind; in
ancoris, at anchor; in hoc homine, in the case of this man.
Infra, below : — infra caelum, under the sky ; infra Homerum, later
than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than three feet.
Inter, between (with 2 ace), among: — inter bibendum, while
drinking; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between our-
selves,
Ob, towards (in place), on account of: — ob oculos, before the
eyes ; ob eam causam.ybr that recuon ; quam ob rem, wherefore.
Per, through (in any direction) : — per urbem ire, to go through the
city ; licet per me, you may for all me ; per jocum, in jest,
Prae, in front, by reason of : — prae se ferre, to carry before him
(exhibit or make known) \ prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy ;
prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison with their own bigness,
Praeter, by (on the outside), besides : — praeter spem, beyond hope;
praeter oculos, before the eyes.
Pro, IN front of, in behalf of, instead of (facing the same
way) : — pro populo, in presence of the people ; pro lege, in defence of the
Prepositiom ; Conjunctions. 103
law ; pro hac vice, y^ this once; pro consule, in place of consul; pro
viribus, considering his strength ; pro virDi parte, to the best of one* s ability.
Propter, near, by: — propter te sedet, he sits next you; propter
metum, through fear.
Secundum, just beyond, following (part, of sequor) : — ite se-
cundum me (Plaut.), go behind me ; secundum litus, near the shore ;
secundum flumen, along the stream (secundo flumine, dawn stream);
secundum naturam, according to nature.
Sub, under: — sub montem succedere, to come close to the hill; sub
noctem, towards night; sub lucem, near daylight; sub haec dicta, at
these words ; sub Jove, in the open air ; sub monte, at the foot of a hill;
sub eodem tempore, about that time.
Super, ABOVE, over: — vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound ;
super Indos, beyond the Hindoos ; super tali re, about such an affair;
satis superque, enough and more.
Supra (comparative), on the top: — supra hanc memoriam, before
our remembrance ; supra morem more than usual ; supra quod, besides.
Ultra, beyond (on the further side) : —ultra eum numerum, more
than that number; ultra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, immoderate;
non plus ultra, nothing further,
[For Prepositions in Compounds, see 17a]
3.-CONJUNCTIONS.
Clasfltflcation.
154. Conjunctions like adverbs are petrified cases of
nouns or pronouns. They are more numerous, and their
use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin than
in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : —
a. Co-ordinate: — these include Copulative (and), Disjunc-
tive (or), Adversative (but), Causal (for), Illative (there-
fore):
b. Subordinate : — these are Conditional (if), — including
Comparative (as if), Concessive (though, even if), — Tem-
poral (when). Consecutive (so that). Final (in order that).
155. The following list ^ includes most of the conjunc-
tions and conjunctive phrases in common use : —
* Some of these have been included in the classification of Adverbs, and a list
of Interjections has been added. See also list of Correlatives, page 57.
I04 Etymology: Particles.
Co-ordinate,
A. COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE.
et, -que, atque (ac), and,
et . . . et ; et . . . -que (atque) ; -que . . . et ; -que . . • -que (poet.),
both . . . and,
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), also,
cum . . . turn; tum . . . turn, both , , , and ; not only . . . but also.
qu& . . • qu^ on one hand, on the other hand*
modo . . . modo, now , , , now,
aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either , ^ . or,
sive (seu) . , . sive, whether , , , or.
nee (neque) . . . nee (neque) ; neque . . . nee ; nee . . • neque (rare),
neither . . . nor, *
et . . . neque, both , . . and not,
nee . . . et; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither . . . and,
B. ADVERSATIVE.
sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui but,
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, btUyet, nevertheless*
nihilominus, none the less,
at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth.
ceterum, on the other handy but,
C. CAUSAL AND ILLATIVE.*
nam, namque, enim, etenim,y^.
quia, quod, because,
quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem,
utpote, since^ inasmuch as,
propterea ( . . . quod),y2?r this reason ( , , , that),
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence.
ergo, igitur, itaque, idee, idcirco, proinde, therefore, accordingly.
Subordinate.*
D. CONDITIONAL.
si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not.
E. COMPARATIVE.
ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, ac si, as if.
quam, atque (ac), cu, than.
1 Several of these are often used also to introduce subordinate clauses.
3 See Syntax, Chap. V., for the use of these particles in subordinate clauses.
Conjunctions, 105
F. CONCESSIVE.!
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam (quanquam), although,
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much.
licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), though^ suppose^ whereas,
G. TEMPORAL.
cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when,
prius . . quam.ante . . quam, ^^*f; non ante . . quam. not , , until,
quando, simul atque (simul ac), simul, as soon as,
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until,
H. CONSECUTIVE AND FINAL.
ut (uti), quo, ut, so that, in order that,
ne, ut ne, lest {in order that not) ; neve (neu), nor,
quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent).
Inteijections* '
O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).
io, evae, evoe (of joy).
heu, eheu, vae, alas ! (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, hoi (of calling),
eia, euge (of praise).
proh (of attestation) : as, proh pudor, shame I
156. The following are the conjunctions whose mean-
ing or use chiefly requires to be noticed : — •
a, Bt, and^ connects independent words or clauses ; -que (en-
clitic) combines closely into one connected whole; atque (some-
times ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the second
member, and not is expressed by neque or nee.
Atque (ac), as, than^ is also used after words of comparison
and likeness : as, idem, the same; 9\xcL\3\t as soon ; aliter, otherwise.
b. Sed and verum or ver5 (more forcible), but, are used to
contradict what precedes, — always after negatives ; at, yet, intro-
duces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at enlm
almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the other side ;
autem {however) is used in the same way, especially in transitions,
but with less force. Atqui sometimes introduces an objection,
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, is used
to continue a statement. Ast is old or poetic.
1 A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as tamenetsi . . tamen
nihilominnsy though . . . yet none the less.
io6 Etymology: Particles,
c. Aut, or^ excludes the alternative ; vel (-ve) gives a choice ;
sive (sea) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also
used with single words, — especially two names for the same thing.
But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.
Vel (even) is used to express a climax ; vel minimus, the very
least
d. Nam (namque), for^ introduces a sufficient reason ; enim,
an explanatory circumstance ; etenim (for, you see; for, you
know), something self-evident, or needing no proof (negatively,
neo or neque enim).
e. Ergo, therefore, is u^ed of things proved logically ; itaque,
in proofs from the nature of things ; igitar, then (a weak ergo),
in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely
to resume ; idcirco, for this reason, to call attention to a special
point, followed, regularly by a clause with quod, quia, si, or ut.
f Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a
fact or a statement or allegation ; quoniam (quom jam), since,
has reference to motives.
g. Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often
a correlative with tum ; quando is also used as interrogative pr
indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever),
h. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently
have a correlative in the preceding clause, to which they correspond.
So too the same conjunction is often repeated in two coordinate
clauses. Examples are the following : —
Et . . . et means simply both . . . and; cum (less fre-
quently tum) . . . tum emphasizes the second member, with
the meaning not only , . . but also; while . . . so too. Other forms
are modo . . . modo, nunc . . . nunc, jam . . . jam, simul . . .
simul, qua . . . qua,
i. The concessives (etsi, quamvis, etc.) may introduce either a
fact or a supposition ; and are regularly followed by the correlative
tamen, yet, nevertheless. Of these ut often has the meaning
suppose, even if; cum, whereas, while on the other hand. Quan-
quam (rarely etsi or tametsi), and yet, but, however, may intro-
duce an independent statement to limit and correct the preceding,
often by a sudden transition : as, quanquam quid loquor? but
what am I saying f
k, Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or more words in their
clause ; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of tamen.
[For the Syntax of these Particles, see 208].
Formation of Words.
107
Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words.
1. — Boots and Sterns.^
157. The Root is the simplest (most primitive) form
in which the general meaning of a word can be traced.
Stems are formed from roots, and are divided into
two main groups: viz., Noun-stems (including adjec-
tives) and Verb-stems.^
Note. — Some roots show no trace of any meaning except one
of position or direction, and are called Pronominal Roots.
158. Roots may be used as Stems : —
a. Without change : as, dUc-is, dux; nifc-is, nex.
b. With vowel-increase : as, luc-is, lax; pdc-is, pdx,
c. With reduplication : zs, fur-fur, mar-mar, mur-mur.
d Compounded: 2&,ju-dic-is, judex (Jus, dicd)\ con-jug-is, con-
jux ifon-jungo),
159. Stems are more commonly formed by means of
Suffixes consisting of Pronominal Roots :^
a. Primary : added to the Root*
b. Secondary: added to a Stem, either with or without the
above changes.
2.— Primary Suffixes.
160. Primary Suffixes (/. e. those added directly to the
Root) were, in their original form, the following : —
a. The Vowels a, i, u.
b. The Syllables ta, ti, tn ; na, ni, nu
ma, va, ra, ya, ka
an, aa, ant ; man, tar, tra
' See 21, 22, p. 9.
* Both Roots and Stems were at the earlier stages of the Indo-European lan-
guage significant, and capable of being used without inflection. Thus neitKer roots
nor stems are mere abstractions, though they have not been used as words in any
existing language of the family. Many stems could be used indiscriminately to
make verbs or nouns (See Introductory Note, p. 117).
Examples of roots are es, be; i, go; sta, stand; cap, take; duc, lead;
PAC, make; per, bear; rap, seize; sed, sit; ten, stretch (see also pp. 84, 85) j
DA (AG), give; DHA (8E), put. ^ A few suffixes are verbal or doubtful.
^ The Root is in this case often lengthened by vowel-increase also.
io8 Etymology: Formation of Words.
The Vowel suffixes a^ 1, u, are sometimes regarded as if merely
added to the root to fit it for inflection ; but they are, in fact, true
pronominal Roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes.
The first, a, is found in nouns and adjectives of »- and o-stems, as
sonus^ ludusy vagus fScriba, toga (root teg) ; ^ — i is less common, and in
Latin has frequently been changed, as in rupes, or lost as in scods
(scobis, root scab); — u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi-
tional i, as in sud'Vis^ ten-uis (root ten in tendo)^ and remains alone only
in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root ak, sharps in acer^ acies,
nKis),pecu (root pac, bind, mpac-iscor).
The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows : —
a. ta (in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus^
tectum; sometimes active, as in pottis, pransus ; and is found in a
few not recognized as participles, as putus? altus (alo).
/3. ti forms abstracts, rarely nouns of agency, as messis, vestis^ pars,
mens (where the i is lost).
y. tu forms abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming con-
cretes, as aduSf luctus,
9. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes
adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus
{=mactuSf root mag), plenus, regnum (compare eaten),
c. nl, forms nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis,
C nu is rare, as in manus, sinus,
97. ma has various meaningj, as in animus, almus,firmus, forma,
d, va (commonly uo-), of active or passive meaning, as in e^uus, arvum,
conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus {vacuus).
jc. ra (or lay a passive participle termination in other languages) is usually
passive, as in ager, integer, plerl-que (=plenus =pletus), sella (for
sed-la, cf. c9pa).
X. ya (forming gerundives in other languages) makes adjectives and
abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius, auddcia, Florentia, pernicies,
fi. ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. vavpos), locus, ^ In many
cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant-
stem : as, apex, cortex, and probably loquax,
an (in, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compdgo
{inis), gero (dnis).
(. man (men : also used as a conscious derivative) expresses means,
often passing into the action itself : as, agmen, flUmen,
' Observe that it is the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix,
although the nominative is here given for convenience of reference.
a For suad<ns, cf. ^«-w«. * Root Pu, whence purus,
^ For stlocus, cf. Sk. sthara^ sthala, Ger. Sielle, Eng. stall.
NoufirEndings. 109
0. tar, forming nouns of agency; Sis,fater (i.e. protector), /rdUr (sup-
porter), ordtor.
•w. tpa, forming nouns of means : as, claustrum, mulctrum,
p. as (sometimes phonetically changed into er, or), forming names of
actions: ?&, genus, Juror,
0*. ant> forming active participles: as, legem, with some adjectives
from roots unknown : ^a, frequens, recens.
The above, with some suffixes given b^low, belong to the original
language, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the
historical period. But developed forms of these, with a few other primary
suffixes, were used consciously, generally as secondary suffixes added to
noun or verb-stems. ^
3. — Significant Bndlngrg.
161. Derivative Nominal (noun and adjective) forms
include, — I. Nouns of Agency; 2. Names of Actions ;
3. Adjectives (active or passive).^
162. Nouns of Agency include active adjectives and
appellatives. Their significant endings are —
a. tor * (euphonically sor ), M. ; triz, F. : as,
cano, sing : cantor, singer; cantrix, songstress.
vinco (vie), conquer: victor, victrix, conqueror {victorious),
tondeo, shear : tonsor, tonstrix, hair-cutter.
peto, seek : petitor, candidate.
This termination may be added by analogy to noun-stems : as,
via, way ; viator, traveller,
b. 8a (Itis), c, descriptive nouns : as,
nules, soldier; hoapes, guest.
c. o (5niB), M., connected with specific acts or trades ; as,
caupo, a huckster; comblbo, pot-companion.
1 The derivative endings in conscious use, by which these are denoted, are
given in the Nominative form. These suffixes are sometimes obscure, from the
fact that after a pattern has been given in one form of stem, that form is taken as
a type, and others are made to conform to it. Thus adjectives in -drius are prop-
erly formed from A or o stems ; but after arius is established as a termination, it
may be added to almost any noun : as, konorarius. So in English we form bear-
able, think-able, with a suffix which is properly -hie, as in legi-ble^ tolera-ble.
* This termination is added to the verb stem or root, and has the same euphonic
change as the supine ending turn or sum: compare amd-Utm, ama-tor ; can-
turn, can-tor; ton-sum, ton-sor. A similar cliange is made in the terminations
tio, tura, tus (see below, 163. b).
£44
1.G
iio Etymology: Formation of Words.
163. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instru-
ments, or results) are derived from roots or verb-stems.
Their significant endings are —
a. or, M., es, is, F. ; us, ur, n. from roots : as,
XxvcL^o^ fear : timor, dread; sedeo, sit : sedes, seat.
decet, // is becoming : decus, grace^ beauty.
b. io, tic, tura, tus (aic, sura, aus), making Verbal Abstracts,
those in tus being more concrete : as,
lego, gather^ enroll; legio, legion,
insero (sa), implant; insitio, grafting.
pingo (pig), paint; pictura, picture.
BenXio, feel; stnsus, perception.
c. men, mentum, mouiuxn, n., monia, F.,^ denoting act, means,
result: as,
fruor, enjoy; frumentum, grain.
testor, to witness ; testimonium, testimony.
queror, complain; querimonia, complaint.
d. bulum, culum,'brum, crum, trum, N., from verb-stems (rarely
from nouns) : denoting means or instrument : as,
candela, candle; candelabrum,- candlestick.
tus (tiiris), incense; turibulum, a censer.
veho, carry ; vehiculum, cart^ vehicle.
simulo, feign, pretend; simulacrum, image.
Claude, to shut; claustrum, a bolt.
e. ia, tia, tas, tus, tudo (do, go), F., abstracts (chiefly) from
adjective stems,^ rarely becoming concrete : as..
durus, hard; duritia (ies), sternness.
audaz, bold; audacia, daring.
honuB, good; bonitas, kindness, fertility.
senez, aged (an old man) ; senectus, old age.
solus, alone; sdlitudo, solitude.
libet (lubet), it pleases; libido, wantonness y self-will.
Stems ending in o, a, regularly change those vowels to i^ Many
consonant-stems insert i after the analogy of i-stems, as loquacitas.
f. ium (ya primary suffix) forms neuter abstracts, — usually from
Nouns, giving the sense of offices ox groups : as,
hospes, agttest; hospitium, hospitality.
servus, a slave; servitium, the slave-class, slavery.
coUega, a colleague; collegium, a college (as of augurs).
» Primary Suffixes man, man^a, man-ya.
' It is possible that this i may have been originally a stem-vowel (compare ka
' in note on ** Primary Suffixes)."
Adjective Endings. iii
164. Adjective forms, often passing into Nouns, are
Nominal (from nouns or adjectives), or Verbal (from
verb-stems or roots). Their significant endings are —
NOMINAL.
a. tilua (after a vowel -51as; after s, n, r, -culua), ellua, illua, —
DIMINUTIVES with endings for gender : as,
rivua, a brook; rivulus, a streamlet.
gladius, a sword; gladiolus, a small sword.
homo, a man : homunculus (homuncio), a dwarf.
munua, a gift; munusculum, a little ^ft.
pner, a boy ; puella (puerula), a girl,
codes, a block; codicilli, writing-tablets.
b. &des (as, p.), Ides, ides (is, eis, p.), ens, patronymics, denot-
ing Parentage, &c. : as,
Tyndareus : Tyndarides, Castor or Pollux; Tyndaris, Helen.
OileuB : Ajax Oileus, son of Oileus.
. Atlas : Atlantiades, Mercury; Atlantiadgs (Greek), the Pleiads.
c. anus, enns, inus; Is, as, ensis ; ins, acus, ions, ens, eius, icius,
iacus, GENTILE ADJECTIVES (derived from the names of places
or peoples) ; with others denoting belonging to or coming
PROM : as,
Roma: ^Qxcikw\% Roman ; Sulla: Syi^2Ji\^ Sylla^s veterans.
Cyzicus : QyziQbm^ people of Cyzicus ; Liguria, Ligunnus.
Arjnnum : Arplnas, a native of Arpinum (as Man us, Cicero).
Sicilia : Siciliensis ; Ephesus : Ephesius ; Ilium : Iliac us.
Epicurus : Epicureus [a disciple) ; Plato : Platonicus.
Ubertus, one's freedman; llbertinus, of the class offreedmen.
d. alis, aris, elis, ilis, ulus, inus, nus, denote various modes of
relation or possession : as,
populus, a people; popularis, fellow-countryman.
mors, death; mortalis, mortal.
patruus, uncle; patruelis, cousin.
hostis, an enemy ; hostilis, hostile.
currus, chariot; sella curulis, curule chair.
vitulus, a calf; vitulina [caro], veal.
ver, spring; vernus, vernal; dies, day; diurnus, daily.
ovis, a sheep; ovile, sheepfold; bos, ox; bovTle, stall.
e. ter (tris), timus, temus, denote relations of place, time, &c. : as,
campus, a plain; campester, level.
fines, boundaries ; flni timus, neighboring.
diu, long (in time) ; diuturnus, lasting.
heri (old lieBi)^ yesterday ; hesternus, of yesterday.
§44
l.o
(3)
112 Etymology : Formation of Words,
f, atUB, itus, utnB (participial forms from imaginary verb-stems,
like the English horned)^ provided with : as,
galea, a helmet; galeatus, helmed,
auris, an ear; auritus, long-eared (z hare),
barba, a beard; barbatus, bearded (old-fashioned).
versus, a turning ; versutus, crafty^ adroit,
g, ens, ius, inus, aceiia, idus (participial), material or rela-
tion : as,
aurum, gold; aureus, golden,
reac, a king; redus, royal,
bombyx, «7i^/ oombycinus, silken,
patres, the Fathers (Senators) ; patricius, patrician.
collatus, brought together; collaticius, got by contribution.
h, arlus, orius, ius, icus, belonging to (m., of trades^ &c, ; N.,
often of place) : as,
argentum, silver; argentarius, broker^ silversmith,
ordo, rank^ series; ordinarius, regular,
tepidus, lukewarm; tepidarium, place /or a warm bath,
uxor, wife; uxorius, uxorious,
bellum, war; bellicus, warlike; bellicum, battle-signal,
i, etum, place : as,
quercus, oak-tree; quercetum, an oak-grove,
k. osuB, Glens, olentus, full of, prone to : as,
fluctus, wave; fluctuosus, billowy,
periculum, peril; perTculosus, full of danger,
snA, force; violens, violentus, violent,
vinum, wine; vTnolentus, vinosus, given to drink,
xra, anger; iracundus, pc^sionate^ wrathful,
verbal.
/. az, idus, ulus, vus (uus, ivus), adjectives, expressing the action
as QUALITY or TENDENCY, — ax, often faulty or aggressive ;
ivus, oftqner passive : as,
pugno, to fight; pugnax, pugnacious,
audeo, to (Sire ; audax, bold.
cupio, to desire; cupidus, eager,
bibo, to drink; bibulus, thirsty (as dry earth, &c.).
pr Otero, to trample; prdtervus, violent^ wanton,
noceo, do harm; nocuus, hurtful^ injurious.
capio, take; captivus, captive; M., a prisoner of war,
m. ilia, bills, ius, passive qualities (rarely active) : as,
frango (frag), to break; irz^Ws, frail,
nosco (gno), to know; nobilis, well known, famous,
ezimo, to take out^ select; eximius, choice, rare.
Adjective Endings; Formation of Verbs. 113
n, minus, mnus, properly participles,* but nd longer used as
such: as,
FE (obsolete root), produce; femina, woman,
alo, to nourish; alumnus, a foster-child,
o- ndos (endus, undue, the Gerund ending) forms a few active
or reflexive adjectives : as,'
sequor, to follow; secundus, second, favorable (secundo flu-
mine, down stream),
roto, to whirl (from rota, wheel) ; rotundus, round (cf. vol-
vendis mensibus, revolving months).
p. bunduB, cundus, participial, but denoting continuance of the
act or quality : as,
vito, to shun; vitabundus, (Sail.), dodging about. '
vagor, to roam; vagabundus, vagrant, vagabond.
mofior, to die; moribundus, in the agony of death.
4.--DerlTatioii of Verbs,
165. Most verbs of the Third Conjugation, the
Irregular verbs, and a few vowel-stems,^ are primitive.^
Most others are either causative or denominative (formed
from nouns or adjectives).
166. The following are the regular Conjugational
forms : —
a. Verbs of the First conjugation may be formed from a great
number of nouns or adjectives of the first or second declension,
by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a : as,
stimulus, a goad; stimulare, incite.
BBqjaxiB^just; aequare, to make equal.
saltum (saUo), leap; saltare (freq.), to dance.
A few by a false analogy add the vowel to the noun- stem : as,
vigil, watchful; vigil-a-re, to keep guard.
ezsul, an exile; exsul-a-re, to be in banishment.
aestus, tide, seething; aestu-a-re, to surge, boil.
' Compare Greek -ffccpo«. ■ As dd-^e, sta-rCffie-re, nS-re, ne-re, re-ri.
^ The consciousness of Roots was lost in Latin, so that of verbs not primitive
in forming the parts only Stems are dealt with. Thus mo?ieo (Skr. mdn-ayS-mi),
monui (not nunui), from root mbn, as in mens ; caedo, cectdi (not cecfdi\ from
root CAD (as in cddo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, see pp. 84, 85.
The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is original ya added either to the
root, the Present stem in a, or a Noun-stem.
114 Etymology: Formation of Words.
b. A few verbs of the Second conju^tion are formed in like
manner from noun-stems ; but most are formed from the Root by
adding the characteristic e, and are intransitive or neuter in their
meaning : as, algere, to be cold; sedere, to sit.
c. Some verbs in uo (Third conjugation) are primitive, formed
from the Root by adding the stem-vowel 6, originally B. : as, flu-e-re^
ru-e-re. Others add this vowel to a noun-stem; this is regular
with u stems : as,
Btatn-B, conditions statu-e-re, to establish^ resolve.
d. Most verbs of the Fourth conjugation add the character-
istic i to the Root : as, sop-ire, to put to sleep; sal-i-re, to leap.
Some are formed from 1-stems (nouns) : as,
fini-B, end, limits finl-re, to bound.
Biti-8, thirsts siti-re, to be thirsty.
5. — DerlTatiTe Verbs.
167. The following classes of regular derivatives have
meanings corresponding to their form : —
a, Inceptives or Inchoatives end in -bco, and denote the
beginning of an action : as, caleBCO, / grow warm (caleo) ; ves-
peraacit, // is getting late (vesper). They are of the third conju-
gation, and have only the present stem, though often completed by
forms of simple verbs : as, calesco, calnl (from caleo, to be hot)?-
b, Intensives or Iteratives • end in -to or -ito (rarely-so),
and denote a forcible or repeated action : as, jacto, to hurl
(jacio) ; dictito, to keep on saying (dice) ; quasso, to shatter
(quatio). They are of the first conjugation, and are properly
Denominative, derived from the participle in tus.
f. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives,
or verbs of practice — ends in esse (rarely iaso) , denoting a certain
energy or eagerness of action : as, capesso, to lay hold on s facesso,
to do (with energy) ; petisso, to seek (eagerly) . They are of the 3d
conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the 4th : as,
lacesso, lacessere, lacessivi, laceBsitum, to provoke.
d. Diminutives (derived from real or supposed diminutive
nouns) end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty action : as, can-
tillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing).
1 In the narrative tenses, the inceptive and complete action naturally become
confounded.
> Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning from Intensives,
are not always distinguished from them in form.
Compound Words. IIS
e, Desideratives end in tirio, expressing longing or wishy and
are of the fourth conjugation. Only three are in common use :
viz., empturio (emo, buy)^ esurio (Sdo, eat)y parturio (pario,
bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the dramatists.
They are derived from some noun of agency in tor or sor (as
empturio^ from emptor). Vuio is a regular inherited desiderative
of an earlier formation.
6«-— Compoiind WordB*
168. New stems are formed by composition as fol-
lows : ^ —
tf . The second part is simply added to the first : as,
su-ove-taiirilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a hog,
sheep, bull,
septen-deoim (septem, decem), seventeen,
b. The first modifies the second as an adjective or adverb : as,
latifimdium (latus, fundus), a lar^e landed estate.
paeninsiila (paene, insula), a peninsula, [kindly.
benevoloa (bene, volus, from root of volo), well-wishing,
c. The first'part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal
force: as,
agrioola (ager, colo), a farmer,
armiger (arma, gero), armor-bearer.
comicen (cornu, cano), horn-blower,
camlfez (caro, facio), executioner,
d. Compounds of either of the above kinds, in which the last
word is a noun, acquire the signification of adjectives, meaning
possessed of the property denoted : as,
alipes (ala, pes), wing-footed.
magnanimus (magnus, animus), great-souled,
oonoora (cum, cor), harmonious,
anoepa (amb-, caput), doubtful (having a head at both ends).
' In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most
conunonly the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, as this kind of composition
is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection
of its own (as, cornicen, <inis: liuifer, -feri ;. judex, -dicis), from stems not occur-
ring in Latin. Especially do adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems : as,
animus, exanimis ; norma, abnormis (See Note, p. 37). The stems regularly have
their uninflected form. But o- and a-stems weaken the vowels to i as in ali-
pes; and i is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often
added to stems which do not properly have it : as, foedi-fragus (for foederi-
fragus: foedus, frango).
». b
8.a
8.b
3.0
3 d
ii6 Etymology: Compound Words.
169. In many compounds, words already inflected have
grown together more closely. Examples are —
a> Compounds of faclo, facto, with an actual or formerly exist-
ing verbal stem in e. These are Causative in force : as, consue-
faclo (consuesco), to habituate; calefaoio, calefacto, to heat,
b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : as, benedico
(bene, dico), to bless; satago (satis, ago), to be busy enough.
c. Many apparent stem-compounds : as, fidejubec ( fidei,
jubeo), to give surety; manauetus (manui, suetus), tame.
170. Many compounds are formed by prefixing a
Particle to some other part of speech: viz.,
a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives, retaining
their original adverbial sense : ^ as,
S, ab, AWAY : au-ferre (ab-fero), to take away.
ad, TO, TOWARDS : af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring.
ante, before : ante-ferre, to prefer; ante-cellere, to excel.
circum, around : circum-miinire, to fortify completely.
com, con (cum), together or forcibly : con-ferre, to bring
together; col-locare, to set firm.
de, down, utterly: de-spicio, despise; destruo, destroy.
§, ez, OUT : ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth^ uplift.
in (with verbs), in, on, against : in-ferre, to bear against.
inter, between, to pieces : inter- rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET : of-ferre, to offer; ob- venire, to meet.
sub, UNDER, in LOW DEGREE: suh-strutrey to bui/d beneath.
super, UPON, over and above : super-fluere, to overflow;
superstes, a survivor.
b. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable
Particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin ;
amb (am, an), around : ambire, to go about (cf. dfi<f>i).
dis, cU, asunder, apart : discedere, to depart (cf. duo),
por, FORWARD : portendere, to hold forth, predict (cf . porro).
red, re, back : redire, to return.
sed, se, apart : secerno, to separate (cf. sed, but).
c. An adjective is sometimes modified by an adverb prefixed.
Of these, per (less commonly prae), very^ sub, somewhat, in, not,
are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective : as,
per-magnus, very large; prae-longus, very long.
sub-rusticus, rather countrified; in-f initus, boundless.
' They sometimes, however, have the force of prepositions, especially cut, in,
circum, trans, and govern the case of a noun.
PART SECOND.
USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX).
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history
of language, and deals with language as fully developed. The terms
of Syntax correspond accordingly to the logical habits of thought that
have grown up at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as
a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax as thus developed is not
essential to language as such. A form of words — like O puerum pul-
arum! — may express a thought, and in some languages might even be
a sentence ; while it does not logically declare any thing, and does not,
strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, there is no doubt that
Roots were significant in themselves, and constituted the whole of the
language, — just as to an infant the name of some familiar object will
stand for all it can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, two
simple roots put side by side ^ make a rudimentary form of proposition :
as a child might say._/?r^ flight; horse run. With this begins the
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but
as yet there is no distinction between noun and verb either in form or
function. Roots are presently specialized, or modified in meaning, by
addition of other roots either pronominal or verbal, and Stems are
formed ; but the same stem could still be either noun-stem or verb-
stem. Still later — by combination chiefly of different pronominal ele-
ments with verb-stems and with noun-stems — Inflections are developed
to express person^ tenser ccue, and other grammatical relations,^ and we
have true parts of speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the
association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they
should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came
' Called /arfl/«r/j, in contrast with Syntaxis^ *' combination."
* Sometimes called accidents: hence the " accidence " of the language. Com-
pare pp. 14, N. I J 63, N. 2 ; 65, N. I.
§45
ii8 Syntax: Introductory Note.
to be limited 4o special uses, or were prodaced to serve those uses ;
and rules were established for combining words in what we now call
Sentences.^ These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought
(Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar) ; and
in ps^rt are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a
given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the
Syntax of that language.^
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost
exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence ; that
is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate.
These, starting with the simple noun and verb, undergo successive
modifications aiid combinations corresponding with our habitual forms
of thought, and constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as shown in the
annexed Outline.
L A Sentence may be either Simple or Compound : viz.,
1. Simple ; containing a single statement (Subject and Predicate),
o rriiirnrtTTKir. 5 ^' Containing two or more Co-ordinate Clauses.
2. ^.OMPOUND: ^ ^ Modified by Subordinate Clauses (compUx).
II. The Essential Parts of the Sentence are —
I. The Subject : consist- ( a. Noun or its equivalent.
ing of \ b. Pronoun contained in verb-ending.
2 The PpFnTrATw . ron f ^ Neuter (intransitive) Verb.
2. The predicate . con- I ^ Copula with Complement,
sistmg of \ ^ vefb with Object.
III. The Subject and Predicate may be Modified as follows : —
I. The Noun (Subject or
Object) by
a. Noun in Apposition.
b. Adjective or Participle,
r. Noun in Oblique Case.
d. Preposition with its case.
e. Relative Clause.
f a. Adverb or Adverbial Phrase.
2. The Verb (^^^iVdf/'^) by \ b. Predicate Adjective.
[ c. Subordinate Clause.
f fl. Rules of Agreement {the Four Concords),
IV. Hence : j ^ ^,j\^^ of Government (Construction of Cases),
* The meaning of Sentence is " Thought " {senientta from senttre). The
grammatical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed.
* In most languages there still remain traces of the unorganized forms of
expression ; as for example the nominative or accusative in Exclamations, the
use of Interjections generally, and the omission of the Copula. These are some-
times wrongly regarded as cases of Ellipsis.
The Sentence: Subject atid Predicate, 119
Chapter I. — The Sentence.
Definitions*
171. A Sentence is a form of words which contains
either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a
Command.
a, A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declar-
ative Sentence : as, equus ourrit, the horse runs,
b, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Inter-
rogative Sentence : as, equusne currit ? {toes the horse run f
c, A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an
Exclamatory Sentence: as, quam celeriter cmTit equual
how fast the horse runs !
d, A sentence in the form of a Command is called an Impera-
tive Sentence : as, currat equns, tet the horse run.
Subject and Predicate.
172. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing
spoken of ; the Predicate is that which is stated of the
Subject.
173. Every complete sentence must contain a Subject
and a Verb.^ The Subject (when declined) is in the
Nominative Case : as,
equoa carrit; the horse runs.
regina sedet, the queen sits.
Note. — In certain constructions the verb is in the Infinitive
mood, and its subject is put in the Accusative.
174. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun,
or some word or phrase used for a noun. But in Latin
it may be contained ^ in the termination ® of the verb
itself : as,
sedemns, w^ i*/// <syxrA\iiA, you run.
' The meaning of Verb {verbum) is "word,'* as being the only part of speech
that strictly declares (predicates) any thing.
■ This is true, however, in general, only when the verb is of the first or second
person (cf. 206). With the third person on account of the variety of possible
subjects a definite one must be expressed, unless implied in what goes before or
follows. « See p. 63, n, 2.
120 Syntax: The Sentence,
175. The Verb may contain an entire statement in
itself, and require no other word to complete the sense
(a Neuter or Intransitive verb) : as,
arc, I plough {am ploughing
Bol lucet, the sun shines.
sunt virl fortes, there are brave men.
Thus, as in the first example, a sentence in Latin may consist
of a verb alone. The verb to be^ used as in the last example to
make a complete statement, is called the Substantive Verb.
176. A Neuter verb is often followed by a noun or
an adjective to complete the statement. This is called
the Complement : as,
QuintUB sedet judex, Quintus sits [as] judge.
Caesar victor incedit; Ccesar advances victorious.
hi viri sunt fortes, these men are brave.
a. The verb to be^ when thus followed by an attribute, is called
the Copula (i.e. link). In like manner, verbs signifying to become^
to be made^ to be named, to appear, and the like, which serve
to connect a Subject with a Predicate, are called Copulative
(i.e. coupling or connecting) Verbs.
b. The case of the Predicate after esse and similar verbs is
the same with that of the Subject : as,
Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our native place.
stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright.
puerum decet esse modestam, it becomes a boy to be modest,
vn. The action of many verbs (called transitive)
passes over upon an Object, This Object in Latin is
in the AccusAxrvE Case : as,
pater vocat f ilinm, the father calls (his) son.
videmus lunam et steUas/* we see the moon and stars.
Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive is
not fixed, but most transitive verbs can be used without an object,
and many intransitive verbs with one (see 237. b).
a. The direct Object of a transitive verb becomes its Subject when
in the Passive voice, and is put in the Nominative Case : as,
filius apatre vocatur, the son is called by \yi\si] father.
lona et stellae videntur, the moon and stars appear (are seen).
The Object: Modification. 121
b. With certain verbs, the genitive, dative, or ablative may be
used where the corresponding English verbs from a difference in
meaning require the objective. Thus —
1. hominem videoi I see the man (Accusative).
2. homini servio, I serve the man (Dative).
3. hominia miaereor, I pity the man (Genitive).
4. homlne amico utor, / treat the man as a friend (Ablative)
c. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by a
verb requiring a preposition (intransitive) : as,
petit aprum, he aims at the boar.
Note. — One or more words, essential to the grammatical com-
pleteness of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer,
are often omitted: this is called Ellipsis, and the sentence is
called an Elliptical Sentence.
Modiflestloii.
178. A Subject or a Predicate of any kind may be
modified by single words, or by a Phrase or a Clause.
The modifying word or group of words may itself be
modified in the same way.
a, A single modifjnng word is either an Adjective, an Adverb,
an Appositive, or the oblique case of a Noun. Thus in the sen-
tence a brave man suffers patiently, the adjective brave modifies the
subject man, and the adverb patiently modifies the predicate suffers,
b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence pneri patrem video,
/ see the bofs father, the genitive pneri limits patrem (i.e. by
excluding any other father).
179. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject
or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjec-
tive or Adverb.
Thus in the sentence he was a man of great strength, the words
of great strength are used for the adjective strong (or very
strong), and are called an Adjective Phrase. In the sentence
he came with great speed, the words with great speed are used for
the adverb quickly (or very quickly), and are called an Adverbial
Phrase.
122 Syntax: The Sentence.
180. A Sentence containing a single statement is
called a Simple Sentence. If it contains more than
one statement, it is called a Compound Sentence, and
each single statement in it is called a Clause.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are
said to be Co-ordinate. The two are usually connected by some
word called a Co-ordinate Conjunction (see p. 104).
b» If one statement is subordinate to another, as modifying it in
some way, the clause is said to be Subordinate, and the sen-
tence is sometimes called Complex. This subordination is in-
dicated by some connecting word, either a Relative or Subordinate
Conjunction.
c. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative
Clause ; if by an Adverb of Time, a Temporal Clause.
d. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by if or some
equivalent, is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence modi-
fied by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
e. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a
Final Clause ; one expressing its Result is called a Consecu-
tive Clause.^
/. Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of
Conjunctions ; but frequently in Latin — more rarely in English
— independent sentences are connected by Relatives. In this
case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con-
junction with a demonstrative : as,
quo cum venisset, and when he had come there,
quae cum ita sint, but since these things are so,
Agnreement.
181. A word is said to Agree with another when it
is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number,
Case, or Person.
182. The following are the general forms of Agree-
ment, sometimes called the Four Concords :
1 Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a single clause may
belong to several of them at once. Thus a Relative clause may be subordinate,
or conditional ; and two subordinate clauses may be co-ordinate with each other.
Agreement: Nouns. 123
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate.
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun.
3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent.
4. The agreement of the Verb with its Subject
When a word takes the gender or number of some other word
implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called
Synesis, or constructio ad sensum.
NOUNS.
183. A noun used to describe another, and denoting
the same thing, agrees with it in Case : as,
Servios rez, Servius the king.
ad urbem At±iena8, to the city [of] Athens.
Cicero consul creator, Cicero is chosen consul.
Apposition.
184. When the descriptive noun is in the same part
of the sentence (subject or predicate), it is called an
Appositive, and the use is called Apposition : as,
externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, jungebat animos (Liv.
ii* 39)» fi^^ of the foreigner^ the chief bond of harmony ^ united hearts,
[Here both nouns belong to the subject,\
quattuor hie, primum omen,equos vidi (iEn. iii. 537), I saw here four
horses^ the first omen. [Here both nouns are in ixi^ predicate, \
litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), / learned Greek when an old
man. |^Here senex is in apposition with the subject of dldlci,
expressmg the time, condition^ Sec, of the act.]
a. An appositive with two or more nouns is in the plural : as,
Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, the Scipios, Cneius and Publius.
b. The appositive generally agrees in Gender and Number
when it can : as,
sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lsel. 19), they follow nature ^
the best guide,
omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), Athens,
discoverer of all learning,
c. A common noun in apposition with a Locative is put in the
Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as,
Antiochlae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), at Antioch, once a famous
city,
Albae constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at Alba,
a fortified town.
124 Syntax: Adjectives.
d. The genitive can be used in apposition with Possessives,
taking the gender and number of the implied subject (compare
197. a) : as,
in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us alL
ex Anniana Milonis domo ( Att. iv. 3), out of Annius Milo^s house.
Note. — The proper Appositive is sometimes put in the Gen-
itive (see 214. /).
Pi«dicate Airveementi
185. When the descriptive noun is used to form a
predicate, it is called a Predicate Nominative (or
other case, as the construction may require) : as,
consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. i), Ccesar and Servilius
are made consuls, [Here consules is predicate^nominative after
creantur.]
Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people made
Ancus Marcius king, [Here regem is th^ predicate accusative,]
ADJECTIVES.
Rule of Agreement.
186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles
agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.
vir fortis, a brave man.
urbium magnarom, of great cities,
cmn ducentiB miUtibiis, with 200 soldiers,
a. An Attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without
the intervention of a verb : as,
bonus imperator, a good commander,
b. A Predicate adjective is connected with its noun by essei or .
a verb of similar meaning, expressed or implied : as,
stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright.
c. A predicate adjective may also be used in Apposition like a
noun: as,
Scipionem vivum vidi, / saw Scipio in his life-time.
d. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural ; also, rarely,
when they are connected by cum : as,
Nisus et Euryalus primi (^n. v. 394), Nisus and Euryalus first.
I Juba cum Labieno capti (B. A£r. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.
Agreement of Adjectives. 125
187. When nouns are of different genders, an attrib-
utive adjective agrees with the nearest : as,
multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil,
vita moresque mei, my life and character,
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any things if any
man, if any time wcu fit,
a, A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest of two
nouns if the two form one connected idea : as,
factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a noise of assent
was made.
N. B. This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest
subject.
3, Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings j neuter, if things without
life: as,
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Li v. ii. 40), then his wife and children
enUfraced him.
labor (m.) voluptasque (f.), societate quadam inter se natural! sunt
juncta (n.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain
natural alliance.
c. Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter ad-
jective : as,
stultitia et temeritas et injustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11),
folly, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
d. A masculine or feminine adjective may conform (by Synesis)
to the gender or number of the persons implied in a noun of
different gender or number : as,
pars certare parati (iEn. v. 108), apart ready to contend.
duo millia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), two thousand were left,
coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. ^), several
colonies were led out [of men] called Old Latins.
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), « large part [of the women] were seized,
omnis aetas currere obvii (id. xxvii. 51), [people of] every age ran to
meet them,
e. A superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender of
a partitive genitive : as,
velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin . is the
swiftest of creatures.
126 Syntax: Adjectives.
special Uses.
188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns, the mascu-
line usually to denote men or people in general of that
kind, the feminine wonten^ and the neuter things : as,
omnes, all men (everybody), omnia, all things {everything).
majores, ancestors. minores, descendants.
Romani, Romans. barbari, barbarians.
liberta, afreedwoman. Sabiuae, the Sabine wives.
fiapiens, a sage (philosopher), amioua, a friend.
Remark. — The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare,
except with a few words which have become practically nouns, such as
affiniSf amicus^ avdrus^ familidris^ propinquus^ sapiens^ vicenus^ and neuters
like those in 189. a ; the plural is very frequent, and may be used of any
adjective or participle, to denote those in general described by it.
a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are
often modified by other adjectives : as,
meus aequalis, a man of my own age,
familiaris tuus, an intimate friend of yours (comp. 218. d).
b. When any ambiguity would arise from the use of the adjec-
tive alone, a noun must be added : as,
boni, the good; omnia, everything (ait things) ; but —
vir bonus, a good man (cf. Remark above),
potentia omnium rerum, power over evetything.
c. Many adjectives are used alone in the singular, with the
added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant
association : as,
Africus [ventus], the south-west wind.
vitulina [caro], veal {calf s flesh).
fera [bestia], a wild beast,
patria [terra], the fatherland,
hiberna [castra], winter quarters.
triremis [navis], a three-banked galley.
argentarius [faber], a silver smith.
regia [domus,] the palace.
Note. — These are specific in meaning, not generic like those above.
d. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may be quali-
fied by an adverb : as,
victor exercitus, the victorious army,
servum pecus, a servile troop.
admodum puer, quite a boy (childish).
magis vir, more of a man.
Adjectives: Special Uses. 127
189. A Neuter adjective has the following special
uses : —
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
abstract quality : as,
rapto vivere, to live by plunder.
in arido, on dry ground,
honestum, an honorable act^ or virtue (as a quality).
opus est matorato, there is need of haste (c£. impersonal passives).
b. The ntyxXtt plural is used to signify objects in general having
the quality denoted, and hence the abstract idea : as,
honesta, honorable deeds (in general).
praeterita, the past,
omnes fortia laudant, all men praise bravery,
c, A neuter Appositive or Predicate may be used with a noun
of different gender : as,
turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is [a thing]
worse than pain.
d, A neuter adjective is used in agreement with an Infinitive
or a Substantive Clause : as,
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle miscreri (Lig. ^), it is one
thing to be unwilling that Casar should err, another to be unwilling
that he should pity,
PcMuesslves.
190. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are
often used in Latin where English has the possessive, or
a noun with a preposition (compare 184. d; 197. d) : as,
pugna CanneiiBis, the fight at Cannce.
C. Blossiua Cumanus, Caius Blossius ofCun^,
aUena domus, another man^s house.
Caesarma celeritaB (Att. xvi. 10), a despatch like Ccesat^s.
a. Possessive adjectives are often used without a noun to de-
note some special class or relation : as,
nostri, our countrymen or men of our party,
Sullani, the veterans of SyllcCs army,
Pompeiani, the partisans ofPompey,
b, A pQssessive adjective is sometimes apparently used for the
Objective Genitive by a different conception of the idea : as,
metus hostilis (Jug. \i),fcar of the enemy,
feminea in poena ( Virg.), in the punishment of a woman,
periculo invidiae meae (Cat. ii. 2)^01 the risk of odium against me.
§47
4.a
4.b
4.e
4.d
5.a^b
8. a
ff«c
128 Syntax: Adjectives ; Pronouns.
191. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often
used to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb : as,
primus venit, Ae came first (wets the first to come),
nuUus dubito, I no way doubt,
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear.
erat Romae frequens (Rose. Am. 6), he was often at Rome,
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), may^st thou return late to
heaven,
192. When two qualities of an object are compared,
both adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative : as,
longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), M/ line was longer than
it was broad (or, rather long than broad ).
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : as,
clari, magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renoioned than honorable.
b, A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may
be connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use) : as,
vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good heed.
Claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous
than old,
193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) de-
noting order and succession — also mediuSy ceterus, reli-
quus — usually designate not what object^ but what fart
of ity is meant: as,
summus mons, the top of the hill,
in ultima platea, at the end of the place,
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.
in colic medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill,
inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
Note. — A similar use is found in such expressions as sera
(multS) node. But also, medium viae, multum diet,
PRONOUNS.
Note. — Pronouns indicate some person or thing without either
naming or describing. They are derived from a distinct cljiss of roots,
which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction, and from
which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. Pronouns may there-
Pronoum : Personal and Demonstrative. 129
fore stand for Nouns when the object, being present to the senses or
imagination, needs only to be pointed out. Some indicate the object in
itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender.
These are Personal Pronouns. They therefore stand syntactically
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Some indicate a
particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of
that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They therefore
stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Some are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns,
may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the
object indicated.
Personal*
194. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the
same construction as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed in Latin, except
for distinction or emphasis (compare 346. d) : as,
te voco, I call you; but —
quis me vocat ? ego te voco, who calls met U is L
b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
that in um being used partitively^ and that in 1 oftenest objec-
tively : as,
major nostrum, the elder of us,
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 9), you have a
leader who thinks of you and forgets himself
pars nostrum, apart of us.
nostri melior pars animus est (Sen.), the better part of us is the soul.
Note. — " One of themselves " is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis
(rarely ex se) or suorum. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are rarely
used objectively : cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 96), custos vestrum (Cat.
iii. 12).
Demonstrative.
195. The Demonstrative Pronouns^ are treated as
adjectives in agreement, but are often used as personal
pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases,
especially of is : as,
Caesar et ezercitos ejus, Casar and his army.
vidi emn rogavique, / saw him and asked [him].
' For the special significations of these demonstratives, see page 53.
9
I30 ' Sy?ttax: Pronouns.
a. The demonstratives are used as pronouns of reference,
to indicate a noun or phrase with emphasis, like the English
that: as,
nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch, ii),
Virtue wants no other revfard except that |just spoken of] of praise,
b. The demonstrative as a pronoun of reference is commonly
omitted, or some other construction is preferred : as,
memoriae artem quam oblivionis malo, I prefer the art of memory to
that of forget/ulttess.
Caesaris exercitus Pompeianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Casar
defeated that of Pompey at Fharsmlus.
c. Wlien a quality is ascribed with emphasis to an object
already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) is
used to indicate that object : as,
vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. v/.^),imprisonmentt and that perpetual,
d. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in apposi-
tion or z predicate rather than with its antecedent : as,
rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. £p. i. 17), this was the head of
things^ this the source.
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est con-
secutus [for id . . . quod] (Lael. 5), they explain that [thing] to be
wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
e. Idem is often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial phrase
{also^ toOy yety at the same time) : as,
oratio splendida et grandis et eadera in primis faceta (Brut. 79),
an oration^ brilliant^ ablCy and very witty too.
cum [haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse gratiam (N. D. i. 43),
when he says this^ he denies also that there is mercy with God.
f Ipse, self (intensive), is used with any of the other pronouns
or a noun for the sake of emphasis : as,
turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Cic), even to me it seems disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing.
quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
Remark. -^ The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by
jtisty very^ mere^ &c. (see above examples).
g. Ipse is used alone as an emphatic pronoun of the third
person: as,
mihi satis, ipsis non satis (Cic), enough for me^ not for themselves.
omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id.), all good men so far as was in
(heir pQwer^
Pronouns: Demonstrative and Reflexive. 131
beatos illos qui cum adesse ipsis non licebat aderant tamen (id.), happy
they whOf when it was not allcwed them to attend in person^ sUU
were there,
et nomen pacis dulce est, et ipsa res salutaris (id.), the nofne of Peace
is sweet, and the thing itself is wholesome.
h. Ipae is used alone to emphasize an omitted subject of the
first or second person : as,
vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Cic), remember in your own minds.
u Ipae sometimes refers to a principal personage, to distinguish
him from subordinate persons : as,
ipse dixit (cf . oJtnhi f^), HE (the Master) said it.
Nomen tanus erat super ipsum (Hor.), Nomentanus was above [the
host] himself {jaX table).
k. Ipse is often (is rarely) used Instead of an indirect reflexive^
to avoid ambiguity ; and in later writers is sometimes found instead
of the direct reflexive : as,
cur de sua virtu te aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent? (B. G. i. 40),
why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his
diligence ?
qui mortuo Dario ipsas tueretur reperisse (Q. C. x. 5), we found one
(said she) to protect us after the death of Darius.
omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos (id. iii. 5), either they or the
enemy had laid all waste.
L Ipse is usually put in the case of the Subject, even where
the real emphasis appears to be or even is on a reflexive in the
Predicate : as,
me ipse consolor, /console myself (not me ipsum, as the English would
lead us to expect).
Reflexive.
196. The Reflexive Pronoun (se),^ and usually its cor-
responding possessive (snus), is used in some part of
the Predicate,^ referring to the Subject of the sentence
or clause : as,
virtos se no\rit; virtue knows itself.
Brutus amicom suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend.
promisit ae ventumm [esse], he promised to come.
' This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third person
(Skr. SVA and Gr. a^ei?), but came by use to be purely reflexive.
