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APR - 6 1988
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DEC 1 1 1990
JAN 1 9 199,
FEB 1 9 1991
APh ? 7 1991
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OCT 2 J 2002
THE AMERICAN
APPLE ORCHARD
Other Books by the Same Author
LANDSCAPE GARDENING
PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE
FRUIT HARVESTING. STORING, MARKETING
SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY
DWARF FRUIT TREES
\v
^4t
The American
Apple Orchard
A Sketch of the Practice of Apple
Growing in North America at the
Beginning of the Twentieth Century
Ff'ArWAUGH
Fii//y Illustrated
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
NEW YORK
Copyright, 1908, by
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
P)intcd in U. S. A.
TO
THADDEUS L. KINNEY
APPLE GROWER
The American Apple Orchard
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. The Geography of Apple Growing 1
II. Apple Soils 5
Exposures
III. Windbreaks 8
IV'. Winterkilling 14
V. Starting the Orchard 17
A Good Nursery Tree.
How to Get Trees.
Methods of Propagation.
Fall vs. Spring Planting.
Distances for Planting.
Planting Tables.
Double Planting.
Preparation for Planting.
Planting Out the Trees.
Double- Working.
VI. Orchard Cultivation 48
Objects of Cultivation.
VII. Methods of Cultivation ......'.... 63
VIII. Cover Crops 69
Methods of Management.
The Various Crops.
Quantity of Seed Per Acre.
IX. Pruning 11
High Heads vs. Low Heads.
The Framework.
The Second Stage.
The Fruiting Stage.
Odd Years.
ix
X TABLE OF CONTENTS
PaKo
The Time to Prune.
Painting Wounds.
Pruning Tools.
How to Make the Cut.
X. Feeding the Trees 94
XI. The Insect Campaign .99
XII. The Principal Diseases Ill
XIII. Other Troubles 119
XIV. Spraying Machinery 123
XV. Solutions for Spraying 131
Bordeaux Mixture.
Copper Sulphate Solution.
The Lime-Sulphur Mixture.
Paris Green.
Arsenate of Lead.
Arsenite of Lime.
Soluble Oils.
Combined Insecticides and Fungicides.
Dust Sprays.
Some General Observations.
The Spraying Campaign.
XVI. Harvesting and Marketing the Fruit 149
Picking Apples.
Sorting Apples.
The Apple Barrel.
Apple* Boxes.
Packing Apples.
Apple Storage.
XVII. The Family Orchard 182
Rules for Choosing Varieties.
XVIII. Renovation of Old Orchards 188
XIX. The Selection of Varieties 192
Remarks on Particular Varieties.
Varieties for Various Districts.
Keeping Quality of \'arieties.
XX. Catalog of Varieties 2U5
The American Apple Orchard
I
THE GEOGRAPHY OF APPLE GROWING
The apple is the most widely grown of tree fruits ;
and though it cannot cover quite so great a range of
latitude as the plum, it is, after all, more generally
known and prized than any other fruit of any longi-
tude or zone. Nevertheless the extreme northern and
southern agricultural regions of our continent are
practically outside the apple country. Even within
the apple country there are great inequalities of dis-
tribution. Certain regions are not well adapted to
apple culture, while in others this fruit has become
the basis of a great industry. The ten leading states,
as shown by the number of apple trees reported in the
census of 1900, were as follows:
States Trees
Missouri 20,040,399
New York 15,054,832
Illinois 13,430,006
Ohio 12,952,625
Kansas 11 ,848,070
Pennsylvania 11,774,211
.^ Michigan 10,927,899
Kentucky 8,757,238
Indiana 8,624,593
Virginia 8,190,025
THE GEOGRAPHY OF APPLE GROWING 3
Of course some of these states rank above others
simply because of their size. Statistics taken by
counties show in a yet more striking manner how the
planting- of apple trees has been developed in special
localities. The ten counties in the United States which
led in the number of trees growing in 1900 were as
follows :
County State Trees
Benton, Arkansas 1,613,366
Washington, Arkansas 1,555.146
Niagara, New York 924,086
A\'ayne, New York 796,610
Marion, Illinois 795»i88
Monroe, New York 789,409
Clay, Illinois 751.724
Erie, New York 631,283
Orleans, New York 629,401
Wayne, Illinois, 604,215
It is a striking fact that these ten counties represent
only three states.
There are several well-recognized apple sections
which may be separately characterized. The principal
ones are:
1. The Lake Ontario Section — This comprises
the northwestern counties of New York and adjacent
parts of Ontario. A part of southeastern Michigan
naturally belongs to this belt. It is a section largely
devoted to Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening.
Other varieties grown commercially on a considerable
area are Northern Spy, King and Roxbury.
2. The Mississippi Valley Section — This includes
portions of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Kansas and Ar-
kansas, with practically all of ^Missouri and Illinois.
4 THE a.mi:ricax apple orchard
While this great region can be subdivided to some ex-
tent, yet varieties and methods are sufficiently alike in
the several states to justify us in grouping them to-
gether. Ben Davis is the characteristic variety, though
many other sorts are grown commercially, as Jonathan,
Grimes, York Imperial, Willow and Missouri Pippin.
3. The Allegheny Section — This comprises those
lands along the slopes of the Allegheny mountains
l3'ing in Pennsylvania, western Maryland, West Vir-
ginia, western Virginia, eastern Tennessee and west-
ern North Carolina. The characteristic variety here
is York Imperial, though other varieties are extensive-
ly grown, as Ben Davis, Paragon, Winesap, Grimes,
and in A'irginia the famous Albemarle Pippin.
4. The Nova Scotia Section, comprising rather
limited areas in Nova Scotia, where, however, the ap-
ple-growing industry is highly developed. The most
striking feature of the Nova Scotian industry is the
development of the British markets. The leading va-
rieties grown are Baldwin, Roxbury (locally called
Nonpareil), Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening
and Gravenstein.
5. The Pacific Coast Section, including several
segregated and somewhat dissimilar districts in Wash-
ington, Oregon and California. The varieties mostly
grown are Esopus, Jonathan, Newtown Pippin and
Yellow Belleflower.
There are various places outside these sections
where apples are grown commercially and where very
interesting local adaptations are to be found. These
five sections, however, produce the great bulk of all
the fruit which annually reaches foreign and domestic
markets.
II
APPLE SOILS
Tiiic apple thrives on a great variety of soils. In-
deed, it is grown to some extent on almost every kind
of arable soil in America. When planted on large
commercial areas with a view to profit, however, it be-
comes necessary to select those particular soils which
give the best results.
' First of all, it is obvious that apple trees can be ac-
commodated only in a deep soil. Naturally the roots
extend to considerable depths, and unless a porous
open subsoil is present the tree does not have proper
opportunity for rooting. In soils with impervious
hardpan, or in those where the water table is near the
surface, apple trees do not succeed well. It is gen-
erally known that apple trees are very impatient of wet
feet. This can easily be seen in orchards where there
are small spots of poorly drained land where the
water stands. In such spots the trees are always poor,
and they usually die out early, leaving blank places in
the orchard. It has been observed that a twisted
growth of the apple tree trunk indicates imperfect un-
derdrainage. Some of these soils of course can be
improved, or the difficulty entirely corrected, by thor-
ough underdrainage. As a rule, however, only those
soils which are naturally deep and well drained should
be chosen for apple orchards.
A somewhat gravelly soil, or even one verging
somewhat on stony, has been found by experience to
be highly satisfactory for apple growing, provided
6 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
only there is an abundance of plant food present. The
gravel and small stones doubtless assist in the drain-
age, and this fact probably explains in part the su-
periority of such soils. As a rule we may say that
gravelly loam, fairly rich in plant food, is the ideal
apple soil. The soil surveys now being made in various
parts of the country have, in a general way, verified
the commonly accepted opinion on this point. Some of
the soils well known as successful apple producers
have now been described, mapped and given name's.
That soil known as Porter's black loam, found in ex-
tensive areas along the eastern slopes of the Alle-
gheny mountains, is noted for its adaptation to the
growing of apples. It is upon this soil that the Al-
bemarle Pippin of Virginia is grown. In western
New York the Miami stony loam may be mentioned
as a soil of well-proved adaptability for apples. This
is widely represented in Wayne county, known as
one of the best apple-growing counties in America.
In other parts of the country sandy loams or even
silt loams are found to be successful in the production
of apples. The Miami silt loam furnishes the prin-
cipal basis of a large apple-growing industry in Clin-
ton county, 111., while the so-called Marion silt loam
is the soil chiefly developed in the famous Clay county,
111., apple district. On the Delaware Peninsula, where
the production of early apples is coming to be an ex-
tensive and profitable industry, orchards are planted
chiefly on the Norfolk loam and Norfolk silt loam.
A rule which the writer has been in the habit of
giving for popular use is that any soil especially adapt-
ed to the growing of Irish potatoes will usually be
satisfactory for apples. If any difference is to be
distinguished it would be in the way of allowing a
AITLE SOILS 7
larger amount of gravel or loose broken stone in an
apple orchard than in a potato field. Indeed, there
seems to be no limit in the amount of loose stone
which may be present in an apple soil, except the .
limit of cultivation. Even this limit is not so soon
reached as might be expected, for proper tools will
give satisfactory cultivation in apple orchards contain-
ing remarkable quantities of broken stone on the
surface.
EXPOSURES
A great deal of time has been spent in the discus-
sion of the proper exposure for orchards. The popu-
lar theory is that southern exposures are dangerous
because they induce early blossoming of tlie trees, thus
giving opportunity for the blossoms to be killed by late
frosts. In those localities where serious late frosts
frequently occur this objection obviously has some
force, but a careful study of the situation reveals the
fact that such localities are decidedly rare. High-
lands with good air drainage are generally pre-
ferred ; but this for other reasons than because of late
spring frosts.
Ill
WINDBREAKS
A PROPER site being chosen, some protection from
wind may still be desirable. Tracts of land freel}- ex-
posed to constant hard winds are undesirable, but al-
most any orchard may be benefited by a certain amount
of protection.
The utility of windbreaks for orchard protection is
a subject which has been often discussed among Amer-
ican fruit growers. It is a subject, moreover, on which
a fair unanimity has been reached. There may still
be a few exceptions to the statements noted below, but
for the most part the matter is fairly well settled.
There are three general purposes for which wind-
breaks are cultivated ; ( i ) Protection during winter ;
(2) summer protection; (3) protection of fruit in
picking time. It will be best to discuss these in order.
Perhaps the object which has been most often dis-
cussed is that of winter protection. It seems to have
been felt, especially in the more northern states, that
the common fruits are all more or less tender and,
therefore, subject to damage during the cold weather
of winter. A great deal has been said about winter-
killing; and, indeed, more or less damage to young
growth and to fruit buds has been observed by almost
every fruit grower, no matter in what part of the
country his work has been done.
It must "be said, however, that the principal use of
the windbreak does not seem to be that of furnishing
winter protection. Nor is it the best use. Even when
WINDBREAKS Q
winterkilling- is a serious factor .-in the management
of an orchard the greatest -protection does not come
apparently from the use of windbreaks. It is doubt-
ful if they ever mitigate low temperatures to any
important extent. They do stop the wind to some
degree, even in winter, and thereby reduce slightly
the evaporation of moisture from the twigs, which is
apt to be the greatest source of winterkilling. Per-
haps they are more useful as a means of winter pro-
tection from the fact that they usually hold the snow
on the ground. They also prevent the blowing of
leaves and such other litter as may help to hold the
snow, and which may give some protection. The
snow and litter thus retained on the ground protect
the soil from severe freezing, and from alternate freez-
ing and thawing ; whereas, without the windbreak, the
ground might remain bare, and the roots of the fruit
trees might be disastrously frozen in consequence.
In most parts -of the. cojuntry the protection of trees
in summer is of vastly more importance than their
protection in winter. The mechanical strain brought
about by the pressure of excessive winds is often the
source of serious trouble to the orchardist. In ex-
posed localities or where heavy winds prevail during
growing time it is very difficult to secure a symmet-
rical top on rapid growing trees. It is a not uncom-
mon sight to see a young tree with the top all on the
north or northwest side, due-to the action of the wind.
A windbreak which prevents the sweeping of direct
winds across the orchard during the summer, more-
over, is of considerable he-lp in the conservation of
moisture. It has been shown by careful experiments,
and it is a matter of wide observation among practical
men, that the soil dries out very rapidly when the
lO THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
wind is allowed to pass over it, and that evaporation
is much less from ground not open to the sweep of the
wind. Since the conservation of moisture is one of
the large and fundamental problems in orchard man-
agement, the use of the windbreak in securing this
end is highly desirable.
Perhaps the most important use of all to which
the windbreak is put in the management of apple
orchards is the protection of the fruit toward picking
time. It is not at all uncommon for heavy September
gales to bring down 25, 50 or even 75 per cent of the
entire crop of apples ; the losses from this source some-
times amount to hundreds, or even thousands of dol-
lars, in individual^rchards.
There are objections which always come up with
more or less force when the planting of a windbreak
is considered. In the first place the windbreak takes
up a certain amount of land. It never requires less
room than would an entire row of fruit trees of the
same length, and it usually requires more. Even when
a space somewhat greater than this is allowed to the
windbreak, it is often found that the outer rows of
fruit trees are starved by the greedy feeding of the
trees in the windbreak. In other cases atmospheric
drainage is seriously interfered with, though this
defect can usually be remedied by proper foresight.
In some cases windbreaks harbor insect pests, but
though this objection has been frequently urged
against them, it has usually been considerably over-
drawn. In fact, the only important objection, in the
judgment of the writer, is the one first mentioned.
All windbreaks will naturally be planted on that side
of the orchard from which the wind comes. Since
the prevailing winds are sometimes from one quarter
WINDBREAKS II
at one season of tlie year and from another quarter
at another season, it heconies necessary to consider
whether the windbreak is intended chiefly for winter,
summer, or picking-time protection. Sometimes all
three are required; many of the best orchards have
windbreaks around their entire circumference. There
is too much trouble and expense, however, attached
to the maintenance of a windbreak to justify a man
in keeping one where it is not plainly required.
The materials which may form the windbreak are
various. Each man must judge for himself which is
most practicable in his own locality and under his
own circumstances. In many cases the lay of the
land may be depended on. Some of the best orchards
and fruit-growing regions in America are to be found
on sharp mountain slopes or along steep hillsides. In
such cases the slope of the mountain or hill may be
sufficient to furnish all necessary protection from the
wind. In other cases natural woods or belts of tim-
ber occur in convenient proximity to the orchard and
in such a way as to furnish the desired shelter. Nat-
ural woods give the greatest possible protection, but,
more than any other windbreak, they are open to the
charge of harboring noxious insects, rabbits, mice and
other vermin.
Under most circumstances it is necessary to plant
artificial timber belts for the protection of the orchard
where protection is desired. These may be either of
evergreen trees or of deciduous species. The conifers,
such as pines, spruces, hemlock, and arbor vitae, all
make good windbreaks, and are especially desiraljle
where winter protection is the main consideration.
They are somewhat more difficult to transplant and
establish than deciduous trees are, but there is seldom
12 THE AMIIRICAN APPLE ORCHARD
any difficulty with them, provided they are intelH-
gently handled. The particular species which should
be chosen cannot be pointed out. If spruce thrives
best in the soil and locality under consideration, then
spruce should be planted. In some neighborhoods
arbor vit^e is easy to establish and is very satisfactory.
In other places the white pine is generally regarded as
one of the best trees for protective timber belts.
Deciduous trees, besides being easier to establish,
are usually more rapid growers during their early
years. It is easier to form a dense belt of them in a
short time. They are more likely to thin out below,
thus avoiding the objection of obstructing atmospheric
drainage. In case a very thick and altogether effective
windbreak is desired, alternate rows of evergreens and
broad-leaved species would best answer the require-
ments.
In some orchards it is possible to arrange the fruit
trees in such a way that they will furnish more or less
protection for each other. It is customary in some
localities to plant the trees closer together east and
west than they are north and south. They soon form
thick rows — sometimes almost hedgerows — of trees
running crosswise of the course of the principal
winds. Sometimes tall growing and sturdy varieties
like Spy and Ben Davis are planted on the outside of
the orchard next to the wind. The fruit of Spy trees
very seldom blows off. The same is true in a less ex-
tent of Ben Davis. Such varieties may be used, there-
fore, as windbreaks for the rest of the orchard.
In young orchards temporary protection may some-
times be secured at picking time by planting between
the rows with tall-growing varieties of dent corn.
The corn will reach such a height before picking time
WINDBREAKS I3
as to prevent the too free circulation of the wind
among- the trees. This plan, however, is a makeshift
and not to be generally recommended.
When trees are planted for windbreaks they should
nearly always be set at the same time the fruit trees
are. If spruce, pine or hemlock are to be used, how-
ever, and if it can be conveniently done, it may be best
to put out the windbreak two or three years in ad-
vance of the fruit trees. Spruce and pine start so
slowly that they often give very inadequate protection
during the first years, when perhaps their help is most
needed by the young- fruit trees.
IV
WINTERKILLING
In considering geographic and climatic factors we
must give some attention to another matter which is of
considerable importance in certain locahties. Winter-
kilHng has always been a large and interesting problem
with fruit growers in this country, but is of compara-
tively little importance in growing apples, especially
in the management of commercial orchards. In the
great apple-growing regions winterkilling is practi-
cally a negligible factor. In sections where winter-
killing is a serious danger apple growing can never
become an extensive industry. Since, however, every
householder in every civilized community in temper-
ate climates wishes to grow some apples, and since
winterkilling is a really serious matter in some of these
localities, it is necessary to consider this subject with
due care.
Winterkilling is of three sorts: (i) The killing of
the buds; (2) the killing of the young growth; (3)
root killing. The killing of fruit buds, though a very
serious matter in peach growing and with some va-
rieties of plums, very seldom occurs with apples. Ap-
ple buds are well protected and hardy. Any variety
sufficiently hardy to carry its wood through the winter
will usually save its buds also.
The young growth on apple trees sometimes kills in
severe winters. This damage is more likely to occur
on newly planted trees than on those well established.
It has been shown that this damage occurs largely
14
WINTERKILLING 15
through the drying out of the young shoots, due to the
fact that, while some evaporation still goes on during
the winter, the tree cannot take up water from the
frozen soil to make good this evaporation. The young
shoots, therefore, become so thoroughly dried out dur-
ing cold weather that the tissues are killed. Some va-
rieties, of course, are more subject to this damage than
others, and in northern regions a distinct variation of
hardiness among different varieties is well recognized.
The Russian apples, so widely recommended a few
years ago on account of their superior hardiness, are,
as a class, conspicuous for their ability to withstand
this sort of damage.
There are no very certain means of preventing win-
terkilling of this kind. Anything which can be done
to prevent the ground from freezing deeply and for
a long period will give the best possible protection.
Heavy cover crops which hold the snow and protect
the soil from freezing are especially valuable. It has
usually been said that pains should be taken to have
the wood ripen up as early in the fall as possible as a
means of guarding against winterkilling. This theory
has unquestionably been overworked.
Root killing is doubtless the most serious form of
winter damage suffered by apple trees in northwestern
localities. The great freeze of February, 1899, which
killed hundreds of thousands of trees in the north-
western states, accomplished this destruction chiefly
by root killing. The ground was bare of snow at the
time and the cold was very intense. When it is con-
sidered that all ordinary orchard trees are grafted or
budded upon miscellaneous stocks, it is easy to under-
stand that nearly all of these stocks might be more
tender than the l^ardy varieties which had been grafted
l6 THE AMERICAN APrLE ORCHARD
upon them. Thus the roots were killed in many cases
where the tops vvere able to withstand the weather.
In cases where root killing is likely to occur from
time to time — that is, in sections where severe freezing-
is likely to come when the ground is not covered by
snow — special precautions should be taken to prevent
this sort of damage. The best of these is to propagate
the apple upon a very hardy stock; and probably the
best of these stocks is the Cherry crab ( Pints
baccata). Unfortunately these stocks are available
only in small quantities and at comparatively high
prices. Trees propagated on these roots cannot be
bought in any ordinary nursery. The next best pre-
ventive of root killing, and the one easiest to adopt,
is the cover crop. A good heavy cover of clover,
alfalfa, or vetch gives the ground some protection in
itself and helps to hold whatever snow may fall.
V
STARTING THE ORCHARD
A MATTER of prime importance in starting an apple
orchard is to begin with good trees. Everybody seems
to know what constitutes a good horse, a good pair of
boots, or a well-made suit of clothes, but very few
people appear to have the necessary basis for judging
the value of nursery stock. It is altogether amusing
to see a file of ordinary customers select nursery trees
for themselves in nurseries where such direct purchase
is possible. Yery often large trees are selected with-
out regard to the roots, apparently with the idea that
the bigger the top the better the tree. Even when
more regard is paid to the proper balance of branches
with the root system the principal idea still seems to be
to get the biggest trees. The more such a customer
can get for the money the better he seems satisfied.
Even when these crude errors are avoided others
almost as bad are fallen into. Yet this matter is a
very important one. It is just as desirable to have
good nursery trees as to have good seed, and every
farmer considers this one of the first requirements in
agriculture. There is as much difference between
good trees and poor ones as between good coffee and
chicory mixture. On what, then, should a man base
his judgment?
A GOOD NURSF.RV TREE
First of all, the trees should be free from insects and
disease. Nowadays nursery stock is nearly all liable
l8 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
to official inspection, and this inspection professes to
discover all trees infested with obnoxious insects or
fungous diseases and to throw them out of the mar-
ket. A great deal has been accomplished by this sys-
tem of inspection, although it must be said that in
some places it is less effective than in others, and even
at its best it cannot furnish an absolute guarantee of
immunity. The man who buys the trees should him-
self inspect them and he ought to be sure that he is
able to recognize the more important noxious in-
sects and fungous disease likely to be transmitted in
nursery stock.
In the second place a tree should be well grown.
It should be clean and straight, with a well-formed
head. Of course the size and form of the head de-
pend greatly on the variety to which the tree belongs.
Some varieties of apples make better heads than
others. One should not expect Longfield to have as
well-formed heads as Ben Davis or Mcintosh. The
fact that tree buyers persist in laying too much stress
on this point has had a great influence in driving out
of the market many good varieties of apples simply
because they do not naturally form comely tops in the
nursery. While the buyer will always seek to secure
the cleanest and best-formed trees, he will not enforce
this rule at the expense of good varieties.
A tree should be not only well grown, but well pre-
served. Most of our nursery stock, especially fruit
trees, is now dug in the fall and sold in the spring.
During the winter it is kept in storage. The idea
of keeping nursery trees in cold storage, as eggs and
apples are kept, appeals to most men as a dangerous
practice. It is not necessarily so, however. If trees
are well managed in storehouses they do not lose any
STARTING THE ORCHARD IQ
part of their vitality. Yet if they are mismanaged, it
is always to their detriment. If the bark looks black
and shriveled, or if it is dry and hard, or if it is soft
and loose, peeling off readily when touched, then the
tree has not been well kept. It is likely to be in bad
condition and the chances are it will not grow.
There is sometimes a controversy broached regard-
ing the comparative merits of northern and southern
grown nursery trees. So far as we are concerned
this is also involved with the question as to whether
or not it is best to plant trees grown in the immediate
neighborhood. There is a feeling in many quarters
that northern grown nursery trees are more hardy,
and in all cases this is supplemented by the feeling that
home-grown trees are likely to be more successful
through being already acclimated. Long observation
and experiment have convinced me that these points
are usually very much overdrawn. There may be
something in them at times, but I have really never
been able to see it, although the matter has been fre-
quently tested under my observation. If the tree is
sound, well grown, free from disease, well kept
and otherwise in good physical condition, it is a safe
tree to plant. Any inquiries as to its place of origin
are hardly worth while. Indeed, such inquiries are
quite likely to be futile, because it is nearly always im-
possible to ascertain where a certain tree has actually
been grown. Very few nurserymen grow all the trees
they sell. They depend on buying what they need in
whatev-er market is most advantageous. It is, there-
fore, a matter of considerable satisfaction to feel that
we do not need to trace the history of every tree, but
that we may plant with confidence any nursery stock
which conforms to the simple physical tests herewith
20 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
outlined. Such tests every man can make with his own
hands and eyes.
HOW TO GET TREES
When a man starts into orchard planting he has to
have trees. These he can either propagate for him-
self or buy from a nursery. When large commercial
oichards are projected it is possibly best to undertake
the propagation of the necessary nursery stock on the
premises, providing the delay thereby incurred is not
too serious an objection. The advantage of propa-
gating at home is not so much that the trees are se-
cured more cheaply, though there is something in that,
as it is that they may be had when wanted and that
their history is always known. The planter secures
varieties which are true to name. They are the kinds
he has chosen. They are propagated from reliable
stock. He knows the entire history of every tree, and
this is often of importance. There is a considerable
advantage, too, in having trees at hand at planting
time. There are no delays in shipping, no damage
to trees in storage, and the stock is on hand when the
ground is ready, the holes dug, and the men prepared
to plant.
Now that the San Jose scale has come to be a fac-
tor in orchard planting in certain districts, there is
an added advantage in having home-grown trees.
Nursery stock bought from a grower in another
neighborhood or state often requires fumigation.
Either one must run the risks of fumigation or else
the danger of infection from the scale. Both these
risks may usually be avoided by home propagation.
STARTING THE ORCHARD 21
In some quarters there is a well-founded prejudice
— I hardly dare to call it more — in favor of tree-
breeding by the selection of scions from bearing trees
of special individual excellence. It is easy to observe
that in a block of apple trees of one variety, say, AIc-
Intosh or Greening or Winesap, there are individual
trees which bear more and better fruit than their
neighbors. In so far as this is not due to the influence
of the stock, but to the individuality of the tree itself,
it can presumably be reproduced by grafting. From
such trees accordingly do the modern apple growers
of the advanced school prefer to select their scions.
The present writer warmly shares the prejudice in
favor of this practice, but admits that it rests on a
plausible theory rather than on an established prin-
ciple.
When the nursery stock is grown on the place the
strongest and best trees may be selected, a large
number of inferior specimens being discarded. One
is apt to get, therefore, a generally higher grade of
stock, providing he is willing to stand a certain
amount of loss in the nursery, when he plants from
his own nursery rows.
Nevertheless in the great majority of cases it is
more practicable to secure trees from some nursery-
man than it is to grow them at home. This is em-
phatically true if the number to be planted is com-
paratively small, and if the planter is not an expert
propagator. It is the nurseryman's business to propa-
gate trees, and he can do it better and more cheaply
than the unpracticed fruit grower. The suspi-cion usu-
ally attached to nursery-grown trees is almost always
unfounded. The unsophisticated farmer has been ha-
bitually gtdled by the fruit tree agents from the earliest
22 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
times, but the very large majority of nurserymen are
honest and reHable. They grow good trees as nearly
true to name as careful foresight can insure, and they
sell them at reasonable prices. The planter should
simply be sure that the nurseryman with whom he
deals is a good reliable business man. He should
take the same precautions which he would in buying
a barrel of sugar, a dairy cow or a carload of fencing
wire. The itinerant fruit tree agent should never be
patronized, of course, except to get rid of him — never
with the expectation of getting any useful trees.
The prices of nursery stock are so low, and the
character of the goods furnished generally so high,
that the orchard planter can hardly consider this one
of his serious expenses. Above all other things he
should not practice a false economy in this part of
the project. The best trees should be bought from
the most reliable man in the market. A saving of
$2 or $3 in the price of nursery stock may be lost a
hundred times over before the first crop is gathered.
METHODS OF PROPAGATION
A great deal has been said at different times and
in different parts of the country about methods of
propagation. There has been a long argument over
the respective merits of grafting and budding trees ;
and the advantages and disadvantages of so-called
"whole-root" grafting as compared with the "piece-
root" grafting have been hotly debated in many a
horticultural gathering. On this point the experience
of planters is quite strongly agreed. The net result
may be stated as follows : The various methods of
STARTING THE ORCHARD 23
propagation have their advantages and disadvan-
tages in the hands of a nurseryman. Some are more
economical for him because they give quicker or surer
results, or because they are less expensive. But for
the fruit grower there is absolutely no advantage of
one method over another. Grafted trees will live as
long and thrive as well as budded trees, and those
grown on piece-roots are just as good as those grown
on whole-roots. It is still a question of getting sound,
thrifty trees. That is the only point of interest to the
orchardist. Such a great amount of testimony has
been collected in recent years on this point that the
truth may be stated with considerable positiveness.
At what age should a tree be planted ? Some plant-
ers prefer one-year-old stock, and when it is large
and well grown it is almost, or quite as good, as two-
year-old stock. For the most part, however, two-
year-old stock is to be reconmiended for apples.
Anything older than two years is strictly undesirable.
FALL vs. SPRING PLANTING
The question is often asked as to wdiethcr fall or
spring planting is to be preferred. The answer is
that there is not much choice and that sometimes
one season will prove more favorable, while at other
times the other season is better. There are certain
general advantages in fall planting. There is more
time for the work then than during the spring rush ;
it is easier to buy nursery stock and get the varieties
of one's selection ; the trees if properly planted in
good soil will make some root growth and will be-
come, to a considerable degree, established before the
24 Tllli AMI:KICAN apple OIUIIARD
opening of spring-, so they start in the year with a
certain advantage over the spring-planted trees.
On the other hand there are some drawbacks to
fall ])lanting. In order to sell trees betimes in the
fall nurserymen sometimes dig them prematurely. If
the soil is not well drained, or if other conditions are
unfavorable, the trees may receive serious damage
during the winter. They may also be injured by
mice. On the whole, the case seems to stand like
this: When all conditions are favorable — trees good,
soil good, drainage perfect, planting well done — then
fall setting will be successful and is to be preferred.
Lacking any of these conditions, spring planting is
safer.
DISTANCES FOR PLANTING
In the principal apple-growing districts there is a
fairly unanimous agreement that 35 feet apart each
way is the proper spacing for standard apple trees in
orchards. On fertile lands in western New York
40x40 feet is often recommended ; while in a few sec-
tions, notably in California, closer planting is prac-
ticed. It may be said positively that the present tend-
ency is toward ' closer planting. This is coupled
everywhere with a tendency toward closer pruning
and the formation of smaller headed trees. This
tendency in turn is strongly promoted by the spread
of the San Jose scale and of other noxious insects
and diseases which require very thorough spraying.
Smaller trees are more easily sprayed, and may be
more closely planted.
If one is to follow the conventional methods of
orchard management, therefore, he will plant stand-
ard apple trees 35x35 feet. He may make this
n»EltTY UBRARY
n. C State College
STARTING THE ORCHARD 25
40x40 feet if he i^Iants large .growing- varieties, like
Spy, on rich land. On the other hand if he has clear
and definite plans for repressive pruning he may plant
closer. This may mean as close as 20x20 feet with
small growing sorts, like Wealthy and Duchess. But
such close planting must not be undertaken except
by the man who has the knowledge and the courage
to carry out a rigorous system of management all
along the line.
PLANTING TABLES
The following table will show the number of trees
to the acre planted at various distances:
Trees Trees
Per Acre Per Acre
9ft.x 9 ft 537 12 ft. X 30 ft 121
9 '■ X 10 ' 484 12 " X 36 " 100
9 " X 11 " 440 12 " X 42 " 86
9 " X 12 " 403 12 " X 48 " 75
9 " X 14 " 345 12 " X 54 " 67
9 " X 15 " 322 12 " X 60 " 60
9 " X 18 " 268 15 " X 15 " 193
9 " X 20 " 242 15 " X 18 " 161
10 " X 10 " 435 15 " X 20 " 145
10 " X 12 " 363 15 " X 24 " 121
10 " X 15 " 290 15 " X 30 " 96
10 " X 18 " 242 15 " X 36 " 80
10 " X 20 " 217 15 " X 42 " 69
10 " X 24 " 181 15 " X 48 " 60
10 " X 30 " 145 15 " X 54 " 53
10 " X 36 " 121 15 " X 60 " 48
10 " X 42 " 103 18 " X 18 " 134
10 " X 45 " 96 18 " X 20 " 121
10 " X 48 " 90 18 " X 24 " 100
10 " X 54 " 80 18 " X 30 " 80
10 " X 60 " 72 18 " X 36 " 67
12 " X 12 " 302 18 " X 42 " 57
12 " X 15 " 242 18 " X 48 " 50
12 " X 18 " 201 18 " X 54 " 44
12 " X 20 " 181 18 " X 60 " 40
12 " X 24 " 151 20 " X 20 " 108
STARTING THE ORCHARD 2/
Trees Trees
Per Acre Per Acre
''Oft. X 24 ft 90 38ft. X 42ft 27
20 " X 30 " 72 38 " X 48 " 23
20 " X 36 " 60 38 " X 50 " 22
20 " X 42 " 51 38 " X 54 " 21
20 " X 48 " 45 38 " X 60 " 19
20 " X 54 " 40 40 " X 40 " 27
20 " X 60 " 36 40 " X 42 " 25
' 24 " X 24 " 75 40 " X 48 " 22
24 " X 30 " 60 40 " X 50 " 21
24 " X 36 " 50 40 " X 54 " 20
24 " X 42 " 43 40 " X 60 " 18
24 " X 48 " i7 42 " X 42 " 24
24 " X 54 " Zi 42 " X 48 " 21
24 " X 60 " 30 42 " X 54 " 19
Mo " X 30 " 48 42 " X 60 " 17
30 " X 36 " 40 48 " X 48 " 18
30 " X 42 " 34 48 " X 54 " 16
30 " X 48 " 30 48 " X 60 " 15
30 " X 54 " 26 50 " X 50 " 17
30 " X 60 " 24 50 " X 54 " 16
/ 35 " X 35 " 35 50 " X 60 " 14
36 " X 36 " Zi 54 " X 54 " 14
36 " X 42 " 28 54 " X 60 " 13
36 " X 48 " 25 60 " X 60 " 12
36 " X 54 " 22 70 " X 70 " 8
36 " X 60 " 20 80 " X 80 " 6
38 " X 38 " 30 90 " X 90 " 5
38 " X 40 " 28 100 " X 100 " 4
DOUBLE PLANTING
When an orchard is planted 35x35 or 40x40 feet,
there is a good deal of waste space left during the
early years of its growth. For 15 to 20 years a con-
siderable part of the ground remains practically un-
occupied and useless. Some crops are occasionally
raised between the trees during the earliest years,
but experience has generally been against this prac-
tice. On the other hand when the trees have actually
filled up the space allotted to them, and when we say
the ground is fully occupied, there is, in fact, still
another waste.