3 This predicate is a form of Indirect Discourse. In this case, the Reflexive
.in a subordinate clause may often be ambiguous, though less frequently in Latin
132 Syntax: Pronouns.
a. In subordinate clauses, the reflexive is commonly used in
reference to the subject of the main clause : as,
Iccius nuntium ad eum mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc.
(B. G. ii. 6), sends him a tnessage thai unless relief be furnished him
(Iccius), &c.
quem salutem suam crediturum sibi (Q. C. iii. 8) ? who would trust
his safety to him [Darius] ?
b. The Reflexive sometimes refers to a main clause which has
been grammatically suppressed : as,
libros quos pater suus reliquisset (Cic), books which [he said] his
brother had left,
c. The Reflexive may refer to any noun in the same clause, on
which emphasis is thrown, so that it becomes in a manner the
subject of discourse : as,
Socratem cives sui interfecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own
fellow-citizens. [Here the emphasis is preserved in English by
the change of voice.]
d. The Reflexive may follow a verbal noun or adjective : as,
conservatio sui, self-preservation.
impotens sui (Q. C), unable to control one's self,
homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 2), men with slaves like
themselves.
e. The Reflexive refers to the subject implied in an infinitive or
verbal abstract used indefinitely : as,
bellum est sua vitia nosse (Cic), it is a fine thing to know on^s own
faults.
f. Inter ae is regularly used to express reciprocal action : as,
cohaerentia inter se, things consistent with each other.
Possessive.
197. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjec-
tives, which take the gender, number, and case of the
noun they are used with, not of the possessor : as,
Caesar uzorem suam repudiavit, Ccesar put away his wife.
than in English. Thus in the sentence '' A replied to B that he thought C (his
brother) more unjust to himself than to his own friend," the syntax is perfectly
simple and clear, but the meaning not ; he and his may refer to A, to B, or to
some third person ; himself and his own to either A, B, or C. A part of the am«
biguity would be removed, in Latin, by using se or eum^ ^*mj, suus^ or ipsius ;
but a part would necessarily remain, and could not be removed by any rule of
syntaxy but only by the exercise of common sense in reference to the context.
Pronouns : Possessive and Relative. 133
a, Possessives are regularly used for the genitive of possession,
and more rarely for the objective genitive (compare 189) : as,
domus mea, my house.
periculo invidiae meae (Cat. i. 2), at risk of odium against me.
d. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of favora-
ble ot propitious * towards the subject indicated ; as,
tempore tuo pugnasti ? cUdyouJight at a fit titne ?
ignoranti quern portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 70), to
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair.
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronqjms)
when they are plainly implied in the context : as,
amicum gratulatur, he greets his friend [amicum suum would be dis-
tinctive ; suum amicum would be emphatically " his own '* friend].
d. Possessives are often used instead of nouns, implying some
special relation:^ as,
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
suos continebat (B. C. i. 15), ^ held his men in check.
€. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition :
as,
mea solius causa, /Zv my sake only.
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsius regnum, his own kingdom.
Belatlve.
Note. — A Relative Pronoun is properly an Adjective, in agreement
with some word either expressed in its own clause, or implied in the
antecedent (demonstrative) clause. The full construction would re-
quire the antecedent to be expressed in both clauses, with more com-
monly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers : as,
erant omnino duo itinera qtUbus itineribos domo exire possent (6. G.
i. 6). But one of these nouns is most commonly omitted. This word
is, in Latin, very frequently found (rarely in English) in the relative
clause, — sometimes in that alone. Hence relatives serve two uses :
I. as Nouns in their own clause, 2. as Connectives ; and thus are often
equivalent to a demonstrative and conjunction combined. The connective
force is not original, but is developed from an interrogative or indefinite
meaning specialized by use. The cj^uses were originally co-ordinate.
1 This use is not strictly idiomatic, but is a natural development of meaning,
and may often be rendered literally.
3 There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here; but the adjective becomes a
noun like other adjectives (see 1 88).
134 Syntax: Pronouns. '
Thus, Qui quietus ammo est, is est sapiens : " Who (some one) is undis-
turbed in soul ? That [man] is a sage." This form of relative has in
Latin supplanted other forms which were demonstrative in their origin,
as in Liber quern decUsti: " The book — you gave it."
198. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gen-
der and Number; but its Case depends on the con-
struction of the clause in which it stands : as,
puer qui venit; the boy who came.
liber quern legiB, the book you are reading.
via qua ambulat; the way he walks in.
This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are
variable in form: as, qualis, quantus, quicumque.
199. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun
(appositive or predicate) in its own clause, rather than
with an antecedent of different gender : as,
mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the sea, too,
which you said was Neptune,
a. A relative may (rarely) by attraction agree' with its ante-
cedent in Case: as,
si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuesti (Fam. v. 14), if you should dQ
something of what you are used to,
b, A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent: as,
quartum genus . . . qui aere vetere alieno vacillant (Cat ii. 10), a
fourth class, that are staggering under old debts.
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number [of
those] who were ready,
conjuravere pauci . . . de qua Iconjuratione] dicam (Sail. C. 18), a few
have conspired . . , of which [conspiracy] / will speak,
200. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both
clauses ; usually only in the one that precedes ; some-
times it is wholly omitted. Thus —
a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause : as,
loci natura erat haec quern locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the
nature of the ground which otf^ men had chosen was this,
b. The noun may appear only in the relative clause : as,
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus (Arch. 11),
he has touched in verse the things which we did in our consulship.
urbem quam statuo vestra est (Mn, i. ^t^), yours is the city which I
found.
Profiouns : Relative, 135
Note. — In the latter case, a demonstrative (is, ille or hie)
usually stands in the antecedent clause : ^ as,
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps
poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the State which had
brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the
penalty.
c» The antecedent noun may be entirely omitted, especially an
indefinite one : as,
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who
bore the ea^le of the tenth legion,
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre,
d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with
the antecedent may stand in the relative clause : as,
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those most
beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house (nearly equal to the
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones),
e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod
alone) to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed :
[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique — id
quod est verius ? (Manil. 19), an affront is offered shcUl I say to
Gabinius or Pompey f or — which is truer — to both f
201. In the use of relatives, the following points are
to be observed: —
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in
English: as,
liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me,
is sum qui semper fui, / am the same man I always wcu.
eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
b. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of other con-
structions in English, particularly of a participle, appositive, or
noun of agency : as,
leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws,
Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Ccesar the conqueror of Gaul,
justa gloria quae est fructus virtutis, true glory the fruit of virtue.
c. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun : as,
quae mala cum multis patimur ea nobis leviora videntur, the evils
we suffer [in common] with many seem to us lighter,
' In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in Latin usually stands first ;
but, in translating, the noun should generally (except with an indefinite relative)
be transferred in its proper case to the antecedent clause, as in the example above
quoted.
136 Syntax: Pronouns.
d. When the antecedent noun is in apposition with the main
clause, or some word of it, it is put in the relative clause : as,
firmi amici, cujus generis est magna penuria, steadfast friends^ a class
of which there is great lack,
e. A relative often stands with a relative adverb or an interroga-
tive at the beginning of a sentence or clause, where in English a
demonstrative must be used : as,
quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so.
quorum quod simile factum ? (Cat. iv. 8), what deed of theirs like this ?
f. The relative Adverb is regularly used in referring to a Loca-
tive : as,
mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21) ^ having died at CumcBf
whither he had retired [here in quam urbem might be used, but not
in qi4as\.
g. The relative words qui, qualis, quantua, &c., are often ren-
dered simply by as ' in English : as,
idem quod semper, the same as always.
talis dux qualem Hannibalem novimus, such a chief cu we know Han-
nibal [to have been].
h. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses
introduced by relative or temporal adverbs : as, ubi^ quo, unde^
cum.
[For the use of the Relative in idiomatic clauses of Result
{est qui, dignus qui, quam qui, etc.), see f. 200.]
[For the use of Interrogatives, see 210].
Indefinite.
202. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that
some person or thing is meant, without indicating what
one.
•N. B. For the significations of the compounds of qui and quia,
see 105 (pp. 55, 56).
a. Of the particular indefinites quia, quispiam, nescio quia,
aliquis, quidam (meaning some or any), quia is least definite,
and quidam the most : as,
dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
' Compare 106. b. The word as in this use is strictly a relative, though in-
variable in form.
Pronouns: Indefinite. 137
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so [guidam would
mean certain particular persons denned to the speaker's mind
though not named],
habitant hie quaedam mulieres pauperculae, some poor women live
here [i.e. some women he knows of ; some women or other would
be aliqucte or nescio qtKie\*
b. In a particular negative, aliqtiis is regularly used, when in
a general negative quisquam or uUtus would be required : as,
sine aliquo metu, [you cannot do this] without some fear,
sine ullo metu, [you may do this] without any fear,
c. Of the general indefinites, quivia or quilibet {any you will)
IS used chiefly in affirmative, quifiquam and alius {any at all)
in negative, interrogative, or conditional clauses : as,
quidlibet modo aliquid (Cic), any thing you will ^ provided it he some-
thing,
cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what can happen to any
[one] man can happen to any man [whatever],
cur cuiquam misi prius, w^y did I send to any body before [you] ?
minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, / have less strength than
either of you (for the form utervis^ see 83).
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, it is not every man*s
luck to go to Corinth [non cuiquam, not any man's].
Note. — The use of these indefinites is very various, and must be
learned from the Lexicon or from practice. The choice among them
often depends merely on the point of view of the speaker, and they are
often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few excep-
tions) those of logic, not of syntax.
d. The Distributive quisque {every\ titerque (each), or unus
qnisque {every single one), used in general assertions, is equivalent
to a plural, and sometimes has a plural verb : as,
bonus liber melior est quisque quo major, the larger a good book is^
the better,
ambo exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos, both armies go away
every man to his home,
uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu, each army was in sight
of the other,
e. QuiBque is regularly placed in a dependent clause if there is
one : as,
quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rose. Com. ii.), the
keener-witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches,
f. Nemo is often used as a pronoun, occasionally even with a
noun in agreement : as, vir nemo bonus (Leg. ii. 16).
138 Syntax : Verbs,
203. The expressions alter . . . alter, alms". . . alius,
may be used reciprocally : as,
hi fratres alter alterum amant, ^^se brothers love each other,
a. Alius is simply another j alter is the other (of two) or the
second; * ceteri, all the rest or others,
b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as the
other of the objects referred to : * as,
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls,
aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cic), it is one thing to slander^
another to accuse,
c. Alius with another case of the same word expresses shortly
a double statement : as,
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one things one another,
alius alia vii civitatem auxerunt (liv. i. 21), they enlarged the State
each in his own way,
VERBS.
204. A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in
Number and Person : as,
ego statue, I resolve,
oratio est habita, the plea was spoken,
a, A Verb having a Relative as its subject takes the person of
the expressed or implied Antecedent : as,
adsum qui feci (iEn. ix. 427), here am I who did it,
b. The verb sometimes agrees in number, and in a periphrastic
form in gender, with a predicate noun or one in apposition : as,
non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), not every error
should be called folly,
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est, Corinth the light of Greece
is put out,
205. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in
the plural ; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with
cum (compare 186. d) : as,
pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the general and
several chiefs are taken.
1 Compare in English every other day for every second day,
2 Either one may be '* the other '' according to the way you look at them.
The Verb and its Subject. 139
a. When the subjects are of difEerent persons^ the verb will be
in the first rather than the second, and in the second rather than
the third : as,
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and
TUllia are well^ Cicero and I are well, [Notice that the first person
is ULso first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
b. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con-
sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular : as,
neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordia repressit
(Ter. Ad.), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him,
Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate
and people understand. [Here the phrase Senatus, &c., is the ofiicial
designation of the government].
c. A collective noun may take a plural verb : as,
pars praedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty.
Remark. — Quisque is very often used in apposition with a plural
subject, and perhaps in all cases where it has a plural verb should be so
considered : as,
suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Cure), Ut every one keep
his awn [properly, let them keep every man his own],
d. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects sepa-
rately^ it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as,
intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Anthony
and Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose,
206. The Subject of the verb, and sometimes the verb,
is omitted in certain cases.
a. The Personal Pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless
emphatic: thus,
loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak.
b. An indefinite subject is often omitted. This is usually a
plural subject, as in dicunt, ferunt, perhibent (they say) ; but
sometimes singular, as inquit (Tusc. i. 39), referring to a class
of reasoners just spoken of.
c. The Verb is often omitted in certain phrases : as,
quorsum haec [spectant] ? what does this aim at ?
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], ^w will know a lion by his claw,
quid multa ? what need of many words ?
quid ? quod, what of this, that, Sec.
The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted ;
often also, dico and facio.
140 Syntax: Particles.
PARTICLES.
1. — Adverbg.
207. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives,
and other Adverbs.
Note. — The proper function of Adverbs as petrified (obsolete) case-
forms is to modify Verbs; and so their name denotes. They also
modify Adjectives, as showing the manner or degree of the exercise or
manifestation of the quality described. More rarely they modify other
Adverbs, because they are themselves case-forms of adjectives, and
kindred with them. Very rarely, in poetry, adverbs are also used with
Nouns containing a verbal idea, or with those containing an adjective
idea, as in the phrase tua semper lenitas. Many adverbs, especially
relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished
from conjunctions (see 25. /).
a. A Demonstrative or Relative Adverb is often equivalent to
the corresponding Pronoun with a corresponding Preposition ; as,
eo (= in ea) imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts
the camp-utensUs,
apud eos quo (= ad quos) se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to
whom he resorted,
qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (R. Am. 26), i.e. one who
should have killed his own father,
b. The adverbs propius^ proxime (like the adjectives propior^
proximus)^ prtdie, postrtdie, are sometimes followed by the Accusa-
tive without any preposition ; palam, procul, simuly by the Abla-
tive : as,
quam proxime hostem (Att. vi. 5), as near the enemy as lean,
postridie ludos (id. xvi. 4), the day after the games,
palam populo (Liv.), in presence of the people.
Remark.— /Vwft^ zxid postridie are also used with the genitive ; clam
may take either accusative, ablative, or (rarely) the dative.
c. Many perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the
adverb which modified them as participles : as,
praeclare factum, a glorious deed,
2. — Conjunctions.
208. Copulative and disjunctive Conjunctions connect
similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the
same case or mood as that preceding.
Conjunctions ; Negative Particles. 141
a. Conjunctions of comparison (as uty guam, tanquam) also
connect similar cases or moods : as,
perge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. ii)^ go on as you have begun,
his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 26) ?
do you think these are more to be trusted than the scientists ?
hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter.), a
shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (compare 247).
b. Two or more words are often joined without conjunctions : ^
as, omnes di, homines j summit mediiy injimij liberty servi. If
a conjunction is used where there are more than two words or
phrases, it is commonly used with all except the first : as, summa
Jide et constantid et justitia.
c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly
connected by a conjunction : as,
multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons,
d. Many words properly adverbs may be used correlatively,
and lose their adverbial force and become conjunctions : as,
cum {turn) . . iumy modo . . modoysimul . . simul, qua . . qua^
nunc . . nunc (see 107, p. 57).
e. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis or
to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding: as, at veroy
itaque ergo, nam-qucy et-enim,
f. Several conjunctions serve to introduce subordinate clauses
requiring a change of Mood (see Chap. V.)/
8.~N<«»tlTe Particles.
[For the Negative Particles, see 149. Cy p. 99.]
209. In the use of the Negative Particles, the follow-
ing points are to be observed : —
a. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English.
But 2i general negation is not destroyed —
1. By a following ne . . quidem or non modo;
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate sub-
ordinate member ;
3. By neque introducing another co-ordinate member.
b. The negative is regularly joined to the connective, and some-
times to other words ; so that the form of the negative in Latin
di£Eers from that in English in such phrases as —
The omission of conjunctions is called Asyndeton,
142 Syntax: Questions.
. neque (nee), and . . natt hut . . not,
nee quisquam, and no one,
nuUi or heutri credo, I do not believe any or either [of them],
nego haec esse vera (not dieo haee non esse vera), I say this is not true*
nihil unquam audivi jucundius, I never heard anything jollier,
c. A statement is often made emphatic by den3ring its contrary ^
(compare nonnullus, fwnnemo, etc., 150. a),
d. The particle immo, nay^ is used to contradict some part of
the statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case, the same
statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo
becomes nearly equivalent to yes {nay but, nay rather),
e. With si, if, and quo, in order that, minus becomes equiva-
lent to not; so minime often has the meaning not at all.
[For do not in Prohibitions, see 269. a,'\
QUESTIONS.
210. Questions in Latin are introduced by special
Interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the
order of words, as in English.
[For the Interrogative Particles, see page 99. d^
a. A question of simple facti requiring the answer yes or no,
is formed in Latin by adding the syllable -ne (enclitic) to the
emphatic word : as,
tune id veritus es (Cie.) ? did you fear that?
b. Sometimes the interrogative particle is omitted, when no
sign of a question appears except in the punctuation : as,
patere tua eonsilia non sentis (Cat. i. i) ? do you not see that your schemes
are manifest ?
c. When the syllable -n© is added to a negative word, — as
nonne, — an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num
implies a negative answer : as,
nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 35), do you not observed
num dubium est (R. Am. 37), there is no doubt, is there ?
d. The particle -ne added to the verb often has the force of
nonne, and implies an affirmative answer : as,
meministine me in Senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3) ? donU you remember my
saying in the Senate ?
This form of expression is called Litotes,
Interrogative Forms ; Double Questions. 143
Remark. — The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interroga-
tive particles : as, uirutntu^ anrUy fionru,
e. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed
by prefixing to the sentence an Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb
(see List, p. 57) : as,
quid est quod jam amplius exspectes (Cat. i. 3) ? what is there for you
to look for any more ?
Remark. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by
omitting the mark of interrogation, or (in speech) by changing the
inflection of the voice : as, qualis vir erat ! quot calamitates passi sumus I
nty how^ is used in Indirect questions ; and in old Latin also in Direct :
as, ut valet? how is she? (Plaut.).
/. The particles nam (enclitic) and tandem are added to these
interrogatives for the sake of emphasis : as,
quisnam est ? (or guts tandem est f which would be stronger), pray
who is it?
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 4), where in the world are we?
Remark. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced
by whether^ or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is the same as
that of direct ; the difference being only in the verb, which regularly
takes the Subjunctive. In indirect questions num loses its peculiar
force. The phrases nescio quis, mirum quam, and the like, are Indefinites
in meaning, and do not require the subjunctive. The expressions nescio
an, dubito an, and the like, incline to the Affirmative: I almost think.
Double Qaestions.
211. In Double or Alternative Questions, ntrnm or
-ne, whether^ stands in the first member ; an, anne, or ;
annon, necne, or not^ in the second : as,
utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you donU
know ? or do you think nothing of it ?
quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 27), / ask whether slaves or
free.
Remark. — In direct questions, annon is more frequently found
in the alternative ; in indirect, necne.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second : as,
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall I say to Gabinius or to
Pompey?
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your words or not?
in
2. b
144 Syntax: Questions.
b. Sometimes the former member is omitted or implied ; and
an (anne) alone asks a question, — usually with indignation or
surprise: as,
an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), whcU t do you think those nun
wretched?
c. When utmm asks a question to which there is no alternative,
the second member may be omitted : as,
utrum in clarissimis est civibiis is quern . , . (Flacc. 16), is he
among the noblest citizens, whom, &>c.
d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
iitnun ... an
... an (anne)
-ne ... an
. . . -ne
Question and Answer.
212. As there is no one word in Latin meaning simply
yes or no, in answering a question the verb is generally
repeated : as,
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well),
eratne tecum, tvos he with you f non erat, no (he wets not).
a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes us§d in answer
to a direct question : thus vero {in truth\ or etiam {even so)
may have the meaning of yes ; and non [not\ or minime {least-
of- alt) y noy by no means.
The particles thus used are, — for Yes : etiam, ita, factum,
vero, sane; ita vero, ita est, sane quident; for No : non, minime,
minime vero, non quidem, non hercle vero.
b. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of die
alternative must be repeated : as,
tune an frater erat, wcu it you or your brother?
ego [eram], it was /.
Remark. — From alternative questions must be distinguished
those in which some part of the question only is alternative, not the
question itself. These have the common distinctive particles, aut
or vel (-ve).
Construction of Cases. 145
Chapter II. — Construction of Cases.
Note. — The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words
in the sentence. Originally the family of languages to which Latin
belongs had at least seven cases, besides the Vocative, all expressing
different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental cases were
lost, and their functions divided among the others.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative (so far as this can be
called a case) without doubt express the oldest forms of case-relation
(Direct Cases: 31. N.). The Nominative, when it differs in form from
the Accusative, usually indicates the relation of Subject by the pro-
nominal suffix s (p. 14. n. 2.) ; the Vocative, when it differs from the
nominative, perhaps never , had any suffix. The Accusative, most
frequently formed by the suffix m, originally connected the noun
loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb or otherwise :
compare the use of Stems in composition, as armiger with artna gerere ;
fidicen with. Jidibus canere ; hanc tangere vr'ith. hanc tactio (Plant.). The
various uses of the accusative were specialized from this vague relation.
The other cases were formed by combination with various pro-
nominal suffixes for more special uses, at first probably expressing rela-
tions of place or direction (to, from, at, with : Indirect Cases). The
original meanings of these cases have become confused with each other,
so that in many instances they are no longer distinguishable either in
form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost in
Latin from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its func-
tion was performed in many instances by the Ablative, which is freely
used to express the place where. To indicate relations of place more
precisely. Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually became necessary.
These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so have finally
superseded them in all modern languages derived from Latin. But in
Latin a very large and various body of relations was still expressed by
cases ; though in many expressions forms with or without a preposition
occur, showing the transition state : compare nitor with or without /«,
and the ablative of separation with or without ab or ex.
The names of the oblique cases, except the Ablative,. are of Greek
origin. The name Genitive — Gr.yfviicii [irT«(ny], from y4vos — refers,
originally, to the class to which anything belongs. The Dative — Zoriitfi
— is the case of giving. The name Accusative is a mistranslation of
alrmriir^, signifying that which is effected or caused [cuLTia), The original
name for Nominative (naming) was op^^, signifying erect; for Vocative,
jcAiircjc^ (ccUling), The name Ablative means taking from.
10
146 Syntax: Genitive.
GENITIVE.
Note. — The Genitive is the regular case to express the rela-
tion of one noun to another ; and hence is sometimes called the
adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and Ablative,
which may be called adverbial cases (compare Remark under 217).
Its uses may be classified as follows : —
{I. of Possession.
2. of Source or Material.
3. of Quality (with Adjectives).
2. Partitive : of the Whole, after words designating a Part
I. with Nouns of action and feeling.
^ 2 with Adiectives i Relative adjective or Verbal.
3. Objective: • ^- witn AUjectives ^ for Specification (later use).
7 with Verbs J of Memory, Feeling (primary object).
3. wiin veros | ^^ Accusing, &c. (secondary object).
I. — WITH NOU^S.
213. A noun used to limit or define another, and not
meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive. This
relation is most frequently expressed in English by the
preposition of : as,^
libri CiceroniB, the books of Cicero,
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
vir Bummae virtntis, a man of the greatest courage.
pars militum, a part of the soldiers,
cultus deomtn, worship of the gods,
vacatio laboris, a respite of toil,
victor omnium gentium, conquerer of all nations.
Remark. — The phrase amor patris, love of a father^ may
mean love felt by a father (subjective genitive), or love towards
a father (objective genitive). For the former the adjective patrins
would be commonly used : compare a father's love and love of a
father,
SulidectiTe GenitiTe.
214. The Genitive is used with a noun to denote the
Author, Owner, Source, Material, and (modified by
adjectives) Measure or Quality.
' The genitive seems originally to have meant that from which something
springs (origin or source) ; hence, thcU to which it belongs. From this significa-
tion most of the others may be deduced.
Subjective Genitive. 147
a. For the genitive of Possession a possessive adjective is
often used, — regularly for that of the personal pronouns : as,
liber meus, my book,
aliena pericula, oth^ tnerCs dangers.
SuUana tempora, the times of Sylla,
b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as,y
Castoris [aedes], the [temple] 0/ Castor,
Hectoris Andromache, Hector's [wife] Andromache,
c. The genitive is often in the Predicate, connected with its
noun by a copulative verb : as,
haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's,
tutelae nostrae [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them [to be] in our pro-
tection,
lucri f acere, to get the benefit of
jam me Pompeii totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), jroi^ knew lam now all
for Pompey,
Remark. — These genitives bear the same relation to those in 213
that the noun in predicate agreement bears to the appositive (185).
d. An infinitive or a clause, used as a noun, is often limited by
the genitive of adjectives or nouns, or takes a possessive in
agreement : as,
neque sui judicii [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), // was not for his
judgment to decide,
cujusvis hominis est errare (Cic), it is anyman^s [liability] to err,
mentiri non est meum, it is not for me to lie,
humanum \for hominis] est errare, it is marCs nature to err,
negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent
mulieres (Verr. ii. 28), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks
for women to recline [as guests] at the banquets of men.
timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), it is for the coward to wish for
death.
Remark. — The genitive of an adjective (especially of the
third declension) is thus used to express the same general idea
as the neuter nominative : as,
stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 10), it tvos (would
have been) folly to hope^ effrontery to urge.
sapientis \not sapiens] est pauca loqui, it is wise [the part of a wise
man] to say little,
e. A genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which
a thing consists (compare 216, 244) : as,
talentum auri, a talent of gold,
flumina lactis, rivers of milk.
148 Syntax: The Genitive.
/. A limitiDg genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in
apposition: as,
nomen insaniae, the word madness,
oppidum Antiochiae, the city of AnHoch,
g. The genitive is often used with the ablatives catiBa, gratia,
for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the indeclinable instar,
like; also with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after;
tonus, as far as.
GenltlTe of Qualltj.
215. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only
when the quality is modified by an adjective (usually an
indefinite one) : as,
vir Bununae virtutia, a man of the highest courage.
magnae eat deUberattonia, ;/ is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris, the ant, [a creature] of great toil.
Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (p. 174). In expressions of
Quality, the genitive and ablative may often be used indifferently : as,
praestanti prudentia virum, maxitni animi hominem (Cic). But, in
general the genitive is thus used rather of essential^ the ablative of
special or incidental characteristics or conditions.
a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases ejus
modi, cujua modi (equivalent to talis, such, qualis, ef what sort).
b. The genitive (of quality), with numerals, is used to define
measures of length, depth, &c. : as,
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth],
murus sedecim pedum, a wall sixteen feet [high].
c. Certain genitives of Quantity — as magni, parvi, nihili,
pluris, minoris — are used to express indefinite Value (see Ab-
lative of Price, 252).
Partitive €tenitiTe.
216. Words denoting a Part are followed by the
genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.
a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are —
I. Nouns or Pronouns : as,
pars militum, part of the soldiers.
quis nostrum, which of usf (compare e, below),
nihil erat reliqui, there wcu nothing left.
Partitive Genitive. 149
2. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as,
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls,
unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes.
plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 4), is strongest
in cavalry of all Gaul,
3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns : as,
tantum spatii, so much space,
aliquid nummorum, a few pence,
id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground,
id temporis, at that time.
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid novi ? what news ?
Remark. — Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive is
rarely used in this way. Thus —
nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but
nihil memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention,
4. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place : as,
satis pecuniae, money enough,
parum otii, not much ease,
inde loci, next in order,
turn temporis, at that point of time,
eo miseriarum (Sail.), to that pitch of misery,
b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : as ,
sequimur te sancte deorum (iEn. iv. 578), we folUm thee^ O holy
deity.
nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 48), black wools,
electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), chosen youths,
cunctos hominum (Ov.), all men (but compare e),
c. Cardinal numbers regularly — also quidam more commonly,
and other words rarely — take the ablative with e (ex) or de,
instead of the genitive : as,
unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes,
minumus ex illis (Jug. ii), the youngest of them,
medius ex tribus (ib.), the midst of the three.
d. With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective ; but
with pronouns it always takes a genitive : as,
uterque consul, both the consuls,
uterque nostrum, both of us.
§50
2.0
Rem.
9.d
18. e
Rem.
Rem.
ISO
Syntax: The Genitive.
e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any
thing, or when no others are thought of, take a case in agreement,
and not the partitive genitive : as,
nos omnes, all of us,
quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there f [many,
cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies of whom you have
multi milites, many of the soldiers,
nemo Romanus, not one Roman,
OliJectlTe GenltlTe.
217. Nouns of Action, Agency, and Feeling, govern
the genitive of the object : ^ as,
desiderium otii, longing for rest,
vacatio muneris, relief from duty,
gratia beneficii, gratitude for kindness,
fuga malorum, refuge from disaster,
laudator temporis acti, apraiser of the past,
precatio deorum, prayer to the gods,
dolor capitis, pain in the head.
contentio honorum, struggle for office,
opinio virtutis, reputation for valor.
Remark. — One noun limiting another is regularly used in the geni-
tive, and not with a preposition, — prepositions being originally adverbs^
and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one noun has another con-
nected with it by a preposition. This happens with nouns of action,
feeling, and motion ; and in some relations of place to or in which ox from
which (including origin), accompaniment, &c. (compare 227. d) : as,
odium in Caesarem (or odium Caesaris), hate of Casar,
merita erga me (Cic), services to me,
auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies,
reditus in caelum (id.), return to heaven,
impetus in me (id), attack on me,
excessus e vita (id.), departure from life,
a. Occasionally possessive adjectives are used for the genitive
of the Object : as,
externus timor, dread of the stranger (see 197. a),
b. The objective genitive is rarely used with a noun limited by
another genitive : as,
animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mincTs traversing
of many things.
1 This is an extension of the idea of belonging to ; as in the phrase odinm
Caesaris, hate of Casar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Caesar, though
in its active sense he is the obfect of it.
Genitive with Adjectives,
151
II.-WITH ADJECTIVES.
218. Adjectives requiring an object of reference {ad-
jectiva relativd) govern the genitive.
a. Adjectives denoting Desire, Knowledge, Memory, Fulness,
Power, Sharing, Guilt, and their opposites, are followed by the
genitive : as,
avidus laudis, greedy of praise,
fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters^
juris (jure) peritus, skilled in law,
sui k:^\X\x^^ forgetful of himself
rationis et orationis expertes (Cff. i. 16)1 devoid of reason and speech,
b. Verbals in az ; also Participles in ns when used to denote a
disposition and not a particular act, so that they become adjectives,
take the genitive : as,
justum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and
steadfast to his purpose.
si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. ix. i), if you have become
acquainted with any one more fond of yott,
multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war,
sitiens sanguinis, thirsting for blood. But,
Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac), Tiberius [then] thirsting for blood.
Remark. -^ V^ith the accusative, participles in ns are participles
•* referring to an act ; " with a genitive, they are adjectives "referring to
the fact:'
c. Some other adjectives of quality or agency often take the
genitive ; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjective
with a genitive of specification : as,
callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership,
pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water,
notus ^.vlyoA^ famed for spirit.
fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil,
integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and pure of guilt.
Remark. — Animl (strictly a locative, plural animls) is added
to adjectives oi feeling: as,
aeger animi, sick at heart.
conf usus animi, disturbed in spirit.
d. A few adjectives of Likeness, Nearness, Belonging — ordi-
narily requiring the dative — take the possessive genitive, especially
when used as nouns ; these are, iugudlis, afftnis^ communis^ finiti-
musy par, fropinquus^proprius (regularly), ^miliSf victnus.
§50
4.a
Rem.
4.b
Rem.
152 Syntax: The Genitive.
III.— WITH VERBS.
Verbs of Memory.
219. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Re-
minding, take the genitive of the object when they are
used of a continued state of mind, but the accusative
when used of a single act : as,
pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch.), to recall the memory of childhood,
animus meminit praeteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers the past.
venit mihi in mentem illius die!, I bethought me of that day.
obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat i. 3), turn your mind from
slaughter and conflagrations,
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), he forgot the whole case.
Remark.— -The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of Re-
minding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns : as, hoc te
admoneo. The accusative is always used of a person or thing remem-
bered by an eye-witness. Recorder is almost always construed with an
Accusative, or with a phrase or clause.
Charge and Penalty.
220. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquit-
ting, take the genitive of the charge ox penalty : as,
arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft,
peculatus damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flac. 18), con^
demnedfor embezzlement,
video non te absolutum esse improbitatis sed illos damnatos esse
caedis (Verr. ii. 28), / see not that you were acquitted of outrage,
but that they were condemned for homicide,
a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —
capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to death) ;
majestatis [laesae], trecuon (crime against the dignity of the State) ;
repetundarum, extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money
wrongfully taken) ;
voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one's vow ; i.e.
successful \xi one's effort).
b. The crime may be expressed by the ablative with de ; the
punishment by the ablative alone : ^ as,
de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil, i), convicted of assault and treason,
vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ig|nominiis, vinculis, ver-
beribus, exsiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i. 43), but the vices and
crimes of men are punished with fines, dishonor, chains^ scourging^
exile, death.
* But, inter sicarios accusare or defendere.
mssat
Genitive with Verbs.
153
Terbs of Feeling.
22i. Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the
object which excites the feeling. Thus —
a. Verbs of Pity, as miaereor and miaeresco, are followed by
the genitive: as,
miserescite regis (Mn, viiL 573), pity the king,
miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144)} //V^ a soul that endures
unworthy things.
But mlBeror, commiaeror, bewail^ take the Accusative.
b. The impersonals mlaeret, paenitet, plget, pudet, taedet (or
pertaesum est), take the genitive of the object with the accusative
of the person affected : as,
hos homines infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 12),
these men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor,
c. An Infinitive, a Clause, or an accusative of a neuter pronoun
may be used with these impersonal verbs instead of the genitive
of a noun : as,
me paenitet haec fecisse, I repent of having done this,
nihil quod paenitere possit (Cic), nothing that may cause repentance,
d. Sometimes they are used personally : as,
nonne te haec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame you f
222. The impersonals interest and refert take the geni-
tive of the person (rarely the thing) affected, — the sub-
ject of the verb being a neuter pronoun or a substantive
clause : as,
Clodii intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21), it wcu the interest of Clodius
that Milo should die.
Remark. — The use of the genitive with interest is probably to be
referred to its predicate use (214. </).
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond-
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after in-
terest or refert : ' as,
quid tua id refert? — magni (Ter. Ph.), ^<w does that concern you?
much,
vehementer intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin.), it would be very
much to your advantage^ you who are fathers.
' Refert is seldom used in any other way ; but it takes rarely the dative (of
Reference), as in Hor. Sat. i. i, 49 : ^id referat intra naturae fines viventi.
154 Syntax: The Dative.
b. The accusative with ad is used to express the Thing with
reference to which one is interested : as,
magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. i), it is of great cofi-
sequence to our honor*
223. Some verbs of Plenty and Want govern the
genitive (rarely, except egeo, indigeo, satago) : as,
quid est quod defensionis indigeat ? (Rose. Am. 12), wAat is there that
needs defence f
satagit rerum suarum, he has his hattdsfull with his own affairs.
a. The genitive sometimes follows poMoXy get possession ofj
as always in the phrase potiri renun, to be master of affairs.
b. Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the Ablative
(see 243, 248. c).
DATIVE.
224. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected
by an action. This object is usually denoted in English
by TO or for : as,
dat libnim pnero, he gives a book to the boy,
cedite tempoxU yield to the occasion.
provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
inimicin non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
civitatis salnti consuUte, consult for the safety of the State.
Bio mihi videtor, so it seems to me.
utile rei publicae, useful to the State.
naturae contrarium, opposite to nature.
Note. — The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards,
and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in
Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets.
In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like
the Accusative) ^& passively affected hy the action, or caused hy it ; but as
reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiwng it actively. Thus, in dedit
mihi librum, he gave me a book, or fecit mihi injuriam, he did me an
injury ; it is I that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence persons,
or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative.^
As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and indi-
rect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of similar
"» So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object of an
action : as, yo veo al hombre, / see the man.
Ml
Dative with Transiiives, 155
meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ in the case of
the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its cases, many
verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require the dative.
Thus believe^ which in English originally governed the genitive, has be-
come transitive ; while the corresponding verb in Latm, credo (a com-
pound of cred and do, to place confidence in) takes the dative.
The uses of the Dative are the following : —
.. AS iNDiRBCr OBJECT (general use): { - ^ J^^^^,
a. of Possession (with esse),
d. of Agency (with Gerund).
c. of Service (predicate use).
d. of Fitness, &c. (with Adjectives).
e. of Reference (doHvus commocU).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses :
With Transitives.
225. The Dative of the Indirect object may be used
with any transitive verb whose meaning permits it,
along with the accusative of the Direct : as,
do tibi librum, I give you a book,
illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), this I assure you.
commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i. i), I put all his affairs in
your hands.
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (id. 14), you
will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
a. Many verbs may be either transitive or intransitive, and
have the accusative with the dative, or the dative alone : as,
hanc pecuniam tibi credo, I trust this money to you.
in hac re tibi credo, / trust you in this affair.
b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposition
with its case is used, but the dative occurs in poetry : as,
has litteras ad te mitto, I send you this letter.
it clamor caelo (iEn. v. 451 ), a shout goes to the sky.
c. Many verbs usually found with a dative of the person may
also take an accusative of the thing (see 227) : as,
cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king threat-
ened him with the cross,
imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts of the townspeople ten
talents,
omnia sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon on^s self every thing.
Crasso divitias non invideo, I do not envy Crasstts his wealth.
a»wc=5=35:
156 Syntax: The Dative,
d. Certain verbs capable of two different senses^ may take
either the dative of a person and the accusative of a thing, or the
accusative of a person and the ablative of a thing : as,
donat coronas SMis, he presents wreat/is to his men ; or,
donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths,
pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks itself with fruits.
copiis (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii, 6), the forces being stripped of
arms,
aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), to sprinkle the altar with
blood,
€, Verbs which in the active voice take the accusative and
dative retain the dative when used in the passive : as,
haec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us.
Crasso divitiae non invidentur, Crassus is not envied for his wealth.
decern talenta oppidanis imperantur, ten talents are exacted of the
townspeople.
With Intransitives.
226. Intransitive verbs take the dative of the Indirect
object only : as,
cedant arma togae (Phil. i. 8), let arms give place to the gown.
Caesari respondet, he replies to Ccesar.
Caesari respondetur, Ccesar is replied to (see 230).
credimus nuntio, we believe the messenger.
nuntio creditur, the messenger is beliez/ed.
respond! maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), I have answered the heaviest
charges,
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that it may so turn out to each.
a. The dative is used as the object of reference of many phrases
consisting of a noun with a copulative verb (compare 235) : as,
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one.
quis huic rei testis est (Quinc. 11), who testifies to this fact?
is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30), this put an end to the raids.
b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a
sense approaching the genitive (compare 227. d^ 235. a) : as,
legatus Caesari, a lieutenant to Casar (i.e., a man sent as a lieutenant
to Caesar),
heres fratri suo, his brother's heir.
ministri sceleribus, agents of crime.
' These are dono^ impertto, induoj exitOj adspergo^ inspergo^ circumdo^ cir*
cumfundoy prohibeo^ intercludo.
Dative with Intransitives. 157
227. Most verbs signifying to favor ^ kelp y please, trust,
and their contraries ; also, to believe, persuade, command,
obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten^ pardon, and spare} take
the Dative : as,
cur mihi invides, why do you envy me t
mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me,
ignosce patrio dolori (Liv. iii. 48), ///y a father' s grief .
sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), I was able to help the guilty,
non omnibus servio (id. xvi. 13), I am not a servant to every man,
cum ceteris turn mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), I dissatisfy other people
and myself too,
non parcam operae (id. xvi. 13), I will spare no pains,
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), j^ I have persuaded myself
huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), this legion Caesar
especially trusted.
Note. — Several classes of verbs in this list (as to favor, envy,
serve, &c.) seem to be transitive. In fact, however, the Latin retains a
primary meaning which is not found in the English : as, inviderOy to
envy, is to look [askance] at one ; gervire, \& to be a slave; suadere, is to
make [a thing] pleasant to any one (compare suaviSy sweet),
a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings — as, jnvo,
adjuvo, kelp, laedo, injure; jubeo, order; de&oio, fail — take
the accusative, indicating a more direct relation or effect Thus —
multa oculis nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes ; but,
hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye,
b. Some verbs take the dative or accusative indifferently: as,
adulor, aemulor, comitor, despiro, praestolor, medeor, medicor,
c. Some verbs take the dative or accusative according to their
signification : * as,
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party of the
citizens,
cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you,
metuens pueris (Plant. Am. v. 1), anxious for the boys,
nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods [so also
timeo\,
' prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the State,
prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habitation for old
age [so ^^o pr€videre\,
1 These include, among others, the following : adverser, credo, faveo, fdo,
ignosco, impero, invideo, irascor, medeor (of persons), noceo, parco, pareo, piaceo,
servio, studeo, suadeo ipersuadeo),
2 See Lexicon under convenio, cupio, fdo (abl.), insisto, maneo, praeverto^
recipio, renuntio, solvo, suuedo.
158 Syntax: The Dative.
d. Some verbal nouns — as inaidlae, ambush^ invidia, envy —
take the dative like the verbs whence they are derived : as,
invidia consul! (Sail.), ill-will against the consul.
obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws,
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself.
e. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet; after
verbs compounded with satis y bene, and male; together with the
following: gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), nubo^ permitto^
plaudo, probo, studeOy suppiico, excello : as,
Optimo viro maledicere (Dej. lo), to slander an excellent man,
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me (see 12. c).
mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), I never satisfy myself,
pulcrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. C. 3), it is a noble thing to
benefit the commonwealth,
haerentem capiti coronam (Hor. S. i. 10), a wreath clinging to the head,
Pompeio se gratificari putant (id. i. i), they suppose they are doing
Pompey a service,
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. i ), I give you leave to answer.
With Componnds.
228. Most verbs compounded with ady ante, couy in^
inter y oby post, prae^ pro, sub, super, and some with circum^
are followed by the dative of Indirect Object:^ as,
neque enim adsentior iis (Lael. 2)tfor I do not agree with them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), «/ is a point of skill to yield to
the weather.
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not
only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them,
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so far as
man^s nature is superior to brutes,
nee unquam succumbet inimicis (Dej. I3)» ^ will never bend before
his foes.
illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their own
name to those papers.
cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Ros. Am. 38),
why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and withstand my
advantage?
Remark. — When a verb with a preposition in English is represented
by one of these compounds, it is commonly followed by the Dative, as
in the above examples. If, however, the compound represents a verb
qualified by an culver b^ it retains its original construction : as, convocat
suos (see also 237. d).
' Many take also the Accusative, being originally transitive.
Dative with Compounds, 159
a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, acquire
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative : ^ as,
nos oppugnat (Fam. u i)^ he opposes us,
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, wAo would dare encounter a man
well attended ?
munus obire (Lael. 2), to attend to a duty,
b. The adjective obvius — also the adverb obviam — with a verb
takes the dative : as,
si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), if he was not intending to
get in his way,
mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me.,
229. Many compounds of ab^ de^ ex, also aditnOy take
the dative (especially of persons) instead of the ablative
of separation : ^ as,
mulieri anulum detraxit, he took a ring from the woman,
bona mihi abstulisti, you have robbed me of my gains,
vitam adulescentibusvis aufert (C. M. 19), violence cUprives young men
oflife,
nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id. i), for age has robbed you of
nothing.
nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), nor do 1 wish this
error wrested from me,
a. The distinct idea of place^ — and, in general, names of
things, — require the ablative with a preposition : as,
ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger,
b. Sometimes the dative of a person and the ablative with a
preposition are used in the same construction : as,
victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory should be wrested from his
hands (compare 243. b).
c. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would strictly require another case with a preposition : as,
differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4, 48), differs from prose [a sermone].
tibi certet (Eel. v. 8), may vie with you [tecum],
lateri abdidit ensem {Mn. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side [in latere],
solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide from the
flock [a pecore].
Here the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected,
for greater vividness of expression.
1 Such verbs are aggredior^ adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio^
insOf obeo, qffendoy oppugno, subeo,
2 The action is here more vividly represented as done to the object affected by it.
i6o Syntax: The Dative,
230. Verbs governing the dative can be used in the
Passive only impersonally : as,
cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared?
non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 13),
that age [youth] is not only not envied, but is even favored »
tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time.
Dative of PosteMian.
231. The dative is used with esse and similar words
to denote possession or other special relation : as,
homini cum deo similitudo est (Cic), man has a likeness to Cod,
quibus opes nullae sunt (Sail.), [those] who have no wealth,
est mihi domi pater ( Virg.), I have a father at home,
. Remark. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizes
the possessors the Dative, the fact of possession : as, liber est
mens, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, /
have a book (among other things). This is the usual form to
^txio\& ^\m^^ possession ; habeo, /^^i/^, generally signifying ^^/^/,
often with some secondary meaning : as,
legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept
with him.
domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under control,
a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and
posse) : as,
deest mihi pecunia, I lack money,
b. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usually
put in the dative by a kind of apposition with Xht person: as,
puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the boy wcu called
Egeriusfrom his poverty,
cui Africano fuit cognomen (id. xxv. 2), whose surname was Africanus,
c. The name may be in apposition with nomen; or in the
genitive: as,
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] ccUled Arethusa,
nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), nty name is Mercury,
puero nomen est Marcus (Marco, Marci), the boy*s name is Marcus,
Dative of Agency.
232. The dative is used with the Gerundive, to denote
the person on whom the necessity rests : as,
haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province is for you
to defend \K.o be defended by you],
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting is mine ;
compare mihi est liber}.
Dative of Service, i6i
a. The dative of the agent is often used 2Sitr perfect participles,
especially when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other
parts of the verb : as,
mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), I have deliberated and
resolved.
b. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after
almost any passive verb : as,
neque cernitur ulli (Mn. i. 44o)» «^ *^ ^^^^ h ^^y-
felix est dicta sorori (Fast. iii.)» she was called happy by her sister.
c. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used
after the passive of video (usually to be rendered seem) : as,
videtur mihi, // seems (or seems good) to me.
Dative of Servloe.
233. The dative is used to denote the Purpose or
End : often with another dative of the person or thing
affected;^ as,
rei publicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State.
magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our
men.
tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line as a
relief to our men.
omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), all things
were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships.
Dative with Adjectives.
234. The dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs,
to denote that to which the given quality is directed, or
for which it exists.
* The following characteristics have been<observed in the use of the Predicate
Dative (dative of Service) : i. the noun is semi-abstract ; 2. it is so used only in the
singular; 3. it is " used predicatively " ; 4. generally with ^xj«; 5. rarely qualified
by an adjective ; 6. or by a genitive or a phrase ; 7. but few nouns are used in this
way ; 8. the use and its limitations appear to be governed by custom, not by any
principle. It is common with about 40 nouns, and b found witii 185 in all. Of
these dono, muneri^ viiio, are not used with esse. The verbs with which it exists
are habeo, dOy dicoy ducoy ponOy vertOy with esse and its equivalents, as fieriy &c.
The nouns most commonly found in this construction are, adjumentOy auxUiOy cordis
criminiy curaey damnOy decoriy dedecoriy donOy exemploy exitiOy fraudi (damage),
honoriy indiciOy invidiacy tmpedimentOy laudiy ludibriOy malOy moraCy odiOy oneriy
ornamentOy prcudcUy praesidioy probroy pudoriy reuptuiy remedio, salutiy subsi-
dioy ierroriy vitio, voluptatiy usui. — Roby^s Latin Grammar, ii. xxxvii. seq.
1 62 Syntax: The Dative.
a. The dative is used with words of Fitness , Nearness, Like-
ness, Service, Inclination, and their opposites ; also, in poetic and
colloquial use, with Idem : as,
nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 5), nothing is so fitted to nature,
nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), /think nothing hard to a lover,
pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. \Z^, fitter for a procession than for
battle.
rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 36), a speech eqiuU and level with
the subject,
in eadem arma nobis (Cic), to the same arms with us,
b. Adjectives of Fitness or Use take oftener the accusative
with ad to denote the end ; but regularly the dative of persons : as,
nobis utile est ad banc rem, // is of use to us for this thing.
aptus ad rem militarem,yf//<^ a soldier's duty,
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying in went,
castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suitable camp-
ing-ground,
c. Adjectives and nouns of Inclination may take the accusative
with in or erga : as,
comis in uxorem (Hor. £p. ii. 2), land to his wife,
divina bonltas erga homines (N. D. iL 23), the divine goodness towards
men,
d. Many adjectives especially when used as nouns may take also
the possessive genitive.*
Remark. — After similiB, like^ with early writers, the genitive
is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of living objects^ and the
genitive or dative of things,
e. The adjectives propior^ proximus (sometimes), and the ad-
verbs propiusy proxime (more commonly), take the accusative, as if
prepositions, like prope (see 91).
Dative of Reference.
235. The dative is often required not by any particular
word, but by the general meaning of the sentence
{dativus cotnmodi et incommodi) : as,
tibi aras (PI, Merc. i. \\ you plough for yourself ,
res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods to yourself,
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother [out of regard for me ;
laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive].
' Such are aequalis^ affiniSj amicus^ cognatus, communis^ consanguineus,
disparj familiariSf inimicus^ necessarius^ par^ peculiaris^ proprius^ similis^ super-
sUs (compare 188, 2x8. d).
mm
Dative of Reference.
163
Remark. — In these cases there may be only one word in the sen-
tence ; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the
verb is complete without the dative, — which denotes that to or for
which any thing is done, — while in the preceding uses it is more closely
connected with some particular word.
a. The dative of reference is often used to qualify a whole idea,
instead of the possessive genitive modifying a single word : as,
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. ao), to block the
march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies,
se in conspectum nautis dedit ( Verr. vu 53), he put himself in sight of
the sailors,
versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 47,) // comes before my eyes,
b. The dative of reference is used, in relations of Direction
answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front,
&€.): as,
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the
first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus,
laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xzxvi. 26), on the left (ts you sail
up the gulf,
c. The dative of reference is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom),
with the participle of vole or nolo, and similar words : as,
ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as
each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly,
ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), that the soldiers might
assume the tcuk willingly,
EtUcal Dative.
236. The dative of the personal pronouns is used to
show a certain interest felt by the person referred to ^
{dativus ethicus) : as,
quid mihi Celsus agit (Kor.)y pray what is Celsus doing f
suo sibi servit patri (PI. Capt, Prol.), he serves his own father,
at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (Fam. ix. 2),'^ lookyou^ of a sud-
den comes to me Cominius,
hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. Trin. v. i), harkye^ a talent of silver,
quid tibi vis ? what would you have?