28 THE AMRRICAN APPLE ORCHARD
This conies from the fact that the bearing area of
the tree has been simply moved out with the growth
of the branches, leaving the space next each tree
trunk unproductive. Apples never grow in the
center of the tree. There is only a comparatively
thin rim around the periphery where blossoms open
and fruit matures. Thus, while we waste space out-
side of the tree during the early years of the orchard,
we waste space inside the tree when the orchard
grows old.
This waste often amounts to 50 per cent of the land,
sometimes more. On land worth $50 to $100 an acre
(and there are large areas of land worth $100 an acre
now growing apples) such an amount of unproductive
soil is a serious consideration. There are two possi-
ble remedies for this condition of things. The first
is pruning; the second interplanting.
If we had a system of pruning which gave us prac-
tical control of our apple trees, we might be able to
prevent their continuous and undue increase in size.
We could thus keep them within boiuids. Trees
might be planted 20 feet apart, say, and not allowed to
overpass the limits set upon them. It is perfectly
evident, however, that we have not yet worked out a
system of pruning which will compass this end. That
is one of the great problems resting with the future
of American pomology. We shall certainly have to
solve this problem before we can pretend to have a
perfect system of fruit-growing; but this solution
appears to be still further away from us than the one
next to be mentioned.
Interplanting, or the use of "fillers," has been con-
siderably discussed during the past decade or two,
and has been occasionally tried. For the most part
STARTING THE ORCHARD 29
the experiments made with mixed or double plant-
ing have been unsuccessful, or at least unsatisfactory ;
and there is at present in the general horticultural
mind an undoubted and fairly founded prejudice
against it. The waste of land, however, incident up-
on wide planting is so positive and obvious a hard-
ship that many men are willing to face the prejudice
and the bad results of earlier experiments in order
possibly to hnd some improvement for this condition.
The general object of mixed planting or interplant-
ing is to increase the revenue of the orchard during
its early years. Whatever method of procedure,
therefore, will give the quickest and largest returns
without damage to the permanent apple orchard is
the method to be pursued. And if double planting is
to be practiced at all, the best method of mixing dif-
ferent trees in the orchard comes to be an interesting
practical problem.
Before going further with this discussion, it seems
necessary to consider in detail "the objections usually
made to double planting and the arguments common-
ly presented in favor of it.
The first and commonest objection is that the fillers
are never cut out when they ought to be. In many
cases fruit-growers seem to be ignorant of the time
when the fillers should be removed. They do not ap-
preciate that any damage is threatened from them
until long after the damage has occurred. In most
cases, however, the neglect is chargeable to the dis-
inclination of the fruit-grower to cut out temporary
trees which are giving him some regular income. It
has been repeatedly laid down as a rule that fruit-
growers will not do this. A good Nova Scotia fruit-
30 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
grower summed up the matter thus: "Cut out the
fillers ? Yes ! Cut off your head !"
In answer to this objection it should be said that if
a man is fairly forewarned of the danger of leaving
fillers too long in his orchard, and if he is a man of
moderate intelligence, he ought to be able to realize
that what he is after is the maximum profit from his
orchard ; and if he has any way of knowing when the
profit from the fillers begins to be gathered at a great-
er expense from the permanent trees, then he should
willingly destroy the less for the greater income. A
man ought to have no more compunction in cutting
out a tree from an orchard than in cutting out a limb
at pruning time. In either case he removes a part
of his fruit-bearing capital for the sake of getting
better returns from the remainder. It is doubtless a
fact that the common careless fruit-grower will not
remove fillers when he ought to, and this is sufficient
reason why the practice of double planting should not
be indiscriminately recommended. It is not any rea-
son, however, why the intelligent fruit-grower — the
man who knows enough really to look out for his own
business — should not practice it.
The second objection is urged against the somewhat
common method of filling apple orchards with trees
of other species, especially stone fruits, such as
peaches, apricots, plums and cherries. The objection
is that these different types of fruit require differ-
ent methods of culture, and that while striving
to do what is best for the peaches or plums, the
grower does what is not best for his apples.
This objection, of course, rests upon the same
ground as the one previously considered ; namely,
STARTING THE ORCHARD 3 1
that the fruit grower does not have the intelh-
gence or the courage to do what is for his own
good. If a man fills his apple orchard with tem-
porary peach trees, there is no reason why he should
not give the apples the best culture of which he is
capable, and take as a gratuity whatever may come to
him from the peach trees. That is what they are
there for.
Some sticklers on orchard culture have carried this
objection so far as to say that pears and early varieties
of apples should not be used for interplanting in
standard orchards of commercial apples. They say
that pears and early apples require peculiar methods
of cultivation. So far as pears are concerned, this is
largely true, since high fertilization and thorough
working of the soil is likely to induce blight. So far
as early apples are concerned, this distinction seems
to be rather finely drawn. There doubtless are a few
apple growers in America who have arrived at that
refinement of practice which leads them to apply one
method of treatment to Ben Davis, another to Grimes'
Golden and another to Red June, but these men are
single examples among thousands.
Nevertheless, the objection to filling apple orchards
with other species of fruit, especially stone fruits,
should be given careful consideration; and in most
cases it is probably better practice to use apples for
fillers in apple orchards, if fillers are to be used at all.
Another objection which has not been commonly
presented in this connection, but which seems to me
to have much more practical weight than either of the
others, is this — that the planting of fillers in an or-
chard interferes more or less seriously with the neces-
sary working of the ground, growing cover crops and
32 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
spraying-. Room has to be left in the orchard for the
spraying outfit to pass readily about within reach of
all sides of all the trees. If a row of fillers is placed
midway between two permanent rows, there is always
a certain amount of land which is thereby kept out of
cultivation. If cultivation is a good thing — and it
certainly is — then its benefits are mitigated by sd
much as the cultivated area is reduced. If cover
crops add valuable elements to the soil — and they un-
doubtedly do — then the amount of these elements is
reduced in proportion as the fillers occupy space
otherwise available for clover or peas.
In answer to this last objection, it may be said that
inasmuch as cultivation, fertilization and growing of
cover crops are directed chiefly to the end of fur-
nishin3^ to trees an adequate food supply, the inroads
made upon the stock of plant food by the fillers, and
by the reduction in caltiva'tion and cover crops, may
be largely made good by the application of an extra
amount of fertilizer. It is, of course, fully recognized
that when fillers are planted in an orchard, much
more liberal fertilization must be given. The tem-
porary trees must not be allowed to feed at the ex-
pense of the permanent ones.
Considering fully the arguments on both sides of
the cjuestion, and entirely without prejudice, I feel
bound to believe that the practice of interplanting in
apple orchards is desirable for fruit growers who
have the intelligence to understand their own busiiiess
and the courage to attend to it. I may add, further-
more, that I have sufficient faith in the modern up-
to-date fruit growers to believe that a great many
fulfill these requirements. Another argument for the
feasibility of double planting is that this system has
STARTIXf^. THE ORCIIARO 33
been carried out with marked success by various
practical fruit growers. If, then, mixed planting- is
to be undertaken in certain cases, we come back to the
important question as to what methods are most likely
to give success.
We have already briefly considered tiie question as
to whether fillers should be of the same species as the
permanent trees. It is doubtless safer to have them
so. There are certain varieties which come early
into bearing, and some of these are comparatively
small trees and may be put in the temporary rows.
Missouri Pippin and Winesap are generally recom-
mended for the West; in the East experience has not
settled upon any particular varieties except Wealthy.
Fameuse fills the requirements to a certain extent
where it is a market variety. In Nova Scotia I find
that Ben Davis is being considerably used for this
purpose, which will certainly 'be a surprise to the men
in the "land of the big red apple." In the northern
states and certain portions of Canada, Wealthy has
been generally recommended ; and persons who are
inclined to grow Wagener will find that tree suitable
to the purpose in hand.
In many cases it seems best to have the temporary
trees of the same variety as the permanent ones — that
is, if one is planting a permanent orchard of Ben
Davis with trees 40 feet apart, he may put in an extra
row of Ben Davis half way between. He will thus
have during the first few years a Ben Davis orchard
with trees 20 feet apart.
It will be seen in the presentation of the arguments
above that the writer does not believe it altogether an
impossible practice to use stone fruits for fillers in an
apple orchard. While the peach has doubtless been
^^^
^
^1«f^
STARTING THE ORCHARD 35
oftenest used and recommended for this purpose,
plums and sour cherries would probably answer the
requirements of the case better. They are slower
growers, make smaller heads, and are much less likely
to overtop the permanent apple trees. If, as has al-
ready been said, the grower will concentrate his best
efforts in behalf of the permanent apple trees and
will make his cultivation of plums or cherries a strictly
secondary matter, there is no reason why these crops
should in any way work against the best development
of the main crop. The practice usually recommended
as being- the very best for apples conies near enough
to satisfying the requirements of the plum trees, at
least near enough so that good returns may be ex-
pected from fillers of this sort.
Whatever species and varieties are selected for mix-
ing, the whole treatment given the orchard from the
very first must favor the permanent trees. These
must be urged to dominate the fillers. In some cases,
especially when the fillers are apple trees, and still
more especially when they are of the same variety as
the permanent trees, it is good practice to set the main
orchard first, putting in the fillers one or two years
later. This gives the permanent trees a start. In
any case, some system of repressive pruning is to be
recommended for the fillers, in order to keep them
strictly under control, and to prevent any one of them
overtopping a neighboring tree of the elect.
The arrangement of an orchard will usually be
more or less affected by the project of using fillers
between the permanent trees. Sometimes it is found
best to adopt the old-fashioned quincunx system. This
is perhaps especially suited tc those cases in which
36 Tin-: AMERICAN' APPLE ORCHARD
apples are used for fillers between apples. The per-
manent trees are put where they are to stand, say 40
feet apart, and in the middle of the square, equidistant
from four of these trees, a temporary tree is ])laced.
This increases the number of trees to an acre by ex-
actly 50 per cent.
When plums or cherries or dwarf pears are used
for fillers, a much larger number can be ])ut in to
advantage. Perhaps the best way then is to
plant the permanent trees in rectangles, say 24 by }^2
feet, then an entire row of fillers can be run through
the wide spaces, making the rows 16 feet apart one
way and 24 feet the other. The fillers would then be
planted 12 feet apart in the row, and there would be
one and one-half times as many of them as permanent
trees. In case a still heavier interplanting seems de-
sirable, the most practical way would be to set the
permanent trees in squares once more, then to run
temporary rows half way between them in both di-
rections. If the permanent trees are 40 feet apart
then fillers are put in half way between, in both di-
rections, making the entire orchard stand, as origi-
nally planted, with its trees 20 feet apart. In this
case there are just three times as many fillers as there
are permanent trees, and the number of trees in the
original orchard is increased by 300 per cent.
Land is sometimes economized in a slightly different
way, namely, by interplanting with small fruits. The
writer has seen gooseberries and currants rather suc-
cessfully used in this way. They are worth trying.
Raspberries and blackberries are also planted occa-
sionally, but their use is attended with considerably
greater difficulties. They should be interplanted be-
STARTING THE ORCHARD ^7
tween orchard trees only under circumstances of great
urgency.
Strawberries are sometimes grown between tree
rows, especially for the first two or three years after
the orchard is put out. There is no special objection
to them. They are not likely to cause any damage
to the orchard. At the same time the strawberry
plants are very easy to get rid of when the ground
is needed for the trees ; and, in fact, the diminishing
size of the strawberries will very soon lead to their
removal. For this reason strawberries are tO' be con-
sidered a safe crop in young orchards.
Elsewhere mention is made of the practice of grow-
ing various garden and farm crops between the trees
of a young orchard. The fundamental principle is
that it is bad management ever to grow any crop
which, directly or indirectly, in whatever degree, is a
detriment to the 'trees which are to form the perma-
nent plantation.
Since the prime object of double planting is econ-
omy of land, and since, with this object in view, the
trees are set unusually close together, it follows that
considerable repressive pruning is likely to be needed.
Pruning has already been mentioned as one of the
means of economizing land ; and doubtless the most
satisfactory system of orchard management would
combine double planting with repressive pruning. The
fillers must always be kept headed back to such an
extent that they do not interfere with the proper de-
velopment of the permanent trees, and if this heading
back is kept up in such timely and foresighted man-
ner as to keep the fillers fully under control, the time
of their removal may be considerably postponed.
38 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
In conclusion, the writer feels compelled to say that
he would not recommend the practice of double plant-
ing to everyone. There are many men — men who would
be fairly successful in following some simpler method
— who are sure to fail under the difficulties involved in
managing two orchards on the same ground. It must
be clearly understood, too, that double planting in-
volves a complete readjustment of the entire system of
fruit growing, pruning, fertilizing, cultivating and
all. Anyone who interplants an orchard and then
adheres to the methods of pruning and cultivation
suited to the open style of planting is foredoomed to
failure. Yet it is such failures as these which have
unjustly brought double planting into a certain de-
gree of disrepute.
PREPARATION FOR PLANTING
The nursery tree requires some special preparation
immediately before it is put into the ground. This
refers, of course, to pruning. Some growers advise
that trees be planted first and suitably cut back im-
mediately afterward ; but this is certainly not the best
practice. It is easier to prune nursery trees with a
heavy pair of shears just before they are planted than
it is to walk all over a twenty-acre field to prune them
after they are set out.
It has usually been accepted as a horticultural
axiom that an extensive, symmetrical and well rami-
fied root system is always desirable or even necessary.
In recent years this belief has been strongly chal-
lenged, especially by the so-called Stringfellow system.
Mr. Stringfellow's scheme, succinctly stated, is to cut
off all the side roots entirely and to shorten the tap
STARTING THE ORCHARD 39
root to a len,yth of 4 or 5 inches, Icavinj^ thus of the
whole root system only a single short and naked stub.
The top is treated in a similar manner, all branches
being removed and the main stem being cut back to a
height of 18 inches or less. The trees are thus re-
duced to something a little more than cuttings.
This theory is so heretical that it has called out a
storm of discussion. Now after the storm has sub-
sided we have found, as is usual in such matters, that
there is something worth saying on both sides of the
question. ]\Iany experiments have been made, and it
must be said that the results give very little comfort
to the extremists on either side of the debate. Mr.
Stringfellow himself has recently seemed inclined to
retreat from his most advanced position, and the hor-
ticultural world in general has been greatly surprised
to find how much truth there was in his contentions.
From the wealth of observation and experience re-
cently brought into circulation we may fairly draw the
following conclusions relative to this whole matter:
1. A large or widely ramified root system is not
important except as an indication of the health and
vigor of the tree.
2. A good nursery tree with a heavy root system
may be very severely cut back without greatly injur-
ing the vitality of the tree or interfering with its first
year's growth.
3. The fibrous roots which may be present on the
nursery tree are altogether useless. New fibrous roots
have to be formed in any case before the tree can
feed itself.
4. Extreme stub root pruning is not advisable in
any case, though under certain circumstances it may
give as good results as any other method.
40 THE A.MERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
5. The contention that stub root pruning- causes
the tree to form a deeper or l^etter root system has not
been proved.
6. Severe cutting- back of roots and tops appears
to be most advantageous with peaches, Japanese plums
and pears of the Kieffer type. It is more successful
in the South than in the North. It is better on light,
warm, not too dry soils than on heavy clay or dry
sand.
The judgment of the present writer may be summed
up, therefore, by saying that it is best to prune nur-
sery apple trees thoroughly, even severely, just before
planting. Not only should all straggling and broken
roots be cut off, but all the main roots should be cut
back within 3 or 4 inches of the trunk. Such trees
are much easier to handle than those differently
treated ; they can be more rapidly planted, and the
work would be more thoroughly done. At the same
time the tops will be cut back at the point where the
head is to be formed. If the heads have already
been formed in the nursery at a heiglit satisfactory to
the fruit grower the best plan will be to shorten all
branches to stubs of 2 or 3 inches long, taking some
pains to see that these are not too thickly placed. If a
suitable head has not been formed in the nursery, or
if, as is often the case, the head has been formed too
high, the entire top should be cut off. Even two-year-
old trees can be thus cut back to bare stumps of 12, 18
or 20 inches tall, from which satisfactory growth will
be secured the first year after planting in the orchard.
This matter is more fully discussed under pruning.
PLANTING out THE TREES
To tlie novice the planting of a tree is something
STARTING Tllli ORCHARD 4I
wonderful. There are mysteries connected with it.
He approaches the work with fear and doubting, and
with the feehng that failure lies much nearer than
success. The old orchardist has learned that it is
very difficult to kill a good tree. If anything like
reasonable attention is paid to it, it is sure to thrive.
Trees seem to grow with a very free will for an ex-
perienced tree planter. The inexperience of the
novice shows in every movement. He takes much
more time and pains in planting his trees than the ex-
pert does, though it seems doubtful if he gets any
better result. When large orchards are to be planted
the expense of setting the trees is a considerable item.
The practical orchardist, therefore, economizes at this
point, but never in such a way as to lose money by it.
In planting a large number of trees economy of time
demands an organization of the work and a clear
fore-established plan for conducting the operations.
The work must be arranged in such a way that it can
be done expeditiously and at the same time properly.
Having decided on the scheme of planting to be
adopted, there are various ways of carrying out the
planting plan. The man who delights in clean,
straight rows is apt -to take considerable pains in laying
off the field. Sometimes a surveyor is employed with
his transit to run off the lines. The writer has sev-
eral times seen this done and has tried it himself, but
does not recommend it.
The next most accurate method consists in smooth-
ing the ground thoroughly, and then going over it
with a marker hauled by a steady horse and driven by
a careful man. In this way the rows may be located
with considerable exactness ; and if there are small
kinks in the line they can easily be straightened out
42
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
by the eye as the trees are set. When this system of
marking is undertaken the marker should be driven
across the field in both directions and the trees located
at the intersections of the lines. In small plantings
it is feasible to mark in one direction and then to
stretch a garden line or rope at right angles to the
marks, making the plantings along the garden line.
ORTHODOX METHOD OF TREE PLANTING
This latter method, however, is not suitable to large
undertakings.
When the trees are located in this way by the
intersection of marks, the exact point at which the
trees are to be placed is lost when the hole is dug. It
is customary under such circumstances to use a par-
ticular contrivance sometimes known as the "planting-
jack" for locating the tree. As shown in the illus-
tration, this consists of a lath or small board 5 to 6
feet long, 6 inches wide, and i inch thick. This is
STARTING Tllli ORCHARD 43
notched at cither end and in the middle. Before the
hole is dug- the jack is laid on the surface of the
ground with the middle notch resting against the
stake where the tree is to be set, the ground having
been carefully staked out in advance. Small stakes
are then i)laced in the two end notches. The jack is
removed, the middle stake taken out and the hole dug.
The jack is then put back into its original position
with the two ends fitting upon the end stakes. The
tree is then put intO' the hole with the trunk or collar
coming into the notch in the middle of the jack, so
that the tree is held exactly where the original stake
was taken out. The roots of the tree are then cov-
ered, the jack is removed and the planting is complete.
This manipulation is not fast enough, however, for
the rushing business methods of modern orchard
planting. The plan adopted is more commonly about
as follows : After the land is properly prepared for
the trees, the rows are measured ofif on all four sides
of each rectangular field. Good, tall stakes are set to
sight by. It is best also to set a row of stakes across
the middle of the field in each direction, being careful
that the stakes are accurately aligned with the corre-
sponding stakes at the four sides. Next a steady
team is hitched to a plow — a double mold-board or
listing plow is best — and a deep dead-furrow is turned
out along each line, in one direction only, across the
field. It is often necessary or advisable to run the
plow twice or even oftener, in a furrow in order to
secure depth. A second time through the furrow us-
ually helps also to straighten out small irregularities.
The ground is now marked in one direction and the
stakes which are still standing enable a planter with a
44 THE AMERICAN ATI'LE OKCllAKD
quick eye to set a tree in position by sigiitiny in l)oth
directions.
The planting gang- is now put to work. It should
consist of four men. The first man prepares the trees
for setting by separating them from the bunches and
by pruning them with a pair of sharp pruning shears
which he carries in his hip pocket. He then goes
ahead of the other three men and drops a tree at each
place. The duty of the second man is to held the
tree in position while it is being planted. The third
and fourth men carry shovels and fill the soil in about
the roots. It is the duty of the third and fourth
men also to sight the tree into position. As soon as
one tree is planted the second man walks forward to
the next tree, picks it up and places it approximately
in position. One of the shovelers who has stayed be-
hind for the purpose sights forward down the row to
bring the tree into line with the stakes. He motions
to the man who holds the tree until the alignment is
secured. The other shoveler meanwhile has stepped
to one side where he is able to sight down the line in
the other direction and in like manner to indicate the
cross alignment for the man who holds the tree. As
soon as the tree is placed in its proper position the
two shovelers begin to fill in about the roots, one from
one side of the furrow and the other from the other.
Two or three shovelfuls of earth from each shoveler
are quite enough in most cases. These are tramped
down quickly by the man who holds the tree, and the
gang proceeds rapidly to the next point, where the
operation is repeated.
After a little practice, planting can be done very
rapidly in this way, and very efficiently, too. If the
long, spreading roots are all cut off, as already ad-
STARTING THE ORCHARD 45
vised, there need be no delay for spreading out and
locating the main roots as the amateur commonly does
it. The trees do not need to be very thoroughly cov-
ered in, because it is expected that the furrows will be
promptly filled by plowing back toward the trees with
a steady team. A gang of four men working in this
way can readily set 5 to 15 acres of trees a day, de-
pending on the number of trees to an acre, the condi-
tion of the soil and other factors. It will surprise the
man who has not seen it done, too, to see how well
the work is performed and how good an alignment is
secured.
When holes are to be dug by hand it is best tO' use
sharp, square-pointed, short-handled spades in hard
ground, long-handled spades in medium ground, and
long-handled, round-pointed shovels in light, loose or
stony ground. Of course different men have their
own preferences in this respect, but they will not de-
part far from the rule here laid down. There are some
special devices for digging the holes, usually more or
less on the post-auger pattern, but, like patent farm
gates, they are of little practical value.
Especial caution ought to be observed when plant-
ing is being done to see that the stock is all on hand,
that it is in the field where it is to be used, and that
it is in proper condition. The stock should be heeled-
in on the borders of the field where it is within easy
reach of the planting gang.
The use of water poured about each tree in plant-
ing is hardly to be recommended. It is impracticable
in large operations on account of the bother and ex-
pense connected with it and it is doubtful if it does
any good. At any rate, if the ground is in good con-
dition this little irrigation will not be needed.
46 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
DOUBLE-WORKING
At this point a few words ought to be given to the
interesting practice of double-working trees. The
fruit grower following this plan plants trees of some
healthy, clean-growing variety, but not the variety
from which he hopes to gather fruit. When these
trees have reached a suitable size they are topworked
to the variety which the orchardist really wants to
grow.
This second working is usually done by the cleft-
graft process, but some men prefer budding upon the
smaller branches.
The age at which the trees are reworked may
vary. Some growers top-graft the first or second
year after planting two-year-old nursery trees in their
places in the orchard. The entire top is removed and
two scions take its place. Other growers prefer to
wait till the stock-variety has formed its principal
crotches and then work upon the main limbs. The
former method is the more expeditious ; the latter se-
cures the advantage of better crotches for weak-
growing varieties or for those, like King, which are
subject to canker in the crotches.
It is sometimes claimed that this method brings
trees into bearing earlier, but it is hard to see how
this happens, for it is certain that double-working
may delay the time at which trees come into bearing.
Double-working has certain definite and obvious
advantages in growing tender, badly formed varie-
ties, or those much subject to defects of tree. Such
sorts as Canada Red, Tompkins King and Esopus
Spitzenberg, may properly be handled in this manner.
A good, strong trunk and frame can be formed by
STARTING THE ORCHARD 47
some thrifty, healthy, comely growing variety, and
only the outer shell of the top need he of the fruit-
bearing sort.
Another possible advantage of this double-working
lies in the opportunity to use selected scions. It is well
known that there are striking individual differences
among different trees of the same variety. Of two ad-
joining trees of the same variety in the same row one
will give brighter colored fruit than the other; one
will bear annually, while the other bears biennially;
or one will habitually yield twice as much as its.'
neighbor. It is generally believed that these differ-
ences can be reproduced by selecting grafts from the
best trees. The fruit grower, therefore, who develops
his orchard by the double-working process has the
opportunity to choose scions from specially productive
trees or from those which bear specially attractive
fruit.
The varieties usually chosen for stocks when apple
trees are to be reworked in the orchard are Spy, Tol-
man. Duchess and McMahon. The last two are
particularly hardy and are used chiefly at the North
where the Russian Hibernal is also sometimes used.
Tolman is hard to buy in American nurseries, but is
one of the very best for this purpose. Spy makes too
large a tree and should be headed very low if it is to
be reworked, as double-working has a tendency to
make higher headed trees. Ben Davis is some-
times used, and has at least the advantage of being
always purchasable.
VI
ORCHARD CULTIVATION
There was a time, within the memory of even young
men, when the advisabihty of cultivating orchards was
held to be a debatable question. The development
of the modern commercial orchard, however, has set
the argument at rest. The man who is growing fruit
on a large scale for the money there is in it cannot
carry on the business without cultivation. Where the
orchard is a mere incident in a system of mixed farm-
ing it may often be most convenient and satisfactory
to have it in grass, or to depend on pigs or poultry
for the cultivation of the soil ; but this is not really
fruit growing, and is not to be regarded as an excep-
tion. It may still be possible under very unusual
conditions that certain orchards will thrive as well
without cultivation as with it. The cases are still
more frequent in which small tracts of land may be
wisely planted to apple trees, though the ground is too
rough and stony to admit of cultivation. It is cer-
tain, however, that, as a business proposition, the man
who would select such a tract for a commercial apple
orchard would deliberately place himself at a serious
disadvantage in his competition with the men who
plant their orchards on good tillable soil, and who
follow the best practices of modern tillage in the man-
agement of their trees.
In recent years there has been a good deal of dis-
cussion of the "Hitchings method," advocated by a
few eminent horticulturists, especially by Mr. Grant
48
ORCHARD CULTIVATION 49
Hitchings of New York state. This method consists
in seeding the orchard down to clover and grasses, in
mowing this herbage several times each summer and
leaving it mulched around the trees. Mr. Hitchings
himself claims the following advantages for his
method :
1. Less cost of maintenance.
2. Earlier, better colored fruit.
3. Better keeping qualities.
4. Wood matures better and earlier.
5. The trees can be headed lower.
6. The sod mulch favors bacterial action.
7. Leaves more time for other work.
8. Prevents deep freezing of the soil.
9. Easier driving through orchard for spraying,
etc.
10. Soil improves each year.
Some of these claims are unquestionably well found-
ed; others are fanciful. Some of the strongest of
these claims are fully offset by other advantages be-
longing to the more orthodox methods of cultivation.
These advantages will be explained more fully in the
following paragraphs.
One of the most serious practical objections to the
Hitchings system is that very few men will carry it
out properly. When not fully carried out it is dan-
gerous and bad ; whereas almost any sort of tillage
is beneficial, and only in the most exceptional cases
can tillage be harmful.
Thus we may lay it down as a rule, subject to minor
exceptions only, that the commercial orchard is al-
ways to be cultivated. We are concerned, then, simply
with the objects, the methods and the means of
culture.
50 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION
The purposes served by the cultivation of the soil
are several. Sometimes one is more important than
another, but the kilhng of weeds — long regarded by
farmers as the only motive for cultivation — is cer-
tainly of the very least importance. The principal
objects are as follows:
I. To improve the physical condition of the soil.
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IDEAL TILLAGE
The soil is broken up, made finer, thus allowing the
roots to ramify farther and deeper through it, and also
making it hold moisture better. If cultivation is
deep, as in general it should be, it brings new layers
of soil into use, unlocking stores of plant food pre-
viously inaccessible and increasing the water storage
capacity of the soil. It is possible thus, by deeper
cultivation, for a man to double the amount of his
ORCHARD CULTIVATION 5 1
farm land without buying another acre. The best
farmers recommend a gradual deepening of cultiva-
tion, say at the rate of Yi inch to i inch each year,
down to the lowest practicable depth. Just what tlie
lowest practicable depth may be will vary greatly, of
course, in different cases ; it has been determined only
in a very few instances anywhere in this country. It is
safe to say that a farmer should use his fields to a
depth of something more than a foot, no matter what
the soil formation, q,nd that in favorable soils he should
go down to a depth of i6 to i8 inches, or even to
2 feet.
Deep cultivation seems, at first thought, to be im-
practicable in an orchard. This matter will be dis-
cussed in a subsequent paragraph ; but just here it
should be remarked that no crop works deeper than
fruit trees. They require a soil, therefore, opened to
the lowest practicable depth. The deepening of the
soil for crops of fruit trees is largely a matter of
preparation before planting, but it is a matter, too,
which cannot be forgotten whenever the subsequent
cultivation is talked of.
2. Cultivation promotes drainage. A good farm-
ing soil should be in such a condition that it will dis-
pose of any ordinary rain without allowing any of
it to pass off as surface drainage. Surface drainage
on plowed fields is wasteful and dangerous. It is
wasteful because it means just so much water lost,
much of which might have been saved for the use of
the crop. It is dangerous because it washes away
the best soil and much of the fertilizer. It carries
away the farmer's capital and his stock in process of
manufacture.
52 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
A loose, well-cultivated, thoroughly pulverized soil
acts like a sponge : it takes up the water as fast as it
falls. A hard, uncultivated soil acts like a block of
wood : it grows damp if left out in the rain, but re-
quires more than ordinary means to squeeze any water
out of it after the shower is over.
If the field is supplied with underdrains, as perhaps
in most cases it should be, the spongy, well-cultivated
soil protects them from flowing while the rain is fall-
ing, and gives up to them the excess of water more
slowly afterward. The rains are thus made to do
better service.
3. Cultivation releases new plant food in the soil.
Any good agricultural soil gives up its store of plant
food very slowly. The so-called exhausted soils in
man}' fields still contain food enough to grow good
crops for hundreds of years, only it is not available.
There is enough plant food in the broken stone ballast
on a mile of good railroad track to grow a luxuriant
row of apple trees and to ripen abundant crops for a
century. But, aside from other inconveniences, the
principal drawback to the railroad ballast as a medium
for growing apple trees is that it lacks pulverization.
In every way cultivation feeds the plants by making
available more of the chemical elements naturally in
the soil.
4. Cultivation helps the crop to appropriate any
fertilizer which may be used. The frequent stirring of
the soil brings new particles of fertilizer into contact
with the air and with the rootlets of the trees. The air
and the root acids break, up these particles of plant
food so they may be absorbed for the nourishment of
the tree.
ORCIIAKI) CULTIVATION 53
5. Cultivation conserves moisture. We have al-
ready seen that deep cultivation enables the soil to
absorb and retain great quantities of moisture which
would otherwise rapidly drain away. Shallow culti-
vation helps very greatly to hold this moisture after it
is caught. One of the greatest sources of loss of
moisture is evaporation from the surface of the
ground. If the soil is uncultivated it soon hardens —
a fact which everyone has observed repeatedly. The
hard surface layers are then filled with thousands of
little capillary passages through which the water is
quickly pumped up to the surface, thence to be evapo-
rated into the air. When cultivation is practiced
these capillary tubes are broken up, the movement of
water to the surface is prevented, and the wasteful
discharge of water from the soil into the atmosphere
is greatly mitigated. The fine, loose soil left on the
surface by proper cultivation acts as a mulch, pre-
venting the evaporation of water from below. Every-
one knows how a mulch acts on the soil. The pres-
ervation of this soil mulch, or dust blanket, as it is
sometimes called, has now come to be recognized as
one of the best established and most useful of agri-
cultural practices.