Remark. — To express for — meaning instead of^ in defence
of in behalf of — the ablative with pro must be used : as,
pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country.
pro rege, lege, grege (prov.),/^ king, law, people,
ego ibo pro te (PI. Most.), I will go instead of you,
* Compare " 1*11 rhyme you so eight years together." — As You Like It,
i64
Syntax: The Accusative.
ACCUSATIVE,
237. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object
of a transitive verb. It denotes {a) that which is directly
affected^ or {b) that which is catted or produced by the
action of the verb : as,
Brutns Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Casar.
aedem facere, to make a temple,
proelium pugnare, to fight a battle.
The special uses of the Accusative are the following : —
a. Directly affected by the Action.
I. Primary Object :
2. Secondary Object :-«
3. Idiomatic Uses:
b. Effect of the Actioa j Thing produced.
Cognate Accusative.
a, Predicate Accusative (of Naming, &c.).
b, of Asking or Teaching (the Thing),
c, of Concealing (the Person).
a, Adverbial.
b, of Specification (Greek Accusative).
c, of Extent and Duration.
^. of Exclamation.
e. Subject of Infinitive (Indirect Discourse).
a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes
its Subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative : as,
Caesar a Bruto interf ectus est, Casar was killed by Brutus,
domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built),
b. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive,
take an accusative in Latin and are used in the passive : as,
meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest. 69), they grieved [at] my
calamity and sorrow,
ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7, 22), he is laughed [at] by the
whole assembly,
c. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take an accusative of the
quality: as,
vinum redolens (Cic), smelling of wine,
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass,
d. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few
others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative : as,
mortem obire, to die,
consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 4), they assume the consulship,
neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one,
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.
cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens who throng about
tJie senate.
h4«
Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives, 165
e. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet^ delectat,
juvaty oporiet, fallit^ fi^gity praeterit : as ,
te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), it has not escaped your notice,
[For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see 221. ^.]
Co^mate Aocusative.
238. A neuter verb often takes an accusative of kin-
dred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in
some other manner: as,
vitam tutiorem vivere (Hor.), to live a safer life,
aetatem tertiam vivebat, he was Irving his third age,
coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance,
a. The cognate accusative is found in such phrases as vincere
jQdicinm, to gain on^s case at courts and more loosely in poetic
use: as,
saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. i), /ii dance the Cyclops,
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), /S9 live in revels,
b. The accusative is used in certain phrases constructively^ the
real object of the verb being something understood {constructio
Praegnans) : as,
huic errori similem [errorem] insanire (Hor. S. ii. 3, 62), to be mad with
a like delusion.
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking down the
victim].
Two Aocnsatlves.
239. Several classes of verbs, besides the direct ob-
ject, take another accusative, either as a predicate or as
a secondary object.
a. The accusative is used in a predicate after verbs of Naming,
Choosing, &c. (see examples under 185).
b. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs
compounded with prepositions : as,
Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv.xxi. 2^)y he threw hisforces across the Ebro.
But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated.
c. Verbs of Asking and Teaching govern two accusatives,' one
of a Person and the other of a Thing : as,
hoc vos doceo (Cic), I teach you this.
hoc te vehementer rogo (id.)i this /urgently beg of you.
' Either of these may be regarded as the direct object of the action, and may
accordingly be changed to the nominative as subject of the verb in the Passive.
1 66 Syntax: The Accusative,
Remark.^ The accusative of the Thing may remain with the pas-
sive of verbs oV teaching, also after rogo: as, sentetUiam rogaius est
But generally with verbs of askings the Thing becomes subject-nomina-
tive, while the Person asked is put in the ablative with a preposition.
The preposition is always used with the noun designating the person
after peto, posttdo (ab), or quaero (ex or de) : as,
pacem ab Romanis petere (Cses.), to beg peace of the Romans.
d. The transitive celo, conceal^ and the usually neuter lateo,
lie hidy take the accusative of the person : as,
hoc me celavit, he hid this from me.
latet plerosque (Plin.), it is hid from most.
Idlomatlo Uses*
240. The Accusative has the following special idio-
matic uses : —
a. A neuter pronoun or adjective is used adverbially in the
accusative : ^ as,
quid moror, why do I delay i
dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking.
acerba tuens (Mn. ix. 793), looking cruelly.
torvum clamat (id. viL 599), he cries harshly.
b. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases : as,
id temporis, at thai time.
meam vicem, on my part.
quod si, btU (as to which) if.
c. The so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative is used by
the poets to denote the part affected : as,
caput nectentur ( Virg.), their head shall be bound [they shall be bound
about the head].
Note. — The part is strictly in apposition with the whole, and re-
mains (as in the example) after the passive. Many similar expressions
may be regarded as the accusative after passive verbs used reflexrvely : as,
inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), he girds on the useless steel.
d. The accusative is used in Exclamations : as,
O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic), O fortunate republic!
O me miserum 1 Ah wretched me !
e. Duration of Time and extent of Space are expressed by the
accusative (see 256, 257).
' This usage is strictly the Cognate Accusative.
Vocative; Ablative, 167
/ The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative.
This is especially frequent after words of Knowing, Thinking,
Telling, and Perceiving (verba sentiendi et declarandi)}
[For the Accusative with Prepositions, see page loi.]
VOCATIVE.
241. The Vocative is the form of direct Address : as,
. i Tiberlne pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103), O father Tiber I
thee^ holy one^ I pray.
Note. — The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly has
no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence.
a. Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the
■ vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative : as,
] audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear^ thou people of Alba,
b! Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the
> nominative, where the verb is of the second person : as
censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.), robed you salute the censor,
c. The vocative is found in the phrase,
macte= [magne, root mag] virtute esto (Hor.), bravo! well done!
[lit., be enlarged by manliness],
ABLATIVE.
242. The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex-
pressed in English by the prepositions from, in, at,
WITH, by: as,
llberare meta, to deliver from fear.
caeons avaritia, blind with avarice.
ocoiBUS gladio, slain by the sword,
ezoultaa doctrlna, trained in learning,
hoc ipso tempore, at this very time.
Note. — The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, — the
Ablative proper, expressing the relation from ; the Locative, in ; and the
Instrumental, with or by. This confusion has arisen partly from pho-
netic . decay, by which the cases have become identical in form, and
partly from the development by which they have approached one
another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like forms of the dative
and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth declension, and the
' In its origin, the accusative in this construction is strictly the Object of the
leading verb.
§52
4.b
953
§54
i68 Syntax : The Ablative.
loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the second, the phrases
a parte dextra, on the right; quam ob causam, from which cause ;
ad famaniy at (in consequence of) the report.
The relation of from includes separation^ source^ causey agents and
comparison ; that of with or by, accompaniment^ instrument^ means, man-
ner, quality^ and price ; that of IN or AT, plcKe, time, circumstance. It is
probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment^ had a separate case,
which became confounded with the Instrumental before Latin was
separated from the kindred tongues. The following are the uses of the
Latin Ablative, classed according to the original cases which have been
combined in it : —
a. of Separation, Privation, and Want.
b. of Source (participles of origin, &c.)
c. of Cause [gaudeo^ dignus^ &c.).
d. of Agent (with ab aiter Passives).
e. of Comparison (than).
a* of Means and Instrument.
b, of Accompaniment (with cum).
c, of Object of the Deponents utor, &c.
d. of Degree of Difference.
e, of Quality (with Adjectives).
f. of Price and Exchange.
g. of Specification.
a. of Place where (commonly with In).
b. of Idi6matic Expressions.
c. of Time and Circumstance.
d. Ablative Absolute.
I. Ablative (from) :
2. Instrumental (with) :
3. Locative (i«, <w, at) :
Ablative of Separation.
243. Words signifying Separation or Privation are
followed by the ablative, with or without a preposition.
a. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent^ deprive, and
want, require the ablative : as,
oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 29), he deprived himself of eyes,
legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws,
omni Gallia interdicit Romanes (B. G. L 46), he [Ariovistus] bars the
Romans from the whole of Gaul.
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Veil. Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of
fire and water,
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), to lack enjoyments,
non egeo medicina (Lael. 3), I want no physic.
magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. ^^you tvill relieve me of great fear.
Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur,
levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), we are re^
lievedfrom superstition^ freed from fear of death,
consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), to be bereft of counsel and
authority.
Ablative of Separation and Want. 169
h. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used
figuratively; but in their literal meaning, implying motion^ they
usually require a preposition (compare 229) : as,
conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 25), quit commonplaces,
abire magistratu, to leave on^s office,
abstinere injuria, to refrain from wrong,
aberrare a proposito (Cic), to wander from the point,
de provincia decedere (Verr, ii. 46), to withdraw from one's province.
ab jure abire (id.), to go outside of the law,
ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the StcUe,
finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory.
c. The ablative without a preposition is used after verbs to
denote the place from which in some idiomatic expressions : as,
cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he woiUd have left his country,
patria pellere, to drive out of the country,
manu mittere, to emancipate Pet go from the hand].
d. Adjectives denoting Freedom and Want are followed by the
ablative : as,
nrbs nuda praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city nctked of defence,
immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service,
plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the people deprived of tribunes,
e. Opus and usua signifying Need are followed by the ablative ;
often by the ablative of the perfect participle^ with or without a
noun : as,
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 2), there is need of magistrates,
properato opus esset (Mil. 19), there were need of haste.
Remark. — The nominative is often used, with optiB in the
predicate: as,
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and adviser,
si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he wanted anything,
f Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive (223) : as,
ne quis auxilii egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid.
quae ad consolandum majoris ingenii et ad ferendum singularis virtutis
indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort need more ability^
and for endurance unusual courage.
Remark. — With all words of separation and want, the poets
frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the Genitive : as,
abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27) ^ abstain from wrcUh,
operum solutis (id. 17) ^ free from toils.
§54
l.a
l.b
1.0
l.d
Rem.
l.e
Rem.
§54
8.
I/O Syntax: The Ablative.
SooTOS and BfateriaL
244. The ablative is used to denote the Source from
which anything is derived, or the Material of which it
consists (compare 214, e).
a. Participles denoting Birth or Origin are followed by the
ablative. Such are natus, satus, editus, genitus^ ortus : as,
Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), s<m of Jupiter and Maia,
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. i), descendant of kings,
quo sanguine cretus (^n. ii. 74), born of what blood.
Remark. — A preposition (ab, de, ez) is usually expressed
with the name of the Mother, and with that of distant ancestors.
b. Rarely, the place of Birth is expressed by the ablative : as,
desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Cranium Puteolis (B. C. iii.
^\)ihe lost C, F. of Placentia^ A, G, of Puteoli.
c. The ablative is used with constare^ and similar verbs, to
denote Material ; but with other verbs a preposition is generally
used, except by the poets : as,
animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), we consist of soul and body.
d. The ablative of Material is used with y2i^^r^,^^, and similar
words in the sense of do with^ become of: as,
quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), what are you going to do with
this man f
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear
Tulliaf
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what will become of you ?
Ablative of Causet
245. The ablative (with or without a preposition) is
used to express the Cause.*
nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), / was almost wild with
excess of joy.
negligentia plectimur (Lael. 22), we are chastised for negligente,
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), the pilot's
skill is praised from its service ^ not its skill.
' The ablative with consistere and contineri is Locative in origin.
3 The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source^ as is shoym by the use of
abf de^ ex | but when the accusative with ad^ ob is used, the idea of cause
arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between caus£
and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either locative or instru-
mental).
Ablative of Cause and Agent 1 71
a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignusy indignus,
and with the verbs dignor^ laboro (also withez), exsilio, exsulto,
triumphoy lacrimo, ardeo,
vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), a man most
worthy of his father ^ grandfather^ and ancestors,
doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), / am sorry that you suffer
with other ills,
ex acre alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt.
exsultare laetitia ac triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 5), she began to
exult in gladness^ and triumph in joy,
b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting
is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob or propter with the accusative : as,
non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty
or through lust of plunder,
c. The ablatives causa and grati3, for the sake ofy are used
with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement : as,
ea causa, on account of this; mea causa, yiv my sake.
et mea at reipublicae causa, yiv my own sake and the republic's.
sui purgandi gratia, yi^r the sake of clearing themselves.
With possessives the use of gratis in this sense is rare.
Ablative of Agent.
246. The voluntary agent after a passive verb is put
in the ablative with ab: as,
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he is praised by theses
blamed by those.
ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 22), whatever is
done by your soul is done by yourself .
a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after
neuter verbs having a passive sense : as,
perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy,
b. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or possess-
ive. Thus —
Caesar certior factus est a legatis, Ceesar was informed [in person] by
the ambassadors,
Caesar certior factus est per legatos, Casar was informed by ambassa-
dors [i.e. by means of ambassadors].
Caesar certior factus est litteris, Casar toas informed by letter [per lit-
teras would mean by official documents used expressly as means of
information].
So per vim, as well as vl (B. G. i. 14), by force*
$54
3. a
8.b
3. c
4. a
4.b
172 Syntax: The Ablative.
Ablative of Comparlgon* '
247. The Comparative degree is followed by the abla-
tive ^ (signifying than) : as,
Cicerone eloquentior, more eloquent than Cicero,
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened with
toil than we two t
a. Quam with the same case as the thing compared may also
be used, and must regularly be used when the adjective is not
either nominative or accusative (see 208. a). But the poets some-
times use the ablative even then : as,
pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), Iivant bread
better than honey cakes.
Remark. — Quam is never used in this construction with rela-
tive pronouns having a definite antecedent.
b. The idiomatic ablatives opinione^ spe, solito^ dictOy aequo^
credibiliy 2Xi^justo^ are used instead of a clause : as,
celerius opinione (Fam. iv. z'^, faster than one would think,
amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), a stream swifter than its wont,
c. The comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often
used with words of measure or number without affecting their
case (being in a kind of apposition) : as,
plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken,
plus tertia parte interfecta (Caes.) vufre than a third part being slain.
spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id. ), a space of not more
than (300 feet,
d. Alius is followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial
use : * as,
nee quicquam aliud libertate communi (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than
the common liberty,
alius Lysippo (Hor.), another than Lysippus,
[For Ablative of Difference with Comparatives, see 250.]
' Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from which we reckon, as
itself possessing the quality in some degree. That this is the true explanation is
shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and the genitive in Greek.
> This is perhaps in imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also
in Sanskrit, and is probably original : as, alium sapiente bonoque (Hor. £p.
i. 16). Under comparatives probably belong the adverbs anted, antided, postilld,
posted, praetered, though these may be accusative neuter.
Ablative of Means. 173
AblatlTe of Means.
248. The ablative is used to denote Accompaniment,
Manner, Means, or Instrument : as,
vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo,
probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following probabilities by con-
jeciure,
Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od. i. 4), to sacrifice to Faunus with a
ewe lamb,
pol pudere quam pigere praestat totidem litteris (Plaut. Trin. 345),
by Pollux better shame than blam^^ although the letters count the same
[lit. with as many letters].
Remark. — The Ablative of Manner commonly takes cam, unless
it has a modifying adjective. But words of manner, modoy ratUnUy vidy
etc., with certain expressions as silentio^ injurid^ — hardly ever have cum,
cu The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except
sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions,
especially in the early writers) : as,
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19),
having crossed the river with the stingers aud archers,
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), he followed close with all his forces.
hoc praesidio profectus est ( Verr. ii. 34), with this convoy he set out.
Remark. — Misceo and jungo^ with their compounds, may take the
ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes the Dative : as,
fletum cruori miscuit (Ov.), humano capiti cervicem equinam jungere {^ox,).
b. Words of Contention require cum, but often take the dative
in poetry : as,
armis cum hoste certare (Cic), to fight with the enemy in arms,
est mihi tecum certamen (id.), I have a controversy with you,
solus tibi certat Amyntas (£cl. v. 8), Amyntas cdone rnes with you,
c. The ablative of Means is used with words of Filling,
Abounding, and the like : as,
Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled the
world with all good things.
opimus praeda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil,
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest. 10), a life full ctnd crowded
with delight.
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appii crammed
with bargemen.
Remark. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the poets
by a Greek idiom ; while compleo, impleo, and plenus often take the
genitive in prose.
174 Syntax: The Ablative.
249. The dit^ontvit^utor^fruoryfungorfpotioryvescor,
with several of their compounds, govern the ablative : as,
utar vestra benignitate (Cic), I will avail myself of your kindness,
Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88),
the Numidiansfed mostly on milk and game,
sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abutimur (N. D. ii. 6o), we
take advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit,
a. Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potdri
remm, to get the power,
b. In early Latin, these verbs are often found as transitive,
followed by the accusative.
250. The ablative is used, with comparatives and
words implying comparison, to denote the Degree of
Difference: as,
duobus minibus plures, 2000 more {more numerous by 2000).
quinque millibus passuum distat (Liv.), it is five miles distant.
Remark. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives
eo , , , quo; quanto . . . tanto (see 106. r) : as,
quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Li v. xxiv. 28), the less
greed the more weight.
N. B. — The ablative of Comparison and the ablative of Differ-
ence, expressing different relations, may be used together with the
same adjective : as, nmlto diviUor Craaso, much richer than
Crassus,
Ablative of QuaUty.
251. The Ablative, with an Adjective or limiting
Genitive, is used to denote quality:^ as,
animo meliore, of better mind,
more hominum, after the manner of men,
non quaero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur, / do not ask hew great a
memory he is said to have had,
a. The Ablative of description, with adjectives, is always used
when physical characteristics are denoted ; other qualities may be
in the genitive : as,
vultu sereno, of calm face.
capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hanging locks.
' Compare Genitive of Quality (215) with Note.
Ablative of Price; Locative. 175
AbUitlTe of Price.
252. The price of a thing (or that which is given in
exchange) is put in the ablative : as,
agmm vendidit sestertium sex millibus, he sold the field for 6bcx>
sesterces,
exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q. C. iii. 8), he exchanged his native
land far exile.
Remark. — Either the thing taken or given may be in the ablative,
and the other in the accusative.
a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to
denote Indefinite Value (see 215. r). Such genitives are magni,
parvij tantij quanti, pluris, minoris : as,
est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), // is worth my while,
mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me,
b. The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way : as,
non flocci faciunt (PI. Trin.), they care not a straw.
The genitives so used are nihiH, nothing; aasis, a farthing;
flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others.
c. Verbs of exchange take the ablative of Price with or without
cum: as,
mortem cum vita commutare (Sulp. ad Cic), to exchange life for deathx
d. With verbs of bu)ring and selling, the ablative of Price
{magnoy &c.) must be used, except the following genitives : tanti^
quanti, pluris, minoris,
AblAtiTe of Speclflcatlon.
253. The ablative denotes that in respect to which
anything is said td be or be done, or in accordance with
which anything happens : as,
virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. i), they excel in courage,
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot,
lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i.), hesitating in speech^ harsh
in voice,
tanta caritas patriae est, ut eam non sensu nostro sed salnte ipsius
metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such is our love of country that we mecuure
it not by our own feelings hut by her own welfare,
liocative Ablative^
254. The locative ablative is used to denote the place
where (usually with a preposition), and the time when.
1/6 Syntax: The Ablative.
a. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idio-
matic expressions (compare 259. a) : as,
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind.
socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), I will be present with you
a companion in dangers,
premit altum corde dolorem (iEn. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep
in his heart.
b. The following verbs are followed by the ablative : acquiesco^
detector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo, fido {confidd)^
consistOf contineor, — with the verbals ^^/«j, contentusy tortus: as,
spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope*
prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), trusting in prudence.
laetari bonis rebus (Lael. 13), to rejoice in good things.
Remark. — The above verbs sometimes take the preposition in.
Ablative Absolute.
255. A noun or pronoun, with a participle,^ is put in
the ablative, to define the Time or Circumstances of an
action ; as,
vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), having called to
him the traders from all quarters,
a. An adjective, or another noun, may take the place of the par-
ticiple : ^ as,
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the summer
was left,
M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), in the consulship of
Messala and Piso,
b. Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction
of the Ablative Absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or
clause, or is used adverbially : as,
incerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain what they sought,
consulto et cogitate (Off. i. 8), on purpose and with reflection [the
matter having been deliberated and thought on],
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky.
' The noun is originally locative denoting circumstance^ considered 9S place
or time ; then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it into a
single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause (compare ab nrbe
GOTk<A\tBi^ from the founding of the city, \\i. from the founded city). After the
construction was established, other ablatives (of cause, instrument, &c.), were
occasionally used in the same way. The construction was so developed in Latin,
that a subordinate clause is often represented by it. In such cases the noun is
equivalent to the subject, and the participle, adjective,or noun to the Predicate, and
should so be translated (see examples on the next page).
'The participle of esse^ wanting in Latin, would be used m Sanskrit and Greek.
The^ Ablative; Time and Place. 177
Note. — As the Nominative absolute is less common in Eng-
lish, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered by a relative clause
with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the per-
fect active participle in English. These changes may be seen in
the following example : —
** At illi, ifUermisso spatiOy tmpru^ ** But they, having paused a space^
dentibus nosiris^ atque occup<Uis in while our men were unaware and
munitione castrorum, subito se ex busied in fortifying the camp, sud-
silvis ejecerunt ; impefuque in eos denly threw themselves out of the
/acta, qui erant in statione pro cas- woods ; then mahing an attach upon
tris collocati, acriter pugnaverunt ; those who were on guard in front
dualmsque missis subsidio cohortibus of the camp, fought fiercely ; and,
a Caesare, cum hae (perexiguo in- though two cohorts had been sent to
termisso loci spatio inter se) con- their relief by Caesar, after these
stitissent, novo genere pugnae had taken their position (leaving
perterritis nostris^ per medios auda- very little space of ground between
cissime perruperunt, seque inde them), as our men were alarmed by
incolumes receperunt." — CiESAR, the strange kind of fighting, they
B. G. V. 15. dashed most daringly through the
midst of them, and got ofiE safe.''
[For the Ablative with Prepositions, see p. loi.]
TIME AND PLACE.
1. — Time.
256. Time when (or within which) is put in the Abla-
tive ; time how long in the Accusative : ^ as,
constituta die, on the set day.
quota hora ? at what o* clock ?
tribus proxumis annis (Jug. ii), within the last three years,
dies continuos triginta,y»r a month together,
a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear-
ness : as,
in diebus proximis decem (Sail.), within the next ten days,
ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. Z), games lasting ten days,
b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time : as,
milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men
had sustained the fight five hours, [This use is locative^
' The ablative of time is toccOive ; the accusative is the same as that of extent of
space (see below, 259. </).
lyS Syntax: Time and Place.
257. Extent of space is put in the Accusative :^ as,
fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches i^ feet broad.
in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia trransversum unguem
non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's lifif one
should not depart a naiTs breadth from sir aightfonoard conscience,
a. Measure is often expressed as quality by the Genitive
(215.^): as,
rallo pedum duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart of 12 feet pn
height].
b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space)^ or in
the Ablative (as degree of difference) : as,
quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five day^ march,
triginta millibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles
below that place,
d.— Place.
258. To express relations of Place, prepositions are
necessary, except with the names of Towns and small
Islands; except also with domus, ruSy and a few other
words in special relations.^
a. The name of the place j^<7«r which is in the Ablative : as,
Roma profectus, having set out from Rome,
rure reversus, having returned from the country,
b. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative : as,
Romam rediit, he returned to Rome,
rus ibo, I shall go into the country.
Remark. — The old construction is retained in the phrases exsequias
ire, infitias ire, pessum ire, pessum dare, venum dare (vendere), venum ire
(veneo), foras, and with the Supine in um.
1 This accusative is the object through or over which the action takes place,
and is kindred with the accusative of the end of motion,
* Originally these relations were expressed with all words by the cases alone^ —
the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in a certain sense the obfect of the
action ; and the Ablative (in its proper meaning of separation) denoting the place
from which. For the place where there was a special case, the Locative, the
form of which was partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note,
p. 168). The Prepositions (originally Adverbs) were added to define more eacactly
tiie direction of the motion, and by long usage at length became necessary, except
.in the cases given above.
Locative Uses, 179
c. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which
in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the
Genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as
the Dative or Ablative : as,
Romae, at Rome. ^ Athenis, at Athens,
Rhodi, at Rhodes, Curibus, at Cures,
Lanuvi, at Lanuvium, Tiburi or Tibure, at Tiher,
Remark. — The names of small islands, as Capreae, Samos, Salamis,
are regularly used in this construction ; sometimes also larger distant
islands, which might be thought of as a single spot : thus, Cretae, Cypri,
But, when regarded as a district or province, the name of a large island
(like Sicily) always requires a preposition, like names of countries. So
too a small island, when thought of as territory : as, in Ithaca lepores
illati moriuntur (Plin. : cf. 256. a),
d. The words domi (rarely domui), at home; belli, mllftlae
(in contrast to domi), abroad^ in military service; humi, on the
ground; ruii, in the country; foils, out-of-doors; terra marique,
by land and sea^ are used like names of towns, without a preposi-
tion ; also heri, vesperij infelici arbori (Liv.).
e. A genitive or possessive may be used with domiiB in this
construction ; but, when it is modified in any other way, a preposi*
tion is generally used : as,
domi Caesaris, at Cesar's house,
domi suae vel alienae, at his own or another's house (compare 184. d),
in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 4), to Laca's house,
/. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the place
where, in many general words— -as looo, parte — regularly ; fre-
quently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (regularly where
totos is used) ; and in poetry in any case : as,
quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these are set in position,
qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side where they were beaten,
se oppido tenet (id.), keeps himself within the town,
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the midst of the city,
tota Sicilia ( Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily,
litore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the bending shore.
Remark. — To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from, in the
neighborhood). Prepositions must be used.
g. The way by which is put in the Ablative {oi instrument) : as,
via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), / sent forward the cavalry
by a shorter road,
Aegeo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way oftheMgean sea.
i8o Syntax: Time and Place.
Special Uees.
259. The following special uses require to be ob-
served: —
a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time
when^ where in English time is not the main idea : as,
pugna Cannensi {or apud Cannas), in the fight at Canna,
ludis Romanis, at the Roman games* ,
omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the wars of Gaul.
b. In many expressions of time, the accusative with ad, in, or
sub, is used. Such are the following : —
supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas Januarias, a thanksgiving was voted
for the 1st of January,
convenerunt ad diem, they assembled at the [appointed] day.
ad vesperum, till evening; sub vesperum, towards (about) evening,
' sub idem tempus, about the same time,
c. Time either during or within which may be expressed by a
noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral : as,
quinto die, within (just) four days,
regnat jam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years. But also,
regnavit jam sex annos, he has already reigned for six years,
d. Distance of time before or after any thing is variously ex-
pressed: as,
post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium
post annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno, three years after,
tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (post quam ejectus est), three
years after his banishment,
his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years,
paucis annis, a few years hence,
abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago,
triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since,
e. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or
the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ;
and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition. The year
is expressed by the names of the Consuls in the ablative absolute,
often without a conjunction : as,
is dies erat a. d. quintum kalendas Aprills L. Pisone A. Gabinio
consulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the $th before the calends of April
[March 28], in the consulship of Piso ana Gabinius.
in a. d. V. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the $th day before the calends of No*
vember [Oct. 28].
XV. kal. Sextilis, the i$th day before the calends of August (July 18).
[Full form, quinto decimo die ante halendas,\
Use of Prepositions. i8i
f. With names of Places (except towns, &c., see 258), to is
expressed by in or ad with the accusative ; in by in or ab with
the ablative ; from by ab, de, ez, with the ablative. But at,
meaning near (not in)^ is expressed with all names of place by ad
or Spud, with the accusative.
g. When motion to a place is implied in Latin, though not ex-
pressed in English, the accusative must be used^ with or without a
preposition: aS,
conjurati in curiam convenerunt, the conspirators met in the Senate
house.
concilium domum suam convocavit, he called a council at his own house,
h. When several names of place follow a verb of motion, each
must be under its own construction. Thus —
quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sul-
lae Volaterras defertur (Ros. Am. 7), within a few days after this
was done, the matter was reported To Chrysogonus in SylkCs camp AT
VokUerra.
USE OF PREPOSITIONS.
260. Prepositions are used with either the Accusative
or Ablative.^
[For the list of Prepositions, see page loi.]
a. Verbs of placing, — such as pono and its compounds (ex-
cept impono), loco, statno, &c., — though impl)ring motion, take
in Latin the construction of the place in which : as,
qui in sede ac dome collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), who put one into his place
and home.
b. Position is frequently expressed in Latin with ab (rarely ex),
properly meaning from / • as,
atergo, in the rear.
a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey.
a sinistra (compare hinc, on this side), on the left hand.
ex altera parte, on the other side.
magna ex parte, in a great degree.
c. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other-
wise the Accusative (except in poetry) : as,
hac super re (Cic), concerning this thing.
super culmina tecti (iEn. ii. 695), above the house-top.
' The force lies strictly with the Case, and the preposition only indicates more
dearly direction ot place.
' Apparently the direction whence the sensual impression comes.
1 82 Syntax: Use of Prepositions.
d. After snbter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in
poetry: as,
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle,
subter litore (CatulL), Mew the shore,
e, Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Ablative,
sometimes the Genitive : as,
Tauro tenus (Dei. 13), as far as Taurus,
capulo tenus (Aen. v. 55), up to the hilt,
Corcyrae tenus (Li v. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra,
Note. — Tenus is found especially with the feminine of the
adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense : as,
hactenus, hitherto; quatenus, so far as, &c.
261. Many words may be construed either as Preposi-
tions or as Adverbs : as,
a. The adverbs pridicy postridie, propius, proocime^ usque —
also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus — may
be followed by the Accusative : as,
pridie Nonas Junias (Cic), the day before the Nones of June (Jun. 4).
postridie ludos (id.), the day after the games (or genitive : see 214. g),
terminos usque Libyae (Just.), to the bounds of Libya (a late use),
ipse propior montem suos collocat (Sail. Jug. 49), he stations his men
nearer the hill (used also with the genitive or dative, or with ab).
proxime Pompeium sedebam (Att. i. 14), I sat next Pompey (used also
with the dative, or with ab).
b. The adverbs palam, procul^ simul, may take the Abla-
tive : as,
rem creditor! palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt in the
presence of the people. [This use is comparatively late.]
haud procul castris in modum municipii exstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not
far from the camp, built up like a town. [But procul is regularly fol-
lowed by ab in classic use.]
simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10, 29), close among us dwells
the barbarian. [But simul regularly takes cum.]
c. The adverb clam is found with the Accusative or Ablative,
rarely with the Genitive or Dative : as,
clam matrem suam (Plaut.), unknown to his mother,
clam mihi (id.), in secret from me,
clam patris (id.), m secret from his father,
clam vobis (Caes. B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge.
i This usage U strictly tne ^ognavtr
iTC^WS»W»«»'
Prepositions. 183
cL Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs.
This is especially the case with ante and post^ in relations of
Time ; adversus, contra^ circiterj prope; and, in general, those
ending in a. Clam and versus are often excluded from the
list of Prepositions.
[For the use of Prepositions in Composition, see 170, p. 116.]
262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com-
parison are followed, like comparatives, by quaniy —
several words, or even clauses, sometimes coming be-
tween: as,
neque ante dimisit eum qaam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did
he let him go until he gave a pledge,
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Man. 16), the third day after he said
it, [So octavo mense quam, Liv. xxi. 15.J
Note. — Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie j
also magis and prae in compounds : as,
Cato ipse jam servire quam pugnare mavult ( Att. vii. 15), CtUo himself
by this time would rather be a slave than fight.
si jam principatum Galliae obtinere non possint, Gallorum quam Ro-
manorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), if they can no longer hold
the chief rank in Gaul, they prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
263. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used
after passive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or
if spoken of as a person: as,
jussus a patre, bidden by his father.
Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the
preposition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of
instrument, which stands by itself : as,
occisus gladio, slain by a sword.
occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy,
[For the Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see 232.]
Note. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their
nouns : —ad, citra, circa, contra, de, e (ex), Inter, juxta, penea,
propter, ultra, tenus : as,
[usus] quern penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi (Hor. A. P.
72), custom, uuder whose control is the choice^ right, and rule of speech.
cujus a me corpus est crematum, auod contra decuit ab illo meum
(C. M. 23), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the
contrary (lit. contrary to which) mine should have been by him.
184 Syntax: The Verb.
Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb.
l.--M€>od8 and Tenses*
Note. — The syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the
Moods (expressing the manner in which the action is conceived) and
the Tenses (expressing the Hme of the action). There is no difference
in origin between mood and tense. The moods, except the Infinitive,
are only specialized tenses; and hence the uses of mood and tense
frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal
significations (compare indicative in apodosis, see 311.^; future for
imperative, see 269./) ; and the moods express time (compare subjunctive
in future conditions, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The original language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct
forms with what we call modal signification : the Subjunctive, expressing
an action willed or vividly conceived; and the Optative, expressing an
action wished for or vaguely conceived. Of these, the Subjunctive was
developed from a Present tense, by which an action continued in present
time was represented as Future : compare in English, the army marches
to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one hand as
Command : compare the military order, the regiment will advance ; and
in th^ other as a Possibility or a mere Conception : compare anybody
will understand that.
The Optative has had a similar development from a tense -form
compounded with ya, to go. But it is probable that it originally had the
signification of a Past tense : compare the English should and would.
At any rate, the optative has, in the same way as the subjunctive,
acquired the two meanings of Conception and Command. It must not
be supposed, however, that in any given construction either of the
moods was used because it denoted a conception or possibility; but
each construction has had its own line of development from more
tangible forms of thought to more vague and ideal. Thus in English
the expression I would do this has come to be almost equivalent to a
mild command ; while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a
condition contrary to fact: if I were yoUy &c. By a still further
analysis, 7 would go is seen to have meant, originally, / should have
wished to go, or / did wish.
In Latin, these two moods have become confounded in form and mean-
ing in the Present Subjunctive ; and new tense-forms of the subjunctive
have been produced by composition,* to which the original as well as
derived meanings of these moods have become attached (see 265). All
the independent uses of the subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
' For the signification of these tense endings, see page 65, Note i«
Moods; The Indicative.
i8s
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from its use in
one of these independent senses,— at first co-ordinately with a main
statement (paraiaxis), afterwards in subordinate relations {syntaxis).
In time, the second has become so closely connected in thought with
the. first, that the two have become one compound statement ; the
original meaning of the mood has disappeared, and a new meaning has
arisen by implication : as, tolle hanc opinionem, luctutn sustuleris (remove
this notion, you will have done away with grief: i. e. if you remove,
&c ) ; or, misit legatos qui dicerent (i e. who would say in a supposed case).
The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun, modifying a verb like
other nouns ; volo videre, lit. " I wish for seeing : " compare English
what went ye out for to see ? But in Latin it has been surprisingly devel-
oped, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal character-
istics, and to be used as a substitute for other moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed
in various special directions, which are treated under their respective
heads below. The several verbal constructions proper are the follow-
ing:—
1. Indicative : Direct Assertion or Question ; Absolute Time.
Independent: Wish, Exhortation, Command, Ques^
tion.
' Purpose or Result (with «/, ne).
Characteristic (Relative Clause).
2. Subjunctive : \ Relative Time (with cum).
condition, <^^^Pn™=^.*»-)-
Intermediate (Indirect Discourse).
^ Indirect Questions or Commands.
b. Dependent
(Chap, v.)
§57
3. Imperative:
iNFINITrVB :
(J
a. Direct Commands (often subjimctive).
■ Statutes^ Laws and Wills (Future).
Prohibitions (early or poetic use).
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs.
. OKiftrt J Complementary Infinitive.
a, uDjeci J Indirect Discourse (with subject-accusative).
C Purpose (poetic or Greek use).
c. Idiomatic Uses \ Exclamation (with subject-accus.).
I Historical Infinitive.
MOODS.
I. — THE INDICATIVE.
264. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions
or questions when there is no modification of the verbal
idea except that of time.
a. The tenses of the Indicative denote Absolute Time; that
is, present, past, or future, with reference to the speaker.
1 86 Syntax of Moods.
b. The indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom
would suggest the subjunctive, chiefly in conditional sentences
(compare 307. bj r) : as,
longum est, it would be tedious [if, &c.].
satias erat, // would have been better [if, &c.]. *
persequi possum, / might follow up [in detail].
c. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative
(see 269./).
d. The indicative is used in some kinds of Conditions (see
306, 308).
e. The place of the indicative in narratives is sometimes supplied
by the Infinitive (see 275).
/. In Indirect Discourse (see Chap. V.), a narrative clause takes
the Infinitive.
II. — THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
General Use*
265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal
idea with some modification^ such as is expressed in
English by potential auxiliaries, by the Infinitive, or by
the rare Subjunctive.
a. The subjunctive is used Independentiy to express —
1. An Exhortation, Concession, or Command {Hortatory) ;
2. A Wish {Optative) ;
3. A Question of doubt or deliberation (Dubitative),
These (with the exception of some forms of Dubitative Sub-
junctive) are closely akin to one another, and are different phases
of the same use.
Remark. — In the conclusion {Apodosis) of Conditional Sen-
tences, the Subjunctive is grammatically independent, though
logically it depends on a Condition expressed or implied. The
so-called Potential Subjunctive comes under this head (see 211. a).
' These modifications, however, are of various kinds, each of which has had its
own special development (compare introductory Note, p. 184). The Subjunctive in
Latin has besides many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Relative Time),
where we do not modify the verbal idea at all, but express it directly ; but in
these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed
its construction differently from English.
Moods: The Subjunctive. 187
b* The subjunctive is used in Dependent Clauses to express —
1. Purpose or Result (/^w*a/ or Consecutive) \
2. Relative Time {Temporal) ;
3. Characteristic ;
4. Indirect Question ;
5. Condition : Future or Contrary to Fact.
c. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison,
and In Subordinate Clauses of Indirect Discourse.
Hortatory.
266. The Subjunctive is used in the Present — less
commonly in the perfect — to express an Exhortation, a
Concession, or a Command : as,
hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 58), iet us kill these robbers,
caveant intemperantiatn, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 34), let them
shun excess and cherish modesty,
Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this.
Note. — The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future;
hut in most cases it can hardly he distinguished from the Present.
a. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject^
except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. 269. b) : as,
injurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tusc.
V. 41), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, you may leave
behind by flight,
nihil ignoveris (Mur. '^i), pardon nothing,
b. In Prohibitions, addressed to a definite person, the perfect is
more common than the present (compare 269. cC) : as,
hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shall do this ; thou shall
not do that,
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. x,^), do not say that to me.
c. The subjunctive is used — sometimes with nt; qnamvls,
qtiamlibet; and similar words — to express a Concession:^ as,
nemo is unquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 29), there never was such a one
[you will say] : granted,
qtfamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25 )» amiable as he
may have been in keeping his friendships.
' In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite time : the Imperfect to
present or past time, — the concession being impliedly untrue ; the Perfect \o past
time or completed future time ; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time
(usually untrue).
§57
». b
8. a
8.b
1 88 Syntax of Moods.
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), granted
that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil,
fuerit aliis : tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. i. 41), suppose he was [so]
to others, when did he begin to be to you ?
ut rationem Plato nuUam afferret (Tusc. i. 21), though Plato adduced no
reasons.
quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (de Or. L 53), however guilty they might
have been.
Remark. — Concessions with si and its compounds belong to Prota-
sis (see 204) ; with llcet^ to Substantive Clauses (see p. 225).
d. The subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo, modo ne,
tantom, tantom ne, or ne alone — to denote a Proviso : as,
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), if only the health be good,
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided only he be not of
brutish stock.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat.
M. 7), ^/flf men retain their mind if they only retain their zeal and
diligence.
e. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive
denote an obligation in past time, — the latter more clearly repre-
senting the time for the action as past : as,
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post, lo), he should have died you wdlsc^.
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. i),you should not have asked.
potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said.
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), at least he should
have taken something from the weight.
Remark. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished
from its use in Apodosis (Potential), as is indicated by the translation,
should instead of would.
Optative.
267. The Subjunctive is used to denote a Wish, —
the present, a wish conceived ^s possible ; the imperfect,
an unaccomplished one in the present; the pluperfect,
one unaccomplished in the past: as,
ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may Hive [as true as I live].
ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), I wish I may not live if I know.
di te perduint (Deiot), the gods confound thee t
valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34), fare-
well [he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm.
di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would that the gods
allowed me to be without a father I
Moods: The Subjunctive, 189
Note. — The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is hardly found
in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect
Discourse : as,
ac venerata Ceres ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2, 124), and
Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk,
a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as,
male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief.
b. The particles nti (at), ntinam, O si,* often precede the sub-
junctive of Wish : as,
falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), / wish I may be a false prophet,
utinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 38), would that Clodius were now alive,
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would you had seen me dead,
ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the weapon
4Mused perish itrith rust,
c. Vellm and vellem,* also their compounds, with a subjunctive
or infinitive, are often equivalent to a proper optative subjunctive :
as,
de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att
iv. 16), about Menedemuslwish ithad been true ; about the queen I hope
it may be,
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never had come,
[For Concessive Subjunctive^ see p. 187 ; for Potential Subjunc-
tive^ see p. 225.]
DnbltatlTe.
268. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying
doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being
done : as,
quid hoc homine facias ? quod supplicium dignum libidini ejus inve-
nias (Verr. ii. 16), what are you to do with this man? what fit pen-
cUty can you devise for his wantonness ?
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ?
an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 2), whcU, should I not have come ?.
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say f
mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 34), could
I think that the defence of good men would ever fail me ?
Remark. — This use is apparently derived from the hortatory subjunc-
tive : quid faciamus =: faciamus [aliquid] — quid? Once established, it
is readily transferred to the past: quidfaciamf quid facerem? Some
of the uses, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (of. 305).
^ In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical construction, except
that the clause with O si is probably a Protasis.
s These are strictly Apodoses, the thing wished being in a dependent clause,
and the Protasis omitted.
1 90 Syntax of Moods.
III.— THE IMPERATIVE.
269. The Imperative is used in Commands ; also, by
early writers and poets, in Prohibitions : as,
consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), have
care for yourselves^ guard the country^ preserve yourselves,
nimium ne crede colon (Eel. ii. 17), trust not complexion overmuch.
a. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed —
I. by ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunc-
tive ; 2. by noli with the Infinitive ; 3. by cave (colloquially fae
ne) with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive : as,
ne tcrritus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not frightened.
noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose,
cave faxis (Ter Heaut. 187), do not do it,
fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. \\\pray cOtendto nothing else.
b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the
Present subjunctive is also used (see 266. a) : as,
denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (C. M. 10),
in shorty use this good while present ; when wanting^ do not regret it.
c. The third person of the Imperative is antiquated or poetic :
ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people shall be
their first law,
justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), let the
commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey them,
d. The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct ref-
erence to future time : viz.,
1. In connection with a future or future-fterfect ;
2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time ;
3. In general directions^ as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills : as,
cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulito navigation! (Fam. xvi. 4),
when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing,
b juris civilis custos esto (Leg. iii. 3), let him (the praetor) be t/ie
guardian of civil right.
e. The Future form of the imperative is regularly used of scio^
memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) : as,
filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that lam blessed with a little hoy.
sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro,
de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.),/nz^, dear, remember t^ gown,
f. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and qnin
{^hy not f) with the present indicative may have the force of an
imperative : as,
si quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me
know if any thing new happens,
quin accipis ? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it.
The Infinitive. 191
IV — THE INFINITIVE.
Note. — The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb as an abstrcut
noun, differing, however, £rom other abstract nouns in the following
points: (i) It admits, in many cases, of the distinction of tense;
(2) It is modified by adverbs and not by adjectives; (3) It governs the
case of its verb ; (4) It is only used in special constructions. The In-
finitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract noun, denoting Purpose,
which has developed in Latin, in many cases, into a substitute for a finite
verb. Hence the variety of its use. Its Subject is, strictly, the Object
of some other verb, which has become attached to it : as, Jubeo te
valere, lit., / command you for being well (i. e. that you may be well),
just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose becomes the object of command.
270. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusa-
tive, may be used as the Subject of a verb, or in predi-
cate apposition : as,
nihil est aliud bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste et recte vivere (Parad.
i. 6), to live well and happily , is nothing else than to live honorably
and rightly.
nam istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 6),/or
I think this very thing most wretched^ not to be when one has been.
a. The infinitive as Subject is found chiefly with esse and
impersonal verbs, — rarely with others.
b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and ex-
pressions, partly as Subject and partly as Complement : as,
id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen first
in poets,
reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut 59), he found what needed to
be said,
haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. I 26), one who
observes these precepts may live nobly,
Complementaiy Inflnltive.
271. The infinitive, without a subject, is used with
verbs which imply another action of the same subject to
complete their meaning : ^ as,
hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this lean say,
mitto quaerere (Rose. Am.), I omit to ask,
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in one's own
presence,
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. i), pray make haste to come.
1 The mark of this oonstructioii is that no Subject of these infinitives b in
general admissible or conceivable ; though the same verbs, in other senses, and
rarely also by analogy in the same sense, may take an infinitive with a subject
§57
8.d
192 Syntax of Moods.
Note. — Such are verbs denoting to be able^ dare, undertake^
remember^ forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate,
learn, know how, fear, and (in general) verbs which have another
action of the same subject closely connected with them.
a. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also
take a Subjunctive Clause. Such are those signifying willing-
ness, necessity, propriety^ resolve, command, prohibitiony effort,
and the like : ^ as,
quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom they
should protect.
student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel,
istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 18), he had it in mind
to deprive him of the inheritance,
cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), / desire
to be merciful,
b. Some verbs of these classes — jubeo and veto regularly —
may take the infinitive with another subject : ' as,
signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to he advanced,
Snlitlect-AooiisatlTe*
272. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is used
with verbs and other expressions of Knowing, Thinking,
Telling, and Perceiving : ^ as,
dicit montem ab hdstibus teneri (B. G. L 22), he says that the hill is
held by the enemy [direct, mons ab hostibus tenetur], '
Remark. — The Infinitive Clause may be either — i. the Direct
Object of the verb : as, Caesarem adesse nunttavit ; 2. the Subject of
the same verb in the passive : as, Caesarem adesse nuntiatum est; 3.
the Predicate after some such phrase as rumor est, &c. ; as, rumor erat
Caesarem adesse. In the last case, it is sometimes called the Object of
the Verbal Phrase rumor erat.
1 The subject is usually^ though not always, omitted, when it is the same
as that of the priDcipal verb.
2 This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding,
shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses is the infinitive strictly
Subject or Object ; but its meaning is developed from the original one of purpose.
Hence the distinction between the uses is not always clearly marked.
^ The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in
direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and per-
son (see Chap. V.).
The Infinitive. 193
a. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject of the
action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with others
rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative : as,
non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), / have no desire to be-
wail life.
mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be ne^igeiU (also
negli^ntem, and regularly so where the subject is indefinite).
non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), it is not necessary
for all to speak standing,
h. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi-
cate noun or adjective takes the case of the subject of the leading
verb* This is rarely found (by a Greek idiom) even in Indirect
Discourse : as,
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. £p. i. 7), good and wise
man says he is prepared^ &c.
sensit medios delapsus in hostes (iEn. U. 377), he fmnd himself fallen
among the foe,
273. In a few cases, the Infinitive retains its original
meaning of Purpose : viz.
a. With habeo, do, miniBtro^ in isolated passages : as,
tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise, [Here
the more usual construction would be quod pollicear\
h. The Infinitive is found after paratus, suetos (used as adjec-
tives), and their compounds : as,
id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do,
c. In poetry and later writers almost any verb may have the
infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of simpler meaning that take
it in prose : as,
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee (a forcible way of
saying cupit),
d. Many adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry following a
Greek idiom: as,
durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing verse.
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung.
Remark, — Rarely, in poetry, the Infinitive is used to denote
Result. 13
§57
Rem.
Rem.
af
(0
ip)
(3)
194
Syntax of Tenses.
27^, The Infinitive, with subject-accusative,^ may be
used in Exclamations (compare 240. 6) : as,
mene incepto desistere victam (JEn, i. 37), whatt I desist beaten from
my purpose?
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), aias ! that
you should fall into such grief for me.
Historical InflnltlTe.
275. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of
the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the
nominative: as,
turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline
promised abolition of debts [clean ledgers],
ego instare ut mihi responderet ( Verr. ii. 77 ), I kept urging him to answer.
Remark. — This usage is most frequent \^here many verbs
are crowded together in rapid narrative : as,
pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines servare ; ubi
quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; arma,
tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti ; nihil consilio neque
imperio agi ; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others
press an; they hold neither to standards nor ranks ; where danger
overtook, there each would stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses,
men, foe and friend, mingled in cottfusion ; nothing went by counsel
or command; chance ruled all.
TENSES.
Note. — The number of possible Tenses, in the ordinary meaning of
the word, is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past,
and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite
(aoristic) ; as absolute or relative to some other time ; or the past and
future times may be near or remote. Thus a possible scheme of thirty
or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which alwa3rs takes place gradually,
no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The
most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear
in the following scheme : —
I. Definite (fixing the time of the action). 2. Indefinite.
Incomplete. Complete. Aoristic.
Present, a. I am writing, 5. I have written, ij. I write.
Past. /3. I was writing, €. I had written. 0, I wrote.
Future, y, I shall be writing, i. I shall have written, k. I shall write.
. 1 This Construction is elliptical; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect
Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, or perhaps is thought of
(compare the French dire que).
The Present. 195
This scheme does not, indeed, give all the distinctions in use ; nor do
most languages furnish forms for all of these. Most languages disre-
gard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not
here given. The language from which Latin sprang had a Present tense
to express a and 1}, a Perfect to express 8, an Aorist to express 0, a Fu-
ture to express 7 and k, and an Imperfect to express ^. The Latin,
however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (scripsi)y
thus losing the distinction between 8 and 0. The nature of this confu-
sion may be seen by comparing dixif dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived
from the same root dik), with lSei|a, adikskatn^ dtBeixct, didefo, Latin
also developed other forms for € (scripseram) and f (scripsero\ giving six
tenses, as seen in 115 (p. 62).
The line between these, moreover, is not a hard and fast one, nor is
it precisely the line which we draw in English. Thus in many verbs, on
account of a peculiarity of meaning, the form for 8 has the sense of a or
t;, and the form for € the sense of ^. Again, Latin often uses the form
for f to express «, or even 7. Thus mwi (** I have learned ") is used for
**I know;" constiterat ("he had taken his position'*) for "he stood;"
cognovero ("I shall have learned'') for "I shall be aware." The idio*
matic uses of the language are in all cases to be noticed.
Present.
276. The Present denotes an action or state as now
existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite (without reference
to time) : as,
Senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. i), the
Senate knows thiSy the consul sees, yet this man lives,
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange a case,
he arrays an army,
a. The Present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes
an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past : as,
patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these many
years (the perfect would mean we no longer suffer)s
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), // is now eight years
that this case has been in hand,
b. The present sometimes denotes an action not completed at
all, but only attempted {Conative Present) : as,
decerno quinquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. xiv. 11), I move for
fifty days* thanksgiving,
c. The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes
used for the Future : as,
imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat?
196 Syntax of Tenses.
ecquid me adjuvas ? (Cla. 26), w<nCt you give me a little kelp f
in jas voco te. non eo. non is ? (PI. As. 480), I summon you to the
court. J won't go* You won^t f
(See also under omn, anteqnam, dam. Chap. V.)
d. The present in lively narrative is often used for the historical
perfect {^Historical Present) : as,
affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenes,
auamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet ; includit se
domi ( Verr. vi. 35), the news is brought to Syracuse ; they run to head-
quarters; Cleomenes^ though it wcLS nighty does not venture to be abroad;
he shuts himself up at home*
e. The present is regularly used with duxn, whilty though the
time referred to is past : as,
haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus pervenerat
<id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the
coast at Elorum.
Note. — When the time referred to is tmph3^^c?X[y contrasted
with some other (usually in the sense so long as), the past tense
must be used : as, nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum
videbatis (Cat. M. 22). A few irregular cases of dum with past
tenses also occur (compare the passages) : as,
coorta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. zxii, 47), a con-
flict began, well matched as long cu the ranks stood firm.
dum oculos hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away,
dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in penculum (Mur.
27 ), while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger,
f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are
extant: as,
Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 7), but Epicurus says such things,
apud ilium Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), in him [SophoclesJ
Ulysses bewails over his wound.
IinpArfeot*
277. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state con-
tinued or repeated in past time : as,
hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before.
Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates thought so
[habitually] and so he spoke [then].
Remark. — The imperfect represents a present transferred to past
time ; and hence has all the meanings derived from the continuance of
the action which the present has, but referred to past time (see details
below).
Imperfect^ Future^ Perfect 197
a. Hence the imperfect is used in Descriptions : as,
erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. i.
6), there were in all two ways ... a very high mountain overhung,
b. The imperfect sometimes denotes an action continuing in the
past but begun at some previous time (cf. 276. a)\ as,
copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. i. 13), the forces which they had
long been getting ready,
c. The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely begun or
even intended, but never accomplished (compare 276. b) : as,
in exsilium eiciebam quem jam ingressum esse in bellum videbam
(Cat. ii. 6), was I sending (i.e. trying to send) into exile one who I saw
had already gone into war ?
hunc igitur diem sibi proponens Milo, cruentis manibas ad ilia au-
gusta centuriarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 16), was Milo coming (i.e.
was it likely that he would come), dr^c, t
si Hcitum esset veniebant ( Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it had
been allowed.
d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur-
prise at iiht present discovery of a fact already existing : as,
O tu quoque hie aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O! you are here
too^ Phormio, ^
ehem pater mi, tu hie eras ? (PI. id. v. 7), what! you here, father f
ah miser I quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy boy,
what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it] !
e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets,
where later writers would employ the. perfect : as,
ad amieum Callielem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Trin. 956),
to his friend Collides^ to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property,
praesagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul. 222),
my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain,
f. The imperfect Indicative, in apodosis contrary to fact, regu-
larly refers to present time (see 308. b).
Fntova
278. The Future denotes an action or state that will
occur hereafter.
a. The Future sometimes has the force of an Imperative (see
269./).
b. The Future requires to be expressed in subordinate clauses,
where in English it is commonly expressed only in the principal
clause: as,
cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see,
sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6>, we shall be healed if we wish.
198 Syntax of Tenses,
The Tenses of Completed Aotion.
279. The Perfect definite denotes an action as now
completed : the Perfect historical, as having taken place
indefinitely in past time : as,
ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as I have doncy
who have learned Greek in my old age.
tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media
aestate confecit (Man. 12), so grecU a war he made ready for at the
end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.
a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically lo denote that
something no longer exists : as,
fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus^ (Cat. i. i), there was once
such virtue in this commonwealth,
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer •
b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec-
tion with a general present : as,
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt
tardius ingrediuntur CTusc. i. 31), they who have always been in
fetters of the body, even when relecued move more slowly.
This is especially common in Conditions.
c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially
with negations {Gnomic Perfect) : as,
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412),
he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things,
non aeris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. £p. i. 2), the
pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame,
d. The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im-
plying a negation^ where in affirmation the imperfect would be
preferred : as,
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortensius spoke
better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the com-
parison : compare the use of quis^uam, ullus, &c., and the French
ne after comparatives and superlatives].
Remark. — The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are
equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs : novi,
I know; odi (osus), I hate; memini, I remember ; cognoveram,
/ knew; venerat (=aderat), he was at hand : as,
qui dies aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day
generally makes the highest tides.
cujus splendor obsolevit (Quinc. v. 18), whose splendor is norv out
of date.
Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as, dum octdos cer-
tamen averterat (= tenebat, Liv. xxxii. 24).
Tenses of tlte Subjunctive. 199
280. The Pluperfect is used to denote an action com-
pleted in time past ; sometimes, also, repeated in indefi-
nite time : as,
neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 7),
for when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done,
quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, turn fert
alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), if it [desire] €ver has gained what it had
desired^ then it produces joy,
28L The Future Perfect denotes an action as com-
pleted in the future : as,
ut sementem feceris, ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as you sowy so shall you
reap.
Remark. — The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much greater
exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used instead of
the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for representing an action
as completed : as,
quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 24), what has been
found out I will see presently,
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. ^^lat lecut will have
done my duty.
Epistolary Tenses*
282. In Letters, the perfect {historical) or imperfect
may be used for the present, and the pluperfect for
past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time it is
supposed to be received: as,
neque tamen, cum haec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus
premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor while IwriU this am I ignorant under
what burdens you are weighed,
ad tuas omnes |epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), / [have]
answered all your letters yesterday.
Tenses of the Suljjanctfve.
283. The tenses of the Subjunctive denote Absolute
time only in Independent Clauses. In these the Present
always refers to future time; the Imperfect to either /^.r/
or present; the Perfect to either /«/«r^ or past; the
Pluperfect always to past,
284. In Dependent Clauses, the tenses of the Sub-
junctive denote Relative time, not with reference to the
speaker, but to tlte time of some ot/ier verb.
200 Syntax of Tenses,
Sequence of Tenses.
285. The forms which denote Absolute time may be
used in any connection. But those denoting Relative
time follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
For this purpose, tenses are divided into two classes —
1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and the Per-
fect {definite).
2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, the Perfect (Jtisiorical),
and the Pluperfect.
286. In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the
dependent clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed
by a Secondary: as,
Bcribit nt nos moneat, he writes to warn us,
Bcribet ut nos moneat, he will write to wampus.
scribe (soribito) nt nos moneas, write that you may warn us,
Bcripait ut nos moneret. he wrote to warn us,
scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten,
scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten,
rogo quid fJEtctums sis, I ask what you are going to do.
Remark. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : —
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
Primary.
I. Action not complete (time rela- 1 Present.
tively present or future), ) '_
Secondary,
Imperfect.
2. Action complete (time relatively \ perfeci. I Pluperfect.
past), S I
In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (i) whether
the leading verb hs primary or secondary; (2) whether the dependent
verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. relatively past), or in-
complete (relatively present or future). By taking the corresponding
tense, as given above, the correct usage will usually be found.
Notice that the Future Perfect denotes relatively completed action,
and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Plu-
perfect.
287. In the Sequence of Tenses, the following points
are to be observed : —
Sequence of Tenses. 201
a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense ; but^as its
action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly
followed by secondary tenses : as,
ut satis esset praesidii provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), provision has been
made that there should be ample guard,
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetls (Verr.
i. I ), / halve brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction
to foreign nations,
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia
vinceremur (Cic), we seem to have advanced so far that even in ful-
ness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
• b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past
action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a
verb in a primary tense : as,
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens faerit Platonis auditor
(Or. 4), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he
was of PlcUo,
r. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often
(the present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as,
Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagran-
tius studium vidertm (Brut. 88), Hortensius was so hot with desire
of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man,
Sicilian! Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in
antiquum statum nullo mode possit (Verr. i. \)y for three years
Verres so racked and ruined Sicily ^ that she can in no way be restored
to her former state, J Here the present is used in describing a state
of things actually existing.]
Remark. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact stated
as a result ; while the regular one gives more prominence to the main
clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a perfect indicative,
not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is often represented by
the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the general rule : as,
Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et
sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in
acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin ii. 20), Thorius was so
little superstitious that he despised [contemnebat] the many sacrifices
and shrines in his country ^ so little timorous about death that he was
killed [interfectus est] in battle^ in defence of the State,
2^no nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis Inclderlt [compare
279, d\ ; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 10),
Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one, on the con-
trary , who made everything depend on virtue alone,
d. A general truth after a past tense follows the connectipn of
tenses in Latin (though not usually in English) : as,
ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii.
9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he reflected how
inconstant she is.
§58
10. e
10. f
10. gr
lO.h
11.
ll.a
202 Syntax of Tenses.
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet apparuit (Liv.
xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger /las to goad the mind,
e. The historical present may be followed by either primary or
secondary tenses, but more commonly by secondary : as,
rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 5), he asks him to attend to the
thing he had spoken of,
castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), he
strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept off,
f. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in
protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense : as,
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, etc. (Fin. ii. 15), because
it is such that even if mett were ignorant, &^c,
g. The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, though
referring to present time, is regularly followed by secondary
tenses : as,
si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exci-
peres (Tusc. i. 5), if you called only those wretched who must die, you
would except no one,
h. After the present, when a past tense appears to bfe in the
writer's thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of
Synesis', as,
sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you
may knoiVy I write thus [as if Epistolary Imperfect].
cujus praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico
deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such is the force of this precept, that it
was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god [the precept was
an old one].
Tenses of the Infinitive.
288. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, past,, or
future, relatively to the time of the verb on which they
depend : as,
nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. Z), he ascertained that
our men were not inferior,
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (iEn. i. 15), which
Juno, 'tis said, cherished above all lands.
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 21), they hope they
shall receive the greatest advantage.
a. The present infinitive, after certain verbs in the past, must be
rendered by the perfect infinitive in English : as,
scire potuit (Milo, 17), he might have known,
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed [one
that] ought not to have died at all.
Tenses of the Infinitive,
203
Remark. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro-
priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit).
b. The perfect infinitive represents in Indirect Discourse any
past tense of a finite mood. But the imperfect is sometimes
represented by the present infinitive, — regularly after memini
where the memory recalls the action^ but not where it recalls the
mere fact : * as,
quis potest credere senatum putasse (MIL 5), who can believe ike Smote
thought? \p'\x. diS&c, putabat],
memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lael. 3), / remember Cato^s dis-
coursing with me (so dicere aietfot, De Or. ii. 3).
meministis me ita distribuisse causam (Rose. Am. 42), you remember
that I so laid out the case,
c. Except in indirect discourse the present infinitive only is
generally used, with no distinct reference to time :
est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34)» H "• Ihe duty of the
young to reverence their elders,
d. After verbs of wishing^ necessity^ and the like, the perfect
passive infinitive is often used instead of the present : as,
domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q. F. iii. 9), I wish you relieved
of household care (compare I ftray thee have me excused),
quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought to have
been done long ago (compare a).
Remark. — In early Latin, and in Poetry, the perfect active is
also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing : as,
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. \(&)yheis cautious of doing,
haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59),
/ would not by crushing another exalt myself,
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who would
not touch,
nollem. dixisse (Verr. v. 20), I would not say,
e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote
a completed action after verbs of Feeling; also with satis est,
satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases
where this distinction is important : as,
quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet,
^ non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I wets
not sorry to have made a respite of writing,
pudet me . . . non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have
shown.
' Compare Goodwin's Gr. Grammar^ 203, n. i.
204
Syntax of Participles.
sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olyxnpicum collegisse juvat (Hor. Od.
i. I ), there are those who delight , ^c,
nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I 'go wrongs
. I cannot have done it in ignorance.
f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or fotunxm
esse) ut — necessarily, where there is no supine stem : as,
spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.)» / hc^e that will he our
he^pylot.. [But, sperat se posse (Mil. 12).]
II.— iToun and At^ecHve Farms.
The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the Verb are
employed as follows : —
(Simple Predicate.
Periphrastic Perfect (pasave).
Predicate of Circumstance.
Descriptive ( Indirect Discourse).
I. Participlbs:
2. Gerund or
Gerundive :
3. Supine:
i "p,,Hir« i Periphrastic with esse,
o. r umre j periphrastic with/«i (=. Pluperfect Subj.).
{as Descriptive Adjective.
Periphrastic with esse.
Of Purpose with certain verbs.
'a. Genitive as Objective Genitive.
b. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs.
c. Accusative, with certain Prepositions.
. d. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions.
; a. Former Supine (in vim), with Verbs of Motion.
i b. Latter Supine (in 11 ), chiefly with Adjectives.
f»ARTICIPLES.
289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb
in the form of an Adjective ; but has a partial distinc-
tion of tense, and generally governs the case of its
verb.
Distinctions of Tense.
290. The Present participle denotes the action as
ftot completed : the Perfect as completed; the Future
as still to take place.
a. The Present participle has several of the irregular uses of
the present indicative (compare 277. ^, c).
quaerenti mihi iamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv.
13), though I nod long sought^ no certain thing came to my mind.
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentera dividenti (Cat. M. 4), he resisted
Flaminitis when attempting to divide, <Sr»r.
iens in Pompeianum bene mane haec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), I write this
when about going very early to my place at Pompeii.
Participles: Adjective Use. 205
b» The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly
in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus^
^veritus; commonly, Jisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others,
especially in later \mters : as,
cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), enc(mraging the men^ he
sh&wedj 6f*c,
iratus dixisti (Mur. y^S^you spoke in a passion,
oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. i'^)^ forgetting the auspices.
insidias veritus (B. G. li. ii)^ fearing ambuscade.
imirerio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command.
ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
rem incredibilem rati (Sail. C. 48), thinking it incredible.
c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually
supplied by a clause with dam or cum ; rarely by the participle
in dus : as,
Die, hospes, Spartae, nos te hie vidisse jacentes,
Dum Sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur.
Tell itf stranger, at Sparta^ that we lie here i^dient to our country's
sacred laws, (Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek
crucibus adfixi aut ilammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire
(in flames : compare note i under 296).
d. The perfect active participle (which was lost in Latin except
in deponents) is supplied either by the Ablative Absolute with
change of voice (255, Note), or by a clause with cum or dum.
The perfect participle of several deponents may be either active
or passive (see 135. b).
A^ective Use.
291. The present and perfect participles are used
sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives: as,
cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 5), a view
at once most ancient and approved.
signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever deceitful,
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices.
a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be
compared as such, or used, like other adjectives, as nouns : as,
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self-indulgent^
and slaves to the body,
recte facta paria esse d^bent (Par. iii. i), right deeds ought to be like in
value.
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got ^ ill spent.
consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health.
§72
1. b
1.C
2.
2. a
2o6 Syntax of Participles.
b. A participle may, like a predicate adjective, be connected
with a noun by esse or any similar verb : as,
Pallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. i), all Gaul is divided.
locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.
videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens
(Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at
something.
Remark. — From the predicate use arise the compound tenses of the
passive, — the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses
of esse developing the idea of past time : as, interfectus est, he was
(or has been) killed^ lit., he is having-been-killed [i.e., already slain]. In the
best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with fui, &c.,
retains its proper force ; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as,
amatus sum or fui) are often used indiscriminately to form periphrastic
tenses in the passive : as,
[leges] cum quae latae sunt turn vero quae promulgatae fuerunt (Sest.
25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and those which were
published. [The proposal of the laws was a single act : hence latae
sunt is a pure perfect. The publishing, or posting, was a continued
state, which is indicated by promulgatae, and fuerunt is the pure
perfect.]
arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, bumi inventa sunt (Div. i. 34),
the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the
ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 17) : the differ-
ence between this and the preceding is, that occupaius can be used
only as an adjective.]
Predicate Use.
292. The Present and Perfect participles are often
used as a predicate, where in English a clause would be
used to express time, causey occasion, condition, concession^
characteristic, manner .^ circumstance: as,
vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. i), I fear it may be a dis-
honor [to me] when beginning to speak.
salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored a safety
which we did not hope.
nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one would have disbelieved
him when he denied.
Remark — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute.
A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle ;
and a participle with a negative expresses the same idea which in Eng-
lish is given by without : as,
imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not looking.
miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is wretched to vex
one's self without effecting anything.
Participles: Predicate Use. 207
instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. C. 59), he draws up
the lines, and leads them to level ground,
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), thai he might carry them aver
and put them to death.
a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the
participle and not the noun contains the main idea : * as,
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), de/ore the city was
built or building,
illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt ; vos vi-
tam erentam negligetis (Manil. ^)f they did not endure the infringement
of the ciiizens' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their life ?
b. The participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as
an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus {need) : as,
opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in provision.
maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste,
c. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs)
is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the
continued effect of the verb : * as,
fidem quern habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), my
fidelity; which they have proved and long known,
d. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or the
like ; also with volo where esse may be understood, expresses
more forcibly the idea of the verb : as,
praefectos suos multi missos fecenint (Verr. iv. 58), many discharged
their officers.
hie transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he will get it all done,
me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I wish to be excused (compare I pray
thee have me excused),
e. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an
infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly after verbs of
sense, also facio, induco, and the like used of authors : as,
Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophon repre-
sents Socrates disputing.
Future Partiolple.
• 293. The Future Participle (except futurus and vett-
turus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun,
except by later writers.
1 Compare the participle *m indirect discourse in Greek (G. 2S0) ; and the Eng-
lish, " *Twas at the royal feast for Persia won " (Dryden), i. e. for the conquest
of Persia,
2 The perfect with have^ in modem languages, has grown out of this use of
habeo.
2o8 Syntax of Participles.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a periphras-
tic conjugation (see page T]) : as,
morere, Diagora, non enini in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 46),
diey for you are not likely to rise to heaven,
sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man hopes
to live long.
Deque petiturus nnquam consulatttm videretur (Off. lii. 20), and seemed
unlikely ever to be a candidate for the consulship,
b. By later writers the future participle is also used in simple
agreement to express likelihood, purpose, or even ftn apodosis:
as,
cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. i), when a lion rushed
on to attack the king,
rediit belli casum de integro tentaturas (Liv. xvii. 62), he returned to
try the chances of war anew,
ausus est rem plus famae habituram (id. ii. 10), he dared a thing which
would have more repute,
dispersos per agros milites equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the
horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields (a
rare use of the Ablative Absolute).
c. With past tenses of esse, the futute participle is often equiv-
alent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see 308. ^) : as,
conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si ire perrexisset (Div. i. ix^^thcU
chamber where he would have stayed if he had persisted in going,
quid facturi fuistis (Lig. 8), what were you going to do? {=quid
fecissetis; which would be logically followed by si venissetis, <Sr»f.].
Gemndlvei
294. The Gerundive, in its participial or adjective use,
denotes necessity or propriety.
Note. — The participle in dus has two distinct uses, viz., i. the Pre-
dicate (participial or adjective) use, in which it is always passive; 2, the
Gerundive use (see 295), in which it is always actiz/e in meaning, having
for its apparent Object the noun with which it agrees in form. In the
latter, it is exactly equivalent to the Gerund — which is its neuter used
impersonally — governing the noun as direct object.
a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect
4)articiples, in simple agreement with a noun : as,
fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a brave man^ and worthy to
be preserved.
b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a
second periphrastic conjugation (p. 77) : as,
non agitanda res erit (Verr. vL 70), wiU not the thing have to be agi-
tated f
Gerund and Gerundive. TOg
c. The neuter of the gerundive ^ is occasionally (chiefly in early
Latin) used with the case of its verb. In this use it is regular with
ntor, frnor, &c., governing the ablative : as,
agitandumst vigilias (PI. Tr. 869), I have got to stand guard,
via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (CM. 2), the way we have to enter,
Qtendum ezercitationibas modicis (id. ii)twe must use moderate exer-
cise,
legibus parendum est, the laws must he obeyed,
juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. £p. 36), it is for the young
to get^ for the old to enjoy,
d. The gerundive is used to denote Purpose after verbs signi-
fying to give^ deliver^ agree for ^ have, receive^ undertake^ demand:^
as,
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 21 ),
the cotOractor who had undertaken to make thai column [the regular
construction with this class of verbs],
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the temple of
Castor to take care of,
naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), he took
care that the ships and cargoes should be kept,
GERUND.
295. The Gerund is a verbal noun, governing the same
case as its verb, but governed itself like a noun : as,
ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), the art
of discoursing welly and distinguishing the true and false. [Here the
verbal nouns discoursing and distittguishingy if used in the nomina-
tive, would be expressed by the infinitive disserere and dijudicare.]
Remark. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, corresponds
to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (see 273), its nominative form
being found only in the impersonal use of the participle in dus.
296. When the Gerund would have an object in the
accusative, the Gerundive^ is generally used instead,
agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund
would have had : as,
1 Sometimes called Nominative of the Gerund. (Compare Greek verbal in rrfoy,
G. 281.)
S Such verbs arc accipio^ adnoto, attribuOf conduce, euro, denoto, deposco, do,
droido, edico, edoceo,fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo,
propono, relinquo, rogo, suscipio, trado, voveo,
> The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in
das seems to have had a present passive force as in secundus (from sequor),
§73
210 Gerundive Constructions.
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo
all dangers, [Here subeunda agrees with pericula^ which is itself
governed by ad: the construction with the gerund would be, ad
subeundum pericula ; eul governing the gerund, and the gerund
governing the accusative pericula^
exercendae memoriae gratia (Off. i. 15), for the sake of training the
memory, [Here the gerund construction would be, exercettdi memo-
riam.]
These forms may be seen in the following : —
Gen. consUium jl^J^J^capSl } " d^^ 0/ taiin^ (A, city.
DAT. dat optram ^^^^°I^^^P^ A^ attended to taiinffiAeJle/d,.
Acc. veniuntad{P-^-P«f^»du™ j tAeyeo^touei^eace.
•ABL. terittempus {^^^l?;P^^^^^\Aesfiendstimein^itin^lea^s.
Remark. — The verbs utor, fruor, &c., are treated like verbs gov-
erning the Accusative, as they do in early Latin : as,
expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches are
sought for the enjoyment of pleasure.
Gerundive Confltmctlons.
297. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the
oblique cases, in some of the constructions of nouns.
298. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives
in the constructions of the objective geftitive; more
rarely in the predicate after esse: as,
neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14),
time bein^ given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms [object-
ive genitive after spatio],
ne conservandae quidem patriae causa (Off. 1. 45), not even in order to
save the country.
Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), it is the best end of life,
non tarn commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (id. ii.
I ), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state.
rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), jlammandi (Tac), from which the idea of
necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the development of die
subjunctive. Consilium urbis delendae would have meant a plan of a dty being
destroyed [in process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be
destroyed, then a plan of destroying the dty, the two words becoming fused
together as in o^ urbe conditA. The gerund is simply an impersonal use of the
partidple, in its original present sense, retaining the case of its verb, the same as
in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est facto ?
Gerundive Constructions. 211
Remark. — In the predicate use of the genitive, it nearly or quite
acquires the meaning of Purpose : as,
quae res vertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which things
generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth,
si arborum trunci deiciendi operis essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), in case
trunks of trees should be sent down [with thQ object] of, setting the
work adrift.
cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), to study old times,
a. The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a
noun) with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender
nor number: as,
ejus Vivendi cupidus (Ter. Hec), eager to see her,
reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of challenging
three jurors,
sui colligendi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover them-
selves, [Here sui^ though referring to a plural subject, is really
the genitive singular neuter of suus,\
b. In the genitive of gerundive constructions the Gerund and
Gerundive are about equzdly common.
299. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and
rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of
nouns : as,
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of
armor suited to the defence of the body,
te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), I desire that
thou (Venus) be my partner in writing verses,
a. The dative is used also in a few expressions after verbs : as,
reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata
sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gathtr in the
harvest,
diem praestitit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day for
doing the work,
praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 18), /It? take charge of tillage,
esse solvendo, to be able to pay,
b. The dative is also used in certain phrases belonging to the
civil law, after nouns meaning officers^ offices^ elections^ &c. : as,
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div, i. 17), elections for nominating
consuls,
triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting
colonies.
§73
ac
3.d
Rem
§74
212 Gerund and Supine,
300. The Accusative is used after the prepositions
ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and anti) \ most frequently
after ad, denoting Purpose : as,
vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 2),
you live, notto pmt off, but to confirm your daring,
inter agendum (£cL ix. 24), while driving,
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. io)t you summon me to write,
nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to
undertake these things,
30X The Ablative is used to express Manner,^ Means,
or Instrument, and after Conaparatives ; and after the
prepositions ab, de, ex^ in^ and (rarely) pro and cum : as,
multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises,
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), 4^ reading these very things,
nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 15),
no duty is more important than repaying favors,
in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in afairs,
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), equal to any man in speaking
Latin,
nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without delivering any
precepts of virtue,
obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8)»
calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.
Remark. — The gerund is occasionally found in apposition
with a noun : as,
ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, zzi. 3),
for the most widely different things obeying and commanding,
SUPINE.
Note. — The supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declen-
sion, having no distinction of tense or person, and is limited to
two uses. The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion.
The form in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly the
ablative has been confused with it.
302. The Former Supine (in um) is used after verbs
of motion to express the purpose of the motion ; it gov-
erns the case of its verb : as,
' In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers, neariy eqmvalent
to a present participle. From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and
Spanish form of the participle, the true participial form becoming an adjective.
The Supine, 213
quid est, imusne sessum ? etsi monitum venimus te, non flagitatum
(De Or. iii. 5), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to
remind not to entreat you.
nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), to establish in marriage.
venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of
wrongs.
Remark. — The supine in mn is used especially after eo ; and
with the passive infinitive Iri forms the future infinitive passive : as,
fuere cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. C. 36), there were
citizens who went about to ruin the republic (compare 258. Rem.).
non Grais servitum matribus ibo (iEn. ii. yS6),/ shall not go to be a slave
to the Grecian dames.
si scisset se trucidatum iri <Div. ii. 9), if he [Pompey] had known that
hi was going to be murdered.
803. The latter Supine (in u) ^ is used only with a
few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefiis, and opus, and
rarely with verbs, to denote an action in reference to
which the quality is asserted : as,
O rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), a thing
not only shocking to see^ but even to hear of.
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. ^^)^ they ask what is
best to do.
humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do or
undertake.
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 13), ^ this is lawful to say.
pudet dictu ( Agric. 32), it is shame to tell.
Remark. — The supine in u is found espedally with such adjectives
as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which
denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with fdcilis, difficilis, jucundus,
the construction of ad with the geAind is more common. The Infini-
tive is often used in the same signification, by the poets, with all these
adjectives.
1 The only latter supines in common use are auditu, dictu, factu, inventu^ me-
moratu, natu, visu. In classic use it is found, in all, in twenty^our verbs. It is
never followed by an object-case.
§74
1.
§59
214 Conditio f ml Setiteftces.
Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences.
Note. — The Conditional Sentence differs from other compound sen-
tences in this, that the form of the main clause (apodosis) is determined
in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (protasis), upon
the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all compound
sentences, however, it has arisen from putting together two independ-
ent statements, which in time became so closely united as to make one
modified statement. Thus — Speak the word: my servant shall be
healed is an earlier form of expression thaij If thou speak the word. The
Conditional Particles were originally independent pronouns : thus si is
a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic {si-ce like hi-ce), and
has the primitive meaning of in that way, or in some way. In its origin
the Condition was o0» two kinds. Either it was assumed and stated as
a factf or it was expressed as a mild command. From the first have
come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter all the
uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either the
Indicative expressing the conclusion as a fact ; and the Present and
Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally 2& future — hence more or
less doubtful — or the Imperfect and Pluperfect as futurum in preeterito^
and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus ridUs^ majore cachinno
concutitur is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodo-
sis ; si rides only means " in some way or other," &c. So roges Aristonem^
neget is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; si
roges would mean " ask in some way or other." The imperfect rogares
transfers the command to past time,2 with the meaning " suppose you
had asked," and si would have the same meaning as before ; while negaret
transfers the future idea of neget to past time, and means " he was going
to deny.'* Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the
implication that it is untrue in point cf fact, — because, if it were true,
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : it would
then be a simple fact, put in the indicative.' Such a condition or
1 The futurum in prceterito is a tense relatively future to a time absolutely
past, expressing a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and
hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dixisset =
dicturus fuii. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the
past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (imperfect subjunctive) came
naturally to be used to express a presenf condition purely ideal, that is to say,
contrary to fact.
2 Compdjre potius diceret, **he should rather have said" (266. e),
^ There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise : as,
decies centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. Sat. i. 3, 15).
Protasis and Apodosis. 215
conclusion — originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday]
he was going to deny — came to express an unfulfilled condition in the
present ; just as in English ought, which originally meant owedf^ has
come to express a present obligation.
Conditional Sentences may be classified as follows ; -^
1. SiMPLB Prbsbrt or Past CONDITIONS, nothing implied as to fulfilment ;
Indicative^ Present or Past,
-> KiTTTiRR CoNniTioNs- f *' Morc vivid (probablc) : Future Indicative,
2. Future conditions . j ^ Less vivid (improbable) : Present Subjunctive.
3. Conditions Contrary ( a. Present : Imperfect Subjunctive,
to Fact : ( b. Past : Pluperfect Subjunctive,
i a. Indefinite : 2d person^ Subjunctive,
4. General Conditions : < b. Repeated Action : Imperfect or Pluperfect with
( Indicative in Apoaosis,
(^ Tv-^ :»«^ ( in clause of Fact, Wish, Command.
a, Disgmsed . partidpial Expression.
b Om-tt«l Potential Subiunctive.
• *-'°""=" j Subjunctive of Modesty.
Protasis and Apodosis.
304. In a Conditional Sentence the clause containing
the condition is called the Protasis ; and that contain-
ing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : as,
si qui exire volunt [protasis] conivere possum [apodosis], (Cat. ii. 12),
tf any wish to depai^^ I can keep my eyes shut,
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional par-
ticle si (if) or one of its compounds.
Note. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etiamsi, etai, tametsi,
tamenetsi (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, 155. 4 f).
An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may
also serve to introduce a conditional clause (see 316).
b. The Apodosis — except in some forms of General Condition
— regularly corresponds in Mood with the Protasis : as,
si mones audit, if you advise^ he hears,
si monebis audiet, if you advise^ he will hear,
si moneas audiat, if you should [hereafter] advise he would hear,
si moneres audiret, if you were now advising he would hear,
si monuisses audivisset, if you had [before] advised he would have
heard.
Note. — The apodosis is often introduced by some correlative
word or phrase : as, siCj ita, turn, ea condicione, etc.
' " There was a certain lender which ought hin/five hundred pieces." — Tyn-
daWsN, T.
§59
l.a
l.b
§59
1. b
8. a
8.b
2.0
2i6 Conditional Sentences*
c. The Apodosis, being the principal clause of its own sentence,
may depend in form on the grammatical structure of the main sen-
tence^ and so require a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase : as,
quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione
iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else would follifw, he wotddgo with
the tenth legion alone,
si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), if
the loss of a battle alarmed any^ they might find^ ^c.
sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q. C. viii. 2),
intending also to deprive him ofdurial, unless the king had ordered him
to be interred.
Note. — When the Apodosis is itself in Indirect Discourse, or
in any dependent construction, the mood of the Protasis (as in the
first two of the above examples) is always in the Subjunctive (see
337, P- 250).
d, A Particular Condition is one which refers to a definite act
or series of acts occurring at some definite time ; a General Con-
dition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may
have occurred) at any time,^
Classlficatloa.
305. The principal or typical Forms of conditional
sentences may be exhibited as follows: —
a. Simple Condition, nothing being implied as to fulfilment
(Indicative Mood) : —
1. Present : si adest bene est, if he is [now] here it is well,
2. Past : si aderat bene erat, tf he was [then] here it was well.
b. Future Condition, necessarily as yet unfulfilled : —
1. More vivid (probable) : si aderit bene erit, if he is [shall be]
here it will be well,
2, Less vivid (probable) : si adsit* bene sit, tf he should [here-
after] be here it would be well.
« These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; and in most lan-
guages are also distinguished grammaticaUy, —but only as to Present and Past
Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditionSy present or past tenses of the In-
dicative are regularly used in Protasis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth
or falsity ; and the Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in
an independent sentence. In general conditions (or at least what would be such
in Greek), also, referring to Present or Past time, the Indicative is for the most
part used botii in Protasis and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin»s Greek Grammar,
§ 220.)
' Corresponding to the Greek Optative.
Forms of Conditions. 217
c. Condition contrary to fact, unfulfilled in present or past (im-
perfect and pluperfect Subjunctive) : —
1. Present, si adesset ^ bene esset, if he were [now J here it would
be well,
2. Past, si adf uisset ^ bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here it
would have been welL
d. General condition : —
1 . Indefinite, si hoc dicas ' creditur, if one says this it is [always]
believed.
2. Repeated, si quid diceret* credebatur, if [whenever] he said
any thing ( = whatever he said) it was believed (a late use).
Remark. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English.
Thus if he is alive now is a present condition, to be expressed in Latin
by the Present Indicative \ if he is alive next year is a future condition,
and would be expressed by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here
now is a present condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by
the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus is a future con-
dition, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so too, if you
advised him he would attend may be future.
Simple Conditions.
306. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is
NOT implied^ the present and past tenses of the Indica-
tive are used in Protasis^ the apodosis expressing the
result in any grammatical form required : as,
si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are
well it is well,
si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), if justice be wanting it [bravery]
is in fault,
si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 5), if youplease^ let us see,
fuerit hoc censoris, s» judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that it was the
censor's duty in case he judged it false,
Fntnre Conditions.
307. A Future condition may either, i. make a dis-
tinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing
what will be the result ; or, 2. the supposition may be
less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what
would be the result in the case supposed.
' Corresponding to the Greek Imperfect (Indicative), with iv in apodosis.
' Corresponding to the Greek Aorist (Indicative), with w m apodosis.
' Corresponding to the Greek Subjunctive with a»,
* Corresponding to the Greek Optative.
21 8 Conditional Sentiences.
a. \i the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as
actually about to take place (English present indicative, rarely fut-
ure with SHALL), the Future Indicative is used in both protasis
and apodosis : as^
sanabimiir si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 6), if you
read or hear, you will find,
b. The present subjunctive, in both protasis and apodosis, ex-
presses a future condition less vividly^ or as less probable^ than
when the future indicative is used (English should) : as,
haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 8),
if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to prevail f
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 23),
but if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis
with the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the
speaker.^
r. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that
of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the
future^ and the Perfect subjunctive for the Present: as,
sin cum potuero, non venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), but if I
do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly,
si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it I will excuse
you.
Remark. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing
to the tendency of the language to represent an action as completed^
rather than as in progress,
d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the
apodosis of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rua,
and verbs of necessity,, possibility, and the like) : as,
non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), / cannot accuse
him if I should desire,
alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio
solitus sit dixero (Lael. 16), another limit must be set if I first state
what Scipio was wont most to find fault with.
' It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not
upon the nature of the condition whether it shall be stated vividly or not; as in the
proverbial ** If the sky falls we shall catch larks," the impossible condition is iron-
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed
concUtion stated by some one else.
Conditions Contrary to Fact. 219
e. Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a
present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as
already accomplished: as,
si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), ^ this is well
fixed in your minds y you have conquered [ioryou will have conquered],
si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have
kept the same spirit^ we have conquered.
f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition
becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause
(retaining the same force relatively to past time) : as,
non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), tvos not able unless he wished (com-
pare d, above).
Caesar si peteret . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 3), if
even Casar were to ask he would gain nothing. [Here the construc-
tion is not contrary to fact, but is simply si petal non proficicU,
thrown into past time.]
tumulus apparuit . . si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat
(Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by li^ht
the enemy would prevent. [Independent of apparuit, this would oe,
si eatur, praeventurus est, for praeveniai\
Conditions Contrary to Fact.
308. In the statement of a supposition known to be
false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are
used,^ — the imperfect referring to Present Time, the
pluperfect to Past: as,
quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat.
M. 11), if I could not [now] follow this [an active life] yet my couch
would afford me pleasure,
nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), unless you had lost it^
I should not have recovered it.
si meum consilium auctoritasque valuissety tu hodie egeres, nos
liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus amisisset
(Phil. ii. 15), if my judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did
no\\^ you would this day be a beggar, we should be free, and the republic
would not have lost so many leaders and armies,
qui nisi revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima
nocte conruit : ruina igitur oppressus esset ; at id negue si fatum
fuerat effugisset, nee si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div.
ii. %), if it had been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped, 6r*c.
[The apodosis oi fuerat is not effugisset, but the whole conditional
sentence of which effugisset is the apodosis; the real protasis of
effugisset is revertisset, above.]
* The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the Sub-
junctive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus
the time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writingi already I
220 Conditional Sentences.
a. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro-
tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action
is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist: as,
hie si mentis esset suae, aasus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21),
if he was of sane mind would he have dared to lead out the army f
[Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret
(Verr. ii. i), [the power of Carthage] wotdd not heme fallen^ unless
that station had been open to our fleets (without the condition, patehat).
Remark. — This necessarily arises from the fact that the pluperfect
is equivalent to a future perfect in prateritot and so represents the action
as completed and momentary^ rather than continuing.
b. The past tenses of the Indicative in apodosis (after a Sub-
junctive in protasis) may be used to express what ought to have
been done, or is intended^ or is already begun (see 311. r) : as,
si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus
(Manil. 17), if he [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen in
Rome^ yet he ought to be appointed,
quod esse caput debebat si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what ought
to be the main point if it could be proved,
si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers were
coming if it had been allowed (see 305. d*^),
in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 32),
he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had
Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time
to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to
the pluperfect subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive may how-
ever be used as well (see Note, above) : as,
satius erat ( = esset), it were better,
c. The use of the indicative in apodosis is regular with all verbs
and expressions denoting the necessity^ propriety, desirableness ^
duty, possibility, of an action, where it is implied that what was
necessary, &c., has not been done?- It is sometimes carried still
further in poetry: as,
nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), it would befit us to mourn,
si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a
laurel, but for giving out a different odor.
passed ; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact.
So past forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apo-
dosis in this construction (see e, below, and head-note).
' Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of Futurity. Compare
note above.
General Conditions, 221
d. The participle in nms with fiii is nearly equivalent to a
pluperfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a
cUpendent clause^ requiring the infinitive or subjunctive, a pluper-
fect subjunctive may be represented by the Future Participle with
the proper form of fui (compare Indirect Discourse, Chap. V.).
quid enim futurum fuit [==fuisset], si . . . (liv. ii. \)^ what would
have happened if , <Sr»^.
neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (id.), nor is
there any question he would have done it if ^c. [dir. disc. fecisset\.
ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui haec sine doctrina
credituri f uerint (Tusc. i. 21 ), hence it may jbe understood how keen
they are by nature, who, without instruction, would have believed this.
[liere the condition is contained in the words sine doctrina.\
adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturl fuerint, ni incerta
' noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy
that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the haz-
ards of the night, [In the direct discourse, rapuissent ni timuissent^
General ConditJoneu
309. General conditions are distinguished in Latin in
only two cases : viz.,
tf.- The subjunctive is used m th^ second person singular, to
denote the act of an Indefinite Subject {you ^^ any one). Here
the Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apoSosis : as,
mens prope uti ferrum est : si exerceas conteritur ; nisi exerceas,
rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron : if
you use it, it wears away ; if you don^t use it, it gathers rust,
virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, conseqilitur (Tusc.
i* 38 )» glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one's aim.
si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor
est (Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there
is no fear nor shame any more.
si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [he Tvas] easily appeased if one yielded.
h. In later writers (not in Cicero), the imperfect and pluperfect
subjunctive are used in protasis, with the imperfect indicative in
apodosis, to state a Repeated or Customary action : as,
accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Ann. vi. 30),
the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
c. In all other cases, general suppositions — including those
Introduced by Indefinite Relatives — take the Indicative.
Note. — In many sentences properly conditional, the subordinate
member is not expressed or a conditional clause ; but is stated in some
other form of words, or is implied in the nature of the thought. j
§60
1.
222 Conditional Sentences.
Condition DtesrolflecL
310. The condition is often contained in some other
form of words than a regular Protasis, in the same clause
or sentence.
a. The condition may be contained in a Relative, Participial, or
other qualifying clause : as,
facile me paterer — vel ipso quaerente, vel apud Cassianos judices —
pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Am. 30), / would readily allow my-
self to speak for Roscius^ IF he^ <Sr»f .
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42), // would
not have come into mind, unless [I had been] reminded [ = nisi admon-
itus essem].
nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (liv. zxii. ^)^tkere
is no other peofle that would not have been crushed.by such a weight of dis-
aster [i.e. IF it had been any other people].
nemo unquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad
mortem (Tusc. i. 15), no one, without great hope of immortality, would
ever expose him'self to death for his country,
quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lael. 3),
what good could the addition of a few years have done him [if he had
had them] ?
b. The condition may be contained in a Wish, or expressed as a
Command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive : * as,
utinani quidem fuissem ! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), /
wish I hctd been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us [i.e. if I
had been].
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 2^,foraik Aristo, he would deny.
tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. L 13), remove this
notion, and you will have done avoay grief
naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. £p. i. 10), drive
out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return,
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat.
M. 7), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal
and diligence,
c. Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause : as,
rides : majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh ; he shakes
with lotider laughter,
de paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes commemorantur
(Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty ; many patient poor are mentioned*
' This usage is probably the origin of the use of the subjunctive in Protasis ;
the subjunctive being used first, as in 266, while the conditional particle is a form
of an indefinite pronoun.
Implied Conditions. 223
Condition Omitted*
311. The condition is often wholly omitted, but may
be inferred from the course of the argument.
Remark. — Under this head belong all the apparently independent
uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in 265. a. In this use the perfect
subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense as the present, re-
ferring to the immediaU future; the imperfect to past time (not to
present, as in 266. e),
a. The present and perfect subjunctive (often with forsitan or
the like) are used to denote an action as Possible ; also, the second
person singular of all the tenses, denoting an act of an Indefinite
Subject {Potential Subjunctive) : as,
hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), here same one may ask,
ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 6), cts one may perhaps say,
forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance marvel at
these things,
tum in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sit. ii. 8), then on each
couch you might hear whisperings.
Remark. — In this use the imperfect or pluperfect refers to past time.
b. The subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical
statement (especially velim, etc., in polite wish, — conjunctivus
modestine) : as,
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), I would say by your leave.
baud sciam an (De Or. i. 80), I should incline to think.
tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I would like you to think so,
vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 7), / wish Antony were here.
[Here vellem implies an unfulfilled wish in present time; volo,'
nolo, are peremptory.)
haec erant fere quae tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this is about
what I want you to know. [Here vellem is simply velim transferred
to past time on account of erat (epistolary), by connection of tenses,
and does not imply an impossible wish.]
c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity^ propriety, and
the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact : as,
longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed ... (in Pison. 10), it would be tedious
to tell, &^c.
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. i), it would be
more fitting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), would it have been
a great matter to wait for himself?
quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 25), how much better it would have been,
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M.), whereas
on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him.
224 Conditioftal Sentetices.
nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus
(Tusc. i. ii8), for it were fitting to mourn the house where a man has
been bom [but we do not],
nunc est bibendum . . . nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deonim
tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. it would be time
[if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act].
Remark. — Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect
indicative refers to present time; the pluperfect to simply past
time, like the perfect Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now],
but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have beeriy but was not,
d. The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con-
structions : as,
peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may I perish if it
would not be better* [Here the protasis and apodosis come under
30S. b. Optimum erat is itself an apodosis with the protasis
omitted.]
quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera quidem
eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino in^enio potuisset imitari
(Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis oi potuisset is in sine divino ingemo^
and the apodosis of si potest is the whole conditional statement
which follows.]
Conditional Partlolei.
Note. — Certain Particles implying a Condition are followed by
the Subjunctive, but upon several different principles.
312. The particles of Comparison — tamquam^ quasi^
quant si, acsi, utsi, ve/utsi, ve/uti, and poetic ceu — intro-
duce conditional clauses, of which the conclusion is
omitted or implied ; and take the subjunctive.
Remark. — Contrary to the English idiom, the present and
perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except
where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses : as,
tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), just as if J were lame (/. e,
just as it would be if I should be lame),
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed,
quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. iZ)^ as if forsooth visi-
bU things were not judged by their appearance,
velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were present in person.
similiter facis ac si me roges (N. S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if you
asked me,
aeque ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as if it were
my own business,
ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (iEn. ii. 438), as if there were no
fighting elsewhere,
magis quam si domi esses (Att. viL4), more than if you were at home.
Concessive Particles. 225
Conoesgive Particles.
313. The particles of Concession — although^ grant-
ing that — sometimes take the subjunctive, but under
various constructions : viz.,
a. Quamvis and at (except in later writers) take the hortatory
subjunctive (266).
quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 23), however incapable
themselves of speakings yet^ 6r*c,
ut neminem alium . .. . rogasset (Mil. 17), even if he had asked no
ether,
b. Licet is properly a verb, and is followed by an object-clause
with the subjunctive (331. 0-
licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am. 11),
though all terrors and perils should menace me.
c. Etsi has the same constructions as si (305).
etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18)', though ripeness of age is wanting.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (SuU. 32), even if you had tahen away
nothing else.
d. Cum (concessive) has a special construction (326).
e. Quamqnam takes the Indicative (unless otherwise required
by the structure of the sentence) : as,
omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus — pestem, vastitatem,
cruciatum, tormenta denuntiat (Phil. xiv. 3), though breaking down
under his disasters^ still he threatens all with destruction^ plunder ^ mis-
ery, and torture.
f. Quamquam more commonly introduces a proposition in the
sense of and yet : as,
quamquam haec quidem jam tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. 28),
and yet these, in truth, it seemed might new be borne, though, 6r^c.
g. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of bI are used
in all the forms of protasis ; quamquam regularly introduces only
conceded fa^tSy and hence takes the Indicative; quamvis, quan-
tum vis, qnamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc-
tions, corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers,
however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of
si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according
to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses
quamquam with the Subjunctive : as,
quamquam ne id quidem suspitionem coitionis habuerit (Plane. 22),
though not even that raised any suspicion of a coalition^
IS
226 Conditional Sentences*
314. A Proviso, introduced by modo^ dum, dummodo,
requires the Subjunctive : as,
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. i6), protnded the health is good.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. L 21^), provided [in pleasure] he
be not of the herd of cattle.
oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 2S), let them hate, if only the^fear.
dum de patris morte quaereretur (Rose. Am. 41), let the inquiry only
be of a father's death,
. dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided only
the city wcUl is between us*
Note. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ;
with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in
temporal clauses (compare colloquial ''so long as'': see 266. </).
Use of AV and Its Gompounds.
315. The use of some of the more common Conditional
Particles may be stated as follows : —
a. Si is used for affirmative^ nisi and 8i non for negative con-
ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis,
— /. e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed ; with
8i non, the Protasis is negative, — /. e. the conclusion is limited to
the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.)
Nisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an
old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con-
ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi Bi, except if^ unless^ occurs : as,
noli putare me ad quemquam longiores epistulas scribere, nisi si quis
ad me plura scripsit, cui puto rescribi oportere (Fam. xiv. 2), don't
suppose thai I write anybody longer letters^ except in case one writes
more to me, and so I think he must be answered,
b. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regularly
introduce an objection or exception^ ironically, and take the Indica-
tive: as,
nisi forte volumus Epicureorum opinionem sequi (De Fato, 16), ««-
less to be sure we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
c. Sive . . . sive (sen) introduce conditions in the form of an
alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used
with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two
branches, often also without a verb: as,
nam illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito,
sive quid aut scribo aut lego (De Leg. ii. i)^for I enjoy myself most
in that plcue^ whether I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or
reading, \Sive , . . seu is late or poetic]
Relative Clauses, 227
Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions.
l.^JRelative Clauses*
The Relative, being in origin a weak demonstrative (or possibly, in
some cases, an interrogative), may be used alike with the indicative and
the subjunctive. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact,
takes the Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. But the Subjunc-
tive appears in many relative constructions, indicating a closer logical
connection between the relative clause and the main clause. These
constructions have grown up from the future meaning of the subjunctive,
each with its own special development. In general they are of two
kinds, not, however, very distinct in meaning: viz., i. clauses where the
implied logical connection is that of Purpose ; 2. clauses which express
more or less distinctly some Characteristic of the antecedent, of which
the most frequent is the ordinary clause of Result. 3. Besides these,
however, there are general relatives of Protasis ; the indefinite relatives
whoever^ whenever^ &c., being regarded as conditional expressions, equiv-
alent to, if any one, if atony timet 6r»c.^ This leads to the following scheme
of dependent relative constructions : —
1. General Relatives of Protasis.
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose {Fimil Clauses],
3. Relative Clauses of Characteristic, including—
0. Simple Result (Consecutive) Clauses.
d. Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance),
c. Clauses of Relative Time.
Conditional B«latiTe Clauses.
316. A clause introduced by an Indefinite Relative is
treated as a Conditional clause, and may take any of the
forms of Protasis : as,
quisquis hue venerit vapulabit (PI. Am. 153), whoever { = tf any one)
comes hp^e he shall be thrashed.
quaecumque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 4), /should
begladj whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if any other, as well
as the one which did],
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit
degere (Cat. M. i\ philosophy^ which if any one obeys, he will be able
to spend his whole life without vexation.
virtutem (jui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis diligetur
(N. D. i. 44), i.e. if any one shall have attained virtue, <Sr*^.
' As in ^e analogy of the Greek U av, oravy &c. ; and in statutes, where the
phrases if any person shall j or whoever shall ^ are used indifferently.
S64
Note
Rem.
l.a
228 Dependent Constructions,
Claiues of Purpose.
Note.-* The Subjanctive clause of Purpose has arisen either from the
original future meaning of the subjunctive, or from its hortatory use.
Grammarians are not agreed upon the point ; but it must have originated
from one or the other, and either affords a satisfactory analysis. If it
was developed from the hortatory su'bjunctive, it has come through a kind
of indirect discourse construction (for which see 339) : thus misit legatos
^i dicerent means either he sent ambcLssadors who would say (future use),
or, he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. let them say (compare hortatory
subjunctive in past tenses, 266. e, with the thought and hortatory clauses
in Indirect Discourse, 336, 339).