6. Finally, cultivation kills weeds. Weeds steal
moisture and plant food, and, therefore, ought to be
killed. But the good farmer or fruit grower has very
little quarrel with the weeds. He kills them inciden-
tally while he cultivates for more important purposes.
METHODS OF CULTIVATION
The fruit growers of this country are almost unani-
mously agreed as to what constitutes the best routine
54 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
of cultivation for an orchard. We have, therefore,
what may properly he called a system of culture. The
system may prove to be wron<^, and it may be greatly
improved in the future ; but for the present we may
confidently follow it as the best working outline at
hand.
Preparatory Cultivation — In the first place it is
very generally agreed that a field should be brought
into the best possible state of cultivation before it is
planted out to fruit trees. There are still to be found
occasional cranks who preach that fruit trees should
be set out in sod. Mr. Stringfellow of Texas, who
may be called a crank without offense, has recently
advised the setting of orchards in sod. using a crowbar
as the only tool, and cutting off all the roots of the
young trees to make them fit the crowbar hole. Still
more recently, however, after trying this method on a
large scale, he has reported that it was not successful.
The preparatory cultivation of a field destined for
fruit trees should be clean and thorough, because
otherwise it is difffcult to give clear and thorough cul-
tivation after the trees are set out. If the ground is
full of sassafras, hackmatack, poison ivy, blackberry
briers or perennial grasses it is much easier to get rid
of them before the trees are planted than after.
This preparatory cultivation should be not only
clean and thorough, but it should be deep. The ground
should be loosened up as deeply as plowing will do it.
On some soils the use of a good subsoil plow, run
down to a depth of twenty to twenty-six inches, is par-
ticularly indicated. Soils which are too loose, and are
subject to leaching, may come in here among the ex-
ceptions.
50 Tin; AMliRlCAN Ai'l'Ll'; OKCITARD
Tile drainage of land appropriated to apple trees has
been shown to be practicable and altogether advisab e
in all those soils, of which there are many, which ben '-
fit by underdrainage for other crops. In fact, in any
case of doubt, one would adopt tile drainage for land
to be planted to apple trees rather than though the
same land were to be given to almost any other crop.
This is first because the trees are to occupy the land
for a long time, and second because the total invest-
ment in an apple orchard (and the total income) arc
apt to be larger than with most other crops.
When spring planting of the trees has been decided
on it is usually best to plow the land the fall before,
leaving it as rough and ridgy as is consistent with
good plowing. The largest possible mass of soil is, in
this way, exposed to the freezing and thawing winter
weather. The lumps are broken up by this intermit-
tent action of the frost, and the whole upper soil is
disintegrated and pulverized.
In the spring, before planting, the ground may then
be reworked, either by plowing again or by going
over it with a disk harrow, spading harrow, or some
similar implement, depending on the nature and condi-
tion of the soil.
When fall planting is practiced there is somewhat
greater difficulty in getting the ground into condition.
Perhaps the ideal way is to summer fallow the fields
destined to fall planting with fruit trees. In such cases
the ground should be subsoiled, or at least very deeply
plowed in spring, and the surface cultivation during
the summer should be frequent and thorough. Other-
wise the soil is apt to dry out and bake. It is highly
important, especially in fall planting, that trees should
bs set in loose, friable, moist earth ; and the soil is put
ORCHARD CULTIVATION 57
into the most desirable condition only by careful pre-
paratory cultivation.
In cases where summer fallowing is not deemed best
the ground should at least be given to some light crop
which comes off rather early and which may be culti-
vated frequently during the summer. Potatoes, beets,
onions, cabbages, beans, cowpeas, and similar crops
should be given first consideration. Or, it is equally
good practice to sow cowpeas, beans, vetch or some
similar leguminous crop early in the spring and plow
it under just before the time when the trees are to be
set.
Treatment after Planting — The management of
the soil in an orchard during the first few years after
planting naturally differs more or less from the man-
agement given an old bearing orchard. The treat-
ment which the trees receive at this time determines
their future usefulness to a very great degree. One of
the most important considerations in securing a profit-
able commercial orchard is to see that the young trees
are kept growing just as vigorously as possible and
absolutely without interruption from the very first. A
tree which is stunted from any cause, which stops
growing for a time on any account, might as well be
abandoned at once. It is therefore a matter of practi-
cal necessity that an orchard should receive thorough
cultivation during the years of its beginning according
to some well-matured and judicious plan.
The plan of cultivation that receives sanction of the
best experience of the day, and that also accords best
with modern theories of soil physics and chemistry, is
about as follows. The ground is plowed deeply and
thoroughly as early in spring as possible without dam-
age to the texture of the soil ; that is, as soon as it is
58 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
thoroughly dry. The amount of sand in the soil will
largely determine this point, which, since it is all a
matter of local experience and of judgment, cannot be
more accurately specified in print.
When we speak of deep plowing in an orchard after
the planting of the trees we call up another common
objection to this system of cultivation. It is some-
times said that deep plowing is impossible or imprac-
ticable in an orchard because it cuts off the roots of
the trees. It is true that if one attempts to send down
the plow to a depth of twelve or even eight inches in
an orchard v/hich has never been cultivated, he will
meet with some difficulties in the shape of large roots.
The cutting of these roots will entail a large amount of
hard work and may weaken the trees. On the other
hand it may not hurt the trees. It is altogether unsafe
to assume that any real damage is done even in cases
where large roots are broken in plowing.
But the objection fades away utterly in the case of
orchards which are deeply plowed from the beginning.
Under this treatment large roots are never formed
near the surface. They all grow below the reach of
the customary plowing. All possible damage of this
sort is thereby prevented, and the tree is better for
being deep rooted.
After the deep, early spring plowing the ground
should be frequently and thoroughly stirred on the
surface. Frequent surface cultivation saves moisture
and keeps the weeds from getting a start. This scari-
fication of the surface should be repeated once a week,
or, in case of insufificicnt rainfall, twice a week. It is
a good plan also to break up the surface after every
rain or heavy shower just as soon as the cultivator or
the harrow can be safely put on the ground.
OKCHARl) CULTIVATION 59
If no Other crops arc to be grown in the spaces l)c-
tween the tree, this sort of cuhivation can be kept up
till about midsummer. Cultivation in general should
slacken and stop simultaneously as the growth of the
trees slackens and stops. When cultivation ends for
the summer the ground should be sown to some cover
crop, as explained elsewhere.
In many orchards, especially in those which are not
double planted (see page 27), it is feasible to grow
some catch crop betw^cen the rows of young trees, at
least during the first few years. Some men think it is
never best thus to crop a young orchard, but with
proper care and liberal feeding, there can be no dam-
age to the trees from the presence of catch crops of
the proper sort.
Strawberries make a very satisfactory crop for the
spaces between orchard rows, but they cannot be
grown very successfully after the trees become large
enough to cast an appreciable shade. Annual garden
crops are usually best for this purpose, partly because
they are usually well cultivated, partly because they
tempt the manager to liberal fertilizing, and partly
because cultivation ends for them at the same
time when it would properly end for the trees. Early
hccts. early carrots, early turnips, radishes, peas and
l)eans are the best. Early corn is advised sometimes,
Init is not quite so good. Late vegetables should be
avoided because they require late cultivation.
Grain crops of all sorts, such as grow without cul-
tivation should be absolutely prohibited, except that
rye, barley and oats may possibly be used to some ex-
tent as cover crops. In that case, however, the grain
is not harvested, and even under these circumstances
6o THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
these cereals arc seldom the best crops that can be
sown.
Cultivation of Bearing Orchards — A\'lien the trees
have attained approximately their full dimensions the
problem is changed somewhat. No catch crops can be
grown between the trees, and perhaps even the tem-
porary trees, or fillers, in double-planted orchards have
to be removed. Possibly the trees shade the ground so
completely that no weeds can grow, although that will
hardly be the case in any well-managed plantation.
Under such circumstances the fruit grower is apt to
feel that cultivation is hardly necessary any longer.
When we consider the fundamental objects of till-
age, however, it will be seen that the requirements of
the full-grown, mature, bearing orchard are the same
as those of the young orchard. Plant food is still be-
ing used in quantities as great as ever, perhaps
greater ; and to unlock the stores of plant food in the
soil requires continual cultivation. The physical con-
dition of the soil is as important now as it ever was,
and a good physical texture is preserved chiefly by the
stirring of the soil in cultivation. No, it is a great
mistake to suppose that when an orchard is fully
grown it no longer needs the cultivator, or that it
needs cultivation less than formerly. The work must
still go on.
It is more difficult, of course, to plow and harrow an
old orchard than a young one. But it h less trouble
than is commonly supposed. If cultivation has been
frequent and deep from the very first there will be no
large roots to catch the plowshare or cultivator teeth.
As for the large branches which heavy bearing has
borne down to the ground, they are a difficulty, but
not a positive bar to further work. Suitable tools,
ORCHARD CULTIVATION 6l
proper harness, steady horses, and, above all, some ex-
perience on the part of the workman, will make a very
satisfactory cultivation possible at no serious expense.
Those who have not tested it are apt to think that
close planting and low heading of orchard trees, both
of which are recommended in this book, will interfere
seriously with the operations of plow, cultivator and
harrow. Where proper heading of the trees, proper
pruning and proper cultivation, go forward together
from the establishment of the plantation no difficulty
whatever arises. The failures with this system of com-
bined close planting, low heading and frequent culti-
vation come from improper adjustment of one part of
the system to the other parts, or they come oftener
still from a slack enforcement of the system. This
method of fruit growing is not adapted to careless
handling. It is in many respects a forced system — a
high-pressure system. If the manager relaxes the
pressure temporarily, if he lets go for a time at any
point, he loses control, and the whole machinery is
thrown out of order. If pruning is neglected for a
year or two the trees get too big and sprawling. If
cultivation is stopped for a time the roots occupy the
soil and get in the way of future plowings. The whole
scheme must be thoroughly understood and conscien-
tiously practiced from the start. Then it succeeds ad-
mirably.
The cultural methods suited to young orchards may
be applied, with obvious modifications, to old orchards,
providing, as explained above, the old orchard has
been properly brought up on the same general system.
The soil should be plowed in early spring as soon as
it can be properly done. Deep diggi'ig with a spading
harrow may be substituted for plowing in many cases.
62 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Then light surface tilhige follows at frequent intervals
during the first half of the summer; and some time
from the middle of June to the first of August a oover
crop is sown.
VII
METHODS OF CULTIVATION
It is difficult to speak in any general way of the
tools used in orchard cultivation. They vary greatly
from year to year and in different localities. There are
several distinct types in use, however, and these may
be briefly described.
Plows — The ordinary turning plows are commonly
employed in the cultivation of tree plantations. Usu-
ally the lighter forms are desirable, since very deep
and heavy plowing is impracticable. The plain, iron
beam, chilled steel plow best suits the taste of the
writer. For working up very close to trees a small
one-horse plow is desirable; and if this has a set-over
beam — a form which can be had in the market — it is
all the better. Double or triple gangs of plows are
sometimes used in orchards, but they can hardly
be employed advantageously except where there is
more space between the rows than there ought to be.
In an earlier paragraph we have spoken of subsoil
plows for preparing ground for planting. These may
be used also occasionally along the middle of the
orchard interspaces while the trees are young and the
roots are reachhig out for new feeding grounds. Sub-
soil plows are not very popular, and are seldom seen
at the implement stores. They can always be had on
order, however. The very simplest forms are best.
Rigidity and strength are the requirements in a sub-
soil plow.
64
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Harrows — Spading, cut-away or disk harrows are
now deservedly popular among fruit growers. These
all have the same general form. They differ chiefly in
the character of the disks. In the original cutaway
harrows simple concave disks are used. In the more
recent spading harrows these disks are cut into several
THE CUTAWAY IN THE ORCHARD
sections, each section acting like an independent spade
as the disk rolls on its way. This latter form gives
much better results on hard soil. It is adapted to
deeper and more thorough working of the ground.
For light surface tillage, such as is most desirable in
preserving the dust mulch for the conservation of
moisture, the plain disks are doubtless better.
METHODS OF CULTIVATION 65
The best form of disk, cut-away or spading harrow
for orchard use has the two sections arranged in such
a way that they may be set out a considerable distance
from the central line of the machine. They are enabled
in this way to run far up under trees where horses can-
not be driven. This adjustment is of the greatest con-
venience.
The Acme type of harrow is excellent for surface
cultivation, especially in good, friable, clean soil. This
harrow is made also with the extension frame, so that
the two halves may be set out like wings to run up
under the orchard trees. On very stony, hard or
trashy land this tool does not work so well, but on the
ideal orchard land it is about as good a surface har-
row as has yet been invented. It is especially adapted
for breaking up the surface after dashing rains, and
for preserving the necessary dust mulch during dry
weather.
The spring-tooth harrow is an excellent tool on
rough stony land. On very trashy ground it clogs
badly, and on wet land it does not do the best work.
On clean, light, friable soil, better results can usually
be secured, either with a disk harrow, an acme harrow,
or a common smoothing harrow. The spring-tooth
harrow is therefore a special tool for special cases, but
does not have such a wide range of usefulness as some
other instruments of tillage. The writer, from ac-
quaintance among farmers, is led to believe that the
spring-tooth harrow is used oftener than its merits
warrant, especially in New England. In many cases
some other cultivator could be used to advantage.
Smoothing harrows of the ordinary sort, set with
teeth, are indispensable in orchard cultivation. The
best forms are arrans^ed so that the slant of the teeth
METHODS OF CULTIVATION
67
can be easily varied. For very light smoothing on
well-prepared ground the teeth are set so as to slant
backward at a considerable angle. As the teeth are set
more and more nearly straight up and down they cut
deeper and deeper into the soil; so that, in loose
ground, they can be made to do a good deal of dig-
ging-
THE GRAPE HOE FOR CLOSE CULTIVATION
These smoothing harrows are also often made now-
adays with extension wings for running up under the
orchard trees. Such a harrow, adjusted in this way, is
one of the best implements known for surface cultiva-
tion on most soils during the summer. It fails only on
very hard, very stony or very trashy land.
Other cultivators, such as those of the Planet Junior
type, are sometinies used in fruit plantations. The
68 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
common corn cultivators used so generally in the
western states are not infrequently seen in orchards.
In the cotton and tobacco growing regions it is not
unnatural that cotton and tobacco tools should find
their way more or less into orchard use. All these im-
plements are merely makeshifts when brought into
tree plantations. Especially when fruit growing is
conducted on a large scale one cannot afford to carry
it on with tools designed primarily for other purposes.
The selection of the best tools for orchard cultivation
in different soils is not the easiest problem in the
world, but it is a most important factor in successful
orchard management, and one to which the fruit
grower must give careful and constant attention.
VIII
COVER CROPS
In discussing tillage we have several times spoken
of cover crops. The cover crop is nowadays con-
sidered to be an important — in fact, almost an
essential — item in a proper system of orchard man-
agement.
The term cover crop stands for any sort of annual
crop sown among fruit trees during the summer
and plowed under the following spring. It is grown
solely for the benefit of the land and the trees. In
this respect it dififers from what is often called a
" catch crop," such as potatoes or corn, often grown
between orchard rows. The catch crop is grown and
harvested for itself, and though it may prove a real
'benefit to the land, this is not its sole or prime end.
A cover crop performs various valuable services.
Those especially worthy of notice are the following:
I. The cover crop helps to check the growth of
the trees in late summer, thus preventing late
growth, and encouraging the early maturity of the
wood. In regions where winterkilling is serious
this service becomes important. It should be re-
membered, however, that apple trees carrying heavy
crops of fruit seldom need anything more to check
their growth ; and as this check is applied by
taking a certain amount of water from the soil, and
as the trees will sometimes need this water in matur-
ing a heavy crop of fruit, the cover crop may become
COVER CROPS 71
a detriment at times. Considerable judgment should
be exercised with regard to this point.
2. Cover crops which grow late in the autumn,
especially those like hairy vetch, which live over win-
ter, s?ve considerable amounts of fertility from leach-
ing away. Soluble plant food in porous soils is quite
apt to drain away during late fall and early spring
when the tree roots are not actively foraging for it.
Such plant food is caught by the cover crop, and
when plowed under and rotted, becomes available for
the trees. Cover crops, like buckwheat, which die early
in the year, evidently are less useful in this way.
3. A good cover crop prevents washing of the land
in winter and early spring. On loose sloping lands
serious damage often occurs from erosion ; and this is
one of the strongest facts in favor of growing grass
in orchards. However, the benefits of tillage can be
combined with this advantage of grass management.
to a great extent at least, by sowing a suitable cover
crop. For this purpose the vetches are good, the
hairy or winter vetch especially so.
4. The cover crop adds humus to the soil. The
greatest drawback to a system of constant tillage in
an orchard is that it exhausts the supply of humus in
the soil. On light, warm soils this exhaustion comes
early; it is apt to be very complete and very detri-
mental to the trees. On heavier soils the humus sup-
ply will last longer, but its final depletion is likely
to be even more disastrous. The supply of humus
may be kept up by the application of barnyard
manure; but the cover crop offers a cheaper and a
better way of doing the same thing.
5. Leguminous cover crops (that is, those belonging
to the pea family of plants) add nitrogen to the soil.
72 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
These plants, such as vetch, cowpea and the clovers, col-
lect more or less nitrogen from the atmosphere. When
the crops are plowed under and decomposed this
nitrogen becomes available for the trees. As nitrogen
is the most expensive element of plant food, this source
of supply is always welcome. While the quantity of
atmospheric nitrogen available from cover crops has
probably been greatly exaggerated in some estimates,
it is still sufficient in many cases to supply the entire
needs of the orchard. With a good annual growth of
cowpeas, soy beans or vetch, apple trees will need no
further allowance of nitrogen.
METHODS OF MANAGEMENT
The usual method of handling a cover crop is 'to sow
the seed broadcast at the last cultivation of the soil.
Usually this comes during the first two weeks of July.
Later sowing may prove successful in southern states,
where a long growing season may be depended on.
In northern districts where frost comes early some-
what earlier sowing of the cover crop is desirable.
Indeed, this desirability of earlier sowing has sug-
gested a modification of the common procedure as
outlined above. This consists in sowing the cover
crop considerably earlier, usually the middle of June,
but possibly even earlier than that. The cover crop
is then put in with a drill, the drills being i8 inches
to 2 feet apart. The crop is then cultivated once,
twice or three times, by running a light cultivator
between the drills. Thus the season of cultivation is
made to overlap the growing season of the cover crop.
An additional and highly important advantage lies in
the fact that this method insures a quicker, evener and
COVER CROPS 73
stronger germination and growth of the cover crop,
which is apt to be slow and uncertain by reason of
summer drought when the crop is sown broadcast.
This method is particularly adapted to districts hav-
ing a short growing season, and to coarse cover crops,
ruch as cowpeas, soy beans, etc. It has been success-
fully used by the writer for some years.
The cover crop should always be allowed to remain
on the ground over winter, and should be thoroughly
plowed under at the first spring plowing. Occasionally
some difficulty will be experienced in turning under
the cover, but any such difficulty can be met and over-
come by any good, practical farmer.
THE VARIOUS CROPS
We will now consider the main characteristics of the
most popular cover crops.
The clovers all make good cover crops and are
largely used on soils where clover makes a good stand.
On many soils it is hard to get a good catch of clover,
particularly at midsummer when the weather is dry,
as it is apt to be at cover-crop time. Mammoth clover
is probably the best of its genus for the purpose in
hand. Common red clover may be successfully used,
but it makes less growth than Mammoth clover.
Crimson clover is an excellent cover crop in some
localities, while in others it does not succeed at all.
It seems to be especially adapted to the improvement
of impoverished sandy soils. Alsike clover makes a
fairly good cover crop, but is seldom to be recom-
mended in preference to Mammoth or Crimson clover.
Alfalfa is also used at times.
COVER CROPS 75
Cowpeas form the best possible cover crop in st)ulli-
ern latitudes, more especially on light soils. They
serve excellently in the improvement of run-down soils.
As they require a rather long- growing season, they
cannot be profitably used north of a certain latitude.
This limit seems to run a little north of New York
city at the east and Omaha at the west.
Soy beans are by no means so well kaiown as cow-
peas, and are perhaps not adapted to so wide a
latitude of country, but in northern states they very
successfully take the place filled by the cowpea farther
southward. They are especially satisfactory when
grown by the drill and cultivator method recommended
above. The early maturing varieties of soy beans are
to be preferred for northern localities.
Other kinds of beans sometimes make excellent cover
crops. The common white pea bean does very well,
indeed. Mr. W. T. Macoun of the Central Experi-
mental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, has had first-rate results
from the use of the English broad bean.
The vetches are in some respects an ideal cover crop.
They form a close mass of herbage which kills out
weeds and holds the soil. They accumulate remark-
able quantities of nitrogen. The winter vetch lives
through even hard freezing weather and makes a
quick growth in the spring. In fact early plowing is
necessary to eradicate it. Its greatest drawback is
the high price of the seed, which at about $7 a bushel
is too expensive for practical use. The summer vetch
costs considerably less, yet it makes a fine cover crop
either drilled or sown broadcast.
Common field peas ("Canada peas") make a good
cover crop, more especially if sown with barley. The
barley supplies a support on which the peas climb.
76 THE ami:rican applk orchard
Buckwheat is by far the best of all the non-lcgunii-
nous cover crops, and is worthy of consideration under
any circumstances. It is best suited to northern and
northeastern states. Its great advantage lies in the
fact that it will germinate and give a good strong cover
no matter how late it may be sown. It also leaves the
land in good physical condition, which is a matter of
large importance.
Rye, barley and oats are occasionally used sepa-
rately as cover crops, but are not to be recommended.
Rye may be used as a last resort, but oats should never
be sown among fruit trees.
The following table shows the usual
QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE
IMammoth clover, pounds 12
Common red clover, pounds 12
Crimson clover, pounds 15
Alsike clover, pounds 12
Alfalfa, pounds 20
Cowpea, bushels i/4"2
Soy bean, bushels ^Vi-^
Broad English bean, bushels i-i'/z
Summer vetch, bushels i'/2
Winter vetch, bushel i
Canada pea, bushels i|/2
Buckwheat, bushel i
Rye, bushels 1J/2
Barley, bushels I'/z-^
Barley and peas, bushel, each i
IX
PRUNING
Pruning is unquestionably one of the most im-
portant practices in horticulture and this importance
has always been recognized. Yet it must be confessed
that our knowledge of pruning is highly inadequate to
our needs. The progress made during recent years in
other forms of pomological practice, as in tillage and
spraying, has no parallel in pruning. In this very in-
fluential matter we are hardly better ofif than our
grandfathers were.
Pruning practice is exceedingly diverse, even among
successful horticulturists. Some prune in winter,
some in spring, some in midsummer. Some do not
prune at all, others cut back, their trees without mercy.
Some grow their trees with tall trunks ; others head
them down to the ground. In this state of knowledge
and practice it is manifestly dangerous to lay down
stringent rules for the guidance of the novice.
These bewildering differences of method come to
light immediately when we begin to discuss the prep-
aration of the nursery tree for planting. On the one
hand Mr. Stringfellow advocates cutting away nearly
the whole tree, root and top. On the other hand old-
fashioned gentlemen leave everything intact, using the
knife only to smooth broken roots or branches. And
the confusing fact is that both methods succeed. This
matter is discussed in its proper application, page 38.
The next problem in order is that of forming the
head of the orchard tree, and here we have another
78
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
division of opinion and practice as to whether trees
shonld be formed with tall trunks or short ones.
HIGH HEADS VERSUS LOW HEADS
The argument has long- been maintained as to
whether fruit trees should be formed with high heads
or with low heads. The
same division of opinion
exists with respect to
the training of all kinds
of fruit trees, but it is
most often discussed in
connection with apple
orchards. It is one of
the questions which will
never be settled, be-
cause men's ideas neces-
sarily differ. In fact,
what seems a low head
to one man will seem
high to another.
Anyone who has fol-
lowed this matter for a
number of years will be
struck by the fact that
the general horticul-
tural opinion has under-
gone a great change in
recent years. This change is marked and unquestion-
able. It has been a change favorable to lower heads.
Men who formerly advocated high heading now
recommend something considerably lower. This fact
is all the more striking and significant because the
A HIGH-HEADED TREE
79
change has been coincident with a similar change in
poUcy favorable to the cultivation of orchards. One
of the old arguments against low-headed trees was
that the low heads interfered with cultivation. The
simple fact now is that cultivation is more common than
it used to be, and a great
deal more thorough, while
at the same time modern
orchards are trained with
much shorter trunks than
those of a decade ago.
Indeed the most ardent
advocates of low-headed
trees are, in the majority
of cases, the very men
who also practice the
most thorough systems of
cultivation.
Low heads undoubted-
ly have many advantages.
The trees are stronger
and less likely to blow
over. This is most con-
spicuously the case dur-
ing the first few years of
growth. A young tree
with a bushy top on a
trunk 8 feet long is pecul-
iarly vulnerable to wind
and ice storms. It is also
subject to many other attacks from which the low-
headed tree is comparatively safe. Sun-scald is
always much worse on long trunks than on short
ones. In fact, nearly all the disorders to which
SUTTON BEAUTY
Headed too hisfh
80 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
tree trunks are liable, such as attacks of borers,
frost cracks, etc., are more frequent on long trunks
than on short ones.
It is much easier to pick fruit from a low tree than
from a tall one. The expense of operating such an
orchard is less. This difference is proportionately
greater with peach trees, plums and other small trees
than with apples. Nevertheless it amounts to some-
thing even in the case of old apple orchards. Low-
headed trees are much easier to spray. It is almost
laughable to see some of the high tower sprayers used
in old orchards. There are apple trees doing business
in this part of the country which are tall enough for
forest trees. Such apple trees are always objection-
able. There are many ways of preventing the forma-
tion of such high heads, and a shortening of the trunk
is only one of them. In fact it is perhaps a minor
means when considered in the long run, but it is a
method which should not be overlooked.
Without saying, therefore, whether trees should be
headed 2 feet from the ground or 8, we may lay it
down as a general principle, strongly supported by
the best modern experience, and exemplified in the best
modern practice, that low-headed trees are to be pre-
ferred to high heads,
THE FRAMEWORK
The most critical work in pruning is that connected
with the formation of the head during the first three
years of growth in the orchard. It is everywhere
known to be important that the formation of weak
crotches should be avoided, but just how this is to be
done is by no means so clear. Some varieties, as King
8i
and Winesap, have a tendency to make weak crotches ;
while others, as Tohnan and McMahon, always form
strong-, clean forks. The fruit grower, by careful and
timely attention during the first two years, can secure
the formation of branches practically where he wants
them. Such attention is most timely during the early
summer months — May and June — when shoots unde-
sirably placed can be quickly rubbed out with the
gloved hand. The following spring a very little going
over with the pruning shears will complete the work,
leaving a few vigorous well-grown symmetrically
placed branches where naturally there would have
been a lot of crowded, weak, half-choked shoots.
The question is sometimes discussed whether there
should be three, four or five branches reserved to form
the framework of the tree. It is largely a matter of
taste. The present writer prefers four or five ; but dif-
ferent varieties should be treated dififerently. Spy
naturally forms many main branches, King and Pump-
kin Sweet much fewer. Whatever the number decided
on, the sooner the competing shoots are taken out the
better. We have already said that it is best to rub
them out in May or June, when they are first starting.
THE SECOND STAGE
The framework of the tree having been designed,
the work of pruning enters upon its second stage. The
chief question now is that of the ultimate size which
the fruit grower desires to develop in his tree. There
are two general and quite different lines of practice in
this matter. The common and certainly the simpler
method is to let the tree have its own sweet way. Each
tree is allowed to grow and extend its top as far as its
82 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
nature and the food supi)ly will carry it. The opposite
method assumes that the natural spread of the top can
be profitably restricted by proper pruning. Necessarily
this second method comes into practice along with
close planting and other intensive measures adoptetl
by the unterrified progressives. It should never be
tmdertaken except by those who know just what they
are trying to do, who are determined to keep steadily
to their ideals, and who have sufficient reason for
adopting the riskier and more laborious method.
If the tree is to be allowed its natural and unre-
stricted development, then the second stage of its life
— from the formation of the head to its maturity — is
comparatively uneventful. There is no pruning to be
done except to keep the head open. On the other hand
if the method of repressive pruning is to be adopted
this second stage becomes the most critical of all.
Heading back must be systematically practiced from
the beginning. It should never be remitted for a year
on any account.
While it is manifestly impossible to reduce this
method of pruning to exact rules, the following
program, practiced with intelligence and good judg-
ment, will give good results. It has been carefully
tested by the writer.
1. In the beginning be sure of the purpose and
method. Unless close planting has been adopted, close
pruning will not be necessary, nor advisable. Unless
reasonably intelligent labor can be commanded the
work is greatly handicapped.
2. Pay strict attention the first year to the forma-
tion of the framework. This should consist of four
strong branches, symmetrically placed, no two leaving
the trunk at the same height from the ground. If
PRUNING 83
these main branches make a growth of more than 3
feet the first year they may be bent back, without
breaking or cutting them, the middle of July. This
bending will check the growth somewhat and will
cause these shoots to lay on a greater proportion of
growth near the base. It is specially understood that
these main shoots are to be formed near the ground — •
the first one 6 to 18 inches from the ground — it being
not worth while to practice close pruning on high-
headed trees.
3. The second spring the four main branches
should be severely cut back. This cutting will be done
at a distance of 12 to. 24 inches from the main stem,
18 to 20 inches being preferred.
4. During the second summer two secondary
branches should be allowed to form on each of these
primary branches, all others being rubbed out as soon
as they start. This is most quickly, easily and econom-
ically accomplished by rubbing with the hand protected
by a glove. A light pair of pruning shears will do the
work. On good soil these secondary branches may
easily make a growth of 4 to 6 feet, in which case they
should be bent back in mid-July as advised for the first
summer.
5. In February or March of the third year the
secondary branches should ' e headed back, leaving
the stubs 18 to 20 inches long.
6. During the third summer one, two or three ter-
tiary branches, normally two, will be formed on each
secondary branch. Summer pruning will still be
followed in order to insure the development of these
tertiary branches by rubbing or clipping out all other
shoots as soon as they start. These third-year shoots
which are left may make such a strong growth that
84 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
bending down in midsummer will be again advisable,
though after the third year this practice should usually
be abandoned.
7. Each succeeding winter or spring the annual
growth of the previous year will be cut back from one-
third to two-thirds its entire length, and this practice
will be followed indefinitely. Under proper manage-
ment, however, a part or all of this heading-in may
profitably be transferred to the summer season, being
given some time in July. The exact time and extent
of this summer pruning will depend on many local
conditions, so that this part of the method should be
adopted only under the eye of a competent and judi-
cious man. In any case the work may be reduced to
one annual pruning after the fourth or fifth year.
8. Even with the drastic cutting back here out-
lined the spread of the tree will go on increasing, and
it is still only a question of time when it will outgrow
the limited space allotted to it. This result may be
considerably postponed, or even indefinitely put off, by
introducing a system of renewals, somewhat after the
manner practiced in the pruning of grapes. If in the
course of time one of the secondary, tertiary or qua-
ternary branches be removed, the work may be begim
all over again from that point, a new branch with all
its ramifications being redeveloped. This renewal
work needs to be done with great care, but nature
sometimes ofifers special opportunities for it through
the breaking of a branch by ice or other accident.
A word ought to be said just here regarding water
sprouts — the soft long upright shoots which form in
the midst of the tree top, especially in old and neg-
lected trees. Most horticulturists seem to regard this
as the most iniquitous form of tree growth. Professor
PRUNING 85
BaiLy has summarily convicted them of larceny and
has sentenced them to be cut and burned. While these
water sprouts usually ought to be removed at the ear-
liest possible moment — that is, before they get to be a
foot long — they are not always so objectionable. They
represent a legitimate effort on the part of the tree to
renew its framework. In almost every old untended
tree may be found young lusty fruiting branches easily
recognizable as quondam water sprouts. A strong,
favorably located water sprout often gives the very
material needed for renewing a portion of an old tree.
THE FRUITING STAGE
A Standard apple tree should come into bearing at
four to nine years from planting, and should continue
to produce profitable crops anywhere from 10 to 100
years. During this period the work of pruning is
directed simply toward maintaining a permanent con-
dition of frpitfulness. There are five principal consid-
erations to be kept in mind. These are :
1. To keep up a supply of fruiting wood, well
furnished with fruit spurs.
2. To secure an annual setting of vigorous blos-
som buds.
3. To maintain the size of the tree, so it will
occupy the full space allotted to it and yet not crowd
its neighbors.
4. To keep the head sufficiently open.
5. To remove diseased and broken parts.
Let us look at these five problems in order. When
dwarf trees are grown in special forms, as they are in
the old country, the supply of fruiting wood and of
fruit spurs is kept up by very definite methods of prun-
ing. As we practice fruit growing in this country on
PKUMNG 87
a much larger scale, the same precise and careful
niethotls are hardly practicable.
It is easy to observe, however, that a condition of
healthy and moderate growth in a mature tree tends
to give the maximum fruitfulness. If the tree is
starved new branches are not formed, the old fruit
spurs soon deteriorate and crops become scant. A poor
tree, if choked from lack of pruning, will send up
many water sprouts, but these will not have strength
enough, nor room enough, to develop into fruiting
branches. On the other hand a tree which is making
too much growth unchecked does so at the expense of
fruit spurs and fruit buds. It must be remarked, how-
ever, that the cases wherein apple trees are injured or
made unfruitful by over-feeding or over-cultivation
are rare. The majority of mature trees bear too much
fruit rather than not enough ; so that if heavy growth
tends somewhat to check fruitfulness it is commonly a
favorable symptom. In any case where too vigorous
growth seems to prevent the formation of fruiting
wood this tendency may be promptly checked by early
cessation of cultivation or by withdrawing the allow-
ance of nitrogenous fertilizer.
A proper condition of growth being established in
the tree, the production of sound fruit spurs set with
vigorous fruit buds depends chiefly on an abundant
growth of foliage. The foliage should not only be
abundant, but should be vigorous, healthy, dark green.
Insect or fungous pests which destroy the leaves of
tlie trees thereby largely prevent the formation of fruit
buds. It must be remembered, however, that the fruit
buds are formed comparatively early in the summer —
mostly before ]p.\y first — so that any damage to foliage
88 Till-: AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
occurring in the latter part of the season makes less
difference in the succeeding crop than a similar
amount of defoliation occurring earlier.
It can be easily understood, in the light of these
facts, why spraying is much more valuable in spring
than in late summer. It will be seen further that,
while spraying may serve as a protection for the pres-
ent crop, it serves an equally important purpose in
assisting the developmert of next year's crop.
The majority of fruit growers have accepted the
principle that the size of their trees is a matter beyond
their control. All they hope to do is to plant trees far
enough apart so that they will never crowd one an-
other, or else to cut out every alternate row when
branches begin to intermingle. If a man adopts this
view there is little more to be said. If, however, he
rejects it — as many progressive fruit growers are now
doing — it is necessary to adopt in the permanent sys-
tem of pruning some method of repression whereby the
branches may be periodically shortened in. This is a
somewhat delicate and difficult matter, but amounts in
reality only to an extension of the heading-in process
already discussed on page 83. In spite of its greater
difficulty this system is likely to be more widely
adopted as fast as men learn by experience how to
manage it.
The head of the tree should be kept open for two
purposes — first, to allow the sun to color the fruit ; and
second, to aid in the formation of fruit buds. The first
of these considerations is sufficiently obvious ; the sec-
ond is even more important. It can be observed any-
where that fruit sets only in the top and on the outside
of thick-topped trees. This is because fruit buds cannot
be formed where the sunshine does not penetrate.
PRUNING 89
It must be noticed however that the degree to which
a tree top should be kept open will vary considerably.
In Kansas or Missouri, where sunshine is abundant
and apt to be hot, tree tops should be encouraged to
form thick tops, while the same varieties in New York
or Ontario would require to be thoroughly opened
out.
The removal of dead, broken or diseased branches
is a necessary labor, but a very simple one, and should
require no special explanation. Such work should be
done whenever the injury is discovered.
ODD YEARS
We have now to notice a few matters of general in-
terest in connection with the subject of pruning. One
of these is the odd-year proposition. It is commonly
understood that most varieties of apples have a tend-
ency to bear in alternate years, giving little or
nothing in intervening years. This habit is especially
emphasized in the Baldwin, so that in the region where
this variety predominates the "even year" is under-
stood to be the "apple year," while the "odd year" is
the year of famine.
It is also known to most experienced fruit growers
that many trees fail to fruit in the odd years simply
because they are impoverished by overbearing during
the even years. It is known, further, that in case
some accident prevents a tree or a block of trees bear-
ing during the even year fruit buds are likely to form
and a crop follow in the odd year. Theoretically it
ought to be possible, by thinning the crop during the
bearing year, and by feeding the trees well, to equalize
the crops from year to year, thus making the annual
90 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
performance of the orchard uniform. While the best
fruit growers are undoubtedly making progress in this
direction, it cannot be said that the theory has yet been
brought to such a system of practice as to make it
vv^orkable for everybody.
THE TIME TO PRUNE
The best time to prune has always been a very popu-
lar matter of dispute. The mere fact that the question
is still open indicates plainly that no simple answer will
cover the ground. It is an old saying that "the time
to prune is when the saw is sharp," and this proverb
is fair to the extent that pruning may safely be done,
imder certain circumstances, at any season of the year.
As a matter of practice, however, it is better to fix
two annual seasons as specially suited to this work.
The first of these is the dormant period, say between
November i and April i. The other is at the height
of the growing season, which in the northeastern states
would be the first two weeks of June.
The most important difference in result between
summer and winter pruning lies in the physiological
effect. Winter pruning has a tendency to promote
wood growth, including the formation of water
sprouts, and correspondingly to check the production
of fruit buds. Summer pruning has the opposite
tendency, promoting the formation of fruit buds and
checking wood growth. While the results in these
ways may be very marked at times, they are not usu-
ally so conspicuous as to give the fruit grower great
concern.
Winter pruning has certain practical advantages —
SO has summer pruning. There is usually more time
PRUNING 91
in winter, most men are better used to this kind of
pruning-, the debris can be more conveniently removed
and burned, it is easier to paint over the wounds. On
the other hand wounds heal better, if made in early-
summer, it is easier to detect the presence of dead or
diseased branches, some waste of growth is saved, and
the physiological effect on the tree may be more sat-
isfactory.
It is probably true that the adoption of a system, of
summer pruning would be a distinct improvement in
orchard practice in a majority of our leading apple
plantations.
PAINTING WOUNDS.
After long discussion and experiment, fruit growers
have almost universally decided that the best covering
for wounds is a heavy coating of thick white-lead
paint. The addition of some neutral color to the white
lead is advisable. It is proper to reiterate in this con-
nection that large wounds are to be avoided wherever
possible.
PRUNING TOOLS
The best pruning tools arc the hand shears. The
style commonly called grape shears are especially ad-
vised ; and if these are used everywhere with suffi-
cient promptness' and judgment there will be much less
call for larger and heavier tools.
The next tool to be recommended is the long-
handled or extension shears, made on handles of 4, 6,
8 and 10 feet in length and shown on page 92. These
are indispensable in ordinary pruning. Heavier shears
92
THE AMERICAX APPLE ORCHARD
for use with two hands arc sometimes employed, but
are not especially valuable. The pruning chisel is a
tool sometimes mentioned in the books and catalogs,
but not used in the orchard.
HAND PRUXIXG SHEARS
For cutting- large branches, when large branches
must be cut, a saw is necessary. The regulation prun-
ing saw sold by all dealers in horticultural supplies is
the best form to be chosen. The chief drawback is
LONG-HANDLED PRUNING SHEARS
that the saws usually sold are of distinctly poor qual-
ity. These saws are made in two forms, the one with
straight, the other with curved blade. Some men
prefer to use one ; some prefer the other.
Every orchardist likes to carry a pruning knife.
Since this tool is chiefly for ornament or personal
PRUNING 93
amusement, it should be well made and pretty, prefer-
ably with an inlaid handle. Such a tool is really use-
ful at times in the nursery, but any man who has a
day's work to do in the orchard has got to have some-
thing besides a knife.
Ladders are often necessary in pruning large trees.
For this work the same ladders may be used which
are used in picking the fruit.
HOW TO. MAKE THE CUT
The question of where and how to cut off a limb has
caused a good deal more discussion than its impor-
tance merits. Branches should always be cut back
close to the main stem, of course. Occasionally one
sets stubs left 6 inches or a foot long, but such work
is done only by the blundering ignoramus who knows
nothing about fruit growing and who will never read
this book. The cut should be made as close as possible
to the parent branch while at the same time leaving
the minimum surface exposed when the cut is com-
pleted.
X
FEEDING THE TREES
There has long been a feeling in agricultural circles
that chemistry ought to furnish the key to the success-
ful management of the soil. This was tlie idea attend-
ing on the work of Liebig and all the earlier agricul-
tural chemists ; and even Horace Greeley supposed that
the chief secrets of plant growth were to be solved
whenever a complete knowledge of the chemistry of
plant foods should be available.
It must be said at once that agricultural chemistry
has not thus far justified the high expectations enter-
tained of her. Chemistry has not yet given us a single
receipt for the fertilization of our arable lands, and
does not seem likely to. Our knowledge of the use of
fertilizers is still fragmentary and empirical. We
know in part and we prophesy in part — in a very small
part, too. We know almost nothing except what we
gather from experience, and experience is so scant and
contradictory that her teachings are hard to follow.
A recent extended inquiry among leading American
fruit growers shows nothing so emphatically as that
there is little agreement in practice. It is plain also
that very few men have thought out and adopted a
complete and consistent system for their own orchards.
It will therefore be manifestly impossible to outline a
definite schedule of practice which can be ada])ted to
all sorts of soils, with all classes of fruits, in various
climates, and by all kinds of fruit growers. Only the
94
FEEDING THE TREES 95
most general of general principles can be given. Some
of these, however, are worth studying.
It may be assumed that the reader has a fair under-
standing of the ordinary fertilizers, and the general
principles governing their use. As a matter of review
it may be proper to recall that plant foods supplied to
the soil in the form of fertilizers are of three kinds ;
i.e., furnishing three different chemical elements. First
and most expensive of these is nitrogen, second is pot-
ash, and third is phosphoric acid. Plants require many
other chemical elements in the course of their growth,
but these other elements are almost always present in
the soil in sufficient quantity. Lime is sometimes used
as a fertilizer, but usually it is employed only for its
secondary effects and not because the plants really
need more lime.
It may be said roughly that nitrogen is useful to the
plant in making a large growth of fresh green wood ;
potash is valuable for the assistance it gives in the
physiological process of plant growth, 'enabling the
leaves to take up the carbon in the atmosphere ; while
phosphoric acid helps in building up the fruit. This
statement of the various offices of the different ele-
ments is extremely rough and not really very useful.
In practice, nitrogen is applied when the plants do
not make enough growth. When an orchard looks
yellow, instead of a dark, bluish green, the indications
are that more nitrogen is needed. It may be true that
the soil is in such a condition that the plants cannot
use the nitrogen already present; but at any rate, for
one reason or another, the plant is not getting what
nitrogen it needs. In such cases nitrogen fertilization
may be adopted or the methods of cultivation may be
revised.
96 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Regarding the various sources from which different
fertihzing elements may be most effectively drawn,
the fruit grower will follow somewhat the same rules
followed in general farming. The fruit grower is
somewhat better situated than the general farmer, how-
ever, as regards that most expensive element, nitrogen.
If the fruit grower follows the system of cultivation
now commonly recommended and grows a leguminous
cover crop, he will be able to supply nearly all the ni-
trogen which his fruit trees need without any expense
except what he pays for the seed of his cover crop.
When other nitrogenous fertilizers have to be applied,
nothing can surpass well-rotted barnyard manure. In
a few instances the writer has known of the successful
application of muck; but this can be recommended
only on farms where muck of good quality can be se-
cured with very little trouble. Nitrate of soda has been
considerably recommended during recent years and is
doubtless one of the cheapest forms in which nitrogen
can be purchased and one of the most effective forms
in which it can be used. Its specific characteristic is
its rapid working, so that it is especially adapted to the
immediate correction of unsatisfactory conditions after
the season of cultivation has begun.
In deciding what forms of potash and phosphoric
acid to employ the apple grower can give himself the
benefit of the fact that slowly available forms will
usually answer his purposes as well as the more
rapidly available ones. As the former are usually the
cheaper, this point is of importance.
Partly on this account and partly on account of the
lime contained, basic slag, Thomas phosphate powder,
should stand high in favor with the orchardist as a
source of phosphoric acid. Unfortunately this material
FEEDING THE TREES 97
has not been so cheap in American markets in recent
years as its composition would seem to warrant, and
careful buyers have been apt to content themselves
with high-grade phosphates of the usual sort.
As a source of potash the muriate has usually been
recommended, but the sulphate of potash is doubtless
better for most soils. The muriate soon makes a soil
sour, and apparently does not give good results on
the fruit itself. Kainit, which has been used to some
extent, is objectionable because the potash in it costs
more a pound than in other forms, and also on account
of impurities it contains.
Coming now to more specific suggestions, we may
quote a few formulas, some of which have been previ-
ously published.
Prof. W. P. Brooks of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College recommends for average conditions :
Basic slag meal 400-500 pounds
Low grade sulphate of potash . . 300 pounds
In years when the orchard bears freely there may
be added 75-100 pounds of nitrate of soda, though pos-
sibly the growing of leguminous cover crops may
make this application of nitrogen unnecessary. The
slag meal will supply phosphoric acid at abou.t 3 cents
a pound, and it also gives a large amount of lime.
which is very valuable.
Mr. George D. Leavens, fertilizer expert, of New
York, recommends a more liberal ration, as follows:
Basic slag meal •...-. 1500 pounds
High grade sulphate of
potash 300 - 500 pounds
Nitrate of soda 200 - 400 ])ounds
This is for an orchard in full bearing, and it is es-
pecially understood that the nitrate of soda must ba
98 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
used with caution. The fii^ures in this, as in all other
formulas here given, represent the amounts tj be given
annually for each acre.
Dr. L. L. Van Slyke of Geneva, N. Y., recommends
the following formula :
Cottonseed meal 100 pounds
Raw ground bone 100 pounds
Acid phosphate 100 pounds
Muriate of potash 100 pounds
Dr. E. B. Voorhees of New Jersey, in his work on
fertilizers, recommends the following:
Raw ground bone 403 pounds
Acid phosphate 400 pounds
Muriate of potash 400 jjounds
A glance will show that the last formula represents
a considerably larger amount of plant food than the
preceding formula. This maybe due to somewhat dif-
ferent conditions held in view by the two eminent gen-
tlemen quoted. The quantities of plant food to be
given will obviously vary between wide limits. Fertile
soils will require less than poor soils. Young orchards
will use less than -old ones. Then if truck crops are
grown between the young apple trees the needs of
these crops have to be considered.
XI
THE INSECT CAMPAIGN
There are about 300 dift'ereiit species of insects that
have gone on record at one time or another as attack-
ing- the apple tree or fruit in some way. Of these per-
haps 100 have at times done real damage. Taking the
country at large, however, and one year with another,
the number of serious apple enemies can be calculated
at less than a dozen. It is proper and even necessary
to keep an eye open for some of these less important
pests, for occasionally one or another comes forth in
large numbers in some particular locality and plays
havoc with the apple industry.
Those insects which may be regarded as permanent
factors in the apple-growing business are the San Jose
scale, the codling moth, the apple maggot, the forest
tent caterpillar, the fall web worm, and the b.-rers.
San Jose Scale is undoubtedly one of the worst in-
sects known in those districts where it has become es-
tablished, and it has become established over a wide
range of country. Eventually all the apple-growing
sections will find the scale in their programs. On the
whole we may as well understand that the scale is here
to stay and that we shall have to fight it.
For some years nursery inspection, quarantine and
fumigation has been looked on as a means of con-
trolling the spread of the scale. They have unques-
tionably contributed somewhat to this end. Nursery
inspection in some states has 'always been rigid and
thousands of infested trees have been destroyed which
D9
100 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
otherwise would have been sold and sent out to carry
the insect to new orchards. Fumigation has also killed
millions of scales on infested trees and has prevented
their distribution among unsuspecting tree buyers. And
yet neither nursery inspection nor nursery stock fumi-
gation is perfect, and in spite of both the scale has con-
tinued to spread.
Any tree buyer should take every possible precaution
against introducing the San Jose scale into his
grounds. He should see that the trees he buys are ac-
companied by a certificate of inspection, and he should
do all he can to learn that that certificate means
something. If possible, he should have his trees
fumigated. For while impnoper fumigation does
sometimes injure nursery stock, proper fumiga-
tion is very effective in killing acale. After both
these matters have been duly attended to the tree
buyer will do well to give his trees a thorough inspec-
tion on his own account. It is fundamentally necessary
of course that the fruit grower himself should know
the scale when he sees it.
Yet, after all, the San Jose scale problem is not one
of inspection nor of fumigation, but of fighting- the in-
sect in the orchard. In this campaign it is best to cut
down and burn a good many old trees or those very
badly infested before discovery. The battle is hard
enough anywhere ; but in old, unpruned, high-topped
trees it is almost surely a losing fight. It is important
that young trees be headed low. The San Jose scale
has done more than all 'Other agencies combined to
popularize the low heading of fruit trees.
On individual small trees the scale may be killed by
fumigating the entire plant with h\'drocyanic acid gas,
THE INSECT CAMPAIGN lOI
but this method is so impracticable as a general treat-
ment that it need not be described.
The only truly practicable method of controlling the
scale in orchard practice is by spraying; and the cheap-
est and most effective spray known at this writing
(1908) is the lime sulphur mixture. (Formula on
page 137.) Very thorough spraying in early spring
with well-made lime-sulphur spray is plainly the best
treatment to be recommended. In southern localities,
where there is considerable open weather during the
winter, much of the spraying can be done at that
season.
Next to the lime-sulphur mixture the best remedy
for San Jose scale now known in unquestionably some
one of the so-called "soluble oils." These are specially
prepared petroleum products, and for the present are
all sold under proprietary names. The most promi-
nent for the moment are Target Brand, Scalecide and
Kil-o-scale. These oils are put into water, with which
Ihcy mix more or less perfectly, and are ready for
immediate use. The amounts used vary from i part of
oil to 10 of water down to i part oil to 20 of water.
Under favorable conditions the mixture is perfect, but
in many cases the oil is only partly dissolved in the
water. Under such circumstances it is plain that the
strength of the solution will vary and that the results
may be seriously affected. There seems to be no injury
to the trees when these soluble oils are used during
the dormant season.
These oils have the great advantage of being easy
to mix and use. They do away with many of the most
disagreeable features of the lime-sulphur treatment.
At present prices they cost from 10 to 25 per cent more
102 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
than the hnie-sulphur mixture. There is a slight dis-
advantage also in the fact that they do not show on
the tree as the hme-sulphur spray does. It is much
harder therefore to determine when a tree is perfectly
sprayed. If windy weather necessitates several turns
on each row this difficulty becomes really serious.
At the present moment there are being introduced
by various experiment stations certain formulas for
the home preparation of oil sprays. Enough experi-
ence has already been gained to show that these will
probably equal the proprietary brands of soluble oil
in efficiency when properly prepared. Beyond this we
can add only that tiiey have the same advantages and
the same disadvantages (except as to cost) as the
proprietary articles.
In a general way it seems that these oil sprays prove
more satisfactory in the southern states and less so in
northern orchards.
Various formulas have been recommended for self-
boiling lime-sulphur washes, but while they have some-
times been successful they cannot be generally recom-
mended at present. There have also been put on the
market several proprietary insecticides for use against
the San Jose scale. Most of these are pure fakes, and
none of them seems to be really worth while.
Leaf-Eating Caterpillars — There are several spe-
cies of insects which feed on the leaves of apple trees.
A few of these sometimes become sufficiently numer-
ous to cause serious damage. The two most common
ones are the tent caterpillar and the fall web worm.
Occasionally there are outbreaks of the forest tent
caterpillar or other insects which do very great dam-
age, but in most years the injury to foliage by insects
is only moderate in extent and is confined to a few
THE INSECT CAMTAIGN I03
weeks eating' by the species already nientionctl. Under
nearly all circumstances these leaf-eating- caterpi-llars
can be killed by the use of arsenical sprays. The es-
sential point in meeting these attacks is that the poison
must be given the insects before they reach maturity.
While the caterpillars are young, small and tender a
very trifling dose of arsenic will end their careers. If
they are three-fourths grown much larger doses are
required to kill them. Moreover after they have
reached maturity they are through eating. Their dam-
age is done. It is hardly worth while to poison them
then if we can. The absolute necessity of taking
these caterpillars in the first stages is often overlooked
by the men who use the spray remedy.
Experience has shown that even in the severest at-
tacks of forest tent caterpillar the arsenical sprays will
protect orchards provided the work is promptly and
vigorously done, and provided other conditions of
orchard management are satisfactory. Some very
striking examples of this sort have come under the
writer's personaJ attention.
Perhaps a special word should be said regarding the
fall web worm, which is one of the leaf-eating insects
most frequently seen in the northeastern states. This
insect appears almost every autumn, and on account
of its conspicuous webs in the apple trees, makes a
comparatively great showing. The fruit grower is apt
to be unduly alarmed because these worm nests are so
conspicuous. It should be remembered, however, that
the insects may be much less numerous and voracious
than those which make much less show earlier in the
year. An even more important fact is that at the time
the fall web worm appears the apple tree has prac-
tically completed its growth for the season. The leaves
I04 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
are already drying and to some extent falling from the
trees. The buds for next year have already been rip-
ened. Even if large quantities of leaves are eaten
from the trees at this time of year, therefore, the prac-
tical damage is very much less than it would be if a
similar defoliation should occur in early spring.
Tree Borers — There are several different species of
borers which attack, the apple tree trunks and branches.
Only two of them, however, are of any great economic
importance, namely, the flat-headed and the round-
headed borers. The distinctions between these two
species are not of great practical consequence. In many
young orchards these insects do enarmous damage,
sometimes killing a large percentage of the planting
between the ages of two and ten years especially.
The presence of borers in the apple trees can nearly
always be detected by the chips thrown out by the
working larvae. These will usually be found about the
base of the trunk.
Borers are especially likely to injure trees standing
in grass or weeds. Clean culture is therefore a pre-
ventive, to a considerable degree, of this sort of dam-
age. Application of lime, ashes, lye washes and other
caustic materials have some effect in driving away the
borer or killing the eggs, but cannot be relied on as
preventives.
The most effective treatment of trees once infested,
and indeed the only effective treatment, is to dig out
the larvae by hand. These worms eat into the wood
and under the bark of the trunks and can be reached
and killed if one takes the necessary labor. A man
can cut out a majority of them by using a sharp knife.
Although some damage will result to the tree by this
sort of cutting, it will always be less than will result
THE INSECT CAMPAIGN IO5
from the continued work of the insect. A strong, pha-
ble copper wire, however, is better than a knife in most
cases ; and if taken in combination with the knife makes
the best set of instruments for fighting the borer. This
pHable copper wire can be thrust into bores made by
the larvje, and will kill a majority of them without
making it .necessary to cut open the tree.
Codling Moth — This is one of the best known and
most widely distributed enemies of the apple. Newly
settled districts have nearly always enjoyed a tem-
porary immunity from this pest, but experience has
shown that the moth cannot long be kept out of any
commercial apple-g'ro*wing district. Apparently the
ravages of the codling moth 'are more serious in -cen-
tral "and southern latitudes, where two or" three, or even
as many as four, broods are hatched in a year. How-
ever, 'the campaign against this insett is an annual one,
and has to be fought in practically all the commercial
orchards in the country.
The principal preventive of damage is the spray
pump, using poison sprays. Paris green is largely used
at the present time, but is being somewhat generally
supplanted by lead arsenate (see formulas on page
142). Thorough spraying at the right time with these
insecticides will very greatly reduce the percentage of
damage. Indeed, in many cases the work of the insect
is practically eliminated. As in dealing with every
other insect or fungous pest, thorough spraying at the
proper time is highly essential. The proper time in
this case is within one week to lo days after the fall-
ing of the blossoms. A longer delay cannot be made
with safety. After about lo days the calyx, or blos-
som leaves of the young apple, close and the apple
turns to a pendant position. Before this time the newly
I06 THE AMERICAN APPLE UKCllAKD
set fruit stands erect with the calyx lobes open. A
poison spray properly distributed falls into this calyx
cup and the poison lodges there. As many of the
young larvae enter the apple by eating in at this blos-
som end they secure with their first meal a taste of
poison which usually prevents any further apple eating
on their part.
Special attention should be called to the fact that
apple trees should not be sprayed while in blossom.
Spraying at this time is not always totally without
value, but in many instances it is not only unnecessary,
but even highly dangerous, to the crop. Under all cir-
cumstances it is very likely to poison the bees working
on the apple blossoms. This sort of damage is far
reaching in many cases ; and as the bee is one of the
fruit grower's best friends we cannot afford to murder
whole swarms in this way.
This early spraying, just after the blossoms fall,
will not usually 'catch quite all the codling moth, even
all the first brood. When the second or third brood
hatches later in the year a still smaller percentages can
be poisoned by the arsenical sprays. Nevertheless it
pays to give additional sprayings for this purpose in
case the second and thir-d broods appear to be large.
In many cases it seems to be worth while to supple-
ment spraying by the use of bandages on the tree
trunks. These arc made of burlap or coarse paper,
preferably the former. As a considerable number of
larvae descend the tree trunks seeking for a place to
hide while they pass through the change from larva
to moth — ^pupation — many of them gather under these
bands and can be taken out and destroyed.
It Is also important in the campaign against the
codling moth to destroy all windfalls and inferior fruit.
THE INSECT CAMPAIGxNf IO7
A very large percentag-e of early windfalls are in-
fested with codling moth, as well as with other in-
sects. Probably the best way to get rid of these is to
allow hogs or sheep to run in the orchard. This is
not always practicable, inasmuch as apple trees loaded
with fruit are very tempting to hogs and sheep. These
animals will often pick considerable quantities of fruit
from the lower branches of the trees, or will even in-
jure the trees themselves by browsing the lower
branches or barking the trunks. Nevertheless, by tak-
ing proper precautions, this sort of damage may fre-
quently be prevented and the sheep or hogs pastured
in the orchard with great advantage, not only to the
apples, but to the animals as well.
Apple Maggot — The apple maggot, frequently
called also the railroad worm, is a comparatively re-
cent orchard pest in this country. It is also one of
the worst. It attacks some varieties with special en-
thusiasm. Indeed, in many localities it is practically
impossible to grow Tolman Sweet. Porter, Primate,
^Mother and certain other tender-fleshed varieties for
which this insect has a special taste.
The apple maggot hatches from a small fly which
deposits her egg just under the skin of the fruit at
almost any time during the growing season. The little
worm hatches, feeds about through the flesh of the
apple, mining it in every direction, and making it
practically unfit for human food. There are often
large numbers of these small maggots in a single
fruit. Apples attacked in this way show a peculiar
pitting on the outside something remotely like small-
pox pits. Inside the fruit will be found discolored,
thread-like traces of the coarse followed by the mag-
gots. Sometimes the flesh is punky or corky.
I08 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
This insect is peculiarly difficult to fig'ht. It cannot
be poisoned, as it does not eat any of the external por-
tions of the tree or fruit at any time during its exist-
ence. There has been found no effective method of
keeping the fly from laying her eggs in the fruit.
About the only practical method of checking the work
of this insect is to clean up and destroy very thor-
oughly all windfalls,' dropped fruit and seconds of
every sort. Nothing is so effective for this purpose as
a flock of sheep or a herd of swine. The difficulties
and advantages of fighting insects by these means has
been discussed in the paragraph on codling moth.
The Curculio, which really should confine its atten-
tion to the stone fruits, frequently attacks the apple.
At such times the damage is likely to be serious. The
young fruits are punctured on the sides, and though
the larvae or small worms seldom hatch and work into
the apple, the fruit grows one-sided or warty from
the effects of these punctures. This injury seems to
be especially common in the states of the Mississippi
Valley, though the writer has seen serious cases of it
in New England and Quebec.
The insect usually responsible for this work is the
ordinary plum curculio; though there is another spe-
cies which is sometimes called the apple or quince cur-
culio, which also does considerable damage at times.
Any of the curculio working on apples may be prac-
tically kept at bay by proper application of arsenical
poisons. Paris green, arsenate of lead or disparene,
used as recommended for general orchard practice, w^ill
almost completely prevent the injury.
Oyster Shell Bark Louse — The little animal which
commonly receives this name is one of the scale in-
sects, and one of the most common and destructive of
THE INSECT CAMPAIGN IO9
its kind. It is found everywhere, but especially in the
northeastern states and provinces of Canada. It is
larger than most scale insects and of an irregular ob-
long form, which enables one to distinguish it readily
from the little round black pimple known as the San
Jose scale. It is found especially on old apple trees,
but may be found in some cases on young trees the
first year from the nursery. The damage wrought by
the oyster shell scale is much less severe and summary
than that which comes from the San Jose scale, but it
is nevertheless very serious. In many cases it prac-
tically kills trees or even entire orchards. In this,
however, it is nearly always assisted by the systematic
neglect of the owner, for the oyster shell scale is sel-
dom very serious on orchards well cared for.
Almost any thorough sort of spraying will check
the increase of the oyster shell scale or drive it out
entirely. Even bordeaux mixture contains enough
lime to make this insect very unhappy, and its con-
tinued use is incompatible with the increase of scale.
It has been discovered that pure lime whitewash
sprayed on the trees in fall or midwinter will prac-
tically clean out the oyster shell scale. Any alkaline
wash will serve the same purpose more or less efifect-
ively according to its composition and the methods of
its application. One pound of concentrated lye or
crude potash dissolved in 5 gallons of water will do
the work thoroughly. The lime-sulphur spray recom-
mended for San Jose scale will answer admirably for
the oyster shell scale also; but if the latter insect
alone has to be fought milder weapons will do as well.
In giving treatment for any sort of scale insect a
preparatory course of pruning and scraping is very
important. In the campaign to dislodge the oyster
110 THE AMr.RICAX APPLE ORCHARD
shell from old apple trees this preliminary work is in-
dispensable. Old shaggy bark must be scraped off.
For this purpose a tool may be made of an old hoe.
The handle should be shortened to i6 inches and the
blade sharpened. A better tool, which can be bought
ready made or made by any handy blacksmith, has a
triangular blade, about ^V^ inches on each edge, with
a 14-inch handle in the center. After scraping the
trees should be well pruned. This subject is discussed
in detail under the renovation of old orchards, which
XII
THE PRINCIPAL DISEASES
There are many diseases which attack the apple
tree or fruit, but as far as the practical business of
fig-hting them is concerned only three or four need be
seriously considered. The most destructive of these
are caused by fungi. These fungi are very small
plants, usually so small that a high-power microscope
is required to see them. However, they make up in
numbers for what they lack in size. They are parasites,
living on the apple tree, foliage or fruit, and taking
the nourishment which the fruit grower never in-
tended for them.
These fungi are usually distributed by means of
spores, which take the place of seeds, but are thousands
of times smaller than even the proverbial mustard seed.
These spores are usually carried by the wind, and they
usually lodge in the rough bark or on the rough bud
scales of the apple trees. They can be killed most easily
just at the moment when they germinate, and the best
thing for killing them is some form of copper solution.
Here is where the copper sulphate of bordeaux mixture
comes in. As soon as the spores germinate the fungous
plant which grows from them penetrates into the tis-
sues of the apple bud, twig or leaf, and is then quite
out of reach of any remedy.
While every disease has its own specific fungu'S and
behaves in its own peculiar way, this general statement
fairly covers the case for all our common fungous dis-
eases. A brief consideration of the facts here recited
112 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
will lead to a few inferences of considerable practical
importance.
1. All spraying must be preventive. The fungus
must be killed in the spore stage. There is no such
thing as curing a fungous disease.
2. Early spraying does the most good. After the
spores have germinated and the fungus has gained en-
trance to the plant, spraying does no good. Late spray-
ings are useful only in killing later crops of spores,
but as a rule these are comparatively unimportant.
3. Spraying must cover the entire tree. A fungous
spore is less than the ten-thousandth of an inch in di-
ameter, but the copper sulphate has to touch it to kill
it.
Scab or Black Spot — The apple scab is the worst
disease which the orchardist has to meet. It is the most
widespread, and on the whole the most destructive. It
does great damage to the foliage in some cases, though
it is more conspicuous on the fruit. The leaves when
attacked by scab show irregular browned patches of
dead tissue. Sometimes these are so abundant as to
give the whole tree a half burnt appearance. On the
fruit the fungus causes black patches, which sometimes
crack open, making the fruit unsightly and unsalable.
Different varieties are susceptible in differing degrees
to the attacks of scab fungus. Fameuse, ^Mcintosh and
all apples of that type are especially subject to injury.
The scab, once established on a tree, works in the
small twigs and throughout the growing tissues. It
also continues to develop in the fruit after picking, so
that fruit put into storage in reasonably good condition
but affected with scab will deteriorate rapidly, espe-
cially if the storage room is warm.
THE PRINCIPAL DISEASES II3
Fortunately the scab fungus is comparatively easy to
fight. At least it is in most years. There are occa-
sional seasons when it seems to be epidemic and beyond
control. Under all ordinary circumstances thorough
and timely applications of bordeaux mixture will en-
tirely subdue it. The most useful application, however,
is the dose of plain copper sulphate solution given just
before the buds open. At that time the spores are rest-
ing on the apple buds, and this is just where, a few
days later at budding time, the most serious fungous
invasion occurs. Later applications of bordeaux serve
to check the spread of the fungus.