As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same
as that of relatives. That with ne is no doubt, in origin, a hortatory
subjunctive.
317. Final Clauses, or those expressing Purpose,
take the Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the
conjunction nt (uti), in order thai (negatively nt ne or
ne, that noty lest) : as,
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 4), they
brought Cindnnatus from the plough that he might be dictator,
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), he wrote speeches for
other men to deliver,
hunc ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct.
22), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you,
nihil habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to write,
habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), I hcul [a retreat] whither I
might flee,
ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), that it be not with impunity,
ne qua ejus adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that tw
sign of his arrival may be made at a distance,
a. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correlative in
the main clause : as, ^
legum idclrco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus (CIu. 53),
for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we may be free,
ea causa . . . iit,for this reason, lest, dr'c,
b. The ablative quo (»sut eo) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses, especially with comparatives : as,
libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), he availed
himself of liln^ty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
Compare quominoa (»» ut eo minus), after verbs of hindering
(see 331.^).
Final Clauses.
229
c. The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context : as,
ac ne longum sit . . . jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and^ not to be tedious, we
ordered, dfc, [strictly, ** not to be tedious, I say."]
sed ut ad Dionysium r^deamus, . . . (Tusc. v. 22), but to return to
Dionysius, dr'c,
satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audads (Phil. xiiL $), it toas the act
of one rash enough, not to say daring.
Remark. — To this principle belongs nedum (sometimes ne),
still less, not to mention thaty with which the verb itself is often
omitted : as,
nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could we he safe,
nedum isti . . . non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et ilagitii
(Leg. Ag. ii. 3S),y5jEr more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime
and scandal,
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea,
and on a journey.
quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne illi corruptis
moribus victoriae temperarent (Sail. C. i\), for prosperity overmasters
the soul even of the wise ; mufh less did they with their corrupt morals
put any check on victory. •
d. Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of Wishing,
Commanding, &c. (see 331. b).
Remark. — The clause of Purpose is sometimes rendered in English
by that, or in order that, with may or might (Potential) ; but more fre-
quently by the Infinitive with to : as,
veni ut viderem, I came to see {that I might see).
318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin
in various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by
the simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, lAej
came to seek peace, may be rendered —
(i) venerunt ut pacem peterent [final clause with ut] ;
quipacem peterent [final clause with Relative] ;
adpetendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad] ;
adpetendam pacem [gerundive with ad] ;
pacem petendi causa ^ [gerund with causa] ;
pads petendae causa * [gerundive with causa] ;
pacem petituri [future participle : not in Cicero] ;
pacem petitum [former supine] .
* Or gratia.
(2)
n
(3)
»
(4)
»
(5)
>9
(6)
»
(7)
>»
(8)
»»
230 Dependent Consiructiofis.
In the choice of these forms the following suggestions
are to be observed : —
a. The most general way of expressing purpose is by ut
(negatively ne), unless the purpose is closely connected with some
one wordy in which case the relative is more common. Thus —
1. Arria gladium dedit marito nt se interficeret, Arria gave her hus-
band a sword to kill himself (that he might kill himself).
2. Arria gladium dedit marito quo se interficeret, Arria gave her hus*
band a sword to kill himself WITH. .
b. The Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited
to short concise expressions, where the literal translation of the
phrase, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh
or strange.
c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of
motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions.
d. The Future Participle, used to express purpose, is a late
construction of inferior authority.
Chanusterlfitlc and Besnlt*
Note. — The clause of Characteristic is a development peculiar to
Latin, and has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive. A Pro«
tasis was, perhaps, originally implied, though this is not necessary to the
analysis. The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and
the Indicative of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses
what would happen in a supposed case^ while the indicative states what
did in fact take place. The most common and obvious use of this con-
struction is to express a quality or characteristic of an indefinite antece-
dent (either expressed or implied), which shows itself as a Result.
Thus, is [Epicurus] qui ponat summum bonum in voluptate would mean,
literally, a man who, would, in any supposable case, &*c. This serves to
express a characteristic of the indefinite person referred to by is, mak-
ing him one of a class ; while is qui ponit would mean the man (Epic-
urus) who in fact does, dj^c. So, non sum ita hebes ut ita dicam would
mean, literally, "I am not dull in the manner (degree) in which I should
say that." This quality of the antecedent readily passes over into pure
Result, inasmuch as it is by a supposed result that the quality appears.
319. Consecutive Clauses, or those expressing Re-
sult, take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjjinc-
tion ut, so that (negatively, ut non) : as,
nemo est tam senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M,
7), no one is not so old as not to think he can live a year.
Consecutive Clauses. 231
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini (Tusc. iii.
S},/or innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one,
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other causes
such as to bring to pass.
Remark. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correla-
tive words as tamy talis, tantus, ita^ sic, adeo,
a. A negative result is regularly expressed by ut non. Some-
times, when the result implies an effect intended (not a simple pur-
pose), ut ne or ne is used, being less positive than ut non : as,
[librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7), correct the book so
that it may not hurt me.
b. Frequently a clause of result is used in a restrictive sense,
and so amounts to a Proviso : as,
hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. Am.
20), this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers
[i.e. only on this condition].
c. The subjunctive with quomlnus (= ut eo minus) may be
used, to express a result, after words oi hindering: as,
nee aetas impedit quominus agri coiendi studia teneamus (Cat. M.
17), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling
the ground,
d. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general nega-
tives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non; also
after clauses denoting hindrance^ resistance^ doubt, and suspension
of effort (when these clauses are also negative) : as,
non dubito quin, I do not doubt that [dubito an, I doubt whether],
aegre (vix) abstinui quin . . ., I hardly refrained from y <&*f.
nihil impedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent^ <Sr*r.
abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), // cannot be but that,
nihil est illorum quin [= quod non] ego ille dixerim (Plant. Bac. iii.
9), there is nothing of this that I have not told him.
Note. — The above clauses of Result easily pass into Substan-
tive Clauses, for which see 332.^.
Remark. — It is to be observed that the constructions of Purpose or
Result in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative, but that in the
negative one takes ne and the other ut non. Thus, —
custoditus est ne eff ugeret, he was guarded so that he might not escape ;
custoditus est ut non eif ugeret, he was guarded so that he did not
escape.
The clause of Result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive
with TO or so-AS-TO or an equivalent : as,
tam longe aberam ut non viderem, / was too far away to see (so far I
that I did not see ; compare 320. c), *
232 Dependent Constructions: Characteristic.
320. A relative clause with the Subjunctive is often
used to indicate a Characteristic of the antecedent, where
the idea of Result cannot be perceived. This is especially
common where the antecedent is otherwise undefined : as,
neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you are not
such a ongy as not to know who you are {gut sis is an indirect ques-
tion).
multa dicunt quae viz intelligant (Fin. iv. i), they say many things such
as they hardly understand,
paci quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off.
i. 11), we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots,
unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliqnum (B. C. ii. 15), there
was nothing lefty from which an embankment could be put together,
a, A relative clause of characteristic is used after general ex-
pressions of existence and non-existence^ including questions imply-
ing a negative : * as,
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. zvi. 29), there were some who
pitied Helmdius,
quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lael. 7), who is there
that does not extol it with the highest praises t
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other causes
which clearly effect^ &*c.
b, A relative clause of characteristic result may follow onus and
solus: as,
nil admirari prope res est una solaque quae possit facere et servarc
beatum (Hor. Ep. i. 6), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and
only thing that can make and keep one happy,
c. Comparatives may be followed by a clause of result or char-
acteristic with qnam ut, qnam qui (corresponding to the English
TOO . . . TO): as,
majores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxviii.
5), they cut larger trees than what a soldier could carry {too large for
a soldier to carry),
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 18),
the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature,
d. A clause of characteristic is used in expressions of Restric-
tion or Proviso, introduced by relatives : as,
quod sciara, so far as I know,
Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), the speeches of
CatOy at least such as I have discovered.
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis (Cat. iv.
8), there is not a slave y at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
1 These are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent,
but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative m protasis.
Clause of Characteristic; Causal. - 233
e, A relative clause (often with ut, utpote, quippe) is used
when the quality indicated is connected with the action of the main
clause, either as Cause on account of which {since)^ or as Hind-
rance in spite of which {although j compare 326) : as,
O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), ohy guileless man, who
hides nothing from us t
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem tamen complures Athenis
dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), / myself, though I began Greek
literature late,yet^ <Sr»f. [lit, a man who).
f, Dignus, Indignua, aptuB, idoneua, take a clause of result
with a relative (rarely with ut) ; in the poets the Infinitive : as,
idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 19), Jit to obtain.
dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized.
Note. — A clause of Relative Time with cum is strictly to be
regarded orginally as a Clause of Characteristic (see 320).
Cause or Beason.
Note. — Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc-
tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause being con-
tained not in the mood itself ^ but in the form of the argument, or
the connecting particles.
321. The Causal Particles quia^ quonianty quando,
quod — and in early Latin also cum (quom) — take the
Indicative: as,
quia postrema aedificata est ( Verr. iv. 53), because it was built last.
utinam ilium diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me vivere
coegisti (Att. iii. 3), O that I may see the day when I may thank you
that you have forced me to live.
quoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus (Or.
Part. 26), since we have now spoken of [its] advantagCy let us spedk of
the method of effecting it,
quando ita vis, di bene vortant (Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the
gods bless the undertaking.
quom tua res distrahitur, utinam te redisse salvam videam (id. 617),
since your property is torn in pieces, oh, that I may see you returned
safely i
a. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other depend-
ent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse.
b. A relative clause of Characteristic, with its verb in the sub-
junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence.
For this, see 320. e.
c. The particle oum, when used in a causal sense, regularly
takes the Subjunctive.
For this, see 326.
234 Dependent Constructions: Temporal.
Relations of Time.
Note, — Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which
are almost all of relative origin ; and are construed like other rela-
tive clauses, except where they have developed into special con-
structions.
[For the Temporal Particles, see page 99.]
322. The particles ubiy uty cuniy quandoy either alone or
compounded with -^umquey are used as Indefinite Rela-
tives, and have the constructions of Protasis : as,
cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10), when-
ever he had seen a rose he thought spring had begun [general con-
dition : compare 309].
cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), when you [the individual dis-
putant] deny it to be an evil.
cum videas eos . . . dolore non frangi (id. 27), when you see that those
are not broken by pain, 6*r. [general condition : compare 309. a\,
quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogieret, facere non auderem (Phil. v.
18), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force com'
pelted me [contrary to fact : compare 307].
id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), when
he had said this, he [used to] cast the spear into their territories [re-
peated action : see 309. b].
Remark. — The phrases est cnm, fuit cum, &c., are used .in
general expressions like est qui, annt qui (320. a).
323. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indi-
cative ; those of relative time^ the Subjunctive.^
1 For the definition of Absolute and Relative time, see 264. a, 284. This
distinction is not made in other languages, but it may be made dear in the two fol-
lowing expressions: i. When was the great fire in London? Ans. When
Charles II. was king {absolttte time), 2. When Charles II. was king {relative
time), a great fire broke out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is
referred to as an absolute Jixed date, known to the hearer ; while in the second the
time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the main verb,
which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the Subjunctive describes
the time by its characteristics (as in 320), and thus is akin to the subjunctive
of Result. Hence this qualitative character of the temporal clause often reappears
and occasions the subjunctive;, where the idea of relative time would not naturally
be expected : as, turn, cum haberet haec respublica Luscinos, 6v. . . . ettum,
cum ERANT Catones, 6fc, Here the former clause describes the character of the
age by its men (at a time when there were such men) ; in the latter, the individual
men are present to the mind (at the time of the Catos, &c. — Leg. Agr., ii. 24).
Relations of Time. 235
324. The Particles postqaam. (posteaqaam), ubi, nt (at pri-
mum, nt semel), simul atqne (simul ac, or simtil alone), intro-
duce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually the
narrative tenses, ^t perfect and the historical present) : as,
milites postquam victoriam adept! sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecere
(Sail. Cat. 11), wk^n the armies had won the victory y they left nothing
to the vanquished,
Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. iii.
94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten^ he left the army,
a. These particles also less commonly take the imperfect, denot-
ing a continued state of things, and the pluperfect, denoting the
result of an action completed, in the Indicative : as,
postc|uam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt
(Liv. i. 23), whefi they stood in array on both sides ^ the generals ad-
vance into the midst,
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in Case.
21), when Africanus had been [i.e. had the dignity of having been]
twice consul and censor,
postquam id difficilius visum est, ne^ue facultas perflciendi dabatur,
ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hardy
and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey,
post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant (= victi
sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), the fifth day after the bar-
' barians were beaten the second time, envoys came from Bocchus,
Remark. — The time is still absolute in these cases, but the Imper-
fect is used as in description ; the Pluperfect to denote the past result
of the action.
b. Rarely these particles appear to denote relative time, and take
the Subjunctive : as,
posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classQS (Manil. 4), hav-
ing built and equipped mighty fleets, [But the more approved editions
have/^j/Sra cum\,
325. Cum (quom), temporal, meaning when, introduces both
absolute and relative time, and takes either mood, —the Indicative
of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect and
pluperfect: as,
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose. Am. 61),
when Roscius wcu slain, the slaves were on the spot,
nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div.i. 17),
he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the
city,
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 11), when she [Italy] wcu under
the load of the Servile war,
cum incendisses cupiditatem meam . . . tum discedis a nobis (Fam. xv.
21 ), while you had inflamed my eagerness, yet you withdraw from us.
§62
Rcnu
Rem.
».b
§62
Note
Renu
Rem.
2.
Renia
3.
2. e
236 Dependent Constructions,
Note. — The Present takes the Indicative, because present time is
generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only when
the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see below,
326), that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes the Indicative
as the tense of narration, as with postquaniy &c. The Imperfect and
Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote relative time.
a. The Imperfect and Pluperfect may denote absolute time, and
then are in the Indicative (compare 264. a): as,
res cum haec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen (Fam.
3^ii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] t?u affair has been brought
into great hazard,
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat.
iii. 7), when I was trying to farce him [conative imperfect] from the
city^ Hooked forward to this.
fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum inrue-
bant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy
when they rushed upon their line,
tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7), ^ that
timCf when many had lost great fortunes in Asia,
b. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal
clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative
must be used : as,
dies nondum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans necatur
(Clu. 9), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was
killed,
hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publi-
cum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by
nighty when the women suddenly ran out into the streets,
c. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or
relative time ; and hence the Indicative is used: as,
non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere
potero (Fam. xiii. i), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when
I can do it conveniently,
longum illud tempus cum non ero ( Att. xii. 18), thc^ long time when
I shall be no more.
Remark. — In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin:
hence in Plautus quom always takes the Indicative, except where the
Subjunctive is used for other reasons.
326. Cum CAUSAL or concessive * {since, while, though) takes
the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae-
sertim) : as,
cum solitudo . . . insidiarum et metus plena sit (Fin. i. 20), since
solitude is full of treachery and fear.
' This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of time, where the
attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause.
Particles of Time, 237
cum primi ordines . . • concidissentf tamen acerrime reliqui resiste-
bant (B. G. vii. 6i), though the first ranks had fallen^ still the others
resisted vigorously. '
nee reprehendo : quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim
(Att. X. ^)i Ido not blame it: since I myself did not escape that blame.
a. Cum in the sense of qnod, on the ground that, frequently
takes the Indicative : as,
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi. 14), /
congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella,
b. Com . . . turn, signifying both . . . and^ usually take the
Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though^
it may have the Subjunctive : as,
cum multa non probe, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), whUe there are
many things I do not approve^ there is this in chief,
cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult (ib.),
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his
point.
Remark. — This appears to be a colloquial relic of the old Indicative
construction with cum.
327. Antequam and priusquam — also, in late writers, dum
and doneo — have in narration the same construction as cum : as,
antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter,
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10),
she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith,
antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in
Macedoniam perrexi (Plane. 41), before those evil men could learn
of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia,
nee obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac. Ann.
ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died out through
lapse of time,
a. In reference to future time, these particles take the present
and future perfect indicative ; rarely the present subjunctive : as,
prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dieam
(Phil. ii. i), before I reply to the rest, I will say a little of friendship.
non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias pereepero ( De Or.
iii. 36), /shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways,
b. In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used :
as,
priusauam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto opus est
(Sail. Cat. i), before beginning you need reflection, and after reflecting,
prompt action.
tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. i. 3), the storm threatens
before it rises,
c. When the main clause is negative, meaning not before^ not
until, the Indicative is always used. I
§62
8.«
S.f
».0
Rem.
§62
2.d
§63
p.S38«
§70
238 Substantive Clauses.
328. Dam, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, doubt, or
futurity, take the subjunctive ; otherwise, except in later writers,
the indicative. Dum and dummodo, provided, tate the sub-
junctive : as,
dum haec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), whiU this was going on,
donee rediit silentium fuit (liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence until he
returned,
dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 27), so long as the facts re-
main, let them fashion words,
hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13). / did
this so long as it was allowed, I discontinued so long as it was not,
dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans {^x\jX,%2),prouided
it be polished, refined, elegant.
Remark. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is
often found, depending on other principles of construction. (See
Intermediate Clauses below, p. 251.)
W.SubstanJtive Clauses,
329. A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun,
is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition with
a subject or object.
Note. — In these the form of expression will depend on the meaning
of the dependent words, or clause. Thus, if the words can be put in an
independent form as the words of some person making an assertion in
the Indicative, they form what is called Indirect Discourse, and the clause
is in the Accusative and Infinitive, as the Object of some verb of saying,
&c. (see 272. with Remark). If they can be put in an independent form
as a Question, they require the Subjunctive as Indirect Questions. If
they can be put in an independent form as the words of some person in
the Infinitive, or can be conceived as a Purpose or Result, they usually
take the Subjunctive with ut, more rarely the Infinitive. If they could
be expressed independently in the Indicative, but as a fact, and not as
the words of some other person, they regularly require quod with the
Indicative. Many expressions which in English take the form of an
abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin : thus,
" he was accused of treason against his country," will be accusatus est
quodpatriam prodidisset. The common expression for with the infinitive
also introduces a true substantive clause : as, *' it is left for me to speak
of the piratic war," reliquum est ut de bello dicam piraHco,
When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which it is
subject is called Impersonal, and its sign, in English, is it ; when it is
used as Object, it generally follows some verb of knowing, <Srv., or of
wishing ox effecting, and its sign, in English, is that, or to (Infinitive).
Substantive Clauses: Infinitive. 239
Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : —
I. Infinitivb Clauses :
a. Infinitive as Subject (270).
b. Infinitive as Object (271).
^^. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (272).
2. Subjunctive Clauses : J «. of Purpose (command, wish, fear : 273).
' ' '. of Result (happen, effect, hinder : 274 )«
3. Indicative Clause with qnods Fact, Specification, Feeling.
4. Indirect Questions : Subjunctive, introduced by Interrogative Word.
Infinitive danses.
330. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used as the
Subject chiefly of esse, or of Impersonal Verbs ; and
as the Object of the following : ^
1. Of all verbs and expressions of Knowing, Thinking, Telling,
and Perceiving {Indirect Discourse),
2. Of jnbec and veto, and rarely of other verbs of Command-
ing, Requesting, Admonishing, and the like.
3. Sometimes of verbs of Wishing : as,
me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), I trust I have been freed
from/ear,
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (6. G. i. 22), he says that the height
is held by the enemy. *
Labienum jugum montis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders Lahienus
to ascend the ridge of the hill.
judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Or. 53), I wish to be a judge^ not
a teacher.
negat ullos patere portus (Li v. xxviii. 43), ^ says that no ports are
open.
hie acciisare non est situs (Sest. 44), he was not allowed to accuse.
Remark. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not strictly a
Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as such.
a. If the main verb is changed to the Passive, either —
1. The subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active
verbs) becomes nominative^ and the infinitive is retained; or,
2. The passive is used impersonally ^ and the clause retained as
its subject.
' The accusative with infinitive is found with about 80 verbs or verbal phrases,
the most common being acdpio, affinnOy animadverto^ arbitror, audio^ censeo^
cogitOf cupiOy decetj dico, disputo^ doceo^ doleo, existintOy fatna est^ fateor, intelltgi-
tur, juvat, meminiy narro^ nego, noloy oportet, opus estf potior, puto, recordor,
rumor est, sentio, sino, spero, suspicor, traditur, verum est, veto, video, videtur,
voto.
§70
1.
S.a
240 Dependent Constructions,
b. With verbs of sayings &c., the personal construction of the pas-
sive is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action ;
with Jubeo and veto it is always used : as,
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), thty first are
related to have joined words with a certain skilL
jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you were under orders to be
declared consul,
in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), they are
ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse,
ceterae Illyrici legiones secuturae sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74), the
rest of the legions of lUyricum were expected to follow.
nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), it is told that
the ships of the pirates are in port,
c. In the compound tenses the impersonal construction is more
common, and with the gerundive is regular : as,
traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 39), it is a tra-
dition^ toOf that Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi non vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse
rempublicam (Rep. iii. 31), where there is a tyrant ^ it must be said, not
that the Commonwealth is eznl, but that it does not exist at all.
d: The poets and later writers extend the use of the passive to
verbs which are not properly verba sentiendi, etc. : as,
colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), it is gathered [from
this memorial] that I pleased my mistress,
e. The indirect discourse may depend on any word impl)ring
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of sayings etc. : as,
eos redire jubet : se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13), he
orders them to return, [promising] that he will be at hand in season,
orantes ut urbibus saltern — jam enim agros deploratos esse — opem
senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring
aid to the cities — for the fields [they said] were already giihn up as lost.
f. Verbs of promising^ hoping^ expecting^ threatening^swearing^
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom ; but sometimes a simple complemen-
tary infinitive : as,
minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), he threatens to go away. [Direct, abeo,
/ am going away.]
ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 21),
from which they hope fo gain the utmost advantage.
quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 41),
who /promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies.
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 27), pcUn
threatens to wear doivn fortitude.
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages
[compare Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs].
Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 241
Clauses of Pnrpose.
331. The clause with ut (negative ne), developed from
PURPOSE, is used as the object of all verbs denoting an
action directed towards the future} Such are —
tf. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and in
general those denoting an influence upon some one. These verbs
rarely take the infinitive (except jabeo and veto, which take it
regularly) : as,
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search,
monet ut omnes suspitiones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
b. Verbs of Wishing and the like. These take also the simple
Infinitive : more commonly when the subject remains the same,
less commonly when it is different (see 331, above) : as,
cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), /wish he may get it,
cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. Hi. 21), when our men wished it to
be seen,
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), / would rather you feared
Cerberus,
quos non tarn ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I do not
care so much to punish as to cure,
c. Verbs oi permission, concession, and iw^^jj/Vk (with or without
at). These take also the Infinitive : as,
permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to make di-
•uisions,
vinum importari non-sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be
imported,
nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be
tangled in no business.
sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i. 6), they must exist if they are
wretched. [Here the clause is subject of oportet^
Remark. — The clause with licet (usually without ut) is regularly
used to express a concession in the sense of although,
d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also take
the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle in dus,
on the principle of Indirect Discourse : as,
edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that
none should fight without orders.
' Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id^ ago, ad id venio, caveo (ne), censeo,
cogo, concedo, constituo, euro, decerno, edico,flagito, hortor, impero, impetro, insto,
mando, metuo {ne), negotium do, operam do, oro, persuadeo, peto, postulo, prae-
cipio, precor, pronuntio, qtthero, rogo, scisco, tinuo, video, volo,
16
§70
3.
3.a
3.b
3*0
3.d
870
8.e
8.f
Rem.
S.g
242 Dependent Constructions.
pacto nt victorem res sequeretur (id.zxviii. 21), having bargained that
the property should belong to the victor.
Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13)^ Regulus voted that
the captives should not be returned* [He said, in giving his opinion,
captivi non reddendi sunt.]
e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to
hinder niay also take quominus or ne : as,
cura et provide at nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), take care and see that he
lacks nothing,
non deterret sapientem mors quominus . . . (Tusc. i. 38), death does
not deter the wise man fronts &*c,
ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. i)^ prevented me from doing,
/. Verbs of Fearing take the subjunctive,* with ne affirmative
and ne non or ut negative : as,
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G.' i. 19), he feared he should
offend the mind^ &*c,
vereor ut tibi possim -concedere (De Or. i. 9), /fear I cannot grant
you,
baud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 40),
there is no danger of not thinking death desirable.
Remark. — The particle ut is often omitted, — generally after verbs
of wishing^ necessity^ permission ; with die, fac; and in indirect discourse,
frequently after verbs of commanding and the like. So also ne after
cave,
g. With any verbs of tbe above classes, the poets may use the
Infinitive : as,
hortamur fari (iEn. ii. 74), we exhort [him] to speak.
Clauses of Result.
332. The clause with ut (negative ut non, etc.), devel-
oped from RESULT, is used as the object of verbs denot-
ing the accomplishment of an effort?
commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made it possi-
ble that supplies could be brought. [Lit., he effected that, &c.]
' With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with ne is hortatory : timeo ne acddctt
is literally I fear, let it not happen. With ut it may have been either hortatory or
derived from Purpose.
2 Verbs and phrases taking an nt^clause of result are cuu:edit, accidit^ addttur,
altera est res, committo, consequoTy contingit, ej^o, evenit, fcuto, fU^ fieri potest^
fore, integrum est, mos est, munus est, necesse est, prape est, rectum est, reHngui"
tur, religuum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest.
Substantive Clauses of Result, 243
a. The substantive clause becomes the subject of such verbs
in the passive ; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs
denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like ; and even
of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases : as,
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &*c,
accidit ut asset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), it chanced to be full moon.
accedit ut conturber (Deiot. i), besides this I am troubled,
reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.)> it remains that
the fourth virtue is thrift,
quando fuit ut quod licet non liceret (Gael. 20), when was it that what
is new cUlowed was not allowed f
b. A result clause, with or without at, frequently follows qnam,
after a comparative : as,
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. i. 22), he endured
all rather than betray, &*c.
c. A result clause, with or without nt, is often used elliptically,
in exclamations, with or without -ne (see 274) : as,
quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 9), yet why
should I ask? that any thing should bend you f
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, I interrupt you f
Remark. — The Infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to some-
thing actually recurring ; the Subjunctive to something contemplated.
d. The phrase tantnm abest, it is so far [from being the case],
besides a subject-clause {substantive) with ut, regularly takes
another nt-clause (of result) correlative with tantnm : as,
tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi
simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 29), so far
from admiring our own matters, we are difficult and captious to that
degree, that not Demosthenes himself satisfies us. [Here the first
ut-clause is the subject of abest; the second, a result clause, after
tantum ; and the third, after usqtu eo.]
e. The expressions facere at, committere at, often form a
periphrasis for the simple verb (compare lore at for the future
infinitive) : as,
invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), it was with
reluctance that I expelled, <Sr»r.
f. Rarely, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and
takes the subjunctive with at instead of the accusative and infini-
tive. In this case a demonstrative usually precedes : as,
altera est res, ut . . . (Off. i. 20), the second point is that, dr'c.
praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), this is a
noble thing, that we should love, &*c.
quae est igitur amentia ut, what folly is there then in demanding, ^c.
§70
4. a
4.b
4.0
Rem.
4.d
4.e
4.f
244 Dependent Cofistructions.
g. Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the
like may take quia when the main verb is negative^ formally or
virtually (compare 319. d)\ as,
facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoids &*c.
nihil praetermisi quin scribam . . . (Q. F. iii. 3)> / have left nothing
undone to write,
ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that J might be hindered by
nothing from^ &*c.
non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. £p. Mith. 17),
no human or divine laws prevent^ but that, &*e.
Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non du-
bito and similar expressions making a kind of Indirect Discourse : as,
non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt that
we believed him.
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not doubt
that I will do alL
quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who is ignorant that^ <Sr»r. ?
neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fuerit si
priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. i), nor is there
any question that Brutus^ if he had wrested the kingdom from any
one of the former kings y would have done it with the worst results to
the state [curect discourse, y^oxj^/j.
h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying or as words of commanding^ effecting^ and the like, and may
be construed accordingly : as,
sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), it follows direcHy
that there are uttalterable causes. [The regular construction with
sequor used of a logical sequence.]
laudem sapientiae statu o esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold that the
glory of wisdom is the greatest.
statuunt ut decern millia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21), they re-
solve that 10,000 men shall be sent,
res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it
was time [monere ut, warn to do something],
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 27), suppose that I am persuaded of
that [facere ut, accomplish that],
hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they ivish to
convince that sotds do not perish,
huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades Aim to
pass over to the enemy.
Note. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is indirect
discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes
found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause.
Substantive Clauses: Indirect Questions. 245
Indioative with Qaod*
333. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used
(more commonly as Subject) when the statement is re-
garded as a fact : as,
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt
(Off. i. 6), it is another fault that some Sistaw too rrnich zeal^ &*c.
[Here ut with the subjunctive could be used, meaning that they
should, or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to more abstractly ;
quod makes it a fact that men i/o, &*c.]
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit
aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), this is the chief difference, &*c., that an animcU
aims at something,
quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. ill. 31), that he [Regulus] re-
turned seems wonderful to us.
vetus illud Catonis admodum scitum est, ^ui mirari se aiebat quod
non rideret haruspex haruspicem cum vidisset (de Div. ii. 24), *tis
an old and shrewd saying of Cato, that he wondered a soothsayer did
not laugh when he looked another in the face. [Here videret is in the
subjunctive of indirect discourse : see 336.]
a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as an
accusative of specificationy corresponding to the English whereas
(compare 326. a) : as,
quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the house.
quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis prae-
claris operibus laetari (Att. i. 5), <w to your congratulating me on our
condition, no wonder you are pleased with your own noble works.
b. Verbs oi feeling and its expression take either quod (quia)
(Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as,
quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. F. iii. i), I am glad that you write.
quae perfecta esse veheihenter laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I greatly re-
joice that this is finished.
facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 24), I am glad
that I cannot pass it by.
Remark. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror and
similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as,
miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 15), I wonder if he
could ever have a friend (originally. If this is so, I wonder at it).
Indirect Questions.
Note. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, introduced
by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), which is itself
the subject or object of a verb, or which depends on any expression im-
plying uncertainty or doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences
are not distinguished from interrogative,-as in the third example given
below.
246 Dependent Constructions,
334. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Sub-
junctive : as,
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), IwUl explain what I think
[direct, gui<t sentio],
id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), he consulted whether it could be done
[direct, potesine\,
quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 31), all could
understand how bold you are [direct, quam es audax /].
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), it is of no cucount
whether I suffer or not [double question].
a. The Future Indicative is represented in •indirect questions
by the participle in urns with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by
the simple subjunctive : as,
prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Caec), / foresee what
throngs there will be [erunt].
quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask
what will be on the morrow [erit or futurum est].
b. The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains
unchanged except in tense : as,
[quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus reddatur
(De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be destroyed, or re-
stored to the Carthaginians.
nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Div.
xxh. 7 ), nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear, [Here
the participle with sit could not be used.]
incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was doubt-
ful [abl. abs.] what they should seek or shun,
c. The subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial
usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object
(accusative of anticipation^ : as,
nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you know how slow
Marcellus is, [Compare, / know thee who thou art.}
potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurae sint nJla esse praesensio
(Div. ii. 5), can there be^ then, any foreknowledge as to those things,
why they will occur f [A similar use of the object-genitive.]
Remark. — In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject
by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interroga-
tive construction is the result : as,
quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael.
17), it is often seen, in a trifling mcUter of money, how unprincipled
some people are,
quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag.
i. 2), it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey.
Indirect Discourse, 247
d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would
have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative : as,
non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), he does not consider what a
task it is.
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R. 6), in
what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
Note. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions; but
they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as direct
without distortion of the meaning.
e. A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati-
cally as indefinites, and do not taJce a subjunctive : such are nesolo
quia, etc., mimm (or nimimm) qnam or quantum, Immane quan-
tum, etc. : as,
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. ilL 6),
who greatly extol that painlesstiess {^hatever it is).
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. i), it helped marvellously.
f. Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si
in the sense of whether (like if in English, c£. 333. c) : as,
circumfunduntur hostessi quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37),
the enemy pour round [to see) if they can find entrance.
visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home.
Ill,—' Indirect Discourse*
Note. — The Indirect Discourse (Oratio Obliqua), with the accusa-
tive and infinitive, is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in
the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It
is wholly wanting in the older members of the family, but some forms
like it have grown up later in English and German. Its essential char-
acter is that the language of some other person than the writer or
speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the
main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. In any case, the per-
son of the verb is necessarily conformed to the new relation of persons.
This construction, however, is not limited to the language of some other
person ; but may be used in any case where the idea may be conceived
of as expressed in the form of an independent statement, whether by
another or by one's self. Thus I see, or I think may take the same con-
struction as he said, whenever the object of seeing or thinking can be
expressed in the form of a sentence ; since any thing that can be scud
can also be reported indirectly as well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from
its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the
248 Dependent Constructions.
verb and its object together. Thb object in time came to be regarded
as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A
transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect
discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of Saying
and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions
as, *' The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her
senses."
The simple form of indirect statement with the infinitive was after-
wards amplified by introducing any dependent or modifying clauses
also ; and in Latin it became a common construction, which could be
expanded to any length, and could report whole speeches, &c., which in
other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of re-
porting speeches in English, where only the person or tense is changed,
as is also rarely the case in Sanskrit.)
The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses probably came from
regarding the statements contained in them as not absolutely true, but
conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker, or gram-
matically, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis, like if we may believe the
speaker. So the French conditional is often equivalent to ** it is said " :
as, ainsi il aurait a pen pris daubUt "it is said to have nearly doubled,"
lit. " would have," i.e. if we should believe the report. So in German,
Er soil krank sein, " he is said to be sick."
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech is simply the
usual hortatory subjunctive, with change of person and tense (if neces-
sary), as in the reporter's style, and in Sanskrit.
335. A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact
words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect
Quotation is one which adapts the original words to the
construction of the sentence in which they are quoted.
Remark. — The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obliqaa) is
used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence of dif-
ferent construction — which indirectly express the word or thought of
any person other than the speaker or writer, or even his own under
other circumstances. But it is more strictly used to include those cases
only in which the form of Indirect Quotation is given to some complete
proposition or citation^ which may be extended to a narrative or address
of any length, — as found in the Speeches of Caesar and Livy, — the
form being dependent on some word of saying, &c., with which it is
introduced. Such words are dico, respondeo, nuntio, aio ; while itiquam.
always serves (in prose) to introduce a Direct Quotation.
The term Direct Discourse (oratio recta) includes all other forms
of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or command.
Indirect Discourse, 249
Indirect Narrative.
336. In a Declaratory Sentence in indirect discourse,
the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject in
the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Sub-
jutictive: as,
esse nonuUos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), there
are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct discourse, sunt
nonnulli . . . va/et,]
nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 47), he
thought he should incur guilty unless he should tctke the oath [direct,
nisi Juravero, /aciam],
Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin.
ii. 21 ), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. [The
verb nego is used in preference to dico with a negative.]
a. The Subject of the infinitive in indirect discourse must
regularly be expressed, even though it is wanting in the direct.
But it is omitted, rarely, when it would be easily understood : as,
orator sum, I am an orator; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] he is
an orator,
ignoscere imprudentia dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their
rashness,
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum : dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 12),
/ asked whether they [the curtains] hcul come to Agrigentum : he
answered that they had.
Remark. — After a relative, or quam (than), where the verb would
be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its
subject is attracted into the accusative : as,
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. M. i),
/ suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I,
b, A subordinate clause merely explanatory^ and containing
statements which Sre regarded as true independently of the quota-
tion, takes the Indicative. It often depends merely upon the
feeling of the writer whether he will use the Indicative or Sub-
junctive (compare 340-342) : as,
quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate administrari
(Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the
power of the gods ?
cujus ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 9),
by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could
oe celebrated, [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though
not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation :
quae gessisset would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]
2SO Depefident Constructions,
Remark. — Some clauses introduced by relatives are really indepen-
dent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also, subordinate
clauses take this construction. The infinitive construction is regularly
continued after a comparative with quam : as,
Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset
interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Marcellus is said to
have sought for Archimedes^ and w/ien he heard that he was slaift,
to have been greatly distressed.
unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex
quo r = et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin.iii. i^), the philosophers
say that each one 0/ us is apart of the universe^ from which this not-
urally follows,
quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habiturum,
sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says]
as in case the hostage is not given up he will consider the treaty as
broken^ so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends.
addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he
adds that he himself will be killed by him^ before I shall be injured.
The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with qnam
(see 332. b).
Conditions.
337. In a Conditional Sentence, the indicative in Apodosis is in
any case represented by the corresponding tense of the Infinitive.
The subjunctive is represented by the Future Participle with
fuisse for the pluperfect, and the Future Infinitive for the other
tenses (compare the use of the participle in urue with ful for the
pluperfect subjunctive). The Protasis, as a dependent clause,
is in all cases Subjunctive : as,
se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint (B. C. i.
I ), he promises not to fail^ if they will speak their minds boldly [non
deero si voletis].
Note. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunctive
in»Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five examples
occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with fuisse is quite
common, even when in the Direct we should expect fhe Imperfect.
Questions.
338. A Question coming immediately after a verb of asking or
the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see above, 334) ; but
questions — generally rhetorical — coming in course of a long
indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory Sentences ; as,
num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (B.
G. i. 14), could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [num pos-
sum ? ]
quem signum daturum fugientibus ? quem ausurum Alexandro sue-
ceder6 (Q. C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the retreat 1 who will
dare to succeed Alexander ?
Indirect Discourse.
251
Remark. — Generally real questions, expecting an answer
(chiefly in the second person)^ take the subjunctive. Questions
asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive
(see 334. b).
339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Sub-
junctive in indirect discourse: as,
reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13), remem-
ber [said he] the ancient disaster^ &*c. [reminiscerej.
ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] bring it about [noli committere].
finem orandi faciat (id. 20), let him make an end of entreaty [fac].
The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore-
going principles in a connected address ; —
Indirect Discourse.
Si pacem populus Romanus
cum Helvetiis faceret^ in cam par-
tem ituros atque ibi futuros Helve-
tiosy ubi COS Caesar constituisset
atque esse voluisset : sin belle per-
sequi perseveraret^ reminisceretur
et veteris incommodi populi Ro-
mani, et pristinae virtutis Helveti-
onim. Quod improviso unum
pagum adortus esset, cum ii qui
flu men transissent suis auxilium
ferre non possent^ ne ob eam rem
aut suae magno opere virtuti tri-
bueret, aut ipsos despiceret: se ita a
patribus majoribusque suis didi-
cissCf ut magis virtute quam dolo
contenderent, aut insidiis niterentur.
Quare ne committeret^ ut is locus
ubi constitissent ex calamitate pop-
uli Romani et internecione exerci-
tus nomen caperet^ aut memoriam
proderet, B. G. i. 13.
Intermediate Olanses.
Note. — Besides the modal dependent clauses now mentioned, another
construction is found in Latin, which has no English equivalent what-
ever ; namely, that of a subjunctive clause subordinate to another which
is itself subordinate. This is found when any infinitive or subjunctive ,con-
Direct Discourse.
Si pacem populus Romanus
cum Helvetiis faciet, in .eam par-
tem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetiis
ubi eos Caesar constituerit atque
esse voluerit: sin bello persequi
perseverabitf reminiscere [inquit] et
veteris incommodi populi Romani,
et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum.
Quod improviso unum pagum ador-
tus es^ cum ii qui flumen transierant
suis auxilium ferre non possent^ ne
ob eam rem aut tuae magno opere
virtuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris :
nos ita a patribus majoribusque
nostris didicimus^ ut magis virtute
quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis
nitamur. Quare noli committere, ut
hie locus ubi constitimus ex calami-
tate populi Romani et internecione
exercitus nomen capiat, aut memo-
riam /rodSs/.
252 Dependent Constructions.
struction — itself dependent on some leading verb — has another clause
dependent on it. In this case the verb of the latter is almost invariably
in the subjunctive, subject, however, to the following conditions : i. that
if the subordinate clause is inserted for mere definition or explanation,
so that it may be regarded as true independently of the connection in
which it stands, its verb will be in the indicative ; 2. that if, on the
other hand, it depends on an infinitive or subjunctive so as to become logi
colly apart of the same expression , its verb must regularly be in the sub-
junctive. It often depends entirely upon the feeling of the writer
whether the Indicative or Subjunctive shall be used.
340. A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the
Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some
other person than the speaker or writer {Informal In-
direct discourse), or when it is an integral part of a
Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive^ {Attract ioti).
341. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses
to express the thought of some other person —
a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see 336).
b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a
command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect
discourse proper : as,
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), an animcU feels what it is
that is fit,
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pun-
gat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 2), he begs you to pluck from his
heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night, [Here the
relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis,
but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat,]
c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb
of saying, or some modifier of it : as,
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer iis minatur (Verr. iii. 67), he
threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues, [Here
the main clause, " that he will inflict punishment," is contained in
minatur^
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni (id. iv. 14),
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to tfu
bargain,
d. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a
relative or by quod (rarely quia) : ^ as,
1 See note at head of Indirect Discourse.
^ This usage probably originates in Apodosis, the condition being the supposed
truth of the speaker, the main subject. (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 248.)
Intermediate Clauses, 253
Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. i), FavO'
nitts gently cktded me for my tUfence.
Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (id.),
Foetus Resented me all the books which [he said] his father had left.
Remark. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself thought
under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So also with
quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. To this use
also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny
it, Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clatise^ but with nearly the
same meaning as non quod : as,
pugjles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus inten-
ditur . . . (Tusc. ii, 23), boxers groan not with pain^ but^ S*c,
non quia philosophia . . . percipi non posset (id. i. i), not that philos-
ophy cannot be acquired^ S^c,
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not that this is necessary,
342. A clause depending upon another subjunctive
clause (or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the sub-
junctive if it is regarded as an integral part of t/tat
non pugnabo quominus utrum veils eligas (Div. C. 18), / will not
oppose your taking which you will,
imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent : cum judica-
tum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them^ while the affair
is under judgment^ to keep the man ; when he is judged^ to bring him
to him,
etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum vldeat, tacere ac
neglegere possit (Rose. Am. 11), for who is so reckless of spirit^ that^
when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by f
si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis probare
deberent (Div. C. 6), ^ the Sicilians said this toyouy would they not
say a thing which they must prove to everybody f
mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui slnt in proeliis interfecti
(Or. 44), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who
have been slain in battle.
' The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, and partakes of
the nature of the clause on which it depends, — or at least of its original nature.
In all cases except Purpose and Result, this is clearly seen. In these, the case is
undoubtedly the same; as the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the
Result is a branch of characteristic. (See Note at head. )
It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the preceding.
Thus, in imperat ut ea fiani quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt) and
then will be Indirect Discourse (under 335. b) ; or it may stand for erant, and will
then be Protasis (under 337). 1
254
Synopsis of Constructions.
§75
1. Subjective
2. Partitive:
3. Objective:
SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS.
I. — Constructions of Cases.
Genitive.
Possession, 214 ^
Source or Material, 214. /.
Quality (with Adjectives), 215.
of the Whole, after words designating a Fart, 216. ,
1. with Nouns of action and feeling, 217.
- „.:«.k h.A\^^Ur^^ S Relative adjective or Verbal, 218.
2. with Adjectives |f^^ Specification (later use), 218. e.
3-
f I. of
\\ 2. of
b- of '
with Verbs \ ^^ ^^^^^1 *"J^ Feeling, 219, 221.
( of J*
Special or Idiomatic
Uses:
I. Primary Object
3. Idiomatic Uses:
ffl-Pre
:Ub. of
If. of
Accusing, &c. (secondary obj.), 220.
Dative.
u As lND«Kcr OBJECT (general use): { - ^ J^^^U'^^
a, of Possession (with ^jj^), 231.
b, of Agency (with Gerund), 232.
c, of Service (predicate use), 233.
d, of Fitness, &c. (with Adjectives), 234.
e, of Reference {daiivus commodi), 235.
Accusative.
Directly affected by the Action, 237.
Effect of the Action { S^i^/l^eSvT.^.
Predicate Accusative (of Naming, &c.),239.a.
Secondary Object :•{ ^. of Asking or Teaching (the Thing), 239. c.
' Concealing (the Person), 239. d.
a. Adverbial, 240. a,
b. of Specification (Greek Accusative), 240. c,
c. of Extent and Duration, 240. e.
d. of Exclamation, 240. d.
e. Subject of Infinitive (Indirect Discourse), 240.^;
Ablative.
a, of Separation, Privation, and Want, 243.
b, of Source (participles of origin, &c.), 244.
r. of Cause [^ludeo^ dignus^ &c.), 245.
d, of Agent (with ab aSEter Passives), 246.
e, of Comparison (than), 247.
' a, of Means and Instrument, 248.
b, of Accompaniment (with cum), 248. a.
c. of Object of the Deponents utor^ &c., 24^
d, of Degree of Difference, 250.
e. of Quality (with Adjectives), 251.
/. of Price and Exchange, 252.
g. of Specification, 253.
a. of Place where (commonly with in), 254.
b. of Idiomatic Expressions, 254. a.
c. of Time and Circumstance, 255.
d. Ablative Absolute, 255.
I. Ablative (from) :
2. Instrumental (w/ZA) :
3. Locative (/«, w, at) :
^ The figures refer to Sections of the Revised Grammar.
Synopsis of Constructions.
2SS
II. — Syntax of the Verb.
I. — Moods and Tenses.
I. Indicative : Direct Assertion or Question ; Absolute Time, 264.
a. Independent : Wish, Exhortation, Command, Question
{dtibUaiive), 265-268.
r Purpose or Result (with «/, ne\ 317-3^9-
Characteristic (Relative Clause), 320.
Relative Time (with cum), 325.
b. Dependent cnnditions S ^^^xa& (primary tenses), 307.
(Chap, v.) Conditions j contrary to Fact, 308.
Intermediate (Indirect Discourse), 340. ,
^ Indirect Questions, 334.
a. Direct Commands (often subjunctive), 269.
b. Statutes, Laws and Wills (Future), 289. d,
c. Prohibitions (early or poetic use), 269. «.
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs, 270.
c\\^' 4. J Complementary Infinitive, 271.
Ubject j Indirect Discourse (with subj.-accusative), 272.
2. Subjunctive:
3. Imperative:
4. Infinitive:
b.
§75
Participles \
2, Gerund or
Gerundive :
Supine :
(Purpose (poetic or Greek use), 273.
Exclamation (with subject-accus.), 274.
Historical Infinitive, 275.
2. — JVoun and Adjective Forms.
{Simple Predicate, 291.
Periphrastic Perfect (passive).
Predicate of Circumstance, 292.
Descriptive (Indirect Discourse).
, „ , ( Periphrastic with esse, 293. „ , . .
b. Future j periphrastic with/«i (= Pluperfect Subj.)-
{as Descriptive Adjective, 294.
Periphrastic with esse.
of Purpose with certain verbs.
a. Genitive as Objective Genitive, 298.
b. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouijs, Verbs, 299.
c. Accusative, with certain Prepositions, 300.
d. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions, 301.
{a. Former Supine (in um), with Verbs of Motion, 302.
} b. Latter Supine (in n), chiefly with Adjectives, 303.
3. — Conditional Sentences.
1. Simple Present or Past Conditions, nothmg implied as to fulfilment:
Indicative, Present or Past Tenses, 306.
( a. More vivid (probable) : Future Indicative, 307.
2. Future Conditions : j ^ L^gg ^-^^-^^ (improbable) : Present Subjunctive.
' ( a. Present : Imperfect Subjunctive, joS.
} b. Past : Pluperfect Sufy'unctive, 308.
, Conditions Contrary
to Fact:
4. General Conditions :
5. Implied Conditions:
(a. Indefinite: 2d person, Subfuncttve, 2^9; ^
b. Repeated Action : Imperfect or Pluperfect with
[ Indicative in Apodosis.
^. . , C in clause of Fact, Wish, &c., 310.
J. Disguised j jjj Participial Expression, 310.
r A^ •** J i Potential Subjunctive, 311.
J. Omitted j Subjunctive of Modesty, 311.
256 Getieml Rules of Syntax.
General Boles of Syntax.
1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in Case.
2. Adjectives agree with nouns in Gender, Number, and Case.
3. Possessive adjectives are used for the Genitive, and in any
case may have a genitive in agreement
4. Relatives agree with their antecedent in Gender and Number ;
their Case depending on the construction of their clause.
5. A Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person.
6. Two or more singular subjects — also collective nouns, with
quisque and uterque — may take a plural verb.
7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative.
8. A Noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the
same thing, is put in the Genitive.
9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and
(with adjectives) measure or quality.
10. Words denoting a Part are followed by the genitive of the
word denoting the Whole.
1 1. Certain genitives of Quantity — as, magni^ parviy nihili, piurisy
mittorisy — are used to denote indefinite Value.
12. Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance,
likeness or nearness, fulness and want — suso verbals, and
participles used as adjectives — take the genitive.
13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and admonishing
take the genitive of the Charge or Penalty.
14. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object.
15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, and help, are
followed by the dative*
16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, trust, and their con-
traries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve,
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the dative.
17. The dative is used with obbo to denote the Owner ; also with
the participle in das to denote the Agent.
18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in^ inter ^ ob^post,
prae, pro, sub, super, take the dative.
19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like — sometimes of
comparing and taking away — take the accusative and dative.
20. The dative is used to denote the Purpose or End ; often with
another dative of the person or thing affected.
21. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object.
22. The Subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative.
23. Duration of time and extent of space are in the accusative.
24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification.
25. Verbs of asking and teaching take two accusatives, one of a
person, and the other of a thing.
General Rules of Syntax. 257
26. The Ablative is used of cause, manner, means, instrument,
quality, specification, and price.
27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative
with ab.
28. Words denoting separation, and plenty or want, — also opus
and usuSy signifying need, — govern the ablative.
29. Participles denoting birth or origin take the ablative.
30. The adjectives dignus^ indignuSy with many verbals, as con-
tentus, laetusy praeditus, take the ablative.
31. The deponents utor, fruor^ f^^^gor^ potior ^ vescor, and their
compounds, take the ablative.
32. The comparative degree may be followed by the ablative.
33. Degree of difference is put in the ablative.
34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative.
35. A subject and predicate in. the ablative are used to define the
time or circumstances of an action {Ablative Absolute),
36. The name of the Town where is in form like the genitive of
singular names in us, a, um, otherwise dative or ablative ; of
that WHITHER in the accusative, and whence in the ablative.