Apple Tree Canker — The apple tree canker has only
recently been recognized as a serious disease. Even yet
it is not present in all orchards to such an extent as to
cause much damage. Young orchards and sections
where apple growing is a new industry are apt to be
comparatively free. But in nearly all old orchards
there is an abundance of canker, and in the old apple-
growing sections, where neglected apple trees are as
common as flies in a country hotel, the canker is a well-
established and ever-present menace to the business.
The canker appears in the form of large patches of
dead bark, more frequently in the crotches. Sometimes,
however, small canker spots can be seen on young
branches. As the canker eats in during the course of
two or three years, the bark peels off. leaving patches
of exposed wood. These are rough, and the edges are
black, and more or less wrinkled. This wrinkling along
the margins of the canker spots is particularly striking
in cases of long standing, where it is emphasized by the
successive annual attempts of the tree to cover in. and
heal the canker sore.
114 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Sometimes the canker appears about the base of the
tree. In this form it is sometimes called collar rot.
There are certainly several diseases, closely related,
caused by different fungi, which may all be roughly
grouped under the name of canker.
Different varieties of trees differ greatly in their sus-
ceptibility to canker. Tompkins King is especially vul-
nerable. Esopus Spitzenberg is another. Spy and Tol-
man are practically immune. In view of such facts
some enterprising growers are adopting the practice of
top-working varieties like King on trees like Spy. The
tree which is used for top-working in this way should
be allowed to form a good head before regrafting in
order that the crotches may be sound and free from
cankers.
Pruning and spraying with general good treatment
is the preventive, and to some extent a practical
remedy, for canker. The cankered branches should be
cut out and burned, as far as possible. Where there
are large branches which cannot be spared but which
have canker spots, these spots should be scraped, pared
down to healthy wood and painted with a heavy coat
of thick white lead paint. Thorough spraying with
bordeaux kills the spores of the canker fungi ; and an
orchard carefully sprayed every year, as spraying is
done for the scab fungus, will never suffer from
canker, unless it be under the most exceptional circum-
stances.
Bitter Rot — The same fungus which causes one
form of canker causes also a disease of the fruit,
known as bitter rot. This disease is very destructive
some years in certain localities, especially in southern
Illinois and Missouri. In this neighborhood the entire
crop is occasionally ruined. The rot appears on the
THE PRINCIPAL P'lSEASES II5
fruit in the form of circular black spots with granular
surface, and with fine concentric rings at the margins.
It spreads rapidly, even after the fruit is picked; and
when it is first seen the time for fighting the disease
has usually gone by.
Like all the other true fungous diseases the bitter rot
can be controlled by bordeaux mixture if applications
are timely and thorough. The regular program of
spraying — that is, three applications of bordeaux in
spring — will serve to check the bitter rot, and in some
seasons will afford sufficient protection. This disease
has been very thoroughly studied at the Illinois experi-
ment station, and Prof. J. C. Blair gives the following
advice as to its treatment :
"I. In addition to the three early sprayings for apple
scab and codling moth make applications of bordeaux
at intervals of ten days, commencing the third week in
June, making the final application on the date of the
first discovery of bitter rot. In case bitter rot fails to
appear before the first of August, the applications
should be continued up to the end of July, making in
all four to five applications. In most seasons three
sprayings with standard bordeaux mixture, one ap-
plied the last week in June and the two following at
intervals of ten days, are sufficient to control the dis-
ease, but on account of the irregularity in the time
of infection in different seasons, this practice is not
wholly safe and the extra treatments are recommended
as a wise precaution.
" 2. In case the precautionary sprayings above
recommended are not given, the most thorough spray-
ings to coat the fruit completely with bordeaux mix-
ture should be made immediately upon the first
discovery of an. infected apple. Failure to spray
promptly at this time will result, in a season favorable
Il6 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
to the development of the chsease, in ahiiost complete
destructfon of the crop.
" 3. Mummied apples which remain upon the trees
after the leaves have dropped in the fall should be
picked off and destroyed in order to do away with this
source of infection during the following summer.
" 4. Bitter rot cankers upon the branches of the
trees, a second source of infection, should be cut off
and burned, the limb being cut- a few inches below
the cankered spot. Care should be taken not to cause
fresh bruises in the bark of other branches while this
operation is being performed, and the pruning tools
should not be allowed to touch the cankers for fear
of carrying the infection to the freshly cut surfaces
below the diseased bark."
Professor Blair is very certain that thorough spray-
ing for bitter rot pays in Illinois. His advice, of
course, applies with equal force in all sections where
the rot is prevalent.
The Apple Scald — This disease has proved very se-
rious in recent years, manifesting itself particularly in
the storage houses. It appears on the fruit at any time
during the winter, causing it to show a baked or scalded
appearance. Though the disease attacks only the sur-
face of the fruit, and does not itself injure the culinary
quality, it usually opens the way for other agencies of
decay, so that when the fruit shows scald it is on the
way to rapid deterioration. In fact the appearance of
the fruit is so much injured by the scald itself that it is
made more or less unsalable, sometimes entirely so.
The cause of the disease is very obscure. It is not
a fungus, nor even a bacterium, but is thought to be an
even more obscure agent, which the chemists call an
enzym. It can be most closely compared to the trypsin
and pancreatin of the stomach and intestines which
THE PKINCU'AL DISEASES II7
digest the food we eat. A disease of apples due to such
a cause is obviously hard to treat.
Different varieties show very different degrees of
susceptibility to scald. Rhode Island Greening- is the
most notable among standard commercial varieties in
its tendency to show this trouble, but other sorts
suffer almost equal damage. In the storage experi-
ments of ]\Ir. G. Harold Powell, the following-
varieties were found to be seriously affected by
scald :
Arctic, Nero,
Arkansas, Paragon,
Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
Ben Davis, Smith Cider,
Gilpin, Stayman Winesap,
Grimes, Wagener,
Huntsman, Winesap,
Lankford, York Imperial.
Scald also varies greatly with other conditions, such
as the ripeness of the fruit, temperature of storage, etc.
Some of the more important of these conditions may be
summarized as follows :
1. Maturity of tJic fruit. — Thoroughly mature,
well-colored fruit suffers less than fruit picked green
or underripe. However, as ripening progresses in stor-
age, scald increases.
2. Methods of handling bctzvccn flicking and stor-
age.— Immediate storage gives least scald, while any
delay in storage will show proportionate increase in
scald.
J. Temperature. — A storage temperature of 31°-
32° proves best for practically all varieties.
]\Ir. Powell's own suggestions, made on the basis
of his experiments, are that "from the practical
Il8 THE AMERICAN AITLE ORCHARD
standpoint the scald may be prevented to the
greatest extent by producing highly colored, well-
developed fruit, by storing it as soon as it is
picked in a temperature of 31 "-32°, by removing it
from storage while it is still free from scald, and by
holding it after removal at the coolest possible
temperature."
XIII
OTHER TROUBLES
Spraying is not exactly a universal reliance in the
care of fruit trees, for the reason that there are some
sorts of damage caused by other agencies than fungi
and insects. A few words on the more common
troubles should be entered here.
Blight — Fire blight, or twig blight, is a disease of
bacterial origin ; and as the bacteria which cause all the
trouble circulate in the sap of the tree they cannot be
reached by sprays. These bacteria are carried from tree
to tree by various insects, sometimes by bees ; but there
seems to be no practicable way of preventing their dis-
semination. It is well known that the blight is
worst on young trees, making a rank, soft growth ;
and this fact suggests a preventive in such forms
of culture and fertilizing as do not produce rank
growth. Where blight is bad it may be best to
stop the cultivation of the orchard for a year or
two. The free use of nitrogenous fertilizers, such
as barnyard manure, which is seldom to be recom-
mended, is especially to be discouraged in times
when blight is prevalent.
The weather has a striking influence on the develop-
ment of the blight. Hot, moist, muggy weather in July
or August is always favorable to it. At such times the
new growth will be struck and withered in a day or
two. leaving the tree burnt and blackened as though
burnt over by a scorching fire. Hence the name fire
blight.
119
I20 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
After the blight has struck a tree or an orchard there
is little that can be done by way of immediate relief or
to check its present spread. The pruning knife, which
is the main dependence, cannot be used to much advan-
tage at the moment. Nevertheless the removal of the
blighted wood is the best thing that can be done, and
if this can be accomplished before growth ceases in
the summer so much the better.
The dead wood can be recognized during the winter
by the shriveled and blackened bark, and can be
pruned out at any time. But heavy pruning during the
dormant season — October to April — is apt to start the
trees to the production of a lot of soft growth, water-
sprouts, etc., which growth is especially vulnerable to
the attacks of blight. So that the pruning, designed to
check the ravages of the blight, becomes the means of
keeping it going. Nevertheless pruning should always
be done because the blight spreads from the blighted
portions of the tree to the sound portions. The blighted
parts should be cut out and burned as soon as may be.
The burning of the prunings is highly important.
Sun Scald — This form of damage is very common
in some localities, so common, in fact, that a tree which
escapes it is a rarity. This sun scald, which has the
appearance of being caused by the burning of the sun,
occurs in reality during the winter when the snow is on
the ground. The greater part of the damage occurs in
late winter, or during the warm spring days when the
snow is going off. During the warm afternoons the
sun, reflected from the snow against the southwest sides
of the tree trunks, becomes very warm. The trunks are
thoroughly warmed on that side. They are thawed out,
and the bark becomes soft, sappy and pliable. Then
when the sun goes down and the temperature falls
OTHER TROUBLES 121
again to zero, the bark is again frozen tight as a drum.
The next clay the same thing happens, and so day after
day the young bark freezes and thaws, and by this
means is torn to shreds. When spring arrives the bark
is killed and broken open. Then various kinds of fungi
get in and the damage which begins by freezing
and thawing ends with spread of canker and other
troubles all round the trunk of the tree.
The best preventives of sun scald are low heads and
veneer protectors. High-headed trees, which are of
doubtful value anywhere, are altogether inadmissible in
places where sun scald is bad. The protectors of
newspaper or wood veneer recommended below
for mice and rabbits will also give practical im-
munity from sun scald. This trouble is a very
serious one. It is not uncommon to find entire
young orchards ruined by it. In sections where
this trouble is prevalent great pains should be
taken to protect 3'oung orchards from it.
Mice and Rabbits, in some sections, do great dam-
age, particularly to young trees during the winter.
Rabbits can usually be thinned out by shooting and
trapping, but the mice must be circumvented by other
means. In small and newly planted orchards the dam-
age by mice may be generally prevented by tramping
down the snow around the trees after each snowfall.
The mice work under the snow, and this tramping
spoils their field of operations.
As a general rule, however, the cheapest and safest
protection is secured by wrapping the trunks of
young trees with some defensive material, such as
paper, wood veneer, or corn stalks. Cornstalks will
sometimes serve wdiere they are to be had abun-
dantly and in good condition from the feed
122 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
yards where cattle are ^cd on whole corn fodder.
But they are troublesome to put on and not so
safe as other protectors, and are therefore not to
be recommended. Newspapers wrapped round the
trunks and tied with soft twine make an excellent
protection. They are cheap, easy to put on, and
effective.
Probably the best of all protection is afforded by the
strips of thin wood veneer got out by various manu-
facturers especially for this purpose. This veneer is a
little less than a quarter of an inch thick, and is cut in
pieces about 8 inches wide by 24 inches long. In some
cases the lower end is tarred. These strips cost about
$5 a thousand, or less in large quantities. They will
last for several years.
One of these strips of thin wood is wrapped round
the trunk of the young tree, and tied with a strong
string. Sometimes they are treated so as to give them
a permanent curve, and then each protector holds its
own place without tying. As a rule the protectors
should be removed every spring and replaced in the
fall. These wood or paper protectors not only prevent
damage by mice or rabbits, but also prevent sun scald.
XIV
SPRAYING MACHINERY
The question is often asked : \\'hat is the best spray
pump? Such a question cannot be answered. Even
when the requirements are somewhat definitely known
no one can truthfully say that one make of pump is
better than all the others. In fact, a good nozzle, con-
veniently rigged to a well-made cylinder makes a good
spray outfit. The particular pattern or maker's name
is of small consequence. It may be said at the outset
that hand pumps are most practicable for small planta-
tions. Anyone with less than 200 mature apple trees
will hardly need a power sprayer. For any undertak-
ing larger than 200 mature trees, however, some form
of power machine will prove an economy.
Of the hand pumps there are all kinds, but they may
be somewhat arbitrarily divided into two general types.
The first would include the small single-acting pumps
mounted on a barrel ; the second would include larger
pumps, usually double-acting, and usually mounted on
larger tanks. The barrel pump, which is the smallest
and cheapest practical outfit for effective spraying, can
be conveniently loaded into any wagon. Preferably it
is placed on a low-down truck. It can even be hauled
about on a stone boat. If some tank larger than a bar-
rel is required, it is best to buy one of the ready-made
sort put out by leading dealers. These tanks usually
hold 200 gallons, and cost $18 to $20. The common
form is semi-cylindrical, with the flat side uppermost,
making a convenient place for mounting the pump.
123
SPRAYING MACHINERY I25
A word should be saiil about agitators. In most of
the barrel machines, as they come from the factory,
there is some sort of mechanical agitator to keep the
spray mixture stirred up. In larger machines the stir-
ring is accomplished by pumping back into the tank a
portion of the liquid taken through the pimip. This
agitation is important, especially with bordeaux mix-
ture. On rough ground, however, especially where
trees are small, and there is much driving from tree to
tree, the shaking of the wagon may give all the agita-
tion necessary. The presence of any considerable sedi-
ment in the bottom of the tank after pumping out a
tankful of mixture indicates that more thorough stir-
ring is needed. Of course, it may, and probably does,
indicate also that the mixture is improperly made ; but
the poorer the original mixture the greater the demand
for vigorous stirring.
With respect to pumps in general it must be remem-
bered that the cylinder is the vital organ. This should
be perfectly smooth and true, and should be lined with
brass or other non-corrosive material. Brass is the
material now most in use. All the other linings of
connecting working parts which come in contact with
the liquids should also be of brass. The nozzles are
practically always of brass.
Power Sprayers — Coming now to the power spray-
ers, in which the force is supplied from some other
source than human muscle, we find three general types
in common use. These are: (i) traction sprayers, (2)
engine or motor sprayers, and (3) those which operate
from air or gas pressure. It may be said at once that
any form of power sprayer, properly operated within
the scope of its adaptabilities, will give much better
results than hand power. Experience shows that the
126 THE AMERICAN" APPLE ORCHARD
hand pump gives a very variable pressure on the Hquid,
running from 125 pounds down to nothing, and seldom
averaging over 50 or 60 pounds. With any sort of
power sprayer, properly managed, a pressure of 100
pounds or upwards is easily maintained. With some
machines this pressure, say of 100 or 125 pounds, as
desired, can be kept up very steadily for hour after
hour, with practically no variation. In order to do any
sort of effective spraying a pressure of 65 pounds or
over is essential, about 100 pounds being the most
practicable figure.
Traction Spray Machines — A good example of the
first type of power sprayer, the traction machine, is
the Wallace pump. This machine takes its power
from the motion of the wagon wheel, which is pro-
vided with heavy lugs for that purpose, and is com-
municated to the pump by a sprocket chain and
wheels. While the wagon is in motion this power is
stored by compressing air into a large air chamber;
and this compressed air forces out the liquid for
several minutes after the wagon stops. The air
chamber and the pumps are connected with a bar-
rel mounted on the same truck ; or better still the
whole machine is mounted on a large special tank
holding 20G or 300 gallons of mixture.
In our experience it is not practicable to operate a
traction sprayer at a pressure of more than about 80
pounds. This pressure goes down slowly as soon as
the wagon stops, but will not go below 65 pounds in
less than 2 or 3 minutes in operating two gangs of
vermorel nozzles.. In young orchards where the trees
are small, and on comparatively level land, and where
the most thorough spraying is not required, the trac-
tion machines seem to be worth while. When any one
SPRAVIXG MACHINERY 12/
of these three conditions is absent, however, as when
trees are large, the ground rough, or very careful work
is necessary, some other form of power is better.
Engine Poiver Sprayers — Steam engines have occa-
sionally been used in spraying. As a rule they are not
to be recommended. Still occasionally there is a farm
on which a small steam engine is already owned, and
where the men know how to manage it. Where the
land is reasonably smooth, and a fairly light mount
can be secured, the steam engine may prove satisfac-
tory.
Gasoline motors come more nearly meeting the spe-
cial requirements of the apple grower who wants to
spray his trees. There are several manufacturers who
are putting such outfits on the market. Each machine
consists of a gasoline motor, of about two to three
horse power, more or less conveniently mounted on a
truck with a two-hundred gallon tank. The gasoline
engine or motor is comparatively simple and easy of
management, so that a really intelligent farm hand can
usually make friends with it. It may as well be ac-
cepted at the beginning of things that an ignorant and
heedless hired man cannot manage a spray outfit.
The gasoline motor has one practical advantage which
strongly commends it to many farmers ; viz., it can be
used for many other purposes when the spraying is
not going on. It will saw wood, cut silage, pump
water or run the milking machine.
Compressed Air Sprayers — In this form of machine
two air-tight metal cylinders or tanks are mounted side
by side on the truck. One of these cylinders holds the
spray liquid ; the other is charged with compressed air.
In order to charge this cylinder some stationary form
of power is required, as a horse power, water power.
SPRAYING MACHINERY I29
or a gasoline engine. A special air pump is installed
and connected with the horse power or gasoline en-
gine, and this pump forces the air into the air cylinder
of the spray machine up to any reasonable pressure.
About 200 pounds is the practical limit. The air cyl-
inder is connected with the liquid cylinder by means of
suitable cocks. By opening these the liquid is blown
out and through the nozzles onto the trees. The pres-
sure goes down slowly during the process of discharg-
ing the liquid ; but when properly managed does not
fall so low as seriously to impair the results.
Perhaps the chief difficulty in the way of the popu-
larity of the compressed air sprayers is the cost of in-
stalling the original power plant. This is said to be
about $250, though it varies, of course, with circum-
stances. On farms where a reliable source of power,
as a gasoline engine, is already established, the
cost is much less; and under such circumstances
the claims of the compressed air machines should
be carefully considered before buying any new
outfits. The power is very cheap, once the ma-
chinery is installed, and the outfit is light and
easily hauled through the orchard.
Gas Pozver for Spraying — There has recently been
introduced and widely sold a novel machine for spray-
ing purposes, which derives its power from purely
chemical sources, A small tank or cylinder is charged
with carbon dioxide gas. This is the same gas used in
soda fountains, and it is used in spraying in almost the
same way. A strong air-tight metal tank holding 50, 100
or 200 gallons of spray mixture is mounted on a suitable
wagon or truck. The cylinder of gas, about 8 inches
in diameter by 4 feet long, is fastened on beside this
tank. The gas pressure is opened into the lank of
130 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
liquid by a suitable system of cocks, and the spray
mixture is blown out through the nozzles. When a
tube has been exhausted of its gas it is returned to
the soda water factory to be recharged. Counting
the cost of returning and recharging tubes, it may be
computed that this method of spraying, under favorable
conditions, costs about the same as to spread the same
amount of mixture by hand pumps. There are several
distinct advantages, however. The pressure is greater
and more uniform, so that much better work is the re-
sult. There is practically no machinery to break and
get out of order. The outfit is lighter to transport
about the farm than any kind of pump can be. The
better quality of the work is certainly the chief advan-
tage.
These gas tubes give a comparatively high pres-
sure, ranging even above 200 pounds ; but this
pressure can be regulated accurately after a little
experience. A pressure of about 100 to 120 pounds
will be found best for ordinary work with bor-
deaux or lime-sulphur spray.
XV
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING
Hundreds, even thousands, of spray solutions have
been introduced during the last 15 years. Several of
them have met with temporary favor, but for practical
field work the list is now reduced to three or four.
Only the most important ones need be given here, as
this is a book for the practical worker, not for the ex-
perimenters.
The making of almost any spray solution is an ex-
acting task. Often it is dirty and highly disagreeable
also. This applies particularly to bordeaux mixture
and the lime-sulphur spray, which are probably the
two most important sprays now in use. On account
of this disagreeable nature of the work hired men, and
even orchard owners themselves, are sometimes in-
clined to slight the task. They seek short cuts and
shabby improvements — always to the detriment of the
spraying. It might as well be accepted as a funda-
mental fact at the outset that spraying is hard, dirty
work, and that it must be done with great care in spite
of the drawbacks. Close attention should be paid to
the minutest details in making up and putting on spray
mixtures.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE
By all means the most important fungicide which we
use is bordeaux mixture. This has superseded prac-
tically every other fungicide yet introduced. The
132 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
changes in the formula for bordeaux mixture have
been very few and of a minor nature, showing that
it is as nearly perfect as such things can be. The mix-
ture is made in various strengths for various pur-
poses, but probably the best formula for spraying ap-
ple trees is the standard mixture, as follows:
4 pounds copper sulphate (blue vitriol),
4 pounds lime,
50 gallons water.
To make up the mixture first dissolve the copper
sulphate. This process can be very much hastened by
using hot water. The usual method, however, is to
put the copper sulphate into a gunny sack and hang
it on a fork handle in the top of a barrel or tub so it
will just barely be immersed in the water. As fast as
it dissolves it sinks toward the bottom of the vessel.
If only 50 gallons (say one barrel) of mixture are to
be made it is well to dissolve the copper sulphate in
25 gallons of water.
The next step is to slake the lime. This should be
done by adding a little water at a time, just enough
to keep the lime slaking, but not enough to quench
the heat generated in the process. When the slaking
is finished more water can be added, making the lime
into a thick cream. It can then be diluted so as to
make 25 gallons or half a barrel of solution, and, if
necessary, it should be strained. With good lime,
however, the straining can be omitted.
The two solutions are now ready — the copper sul-
phate in one tub or barrel and the lime in another. To
make the mixture dip or ])0ur the copper sulphate into
the lime, or else pour both solutions at once into a
third ])arrcl. In either case the mixture must be
stirred vigorously during the pouring. Under no cir-
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING
133
cumstances should the process be reversed and the
lime poured into the copper sulphate. This Httle de-
tail, which is of no obvious importance whatever, really
makes the difference between a g-ood and a very
bad mixture which may ruin the foliage on every tree
it touches.
ARRANGEMENT FOR MIXING BORDEAUX
When a big campaign of spraying is on and much
bordeaux has to be made, the best plan is to make up
stock solutions. To do this dissolve say 40 pounds
of copper sulphate in 40 gallons of hot water, and set
it aside for use. Then in a suitable box slake 40
134
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
pounds of lime, and add enough water to make 40
gallons of this solution also. With care these solu-
tions will keep for some time; if they stand for sev-
eral weeks they become considerably concentrated
through evaporation of the water.
To use these stock
solutions in making up a
barrel of bordeaux for
spraying take 4 gallons
of the copper sulphate
solution and dilute it to
approximately 25 gallons.
Then take 4 gallons of
the lime solution and
dilute it in another bar-
rel making approximately
25 gallons. Then pour
the copper sulphate solu-
tion into the lime solution
as before directed, stirring
thoroughly.
No matter how the bor-
deaux mixture is made it should be strained before
using. To do this put it through cheesecloth as it
goes into the spray tank.
In making up large quantities of bordeaux a great
amount of labor can be saved by a convenient arrange-
ment of barrels or tanks. The usual way is to build
a platform, preferably in two stories, as shown in the
picture, page 133. The stock solutions are made up
in tubs, barrels or tanks on the upper platform. They
are also ladled out and diluted on this upper stage.
They are then allowed to run together into a trough
conducting them to a barrel on the lower platform.
BORDEAUX INJURY
SOLUTIONS FOR SrRAYIXG 1 35
They mix as they run together into the troug-h and
this mixture should be vigorously stirred in the barrel
during the operation. The mixture thus completed
is drawn off by gravity into the spray tank, passing
through the cheesecloth strainer on its way.
This staging must be made high enough so that
the completed mixture will run down into the
mounted spray tank ; and there must be arranged
a convenient water supply sending water easily up
to the top platform. This staging can be used in
making and handling other sprays, though it is
especially adapted to the manufacture of bordeaux.
A word needs to be said about the chemicals used.
Copper sulphate is seldom adulterated though some-
times it is not so clean as it ought to be. The granulated
form costs about one-half cent more a pound than
the lumps, and is easier to dissolve. If the amount of
work to be done will justify it the copper sulphate
should be bought by the barrel. A barrel contains in
the neighborhood of 200 pounds and costs from 6^ to
73^ cents a pound at present, with a tendency for the
price to go higher.
The proper selection of lime is more important.
The lime must be of good quality, well burned and
not air slaked. The fine lime sometimes preferred by
masons should not be used. Lumps are better.
Always use lime enough. The quantity recom-
mended in the formula already given will be quite
sufficient if good lime is used ; but in case of doubt
more lime can be used. It is customary in books and
bulletins to recommend the so-called ferro-cyanide
test, but in actual practice it is better to rely on good
lime. The idea of this ferro-cyanide test is to de-
termine whether the lime has completely neutralized
136 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
the coi)pcr sulphate. A solution of potassium ferro-
cyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) is made by dis-
solving- say I ounce of the ferro-cyanide in 6 ounces
of water. A few drops of this solution may be
dropped into the bordeaux mixture to be tested, when,
if the copper sulphate has not been neutralized, it will
instantly give a deep brownish-red color. If the mix-
ture is properly neutralized no color will appear. This
test is very accurate and reliable, provided the bor-
deaux is evenly mixed ; but it is too much bother for
practical use in the field.
Even with the greatest care in making and apply-
ing bordeaux there sometimes results considerable
damage to fruit and foliage from the action of the
spray mixture itself. This damage is usually most
conspicuous on the fruit, and appears in the form
of russety patches or rings. The weather evidently
has a good deal to do with the amount of injury, but
on the whole this trouble is not very well understood.
On account of it careful growers and experimenters
now generally use a more dilute bordeaux mixture
than formerly. The formula already given is weaker
than sometimes recommended, but it may be still fur-
ther diluted if any ill efifects are seen. In case of
bordeaux injury it will be best to substitute the fol-
lowing formula :
3 pounds copper sulphate
4 pounds lime
50 gallons water
COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION
In early spring before the buds open a thorough
spraying with a strong fungicide gives very great
returns. Indeed this is probably the most profitable
SOLUTKJXS I'OK SPRAYING I37
spraying of the year. When hme-sulphur mixture is
used for San Jose scale in spring it will take the place
of any other spraying before the buds open. In all
other cases some solution of copper sulphate should
be applied. Bordeaux mixture will serve the pur-
pose; but as this work is to be done before the buds
open, the lime may be omitted. The liquid thus be-
comes a plain solution of copper sulphate. The recipe
would be about as follows, though the exact propor-
tions are not very important :
3 pounds copper sulphate
50 gallons water
Simply dissolve the copper sulphate in the water as
already directed, page 132, and the solution is ready
to apply.
THE LIME-SULPHUR MIXTURE
This is doubtless the dirtiest, messiest and nastiest
spray mixture yet invented. Perhaps for that reason
it is one of the most effective. At any rate it is in-
dispensable, at least in the northern states, in fighting
San Jose scale. It also serves to kill many other in-
sects, as oyster shell bark louse, and moreover has a
distinct fungicidal value. When it is used during the
spring no further application of bordeaux or other
fungicide need be made till the fruit has set.
Various recipes are given for making the lime-
sulphur mixture. The following is the formula used
and preferred by the writer :
16 pounds unslaked lime
16 pounds flowers of sulphur
50 gallons water.
In moderate c|uantitLes this mixture can best be
made in a large iron kettle. To make up the full
138
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
recipe as given a 50-gallon kettle would be required;
and, in fact, such a vessel (shown on this page) is the
cheapest and best provision for handling- a small or-
chard, say up to 200 or 400 trees. When the orchard
reaches 600 bearing trees requiring lime-sulphur
BOILER FOR LIME-SULPHUR MIXTURE
treatment some more elaborate cooking apparatus
should be provided.
The making of the lime-sulphur mixture is begun
by slaking the lime in the kettle, using hot water. In
fact the fire under the kettle should be started at this
time. As the lime slakes add water slowly. When
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING 139
the slaking is well under way the sulphur should be
added. Then the heat generated by the slaking lime
will help to melt it. At this stage the kettle should
contain only lo to 15 gallons of water. Vigorous and
constant stirring of the mixture is necessary during
this period, which will occupy about 15 minutes.
When the lime is thoroughly slaked and the sulphur
dissolved the rest of the water (preferably hot) may
be added. The whole is then brought to the boiling
point and vigorously boiled for 40 minutes to an hour.
Most observers agree that a full hour of thorough boil-
ing is time and fuel well spent. During this cooking
the mixture changes to a dark reddish orange, very
characteristic and easily recognized after once seen.
This color is one of the best tests for a well-made
mixture and certainly no lime-sulphur solution should
be used unless this color appears unmistakably.
Some sediment will be found in the bottom of the
kettle. This is mostly undissolved particles of lime
or unburnt bits of limestone. Any considerable
amount of this sediment indicates a poor grade of
lime. The solution should be strained before using,
and must be used at once, hot out of the kettle. Solu-
tion which stands overnight can be recooked and
used, but is not so good. The hotter the solution can
be put onto the trees the better, within practicable
limits.
When considerable quantities of lime-sulphur mix-
ture are to be used it will usually be best to establish
a steam cooking plant. Any steam boiler will answer
for the generation of the steam, which can then be
conducted through pipes or steam hose to barrels or
tanks. Here the live steam is turned into the mixture
I40
IIE AMERICAN Al'l'Lli OKCIIAKU
and a boiling heat easily produced. The arrange-
ment of such a cookery will be best understood from
the illustration below.
Good lime is of great importance in making the
lime-sulphur spray, as in making bordeaux. Air
slaked or half burnt lime should never be used. In
PLANT FOR MAKING LIME SULPHUR
any case of doubt the amount of lime in the mixture
should be increased. An excess of lime can do no
possible injury, and it is a positive advantage in
that it whitens the trees and makes it easier to
foIJow the work.
Good clean flowers of sulphur should also be used.
The so-called "sulphur flour" now largely substituted
at a saving of about one-fourth to one-half cent a
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING I4I
pound is not so good. In buying sulphur it is best
to secure samples and prices from different dealers
and then to buy in not less than barrel lots. Barrels
usually hold a trifle less than 200 pounds. The large
wholesale city druggists or manufacturers of chemi-
cals can commonly quote the best prices.
Lime-sulphur is used at any time when the trees
are not in foliage. Winter spraying is common in
states south of Delaware and Kansas ; but north of
Mason and Dixon's line, where the lime-sulphur is
more exclusively used, fairly late spring spraying is
most effective. The work must stop however when
the buds begin to open.
PARIS GREEN
For the omnipresent codling moth and for all leaf-
eating insects some form of poison is employed, nearly
always some form of arsenic. The most popular
arsenical poison is undoubtedly paris green. This
standard chemical (or mixture of chemicals) has cer-
tain positive advantages, and should generally be used
by those who are growing fruit on a small scale. It
is occasionally adulterated, but by buying of reliable
dealers one can nearly always avoid trouble. How-
ever, as adulterated paris green is likely to do serious
damage to the foliage, the fruit growers should be
careful at this point. It is well to remember that paris
green can be tested by dissolving in ammonia. Pure
paris green dissolves perfectly, making a bright bluish
solution. Impure paris green does not dissolve com-
pletely in ammonia, there being some sediment.
Paris green is now usually used in combination
with some fungicide, as explained later ; but when an
insecticide onlv is needed, as to meet an invasion of
142 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
tent caterpillars, for example, it may be made up as
follows ;
4 ounces paris green
50 gallons water
The paris green will mix readily with the water,
but does not dissolve. It is best to make up a paste of
the green with a little water before putting it into
the barrel. Some men find it advisable to add a small
amount of lime, but with pure paris green this should
not be necessary.
ARSENATE OF LEAD
In one form or another the arsenate of lead is largely
taking the place of paris green. Probably the bulk
of the spraying done by the largest and most up-to-
date operators is done with this insecticide. It may be
made from the following recipe :
4 ounces arsenate of soda (50% strength)
II ounces acetate of lead
150 gallons of water
Put the arsenate of soda into a wooden pail with 2
quarts of water, and the acetate of lead in another
wooden pail with 4 quarts of water, preferably
warm. As these substances are very poisonous, it will
be as well not to use a milk pail or one commonly used
for the family drinking water. When the chemicals in
both pails are dissolved mix them together with the
150 gallons of water, and the whole is ready for use.
Most fruit growers prefer to buy their arsenate of
lead ready made. Some of the commercial brands
appear under trade names, as, for example, Bowker's
"Disparene," which is simply an excellent grade of
arsenate of lead. The readv-made article costs from
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING I43
15 to 30 cents a pound. In hundred-pound kegs it can
be bougfnt for about 18 cents a pound. It is simply
mixed with water, using 2 to 5 ix)unds to the bar-
rel. For fighting- the codling moth 3 pounds to 50
gallons of water is recommended. At this rate it is
considerably more expensive than paris green ; but the
fact that there is le^s danger' of burning the foliage,
and the more important fact that the arsenate of lead
will stick through all ordinary rain storms, probably
justify this increased expense.
In using arsenate of lead it is best to make it up
into a paste with a small amount of water. Then
simply put the required amount into the spray tank
and pump in the water.
ARSENITE OF LIME
A somewhat similar insecticide occasionally used is
arsenite of lime. It is made as follows :
1 pound white arsenic
2 pounds fresh lime
I gallon of water
Boil together in an iron kettle for 45 minutes to an
hour and keep in tight bottles or fruit jars. When
ready to use add i quart of this stock solution to 50
gallons of water. Some lime water should usually be
added also.
This is the cheapest form of arsenical spray yet
devised, costing in reality only from one-tenth to one-
third what other arsenical sprays cost. As it is ef-
fective, it is worth considering, though most orchard-
ists seem to prefer ready-made arsenate of lead on
account of its easier manipulation and its sticking
qualities. This arsenite of lime is best when used
with bordeaux mixture.
144 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
SOLUBLE OILS
At the present moment there is much interest in the
so-called sohible oils sold under proprietary names
such as "target brand," "kil-o-scale," "scalecide,"
etc. These seem to be giving especially good re-
sults on young and medium-sized apple trees in south-
ern and middle latitudes. They have not generally
been found successful in the northern states, and it
seems certain that they cannot be relied on anywhere
to give results equal to lime-sulphur mixture properly
made and thoroughly put on. They also cost from 50
to 100 per cent more than the lime-sulphur spray.
Their great advantage is the ease with which they are
made up. The oil is simply poured into the water
with which (under favorable conditions) it mixes
instantly, and the outfit starts immediately for the
orchard. All the tiresome and supremely disagreeable
work of making up the lime-sulphur is obviated.
Anyone who has many acres of apple trees south of
Pennsylvania infected with San Jose scale ought to
experiment carefully with fall and winter applications
of soluble oil ; but as the case stands at this writing he
should make it a real experiment and be perfectly sure
that the scale is being radically suppressed before
committing himself to this form of insecticide.
COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES
In actual practice the custom is to combine an in-
secticide with a fungicide. Bordeaux mixture is the
fungicide in almost universal use, and the various in-
secticides are mixed with this. What really goes
through the spray pump, therefore, is bordeaux mix-
ture plus paris green, or bordeaux plus arsenate of
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING 145
lead. Other combinations can be used with equal facil-
ity, but these two aix the most common.
These combinations give quite as good results as
the same chemicals applied separately. In fact paris
green is better when mixed with bordeaux, as the lime
tends to neutralize the free acids, which sometimes
burn the foliage. Again, bordeaux mixture is im-
proved by the addition of arsenate of lead, as it sticks
to the foliage much better. Of course there is no more
labor required to put on both the insecticide and the
fungicide than there would be needed to put on either
one separately. The saving of labor is the chief item,
and it is a very large one.
DUST SPRAYS
A few years ago considerable interest was aroused
by the introduction of dust sprays, but these have now
been almost abandoned. The chemicals are simply
made up in dry form, very finely pulverized, and are
thrown upon the trees from a powerful blower. Paris
green is mixed with a little lime or with fine road
dust or other practicable dry powder.
Dust spraying -is easier and cheaper than liquid
spraying; but experience everywhere shows that it is
very much less efficient. It cannot be depended on to
control fungous diseases to any extent. In fact, the
only service which it can perform with any degree of
efficiency is the control of the codling moth. Even in
this it is less successful than equally careful applica-
tions of liquid insecticides.
On account of their lightness and portability the dust
blowers can be han-dled in some orchards which are
so stony and rough that .ordinary spray pumps can-
not be used. On such land fhe dust method of spray-
146 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
ing can be freely recommended ; but it is tbe firm con-
viction of the writer that land too rough to admit of
economical tillage and spraying should never be
planted to apple trees. Some men seem to have a
notion that land which is too rough and rocky for
pasturing goats can be used for growing apples. The
apples will grow well enough; but the growers v/ho
plant orchards on good land will soon teach these
rock-bottom orchardists a hard lesson.
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
1. Spray thoroughly. Careless work in any line of
fruit growing does not pay, but nowhere else is thor-
oughness so absolutely essential as in spraying. Care-
less spraying may even injure the trees.
2. Spray every year. That excellent gentleman
who "took a bath every Fourth of July whether he
needed it or not" is the model for the sprayman to fol-
low. There are seasons when fungi and insects seem
to be absent. The fruit grower is then strongly
tempted to save the expense of spraying, but it is a
great mistake to do so. The spraying done in a good
year counts in the bad years, for the effects of proper
spraying are not all seen the first year.
3. Spray intelligently. Some men use paris green
to kill aphis or bordeaux mixture- on San Jose scale.
It is absolutely impossible for either solution to give
the slightest result in these cases. Spraying is a com-
plicated business and unless a man knows exactly
what he is trying to do, and why, he is apt to waste his
entire time and labor.
4. Do not spray while trees are in bloom. It in-
jures the blossoms, and it also poisons the bees which
are necessary to fertilize the flowers.
SOLUTIONS FOR SPRAYING I47
5. Solutions or mixtures containing copper sul-
phate, arsenate of lead or corrosive sublimate should
always be made up or stored in wooden, glass or
earthen vessels. Pump cylinders and other working
parts of the machinery should be of brass.
6. Sulphur solutions or the lime-sulphur mixture
should be made in iron or wooden vessels ; and it is bet-
ter to have pump linings of iron rather than of
brass.
7. ''Handle with care" all substances used in spray-
ing, as most of them are poisonous — some of them
very much so. Everything should be kept correctly
labeled and preferably put away under lock and key.
THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN
It has been seen that the fruit grower cannot usually
wait till a disease or an insect pest becomes estab-
lished in his orchard, then diagnose the trouble and
apply some specific remedy. The best practice is to
lay off a campaign which is intelligently planned to
meet all probable troubles, and then to carry out this
plan with vigor and thoroughness. In all ordinary cir-
cumstances the year's spraying will not vary much
from the following program :
1. In orchards infested with San Jose scale spray
in late winter or early spring with lime-sulphur (page
137), or possibly with soluble oils (page 144).
2. In orchards not treated with lime-sulphur ap-
ply copper sulphate solution (page 136) just before the
buds open. This treatment is important.
3. Spray again just before the blossoms open, us-
ing bordeaux mixture (page 131). If bud moth or
similar insects are on hand, add paris green to the
bordeaux (page 141). This spraying may be omitted.
148 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHxVRD
4. Spray immediatel)' after the blossoms fall-
never while the blossoms are open — with bordeaux
combined with some good insecticide (page 144).
Next to No. 2 this is the most important spraying
of the year.
5. Apply the same solution — combined fungicide
and insecticide — two weeks later.
6. Repeat No. 5 after an interval of two v.-eeks.
This program amounts to three or four sprayings
each year. This is considerably above the average
number actually g-iven, even by successful fruit grow-
ers. Still there are practical men who give more than
this number and who make money by it. Almost every
apple grower will say that he does not spray as much
as he ought to. It is very rare for any man to say that
he has sprayed too much.
Additional sprayings, beyond the number outlined
in the foregoing program, may be required in emer-
gencies, such as a very rainy season with late devel-
opment of scab, or a late outbreak of bitter rot.
XVI
HARVESTING AND MARKETING
THE FRUIT
It is generally conceded that the methods used in
harvesting and marketing the crop have about as much
influence on the profits realized as the methods of
growing. In fact, this commercial part of the subject
is of such great importance that the present writer has
already devoted an entire volume to it.* The principal
portion of the present discussion is adapted from a
shorter pamphlet on the same subject prepared by the
present writer, f
Methods of handling the apple crop have been
changed very greatly in recent years. Those who have
any ambition to make money by handling apples on a
large scale will be obliged to adopt up-to-date methods
which handle the largest possible c|uantity of fruit in
the best order at a minimum cost.
PICKING APPLES
It is a delicate (|ncstion to determine just when ap-
ples ought to be pickcfl. There are some reasons why
it is desirable to pick as early as possible. Early pick-
ing reduces the danger from wind storms and saves
«F. A. Waugh, Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing; Orange Judd
Co., New Yorlc, pulilisliers.
tPacking and Marketing Fruits, i>ublislied by the Fruit Grower Co.,
St. Joseph, Mo.
149
150 THE ami:kicax Ari'Li-: orchard
considerable loss from windfalls under all circum-
stances. On the other hand, apples color up best wdien
they are left comparatively long- on the trees. Many
varieties do not color thoroughly until after the leaves
thin out considerably. Some varieties can be left to ad-
vantage long after the first frost. This depends a good
deal, of course, on the variety itself and its habit of
holding on the tree. Northern Spy and Ben Davis
hold on extremely late, while Wealthy and Wagencr
are apt to fall as soon as they are ripe, or even before.
THE APPLE HARVEST
If apples are to be sent to storage another factor
comes into consideration in determining the proper
time for picking. It used to be thought that apples
should be picked before they were mature in order to
have them hold well in cold storage. The extensive
experiments of the Department of Agriculture in re-
cent years have shown that this idea is wrong. Nearly
all varieties stand cold storage best if thoroughly ripe
and well colored, but not "overripe. Such varieties as
HARVESTIxXG AND MARKETING I5I
are subject to scakl should be given special attention
in this respect, as it is found that the scald is worse on
apples picked before maturity. Thoroughly ripe apples,
well colored, are not nearly so much subject to scald
as are green, uncolored specimens.
The importance of having the fruit nicely colored
and ripened when picked is so great that many of the
best growers who make a specialty of fancy grades
have adopted the practice of picking the apple trees
over two, three, or even four times. At each picking
they take off such fruit as is ripe, well colored, and up
to size. The balance is allowed to hang, and it is
found that the apples will increase greatly in size
toward the end of the season and will color up and
otherwise improve long after the first lot would
have fallen to the ground. Of course, this method
of picking over the trees several times would be
too expensive with cheap fruit and with all poorer
grades of apples. It is strongly recommended,
however, for early varieties and fancy grades.
There have been all sorts of mechanical pickers ad-
vertised, but none has ever become popular. They
are of two kinds. The first kind, intended to pick a
single apple at a time out of the higher branches, con-
sists of some sort of a pocket hung on the end of a
long pole. These contrivances are too slow and cum-
bersome for any commercial work. The second style
presents some modification of the old practice of shak-
ing apples off the trees. It furnishes some kind of a
spread held under the branches upon which the apples
are shaken down. While the method is cheap enough
to make it commercially available, it is too rough for
the exacting demands of present-day business. By all
152
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
means the best way of putting up commercial apples is
to pick by hand from the trees.
There is something of a knack in picking apples, but
unfortunately expert apple pickers are not often to be
hired. The fruit-grower is usually obliged to put up
with ordinary day labor and to make up i-" the careful-
ness of his own supervision the lack of experience on
the part of the pickers. Apple pickers usually get the
prevailing day wages; that is, from $i to $1.75 a day.
Apples are sometimes
picked by the bushel or
barrel, but this practice
is not common and is
not to be recommended.
AVhen it is indulged in,
the price paid is from
8 to 15 cents a barrel.
The writer has recently
been told, on pretty
good authority, of a
picker who picked 100
barrels of apples from
the trees in one day.
Any such slam-banging
Vv'ork as that ought to
be prohibited in any well-regulated orchard. The
ordinary picker will pick from 12 to 20 barrels a day.
Apples should be picked with the stems on and not
torn from the trees. Where the stem is pulled out of
the apple, the skin is usually broken and an opportu-
nity for decay given.
Some pickers prefer to pick into a sack tied over the
shoulder. The best contrivance, however, is undoubt-
edly the swinging-bail half-bushel basket. This is
PICKING BASKET
HARVESTING AND MARKETING I53
made in various styles, usually of oak or elm splints.
These baskets are now used in such large quantities
that they can be bought at very reasonable prices. If
fine fruit is to be handled with special care, it is worth
while to have the baskets padded inside. Each basket
should be furnished with a hook made by bending a
strong .)^-inch wire into the form of a very crooked
S. This can be hooked over the limb of the tree so as
to leave the picker free to use both hands. When the
picking is being done in large trees this same hook
allows the basket to be let down to the ground by a
strap or rope, where it is emptied by an assistant, thus
making it unnecessary for the picker to climb up and
down the tree for every basketful.
Picking is greatly expedited by the use of suitable
ladders. The best ones are of two forms. The first
form is the stepladder, which should always have
three legs instead of four. These stepladders are
made in large quantities now for this particular kind
of work. It is probably cheapest to buy ready-made
ladders if any considerable number is wanted. Of
course, any handy man can make one or two such
stepladders if that is more convenient than to buy
them.
•. The second type of ladder used in apple picking is
adapted for taller trees. It is of the ordinary form ;
that is, with two rails. Very often the two rails are
brought together at the top, making the top pointed.
This makes it easier to adjust the ladder securely into
or against the top of the large apple tree. This ladder
should also be as light and strong as possible. They
are made in large numbers and sold at low prices.
Various practices prevail with regard to the immedi-
ate disposal of apples when they are taken from the
154 THE AMliRICAN ArPLE ORCHARD
trees. Sometimes they are placed in piles on the
ground. Sometimes they are put into barrels without
sorting and left in the orchard; sometimes they are
put unsorted into barrels and carried to the temporary
storage house ; sometimes they are immediately sorted,
barreled, headed up and sent to storage. If the stock
is going to cold storage, which is now the customary
method, the last named plan of handling the fruit is
undoubtedly the best. It certainly is a mistake in all
cases to leave the fruit on the ground even for a few
hours. If there is good storage at home and handy by,
it is a very good practice to put the apples into barrels
unsorted and take them immediately to the storage
house, where they can be sorted and packed more at
leisure. Under all circumstances, however, they ought
to be put into as cool a place as possible with the least
possible delay. In handling fancy grades of stock in
barrels, it is probably best to pick the fruit, sort, pack
and head it up at once and put it immediately into cold
refrigerator cars, sending these ofif as expeditiously as
possible to the cold-storage plant. This method is
actually practiced on a large scale by some of the best
growers. There is no extraordinary expense in it ; in
fact, nothing out of common except the expense of the
refrigerator cars, which has been shown to be profit-
able with good fruit.
When apples are taken to the temporary storage
houses without sorting, it is best to grade them over as
soon as convenient. This is more necessary if the
grade of the fruit is low. If there is considerable fun-
gus, they should be sorted at once, all first-grade fruit
being put by itself. In case the fruit comes from the
trees in extra good condition, with no fungus and very
few culls, there is not so much urgency in this early
HARVESTING AND MARKETING I55
sorting. In general, however, it is a mistake to leave
the fruit ungraded, as is sometimes done, up to the
time when it is sent to market, which may be late in
the spring.
SORTING APPLES
The grading of the fruit is extremely important
from every point of view. There is hardly anything
which affects the price secured more than this. Many
fine apples bring outrageously low prices because they
are carelessly, ignorantly, or deceitfully graded and
packed.
Proper grading requires good judgment and con-
siderable experience. The man who sorts and packs
the fruit should be the expert of the gang. The man-
ager can afford to pay him good wages, although, as
a matter of fact, such men rarely secure more than
$2 a day.
Some men spread the fruit on the ground for sort-
ing. It is a good deal better to have sorting tables,
which should be 3 feet wide and 6 to 8 feet long.
They should be 8 inches deep, and should be put on
trestles or legs so as to stand about 3 feet 4 inches
from the ground. It is good policy to have the bot-
tom and sides padded to prevent bruising of the fruit.
We have frequently seen the bottoms made with slats,
the idea being to allow the leaves and other rubbish
to sift through. This is not a good practical con-
struction. In the first place, it weakens the bottom,
and in the second place, these slats are always inclined
to bruise the fruit more or less. It is easy enough
to dispose of the rubbish in some other way.
On the table like that here described from two to
four barrels of fruit can be spread out at once. It is
t56
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
desirable to have a considerable quantity of fruit
within the reach of the man who is sorting in order
that he may work rapidly and secure a uniform grade.
Some of these sorting tables are made with a chute
or spout at one end, usually furnished with a cloth
spout leading into the barrel, through which the apples
PACKING AND HEADING BARRELS
are allowed to run. If managed with some care the ap-
ples can be handled in this way without severe bruis-
ing. In the judgment of the writer it is much better,
however, to sort the apples into baskets. These should
be of the kind already described for picking. The half-
bushel swinging-bail basket can be ht down into the
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 1 5/
barrel and the fruit poured out with a niininuun of
bruising.
• It is desirable that sorting be done as much as pos-
sible by one man. Frequent shifting about on this job
always gives an uneven grading of fruit.
The question of whether a certain apple should be
put into the first or into the second grade is largely a
matter of judgment in the end. It depends also upon
the run of the lot. If the apples are all running large,
then medium-sized specimens should be put among
the seconds. In other words, it is more important that
a barrel of apples should be uniform in size than that
they should attain any particular size. The question
is relative rather than absolute.
Nevertheless the Apple Shippers' Association has
adopted a rule, which is departed from when neces-
sary, and which is enforced in critical cases. Their
rule is as follows :
"The standard for size for No. i apples shall be not
less than 2j^<2 inches in diameter, and shall include such
varieties as Ben Davis, Willow Twig, Baldwin, Green-
ing, and other varieties kindred in size. The standard
for such varieties as Romanite. Russet, Winesap, Jon-
athan, Missouri Pippin, and father varieties kindred in
size shall not be less than 2^:4 inches. And, further.
No. I apples shall be at time of packing practically free
from the action of worms, defacement of surface, or
breaking of skin ; shall be hand picked from the tree,
a bright and normal color and shapely form.
"No. 2 apples shall be hand picked from the tree ;
sliall not be smaller than 2^4 inches in diameter. The
skin must not be broken or the apple bruised. The
grade must be faced and packed with as much care as
No. I fruit."
158 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
THE APPLE BARREL
Before going- on to see how apples are packed, it will
be best to stop a moment to consider the standard
apple packages. Of these the barrel stands first.
The standard American apple barrel has the follow-
ing dimensions: diameter at top, 17^4 inches; circum-
ference at middle, 64 inches; length of staves, 28><
inches. This is known everywhere as the standard ap-
ple barrel, or the lOO-quart barrel.
In Nova Scotia, and occasionally in Ontario, an-
other barrel is used considerably different from the
one just described. It is just a trifle longer, but
the most distinctive difference lies in the fact that the
staves are straighter. The barrel is made nearly
cylindrical. The dimensions of the Nova Scotia bar-
rel are: diameter of top, 17^ inches; diameter at
middle, 19 inches ; length of staves, 29 inches. The
two barrels may be more readily compared in the fol-
lowing table :
COMPARISON OF NOVA SCOTIA AND AMERICAN APPLE
BARRELS
Diameter Diameter Length of
at Top at Middle Staves Capacity
American lyYj, 20 1-3 28>4 100 Quarts
Nova Scotia... 173^ 19 29 96 Quarts
The American apple barrel is a stronger package
than the Nova Scotia barrel and will stand rough
handling, such as loading on and off cars and trucks,
better than the straight stave barrel. When it comes
to shipping by boat across the Atlantic, however, the
Nova Scotia barrel has the call. This is because the
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 1 59
longer, straighter barrel, when stowed on its side on
shipboard, does not rock so much as the barrel with
bended staves. It therefore keeps the fruit in better
■ condition in going across.
There is, of course, a certain advantage to the
grower in using a 96-quart barrel in place of a 100-
quart barrel. Four quarts of apples are worth saving.
At this rate a man would gain one barrel in 25, which
would be a saving of 4%. In most factories any ad-
justment which accomplishes a saving of 4% is con-
sidered well worth making. A smaller barrel furnishes
an even three bushels, which is all the purchaser is
really entitled to. The question of adopting the 96-
quart barrel in the United States has often been dis-
cussed, but the proposition has never made much head-
way. It will doubtless be a long time before we ever
come to it.
Apple barrels are made out of all sorts of lumber, us-
ually from such timber as is not very valuable for other
purposes. Elm is used to a considerable extent and
makes a good barrel. Hickory used to be used, but it
is now too expensive. Hemlock and spruce are used
to some extent; so is cheap pine. Chestnut and birch
are occasionally worked up into barrels. The hoops
are usually made out of the same stock, although occa-
sionally timber which is not fit for anything else is
worked up into hoop stock. In some parts of the
country split hoops are used, in which case young
birches and large alders are worked up.
The best method for one buying apple barrels is to
get them knocked down, staves, heads and hoops sepa-
rate. It is best, of course, to buy this stock in car lots.
It is then delivered on the farm of the grower to be
worked up into barrels on the premises. A small
l60 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
cooper shop can be easily rigged up. In the apple-
growing sections itinerant coopers go about from
farm to farm during the summer and autumn working
this stock up into barrels. A good handy man on the
farm, with a little practice, can learn to put up apple
barrels himself. A small kit of tools is required, but
nothing very elaborate or expensive. The apple bar-
rels made up in this way cost all the way from 15 to
35 cents each, depending very largely, of course, on
the original cost of the stock. During the last two
years stock has been very scarce and high, owing, it
is said, to the operation of a barrel trust. At present
the production of barrel stock seems to be catching up
with the demand, and the tendency is toward easier
prices.
In inany places it is customary to use second-hand
barrels for packing apples. The common flour barrels
are the ones usually impressed into this service. A
common flour barrel has the same capacity and di-
mensions as the standard apple barrel, and answers
the purpose fairly well. However, a second-hand bar-
rel can never be made to look, as good as new. In
many cases dirty barrels are bought and are used
without proper cleaning. In such cases they detract
greatly from the appearance of the fruit, and the com-
mission man knocks off the price accordingly. The
apple grower who has a considerable crop to handle
cannot afford to bother with flour barrels. He should
by all means use fresh made apple barrels.
APPLE BOXES
During recent years there has been a good deal of
discussion as to the merits of the apple box. IMany
growers believe that there is a future for apples
HARVESTING AND ^MARKETING
l6l
packed in this way. While the use of the hox has
been strenuously objected to in some quarters, esjie-
cially by the commission men and fruit dealers, it has
LEVER BARREL PRESS
not always been clear that their advice was disinter-
ested. In fact, it is common knowledge that in some
cases they have ljuught ai)ples in barrels and re-
102 THE AMEPaCAN APPLE ORCHARD
packed them in boxes, making- (juite a profit for them-
selves thereby.
The writer feels justified in relating here an item
of personal experience. A few years ago we had some
Gravenstein, Alclntosh and Famevise apples ready for
market in October. We wrote to the commission men
with whom we were doing business at that time — a
thoroughly reliable firm, by the way — asking them
if they would advise us to ship in boxes. Their re-
ply was about as follows : "The fruit is yours. You
can do as you please with it. Our advice would be,
however, not to use any boxes." Inasmuch as we
were anxious to learn how the fruit would handle,
and as we had the boxes on hand, we divided the ship-
ment, sending one-half in barrels and one-half in
boxes. The fruit was all of the same grade, but
that in boxes was wrapped in paper. The whole lot
was sent to the commission man whose advice has
just been quoted. When the returns came back
we found that the barrels had sold for $2 each, which
was the top quotation at the time ; but the boxes had
also sold for $2 each. In other words, one bushel of
apples nicely wrapped and packed in boxes brought
just as much as three bushels of the same fruit in a
barrel.
The three boxes cost 45 cents. A barrel at that
time was worth 35 to 40 cents. A little more time
was consumed in packing the three boxes than in
packing one barrel. The cost of the paper wrapping
may be fairly disregarded.
The great advantage of the box lies not so much in
the fact that it displays the fruit to better advantage,
for it does not always do so, but in the fact that it pre-
sents a quantity of fruit which many consumers prefer
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 163
to purchase. There arc very few city famihes who
find it convenient or economical to buy a barrel at one
time. The quantity is more than the family will con-
sume without waste, and there is no place in the
house where there is room for the barrel to stand. A
bushel of apples, however, is not too much for the
smallest family, and a neat square box can be easily
stowed even in a New York city flat.
Experience has demonstrated that the use of the
apple box will be extended. This does not mean,
however, that it will supplant the apple barrel. It
certainly will not do so, at least for many years to
come. The apple box must be used only for fancy
grades of fruit. This is not so much because the pack-
age costs more as because the expense of selling it is
somewhat greater and because the person buying a
package of this kind expects it to contain something
good. If the purchaser buys a box of apples and finds
the fruit inferior, his resentment is much greater than
if he has been cheated on a barrel of apples. Most
purchasers have grown accustomed to being more or
less swindled on apples in barrels.
A great many different boxes have been proposed.
These have been of different sizes, different forms,
and differently constructed. We seem to be settling
down rather rapidly, however, to a bushel box of
standard size and construction. This box, which is
now the most common, has the following inside di-
mensions: 10x11x20 inches. This gives a capacity of
2,200 cubic inches. A standard bushel contains
2,150.42 cubic inches, so that the box furnishes a little
over the standard struck bushel (not a heaping
bushel).
These Ijoxes are made with the ends of yi inch
164
THE AMERICAN APrLE ORCHARD
stuff, and with the top, bottom and sides of Hghter
stuff. These last may run anywhere from V-i to Vz
inch, but }i inch stuff is about right
There have been some experiments recently with
smaller boxes, especially with half-bushel sizes. The
HEADING UP THE BARREL — SCREW PRESS
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 165
writer feels contident lliat something" of tliis kind
will eventually find a place in the market, but noth-
ing yet has been accomplished which can be given
general recommendation.
The bushel basket has been used to some extent,
especially in the Chicago market, for apples, and has
some advantages. It is easy to handle and pleases the
customer. Such bushel baskets with covers cost about
$12 a hundred. Half-bushel baskets of the same form
cost from $10 to $11 a hundred.
Px\CKING APPLES
A man who packs apples should have some experi-
ence, and the judgment born of it, in order to do his
work well. Next to the man who grades the fruit,
the one who packs it has the greatest responsibility.
]\Iany a sale of good fruit has been spoiled by poor
packing. When fruit is to be shipped some distance,
as across the ocean, the packing must be irreproach-
able. If barrels are poorly packed the fruit works
loose, becomes bruised, and in many instances quite
worthless.
In packing a barrel with apples the barrel is placed
on its head with the bottom out. Some good clean
apples are put in for "facers." It is best to pour in 20
to 30 such apples at the start — just about enough to
cover the head. The packer then places these in
even circular rows, beginning around the outside and
working in, setting each specimen with the stem
down. It is important to see that the apples in this
first tier — the facers — fit snugly together. Then a
second tier is put on, facing stems down like the first.
Now the real filling of the barrel begins. The sorted
l66 Tllli AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
fruit, preferably placed in the swing-bail half-busliel
basket already recommended, is poured in. This bas-
ket can be let down into the barrel and emptied with
the least possible disturbance of the faced layers. After
each half bushel of loose fruit has been poured in
the barrel should be vigorously shaken. This shaking
is essential. It settles the fruit together, and prevents
the otherwise disastrous loosening when the barrel is
shipped. When the barrel is practically full the top
layer (which will be the bottom layer after the barrel
is packed) is faced stems out in as neat a manner as
possible. When the apples are all in and this last
layer of facers on, the fruit should stand up even with
or very slightly above the top of the barrel.
The head (or what is really the bottom of the bar-
rel) is then put in place. A barrel press is now neces-
sary. There are two types of barrel press in common
use — the screw and the lever press. The writer pre-
fers the latter. With either one the heading proceeds
in the same manner. The upper hoops of the barrel
are slightly loosened. The head is pressed down even
with the chines, the hoops are driven home, and some
sort of cleat is tacked in to help hold the head in place.
The barrel is then marked with the stencil of the
grower or packer, and with the name of the variety
and grade. Sometimes it is also marked with the
name of the dealer to whom it is to be shipped. It is
then ready for delivery, either to the buyer or to the
storage house.
In packing apples in boxes the fruit is all put in by
hand, especially when it is to be wrapped in paper.
Care must be taken to get the boxes full. It is even
harder to make a box of apples full and tight than
a barrel. Some shippers cover the packed fruit with
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 167
paper and make it solid by putting in a quantity of
excelsior next to the cover. This is practiced more
especially when sending boxes across the ocean, but
is not to be generally recommended.
When apples are nicely packed in boxes they should
go in rows and tiers just as oranges are packed. On
the Pacific coast, where all these tricks are better un-
derstood than on this side of the Great Divide, they
do this thing excellently well. Mr. E. C. Dickerson of
North Yakima, Wash., explains his methods as fol-
lows :
"There are some 30 or 40 commercial sizes of ap-
ples, covering all the varieties and their various
grades, which can be packed into the standard ap-
ple box in 30 or 40 different styles. For commercial
packing and shipping requirements most of the ordi-
nary grades of apples grown can be handled in seven
or eight different styles of packing, of which six dif-
ferent styles are shown and described below.
"Figure i shows a four-row box of apples. This
box is the largest sized apple than can be packed into
the four-row grade. The box contains just 96 apples.
There are nine grades of the four-row apple, the
smallest of which is shown in Figure 2 and contains
128 apples. Every layer in this box of 128 is packed
in the same manner as that shown by the top layer. In
the box containing 96 the width is too great to allow
of their cheeks being all turned up, so in the layers be-
low, according to the size of the apples, one or more
of the layers are placed stem down.
"Figure 3 shows the largest apples that can be
packed into the five-row grade. The box contains
just 140 specimens. This grade cannot be packed
[68 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
FIG l.^
FIG 2
FIGS
DIAGRAMS SHOWING METHODS OF BOX PACKING
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 169
mcxxxxxxu
:xxxxx)ocxDo
:x)cx)ooooc)0
axxr)(XX)oo
cxxxxxx^ooo
FIGS
Doxiixrxi
FIG 6
DIAGRAMS SHOWING METHODS OF BOX TACKING
170 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
with a long and narrow apple, as there must be four
layers in this box.
"Figure 4 shows the smallest five-row apple that
can be packed in this grade. The box contains five
layers and 250 apples. All the layers in this grade
are placed in the same manner as shown in the top
layer. This grade cannot be packed with a long ap-
ple. The five-row grades, which are sometimes called
straight fives, are found in 23 different grades reach-
ing from 140 down to 250 specimens in each box.
"Figure 5 shows an odd grade of five-row apples.
Without this style of a pack it is almost impossible
to pack all the apples from the orchard and have them
all packed neatly and correctly. The box ehown in
Figure 5 contains 213 apples. In this grade the center
of every apple in the third and fifth layers comes di-
rectly over the center of its corresponding apple in
the first layer. The center of every apple in the
fourth layer comes directly over the center of its mate
in the second layer. There are three grades of this
style. In one the first row will contain eight apples,
the second seven, the third eight again and then seven
and eight, making a total of 188 apples in the box. In
the second grade of this style, the first, last and every
row will contain eight apples, with the box holding
just 200 specimens. In the third grade of this style
the first, third and fifth rows will contain nine apples,
while the second and fourth will contain only eight,
making the box hold 213 apples.
"The sixth and last style of packing shown is rep-
resented by Figure 6. This box will contain 72 ap-
ples. Only the first of its four layers is shown. The
cores of all apples in the third layer will come directly
HARVESTING AND MARKETING I7I
over their mates in the first layer, but not over the
cores of any apples in the second layer.
"Nothing has been said of the various grades of
six-row apples, as they are too small to ofifer to the ap-
ple-eating public, though some pack and ship them to
the penny fruit stands. The top layers of the ap-
ples in any of the grades must be high enough that
when the cover is nailed on, the cover will touch each
and every apple in that layer and touch it hard enough
to compel every apple in the box to remain in touch
with its neighbor apple in the box, the walls of the
box itself, or both, as the case may be, throughout its
entire period of transportation.
"When a box is finished packed the apples at the
end of the box must not be more than i inch above the
top of the box, while the center of the box should be
from I to 2 inches higher, so as to make a beautiful
curve for the top of the box, which helps to hold the
apples in the box together more snugly. Though
every person has not the gift for the making of a good
apple packer, most of them after a careful reading of
the above can after more or less practice succeed in
packing neatly and rapidly. But, remember, practice
makes perfect. In box apple packing rapidity and
perfection do not go hand in hand."
APPLE STORAGE
The storage of apples presents one of the largest
factors in the modern apple business, because the bulk
of the trade is with winter fruit, which is always
.stored for a greater or less period. Even from the
first there has been some storage. In olden days ap-
ples used to be stored in piles in the orchard, in pits in
172 'llll': A.MICRU'AX Al'l'Ll-: OKC'IIAKI)
the gTound, in l)ulk in the haymow, in hins in the cel-
lar, and in various other ways. Nearly all of these
old-fashioned ways are still practiced to some extent,
although they have very little influence on the modern
ajjple business.
Following these crude methods of storage there
came into practice a few years ago different methods
of handling apples in specially made storage houses.
At the beginning these were seldom or never sup-
plied with artificial refrigeration. The theory of con-
struction was simply to provide a well-insulated wall
and then to cool down the storage chamber by ven-
tilation. Such houses or storage compartments are
now all classed together under the name "common
storage," which is distinguished from "cold storage,"
the latter referring to such houses or chambers as are
supplied with artificial refrigeration.