So of domus rus (also, humiy belli, militiae), and many names of Islands.
37. With other words (including names of countries) Prepositions
must be used to denote where, whither, or whence.
38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or
Object, or to complete the action of a verb.
39. The Infinitive is used, with subject-accusative, with expres-
sions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving.
40. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of the indicative
in narration {Historical Infinitive),
41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerund-
ive in agreement with a noun, is construed as a verbal noun.
42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion, to express
the purpose of the motion ; the Supine in u with adjectives.
43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish,
command, or concession, also in questions of doubt.
44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result — also of
characteristic and of relative time — require the Subjunctive.
45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the Subjunctive.
46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi-
tions ; the imperfect and pluperfect, in those contrary to fact.
47. Dependent Clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunc-
tive construction, take the Subjunctive.
48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed in the
Subjunctive by primary, and secondary by secondary.
For the government of Prepositions, see page loi.
For the constructions of Cases, see pages 145-183.
258 Arrangement.
Chapter VI. — Arrangement.
Note. — While in Latin the words do not follow the order of
construction, yet they have a regular arrangement ; which, however,
is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, and clearness.
Kormal Order.
343. Regularly the subject stands ^r^/, followed by its
modifiers ; the verb last, preceded by the words which
depend upon it : as,
civis Romanus sum (110/ sum Romanus civis).
voluptates blandissimae dominae majores partes animi a virtute de-
torquent (Off. ii. 10).
Remark. — This is the order usually to be followed where no empha-
sis is thrown on any particular word, as in simple narration of fact : as,
Hannibal, imperator factus, I proximo triennio omnes gentes Hispa-
niae | hello subegit (Nep. Hann. 3).
a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the
predicate, is often placed after the copula : as,
qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24).
haec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6).
b. The forms of esse meaning there ts, 6r*r., often come first in
the sentence : as,
sunt quaedam ofBcia quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur (id. i. 18).
c, A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the
phrase, goes before its noun ; one simply descriptive commonly
follows : as,
omnes homines decet.
est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24).
omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29).
cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38).
Laelius et sapiens et amicitiae gloria excellens (Lsel. i).
d, A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun. Relatives
or Interrogatives stand first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs
stand directly before the word they qualify.
Emphasis, 259
Bmpluuds.
Note. — Though the order of words in a Latin sentence often seems
quite arbitrary, yet it will be observed that almost every arrangement
produces some effect, such as must usually be given in English by em-
phasis, or stress of voice. In actual practice, what may be called the
normal order is rarely found, it is continually altered, either for the
sake of Emphasis, — to throw stress on the more important words ; or for
the sake of Euphony, — to make the sentence more agreeable to the ear.
344. The normal order of words may be changed or
reversed for the sake of emphasis.
a. Particularly, the verb comes first, and the subject last. This
makes either or both emphatic : as,
dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17).
b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence
comes first, and with the following last : as,
ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. i. 32).
objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas
duxisset ; auxerat autem consul ille in ^toliam ut scimus Ennium
(Tusc. i. 2).
maxime perturbantur ofEcia in amicitiis ; quibus et non tribuere quod
recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit aequum, contra officium est
(Off. ui. 10).
c. A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound
tenses becomes emphatic : as, *
ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38).
d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often
placed between them. So in the gerundive construction : as,
de communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 24).
de uno imperatore contra praedones constituendo (Manil. 17).
e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as
possible, so as to include less important words : as,
objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 38).
/. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the
same order {anaphora) ^ or in exactly the opposite oxAtx {phia^mus).
The latter, which is very common, has its name from the Greek X,
on account of the cross arrangement. Thus,
rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31).
pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16).
le^es supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Fin.
lii. 5).
non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est
(Lael. 14). Here the arrangement of cases only is chiastic, that of
ideas is regular.]
26o Arrangement.
g. Different forms of the same word are often placed together,
also words from the same root.
k. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which
the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other.
This is often joined with chiasmus : as,
et super jecto pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2, 11).
anna nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. i, 5).
f. Almost universally the main word of the sentence is put
first (rarely last). This may be simply the emphatic word, con-
taining the idea most prominent in the writer's mind (emphasis) ;
or it may be contrasted with some other word preceding or follow-
ing (antithesis),
Bpeciai Sides.
345. The following are special rules of arrange-
ment : —
a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenua
and versua) ; but the monosyllabic prepositions are often placed
between a noun and adjective : as,
quem ad modum ; qaam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus cum
copiis ; nulla in re.
b. Itaqud regularly comes first in its sentence or clause ; enim,
autem, vero, quoqne, never first, but usually second, sometimes
third if the second word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after
the emphatic word ; ne . . . quidem include the emphatic word
or words.
c. Inqnam, inquit, credo, opinor, quaeso, used parenthetically,
always follow one or more words.
d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if
it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence.
e. In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often
comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : as,
quos amisimus cives eos Martes vis perculit (" those citizens, whom,
dT'c" : Cic. Marc. 6).
/. Any clause, principal or subordinate, is suspended, when any
subordinate connective appears between the first and last word of
that clause ; and the rest of the clause does not appear till the
whole of the subordinate one is finished. Thus, —
Atque ego, ut vidi quos maximo furore et scelere esse inflammatos
sclebam, eos vobiscum esse et Romae remansisse^ in eo omnes dies
noctesque consumpsi, ut quid agerent, quid molirentur, sentiretn ae
viderem. — Cic. Cat. UL 2.
Structure of the Period, 261
Here the leading clause Atque ego is suspended by the relative
clause ut vidi, which again is interrupted by the words quos . .
sciebam. The latter clause being now complete, the object of vidi
is seen to be the infinitive clause eos . . remansisse^ the antecedent
coming after the relative. The main clause is now resumed, its
verb being evidently consumpsi^ which is the predicate of ego,
•This, again, is followed by ut . . viderem in apposition with eo^
this clause being itself suspended by the indirect questions quid . .
molirentur.
Note. — Latin expresses the relation of words to each other by in-
flection rather than by position, like modern languages. Hence its struc-
ture not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but
is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period.
In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is
held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which usually ex-
presses the main action or motive.
An English sentence does not often admit this form of structure. It
was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the
early writers of English prose ; but its effect is better seen in poetry, in
such a passage as the following : —
^ High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted saf
Paradise Lost^ Book II. 1-5.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly
give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one
thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is
viewed as a whole ; and a logical relation among all its parts is carefully
indicated, forming one compact group. Hence —
346. In the Structure of the Period, the following rules
are to be observed : —
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main
clause, not in the subordinate ones : as,
Hannibal cum recensuisset auxilia Gades profectus est, when Hannibal
had reviewed, dr*^ .
Volsci exiguam spem in arnfis7 alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent,
praeter cetera adversa, loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, ini-
quiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine
§76
262 Arrangement,
vers!, dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub jugum missi, cum singulis
vestimentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (liv. iv. lo). [Here
the main fact is the return of the Volscians^ which is given in the first and
last words of the period ; the circumstances of the surrender, &c., which
in English would be detailed in a number of brief independent sentences,
are put in the several subordinate clauses.]
b. Clauses are usually arranged in the natural order of time or
logical sequence, — cause before result ; purpose, manner, and the
like before the act.
There are, however, many exceptions, fix)m the tendency to put
the more important first, or else last.
c. In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are fre-
quently omitted (asyndeton)^ the connection being made clear by
the position of words and by antithesis.
d, A change of subject, where required, is marked by the intro-
duction of a Pronoun, if the new subject has already been men-
tioned in the preceding sentence. But the change of subject may
often be avoided by the change of structure, — the less important
being merged in the greater by aid of participles or subordinate
phrases: as,
dolorem si non potero frangere occultabOj if I cannot conquer the pain,
I will hide IT,
quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus emissis
interfecerunt, when the barbarians saw thai he had escaped, THEY threw
darts at HIM, and hilled him.
celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones reverterunt, the matter
was soon finished^ and the legions, 6fc,
PART THIRD.
RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY).
Chapter I. — Quantity.
Note.— The earliest poetry of the Indo-European people seems to
have been originally rather an accented poetry, more like our own, with-
out regard to the natural quantity of the syllables. But the Greeks
developed a form of poetry which, like music, regarded very carefully the
natural quantities of syllables ; and the Latins borrowed their forms in
classical times from them. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like
ours, upon accent and rhyme ; but is measured, like musical strains, by
the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from ours in not regard-
ing the accent of the word, but substituting for that an entirely different
system of metrical accent or uttu (see 358), which depended upon the
character of the measure used, falling regularly on the long syllables.
Each syllable is considered as either long or short, — in Quantity or
length (not in Quality or sounds as we speak of the long or short vowel-
sounds in English) ; a long syllable being generally reckoned in length
equal to two short ones (for exceptions see 355. c^d).
The quantity of radical or stem-syllables — as of short a in pater or
of long a in mater — can be learned only by observation or practice,
unless determined by the general rules of Quantity. Most of the rules
of Prosody are only arbitrary rules for the purpose of memory ; the
syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. In
those cases which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown
by the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by
the authority of Poets^ — the principal means we have of learning it. In
some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distinguished in various
ways, — by marks over the letters, or by doubling.
Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very largely from
the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, es-
pecially prop>er names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These
words are generally emplo3red in accordance with the Greek, and not the
Latin, laws of quantity. Where these vary in any important point, they
will be noticed in the rules given below.
§77
264 Prosody,
1. — General Bales.
347. The following are General Rules of Quantity
(compare 18): —
— fl. Vowel. A vowel before another vowel or h is Short : as,
via, trSho. But—
— I . In the genitive form ius, i is long. It is, however, sometimes
made short in verse ; and in alterius is commonly short
— 2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is
long between two vowels : as, dieij but is short in fidii^ rH^ spiL
—3, In fio, i is long, except when followed by er : ^^ flo^ ftebatn^
ffam, fieriy flerem.
^4. In the terminations aius and eius, a and e are long: as in
G&ius^ Pompeius; also in the verb aio^ and in genitives in ai.
— 5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents
a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long: as, TroiSy
Thdlla^ herods. But many Greek words are more or less Latinized
in this respect : as, Academia^ choria^
6. In eheu and dius (for divus), and sometimes in Diana and
ohe, the first syllable is long.
— b. Diphthong. A Diphthong is Long : as, foedns, cm, cae-
lum, dSnde.
But the preposition prae in compounds is generally short before
a vowel (as m prae-ustis, JEn, vii. 524).
— c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (Crasis) is
Long : as i in nn (for nihil) ; ourriis (genitive, for currUis), But
not where two syllables are united by Synaeresis, as in pariStibtis
{Par-yetibus).
^ d. Position. A syllable in which a short vowel comes before
two consonants or a double consonant — also before the letter j —
is long : as, mdgnusy duXj pijor, it vintis, gaza (but ddhuc).
But if the two consonants are a mute followed by I or r, the
syllable is Common, — that is, it maybe either long or short in
verse : as in allcris, pStxibus, refluo.*
Remark. — The y or v resulting from synaeresis has the eiBFect of a
consonant : as, dbietis^ fluviarum (Jliimus). And conversely, when the
semivowel is vocalized, quantity is lost : as in 5ilnae^=^sUvae (Hor.).
' This usage is more or less arbitrary, and varies with different words : thus
(in Virgil) the a in patris^ etc., is almost invariably short ; and the i in nigro- and
its derivatives is almost always long.
Quantity of Final Syllables, 26$
e. In Early Latin, b at the end of words was not sounded, and
hence does not make position with another consonant. In many
other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make position,
especially in pronouns and particles : as, Ule, Xste, nSmpe.
Remark. — A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said to be
long by Posrrion : as, in docHne, In docesne, the same syllable is long by
the general rule. The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to
final vowels.
9. — Final Syllables.
348. The Quality of Final Syllables is determined by
the following Rules : —
1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are Long : as, mS,
tu, bi, ne.
The attached particles -n», -qu8, -v», -o», -ptB, and r8- (rSd-)
are short ; se- is long : as, sicedity exercitumqui riducit. But re
is often long in filif^Oy (relligio), retuli (rettuli).
2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are Long: as, sol,
5b (orla), bSs, vu.
Exceptions. — cdr (sometimes long),/?/, Idc, tnily ds (ossis) vtr,
3. Most monosyllabic Particles are Short : as, fin, In, oXs, nSc,
p«r. But crdSy cUr, in^ nofiy qufn^ sin — with adverbs in o : as,
hiCy hucy sic — are long.
4. Final a in words declined by cases is Short, except in the
ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words it is
Long: as, e& BteU& (nom.), cum ea Stella (abl.) ; frustra, vocfi
(imperat.), poatea, trlginta ; also, qua (for quae, plural).
Exceptions. — «idf, itd, quid,putd {suppose) ; and, in late use,
irigintdy etc.
5. Final e is Short, as in nubS, ducitS, saepS. Except —
1. In nouns of the fifth declension : z&,fidi (also fame), hodii
(Jidc die), qudri {qua re).
2. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second
declension, with others of like form : as, aiti, miseri, aperte,
saepissimi.
3. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as,
vidiy moni.
Exceptions. — heni, malij feri, fermej also (rarely), cavi,
habiy taciy vali, vidi; inferni, supemi.
266 Prosody.
€. Final i is long : as in toni, fill, audi But it is Common in
mihiy tibiy sibi^ ibiy ubij and Short in nisi^ quasi, cut (when mak-
ing two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi,
7. Final o is Common ; but long in datives and ablatives, also,
almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension.
Exceptions. — citd, moddy ilicd, prof eddy dutnmoddy imtnd,
egdy dud, odd.
8. Final u is Long ; final y is Short.
9. Final as, es, os, are Long ; final is, ns, ys, are Short: as,
nefas, rupes, servSs, hoii5s ; hoatib, amictiB, Tethj^s.
Exceptions. — as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as
lampaddsj and in ands,
ea is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a
short vowel in the stem (but aedSa, etc.) : as, milSs (Itia), obaSs,
(Xdis), — except abies, aries, partis, pes; in the present of esse (6b,
adSa) ; in the preposition penSa and in the plural of Greek nouns,
as her5Ss, lampadSs.
OS is short in compSs, imp58 ; in the Greek nominative ending
as barbitds; also o for later u in the second declension, as servds
(nominative).
is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, nobis, vobXs, omms,
(accusative plural) ; lis, sis, vis, (with quivis, etc.), velis, mails,
nolis ; in gratis, foris (properly plurals) ; in the second person
singular of the fourth conjugation, as, andis (where it is the stem
vowel) ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive),
where it was originally long.
us is long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nomina-
tive and accusative plural of the fourth declension 5 and in nouns
of the third declension having u long in the stem : as, virtus (Jitis),
incus (udis). Bxxt pecHs, Udis,
10. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except
o, are Short : as, &d, 3c, istuc, amSt, amattlr.
Exceptions. — donic, fdc, nSc, sometimes Mc; in, ndfi, quin,
sin; crcLs, plus; cur, pur.
Note. — i before v is always long, except in ntv-is (nix).
3.— Penultimate Syllables.
349. A Noun is said to increase, when in any case
it has more syllables than in the nominative singular.
Penultimate Syllables. 267
A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has
more syllables than in the Stem, inclusive of the final
vowel : as, amd-^ teg^-^ capi-}
a* The final syllable of an inflected word is called the Termina-
tion ; that immediately preceding is called the Increment.
^. In such words as stellarunty corpdris^ amdtiSy tegltiSy the
penultimate syllable is called the increment In itlnirtbus^
atnavMtis^ the syllables marked are called the first, second, and
third increments of the noun or verb.
350. In the increment of nouns and adjectives, a and
o are regularly Long ; e, i, u, y, generally Short : as,
aetatlB, honoris, 86rv5rum; opSris, carmXnla, mnrmiiris,
peoildiB, ohlam j^difl. Exceptions are : —
a: — baccar (dris)^ hepar {dtis), jubar {dris\ lar (Jdris\ mas
(mdris)y nectar (dris), par {pdris), sal (sdlis), vas (vddis)y dafis
{^ddpis\fax {fdcis\ anthrax {dcis),
** 6 : — neuters of the third declension (except ds, dris) : as, cor-
pus (dris) ; also, arbor {dris\ scrobs {scrdbis), ops (Jfpis),
e: — increments of fifth declension; also heres (JSdis)^ lex
(Jigis)y locuples (eiis), tnerces [idis\plebs {piebis), qutes(etis), rex
[regis) y ver (viris).
— X : — most nouns and adjectives in ix : 2L&,felfcts, radicis (except
filiXy nix, strix); dis {dttis), gits (gllris), lis {litis), vis (vfres),
Quirftes, Samnites.
^ u: — forms from nouns in &: as, palOdis, tellUris, virtutisj
also, lux (Jilcis)yfrux (JrUgis).
331. In the increment of Verbs the characteristic
vowels are as follows : —
1. Of the first conjugation 3 : as, amdre, amdtur,
2. Of the second conjugation e : as, monere^ monetur,
3. Of the third conjugation 8, i : as, tegire, tegttur,
4. Of the fourth congugation I : as, audfre, audftur.
Exc. — do and its compounds have a : as, ddre, circumddbat.
1 The rules of Increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short
according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminations. The
quantity of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third declension (see 67) ;
and that of terminations is seen under the various inflections, where it is better to
learn them.
268 Prosody.
S 78 1 a> \vL other verbal increments (not stem-vowels) —
ft is always Long : as, moneftris, tegSmns.
9 is Long : as, tegSbam, ftudiSbar. But it is short before -ram,
-rim, -ro ; in the future personal endings -bSris, -bSre ; and some-
times in the perfect -Snmt (as stitiruntque comae^ JEn. ii. 774).
^^ i is Long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation :
as, petivi, laceuitos (in others short : as, monittus) ; also in the
subjunctive present of ease and velle (sfmus, velimus) ; and
(rarely) in the endings -rlmmi, -ritis ; but short in the future forms
\ amabltis^ etc.
5 is found only in imperatives, and is always Long.
u is Short in sttmiis, voitfmns, quaestfmmi ; in the Supine and
its derivatives it is long : as, aolHtSms.
8. d b. Perfects and Supines of two syllables lengthen the stem-
syllable:^ as, Juvi, jutom (Jiivo\ vidl, visum [video) \ fSgi
(JUgio).
Exceptions. — MH^ didi{dd)yfldi{Jindo\ sMi{scindo), stiH
{sto)y stiH {sisto\ tali (fero); — citum (cteo)y d&tum {do\ Itum
{e6)y lUutn {lind)y qultum {gueo),rdtum (reor)y rUtum (ruo\ sdtum
serd)y sUum (sino), stdtum (sto or sisto). In some compounds of
stOy stdtum is found long, as prostatum,
8,0 c. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables: as, cScXdi
{cddo\ dXdIoi {disco)y pttpfigl ipungo) ; also cttctini {curro)y
tStendl (Jendo\ m6mordi (mordeo). But cScidi from caedoj pe-
pedifrom//d^.
352. The following terminations are preceded by a
long vowel.
1. -al, -ar : as vecttgal^ pulvlnarj and numeral endings, as
vicisimus.
Exceptions. — antmal, cdpttal^jUhar.
2. -brmn, -cnim, -tmm : cls^ Idvacrum^ dilubrunty viratrum*
3. -do, -ga, -go : 2&yformfdOy aurfgOy imUgo,
Exceptions. — cddo, dividoy ^do, mddo, sdlXdo^ spddo^ tripfdoj
callga^fUga, tdga^pldga; dgo, igo, tigo, nigOy rigo.
4. -le, -les, -lis : as, anciky mtlesy crudelis, hostilis.
< Either by contraction or vowd-increase, perhaps both.
Penultimate Syllables. 269
Exceptions. — mdli; inddUsy sUbdUs; grddlisy hUmtliSy Hmi-
lisy stirilisj and verbal adjectives in lUs : as, dm&bllisy ddcilis^
fddCliSy terriMlis,
5. -ma, -men, -mentum : z&yPoemayfiutnen^jumentum*
Exceptions. — dnima, lacrima^ victimaj tdmen^ colUmen;
with rigltnen and the like from verb-stems.
6. -mns, -warn, -mo, -bus, -tos , -neuB, -rius : as, extrimus^ sUpf-
nus, octdni, sivirus, fumosus, pHrUus^ sinarius^ extraneus.
Exceptions, —(tf.) J before -mus: as, flniUtnuSy mdritimus,
(except blmusy trimus quadrtmusy oplmusy mimuSy limus) ; and
in superlatives (except imus^ primus) ; ddmus, hUmus, nUmus,
cdldmus, thdldmus,
{b.) I before -nus : as in crasHnuSy fraxinus, and the like (ex-
cept mdtutlnus, vespertlnusy ripentlnus) ; dsinus, cdminus, eminus,
ddmtnusyfdcinus, proffnus, terminus, vatUlnus ; mdnus, ocednus,
pldtdnus; ginus; bdnus, dnus, sdnus.
(c) S before -ma : as, mirus, Mdira (except procirus, sinci-
rus, sivirus) ; also, barbdrusy chdrusy nUrus, plrusj sdtira, am-
phdray ancdra, lyra, purpura; /drum, pdrum,
(</.) Idtusy mitus, vHuSy dlgUus, servitUSy spMtusj qudtus,
tdtus; hdbitus, and the like.
7. -na, -ne, -nia : as, carfna, mdne, in&nis.
Exceptions. — ttdvinOy ddmXna^fimXnay machtnay minoyg^na,
pagina; birUy sine; cdnis, ciniSyjUvinis,
8. -re, -ris, -ta, -tie : as, altdrey sdlutdrisy mdneta^ immlHs.
Exceptions. — mdrey hildrisy rdia, ndta, siHsy pdHsy and most
nouns in -ita.
9. -tlm, -turn, and syllables beginning with v : as, prlvdtim,
quercetumy dliva.
Exceptions. — affdHm, stdtim; nivis {nix); brifvis, grdvis,
lHvis (Jighf) ; nikiuSy ndvem; and several verb roots : as, jUvOy
fdveo,
10. -dex, -lez, -mez, -rez, -dlz, -nlz : and the numeral endings
-glnti, glntS : as, judeXy ileXy rddix, vlgintiy trfginta.
Exceptions. — cUleXy sileXy rUmex,
353. The following terminations are preceded by a
short vowel: —
I. -one, -due, -las : as, rusticusy cdliduSy glddidlus.
2/0 Prosody,
Exceptions, — dpdcus, dmfcus ; apncus,ftcusy mendlcus^ pUdi-
cuss ftdus, nidus, sidus; and S before -dus : as, criidus, nudusj
5 before -liui, z&phdselus {txct^tgilusy scilus); dstlus; lucus,
2. -no, -nor, -ro, -ror, in verbs : as, destlno, crlminor, giro^
quiror.
Exceptions. — festlno, prdpino, sdgino^ dplnor, inclines
dicldro, spirOy spiroy dro, duro, mfror.
3. -ba, -bo, -pa, -po : z&yfdba, btbo^ l&pa, cripo.
Exceptions. —gUbay scribas bubo, nUbo, scribes pdpa^ pOpOy
npuy scopay stapas cdpoy ripoy stipo,
4. -taa (in nouns), -ter and -tu« pn adverbs): as, clvUaSy
fortttery penltus.
5. -cuius, -oellus, -lentufl, -tudo : aSy fasctculusy dcellusy ItUu-
lentusy magnitudo.
354. The following are the rules for the quantity of
Derivatives : —
a. Forms from the same Stem retain the original quantity : as,
dmoy dmavistis g^nusy gineris.
Exceptions. — i. bosy Idr, mas, par, pes y sdly vas — also arbos
(not arbdr) — have a long vowel in the nominative from short
stems.
2. Nouns in or, genitive 5ris, have the vowel shortened before
the final r : as, hondr, (But this shortening is comparatively late,
so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are
often found long.)
3. Many verb-forms with original long vowel shorten it before
final r or t : as, amHy dicerit (compare amemus), audit, fit (The
final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have been orignally long,
but to have been shortened under this rule.)
b. Forms from the same Root often vary in quantity from
vowel increase {st^ 10. a, 158. a)s as, dico (cf. maledicus)y duco
{diicis)y fido {perfidus), vdcis (vdco), ligio (J^go^
c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which com-
pose them: as, occido {cddd)y occido {caedo)y iniquus {aeguus).
d. Greek words compounded with irpo have o shorty 2& prdphita^
prSldgus, Some Latin compounds of pro have o short, as prd-
ficiscory prdfiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as, nJlfcUy nigo^
niqueOf niquiSy niquam. So dejiro and pejiro from jUro^
Rhythm. 271
Chapter II. — Rhythm.
Note. — The essence of the Rhythm of poetry is the regular recur-
rence of syllables which are pronounced with more stress than those in-
tervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times
should occur between the recurrence of the stress. But, in the applica-
tion of rhythm to words to form poetry, the exactness of the intervals
of time IS sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words ;
and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronun-
ciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. These
two adaptations take place in very different degrees ; one language disre-
garding more the intervals of time, and another more the pronunciation
of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form
of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The
earliest Latin, on the other hand, — as in the Saturnian and Fescennine
verse, — was not so restricted. But the pure metrical forms were after-
wards adopted from the Greek, so that all the principal poetry with
which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which re-
quire the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal
times, technically called Feet. In poetry that was sung doubtless the
strict rhythm was more closely followed in practice than in that which
was declaimed or intoned.. In neither language, however, is the time
perfectly preserved, even in single measures ; and there are some cases
in which the regularity of the true time between the ictuses is disturbed.
The Greeks and Latins both distinguished syllables of two kinds in
regard to the length of time required for their pronunciation, viz., longs
and shorts^ in the ratio of two to one. But it roust not be supposed that
all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage
each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio
was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing
than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables
that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to
have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often a long or two
shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though doubtless
distinguishable in timQ from one short (see 355. ^, d,). Sometimes a
syllable naturally short seenis to have been slightly prolonged, so as to
represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregu-
larity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes
the place of one or more syllables- to fill out the required length of the
measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word :
hence the importance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (see 358),
2/2 Prosody,
355. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound
into MEASURES OF FEET. The most natural divisioft of
musical time is into measures consisting of either two or
three equal parts,^ besides which, the ancients also dis-
tinguished those of five equal parts.^
Remark. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of
voice on one or the other part of the measure, called the ictus {beat)^ or
metrical accent (see 358).
a, The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is
called a Mora. It is represented by the sign ^y, or in musical nota-
tion by the quaver^ P .
b, A long syllable is regularly equal to two mora^ and is repre-
sented by the sign _, or by the crotchet P .
c, A long, syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of
fhree or four morcej this is represented by the sign l_ (.• •)> ^ {P)«
d, A long syllable may be contracted^ so as to occupy only the
time of a short one : this has been represented by the sign >.
e, A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than
one mora,
f, Pauses sometimes occur at the end of verses or series to fill up
the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the
sign A ; one of two morce by the sign X.
g, One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper
beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis
or prelude} It is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the
measure.
1 Making what is called m music " double" or " triple" time. These measures
in Prosody are commonly called '*feet," following the usage of the Greek and Latin
grammarians.
3 This division is not unknown to modem music, although rare.
8 The same thing occurs in modem poetry, and in modem music any unaccented
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i. e. they make an incomplete
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the
following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would
seem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iamtuc in its structure, or
at least accented the second syllable rather than the first.
Rhythm. 273
356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin
verse, together with their musical notation, are the fol-
lowing : —
a. Triple or Unequal Measures {*^}
1. Trochee {j^\j = ^ g) : as, ri^.
2. Iambus {^ L = g r) : as, dUcis.
3. Tribrach*'(^ \j\jz=: f_ff) • as, hdmtnis.
h. Double or Equal Measures (|).
I. Dactyl {L\j\j = f ff ) : as> consUlis.
?. Anap^st (vj» vj» JL = P^ ^) : as, mdnitos.
y Spondee (i. _ = ^ p : as, regis.
c. Six-timed Measures (|).
1, Ionic a majore ( yjyj = P P ^ ^): as, cdnficirdt.
2, Ionic a minore (\j\j ■=P P P P)\ 2is, rStUltssent
3, Choriambus {^\j\j -. = P P P P): cdntHlHrant,
d. Quinary or Hemiolic • Measures (|).
1. Cretic (— vy — ~ r C T) • ^' cdnsUlis,
2. V&o^ primus {^\j\j\j =:P P f P)i as cdnsHltbUs.
3. P-fiON quartus (v^ w vy _ = ^.* .• ^): as, r/iVi/rf.
4. Bacchius (vy = g • •) : as, dmlcos.
1 Called diplasic^ the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2
to I. The riiythm of the Trochee and Iambus is essentially the same. A trochaic
series with an anacrusis becomes iambic, and an iambic with the loss of its unac-
cented part becomes trochaic. The same is true of the dactyl and anapaest, and the
two Ionics. There is no reason to believe, however, that the accented beginning is
original, and the opposite form produced by anacrusis. On the contrary the proba-
bility is the other way.
3 Not a fundamental foot, but found only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.
S Called hemiolic^ the two parts being in the ratio of i to i J, or of 3 to 2.
274 Prosody.
i. Several compound measures are mentioAed by the grammar
rians, viz. ; AnUbaccklus ( \J^ ProceUusmatic {^\j\j v>), the
2d and 3d Paon, having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d place, with
three short ones ; ist, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epiiriiusy having a short syl-
lable in the ist, 2d, 3d, and 4th place, with three long ones. None
of them, however, are needed, to exphun rhythmically all the forms
of ancient verse.
Note. — Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the
same time in the measure, but are contracted or prolonged to suit the
series in which they occur. They are then called irrational^ because the
thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are : •—
Irrational Spondkb : ^ > = J N .
Cyclic DACiarL : -^^ ^ _ j \ ^ (or nearly N^ IS N).
8
Cyclic ANAPiCST : = the same reversed.
Irrational Troches : _ > = J K .
Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire verse,
and controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized,
assuming i to be the unit of musical time : —
&
*,
8.
«,
»,
^'
^'
i».
l«.
15,
««,
85.
s
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
S
Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with
instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody,
or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this
differs widely from modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with
the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was
musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said con-
ventionally to " sing."
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse
gives us the exact time^ though not the tune, to which it was actually sung.
The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short
syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic,"
as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to
bear in mind not only the variations in the relation of length of syllables,
but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remem-
ber that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the
words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Do not
scatty but read metrically.
357. In many cases measures of the same time may be
substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place
Rhythm. 275
of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long
one. In the former case the measure is said to be con-
tracted; in the latter, to be resolved. Thus : —
a. A Spondee { ) may take the place of a dactyl (_ \j J) or
anapaest (v^ v^ _) ; and a Tribrach (\j \j\j) of z trochee (_ \j) or
Iambus (\j _). The optional substitution of a long for two short
syllables is represented by the sign 00.
d. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee — a
spondee also being admissible — is represented thus, ^ JCa
c. When a long syllable having the Ictus (358. a) is resolved, the
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but the
accent to indicate it is placed on the former : as,
ndnc expSrl^ | sftn^ &cetd | tfbt cdr acr^ In | p^ctore.
BaccK 405.
The MuBlcal Aeoent.
358. That part of the measure which receives the stress
of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the
other part is called the Arsis.^
a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus
{beaf). It is marked thus \ L \j\j*
d. The ending of a word within a measure is called CiEStJRA.
When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura
of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or
rhythm.
c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in
Prosody is called Diuresis.
1 The Thesis signifies properly, the putting down of the foot in beating time, in
the march or dance ("downward beat"), and the Arsis the raising of the foot
(M upward beat"). By the Latm grammarians these terms were made to mean, re-
spectively, the ending and beginning of a measure. By a misunderstanding which
has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been
reversed. They will here be used m accordance with their ancient meaning, as is
now becommg more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals
of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished
from prose, and should be constantiy kept in mind.
The prevailing error arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a defini-
tion which was true only of iambic or anapxstic.
2/6 Prosody.
Chapter III. — Versification.
Th» Terte.
359. A single line in poetry — that is, a series of meas-
ures set in a recognized order — is called a Verse.^
Note. — Most of the common verses, however, origmally consisted of
two series, but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in
lamUc verse by the Diaresis^ in dactylic Hexameter by the CiBsurtu
a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic,
that is, there is a pause to fill the measure ; if complete it is called
AcATALECTic, and needs no pause.
b> To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to
the rules of Quantity and Versification, is called Scanning or Scan-
sion (i. e. a clitnbing or advance by steps).
Remark. — In reading verse rhythmically care should be taken, while
preserving the measure or time of the syllables, not to destroy or confuse
the words themselves, as is often done in scanning. Elided syllables
should be sounded but lightly ; and if it is remembered that final m had a
nasal and feeble sound, its partial suppression before an initial vowel
(see d) will be easy.
c. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless
an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins
with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision {bruising)}
Remark. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha
{smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the
next begins with a vowel : this is called Synapheia (binding.
d, A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like
manner : • this is called Ecthlipsis {squeezing out) : as,
monsivum horrend«/«, informs, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. —
^n, iii. 658.
1 The word Verse {versus) signifies a turning hack^ L e. to recommence in like
manner, as opposed to Prose {prorsus or proversus\ which means straight ahead,
2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some-
times adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: as,
To inveigle and invite th^ unwary sense. — Comus^ 538.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a
consonant (compare 13, ^) : as,
senio confectar quiescit — Ennius (C. M. 5).
8 Hence a final syllable in m is said to have no quantity of its own — its vowd,
in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position.
Versification: Hexameter. 277
Remark. — The monosyllables </<?, dem^ spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, ^i
(plural) are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse.
Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
e. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel
has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This is called
Hiatus {gaping.)
/. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before
a pause : * it is then said to be long by Diastole : as,
tempora mutantur — et nos mutamur in illis.
g. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short
{syllaba anceps).
Forms of Terse.
360. A verse receives its name from its dominant
or fundamental measure : ^ Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic^
Anapcestic ; and from the number of measures (single
or double) which it contains : as, Hexameter^ Tetrameter,
Trimeter, Dimeter,
Remark. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not
by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter,
361. A Stanza or Strophe, consists of a definite number
of verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from
the name of some eminent poet: as, Sapphic, Alcaic,
Archilochian, Horaiian.
l.—Bactylic Hexameter.
362. The Dactylic Hexameter (Heroic Verse) consists
regularly of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : —
L\j\j\ J-\j\j\ L\\ ^\j\ Lkj\j\Lw\j\±^
or in musical notation as follows : —
irc/irc/iriLTirc/ir^rirj^i
a. For either of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be sub-
stituted, and must be for the last. Rarely a spondee is found in the
fifth place, when the verse is called spondaic,
1 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears being caused by
the retention of an originally long quantity.
278 Prosody.
b. The verse must have one principal caesura — sometimes two —
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. Usually the
principal caesura is after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of
the third foot^ dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm.
It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the
fourth foot. In this case there is often another in the second, thus
dividing the line into three parts : as,
parts f^lrox II arjdensqi^^ 5ci!i|irs |] et | slbtlft | colla.
jEh. v. 277.
Remark. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number
of caesuras is the break in the sense. A caesura occurring after the first
syllable of a foot is called masculine, A caesura occurring after the second
syllable of a foot (as in the fifth foot of the 3d and 4th verses in c) is called
feminine. A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse except the
first When the fourth f(X>t ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis)
is sometimes improperly called bucolic ccesura^ firom its frequency in pastoral
poetry.
c. The introductory verses of the vEneid, divided according to the
foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Csesura in each
verse being marked by double lines : —
Arm& v!|rumqug cS|no I Tr6|jae qui | primiis &b | oris
Itail|am fa|t6 pr6fu|gus | La|vTn*^qug | venft
lit6ra, I mxsXXMtn ilk | et ter|ris || jac|tatus 5t | alto
vi supg|rum saejvae || mSm5|rem JujnonYs 6b | Tram ;
multi qu6|qu^ et beljlo pas|sus \ dum | condSrgt | urbem,
infer|retqug dg|os Laty|6, \ ggniis | undg Lajtinum,
Alba|nTqug pSjtres, || at|qu/ altae | moen¥& | Romae.
The feminine caesura is seen in the following : —
Dis ggnr|ti p5tu|er5 : || t5|nent m6d]f|/» omntt | sllvae.
jEn. vi. 131.
Note. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : —
" Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward.
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired iEthiop people.
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver.
Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men ; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Atheni,
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water."
Kingsleys Andromeda,
Versification. 279
3. ~ Bleslae Stanza.
363. The Elegiac Stanza is constructed by alternating
the hexameter verse with the so-called Pentameter,^ which
is the same with it, only omitting the last half of the
fourth and sixth feet : as,
rij-lrdrlr '^IrtrlfL'lr'
o. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as two half-verses,
of which the latter always consists of two dactyls followed by a sin-
gle syllable.
b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura ; but the first half-
verse must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause to
complete the measure.*
^. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac
Stanza : —
cum siibit | nii|us tns|tisslmll | noctis I Imago
qua mlhY | supremum A || tempus In | urbS fulft,
cum rSp^lto nocjtem qua | tot mlhl | car^ rg|liqui,
labltur I ex dcujlis A || nunc qudquS | gutt^ m^jis.
jam pr5pg | lux ^d^Irat qua | me dis|cedSr^ Caesar
finlbus I extrejmae TT II jussSr^t j Ausdnl|ae.
Ovid. Trist, i. 3.
Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character fi-om hexameter
verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs,
each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great
variety of compositions, — epistolary, amatory, or mournful, ^ and was
especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English
verse, imitated from the German : —
" In the Hex|ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column ;
In the Pen|tameter | aye |i falling in | melody | back.''
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapasts), as follows : —
II vyv^l \j^\ II |wvy \\j\j — II
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by ttic /rotraciion of the pre-
ceding syllable, thus : —
ww| wv^IljII \j\j \ \J\j\ — X
28o Prosody.
3. — Otl&er Dactylle Terfles.
. 364. Rarely Other dactylic verses or half-verses are used
by the lyric poets. Thus : —
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, form-
the Alcmanian Strophe^ as follows : — .
O forjtes p§|jdriiqug | passi,
mecum | saepS vI|rT || nunc | vino | pellTtS | curas ;
eras inlgens US|rab¥miis | aequor.
HoR. — O^. i. 7 (so 28 ; Ep. 12).
Note. — This is a single measure, its time being represented by ^f»
b,. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a
pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter,
forming the First Archilackian Strophe : as,
diffiilgerg nl|ves | rM€|unt jam | gr^mln^ | campis,
arb5ri|busqug cd|mae;
mutat I teniL vT|ces || et | decres|centl^ | npas
flumln^ I praetSrSjunt
HOR. — C?^. iv. 7.
[For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian Heptameter, alter-
nating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see 372. 7.]
4. — lambie Trtmeter.
365. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of
dramatic dialogue; It consists of three measures, each
containing a double iambus {iambic dipody) : as,
It is seen in the following : —
jam ]am efftca|ci do m&nus [ scYentlae
supplex St 6|r6 regni per | PrSserpInae,
p€r et Dlalnae non m6ven|d& numlna,
p5r atquS li|br6s carmlnum I v^lentlum
de|£ixa cae|l6 dev6ca|r6 s!d5ra,
CSnid^a par|c6 voclbus | tandem sScrTs,
cltumquS re|tr6 retr6 s6l|vg turWnem.
HOR. Epod. 17.
It is represented in English by the Alexandrine: as,
<< Hyperion's march they spy, and glittering shafts of war." — Gray.
Versification: Iambic, 281
a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry, alternating
with the Dimeter, making the Iambic Strophe^ as follows : —
hiatus il|lg qui pr5cul | nSgottis,
ut prised gens | mortallum,
p^tem^ ru|r^ bubus ex|ercet suls,
sdlutiis om|ni fendrS ;
ngqutf exclftajtur classlco | miles triiay
ngqu^ h6rr€t i|ratum m^rS ;
forUmquS vi|t&t, et super jbi civlum
p5tenti(o|rum liming
HoR. Epod, 2,
b> In the Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee or its equivalent
(anapaest or dactyl) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus
of either pair ; also a Tribrach (^ ^ \J) anywhere except in the
last place. In the comic poets these substitutions may be made
in any foot except the last : as,
O lucls al|mg r^ctdr g et | caelf dgciis !
qu2 altdrnH cur|ru spdtll || flam|mYfgr^ dmbiens,
iUdstrS laeltis || ^xs^ris | terris caput.
Seneca. Here, Fur, 592-94.
quid quadrYs ? an|nos s^x^njta ndtfis es
aut plus ut coniftcl^ ; Nigrum In his | rSgldnlbus.
Terence. — Heaut, 10, 11.
h5m(5 ^um: humalni || n/bfl a me alljentim piitd.
vel m^ m6ne|r^ hoc || v^l perc6n|tar( pata.
id. Heaut yy, 78.
c. The Choliambic (Jame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the
last iambus: as,
lls^— vy— 1^— w— .|v^_L_I_AII
aequ^ dst b€a|tus dc p6e|m& cdm scribit :
tam gaudet In | se, tdmqug s^ Ip|sg mfratur.
Catull. xxii. 15, 16.
d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as foUows : —
It is used in combination with other measures (see 372, 11), and
is shown in the following : —
VuldLniis arjdens drlt 6f|fYcfnas.
HoR. — O^ i. 4.
or in English : —
" On purple peaks a deeper shade descending." — Scott.
§82
2. a.
Rem.
§82
3. a.
S).b.
3.C.
282 Prosody.
Note. — The Iambic Trimeter may be regarded, metrically, as " a sin-
gle foot " (its time being represented by -^J, consisting of three dipodies,
and having its principal accent, probably, on the second syllable of the
verse, though this is a matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being
a substitute for an iambus, is irrational^ and must be shortened to fit the
measure of the iambus (represented by > ).
5. — Other Iambic Terse.
366. Some other forms of Iambic verse are used, as
follows : —
a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic {JSeptenarius) consists of
seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as the above. It is
used in more lively dialogue : as,
Viam idcfro; arcesjsor, nUptlas | quod mi ddp^ra|ri s^nsTt.
quibds quIdSm quam f^cIjIS pdtiiSrat | qul^sci s/ hic | quY^sset !
TER. ^IM&id, 690, 691.
The rh3rthm of the Iambic Septenarius may be represented
according to our musical notation (see note 3, p. ^72) : —
n\r.rv\nn\nrv\rv\
Its movement is like the following : —
" New principles I found would fit full well my constitution.**
Vicar of Bray.
b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic {Octonarius) consists of
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used
in lively dialogue : as,
hdcln^st humajniim ficiu aut in|ceptM ? hdcTnest df|ftcTiSm p^trYs ?
quid fllud est ? pro | dSdm fidem, | quid dst, si hoc non conjtu-
mdllast ? Andriay 236, 237.
r. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four {acatalectic) or
three and a half {catalectic) iambic feet. The former is used (as
above, 365. a) in combination with a longer verse, and the latter only
in choruses: as,
quondm criienlt^ Mannas,
praecdps &md|rg sa^vo,
r&pltdr qudd Tm|p5tdntr
faclnds p^Uat | ftirdrS ?
Sen. Medea^ 850 - 853.
Versification : Mixed Measures. 283
6.— Troehaie Terse.
367. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the
Tetrameter catalectic {Septenarius\ consisting of four
dipodies lacking a syllable. It is represeftted metrically
thus : —
II I. vy- > I ^ v_ > II ± w_ > I i. w« A II
or in musical notation,
dd Xe advenio, sp^m, salutem, cdnsilii^m adxiliv^w ^xpetens.
Ter. Andr. ii. 18.
In English verse : —
" Tell me not in mournful numbers life is but an empty dream."
Longfellow,
a. Strictly the spondee and its resolutions can be substituted only
in the even places ; but the comic poets allow the substitution in
every foot but the last : as,
i>^Aem habet ^^Xa^&um dc vestitum : | tdm consimilist | dtqu^ ego.
sura, pes, stajtdra, tonsus, | 6culi, nasum, | v^l labra,
mdlae, mentum, | bdrba^coUus ; | tdtus ! quid verjbfs opust?
sf tergum cijdLtricosum, | n^lifl hoc similist | sfmilius.
Plaut. Amphitr, 443 - 446.
b. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets,
in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of
lines: as,
ndn ebur nejqi^^ ailreum \dim» calal.]
med renijdet fn domo lajcdnar [lamd. trim. catal!\.
HoR. — C?^/. ii. 18.
7. — Mixed Measures.
Note. — Different measures are combined in the same verse in two
different ways. Either a series of one kind was simply joined to a series
of another kind — analogous to the changes of rhythm not uncommon in
modem music ; or single feet of other times were combined with the pre-
vailing measures, in which case these odd feet were adapted by a change
in their quantity, becoming irrational (see 356, Note). When measures
of one kind occur, enough to form a series, we may suppose a change of
rhythm ; where they are isolated we must suppose adaptation. Of the
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin
poetry.
§82
284 Prosody,
368. The following Verses, composed of different
rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry : —
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic
Tripody) : —
II — co|-.<:^| — oo| — c3wll_v^|_vy|_>II
solvltiir I acrls hljems gra|ta vIcS 1 veris | et FajvdiiL
Hor. — Od.\.^
It is possible that the dactyls may have been cyclic ; but the
change of measure seems more probable.
2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Tetrameter catalectic {Dacfyltc
Pentkemim) ; Iambic Dimeter: —
II \J\j\ KJKj\ II O — \J — \\J — \J — 11
scnbSrS | versIdi|los I &m5rg per|culsum juvat
id. Ep. II.
369. Trochaic verses containing irrational measures or
feet in regular prescribed positions are called Logacedic.
The principal logacedic forms are: —
1. Logacedic Tetrapody (Jour feet) : Glyconic.
2. Logacedic Tripody {three feet) : Pherecratic.
3. Logacedic Dipody {two feet) : this may be considered a short
Pherecratic.
Note. — Irrational measures are those in which the syllables do not
correspond strictly to the normal ratio of length (see 355), such as the
Irrational Spimdee and the Cyclic Dactyl, This mixture of various ratios
of length gives an effect approaching that of prose : hence the name
Logacedic (X^of, doi^^). These measures originated in the Greek lyric
poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres
not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems,
were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logace-
dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, or two feet Those of
five feet (Pentapody) are to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
370. Each logacedic form contains a single dactyl,^
which may be either in the first, second, or third place.
The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic : viz.,
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls,
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi-
tated by the Romans as existing metres.
Versification: Logacedic Forms. 285
Giycome, PherecraHc.
i. "yj \j\ \j I — \j I _ (w) II -V v^ I — >^ I — (w) II
ii. — vj' I "yj w I — . w I — (w) II — . v/ I —yj \j\^K\J\ II
iit-.v/ j-w I-^wl-MH-wv^l-MII
Note. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody)^ if catalectic, appears a simple
Choriambus ( \j\j\ A) J and, in general, the effect of the logaoedic
forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek
and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of
Choriambic But they are not true choriambic, though they may very
likely have been felt to be such by the^composer, who imitated the forms
without much thought of their origin. They maybe read (scanned), there-
fore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logaadic measures ;
and that course is followed here in accordance with the most approved
opinion on the subject.
371. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic
forms or models are the following: —
1. Glyconic {Second Glyconic^ catalectic) : —
Romae | principis | urbi|um ||
In English : —
" Forms more real than living man." — Shelley,
Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot is always
irrational in Horace, consisting of an s^parent spondee (__ >).
2. Aristophaxic {First Pherecratic) : —
temperat | ora | frenis. — Hor,
Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the pre-
ceding by protracting the last two syllables : thus,
"--'— '-'-"'r^Mr^ifir^i
3. Adonic {First Pherecratic^ shortened) : —
Terruit | urbem. — Hor,
Or perhaps : —
§82
S82
286 Prosody.
4. Pherecratic {Second Pherecratic) : —
cr^ doniberis ha^do. — Hor,
5. Lesser Asclepiadic {Second and First Pherecratic^ both
catalectic) : —
II— >|-wv/|l-II-^w| — wli^AO
Madcends atavfs ddite r^gibus. — Har,
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same, interposing a Logaasdic
Dipody) : — s
B - > I -wv^ I I- II -^ w I L- II -^vy I - V I - A II
ttS ne qua^sierfs — scire nefiLs — qu^m mihi qu^m tibf. — Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic {Logacsdic Pentapody^ with dactyl in the
third place) : —
U-w|->|-ww|«v/|l-|oA II
integer vita^ scelerisque pdrus. — Hor.
Or in English : —
" Brilliant hopes, all woven in gorgeous tissues." — Longfellow,
8. Greater Sapphic {Third Glyconic ; First Pherecratic)-, —
II-.v|_>|-ww|l-II-^v^|-v|l-|oAII
td deds ord Sybarfn I cdr proper^ amdndo. — Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic {Logaosdic Tetrapody^ two dactyls, two tro-
chees) : —
II— v^wl-wv^l— w|— oil
virginibds pnerisque dLnto. — Hor,
In English (nearly) : —
" Blossom by blossom the Spring he^ns.^ — A talanta in Calydon,
10. Greater Alcaic {Logacedic Pentapody, catalectic, with Ana-
crusis, and dactyl in the third place, —- compare Lesser Sapphic) : —
II O : ^ v^ I — > I -v^ w I — v^ I ^ A II
just//M ^t tenicem prdpositf virdm. — Hor,
Or, in English : —
<* Of calling shapes, and beckoning shadows dire." — CV7wimv 207.
Note. — Only the above Logaoedic forms are employed by Horace.
11. PHALiECiAN {Logaasdic Pentapody^ with dactyl in the second
place) : —
IIv^>|-v^v/l-.v|-w|l-|-.AII
Metres of Horace.
287
qua^nam \€ mala mdns, misdili R^indf,
dgit pri.tQ\p\iem in meds idmlxSs ? — CatulL xl.
In English : —
" Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining." — Longfellow,
12. Glyconic Pherecratic {Metrum Satyricuni) : —
n - V. I ^ w I - V. 1 1- II -^ I -N. V. 1 1- 1 - A II
O Coldnia quie cupfs | pdnte liidere Idngo. — CatulL xviL
Hetres of Honuse.
372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties
of stanza : viz.,
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Tro-
chaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) ^ : as,
\\3iS\um i\ tendcem prdpositf virdm
non zisxum drdor prdva juWntidm
non vdltus fnstantfs tyrinni
m^nte quatft solidd neq«^ Adster. — Od. iii. 3.
Note. — The Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of
whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form.^ It is sometimes called the
Horatian Stanza, The verses were formerly described as, i, 2, spondee,
bacchius, two dactyls ; 3. spondee, bacchius, two trochees ; 4. two
dactyls, two trochees.
2. Sapphic {minor)^ consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7)
and one Adonic (3): as,
jim satfs terrfs nivis itque dfrae
grdndinfs misft pater 6i rub^nte
ddxterd sacrds jacul^tus drees
t^rruit tSrbem. — Od, \, 2.
Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of
Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients, being used by
Homer in twenty-five Odes — more frequently than any other except
the foregoing. The Lesser Sapphic verse was formerly described as
consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed
by a bacchius.
1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (371).
' See the List below (pp. 289-291 ).
§82
7.
8.a
8.b
§82
8.0
288 Prosody.
3. Sapphic (jnajar)^ consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and
one Greater Sapphic (8) : as,
Lydia dfc, per dmnes
t^ deds ord, Sybarin cdr proper^ amdndo. — Od. i. 8.
4. ASCLEPIADBAN I. {minor)^ consisting of Lesser Asclepiad-
ics (5) : as,
dxegf monum^nt»/» a^re per^nnids
rdgalfque sitd-— p^midi^^sv dltids. — Od, iii. 20.
5. AscLEPlADEAN II., Consisting of one Glyconic (i) and one
Lesser Asclepiadic (5) : as,
Ndvis quad tibi cr^ditdm
d^es Vfrgilidm,— finibus Atticfs
rdddas fncolum^m, precdr,
dt servds animad — dfmididm mead. — Od, i. 3.
6. AsCLEPiADEAN III., Consisting of three Lesser Asclepia-
dics (5) and one Glyconic (i) : as,
Qufs desfderid sft pudor dut modds
tdm carf capitis ? — praecipe Idgubrds
cdntus, M^lpomend, — cuf h'quiddm patdr
vdcem cdm cythard dedlt. — Od, i. 24.
7. AsCLEPiADEAN IV., Consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics
(5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (i) : as,
O fons Bdndusia^ spl^ndididr vitrd,
ddlci dfgne merd, ndn sine fldribds,
crds dondberis haddo
cuf frons tdrgida cdmibds. — Od, iii. 13.
8. ASCLEPIADEAN V. {major\ consisting of Greater Asclepia-
dics (6) : as,
tu ne qua^sierfs — scfre nef^s ! — qdem mihi, qdem tibf
ffnem df dederfnt — Ledconod — n^c Babyldnids
t^ntarfs numerds. — Od, i. 11.
9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (362) alter-
nating with Tetrameter (364. d),
10. Archilochian I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter alter-
nating with Trimeter Catalectic {Dactylic Penthemim^ see 364. b).
Metres of Horace. 289
11. Archilochian IV., consisting of a Greater Archilochian
[heptameter^ 368. i), followed by Iambic Trimeter catalectic (365.
d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses : as,
s<51vitur dcris hi^ms gratd vice || V^ris ^t Favdni,
trahdntque siccas mdchinae carinas ;
do neque jdm stabulis gaud^t pecus, || dut ardtor fgni,
nee prdta canis dlbicant prufnis. — Od, i. 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see 367).
13. Iambic Strophe (see 365. a),
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : as,
ndx erat, dt caeld fulgdbat Idna serdno
intdr minora sfdera,
cdm tu, mdgnortim numdn laesura dedrum, .
in vdrba jurabds mea. — Epod, 15.
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (365) ; as,
dltera jdm teritur bellfs civHibus a^tas,
sufs et ipsa Rdma viribtis ruit. — Epod. i6.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics : as,
miserar^m est | ntque amdri | dare ludum I neque dulci
mala vino I laver^ aut ex|animari I metuentes. — Od. iii. 12.
17. Iamb. trim. (365); Dact pen them. (364.^); Iamb. dim. : as,
Pectf nihil me sfcut anted juvat
scrfbere vdrsiculos — amdre perculsum gravi. — Epod. 1 1.
18. Dactylic Hexameter ; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthe-
mim (364. b) : as,
hdrrida tdmpestds caeldm contrixit, et fmbres
nivdsque deducdnt Jovem : nunc mare, ndnc siliiae. . . .
Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see
367. b).
INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE.
Lib. I.
1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 9. Vides ut alta : i.
2. Jam satis terns : 2. 10. Mercuri facunde nepos : 2.
3. Sic te diva -.5. 11. Tu ne quaesieris : 8.
4. Solvitur acris hiems : 11. 12. Quern vinim : 2.
5. Quis multa : 7. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5.
6. Scriberis Vario : 6. 14. O navis : 7.
7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 15. Pastor cum traheret : 6.
8. Lydia die: 3. 16. O matre pulcra : x.
19
S82
8.1
290
Prosody.
17. Velox amoenum : i.
28.
Te maris: 9.
18. Nullam Vare: 8.
29.
led beatis: i.
19. Mater saeva: 5.
30-
Venus : 2.
20. Vile potabis : 2.
31-
21. Dianam tenerae : 7.
32.
Posdmur: 2.
22. Integer vitae : 2.
33-
Albi ne doleas : 6.
23. Vitas hinnuleo : 7.
34.
Parcus deorum : 1.
24. Quis desiderio : 6.
35.
Odiva: i.
25. Paicius junctas : 2.
36.
Etthure: 5.
26. Musis amicus : i.
37.
Nunc est bibendum : i
27. Natis in usum : i.
38.
Lib.
IL
I. Motum ex Metello : i.
II.
Quid bellioostts : i.
2. NuUus argento : 2.
12.
Nolis longa : 6.
3. Aequam memento : i.
13.
Ille et nefasto : i.
4. Ne sit andllae : 2.
14;
Eheu fugaces : i.
5. Nondum subacta : i.
«s.
Jampauca: i.
6. Septimi Gades : 2.
16.
Otium divos : i.
7. saepe mecum : i.
17-
Cur me querelis : i.
8. Ulla si juris: 2.
18.
Non ebur : 19.
9. Non semper imbres : i.
19.
Bacchum in remotis : i
10. Rectius vives : 2.
20.
Non usitata : i.
Lib.
in.
I. Odi profanum : i.
16.
Inclusam Danaen : 6.
2. Angustam amice : i.
17-
Aeli vetusto : i.
3. Justum et tenacem : i.
18.
Faune nymphanmi : 2.
4, Descende caelo : i.
19.
Quantum distet : 5.
5. Caelo tonantem : i.
20.
Non vides : 2.
6. Delicta majorum : i.
21.
nata mecum : i.
7. Quidfles: 7.
22.
Montium custos : 2.
8. Martiis caelebs : 2.
23-
Caelo supinas : i.
9. Donee gratus: 5.
24.
Intactis opulentior : $.
10. Extremum Tanain : 6.
25-
Quo me Bacche : 5.
II. Mercuri nam te : 2.
26.
Vixipuellis: i.
12. Miserarum est : 16.
27.
Impios parrae : 2.
13. fons Bandusiae : 7.
28.
Festo quid : 5.
14. Herculis ritu : 2.
29.
Tyrrhena regum : i.
15. Uxor pauperis : 5.
30-
Exegi monumentiun : i
Lib.
IV.
I. Intermissa Venus : 5.
9-
Ne forte credas : i.
2. Pindarum quisquis : 2.
10.
crudelis adhuc : 8.
3. Quem tu Melpomene : 5.
II.
Est mihi nonum : 2.
4. Qualem ministrum : i.
12.
Jam veris comites : 6.
5. Divis orte bonus : 6.
n-
Audivlre Lyce : 7.
6. Dive quem proles : 2.
14.
Qua cura patrum : i.
7. DiflFuger8re nives : 10.
15-
Phoebus volentem : i.
8. Donarem pateras : 4.
Carmen Saeculare : 2.
Metres of Horace, 291
Epodes.
*" I. Ibislibumis: 13. 10. Malasoluta: 13.
2. Beatusille: 13. 11. Peed nihil: 17.
3. Parentis olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis : 9.
4. Lupis et agnis : r3. 13. Horrida tempestas : 18.
5. At O deorum : 13. 14. Mollis inertia : 14.
6. Quid immerentes : 13. 15. Noxerat: 14.
7. Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera jam : 15.
8. Rogare longo : 13. 17. Jam jam efficad : 12.
9. Quando repostum : 13.
373. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the
above-mentioned verses.
a, Glyconks with one Pherecratk (both imperfect) : as,
' Dia|n/jf^ sumus | in ftde
puellla^ et pugn | intggri :
DIa'nam, puSn I intggri
piielllaequg calnalmus. — Catull. 34.
b, Sapphics^ in series of single lines, closing with an Adonic :
as,
An mSlgis dilri trgmu(ere I Manes
Herculk/« / et vilsum c&nis I infejrorum
fugU I abrupltis trgplldus ciltenis ?
falttlmur: laelte vgnlt I eccS I vultu,
quern tullit Poelas; humSIrTsqug I tela
gestSt I et noltas p6pu|Iis phalretras
Herculis I heres. — Sen. //ere. (Et. 1600-6.
c, Sapphics followed by Glyconics^ of indefinite number (id.
//ere. Fur. 830-874, 875-894).
Miscellaneous.
374. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry :
viz : —
a. ANAPiESTic verses of various lengths are found in dramatic
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted
for the anapaest : as,
hic hSmost I ovoxAum h5mT|num praelcTpufis
vSlupta I tibus gau I d/isqu^ an ! tepotens.
!ta c6mlm6da quae Icupt^ evenlunt,
quod ago I subit, adlsScue I sSquItur :
M gau I dnim sup | p^dttat. — Plaut. Trin. 1 1 1 5-1 9.
§82
8.k
292 Prosody.
b. Bacchiac verses (five-timed) occur in dramatic poets, — very
rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus — either in verses of
two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated
very freely, as are all measures in early Latin. The long syllables
may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted : as,
multas res | slmit« In | m66 c6r|d6 vorsQ,
TsmXium In colgltando | d6\brem mldtpiscor
gg6met me | c6g^ et ma|cgr<7 et delfitigo ;
migister I mlh/exerlcltor anljmfis nunc est.
Plaut. Trin, 223-226.
c. Cretic measures occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac,
with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : as,
amdr ^mllcus m!hi | ne fuas | unquam.
his ggo I de artrbus | gratlam | filclo.
nfl (tgo isltos mSror I faecSos I mores. — id. 267, 293, 297.
d. Saturnian Verse. — In early Latin is found a rude form
of verse, not like the others borrowed from the Greek. The
rhythm is Iambic tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), from
the Greek ; but the Arsis is often syncopated, especially in the
middle and end of the verses : as,
dalbdnt maIMm Melt^lllf — 1| Na^vi|6 pol^tae.
Sarly Prosody.
375. The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in
several respects from that of the later.^
«. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it
does not make position with a following consonant, and is sometimes
cut ofE before a vowel. This usage continued in all poets till Cic-
ero's time.
b. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made
short, if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words
like putd, caviy vali^ vidi.) Thus —
ab€st {Cist. ii. i, 12); Spiid test {Trin. 196); s6r6r dictast
{Enn. 157) ; bfinis {Stick. 99) ; d6ml d^aeque {Pseud. 37) ;
d6ml {Mil. 194).
' Before the language was used in literature, it had become very much changed
by the loss of final consonants and shortening of final syllables under the influence
of accent ; which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became limited to
the penult and antepenult. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar
and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. In many
cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets.
Early Prosody, 293
c. The same effect is produced whea a short monosyllable pre-
cedes a long syllable : as,
Id€st profecto {Merc, 372) ; grit et tlbi Sxoptatum {Mil ion) ;
si quid^»« hercle {Asin. 414) ; quid €st Ji hoc {Andria^ 237).
^. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such
are tlhy tste, inde, Unde, nimpe, isse (?). (Scholars are not yet
agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.)
Thus : — gcquls his in aedibust {Bacch, 581.)
/.In .some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced-
ing it in a word of more than three syllables : as, in serUctuti^
Syrdcusae.
f. At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position
stand for short ones : as,
Idng tu {Pseud, 442) ; gstne consimilis {Epid. v. I. 18).
g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is retained.
Thus : —
1. Final a of the first declension is often long : as,
ne epfstula quid//« lilla sit in a^dibus {A sin. 762).
2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there
seems no etymological reason for it) : as,
nunc et amico | prdsperalx? et | gdnio med mul I ta bona faciam
{Pers. 263).
3. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem
(either with original r or original s) : as,
mddo quom dict^z in me ingerebas ddium non uxor eram {As. 927.)
fta mi in pector^ dtque corde, fdcit amor incdndium {Merc. 500).
dtque quanto ndx fuisti Idngior hoc prdxuma {Amph. 548).
4. The termination ea O^tis) is sometimes retained long : as in
miles^ superstes.
5. All verb-endings in r, a, and t, may be retained long, where
the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection : as,
r^gredior audisse me [Capt. 1023) ; 4tqu^ ut qui fueris et qui nunc
(id. 248) ; me nominat haec [Epid. iv. i, 8) ; faciat ut semper {Poen.
ii. 42) ; infuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. 21) ; qui amet (Merc.
1021) ; ut fit in bello capital alter filius (Caft, 25) ; tibi sit ad me
re visas ( True, ii. 4, 79).
h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of
this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.)
MISCELLANEOUS.
§84
1.
I.— Beokonins of Time.
Note. — The Year was dated, in earlier times, by the names of the
Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City
{ad urbe conditA^ anno urbis cofidita)^ the date of which was assigned by
Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to
reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is
to be subtracted from 754 : e.g. A.U.C. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship)
= B.C. 63.
Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year
consisted of 355 days : March, May, Quintilis (July), and October
having each 31 days ; February having 28, and each of the remainder
29; with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after Feb-
ruary 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The "Julian year," by
the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided as at present. Every
fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal.' Mart.) was counted twice,
giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called Bissextilis.
The month Quintilis received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius
Caesar ; and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor.
The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the
Gregorian Calendar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year once in every
century, •
376. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are
reckoned as follows : —
a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae {Calends\
from calare, to call, — that being the day on which the pontiffs
publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata^ which
which they did, originally, from actual observation.
b. Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on the fifteenth
day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the
other months, — were the Idua {Ides), the day of Full Moon,
c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the
Ides — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and
October, but the fifth of the other months — were the Nonae
{Nones or ninths).
Reckoning of Time,
295
d. From the three points thus determined the days of the month
were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, by Roman
custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following rule for
determining the date : —
If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in
the month preceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the
day on which they fall, — and from the number thus ascertained
subtract the given date : — thus,
viii. KaL Feb. (33 — 8)— Jan. 25.
iv. Non. Mar. (8 — ^4) = Mar. 4.
iv. Id. Sept. (14—4) =Sept. 10. •
e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as
thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : —
yanuary
FebnictTy^
March,
A/rti.
I. Kal. Jan.
Kal
Feb.
Kal. MARTiiB
Kal
Apriles
3. IV. Non.
Jan.
IV. Non.
Feb.
VI. Non.
Mart.
IV. Non.
Apr.
3. ra.
»i
»i
III.
»i
tt
V,
tt
tt
III.
„
i»
4. priA
a
*f
prid.
»i
tt
IV.
„
tt
prid.
»> .
*i
5. Non
■ Jan.
Non
Fbb.
ni.
tt
tt
Non
Apriles
6. vin.
Id. Jan.
VIlI.
Id.
Feb.
prid.
»»
tt
VIII.
Id. Apr.
7. vn.
»»
VII.
1)
tt
Non
. MARTIiB
yn.
»i
tt
8. VI.
,,
VI.
»»
»»
VIII.
Id. Mart.
VI.
tt
„
9. V.
ti
V.
tt
tt
vn.
tt
tt
V.
tt
tt
lo. IV.
,t
IV.
tt
*»
VI.
»»
tt
IV.
ft
tt
IT. III.
it
m.
tt
i»
V.
tt
»»
ni.
»»
tt
12. prid.
»>
prid.
„
f«
IV.
tt
»»
prid.
tt
tt
13. IdusJan.
Idus Feb.
m.
tt
tt
Idus Apriles,
14- XIX.
Kal
Feb.
XVI.
Kal.
Martias
prid.
tt
tt
xvni.
Kal
15. xvin
»»
*}
XV.
n
If
Idus Martins
xvn.
»i
tt
16. xvn.
»»
»»
XIV.
»>
fi
XVII
Kal.
April is.
XVI.
tt
tt
17. XVI.
»»
»»
xin.
tt
tt
XVI.
»»
tt
XV.
tt
It
18. XV.
»>
ft
XII.
tt
»»
XV.
tt
tt
XIV.
It
t*
19. XIV.
))
i»
XI.
»f
»»
XIV.
It
»>
XIII.
tt
tt
20. XIII.
t,
»>
X.
f*
tt
xni.
tt
tt
xn.
It
tt
31. XII.
ft
))
IX.
i»
»»
xn.
tt
tt
XI.
tt
fi
23. XI.
»»
»»
VIII,
»» •
>•
XI.
tt
t*
X.
M
»»
23. X.
»»
it
vn.
tt
tt
X.
>f
»)
IX.
tt
»»
24. IX.
t*
»»
VI.
tt
tt
IX.
tt
»»
vin.
1)
)*
25. VIII.
»>
i»
V.
tt
tt
VIII.
w
1*
VII.
»»
tt
36. VII.
t»
it
IV,
>f
1)
vn.
)}
»»
VI.
»»
tt
37. VI.
)*
»»
in.
»»
tt
VI.
»f
tt
V.
»»
It
38. V.
»»
»»
prid.
»»
tt
v.
tt
tt
IV.
*>
»»
39. IV.
»»
It
[prid.
Kal
.Mart.
IV.
»f
»•
m.
»»
fi
30. m.
f*
tt
in leap-year, the
III.
tt
tt
pnd.
»»
»»
31. prid.,,
It
vi. Kal. (24th) being
prid.
»»
tt
So June, Sept., Nov.
(So Aug., Dec.)
counted twice.]
(So May. July, Oct)
Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c, 46) is to
be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the
number of days in the month.
296 Miscellaneous,
8. Measures of Valve,
377. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but
actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve
unciae. In the third century B.C. the As was reduced by degrees
to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins
were introduced ; the Denarius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius or
sesterce {semis-tertius, ox half-third, represented by IIS or HS =
duo et semis) » zyi Asses.
378. The SestertinB, being probably introduced at a time when
it was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit
of value : hence nnmmus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester-^
tins. Afterwards, by reductions in the standard, four asses
became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the anreos
being equal to 100 sesterces. The value o^ these coins is seen in
the following Table : —
2% asses = I sestertius or nummus (hs), value nearly 5 cents.
10 asses or 4 sestertii = i denarius . . . „ *> 20 „
1000 sestertii = i sestertium „ „ I50.00.
379. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius)
was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly
as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia ^^ti^o, 00. When com-
bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands {centena
millid) are to be understood : thus decies sestertium {decies hs) =
$50,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often
omitted : thus sexagies (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexagies \centena
millia ] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) =$300,000 (nearly).
380. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above
the number indicates thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred-
thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestertii; hs. dc. = 600,000 ses-
tertii, or 600 sestertia; h.s. |dc| =60,000,000 sestertii,
381. The Roman Measures of Length are the following : —
12 unciae (inches ) = i Roman Foot (pes: 11.65 English inches).
i>^ Feet = I Cubit. — 2^ Feet = i Degree or Step (gradus),
5 Feet = I Pace (pcusus), — 2000 Paces (mille passuutn) == i Mile.
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Jugerum^
or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long
and 120 broad ; a little less than ^ of an English cu:re.
Miscellaneous,
297
382. The Measures of Weight are —
12 unciae (ounces) = one pound (lUfra, about ^ lb. avoirdupois).
Fractional parts (weight or coin) are —
1. (^),uncia; 5. {h), quincunx ; 9. (i),dadrans;
2. {^), sextans; 6. (i), semissis; 10. {i), dextans ;
3. {\), quadrans ; 7. (-j!^), septunx; ii. (H), <^«jr;
4. (J),/^i^«j; 8. (i),^^Jw; 12. A8.1
The Talent was a Greek weight = 60 //^r^?.
383. The Measures of Capacity are —
12 cyathi = i sextarius (nearly a pint).
16 sextarii =: i modius (peck).
6 sextarii = i congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congii ss i amphora (6 gallons).
ABBREVIATIONS.
A., absolvOf antiquo,
A. U., anno urbis,
A. U. C, ab urbe conditd,
C, condemnor comiticdis.
COS., consul (consu/e).
coss., consumes (consulibus).
D., divus.
"D. D., dono dedit.
D. D. D., dctt^ dicat, dedicat,
des., designatus.
D. M., dii manes,
eq. Rom., eques Romanus. _
¥ .y filiuSf fastus,
ictus, jurisconsulius.
Id , /^MJ.
imp., imperator,
J. O. M., JC:^ Optimo maximo,
K., Kal., Kalendce,
N., nepoSf ne/astus,
N. L., «<?» %»^/.
P. C, patres conscripti,
^X.fplebis.
pont. m2x.y pontifex maximus,
pop., populus.
P. R., populus Romanus.
pr., prcetor,
proc. , proconsul,
Q. B. F. F. Q. s., f«<^ honum felix
faustumque sit,
Quir., Quirites,
resp., respublica, respondet,
S-, salutem, sacrum^ senatus.
S. C, senatus consultum,
S. D. P., salutem dicit plurimam,
S. P. Q. R., Senatus Populusque Ro-
manus,
S. V. B. E. E. v., Jl Vfl/<?X ^^«^ «/, ^^<7
pi. tr., tribunus plebis,
U. (u. R.), uti rogas.
' Originally a pound of copper ; afterwards worth about two cents.
§85
6.
GLOSSARY
OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY.
I. Grammatical Figures.
Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence,
leaving the first part broken or unfinished.
Anastrophe : inversion of the usual order of words.
Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis),
Archaism : an adoption of old or obsolete forms.
Asyndeton : omission of conjunctions (208. b), .
Barbarism : adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy : brevity of expression.
Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (10. r).
Ellipsis : omission of a word or words necessary to complete the
sense (177. n.).
Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.
Epenthesis : insertion of a letter or syllable (11. c),
Hellenism : use of Greek forms or constructions.
Hendiadys : the use of two nouns, with conjunction, instead of a
single modified noun.
^/df//«^^;^ interchange of constructions.
Hysteron proteron : reversing the natural order.
Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word (11. ^).
Paragoge: adding a letter or letters to the end of a word.
Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction.
Periphrasis : a roundabout way of expression.
Pleonasm : the use of needless words.
Prolepsis : the use of a word by anticipation, referring to one or
more words afterwards expressed.
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression {if^ when,
whoever) y leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (304).
Syncope : omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a
word (II. b),
Synesis : agreement of words according to the sense, and not the
grammatical form (182).
Tmesis : the separation of the two parts of a compound word by
other words (cutting) .
Zeugma : the use of a verb with two different words, to only one
of which it strictly applies (yoking).
Glossary* 299
II. Rhetorical Figures.
Allegory : a narrative in which names and things are used as meta-
phors to enforce some moral truth, and not in their natural
sense.
AlliteraHon : using several words that begin with the same letter.
Analogy : argument from resemblances.
Anaphora: repeating a word at the beginning of successive
clauses (344 -y)'
Antithesis : opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis : 344).
Antqnomasia : use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse.
Aposiopesis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect.
Catachresis\ a harsh metaphor (misuse of words).
Chiasmus : reversing the order of words in corresponding pairs or
phrases (344/)-
Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of
meaning.
Euphemism : the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea.
Euphony : the choice of words for their agreeable sound.
Hyperbaton : violation of the usual order of words.
Hyperbole : exaggeration for rhetorical effect.
Irony : the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary
to what is meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (209. c).
Metaphor : the figurative use of words, indicating an object by
some resemblance {transfer).
Metonymy : using the name of one thing to indicate some kindred
thing.
Paronomasia : using words of like sound.
Synecdoche: using the name of a part for the whole, or the
reverse.
Synonymes : two or more words of the same or similar meaning.
III. Terms of Prosody.
Acatalectic: complete, as a series or sequence of feet (359. tf).
Anaclasis : breaking up of rhythm by substituting different
measures.
Anacrusis : changing the character of the rhythm by setting off an
unaccented syllable or syllables (355.^).
Antistrophe : a series of verses corresponding to one which has
gone before {strophe).
Arsis : the unaccented part of a foot (358).
Basis : a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.
300 Glossary,
Ccesura : the ending of a word within a measure (358. b),
CataUxis : loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series
catalectic (incomplete, 359. a),
Contrtution : using one long syllable for two short (357).
Carreption : shortening of a long syllable, for symmetry (357. d).
Diaresis : the coincidence of the end of a foot with that of a word
(358. cy
Dialysis: the use of j and v as vowels {silud^=silva: 347. d^ r).
Diastole: making a short syllable long by emphasizing it (359./").
Dipody, Dimeter: consisting of two like feet, or measures.
Distich : a system or series of two verses.
Elision : the combining of a final with a following initial vowel
(359. c).
Heptameter : consisting of seven feet.
Hexapody, Hexameter : consisting of six feet, or measures.
Hiatus : the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision
(359. e).
Ictus : the metrical accent (358. a).
Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (356, Note).
LogcuBdic: var3ring in rhythm, making the e£Eect resemble prose
(368).
Manometer: consisting of a single measure.
Mora: the unit of time =* one short syllable (355. a).
Pentapody^ Pentameter : consisting of five feet, or measures.
Penthemimeris : consisting of five half-feet.
Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length
(355. c).
Resolution : using two short syllables for one long (357).
Strophe : a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole
{stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated.
Synceresis: omitting of vowels by contraction {cogo^^co-ago),
Synapheia: elision between two verses (359. c, R.).
Synizesis: combining two vowels in one syllable (347. c).
Syncope : loss of a short vowel.
Systole : shortening a syllable regularly long.
Tetrapody, Tetrameter : consisting of four feet, or measures.
Tetrastich : a system of four verses.
Thesis: the accented part of a foot (358).
Tripody, Trimeter: consisting of three feet, or measures.
Tristich : a system of three verses.
APPENDIX.
Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the
Romans. This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend
(Old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic,
are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common
stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in-
terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive migra-
tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia.
The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole
group of languages, as well as to the original language from which
the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor-
responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different
branches, the original (" Indo-European ") root, stem, or form can
in very many cases be determined ; and this is used as a model,
or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these
forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially,
p. 69). A few are here added for further illustration : —
I. Case Forms (Stem vak, voice).
Indo-Eor.
Sans^
Greek.
Latin.
Sing. Nom.
vaks
vaks
H
VOX
Gen.
vakas
vachas
ht6%
vocis
Dat.
vakai
vache
hti
voci
Ace.
vakam
vacham
ira
vocem
Abl.
vakat
vachas
(gen. or dat.)
v6ce(d)
Loc.
vaki
vachi
(dat.)
(dat.)
Instr.
vaka
vacha
(dat.)
(abl.)
Plur. Nom.
vakas
vachas
6ir€S
voces
Gen.
vakam
vacham
iwwv
vocum
Dat.
vakbhyams
vagbhyas
Hi
vocibus
Ace.
vakams
vachas
twos
voces
Abl.
vakbhyams
(as dat.)
(gen. or dat.)
vocibus
Loc.
vaksvas
vaksu
(dat.)
(dat.)
Instr.
vakbhis
vagbhis
(dat.)
(abl.)
(For Verb-Forms, see p. 69.)
302
Appendix.
2, Cardinal Numbers.
lado-Eor.
Sanakr.
Greek.
Latin.
I
?
[ekal
w
[unusj
2
dva
dva
9^
duo
3
tri
tri
rp€is
tres
4
kvatvar
chatur
rerrap€S
quattuor
5
kvankva
panchan
w4irr9
quinque
6
ksvaks
shash
H
sex
7
saptam
saptan
hrrd
septem
8
aktam
ashtun
hitrA
octo
9
navam
navan
iyyU
novem
10
dakam
dasan
ZUa
decern
12
dvadakam
dva-dasan
Z<&9€M
duodecim
13
tridakam
trayo-dasan
rpiffKedHeica
tredecim
20
dvidakanta vinsati
ttKoai
viginti
30
tridakanta
trinsati
TptdKoma
triginta
100
kantam
9atam
iicardy
centum
3. Familiar and Household Words^
Indo-Eur.
Sanskr.
Greek.
Latin.
Father.
plitar-
pitri-
vor^p
pater
Mother,
matar-
matri-
/lirfip
mater
Father-
in-law.
svakura-
9va9ura-
iievp6s
socer
Daughter-in-law,
snusha-
snusha-
yv6s
nurus
Brother,
bhratar-
bhratri-
i^pdrvpl
frater
Sister.
svasar- (?)
svasar-
[i«€A^]
sorer
Master
pati-
pati-
7r6ais
potis
House,
dama-
dama-
Z6fios
domus
Seat,
sadas-
sadas-
nos
sedes
Year,
vatas-
vatsa-
Ihos
vetus (old)
Field,
agra-
ajra.
kyp6s
ager
Ox, Cow.
gau-
go-
, 0OVS
bos
Sheep (Ewe),
avi-
avi-
6Js
ovis
Swine {Sow),
su
su-
tsf erlts
sus
Yoke,
yuga-
yuga-
(vy6y
jugum
Wagon
rata-
rata-
[Hf^c^a]
rota (wheel)
Middle.
madhya-
madhya
fi4(ros
medius
Sweet,
svadu-
svadu-
i,Us
suavis.
The emigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided
into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own
development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant
Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have been preserved,
in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though
no literature now exists in them ; and other fragments were prob-
' Clansman.
Appendix,
303
ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed
the basis of the modem Italian. The most important of these
ancient languages of Italy — not including Etruscan, which was
of uncertain origin — were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um-
brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms, as compared
with the Latin, may be seen in the following : —
lAtin.
Oscan.
Umbrian.
Latin.
Oscan.
Umbrian.
accinere
arkane
neque
nep
alteri(loc.)alttrei
per
perum
argento
aragetud
portet
portaia
avibus
aveis
quadrupedibus
peturpursus
censor
censtur
quattuor
petora
petur
censebit
censazet
quinque
pomtis
contra, F.
contrud, N
qui, quis
pis
pis
cornicem
curnaco
quid
pid
dextra
destru
quod
pod
pod
dicere
deicum (cf . venum-do)
cui
piei
dixerit
dicust
quom
pone, pune
duodecim
desenduf
rectori
regaturei
extra
ehtrad
siquis
svepis
facito
factud
stet
stain (stai^et)
fecerit
fefacust
subvoco
subocau
fertote
fertuta
sum
sum
fratribus
fratrus
est
i«st
ibi
ip
sit
set
imperator
embratur
fuerit
fust
fust
inter
anter
anter
fuerunt
fufans
liceto
ifcitud
fuat
fuid
fuia
magistro
mestru
tertium
tertim
medius
mefa
ubi
puf
mugiatur
mugatu
uterque
puturus pid
multare
moltaum
utrique
puterei*
putrespe
Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating
back to the third century before the Christian era ; and some Laws
are attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (b.c. 750) and
Numa (B.C. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables,
B.C. 450) ; but in their present form no authentic dates can be
assigned to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement
to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. De Legibus^ especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.)
Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions
known to us, until about B.C. 200. At that time it was already
strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the
chief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular
plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from
304 Appendix.
Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the
slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners
they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural
growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus
very considerably checked or suppressed. Orations, rhetorical
works, letters, and histories, — dealing with the practical a£Eairs
and passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct
from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly
court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class : satires and
epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the
familiar features of Italian life.
In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as
the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part
of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos-
ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much
later period ; as the official language of the Church and Court of
Rome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common
language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com-
munication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the
universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences,
so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be
known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of
the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelligibly
to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be regarded
as a living language ; while, conventionally, it retains its place as
the foundation of a liberal education.
During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not
only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects,
known by the collective name of lingua rustica^ far simpler in their
forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was
the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the
ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (Jiartus)^
genie {gens). In the colonies lon'^est occupied by the Romans,
Latin — often in its ruder and more popular form — grew into the
language of the common people. Hence the modern languages
called " Romance " or " Romanic " ; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu-
guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern
Spain, the Provencal or Troubadour language of the South of
France, the " Rouman " or Wallachian of the lower Danube (Rou-
mania), and the " Roumansch " of some districts of Switzerland.
A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin
will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which
reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as
Appendix.
30s
the degree in which the substance of the language has remained
unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the general tense-system has
been preserved from the -Latin in all these languages, together
with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal
endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The
following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration
than is found in the other Romanic tongues : —
Latin.
Italian.
Spanish*
Portuguese.
French.
Provencal*
sum
sono
soy
86u
suis
son (sui)
es
sei
eres
^
es
ses (est)
est
h
es
h6
est
es (ez)
sumus
siamo
somos
sdmos
sommes
sem (em)
estis
siete
sois
s6is
etes
etz (es)
sunt
sono
son
sao
sont
sont (son)
eram
era
era
era
^tais (STA)
era
eras
en
eras
eras
^tais
eras
crat
era
era
era
^tait
era
eramus
eravamo
^ramos
^ramos
^tions
eram
eratis
eravate
erais
^reis
^tiez
eratz
erant
^rano
eran
^rao
^taient
eran
fui
fui
fui
fui
fus
fui
fuisti
fosti
fuiste
f6ste
fus
fust
fuit
fii
fu^
f6i '
fut
fo (fon)
fuimus
fummo
fuimos
f6mos
fiimes
fom
fuistis
foste
fuisteis
fdstos
f^tes
fotz
fuerunt
furono
fueron
f6ra3
furent
foren
sim
sia
sea
seja
sois
sia
sis
sii
seas
sejas
sois
sias
sit
sia
sea
seja
soit
sia
simus
siamo
seamos
sejimos
soyons
siam
sitis
siate
seais
sejais
soyez
siatz
sint
siano
sean
s^ja5
soient
sian
fuissem
fossi
fuese
f6sse
fusse
fos
fuisses
fossi
fueses
fdsses
fusses
fosses
fuisset
fosse
fuese
fdsse
f^t
fossa (fos)
fuissemus
fdssimo
fuesemos
f6ssemos
fussions
fossem
fuissetis
foste
fueseis
f6sseis
fussiez
fossetz
faissent
fdssero
fuesen
fdssem
fussent
fossen
es
sii
se
se
sois
sias
esto
sia
sea
seja
soit
sia
este
siate
sed
s^de
soyez
siatz
sunto
siano
sean
s^jaS
soient
sian
esse
&sere
ser
sSr
atre
esser
[sens]
essendo
siendo
s6ndo
^tant
essent
3o6
Appendix.
PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS.
T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies
Q. Ennius, Annals^ Satires, 6r*c, (Fragments) . . .
M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, &^c. . .
M. Pacuvius, Tragedies (Fragments)
P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Comedies
C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments)
L. Attius (or Accius), Tragedies (Fragments) . . .
M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities, ^c. .
M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues . .
C. Julius Csesar, Commentaries
T. Lucretius Cams, Poem ** De Rerum Natura " . .
C. Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems ....
C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories ....
Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . .
P. Vergilius Maro (Virgil), Eclogues, Georgis, jEneid
Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satires, Odes, Epistles
Albius Tibullus, Elegies
Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies ....
T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History
P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, &*c,
M. Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, &*c. . .
C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History . •
Pomponius Mela, Husbandry &* Geography
A. Persius Flaccus, Satires
L. Annaeus Seneca, Philos, Letters, 6f*c,j Tragedies
M. Annaeus Lucanus, Historical Poem " Pharsalia "
Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander ....
C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny), Nat, Hist, 6f*c. . .
C. Valerius Flaccus, Heroic Poem " Argonautica **
P. Papinius Statins, Heroic Poems " Thebais," &c.
C, Silius Italicus, Heroic Poem " Punica "...
D. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires ....
L. Annaeus Florus, Historical Abridgment . . .
M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrams . .
M. Fabius Quintilianus, Rhetoric
C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, 6r*c. . . .
C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior), Letters
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, The Twelve Caesars . .
Apuleius, Philos. Writings, " Metamorphoses " .
A. Gellius, Miscellanies^ " Noctes Atticae *' . . .
t Q. Septimius Florens TertuUianus, Apologist
t M. Minucius Felix, Apologetic Dialogue . . .
f Firmianus Lactantius, Theology
D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . . .
Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History ....
Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, &*c, . .
t Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems .
t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, 6r*c,
Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogues
B.C.
254-184
239-169
234-149
220-130
195-159
148-103
170-75
116-28
106-43
100-44
95-52
87-47
86-34
70-19
65-8
54-18
51-15
59-A.D. 17
43-A.D. 18
-31
19-31
A.D. 34-62
-65
39-^5
23-79
-88
61-96
25-100
40-120
-120
43-104
40-118
60-118
61-115
70-
IIO-
aboyt -180
160-240
about -250
250-325
-380
-395
-408
348-410
354-430
470-520
t Christian writers.
INDEX.
INDEX.
Note. — The references are to pages. The letters refer to subsecihns ; figures
in parentheses to the nvasAiereA paragraphs.
The letter n. signifies Note; r., Remark ; n (italic), Foot-note.
A or ab, loi ; after peto or postulo,
i66^ R. ; after participles of ori-
gin, 170. a; with abl. of agent
after passives, 171 (246).
a, Greek nouns in (3d decl.)> .2a
a as stem-vowel of ist conjug. 71.
c; 72. a; n; 73. a; in subj. 74.
b, c.
Abbreviations of Praenomens, 36.
Ablative, 13. /; ending in abus,
16. e; in i, 24 (57), 42 (87. «) ;
in e, of adjectives, 42. b ; in is
(3d decl.), 20 (47. b) ; in ubus,
31. dT; neuter as Adverb, 43. d ;
CO . . . quo, ^'C ; after Prepo-
sitions, I or. b ; with ab or de
for partit. gen., 149. c ; of crime
or penalty, 152. b ; with done,
&c. 156. d ; with pro (for de-
fence, &c.), 163 ; Syntax, 167-
177 ; signification, 167 ; of sep-
aration, 168; with compounds,
169; of place whence, id.; of
freedom and want (opus and
usus), id. ; of source, 170 ; after
natus, &c., id. a; of Material,
id. c, ; of Cause, id. (245) ; with
dignus, &c., 171. a; of Agent
with ab, id. (246); after Com-
paratives, 172 ; after plus, &c.
id. c; of Means, &c., 173; of
Accompaniment, id. a; after
utor, &c., 174; of Difference,
id.; of Quality, id. (248. N.);
of Description, id. a ; of Price,
175; of Specification, id.; Lo-
cative, id- ; Ablative Absolute,
lute, 176; used adverbially, id.
b ; how translated, 177 ; of Time
wAeftf 177; Xow long, id. b; of
Distance, 178. b\ Place whence^
id.tf ; for Locative, 179./; Way
by which, id. g; with palam, &c.,
182. b ; ab for Agent, 183 ; of
Gerundive, 212.
Abounding, words of, with abl.
173. <•; with gen. 154.
Absolute and Relative Time, 199.
Abstract nouns in plural, 33. c;
with neuter adjective, 125. b;
expressed by neuter adjective,
127. tf, b,
abus in dat. plur. of ist decl. 16. e.
ac, see atque; ac si, 224.
Acatalectic verse, 276. a.
Accent, Rules of, 8 ; marks of, N.
accidit, synopsis of, 95.
Accompaniment, ablative of, with
cum, 173. a.
Accusative, 13 (31. ^ ; in im, 24
(56. a, b) ; in is, id. 58 ; neuter,
as Adverb, 97. d; fem., 98, e;
3io
Index.
after Prepositions, loi. a; as
Object, 120; with verbs of re-
membering, &c., 152 (219) ; with
Impersonals, 153. b ; with juvo,
medeor, &c., 157. 0, b; with
dative after verbs, 155 ; after
compounds with ante, &c., 159
(228. a) \ with ad, for dative,
162, b; after propior, &c., 162. e;
Syntax, 164-167 ; as Direct Ob-
ject, 164 ; with verbs, of feeling
and taste t id. ^, c ; after com-
pounds of circum and trans, id.
d; with impersonals, 165. e;
cognate, 165 (238) ; constructive
use {constructio /ragnans)^ id. b ;
Two Accusatives, id. (239) ; pas-
sive use, with verbs of asking,
&c., 166^ R. ; Adverbial, id. a;
synecdochical, id. c; of Exclam-
ation, id. d; of duration and ex-
tent, id. e; 177, 178; as subject
of Infinitive, 167./; with pridie,
propior, &c., 182. a; of Subject,
in Indirect Discourse, 250; of
Anticipation, 246, f; in Substan-
tive Clauses after verbs of Prom-
ising, &c. ; of Gerundive, 212.
Accusing and Acquitting, verbs
of, 152.
-aceus, adjective ending, 112.^.
Actions, names of, no; nouns of,
with gen. 150.
ad, meaning near, 181. y.
adamas, 26. e.
-ades, patronymic, iii, b,
adimo, construction of, 159 (229).
Adjectives, defined, 10. b; like
nouns, 14. n; inflection, 37-43;
of 1st and 2d declensions, 37;
of 3d declension, 39 ; of two or
three terminations, (84, 84. a) ;
of one termination, 40. a; the
inflection of Comparatives, 41
(86) ; of common gender, 42
(88. b) ; cases of, used as Ad-
verbs, 43. d; Comparison, 43-
45 ; used as nouns, 42 (88. a) ;
45 (91. a) ; 46 (93, /) ; deriva-
tive, III; verbal, 112; com-
pound, 115. d; as modifiers,
121 (178. a) ; adjective phrase,
id. (179); Rule of Agreement,
124 (186) ; as Appositive, id.
c; rule of Gender, 125; agree-
ment by SyttesiSf id. ^; used as
nouns, 126; demonstrative, as
Pronouns, 129 (195); neuter
adj. as noun, 127 (189) ; pos-
sessive or derivative, id. (190) ;
as denoting a class, id. a; for
obj. gen. id. ^; as qualifying
Act, 128 (191); two compara-
tives with quam, id. (192);
superlatives, with medius, &c.,
id. (193) ; with genitive, 151.
admodum, 46. d,
Adonian Verse, 285.
Adverbs defined, 11./; how form-
ed, 37. ^; 40. d; 41 ' (86. b) ; 43.
d; compared, 45 ; Numeral, 49 ;
used correlatively as conjunc-
tions, 57 ; derived from Adjec-
tives, 97 (148; the various case-
forms. Note) ; classification, of
Place, 98 ; correlative forms of,
id. n; of Time, Degree, &c.,99;
S3mtax, 140; equivalent to pro-
noun and preposition, id. a;
qualify participles used as nouns,
id.f.
Adverbial Phrase, 121 (179).
Adversative Conjunctions, 104. b.
adversus (prep.), 100. fi.
JE (diphthong), i ; sound of, 7. N.
Affix, close and open, 10. N.
Agency, nouns of, 109.
Agent, abl. of, with ab, 120.
Index,
311
AGH, verb-root, 94. ».
Agnomen, 36. b.
Agreement, 122 (181) ; in predicate,
124 (185).
ai, gen. or dat. of ist decl. 15. a.
aio, 94.0.
al, ar, as neuter ending, 22. c ; list,
«.«
albus, compared with candidus,
44- N. [28a
Alcaic Strophe, 287. Alcmanian,
aU-, 97. «.*
alienus, 38. if., 127 (190).
aliquis, infl. 56; 136 (202. a, b),
-alis, -aris, i\i, d,
alius . . . alius, 138 (203) ; with
abl., 172. 1/.
Alphabet, i ; vowels and diph-
thongs, 1(1); consonants 2^2-5,
see Table, p. 2) ; early forms, 3.
alter . . . alter, 138 (203).
ambo, 48. b.
Although^ how expressed, 225, 226,
233- ^•
amplius, without quam, 172. c,
an, anne, annon, 143 (211), 144.
Anacrusis, 272.^.
Anapaestic Verse, 291.
animi (locative), 151. ^.
Answer, form of, 144.
ante with quam, 183 (262).
ante diem, 180. e.
Antecedent, its use with relative,
134, 135 (209)-
Antepenult, 8 (Defin.).
antequam, 237.
Aorist (historical perfect), 63. «,*
195.
apagc. 94-/
a parte, i^, 181. ^.
Apodosis, 186. R. ; 215, 216.
Apposition, 123 (184); with Loca-
tive, id. c ; of genitive with Pos-
sessives, 124 (184. </).
aptus ad, 162. b ; aptus qui, 233./
Archilochian, 284; Aristophanic, 285.
Arrangement o£ words, 258-262.
Arsis and Thesis, 275 (358).
As, unit of value, 289.
as, gen. of 2d decl. 16 (37. b),
Asclepiadic Verse, 286, 288.
Asking, verbs of (2 accus.), 165. c.
Aspirate (h), originally a palatal,
I. N.
-assere as fut. infin. 75. efi
Assibilation, 5. N.
Assimilation of consonants, 4./*.
ast, 105. b.
Asyndeton, 141. b,
at, 105. b; at vero, 141. e»
at-, stem-ending of patrials, 23
(54.»)
ater, compared with niger, 44. n.
Athos, infl. of, 18 (43).
Atlas, 26 (64).
atque (or ac), 105. a,
atqui, 105. b.
Attraction of relative, 134. a.
Attributive adjective, gender, 125.
-atus, adjective ending, 112./.
audeo, 89 (136).
ausim, 90. a,
ausus, 205. b,
aut, 106. f ; 144. R.
autem, position, 106. k.
Authority in Prosody, 263.
ave (or have), 94./.
ax, adjective ending, 112. b; ad-
jectives in, with gen. 151. ^.
AYA as origin of verb-forms, 72. n.^
Bacchiac Verse, 291.
bam, tense-ending, 65. «.*
Bargaining, verbs of, with ger. 209.
d; with subst. clause, 241. d,
basis inflected, 26 (64).
belli (locative), 179. d.
-ber, names of months in, 39.
312
Index,
-bills (passive verbal), 112. m.
Birth, place of, in ablative, 170. i.
bo, verb-ending, 65. «.
bonus declined, 37.
bos, inflection and stem, 25.
bri-, as stem-ending of nouns, 12
(51. S) ; adjectives, 39 (84. a).
C = g, 3(6); forqu, id (7).
Casura, 275. d; masc. and fem.,
278.
Calendar, 286.
capitis, with verbs of accusing,
&c., 152. a,
Capys, 26 (64).
Cardinal Numbers, 47.
caro, infi. of, 25 (61).
Case-endings, table, 15.
Case-forms, defective, 34.
Cases, 13; constructions of, 145-
183; derivation and meaning,
143; Genitive, 146; Dative,
154; Accusative, 164; Voca-
tive, Ablative, 167 ; time and
place, 177 ; use of Prepositions,
181.
Catalectic verse, 276. a.
causa, with gen., 148.^; iyi,c.
Causal Clauses, 233.
Causal conjunctions, 104. c.
Cause, clauses of, 233.
Caution and effort, verbs of (with
subst. clause), 241. e,
cave in prohibitions, 190. a; ' 242. r.
-ce, enclitic (hie, &c.), 51. », 52. n,
cedo (defective), 94./.
celer, special forms of, 40. c,
celo, with 2 accus., 166. d.
certe, certo, ioo. c,
cette, 94./.
ceu, 224 (312).
Characteristic, clause of, 227. «,
230, 232.
chelys, 26.
Chiasmus, 259. /,
Choliambic Trimeter, 281. f.
Choriambic Verse, 285,
ci or ti, assibilation of, 5. a.
-cip (stem-ending), 19 (45. a)
Circumflex accent, 8. n.
Cities, names of, gender, 12 (17. 0).
clam, as preposition, 182. c.
Classes, plural names of, 33 (762).
Clauses, 122 ; Syntax of depend-
ent, 227-253 ; conditional, 227 ;
final, 228 ; consecutive, 230 ;
causal, 233 ; temporal, 234 ; sub-
stantive, 238; intermediate, 251.
clienta (feminine form), 41. c»
Close syllables, 6. d,
coepi, 93.
Cognate Accusative, 165.
Cognomen^ 36.
Collective noun with plural verb,
139. c.
Combination of words in spell-
ing, 5.
Command, expressions of, 190,
241; as conditions, 222. b; in
indirect discourse, 250.
Commanding, verbs of, with da-
tive, 157 ; with ace id. a ; with
purpose-clause, 241. a, 243. k,
committere ut, 243. e.
Common gender, 13 ; adjectives
of, 42.
Comparative Particles, 104. e ; use
with primary tenses, 224. R.
Comparative SufHx, 43. n.
Comparatives, inflection of, 41 ;
meaning, 46; construction, 172.
Comparison of Adjectives, 43;
irregular, 44 ; defective, 44 (91) ;
of Adverbs, 45.
Complement with copula, 12a
Complementary infinitive, 191.
Completed action, tenses of, 58.
^2; 62 (1152;; 74. / g; 96
Index.
313
(147. V\% their idiomatic use,
198.
Complex Sentence, 122.^.
complures, compluria, 42 (86. c).
Compound Sentences, 122 (180).
Compound words, 115 : inflection
of, id. n; of inflected forms,
116; prepositions in, id. (170) ;
verbs with dative, 158; of ab,
de,cx, 159(229).
Conative present, 195. b; imper-
fect, 197. tf.
Concession, verbs of, 261. c*
Concessive conjunctions, 105. f;
their use 106. 1, 225.
Concessive subjunctive, 187. c.
Concords (forms of Agreement),
123.
Condemning, verbs of, 152 (220).
Conditional Clauses, 122. d.
Conditional Particles, 104. d; 224.
Conditional Sentences, 214-226;
classified, 216.
Conditions, nature of, 214; sim-
' pie, 217 ; future, id. ; contrary
to fact, 219 ; indie, in apodosis,
220. ^, c ; genera], 221 ; dis-
guised, 222 ; omitted, 223 ; in
indirect discourse, 250.
confit, 93.
Conjugation, 71-58 ; the four regu-
lar forms, 71 ; formation of, 73
(126) ; paradigms of, 76-^7.
Conjunctions defined, 11 (25.^);
correlative, 57 ; classification,
103 ; special meaning, 105 ; syn-
tax, 140, 141.
Conjunctrvus modestiay 223. b.
Connecting Vowel (so-called),
72. «.
Connectives, relatives used as,
122.^.
Consecutive Clause, 122. e; char-
acteristic and result, 230.
Consecutive conjunctions, 105. h.
Consonants, classification of, 2;
changes, 4.
Consonant-stems (3d. decl.), 19.
constare with abl. of material
170. c,
constat. Synopsis, 95*
ComtrucHo pragnans^ 165. b.
Constructions of Cases, 145-183.
Constructions, Synopsis of, 254.
Contention, words of, with cum,
173. b.
contentus with abl., 176. b.
Continued action. See Tenses.
Contraction of vowels, 3. ^ ; in pro-
sody, 264. c; of syllables, 272. d»
Contracting, &c., verbs of, with
gerundive, 209. d,
Co-oi-dinate conjunctions, 104. a;
clauses, 122. a,
Copul^ 120; copulative verbs,
id.
Copulative conjunctions, 104. a.
Correlatives, 56; rendered as,
57.^; THE,^:.
Countries, names of, gender 12. b,
credo (parenthetic), 260 c,
Cretic verse, 291.