There has been a strong tendency in the last few
years to do away with the common storage in favor
of the genuine cold storage. Great improvements
have undoubtedly been made in the process of cold
storage, and the matter is much better understood
than it was a few years ago. Such storage is there-
fore both safer and cheaper. Nevertheless the com-
mon storage has not altogether gone out of use. One
of the largest dealers in New York state — a man of
wide practical experience in all systems of storage —
recently told the writer that he would as soon have
apples in common storage as in the best cold storage.
This is perhaps an extreme view, but it shows that
the difference between the two systems is not so great
as we have sometimes been led to believe.
The construction of a house for common storage
may best be understood by examining one or two con-
HARVESTING AND xMARKETING I73
Crete cases. As one example, we may take the storage
house of Mr. Charles L. Green, of East Wilton, Maine,
■ built in i»jo3. This building is 30x40 feet, with 12-foot
posts upon the sills. It also has a cellar or lower
story dug out of a gravel bank and facing toward the
south. There is a large door to this basement story
so a load of apples can be backed in without unload-
ing. The cellar walls are built of quarried granite
laid solid in cement. The underpinning is of granite
A CO^kniERCIAL VENTILATED STORAGE HOUSE
IN NOVA SCOTIA
laid in Portland cement and lined with brick. The
basement will hold 1000 barrels, and the first floor will
hold approximately the same amount.
The building is sheathed on the outside with
matched hemlock covered with thick sheathing paper
and this in turn covered with clapboards and well
painted. The studding were also sheathed again in-
side and then a new course of studding set around
inside of the first and sheathed again. This gives two
dead air spaces and three matched sheathings besides
174 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
the paper, clapboards and paint. The floor between
the storage room and the cellar is double, with
hemlock for the under course and matched birch on
top with heavy paper between. Both storage rooms
have double doors and windows with matched board
blinds inside. There is an attic room which will ac-
commodate 1,200 empty barrels. The building cost
$1,200.
Another very excellent building for the common
storage of apples which has been frequently de-
scribed and which is certainly a model of its kind
is that owned by Mr. T. L. Kinney, of South Hero,
A^ermont. This house was built in 1888 and stands
30x50 feet on the ground. It has a basement
which will accommodate 1,000 barrels, and the
main floor will receive an equal number. There is
an attic for the storage of empty barrels, cooper's
stock, etc. The walls are constructed in the following
manner: The studding are 3x4 inches. On the out-
side is a course of i-inch matched pine covered
with building paper and again with clapboards. On
the sides of the studs small furring strips are run in.
Upon these a lath and plaster coat is made from stud
to stud. This produces a double dead air space. On
the inside of the stud is another i inch course of
matched pine covered by building paper and by
J<-inch boards all over the inside. There are glass
windows and heavy matched board blinds. This
house cost $1,500 and has been successful.
Various other houses more or less like the two here
described have been built in all parts of the country.
So far as the writer knows these have proved uni-
formly successful in the northern states where they
have been well built and intelligently managed. In
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 1/5
the southern states they are less satisfactory, and in
any case they are inirehable when mismanaged.
The two important things to be looked after in
building these houses for common storage are ( i ) in-
sulation, and (2) ventilation.
Insulation is provided as described above by mak-
ing very tight walls with dead air spaces. Formerly
it was recommended to fill the spaces with sawdust or
some similar material. This is now known to be in-
advisable.
Ventilation should be secured by having a reason-
able number of windows which may be easily opened
and shut. These should be near the floor or else spe-
cial ventilators should be provided at the floor level,
opening on all sides of the building. An adequate dis-
charge for warm air must also be provided from the
upper part of the storage room. This is usually se-
cured by ventilating shafts running from the storage
room to the roof. A circulation of air can be secured
at critical times with this construction by lighting a
lamp and placing it on a small shelf in the ventilating
shaft. The windows of such storage houses are
opened at night when the temperature is low and are
closed early in the morning before the thermometer
goes up. In this way a storage house can be thor-
oughly cooled off and can be held at a very uniform
temperature when once it is cooled. Of course the
cooling is not so positive as with artificial refrigera-
tion, nor can it be so quickly accomplished.
The construction of cold storage houses with arti-
ficial refrigeration is rather a complicated matter,
which even the refrigeration engineers do not under-
stand any too well. It would be going too far to take
HARVESTING AND MARKETING I//
np that matter liere, especially as very few apple
growers ever undertake to build such .storage houses.
The ordinary practice in dealing with cold storage
is for the grower or buyer to send the apples to a re-
frigerating house in the city. Space in these houses
is rented. The ordinary price is from 30 to 50 cents
a barrel for the season. A certain temperature is
guaranteed. The apples may then be removed when-
ever the owner desires.
It should be clearly understood by every one who
undertakes the cold storage of apples that the func-
tion of the storage house is merely to maintain a uni-
form temperature of a desired degree throughout the
compartment and during the storage season. Cold
storage will not make number one fruit out of number
two, nor will it altogether prevent the natural proc-
ess of deterioration. It simply checks the ordinary
processes of decay. It appears that many persons
have expected too much of cold storage in tlie past.
While it is not necessary for the apple grower to
know about the different systems of mechanical re-
frigeration, it is, nevertheless, a matter of consider-
able interest to him. Storage rooms are sometimes
cooled directly with ice, although the direct cooling
systems are not in very common use. Usually the
rooms are cooled by the evaporation of the liquid
gases. The gas is allowed to evaporate in or near
the storage room and during its evaporation it takes
up the heat from the room or fruit, thereby lowering
the temperature.
The following description of the methods usually
employed is taken from G. Harold Powell's bulletin
entitled "The Apple in Cold Storage."
178 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
"The refrigerating- gases generally used are anhy-
drous ammonia, sulphuric acid, and carbonic acid
(also known as carbon anhydrid) and carbon dioxide.
The cold temperature in the warehouses is usually
produced by either of two methods, commonly known
as the compression and the absorption systems.
"The compression system takes its name from the
fact that the refrigerating gas — whether ammonia,
carbonic acid, or sulphuric acid — is first compressed
in a machine called a compressor. Heat is generated
by the compression; the gas is then cooled and con-
densed in pipes or coils called the condenser, either
immersed in water or having water running over
them, and this converts the gas into a liquid. The
liquefied gas then passes an expansion valve to pipes
or coils called the refrigerator cooling coils or cooler,
where it is evaporated by the heat which is with-
drawn from the surroundings. The gas formed by
the evaporation of the liquid returns to the compress-
or, is again condensed, then re-evaporated, and the
cycle of refrigeration is repeated over and over.
"In the absorption system the gas is obtained by
heating strong aqua ammonia in a still, thereby driv-
ing off the ammonia gas. The gas is then reduced in
a condenser to a liquid in a manner similar to the
compression system. The liquefied ammonia pro-
duces refrigeration by evaporating in the cooling
coils, and the gas is then absorbed by weak aqua
ammonia in coils called an absorber. The resulting
strong liquor is then pumped back to the still. The
cycle of refrigeration is repeated continuously, and
consists, first, in the generation of a gas by heating
strong aqua ammonia in a still ; second, in condensing
the gas which is deposited from the water to a liquid
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 179
in the condenser coils ; third, in its evaporation to a
•gas in the cooHng or refrigerator coils; fourth, in its
absorption by the weak aqua ammonia in the absorber ;
and fifth, the ammonia Hquor is piped to the still and
redistilled.
"There are three general methods of producing the
desired temperatures in cold-storage rooms, and these
are known as the direct-expansion, the brine-
circulating, and the indirect or air-circulating sys-
tems. All three systems may be used in a cold-storage
plant, and in a given room or compartment the air-
circulating system is sometimes used in connection
with the brine or the direct-expansion systems.
"In the direct-expansion systems, the liquefied gas
evaporates directly in the cooling refrigerator coils or
pipes which are placed in the refrigerator rooms. The
heat used in the evaporation of the gas is absorbed
from the room or from its contents, and the tempera-
ture is thereby reduced. The gas then returns to the
compressor in the compression system, or to the ab-
sorber in the absorption system, and after being dis-
tilled in the latter case begins the refrigerating cycle
anew.
"In the brine-circulating system, the liquefied gas,
instead of evaporating directly in coils in the storage
room, evaporates in pipes surrounded by brine, or in a
brine cooler. The heat used in the evaporation of the
gas is absorbed from the brine rather than from the
room and its contents, as in the direct-expansion sys-
tem. The cold brine is then pumped to coils in the
storage room and the heat of the room and its con-
tents is absorbed by the cold brine. The warm brine
is then returned to the tank or cooler from which it
started and is recooled. while the gas returns to the
l8o THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
condenser or to the absorber to renew tlie cycle of re-
frigeration.
"In the indirect or air-circulating system the air in a
well-insulated room, which is sometimes called a coil
room or a 'bunker room,' is first cooled, either by
the direct-expansion or by the brine-circulating- sys-
tem. The cold air of the coil room is then forced
through ducts to the storage rooms. After passing
through the storage rooms it is returned by ducts to
the coil room to be recooled and purified and to begin
the circuit anew."
Extensive experiments in the cold storage of fruit,
especially apples, carried on by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture under the supervision of G.
Harold Powell, have added materially to our knowl-
edge of the subject in recent years. These experi-
ments have strongly emphasized the importance of
immediate storage. The fruit should be put into the
storage room with the least possible delay after pick-
ing. Indeed, we know of one large apple grower who
has cooled refrigerator cars standing on the railroad
track waiting before picking begins. Just as fast as
the fruit can be sorted it is barreled and hauled di-
rectly into these refrigerator cars. These cars are
run right into the refrigerating house to be unloaded,
so that the apples are out of cold storage for only a
few hours at most from the time they are picked un-
til they are sold.
It used to be thought that a temperature of 40 to
42 degrees was best for storing apples, but recent ex-
perience has shown conclusively that the temperature
in the storage chamber should be 31 or 32 degrees,
and that this should be maintained with the least possi-
ble variation througiiont tlic storage season.
IIAKVESTINC. AND MARKETING l8l
There is a diversity of custom with respect to put-
ting up the apples for storage. Usually they are
stored in barrels, but the reason for this is often that
the fruit handles more easily rather than that men
have any notit)n that the apples will keep better when
put up in that way. In fact, a good many fruit-
growers who practice home storage of apples habit-
ually store the fruit in bins. This is not the best
method. In fact, it may fairly be questioned whether
storage in bins is ever good practice. If fruit is to
be stored for a short time only it is better to have it
in a small package. If the package is open or ven-
tilated, so much the better. The cold air reaches all
parts of the receptacle and cools off all the fruit. If
apples are to remain some time in storage, however, it
is better to have them in closed packages. Probably
the best that can be done is to have them headed up
in barrels. In open packages the fruit is likely to be
injured by v^ilting.
Wrapping of the fruit in papers as it isaput into the
package nearly always helps it to keep better. It ex-
tends the life of apples in storage, under favorable
conditions, a month or more.
A word ought to be said in this connection with re
gard to the scald. This is a malady which appears
badly on stored fruit sometimes, especially in certain
varieties, such as Rhode Island Greening. It seems to
show worse on fruit that is picked before it is well
colored and thoroughly ripe. A warm temperature
in the storage room also tends to promote the devel-
opment of the scald.
XVII
THE FAMILY ORCHARD
This book is written from the standpoint of the
commercial fruit grower. It attempts to interpret
the large wholesale methods of our modern extensive
apple orchards. It must not be forgotten, however,
that, while the great bulk of the American apple crop
is grown in this way, the great majority of people
actually interested in apple growing have only small
home orchards. Some attention should be given there-
fore to their peculiar problems.
At the outset we must emphasize the great differ-
ence that exists between the methods proper in the
commercial orchard and those to be recommended for
the family fruit garden. These differences are many
and important, yet they are commonly overlooked.
The small farmer is apt to copy the methods of the
great fruit grower, and almost always with unsatis-
factory results. Of course, many of the principles
laid down in previous chapters of this book will apply
also to apple growing on a small scale ; and it will
be our task now to point out those modifications of
practice necessary in passing from commercial to
amateur fruit growing.
Let us consider first the site of the orchard. The
man who expects to grow 5,000 barrels of Baldwins
or Ben Davis annually and to sell them in competi-
tion with all the rest of the apples in the world, must
choose a particularly favorable site. But it is neither
possible nor necessary for the common farmer to be
1S9.
-TlIK FAMILY ORCHARD 183
SO .fastidious in his choice. He must grow the apples
where he Hves, on his own farm, and in reasonable
proximity to the house. However, if he is a wise
farmer, knows a little about fruit growing, and cares
something for his own family, he will select a good
soil and site for his fruit garden, knowing that this
feature of his work does more to make a home out of
his farm than anything else he undertakes. It is piti-
ful to see a farm, as one rather frequently sees it,
having its orchard located on a rocky, inaccessible
knoll too rough for pasturing goats, or in a swampy
hollow where neither corn nor potatoes will grow.
Sometimes the low, moist site seems to have been
chosen in the belief that its superior soil and moisture
supply would be a benefit to the apple trees ; but such
is, of course, not the fact. Let the family orchard be
located conveniently to the house ; let the soil be deep,
well drained and fairly fertile ; let the place be capable
of good tillage; let the land be gently sloping if
possible ; and above all let it not be in the bottom of a
hollow, swamp or ravine.
Taking up next the choice of varieties, we come
upon a most radical difference between professional
and amateur fruit growing. The commercial grower
chooses one or two standard market varieties, which
are often those of second or third quality, and sticks
strictly to these sorts. The man who grows fruit for
his own family use must plant a much larger collection
of varieties. He will want some early summer apples,
some ripening in fall, others for winter — in a word,
he will want a complete succession throughout the
entire apple season. He will also want to grow
apples of the finest quality regardless of the fact that
some of these varieties are shy bearers and others are
A DWARF APPLE TREE 22 INCHES HIGH
BEARING FRUIT
THE FAMILY ORCHARD 185'"
subject to disease. He is willing to take some extra
pains to grow the family favorites.
It will be instructive at this point to contrast more
sharply the rules of choice which govern in profes-
sional and in amateur fruit growing respectively.
RULES FOR CHOOSING VARIETIES
Commercial Orchards Home Orchards
Select a very few varieties Select many varieties
Choose standard market sorts Choose family favorites
Give only second thought Put quality first
to quality Provide a succession of varie-
Prefer late ] keeping winter ties
varieties (the old rule, sub- Stick to some good varieties
ject to exceptions) in spite of defects of tree
Choose only hardy, healthy Test occasional promising
sorts novelties, and grow some
Plant no novelties or oddities sweet apples, crabs, etc.
The dwarf apple tree, which has been mentioned
only as a possible filler in the commercial apple or-
chard, may become the very foundation of the success-
ful amateur fruit garden. The dwarf tree occupies
less room, comes earlier into bearing, may be given
better care, and has other advantages strongly recom-
mending it to those who must grow fruit only on a
small scale. In the suburban fruit garden it plays a
commanding role. These facts are so important that
the author has devoted an entire book to the dis-
cussion of dwarf fruit trees and the methods of their
management.* It will be best for the reader who is
interested in dwarf fruits to consult that work.
The amateur orchardist, whose object it should be
to grow the very finest fruit without special re-
gard to cost, ought to give better care and culture to
his plantations than the commercial orchardist does.
•Waugh, Dwarf Fruit Trees, Orange Judd Co., New York.
I»0 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
At any rate he should give the best care of which he
is capable. The idea of keeping a family orchard in
grass, and mowing it for hay, is ridiculous ; yet this
plan is widely followed. As the family apple trees will
usually be grown in some sort of garden along with
the family peach, plum and quince trees, the currant
and gooseberry bushes, the strawberries and possibly
the cabbages and tomatoes, cultivation is all the more
convenient and appropriate.
In the matter of fertilization the difference is least
between the management of the home orchard and the
commercial plantation. The methods already sug-
gested in this book — pages 94-98 — may be safely
followed. As the small grower, however, will not
care to mix special fertilizers for his apple trees, he
should feel at liberty to use some other formulas,
more convenient to secure, though possibly less exactly
adapted to the needs of apple trees. As ready-mixed
fertilizers are most commonly used by small farmers
and householders, it may be well to notice that the so-
called potato fertilizers sold by leading manufacturers
will meet the requirements, though less economically.
Even barnyard manure, though quite too rich in ni-
trogen, may be used on apple trees in moderate quan-
tities without danger. There are thousands of apple
trees in the country which would be benefited by a
good ration of barnyard manure; but the writer
cannot remember to have seen apple trees anywhere
injured by getting too much of this sort of plant
food.
Pruning in the home orchard will follow pretty
much the same lines as in the commercial plantation.
The chief difference is that the amateur grower can-
not usually supply himself with such a complete outfit
THE FAMILY OKCIIAKD 187
of ladders and tools as the man who has 80 or 100
acres to prune.
When it conies to spraying, the small grower will
usually be obliged to content himself with less ma-
chinery than the commercial grower ; but his ideal
should be to do as good or better spraying. The
best sprayer is usually the barrel pump — see page 123
— which can be carried about on an ordinary farm
wagon, sled or stone boat. Of course the same insects
and diseases attack, the farm orchard as the com-
mercial orchard, and are to be fought by the same
means.
The man who is growing fruit for his own family
use will usually want some sort of storage. Formerly
apples were sometimes stored in haymows or buried
in pits in the garden, but such crude methods do not
satisfy the people of the present generation. Even the
better plan of keeping apples in the general cellar
under the house does not meet the wishes of many.
When the house cellar is to be used a special com-
partment should be done off for apples and pears, in
which the temperature can be kept considerably lower
than in the rest of the cellar. On many well-to-do
farms it is practicable to make special fruit storage
rooms or even storage houses. Such provision can be
made at an expenditure varying from $300 to $5,000.
This subject is separately discussed and many designs
given in the author's book on handling fruit,*
•Waugh, Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing, Orange Judd Co,
New York.
XVIII
RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS
The most profitable orchard is unquestionably one
that is thrifty and moderately young. It is an orchard
which is started right and which is kept on the right
track from the beginning. Nevertheless many farms
in the country have old orchards neglected for some
time and partially run down but still too valuable to
be abandoned. While such plantations cannot be re-
garded as the best basis on which to found the apple
business, they are still worth taking into consideration.
There is no question about the practicability of
renovating old orchards of this kind. The only ques-
tion is with respect to the age and condition of the
trees. If the trees form a satisfactory stand on the
ground, that is to say from 60 to 90% of a full stand,
and if they are not too badly broken by disease and
neglect, the problem of bringing them into profitable
condition is a fairly simple one. As a rule it may be
said that trees more than 35 years old, those which
have the tops badly broken, those which are badly
infested with canker or San Jose scale, and orchards
in which the stand is less than 60%, or those which
are located in unsuitable soil, are not worth the labor
and expense of rejuvenation.
In case it seems wise to undertake the rehabilitation
of one of these old orchards the procedure is fairly
simple. It consists merely in giving the best possible
treatment all along the line. The thing cannot be
RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS I89
accomplished by the apphcation of any one specific
remedy. The program will be about as follows :
1. The physical condition of the soil must be im-
proved. This will mean that cultivation should be
adopted wherever possible. There are some old
orchards worthy of rejuvenation in which the soil can-
not be practically cultivated, but the majority of those
orchards which will not pay for the cultivation of the
soil will not pay either for the rest of the treatment.
Cultivation of the soil in an old orchard which has
been neglected for many years is of course a serious
problem. Too much must not be expected at the out-
set. The ground should be plowed as well as it can
be, but this of course will not mean nice thorough
tillage from the beginning. However, better cultivation
can be given the second year than the first, and some
improvements made in succeeding years. After the
land has been plowed and cross-plowed the soil can
be worked into condition with a spading harrow. It
is not necessary to make great haste in this direction.
Indeed it is better that the subjugation of the soil
should be gradual.
2. Plant food must be provided. In practically
all cases old neglected orchards suffer from serious
depletion of fertilizing elements. A moderate dress-
ing of barnyard manure is an excellent beginning in
bringing up an old orchard. As a rule, however,
it is better to proceed with considerable caution in
applying fertilizer to an orchard in this state of treat-
ment. It is easily possible to overdo this matter.
3. The trees must be pruned. This part of the
treatment is often overdone also. The best practice
is to begin the first year by removing only dead and
broken limbs. This work should be done in March. In
IQO THE x^MRRICAN APPLE ORCHARD
June of the same year another moderate pruning may
be given, removing interfering hmbs and opening the
heads somewhat to the action of the Hght. As a rule
it will be best to take out this time only about one-
third to one-half of the total amount of wood to be
removed, leaving the remainder to be taken out the
succeeding June. March will answer for this sort of
pruning also, but for this particular purpose June is
safer. Trees pruned at this time have not so strong a
tendency toward the formation of water sprouts. If
the trees are too tall, as is apt to be the case, it will
be well to head in the tops and side branches to some
extent. This will serve the same purpose, in some
degree, as opening up the center of the tree. Special
attention should be paid in all this pruning to the re-
moval of diseased and broken branches. As a rule
all these prunings should be taken out and burned.
4. The trees should be scraped. The trunks and
most branches will always be found covered with more
or less old shaggy bark which furnishes a lodgment
for all sorts of insects and fungous spores. In order
to make spraying effective it is very desirable that this
old bark be removed. Dealers in horticultural im-
plements have for sale a triangular scraper made for
this express purpose ; or a satisfactory tool could be
made from an old hoe.
5. Spraying must be regularly adopted. Thorough
and systematic spraying, according to the best and
strictest rules, must be kept up for a period of years in
order to overcome the results of that neglect from
which the trees have suffered. If the trees arc in-
fested with oyster shell bark, louse or with San Jose
scale the appropriate insecticides must be applied It
is also necessar\- under all circumstances to follow
KKN OVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS I9I
np this treatment with regular apphcations of l)or-
(leaux.
The treatment here briefly outHned has been fully
tested in all parts of the country and has never failed
to bring satisfactory results. There is no use, how-
ever, in undertaking this kind of work if the effort is
to be half hearted.
XIX
THE SELECTION OF VARIETIES
One of the most important, as well as one of the
most difficult problems which the fruit grower has to
solve is the choice of the varieties he is to grow.
There are many things to be taken into consideration,
and the novice is apt to be influenced by many notions
and prejudices which have no foundation in fact. The
following principles have been pretty well established
by the experience of a whole generation of successful
American fruit growers.
1. Choose very few varieties for commercial plan-
tations. Two or three varieties are enough for most
men. Any grower who now has even five varieties
in bearing can easily show himself that one or two of
them are decidedly more profitable than the others. It
would therefore seem the part of wisdom for him to
discard the less profitable ones.
2. Choose varieties which the market wants. A
man may think that Fameuse is a better apple than
Baldwin, but if the buyers want Baldwins and not
Fameuse, the fruit grower must grow Baldwins.
3. Commercial varieties must be perfectly adapted
to the soil and climate where they are to be grown.
A man can grow the family favorites without regard
to this rule, but when he is competing with thousands
of other growers for a profit in the market he can-
not afiford to carry any unnecessary handicap. There
is much yet to be learned regarding the niceties of
soil and climate adaptations of varieties.
THE SELECTION OF VARIETIES I93
4. It follows that no man should plant a certain
variety simply because it is successful in some other
section or state. Fruit growing in the Mississippi
valley states was retarded one whole decade because
settlers from New York and New England insisted on
planting Baldwin, Spy, Rhode Island Greening and
the other favorites of their old homes.
5. Nevertheless each apple grower should exercise
his personal prejudices as far as he can within the
list of varieties which will succeed in his section. A
man whose ideal apple is the Newtown Pippin will do
better growing that variety. The value of this rule
is commonly underestimated.
6. Varieties should be chosen with a careful view
to the market which they are to reach. Cuban and
Southern markets can use Ben Davis to advantage ;
the English market will pay for good Russets ; the Bos-
ton market wants Baldwins and the New York market
wants Greenings.
7. Late-keeping winter varieties have proved most
profitable for the ordinary growers in recent years.
As a rule such varieties will be best for men who
grow apples on a large scale at a considerable distance
from their markets.
8. On the other hand very early varieties have
proved most profitable for a certain number of grow-
ers. Usually these early varieties should be chosen for
growing near large markets, or wherever the grower
can dispose of his crop at retail. Extreme southern
localities which can make early shipments to northern
markets also find first early sorts most profitable, more
especially since these localities cannot grow late-
keeping winter stock anywav. There are certain com-
194 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
niercial advantages in handling early fruit, such as
saving the expense of storage.
9. Medium ripening autumn sorts also have their
place and take the lead in certain sections. In north-
ern sections where first early sorts cannot compete
with southern grown stock, and where late-keeping
winter apples cannot be produced to best advantage,
such sorts as Wealthy and Mcintosh may be highly
profitable. These fall varieties fill a large gap in
the market between the southern earlies and the stand-
ard winter apples. The market is more closely limited
than for late winter stock, and the fruit must be skill-
fully handled; but the experience of many men in
many dififerent parts of the country shows that this is
an attractive commercial field.
These suggestions apply specifically to the choice of
varieties for commercial growing. The selection of
varieties for the home fruit garden is discussed in an-
other connection, page 186.
REMARKS ON PARTICULAR VARIETIES
It will be noticed that the list of commercial vari-
eties is a very short one. Most of the standard market
varieties are grown over a wide range of territory.
Indeed one of the capital reasons why they are stand-
ard market varieties is that they will succeed under
many skies and on a diversity of soils. Ben Davis
is the prince of all these varieties, and comes the near-
est to being the universal apple of anything yet dis-
covered. But Jonathan, Grimes and Red Astrachan
are successful market apples in two-thirds of the states
in the union.
There is now an evident tendency toward length-
ening the list of commercial apples. This is manifest
THE SELECTION OF VARIETIES 195
in the increasing respect shown to such secondary
sorts as Mcintosh, Rome Beauty and Duchess.
Baldwin still reigns supreme in New England and
leads everything else in New York state. Outside
this section it is hardly known. It is exactly the apple
for the ordinary man. It is an ordinary apple.
Rhode Island Greening belongs to the same section
as Baldwin and is still a favorite apple, especially in
the New York city market. But it is losing favor with
growers on account of scalding in storage. It is not
much planted nowadays, though it still deserves to be.
Northern Spy belongs to a zone slightly to the
north of the Baldwin district, thriving in northern
Massachusetts, central ]Maine, New Hampshire and
Vermont, northern New York and in certain districts
in Michigan and Ontario. It is very fastidious as
regards soil. It will succeed splendidly on one farm
and fail on the next. It is very slow to come into
bearing and does not bear heavily even at maturity.
Nevertheless the unsurpassed quality of the fruit and
the high price which it brings in the market make it
worth the attention of those who can grow it well.
Ben Davis is grown everywhere where apples will
grow at all, and is everywhere profitable. However,
it does not pay so well as Baldwin or Spy or Grimes
or a dozen other varieties in the hands of men who
can grow the better varieties. It is, generally speak-
ing, suited to men whose system of orchard manage-
ment does not reach a high standard. This is true
even in the Mississippi valley states, where Ben Davis
ic- most at home.
Gano will succeed almost anywhere that Ben Davis
will. It is very much like Ben Davis, being distin-
196 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
guished l)y more solid red coloring. It should be used
to supplement JJen Davis.
Fameuse is the apple par excellence of the French
Canadian country, especially of the Province of Que-
bec and adjacent counties across the international
boundary. In this section it reigns supreme.
Jonathan is probably the most popular and most
profitable apple in the central states. In that section
where Ben Davis has the numerical leadership Jona-
than is looked on as its superior. Moreover, the more
expert apple growers are able to produce Jonathan
at a larger profit than Ben Davis. It is now being
more widely planted ; but this wider planting is simply
the index of improving cultural systems.
Grimes Golden competes with Jonathan for suprem-
acy in the same field. On the whole it is a shade more
expensive to produce than Jonathan, but it makes up
for this by being even better in quality. The most
heartening fact in the whole apple industry today is
the wide planting of Grimes and Jonathan.
Winesap and its ofifspring, Stayman Winesap, are
being considerably planted in southern and mid-south-
ern states. They are rather hard to grow, but their
fine color, high quality and aroma make them sell at
the top of the market.
Yellow Transparent and Red Astrachan lead the
list of first early varieties from Quebec to Louisiana.
Early Harvest and Carolina Red June come next in
this list.
Wealthy and ]\IcIntosh unquestionably lead the list
of autumn varieties. The former succeeds over a wide
range of territory and is fast gaining in popularity.
Other valuable sorts in this group are Duchess and
Fall Pippin.
THE SELECTION OF VARIETIES 1 97
Esopus Spitzenberg, Northern Spy and Newtown
Pippin are generally regarded as the standards of qual-
ity. Certain other varieties reach a very high, probably
an equally high, standard of quality in special circum-
stances. Of these are Alother and Pomme Royal.
Certain men also have a special fancy for particular
varieties, so that good judges may express an honest
preference for Jeffris, Fameuse or King.
The Russets are now seldom planted and seem to be
profitable only in Nova Scotia for shipping to British
markets. Roxbury generally takes the lead, though
inferior in quality to Golden Russet.
VARIETIES FOR VARIOUS DISTRICTS
The varieties which succeed best in each locality
can be easily pointed out, and this is worth doing if
people will not be misled by it. There are exceptions
to all rules, and to these generalizations most of all.
The following lists are carefully made up from many
sources, but chiefly from the direct testimony of the
largest and most successful commercial apple growers
in each locality. The intention has been to name only
the leading commercial varieties or such as have an
established reputation.
N'oz'a Scotia. — Baldwin, Roxbury (Nonpareil), Ben
Davis, Wagener.
Quebec. — Fameuse, IMcIntosh, Rosseau (Pomme de
fer), Alexander, Duchess, Wolf River.
Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont. — Baldwin,
Spy, Ben Davis, Rhode Island Greening, Wealthy,
Mcintosh, Gravenstein. In the northern counties of
these three states the Quebec list would be preferred.
Massachusetts. — Baldwin above all others. Wealthy
•198 THE AMI'-.RICAN APPLE OKCPIARD
and Mcintosh are highly profitable where properly
grown. Williams l-'avorite leads the list of early ap-
ples.
Connecticut and Rhode Island. — Baldwin, Ben
Davis, Wealthy, IVlcIntosh, Duchess, Rome Beauty.
N'ezv York. — This is the leading apple-growing
state, the bulk of the crop being produced in the west-
ern counties. Baldwin leads. Then follow Rhode
Island Greening, Spy, Hubbardston, Ben Davis,
Wealthy, and Fall Pippin. Many other varieties suc-
ceed when properly handled.
Neiv Jersey. — Proximity to the New York city
markets makes early varieties relatively profitable.
Carolina Red June, Early Harvest, Red Astrachan
and Yellow Transparent are successful. Later ripen-
ing sorts which are grown are Smith Cider, Ben Davis
and York Imperial.
Pennsylvania. — The southern and southwestern por-
tions of the state should be counted with West Vir-
ginia in apple growing. The central counties succeed
best with Baldwin, Winesap and York Imperial.
Wealthy is also being grown to some extent ; also Jon-
athan, Grimes and Rome Beauty.
Delazvare and the Eastern Shore of Maryland. — On
this low coast plain apple growing has once been aban-
doned but has recently been rehabilitated in a vastly
improved form. This section now produces chiefly
early apples for the markets of New York, Philadel-
phia, Baltimore and other nearby cities. Leading va-
rieties are Red Astrachan, Yellow Transparent, Fourth
of July, Williams Favorite, Early Ripe and Early
Strawberry. Later ripening sorts which are also
grown are Winesap, Stayman Winesap, Grimes and
the ubiquitous Ben Davis.
THE SELECTION OF VARIETIES I99
Virginia. — The eastern tidewater counties generally
grow the same varieties as the Chesapeake peninsula.
The northwestern counties belong with West Virginia.
The central and south central counties are noted for
the famous Albemarle Pippins. (Pomologists gen-
erally regard this as a local name for Yellow New-
town.)
ITcst I'irgiiiia, including western Maryland antl
adjoining counties of Virginia and Pennsylvania. Here
is a thriving, booming commercial apple district, grow-
ing Ben Davis of course, but also Grimes and Jona-
than. Besides these we may find Gano, York Im-
perial. Rome Beauty and Mammoth Black Twig.
North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. — The
mountainous portions of these three states have large
tracts of excellent apple land now being developed.
The industry is not so well established as to have
settled upon any list of varieties. Ben Davis and Gano
are grown, of course, and for shipping south these are
probably as good as any. Yates is a variety coming
into prominence in this section. Shockley is also
profitable. Other varieties grown more or less are
Grimes, Rome Beauty and York Imperial. In the
mountain sections the very early varieties do not seem
to be so satisfactory, but Red Astrachan, Carolina Red
June, Yellow Transparent and Early Harvest are
grown for market to some extent.
Ontario produces large quantities of export apples,
the surplus being destined largely for the British
markets. Baldwin is the leading variety, though
Rhode Island Greening, Spy, Roxbury, Ben Davis,
Stark and many other sorts are grown. Alex McNeill,
200 Till-: AMKRICAX AlTLi: ORCllAKD
a high authority, says that very early and very late
varieties pay best.
Michigan. — This state grows a long list of apples,
Baldwin leading, but by a greatly reduced majority as
compared with New York and New England. Other
market varieties are Jonathan, Ben Davis, Stark,
Rhode Island Greening, Spy, Hubbardston, Twenty
Ounce, Duchess, Wealthy and the usual list of early
apples.
Indiana and Illinois. — Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan,
Grimes, Winesap, Willow Twig, Rome Beauty; and
also the early varieties, such as Duchess, Yellow
Transparent, Benoni and the mid-season Wealthy.
Kentucky and Tennessee. — Ben Davis, Gano, Wine-
sap, Grimes, Jonathan, Paragon and the early varieties.
JViscoJisin, Minnesota and South Dakota. — Wealthy
leads. Duchess stands second. Other varieties are
Northwestern Greening, Patten Greening and Ma-
linda.
lozva, Nebraska and Northern Missouri. — Ben
Davis, Gano, Missouri Pippin, Duchess, Grimes,
Northwestern Greening, Jonathan.
Arkansas and Southern Missouri. — Ben Davis,
Gano, Winesap, Paragon, Grimes, Jonathan, ]\Iam-
moth Black Twig.
Kansas and Oklahoma. — Ben Davis, Missouri Pip-
pin, Winesap, Jonathan, Grimes, York Imperial.
Texas- — Mostly early varieties for northern ship-
ment— Red June, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest and
Yellow Transparent. Also to some extent Winesap,
Jonathan and Ben Davis.
Montana. — Duchess, Wealthy, Alexander, Mcin-
tosh, Wagener.
THE SELECTION OF VARIETIES 201
CoIorado.-^-Thh state has several dififcrent ajjple
districts quite different in their character and require-
ments. The varieties mostly grown, however, are
those of Kansas — that is, Ben Davis and Gano, Grimes
and Jonathan, with Winesap, Rome Beauty and
Wealthy following-.
The Pacific Coast. — While the Pacific coast, from
British Columbia to California, is a large district, and
while the apple-growing localities are widely sepa-
rated, the leading commercial varieties are much the
same throughout the area. Yellow Newtown and
Esopus Spitzenberg are the leading varieties, but they
are closely followed by Jonathan. Then comes Belle-
llower, Arkansas Black and Winesap, with a few other
varieties of decidedly minor importance.
KEEPING QL'ALITY OF VARIETIES
The behavior of different varieties in storage is a
matter of vital importance in the handling of the com-
mercial apple crop. The length of time to which ap-
ples may be expected to keep in merchantable condi-
tion is of especial interest. The following general
principles are fairly well established :
1. Apples grown in a northern latitude or high al-
titude will keep longer than apples of the same variety
grown farther south or at a lower altitude,
2. Apples from, old or mature trees will keep
longer than the same varieties grown on young trees.
3. Fruit from sandy soil will usually keep longer
than the same sorts grown on clay or loam.
4. Well-colored, well-ripened fruit will keep longer
in good condition than fruit not fully ripe. This is
202
THE AMI:KIC.VN Al'l'LE ORCHARD
contrary to the general opinion and is subject to pos-
sible slight exceptions in the case of fruit grown on
young and very vigorous trees.
It has been fully proved also that the manner in
which the fruit is handled has a great deal to do with
its behavior in storage. The fruit should be carefully
hand picked, handled the least possible, and placed
in storage at the earliest possible monient. The com-
mon practice of allowing apples to lie in piles in the
orchard for several days or even weeks is especially
reprehensible.
The following list, based on the latitude of New
York state, shows as nearly as practicable the market
and storage season of the leading varieties. The table
is made up from various sources, but special attention
has been given to the results secured by G. Harold
Powell in his extensive storage experiments.
Variety-
Ready 1
"or use
Storage limit
Alexander
Oct.
Nov. 15
Arctic
Dec.
Mar. 1
Arkansas
Tan.
May 1
Arkansas Black
Feb.
June 1
Bailey Sweet
Nov.
15
Feb. 15
Baldwin
Dec.
May 15
Beach
Jan.
June 1
Ben Davis
Jan.
July 1
Black GiUiflower
Nov.
15
an. 1
Cannon Pearmain
Jan.
Jan.
May 1
Carlough
. une 1
_ une 1
Coflfelt
_ an.
Cogswell
/an.
une 1
Colvert
^lov.
15
>n. 15
Cooper Market
;an.
_ an.
June 1
Cullen
IS
June 1
Esopus (Spitzenberg)
Nov.
April 1
Fallawater
Nov.
April 1
Fall Pippin
Oct.
15
Jan. 1
Fameuse
Oct.
15
Feb. 1
Fanny
Oct.
15
, an. 1
Fishkill
Nov.
] an. 1
THE SELECTIO^
OF \
.\RIETIES
Variety
Read v for
ise StoraRC lim
Gano
Dec.
1.
May 1
Gideon
Nov.
Jan. 1
Mar. 15
Gilpin
Dec.
Golden Russet
Jan.
June 1
Gravenstein
Oct.
Dec. 1
Grimes
Nov.
Jan. 15
Haas
Oct.
Dec. 1
Holland
Nov.
Jan. 1
Feb. 1
Hubbardston
Nov.
Huntsman
Dec.
1!
Apr. 1
Hurlbut
Nov.
Feb. 15
Ingram
Jan.
Apr. 15
Ivanhoe
Jan.
May 1
acob (Sweet)
Dec.
Mar. 1
] eflfris
Sept.
Oct. 15
] onathan
Dec.
Apr. 1
'. ^ady Sweet
_ an.
May 1
Lankford
'an.
May 1
Lawver
Feb.
July 1
Leicester
Oct.
Jan. 1
Limbertwig
Feb.
' uly 1
Longfield
Sept.
Dec. 1
Loy
Jan.
April 1
Mcintosh
Oct.
Jan. 15
McMahon
Oct.
Dec. 1
Magog
Nov.
Jan. 15
Maiden Blush
Oct.
Dec. 15
Mann
Feb.
July 1
Melon (Norton's)
Nov.
Feb. 1
Milden
Dec.
15
Mar. 1
Minkler
Dec.
1 =
Mar. 15
Missouri (Pippin)
Jan.
April 15
Mother
Oct.
Mar. 15
Munson (Sweet)
Oct.
15
Jan. 15
Nero
Nov.
Feb. 1
Newtown Spitzenberg
Jan.
Mar. 15
Northern Spy
Jan.
April 15
Northwestern (Greening)
Jan.
'une 1
Oldenburg (Duchess)
Sept.
15
Dec. 15
Ontario
Dec.
15
Mar. 15
Paragon
Dec.
15
Mar. 15
Peck (Pleasant)
Jan.
May 1
Pewaukee
Jan.
May 15
Pumpkin Sweet
Oct.
1.
Jan. 1
Ralls
Jan.
April 1
Rambo
Nov.
15
Mar. 1
Hed Canada
Jan.
]
May 1
203
204
TllK AMERICAN
Al'TLE
ORCHARD
Variety
Ready for use
StoraKc limit
Red Russet
Tan.
May 1
Rhode Island (Greening) Dec.
IS
April 1
Rome (Beauty)
Jan.
April 1
Roxbury (Russet)
Jan.
15
June 15
Salome
Jan.
May 1
Scarlet Cranberry
Jan.
May 1
Scott Winter
Jan.
April 1
Shiawassee
Oct.
Dec. 1
Smith Cider
Dec.
IS
Feb. 15
Stark
Feb.
July 1
Stayman Winesap
Jan.
April 1
Sutton
Jan.
Mar. 15
Swaar
Jan.
May 1
Tolman (Sweet)
Jan.
May 1
Tompkins King
Dec.
IS
May 1
Twenty Ounce
Nov.
Jan. IS
Wagener
Nov.
Feb. 1
Walbridge
Dec.
April 1
Washington Royal
Nov.
Jan. IS
Wealthy
Sept.
IS
Feb. 1
Westfield
Jan.
May 1
Willow (Willow Twig)
Nov.
IS
June 1
Winesap
Mar. 15
Wolf River
Oct.
15
Feb. 1
Yellow Belleflower
Nov.
15
April 1 5
Yellow Newtown
Jan.
May 1
York Imperial
Jan.
Feb. 15
XX
CATALOG OF VARIETIES
There are several books which give at length the
descriptions of varieties of apples. One who aspires to
be an expert pomologist'must own a considerable library
of such books. Most of these books are large ones,
showing that the subject is burdened with endless
details, the methodical study of which forms the science
of systematic pomology.* Obviously a modest hand
book of practical apple culture cannot undertake to
include full descriptions of all varieties. In place of
this we shall give only a moderate list of the best known
varieties with greatly condensed descriptions.
The fruit grower may confront himself — as mostly he
does — with the knowledge that he is not required to
know or identify many varieties. If he is a strictly up-
to-date grower he will cultivate only half a dozen varie-
ties, or even less. These he must know perfectly. lie
must know all their smallest points — their ins and outs —
their weaknesses and idiosyncrasies — their diseases and
their preferences — as he knows the members of his own
family. But other varieties have only a general and
distant interest for him.
Following is the variety list :
Alexander. — Large, conic, red, coarse fleshed, good, early fall. A
showy apple, but not ustially profitable.
Anisim. — Small, conic, yellow red, good, medium.
Arctic. — Large, conic, red, very good, late. Tree hardy and a good
grower.
Arkansas. — Large, oblate, red, good, late.
Autumn Bough. — Medium, conic, greenish yellow, sweet, fair,
medium dessert.
* ('(insult Waugh's Systematic Pomology, Orange .Tudd Co., New York.
I'or ixtfiiilcd descriptions of apples consult Beach, The Apples of New York;
Dowiiinu:. I'niits and Fruit Trees of North America; Thomas, Fruit rulturist;
Wardor, American I'omology; Hudd-Hansen, American Pomology.
20.5
206 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Autumn Swaar. — Medium, conic, red, fair, early, dessert.
Babbitt. — Medium, round, red, fair, late.
Bailey. — Large, round, red, sweet, good, late. One of the best of
the sweets.
Baker. — Large, oblate, conic, yellowish red, fair, late.
Baldwin. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, fair, late. The lead-
ing variety in New York. New England and Nova vScotia. A
reliable, profitable market sort for ordinary culture.
Beach. — Medium, oblong, red, very good, very late.
Belmont. — Medium, conic, yellow red, very good, late, dessert.
Belle Bonne. — Medium, ovate, greenish yellow, good, late.
Ben Davis. — Medium, ovate, yellow red striped, poor, late. The
great stand-by. Profitable over large areas, but especially in
the middle states.
Benoni. — Small, oblate, yellow red striped, good early, dessert.
Profitable for certain local markets.
Bentley. — Medium, round, red, sweet, fair, very late.
Bethel. — Medium, oblate, conical, yellow striped, very good, late.
Bietigheimer. — Very large, oblate, conic, red, poor, medium.
Black. — Medium, oblate, dark red, poor, late, dessert.
Bledsoe. — Medium, oblate, striped, good, early.
Blenheim. — Large, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, poor, late.
Blue Pearmain. — Large, conic, dark red striped, fair, late.
Bonum. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, medium, dessert.
Borovinka. — Medium, oblong, yellow red striped, good, medium,
dessert.
Bough. — Medium, conic, yellow, sweet, good, early, dessert.
Bradford. — Medium, conic, yellow red striped, poor, late.
Broadwell. — -Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, sweet, good, late.
Bryan. — Medium, conic, red, very good, early.
Buckingham. — -Medium, oblate, conic, yellowish red, good, late.
Bullock (American Golden Russet). — Small, oblate, conic, yellow
russet, very good, late, dessert. Formerly grown for market,
but now no longer planted.
Buncombe. — Medium, oblong, conic, yellow red, poor, late.
Camack. — Medium, conic, reddish green, sweet, poor, late.
Canada Baldwin. — Medium, ovate, red, fair, late.
Canada Reinette. — Medium, oblate, conic irregular, green russet,
good, late.
Carlough. — Medium, conic, greenish yellow, fair, late.
Carolina Beauty.— Medium, oblong, dark red, good, late.
Carter Blue. — Medium, oblate, greenish red, fair, medium, dessert.
Champlain. — Medium, oblong, yellow red, fair, medium.
Charlamofif. — Medium, conic, red striped, acid, fair, early.
Chenango (Strawberry). — Medium, oblong conic, yellow red, good,
early. Showy and of good quality, suitable for local markets.
Christmas. — Small, round, yellow red striped, acid, fair, medium.
Clark Pearmain. — Medium, oblate, conic, red, fair, medium.
CATALOG OF VARIETIES 207
Clayton. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped fair, ver}- late.
Clyde Beauty. — Medium, oblate irregular, green red, poor, late.
Cogswell. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, good, late.
Collins. — Medium, oblate, striped, good, late.
Colton. — Medium, round, yellow, good, early dessert.
Cooper. — Large, oblate, irregular, yellow red striped, poor medium.
Cooper Market. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair
early dessert.
Cornell Fancy. — Small, oblong, conic yellow red striped, fair, early,
dessert.
Cracking. — Large, oblate, conic, yellow red, poor, medium
Cross. — Small, oblong, conic, yellow red, fair, medium.
Cullasaga. — Medium, conic, yellow red, poor, late.
Danvers. — Medium, oblong, yellow, sweet, fair, late.
Derby. — Medium, irregular, red, good, late.
Domine. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, late.
Donneghan. — Medium, round, green, sweet, good, medium.
Doyle. — Large, medium season.
Dutch Mignonne. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, poor, late.
Dyer. — Medium, round, yellow red, best, medium, dessert.
Early Cooper. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, early.
Early Harvest. — Medium, oblate, yellow white very good, very
early. One of the best early varieties
Early Joe. — Small, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, very good,
early, dessert. One of the best early apples.
Early Pennock. — Medium, conic, yellow red, poor, early.
Early Ripe. — Medium, oblate, yellow, poor, early.
Early Strawberry. — Small, conic, yellow red striped, fair, early.
English Russet. — Medium, conic, yellow red striped, fair, early.
Esopus. — Medium, oblong, conic, red, best, late, dessert. One of
the finest American apples, but tree poor and subject to dis-
ease. Is sometimes top-worked on better trees. Grown com-
mercially on the Pacific coast.
Evening Party. — Small, oblate, yellow red striped, fair, late, dessert.
Ewalt. — Large, conic, yellow red, poor, late.
Fallawater. — Very large, conic, yellow green red, fair, late.
Fall Jenneting. — Medium, oblate, irregular conic, yellow red, poor.
medium.
Fall Orange. — Large, round, yellow red, poor, medium.
Fall Pippin. — Large, oblate, conic, yellow red, very good, medium.
An e.xcellent and profitable fall variety.
Fall Wine. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, very good, medium, des-
sert.
Fameuse. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, very good, medium,
dessert. A prime favorite in Quebec, and a leading commer-
cial variety in that section.
Family. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, medium,
dessert.
208 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Fanny. — Medium, oblate, conic, red striped, fair, earh-.
Fink. — Small, oblate, white yellow red, poor, very late'.
Foundling. — Large, ovate, red striped, good.
Fulton. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, good.
Gano. — Medium, oblate, irregular, yellow red striped, fair, late.
Much like Ben Davis but more highly colored. Profitable,
especially in the central Mississippi valley.
Garden Royal. — Small, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, best, early,
dessert. For family use only.
Garrettson. — Medium, conic, yellow, poor, early.
Garfield. — Medium, oblate, conic, red striped, very good, late.
Gideon. — Medium, conic, yellow, acid, small, early'
Gilbert. — Medium, oblong, red, good, late.
Gilpin. — Small, oblong, red yellow, poor, very late.
Glass Green. — Medium, ovate, yellow striped, poor, earlv.
Golden Russet. — Small, oblate, yellow russet, fair, very late.
Golden Sweet. — Medium, oblate, yellow, sweet, fair, early.
Golding. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, fair, medium.
Gravenstein. — Large, oblate, irregular, yellow red, very good,
medium. Grown for market in Maine and Nova Scotia.
Green Cheese. — Medium, oblate, irregular, yellow, good, late.
Green Newtown. — Medium, irregular, green red, very good, very late.
Grimes Golden. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow, best, late, dessert.
Profitable in Kansas and neighboring states when highly
cultivated.
Haas. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, fair, medium.
Hagloe. — Medium, conic, yellow red, fair, early.
Hall. — Small, oblate, conic, red, fair, late, dessert.
Hewes. — Small, round, yellow, acid, very poor, medium, cider.
Hibernal. — Medium, oblong, conic, red striped, acid, poor, medium.
Very hardy. The tree is used for top-grafting in the northwest.
Hightop Sweet. — Small, round, yellow, sweet, fair, early, dessert.
Hockett. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, sweet, poor, late.
Hoover. — Medium, oblate, yellow striped, fair, late.
Hopewell. — Large, oblate, striped, good, early.
Horn. — Small, oblate, yellow red striped, poor, late.
Horse. — Medium, round, yellow red striped, poor, early.
Hubbardston. — Medium, round, ovate, yellow red striped, very
good, late. Profitable in some places in Massachusetts and
New York.
Hunt Russet. — Small, oblate, conic, yellow russet, good, late,
dessert.
Huntsman. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, fair, late.
Ingram. — Medium, oblate, striped, very good, early.
Irish Peach. — Medium, conic, yellow red, good, medium, early.
Isham Sweet. — Medium, oblong, red, fair, late. One of the best
sweets.
Jacobs Sweet. — Medium, round, yellow red, sweet, good, late.
CATALOG OF VARIETIES 209
Jeffris. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red strijjed, very good,
early dessert.
Jersey Sweet. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, sweet,
good, medium.
Jewett. — Medium, oblate, red striped, fair, late.
Jonathan. — Medium, conic, yellow red, very good, late. A fine
apple and profitable in central states and on the Pacific slope.
Judson. — Medium, conic, red striped, poor, medium, early.
Julian. — Medium, conic, red striped, poor, early, dessert.
July (Fourth of). — Small, oblate, conic, yellow red, poor, very early.
Profitable first early out in middle and southern latitudes.
Junaluskee. — Medium, oblate, yellow, fair, late, dessert.
Kent Beauty. — Large, oblate, yellow red, poor, medium.
Kernodle. — Medium, oblong, yellow striped, good, very late.
Keswick. ^Fair, conic irregular, j'ellow red, acid, fair, medium.
Kinnard. — Medium, oblate, conic, irregular, yellow red, fair, late.
Kirkbridge. — Small, oblong, irregular, yellow russet, poor, early.
Krouser. — Medium, red striped, fair, very late.
Lady. — Very small, oblate, yellow red, fair, late. Finds a special
Christmas market in Boston and New York and is worth
growing in small quantity.
Lady Sweet. — Medium, oblong, yellow green red, sweet, good, late.
Lankford. — Medium, conic, green red, good, late.
Lansingburg. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, poor, very late.
Late Strawberry. — Medium, conic, red striped, fair, medium, des-
sert.
Lawver. — Medium, oblate, red, fair, very late.
Lehigh. — Medium, yehow, fair, very late.
Lily. — Medium, oblate, conic, green, good, early.
Limbertwig. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, poor, very late.
Longtield. — Medium, conic, yellow, poor, early. Profitable when
well grown. Requires high cultivation.
Louise. — Oblate, fair, late, dessert.
Lowe. — Large, oblong, yellow, fair, early.
Lowell. — Large, oblong, yellow, fair, earl}^
McAfee. — Medium, oblate, yellow green red, late.
Mcintosh. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, medium, late. One
of the most profitable varieties and succeeds over wide range
of territory.
McLellan. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, medium,
dessert.
McMahon. — Large, oblate, yellow red, poor, medium. A good tree
suitable for top-grafting.
Magog. — Medium, oblong, yellow red striped, good, late.
Maiden (Blush). — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, early.
Malinda. — Medium, conic, yellow red, fair, very late. Hardy
Minnesota.
THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Mangum. — ^Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, good, medium,
dessert.
Mann. — Medium oblate, yellow green, poor, very late. A late
keeper and a good low-priced market variety.
Margaret. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, early, dessert.
Mason. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, late, dessert.
Maryland. — Small, conic, yellow red, fair, medium, late.
Mattamuskeet. — Medium, oblate, conic, 3'ellow red, poor, late.
Maverack. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, sweet, fair, late.
Melon. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, good, late.
Millboy. — Medium, conic, red, fair, medium, dessert.
Milwaukee. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, fair, late. Hardy.
A promising recent introduction.
Minster. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, medium,
late.
Minkler. — Medivim, conic, yellowish red, fair, medium, late.
Missouri (Pippin). — Mediuin, conic, yellow red striped, poor, late.
Profitable in Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas.
Monmouth.— Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, fair, late.
Moore Sweet. — Medium, oblate, red, sweet, fair, late.
Mother. — Medium, round, conic, yellow red, very good, medium,
late, dessert. A fine dessert apple, but hard to grow.
Munson. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, sweet, fair, medium, late.
Nansemoifid. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, poor, late
Nero. — Medium, oblate, red, fair, late.
Newell. — Medium, oblong, yellow red striped, fair, late.
Newtown Spitzenberg. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped,
good, late dessert.
Nickajack. — Large, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, poor, late.
Northern Spy. — Large, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, very good,
medium late. This good old variety will bring the top price
when well grown. It is very fastidious regarding soil and
situation, and slow about coming into bearing.
Northfield. — Medium, oblate, red yellow striped, good, medium,
early.
Northwestern (Greening). — Large, conic, green yellow, fair, late.
A good variety in the northern Mississippi valle}'.
Nottingham. — Large, oblong, yellow red, good, late.
Noyes. — Medium, oblate, red yellow, good, early.
Oconee. — Large, oblate, yellow red, poor, medium.
Ogle. — Medium, oblate, red, good, very late.
Ohio Nonpareil. — Medium, roimd, yellow red, fair, meditim.
Ohio Pippin. — Large, oblate, yellow red, acid, fair, medium, late.
Okabena. — Small, oblong, red striped, poor, medium, early.
Oldenburg. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, acid, fair, early.
Sometimes profitable.
Oliver. — Medium, red, good, medium, late.
Ontario. — Small, oblong, yellow red, acid, fair, early.
CATALOG OF VARIETIES 211
Ortley. — Medium, oblong, yellow red, good, medium, late.
Paragon. — Medium, conic, yellow red, good, late.
Patten (Greening). — Large, round, yellow, fair, medium, late. Con-
siderably planted in Iowa and Minnesota.
Peach. — Medium, conic, yellow red striped, fair, late.
Pease. — Large, oblong, red yellow, good, medium, early.
Peck (Pleasant). — Medium, oblate, yellow red, good, late.
Peerless. — Small, oblate, round, striped, fair, late.
Perfection. — medium, round, yellow red striped, fair, medium,
early.
Perry Russet. — Medium, conic, yellow russet, fair, medium, late.
Peter. — Medium, round, green yellow, fair, medium.
Pewaukee. — Large, oblate, yellow red striped, poor, late. Tree
hardy.
Plumb Cider. — Medium, conic, yellow red striped, fair, medium.
Pomme Gris. — Small, oblate, yellow russet red, very good, medium,
late, dessert. An attractive small russet apple, much liked in
Canada.
Porter. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, very good, medium.
A favorite fall apple in New England, but badly attacked by
apple maggot.
Primate. — Medium, conic, yellow red, very good, early, dessert.
High quality, but badly attacked by apple maggot.
Pr3'or (Red). — Medium, oblate, irregular, green yellow red, very
good, late.
Pumpkin Sweet. — Large, round, green white, sweet, fair, medium,
late. A favorite home use apple with some families, but not
now often seen in the market.
Quince. — Medium, oblate, yellow, acid, fair, early.
Ralls. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, very late.
Grown commercially in the central states.
Rambo. — Medium, oblate, white yellow red, good, medium.
Ramsdell. — Medium, oblong, conic, red, sweet, fair, medium.
Raspberry. — Small, oblong, irregular, red, fair, medium, early.
Red Astrachan. — Medium, conic, red green yellow, acid, fair, early.
A fairly useful first early variety.
Red Canada. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, very good, late.
Red June. — Small, ovate, conic, red striped, fair, very early. A
profitable early variety in Delaware and neighboring states.
Red Stripe. — Medium, oblong, conic, white red striped, fair, early.
Rhode Island (Greening).' — Medium, oblate, green yellow, acid, good,
late. Formerly very profitable and widely grown in eastern
states. Now not so much planted. Requires careful manage-
ment.
Ribston. — Medium, round, yellow red, acid, good, late. A fine
' dessert fruit when well grown.
Ridge. — Medium, conic, irregular, yellow russet, fair, late.
Rolfe. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, good, medium.
212 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Romanite. — Small, conic, yellow red, fair, late, dessert.
Roman Stem. — Medium, round, white, yellow red, very good, late.
A good home apple in the central states.
Rome (Beauty). — Large, conic, yellow red striped, fair, medium,
late.
Roxbury. — Medium, round, oblate, yellow russet, good, late.
Under the name Nonpareil this variety is still considerably
grown in Nova Scotia for the British market.
Russell. — Round, ovate, yellow red, good, early, dessert.
Russian Baldwin. — Medium, oblate, round, green red striped, good,
late.
Salome. — Medium, round oblong, yellow red, good, very late.
Saint Johnsbury. — Medium, round, yellow red striped, sweet, good,
late.
Saint Lawrence. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, striped fair,
medium. A valuable apple in Quebec.
Scott Winter. — Small, round, conic, red striped, acid, fair, late.
Tree hardy.
Shiawassee.-— Medium, oblate, white red striped, good.
Shockley. — Small, conic, yellow red, fair, late.
Smith Cider. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, late.
Smokehouse. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, medium, late.
Sops of Wine. — Medium, round, yellow red, fair, early, dessert.
Stark. — Large, oblong, conic, yellow red striped, fair, late. Tree
strong and hardy. Though of poor quality this variety has
proved profitable in Nova Scotia and northeastern states.
Starkey. — Medium, oblate, conic, round, yellow striped, good,
medium, late.
Stayman Winesap. — Large, conic, red, very good, late. A seedling
of Winesap, and in some ways an improvement on the parent.
Stephenson. — Medium, oblong, j^ellow red striped, fair, late.
Sterling. — Large, conic, yellow red, good, late, dessert.
Summer King. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, fair, early.
Suinmer Pearmain. — Medium, conic, red russet, best, medium,
dessert.
Summer Queen. — Medium, conic, j^ellow red striped, acid, fair,
early
Summer Rose. — Small, round, yellow red striped, fair, very early,
dessert.
Stitton. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, good, late.
Worth planting commercially in Massachusetts and New York.
Swaar. — Medium, oblate, green yellow, good, late, dessert. Worth
planting for home use.
Sweet Winesap. — Medium, oblate, conic, red, sweet, good, late.
Switzer. — Medium, round, red, fair, early.
Taimton. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, acid, fair,
medium.
Terry Winter. — Small, round, conic, yellow red, fair, late
CATALOG OF VARIETIES 213
Tetofski. — Tkledium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, acid, poor,
early. A Russian apple of some value for first early.
Titovka.' — Medium, oblate, conic irregular, yellow red striped, fair,
medium. A hardy Russian.
Tolman. — Medium, oblate, yellow, sweet, fair, late. A favorite sweet
apple, now unprofitable by reason of the attacks of the apple
maggot .
Tompkins King. — Large, oblate conic, yellow red striped, very
good, late. A splendid apple, and was formerly considerably
grown. Is still grown to some extent in New York. Tree a
light bearer and subject to disease.
Townsend. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, late.
Trenton Earl}-. — Medivim, conic, irregular, yellow green, good,
early.
Twenty Ounce. — Very large, round, yellow red striped, fair, medium,
late. Formerly grown for market, but now generally super-
seded.
Utter. — Medium, round, yellow red, fair, medium. Hardy.
Vandevere. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, fair, medium.
Vanhoy. — Large, oblate, yellow red striped, fair, late.
Virginia Greening. — Large, oblate, yellow red, fair, late.
Wagener. — Medium, oblate, yellow red striped, late. Good quality
when well grown, and sometimes profitable, especially in Nova
Scotia.
Walbridge. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair late
Sometimes proves profitable.
Washington. — Large, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, good, early.
Watson. — Large, oblate, conic, red striped, fair, early, dessert.
Wealthy. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, striped fair, medium. One
of the most widely successful and profitable of autumn varie-
ties.
Westfield (Seek-no-further). — Medium, conic, red, very good, me-
dium. Sometimes profitable in Massachusetts and New York,
but not much planted now.
Wetmore. — Medium, round, red, good, late.
Whinery. — Medium, round, conic, red striped, fair, late.
White Juneating. — Small, round, yellow red, fair, early, dessert.
White Pearmain. — Medium, oblong, conic, yellow red, very good,
late.
White Pigeon. — Medium, conic, rvisset j^ellow, sweet, fair, early.
White Pippin. — Medium, round, oblate, j'ellow red, very good, late.
Williams (Favorite). — Medium, oblong, conic, red, fair, early. A
first -class early apple, profitable in parts of New York and New
England.
Willow Twig. — Medium, oblate, conic, yellow red, fair, very late.
A hard, late-keeping apple of some commercial importance in
the central Mississippi valley.
Windsor. — Medium, round, yellow redv fair, medium, late.
214 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD
Wine. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, fair, late.
Winesap. — Medium, oblong, yellow red, acid, good, very late. Tree
weak and subject to disease, for which reason the variety can
seldom be grown at a profit. Fruit of high quality, however,
and a favorite for home use.
Winter St. Lawrence. — Medium, round, red striped, good, late,
dessert. A good and profitable apple in lower Ontario and
Upper Quebec.
Wolf River. — Very large, oblate, red striped, fair, medium. Tree
hardy, frviit showy. Adapted to northern and exposed localities.
Yates. — Small, oblate, conic, yellow red striped, fair, very late.
Yellow Belleflower. — Large, oblong, conic, yellow red, acid, very
good, late. Formerly a favorite in the eastern states, but now
grown commercially chiefly on the Pacific coast.
Yellow Newtown. — Medium, oblate, yellow red, acid, best, very
late. A favorite in California and in Virginia (under the name
of Albermarle). A variety of high quality where well grown.
Yellow Transparent. — Medium, conic, yellow, acid, fair, early.
Very hardy. Adapted to the cold regions of northern New
England and Quebec. Sometimes profitable for sale in local
markets, but too tender for shipping far.
Yopp. — Large, conic, yellow red, fair, medium.
York Imperial. — Medium, oblate, irregular, lop-sided, yellow red
striped, fair, late. This is a really successful commercial
variety in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and neighboring states.
>• •-»-.
INDEX
ra-e
Apple maggot 107
Apple regions 1
Arscnat<^ of lead 14 2
Arsenite of lime 14:5
Barrel press 166
Barrels 158
Bitter rot 114
Blight 119
Bordeaux mixture 131
Borers 104
Roxes for apples 160
Canker 113
Catalog of varieties.... 205
Codling moth 105
Combined insecticides
and fungicides 144
Compressed air sprayers 127
Copper sulphate solution 136
Cover crops 69
Cultivation, methods of
r.n, 63
Cultivation of bearing
orchards 60
Cultivation, tools 63
Curculio 108
Diseases Ill
Distance for planting. . . 24
Double planting 27
Double-working 46
Dust sprays 145
Dwarf apples 185
Exposures 7
Fall vs. spring plant-
ing 23
Family orchard 1S2
Feeding the trees fi4
Fertilizers 94
Gas power sprayers 120
Geography of apple
growing 1
Grading apples 157
Harvesting and market-
ing 149
High heads vs. low heads 78
Hitchings method 48
T'isect campaign 90
Tnterplanting 28
Keeping duality 201
Lime-sulphur mixture... 137
IVTechanical pickers 151
Mice 121
Nursery inspection 17
Nursery trees 17
Vage
Objects of cultivation. . oO
Odd years 89
Orchard cultivation 48
Oyster shell bark louse. . 108
Packing apples 166
Packing in boxes 168
Painting wounds 91
Paris green 141
Picking baskets 153
Picking ladders 153
Picking the fruit 149
Planting methods 41
Planting out the trt'es. . 40
Planting tables 25
Power sprayers 125
Preparation for planting 38
Propagation 20
Propagation methods. ... 22
Pruning 77
Pruning tools 91
Rabbits 121
Railroad worm 107
Refrigeration 175
Remarks on particular
varieties 194
Renovation of old or-
chards 188
Rules for choosing va-
rieties 187
San Jose scale 99
Scab 112
Scald 116
Selection of varieties 193
Soils 5
Soluble oils 144
Sorting apples 155
Spray solutions 131
Spraying campaign 147
Spraying machinery 123
Spraying rules 146
Starting the orchard 17
Steam sprayers 127
Storage 171
Storage houses 173
Stringfellow system 38
Sun scald 120
Tillage 48
Time to prune 90
Traction sprayers 125
Varieties for various dis-
tricts 197
Windbreaks 8
Winterkilling 14
215
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