Crime or charge, gen. of, 152.
cuicuitnodi (gen. or loc), 55. b,
cujas, 56./.
cum (prep.), as enclitic with pro-
nouns, 51. e; 55 (104. e)\ use
of, contention and accompani-
ment, 173; exchange, 175. r.
cuxn (conj.), 106.^; 233. n. ; 233.
N., c ; 234 ; in temporal clauses,
235 ; causal and concessive, 236.
cum . . . turn, 57. h ; 141. d.
-cumque added to relatives, 55. a.
-cundus, adjective ending, 113. /.
cup-, stem-ending, 19,
Customary action as a general con-
dition, 221. ^.
314
Index.
D final, anciently t, 3 (8).
Dactylic Verse, 277.
Daphnis, 26.
Dates, 180. e; 290.
Dative, 13 ; endings, 15; in abus,
16. e; in i (of unus, &c.), 38;
Syntax, 154-163 ; indirect ob-
ject, 1 54 ; connected with loca-
tive, id. N.; uses of, 155; with
transitives, id. ; use of dono,
etc., 156. d; with verbs meaning
favor y &c., 157 ; use of, compared
with accus., 157. c; after verbal
nouns, 158. d; certain verbs, id.
e; compounds of ad, ante, &c.,
id. (228); poetic use, 159. c;
with passive used impersonally^
160 (230); of possession, 160
(231); nomen est, id. h; of
agency with gerundive, id. (232);
of service, 161 (233) ; with ad-
jectives, id. (234) ; of fitness, &c.,
162 ; of reference, 162 (235) ;
ethical, 163 ; with words of con-
tention (poetic), 173. b; of Ge-
rundive, 211.
dea, inflection of, 16. ^.
Declarative Sentence, 119 (171. a).
Declension of Nouns, 14-36; how
produced, 14. n; general rules,
14 (33) ; termination, 15 (34) ; of
Nouns, i. 15, 16; ii. 16-19; iii.
19-30 ; iv. 38-32 ; V. 32, 33.
Declensions (five), characteristics
of, 14 (32).
dedi as reduplicated stem, 65.
Defective Nouns, 33.
Defective Adjectives, 38. d; com-
parison, 45.
Defective Verbs, 58 (no), 192.
Definitions of Syntax, 119; of fig-
ures in grammar, rhetoric, and
prosody, 297.
defit, 93.
deinde, denique, 100. d.
Deles, inflection of, 18.
delphin, 25.
Denominative Verbs, 113.
Deponent Verbs, 59. N.2; conju-
gation, how determined, 71. N. ;
inflection, 88.
Derivation of Words, 107-116.
Derivative Forms, 109; Nounsi
id.; endings, id. « ^ y Adjectives,
III ; Verbs, 114.
Description, imperfect used in, (^-^^
b; 197.0.
Desiderative verbs (in uric), 115.
Determining, verbs of, 241. d,
deus, inflection, 18. /.
Diaeresis, 275. c.
Dido, inflection, 26 (64).
dies, inflection, 32; gender, id.
(73) ; form dii, id. (74. a).
difficilis, comparison, 43. b,
dignus, with abl. I71. o; with rel-
ative clause, 232./
Dimeter Iambic verse, 282. c.
Diminutives : adjectives, 44. f;
formation of, in. a; verbs,
114. d.
Diphthongs, i ; sound of, 7 ; quan-
tity, 8, 264.
Diptotes, 34.
Direct Discourse, 248.
Disjunctive Conjunctions, 104. o.
Dissimilation, 4. e*
Distance, ace. or abl. 178. b.
Distributive Numerals, 48.
divum (divotn) for deonim, 18. y.
-do, -go, feminine endings, 20. b,
domi, locative, 31. /; 179. d,
domus, inflection, 31 (70. /) ; dou-
ble stem, 34. n.
donee, 236; with subj. 237.
dono, etc., constr. of, 156. d.
Doubtful gender, 13 (30. «).
Dual forms, 48. n.
Index,
315
Dubitative Subjunctive, 189; in
indir. questions, 246. b,
dubito an, non . . . quin, 244. R.
due (imperat.)f 75- ^•
dum, with present, 196. t ; to re-
pres. pres. participle, 205. e: as
proviso, 225, 237 ; purpose, 237.
dummodo, 225, 237.
duo, inflection of, 48.
Duration, ace. 166. e, 177 ; abl., id. b,
-dus, participle in, see Gerundive.
E (preposition), see ex.
Early forms of Alphabet, 3; of
Prosody, 292.
ecquis, ecquid, 56. i.
Ecthlipsis, 276 d.
edo, 91 (140).
Effecting, verbs of, 243. e; 244* ^«
effieri, 93.
Effort, verbs of, 241. e.
egeo with gen. 154 (223), 169./.
ejusmodi, 148. a.
elephans, 26.
Elision, 276 c»
Ellipsis, 121. N.
Emphasis as affected by arrange-
ment, 259.
Enclitic controls accent 8 (19. e),
English Method of pronunciation,
7 ; to be used in translation,
citation, &c., id. N.
enim, 106. d ; position, id. k.
ens, part, of esse, 67. iu
eo (irreg. verb), inflection, 92 ; use
in idiomatic phrases, 178. R.
CO . • . quo, the . . . the^ 57. e;
174. R.
Epicene nouns, 13. ^.
Epistolary tenses, 199.
-er (nom. ending), 2d decl., 18,
19; 3d decl., 21 (48.^); 22 (51.
*); 23 (54^); 29(67.*); of ad-
jectives, 38 (82) ; 39 (84. a).
ergo, 106. a ; with gen. 148. g.
-erim, ero, as tense-ending, 65. n\
ES, root of esse, 4 (11. 0); 67.
es, as nom. ending, 21 (51. a)\
list of nouns in es, n.
escit, 69.
esse and its compounds, 67-70;
inflection,68 ; comparative forms
of present, 67. » ; participle, id ;
inflection of, 70.
est quf, 232. a ; est cum, 234. r.
est ut, 242. a,
et . • . et, both . . • and, 106. h,
etenitn, 106. d,
etiam, 99 (151. a)\ in answers,
144. «.
etsi, 106. i; 225. c,
-etum (noun-ending), 112. /.
Etymology, 1-116.
Euphonic change : vowels, 3 ; con-
sonants, 4.
evenit, synopsis, 95.
Exchanging, verbs of, 175, c.
Exclamations, accus. 166. d; with
infin. 194.
Exclamatory sentences, iig,c; ace.
and infin. 197.
Existence, general expressions of,
232. a.
Expecting, hoping, &c., verbs of,
240. d.
exsulare, 90. b»
fac (imperat.), 75 r.
facilis, comparison, 43. b.
facio, 92 (142); compounds, 93.
a, b ; facio ut, 243. e,
fames, abl. of, 24. c,
fan (def. verb), 94. c.
fas, with Supine, 213.
faxo, 92 (142).
Fearing, verbs of (ne or ut),
242, /.
3i6
Index.
Feeling, nouns of, with gen. 150;
with quod- clause, 245. b.
Feminine, rule of gender, 12.
fer (imperat.)i 75- c,
fero, 91.
Festivals, plural names of, 33.1
fide (semi-deponent), 89.
Filling, verbs of, with ablative,
173- ^•
Final Clauses, 122. c ; 228-23a
Final Conjunctions, 105. h.
Final vowels, quantity of, 265 ; not
affected by Position, 265. R.
Finite verb (subject nom.), 119.
fio, 92, 93 ; defective compounds,
93- ^•
First Conjugation, formation, 74.
a; inflection, 76-79; verbs of,
79; derivation, 113 (166. a),
fisus as pres. part. 205. b.
Foot in Prosody, 272; classif. of
feet, 273.
fore ut, 96. c ; 20^ f; 243. e,
forem, 69.
foris (locative), 179. d.
Formation of Words, 107-116.
forsitan (fors sit an), 223. a.
Fourth Conjugation, formation, 74.
d ; inflection, 86; verbs of, 87 ;
derivation, 114 (166. </)•
Fractions, expressed, 49. d, Tigfj,
Frequentative verbs, 114. u,^
French, derivations through, 6. n,
fretus with abl. 176. b,
frugi, comparison, 44 (90).
fruor, fungor, with abl. 174.
fuam, 69.
fui, derivation, 67. n.
Future (tense) : use, 62 ; vowel
change in, 66; of infin. pass.,
how formed, 96; of Imperat.
190. dy e ; uses of, 147.
Future Perfect, 62 ; Syntax, 199;
for simple fut., id. R. ; repre-
sented in subj., 200. R. ; in indir.
disc. ; in protasis, 218.^.
Futurum in prceterito, 214. «.
fuvimus, fuvisset, 69.
G = c (in early use), 3.
Games, plur. names of, 33.
gaudeo, 89 ; with loc. abl. 176. b.
Gender, natural or grammatical,
II, 12; common, 13; of ist
decl., 15; of 2d decl., 17; of
3d decl., 26, 27 ; of 4th decl.,
31 ; of 5th decl., 32.
General truth in secondary tenses
(by sequence of tenses), 201. d.
Genitive, 13; plural in um, 15.
/; of 1st decl. in ai and as, 15.
Ojb; of 3d decl. in ium, 23 ; in
ius', 38; in appos. with pos-
sessive, 124. </, 133. e ; supplied
by possessives, 127 (190), 133.
tf, e, 147. a; Syntax, 146, 1545
subjective, 146; in predicate,
147. c (sapientis, d) ; of mate-
rial, e ; for appositive, 148. //
of quality, id. ; of measure, id.
^, 178. a; partitive, id.; objec-
tive, 150; with adjectives, 151 ;
with verbs, 152; of memory,
&c. ; of charge and penalty, id. ;
of feeling, 153 ; impersonals, id. ;
miseret, &c., id. b; interest,
id. (222) ; of plenty and want,
154; potior, id. a; with egeo
and indigeo, 169. /; of value,
175' ^ ^1 14^' c'> of gerundive,
210, 211.
Gentile names, 36, iii. ^.
Gerund, 58, 62; Syntax, 209-212.
Gerundive, 58. n? 61. d; partici-
pial use, 208; of utor, fruor,
&c., 209. c ; with verbs of pur-
pose, id. d; used like gerund,
id.; gerundive uses, 210; spe-
Index.
317
dal uses of genitive, 211; da-
tive, id. ; ace, abl., 212.
GlyconJc verse, 285, 287.
Gnomic perfect, 198. c.
Grammar, study of, 117, 118.
gratia with gen. 148^; 171. r.
Greek forms compared with Latin,
see Notes, pp. 37, 38, 40, 46, 64,
67, 107, 113, 131, 172.
Greek nouns of ist decl., 16; of
2d, 18 ; of 3d, 25.
H (aspirate), i (i. N.) ; omission
of, 5(12.*).
habeo (imperat.), meaning ccn-
sideTf 190. e ; with infin.,' 193
(273. a) ; with perf. part., 207, e*
hactenus, 182. n.
Hadria, masc, 15.
Happening, verbs of, 242. a,
have, 94./.
Hemiolic measures, 273.
heros, infl., 26 (64).
Heteroclite nouns, 34.
Heterogeneous nouns, 35 (79).
Hexameter verse, 277.
Hiatus, 277 e,
hie, inflection, 52; stem, 51. n;
use, 53 ; quantity.
hiemps (for hiems), 4. c.
Hindering, verbs of, with ne or
quominus, 241. e.
Hindrance, verbs of, with quomi-
nus, 231. c; negative, with
quin, id. d; implied in relat.
clause, 233. e.
Historical Infinitive, 194.
Historical Present, 196. d; se-
quence of tenses with, 202. e.
Hoping, verbs of, 24a d; with
simple infin., id.
Horace, metres of, 287-291,
horizon, infl., 25.
Hortatory Subjunctive, 187.
hospita (fern, of hospes), 41. e.
humi (locative), 179. >/.
I of perfect stem, 65. n,
i suppressed in obit, conicio, &c.,
3. rf.
i (single), in gen. of nouns in ius,
ium, 17. ^; as gen. of nouns in
es, 19. a.
i-declension, 22. n* ; signs of, 23;
of adjectives, 37. n,
i, abl. in, 24 (57).
Iambic Verse, 280.
•ibam, for iebam (4th conj.),
75- e.^
ic- as stem-ending, 19 (45. c).
Ictus, 275 dC
id quod, 135. e.
id temporis, 149. a? 166. h,
idcirco, as correlative, 106. ^,
228. a,
idem, infl., 52; derivation, 51. c;
use, 130. e.
Ides (13th or 1 5th of month), 294. d,
idoneus, compared, 44. d ; idon-
eus qui, 233. /.
-ier in infin. passive, 75. e.^
-ies in 5th decl. (materies), 32
(74. *, «5«).
igitur, meaning, 106. e; position,
id. k.
ii in gen. of 2d decl.17. n^ ; in ad-
jectives, 37. a,
-ills, derivative ending, iii. d,
112. m.
Illative conjunctions, 104. e.
ille, inflection, 52 ; use, 53 ; com-
pounds with -ce, 52 (xoi. a),
-illo, verb-ending (dim.), 114. d,
-im, accus. ending in 3d decl., 23
(56), 84-
-im in pres. subjunctive, 75. e!^
immane quam, 246. e,
immo, how used, 142. d
3i8
Index,
Imperative mood, 60; personal
endings, 64 (^), 67, 190.
Imperative sentence, 119; forms
of, 190.
Imperfect tense, distinguished
from perfect, d'^ (^, n *) ; uses
of, 196, 197.
Impersonal Verbs, synopsis, 95;
classification, 96.; passive of
intransitives, 96. c; Syntax:
miseret, &c., 153, libet, licet,
158. ^, 165. e»
Impure Syllables, 6. c,
in, constr. of, loi.r.
Inceptive (or Inchoative) verbs,
formation in -so, 114.
Incomplete action, tenses of, see
Contintud^ 6r»c,
Increment of nouns and verbs, 267.
Indeclinable nouns, 34 ; rule of
gender, 13.
Indefinite Pronouns, Syntax of,
S5» 13^138 ; form a conditional
expression, 215. N., 227.
Indefinite subject omitted, 139. d ;
expressed by 2d person, 187. a;
as a general condition, 221, a.
Indicative mood, meaning and
use, 59. a, 185; in apodosis
contrary to fact, 220. d, c ; 223. c,
indigeo, with gen. 154, 169./.
indignus, see dignus.
Indirect Discourse, 247-253 ; nar-
rative, 248; conditions, ques-
tions, commands, 250.
Indirect Questions, 143. r., 245.
Indo-European forms, 67. «.
induo, double constr. of, 156. d.
Infinitive Clause, 239.
Infinitive Mood, 58. »i; use, 60
(d); Syntax, 191-194; as sub-
ject, 191 ; complementary, id. ;
optional use, 192. a ; with subj.
accus., id.; case of predicate,
193. ^/ as meaning Purpose,
id. ; Greek use, id. </; of excla-
mation, 194; historical, id,
tenses of, 202-204; pefect, 203.
d, e; future, with fore, 204./.
infit (defect.), 93.
Inflection, defin. of, 9 (20); ter-
mination of, id. (20. b) ; how
modified, 10 (24); of declension
and conjugation.
Influence, verbs o^ with ut-clause,
241. 0.
injussu (def.), 32 (71. ^).
inquam, 94. b ; its position.
Insertion of m in sumpsi, &c., 4. c,
instar with gen. 148. g*
Intensive verbs, 114.
inter se, reciprocal use of, 51. d;
interest, constr. of, 153; with ad,
154.^.
interfieri, 93.
Interjections, defined, 11 ; list, 105.
Interlocked order of words, 260. A,
Intermediate Clauses, Syntax o^
151.
Interrogative Pronouns, 54; Parti-
cles, 99. d; words, 143. e.
Interrogative Sentences, 119;
forms of, 142-144.
-io, noun-ending, no. b.
-io, verb-ending of 3d conj., 72. b;^
74. e; 83.
Ionic verse, 289 (16). «
ipse, 51 ; inflection, 52 ; use, 53 ;
compared with se, 53. n ; special
use, 130, 131.
iri in fut. infin. passive, 92 (141),
96 (147. c).
Irrational Measures, 274, 284.
is, inflection, 52 ; use as correl. 53.
is, ace. plur. -ending, 24 (58) ; of
adjectives, 40 (84. b)\ 42 (87. c.
Islands, names of, loc. use, 179. R.
Index.
319
isse, issem, verb-ending, 65. «.*
iste, 51 ; use, 53 ; compounded
with -cc, 52.
IT as sign of Impersonals, 95. n,
it- as stem-ending, 19 (45. ^)*
Italian dialects, Appendix, 303.
itaque, accent, 8 (19. r) ; compared
with ergo, 106. e ; position, 260.
b ; accent, 8. c»
iter, stem, 25 (60. c) ; 34. n.
Iterative verbs, 114 (167. ^).
ium, noun-ending, iio./I
ium, gen. plur. in 3d declension,
23 ; of adjectives, 40, 42.
ius, gen. sing, ending, 38 (83);
quantity, 39. «.
J (semi- vowel = y), 3.
jam, 100.
jecur, inflection, 25 ; stem 34. n.
jubeo, construction of 157. a, 192.
d, 239. a, 241. a.
jungo, with abl. or dat. 173. a, R.
Juppiter, stem and inflection, 25.
jusjurandum, 36.
jussu (def.) 32. d.
juvenis, how compared, 45. d.
juvo, with accus. 227. a,
K supplanted by C, 3.
Kalends, 294. a.
Kindred forms, Latin and English,
6 (see Appendix).
Labial stems (3d decl.), 19; gen-
der, 27 ; noun-forms, 27. c,
laedo, comp. with noceo, 157. a,
laetor with abl. 176. d.
lampas, 26.
lateo, with accus., 166. d.
Latin language, origin and compar.
forms ; earliest forms of ; lan-
guages derived from : see Ap-
pendix.
latus, derivation, 91. n.
libet impers., 96. </, N ; with dat.,
158.^.
licet, imper., synopsis, 95 (145) ;
96. </, n; with dat. 158. e; with
pred. dat. 193. a; with subj.,
meanmg although^ 225. b.
Limit, defln. of, 121. ^.
Lingual stems, 19 ; gender, 27 ;
noun-forms, 29. d.
Liquid stems (3d decl.), 20, 21 ;
apparent, 21 (50); gender, 27;
noun-form, 28. b.
Litotes, 142. c,
n, as stem-ending, 21 (48. e).
Locative Ablative, 175; ^idiomatic
use, 176. a.
Locative forms, 13; ist ded. 16;
2d, 17 ; 3d, 25 ; 4th (domi), 31. «»;
5th, 33 ; as adverb, 98. d; must
be referred to by relative adverb,
136./; in appos. with abl., 123.
c; compared with dat. 154, n. ; of
names of Towns, etc., 1 78-181.
loco without prepos. 179./.
Logacedic Verse, 284.
longius, without quam, 172. f.
M final, elision of, 276. d,
in (verb-ending), lost, 63. «•.
magis, as sign of comparative, 44.
d; compounds of, with quam,
183. N.
macte, 167. e,
magni, genitive of value, 148. c ;
175. a,
majestatis, with words of accus-
ing, etc, 152. a.
malo, inflection of, 90.
Masculine adjectives (senex), 43.
Material, adjectives denoting, 112.
g ; gen. of, 147. e; ablative of,
170. e*
maxime, as sign of superl. 44. </•
320
Index,
May (potential), how expr.» 6a N.
Means, abl. of, 173.
Measure, gen. of, 148. b.
Measures in Prosody, 272-275.
Measures of value, 295.
medeor, xnedicor, with dat. or
ace. 157. ^.
Meditative verbs, 114. r.
medius (middle part of), 128(193).
memini, infl. 93; imperat. form,
190. ^ ; with pres. infin., 203. b,
-met (enclitic), 51.
Metathesis, 4. d; 73. b.
Metre, see Prosody,
meus (voc. mi), 18, 37, 50.
miHtiae (U>cat.), 179. d,
mille, infl. and constr. of, 48.
mini, as personal ending, 65. n '.
minime, 142. /; in answer ("no"),
144.
minoris (gen. of value), 175. «, </.
minus, with si, etc., equivalent to
negative, 142. f; constr. without
quam, 172. c,
miror si, 245. r.
minim quam, 143. R ; 246. e,
misceo, with abl. or dat. 173. «, R.
inisereor, with gen. 153. a,
miseret, 96, with ace. and gen.
153.^.
Modern pronunciation of Latin, 7.
Modern languages compared with
Latin, Appendix.
Modification of subject or predi-
cate, 121.
mode, dummodo (proviso), 225;
with hortat. subj., 188. d,
Monoptotes, 34.
Months, gender of, 12. a; names
of in bcr, 39. ; divisions of, in
Roman calendar, 294. a.
Moods, 58, 59, 60 ; nature of 184 ;
Syntax of, 185-194.
Mora, 272. a.
Motion, expressed with prepo-
sitions, 155, ^, 159. a, 169. b ;
indicated by compounds, 164. </,
when implied, 181.^, h.
Motive, with Qb or propter, 171. b.
Mountains, names of, gender, 12.
Multiplication by distributives,
49. c,
Multiplicatives, 49.
Mute stems (3d decl.), 19, ao ; ap-
parent, 20, 23.
N as final letter ol stem (leon-)> 20.
n in verb-root (frango), 72. c^\
73. ^, N ; adulterinum^ 2. n»
nais, 26 (64).
nam, namque, 106. d.
Names of men and women, 36,
natus, etc., with abl., 170. a,
-nc (enclitic) in questions, 142,
a-d ; in hicine, etc., 51. n; in
exclamations 243. c,
ne with hortat. subj. 187. b; in
prohibitions, 190. a; in final
clauses, 228 ; » nedum, 229. R ;
in consecutive clauses, with
verbs of caution, etc., 241. e ; of
fearing, 242. /; omitted after
cave, id. r.
nee enim, 106. </.
Necessity, verbs of, 241. r.
necne, 143.
nedum, ^29. r.
nefas, with supine, 213.
Negation, perfect preferred in,
198.*/.
Negative part. 99 (149- ^) ; when
doubled, id. ; Syntax of. 141 ;
and with connective, id. ^/ as
expressing no^ 144.
nego better than dico . . . non,
142 (209. b), '
nemo, use of, i37'/'
neque, and not ^ 105.
Index.
321
nequeo, 95. g»
ne . . quidemi 100. c»
neseio an, 143. R.
nescio quis, 143. R.
Neuter nouns, like cases in, 14. b.
Neuter passives, 89.
Neuter verbs, with agent (perire
ab), 171.
Neutral passives, 90. b,
ni, nisi, 215. ^i.
niminim quam, 246. e,
ning^t, 96. a,
nisi and si non, 225.
nisi si, nisi vero, 226. a,
nix (stem and infl.), 19, /».'
noli, 190. a.
nolo, 90 (138).
Notnetty 36. a.
nomen est, with pred. dat. 160. ^, c.
Nominative, 13 (31. «) ; formation
from stem, 14, 19 ; in adjectives,
38; SYNTAX! as subject, 119;
pred. after esse, 120. ^, 124; as
subj. of verb, 138 ; used for voc,
167. a, with opus as pred. 169. R.
non, in answers, 144.
non dubito quin, 244. R.
nonne, 242 (210. e),
non nemo, non nuUus, nullus
non, 99. (150).
non quia, non quod, non quin,
non quo, 252. r.
noster, for poss. gen. 5a
nostri, as obj. gen. 51.
nostrum, as part. gen. 50.
Nouns, defined, 10 (25. a) ; infl.
of, 14-36 ; used in adjectives, 43 ;
rule of agreement, 123.
ns as adjective ending, 40. n,
num, force of, 142 (210. c) ; in in-
dir. questions, 143. R.
Number, 13 ; rule of, with apposi-
tive, 123. a, adjective, 124;
verb. 138. ^.
Numerals, 46-49.
nunc, 100. b»
O for u after u or v, 3 (7) ; in 2d
decl. 17. N.
O si, with subj. of wish, 189. b.
o in amo = a and m, 63. n?
ob or propter, to represent cause,
171. b.
Object defined, 120; of active
verb becomes subject of pas-
sive, id.; various object-cases,
121; direct (ace.) 164; indirect
(dat.), 154.
Oblique Cases, 13, 145.
obvius with dat.. 159 b,
odi, 93. •
Omission of consonant, 4 b,
omnes nos (instead of nostrum),
on, Greek ending, infl. 18 (43).
on, gen. pi. 19 (43 c),
on-, stem-ending, 20 (48. a).
Open Syllables, 6. d.
opera with gen. of agent, 171.
opinione (celerius opinione), lyib,
oportebat (virtual present), 224 R.
oportet, 146. d; with ace, 165. e.
Optative, derivation and compari-
son with subjunctive, 184.
Optative subjunctive (of wish), 188.
opus and usus, with abl., 169;
opus as pred., id. ; with perf.
part. 207, b; with supine, 213.
Oratio Obli^ua (see Indirect Dis-
course).
Order of words, 258^262.
Ordinal Numbers, 46. «.*^
Orpheus, inflection of, 18.
Orthography, variations in, 5. c,
OS for us in nom. sing, of 2d decl.,
17 (38. N.) ; as Greek-ending, 18.
OS, ossis, infl. of, 25.
Oscan forms compared with Latin^
Appendix, 303.
21
322
Index,
'os8ua(def.)) 31* ny
-osus, adjective ending, 112. >&.
ovat, etc., 94. e»
P euphonic after m (sumpsi), 4. c.
paenitet, 96 (146. b)\ constr. of,
153- ^•
palam, 182. b.
Palatal consonants, 2; stems (3d
decl.)} 19; gender, 27; noun-
forms, 3a
Parallel verb-forms, 87.
Parataxis, 177.
paratus with infin. 193. b,
Parisyllabic nouns of 3d decl. 22 ;
adjectives, 39.
parte (loc), without prepos. 179./.
Participial clause implying condi-
tion, 222. a.
Participles defined 11; included
in verb-forms, 58, 6i j perf. ac-
tive and pres. passive, how
represented, 61 N. ; as nouns
61. /; as adjectives with geni-
tive, 151. ^/ in abl. abs., 176. h;
Syntax, 204-209; tense, 240;
deponent, 205, ^, d; pres. pass,
and perf. act. how supplied, 205.
bt d; as adjectives, 205 ; as pre-
dicate, 206 ; of description, id. ;
with opus, 207. b; perf. with
habeo, etc., id. c ; pres. with
facie, etc., id. e; future, id.;
with fui, 208. r, 221. </; gerund-
ive, id.; modern, derived from
gerund, 212. n; future, in in-
dir. questions, 245. a.
Particles, defined, 1 1 ; forms and
classif., 97 ; interrogative and
negative, 99; in compounds,
116; negative, 99. ^, 141; Syn-
tax of, 140-142 ; conditional,
21^. a; interrogative, 99. d; use
of, 142 (a-d)f
Partitive Numerals, 49 {97. c).
Partitive with gen., 148.
Parts of Speech defined, 10, 11.
parum, 46 (93. e).
Passive voice, forms wanting in,
59; middle or reflexive mean-
ing, id. N. ; origin, 65. «,' 166. N.
Patronymics (-ades, -ides, &c.),
III. b.
Peculiar forms of, 3d decl., 24.
pelagus, neuter, 17. b; pi. pelage,
id. «.i
Penalty, gen. of, 152. a: abl. of,
id. d.
penes, following noun, 183. n.
Penult, 8 (19. D.) ; quantity, 165.
per (per vim), 171. ^ : in compos.
(zw>), 46. d, 116. c: for agent
or volunt. instrum., 171. (246.^).
pcrcndie (loc), 33.
Perfect tense, how distinguished
in meaning from imperfect, 63.
b, Cf n^t personal endings, 64.
a : origin of i and s, 65. »,2 ^2.
»♦: Stem, how formed, 73;
of subjunctive in sequence of
tenses, 201. b, c.
Period, 261.
Periphrastic conjugations, 61. n,
77 ; forms, 96 ; with sum or fui,
206. R.
Permission, verbs of, 241. c»
Personal endings, 63 ; meaning, «.2
Persons of verbs, 58.
pertaesum est, 153. b,
peto with ab, 166. R.
ph only in Greek words, 5(12.^);
sound of, 7. N.
Phalacian Verse, 286. 11.
Pherecratic Verse, 286 4.
Phonetic changes, 3 (9) ; method
of pronunciation, 7.
Phorcys, 25 (63. a).
Phrase, 121 (179)*
Index.
323
Phrases, neuter, 13. c; adverbial,
126 ; limited by gen. 147. d,
piget, constr. of, 153. b.
Place, relations of, require preposi-
tion, 155. b; 159 (229. a) ; loca-
tive uses, 1 78-181.
Plants, names of, gender, 12.
Plautus, use of quom with indie,
236 R. ; of atrior, 44. n. ; proso-
dial forms, 282, 292.
plebes, inflection, 32. n>\ plebi
(gen.), id.
-plex, numeral adjectives, 49.
pluit (impers.), 96. a\ used per-
sonally, id.
Pluperfect, 199.
Plural of proper names, &c., '^i\
plur. accus. as adverb, 98. i : of
neuter adjectives, 127. ^.
Pluralia tatUum, 33 (76).
pluris, gen. of value, 148. f, 175.
a,d.
plus, inflection, 41 ; use, 42 ; with-
out quam, 172. ^-.
poenitet, see paenitet.
poema, infl. 20.
pono with abl., 181. a.
Position in Prosody, 7. N., 264;
it does not affect a final vowel,
265. R.
posse, as fut. infin. 204./.
Possessives in appos. with gen.
124. di Syntax of, 132; for obj.
genitive, 150. a.
possum, inflection of, 70.
post with quam, 183. N.
postquam, in temporal clause, 235.
postridie, with gen. 148. g : with
acciis. 182. ai with quam,
183. N.
postulo ab, 166. R.
Potential mood, how expressed in
Latin, 60, N.
Potential subjunctive, 223. a*
potior, with gen., 154. a: with
abl., 174.
prae, in composition (very), 46. di
with quam, 183. N.
Pranometty 36 ; abbreviations, id.
Predicate, 118; defined, 119 ; after
esse, 120; gender of adj., 125.
a, b: agreement in, 124: in rel.
clause, 134 : after infin. 193. b ;
after licet, id. a.
Prepositions, assimil. of, 4. /*:
defined, 11; specialized use,
100; how distinguished from
Adverbs, id. n : list, loi ; idio-
matic uses, 101-103 ; how con-
nected with case-constructions,
145-176; with names of Places,
181./: as adverbs, 183. d.
Present stem, how formed from
root, 22.
Present Tense, 195; of infin. for
past, 203. b,
Preteritive verb, 93 N ; 198. R.
Price, abl. or gen. 175.
pridie with gen. 148. g; with aCC.
182. a i with quam, 183. N.
Primary Suffixes, 107.
Primary Tenses, 200.
primo and primum, 100. d.
Principal parts of verb, 71.
prius quam, 183. N., 237.
pro, 163. R.2
procul with abl., 182. b.
Prohibitions, 187. b i 190. a.
Promising, etc., verbs of, 240. d.
Pronominal Roots, 107. n. ; as
Primary Suffixes, id.
Pronouns, defined and classified,
II ; inflection of, 50-56; per-
sonal and reflexive, 50 ; demon-
strative, 51 ; relative, etc., 54 ;
Syntax, 128-138; personal, 129;
demonstrative, id. ; idem, ipse,
id ; reflexive, 131 ; possessive^
324
Index,
132; relative, 133-136; indefin-
ite, 133-138.
Pronunciation, modes of, 6, 7.
propior, 44 (91) ; with ace. 162. e.
Proper Names, 36 ; in plural, 33.
Proportional Numerals, 49.
Prosody, 263-293 : early peculiar-
ities, 292.
prosum, inflection of, 70.
Protasis, 214, 215 (see Conditions) ;
loose use of tenses in English,
217. R.
Protraction of long syllable, 272. c.
Proviso, with mode, etc., 188. d;
225; as, result-clause, 231. b,
232. d.
-ptc, -pse (enclitic), 51./; 100. c.
pudet (impers.), constr. 153. b,
pugnatur (impers.), synopsis, 95.
Punishment, abl. of, 152. b.
Pure syllable, 6. c.
Purpose, infin. of, 193 ; clause of,
228 ; ways of expressing, 229.
Qiiae res (or id quod), 135. e,
quaere, 94. d.
Quality, adjectives of, 112. ^; gen.
of, 148 ; abl. of, 174.
quam, with superl., 46. b ; with
comparatives, 172. a ; with ante,
post, 183 (262) ; followed by
result-clause, 242. b; in indirect
discourse, 249. R.
quamlibet (concessive), 225.
quam ob causam, 168.
quam qui with subj. 232. c,
quamquam, 55. b^ 106. /, 225.
quam ut, 232. c,
quamvis, 106. i, 225. a, g.
quando (interrog.), 106. g; indef.
id. ; causal {since), 233 ; temporal
{loAen), 234.
quanti, gen. of value, 175. d.
Quantity, general rules of, 8, 264 ;
of final vowels, 15, 265; other
final syllables, 266; of penults,
267.
quantus, 56. g.
quasi, with primary tenses, 224. R.
-que (enclitic), forming universals,
56. ^; as conjunction, 105. a,
queo (def.)95.^.
ques (nom. plur), 54 (104. d).
Questions, 142-144 ; Indirect, 143.
R. ; alternative, id.; — and an-
swer, 144 ; Indirect^ 245 ; in
.indirect discourse, 250.
qui (relative), infl. 54.
qui (adverbial), 54 (104. c),
quia, 106./, 233, 245. b, 252. d.
quidam, 136 ; with ex, 149. c,
quidem, 100. t,
quiii, in result-clause (» qui-non),
231. rf; with verbs of hindering,
243. g; non quln (non dubito),
244. R.
Quinary or hemiolic measures, 273..
quippe, 233. e; quippe cum, 237 ;
quippe qui, 233. c.
quis infl., 54 ; dist. from qui in use,
a ; compounds (aliquis, etc.), 55.
d; 56.
quis (dat. or abl. plur.), 54. d,
quisquam, 55. V; 56. A.
quisque, 56, in the superl. 46 ; in
the dependent clause, 137. e;
with plural verb, id. d; 139. R.
quisquis, 55.
quo, in final clauses, 228, 230. a ;
non quo, 252. r.
quo ... CO, 57. c ; 174 (250. R).
quoad (purpose, etc.), 237.
quod (conj.), 106./, 233; Clause
with, 244; as*accus. of specif.
245. a ; in intermediate clauses,
252. d.
quod si, 105. b.
quom, 106. g.
Intkx.
325
quominus, 228. b ; with verbs of
caution and hindrance, 231. ^y
241. e.
quoniam, 106./, 233.
quoquc, 99 (151.) a),
quot, 57. a.
Quotation, forms of, 248.
quotus quisque, 56. €,
quum, see cum (conj.).
R subst. for 8 between vowels,
4. a ; double, in noun-stems,
21. e.
Radical syllables, quantity of, 107.
ratus (as pres. part.), 205. i,
reapse, 51. c.
Reciprocal {^ack ether), how ex-
pressed, 51. </.
recordor, with ace. 152. r.
Reduplication, 72. Cy j^.c; in perf.
of 3d conj. 73. c ; lost in fidi,
etc., id. ; in compounds, 85. n ;
of roots, 74. «6; rule of quan-
tity, 270.
refert with gen. or possessive, 153.
Reflexive Pronouns, 50, 53. n;
Syntax of, 131 (196).
Reflexive verbs (deponent or pas-
sive), 65. n ; use of passive, 59.
N ; 1 with object-acc. 166. N.
Regular Verb, 70-90.
Relative Adverb, = Pronoun with
Prepos. 140. «/ as connective,
136. e ; used to refer to Locative,
id./
Relative Clauses, 122. r, 136. h
as a Condition, 222. a; Syntax,
227-238 ; conditional, 227 ; pur-
pose, 228 ; characteristic and re-
sult, 230 ; as cause or hindrance,
233 ; causal, 233 ; temporal, 234.
Relative Pronouns, inflection, 54;
compounds of, 55; as connec-
tives, 122,^; Syntax, 133; rule I
of agreement, 134; use of the
antecedent, id. (200); special
uses, 135, 156.
Relative Time, 199, 234. ».
-rem, verb-ending, 65. nX
repetimdarum, 152. a.
Repeated action as a general con-
dition, 221. b.
Resolution of syllables in Prosody,
273-
Resolving, verbs of, 241. d.
respublica, 36 (79. </).
Restriction in subj. clause, 232.
Result, clause of, 230-233.
Rhythm, 272.
Rivers, names of, gender, 12.
ro-stem9, 2d decl., 16. N. ; of ad-
jectives, 38.
rogo, constr. of, i6d R.
Roman Writers. 306.
Romance (or Romanic) languages,
comparative forms, 304.
Root, defined, 9, 107 ; of Verb, 64 ;
consciousness of, lost in Latin,
113. «t.' used as word, 117,
rr- as stem-ending, 21. a
ruri, 179. d,
rus, constr. of, 178.
S elision of, 3 (8) ; subst. for d or
t, 4. a; as sign of Nominative,
14. ff3 (32. b\ 40. n,
s suppressed in perfects, 75. b,
s as stem-ending, 20. », 2. d^ 125.
d; of 5th decl., 32. n*^ ; of com-
paratives, 41. a,
Salamis, 25.
salve, 94./.
Sanskrit forms, see notes, pp. 9,
20, 38, 67, 72, 108, 113.
Sapphic verse, 286. 7, 8.
satago,with gen., 154 (223).
satis, non satis, 46. e ; satis est
with perf. infin., 203. e.
326
Index.
Saturnian Verse, 292. d.
Scanning, 276. b (274. N.).
scin (scisne), 5. c,
scito, scitote, imperat. form, 75 ^,
190. e.
-SCO (inceptive), 114. a.
Second Conjugation, formation, 74.
b; inflection, 80; verbs of, 81.
derivation, 114 (166^).
Second Declension, nouns, 16-19.
Secondary Tenses, 200 ; of general
truth, 201. d; following histor.
pres., 202. e,
secundus, formation of, 46. n^
secutus (as pres. part.), 205. b,
sed, 105. b.
Semi-deponents, 89.
Semi-vowels, 2.
senati, senatuos (gen.), 31.
senex, infl. of, 25 ; compared, 45. h.
sens as part of esse, 67, n.
Sentence, formation, 1 18 ; classifi-
cation, 119; simple and com-
pound, 122.
Separation : dat. after adimo, &c.,
159 ; abl. of, 168.
Sequence of Tenses, 20a
sera nocte, 128. N.
sestertium, sestertius, 36, 296.
seu (see sive), 226. c,
si, perfect ending, 65, n^
si, 214 ; whether^ 247. /; si non,
226; miror si, 245. r.
stem, 67.
Significant endings, 109.
Signs of quantity, 8; of Accent
(19. N.).
-sim, old form of perf. subj. 75 e?
silentio (without prepos.), 173. R.
similis, compar. of 43. b; with
gen. 151 d; with dat. 162. R.
Simois, infi., 26.
simul with abl., 182. b; simul at-
que (ac), 235.
Singularia tatUum, 33 (75).
sis (for si vis), 5 (13. c),
sive, sive, 226. c,
-so in fut. perfect, 75. ^.'
sodes (si audcs), 5 (13. c), 90. «.
soleo, 89.
Bolltus (as pres. part.), 205. b.
solus, imfl., 38 ; with relat. clause,
232. b.
Space, accus. of, 178.
Special verb-forms, 75.
Specification, accus. of, 166. c;
abl. of, 175.
Spelling, variations of, 5.
Stanza or Strophe 277 (361).
Stem, defined, 9; how formed
from the Root, 10, 107 ; in ro-
of 2d decl., 16. N. ; in s of 3d
decl., 20. « ; in tu- of 4th decL,
31 (71); of Verb, origin, 64;
present, perfect, and supine, 67-
70 ; endings, 65-67.
Stem-building, 10. N.
sub in compounds, 46. e.
Subject, 118; definition, 119;
forms of, id. ; indefinite, omitted,
139 ; accus. in indir. disc. 248. a.
Subjunctive Mood, tenses want-
ing in, 59; how translated, 6o»
68. n; classification of uses,
186, 187; hortatory, 187; opta-
tive, 188; dubitative, 189;
tenses of, 199-202; potential,
223. a ; of modesty, id. b; rela-
tive time, 199 ('284),
Subordinate Clauses, 122 ^, 227-
238 ; in indir. discourse, 249, 252.
Subordinate conjunctions, 103. b^
104 (155. ^->i).
Substantive Clauses defined
and classified, 238; infinitive,
239; of purpose, 240; of re-
sult, 242 ; with quod, 244 ;
indirect question, 245.
Index*
327
Substantive verb (esse), 120.
subter, 182. d.
suetus with infin., 193. b.
Suffixes, primary, 107 ; significant,
109.
sum, inflection of, 68.
summus,!/^ of)^ 128 (193).
sunt qui, 232.
super, 181. e.
Superlative suffix, 43, n ; in rimuSy
limus, 43; with maxime, 44;
of eminence, 46. h ; takes gen-
der of partitive, 125. e.
Supine, noun of 4th decl., 32 ; as
verb-form, 58; meaning and
use, 62. b ; Stem, 70. « * / how
formed, 73; allied with forms
in tor, 109^ »2; uses o^ 212,
213.
sus, infl. (subus), 25.
Swearing, verbs of, 240. d.
Syllables, rules for division of, 6 ;
pure, open, &c., 6 (14. o d),
Synaloepha, 276. R.
Synesis, 123 (182), 125. dy 202. h.
Synopsis of tenses, 75 ; of imper-
sonal verbs, 95 (145); of con-
structions, 254, 255.
Syntax, i 17-157; historical de-
velopment of, 117.
T for d (set, aput), 3 (8).
t final, words in, 63. n.^
taedet, constr. of, 153. b,
tarn en (position), 106. >&; as correl-
ative, id. /.
tamquam, with primary tenses,
224. R. .
tanti (gen. of value), 175. a.
tantum, with hortat. subj. 188. d;
tantum abest ut . . . ut, 243. d,
-tas, tia, noun-endings, 1 10. e»
tat-, as stem-ending, 23 (542).
Teaching, verbs of (2 ace), 165. c.
Temporal numerals, 49 ; particles,
99; clause, 122. e»
Tendency, adjectives denoting,
112. /.
Tenses, 58, 61 ; of the passive, 59 ;
of two classes, meaning and use,
62 ; of the subjunctive, 63. d;
endings, 66^ 67; formation of,
73, 74 ; Syntax, 194-204 ; clas-
sification, 194 ; present, 195 ; im-
perfect, 196; future, 197; per-
fect, 198; epistolary, 199; of
subjunctive, id ; sequence of,
200 ; of Infinitive, 202.
tenus, 182. e,
-ter (in alter, &c.)., 38. « ; as adjec-
tive-ending, 39. a\ adverb-end-
ing, 40. d
Terminations of inflection, 9; of
nouns, 15.
terra marique, 179. d.
Tetrameter Iambic, 282.
Tlu as correlative, 57. c.
Thesis ad Arsis, 275 (358).
Third conjugation, verbs of, forma-
tion, 72. b ; 74. c; inflection, 82 ;
verbs in lo 83 ; List of verbs,
with principal parts, 84, 85 ; de-
rivation, 113, 114 (166. c).
Third Declension, nouns of, 19-30 ;
mute-stems, 19 ; liquid-stems,
20 ; vowel-stems, 21 ; case-forms,
23; peculiar, 24; Greek, 25;
rules of gender, 26; forms of
inflection, 28i-30.
Though, see Although,
Thought considered as result,
243./.
Threatening, verbs of, 240. d,
tigris, infl., 25. b.
Time and Place, constructions of,
177-181.
Time, absolute and relative, 149;
when, 175; how long (ace.) 177.
328
Index,
-tis, tura, tus (tutis), noun-end-
ings, no. b,
TOO . . TO, 231. R. ; 2^2. C»
-tor, -trix, means of agency, 109.
«2. as adjectives, 43. r, 126. d.
totus, nouns with, in abl. without
preposition, 179.^
Towns, names of, gender, 12 (29.
b) ; in us, fem. 17. a ; in e, neut.,
24. d\ construction of, without
prepositions, 178.
tr- as stem-ending, 21 (48. c).
trans, comp. of, with ace, 164. d.
Transitive Verbs, 120 (177).
Transposition of consonants, 4. </,
73- *•
tres, infl. 48.
tri-, as stem-ending of nouns, 22.
h ; of adjectives, 39. a.
Trimeter, Iambic, 280.
Triptotes, 34.
Trochaic verse, 283.
-tudo, -tus, noun-endings, no. e,
tuli (tetuli), deviation, 91. ».
turn, tunc, 100 (150. b)\ correl.
with cum, 106. h.
U (v) as semi-vowel, 2, not to fol-
low u or V, 3.
u-stems, of nouns, 19, 24. a^ b;
25 (61); of verbs, 72. </, 114.
ubi in temporal clauses, 234, 235.
-ubus, case-ending in 4th decl. 31.
ullus, infl., 38 ; use, 137. b,
um for arum, 16; for orum,
16. e.
Umbrian forms compared with
Latin, 303.
Undertaking, verbs of, with ger-
undive, 209. d,
unus, infl., 39 ; in plural, 48, 49.
unus qui, with* subjunctive, 232. b,
uo, verbs in. 114.
-urio (desiderative), 115.
-urus, fut. participle, 61. ^, 207 ;
with fui, 208. Cy z\i^\ in indir.
questions, 245. a,
usque with ace. 182. a,
usus [need)^ with abl., 169. e,
ut, as interrogative, 143. ^, R. ; as
concessive, 225. a ; as final (pur>
pose), 225; of result, 230; ut
ne, 231. a; with subst. clauses,
240, 242; omission after cer-
tain verbs, 242. R. ; in exclama-
tions, 243. €,
ut, when, 234, 235; as interrog.,
143- R-
ut, utpote, quippe, with relative
clause, 233. e; with cum, 237^
uter, infl., 39.
uterque, with genitive of nouns
and pronouns, 149. d.
uti, utinam, with subj. of wish,
189. b,
utor, etc., with ablative, 174 (249) ;
as transitive, id. b.
utrum ... an, 143, 144.
V (u), 2 (4); 3 (7); in tenuis,
7. N.; syncopated in perfect,
75 (128. a),
valde, 46. d.
Value, genitive, of, 148. e, 175. a;
measures of, 296.
vapulo, 9a b.
Variable nouns, 34.
Varieties of spelling, 5 (12).
vas, 25. d.
-ve, vel, 106. c,
velim, vellem, 189. c,
veluti, velutsi, 224 (312).
veneo (venum eo), 90. b.
Verb as complete sent., 120 (175).
Verbs, defined, 11; see chap. vi.
(58-96) ; Structure. 58-64 ;
Forms, 64-67 ; Regular, 70-90 ;
Deponent, 88; Semi-deponent,
Index.
329
89 ; Irregular, 72. ^, 90 ; Defec-
tive, 93; Impersonal, 95; de-
rivation of, 113; derivative^
114; rule of Agreement, 138;
omission of, 139; Syntax, 184.
Verba serUiencU et declarandi^ 192,
239 ; passive use, id. a.
Verbals in ax, 112. /; with gen-
itive, 151. b,
veritus, as present part. 205. b.
vero, in answers, 144. a.
Verse, 276 ; forms of, 277-292.
verum or vero, 105. b; 106. k,
vescor, with abl., 174.
vesperi (loc), 18 (41. b),
veto, with ace. and infin., 192. b,
239. «, 241. a,
vetus, infl., 41 ; comparison, 43. a,
-vi in perfect, 65. ».^
vicem (adverbial), 166. b,
videor with dat., 161. f.
vin (visne), 5 (13. c).
vis, infl., 25 (61).
Vocative, 13 (31. c), 14. «'; like
nom. except in 2d decl., 14 (33.
a); in i of nouns in ius, 18 (39.
c) i Syntax, 167.
Voices, 59, 59 (in).
volo, infl., 90; with perfect part-
iciple, 207. d,
voti (damnatus), 152. a.
Vowels, I.
Vowel-changes, 3.
Vowel-increase, 3 (10. a).
Vowel-roots, 74. «,* «.'
Vowel-scale, i (i. N.).
Vowel-stems (3d decl.), 21-24;
gender, 27; noun-forms, 28. a;
of verbs, 113. «.*^
W, not in Latin alphabet, i. N.
Way by which (abl.), 179.^.
Weight, measures of, 297.
Wish, expression of, 188; as a
condition, 222. b.
Wishing, verbs of, 241. ^.
WITHOUT (with part.), 206 (292. r).
Women, names of, 36.
Words, Formation of, 107-116.
Y, of Greek origin, i N.
YA, verb-root, 64. «, 113. ».'
ya (primary sufiix), 108.
Year, date of, 294 ; months, 295.
AUTHORS AND WORKS CITED.
Caesar : Bell, Civ,
Bell. GaU,
BeU. Afric,
Cicero: Academica,
pro Archia,
ad Atticum,
Brutus.
in CatUinam.
pro Cl-uentio,
Cato Major,
De Inveniione,
pro Deiotaro.
De Oratore,
De Divinatione.
Div. iu Ccecil.
ad Faimliares,
de Fato,
de Finihns,
pro RabiriOm
Plautus :
pro Flacco,
de Republica,
AmphUruo,
Lalius {de Amicit,), pro Rose. Amer,
Asinaria.
de Legibus.
Rull. {Leg. Agr. ). Capttvt.
Leg. Agraria,
pro Sestio,
Trinummus.
pro Ligario.
Topica.
Pliny.
pro lege Manilla,
pro MarceUo.
Tusc. Qucest,
Sallust: Catilina,
in Verrem,
Jugurtha.
pro Murena,
Q. Curtius.
Horace.
Seneca: Episi.
de Nat. Deorum,
Tacitus: Agricola.
de Qfficiis,
Juvenal.
Annates.
Orator.
Historia.
Paradoxa,
Lucretius.
Terence : Andria,
Philippics,
pro Plancio.
Nepos.
Ovid: Metam.
Jleaut.
Virgil: yEneid.
Ecloga,
in Pisorum.
Tristia,
ad Q.Fratrem.
Persius.
Georgica,
LATIN.
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HUDSON'S iSCHOOL SHAKESPEARE. 2d Series.
Containing Thk Tdifcst, Kino Richard ten Third,
Thi Winter's Talk, Kino Liar,
Kino Henrt thk Fifth, Macbkth, Antont and Cuopatra.
12mo. Cloth. 678 pages 1.50
HUDSON'S SCHOOL SHAEESPEARE. 3d Series.
Containing A MmsumiKR Night's Driam, Bomio and Juub,
Much Ado about Nothino, Ctmbelini,
King Hknrt VIII., Othiua. Coriolanus,
12mo. Cloth. 665 pages 160
2 •
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